U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
National Technical Information Service
PB-300 446
The Cost of
Clean Air and Water
Report to Congress
Battelle Columbus labs, OH
Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC Office of Planning and
Evaluation
Aug 79
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA 1. Report No. 2.
SHEET EPA 230/3—79—001
3. Recipient’s Accessoi ’No
‘.3 4 -
4. Title and Subtitle
The Cost of Clean Air and Water Report to
Congress
5. Report Date —
August, 1979
6.
7. Author(s)
8. Perrorming Organization Rept.
No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
Battelle Memorial Institute
Columbus Laboratories
505 King Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43201
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
11. Contract/Grant No.
68—01=4360
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
Economic Analysis Division (PM—220)
Office of Planning and Management
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
13. Type of Report & Period
Covered
14.
15. Supplementary Notes
16. Abstracts
The Environmental Protection Agency is required by Congress to report on the cost
of compliance with the Clean Air Act and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act.
This report combines both of these requirements and aggregates costs by industries for
both air and water. In 1977, it was estimated that industries spent 12.8 billion
dollars in incremental annual costs (including capital charges and operating and main-
tenance expenses) to comply with Federal air and water legislation. Federal, State and
local governments spent $4.6 billion and consumers spent $5.8 billion dire.tly on mobilE
source emission control. The study projects future incremental investment costs for thE
period 1977—1986 to be $79.7 billion as a result of the Clean Air Act and $61.6 billion
due to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. Model plant analysis was used to gene-
rate most of the cost estimates in the report. This report is based on the regulatory
framework in existence in mid—1978, and. does not take into account regulations proposed
r r inr rh s- r .
17. Key Words and Document Analysis. 17o. Descriptors
Air Pollution Control Expenditures
Water Pollution Control Expenditures
17b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms
l7c. COSATI Field Group
18. Availability Statement 19.. Security Class (This 21
Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
20. Security Class (This 22. Price
Page /1,— /7’
____________ UNCLASSIFIED iii’ —ri ?’f
FORM NtIS-35 REV. 10.731 ENDORSED BY ANSI AND UNESCO. THIS FORM MAY BE REPRODUCED LiSCOMM.OC 8265-P7 4
-------
ADDE UM
1 E CCST OF CI AIR
10 CC GBE S
AUGUST, 1979
The following paragra th should be aided to. page 126, after the Section
entitled, “Control Technology ar Costs:”
The cost estimates in Table 10.1—1 reflect the cost of all sanitary
landfills. In 1976, an esti’Mted 235 million metric tons of solid
waste here disposed of through sanitary landfills. Table 10—1 indicates
that as of 1976, only 34 million metric tons of solid waste was reduced
through open burning dumps.
/,
-------
ERRATA SHEET
THE COST CF CLEAN ‘7ATER
REPORT TO CONGRESS
AUGUST, 1979
1. On pace 1, the word “annual” should be “biennial.” The first paragraoh
should read:
Section 516(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
amendments (PL 92—500, hereafter cA) of 1972 recuires
a biennial recort on the costs of meeting the provisions
of that act; this report is submitted in resoonse to these
reauirementS.
2. On pace 11, the third paracrach indicates that on balance, EOTD5 has
increased. Since this report went to press, a more recent analysis
by EPA suggests that there has been a small percentage decrease
in 3005.
3. On page 12, the following aragra hs should be inserted in place
of the section entitled, ‘ t Catecories of Need.”
Cateocries of Need
The states’ estimates of the cost of constructing ublic1y
owned treatment works needed to meet the 1983 coals of the
Act are divided into the five major catecories used in the
1973 Survey, clus one new category for treatnent and/or
control of stormwaters; two of these catecories were divided
for the 1974 Survey and retained for the 1976 and 1978 Surveys.
All six categories are briefly described below.
Catecorv 1 . This includes the costs of facilities which
would provide a legally recuired level of secondary treatnent,
or best practicable wastewater treatment technology (S Tr).
For the ur ose of the Surveys, V TI’ and secondary treatment
were considered synonymous.
Catecorv 2 . Costs re rted in this catecorv are or treat-
ment facilities that must achieve more strincent levels of
treatment. This requirement exists where water cualitv standards
recuire removal of such collutants as hoschorous, anonia,
nitrates, or orcanic substances. Included in Catecory II are
the costs necessary to raise the treatment level of Category II
facilities to s dondarv lev ls, c., i the ex ting trea ent
level of a facility is Drimary then costs necessary to raise the
-------
—2—
treatment level to secondary are reported in Category II together
with the costs for treatment levels greater than secondary.
Category lilA . These costs are for correction of sewer system
infiltration/inflow problems, costs could also be reported for
a preliminary sewer system analysis and for the more detailed
Sewer System Evaluation Survey.
Category 1113 . This category includes costs for replacement or
major rehabilitation of existing collection systems necessary to
the total integrity and oerforinance of waste treatment works.
Reuirements for replacement and/or major rehabilitation of existing
sewage collection systems are reported in this category. Costs were
to be reported if the corrective actions were necessary to the total
integrity of the system. Major rehabilitation is considered exten-
sive retair of existing sewers beyond the scope of normal maintenance
programs.
Category WA . This category consists of costs of new collection
systems in existing cam unities with sUfficient existing or planned
capacity to adecuately treat collected sewage.
Catecorv IVB . Included in this-category are costs for new inter-
ceptor sewers and transmission p znping costs necessary for bulk
transoort of wastewaters.
Catecory V . Costs reported for this category are to prevent
periodic bypassing of untreated wastes from combined sewers to an
extent violating water quality standards or effluent limitations.
It does not include treatment and/or control of stormwaters.
Cateqory VI . States were also asked to make a rough cost estimate
in a sixth category, “Treatment and/or Control of StorTnwaters. ” This
includes the costs of abating pollution fran stormwater run—off
channelled through sewers and other conveyances used only for such
run—off. The costs of abating pollution fran stormwaters channelled
through combined sewers that also carry sewage are included in
Category V. Category VI was added so the survey would provide an
estimate of all eligible facility costs, as ex licitly required
by P.L. 93—243.
The estimates were to be reported in January 1978 dollars. Estimates
were to be based on the projected 2000 population.
‘I
-------
REPORT OF THE ADMINISTRATOR
OF THE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
TO THE
CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES
IN COMPLIANCE WITH
SECTION 312(c) OF THE CLEAN AIR ACT, AS AMENDED BY PUBLIC
LAW 91-604, TI-fE CLEAN AIR AMENDMENTS OF 1970
AN D
SECTION 516(b) OF PUBLIC LAW 9.2-500, THE FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION
CONTROL ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1972.
I/f
-------
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report to Congress is mandated by the Clean
Air and Water Acts. tn both Acts, the Administrator
of the Environmental Protection Agency is di-
rected to make and report detailed estimates of
the costs of carrying Out the respective Acts. This
report presents such estimates as two separate
reports, one concerned with the control of air
pollution, the other with the control of water pollu-
tion. This summary provides information on both
reports and presents listings of “water costs”, “air
costs”, and “combined costs”.
The estimates reported here are limited to costs
associated with Federal regulatory actions result-
ing from the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts, and
do not account for costs voluntarily incurred by
pollutors, required by State or local governments
only, or mandated by other Federal laws. The esti-
mates given here do not include costs incurred
prior to the dates of the respective Acts (Air—
1970, Water—1972) , nor is any estimate given of
the expenditures which would have taken place if
the Acts had not been passed.
It should be noted that this document specifically
does not dictate EPA policy with regard to the
application of presently available or projected
emissions-control technology to any industry or
activity. Simplifying assumptions were required in
order to estimate the cost of complying with EPA
regulations on the source industries included her-
ein. Thus, the control technologies assumed in
providing these estimates are not to be regarded
as spedifically required by law nor by EPA. More.
over, the reader is cautioned that costs estimated
in this study may differ from costs estimated in
other studies because of differences in definition
of the industries.
The costs reported for the control of air pollution
are, for the most part, based on compliance with
Federally-approved State Implementation Plans.
Federal New Source Performance Standards, and
Federal regulations for mobile sources. The costs
reported for the control of water pollution are, for
the most part, based on compliance with Federal
Effluent Limitations Guidelines, New Source Per-
formance Standards, and Pretreatment Stan-
dards. Regulations on hazardous and toxic pollu-
tants are also taken into account.
This report was prepared in 1978, and reflects the
regulatory framework in existence early in 1978.
Projections beyond past expenditures are subject
to change for both air and water. The Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1 977 contain significant changes
that will affect future costs. The Clean Water Act of
1977, amending the Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Act of 1972, also contains significant changes
that will affect the future regulatory picture and
the associated cost to industry.
In the case of air, some additional costs can be
expected to comply with the revised State Imple-
mentation Plans and the provisions of Prevention
of Significant Deterioration and Visibility Goals.
The reported projections for water pollution con-
trol costs are more difficult to assess. The Clean
Water Act of 1977 will require less stringent con-
trols for conventional pollutants. However, the
1976 Consent Agreement may result in more
stringent gutdelines for the 21 industries covered
by the agreement.
The magnitude of these changes will vary consid-
erably on an industry-by-industry basis. An ex-
treme example is the Explosives industry. The Cost
of Clean Water estimates show slightly over $2
billion of investment from 1977—1986. Prelimi-
nary estimates emanating from the current BAT-
review process indicate that new investment will
only be about S3—4 million for this industry. While
this is not representative of the magnitude of the
changes to be expected, it does indicate the de-
gree of uncertainty in the present estimates.
Therefore, the reader should keep in mind that the
cosrs presented here represent only what indus-
tries would have had to pay if the regulations in
effect/n early 1978 remained unchanged.
Preceding page blank
V
-------
COST OF IMPLEMENTING THE ACTS
In the presentation of costs, 1977 is the base year;
all costs are expressed in millions of 1977 dollars.
Investment and annual costs are reported for two
historical periods: 1 970—77 (Air). 1972—77
(Water) and are projected for the period from
1977 through 1986.
The costs r ported include:
• Capital costs of equipment and installation
• Capital recovery (depreciation) and interest
on unrecovered capital
• Direct operating and maintenance costs.
The methodology used to generate costs is dis-
cussed in the introduction of each report and in
more detail in the specific chapters. The methodol-
ogy involves the analysis of specific regulations, in
terms of affected sectors of industry, and the cost-
ing of control equipment or methods characteris-
tic to each sector.
The costs are the result of engineering estimates;
they are not obtained from industry surveys. The
estimates are based on the assumed application of
existing technology, and are developed by various
techniques such as the use of “model” plants, or
actual data on an existing plant. Various other
assumptions are used, such as the utilization of an
“average” air-pollution regulation typical of all
State Implementation Plans. The assumptions
used are judged to result in an overstatement of
costs, since no allowances are made for in-process
changes or technological innovation, either of
which might reduce the costs of pollution control.
The findings are presented in condensed form in
the three following tables. Table 1 presents esti-
mated total air and water pollution control costs,
Table 2 shows estimated air pollution control
costs, and Table 3 indicates estimated water pollu-
tion control costs. The tables show both invest-
ment costs and annualized costs.
Major industry groups are consistent in the tables;
however, individual line items are presented only
where costs have been developed. Some indus-
tries have only air or only water costs associated
with them and so appear in only one of the last two
tables. Table 1 is the sum of Tables 2 and 3. For
example, the table entry for Mobile Sources ap-
pears in Tables 1 and 2 as an air pollution item. A
key to accessing the way individual industry chap-
ters were used to combine the two air and water
reports is given as a note at the end of this
Summary.
The costs to government shown in the tables are
based on expenditures to run programs at the
Federal, State. and local levels and the projected
distribution of grants for construction of municipal
water treatment plants. Program operating costs
are shown for both air and water pollution control
in terms of “Annual Costs” in both Table 2 and 3;
the construction grants are shown as ‘invest-
ment” in Table 3, with annualized capital costs of
the grants included in the “Annual Costs” shown
in Table 3.
Various major industries appear as single entries
because of their significance in terms of pollution
control costs, such as electric utilities, petroleum
refining, iron and steel, primary aluminum and
copper, and pulp and paper. The Mobile Sources
category includes passenger cars, light and heavy-
duty gasoline and diesel trucks, aircraft, and mo-
torcycles. The category of Other Food Processing
includes grain handling, feed mills, sugar process-
ing. canning and preserving of fruits and vegeta-
bles and seafood, and processing of dairy
products. The Basic Inorganic Chemicals group
includes sulfuric acid and chlor-alkali production;
the Organic Chemicals category includes
production of petrochemicals, organic chemicals.
plastics and synthetics, and vinyl chloride; the
Agricultural Chemicals category includes
production of fertilizers, pesticides, nitric acid, and
other products based on phosphate rock and
phosphorus; the Formulated Chemicals group in-
cludes the production of paints, inks, carbon
black, soaps, detergents, explosives, gum and
wood chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. The Con-
struction Materials group includes activities such
vi
-------
TABLE 1. COST OF AIR AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
1977 1970—77 1977—81 1977—86
COSTS TO GOVERNMENT 506.5.00 21593.00 19677.00 45882.00
FUELS & ENERGY
COAL MINING & COAL CLEANING 22.13 128.73 16.25 30.34
OIL & GAS EXTRACTION & PROCESSING 563.95 912.26 383.18 779.43
PETROLEUM REFINING 902.91 3321.15 1062.52 1326.76
ELECTRIC UTILITIES 3877.70 13127.70 • 11051.73 20913.55
COAL GASIFICATION 0.0 0.0 70.44 412.03
SUBTOTAL 5366.69 17489.84 12584.12 23462.11
MOBILE SOURCES 2912.00 12050.09 17234.35 49051.55
FOOD PROCESSING
FEEDLOTS & MEAT PROCESSING 36.52 122.74 159.82 241.12
OTHER FOOD PROCESSING 689.60 4153.08 991.06 2116.23
SUBTOTAL 726.12 4275.82 1150.88 2357.35
CHEMICALS
BASIC INORGANIC CHEMICALS 254.33 989.21 524.83 875.01
ORGANIC CHEMICALS 1009.65 2060.90 1449.64 2947.17
AGRICULTURAL CHEMII ALS 125.24 270.10 152.87 276.04
FORMULATED CHEMICALS .. 258.38 711.21 1357.15 2129.50
SUBTOTAL 1647.61 4031.41 3484.49 6227.71
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 101.70 677.90 198.47 312.25
METALS
ORE MINING & DRESSING.... 152.50 389.59 251.00 251.00
IRON & STEEL 981.22 2668.26 2337.60 3613.98
ALUMINUM 71.34 400.35 147.07 410.12
COPPER 90.00 1094.00 171.70 986.00
NONFERROUS METALS. FERROAU.OYS,
& FOUNDRIES 69.42 731.88 63.05 15091
SUBTOTAL 1364.49 3284.08 2970.42 5412.01
SOFTG000S
PULP & PAPER 964.00 3099.73 870.73 1953.05
TEXT 1L ES 24.21 37.34 1030.21 1410.16
LEATHER & RUBBER 82.93 198.40 121.20 181.72
SUBTOTAL 1071.13 3385.99 2022.16 3544.92
MANUFACTURING
ELECTROPLATING 49.79 264.74 81.55 31.55
SURFACE COATINGS 0.0 0.0 658.82 1707.64
FURNITURE MANUFACTURING 0.0 0.0 2.80 4.80
SUBTOTAL 49.79 264.74 74.3.17 1793.99
SERVICES
DRYCLEANING 10.04 141.73 6.73 13.27
HOSPITALS 24.50 69.77 25.65 69.56
PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING 6.21 14.47 5.59 15.69
SUBTOTAL 40.75 225.99 38.00 98.53
WASTE DISPOSAL
OPEN DUMPS & OPEN BURNING 145.33 1744.12 718.62 2023.34
MUNICIPAL WASTE INCINERATION 4.29 27.11 11.31 24.72
SUBTOTAL 149.62 1771.23 729.93 2048.06
OTHER INDUSTRIAL COSTS
INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL HEATiNG
BOILERS 238.11 1970.21 268.26 465.11
INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL & SLOG.
INCINERATORS 57.02 256.61 273.62 693.80
SUBTOTAL 295.13 2226.82 543.88 1158.92
TOTAL 18790.21 73276.93 61376.92 141349.24
Vii
-------
TABLE 1. COST OF AIR AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS) Continu.d
ANNUAL COSTS
1977 1c70- .77 1977-81 1977—86
COSTS TO GOVERNMENT 4588.00 12300.90 25130.00 71720.00
FUELS & ENERGY
COAL MINING & COAL CLEANING .. .... 69.44 212.23 280.07 677.45
Oil. & GAS EXTRACTION & PROCESSING 1453.15 3835.18 6289.13 15079.90
PETROLEUM REFINING....... ..... . . . .... 638.69 1643.40 3279.71 8268.68
ELECTRIC UTILITIES ........ * 4828.77 11372.57 31215.88 82319.19
COAL GASIFICATION 0.0 0.0 174.18 1919.48
SUBTOTAL .. — 5945.70 13913.07 36783.56 97832.44
MOBILE SOURCES .. .. 5850.74 38203.01 33146.74 92068.00
FOOD PROCESSING
FEEDLOTS & MEAT PROCESSING 39.08 98.90 293.18 947.35
OTHER FOOD PROCESSING 1453.15 3835.18 6289.13 15078.90
SUBTOTAL..._ _ _. 1492.23 3934.08 6582.31 16027.25
CHEMICALS
BASIC INORGANIC CHEMICALS .. 276.35 747.94 1469.03 3935.04
ORGANIC CHEMICALS 421.24 791.90 2589.27 7019.09
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS ...... 117.50 223.86 601.37 1667.98
FORMULATED CHEMICALS . 146.73 313.65 1070.45 3381.43
SUBTOTAL 961.82 2077.34 5730.12 16003.51
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 235.21 718.73 1094.42 2524.83
METALS
ORE MINING & DRESSING .. .. 84.58 145.97 603.18 34O.06
IRON & STEEl.. . .._ . . . .. .. .. 1075.86 3312.17 6595.23 18705.79
ALUMINUM ...... ..... .. 111.27 352.13 526.92 1236.31
COPPER . ... _. . . .. 199.25 802.96 1011.18 2549.96
NONFERROUS METALS. FERROALLOYS.
1 FOONDRIES.......... .. 198.40 779.70 823.68 1820.02
SUBTOTAL........ ....... 1669.37 5392.93 9569.18 25652.12
SOFT0000S
PULP & PAPER................ .. .... 659.01 1416.82 3014.37 8215.19
TEXTILES . . .... .. .. 27.42 64.01 1089.87 4499.59
LEATHER & RUBBER .... .. 47.68 95.93 25.4.54 707.69
SUBTOTAL ... .. ... 734.11 1576.76 4358.78 13422.47
MANUFACTURING
ELECTROPLATING.. 141.74 316.31 751.27 1771.01
SURFACE COAT1NGS . ...... . . .. . . . . . . . . ... ... 0.0 0.0 374.38 1858.20
FURNITURE MANUFACTURING ........ .. 0.0 0.0 1.37 12.59
SUBTOTAL....... . ... ... 141.74 316.31 1127.02 3641.80
SERVICES
DRYCLEANING ... ... . . . . . . .. 23.07 86.06 95.58 156.53
HOSPITALS . . .. 16.37 34.69 79.65 219.62
PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING ... 4.46 845 21.99 59.67
43.90 129.21 197.22 45.81
WASTE DISPOSAL
OPEN DUMPS & OPEN BURNING 1112.22 4762.36 5419.23 15076.59
MUNICIPAL WASTE INCINERATION 6.05 24.19 30.57 75.14
SU BTOTAL._... ... ... 1118.27 4786.55 5449.80 15151.73
OTHER INDUSTRIAL COSTS
INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL HEATING
BOILERS .. 349.02 1189.57 154730 3634.55
INDUSTRIAL. COMMERCIAL & BLDG.
INCINERATORS .. 93.09 270.33 596.43 2013.17
SUBTOTAL...... .. 442.11 1459.90 2143.93 5647.71
TOTAL.... . . . .. .23223.21 84808.80 131313.08 360127.75
VIII
-------
TABLE 2. COST OF AIR POLLUTiON CONTROL
(IN MILLIONS OF 1917 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
1977 1970—77 1977—81 1977—86
COSTS TO GOVERNMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
FUELS & ENERGY
COAL MINING & COAL CLEANING .. 12.88 75.24 0.0 0.0
OIL & GAS EXTRACTION & PROCESSING 9.35 19.92 45.75 127.63
PETROLEUM REFINING .. .. 167.23 745.85 393.72 537.17
ELECTRIC UTILITiES 2830.92 11489.03 10174.58 18276.43
COAL GASIFICATION 0.0 0.0 70.44 412.03
SUBTOTAL ...... .. ... 3040.38 12330.04 10684.48 19353.28
MOBILE SOURCES 2912.00 12050.09 17234.55 49051.55
FOOD PROCESSING
OTHER FOOD PROCESSING 442.04 3323.80 769.95 1781.34
CHEMICALS
BASIC INORGANIC CHEMICALS .. 74.53 517.56 145.45 327.10
ORGANIC CHEMICALS 83.86 115.10 190.39 257.63
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS .. 4.97 41.85 5.23 9.59
FORMULATED CHEMICALS 4.85 34.33 8.59 18.14
SUBTOTAL 168.23 708.34 349.66 612.4.6
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 55.78 501.37 96.31 160.46
METALS
IRON & STEEL 320.28 1238.04 1281.12 1921.68
ALUMINUM 51.84 359.91 117.86 363.17
COPPER .. 90.00 1094.00 171.70 986.00
NONFERROUS METALS. FERROALLOYS.
& FOUNDRIES .. 64.44 639.70 58.00 139.67
SUBTOTAL .. .. 526.56 3371.65 1628.61 3410.52
SOFT0000S
PULP & PAPER 264.00 921.00 429.50 442.00
MANUFACTURING
SURFAIE COATINGS 0.0 0.0 658.82 1707.64
SERVICES
DRYCLEANING 10.04 141.73 6.75 13.27
WASTE DISPOSAL
OPEN DUMPS & OPEN BURNING 145.33 1744.12 718.62 2023.34
MUNICIPAL WASTE INCINERATION 4.29 27.11 11.31 24.72
SUBTOTAL 149.62 1771.23 729.93 2048.06
OTHER INDUSTRIAl. COSTS
INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL HEATING
BOILER 238.11 1970.21 268.26 465.11
INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL &
BLDG. INCINERATORS 57.02 256.61 275.62 693.80
SUBTOTAL 295.13 2226.82 543.88 1153.92
TOTAL 7863.78 3734.39 33132.45 79739.49
lx
-------
TABLE 2. COST OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
(IN MIWONS OF 1977 DOLLARS) Continued
ANNUAL COSTS
!!ZZ 1970—77 1977—8) 1977—86
COSTS To GOVERNMENT 539.00 539.00 2787.00 5597.00
FUELS & ENERGY
COAL MINING & COAL CLEANING —. 13.13 64.47 52.51 109.56
Ott. & GAS EXTRACTION & PROCESSING .. 27.56 137.13 134.68 375.13
PETROLEUM REFINING 136.12 400.56 773.86 1981.58
ELECTRIC UTILITIES 4106.02 10076.90 28810.93 76395.30
COAL GASIFICATION ..... 0.0 0.0 174.18 1919.48
SUBTOTAL 4282.83 10679.06 29946.16 80781,25
MOBILE SOURCES .. 5850.74 38203.01 33146.74 92068.00
FOOD PROCESSING
OTHER FOOD PROCESSING .. .......... 573.55 1903.77 2679.99 6769.09
CMEM CALS
BASIC INORGANIC CHEMICALS 139.82 462.72 681.97 1657.49
ORGANIC CHEMICALS .. .. 56.64 124.71 438.78 1141.87
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS 14.55 50.07 63.72 137.39
FORMULATED CHEMICALS 11.11 36.55 52.33 117.96
SUBTOTAL . ... ._. 222.12 674.05 1236.80 3054.71
CONSTRUCTiON MATERIALS 159.39 576.10 720.14 1562.65
METALS
IRON & STEEL .. ........ 519.20 1327.39 3473.60 9900.35
ALUMINUM .. .. 95.96 323.82 4.44.67 1007.86
COPPER .. 199.25 802.96 1011.18 2349.96
NONFEflOUS METALS, FERROAU .OYS.
& FOUNDRIES .. .. 176.00 716.44 730.83 1571.24
SUBTOTAL .. ... 990.42 3170.78 3660.26 13029.38
SOFTG000S
PULP & PAPER .. 130.48 270.62 733.17 1736.53
MANUFACTURING
SURFACE COATiNGS 0.0 0.0 374.38 1858.20
SERVICES
DRYC I.EANING .. 23.07 86.06 95.58 156.53
WASTE DISPOSAL
OPEN DUMPS & OPEN BURNING .. .. 1112.22 4762.36 3419.23 15076.59
MUNICIPAL WASTE INCINERATION .. 6.05 24.19 30.57 75.14
SUBTOTAL .. 1118.27 4736.55 5449.80 15151.73
OTHER INDUSTRIAL COSTS
INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL HEATING
BOILER ..... ,. 319.02 1189.57 1547.50 3634.53
INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL &
BLDG. INCINERATORS _...... 93.09 270.33 396.43 2013.17
SUBTOTAL 442.10 1459.90 2143.93 5647.71
TOTAL .. 14331.98 62348.90 84973.95 229412.79
x
-------
TABLE 3. COST OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—86
COSTS TO GOVERNMENT 5065.00 21593.00 19677.00 45882.00
FUELS & ENERGY
COAL MINING & COAL CLEANING 9.24 53.50 16.25 30.34
OIL & GAS EXTRACTION & PROCESSING 554.61 892.33 337.42 651.78
PETROLEUM REFINING 735.68 2575.30 668.80 789.39
ELECTRIC UTILITIES 1026.78 1638.67 877.15 2637.12
SUBTOTAL 2326.31 5159.80 1899.62 4108.83
FOOD PROCESSING
FEEDLOTS & MEAT PROCESSING 36.52 122.74 159.82 241.12
OTHER FOOD PROCESSING 247.56 829.28 221.11 392.71
SUBTOTAL 284.08 952.02 380.93 576.01
CHEMICALS
BASIC INORGANIC CHEMICALS... 179.78 471.65 379.38 547.91
ORGANIC CHEMICALS 925.79 1945.80 1259.25 2689.5.4
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS 120.27 228.25 147.64 266.45
FORMULATED CHEMICALS 253.33 676.89 1348.55 2111.37
SUBTOTAL 1479.37 3322.58 3134.82 5615.27
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 45.92 176.52 102.15 151.79
METALS
ORE MINING & DRESSING 152.50 389.59 251.00 251.00
IRON & STEEL 660.94 1410.22 1056.48 1692.30
ALUMINUM 19.31 40.45 29.21 46.95
MON ERROUS METALS. FERROALLOYS.
& FOUNDRIES 4.98 72.18 5.05 11.24
SUBTOTAL .. 837.93 1912.44 1341.74 2001.49
SOFTG000S
PULP & PAPER 700.00 2178.75 441.23 1511.05
TEXTILES 24.21 87.84 1030.21 1410.16
LEATHER & RUBBER 82.93 198.40 121.20 181.72
SUBTOTAL 807.13 2464.99 1592.66 3102.92
MANUFACTURING
ELECTROPLATING 49.79 264.74 81.35 81.55
FURNITURE MANUFACTURiNG 0.0 0.0 2.80 4.80
SUBTOTAL 49.79 264.74 84.35 86.35
SERVICES
HOSPITALS 24.50 69.77 25.65 69.56
PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING 6.21 14.47 5.59 15.69
SUBTOTAL 30.71 84.23 31.24 85.26
TOTAL 10926.43 33930.34 28244.47 61609.75
X i
-------
TABLE 3. COST OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
(IN MILUONS OF 1917 DOLLARS) Continu*d
ANNUAL COSTS
4049.D0 11761.90 22343.00
56.31 14775 =7.56
38 1.24 547.74 69Q.0
502.57 1242.84 2505.84
722.76 1295.68 2404.96
1B62.88 3234.01 6837.40
39.08 98.90 293.18
879.60 1931.41 3809.14
918.68 2030.31 3902.32
136.53 285.22 787.06
364.60 867.19 215O. c
102.93 173.79 537.63
133.62 277.10 1018.12
739.70 1403.30
73.82 142.64 374.2!
84.38 143.97 603.18
558.66 1984.58 3121.63
15.31 28.31 82.26
22.40 63.29 101.83
678.93 2222.15 3908.92
528.53 1146.20 2281.20
27.42 64.01 1089.87
47.68 95.93 25.4.34
603.63 1306.14 3625.61
141.74 316.31 751.27
0.0 0.0 1.37
141.74 316.31 732.64
16.37 34.69 79.65
4.4 * 8.45 21.99
20.83 4. 15 101.64
8891.23 22459.90 46339. 13
COSTS TO GOVERP4MEN’
FUELS & ENERGY
COAL MINING & COAL CLEANING
OH. & G &S EXTRACTION & PROCESSING
PETROLEUM REFINING ..... -
ELECTRIC UTILITIES
SUBTOTA l. ...... ...
FOCO ROC!SSING
TEEDLOTS & MEAT PROCESSING
OTHER FOOD PRO ESSw4G
SUBTOTAL
CHEMICALS
BASIC INORGANIC CHEMICALS .... ..
C GANIC CHEMICALS ..
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS ..
FORMULATED CHEMICALS ..
SUBTOTAL —
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
METALS
ORE MINING & DRESSING
IRON & STEEL
ALUMINUM . __ .. . _.
NONFERROUS METALS. FERROALLOYS,
8. FOUNDRIES S.....
SUBTOTAl. - - 5.. —. -.—
SOFI000DS
PULP 8. PAPER ..
TEXTILES 55 5 5 5 5 S . S.
LEATHER & RUBBER...... _...
SUITOTA I....._ S.
MANUFACTURING
!LECTROPLAT1NG
FURNITURE MANUFACTURING
SUBTOTAL S.
SERVICES
HOSPITALS . . ...
PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING
SUBTOTAL ..
TOTAL
1977—36
66123.00
567.89
4272.51
6287.09
5923.74
17051.23
947.35
8310.81
9258.16
2277.54
5877.23
1530.59
3263.4’
12948.81
962.17
1340.06
8805.44
228. 45
248.79
10622.74
6478.66
4499.59
707.69
I 1685.94
1771.01
12.59
1783.60
219.62
59.67
279.28
130714.96
XII
-------
as mineral mining, production of cement, lime,
asphalt concrete, glass. structural clay products,
asbestos, paving and roofing materials, timber
products processing, and glass and fiberglass in-
sulation. The Nonferrous Metals group includes
the production of primary lead, zinc, magnesium,
and other metals, and secondary aluminum, cop-
per, lead, and zinc, as well as the production of
ferroalloys and operations of iron and steel foun-
dries. Further details on any group may be found
via the key to aggregation given at the end of this
summary, or the individual chapters of the report.
COMPARISON OF COSTS
In terms of the combined costs given in Table 1,
the highest levels of expenditures are associated
with the Energy Industries (largely electric power
plants and petroleum refining) and Mobile
Sources. The balance of the industry groups fall
into either an intermediate range of expenditures,
e.g., Food Processing, Chemical Industries, Met-
als, Softgoods, Waste Oi posal, and Industrial
Heating, or into a lower range of expenditures,
e.g.. the Construction Materials, Manufacturing,
and Service groups.
The estimates reported allow a broad comparison
of past and future expenditures. One observation
is that investment to meet air pollution contTol
regulations over the entire 1970—1986 period will
be about 20 percent greater than investment to
meet water pollution control regulations. A further
observation is that, although the investments for
air pollution control over the entire period are
higher, sunk investment costs (i.e.. before 1 977)
are roughly equal for air and water pollution con-
trol. This overall observation is, of course, subject
to qualification in instances of individual
industries.
The 1977 annualized cost of pollution control due
to Federal Regulations was estimated to be $23
billion, or about one percent of 1977 GNP. The
cumulative cost from 1970 to 1977 was $84.8
billion, and the projected cost over the period
1977 to 1986 is estimated at S360 billion.
In Table 2. (Air Pollution Control Costs) the groups
showing the laTgest portions of investment costs
include the Energy Industries (specifically, power
plants), and Mobile Sources. The Mobile Sources
costs include costs for lead phase-down and lead-
free gasoline production; these elements of cost
may be associated with the Petroleum Refining
Industry in other studies. The next largest range of
expenditures are those shown for the Metals and
Food Processing groups.
Some of the individual features which may be
noted in Table 2 (Air Pollution Control Costs) in-
clude the singularly high levels of expenditures for
the control of Mobile Sources; these costs reflect
the projected automobile populations that contain
pollution control, as well as increasing stringency
of regulations. The costs reported for electric utili-
ties do not include any control costs stemming
from the 1977 Amendments. The cost estimate for
the electric utilities industry reflects the applica-
tion of a mix of control technologies and fuel
switching to achieve compliance.
The estimated costs for the metals industry group
show the costs for the three major metals: steel,
aluminum, and copper, with future investment
costs for both the steel and copper industry esti-
mated as more than the investment made up to
1977.
In Table 3 (Water Pollution Control Costs), the
highest level of expenditure is that for the energy
industry (largely for Petroleum Refining and,
again, electric power plants) with the next highest
levels of expenditures shown for the Chemical
Industries (principally the organic chemicals
industry), and for the so called ‘Softgoods” group;
almost all the latter costs are associated with the
pulp and paper industry.
The water pollution control costs in Table 3 in-
clude Federal grants for construction of municipal
treatment plants as an investment expenditure.
The cost of water pollution control for the electric
utilities given in the table has, as a major compo-
nent. the cost to meet thermal limits on discharge
water and replacement of capacity lost to the
operation of the required cooling towers. The Or-
ganic Chemicals and Formulated Chemicals cate-
gories reflect areas of high anticipated future
costs, with the Organic Chemicals industry an area
of complex control requirements for all compo-
nents of a variegated industry. The “Softgoods”
x li i
-------
group contains two noteworthy cost elements: the
past and future cost for the pulp and paper indus-
try and the estimated high future cost (related
largely to compliance with the 1 983-BAT regula-
tions) for the textile industry.
Table 3 does not include an estimate for the con-
trol of nonpoint sources. EPA has not yet issued
regulations controlling nonpoint sources: and the
control technology and degree of control is still
.mcertain. The Water Report contains a discussion
of nonpoint sources (agriculture, silviculture, ur-
ban runoff and new construction runoff control) in
Chapter 10.1. Preliminary estimates indicate that
future investment needs will be about $58 billion
in the next five years. No estimate is available on
what portion of this investment need will actually
be spent.
BENEFITS
Historically, the benefits research program at the
EPA has given primary attention to developing the
capabilities to compute national estimates of the
total damage from pollution. i.e.. estimating the
potential benefits of eliminating pollution entirely.
Basically, the program has categorized the various
types of economic damages from pollution (med-
ical bills, property damage, etc.) by media and
pollutant. Individual projects generally involved
estimating the extent and value of the more impor-
tant damages for which some data exist At best.
past studies hav been used to defend overall EPA
programs, though they may not have been all that
useful for this purpose. There have been a few
attempts to demonstrate the feasibility of evaluat-
ing the benefits of control of individual pollutants
(e.g., EPA-sponsored analyses of nitrates. nonfluo-
nnated halomethanes, chlorobenzilate, etc.) but
these were not done in direct support of actual
EPA regulatory decisions. The EPA has never ap-
plied comprehensive benefit estimation methodol-
ogies to a contemplated regulatory decision.
National Estimates
The national damage estimates have concentrated
on air and water pollution control. Best EPA-
generated estimates have been very crude, some-
times based on faulty or incomplete methodolo-
gies and always on inadequate data bases. The
ranges defined by EPA and other estimates to date
have been: air pollution damages from $2.0 billion
to $35.4 billion and water pollution damages from
$4.5 billion to S 18.6 billion. These studies have
been characterized as only providing crude, order-
of-magnitude estimates of the damages.
The ‘Wyoming’ Study
A recently completed EPA study done by a consor-
tium of professors (primarily at the University of
Wyoming) may provide significantly more reliable
estimates of national morbidity and mortality dam-
ages from air pollution than the EPA has had
before. The study also assesses potential benefits
from air clean-up in the Los Angeles area. The
results are:
• National mortality effects of
billion per year
• National morbidity effects of
per year
Potential benefits of $0.65 to
per year from a 30 percent air
the South Coast Basin of
California.
New Perspective on Damages
Besides suggesting that previous studies may
have substantially underestimated both the health
and other economic damages from air pollution,
and thus the benefits of control, the new study and
other recent work by many of the same environ-
mental economists suggest a new perspective on
air pollution damages and their measurement.
The new work indicates that the major air pollution
damages are from increased chronic illness and
from aesthetic effects like reduced visibility. This
contrasts with earlier views that increased deaths
were the major source of damage.
The economic damages attributable to increased
air pollution-related deaths are roughly compara-
ble to earlier studies, but this is largely accidental:
although the new estimates of mortality effects are
lower than earlier studies have indicated, these
lower estimates are offset by higher estimates of
the value society places on increased risk of death.
$5 to $16
$36 billion
0.95 billion
clean up of
Southern
xiv
-------
The study also concludes that many benefits, such
as aesthetic ones, which are “traditionally viewed
as intangible and thereby nonmeasurable can, in
fact be measured’S and can be made comparable
to economic values expressed in the marketplace.
Derivation of New Health Estimates
The researchers derived their estimates of dam-
age to health through two independent ap-
proaches. One approach examined data from the
University of Michigan Survey Research Center on
illnesses among a random selection of the U.S.
population. This information was compared statis-
tically with indicators of biological and social situ-
ation, life styles, income levels, physical environ-
ment. and air pollution levels in the county of
residence. The analyses suggest the extent to
which each indicator is associated with time lost
from work because of illness.
The studies found statistically significant associa-
tions between lost work time because of chronic
illness and ambient levels of both nitrogen dioxide
and total suspended particulates. The researchers
arrived at the $36 billion estimate for 60 percent
control by projecting the relationship between lost
time and particulate levels in their sample to the
national urban population using the wage rates of
the sample population to put a monetary value on
the time lost from work. The authors emphasized,
however, that their conclusions should be re-
garded as preliminary because of the short time
they have worked with the data and the many
combinations of explanatory hypotheses they will
need to test. -
In the second approach, the researchers concen-
trated on the death rates in 60 cities across the
country, comparing them to air pollution levels
and other factors that might influence those rates
such as smoking, doctors per capita, and diet. The
researchers found statistically significant associa-
tions between death from pneumonia and influ-
enza and the level of sulfur dioxide. The study
valued the benefits that would result from reduced
mortality if there were a 60 percent improvement
in air quality at $5 to $16 billion annually.
Los Angeles Benefits A/so Large
In addition to studying health damages from air
pollution, the same study also attempts to quantify
air pollution damages in one air quality region—
the Los Angeles Basin. It found that a 30 percent
improvement in air quality would provide benefits
of $650 to $950 million per year (or $350 to $500
per household) for this city alone.
This part of the study used interview surveys and
analyses of property values to support its conclu-
sions. In the interview survey people were first
given a subjective understanding of the health
effects and location of Los Angeles smog using
maps of pollution levels (which varied from poor to
quite good) throughout the Basin and later shown
photographs of a view obscured by different levels
of pollution. They were then asked how much they
would be willing to pay for improved air quality. In
the property value analyses, the researchers com-
pared the selling prices of houses which were
similar but which were located in areas experienc-
ing different levels of pollution. The houses in the
clean air areas had a substantially higher value
than those in more polluted areas. The fact that the
benefit estimates derived from the two ap-
proaches are similar lends credence to both.
In their interview survey, the researchers found
that people living in the Los Angeles Basin believe
aesthetic effects such as impairment of visibility
account for 22 percent to 55 percent of the dam-
ages associated with air pollution. These findings
are consistent with an earlier survey many of the
same researchers undertook for the Electric Power
Research Institute, which found that people living
in the Four Corners area of the Southwest would
pay an average of $90 a year to avoid having
visibility reduced by 50 miles, i.e., from 75 to 25
miles.
Ongoing Pollutant-Specific Benefits Study
Since FY75, the EPA has contracted for 12 pollu-
tant assessments from the National Academy of
Science which were to include economic, and
where possible, benefit-cost analyses. Of these
assessments, two (halomethanes and nitrates)
have been delivered, and three (chlorobenzilate,
odors, and PCB’s in the environment) are nearing
completion and should be delivered in 1979. It
appears that where adequate physical science
data exist, benefit-cost analysis can contribute to
Agency decision making (as applied to specific
regulations proposed by the Agency).
Plans for a Benefits Study Program
To get reliable estimates, in the near future, of
national or regional benefits, the E?A must push
the state-of-the-art further and faster than has
xv
-------
been done so far. It will be necessary to devote
significant resources to improving existing data
bases.
Unfortunately, breakthroughs in benefits esti-
mates are like those in other scientific fields. un-
certain and expensIve. In addition to continued
“basic” research, there is a need to test the useful-
ness of a benefit-cost approach in analysing spe-
cific prpposed EPA regulations on a prototype
basis. The prototype basis, rather than the immedi-
ate application of benefit-cost analysis to all or
most EPA regulations, is likely to be taken so that
the Agency can first gain experience and find out
if some of the carcinogen-related problems can be
resolved. Whetner additional research will be
needed to assist the EPA in applying benefit-cost
analysis to individual decisions is not yet clear, but
may become more so as the proposed prototype
effort is implemented in the next year.
THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF EPA S PROGRAM
This section is included to provide some perspec-
tive as to the conomic effects of EPA programs.
Widely disparate views on the economic impact of
EPA ’s program have been expressed by some envi-
ronmentalists who say the program stimulates
the economy and creates jobs — and by some
businessmen — who say the program causes capi-
tal shortages and inflation in boom times and
causes unemployment and stifles profitability in
recessionary times.
The truth probably lies somewhere in between.
While costs of pollution programs are high in
absolute terms, the overall effects on prices. GNP,
and employment are projected to be small and
neither strongly positive nor negative in the long
run.
Most concern about economic effects should be
focused on a few heavily polluting industries
which either are very capital-intensive materials
producing industries or are characterized by many
economically marginal operations. Of key impor-
tance for these industries are (a) concerns about
limits on expansion due to capital shortfalls or
siting constraints posed by environmental regula-
tions and (2) the effects of these limits on growth
in these and related industries.
This section does not discuss whether environ-
mental programs (or various elements of them)
have favorable benefit/cost ratios, since few credi-
ble benefits data have been generated which
would allow such analysis. This section does
briefly detail what is and is not known about the
costs, macroeconomic and microeconomic im-
pacts, energy impacts, and key economic impact
issues associated with the environmental
program.
Costs
The Federal pollution control program is projected
to cost about$360 billion in the period 1977—86
above expenditure levels which would have re-
sulted without new Federal requirements since
1970. About $229 billion, or about 2/3 of these
expenditures are the result of the Clean Air Act.
Capital investment for Federally-required controls
will be about $1 42 billion over the same period.
About $81 billion of this total (57%) is as a result
of the Clean Air Act.
The 1 977 annualized cost of pollution control due
to Federal Regulations was estimated to be $23.2
billion, or about one percent of 1977 GNP. Air
pollution control costs were S 14.3 billion in 1977,
or about 62% of the combined air and water costs.
Total (air and water) pollution abatement invest-
ment by industry (excluding Mobile Sources and
Cost to Governments) was $10.8 billion in 1977.
This represents about 5.8% of 1 977 fixed nonresi-
dential private investment. Consumer investment
for Mobile Source pollution control was slightly
under $3 billion in 1977. This represents about
3.6% of 1977 consumer expenditures for motor
vehicles and parts.
Macroeconomic Impacts
These costs can be put in perspective by looking at
their macroeconomic effect on the economy. The
magnitudes of these effects depend upon the gen-
eral state of the economy. In a slack economy
pollution control investment can stimulate growth
and employment with little real effect on prices,
while in a tight economy sucn investment can
increase prices and tend to replace other capital
spending plans with a relatively small effect on
xvi
-------
employment. Macroeconomic forecasts can
project these effects, but only with a wide band of
uncertainty.
Price and Growth Effects — A Data Resources. Inc.
(DAt) forecast prepared for EPA and CEQ in Janu-
ary 1979 shows that the Consumer Pr/ce Index is
currently about 2.7% higher than it would have
been without Federal pollution requirements and
that by 1986 this difference wilt be about 3.6%,
meaning that consumer prices will increase be-
tween 0.2% and 0.3% per year more than they
would without these requirements over the period
1970—1986.
OR! estimates that GNP is currently very margin-
ally higher than it would have been because Fed-
eral pollution requirements have caused use of
capital and other resources that would not other-
wise have been used. As the economy improves,
environmental investment will increasingly be
made instead of, rather than in addition to, other
expenditures. DRI estimates that by 1986 GNP wi/l
be a/most 1.0% lower than it would have been
without Federal pollution requirements.
These estimated effects on prices and GNP use
conventional measures for these variables. Since
these measures do not take into account the bene-
fits of the environmental programs in terms of
improved pub/ic health and we/fare, these fore-
casts exaggerate the negative impacts on inflation
and economic growth.
Employment Effects — Employment is affected in
a number of ways by environmental requirements.
The program directly creates jobs in the construc-
tion (46,000 on-site jobs on EPA-funded sewage
treatment projects in July 1976, with an equiva-
lent number of off-site jobs) and tne pollution con-
trol manufacturing industry Arthur D. Little, Inc.,
estimates current employment to be nearly 36,-
000 and projects employment to grow to nearly
44,000 in this industry by 1983 as a result of the
1970 and 1972 air and water legislation), with
many more indirect jobs stimulated by these
expenditures.
On the other hand, when pollution control costs
result in higher prices, lower demand and hence
lower production and lower employment result.
Furthermore, some transitional unemployment re-
sults from closing of marginal plants which cannot
afford to comply with environmental require-
ments. Since January 1 97 1, 132 closures involv-
ing nearly 24,500 jobs have occurred for which
the firm has said that pollution requirements were
a significant factor: 40 closures involved Federal
action.
The combination of these factors according to the
DAt macroeconomic projection will result in in-
creased employment through 1286 due to the
stimulative effect of pollution control investment.
The jobs created in manufacturing, installing, and
operatIng/maintaining pollution control equip-
ment outweigh the dampening effect of higher
prices on economic growth. DAt estimates the
unemployment rate to be about 0.2% lower in
1979, 0.4% tower in both 1980 and 1981, and
0.2% lower in 1986 due to Federal pollution
requirements.
OTHER METHODOLOGIES
This report is based primarily on a model plant
analysis. A detailed description of the method-
bogy used to generate these estimates can be
found in the Introduction to the Air Report. Various
other sources have estimated the cost of pollution
control using other techniques. This section dis-
cusses some of these other sources and how they
differ from this report.
Bureau of Economic Analysis
The Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), U.S. De-
partment of Commerce, publishes the results of an
annual survey of industries detailing capital expen-
ditures for air, water and solid waste pollution
abatement. The survey requests information on
total plant and equipment expenditures for pollu-
tion abatement, not just that attributable to Fed-
eral legislation.
One of the major problems with the BEA survey, is
that it samples company enterprises, not actual
plants. A company is categorized by its major-
product. For example, if a large petroleum com-
pany owns a textile mill, any pollution control
xv ii
-------
investment at the textile mill would be classified
under petroleum refining. Thus, while the aggre-
gate BEA estimates are quite useful, the individual
industry-specific estimates reveal little about the
cost to a specific industrial process.
Bureau of the Census
The Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of
Commerce, publishes the results of an annual sur-
vey of manufacturing establishments detailing
both capital investment and operating costs for
pollution abatement. The survey asks for total ex-
penditures, not just that due to Federal legislation.
Unlike BEA, the Census survey is based on a plant
or establishment classification. However, it only
includes manufacturing industries.
One of the main problems with the Census survey
is that depreciation is included as a part of operat-
ing costs. Only total operating costs are reported
by air, water or solid waste. The specific line items
of operating costs (i.e., labor, materials and depre-
ciation) are not broken out by media. Since the
depreciable life of air and water pollution abate-
ment equipment vary considerably, it is impossible
to accurately subtract out depreciation. Further-
more, the depreciation expenses are likely to re-
flect changes in tax provisions that affect depreci-
ation expenses for tax purposes. Thus, the inclu-
sion of depreciation limits the reliability of this
survey in estimating operating and maintenance
costs.
McGraw-Hill Survey
The Economics Department of McGraw-Hill Publi-
cations Company issues the results of an annual
survey of pollution control expenditures, The
methodology used for this survey has never been
revealed by the Company, and thus, it is difficult to
compare with other estimates.
Business Roundtable
The Business Roundtable, a group representing
large corporations, recently released a study of the
cost of Federal regulation. The study covered 48
companies, mostty among the nation’s largest.
EPA regulations were one segment of the study,
which is the first survey to request incremental
expenditures, i.e. only those expenditures made as
a result of Federal legislation. Since the survey
was lengthy and detailed, such expenses as paper-
work, meetings with government officials and
other administrative expenses were included in
the cost estimates. However, these costs were
reported combined with operating costs. Thus, the
usefulness of this information is somewhat
limited.
Since the sample size was so small, not random,
and did not reflect a cross-section of American
business, no extrapolation of this survey’s results
can be made. It would be unrealistic to make any
generalizations about the National costs of pollu-
tion abatement based on this study. Nevertheless,
The Business Roundtable Study contains much
useful information, especially in terms of cost ac-
counting methodology.
xv ”
-------
KEY TO AGGREGATED COST TABLES IN EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
“Air Reoors W teq” Reoort
Table Entries ChaDter r umbers Ciaoter Nqjrn eii
Cost to Government 2 2
Fuels & Energy
Coal Mining & Coal Ceaning 3.5 3.1
Oil & Gas Extraciion & Processing 3.3 3.2
Petroleum Rei ining 3.4 3.3
E 1ectric Utilities 31 3.4
Coal Gosiiicanan 3.6 —
Mo ile Sourc.s
Food Processing
Fe,e lcts & Meat Processing — 8.6. 8.7
Other Food Processing 9.3. 9.4 8.1, 3.2. 8.3
3.4,8.3
Qiemiccls
Basic li,organic C emicals 3.3. 5.7 4.2.1, 4.2.2
Agricultural Chemicals 5.3. 5.5. 5.6 4.3, 4.9, 4.10, 10.2
Formulated Chemicau 8.1 4.5, 4.6, .7, 4.11
4.12. 7.3. 9.1
Canstruction Materials 7.1, 7.2. 7.3. 7.4 6.1, 6.2. o.3. 6.4,
6.5, 6.6, 7.1
Metals
Or, Mining & Dressing — 5.1
Iron & Steel 6.1 5.2
Aluminum 6.5 3.3
Copper 6.6 —
Non enous Metals. Fetvoalloys. & Foundries 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.7 3.3. 5.4, 5.6. 5.7
£3. 6.9, 6.10. 6.11. 6.12
Softgoods
Pulp & Paper 9.1, 9.2 7.4
Textilet — 4.14
Leather & Rubber — 4.4, 3.8
Manufoctunng
Electraplonrig — 5.8
Swvace Coatings 8.2 —
Furniture M0nu CC1Ur. — 7.2
Services
Drycleaning 8.3 —
Hospitals — 9.2
Ptsotographi Processing — 4.13
W st, Disposal
Open Burning & Ooesi Dumps 10.1
Municioci Incineration 10.2. 10.3
Other Indusmal Costs
Indust r ial & Commercial i4eaiing 3oilers 3.2
Industrial. Commercial. & Buiiding Incinerators 10.3
x ix
-------
THE COST OF CLEAN AIR
XK
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS — AIR
Page
1. Introduction and Summary 1
1.1 Basis for Costs 6
1.2 Methodology 8
1.3 Future Costs 10
2. Costs to Government 1 5
3. Energy Industries 1 9
3.1 Fossil Fuel-Fired Electric Plants 20
3.2 Industrial and Commercial Heating 24
3.3 Natural Gas Processing Industry 26
3.4 Petroleum Refining Industry 29
3.5 Coal Cleaning Industry 32
3.6 Coal ‘Gasification 35
4. Mobile Sources Pollution Control 39
5. Chemical Industry 53
5.1 Petrochemicals Industry 54
5.2 Vinyl Chloride 56
5.3 Nitric Acid Industry 59
5.4 Sulfuric Acid Industry 61
5.5 Phosphate Fertilizer Industry 63
5.6 Nonfertilizer Phosphorous Industry 65
5.7 Mercury Cell Chlor-Alkali Industry 67
6. Metals Industries 69
6.1 Iron and Steel 70
6.2 Iron Foundries 74
6.3 Steel Foundries 76
6.4 Ferroalloys Industry 78
6.5 Primary Aluminum 80
6.6 Primary Copper 82
6.7 Primary Lead 84
6.8 Primary Zinc 86
6.9 Secondary Aluminum 88
6.10 Secondary Brass and Bronze 90
6.11 Secondary Lead 92
6.12 Secondary Zinc 94
7. Quarrying and Construction Industries 97
7.1 Cement Industry 98
7.2 Structural Clay Products Industry 100
7.3 Lime Industry 102
7.4 Asphalt Concrete Processing Industry 104
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS — AIR
(Continued)
Page
8. Other Manufacturing and Services 107
8.1 Paint Manufacturing Industry 108
8.2 Surface Costing Industry 110
8.3 Dry Cleaning Industry 113
9. Forest and Agricultural Products Industry 115
9.1 Krait Pulp Industry 116
9.2 Neutral Sulfite Semichemical Paper Industry 118
9.3 Grain Handling Industry 1 20
9.4 Feed Mills Industry 122
10. Solid Waste Disposal or Reduction 125
10.1 Open Burning and Open Burning Dumps 126
10.2 Muricipal Incinerators 127
10.3 Refuse-Fired Steam Generators 1 28
10.4 Sewage Sludge Incineration 130
10.5 IndustriaL, Commercial, and Building Incinerators 131
Xxii
-------
1. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
PURPOSE AND SCOPE
Section 3 1 2(a) of the Clean Air Act Amendments
of 1970 (referred to as “Act” and “CAA”) requires
an annual report on the prospective costs and
impacts of governmental and private efforts to
carry out the provisions of the Act. This report is
submitted in response to the Act.
National Cost estimates are presented for govern-
mental programs as well as those for the control of
the major sources of air pollution. For this purpose
the sources of air pollution are broadly divided into
several categories: energy Industries, transoorta-
tion sources, and other industrial sources. Cover-
age includes not only those criteria pollutants for
which national ambient air quality standards have
been promulgated, but also pollutants covered by
accepted and proposed hazardous air.pollutant-
emission standards and by new source perfor-
mance standards.
Estimates of costs, benefits, and impacts reported
herein are based, wherever possible, upon Federal
regulations or those specified by the states in
implementation plans submitted to EPA. All air-
pollution control costs in this report are in July 1,
1977 dollars. Where costs were developed for
earlier years, these were updated to 1977 dollars
using the implicit price deflater of the gross na-
tional product (fixed non-residential investment
part).
This report does not presume to include all costs
of abating air pollution. Even before the Clean Air
Act of 1970, costs were incurred in response to
obvious pollution problems and to local legisla-
tion. Therefore, the costs herein are estimated
incremental costs, over and above any cost of
control incurred or the level of control practiced
priorto the Act of 1970.
Fiscal year 1971 was judged as the appropriate
baseline from which incremental costs are to be
assessed. This is in keeping with the passage of
the clearer and more specific Clean Air Amend-
ments of 1970, and with the wording of Section
3 1 2(a) of that legislation.
Within this framework, the estimated direct costs
of air-pollution control for industrial and other
sources are detailed. Investments are projected
through 1986. A large number of simplifying as-
sumptions were necessary. Industry and motor
vehicle growth and technology trends were fore-
cast and are described in their appropriate places
in the text. Regulations which are pending under
the Clean Air .ct and whicri reasonably can be
expected to become law were included in the
calculations. The best available information on
control technologies, associated control costs,
and related information was employed. This infor-
mation is being modified and updated continu-
ously by the growing experience with aoplied
emissions-control systems. The situation has been
complicated further by recent uncertainty in the
overall fuels/energy situation.
It should be noted that this document specifically
does not dictate EPA policy with regard to the
application of presently available or projected
emissions-control technology to any industry or
activity. Simplifying assumptions were required in
order to estimate the effect of EPA regulations on
the source industries included herein. The con roI
technologies assumed ri providing these esti-
mates are neither specifically required by law nor
by EPA; no interpretation of the contents of this
document to the contrary should be made.
COSTS OF IMPLEMENTING THE ACT
The 1977 Amendments to the Clean Air Act were
enacted by the Congress during the period in
which these estimated costs were being gener-
ated. Further, there is a period of time between the
issuance of direction by the Congress and the
completion of specific actions by EPA which can
be analyzed in terms of costs. Thus, any costs to
industry involved in complying with the directions
in the 1 977 amendments cannot yet be expressed
in the costs reported here. The Federal expendi-
tures detailed in the amendments are reported
here under Costs to Government.
A uniform costing methodology has been applied
to the industrial sectors incurring air pollution
abatement costs. Being free of the requirements of
macroscopic input-ourDut economic models, this
1
-------
methodology permits an examination of each in- 1977 and over the periods 1 970—77, 1 977—8 1
dustrial sector at the most desirable level of and 1977—1986, are summarized in Table 1—1.
disaggregation. Each number in Table 1—1 is repeated in the appro-
priate chapter of this report, where the assump-
Esvmates of the capital investments and annual- tions and background data are presented and
ized costs required for implementing the Act in ciscussed.
2
-------
TAILE L-1. AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1917 DOLLARS)
3Q77 3970—77 1 977.-a i 1977 —a6
TOTAL INVESTMENT 7863.78 37346.59 33132.45 79739.s9
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS 34331.98 62348.90 84973.95 229412.79
INVESTMENT
!!ZZ 3970—77 i 977..3 1 1977—86
COSTS TO GOVERNMENT ... .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
ANNUAL COSTS
1977 1970—77 1977—81 1977—86
COSTS TO GOVERNMENT .. 539.00 539.00 2787.30 5597.00
1970 1970—77 1 977..3 1 1977—86
MOBILE SOURCES
INVESTMENT 2912.00 12050.09 17224.55 49051.55
ANNUAL COSTS ........ 5850.74 38203.01 33146.74 92068.00
ENERGY INDUSTRIES
FOSSIL FUEL POWER PLANTS 2850.92 31489.03 10374.58 18276.43
COMMERCIAL & INDUSTRIAL
-sEATING 3OILERS.... 238.13 1970.23 268.26 465.11
FUELS INDUSTRIES .....
NATURAl. GAS PROCESSING 9.35 19.92 45.75 327.65
PETROLEUM REFINING 167.23 745.85 393.72 537.17
COAL CLEANING 12.38 75.24 0.0 0.0
COAL GASIFICATION 0.0 0.0 70.44 412.03
TOTAL INVESTMENT 3278.49 34300.23 10952.74 19818.39
ANNUAL COSTS
1977 1970-77 1977—81 1977-86
FOSSIL FUEl. POV ER PLANTS .. 4106.02 10076.90 28810.93 76395.50
COMMERCIAL & INDUSTRIAL
I-IEAT1NG BOILERS .. 349.02 1189.57 3547.50 3634.55
FUELS INDUSTRIES
NATURAL GAS PROCESSING 27.56 137.13 134.67 375.13
PETROLEUM REFINING 136.12 400.56 773.86 1981.38
COAL CLEANING 13.13 64.47 52.31 309.56
COAL GAS3FICATION 0.0 0.0 174.38 1919.48
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS 4631.83 11868.63 21493.64 34415.62
- ! MVESTMENT
1977 3 970—77 1977—81 3977-86
IlEMICAL INDUSTRIES
PETROCHEMICALS 4.47 27.63 9.37 22.06
VINYL CHLORIDE 79.39 87.47 381.02 235.57
NITRIC ACID 3.98 34.34 326 4.80
SULFURIC ACID 72.58 499.05 144.27 325.92
PI-4OSPHATE FERTILIZER . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NON-FERTILIZER PHOSPHATES 1.00 7.51 1.97 4.79
MERCURY-CELL CHLOR.ALKAU 1.97 18.52 3.18 1.18
TOTAL INVESTMENT 163.38 674.51 341.08 594.22
ANNUAL COSTS
3977 1970-77 1977-81 1977—86
PETROCHEMICALS 2 5T 9474 142.72 376.15
VINYL CHLORIDE 27.44 29.97 296.05 765.72
NITRIC ACID 12.99 44.91 56.35 321.26
SULFURIC ACID 131.59 433.89 646.93 1386.37
PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NON-FERTILIZER PHOSPHATES — 1.36 5.17 7.37 o.12
MER URY.CEU. CHIOR-ALKALI 8.24 28.83 35.C5 71.22
OTAL ANNUAL COSTS 211.01 637.30 1384.47 2936.75
3
-------
TABLE 1.-i. AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
1’0—77 1977—Si
INDUSTRY
METALS INDUSTRIES
IRON & STEEL
IRON FOUNDRIES
STEEL FOUNDRIES
FERROA U. OYS
PRIMARY ALUMINUM ..
PRIMARY COPPER ..
PRIMARY LEAD _. . . ...
PRIMARY ZINC ... ..
SECONDARY ALUMINUM
SECONDARY BRASS
SECONDARY LEAD
SECONDARY ZINC
TOTAL INVESTMENT -
IRO’4 & STEEL
IRON FOUNDRIES
STEEL FOUNDRIES
FERROALLOYS .. —
PRIMARY ALUMINUM
PRIMARY COPPER ._. ...
PRIMARY LEAD -
PRIMARY ZINC .. . . ... . .. .•
SECONDARY ALUMINUM .. ..
SECONDARY BRASS
SECONDARY LEAD ..... ........
SECONDARY ZINC........ ..
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
QUARRYING & CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRIES . .
CEMENT
CLAY CONSTRUCTION
LIME
ASPHALT ..
TOTAL INVESTMENT ..
CEMENT
CLAY CONSTRUCTION
LIME
ASPHALT .....
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
320.28
o.03
18.97
24.63
51.84
90.00
2.16
6.36
2.44
1.59
1.75
0.32
1258.04
4.6.67
177.49
328.79
359.91
1094.00
20.28
42.13
15.64
13.32
12.42
2.97
1281.12
8.04
25.19
0.0
117.86
171.70
1.29
13.21
5.28
1.92
2.88
0.19
1921.68
28.02
53.82
0.0
363.17
986.00
1.29
30.20
12.41
3.62
6.02
4.28
528.56
3371.65
1628.67
3410.52
ANNUAL COSTS
1977
519.20
7.08
47.78
70.16
95.96
199.25
4.02
36.46
4.35
2.77
2.53
0.86
1970—77
1320.59
24.10
170.26
34.6.91
323.82
802.96
14.14
126.13
1&35
9.31
8.56
2.63
1977—81
3473.60
32.03
208.19
250.71
44.4.67
1011.18
17.11
172.49
21.33
12.66
11.80
4.51
1977—86
9900.35
81,48
494.37
399.86
1007.86
2549.96
30.24
434,72
56.09
30.56
29.27
14.06
990.42
3170.78
5660.26
15029.38
INVESTMENT
1977
1970-77
1977-81
1977—So
4.44
11.0.4
14.67
25.63
14.53
06.06
137.94
252.80
18.04
10.24
8.80
59.23
41.24
15.oO
8.80
94.76
55.78
501.37
96.31
160.46
ANNUAL COSTS
1977
3.29
37.32
25.05
93.72
1970-77
7,48
128.59
87.68
352.33
1977—81
24.22
162.81
106.61
428.51
1977—86
79.18
337.42
230.90
915.16
159.39
4
-------
TABLE 1.-i. AiR POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
INDUSTRY 1977 1970-77 1 977 _ .3 1 1977—36
CT14ER MANUFAcTURING SERVICES
PAINT MANUFAcTURING .. 4.85 34.33 8.59 18.14
SURUCE COATING 0.0 0.0 658.32 1707.64
DRY C1.EANING 10.04 141.73 6.75 13.27
TOTAl. INVESTMENT 14.89 176.08 674.16 1739.06
ANNUAL COSTS
1977 1970—77 1977—81 1977—86
PAINT MANUFACTURING .. .. 11.11 3&35 52.23 117.96
SURFACE COAT 1NG 0.0 0.0 374.33 1858.20
DRY CLEANING 23.07 86.06 95.58 156.53
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS 34.18 122.61 522.30 2132.70
INVESTMENT
1977 1970—77 1977. -El I 977 —36
FOREST PRODUCTS & AGRICULTURE
KRAPT PAPER .. ....... ..- 250.00 862.50 412.50 425.00
NSSC PAPER .. .. 14.00 58.50 17.00 17.00
FEED MIU.S _. .. 212.66 1700.61 323.81 812.97
GRAIN HANOUNG ...... 229.38 1623.20 4.46.14 968.38
TOTAL INVESTMENT .. .. 706.04 4244.80 1199.45 2223.34
ANNUAL C STS
1977 1970-77 1977—81 1977—36
KRAFT PAPER . . . . . . . .... 120.80 247.75 78.20 ló Oo.81
NSSC PAPER.... .. 9.68 22.87 54.97 129.72
FEED MIU.S .. . ... 301.32 1023.07 1370.31 3409.44
GRAIN HANOUNG .. .. . ... 272.03 880.71 1309.69 3359.63
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS..... .. 704.03 2174.40 3413.17 8505.62
5
-------
1.1 BASES FOR COSTS
The costs reported here are developed and aggre-
gated according to a self-consistent method. The
comparison of these costs with costs for pollution
contror aeveloped by other sources should be
done with allowance for the constraints and condi-
tions discussed below.
This report presents the costs of controlling air
pollution as associated with the actions of the
United States Environmental Protection Agency
under the directions of Congress as given in the
Clean Air Act ai d subsequent amendments. The
specific regulations issued by the U.S. EPA may be
identified in terms of the following classes of emis-
sions or lImitations:
• New Source Performance Standards
• Criteria Pollutant Limitations
• Hazardous Pollutant Standards
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards
• State Implementation Plans.
The Environmental Protection Agency has promul-
gated and is scheduled to continue promulgating
specific regulations limiting the emissions of se-
lected pollutants from various types of industrial
plants to be built in the future; the development of
these New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)
thrusts upon the Agency the responsibility for the
strategic selection of categories of industries and
pollutants to be controlled under these
regulations.
This report makes no attempt to analyze several
new concepts to air pollution regulation, as
follows:
• Reasonably Available Control Technology
(RACT)
• Best Available Control Technology (BACT)
• Lowest Available Emission Rates (LAER).
These topics will be addressed in the future Cost
of Clean Air reports.
Many of the pollutants controlled under the provi-
sions of NSPS ’s correspond to the “criteria” pollu-
tants that the Agency is called upon to control,
namely
Sulfur Oxides (SOw)
Nitrogen Oxides (NOX)
Hydrocarbons (HC)
Particulates
Carbon Monoxide (CO).
Because the Agency has just recently added lead
(Pb) to this listing, there has not been enough time
to integrate the costs associated with proper con-
trol of lead.
The Agency is given a third approach to control-
ling specific air pollutants by classing them as
“hazardous” pollutants; so far, pollutants regu-
lated under this strategy include:
a asbestos
o beryllium
• mercury
vinyl chloride.
However the Agency has also been called upon to
issue National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) specifying levels of “criteria pollutants”
in ambient air which will protect human health
(primary air quality standard), or, as a further devel-
opment, the total environment (secondary air qual-
ity standard). These basic tasks of the Environmen-
tal Protection Agency have been expanded in man-
ifold ways through both amendments to the law
and interpretive rulings. The ramifications are dis-
cussed in part later in this Introduction and in part
in Chapter 2. In connection with National Ambient
Air Quality Standards, the EPA is further required
to approve (or disapprove) the methods by which
states propose to achieve the NAAQS’s, those
methods being formalized as State Implementa-
tion Plans (SIP’s). Thus, costs imposed upon indus-
try in the course of compliance with SIP’s are
reported here as resulting from an extension of
Federal authority. This report, written in 1977 and
1978. does not include cost effects of the new
SIPs to be submitted to EPA in 1979.
The costs reported here are those associated with
compliance with the above array of regulations,
and thus exclude money spent on air pollution
control under various other motivations, such as:
6
-------
• money spent prior to 1 970, the date of the
Clean Air Act
• money spent in voluntary clean-up
• money spent to comply with local or state
regulations that are not motivated by the
Clean Air Act (e.g. nuisance laws to control
odors
• money spent for air-pollution
vices which are installed for
business economics (e.g.
recovery).
The industries covered in this report are those
identified as contributing significant amounts of
pollutants to the air and therefore being the sub-
jects of specific regulations. Such coverage of
industry categories is the best possible depending
on the available information. With the available
resources, industry categories are added, updat-
ed, or treated in expanded detail according to the
best judgement of those responsible for the con-
duct of the program, and with due regard for other
cognizant and interested parties.
Definitions and Procedures
All costs are expressed in constant dollar values.
specifically in “July 1. 1 977 dollars.” No inflation
factor is included in the projection of costs into the
future.
Unless otherwise specifically noted, all tabula-
tions are in millions of 1977 dollars.
All physical quantities have been stated in metric
tons or other metric units, usually with common
“engineering usage” units stated in parentheses.
It is recognized that “metric tons” is not a unit in
the System lnternationale and should most strictly
be expressed as a “megagram.” However, in rec-
ognition of the current stages of transition toward
“metrification”, and in the anticipation of a reader-
ship not totally technical, the “common” metric
units have been used.
The time periods used for the aggregation of costs
are based upon certain milestones:
1970—passage of the Clean Air Act
1977—base year of this report
1 986—selected year for projection of costs.
The “cost year” used in this report is taken from
July 1 to June 30. This type of year was chosen on
the basis that many regulations require compli-
ance by July 1 of a given year. (This is especially
true in the companion effort on the cost of water
pollution control.) Further, during the period of
preparation of this report, the fiscal year was in a
state of transition, being a period of more than
twelve months. Government expenditures are re-
ported in terms of fiscal years.
control de-
reasons of
materials
7
-------
1.2 METHODOLOGY
The approach used to develop the costs reported
here consists (in most cases) of a sequence which
starts with a detailed description of an industry
segment and progresses to an. aggregated cost
reported for an overafi industry. This methodology
involves the work of a specialist who is familiar
with many of the technical and economic aspects
of a specific industrial activity.
A typical pattern of cost development by a
specialist/chapter-author involves the detailed
identification c f processes, emissions, regula-
tions, control technology, and control costs spe-
cific to an identifiable group of industrial activities
or piants. This group of plants is then, on the
judgemerit of the specialist, expressed in terms of
a number of model plants of various sizes which
represent a close approach to the actual numbers
and sizes of plants and the total capacity of that
group of plants. A hypothetical example of such a
listing might appear as:
of P io, fl ____
80
0
12
An expression of cost is then developed for a given
control technology which takes the form:
Cost = A(Capacity) 8
where A is a coefficient
and B is an exponent.
This expression relates the cost of control to the
size of the plant (larger plants usually benefit from
economies of scale). The cost equation is devel-
oped from existing cost data in that industry
group. The cost of control can be calculated for the
above example list of plants by calculating the
cost for each size and multiplying by the number of
plants of that size and adding the three size cate-
gories together.
This approach may be broken down into groups of
plants determined by all combinations of:
• regulations (e.g.. SIP ’s and NSPS’s)
• control technologies (e.g., scrubbers and
baghouses)
• new and existing plants
• other specific conditions.
Each set of special conditions may be costed sepa-
rately and summed into the aggregate industry
cast. Also, the growth rate of the industry is ex-
pressed in terms of the model plants. For example,
a common trend is for smaller plants to close and
be replaced by larger plants. This is significant in
pollution control costs in that the control costs
would, in this example, benefit from the econo-
mies of larger-scale operations. The use of
projected growth rates in production output ex-
pressed as percentage increases jcompared to
specific predictions of plant construction) was se-
lected for this methodology because of the re-
quirement for projections, which are beyorrd the
plant construction plans of industry.
A special case of this methodology is occasionally
encountered in industries with very few plants. In
these cases, the “model” plants are actually the
real plants and control costs are based on esti-
mates for each individual plant.
In some cases, cost data are obtained from special
economic studies of the impact of the cast of
pollution control on a specific industry. These eco-
nomic impact studies, usually commissioned by
the Environmental Protection Agency, are used as
the basis for casts in this report when appropriate.
The use of these documents improves the consis-
tency and coherency at this report with other EPA
publications. In some of these economic reports,
the plant sizes, specific costs, etc., are not
presented in detail corresponding to the above
procedure. In these cases, cost data from the eco-
nomic study are transferred empirically (i.e., exog-
enously) to the computer and reported in a form
Consistent with the findings of the base document.
In these cases, the reported costs do not necessar-
ily conform to the standard format. e.g.. new plant
costs may not be identifiable as such (relative to
costs for existing plants), although costs projected
into the future include costs to both types of
plants. Similarly the base document may not use
the same breakdown of annual costs or the same
interest rate as is normally used in the existing
computer program. Nevertheless, the overall costs
and timing of the costs are reoorted as developed
in the designated source document.
In this Connection, the timing of caoital investment
and the associated rate of accrual of the annual
Avecog. Copocity
4.0
1 i5
27.0
B
-------
costs reflect both historical data (i.e., from 1 970 to
the most recent available data) as well as
projected rates of investment by the particular
industry segment. Projected rates of spending are
largely based on the compliance date specified in
the pertinent regulation with allowance for lead
time required for fabrication, construction, and
installation of the control technology involved.
Also applied are investment scnedules developed
by other programs of the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency.
Thus, the information utilized in developing the
costs reported here includes:
• a “model plant” description of the industry
which includes a statement of industry
capacity
• a statement of industry growth rate related
to the model plant structure
• the identification of standards and dates of
compliance
• the identification of ’costs of control for
various plant sizes and regulations
• where appropriate the identification of
money spent before the date of the Clean
Air Act (1970) and in some cases, the tim-
ing of capital investment over the time pe-
riod of interest
n the estimated life of the control equipment.
With these types of input, the computer program
performs calculations, for each year in the period
1970 through 1986, of capacity based on each
size class of model plant, and the cost of control
for that class under the regulations pertinent for
that year. At the year of compliance for New
Source Performance Standards, all new expan-
sion of capacity is costed according to the cost
equation for new plants (usually different than for
existing plants complying with the requirements
of State Implementation Plans). The program thus
generates a statement of capital investment, oper-
ating and maintenance costs, and annual costs for
capital investment for each class of plants. These
costs may be aggregated by industry segment,
industry, or groups of industries for any year or
span of years depending on the report desired.
For the calculation of the annual cost of capital, the
computer program uses straight-line depreciation
over the stated life of the control equipment and
an interest rate of ten percent. It is understood that
other systems of depreciation are used, that other
interest rates are sometimes applicable, that “op-
portunity costs” for other uses of capital are not
taken into account, and that tax write- offs are
commonly applied to control equipment. The ten
percent interest rate is used to signify the “social
cost” of capital; likewise tax write-offs are exclud-
ed, since society ultimately bears the cost of pollu-
tion abatement. Thus, the costs reported show a
total cost to society, which may not be borne
directly by the industry.
The above methodology ‘s applied to develop the
costs for the larger portion of industry costs. Ex-
ceptions where exogenous cost data from eco-
nomic studies have been accommodated have
been mentioned before.
Two other areas of costs are reported here which
are developed on different bases. Costs to govern-
ment are reported based on expenditures as
scheduled in legislation. The costs of control of
mobile sources (automobiles. aircraft, etc.) are not
subject to the above methodology; their develop-
ment is described within the text of Chapter 4,
9
-------
1.3 FUTURE COSTS
The following paragraphs contain a discussion of
the major areas of direction contained in the 1977
Amendments arid indicate the types of costs that
can be expected to be incurred in each case.
SIP REVISIONS - ATTAINMENT
AND MAINTENANCE
Introduction
The Clean Air Act of 1970 provided for the estab-
lishment of National Ambient Air Quality Stan-
dards (NAAOS), including primary standards to
protect public health and secondary standards to
protect public welfare. Each state was required to
submit for EPA’s approval a State Implementation
Plan (SIP), detailing the state’s strategy for attain-
ing and maintaining the NAAQS. Under the 1970
legislation, all states were to have attained primary
standards by July 1, 1975. with a few exceptions
where extensions were granted to mid-1977. Sec-
ondary standards were to be attained within a
“reasonable time”, usually the same time period as
the primary standards.
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 specify
that in areas not attaining NAAQS, (nonattainrnent
areas) the SiP’s must now be revised and submit-
ted to EPA for approval by July 1979. The revised
plans are required to impose measures represent-
ing reasonably available control measures (RACM)
on existing stationary sources and transportation
strategies for mobile sources (such as inspection
and maintenance programs) which levels of con-
trol take cOst and other factors into account. For
major new or modified sources, the revised plans
must require lowest achievable emission rates
(LAER). Other specific requirements are described
below.
Nonattainment Areas
Th. 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments extended
the statutory attainment dates to December 1982
for all pollutants. In the case of photochemical
oxidants (ozone) and carbon monoxide, Congress
recognized the difficulty that areas with problems
dominated by automobile emissions would have in
demonstrating attainment by the earlier date. In
such cases. an additional five years, to 1987, may
be permitted. If the additional five-year extension
is needed, the state must submit a revised SiP in
1979 which demonstrates that attainment is not
possible by 1982 despite the application of all
rebsonably available control measures. Extensions
of attainment dates beyond 1982 require the km
plementation of an inspection/maintenance (l/M)
program.
Where an extension has been granted. the state
must adopt by 1982. the remaining enforceable
measures necessary to attain standards for photo-
chemical oxidants and/or carbon monoxide.
If a state is unable to submit an SIP that can
demonstrate attainment of national standards arid
which can be approved by EPA, specific sanctions
are invoked under the Act including no major
source Construction after July 1979 arid restric-
tions on federal funds for highways and wnstewa-
ter treatment facilities. A major source is defined
as one which has the potent ai o emitting a least
100 tons of pollutants oer year before controls.
Prior to attainment of standards, the Clean Air Act
Amendments call for interim progress in emission
reductions on an annual basis, which will provide
for attainment by the statutory dates. There is an
explicit requirement that to the extent possible
these reductions should be realized in early years.
Growth must take place within the framework of a
plan which will achieve health-based standards:
Prior to July 1979, the EPA offset rulIng is in
effect. There are four key conditions to the offset
ruling:
For every ton of emissions from a new
source, there must be an offsetting emis-
sion reduction for existing sources of
greater than one ton;
e The new source must meet the lowest
achievable emission rate (LAER) which is
the lowest rate achieved in practice or the
lowest emission limitation set forth by a SIP
for that same class or category of sources;
• All existing major sources owned and oper-
ated in the same state by the firm operating
the new source must be in compliance with
the applicable emission limitations and
standards, or be meeting the target dates
of a compliance schedule; and
10
-------
• These offsets must provide a positive net
air quality benefit in the nonattainment
area.
After July 1979, states are given a choice of two
options as to how to handle new growth. The state
can either
• Create a quantitative margin for growth
within the state implementation plan by
imposing emission limitations on existing
sources to a greater degree than minimally
necessary to meet standards; or
• Continue some form of case-by-case emis-
sion offset approach.
In many cases the states will provide for a combi-
nation of both approaches. With either option new
major sources must meet the lowest achievable
emission rate.
Transportation Control Plans
The 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act per.
mitted a five-year extension of the 1 982 deadline
for achieving carbon monoxide and photochemi-
cal oxidant standards. This extension is contingent
on a state demonstrating in its 1 979 State Imple-
mentation Plan (SIP) that attainment is not possi-
ble by 1982 despite the implementation of all
reasonable stationary and transportation control
measures.
Most major urban areas with carbon monoxide
and photochernical oxidant problems will be un-
able to meet the air quality health standards by
1 982 through reliance on stationary source con-
trols and federal new car standards alone. These
areas therefore will be required to develop and
implement such transportation strategies as mass
transit improvements, preferential bus and car-
pool treatment. areawide carpool programs, park-
ing management, pricing, auto-restricted zones.
etc. — which are all designed to reduce auto
emissions.
In order to achieve reasonable progress toward
these standaras, EPA is requiring the 1 979 SIPs to
demonstrate a commitment to (1) accelerated im-
plementation of specific strategies (e.g.. transpor-
tation improvements contained in the current or
recent plans); (2) the incremental phase-in of addi-
tional strategies; and (3) a schedule of activities
leading to implementation of an
inspection/maintenance program by 1 98 1 (dece-
ntralized system) or 1 982 (centralized system).
Congress authorized $75 million in planning
funds in the 1977 CAA Amendments. $50 million
was appropriated in fiscal year 1979 to support
the first year of the local planning process. The
Department of Transportation also contributes
funding for these grants to local governments.
These funds are discussed further in the Cost to
Governments Chapter.
Prevention of Significant
Deterioration (PSD)
In 1972. the Sierra Club and other environmental
groups filed suit against EPA for failure to promul-
gate reguiation under the Clean Air Act to prevent
the significant deterioration 0 f air quality. Both the
District Court of the District of Columbia and the
U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia
Circuit granted the Sierra Club’s motion and re-
quired EPA to promulgate significant deterioration
regulations. In June 1 973, the Supreme Court. by
a four-to-four vote, affirmed the judgement of the
Court of Appeals.
After extensive public participation and technical
and economic analyses. EPA published final regu-
lations in December 1974, which are based on
allowable increments of pollutant concentrations
for specific categories of new major industrial
sources under an area-classification procedure.
Subsequently, the Administration, as part of the
Energy Independence Act of 1975, requested
Congress to consider legislation which would clar-
ify Congressional intent on the prevention of sig-
nificant deterioration of air quality. The Adminis-
tration requested that Congress carefully examine
the potential effects of a significant deterioration
policy, including the consideration of its complete
elimination as well as other alternative ap-
proaches. In addition, Congress was asked to pro-
vide guidance that would allow a balancing of
environmental, economic, and energy concerns in
any legislative determination of the significant de-
terioration issue.
The Clean Air Act Amendments
The 1977 Amendments adopted EPA ’s basic ap-
proach to PSD standards. Significant deterioration
is prevented by establishing area classifications
designed to correspond to the overall air quality
intended for the area, and to reflect tne amount of
energy or industrial growth cesired. Three
“classes’ were established as follows:
• Class I Applies to areas in which practi-
cally any air quality deterioration would be
considered significant, thus allowing lithe
or no energy or industrial development.
• Class Il — Applies to areas in which deterio-
ration that would normally accompany
moderate, well-controlled growth would
not be considered significant.
11
-------
• Class III — Aoplies to areas in which deteri-
oration would be permitted to allow con-
centrated or very large-scale energy or in-
dustrial development.
All existing international parks, national wilder-
ness areas, memorial parks larger than 5,000
acres, and national parks larger than 6,000 acres
are designated Class I. These lands may not be
redesignated into a different class. All other re-
gions are initially designated as Class I I. They may
be redesignated by a state into either Class I or
Class Ill, subject to various public hearing and
analysis requirements.
Each class has maximum specified allowable in-
crements of air quality deterioration. Major new
and modified sources are subject to preconstruc-
tion review, and must meet New Source Perfor-
mance Standards (NSPS). These sources must
conform to Best Available Control Technology
(BACT) requirements. Under EPA’s proposed regu-
lations, all new major stationary sources and modi-
fied sources commencing construction or modifi-
cation after December 1, 1978, must conform to
these standards.
New Source Performance Standards
The Amendments also clarify certain aspects of
New Source Performance Standards which had
previously been evolved by the Agency (e.g., clari-
fication of the term “modification ’l, but most sig-
nificantly set rather stringent rules regarding
fossil-fueled sources. The Amendments essen-
tially require the use of either coal cleaning or flue-
gas desulfunzation for all new sources. This limits
the preferential use of low-sulfur coal, and should
avoid any disruption of the potential supply of coal
from various sources. The Amendments also spec-
ify that emission control strategies must be based
on continuous control equipment rather than tall
stacks or intermittent controls such as production
cutbacks.
Visibility Goals
The 1977 Amendments speak to a new aspect of
air pollution in that they call for the Agency to
develop appropriate analyses, methods, and regu-
lations to protect the condition of visibility from
degradation by man-made air pollutants. This di-
rection is applicable to Class I areas, e.g., national
parks. etc.
Cost implications
The discussion herein concerns the cost of imple-
menting the policies and regulations for nonanain-
ment areas and for PSD regulations. The discus-
sIon in general is qualitative in that specific cost
figures are not presented. Cost data were not
available for this study. Few if any of the respective
state agencies have entered the cost-analysis
phase. The task is complex and will require signifi-
cant resources.
The cost of air quality attainment and maintenance
measures can be divided into direct and indirect
costs. Direct cost can be estimated with consider-
able accuracy.
The direct costs include all expenditures required
of a source, such as investment and operating
costs for control equioment, incremental costs o
fuel switching, costs of production process
changes, emissions monitoring costs, administra-
tive costs for accounting and reporting, costs of
supervision of operating personnel, and costs re-
quired of the governmental unit for implementing
a measure, such as operating costs for permit
- review programs, monitoring of air quality, re-
views of source emission reports, and source sur-
veillance, Indirect costs include the effects or’
sectors of the economy that are not required to
respond to a particular maintenance measure,
such as price changes for materials or products,
costs associated with changes in behavioral pat-
terns, and costs of increased solid waste and
water pollution control.
The following potential cost implications are
noted:
1. For existing stationary sources, RACM re-
quirements will vary from state-to-state, from
region-to-region, and even from source-to-source.
The requirements will allow for the retrofitting of
existing processes, taking technological feasibility
and cost into account.
2. For mobile sources, insoection and mainte-
nance programs may be instituted in certain areas.
ThIs will involve additional costs to automobile
owners (for maintenance) and to the municipal or
state governments (for inspection). Such costs are
expected to be minimal to the consumer.
3. Major new sources in nonattainment areas
may have increased costs over NSPS or BACT
costs in order to comply with the LAER require-
ments. Finally, depending on how the state allows
for new growth, there may be additional costs
associated with an offset market or other state-
adopted growth programs.
12
-------
4. “Major sources” as defined by the Clean
A r Act Amendments is broadened to include aU
sources which “potentially” emit 100 tons per
year or more of any pollutant. EPA has interpreted
this to include sources whose emissions before
controls would have been 100 tons. However,
sources whose “allowable” emissions (after appli-
cation of LAER) would be below 50 tons per year
are not considered major sources. The effect of
this change is to increase the number of sources
covered by nonartainment and PSO regulations.
5. Under the PSO requirements. major new or
modified sources may incur additional costs com-
plying with BACT. The standards and associated
costs will vary depending on the class designation
of the region where the new source is locating.
13
-------
2. COSTS TO GOVERNMENT
GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES FOR AIR-POLLUTION CONTROL
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 (P.L
9 1—604) impose somewhat different require-
ments on governmental agencies than on others
affected by the legislation. Although there will be
some expenditures for abatement of pollution
from government-owned facilities, the principal
purposes of expenditures in the government sec-
tor are for researcn, monitoring, administration,
and enforcement. Research is supported mainly
by Federal funds, while state and local funds.
supplemented by Federal grants, are used primar-
ily to implement, operate, artd maintain monitoring
and enforcement programs.
Detailed analyses are not presented here since the
main purpose of this effort is to determine the
magnitude of this category of expenditures rela-
tive to other expenditures estimated in the report.
Table 2-1
Table 2—1 shows projected governmental expen-
ditures broken down into EPA, non-EPA, and state
and local categories. A stable rate of expenditure
after FY 1978 is assumed due to governmental
revenue constraints and competing social needs.
Total expenditures by government for air-pollution
control are expec1ed to be about 5.6 billion dollars
during the period 1977 to 1986. Excluding grants
to state and local governments, EPA and non-EPA
(other Feceral) expenditures are estimated to be
about 18 and 41 percent, resoectively. This as-
sumes stable outlays for air-pollution control start-
ing with FY 1978. EPA grants to state and local
governments are expected to be between 60 and
80 million dollars per year throughout the decade.
Total expenditures by state and local governments
are estimated to be from 2.2 to 2.8 billion dollars.
Projected State and Loca’ and Federal Air Qualit’ i Program Cos s
(by fiscal year in million dollars)
1977 1079 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1994 1995 1986 Total
EPA 2 99 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 1026
Non-EPA (Federal) 229 229 229 229 229 229 229 229 229 229 2290
Total Federal 323 332 332 332 232 332 332 322 332 332 3316
Stat. and Local 211 230 230 230 230 230 220 230 220 230 2281
539 562 562 562 562 562 562 562 562 562 5597
* Costs have been adjusted to re+1.ct July 1. 1977 dollars.
Exduaing grants to stare, interState. ond locat governments w,iich are induced in the state anø local c te9ory.
Sources 5 .ciai Analyses. Sudget o the U.S. Government, Fiscal Year 1978, pp. 312—330. GPO.
FEDERAL. STATE, AND LOCAL PROGRAM COSTS
The Clean Air Act authorizes a national program of
air-pollution research, regulation and enforce-
ment activities. Under the Act, primary responsibil-
ity for the prevention and control of air pollution
rests with state and local governments, with the
program directed at the Federal level by EPA.
EPA s role is to conduct research and development
programs, set national environmental goals, en-
sure that adequate standards anc regulations are
established to meet these goals, assist the states,
and ensure that the standards and regulations are
enforced effectively.
One of the set of environmental standards is the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).
These standards set forth the allowable concentra-
Preceding page blank
15
-------
tion in air of pollutants which affect human health
and public welfare. The health and other effects of
pollutants are delineated in criteria documents
which are the basis for the standards. NAAQS
standards have been set for total suspended par-
ticulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon
monoxide, photochemical oxidants. and hydrocar-
bons, and more recently—4ead. Two types of stan-
dards are set primary standards to protect human
health, and. secondary standards to protect the
public welfare (prevent damage to property, ani-
máls. vegetation, crops, visibility, etc.). Controlling
emissions to meet standards is handled through
two major types of activities: (1) states carry out
State Implementation Plans (SIPs) which control
pollution primariiy by prescribing specific emis-
sion limitations or control actions for types of
polluters and (2) EPA controls emissions from new
motor vehicles and selected stationary sources.
Program emphasis will continue to be on attaining
and maintaining the NAAQ. .S standards. Because
the implementing of control actions is basically
the responsibility of the state and local govern-
ments, it will be recuired that they take on in-
creased responsibilities for air-pollution control if
the standards are to be attained, particularly if
automotive vehicle-related pollutants are to be
controlled. The state control plans incorporate
controls or automotive vehicle-related pollutants
since reductions achieved as a result of the Fed-
eral motor vehicle control program are not suffi-
cient to attain the standards for such pollutants in
many areas. The Federal program places primary
emphasis on increasing state and local control
agencies’ ability to control air pollution.
To attain the standards, efforts are to concentrate
on the generation of State Implementation Plans,
their reassessment, and revision if indicated. For
maintaining tne standards, many SiPs wilt have to
be revised to include the controls required to as-
sure that the ambient-air-quality standards are not
violated in the future. The governors of 45 states
have been formally notified by EPA Regional Ad-
ministrators that the S1Ps for their states must be
revised in order to attain and maintain the NAAQS.
Plan revisions are necessary in 34 states for Oartic-
ulate matter; 14 states for sulfur dioxide; 24 states
for carbon monoxide; 27 states for photocnemical
oxidants; and 4 states for nitrogen dioxide.
The nature and magnitude of the problems asso-
ciated with attainment and maintenance of the
NAAQS varies with the specific pollutant involved.
Federal programs wilt be aimed at formulating
methodologies for developing control strategies,
developing control systems, arid supporting state
and local programs. Maintaining the standards in
the long term wilt also be facilitated by Federal
programs that lead to minimizing emissions from
new sources (i.e., new motor vehicle emission
standards and standards of performance for new
stationary sources) and assuring continued low
emissions performance for these sources during
their useful lives.
Program expenditures by the EPA are expected to
remain level for the next several years. with the
states gradually assuming greater responsibility
for implementation of the various provisions of the
Act. Table 2—2. shows projections of expenditures
for the three major appropriations categories.
Table 2. -2.
Projection of EPA PTogrom Expenditures by Category
(by fiscal year in millions of 1977 dollars)
1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
Abotem*nt and
Comvel .. 99 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 1026
Enfo,c,,n a nt 16 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
and
48 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44
.. 163 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 1666
k,ciud.s gvan.i to note. tn?efstcte, and $ocai o ’.mIn.nt .
1977 1978
196
144
16
-------
EXPENDITURES BY OTHER FEDERAL AGENCIES
Although covering a wide range of activities, Fed-
eraL environ,mental programs are classified in
three broad categories: pollution control and
abatement: understanding, describing, and pre-
dicting the environment; and environmental pro-
tection and enhancement activities. It is difficult to
attribute non-EPA Federal expenditures to specific
pollution-control legislation in many cases, but an
approximation of P.L 9 1—604-related expendi-
tures is given by the air-cuality expenditures in the
Pollution Control and Abatement category. Princi-
pal activities in this category include actions nec-
essary to reduce pollution from Federal facilities;
establishing and enforcing standards; research
and development: and identifying pollutants, their
sources, and their impact on health. Non-EPA air
quality expenditures by the Federal government
are estimated to be about 229 million dollars per
year.
Since Federal spending is strongly influenced by
policy and competing social needs, forecasting is
always difficult. The best estimate currently is that
such expenditures will remain stable over the next
several years. with only minor growth or decline. If
non-EPA Federal outlays in this category were to
be held constant at the FY 1 977 level, total decade
expenditures would be about 2.3 billion dollars.
While this is a large amount on an absolute basis, it
is relatively small compared to total expenses in
the nation in response to P.L 9 1—604.
It is important to note that the environmental activ-
ities proposed in the 1 977 Ciean Air Act Amend-
ments have not been considered in projecting
government expenditures from the period 1977 to
1986. Because of this, the cost projections
presented in this chapter maybe on the low side.
The activities that may result in higher governmen-
tal expenditures include: accelerations of develop-
ment of new source performance standards, pro-
mulgations of possibly three or four additional
national emissions standards for hazardous air
pollutants, and possible revisions and additions to
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
The impact of the 1 977 Amendments to the Clean
air Act on government expenditures has yet to be
determined specifically. The Amendments contain
authorizations of amounts for various activities
and periods of time but these are not necessarily
identical with the appropriations or outlays which
actually occur. The authorizations in the Amend-
ments may be summarized as follows:
Amount Activity
$75,000,000 One-time grants in support of
State planning activities in-
cluding traffic control plans
under Section 175
$10,000,000 In support of the National
Commission on Air Quality un-
der Section 323
Grants In support of Public No-
tification activities under Sec-
tion 127; $4,000,000 in each
of fiscal years 1978, 1979.
1980,and 1981
Authorized in terms of
$7,500,000 in each of fiscal
years 1978, 1979, 1980, and
1 98 1 in support of manpower
training under Section 103
(a) 5)
Authorized for EPA for fiscal
year 1978
Authorized for research, de-
velopment, and demonstra-
tion under Sections 103 and
104;for fiscal year 1978.
As stated above, such authorizations are difficult
to interpret in terms of actual outlays by various
agencies. However it would appear that the above
authorizations, in combination with the directions
for increased efforts towards air-pollution control.
will result in expenditures greater than those given
in the preceding tables.
$16,000,000
$30,000,000
$157,000,000
$120,000,000
17
-------
3. ENERGY iNDUSTRIES
For the purpose of this report. the broad category • Coal Cleaning
“Energy Industries” was defined to include those • Coal Gasification.
industries which gather, transfer, process, and de-
liver energy to the consumer. These include: Fossil One important and relevent subject not included
Fuel-Fired Electric Power Plants, and, because of here appears in another Chapter.
the similarities with other industries included in
this category with respect to technology, Commer- • Producing and using gasoiirle with little or
cial and Industrial Heating Boilers. Also included no lead is discussed in Chapter 4, “Mobile
are a group of industries which process and de- Source Emission Control”.
liver fuels to various consumers. These include:
• Natural Gas Processing Air pollution abatement costs are summarized in
• Petroleum Refining and Storage Table 3—1.
TABLE 3.-I. AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS FOR THE
ENERGY INDUSTRIES
(IN MILLiONS OF 1977 DOLL&RS)
INVESTMENT
NOUSTRY 1977 1970—77 1 977 - 3 1 977—86
FOSSiL FUEL POWER PLANTS 2850.92 11489.03 10174.58 18276.40
COMMERciAL & INDUSTRIAL tEAT1NG BOILERS 238.11 1970.21 268.26 465.11
NATURAL GAS PQOCESS 1P4G 9.35 19.92 45.75 127.65
PETROLEUM REFINING . ,. 167.23 745.85 393.72 537.17
COAl. CLEANING 12.88 75.24 0.0 0.0
COAL GASIFICATION 0.0 0.0 70.44 412.03
TOTAL INVESTMENT 3278.49 14.300,23 10952.74 19818.39
ANNUAl. CCSTS
- 1977 1970-77 1977 —31 1977—86
FOSSIL FUEL POWER PLANTS 4106.02 10076.90 23810.93 76395.50
COMMERCIAL & INDUSTRIAL I EATING BOILERS 349.02 1189.57 1547.50 3634.55
NATURAL GAS RROCSSSING 2756 137.13 134.67 375.13
PETROLEUM REFINING 136.12 400.56 773.36 1981.58
COAL CLEANING 13.13 64.47 52.51 109.56
COAL GASIFICATION 0.0 0.0 174,18 1919.48
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS 4631.83 11863.63 31493.64 84415.62
19 Preceding page blank
-------
3.1 FOSSiL FUEL-FIRED ELECTRIC PLANTS
Operating Characteristics
Among the largest stationary sources of air poilu-
tion are the coal-, oil-, and natural gas-fired steam
electric plants. Of the tifree fuels, coal results in
the most air pollution, and natural gas in the least
and gas is the mast convenient to use. in 1975,
more than 65 percent of the steam coal (on the
basis of energy conteral consumed in the USA was
used for power generation. About 16 percent of all
fuel oil consumed and 10 percent of natural gas
consumed were used for the same purpose. The
oil consumptior by this industry is primarily resi-
dual oil which has a higher potential for air pollu-
tion than the lignter fractions, i.e., higher sulfur
and ash content. It is apparent from these esti-
mates that utility power plants have a major air
pollution control problem, because they burn the
most polluting fuels in tne largest quantities.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
The emissions resulting from the use of each fuel
in a typical uncontrolled 1,000 megawatt power
plant are given in Table 3.1—1.
Tebi. 3.1—1.
Einis..o n F.r o T’ypscol Unc.nfrob.d
1000 M.9owoft Power Plont Sy Fubi Typ.
(in ki*oqrsins pr hour, poundi p , hour in p...nth..ou)
aryicuiates
Coal
69,000
152.000)
‘1.000
(90.000)
13.000
(27.000)
Oil
600
(1.300)
12.500
(27.5001
8.600
(19.000)
Gas
170
(375)
7
(15)
6,800
(15.000)
Natural gas is the preferred fuel from an emissions
standpoint Gas provided 21 percent of the heat
for generating electricity produced in 1975 from
fossil fuels. The use of gas for power generation is
being strongly discouraged by Feoerel policy and
is expected to aecline drastically. The growing
fossil fuel demand will be supplied by coal and to a
lessened degree by residual oil.
For utility power burners, despite the potential
switch from oil to coal in many power plants,
residual fuel oil will continue to supply a signifi-
cant fraction of the energy required in 1 980. Fuel
oils for utility burners contain sulfur (typical sulfur
contents average 8DuUt 0.7 percent for United
States crude oils and about 2.2 percent for im-
ported crude oils , much of which is removed from
the final product before burning. Alaskan crude
contains a higner percentage of sulfur. The asn
from fuel oil combustion is low, about 0.5 percent.
The most abundant fossil fuel in this country is
coal. In 1975, about 364 million metric tons (400
million short tons) of coal were burned to produce
about 45 percent of tne electrical power. The
resources of coal are widespread throughout tne
United States, but coal has not been used in pro-
portion to its availability in comparison with the
other fuels.
Coal typically has an ash content of 9 percent.
although it varies widely. Most large utility boilers
bum the coal in pulverized form, thus releasing
most of the residual ash suspended in the combus-
tion products, while only a small amount is re-
tained in the boiler. About 85 percent would be
emitted from a dry-bottom boiler, and 65 percent
from a wet-bottom boiler. Resulting uncontrolled
particulate emissions into the atmosphere would
be orders of magnitude higher tnan those from the
other fossil fuels, and would exceed allowable
emissions. Particulate controis of varying efficien-
cies are found on all but the smallest coal-fired
power plants, the most prevalent being electros-
tatic precipitators.
Sulfur dioxide emissions from coal burning are
also serious and more difficult to control. In cur-
rent commercial practice, all the sulfur in the coal
is emitted from the boiler as gaseous oxides, the
bulk of which is sulfur dioxide with a small fraction
emitted as sulfur tnoxide (usually less than 5
percent). To reduce the initial emission of sulfur
oxides, a coal of low-sulfur content might be cho-
sen. l-lowever, much of the Eastern low-sulfur coal
is reserved for use as coke by the metals indus-
tries. In only a small percentage of current coal
production is the sulfur content low enough to
meet New Source Performance Standards. The
Western low-sulfur coals are attractive insofar as
they have permitted some plants to meet Federal
and local S0 . emission regulations.
The use cf coal to supoly increasing amounts of
electric power in the near future seems unavoid-
able. consiaering the domestic suoply of oil and
gas, and the international balance-of-payments
prothems associated with imported gas and oil.
20
-------
Table 3.1—2 is a 1976 projection by the Electric
Power Research institute (EPRI) of the use of coal
in the generation of electricity:
TabI. 3.1—2.
Ps’o4 .c?ed UC• ot Co.1 F., # .
G.n,rsn.n . E1,d jc P.weq
( n pefc.ntaq. af en.r ’y gsa .r .t.Q) by ye .r
1973
35.2%
1981
48.7%
1976
46.9%
1982
48.5%
1977
47.0%
1983
1978
48.1%
1984
47.0%
1979
48.3%
1985
44.7%
1980
48.9%
Although the percentages are expected to remain
relatively constant, it must be remembered that
the total production is expected to increase by 87
percent during this period. Therefore, the amount
of coal burned to generate electricity will nearly
double in this period on a tonnage basis, and
stringent sulfur oxide emission controls must be
maintained. In addition to burning inherently low-
sulfur coal, other strategies’ are possible, such as
removal of sulfur from flue gases, removal of sulfur
from high-sulfur fuels before burning, and burning
high-sulfur coal in a manner to contain the sulfur
largely as a solid residue (ash), as is accomplished
in fluidized-bed combustion systems now being
developed.
NO 5 emissions result from both the combustion of
nitrogen compounds contained in the fuel, and
from thermal fixation of atmospheric nitrogen at
very high combustion temperatures. In general.
coals contain more nitrogen compounds than
other fossil fuels and combustion control tech-
niques to attain low NO 5 emissions are currently
being developed.
The uncontrolled and controlled emissions from
utility fossil-fuel burners may be estimated from
known (measured) emission factors, for the first
case, and from the capability of the various control
techniques in the second.
Emission Standards
The EPA has established emission standards for
new fossil-fuel-fired power plants as follows.
Maximum llow.d em.sssogn
in micrograms per joule red.
with lb per rn.Uion 8tu fir.ø
;n oarenmee.s
P m rticu l ove* 0.043 (0.1)
0.34 (0.8)
0.52 (1.2)
The separate states, however, have established
emission standards for existing sources, usually
depending on the size of the boiler. For the larger
sizes, greater than 10.6 tera- ouies/hr (greater
than 1 0.0 billion Btu/hr), the ranges of state stan-
dards are as follows.
Maximum aiiewqd emissions
in microgrems per joule fired
with lb per mnüfion Stu fired
in parentheses
Particulotes oil 0.008 (0.02) to 0 34 (0.8)
- t’le regulation.
The Federal standards are likely to be made appre-
ciably more stringent in the future, as the total
national emissions increase and control technol-
ogy is improved. The standards shown here have
been used in this report, however. Should new,
more stringent standards be adopted, the costs of
meeting the standards will be correspondingly
increased.
Control Technologies and Casts
The following paragraphs analyze the different
technologies presently employed to control sulfur
oxides, nitrogen oxides, particulates, and the rela-
ted costs.
Sulfur Oxides
Considering the present economic and regulatory
environment, there are several options open for
utilities in their choice of a control strategy for
application. Changes in Federal regulations, taxes,
and costs can alter these choices drastically.
When controls are needed to meet State or Fed-
eral standards, three immediately available strate-
gies are:
• Burn low-sulfur coal as a substitute fuel,
possibly involving long hauls and expen-
sive charges
• Utilize washing and blending of coals to
reduce sulfur content of the fuel fired to
meet immediate local or national
requirements
• Install and operate flue gas desulfurization
scrubbers.
Under the recent regulatcr system it was esti-
mated that the following strategies will be
adopted:
type of
fuel
burned
50 5
liquid
solid
gas
liquid
send
0.13 (0.3) to NR
0.13 (0.34) tO NR
0.86 (0.21 to NR
0.13 (0.3) to NR
0.13 (0.3) to t R
Type of
fuel
burned
gas
licuid
0.086 (0.2)
3.13 0.31
0.30 0.7)
21
-------
Low—SuUvr Co................ 1.4 2.2 66.2 69.3
Scnèb.,s.......... .. .......... 42.9 11.5 6:3.3 117.9
C oI C aocity..._....._ . 173.5 29.7 129.7 332.9
The capital and operating costs vary depending on
whether a new plant or a retrofit is involved. Fed-
eral regulatory actions may result in an increase in
the use of scn. obers above these estimates, per-
mitting the burning of more high-sulfur coal while
reducing S0 emissions.
Other techniques for utilization of high-sulfur coal
while reducing sulfur emissions are being devel-
oped. but are not expected to have significant
impact on the utility industry before 1985. These
include:
• Fluidized-bed combustion
• Coal-derived liquid fuels with
low sulfur cintent
• Chemical désulfurization of coal
• Coal gasification and desulfurization
• Alternative non-fossil fuels co-fired
with coal.
Particulate
The choice of S0 control in many instances af-
fects the requirements for particulate control, so
these strategies often must be considered to-
gether. The two principal techniques used by the
power utilities are electrostatic precipitators and
venturi scrubbers. The substitution of low-sulfur
and/or high-ash coal often requires substantial
upgrading of the precipitators. The decision to use
flue gas desulfurizat on scrubbers is usually ac-
corn panied by the use of venturi scrubbers for
perticulate control. Only 40 percent of existing
plants have been estimated by EPA as being able
to meet regulations with current equipment.
The following table presents the options for partic.
ulate control, their expected applications to me
compliance, and the associated costs.
T b4, 3. ._4 ,
P r*icala$. Compli..tc. M.thod* by 1985
(mullen kw)
Total kw requtrsng no
additional canttoh ... 71.1 — — 71.1
.... 81.3 18.2 66.2 163.7
Particulate crubbers... ... 21.1 11.3 63.3 96.1
Total Coal caoccsiy 173.5 29.7 129.7 332.9
Nitrogen Oxides
Emissions of these pollutants can be reduced by
applying staged combustion and off-
stoichiometric firing. The unit costs for a 500
megawatt plant burning coal, oil, and gas were
used in assessing the total cost of control. Emis-
sions of nitrogen oxides are being abated by the
above techniques now in some locations. While it
is recognized that this may not necessarily be
universal, the costs obtained by this assumption
will represent an uoper limit for the period
1975—80. Variances and exemptions issued in Air
Quality Control Regions (AQCR) where the ambi-
ent levels of this pollutant are not critical will of
course lower the overall costs of control.
It appears that only AQCR ’s 24 and 67, (the bound-
aries of which encompass the cities of Los Angeles
and Chicago, respectively,) will restrict nitrogen
oxide emissions from utility burners, in Los An-
geles, the 1 975 total oil- and gas-fired capacity to
be controlled amounts to 11,770 megawatts of
coal-, oil-, and gas-burning facilities. An additional
2,000 megawatts of coal-burning capacity is esti-
mated to be on-stream by 1978. Estimates of
control costs in these two AQCR’s were made and
added to the national estimates for SO 5 and par-tic-
ulate controls.
Total control costs for the control of air pollution
from Fossil Fuel-fired Electric Plants are summa-
rized in Table 3.1—5. Due to the nature of the
available cost data, costs for new plants are in-
cluded in the same category as existing plants.
Table 3.1—3.
C.mpl..nc. M.tliods by 985
(militon kw)
Pr . 1974— 1977— Tatal
1974 1976 1985 1985
Units Units Units C aacii’
N dditianol Control
70.2 4.6 — 74.9
Was l ar ,g/ S lend inç 37.2 — — 37.2
M.dium .—SuHsr CoaL .........._.. 21.9 11.4 — 33.2
Pre. 1974— 1977—
1974 1976 1985
Units Unitt Units
otat
1985
22
-------
TABLE 3.1—5. FOSS 1L FUELED ELECTRIC POWER PLANT AiR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERICOS
1977 1970.77 1977—81 1977—36
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS 2830.92 1489.03 10174.38 18276.43
NEW PLANTS 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
2850.92 11489.03 10174.58 3276.43
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS .. 1510.31 4178.14 9628.12 27046.36
NEW PLANTS . . ..... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 1310.51 4178.14 9628.12 27046.36
EXISTiNG PLANTS 2595.51 5898.73 19182.80 49329.14
NEW PLANTS .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL..... .. 2595.51 3898.75 19132.80 .i939.14
ALl. ANNUAL COSTS 4106.02 10076.90 2sa Io.93 76395.30
MOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST CF ThE FIRST yEAR 10 JUNE 30TH CF T1 48 SECCND YEAR USTED.
MOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE 1148 COM8INATION OF: 1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIA flCN ANO (2) INTEFE5T.
-------
3.2 INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL HEATING
Operating Characteristics and Capacities
The majority of commerical and industrial heat is
supplied by hot water and steam boilers. Although
hot-air furnaces are utilized for space heating.
these units are fired with gas or distillate oil and
they generally co nOt contribute significantly to
regional air poUution.
Commercial equipment normally is defined as hav-
ing a capacity in the range of 0.05 to 2.11 million
kcal per hour (0.2 to 8.37 million Btu per hour).
industrial equi .ment normally is defined as equip-
ment having a capacity in the range 2.11 to 1 69
million kcal per hour (8.37 to 671 million Btu per
hour). These ranges are loosely defined and in
practice they often overlap; the equipment size
distribution by location and fuel type is not
available.
The estimated 1974 installed capacity of commer-
cial and industrial boilers is 10 x 1 O’ kcai per year
(40 x lOll Btu) based upon a 1967 inventory and
assumed growth rates of 4.5 percent per year for
commercial units and 4 percent per year for indus-
trial units.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Pollutants emitted by fossil-fuel combustion are a
function of fuel composition, efficiency of com-
bustion, and the specific combustion equipment
being used. Particulate levels are related to the ash
content of the fuel. Sulfur oxide levels are related
to the sulfur content of the fuel. Emissions of
nitrogen oxides result not only from the high-
temperature reaction of atmospheric nitrogen and
oxygen in the combustion zone, but also from
partial combustion of the nitrogenous compounds
contained in the fuel. Thus nitrogen levels are
dependent both on combustion equipment design
and upon nitrogen in the fuel. Carbon monoxide.
hydrocarbon, and oarticulate levels are dependent
on the efficiency of combustion as it is affected by
combustion equipment design and operation. Ac-
cordingly, natural gas and distillate oil are consid-
ered clean fuels because of their low ash and
sulfur contents, and also because they are rela-
tively easy to burn with high efficiency. In contrast,
coal (and some residual oils) contain significant
amounts of sulfur and ash, require more sophisti-
cated combustion eouioment, and are more diffi-
cult to burn at high efficiencies.
The estimated uncontrolled emission factors and
average emission factors, as required by most
State Implementation Plans (SIP) for commercial
and industrial boilers, are listed in Table 3.2—1;
these values are based on the following assump-
tions and conditions:
• The sulfur contents of coal, residual oii, and
distillate o are assumed to be 3. 2. and 0.2
percent by weight, respectively.
• The asn content of coal is assumed to be
12 percent by weight.
• The difference in particulate emissions fac-
tors for commercial and industrial coal-
burning installations probably is related to
differences in equipment design.
In Table 3.2—1 the emissions factors within par-
entheses indicate those required or allowed by SIP
where applicable.
ToDk 3—2—1.
Eaissi.i FDctOn (in ig pr million lcc&)
Rgu, in P s mMsu lndicat, th. AUowsd
Eioission Fod.n Und.r SIP
Conun.rcial Po neuiotes Sulfur Oxiøe
Control Technology and Costs
it is apparent that equipment fired with gas and
distillate oil essentially meets all of the air pollu-
tion regulations. The most cost-effective control
technology has been switching from coal and
high-sulfur residual oil to the less-polluting fuels.
The current shortages and projected price rises for
Cool 1.8
(1.38 )
Residuol Oil 0.29
(1.081
DiitiHcte Oil 0.18
(1.08)
Gas 0.032
(1.08)
Cool 11.7
(0.63)
R*sithaol Oil 0.29
(0.63)
Distillate Oil 0.18
(0.631
Gas 0.031
(0.631
3.6
(5.8)
4.0
(2.0)
0.36
(0.43)
0.0011
8.6
15.7)
4.0
2.3)
0.36
(0.43)
0.0011
24
-------
natural gas and distillate oils, and the proposed
disincentive on switching to these fuels, will re-
quire implementation of other control technolo-
gies in many cases.
Estimates of control costs are based on the as-
sumption that, for commercial boilers, fuel switch-
ing from coal and high-sulfur residual oil to low-
sulfur coal and oil respectively is possible, and that
for industrial boilers, fuel switching from high-
sulfur residual oil to low-sulfur residual oil is possi-
ble. An alternative control method for coal-fired
industrial boilers is assumed to be dual-alkaline
scrubbers for sulfur oxides and electrostatic pre-
cipitation for particulate control. For the coal-fired
boilers, flue gas desulfurization appears plausible
for the larger units, while fuel switching appears
realistic for the smaller ones. However, because
no boiler size distribution was available at this
time, all industrial coal-fired boilers were assumed
to be using flue gas desulfurization and electros-
tatic precipitators as the preferred control tectinot-
ogles; these assumptions will overstate the control
costs.
Because of the present instability and future un-
certainty of fuel prices, no attempt was made to
account for the cost differential among fuels. On a
heating value basis, there might be little difference
in costs. Although it appears that the cost of coal
coal and high-sulfur residual oil would be lower
than the cost of the clean fuels prior to firing in a
boiler, the higher costs of handling the coal and
high-sulfur residual oil, as well as the higher equip-
ment maintenance costs. are judged to offset any
price differential. The net effect of these consider-
ations should produce virtually equivalent fuel
costs on a consistent basis. Thus, the costs re-
ported here reflect the cost in equipment changes
associated with fuel switching.
The estimated control costs for all industrial and
— commercial boilers are given in Table 3.2—2.
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS
TOTAL ..
ANNLJAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS
TOTA l.
TABLE 3.2-2. 1NDUSTR 1AL AND COMMERCAL HEATiNG AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIOCS
1977
222.71
15.40
233.11
204.18
4.82
20900
139.74
0.28
140.02
349.02
C&M
EXISTING PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS
1970—77
1924.77
4S.44
1970.21
702.96
9.59
712.55
476.4 8
0 55
477.03
1189.57
1977—81
142.21
126.06
268.26
877.05
49.22
926.27
604.13
17.10
621.23
1547 ,50
1977—36
142.2!
322.91
465. 11
1973.37
2 175.49
1359.29
1459.06
3634.55
ALl. ANNUAL COSTS
NOT COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST CF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTE3.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE CCM3INAIION OF:(1) STRAIGHT.LINE OEPRECATICN AND 12) INTEREST.
25
-------
3.3 NATURAL GAS PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Industry Characteristics and Capacities
The natural gas industry may be viewed as having
three major sectors: exploration, production, and
transmission-distribution. Natural gas is proc.
essed by the production sector. The production
sector is dominated by large firms, many of them
primarily petroleum producers, but a large number
of smaller firms contribute a sizable share of the
total output. The transportation/distribution sec-
tor is primarily organized as public utility compa-
nies which operate under Federal and/or State
regulations. Although many gas-transmission
companies are now integrating back into
production, the basic structure of the industry re-
mains as described here.
As of January 1, 1976. the 754 natural gas proc-
essing plants in the United States had a total
capacity of 2.06 billion cubic meters per day (72.7
billion cubic feet per day). The actual through-put
rate of these plants in 1 975 was 1.40 billion cubic
meters per day (49.4 billion cubic feet per day)
about 90 percent of all gas produced. Since 1971
the amount of gas processed has decreased an
average of 4 percent per year. Total production,
including untreated gas, has declined since 1 972
and is expected to continue to drop until some way
is found to market North Slope production.
The production of petroleum (crude oil) is usually
associated with the production of substantial
quantities of natural gas. The distinction between
‘oil wells ’ and “gas welts” is arbitrary — based
on the ratio of oil to gas produced. Natural gas is
primarily methane, but the raw gas contains vary-
ing amounts of heavier hydrocarbons and other
gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium,
and hydrogen sulfioe. To obtain a natural gas of
pipeline quality, much of the content of these
undesired components must be removed. The gas
is normally purified at or near the weD site. The
heavier hydrocarbons, which can be conveniently
condensed, are combined with the liquid (oil)
production and sent to refineries for further
processing.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Hydrogen sulfide is the air-pollution impurity of
concern. Because of the corrosive, poisonous, and
odorous nature of hycirogen sulfide, only very low
concentrations are permitted in the natural gas
product. Approximately 5 percent of the natural
gas produced in the United States is treated to
remove hydrogen sulfide. The hydrogen suifi e
content of raw natural gas varies from trace quan-
tities to over 50 percent by volume. The high-
concentration wells are operated more as sulfur
sources than as natural gas wells.
Although removal of the hydrogen sulfide from
natural gas is universally practiced, recovery of the
corresponding sulfur in elemental form to avoid air
pollution is not universally practiced. In the large
operations, Claus plants have been installed for
this purpose, but in many small plants the hydro-
gen sulfide is merely flared, resulting in emissions
of sulfur oxides.
For the natural gas plants which have Claus plants,
the source of the sulfur oxides emitted is the Claus
plant tail-gas, which is incinerated. The sulfur con-
tent of this emission corresponds to 4—6 percent
of the sulfur originally fed to the Claus plant asso-
ciated with the natural gas plant. For the natural
gas plants without Claus plants, the sources of the
sulfur oxides emitted are the flares in which the
hydrogen sulfide that was removed from the gas is
burned.
Regulations
As of January, 1979, no NSPS has been adopted.
although proposed regulations are in tentative
draft form.
The princloal states producing sour gas have a
wide variety of regulations in their SIP’s. Most
have requirements that are the equivalent to re-
quiring 2-. or 3-stage Claus plants on gas plants
over a given size. This size varies from about 5 to
about 15 metric tons per day (about 5.5 to about
1 6.5 short tons per day) total sulfur input, depend-
ing on the state, county, and location (rural versus
urban). Achievement of desired ambient SO,, levels
is the main consideration in some states; others
are more specific about plant emission factors.
Florida has the most stringent rules, requiring tail-
gas cleanup since 1975 and foroidding any flaring
of hydrogen sulfide. Oklahoma requires tail-gas
cleanup for all new plants. New Mexico requires it
for new plants of 51 metric tons per cay (56 snort
tons per day) total sulfur input. In other states tail-
26
-------
gas cleanup for large sulfur plants (5 1 metric tons
or 56 short tons and over) may be unofficially
required for new permits. aithougn this is not
spelled out in the regulations. For old plants, some
2-stage Claus units were upgraded to 3-stage units
to meet ambient or general emission standards.
Control Technology and Costs
Because of the severe limitations on the hydrogen
sulfide content of pipeline gas. all natural gas
processing plants that handle sour gas already
have amine-type scrubbing facilities or the equiva-
lent to remove it from the raw gas. The technology
needed to prevent hydrogen sulfide from causing
air pollution Consists of:
• A Claus sulfur plant in which the hydrogen
sulfide is converted to elemental sulfur
• Treatment facilities to remove sulfur com-
pounds from the Claus plant tail-gas.
The cost data developed by EPA for refinery sulfur
plants 1 was modified by changing the capital re-
covery figure and correcting for inflation. Since
Claus plants larger than about 20 metric tons per
day (22 short tons per day) produced (in 1974) a
net credit when sulfur was valued at $30 per
metric ton ($27 per short ton) only Claus units
smaller than this are considered a Cost. January,
1979 prices for crude sulfur ranged from $25 to
$65 per metric ton ($23 to $59 per short ton),
depending on location and other factors. All tail-
gas cleanup units are a cost because the incre-
mental cost exceeds the incremental revenue
whether the unit is added to a new orto an existing
Claus plant.
Only one plant now has tail-gas cieanu . It was
assumed that all new plants over 45 metric tons
per day (50 short tons per day) and half of those in
the range of 9.1—45 metric tons per day (10—50
short tons per day) would have this equipment.
Industry growth is hard to estimate in view of the
decreasing capacity and increasing output of ex-
isting sulfur units. It was assumed that new plants
would be built annuaily amounting to 8 percent of
existing capacity, i.e., the replacement of old with
new as they wear out over a 1 6-year life plus an
extra 2 percent for new fields and reservoirs re-
mote from old plants. (This is the historic rate of
addition of new reservoirs and fields.) The incre-
ment was distributed in various size plants in the
same proportion as existing operating sulfur
plants, ignoring the largest two. The upgrading of
Claus units from 2 to 3 stages probably involved
20—30 percent extra cost in constant dollars but
was ignored because of a lack of quantitative data
and because much of this upgrading was done in
the 1970—1972 period, before the SIP ’s were
formalized.
In 1976, the 58 ooerating Claus plants in the
natural gas processing industry had a total sulfur
capacity of 5,883 metnc tons per day (6,485 short
tons per day), and an actual production rate of
3,943 metric tons per day (4,346 short tons per
day). Although the number of plants has declined
from 84 in 1973 and capacity from 6,249 metric
tons per day (6,888 short tons per day), sulfur
production is up from 2,443 metric tons per day
(2,693 short tons per day), a 1 7 percent per year
increase. Apparently the existing plants are ex-
tending their coverage to gas plant output that
was formerly flared.
Control costs are detailed in Table 3.3 — I.
REFERENCE
1. Economic Impact of EPAs Regulations on
the Petroleum Refining Industry, Part Two,
Environmental Protec:1on Agency, 1976.
27
-------
TABLE 3.3-L NATURAL GAS PROCESSING INDUSTRY AiR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 977 DOLLARS)
CUMULArVE D!R O0S
1977 1 97Q.77 9.r7 _ .8 I 977—86
INVESTMENT
EXiSTING PLANTS .. .. 0.0 10.58 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS .. 9.35 9.35 45.75 127.65
TOTAl. ....... .. .. . 9.35 19.92 45.75 127.65
ANNUAUZW COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITA ).
EXISTING PLANTS . . . . _............ 1.39 7.37 5.56 2.52
NEW PLANTS — .. .. 1.19 1.19 18.82 83.78
TOTAL... .. . . ..... . .. _. . . ... . 2. 59 8.57 24.38 96.30
O&M
EXISTu’iG PLANTS .. .. . . ‘ 24.09 127.68 96.36 216.81
NEW PLANTS ...... 0.88 0.88 13.93 42.02
TOTAL — ................................................. 24.97 128.36 110.29 278.83
AU. ANNUAL COSTS............ ...._.. 27.56 137.13 134.68 375.13
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.UNE DEPRECIATION AND 12) INTEREST.
28
-------
3.4 PETROLEUM REFINiNG INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The petroleum industry can be divided into four
operating areas:
• Exploration and production, which in.
cludes the search for new oil supplies, drill-
ing oil fields, removing oil from the ground.
and pretreatment at the well site. (Natural
gas is frequently found in the search for oil.
It is collected and sold by oil companies).
• Refining, which includes the operations
necessary to convert the crude oil into sal-
able products such as gasoline, jet fuel,
kerosene, distillate and residual fuel oils,
lubricants, asphalt, specialty products, and
chemical raw materials such as ethylene
and benzene.
• Transportation, which involves the move-
ment of crude oil to the refinery and refined
products to market areas.
• Marketing, which involves the distribution
and sale of the finished products.
This chapter covers the airborne emissions from
only the refining sector.
Integration and diversification prevail within the
industry. Most of the firms involved in refining are
also involved in production of oil and gas and/or
marketing. All the large and medium-sized firms
are involved in the manufacture of petrochemi-
cals. Some firms are involved in the production
aspects of energy sources other than crude oil and
natural gas. i.e., coal or Canadian tar sands.
As of January 1, 1976. the 277 refineries in the
United States (excluding Puerto Rico and the Vir-
gin Islands) had a total crude oil capacity of 2.09
million metric tons per day (15.3 million barrels
per day), according to the Bureau of Mines. A
distribution of these refineries by size and percent
of total capacity is shown in Table 3.4—1.
TebI. 3.4-1.
R.fin.ry DIstribution by Size
(in thousands . metric toni p.r coi.n or day wiffi
thousands o b.rr.ls pr cai.ridar ay in parentheses)
27 (3.933) 25.71 (14k)
538.0 19.9
13 (4,664) 30.49 (311)
638.0 42.5
277 (15,296) 100.00
2,092.5
During the period from 1970 to 1 976, total crude
processing capacity increased by 450 thousand
metric tons per day (3.2 million barrels per day),
almost all through expansion of existing refineries.
Although about 1 30 firms operate refineries, over
75 percent of the total capacity is controlled by 17
major firms; each firm controls crude processing
capacity in excess of 1 8 thousand metric tons per
day (135 thousand barrels per day). A breakdown
of capacity and number of plants operated by
these firms in 1 976 is shown in Table 3.4—2.
Number o
R.fine i.s
56
Total
(171)
23.4
-otci
Inaustry
Coaacitvi . )
1.12
Average
Capacity
(3)
0.42
Capacity
Range
(Up to 5)
Up to 0.08
(5 to 10)
0.08 to 1.4
(10 to 15)
1.4 to 2.1
(15 to 25)
2.1 to 3.4
(25 to 50)
3.4 tO 6.3
(50 to 75)
6.8 to 10.3
(73 to 100)
10.3 to 13.7
(100 to 200)
13.7 to 27.4
(Over 200)
Over 27.4
36 (277)
37.9
19 (241)
33.0
24 (504)
68.9
53 (2.043)
279.5
27 (1.671)
228.
20 (1,792)
245.1
1.81 (8)
1.1
1.53 (13)
1.7
3.9 (21)
2.9
13.36 (39)
5.3
10.92 (62)
8.5
11.72 (90)
12.3
29
-------
Exxon
5
170,0
(1,243)
8.1
Shell
3
157.9
(1.154)
7.5
Amoco
10
152.8
(1.117)
7.3
Tseoc o
12
146.8
(1,073)
7.0
St....4otd (CA)
12
140.1
(1,024)
6.7
Mobil
7
122.3
(896)
£9
G ulf
8
118
(866)
5.7
ARCO
5
110
1305)
3.3
Union Oil-
5
66 . .9
(489)
3.2
Sun Oil
5
66.2
(484)
3.2
Sebio/3P
3
59.0
(431)
2.3
Ph lpe
Ccnflneniol
6
8
55.8
53.2
1408)
(389)
2.7
2.5
Aáland
7
52.4
(383)
2.5
M,..uffiun
3
4.i.3
(324)
2.1
O$iee S.r ice
1
30.7
( 368)
1.3
Amer. P,nefina
3
13.5
(135)
.9
Sub$o.oi
108
1,571.7
(11,489)
75.1
169
277
520.8 (3.807) 24.9
2,092.5 (15,296) 100.0
Industry capacity has expanded at fluctuating
rates in recent years in anticipation of market
growth. The annual growth was 2.3—4.3 percent
from 1970—73, 6.2 percent from 1973—74. 12.8
percent from 1974—76. Capacity in 1977 is ex-
pected to be about 7 percent larger than in 1976.
Very few new refineries have been built in the past
5 years; the growth has occurred primarily through
the expansion of existing facilities. This is in part
due to difficulty in securing approval for new sites.
The Bureau of Mines in 1976 reported 158
thousand metric tons (1,155,000 barrels per day)
of refinery construction underway, of which only
29.4 metric tons per day (215 thousand barrels
per day) is in two new refineries.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
The three major sources of air pollution in the
petroleum industry covered in this chapter are
particulate and carbon monoxide emissions from
the regeneration of catalysts used in catalytic
cracking, sulfur oxide emissions from the burning
of fuel gases from various refinery orocess opera-
tions, and volatile hydrocarbon emissions from
handling and storage of petroleum products and
crude oils.
A consolidated view of the type and extent of the
emissions from refining and related operations is
presented below.
Catalytic Cracking
Catalyst regeneration during the operation of cata-
lytic cracking units has been identified as a major
source of carbon monoxide. Particulates also are
discharged from the fluid bed units which domi-
nate this process. The coke deposited on the cata-
lyst during the cracking operation must be re-
moved continually to permit the catalyst to main-
tain a high activity. In a fluid bed catalytic cracker,
the catalyst bed is continuously circulated be-
tween the reactor, where the coke is deposited on
the catalyst, and the regenerator, where it is
burned off with air. The amount of coke deposited
on the catalyst per unit of feedstock is a function of
the feedstock and operating conditions.
Fuel Gas BurnIng
Amine scrubbing units are widely used to remove
hydrogen sulfide from the fuel gas generated
within refineries. The hydrogen suifide is ther-
mally stripped from the scrubbing liquor and then
is either sent to a sulfur recovery plant (usually a
Claus plant) or is burned to sulfur dioxide, which is
emitted to the atmosphere, through a flare. In
1973, about 70 percent of the sulfur which went
into fuel gas was recovered as elemental sulfur,
the other 30 percent was emitted as sulfur dioxide.
Petroleum Storage
The most significant hydrocarbon losses in the
petroleum industry occur from storage facilities, in
particular those used to store crude oil, gasoline.
and naphtha-type jet fuel. The magnitude of hydro-
carbon emissions from storage tanks depends on
many factors in addition to the physical properties
of the material being stored — climatic and meteo-
rological conditions, and the type, size, color, and
condition of the tank.
Control Technology and Costs
Control technology and costs for the three major
emission sources in the petroleum industry are
outlined in the following paragraphs.
Catalytic Cracking
Particulate matter (catalyst fines) can be removed
from the regenerator gas with high-efficiency elec-
trostatic precipitators. Carbon monoxide and un-
burned hydrocarbons can be reduced either by
increasing the regeneration temperature or by in-
stalling carbon monoxide boilers.
In 1971, about 29 percent of the fluid catalytic
cracking capacity was equipped with electrostatic
precipitators and about 69 percent was equipped
with carbon monoxide boilers. These boilers are
often economically justified by the steam which
they generate. esoecially for large catalytic crack-
ing units. Increasing energy costs are making car-
bon monoxide boilers more attractive for this rea-
son. In some existing refineries, trie additional
Ibis 3.4-2.
Thu Refinery Invunsory in 1916
Sy Opuroter (cep.city in h.u.onds of
m.tr*c tone per ølundar dc’ ’ with thousonøe
of acitefi pet coisnó.r ay in parsnths.i)
Number cr1 Crub. Csube
Re,u,er es Cacroc,tv Cocrociiy % )
30
-------
steam generated by the addition of a carbon mo-
noxide boiler cannot be used, but new refineries
can be designed to take advantage of this means
of reducing their total energy requirement. Be-
cause there is a net credit to the industry from
installing carbon monoxide boilers, the costs (or
credits) have not been included in the cost of
pollution abatement.
Fuel Gas Burning
The control technology involves installing addi-
tional amine scrubbing facilities where required,
installing Claus plants on the 30 percent of capac-
ity now without them, and installing tail-gas treat-
ment facilities on all the Claus plants. The tail-gas
treatment facilities increase the overall sulfur re-
covery from about 94 to 99.8 percent.
The credit for the sulfur recovered in these proc-
esses is an important economic consideration and
is also difficult to define. In the coming years, the
reduction of allowable sulfur emissions from refin-
eries, power plants, etc., plus the increasing sulfur
content of the crude oil processed will combine to
cause a very large increase in the production of
sulfur. This will probably depress the price of sul-
fur, but the extent is open to considerable soecula-
tion. The price level used in this study was $30 per
metric ton ($30 per long ton).
Petroleum Storage
The EPA new source pollution regulations require
that petroleum products having vapor pressures of
78 to 570 mm of mercury be stored in floating-
roof tanks or their equivalent. There is also a re-
quirement for products with vapor pressure
greater than 570 mm of mercury, but this will
cause no additional expense since the control
methods have long been used for these products.
Most SIP’s also require control of vapors from
petroleum storage. This report is concerned only
with the storage of crude oh, jet fuel, and gasoline.
Costs were obtained for converting existing fixed-
roof tanks to floating-rocf by retrofitting an in-
ternal floating cover. This conversion method is
used since it costs only about half as much as
removing the fixed roof and replacing it with a
floating roof. The annual operating costs for the
tanks, including maintenance, property taxes, and
insurance, were taken at 6.0 percent of the
investment.
Abatement of vapors from gasoline and crude oil
storage involves no net cost since the vapors re-
tained provide a credit larger than the capital
charges and operating and maintenance costs.
The facilities for crude oil storage at Valdez. Alas-
ka, are an exception and are included here. The
cost of abatement for naphtna-type jet fuel storage
includes, refinery, pipeline, and terminal storage
tanks.
Air pollution control costs are summarized in Table
3.4—3. The costs shown are the summation of all
those discussed above, including a zero 0&M cost
assigned to the control of emissions from storage
tanks, which may actually resuit in a credit due to
the reduction of product losses. The cost of lead-
free gasoline and lead phase-down has not been
included in this chapter. These costs appear in
Chapter 4, Mobile Sources.
ANNUALIZSD COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXIST1NG PLANTS
NEW P 75
ALL ANNUAL ccs s 1oi2 400..5 8
150.81 381.75
1CT3 20575 Sj- CwN FOR VSAR SPANS ARE ROM JULY 1 57 CF ThE RSTYE R -O JUNE 07N CF ThE $ECCNO YEAR LISTED.
4OTE ANNUAL C , PITAL 2OSTS ARE ThE CM8INAICN CF 1l STRAIGi41•LiNE DEPRECLATICN AND 21 r ’4I S REST.
TABLE 3.4—3. PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLiONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE !PIC0S
1970—77 1 7T—.31
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS 127.15
P 4 8W PLANTS 40.08
167.23
375.04
370.81
745.35
119.15
123.3 1
TOTAL
C&M
EXISTING PLANTS
MEW PLANTS
TOTAL
2!S.83
163.59
293.72
299 40
:2 1.34
47.82
35.08
92.38
10.35
32.25
258.83
48.35
537.17
77. 02
572.81
1299.33
2072 1
74.34
249.75 531.24
33.29
117.32
1981.55
3
-------
3.5 COAL CLEANiNG INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
In 1975, which is the last year for which Bureau of
Mines data were currently available, the total
production of bituminous and lignite coal in the
United States was 588 million metric tons (about
848 million short tons). The annual production
rate has gone both uo and down in recent years,
but the net change from 1969 to 1975 was an
increase of about 1 6 percent. The 1 975
production came from 6,168 mines. About 45
percent of the ,roduction came from underground
mines, 49 percent from surface mines, and 6 per.
cent from auger mines. The trend over recent.
years has been toward more mines and toward a
greater dependence on surface mining. The recent
decline in the number of underground mines,
largely because of the strict regulations of the
1969 Coal Mine Health and Safety Act, was rev-
ersed during 1975.
In coal mining, various inert materials and other
impurities, such as pyritiç sulfur, are recovered
along with the coal. If these materials are present
in sufficient quantity, they may be partially re-
moved by coal cleaning. This mechanical cleaning
process increases tne heating value of the coal
and reduces the amount of pollutants emitted
when the coal is burned.
In surface mining where the coal seams are uncov-
ered, the amount of impurities in the coal is rela-
tively low, and only about 27 percent of the coal
mined in this manner requires cleaning. In under-
ground mining, the cutting and loading methods
used lead to somewhat greater amounts of impuri-
ties, and about 61 percent of the coal mined in this
manner requires cleaning. Overall, about 4 1 per-
cent of the coal mined in this country is mechani-
cally cleaned. In 1975, about 339 million metric
tons (about 374 million short tons) of raw coal
were cleaned, yielding about 242 million metric
tons (267 million snort tons) of cleaned coal. The
amount of coal cleaned srnwed a net decrease of
about 8 percent from 1973 to 1975; this decrease
resulted from the increased use of surface mining
(which requires less ieaning), and the increased
shipments to electric utilities, which usually do not
require cleaning.
Mechanical coal cleaning involves methods simi-
lar to those used in the ore-aressing industries.
About 97 percent of coal cleaning is done by wet-
processing methods, with pneumatic or air clean-
ing methods being used for the other 3 percent.
The dust abatement regulations of the Occupa-
tional Health and Safety Act will eventually cause
a phasing out of pneumatic cleaning over the next
few years.
About 13 percent of the coal which is cleaned by
wet-processing methods is thermally dried before
being loaded. Drying is done to avoid freezing
problems, to facilitate handling, to improve quali-
ty, or to decrease transportation costs. In 1975,
there were 11 9 thermal drying plants in this coun-
try which processed about 32 million metric tons
(36 million short tons) of coal. The amount of
cleaned coal thermally dried decreased by about 1
percent from 1974 to 1975. In such drying plants.
a significant source of pollution is the particulate
emissions from the driers. To meet the new regula-
tions on particulate emissions, venturi scrubbers
(or the equivalent) must be installed.
The present turmoil in the related areas of energy
supply, energy conservation, and environmental
protection makes the prediction of future growth
trends in the coal industry rather uncertain. The
basic factor inhibiting the rapid growth of coal
production is the high sulfur content and related
pollution abatement costs of most readily avail-
able eastern coals. The western portion of the
nation has large reserves of low-sulfur coal but the
high cost of transporting this coal to the midwest-
ern and eastern markets has, at least until recently,
precluded large scale use of this source. The alter-
native to the use of low-sulfur coal is flue gas
desulfurization technology, continue to be ad-
hered to and electric utilities indicate a reluctance
to apply flue gas desulfurization technology at
new plants, a slowing in the growtn rate of coal
usage could result. On the other hand, the current
emphasis on reducing our energy dependence or’
imported petroleum by increasing consumption of
domestically available energy could accelerate the
demand for coal.
The revised New Source Performance Standards
for tne utility industry recently proposed) may
provide an incentive to use deep-mined high suIfur
coal. This is so because the revised NSPS will
likely require scrubbers universally on new
32
-------
sources, thus lowering the incentive to use low-
sulfur western coais in eastern markets. The move
toward deep-mined coal would trigger growth in
coal cleaning.
Therefore, the long run outlook for coal consump-
tion in the U.S. is unsure. The need to protect our
environment has placed the emphasis, when coal
is consumed, on producing tow-sulfur coal and
finding acceptable means of removing sulfur from
high-sulfur coal. Most of the low-sulfur coal, ac-
quired from surface mines, has a lower incidence
of cleaning and associated drying requirements.
Sulfur removal from high-sulfur coal is being ac-
complished by scrubbing the combustion flue
gases or via precombustion cleaning. Sulfur re-
moval (other than now accomplished in current
coal cleaning processes) via precombustion clean-
ing currently has an unsure future (i.e., it is an
unproved technology) and is not addressed in this
report.
Therefore. the unsure future for coal production
coupled with the shift toward increased surface
mining leads to the conclusion that the quantity of
thermally dried coal will remain at a relatively
constant level during the foreseeable future.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
The emissions of primary concern from mechani-
cal coal cleaning plants are me particulates result- -
ing from drying operations. Dat3 available in 1975
indicated that 74 percent of th.3 coal drying capac-
ity was equipped with devices capable of remov-
ing at least 99 percent of the particulate matter in
the effluent gas. The remainoer of the capacity
was equipped with low-energy cyclones which
remove only about 90 percent of the particulate
matter. To meet environmental regulations, these
cyclones will have to be replaced with the high-
energy venturi scrubbers.
Control Technology and Costs
In most cases, the technology used for removing
particulate matter will be venturi scrubbers. If
other technology is used for some of the driers, its
cost should be comparable to the cost of venturi
scrubbers, thus a cost analysis based on venturi
scrubbers should be valid.
A report for the EPA by the Industrial Gas Cleaning
Institute (IGCI) gives some cost information on
venturi scrubbers for coat driers. This information
and some calculations based on it are summarized
in Table 3.5—1. Control costs are given in Table
3.5—2.
Coal Otying Caoocny tent, hr,
Particulate emo’vci {‘ .)
Investment ji 000 $1
Table 3.5—1
Investment And Operating Cost Data On
Venturi Scrubbers For Coal Cleaning (1977 dollars)
Oo.rasinq Cast Comeonenit
Model want A Motel lcnr 3
250
99.64
530
Cost 1000 $,vr )
Low Me ium Nigh
0.88 1.22 1.74
Operating boar
Maintenance marerIOiS
water
No. a Un,ts
125 hr/yr
2.45r10’ kWh yr
64.4x10 Iiters yr
(17.0x10 gal yrl
99.84
1373
“ Jo. at Cast M000 $ ‘yr )
Law Mecium Nigh
125 hryr 0.88 1.22 1.74
17.05 37.46 68.76
3.32 3.70 4.08 C0 70.00 11.00
TOTAL Coeranng nd
Maintenance cost 24.80 48.23 82.24
3.13x10 ’ kwn.’vr . a 54 74.49 226.32
3.55 5.90 8.26 192.7x10 ’ iter ,r 10.63 17.71 24.80
(50.9x 10’ gcl/
Batis: Internottonci Gas Cearsing institute report on Contract No. 68—02-0301 for EPA, 930,72. Values or two units given were averaged. Costs
were u000tea to 1977 coulcri.
7735 153.42 261.86
33
-------
TABLE 3.5—2 COAL CLEANING INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 977 DOLLARS)
e iv R:CDS
1973 _ 77 97 —81 ______
INVESTMENT
EX S7 NG PLANTS .. .... 12.88 75.23 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS..... . .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL . . ._ .... .. 12.88 75.24 0.0 3.3
ANNUAUZ!D COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS...... 13.03 63.99 52.12 108.66
NEW PLANTS — .. .. . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. 13.03 63.99 52.12 108.66
O&M
EXISTING Pt.ANTS .. . . .. . . .. .. 0.10 0.49 0.40 0.39
NEW PLANTS .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ...... ....... . ... ... . .. . . . .. 0.10 0.49 0.40 0.39
AJ. ANNUAL COSTS 13.13 63.47 52.51 109.58
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YSA LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF:(1) STRAIGHT .LINE DEDRECIATION AND 2) INTEREST.
34
-------
3.6 COAL GASIFICATION
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Currently, no commercial coal gasification plants
operate within the United States. Coal gasifica ion
is an emerging industry in which the first an-
nounced commercial plants wiU produce a high-
Btu synthetic gas from coal to supplement domes-
tic natural gas production.
Consumption of natural gas is constrained by the
available supply. Dwindling reserves and the ris-
ing cost of natural gas are forcing consumers to
seek alternative forms of energy such as coal, oil
and electricity. Consumption of natural gas is ex-
pected to decline as a percent of total U.S. energy
consumption.
Estimates of future aggregate supply for natural
gas vary widely. The Federal Power Commission’s
National Gas Survey has estimated future supply
under different scenarios. The Survey’s base case
assumes minimal technological innovation and
projects a 1 990 suoply of 7 1 4 billion cubic meters
(25.2 trillion standard cubic feet). A more optimis-
tic estimate of future supply is contained in the
Survey’s “Case itt ”, which assumes moderate tech-
nological innovation, accelerated development of
offshore and Alaskan reserves. procuction of syn-
thetic gas from coal, and increased imports from
Canada. With these assumptions, 1 990 supply i s
estimated at 968 billion cubic meters (34.2 trillion
standard cubic feet), of which 24.6 percent is
imported from Canada and 8.8 percent is syn-
thetic gas produced from domestic coal. Synthetic
gas from coal would represent about 11.6 percent
of domestic total production in 1990. Finally, with
an unconstrained supply of natural gas. the Future
Requirements Committee, a body of industry and
government observers, estimates that 1 990 de-
mand for gas would amount to 1 .28 trillion cubic
meters (45.3 trillion standard cubic feet). For the
purpose of this report, the estimate of the National
Gas Survey’s Case Ut was used since it appears to
be a moderate demand scenario.
Synthetic gas from coal is one alternative source
of natural gas which is anticipated to supplement
domestic natural gas production.
Coal gasification is the combination of coal and
water to form carbon monoxide, hydrogen, nd
some methane. Both pressure and elevated tem-
peratures are required to promote the gasification
reactions, which are many and varied. Thus, the
key requirements for coal ‘gasification are coal
(carbon), water (steam), and heat.
Commercial coal gasification processes in use to-
day outside the United States include the Lurgi,
Koppers-Totzek, and Winkler processes, all for the
manufacture of synthesis and fuel gases. Practi-
cally all of the first-generation coal gasification
projects — those being engineered for the United
States in commercial sizes today — are based on
use of the Lurgi process. Three types of coal gasifi-
cation plants have been proposed — low-Btu gasifi-
es’s for industrial and utility boiler fuels; intermedi-
ate Btu gasifiers producing “synthesis” gas as
feedstock for manufacture of liquid fuels, metha-
nol. ammonia and possibly other valuable chemi-
cals; high-Btu or substitute natural gas (SNG) to
supplant declining natural gas suoplies; and an
intemediate Btu gas for local use. For the low-Btu
case, no commercial-sized plants exist; however,
pilot-scale and demonstration plants are planned.
lntermediate-Btu gas projects in the United States
are also under consideration at this time, with no
announced commercial plants.
High-Btu gas is well advanced with at least 22
plants under study and as many as four plants may
be under construction by 1980. With high-Btu
gasification nearest commercial production and
process and emission control scnemes unclear for
the other cases, this report is directed toward high-
Btu gas (SNG).
As previously noted, the first-generation gasifica-
tion processes are based on me Lurgi coat gasifier.
in the Lurgi gasifier, gasification rakes place in a
countercurrent mcving bed of coal at 2.07—2.76 x
106 N/rn 2 (300—400 psig) and 540—760 ’C
(1000—1 400 ’F). A cyclic operation using a pressur-
ized lock hopper is usec to feed coal.
The pressurizing medium is a slio stream of raw
gas which may later be repressurized and put back
into the raw gas stream. The gasifier has a water
jacket to protect the vessel and provide steam for
gasification. Other features include blades to me-
chanically overcome caking, a moving grate on the
bottom to remove dry asn. and a mechanism to
35
-------
Emission Sources and Pollutants
introduce steam and air or oxygen uniformly over
the gasifier.
Several high-Btu gas projects using the Lurgi coal
gasifier have been announced and are at various
stages of engineering. In addition to the gasifica-
tion process itself, other major components in-
clude a large. 250—500 megawatt power boiler
and steam superheater to provide steam for the
gasification process; an oxygen plant which sup-
plies oxygen to the gasifier; coal receiving, han-
dLing, storage, and preparation facilities; by-
product recovery and storage, and waste-treating
and -disposal facilities. The product gas has a
typical heating value of 35—36 million joules per
cubic meter (950—970 Btu per standard cubic
foot) and consists of roughly 96 percent methane,
2 percent CO 2 . 1 percent inert gas, and less than 1
percent mixt . re of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide.
It is difficult to project the growth of the coal
gasification industry through the year 2000. Un-
certainties about world oil prices, coal and water
availability, and FPC decisions concerning incre-
mental or roll-in pricing have already delayed the
construction of the first proposed coal gasification
plants. Government incentives. including loan
guarantees and/or subsidies, couLd encourage
more rapid development of coal gasification.
A number of projections of high-BTU gas
production from coal have been made by the Fed-
eral Power Commission (National Gas Survey), the
Bureau of Mines, and the National Petroleum
Council. Estimates of 1990 production vary wide-
ly, from 34 billion cubic meters (1.2 trillion stan-
dard cubic feet) to 140 billion cubic meters (5.1
trillion standard cubic feet) representing 14—61
plants assuming an average size of 7 million cubic
meters (250 million standard cubic feet) per day.
Current announcements propose 1 4 plants which
could be operative by 1990 producing 34 billion
cubic meters (250 trillion standard cubic feet). The
intermediate value of 85 billion cubic meters (3.0
trillion standard cubic feet) estimated by the Na-
tional Gas Survey Case though achievable, capac-
ity for the year 1990. With this assumption. it is
estimated tnat synthetic gas will grow from 1.6
percent to 11.6 percent of total domestic
production between 1980 and 1 990. Production
of 37 billion cubic meters (1.3 trillion standard
cubic feet) of syntnetic gas in 1985 and 85 billion
cubic meters (3.0 trillion standard cubic feet) in
1990 will require operation of 16 and 36 gasifica-
tiOn piants in the respective years.
L’urgi coal gasification plants emit particulate mat-
ter, sulfur dioxide, N0 , norimethane hydrocar-
bons, and carbon monoxide. Within a coal gasifi-
cation plant, the primary point source which ac-
counts for essentially all the N0 emissions and
most of the particulate matter emissions is the
steam generating facilities. These facilities also
account for the major portion of the sulfur dioxide
emissions. The standards of performance prornul-
gated for fossil-fuel-fired steam generators. how-
ever, will limit emissions of particulate matter,
N0 , and sulfur dioxide from these facilities in any
new coal gasification plant.
The secondary point source which accounts for
the remaining particulate matter emissions withcn
a coal gasification plant is the coal handling fac l-
ity. The standard of performance promulgated for
coal preparation plants, however, will limit emis-
sions of particulate matter from these facilities in
any new coal gasification plant. Consequently,
- standards of performance limiting emissions of
particulate matter, NOR, and a major portion of the
sulfur dioxide emissions from coal gasification
plants already exist. Thus, uncontrolled emissions
would be limited to nonmethane hydrocarbons.
carbon monoxide, and the remaining emissions of
sulfur dioxide.
Both nonmethane hydrocarbons and carbon mo-
noxide emissions are controlled by the same
technique—incineration—therefore consideraticn
is given to limiting emissions of only nonmethane
hydrocarbons and sulfur dioxide.
The primary point sources of nonmethane hydro-
carbons and sulfur dioxiae emissions within Lurgi
coal gasification plants are the: coal gasifier lock-
hoppers; coal gas purification facilities; by-
product recovery gas/liquid separation facilities;
and the sour water stripping facilities, These point
sources together account for essentially all the
nonmethane hydrocarbon emisssons and the re-
maining uncontrolled sulfur dioxide emissions.
Uncontrolled emissions of pollutants from a 260 x
1012 joule/day (250 x 10 Btu/day) Lurgi gasifica-
tion plant are estimated as follows in kilograms
per hour (with pounds per hour in parentheses:
“C 2 ”-2640 (5820), C0-700 (1540), COS-194
(427), H 2 S-6200 (13,700) and total sulfur-5940
(13,100) (based on coal feed stock of aporoxi-
mately 2 grams per million joules or 1.0 pOunO
sulfur per million Btu).
36
-------
Control Technology and Costs
As mentioned above, no commercial coal gasifica-
tion plants have been constructed in the Uruted
States, although eight Lurgi coal gasification
plants are currently operating in other countries.
These plants, however, are not representative of
those planned for the United States in terms of the
emission characteristics of the off-gas streams.
The Lurgi coal gasification plants projected for
construction in the United States by the domestic
natural gas industry will employ the Lurgi Recti ol
process to remove carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide from the coal gas. The Rectisol system is
not considered an emission control system be-
cause sulfur removal is a process reguirement of
coal gasification. These new plants must comply
with existing pollution standards as contained in
NAAQS and PSO regulations.
Data and information developed by the domestic
natural gas industry indicate that this process will
discharge two waste gas streams. Depending on
the properties of the coal gasified. the composi-
tion of one of the waste gas streams will be about
90—95 percent carbon dioxide, 0.5—1 percent non-
methane hydrocarbons, and 0.25—5 percent hy-
drogen sulfide; and the composition of the other
waste gas stream will be about 55—95 percent
carbon dioxide and 5—40 percent hydrogen
sulfide.
Proposed standards of performance for these em-
issions can not be based on existing plants be-
cause none exist, therefore, emission control sys-
tems forthese waste gas streams have been based
on a ‘transfer-of-technology” from other
industries.
The emission control technology demonstrated in
the steel industry, the oil and natural gas
production industry, the petroleum refining indus-
try, and the carbon black manufacturing industry
to control emissions of hydrogen sulfide and non-
methane hydrocarbons can be “transferred” to the
coal gasification industry for application to Lurgi
coal gasification plants. These control technolo-
gies include the use of Stretford and Claus sulfur
recovery plants, tail-gas scrubbing to reduce sulfur
emissions further, and incineration to reduce non-
methane and hydrocarbon emissions. These con-
trol technologies will control about 98 percent of
the sulfur compounds and nonmethane
hydrocarbons.
The emission control capital costs under existing
regulations range from S 13.0 to $ 46.8 million for
a 7 million cubic meter per day (250 million stan-
dard cubic feet per day) plant. These costs range
from 1 to 6 percent of the anticipated capital costs
of the coal gasification plant ($870 million). The
cost variations result from variations in the sulfur
content of the coal and the availability of water.
The associated total annualized costs range from
$ 1 8.8 to $28.7 million or 8 to 1 2 mills per cubic
meter ($0.23 to $0.35 per thousand standard cu-
bic feet).
The proposed standards of performance would
not increase the control costs over those cf exist-
ing regulations for ow-sulfur coal. The increase in
installed capital costs to meet the proposed stan-
dards of performance for other coal would range
from $1.7 to $3.3 million cr 0.2 to 0.4 percent of
the anticipated capital costs of a Lurgi plant. The
associated total annual costs are $0.76 to S 1.5
million or $0.35 to $0.70 per thousand cubic
meters ($0.01 to $0.02 per thousand standard
cubic ifet). These are incremental costs of emis-
sion control above these to meet existing
regulations.
The emission control costs stated above exclude
estimated eni ission control costs associated with
coal handling and steam generation. These in-
stalled costs range up to $29.0 million with annu-
alized cost uo to $7.4 million or 3 mills per cubic
meter ($0.09 per thousand standard cubic feet) of
product.
Total costs are summarized in Table 3.6—1.
37
-------
TABLE 3.6—1. COAL GASiFICATiON AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERICOS
1977 Q7Ck T7 1977—81 977—86
INVESTMENT
EX:STING PLANTS 0.0 0.0 3.0
NEW PLANTS 0.3 73.44 412.03
— 0.0 0.0 70.44 412.03
ANNUALiZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
N W PLANTS 0.0 0.0 21.52 237.18
..- 0.0 0.0 21.52 237.18
Q&M
EX1STING LANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
W PLAr T5 0.0 0.0 132.66 1632.32
1 OT . 0.0 0.0 152.66 1682.32
ALL ANNUAL COSTS 0.3 174.18 191948
NCTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 157 OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR L1STED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION QF STRAIG IT.UNE DEPRECIATION D 121 INThREST.
38
-------
4. MOBILE
SOURCE
POLLUTION CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
Mobile sources are recognized as significant con-
tributors to national air-quality problems. In areas
subject to photochemical smog formation, over
half the reactants can generally be attributed to
motor-vehicle emissions. Similarly, motor-vehicle
emissions irecuently cause large concentrations
of carbon monoxide in high-traffic-density urban
areas during traffic peaks. In cities with large and
busy commercial airports, aircraft operations are
often the principal source of high levels of carbon
monoxide. hydrocarbons, pitrogen oxides, and
particulates in the vicinity of tne runways and
terminals.
Passenger cars and light-duty trucks have-been
highly significant and visible pollutant sources be-
cause of the large numbers in service. Conse-
quently, they have been under Federal controls
since the 1 968 models. Federal controls on heavy-
duty motor vehicles have been in effect since
1970, controls on aircraft emissions went into
effect in 1974, and controls on motorcycles were
imposed beginning with the 1973 model year.
Other mobile sources, such as railroad locomo-
tives, marine engines, and farm, construction, and
garden equipment, have been under study by EPA.
but to date. no regulations for these sources have
been promulgated or proposed.
RECENT FACTORS AFFECTING MOBILE SOURCES
A number of recent events will affect future
mobile-source emission control costs, including
the new motorcycle emission standards, the
changes to the light- and heavy-duty truck regula-
tions, the decision of the Appeals Court on the
EPA ’s lead phase-down regulations, the 1977
amendments to the mobile-source section (Title II)
of the Clean Air Act, and the new fuel economy
standards.
On December 23. 1974. a three-judge panel of the
U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in Washington, D.C.
set aside the EPA lead phase-down regulation
which was to go into effect on January 1, 1975.
The basis for the court’s ruling was mat there is no
conclusive scientific proof that the lead emitted
from gasoline-fueled vehicles is posing health haz-
ards to a substantial portion of trie general popula-
tion. EPA sought a rehearing of the case (which
was grantea) before the entire court rather than
the three-judge court which heard the case earlier,
claiming that the judges misinterpreted the Ciean
Air Act and the evicence presented. The full court
hearo oral arguments from EPA and plaintiffs on
May 30, 1975, and in March 1976, upheld the
EPA lead phase-down regulation.
The changes in light- and heavy-duty truck
regulations( , 2 ) call for trucks in these two classes
to meet more stringent emissions standards be-
ginning in the 1 979 model year. The light-truck
class was enlarged to include all trucks under
3,860 kilograms (8,500 pounds) gross vehicle
weight rating. (The previous definition for light-
duty trucks applied to trucks under 2.720 kilo-
grams (6,000 pounds)). Test procedures for heav-
ier trucks were also changed.
Emission standards for motorcycles were promul-
gated by EPA in 1977 to begin taking effect with
the 1 978 model year and to cover street-use mo-
torcycles of 50 cc and greater displacement.
The Ciean Air Act Amendments ci 1 977 (signed
August 7, 1 977) call for maintaining the 1977
standards for light-auty vehicles through the 1 979
model year. In 1 980 the CO standara drops to 4.3
g/km (7.0 g/mile), and in 1 981 and subsequent
years to 2.1 g/km (3.4 g/mile). HC is set at 0.25
g/km (0.41 g/mile( for 1980 and later model
years. The NO standard remains at 1.24 g/km
(2.0 g/m) through the 1 980 model year and is set
at 0.62 g/km (1.0 g/m) for 1980 and subsequent
model years.
39
-------
LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLE CONTROLS
Emission Standards
Since 1968. the Federal Government has regu-
lated the output of atr pollutants from the exhaust
of new light-duty motor vehicles. Emission stan-
dards are expressed in terms of maximum levels of
gaseous emissions per unit distance permitted
from the vehicle while operating on a prescribed
duty cycle. Samoling procedures and test equip-
ment are also prescribed 5 y the regulations. While
the standards p iy to new vehicles, the certifica-
tion procedure recuires that test cars meet emis-
sion standards after being criven over a pre-
scribed durability schedule for 80.5 thousand kilo-
meters (50 thousand miles).
Both emission levels and test procedures have
been revised Leriodically in several steps of in-
creasing stringency. Changes in the Federal Test
Procedure were implemented for the 1972 and
1975 model years. Nitrogen Oxide emission levels
were prescribed for 1973, and were based largely
on evolving technology emission control.
The 1970 Amendments to the Clean Air Act called
for the Administrator to prescribe Federal emis-
sion standards for t975 and later model years
effecting a 90 oercent reduction in the hydrocar-
bon and carbon monoxide emissions from 1970
levels, and to prescribe the Federal standards for
1976 and later model years effecting a 90 percent
reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions from 197 1
levels. The 1970 Amendments furtner gave the
Administrator the authority to grant a 1-year sus-
pension of me 1975 and 1976 standards under
specified conditions if it could be established that
effective control tethnoiogy was not available for
compliance.
On April 11. 973, the Administrator announced
his decision 3 to suspend the 1 975 statutory Fed-
eral Motor Venicie Emissions Standards covering
carbon monoxice and hycrocarbori for a period of
one year. After extensive hearings in March 1973,
the Administrator found that. although the neces-
sary technology existed to meet the 1975 stan-
dards based on me use of catalytic converters,
there was a hign decree of uncertainty concerning
the industry’s abiuty to certify and produce
catalyst-ecuipped cars in 1975 in large enough
numbers to meet production reouiremefltS for
their full model line. In addition, in-use reliability of
the catalysts had not Seen established. Because of
this, it was found mat me risk associated with
introducing catalysts on all venictes in 1975 out-
weighed the risk to human health if the standards
were delayed. The suspension was applied in two
parts:
• National 1 975 interim standards were es-
tablished which were more strict than Stan.
datds previously in force, but which were
not anticioated to require catalysts on the
majority of vehicles sold.
• More stringent standards were allowed for
vehicles sold only in California. which
would require catalysts on cars sold in that
state. Under the California waiver provision
in the Clean Air Act, the state was permit-
ted to establish its own hydrocarbon and:
nitrogen oxide standards. A standard that
is more stringent than that aoplicable to
cars sold elsewnere wee prescribed for car-
bon monoxide.
The 1 975 statutory standards as originally estab-
lished were to be aopiicable to all cars sold in the
United States in 1 976.
Similarly, the Administrator’s decision” to sus-
pend the statutory standards for oxides of nitro-
gen for 1 976 and later models was announced on
July 30, 1973. This decision was based on the
belief that technological success in meeting the
1976 statutory standards could not be reasonably
predicted. In applying this suspension, the Admin-
istrator established an interim nitrogen oxide Fed-
eral standard of 1 .2 g/km (2.0 g/mile), which was
attainable with existing advanced emission-
control technology.
Finally, the aforementioned 1 977 amendments to
the Clean Air Act further delayed the light-duty
passenger car requirements, as shown in Table 4.-
1.
PASSENGER CARS
Cor,rrof Devices, 1968—1974 Model Years
From 1968 to 1974, compliance with Feder3l
emission standards was achieved by utilizing ven-
ous combinations of the following:
• Purging crankcase fumes through the
engine
• Recalibration and tighter precision in car-
buretor fuel metering
• Engine intake air preheat and temperature
control
• Spark retard at idle and low speeds
• Reduced compression ratios en eliminat-
ing combustion chamber pockets
• Air injection into tne exhaust manifold
40
-------
l973— )974 MC
Co
NC
197 5 —76 MC
CO
NO
Table 4.-i. Federal Exhav t Emis,,ion SIa.ndarc ls and
Cantrol L.v.3z for U ht -duty V& tcles Since 1973
1.9 (3.0)
17 (28)
1.9 (3.1)
0.93 (1,5)
9.3 (15)
1.9 (3.1)
0.93 (1.5)
9.3 (13)
1.9 (3.1)
1.9 (3.0)
17 23)
1.9 (3.1)
1. 2.0)
12 (20)
1.9 (3.1)
1.2 (2.0)
12 (20)
1.9 (3.1)
1977—1978 MC
Co
MC
1979 MC
Co
1980 MC
CO
NO
198 1—1982 MC
CO
oz
1983 and after MC
CO
0.93 (1,5)
9.3 (15 )
1.2 (2.01
0.93 (1.5)
9.3 (15)
1.2 (2.0)
0.25 (0.41)
4.3 (7.0)
— I
1.. . 0)
0.25 (0.41)
2.1 3..’ ’
0.82 (1.3?
0.25 (0.41)
2.1 (3.4)
0.62 (1.0?
rabl. 4.-2.
Estimated Passeag.r Car Emission—
C ntro4 Equipment Cost, 1963—74
( in.nt dui)ar )
em
1968—69 Positive crarik o3e ventjot,on (PC /) vcrie
tni r air emp.roru(e control
1970.-7 7 t eI eyaoororan : rtrrol s ’ttem
la ). contrai soienoid
Carouretor ctQrig es
MaroeneC “cives aria teats
(for eoaeO gosoI nei
Transmission cantr tystem
Ignition timing
Otok. ‘eat bv u — .. ..
C maressicn rOt o dianges
1973 —73 Exncust os ctrculonon EGR1
11— .L percent
Soeea-conrroiied SQOrK timing
•eclslcn :ants, anres, pistons
rOnSmTssion ionges ..
Ust pric. (nc(uces :otti c.cier ono manu oturers praf(rs.
0.93 (1.5)
9.3 (15)
1.2 (2.0)
0.93 (1.3)
9.3 (15)
1.2 (2.0)
0.25 (0.41)
11 (18)
1.2 (2.0?
0.25 (0.41)
2.1 (3.4?
0.82 (1.0?
0.25 (0.41)
2.1 (3.4)
0.82 (1.0?
1.2 (2.0)
12 (20)
1.9 (3.1)
1.1 (1.7)
11 t18)
1.4 (2.2)
1.1 (1.7)
11 (18)
1.4 (2.31
1.1 (1.7)
11 (18)
1.4 (2.3)
3.45 (0.731’
5.76 (9.4)’
0.74 (1.2)’
1.2 (2.0)
12 (20)
1.9 (3.1)
1.1 (1.7)
11 (13)
1.4 (2.3)
1.1 (1.7)
11 (13)
1.4 (2.3)
1.1 (1.7 )
11 (18)
1.4 (2.3)
0.45 (0.73)’
5.76 (9 4I’
0.74 (1.2)’
1. s
;n gromsi kilometer grctns. mile)
Lig duty
O sciine
Year Ems-sion a senger r
L t th ty
Oier* i
ss.m er C r
Ut d ut ’y
C -qso itn.
r,jcx i
Light-duty
01 5 5.1
‘Under 2.720 kg (6300 bI gross venide weight.
2 Under 3.360 kg (8500 bI gross vealde weignt.
l Th.s. stcndcros nose been n’verteC to e consistent with t e 1975 Pedero) Testing Prcce ures.
1981 and 1982 CO standards are woiseto le to 4.2 g/km (7.0 g, mil.i.
$ NO 5 is woivercote to 1 .Sg, km 2.4 g,’ rsiiet or 2.0 g, tm (3.3 gi nil .).
NCx is woiserccte to l.Sgi km i2.4 gi milel.
‘ ecendy pr oosed light-duty tnjcS stond rO .
• Changes in valve timing and recirculating
exhaust gases
• Capturing fuel evaporative emissions in
charcoal canisters or in the crankcase.
Table 4.-2 summarizes the EPA estimates for incre-
mental cost increases per car due to emission
— - control requirement for the period 1968 to 1974.
5 0.40 These data are expressed in current dollars.
5.00
11.10 Control Devices, 1.975-. 1.975 Model Years
When the 1975 Statutory Standards were sus-
pended for a year” and reolaced with less strin-
gent interim standards, it became apparent that
two types of emission-ccntr t systems could be
used for the 1975 model year: 1) oxidation
526.00 catalyst-equippec systems. a na (2 advanced en-
26.00 gine modifications systems. The oxidation catalyst
systems have been preferred by the industry, and
acproximat&y 85 percent of the 1975 model year
sales included catalysts. Other changes and addi-
tions for some 1 375 model-year cars included:
-------
. Quick-heat manifold
• High-energy ignition
• Advanced carburetors
• Air injection.
Since the 1976 emission standards 7 called for the
same hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and nitro-
gen oxide levels as the 1975 interim standards,
only minor changes in emission control systems
were made from 1975 models. Proportional ex-
haust gas recirculation was introduced in some
models.
The EPA estimate of the initial equipment or en-
gine modification costs per car for emission con-
trol for the 1975 and 1976 model years is $220
(updated to 1977 dollars).
Control Devices, 1977 Model Year
With the suspension of 1977 emission standards
on March 5. 1975, and the carryover of standards
for hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide at the
1975—75 levels, and the nitrogen oxides at a level
of 1.25 g/km (2.0 g/mile) (which is 35 percent
lower than the 1975—76 level), the automobile
companies met the 1977 standards with only mi-
nor modifications to engines and control devices.
These modifications took the form of increased
use of secondary air for catalyst operation, im-
proved exhaust gas recircutation, ignition timing
modification or modified catalysts with decreased
use of secondary air. EPA has estimated the incre-
mental cost to meet 1 977 emission standards at
$15.
Control Devices, 1978 and 197.9
Model Years
Since Congress has passed Clean Air Act Amen d-
ments (of 1977) calling for maintenance of 1977
emission levels through trie 1 979 model year,
cumulative control costs per vehicle are main-
tained at the 1977 level for these cost analyses.
This results in significant cost reduction from
costs that would have been incurred if statutory
1978 standards had become effective in 1978.
This control cost decrease is obtained, however, at
the expense of increased emissions.
In addition to the modifications applied earlier.
1980 standards will require application of a three-
way (HC, CO. N0 ) catalyst (in place of the single
oxidation catalyst), plus electronic control mod-
ules for the following items: spark control,
exhaust-gas recirculation, air-to-fuel ratio, and air
mjection. Costs for tnese modifications will vary,
i.e., weight of vehicle, engine design. and engine
calibration. EPA s estimate of 1980 and beyond
incremental costs for an “average” vehicle is
$204 if the 4.4 g/krn (7.0 g/rnile) CO standard is
required or $260 if the 2.1 g/km (3.4 g/miie) CO
standard is reguired.
Estimated Maintenance Costs Due
to Emission Controls
The additional per-vehicle maintenance costs at-
tributable to emission-control devices has been
estimated by EPA to be $200 over the life of the
car from model years 1968 through 1974 (in
1977 dollars). For the 1975, 1976, and 1977
model years, certain benefits in reduced mainte-
nance cost are derived from the use of high-energy
ignition systems, long-life exhaust systems, and
unleaded fuel. For the 1375—77 model years, the
maintenance cost benefits are estimated to be
$90 per catalyst-equipped car over precontro led
cars. No increase or decrease in maintenance
costs is expected for the 1 978 and 1979 model
years.
Additional maintenance costs are anticipated for
the 1980 model year because of the greater com-
plexity expected in the emission-control systems
required to meet the lower nyarocarbon and car-
bon monoxide standards. This increase over pre-
controlled cars is estimated to be $ 1 7 over the
lifetime of the car. For the 1 98 1 model year and
beyond, the lifetime maintenance cost increase is
estimated tobe $77.
Fuel-Consumption Penalties
The average fuel economy of motor vehicles de-
creased gradually from the 1 968 through the
1974 model cars. This change can be attributed to
variations in vehicle weight. engine size, optional
equipment, and the effects ci emission-control
equipment. In particular, the specific emission-
control measures that adversely effect fuel con-
sumption are retarded ignition timing, reduced
compression ratio, and exhaust-gas recirculation.
Fuel economy penalties for the 1968 to 1973
model years were obtained from an EPA studye of
passenger car fuel economy involving tests of
nearly 4.000 vehicles ranging from 1957
production models to 1975 prototypes. The fuel
economy loss for 1968 and 1969 model cars
decreased by about a half mile per gallon com-
pared to the pre-1968 cars. This fuel erialty in-
creased to about one mile per gallon in 1970 and
1971, 1.4 miles per gailor in 1972. and 1.7 miles
per gallon in 1973. Only a slight change toward
better fuel economy was reaiized in 1974.
Various industry sources as well as the E A have
indicated that cataiyti: systems on most 1 975 and
42
-------
1976 vehicles resulted in fuel economy suoerior
to 1973 and 1974 model-year cars. By 1976, a
benefit of about 0.4 miles per gailon is estimated.
No change in fuel economy is anticipated for the
1977 model year (when the NQ,( standard drops
from 19 tO 1.2 g/km (3. ito 2.0 g/mile) due to the
expected extensive use of proportional exhaust
gas recirculation (PEOR) and otner technological
improvements.
No additional fuel economy gains or penalties are
estimated for model years 1978 through 1986
due to emission controls. In separate efforts to
improve fuel economy, the auto companies will be
reducing the size and weight of vehicles in their
existing model line, improving engine efficiency,
changing axle ratios, and introducing lighter,
smaller models. These modifications will raise the
average fuel economy of all affected models, re-
gardless of the potential effect of pollution con-
trols. The principal impetus for these develop-
ments is the Energy Policy Sand Conservation Act
(P.L 94—163) passed and signed in December
1975 that required all manufacturers to meet fuel
economy standards (on the average) of 1 3.0, 1 2.3,
11.8 liters per hundred kilometers (18, 19 and 20
miles per gallon) for their 1978, 1979, and 1980
models, respectively.
A recent study by EPA has raised some question
about past studies that estimate a fuel penalty due
to emission controls. The pre-1968 test cars used
by EPA have, in the past, been reported as getting
better fuel economy than they get when compared
on an age basis with the new cars being tested.
When these older cars are adjusted to reflect
comparable age and mileage. and all model years
are adjusted for the changing weight of cars, the
fuel penalty becomes zero. For this report, the
traditional fuel penalty is computed and added
into the total cost estimates. However, future re-
ports may have to adjust for this recent EPA study,
if it proves to be substantiated by further studies.
Fuel Cast Increases
Two EPA regulations affecting fuel costs are dis-
cussed below. One pertains to requiring gasoline
marketers to make available 9 1 research octane
number lead-free gasoline by July 1, 1974, for use
in oxidation catalyst-ecuipped vehicles. The other
EPA regulation requires that the lead content of
leaded gasoline be reduced to art average of 0. 1 3
gram per liter (0.5 gram per gallon) by October
1979. This latter regulation, aimed at reducing
lead in the atmosphere for health purposes. was
recently upheld by the courts as discussed earlier
in this chapter. Thus, for the purooses of this
report, it is assumed that lead phase-down viii
take place as called for by EPA. The promulgated
schedule stretches the lead removal over a period
of 4 years.
Lead phase-down requirements may advance the
need for installation of new octane-generating ca-
pacity comoared to the requirement that would
naturally result from the gradual replacement of
vehicles that use leaded gasolines by vehicles that
use unleaded.
The lead phase-down schedule may also impose
additional investment requirements that would
otherwise be unnecessary in the long-term. This
will happen if the specific lead phase-down sched-
ule requires a clear pool antiknock index higher
than that which would be required without the
schedule. This can result if the percent of cars
running on relatively high-octane leaded gasoline
is large. It has been estimated that a 0. 13 gram of
lead per liter (0.5 gram per gallon) requirement
earlier than about 1985 would require such invest-
ments in long-term excess octane generating
capacity.
The costs associated with the lead phase-down
requirements may logically be associated with ei-
ther the petroleum-refining industry or the mobile-
source category. Since the mobile-source chapter
aggregates the total consumer cost of EPA regula-
tions on automobiles, the costs for lead phase-
down are included in this chapter.
Fuel cost increases due to the lead-free gasoline
requirement have been estimated at 0.26
cent/liter(1 .0 cent/gallon) for 1 975; 0.4 cent/liter
(1.5 cent/gallon) for 1976—1977; 0.45 cent/liter
(1.7 cent/gallon) for 1973; 0.50 cent/liter (1.9
cent/gallon) for 1979; 0.55 cent/liter (2.1
cent/gallon) for 1980, 0.61 cent/liter (2.3
cents/gallon) for 198 1; and 0.66 cents/liter (2.5
cent/gallon) for 1982—1986 (in current dollars).
The added cost of leaded fuel due to lead phase-
down requirements has been estimated to be 0.5
cent per gallon from 1 979—1986 (current dollars).
These data are derived primarily from References
and ‘°‘.
It shculd be noted that the above cost estimate for
unleaded gasoline may differ somewhat from the
price differential customers pay at service sta-
tions. This is due to two factors. The demand for
leaded gasoline has decreased. thus reducing its
price somewhat relative to unleaced gasoline
Also. service stations tend to offer leaded gasoline
at a lower mark-uc in order to attract customers.
The price differential usec in thts reoort is based
on engineering cost estimates for the petroleum
refining industry.
A
-------
Light-Duty Trucks
For this report, it is assumed that emission control
equipment costs for light-duty trucks are e same
as for passenger cars for tne 1973 and 1974
model years. Beginning with the 1 975 model year,
less strin ent standards were set for light-duty
trucks than for passenger cars. Consequently it is
assumed in this report that emission control costs
for model years 1975—78 will be only moderately
higher than for the 1973—74 model years ($188
per vehicle in July 1977 dollars).
Annual maintenance costs for 1973 and 1974
model year light-duty trucks are estimated to be
$16 per vehicle. For the 1975 to 1978 model year
period, it is estimated that there will be a mainte-
nance cost benefit of $5 per vehicle due to the use
of catalysts, low-maintenance emission-control
components. and unleaded fuel in a significant
portion of light-duty trucks sold in that period.
The fuel economy of light-duty trucks was as-
sumed to be the same as for light-duty passenger
cars for 1973 and 1974. A fuel economy gain of 6
percent is assumed for the 1975 model year, and
no change for the 1 976 to 1986 period.
The revised light-duty truck regulations f or 1979
and later model years ” calls for more stringent
exhaustemission standards, 1.1 g/km(1.7 g/mile)
HC, 11 g/km (18 g/rnile} CO. and 1.4 g/km (2.3
g/mile) N0 , and an increase in the upper weight
limit from 2.720 kg (6,000 Ib) gross vehicle weight
(GVW}to 3,860 kg (6,500 Ib)GVW. Minor changes
are also made in test procedures. The effect of
these new regulations on vehicle cost is estimated
table 4.-3.
to be $8 for trucks up to 2,720 kg t6,000 Ib) GVW
and $219 for trucks in the 2,720 kg (6,000 lb) to
3:860 kg (8.500 Ib) GVW range . No fuel econ-
omy or maintenance cost penalties are ex ected 9
Aggregate National Costs for Light-Duty
Vehicle Emission Controls
Costs to the nation for light-duty vehicle emission
control will be comDrised of the aggregate of
equipment, maintenance, and fuel-consumption
cost increments attributable to the control de-
vices. Since the various costs attributable to em is-
sion controls are different for each model year,
total costs to the nation have been estimated sepa-
rately for each model year using vehicle-
population data for previous years and projections
for future years. Maintenance costs and total fuel
cost increases are estimated using standard scrap-
page rates and annual-miles-driven data. Data
were derived principally from References and
A breakdown of annual national cost estimates for
passenger car emission control is presented in
Table 4.-3. Equipment and maintenance costs for
each calendar year are taken as the eauipment
cost attributable to the new model-year vehicles.
Costs attributable to reduced fuel economy are
based on the miles driven in a given year for a
given model year car and the price of gasoline in
that year. Fuel price penalties for lead-free gaso-
line are applied to those cars which require lead-
free gasoline. Lead phase-down costs are applied
to those cars using leaded gasoline. A break own
of annual national cost estimates for light-duty
truck emission control is presented in Table 4-4.
Estimated National Emission-Control Costs for Light -Duty Passenger Cars
(millions of 977 dollars)
rvei
Pce
eno, v
Annualized
u.I
T rø
Tot a’
Co itaF
C a a
Ma Mef,Oflce
Canw not a,
L.od . ee
.eød
0
& ‘A
Y. r Inve yment
Cøst
Cost
Penanv
Cost
° ‘cse-Down
Cast
1968
7.3 6
19.09
218.44
343.64
—
562.08
581.17
1969
73.31
38.56
415.71
599.19
—
—
10 &90
1353.3
1970
147.50
77. 7
547.28
1033.39
—
—
1581.17
1653.04
1971
474.19
232.56
714.42
1356.34
—
—
2271.26
2473.82
1972
496.76
333.61
379.69
2340.72
—
—
326.4 1
2 5o0.22
1973
1288.08
654.31
1027.65
3304.32
—
—
4331.c
3986.28
1974
1002.95
890.42
1104.54
2954.63
—
—
4059.17
4958.59
1975
1937.26
1363.63
372.54
2540.78
133.67
35 o 9
3910.64
1976
359.25
1860.95
653.74
2077.18
275.43
—
3006.35
38O7.30
1977
2632.00
2424.23
456.22
1351.86
40 . .82
—
2712.90
5 37. i3
1979
2608.98
2772.68
257.53
587.1 7
485.21
—
2. 59.93
5232.61
1979
55 1.0i
31 33.70
313.26
349.5 8
554.27
173.36
2367.67
5571.37
1980
384 2.23
3 so.95
256.41
1049.19
624.45
130.00
2060.05
3707.00
1981
5204.23
4397.42
272.20
349.61
530.33
98.54
1900.73
5298.23
1982
5073.80
5341.56
201.20
524.89
608.76
73.33
1600.13
0041.73
1983
5192.89
3723.20
300.90
264.23
718.34
33 8 O
1439.34
7162.74
1984
5.75
54c5.20
342.21
225.32
722.07
40.2 o
132.56
7794.70
1985
5401.60
6923.75
391.53
151.95
714.31
32.29
1290.33
8213.33
1984
5446.06
6987.53
448.32
55. 4 4
700.31
2o.13
1260.72
8248.23
44
-------
Toble 4.-4.
Estimote N .atio j Emission-Control Costs for
Ugh* jty Trucks (millions o 1977 oilars)
HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE CONTROLS
Emission Standards
Separate emission-control regulations have been
in effect since 1970 for new heavy-duty gasoline
and diesel truck engines manufactured for use in
over-the-highway truc.¼ and buses. These stan-
daras applied to trucks over 2.720 kilograms (6-
.000 Ib) gross vehicle weight through model year
1975. Starting withthe 1979 model year, trucks
under 3,860 kilograms (8,500 Ib) gross vehicle
weight will be considered light-duty vehicles (and
have been dealt with in the preceding Section of
this Chapter.) Heavy-duty truck engine certifica-
tion test procedures are performed on the engine
itself and do not pertain to the vehicle, as is the
case for light-duty truck and passenger car
regulations.
Federal regulations for emissions from heavy-duty
gasoline engines for 1970 through 1978 are
shown in Table 4.-S. For 1970 through 1973.
regulations covered hydrocarbon and carbon mo-
noxide emissions measurea in terms oi average
concentrations in the engine exhaust over a nine-
mode, constant-soeed, variable-load dynamome-
ter cycle. New standards. which went into effect in
1974, are based on the same test procedure, but
emissions are reported in terms of grams per unit
work. The sum of hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide
emissions is limited to 6.0 microgram/joule (1 6
g/Bhp-hr), while the standard for carbon monoxide
is 15 rrlicrogr3miioule ( 0 g/Bhp-hr) for 1974
throu h 1 978 model-year heavy-duty gasoline
engines.
Heavy-duty diesel truck engine Federal standards
for 1970—73 are also shown in Table 4.-5.
Through 1970—73, standards covered smoke em-
issions only. In 1 974, the standards were revised
to include hydrocarbon, nitrogen oxide, and car-
bon monoxide emissions as well as more stringent
smoke emissions. The permissible gaseous-
emission levels are the same as for heavy-duty
gasoline engines for 1974 through 1978, but the
test procedure is cifferent. For diesels, emissions
“e ’3r
Aa in , 4ize
C c j C r cn
—
C& 4nnucuze
C n
1973
220.00
58.04
30.00
50.00
1974
290.00
108i
o .00
160.00
—
30.00
38.04
1975
250.00
174.11
50.00
210.00
—
220.00
1976
250.00
240.06
40.00
270.00
10.00
270.00
4. 11
1977
250.00
306.01
22.30
290.00
20.00
330.00
510.06
1978
60.00
1 6.3a
30.00
330.00
40.00
260.00
óoó.01
1979
720.00
45o.38
30.30
60.00
420.00
736.56
1980
750.00
588.28
30.00
530.00
100.00
560.00
1026 38
1981
790.00
730.93
30.00
740.00
160.00
770.00
1358.23
1982
820.00
881.10
20.00
890.00
230.20
990.00
170.93
1983
350.00
1036.74
20.00
1230.00
290.00
1 :00.20
2081.10
1984
380.00
1078.95
20.00
1200.30
340.00
1390.00
2426.74
1985
920.00
1123.30
20.30
1260.00
330.00
1600.00
2673.95
1986
960.00
1168.35
10.00
430.00
1310.00
2933.20
Tcib . 4.-S.
F,d.r $I nqarcSs f r 14e vy-Cut’ ,
Ga o in. cn 0ies.e -8na,v a 3rnission*
f r 1970 7hrQugn 1978
fl3 ofl t flC J ’43
P i ut cq,t 97Q. _ 3 1974 .- ’9
ycrcccrccfl3 c:
Cx ces ct i rcg r? NC
Cc oon mQAO* .Ce
Cccc ri cc erc inq ,r ce
Cpcc rv n uggmg r ioce
cccc ri n either •c e
—
*
273 pocfl
40 ”.
:cs
G scw,e E git,es
S i rci ’ccrom.’ ou e ’
16 gi
15 flucrogrcm/ o Le
.40 g , . 2h -4,r
2iejeL : gines
20 ‘
S icro rc i’ Quic
(1 6 g. . 31’ ic .nr)
5 rncrcgrcm cue
‘40 g 3 .flr;
j e fl i’icre ‘flcfl 2,722 kiic r rns 3,200 ci ;rosi ei kie
w•5flt.
— NC,.
45
-------
are averaged over a 13-mode, variable-speed,
variable-load dynamometer cycle.
New regulations for heavy-duty gasoline and die-
sel engines were established in late 1 977 for
1979 and later model ears. 2 The new standards
specify 0.56 microgram/joule (1.5 g/Bhp-hr) HC,
9.3 microgram/joule (25 g/Bhp-hr) CO. and 3.7
microgram/joule (10 g/Bhp-hr) HC - - NOR. An al-
ternative stanoard calls for the same CO level, 1.9
microgram/joule (5 g/Bhp-hr) HG + N0 , and no
separate HG soecification. Changes in test proce-
dures and test instrumentation are included in the
new regulations. These new standards apply to
vehicles in the 3,860 kilogram-and-over (8,500 lb
and-over) gross vehicle weight class because of
the previously mentioned change in the light-duty
truck maximum weight specification.
The Clean Air Act as amended in 1977 requires
that EPA prescribe for heavy-duty engines and
vehicles emission standards requiring at least a 90
percent reduction of hydrocarbons (HC) and car-
bon monoxide (CO) from uncontrolled levels be-
ginning witfl the 1983 model year. A new test
procedure is being considered which is based
upon a transient driving schedule representative
of on-road operation. The new test procedure, if
promulgated, will require substantial new invest-
ments in capital ePuioment and will force the
design of emission controls that function properly
over representative transient operation. It is ex-
pected that oxidizing catalyst technology and un-
leaded fuel will be required for gasoline-fueled
engines. Diesel-fueled engines will require mini-
mal hardware additions although the new test
procedure cost would be relatively high due to
changes to the test facility. Using the preceding
assumptions, the costs of implementing the 90
percent reduction of HG and CO along’ with new
test procedures in 1 983 could be considerably
greater than the present estimates for costs to be
incurred in this period. Additionally, the operating
costs for gasoline engines Would be increased due
to the added cost of unleaded fuel. No fuel econ-
omy penalties are expected. There are no new test
procedures ariticioated for the 1985 N0 standard
and no cost estimated, though there is a potential
hardware cost and fuel economy penalty.
Heavy-Duty Gasoline Engine Controls
The emissior .control technology used for heavy-
duty gasoline engines through 1 973 is similar to
that employed for tight-duty trucks and passenger
cars through tne 1972 model year. In fact, many
heavy-duty gasoline engines are derivatives of
passenger car engines. For 1 374, the nitrogen
oxide control standards were generally attainable
without the use of EGR, although some EG-R en-
gines were certified in the previous year to meet
California standards for 1 973 which were at the
same level as Federal standards for 1974.
No detailed equipment cost estimates have been
made by EPA for heavy-duty gasoline truck engine
emission controls. In the absence of such esti-
mates, it is assumed for purposes of this reoort
that the per-vehicle emission-control equipment
cost increment of 1 970—73 engines is equivalent
to that for 1970 model-year passenger car en-
gines minus the cost of fuel evaporation controls.
equalling $30 pervehicle in July 1977 dollars. It is
further assumed that the 1974 to 1978 model
year control equioment costs will be equivalent to
those for a 1973 passenger car engine less the
cost of EGR and evaporative controls, or S62 er
vehicle. The 1979 heavy-duty engine standards
are estimated to result in a cost increase of $ 1 20
for gasoline engines t 3 .
Incremental annual maintenance costs for heavy-
duty gasoline truck engine controls for all years
are assumed to be the same as passenger car
costs for model years 1968 through 1974, or $20
per vehicle. Fuel consumption penalties are esti-
mated to be 3 percent for the 1970—1973 period.
and 5 percent for 1974 and beyond. A baseline
fuel economy of 28 liters per hundred kilometers
(8.5 mpg) is assumed. Estimates of total per-
vehicle costs attributable to emission controls for
this class of trucks are summarized in Table 4-6.
It is estimated that the population of 1970—73
trucks of this class will peak at about 4•5 million in
1973, and that the total controlled population wifl
have reached approximately 9.0 million in 1 980.
Estimated costs for heavy-duty gasoline truck Fec-
eral emission controls are presented in Table 4.-7.
T.b . 4.-6.
Es$ino4.d P,r-V&ud. Cost P. oIs os for N.ov, .-Du$’,,
Goso4in. ngin. mission Centrei
(coits n p977 oc1$ors)
Mod.i Yecrs
1970—73 974—78
C si t,m
f’ sIleø-eOM!e 5 LHD ’IO ’t
cost -
Apw,uel , ,o ntet a, cs
& eonsut, utio .nauy 3’ ,
S30 3o2
20
5’, 5’,
or 28 iteiI er !nJnar5 ilomerets rS.5 r,ipgi or r..i970 truccs.
46
-------
Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine Controls
Both smoke and gaseous emission standards, in-
cluding those for 1974, have been attained largely
through fuel-injection system modifications. Nitro-
gen oxide and smoke are the more difficult emis-
sions to control; even uncontrolled diesels are
usually well within carbon monoxide standards.
Equipment cost penalties are considered nominal
through the 1 978 model year and are estimated to
be $ 130 per engine for 1979 and later model
years. It is estimated that no fuel consumption or
maintenance cost penalties have been incurredi .
MOTORCYCLE CONTROLS
Emission Standards
Individually motorcycles are small emitters but
collectively they represent a significant source of
emissions. The average uncontrolled motorcycle
presently emits about twice as much CO and about
six times as much HC as permitted by 1977 auto-
mobile standards.
Both interim 1973/79) and longer term (1980
and beyond) emissicn standards for motorcycles
designed for street use were promulgated by EPA
in 1977’ . (Motorcycles with engine disolace-
ments of less tnan so cc are nct covered by the
regulations). The 1978/79 interim standard for
HC exhaust emissions is dependent upon engine
displacement, requiring control to 5.0 g/krn (8. 1
g/mile) for motorcycles with up to 1 70 cubic cen-
timeters (10.’i cubic inchesl displacement. The
standard increases orcoo ionateiy witn displace-
ment. from the 5.0 gikm required at 1 70 c to
14.0 g/km (22.6 g/mile) required at 750 cc (45.8
cubic inches). Motorcycles witn disolacements
above 750 cc are held to the 1 4.0 9/km szar ar
regardless of size. CO emissions are limited to
1 7.0 gm/km (27.4 g/milei regardless of size. No
standard for oxides of nitrogen has been promul-
gated because a 1976 air cuality analysis indica-
ted that the mctorcycie ccntr;bution to motor vehi-
d C NO 5 emissions is negiicibie, estimated to be
less than 0.5 percent in 1990.
The promulgated icng-ter emission standards
for the 1980 and beyond mcdel years wifl be 5.0
gm/km (8. 1 g/mile, i C tregarciess of engine dis-
3lacementl and 1 2.0 gm/km 19.3 gi mile) CO.
Crankcase emissions are orohibited under both
tne interim and long-term emission standards.
Motorcycle Control Costs
The average incremental pr ce increases for 1978
and 1979 mocel year mctorcvcies attributable to
the emission standards has been estimated to be
$47 (in July 1977 oollarsL Similarly, the average
incremental price increase f:r 9E0 model year
motorcycles is estimated to be $ 1 3. No effect on
maintenance costs s ant:c: z:ec
Table 4—7
Estimated National Costs Attributable
to Gcsoiine4tjeled Heavy-Duty Truck
Emissicn Controls, 1970—1986
(millions of 1977 dollars)
!s
ve st e .t
Annijaii:e Fuei
,V cinrenonc C n 5umDr icn
P, ciry
Qt j
0 3. .‘
C s
OtQI
Ansua iize
C t
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1983
1986
30.00
30.00
40.00
40.00
80.00
80.00
90.00
90.00
90.00
70.00
WOO
80.30
30.00
80.30
80.00
90.00
90.00
7.10 20.30 20.00
14.20 40.00 oo.00
23. 7 50.30 100.00
33.14 30.00 150.00
52.08 10.00 300.CO
63.92 120.00 320.00
38.13 130.00 610.30
89.97 170.00 770.00
101.31 200.00 940.00
99.35 200.00 1020.00
99 .35 210.00 1040.00
97.33 220.00 1C 0.C0
94.71 220.00 1030.00
92.34 220.00 1C70.C0
84.70 220.00 1070.00
97.07 230.00 1070.00
99. 220.00 1040.00
40.00
130.03
150.00
230.30
410.00
540.00
750.00
4O.3O
1130.00
1220.30
1250.30
1230.20
1303.30
1290.30
1300.03
1200.00
1330.00
47.10
113.20
183.67
263.14
462.08
603.92
828.13
1039.97
1231.81
1319.45
1349 ,45
1377.38
1394.71
1382.34
1394.70
1397.07
1379.44
47
-------
Aggregate National Costs for Motorcycle
Emission Controls
Costs to the na:icn for motorcycle emission con-
trol will be comprised of me aggregate of eauip-
ment and fuel-consumption cost increments attri’c-
utable to the c ntroI devices. Tctal costs have
been estimated separately fcr each model year
(after controls go into effect) using projections of
vehicle population and vehicle miles travelled .
Motorcycle sales orciections, with estimates of
survival proba3ilizy and mileage accumulation,
were used to estimate the annual motorcycle emis-
sions control costs given in Table 4.-B. In the costs
reported here, no credit is taken for tne fuel econ-
orny benefit; this is consistent with the general
practice used throughout this report. The costs
thus reflect only caoital investment and annual-
ized capital.
TcbI. 4 8 Motorcycle Air Pollution Control Costs
(in millions of 1977 doliørs)
1978
. s&30
12.27
1979
48.90
25.17
1980
70.90
3.S7
1981
74.80
63.60
1982
78.70
84.36
19E3
82.60
93.38
1984
86.50
103.80
‘985
91.0
09.11
1986
95.o
AIRCRAFT EMISSION CONTROLS
Aircraft emissions have been identified as signifi-
cant contributors to the regional burden of pollu-
tants whicn will have to be controlled to meet
National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
Airports are concentrated sources of pollutant em-
issions whicn will in many cases reduce local air
quality to unsatisfactory levels even trlough emis-
sions from automobiles and stationary sources are
within acceptable levels within the general area.
The Clean Air Ac: directs the Administrator of the
EPA to “estaoiish standards applicable to ernis-
sions of any air pollutant from any class or classes
of aircraft or aircraft engines which in his judg-
ment cause or contribute to air pollution which
endangers the puolic health or welfare”. In July
1973, Federal emission standarcs and test roca-
dures were es:aoiished for various classes of new
and in-use aircraft engines 11 . These regulations
are based on th need to control emissions occur-
ring under 900 meters (3.000 feet) to protect
ambient air cuality in urban areas. However, the
standards are not auantitarively aerived from the
air-quality consicerations in affected areas but,
instead, reflect EPA ’s judgment as to the emission
levels that will ce oracticabie with present and
projected technology. The recuisite technoiogy is
assumed to include advancec combustion-system
concepts for turbine engines and irn roved fuel
systems for piston engines. The stancards cover
(a) fuel venting regulations beginning January 1,
1974. (b) smoke emission regulations taking ef-
fect in 1974. 1975, and 1978 for various engine
classes, and id gaseous em:ssicn lcaroon monox-
ide, hydrocarbon, and nitrogen oxiaci stancards
for 1979 and 1381. Gaseous emissions regula-
tions are basec on a s mulated landing-and-take
off operating cycie wfli h inciuoes: (1) taxi/idle
(out), (2) take off, (3) climb out, (4) a proach, and (5)
taxi/idle (in). Piston engines are included in the
standards beginning in 1 979.
EPA promulgated in August of 1 976” regulatioi s
limiting emissions frcm currently certified SST
aircraft manufactured after January 1, 1980, and
more stringent emission standards for SST aircraft
that are newly certified after January 1, 1 984. By
1990, the 1980 and 1984 standards are expected
to account for a 6 1 percent reduction in HC and a
50 percent reduction in CO emissions a: an airport
where SST aircraft are used.
Another aircraft emissions regulatory action pro-
mulgated late in 976 was an extension of the
compliance cate for smoke emissions standaros
aoplicable to the JT3D engine (commonly used in
Boeing 707s and DC-8sj. The extension from Jan-
uary of 1978 to Septemoer ci 1981 was in re-
sponse to a petition by the Air Transport Associa-
tion (ATA). The manufacturers claimed in the peti-
tion that durability problems had developed dur-
ing tests of the low-smoKe corn bustor whicn could
not be overcome within the necessary time frame
and, additionally, that EPA had significantly under-
estimated the cost cf this retrofit program and its
impact on the airline industry. EPA. in granting the
extension. additionally recuired ma: each operator
of aircraft powered by JT3D engines achieve 90
percent compliance y September of 1980. The
90 percent by 1980 requirement was added to
lessen the impact, of the extension and to fcrce
continued effort tc develop tecnnology required to
meet the full standard. The environmental imoac:
of the completed program is expected to be a
reduction in visible smoke, and HC and CC emis-
sions reductions ci 32 oercent and 1 3 percent.
respectively, from total commercial aircraft ernis-
tnveS fler’
Aflr 1uoi ze4
48
-------
SJOflS in exchange for a modest 5 percent increase
ifl NOR.
;n March, 1978, an amendment to the July, 1 973,
regulatory action was issued which changed the
cornpiiance date for the gaseous emission stan-
dards from January 1,1979, to January 1,
1981.(”) On this same date EPA proposed a nuni-
berof changes to the gaseous emission standards
originally promulgated in July, 1973; hence, the
delay in compliance was granted to allow more
time for analysis of comments received on the
proposed changes and for a reassessment cf the
air quality impact cf aircraft operations at large
metropohtafl airports.
In general, the influence of the regulations will be
to contribute to the maintenance oi the quality of
the air in and around major air terminals throught
the post-1979 era in which air traffic is undergo-
ing expansion. The timing of these standards will
not make contributions to achievement of ambient
air-quality levels required by 1 975 through the
state implementation programs. Present aircraft
emission standards t7t and their estimated cost
impact le are listed in Table 4-9. Costs of fuel-
venting and smoke emissIon controls through
1978, totaling 3 1 7 million, are minor in compari-
son to costs of controlling other sources in that
time period.
C ienóar
y or
1974
5 Panacras
J130 smoti. sicncorcis
Fu.i v.nnng resrnct-
iøn for n. e ono n-us.
engines (197 f r
usin•Is -0irCTOtt
enqin.if
Tøbie 4—9.
Aircraft Emissian St ndcrds nd E timcted
Cast Impacts
Impiementctien
Tiivfoqy
Com usror fuei r z je
re?r oflt
Smoke stcnácrds. new None
turbin. engines xCeCt
JT0. JTSO. cisc suDer-
sonic-
Qcs.cus emission )4C. Moàtheà engine tor section
cc. o NC,i
or Oil engines
mcnutacrsjrec.
S ur eis !‘A. 19) era 21).
Estimcte ’ C:si of
mp ierne n?ariofl
Juiv 1977 siars )
None aireccy oIuntcrl y
con ietec f
inc cily *‘,ejo s11enT - -j c .icn r e 5 itio , $ es gine ncre’ .—cre : Sts —r .iCri i I e nc’JrrnO ii 31. ximwn cc tion I engine
Ccs esflmcte to e•
S10,CCO per orge turcine engine
cer smasi JrOir.e engine ‘ier C0 ‘-g 3,CCO )
300 ner smcil - Jrc,ne engine . .nae t 3 C0 3 200 t ru 5 r ,O cer or A C
52 er piston engu’e.
Stnmcvec $3. miiliors in cisren e. qine ei sc os :er yea? cr 1981 en 983 s inc uceO.
8st,ma,e £4.4 m ilicn c ncre—are one $1 ‘n,ii n icr r, COttOfl.
9Oo .rcenrcamoncereau rea V SeOTCmOf . 1980.
Plunth ,nq Ond/ Or oceranionol
cn ionges
$2.5 million
1974
1976
1982
1981
1980
1984
$86.4 miition
Scm. c c 1979 Some as 1979 56.3 niUi n’
i70 smoke s?aflCOrOs ’ uel rsczxie ? ?fo t $133 )lion
Gaseous emissions — 510.4 rn ,ilion
n n crCi cr c’jrrently
cen e0 $57 eirc crt
msg cften ..anucry 1,
1980
Gaseous emissions — No esnimase
sioncoros or new 557
CIrCrOTT .ernnec
Jonucry 1, 1984
1993— .36 Gaseous emission stcncorcs dvancea :cmcusror oria $3 million
or n. rii cern ea engine cor,ceans
engines
-------
The estimated cost of development and recertifi-
cation efforts for compliance with the 1981
gaseous-emission standards is $82 million, and
the additional engine-hardware costs, to be in-
curred in 1981. are estimated to be $4.4 million.
The costs incurred in 1982 for compliance with
the 1981 standards are estimated to be $4.4
million for hardware ano $ 1.9 million for certifica-
tion for a total of $6.3 million. The 1981 standards
promulgated for piston-type aircraft are expected
to result in significant fuel savings: $36 million
ot’er 10 years. Credit for these savings has been
assumed at a uniform rate of $3.6 million per year
in estimating the cost of aircraft emission controls
for the 1981 to 1986 time period. Cumulative
national costs through 1 986 for aircraft emission
control are shown in the cost summary in Table 4.-
10.
UNREGULATED MOBILE SOURCE
EMISSIONS.
As stated in the Introduction, a number of mobile
sources are presently unregulated. These include:
railroad locomotives, marine engines, and offroad
farm, construct.on. and garden equipment.
Emission inventories have been performed on
many of these unregulated mobile sources.
As a general conclusion, most small-engined
mobile sources such as garden equipment, out-
board engines, and snowmobiles) each contribute
less than 1 percent of the total hydrocarbon and
carbon monoxide from mobile sources, and less
than 0.1 percent of the total nitrogen oxide (based
on 1970 data). While these percentages are in-
creasing as passenger cars and trucks come under
more stringent control, it would not appear to be
cost-effective to regulate these mobile sources
until some future time.
In a publication by HEW , it was estimated that
the total carbon monoxide emissions from railroad
locomotives in 1968 constituted about 1.6 per-
cent of the emissions from all transportation
sources. Percentages for hydrocarbon. total partic-
u(ates, and sulfur oxides were 1.8. 16.7, and 12.5.
respectively. At present. there are no prooosed
regulations for railroad locomotive exhaust
emissions.
50
-------
SUMMARY OF MOBILE SOURCE CONTROL COSTS
REFERENCES
“Revised Light Duty Truck Regulations for
1979 and Later Model Years”, Federal Reg-
ister, Vol. 4 1, No. 250, Tuesday, December
28, 1976.
2. “Certification and Test Procedures for
eavy-0uty Engines fdr 1979 and L3ter
Model Years”, Federal Register, Vol. 42,
No. 1 74, Thursday, September 8, 1 977.
3. “Decision of the Administrator on Remand
From the United States Court of Aopeals
for the District of Columbia Circuit on Ap-
plictions for Suspension of 1 975 Motor
Vehicle Exhaust Emission Standards.” U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Wash-
ington,D.C.,April 11,1973.
4. “Decision of the Administrator on Applica-
tons for Suspension oil 976 Motor Vehicle
Exhaust Emission Standards,” U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agenc’j, Washington,
D.C.. July 30, 197 3.
5. The Economics of C 4 ’eanAir,Annual Report
to Congress, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, March 1 972.
6. “Decision of the Administrator on Remand
from the United States Court of Appeals for
the District of Columbia Circuit on Applica-
tions for Suspension of 1 975 Motor Vehi-
cle Exhaust Emission Stan ards , U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, Washington,
D.C., April 11, 1973.
.The preceding cost estimates for light-duty vehi-
cles, light- and heavy-duty trucks, motorcycles and
aircraft source air poLlut4on controls are expressed
in July 1977 dollars. Table 4.-lO summarizes the
major cost estimates.
Table 4.-lO.
Estimated Total National Costs for Mobile Source
Emission Control, I 968—I 986
(in milflons oF 1977 dolLars)
h,ve tmsnt
P u.nqer C n
Uqiit-Cuty Truczs
‘4ecvy.Outy Injc u
Motorcydes
Amwóiz.d C oito1 Costs
P u.nq,r Cars
lgnt -Outy 7rucxs
tec vy.Outy Injcxs
MOIOI ’CyCI*S
‘_ ._l
Cpst’atinq ort MaintnG c. Costs
Posssnger Cots
Ugnt-Outy Truckt
)4sovy-DuPy Trijcits
Motorcycies ..
1977
1970—77
1977 —81
1977—86
2632.00
10308.09
14037.55
40523.63
250.00
1260.00
2520.00
4950.00
30.00
480.00
320.00
7 0.00
0.00
0.00
241.10
675.50
0.00
2.00
115.90
160.40
2912.00
12050.09
17234.55
49051.55
2424.23
7816.20
13000.75
45141.99
306.01
886.38
2092.15
7381.39
7.10
332.21
397.79
866.05
0.00
0.00
144.91
630.66
0.50
2.00
72.71
169.40
:737.a4
9036.79
16708.31
54227.54
2712.90
23155.05
8803.43
15723.51
360.00
1260.00
2740.00
10760.00
40.00
3170.00
. 890.00
11360.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
3112.90
29166.22
16438.43
3784.8.31
3137.13
32552.42
22809.18
60870.50
666.01
2146.38
.s832.15
18141.39
47.10
3502.21
5287.79
12236.05
0.00
0.00
144.91
650.66
0.50
2.00
72.71
169.40
5850.74
:3203.01
33146.74
92068.00
C.b n.d Annucflz.d Costs
Possrig.r Cats
1.1gm-Duty TrUGX*
l4eovy.Oury Trucxs
Asrcrafl..
Ta, l..
51
-------
7. “Decision of the Administrator on Applica-
tions for Suspension of 1976 Motor Vehi-
cle Exhaust Emission Standards,” U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, Wasnington,
D.C., July 30, 1973.
8. A Report on Automotive Fuel Economy,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Oc-
‘tober, 1973.
9. “Environmental Impact Statement-
Emission Standards For New Light Duty
Trucks”, report by Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Office of Mobile Source Air
Pollution ControL, November 29, 1 976.
10. “Economic Impact on Petroleum Refineries
of Lead Additive Phase-Down”, Final Re-
port to Environmental Protection Agency
by Sobotka and Company, Inc., October
29.1976.
11. Automobile Scrao Recycling: Processes
Prices and Prospects; James W. Sawyer,
Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press,
1974.
12. Nationwide Personal Transportations
Study, Report No. 2, Federal Highway Ad-
ministration, April, 1 972.
13. “Environmental Impact Statement and Eco-
nomic Impact Analysis-Revised Heavy-Duty
Engine Regulations for 1979 and Later
Model Years”, Report by Environmental
Protection Agency. Office of Mobile Source
Air Pollution Control, August 4, 1 977.
14. “Certification and Test Procedures for New
Motorcycles”, Federal Register. Vol. 42,
No. 3. Wednesday, January 5, 1 977.
15. “Environmental and Economic Impact
StatementExhaust and Crankcase Regula-
tions for the 1978 and Later Model Year
Motorcycles”, Repor by Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Mobile
Sources Air Pollution Control, December
14,1976.
16. “Control of Air Pollution From Aircraft and
Aircraft Engines, Emission Standards and
Test Procedures for Aircr,aft,” Federal Reg-
ister, Vol. 38, No. 1 36, Tuesday, July’ 1 7,
1973.
17. “Control of Air Pollution From Aircraft and
Aircraft Engines”. Federal Register, Vol. 4 ,
No. 159, Monday, August 16, 1976.
18. “Control of Air Pollution From Aircraft and
Aircraft Engines, Amendment to Stan-
dards,” Federal Register, Vol. 43, No. 58,
Friday, March 24. 1978.
19. Aircraft Emissions: Impact on Air Quality
and Feasibility of Control, U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency.
20. Cost estimates Provided by R. Sampson,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Ann Arbor, Michigan.
21. “The Economic Impact of Revised Gaseous
Emission Regulations for Commercial Air-
craft Engines, Report to Environmental Pro-
tection Agency by Logistics Management
Institute under EPA Contract No.
68—01—4647 (Task EP7O ’l) , January 1 978.
22. Nationwide Invenroni of Air Pollutant Emis-
sions— 1968, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Public Health Ser-
vice, Environmental Health Service, Na-
tional Air Pollution Control Acministration ,
Publication No. AP-73, August 1970.
52
-------
5. CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
For the purposes of this report, the Chemicals
Industries are defined as those establishments
which manufacture products primarily by chemi-
cal modifications of raw materials and for which
the final product is a chemical.
Those included are the:
• Petrochemicals Industry
• Vinyl Chloride tndustry
• Nitric Acid Industry
• Sulfuric Acid Industry
• Phosphate Fertilizer Industry
• Nonfertilizer Phosphorus industry
• Mercury Cell Chior-Alkali Industry
Costs for the abatement of air pollution for these
industries are summarized in Table 5.-Li These
costs and other data are repeated below in the
appropriate section togetner with the assumptions
peculiar to the industrial sector and other details.
TABLI S.-l. AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS FOR THE
CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOUJ,RS)
INVESTMENT
INDUSTRY
PETROcHEMICALS , —
vw ’rL CHt.OR OE ._...
1977
4.47
79.39
1970-77
27.63
87.47
1977-al
9.27
18l. 2
1977-ao
22.06
235.
NITRIC ACID ......... . . . . . .. .. .. ......
3.98
34.34
3.26
4.80
SULFURIC *CI0 .. ..
PHCSPHATE FERTIUZER
72. 58
0.0
499.05
0.0
14.4.27
0.0
325.92
0.0
MON-FERT1UZER PHOSPHATES ..
1.00
7.31
1.97
3.79
MERCURY-CELL C}ILOR.AU(AU .. . .... .. ........
1.97
163.38
18.32
674.51
1.13
341.08
1.18
394.32
TOTAL INVESTMENT...... ....._..__...._... ....
ANNUAL COSTS
1977
PETROcHEMICALS.... ...... .. .. .. . . .....
VINYL CHLORIDL...... . ........................... ...... ..:
NITRIC ACID .._..
SULFURIC ACID .. ..
29.21
27.44
12.99
131.39
PHOSPHATE FERTIUZER .. .. ..
NON - ERTIUZER PHOSPHATES ..
M&CURY.C!LL cHLOR.A AU
0.0
1.56
8.24
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS 211.01
1970-77
1977—81
1977—86
94.74
142.72
276.13
29.97
296.05
765.72
44.91
56.33
121.26
433.89
646.93
1386.17
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.17
7.37
16.12
28.83
33.05
71.32
53
-------
5.1 PETROCHEMICALS INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
In estimating air emission control costs associated
with the petrochemical industry, the production of
the following major large-volume petrochemicals
was considered:
• Formaldehyde
• Acryionitrile
• Ethylene oxide
• Phthalic arihydride.
Ethylene dichloriae. formerly considered in this
sector, is now included in the vinyl chloride sector.
A major air-pollution problem in the petrochemical
industry is the emission of hydrocarbons and car-
bon monoxide via off-gases produced in oxidation
processes. The petrochemicals involved in this
problem include not only oxygen-containing com-
pounds. such as oxides, aldehydes, and anhy-
drides , but also compounds in which oxygen
srves an intermediate role in the synthesis, such
as acrylonitrile. In a typical process of this type, the
raw material, air (sometimes oxygen), and some-
times a third reactant are fed into a vapor-phase
catalytic oxidation reactor. The reactor effluent
gases go to an absorber in which the desired
product is scrubbed out. The off-gas from this
absorber, which is vented to the atmosphere, con-
tains mostly nitrogen and carbon dioxide, but
smaller amounts of carbon monoxide and uncort-
vetted hydrocarbons are also present.
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde is synthesized by oxidation of meth-
anol with air and is sold as an aqueous solution (37
percent by weight). Two processes are used, one
based on a metal oxide catalyst and one based on
a silver catalyst; aoout 77 percent of the domestic
formaldehyde production uses the silver process
and the other 23 percent uses the metal oxide
process.
Production in 1974 as reported by the Tariff Com-
mission, was aoout 2.6 billion kilograms (5.8
biliion pounds) of 37 percent formaldehyde.
Growth is due primarily to increased demand for
urea-formaldehycie and phenol-formaldehyde re-
sins. which consume about half of all the formalde-
hyde produced.
Acrylonitrile
Ammoxidation of propylene, the most widely prac-
ticed method for producing acrylonitrile, consists
of the catalytic reaction of propylene, ammonia,
and air. Typically, the gaseous products from the
oxidation chamber are passed to an absorber
where the acrylonitrile is collected. The off-gas
from the absorber is normally vented to the atmo-
sphere. a process which is largely uncontrolled at
present.
Production in 1974 as reported by the Tariff Corn.
mission, was about 640 million kilograms (1.4
billion pounds). Growth is due primarily to in-
creased demand for acrylic fibers, which consume
about half of all the acrylonitrile produced, and for
plastics, which consume another 1 5 percent of
total production.
Ethylene Oxide
In recent years, the dominant process for manufac-
turing ethylene oxide has become the direct oxida-
tion of ethylene. There are four processes used for
ethylene oxide manufacture by direct oxidation
and all use a silver catalyst. Two of the processes
oxidize with oxygen, the others use air. The proc-
esses which oxidize with oxygen are similar except
that usually only a primary reactor and absorber
are used. Compared to the processes which use
air, the processes which use oxygen produce
much less absorber gas but much more carbon
dioxide-rich purge gas.
Phthalic Anhydride
Phthalic anhydride is produced by the oxidation of
o-xyelene or naphthalene: about 55 percent of the
phthalic anhydride is produced from o-xylene. This
process is expected to gain an increasing share of
industrial production because o-xylene is ess ex-
pensive than naphthalene.
A number of processes are available for producing
phthalic anrydride. Most of the naphthalene-
based processes use fluidized-bed reactors,
whereas all o -xylene-based processes use tubular
fixed-bed reactors. Except for the reactors and the
catalyst-handling facilities required for the
fluidized-bed units, the processes based on the
two raw materials are quite similar. In both cases,
the reactor effluent gases are used to generate
54
-------
Petr ci,amicaj
Table 5.1.1
Petrochem cais industry
Calculated Emission Factors in the
Absence of Controls
(Kilograms Emitted Per 1O Kilograms of Product)
steam in a waste heat boiler. The gases then go to
a separation system in which the phthalic anhy-
dride is condensed out as solid crystals. The con-
denser effluent gases are ultimately vented to the
atmosphere, although in most plants they are first
water-scrubbed or incinerated.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Atmospheric emissions arising from petrochemi-
cal production result from venting off-gases from
the absorber. The chief air pollutants are hydrocar-
bons and carbon monoxide. Corresponding emis-
sion factors for these pollutants as a function of
production volume are given in Table 5.1—1.
Control Technology and Costs
The control technology judged to be most feasible
for control of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide
emissions from the manufacture of petrochemi-
cals is thermal incineration (often referred to as
afterburning). Thermal incinerators were consid-
ered in place of catalytic incinerators because of
the latter’s higher initial investment costs and re-
quirement for catalyst replacement costs. The in-
vestment costs for thermal incinerators was based
on a compilation of costs by the Midwest Research
Institute (MRI), which considered the purchase
cost of a thermal incinerator plus the heat exchan-
ger in which the effluent gases heat up the influent
gases. These costs were inflated to mid-i 973 us-
ing tfle Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index and
were found to compare closely with investment
data provided in a recent report by Houdry on
acrylonitrile. Annual costs were calculated from
utility (fuel and power) requirements, annual main-
tenance, and operating labor.
Industry costs for air pollution abatement are pro-
vided in Table 5.1—2.
TABLE 5.1—2. PETROC}4EMICAL INDUSTRY AiR POLLUTiON CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS 4.47
ALL ANNUAL COSTS 29.21
MOTE COSTS SHOWN POP YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST CF HE FIRST YEAR TC jUNE 20TH CF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NO1E ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COM8INATICN CF (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION ANO 121 INTSRE ST.
Forn,aiàehvc. (37 e ,
Ac s en,mi.
Et+’ylene ,x;de
Phtqiic anflyaeae
West. Gas Streams
Absarøeq ‘vent 7.33
Abser er vent 163.42
A sar ev ‘vent — CO., purge 0.00
Abseraer ‘vent 162.46
Hvvsrocarbons SO, as SC- )
324
183.96
110.47
42.96
5.03
1977
MEW PLANTS
TOTAL
ANNUAUZ D COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
NEW PLANTS
TOTAL
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
NEW PLANTS
CUMULATIVE PERJCDS
1977—31
3.47
5.90
937
14.61
1.26
1977—36
3.47
18. 58
22.06
22.58
9.10
0.0
4.47
2.25
0.0
3.25
23.96
0.0
23.96
1970 77
27.63
0.0
27.63
10.63
0.0
10.63
84.11
0.0
34.11
94. 74
15.97 41.98
115.68
11.07
259.64
7 .53
126.75 334.17
142.72
376. .5
55
-------
5.2 VINYL CHLORIDE
Description of Sector
This sector of the chemical industry is delineated
by processes from which vinyl chloride is emitted
to the atmosphere. The products of sucfi proc-
esses include:
• Ethylene dichloride (EDC) manufactured by
oxychlorination
• Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM)
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• Copolyrners of PVC.
Vinyl chloride is produced in the United States by
two methods: the addition of hydrogen chloride to
acetylene and the dehydrochiorination of ethylene
dichioride. Only two plants in the United States
use the first methoc.
Ethylene dich/oride is also produced by two me-
thods: the catalytic chlorination of ethylene with
chlorine and the oxychlorination of ethylene with
hydrogen chloride and oxygen.
The major use for ethylene dichtonde in the United
States is in the production of vinyl chloride. It is
usually convenient and economical to manufac-
ture both products in the same plant in a balanced
operation in which part of the ethylene dichloride
requirement for the plant is produced by the chlori-
nation of ethylene with chlorine. After purification.
the ethylene dichloride is converted to vinyl chlo-
ride and hydrogen chloride in a cracking furnace
operating at about 510 C (950 F) (dehydrochiorin-
ation of ethylene dichtoride). Hydrogen chloride is
recovered and recycled to an oxychlorination
process for the conversion of additional ethylene
to additional ethylene dichloride (oxychlorination
of ethylene). In this manner, essentially all of the
chlorine that is used eventually winds up in vinyl
chloride.
Polyvinyl chloride (and copolymers) is produced
by the catalyzed polymerization of vinyl chloride
(and comonomørs).
Four types of processes are used in the United
States to effect this polymerization. These proc.
esses and the percentage of total U.S. capacity
each represented in 1973 are as follows: suspen-
sion polymerization (78 percent), dispersion or
emulsion polymerization (13 percent), bulk polym-
erization (8 percent). and solution polymerization
(3 percent).
The production of ethylene dichloride, vinyl chlo-
ride, and polyvinyl chloride was 1.15, 0.91, and
0.83 million metric tons (1.27, 1.0 and 0.91 mil-
lion short tons), respectively, in 1965. By 1974
these had grown to 4.2, 2.60. and 2. 1 5 million
metric tons (4.6. 2.9, and 2.4 million short tons).
Growth of the production of these chemicals is
projected to continue at an average annual rate of
approximately 3.5 percent. This report and its
estimations of air-pollution control costs are based
on the current regulations for controlling vinyl
chloride emissions. It is not believed that meeting
these regulations will have a particularly adverse
impact on the production of polyvinyl chloride and
its precursors. However, if certain contemplated
control regulations are promulgated, such as zero
discharge of vinyl chloride emissions from all es-
tablishments, the costs may be higher.
Description of Pollution and Controls
The primary air pollutant of concern in the manu-
facture of ethylene dichloride (by oxychiorination),
vinyl chloride, arid polyvinyl chloride is vinyl chlo-
ride monomer (VCM). When VCM is incinerated as
a means of control, hydrogen chloride becomes a
by-product air pollutant.
Regulations
Emissions of vinyl chloride have been recently
regulated as a hazardous air pollutant under Sec-
tion 112 of the Clean Air Act, as amended. The
standard, as promulgated and published in the
Federal Register (4 1 FR46560—46573. October
21, 1976). is designed to minimize vinyl chloride
emissions to the level attainable with best avail-
able control technology. The limitations are sum-
marized in Table 5.2—1.
The contributions of vinyl chloride emissions from
the uncontrolled sources in an EDC-VCM plant are
shown in Table 5.2—2.
56
-------
EOC formation and purification
10 ppm
VCM formqtion nd purification
Qryclilorinanon pfoceu
Rand valve aisciicrges
0.01 gikg
0.2 gikg
Of iibit.d*
‘0.02 ‘b toni
0.4 bitonj DC
Manual venting or gos.s
p i on it.o
P 1 4 iilo,ide iant
10 pan’
Epuigm.nt thraugn Urtpper
Eoui Sment fo llowing nnpper
2000 ppm
400 ppm
(dis .rs , suts4
(all other revn
Reactor oaening,
0.02 gikg
(0.04 bltonl PVC
ajiarge
pronibit,d
Mqnuøl venting of gases
Tti 4. 5.2.-2.
Unc ,..,.ft..1I.d Sourc.t a# Vinyl C3derid,
Emissions in VCM P educnon
of Uncontrolled
5iniuiona at Average
Rmiuion Source
V ’w,yi d iorjd. formation
and unficouon
Fugitiva nninion sources
Ethylene dictilorid. purification
Oxyctilotinanon reoctaf
The best available control technology for balanced
EDC-VCM plants involves the collection and incin-
eration of all emissions from the formation and
purification of vinyl chloride and ethylene dichlo-
ride (by oxychlorination and the control of fugitive
emission sources. Fugitive emissions can be con-
trailed by the use ot
• multipoint and portable detectors.
• control systems on sampling and transfer
operations.
• collection header systems to connect
equipment undergoing maintenance or in-
spection to either the monomer recovery
system orto an add-on control device.
• rupture discs and pressure gauges prior to
safety discharge valves on pressure ves-
sels, and
• dual mechanical seals on pumps and
compressors.
It is anticipated that fugitive emissions can be
reduced by 90 percent by applying these above
measures in the typical plant. Incineration should
reduce emissions from the other sources by at
least 95 percent.
Polyvinyl chloride is produced by suspension (78
percent), dispersion or emulsion (13 percent). bulk
(6 percent), and solution (3 percent) polymeriza-
tion processes. The percentages tefer to 1 973
capacity. The contributions of various emission
sources to total emissions of vinyl chloride differ
somewhat from process to pr cess, but the break-
down shown in Table 5.2—3 for the dispersion
process is generally typic3l for other processes:
T b4. 5.2—3.
Uncon,r 4led Sources of Vinyl Chloride
Emissem,. in PVC Preaucues, (dhs orstsa procnss)
Total Uncontr iled
!n ,lssiont a? Average
Emission Source Plant, Percent
Sources following smoper
Stnocer
Fugitive emissions sources
Monom.r recovery system
Reiief vo ve aiscnorge
Reacroq opening
Total
Slurry blend tanks, concentrators, dryeri, bulk storage, etc.
The best available control technology for PVC
plants varies somewhat with the type of process.
For all processes, fugitive emissions can generally
be controlled through containment, capture, and
ducting of emissions to a control system, and early
leak detection and repair. Losses on opening
equipment can be reduced by using water to dis-
place VCM to a control system before opening the
equipment. Reactor relief valve discharges can
generally be eliminated by chemically short-
stopping the polymerization reaction or manually
venting gases to a recovery system. Strippers are
used to remove vinyl chloride from the polymer,
and carbon adsorption systems can be used to
recover the monomerfrom the stripper.
Improved stripper effectiveness solves most of the
emissions problems in oPerations that follow the
stripper, including emissions of VCM in PVC fabri-
cation operations, although incineration with
scrubbing to remove HCI is an alternative control
strategy. Emission control effected by the stripper,
however, is not uniformly applicable to all Proc.
esses. Current technology is available to strip the
majority of resins except dispersion resins to 400
ppm or lower. Dispersion resins, however, are
sensitive to the high temperatures used in strip-
ping other resins, but they can be stripped effec-
tively to 2,000 ppm. Most of the remaining VCM is
removed from dispersion resins in the drying
process.
Suspension resins and dispersion resins are po-
lymerized in water and are ultimately blended in
water slurry. This water contains some vinyl chlo-
ride, which can be removed by steam distillation.
No water is involved in the bulk polymerization
Tdel. Z.2 —l.
Vinyl Ch$nejd, Emiesior, ljmjt,ti
E h ien . dicisloride-vtnyl cnloride aiants VnylC jori .
• Exceot under emergency condi tions
23
8
38
12
5
4
100
54
27
11
S
100
57
-------
process, so this emission source does not exist for .arld accounts for only about 3 percent of
the bulk process. However, this process accounts production
for only about 6 percent of U.S. PVC produátion.
No consideration is given here to the solution Industry costs for jr-pollution abatement in the
process which is pracncs by only one company period 1970—1986areprov.ided in Table 5.2—4.
TABLE 5.2-4. VINYL CHLORIDE INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1970—77 . 1977—81 977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS ...... ... ............ ..... .. . 71.00 71.00 144.14 144.14
NEW PLANTS ............. ... _.._... 8.39 16.48 36.88 91.43
TOTAL ..._........ .... _ 79.39 87.47 181.02 233.57
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUM CAPiTAL
EXiSTING PLANTS .. 11.55 11.33 128.13 303.21
NEW Pi .ANTS ....... .... . .. ........ 2.68 4.00 23.43 9343
_...................... . . ... 14.24 13.53 153.60 396.74
O&M
EXISTING PLANT S.. ......__........ . . . . ._— __....... 10.70 10.73 118.98 281.52
NEW PLANTS ._..... 2.47 3.69 23.47 87.45
TOTA l. 13.20 14.41 142.45 368.98
ALL ANNUAL 29.97 296.05
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTW.
NOTE: ANNUM CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMIINAT 1ON OF: (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECiATION AND (2) INTEREST.
58
-------
5.3 NITRIC ACID INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of ammo-
nium nitrate and in numerous other chemical proc-
esses. Ammonium nitrate, which is used both as a
fertilizer and in explosives, accounts for about 80
percent of the nitric acid consumption. Nitric acid
is produced by oxidation of ammonia, followed by
absorption of the reaction products in dilute acid
solution. Most nitric acid plants in the United
States are designed to manufacture acid with a
concentration of 55 to 65 percent, which may
subsequently be dehydrated to produce 99 per-
cent acid.
At the beginning of 1974, 46 private companies
operated 76 nitric acid plants in the contiguous 48
states, in addition to seven plants operated for the
U.S. Government by five companies. These
government-owned plants are included in cost es-
timates as part of the nitric acid industry by inflat-
ing the private costs by 10 percent Nearly all nitric
acid produced in the United States is for captive
consumption.
Emissions Sources and Pollutants
Nitrogen oxides, the primary pollutants of concern
in the production of nitric acid, are emitted in the
tail-gas from absorption towers. Numerous varia-
tions on the basic nitric acid production process
affect both the emissions and the difficulty of
control. Two of the more important variables are
the amount of excess oxygen present in the ab-
sorption tower and the pressure under which the
absorption tower operates. Many plants practice
partial pollution abatement (decolorization) in ac-
cordance with focal regulatory agencies. Under
this practice, the highly visible reddish-brown ni-
trogen dioxide is converted to colorless nitric ox-
ide. Although visible emissions are reduced, the
practice does nothing to prevent emission of nitro-
gen oxides to the atmosphere.
Emissions from nitric acid plants consist of the
oxides of nitrogen in concentrations of about 3,-
700 ppm nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide, and
minute amounts of nitric acid mist. Emissions from
nitric acid plants are typically in the order of 25 kg
nitrogen oxides per metric ton (50 pounds per
short ton) of 100 percent acid produced.
Control Technology and Costs
Catalytic reduction with natural gas is a feasible
and proven control technology used in nitric acid
plants both here and abroad. The absorber tail-gas
is mixed with 38 percent excess natural gas and
passed over a platinum or palladium catalyst. Cata-
lytic reduction with ammonia or h ’drogen has the
advantage of being seiective in the sense that only
the nitrogen oxides are reduced. However, in addi-
tion to higher costs, reduction with ammonia re-
quires close temperature control to prevent the
reformation of nitrogen oxides at higher tempera-
tures or the formation of explosive ammonium
nitrate at lower temperatures.
Table 5.3—i shows the cost of air-pollution abate-
ment in the period 1970—1986.
59
-------
TABLE 5.3-1. NITRIC ACiD INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTiON CONTROL COSTS
(IN M 1WONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
C1JMUI.AT1VE PERIODS
1977 9 70 —77 977—81 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS............. .. ......_..._ 3.98 34.34 2.37 2.37
NEW PLANTS _........._ * _. . . _.. 0.0 0.0 0.89 2.43
3.98 34.3.4 3.26 4.30
ANNUAJJ D COSTS
ANNUAl. CAPITAL
EXISTING PI.A$TS ................ 5.29 18.27 22.60 42.55
HEW p1 1T5 ...._.___........__.._ 0.0 0.0 0.27 1.67
IOTA ... 5.29 18.27 22.38 44.21
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS...... .... _.... 7.71 26.63 33.03 74.31
P48W PLANTS ...._............. _ _ . .. . . .. 0.0 0.0 0.4.5 2.74
TOTAL __ . .. ..... 7.71 26.63 33.48 77.05
ALL ANNUM COSTS....... .. . .. - . 12.99 44.91 56.35 121.26
NCTE CCSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30Th OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
N0TE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMSINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECiATION AND (21 INTEREST.
60
-------
5.4 SULFURiC ACID INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
About half of the sulfuric acid produced in the
United States is used in the manufacture of phos-
phate fertilizers; the rest is used in myriad indus-
trial applications ranging from steel pickling to
detergent manufacturing.
Sulfuric acid is manufactured by chemical compa-
nies and by companies primarily engaged in smelt-
ing nonferrous metals; both sources compete for
the same buyers. Nevertheless, the sulfuric acid
manufactured by the smelter industry is primarily
a byproduct resulting from the control efforts to
reduce sulfur dioxide emissions to the atmo-
sphere. and secondarily, as an attempt to generate
additional revenue. For the purposes of this report.
smelter produced acid is considered to be part of
the smelter industry rather than the sulfuric acid
industry.
The major products of the sulfuric acid industry
are concentrated sulfuric acid (93 to 99 percent)
and oleum. A few sulfuric acid plants associated
with the fertilizer industry produce less-
concentrated grades of acid. Essentially, all sul-
furic acid in the United States is produced by the
contact process, less than 0.4 percent being
produced by the older chamber process.
In sulfur-burning plants, sulfuric acid is produced
by burning elemental sulfur with dry air in a fur-
nace to produce sulfur dioxide. The latter is cata-
lytically converted to sulfur trioxide. The hot con-
verter effluent is cooled and introduced to an
absorption tower where the sulfur trioxide is ab-
sorbed in a sulfuric acid solution to form more
sulfuric acid by its reaction with water.
Some plants (including spent-acid plants and
smelter-gas plants) operate on the same principle
as sulfur-burning plants, except that the sulfur
dioxide is obtained from the combustion of spent
acid and hydrogen sulfide or from smelter off-gas.
In these plants, the sulfur-bearing gas is dried with
sulfuric acid and cleaned (subjected to particulate
and mist removal process) before introduction to
the acid plant.
Of the known 183 sulfuric acid plants operating in
1971, 167 were contact process plants and 16
were chamber process plants. Of the 25.5 million
metric tons (22.1 million short tons) of new sul-
furi’c acid produced. 25.3 million metric tons (27.9
million short tons) were in contact process plants.
This volume of production included sulfuric acid
produced by the sulfuric acid industry (as defined
in this report) and by the smelter industry. In 1974,
58 companies operated sulfur-burning or wet-
process contact acid plants in 1 34 locations, and
1 8 companies operated smelter acid plants in 23
locations. In addition, five companies operated
small chamber-acid plants in five locations. A total
of 25 thousand metric tons (27,564 short tons) of
new acid was produced from elemental sulfur in
1974.
Emissions Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from sulfuric acid plants consist of sul-
fur dioxide gases and sulfuric acid mist. These
pollutants evolve from incomplete conversion of
sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in the converter.
and from the formation of a stable mist consisting
of minute particles of sulfuric acid that resist ab-
sorption in the acid absorber.
Control Technology and Casts
The controlled emission factors for existing facili-
ties for 1976 are as specified by the S 1P ’s; new
source values were assumed to apply to both
existing and new facilities in 1980.
In sulfuric acid plants using the two-stage or dual
absorption control process. the gas from the first
acid absorber is initially heated (sometimes remov-
ing the mist) and then sent through a single-stage
converter wnere the sulfur dioxide is converted to
sulfur trioxide. The gas from the converter is then
sent to an absorber and a demister before release
to the atmospnere.
Dual adsorption has reliably met EPA standards of
performance for new and modified sources in
applications of two types of sulfuric acid plants
(sulfur-burning and wet gas) of all sizes. In addition
to controlling sulfur dioxide emissions, the dual
absorption method offers the added advantage of
not requiring new operational skills on the part of
acid plant operators. This control technology has
b een used in computing the sulfur dioxide control
costs for all new and existing sulfuric acid plants.
61
-------
Table 5.4—1 shows nonsmelter control costs for in smelters may saturate local markets, but will not
total annualized expenditures and investment re- affect primary sulfuric acid markets because of the
guirements. The increase in sulfuric acid produced cost of transportation.
TABLE 5.4—1, SULFURIC AOD INDUSTRY MR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMUI.AT1VE PER)ODS
1970—77 1977—81 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXS ’TING P4T5.. ............... .. ........ ....... 47.00 441.76 28.20 28.20
NEW PLAP.fl ’S ............... . ..... __.. . .. 25.58 57.29 116.07 297.72
TOTAl. . ... .... . . .................. ... 72.58 499.03 144.27 325.92
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PLANTS.. ._.... .......... 68.01 237.67 289.42 3.42.33
NEW PLANTS . . 8.82 18.51 78.85 288.61
— ...__.._._.,.._._...__.__.. — 76.84 256.18 365.27 830.94
O&M
EXISTiNG PLANTS . , . .............. 45.00 157.25 191.49 430.86
NEW PLANTS....... ............ ................____ ......._. 9.75 20.46 37.16 324.38
...__ . _._ . . .. —_...... 54.75 177.71 278.66 753.24
All. ANNUAL COSTS................. ....................... 131.59 433.89 646.93 1386.17
NOTE C3S”S SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATiON OF (1) STRMGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
62
-------
5.5 PHOSPHATE FERTILiZER INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The major products of the phosphate fertilizer
industry are ammonium phosphates, triple super-
phosphate, normal superphosphate. and granular
mixed fertilizers. Phosphoric acid and superphos-
phoric acid are intermediate products.
Alt phosphate fertilizers are processed from
ground phosphate rock treated with sulfuric acid
to produce either normal superpnosphate or wet-
process phosphoric acid. A phosphoric acid inter-
mediate may then be reacted with ammonia to
produce diammononium phosphate and other am-
monium phosphates, or reacted with ground phos-
phate rock to manufacture triple superphosphate.
Superphosphoric acid, produced by dehydration
of wet-process phosphoric acid, is used in prepar-
ing some mixed fertilizers. Granular mixed fertiliz-
ers are made from either normal superphosphate
or triple superphosphate, with ammonia and pot-
ash. Bulk-blended mixed fertilizers and liquid
mixed fertilizers are manufactured by physically
mixing particles of other fertilizer components.
Bulk blending and liquid mixing processes are not
major sources of air pollution and are not consid-
ered in estimating the industry abatement cost.
The phosphate fertilizer industry is characterized
by a number of large, modern efficient plants
located near the source of raw materials. In gener-
al, these plants manufacture the more concen-
trated forms of fertilizer, diammonium phosphate
(DAP) and triple superphosphate (TSP). These in-
dustries are found particularly in Florida.
Smaller plants, located near the retail markets,
manufacture the less concentrated forms: granu-
lated mixed fertilizer (NPK) and normal super-
phosphate (NSP). The smaller NSP, NPK, and bulk-
blend plants are located in the farming states. At
the beginning of 1973, there were 33 DAP plants,
13 TSP plants, 45 NSP plants, and 344
ammoniation-granulation (NPK) plants. In addition,
about 5,000 bulk-blending plants were operating
in 1973.
Due to the seasonal demand for fertilizer, many
plants manufacturing NSP and NPK operate only a
portion of the year. in contrast, those plants manu-
facturing DAP and TSP generally operate year-
round.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from phosphate fertilizer processing
plants are mainly fluorides (in the form of hydro-
gen fluoride and silicon tetrafluoride) and particu-
lates. Fluorides are generated in the processes of
acidulation of phosphate rock which contains cal-
cium fluoride.
In the phosphate fertilizer industry, particulate em-
issions of significance originate from: phosphate
rock grinding; TSP manufacture; DAP production;
NSP manufacture; and NPK bulk-blending and
granulation plants.
In phosphate rock processing, particulate emis-
sions are issued from the drying, grinding, and
transfer processes. The emission factors for these
processesare 7.5, 10,and 1 kg permetricton(15,
20, and 2 pounds per snort ton) of rock
respectively.
In granular TSP production, particulate emissions
may originate from a number of points in the
process. Most of the particulates are given off in
the drying and product-classification processes.
The off-gas from the reactor (in which phosphate
rock is acidulated with phosphoric acid) and the
blunger (in which the reactor effluent is mixed with
recycled product fines to produce a paste) may
account for a considerable percentage of the total
particulates emitted.
Particulate emissions from DAP manufacture origi-
nate mainly from the granulator and the dryer. It
has been estimated that the total emissions
amount to approximately 20 kg per metric ton (40
pounds per short ton) of product from both
sources.
Emissions from the manufacture of run-of-pile NSP
originate from both the acidulation and “denning”
processes. Although the emission factors for par-
ticulates are not known, they are estimated to be in
the order of 5 kg per metric ton (10 pounds per
short ton).
The NPK or granulation plants manufacture a vari-
ety of products. Many emission factors probably
63
-------
will apply for this class of fertilizer plant. In fixing
the emission factors, these plants are assumed to
employ an ammoniation-granulation process sirni-
lar to that used in the DAP process, or approxi-
mately 20 kg of particulates per metric ton of
product (40 pounds per short ton).
The emission factors for particulates are high in
the TSP, DAP, and NPK plants. The bulk of these
emissions in all three processes originates from,
the granulation process. There is a strong eco-
nomic incentive to reduce these emissions since
they contain valuable products and in many cases
are associated with ammonia vapors (from the
ammoniation process), whose recovery is an eco-
nomic necessity.
Control Technology and Costs
Most of the phosphate rock of higher available
phosphorus pentoxide content is ground and ben-
eficiated to enhance its reactivity and to eliminate
some of the impunties. The particulate emissions
from the grinding and screening operations may
be controlled effectively by baghouses in which
the dust is deposited on mechanically cleaned
fabric filters. The dust-laden gas from the rock-
drying (and perhaps defluorination) operations
may first pass through a cyclone and then through
a wet scrubber such as a venturi). The efficiency
of this combination snould be better than 99
percent
Particulate and fluoride emissions from phosphate
fertilizer plants traditionally have been removed
from gaseous waste streams by wet scrubbing.
While efforts have been directed at removing fluo-
rides, up to 99 percent of the particulates are
simultaneously removed. Wet scrubbers of vary-
ing efficiencies have been used for this double
purpose. The fluoride and particulate-laden scrub-
ber water is usually disposed of in a gypsum pond.
For control of particulate emissions from granular
TSP plants, it is assumed that various wet scrub-
bers will be provided for a number of gaseous
waste streams. The effluent from the reactor-
granulator is assumed to be scrubbed in two
stages, first by a cyclone and second by a cross-
flow packed scruober. The gases from the drier
and cooler are assumed to be scrubbed in venturi-
type packed scrubbers. Waste gases from storage
of the granular product are usually scrubbed in a
cyclone scrubber, although some plants use
packed scnibbers. The scrubbing liquid used in aD
scrubbers is assumed to be recycled pond water
except for the first-stage scrubbing of gases from
the reactor-granulator, where weak phosphoric
acid is used and recycled to the reactor.
In DAP plants, control of particulates is assumed to
be achieved for gaseous streams originating from
the reactor-granulator. the drier, and the cooler,
together with combined gaseous streams ventilat-
ing such solids-processing equipment as eleva-
tors, screens, and loading and unloading. Two-
stage scrubbing is assumed to be employed for
each of the streams listed. The first stage is as-
sumed to consist of a cyclone scrubber; the scrub-
bing medium is diluted phosphoric acid (30 per-
cent) for purposes of recovering ammonia and the
product. Most of the particulate matter is assumed
to be removed in the first stage. and the balance in
the second stage consisting of a cross-flow
packed scrubber in which recycled pond water is
used as the scrubbing medium.
It is assumed that only run-of-pile normal super-
phosphate is produced in NSP plants. A cyclone
scrubber often is employed in removing particu-
lates in gaseous streams originating from the
reactor-pugmill, den, and curing operations.
An ammoniation-granulation process is assumed
for NPK plants. Cyclones are normally installed
ahead of primary scrubbers. The primary scrubber
(typically employing dilute phosphoric acid as a
scrubbing medium) is considered an integral part
of the process in which valuable reactants (amm-
onia) and the product are recovered.
Cross-flow scrubbers have been used in estimat-
ing costs of controlling emissions of both particu-
lates and fluorides. Most of the control technolo-
gies described above have been applied for more
than a decade. Wet scrubbers of varying efficien-
cies have been integral parts of many phosphate
fertilizer processes. The collection of waste gas-
eous streams and the removal of fluorine com-
pounds from these streams has long been prac-
ticed to protect the health and safety of process
operating personnel. Collection of particuiete ma-
terials from those waste gaseous streams is dic-
tated by economic necessity because valuable
products are involved.
Because of the widespread use of control devices
as a part of industry processes, no costs are attrib-
utable to air pollution regulations. The USEPA has
issued guidelines (Fed. Regis., March 1,1977) by
which the States are to control fluoride emissions.
Depending on tne States’ actions, costs may ac-
crue in the future due to this regulatory action.
64
-------
5.6 NONFERT L1ZER PHOSPHORUS INDUSTRY
Pyoduction Characteristics and Capacities
In 1973. 21 plants were engaged in producing
elemental phosphorus, defluorinated phosphates
(DFP). and calcium phosphates (Dical). The com-
bined capacity of these plants was approximately
4,800 metric tons per day or 1.6 miflion metric
tons per year (5,300 short tons per day or 1.8
million short tons per year) (P 2 0 5 equivalent) in
1973. Ten plants producing elemental phospho-
rus account for over 60 percent of the total capac-
ity involved in producing norifertilizer phosphates.
A summary of model plant size distributions and
capacities for the three products is provided in
Table 6.6—1.
The production of industrial phosphorus and
phosphate-containing animal feeds begins with
thermal and/or chemical processing of phosphate
rock. Phosphates that are suitable as additives to
feeds may result from the direct defluorinatjon of
phosphate rock, defluorination of phosphoric acid
from wet-process acid, or by use of furnace acid
(made from elemental phosphorus, which is essen-
tially defluorinated when it is produced by thermal
reduction of phosphate rock). The production of
feed-grade phosphates by conversion of elemen-
tal phosphorus is expected to decl ne because of
the energy requirements of the thermal reduction
of phosphate rock. Decreased production by this
process will be compensated for by increased
production from wet process acids, so the overall
production of feed-grade phosphates will increase
at an annual rate of approximately 4 percent. Cur-
rent production is estimated to be about 90 per-
cent of capacity.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Atmospheric emissions from the manufacture of
defluorinated phosphates are primarily fluorides
and particulates. Gaseous fluorides are released
during the thermal and/or chemical reduction of
phosphate rock with the major point of emissions
in feed preparation. Emission factors may be as
high as 33 kilograms of fluorine per metric ton (66
pounds per short ton) of phosphorus processed.
Tobi. 5.6—1.
P4on .øiliz.v PI sp4n $es Industry
Pts.W Ceu.cify 0is*V b4IfiSt
(in e.tvic t.4 s/d y with ih. t t.. s/døy in pa.enø .s.s.
P 2 0 5 .quivQinnt)
Caoccitv
54 (60)
217 (239)
649 (715)
31 (34)
93 (1031
125 (1 8)
386 (425)
54 (60)
200 220)
580 (639)
N .
P )ant
3
4
3
10
4
4
I
7
21
Total
C aacst
162 (179)
867 (956)
1,948 (2,147)
2.977 (3,282)
31 (34)
93 (103)
123 (138)
386 (425)
633 (700)
216 (240)
400 440)
580 (639)
1,196 (1,319)
4,808 (5,300)
P. rcent
Grouo flâuSt1y
5 3
29 18
66 41
100 62
S nil
15 2
20 3
60 8
100 14
18 5
33 8
48 12
100 25
100
P ) onphate reduction
Subtotal
Deduo inoted pnoscnct.
Subtotal
Calcium pnospnote
Subtotal
Total
65
-------
A summary of estimated fluoride emissions from
the production of defluorinated phosphates is
presented below; control efficiencies of 95 per-
cent are assumed.
P ’es* n Coø*roh Further Comroh
run mutnc tans yr .vtffi iflert ?ons,yr in p ..thsi.s )
1975
,*dudicn
0e u.,rnatsd
c —
19*5
du
C pño* äa .
Control Technology and Costs
Fluorides can be contro4led by wet scrubbers.
These devices, which could include liquid ejector
venturi scrubbers, liquid impingement control sys-
tems, and spray towers, also serve to control par-
ticulate emissions to levels of 95 percent or more.
For DFP and Dical plants, control costs are compa-
rable for similar sized plants but almost four times
as high as for phosphate reduction plants of simi-
lar size. The lower control costs associated with
animal feed production from furnace acid is due to
the relatively lower percentage of fluorides con-
tained in the phosphoric acid obtained from ther-
mal reduction of rock. Control costs are detailed in
Table 5.6—2.
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS,
NEW PL&NTS_
TOTAL
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS,
NEW PIAPITS —
430 (474)
2.560 (2.820)
40 (44 )
260 (290)
3,910 14.310)
S0{55 )
25 (281
158 (174)
2 (2)
15 (17)
242 (267)
3 (3)
TASLE 56-2 NOP4FERT1LIZER PHOSPHORUS INDUSTRY
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
_,_y Li
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS
rr Tii
1977
1970-77
1977 —81
1077 .46
0.68
0.32
&35
1.17
0.41
1.57
0.41
4.39
1.00
731
1.97
4.79
3.61
0.46
4.40
1.37
7.31
4.63
4.07
5.77
11.94
0.95
0.15
1.17
0.43
2.64
1.34
1.10
1.60
4.18
1.03
0.19
1.22
0.27
0.06
0.33
136
ALL ANNUM cosTs...... - ... .. . .. .. . .. 5.17 7.37
.OTh COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOT! ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMSINATION Of: (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIATiON AND (2) INTEREST.
66
-------
5.7 MERCURY CELL CHLOR-ALKALI INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
High-purity caustic soda and chlorine are copro-
ducts in the electrolytic process which uses flow-
ing mercury metal as a moving cathode. The caus-
tic soda product finds major markets in those
chemical manufacturing operations requiring high
purity and freedom from sodium chloride and
metal impurities. Of the two basic processes, i.e.,
mercury cell and diaphragm cell, for producing
chlorine, only the one employing the mercury cell
results in mercury emissions. Chlorine is produced
almost entirely by the electrolysis of fused chlo-
rides or aqueous solutions of alkali-metal chlo-
rides. Chlorine is produced at the anode, while
hydrogen and potassium hydroxide or sodium hy-
droxide are produced at the cathoce. Anode and
cathode products must be separated, such as in a
cell which employs liquid mercury metal as an
intermediate cathode.
The use of the mercury cell in the United States
increased from 5 percent of the total installed
chlorine capacity in 1946 to a maximum of 28
percent in 1968. then declined to 21 percent in
1976. The 1976 capacity was estimated at 7,100
metric tons (7,827 short tons) of chlorine per day
at 27 plants. The size distribution of these plants is
given below:
Capoc ty Rang.
(C 1a n. Ptoduction)
m. ,ic ons/dav (sflort ans/day )
<150 (<165)
150—300 (165—331)
301—400 (331—441)
>440 (>441)
Number of
8
9
4
- 5
27
hundred metric tons (6.8 pounds per hundred
short tons) of chlorine produced. Condensed mer-
cury entrained in the hydrogen stream will result in
additional emissions. The uncontrolled emission
of mercury vapor and mercury mist, after minimum
treatment has occurred, is estimated to be up to
25 kg per hundred metric tons (50 pounds per
hundred shorttons) of chlorine produced.
Mercury vapor and mercury compounds are col-
lected from the end-boxes, the mercury pumps,
and the end-box ventilation system. Preliminary
results of source testing by EPA indicate that the
mercury emissions from an untreated or inade-
quately treated end-box ventilation system range
from 1 to 8 kg per hundred metric tons (2 to 16
pounds per hundred short tons) of chlorine
produced.
In addition to cooling the cell room, the cell-room
ventilation system provides a means of reducing
the cell-room mercury-vapor concentration to
within the recommended Threshold Limit Value
(TLV) for human exposure to mercury vapor. On the
basis of data obtained from operating plants, it has
been estimated that mercury emissions from the
cell-room ventilation system vary from 0.2 to 2.5
kg per day per hundred metric tons (04 to 5
pounds per hundred short tons) of daily chlorine
capacity, assuming a concentration equal to the
TLV of 50 micrograms per cubic meter (22 micro-
grams per cubic foot) of ventilation air.
The Environmental Protection Agency has esti-
mated that uncontrolled emissions from the
production of chlorine in mercury cells averages
approximately 20 kg of mercury per hundred met-
ric tons (40 pounds per hundred short tons) of
chlorine produced.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
The major sources of direct emissions of mercury
to the atmosphere are the hydrogen by-product
stream, end-box ventilation system, and cell-room
ventilation air. The minimum known treatment of
the by-product hydrogen gas that leaves the de-
composer consists of cooling the stream to 43 C
(1 1OF) followed by partial removal of the resulting
mercury mist. For hydrogen saturated with mer-
cury vapor at this temperature, the daily vapor loss
is estimated to be 3.4 kg of mercury vapor per
Control Technology and Costs
Control technologies and cost estimates are based
on the consideration that the maximum daily mer-
cury emission from any single site shall not exceed
2.3 kg (5. 1 pounds); this assumption is in compli-
ance with the National Emissions Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants promulgated by EPA.
Control techniques applicable to the hydrogen gas
stream include: cooling, condensation, and dem-
isting; depleted brine scrubbing; hypochiorite
67
-------
scrubbing; absorption on molecular sseve; and ad-
sorption on treated activated carbon.
With appropriate modification, the control tech-
niques applicable to the end-box ventilation
stream inglude cooling, condensing, and demist-
ing; depleted brine scrubbing; and hypochlorite
sàrubbing. It is judged that the molecular-sieve
adsorption system will become applicable in the
nóór future to the end-box ventilation-gas stream.
This control technique will permit comphance with
the hazardous emission standard.
Mercury vapor from the cell-room ventilation air
can be minimized by strict adherence to recom-
mended good housekeeping and operating proce-
dures. No other control technique has been com-
mercially tested at this time. All mercury emissions
could be eliminated by the conversion of mercury-
cell plants to the use of diaphragm cells plus a
special caustic soda purification system to
produce a caustic soda product of purity equal to
that produced in mercury-cell plants. Such conver-
sion is presently judged to be an unacceptable
alternative due to the very high estimated cost.
Control costs were estimated on a model plant
basis. These costs are based on contw!Iing &mis-
sions from the hydrogen stream by cooling, mist
elimination, and molecular sieves. No costs are
included for end-box emission control. Control
costs are detailed in Table 5.7—1.
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PtANTS
NEW PLANTS
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PI.ANTS
NEW PI.ANTS._
? %? I
TABLE £7-L MERCURY-CELL CHLOR-.ALKAU INDUSTRY
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIUJONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
970. -77 1977—81
1.97 18.52 1.18
0.0 0.0 0.0
1.97 1L52 1.18
3.01 10.55 12.82
0.0 0.0 0 0
3.01 12.82
5.22 18.28 22.22
0.0 0.0 0.0
5.22 18.28 22.22
8.24 28.83 35.05
1977—86
1.18
0.0
1.18
21.32
0.0
21.32
50.00
0.0
50.00
71.32
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS.. ._.
NEW P1.ANTS_
TOTAL
ALL ANNUAL COSTS.
NOTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT .LINE DEPRECIATION AND 2) INTEREST.
68
-------
6. METALS iNDUSTRIES
For the purposes of this report, the metals indus- • Primary Copper
tries have been defined as those establishments • Primary Lead
pnmanlyerigaged in reTining, extracting, process- • Primary Zinc
Ing, fabricating, or recovering ferrous or nonfer-
rous metals and processes performed by • econdary Aluminum
lishments in direct support of these operations. • Secondary Brass
The industries included are: • Secondary Lead
• Secondary Zinc.
• Iron and Steel
• Iron Found Costs associated with the control of air pollution
nes by these industries are summarized in Table 6—I.
• Steel Foundries These numbers are repeated below in the appro-
• Ferroalloy priate section together with discussion of the as-
• Primary Aluminum sumptions peculiar to the sector and other details.
TABLE 6.- I. AiR POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS FOR THE
METALS INDUSTRIES
(iN MIWONS OF 1917 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
INDUSTRY 1977 1970 —77 1977-81 1977—86
IRON & STEEL.. . . .... . . .. . ... .... ..... 320.28 1253.04 1291.12 1921.68
IRON FOUNDRIES ..._ .. .. ........ 6.03 4.6.67 8.04 28.02
STEEL FOUNDRIES . ..._...... . . .. . .... . ..... . . 18.97 177.49 25.19 33.32
FERROAU.OYS.... —..———.—.—....... .. ......... 24.63 328.7 ? 0.0 0.0
PRIMARY ALUMINUM ........ .. 51.3.4 359.91 117.86 363.17
PRiMARY COPPER .. .. .. . ..... 90.00 1094.00 171.70 986.00
PRIMARY LEAD... .. .. .. .. . ... ....... 2.16 0.23 1.29 1.29
PRIMARY ZINC .. — * 6.56 42.13 13.21 30.20
SECONDARY ALUMINUM ..... 2.44 13.64 5.28 12.41
SECONDARY BRASS ... .. 1.59 13.32 1.92 3.62
SECONDARY LEAD .. — .. 1.75 12.42 2.38 6.02
SECONDARY ZINC ............ .. 0.32 2.97 0.19 4.28
TOTAL INVESTMENT 326.56 3371.65 1628.67 3410.52
ANNUAL COSTS
1977 1970-77 1977-81 1977—36
IRON & STEEL .. .. .. 519.20 1327.59 3473.60 9900.35
RON FOUNDRIES 7.08 24.10 32.03 31.48
STEEL FOUNDRIES...... .. 47.78 170.26 208.19 494.37
FERROALLOYS 70.16 346.91 250.71 399.86
PRIMARY ALUMINUM 95.96 323.82 4.44.67 1007.36
PRIMARY COPPER 199.25 802.96 1011.13 2549.96
PRIMARY LEAD .. 4.02 14.14 17.11 30.24
PRIMARY Z INC.. . ....... .. 36.4.6 126.13 172.39 434.72
SECONDARY ALUMINUM... .. 4.33 14.35 21.23 56.09
SECONDARY BRASS ..... 2.77 9.31 12.66 30.56
SECONDARY LEAD .. — 2.53 8 36 11.30 29.27
SECONDARY ZINC 0.86 2.65 3.51 14.66
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS 990.32 3170.78 5660.26 15029.28
69
-------
6.1 IRON AND STEEL
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The iron and steel industry production operation
includes the following major sequential proc-
esses: recycling (sintenng). coke production, and
steelmaking. There are three types of steetmaking
processes: open-hearth (OH). basic-oxygen fur.
nace (BOF), and ei ctric-arc furnace (EAF).
Sintenng is the process by which iron-ore fines
and reclaimed iron dusts, sluoges. and scale gen-
esated in various iron and steelmaking processes
are agglomerated and prepared for charging in
blast furnaces. Coking is the process used to con-
vert suitable grades of coal to metallurgical coke
for charging in the blast furnace. Blast-furnace
operation is a smelting process by which iron ore
is reduced to pig iron: open-hearth, basic oxygen.
and electric-arc Turn aces are used to make steel.
Sintering Plants
Th rs arc 15 companies operating 35 recycling or
sintering plants ranging in size from about 180,-
000 metric tons (194,000 short tons) per year to
4.3 million metric tons (4.7 million short tons) per
year. Sintenng plants have been considered on a
plant-by-plant basis and grouped by states. Sinter-
ing consists of agglomerating ore fines and re-
claimed iron-containing dusts, sludge. and scale
generated in various iron and steelmaking proc.
esses. Sinter is made by mixing these fines with
limestone and coke (or anthracite coal), charging
the mixture onto a continuous traveling grate. and
igniting the mixture. Air is drawn through the mix-
ture to support combustion. The sintering is com-
pleted by the time the end of the grate is reached.
Sinter clinker is cooled, crushed, and screened to
size for charging to the blast furnace.
Coke Plants
The vast bulk of the coke production is owned by
iron and steel companies (or affiliates). About 10
percent of the coke is produced in merchant
plants for sale in the open market to foundries.
other industrial users, or for consumption for other
than iron-producing purposes.
Coking coals are received at a coal preparation
facility where they are finely pulverized and mixed
in the required proportions to meet specifications
for the blast furnace or for other end uses. The
prepared coal mixture is delivered to storage bun-
kers above the coke oven batteries. Measured
quantities of the mixture are withdrawn from the
bunkers and carried to individual ovens for charg-
ing. The coal is heated in the absence of air for a
period of 14 to 1 8 hours at temperatures of from
900 to 1 100C to convert the coat to coke having
the desired properties. During the coking cycle,
volatile constituents and noncondensible gases
are distilled and transferred via collecting mains to
the byproducts plant for the recovery of the gas
and various criemicats. When the coking cycle is
completed, the doors on the ends of the oven are
removed and a ram pushes the incandescent coke
from the oven into a quench car. The hot coke is
transported to a quench tower where it is cooled
under a direct water soray. The coke is then
crushed and screened for use in the blast furnace
or for other purposes. The fines from the crushing
operation are used as a fuel in sintering
operations.
Blast FUrnaCeS
Blast furnaces are large, tall, counter-current-flow
reactors used to produce molten pig iron from a
charge of raw materials consisting of iron ore,
iron-ore pellets. sinter. coke and limestone. The
raw materials are charged into the top of the
furnace and high-temperature air and sometimes
hydrocarbons are blown into the bottom of the
blast furnace. Reduction of the iron ore compo-
nents occurs by the interaction of reducing gases
rising through the raw materials as well as the
interaction of the coke with molten iron oxides.
Rarticulates are generated in the blast furnace
stock house where the raw materials are recov-
ered, weighed and transported to the chargtng
station. These emissions are readily kept under
control by the use of baghouses. A second major
source of emissions are the gases and particulates
generated during the time the molten pig iron is
removed (tapped) from a blast furnace. These em-
issions consist primarily of iron oxides and flake
graphite (kish). These emissions can be controlled
by large enclosures in the blast-furnace cast house
that direct the emissions to baghouses for
collection.
Open-Hearth Stee/making
This method is the oldest of the three steelmaking
processes presently Deing used to produce raw
70
-------
steel. Open-hearth steel production has declined
from a peak of 89 million metric tons (98 million
short tons) in 1964 to 21 million metric tons (23
million short tons) in 1976. in 1976, there were 19
operating open-hearth shops in the integrated iron
and steel industry. It is doubtful that any new
plants will be constructed. Furnace capacities
range from 50 to 300 net metric tons (55 to 330
short tons of steel.
The’ open-hearth furnace is a shallow-hearth fur-
nace that can be alternately fired from either end.
The process consists of charging scrap, fluxes.
and molten pig iron into the furnace where the
required melting and refining operations are per-
formed to produce the desired analysis of steel.
Firing of an open hearth can be done with a variety
of fuels, depending on availability, cost, and sulfur
content in the fuel.
Basic-Oxygen-Furnace Steelniaking
The basic oxygen furnace ( OF) was first used to
produce steel in the United States in 1955. By
1965. economic reolacement of the open-hearth
furnace by the BOF had been well established.
BOF steelmaking expanded rapidly to about 76
million metric tons (84 million short tons) in 1973.
In 1973. a new process, bottom-blown oxygen
converter steelmaking, was put into commercial
production. This new process has been included
with the BOF process for the purposes of this
report. In 1973. there were 19 companies operat-
ing 38 BOF plants, ranging in size from 450,000
metric tons (496,000 short tons to 4.3 million
metric tons (4.7 million short tons) of annual
capacity.
In BOF steelmaking, the pear-shaped, open-top
vessel is positioned at a 45-degree angle and
charged with the required amount of steel scrap,
molten pig iron, and other materials. The vessel is
vertically positioned and high-purity oxygen is
blown into the molten bath through a water-cooled
oxygen lance positioned above the bath. Products
of the oxygen reaction with carbon, silicon, and
manganese in the charge pass off as carbon mo-
noxide and carbon dioxide gases. and manganese
and silicon oxides in the slag. When the required
content of carbon, silicon, and manganese is ob-
tained in the melt, oxygen blowing is stopped, and
ferroalloys are added as needed to attain the de-
sired final chemical composition of the steel. The
molten steel is then poured into a ladle for transfer
to subsequent operations.
Eiecrric .Arc-Furnace Steelmaking
This process has long been the established proc-
ess for the production of alloy and stainless steels.
More recently, it has been widely used in mini-
steel plants to make plain carbon steels for local
markets. In 1 974, electric-arc furnace production
amounted to 1.9 million metric tons (2.1 million
short tons) of stainless steel. ln 1976 there were
companies operating 130 plants having 156
electric-arc furnaces, with plant caDacities ranging
in size from 9 thousan i metric tons (9,900 short
tons) to 1.2 million metric tons (1.3 million short
tons) annual capacity. The total electric-arc fur-
nace production in 1976 was about 26 million
metric tons (29 million short tons).
In 1975 electric-arc furnace steelmaking passed
the open-hearth process as the second largest
steelmaking process in steel production.
The electric arc furnace is a short, cylindrical-
shaped furnace having a rather shallow hearth.
Three carbon electrodes project through the fixed
or moveable roof into the furnace. Charge materi-
als Consist of prepared scrap, although one or two
electric furnace shops make use of molten pig iron
as part of the charge. After charging, the melting
operation is started by turning on the electric
power to the electrodes which are in contact with
the scrap. Electrical resistance of the scrap prod-
uces heating and eventual melting of the scrap.
Additional scrap is added, and refining is accom-
plisned by blowing high-purity oxygen into the
molten unrefined steel to remove carbon and sili-
con. Ferroafloys are added as needed to attain the
desired final chemical composition of the steel.
Power is shut off and the molten metal is tapped
into a ladle.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
The processes employed in producing steel are
important generators of air emissions, and there-
fore they must be controlled to meet State Imple-
mentation Plans and Federal New Source Perfor-
mance Standards. Fugitive emissions are not con-
sidered in this study.
Sinterirg Plants
The emissions associated with sinter-piant opera-
tions are particulates that (1) are generated during
merging of raw sinter materials, (2) become en-
trained in the combustion air as it is drawn through
the sinter mixture into the windbox, (3) are gener-
ated during the cooling operation, and (4) are
generated during the crushing and screening op-
erations. Sulfur contained in the fuel is not consid-
ered to be a major problem, although any sulfur
present in the sinter mix or in combustion fuel will
be emitted as sulfur oxides.
C3ke Pfants
Emissions from the production of coke occur as
particulates. hydrogen sulfide, sulfur oxides, car-
71
-------
bon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen ox-
ides. Particulate emissions occur from the follow-
ing sources: coal receiving and stockpiling, coal
grinding and handling, charging of coke ovens,
the coking operation, pushing the coke from the
ovens, and coke quenching. Gaseous emissions
occur during the following operations: charging
the coke ovens, the coking cycle, and subsequent
combustion of coke-oven gases.
Open-Hearth Steelmaking
Particulites are the primary emissions from open-
hearth-furnace operations. Emissions of iron oxide
occur during the time the scrap is melted and large
quantities of iron, silicon, and manganese oxides
are formed and carried into the exhaust system of
the furnace when high-purity oxygen is blown into
the steel bath to remove the carbon. Gaseous
emissions are largely carbon dioxide, but sulfur
oxides may result through use of sulfur-containing
fuels. If the scrip used in the charge contains
combustibles, greater volUmes of gaseous con-
taminants will be produced.
Basic-Oxygen-Furnace Steelmaking
Partleulates and carbon monoxide are major ernie-
sions in BOF steelmaking. Particulate emissions
occur at the hot-metal transfer stations, the flux
and aøoy material-handling and transfer points,
and the BOF vessel Carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide are emitted at the BOF vessel.
Electric-Arc-Furnace Steelmaking
Particulates are the primary emissions released by
electric-arc-furnace steelmaking. Charging, scrap
melting, oxygen blowing, and tapping are major
sources of particulate emissions. Blowing the mol-
ten steel with high-purity oxygen produces the
highest emission rates. Emissions from the scrap
charge and other operations are similar to those
from other steelmaking processes and constitute
the largest portion of the total emissions.
Control Technology and Costs
The following paragraphs contain a brief analysis
of pollution control methods used in each process
of the iron and steel industry.
Sin raring Plants
Electrostatic precipitators. high-energy scrubbers,
apd baghouses are used to control the particulates
originating from the sinter strand. Baghouses are
mainly used to control particulates from other
emission sources with cyclones as a secondary
means of control. Developments in blast-furnace
technology which require additions of limestone
and dolomite to the sinter mix make the continued
use of electrostatic precipitators problematical be-
cause of the difference in electrical properties
between limestone dusts and iron-containing
dusts. Installation of high-energy wet scrubbers
may be required as replacements for some exist-
ing electrostatic precipitator installations.
Coke Plants
Although definitive control measures have not
been established for coke ovens, there are several
systems and operating procedures that have been
developed for controlling emissions. Charging em-
issions are minimized by stage or sequence charg-
ing, or in some newer coke batteries by using
enclosed charging systems. Emissions generated
during operation are being controlled by major
maintenance efforts with respect to coke-oven
doors, oven standpipes, and charging hole covers.
New designs are being explored for minimizing
operating emissions. Several technologies have
been developed and installed for the control of
pushing emissions and quenching emissions.
Open-Hearth Steelmaking
Electrostatic precipitators and high-energy scrub-
bars are used in controlling emissions from open-
hearth furnaces.
Basic-Oxygen-Furnace Stee/making
Electrostatic precipitators and high-energy scrub-
bers are the principal control systems applied to
the BOF. Baghouses have been suggested for use
in the United States and have been tried in Europe.
Baghouses are used for collecting particulates at
the hot-metal stations, and the flux and ferroalloy
handling locations.
The costs of air pollution control measures for all
of the above operations are summarized in Table
8.1—1.
72
-------
TA8LE 6.1 -1. IRON AND S’TUL INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OP 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1970—77 1977—31 1977.46
INVESTMENT
EXiSTING PLANTS..... ... .........._......... 320.23 1253.04 1281.12 1921.68
MEW PLANTS........_._............._ ......... . ._. ... .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTM............ . .. .....— .. _...... 320.23 1258.04 1231.12 1921.68
ANNUALiZED COSTS
ANNUM CAPITAL
EXISTING PtANTS......_...... . ..... . ....... . .._ . 204.69 519.8.5 1339.86 3872.03
NEW PLANTS ......_ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
_..._. 204.69 519.85 1339.86 3872.03
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS . . ....... ... ..... . ..... 314.51 807.74 2133.74 6028.32
NEW PLANTS.... .. .. . ..._.... .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
. . ......._ 314.51 807.74 2133.74 6028.32
AU. ANNUAL COSTS.... . ..... . .. . . . .__. . .. 519.20 1327.59 3473.60 9900.35
NOTE COSTS SHOWN FCR ‘rEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30Th OF THE SECCNO YEAR USTED.
NOTES ANNUM CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COM3INAT1ON OF: (1) STRA1GJ4T.UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
73
-------
6.2 IRON FOUNDRIES
Production Characteristics and Capacities.
Iron foundries may be found in almost afl urban
areas. The economies of.scale for the industry do
not prohibit the continued existence of relatively
small foundries. Because many of the foundries
are operated in conjunction with steel-making fac-
ilities. iron foundries tend to be concentrated in
the major steel-producing states: Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Michigan. Illinois, and Alabama.
Iron foundries range from primitive. unmechan-
ized hand operations to modern, highly mecha-
nized operavons. Caonve plants (owned or con-
trolled by other businesses are more likely to be
mechanized and better equipped with emission-
control equipment than are noncaptive plants.
In 1973. about 6 percent of the 1.432 pLants were
classified as large (over 500 employees), 29 per-
cent as medium (100 to 500 employees), and 65
percent as small (less than 100 employees).
The major markets for iron castings include motor
vehicles, farm machinery, and industries that build
equipment for the construction, mining, oil, metal-
working, and railroad industries. Captive plants
have the capability of economical production of
large lots of closely related castings. Most of the
largest plants are captive and do not generally
produce forthe highly competitive open market
Castings for machine parts, automotive parts, and
soil pipe are produced from born pig iron and
scrap. CuDola. electric-arc, electric-induction, and
reverberatory furnaces are used. In 1973, 79 per-
cent of the production was by cupolas. 1 2 percent
by electric-arc furnaces, and the remainder by
induction and reveroeratory furnaces. The Latter
two types emit relatively small quantities of pollu-
tants and require little or no emissions-control
equipment
The cupola furnace is a vertical, cylindrical furnace
in which the heat for melting the iron is provided
by injecting air to burn coke which is in direct
contact with the charge. An electric-arc furnace is
an enclosed, cup-shaped refractory shell that con-
tains the charge. Three graonhte or carbon elec-
trodes extend downward from the roof. An electric
arc between the electrodes and the charge gener-
ates the required heat The cupola melts the
charge continuously, while the arc furnace oper-
ates in a batch mode.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from cupolas are carbon monoxide, par-
ticulates, and oil vapors. Particulate emissions ar-
ise from dirt on the metal criarge and from fines in
the coke and limestone charge. Hydrocarbon em-
issions arise primarily from partial combustion and
distillation of oil from greasy scrap charged to the
furnace, but their control is not costed in this
report because the emissions are small. Arc fur-
naces produce the same kind of emissions to a
lesser degree because of the absence of coke and
limestone in the charge.
The particulate emission factor for uncontrolled
cupola operation is taken to be 8.5 kg per metric
ton (17 lb per short ton). The best available esti-
mate of the particulate emission factor for uncont-
rolled arc furnaces is taken to be 5 kg per metric
ton (10 lb per short ton).
An uncontrolled cupola generates approximately
150 kg carbon monoxide per metric ton (300 lb
per short ton) of charge. Half of this carbon monox-
ide burns in the stack. On this basis, the estimated
emission factor for carbon monoxide discharged
from an uncontrolled cupola is approximately 75
kg per metric ton (150 lb per short ton) of charge.
Uncontrolled arc furnaces produce negligible
quantities of carbon monoxide.
Control Technology and Costs
In industrial practice, large cupolas use high-
energy scrubbers to control the emission of partic-
ulates to acceptable levels. Medium sized cupolas
can use either a high-energy scrubber or a bag-
house. For small cupolas and arc furnaces, bag-
houses are preferred.
High-energy scrubbers usually are operated at a
particulatecollection efficiency of 95 percent This
efficiency can be increased to 99 percent by in-
creasing the pressure drop. Fabric filters (ba-
ghouses) have an efficiency of 98 percent
Afterburners are used to control carbon monoxide
emissions from cupolas. Their efficiency is gener-
ally taken to be 94 percent
74
-------
Table 6.2—1 presents control cost data for the
ndustry.
TABLE 6.2-1. IRON FOUNDRY AIR POLLUTiON CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS CF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMUI.ATIVE PERIODS
1977 1970—77 1 977—.3 1977—36
INVESTMENT
EXIST1P4G P ANTS.. .. ............................. 18.97 177.49 25.19 29.93
NEW PtANTS 0.0 0.0 0 ,0 23.88
.. 18.97 177.49 25.19 53.82
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PtANTS .. .. ....._ 23.33 81.34 103.10 239.45
NEW PLANTS............. ...... .. . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.62
23.33 81.84 103.10 247.07
O&M
EXISTiNG Pt.ANTS.................... .... 24.45 88.41 105.09 235.53
NEW PLANTS . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 11.77
........ . . .. 24.45 88.41 105.09 :47.30
AU. ANNUAL COSTS .... _. .... . ... .... 47.78 170.26 208.19 494.37
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 157 OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINM1ON OF (11 STRAIGHT .UNE DEPRECATION AND (2) INTEREST.
75
-------
6.3 STEEL FOUNDRiES
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Two types of steel are produced from steel foun-
dries: carbon steel castings and alloy-stainless
steel castings. Carbon steel represents 90 percent
of the productive caoacity. The electric-arc fur-
nace is the eszabiished equipment for the melting
of steels that are subseauently poured into molds
to make castings. Castings may be in a semifin-
ished form that requires considerable machining
before use in other components, or may e high-
quality products that require a minimum of addi-
tional work L efore subsequent use. Emissions
from production of steel castings closely parallel
those from prociuction of steel.
In determining control costs, the foundries prod-
ucing large casttngs were grouped with the foun-
dries producing carbon-steel castings on a one-
shift basis.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Particulates co orzse almost 100 percent of the
emissions occurnng during the production of steel
for castings. Minor amounts of carbon monoxide.
nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons may be emit-
ted. Most oi the particulate emissions, which oc-
cur during the charging operation, are carried up-
ward by the thermal gas currents created by the
hot furnace; these emissions are tne most difficult
to control.
Control Technology and Costs
The allowable emissions of particulates per unit of
process weight per hour under State Implements-
tion Plan (Pennsylvania standards used as typical)
for electric-arc-steelmaking were used as guide-
lines in establishing the level of control likely to be
required for electric-arc furnace steel foundries,
and the subsequent costs.
Baghouses are the only reported means for core-
trolling emissions from steel foundry electric-crc
furnaces. One of the probable reasons for not
using scrubbers or electrostatic precipitators is
the lack of space for installing the required water-
treatment facilities in the case of scrubbers, and a
reluctance on the part of the smaller foundry oper-
ators to get involved with electrostatic
precipitators
The inventory of electric-arc-furnace steel foun-
dries used in the report is based on information in
two foundry directories and information in the
published literature. A few steel foundries still use
open-hearth furnaces but these are rapidly being
phased out.
Development of control costs for steel foundries is
complicated by several factors: foundries do not
operate the same number of hours during the year,
different furnace sizes are used in a single plant.
some foundries specialize in plain-carbon steel
castings, and some foundries produce only those
castings that can be produced in large production
runs, while a small number produce large, compli-
cated castings on a one- or two-shift basis. Table
6.3—1 shows the summary cost information for
steel foundries.
76
-------
TASLE 6.3—;. STEEL FOUNORY INOUSTRY MR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE ERIO0S
1977 1970—77 1977—81 1977—36
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS .. .. _...... 6.03 4.6.67 8.04 9.10
NEW Pt.ANTS .. . .. . .. .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.92
. .. .._.._ ......... _ ._. 6.03 4.6.67 3.04 23.02
ANP4UAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPcTAL
EXISTING Dt.ANTS 6.14 20.75 27.76 64.42
NEW PLANTS ........ .... .. . .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.15
TOTAL ._.......................... ... .....—.—...—. 20.73 27.76 70.57
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS .. 0.94 3.33 4.27 9.89
NEW PLANTS.. . .... ........ .. ..... 0.0 3.0 0.0 1.01
....................... 0.94 3.35 .&27 10.90
AU. ANNUAL COST5........ .. . _.. 7.08 24.10 32.03 81.48
NOT Z COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH CF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAl. COSTS ARE THE COMeINATION OF (1) STRAIGHT.UNE DEPRECATiON AND (21 INTEREST.
77
-------
6.4 FERROALLOY INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Ferroalloys are made by three methods, with
submetged-arc electric furnaces producing most
of the output Three types of furnaces are adapted
to the three production methods: open furnaces,
semicovered furnaces, and sealed furnaces.
Metallothermic-reduction-furnace production has
been includec with electric furnace production in
the absence of sufficient information on number.
location, emissions, and air-pollution-control me-
thods. Two do nestic producers use blast furnaces
for making terromanganese and occasionally
ferrosilicon.
At the end of 1972. 144 electric furnaces were in
operation with a total rated capacity of 1.532
megawatts. In the wring of 1977, 113 furnaces
were operating with a total rated capacity of 1,-
848 megawatts. Furnaces under 10 megawatts in
power nave aecreased from 90 to 32, while fur-
naces of 20 or more megawatts in power have
increased from 9 to 30. This illustrates the trend in
the industry toward shutting down small, ineffi-
cient furnaces and reolacing them with the larger,
more efficient, units. The industry is composed of
steel companies, cnemical and mineral companies
having access to particular alloying elements, and
specialist producers of ferroalloys. Five compa-
nies use the metallothermic process to make spe-
cialty ferroalloys containing molybdenum, tung-
sten. vanadium, columôium, or titanium. Six com-
panies produce ferrophosphorus. The remaining
companies use submerged-arc electric furnaces to
produce about one-half of the ferromanganese
and virtually all of the silicon- and chromium-
containing ferroalloys used in steelmaking.
Alloying elements required for making different
steels are often added in the form of ferroatloys
which contain iron and at least one other element.
The fen’oal$oys are named according to the major
alloying element ferromanganese contains man-
ganese as the additive; ferrochromesilicon con-
tains both chromium and silicon. Some additives
in which the iron content is very small (such as
silicomanganese and silicon-chrome-manganese)
are also considered as ferroatloys.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Particulate emissions are generated during the
handling of the ores, fluxes, and reductants used
in producing ferroalloys. Particulate and gaseous
emissions are continuously evolved during smelt-
ing operations. Fuming occurs when the ferroalloy
is poured, the amount varying with the particular
ferroalloy. Submerged-arc electric furnaces of the
open or open-hood type are required because of
the formation of crusts with certain ferroalloys;
these crusts must be broken mechanically. With
semicovered or low-hood type submerged-arc fur-
naces, the charge is fed to the furnace through
openings around the electrodes. In open-hood fur.
naces, the collection hood is raised sufficiently to
provide room for charging between the hood and
the charging floor; in semicovered furnaces, the
hood is lower and water-cooled. Open and semi-
covered furnaces produce greater emissions than
sealed furnaces, which are used to prevent the
escape of emissions and to minimize the influx of
air.
Metallic silicon and aluminum are very strong de-
oxidizers which are used under high-temperature
conditions to reduce the mineral oxides of molyb-
denum, titanium, zirconium, and similar metals in
metallothermic reduction furnaces.
In blast-furnace smelting operations. particulates
and gaseous emissions are carried Out of the fur-
nace in the same off-gas stream.
Control Technology and Costs
Baghouses, electrostatic precipitators (ESP), and
high-energy scrubbers are all used to control em is-
sions from submerged-arc electric furnaces.
Fumes evolving from the casting of ferromanga-
nese in blast furnace operations must also be
controlled by bagnouses.
In the spring of 1977, 66 baghouses. 39 scrub-
bers and 2 electrostatic prec pitators (107 control
systems) controlled the 113 furnaces in operation.
Thus, some of the baghouses are large enough to
control more than one furnace.
A total of 126 ferroalloy furnaces were used in
developing cost estimates. Furnaces that were not
identified as having specified control systems
were prorated so that the totals were in the same
78
-------
proportion as the 66 baghouses and 39 scrubbers was unavailable) on the basis of furnace megawatt
(there are only two furnaces with ESP’s). Costs rating.
were estimated for each furnac8 on the basis of
control equipment air flow, or (if that information Control costs are summarized in Table 6.4—1.
TA8L 6.4-. FERROALLOY INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTiON CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1970—77 1977-41 1977.46
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS...... . ................. ._ . . . ..... 24.63 328.79 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS. . . ..... . . . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ... . .. . ..... ...... .. ........ 24.63 323.79 0.0 0.0
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PtANTS. . ...... ._... . . ... ....... 53.51 235.09 184 .fl 249.99
NEW PtANTS.......... ..... . .... . . .. .... ..... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TCTA..._........... . . ... 53.51 285.09 18&11 249.99
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS..... .. ..... .. ........... 16.65 61.82 66.61 149.37
NEW PLANTS...... . ...... .. .. . .. ....._. . ....._. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
.. . ... 16.05 61.82 86.61 149.37
ALL ANNUAL COSTS..... . _.. 70.14 346.91 250.71 99.86
NOTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF HE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTL ANNUAL CAPiTAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTERE3 .
79
-------
6.5 PRIMARY ALUMINUM
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Th , domestic primary aluminum industry includes
12 companies operating 31 reduction facilities in
16 states. Three companies, operate about two-
thiras of the total capacity. Plants tend to be lo-
cated in areas wnere tow-cost electrical power is
available. The olant-size distribution for the indus-
try is as follows:
6—90 (0—99) 5
9 —13o (100—150) 11 26.9
137—190 (151—2093 6 21.4
191—254 1201—280) 9 14.7
Tot& 31 300.0
Aluminum is one of the most abundant elements
and when measured either in quantity or value, its
use exceeds that of any other primary metal ex-
cept steel. It is used to some extent in virtually all
segments of the economy, but its principal uses
have been in transportation, building construction,
electrical industry, containers, packaging, con-
sumer durabies, machinery, and equipment. The
annual growth rate of aluminum production in the
United States has averaged 7 percent in recent
years
Bauxite ore (typically containing 50—55 percent
alumina) is the pnncioal source of aluminum. Alu-
mina is extracted from bauxite by any one of a
number of variations of the Bayer process. In turn,
alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite and re-
duced to aluminum by electrolysis m the univer-
sally used Hall-Heroult aluminum reduction cells.
which are connected in series to form a potline.
The aluminum reduction plant may be classified
according to the type of anodes used in the cells.
Prebaked anodes are replaced intermittently, and
Soderberg anodes are replaced continuously. In
the Soderberg continuous system, an anode paste
is continuously supplied to a rectangular metal
shell suspended above the cell. As the anode shell
descends, it is baked by the heat of the cell. Two
types of Soderberg anodes use different support
methods: a vertical stud system supported on ver-
tical current-carrying pins (studs), and a horizontal
stud system supported by pins which are inclined
slightly from the horizontal.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
All three anode systems used to produce alumi-
num release parviculates and fluorides (in both
gaseous and particdlate form) which must be
controlled.
Of the three anode systems in use, the vertical
7.0 Soderbery system emits the lowest quantity of
particulates. The p ebaked and horizontal Soder-
berg systems are higher in p&lutant emissions. On
the other hand, the emissions from the prebaked
system are easiest to control, those from the verti
cal Soderberg are somew 1 at more difficult, and
those from the horizontal Soderberg the most diffi-
cult to control. This has led to a gradual phasing
out of the latter two processes.
The principal sources of emissions at primary alu-
minum smelters are the electrolytic cells and, n
the case of prebake-anode type plants, the anode
bake furnace. The raw, uncontrolled rates of emis-
sions from these processes have been identified
as averaging 25 kg per metric ton (50 pounds per
short ton) of fluorides and 56 kg per metric ton
(1 12 pounds per short ton) of particulates per ton
of aluminum produced.
Standards
The applicable standards are principally state
standards and tne Federal New Source Perfor-
mance Standard (NSPS). The NSPS has been set at
one kilogram per metric ton (two pounds per short
ton) of water-soluble fluorides, which is the level to
which most plants are reducing their emissions.
One notable exception to this general rule is the
limit of one-half kilogram of fluorides per metric
ton (one pound per short ton ), set by the State of
Washington. The “one-half kitogram ’ standard re-
sults in the control of 96 percent of the fluorides
and, impticity, 98 to 99 percent control of
paniculates.
Control Technology and Costs
In this analysis, it was assumed that all sources
would be controlled to a standard allowing emis-
Size Ranç.
(1,000 m.m’ tOfl /yøf. wit$
1.000 si or’ eons vear j p ft .e _ i )
P’ants
C peci$y(% )
80
-------
sions of one kilogram of fluoride per metric ton
(two pounds per short ton) of aluminum produced.
New sources are assumed to be of the prebaked
process only. It is further assumed that the New
Source Performance Standards for fluorides will
be met by the same control processes applied for
particulate control at no additional cost. Assumed
control processes for the three production proc-
esses are shown below:
______ Primary Cantvo Secondary ContraS
Ptimary Collection Mon. Needda
(Hoods and Ducting).
Plus F3uidi da-3ed
Dry ScnjDO.r
P’imcrv Coll.cteon.
5od.r erq Wet EIecn’o*rat,c
Precio4ta,er . Spray
Tower, or Phüdized.
Bed Dry Scrubber
(experunentad
Pnniary Coil.cnon.
SeO.merg Wer.€kcnos,anc
Pvecjoâta,or. or
5pr y Iawet
In essence, these control measures Consist of ei-
ther very tight hooding of the electrolytic cell (us..
ually possible only with prebake-en de systems)
with control devices (adsorption on dry alumina
followed by baghouse recovery of particulate)
which control both volatile fluorides and particu.-
late. On cells where hooding of the necessary
tightness cannot be achieved, the ӎscaping emis-
sions are collected at the roof and controlled,
usually with wet control devices capable of deal-
ing with the more dilute concentrations of fluoride
and particulate. In the case of prebake-anode type
plants, separate control devices are applied to the
anode-bake furnace (usually a wet scrubber to
collect fluorides and hydrocarbons from the hot
furnace gases). Carbon grinding and milling (in the
paste plant) are usually controiled with baghouses
or wet scrubbers.
Table 6.5—1 shows the estimated costs for air-
pollution abatement. Note that the prebaked an-
ode process is the dominant one now, and that all
new plants are assumed to employ this process.
Two new production processes, the Alcoa and the
Toth, which are claimed to be essentially nonpol-
luting, are now being investigated. If successful,
costs for new sources beyond 1980 might be
substantially lower than indicated.
977—36
EXISTING PLANTS .. .. .. ..
51.84
0.0
51.84
359.91
0.0
359.91
41.62
76.24
117.86
41.62
32L55
63.17
NEW PLANTS .. .. ..
TOTAL .. .. —
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAl.
EXISTING PLANTS ...... .. .......
58.57
0.0
37.39
0.0
37.39
192.83
0.0
192.88
130.94
0.0
130.94
261.39
23.55
284.94
159.37
0.36
159.73
53.SJ
192.25
646.16
358.57
3.12
361.70
NEW PLANTS .. .........
TOTAL....... ._ .. ... ... , .. ...
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS .. ......
NEW PLANTS ..
— — - .. .....
NOTE. COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM .IULY 1 ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTW.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF (1) STRAIGHT.UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
Cal Tv .
Spray Screen and
Water Treatment
Soray Screen and
Water Tremnwn,
TABLE 6 . 5—i PRIMARY
INVESTMENT
ALUMINUM INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
81
-------
6.6 PRIMARY COPPER
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Copper is one of the most important of the nonfer-
rous metals, its usage is surpassed only by iron in
ore tonnage produced in the Uhited States. Its
extensive use depends chiefly upon its electrical
and heat conductivity, corrosion resistance, ductil-
ity, and the toughness of its alloys. Mechanical
properties (and sometimes special properties) are
enhanced by alloying with zinc to form brass, with
tin to form bronze, with aluminum or silicon to
form the higher strength bronzes, with beryllium to
form highstrength-high conductivity bronzes, with
nickel to form corrosion-resistant alloys, and with
lead to form bearing metals .
Principal users of copper include the electrical,
electronic, and allied industries for manufacturing
power transmission lines, other electrical conduc-
tors, and machinery. The automobile industry (rad-
iators, wiring, and bearings) and building-
construction industry (tubing, plumbing) are the
second- and third-largest consumers of copper in
the United States.
Copper ore is either surface- or underground-
mined, concentrated by ore-beneficiation tech-
niques, then sent to the smelter. Processing of
copper concentrates at a smelter involves the fol-
lowing operations.
• Roasting
• Converting to matte
• Converting, to blister copper
• Fire refining
• Electrolytic refining
Roasting is normally used to dry the finely ground
concentrates and to remove some sulfur, arsenic,
antimony, and selenium impurities. Roasting is
frequently bypassed in modern smelters because
better concentration methods remove free pyrite
and permit the substitution, of simple dryers for
roasters at some smelters. The roasted concen-
trate is treated in a reverberatory furnace to
produce an intermediate material called matte.
which nominally contains copper, iron, and sulfur.
The matte is converted to impure blister copper by
blowing with air or an air-oxygen mixture in a
vessel called a converter to remove the sulftn’ and
the iron. Removal of the impurities from blister
copper is sometimes limited to fire-refining, in
whtch the impurities are removed in a furnace by
volatilization and oxidation. More often, it entails a
two-step procedure: fire-refining to produce elec-
trodes for further refii üng by electrolytic methods.
The principal sectors of the primary copper indus-
try (mining, sm&ting, refining, fabricating, and
marketir g) re dominated in varying degrees by
three large, vertically integrated companies. The
plant size distribution for 1 5 active smelter opera-
tions, basej on equivalent roaster charge, is
shown in the tabulation below:
• C Ier.9e
1,000 M.$ftC t In/yr.
( thc t n/y.or n Dorenthe,.,I
0—181 (O .-200)
182—363 (201—400) 4
364—544 (401—600) 4
543.416 (601—900) 3
817—907 1901—1,000) 3
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from coppper smelters are primarily
particulates and sulfur oxides from the roaster,
reverberatory, and converter furnaces. The density
and continuity of emissions vary with the furnace
type. Particulates can contain considerable bypro-
duct credits, particularly noble metals and sele-
nium. Accordingly, part of the traditional
production process is to recycle particulatesup to
the limit of economic viability, between 90 and
99.5 percent control, leaving the rest to be dis-
charg q as uncontrolled emission.
The roasting process may be bypassed by modern
smelters that have better concentration methods
to remove free pyrite. Half of the plants operating
in 197 1 were able to bypass the roaster process.
Sulfl4r dioxide is emitted from all three smelter
operations; however, the concentration of sulfur
dioxide in the gases varies considerably among
the ki’ee. Sulfur dioxide concentrations for fluid-
solid roasters., reverberatory, and converter fur-
naces are 6—10 percent. 0.50—2 percent, and 2—5
percent by volume, respectively.
N o.
82
-------
Control Technology and Costs
In 1971, approximately 95 percent of the particu-
late emissions from copoer smelters were being
controlled because of the economic advantage of
recovering precious metals. Further removal of
particulates is required to allow the sulfur dioxide
control devices to operate effectively.
Itis assumed that most smelters wifl manufacture
*ulfuric acid by the contact process from the sulfur
dioxide in the roaster and the converter gases.
Two major conditions must be met: (1) the concen-
tration of sulfur dioxide in the gas stream should
be at least 4 percent by volume, and (2) the gas
must be practically free of particulate matter to
avoid poisoning the catalyst in the acid plant.
Eleven smelters already have acid plants. One
plant in Michigan does not require an acid plant
because of the low sulfur content of the ore, and
therefore no costs are assigned to it in this report.
Several methods have been proposed and have
been considered here for the purpose of removing
the sulfur dioxide from the reverberatory gas
stream. These include:
• Absorption of sulfur dioxide in dimethylani-
line, followed by desorption and recovery.
• The Cominco absorption process in which
sulfur dioxide is absorbed into an ammo-
nium sulfite solution, which yields concen-
trated sulfur dioxide and an ammonium
sulfate by-product
• Wet lime scrubbing, whereby the reverber-
atory furnace gases are scrubbed in a slurry
of lime and water.
• Wet limestone scrubbing, essentially simi-
lar to wet lime scrubbing except that a
slurry of limestone is used as the scrubbing
medium.
Control costs are detailed in Table 6.6—1.
AP4NUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTWIG PLANT
NEW PLANTS
YP T - 156.95
O&M
EXISTiNG PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS
1 .ell.4’
90.00
0.0
1094.00
0.0
171.70
0.0
986.00
0.0
90.00
1094.00
171.70
986.00
156.95
0.0
603.56
0.0
693.28
0.0
1803.11
0.0
603.56
693.28
1803.11
42.30
0.0
42.30
199.40
0.0
199.40
317.90
0.0
317.90
746.85
0.0
74 6.a s
802.96
1011.18
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTEO.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) NTEREST.
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS
TABLE 6 .6- I. PRIMARY COPPER INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
ALl. ANNUAL COSTS.
83
-------
6.7 PRIMARY LEAD
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Lead production in the United States involves
three major steps: mining, crushing, and grinding
of sulfide ores, and beneficiation to produce lead
concentrates: smelting of the concentrates by py-
rometaflurgical methods to produce impure lead
bullion; and refining the bullion to separate other
metal values and impurities.
The U.S. primary lead industry has some 80 small
mining companies in 14 states that mine and mill
their own concLntrates; some of the smaller mines
utilize custom mills. Smelting and refining of lead
in the United States is done by four companies
that operate six smelters and five refineries. Only
one company is not involved in custom smelting
(outright purchase of concentrates) or toll smelting
(smelting of concentrates for a fee).
Battery components accounted for 56 percent of
the 1.40 million metric tons (1.54 million short
tons) of lead consumed in 1976. Gasoline anti-
knock additives accounted for 16 percent, pig.
meats 6 percent, ammunition 5 percent. solder 4
percent. cable covering 3 percent. and miscellane-
ous metal products, such as castings, weights, and
ballast, the remainder.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from lead smelters are primarily particu-
lates and sulfur dioxide from two sources: sinter-
lag machines and blast furnaces. Most of the sul-
fur dioxide is generated in the sinteriag machine.
The density of emissions varies with the source.
Flue-gas particulates include the following metals:
lead (as high as 30 percent), and traces of zinc,
antimony, cadmium, and copper. In western smel-
ters, often significant quantities of noble metals
are also emitted; at one smelter over 1 kg per
metric ton (30 ounces per short ton) of silver and
4.8 g per metric ton (0.14 ounces per short ton) of
gold was recovered from flue-gas partvcutates.
Thus, there is an economic reason to recover par.
ticulates in addition to fume control. The emis-
sionS from the slag furnaces (used in the western
smelters to recover zinc) also include particulates
containing ziflc oxide and zinc dust.
Stack emission factors are presently under review.
The outcome of this review will be published in a
lead control technique document The ambient air
quality standard of 1.5 milligrams per cubic meter
(6.6 x 10’ grains per cubic foot) will require strin-
gent control. The earliest attainment date for this
standard is anticipated to be mid-i 982.
Control Technology and Costs
Sulfur oxides and particulates in sintering ma-
chine off-gases are being controlled by the use of
sulfuric acid plants in three of the six U.S. smel-
ters. In these smelters, particulate control is r-
quired for effective operation of the acid-plant
system. In the three U.S. smelters without acid
plants, most of the particulates in the processing
off-gases are removed from the cooled off-gases in
a baghouse before the stack. Sulfur oxide in the
off-gases is not controlled. One of these smelters
has an acid plant which is used only on the off-
gases from a copper converter in an adjoining
plant
Each of the six U.S. plants was examined in terms
of equipment required to bring the area surround-
ing the plant within Federal ambient standards.
Acid plants were assumed for those plants which
do not now control sulfur oxide emissions. Me-
thods of metallurgical operation at all six plants
are similar, the differences stem from the type of
ore handled by the three Missouri smelters and by
the three western smelters. In the West, lead ore
concentrates are leaner and have much higher
amounts of gold, silver, zinc, cadmium, copper,
antimony, and arsenic present. Except for a slag-
fuming furnace operation in the western smelters
to remove the higher amounts of zinc in the con-
centrates, there are no major differences in th
basic smelter operations. There is a difference in
degree in the refining operations, but off-gases are
not a problem in the refineries. Refining involves
kettle operations at low temperatures just above
the melting point of lead; no fumes are produced.
To determine control costs, the following condi-
tions were assumed: the feed has a sulfur content
of 15 percent, of which 85 percent is removed as
sulfur dioxide in the sinter steo. Particulate emis-
sions are 60 kg per metric ton (120 pounds per
short ton) of feed in the sinterer, and 15 kg per
metric ton (30 pounds per short ton) of feed in the
blast furnace.
84
-------
Sulfur dioxide from the sinter step is available for sinter, the additional gas-cleaning scrubber is as-
conversion into acid. The acid plant is assumed to sumed to remove 90 percent of particulates.
convert 90 percent of the sulfur dioxide it re-
ceives. emitting the rest. With an acid plant on the Control costs are summarized in Table 6.7—1.
TABLE 6J-L PRIMARY LEAD INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATiVE PERIODS
1977 1970—77 1977—81 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PI.ANTS........ ........ 2.16 20.28 1.29 1.29
NEW Pt.ANTS ...... ... ........ ...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. .. 2.16 20.28 1.29 1.’9
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PlANTS . . .. ...._.__... 3.30 11 55 14.05 23.35
NEW PLANTS ...... ................. ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
.. .. . . 3.30 11.55 14.05 23.35
O&M
EXISTiNG PLANTS ........ . . .. . . .. ... 0.72 2.59 L06 6.89
NEW PLANTS ............... ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
...... _.... 0.72 2.39 3.06 6.89
AL ). ANNUAL COSTS................... .. ..... 4.02 14.14 17.11 30.24
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.UNE DEPRECATION AND (2) INTEREST.
85
-------
6.8 PRIMARY ZINC
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Zinc ranks after aluminum, copper, and lead in
onnage of nonferrous metals produced in the
United States. Major uses in 1973 were zinc-base
alloys, particulary die-cast alloys used in automo-
tive and electrical equipment (41 percent); galva-
nized steet used in construction and electrical
transmission equipment (36 percent); brass and
bronze used for plumbing, heating, and industrial
equipment (14 percent); zinc chemicals, particu-
larly zinc oxic e, used in the rubber, paint, and
ceramic industries 4 percent); and rolled zinc
used in dry cells and lithographic plates (2
percent).
The principal ore minerals are sulf ides, which may
be predominantly zinc ores or lead-zinc ores. Also,
some zinc is obtained from lead-base and copper-
base ores. Zinc sulf’de concentrates produced
from these ores are converted to the oxide state
(calcine) by roasting, and then reduced to metallic
zinc either by electrolytic deposition or by distilla-
tion in retorts or furnaces. In plants using distilla-
tion methods, the calcine is given an additional
sintering step to provide a more compact feed as
well as to remove impurities. Some zinc-producing
companies also produce zinc oxide. In pyrolytic
plants. both zinc metal and zinc oxide are
produced from zinc vapor, either condensed to
zinc metal, or oxidized in a chamber.
Over three-quarters of the domestic mine
production comes from six states: Tennessee, Col-
orado, Missouri, New York Idaho. and New Jersey.
Numerous small companies participate in only the
mining and beneficiation sector of the zinc indus-
try; these companies sell their concentrates to
custom smelters.
In 1973, six companies operated eight primary
zinc plants, all of which operate as custom smel-
ters to some extent. The main product of zinc
reduction plants is slab zinc. Ore concentrate ca-
pacity in 1973 was 1,337 thousand metric tons
(1,474 thousand short tons) per year, equivalent to
763 thousand metric tons (841 thousand short
tons) of slab zinc. Approximately 24 percent of this
capacity utilizes horizontal retort plants, all of
which are scneduled for phasing out.
In 1973, the three types of pyrothermic piants
(etectrothermic, vertical retort, and horizontal re-
tort) accounted for almost two-thirds of the pri-
mary zinc capacity. This will change because three
new electrolytic plants are in the early stages of
construction. Plant size distribution of the three
new U.S. electrolytic plants is tabulated below.
Ccoacity
Fe ci
Cabocity, Slat Zinc ‘. of U.S. C p city
(1.000 metrIc
tons/yr.
(1,000 eneenc eons/yr,
Af,e Closing
1.000 szsot tOns, yr
in a,enth.i.s)
1,000 thon tons/yr
in porentheses)
orizoneai
e,ort lonts
296
(326)
163
(180)
29
264
(291)
145
(160)
26
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from zinc reduction plants are primarily
paniculates and sulfur dioxide from the roasters in
the electrolytic plants, and from the roasters and
traveling-grate sintering machines in the pyrot-
hermic plants. In the electrolytic plants, the calcine
from the roaster is substantially sulfur free so that
there is a heavy concentration of sulfur dioxide in
the off-gases. For the pyrothermic plants, roaster
off-gases are also heavy in sulfur dioxide, but there
are only light concentrations of sulfur dioxide in
the siritering machine off-gases. Particulates are
relatively heavy in both streams.
Control Technology and Costs
Sulfur oxide and particulates in roaster off-gases
are now being controlled by the use of sulfuric
acid plants in six of the present eight plants. In
these six, particulate control necessary for the
effective operation of the acid plant system is
achieved with associated gas-cleaning eQuipment.
With the closing of the three horizontal retort
plants, all the roasters in the primary zinc plants
are controlled with acid plants. In the two remain-
ing pyrothermic plants, the sintering machine par-
ticulates are controlled in one plant by settling
flues, electrostatic precipitators, and a baghouse,
in the other, by a venturi scrubber.
In general, the control scheme for the primary zinc
industry is to use acid plants on the roaster off-
82 (90)
45 (50) 8
86
-------
gases where most of the sulfur dioxide is given off.
MI other operations, with the exception of three
plants using a horizontal retort, have particulate
con(rol devices. For those plants with horizontal
retorts, conversion to vertical retort equipment is
the practical control scheme; however, costs for
this conversion were not obtained, as this involves
a malor plant renovation.
With the closing of the three horizontal retort
plants, the only new control equipment required
for the industry is the acid plants 3nd associated
gas cleaning equipment necessary to control sul-
fur dioxide and particulates in the three new elec-
trolytic plants under construction; these controls
come under New Source Performance Standards.
Control costs are detailed in Table 6.8—1.
TABLE 6.8-1. PRIMARY ZINC INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTiON CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PEPICOS
______ ______ 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS..... .. . .. ........
4.23
2.33
6.56
39.80
2.33
42.13
2.54
10.67
13.21
2.54
27.66
30.20
NEW PLANTS .. ...
TOTAL ...... ....._ .......
ANNLJAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PLANTS .....
NEW PLANTS........... . ...
6.48
0.38
6.86
23.36
0.38
23.74
27.57
5.74
33.31
45.14
24.32
69.46
TOTAL — ...... .. ........
O&M
EXISTiNG PLANTS..... .. .. .. .......
NEW PLANTS .. .....
TOTAL................_ .. .. ...
ALl. ANNUAL COSTS
29.60
0.0
29.60
36.46
102.40
0.0
102.40
126.13
125.97
13.21
139.18
172.49
283.44
81.32
365.26
434.72
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST ‘fEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECONO YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE TIlE COM8INATION OF: 1) STRAIG 14T .UNE DEPRECATiON AND (2) INTEREST.
87
-------
6.9 SECONDARY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
For the purpose of this reoort, the secondary alu-
minum industry is de fined as that industry which
produces secondary aluminum ingot to chemical
specifications from aluminum scrap and sweated
pig. The industry is viewed as consisting of sec-
ondary aluminum smelters excluding primary alu-
minum companies, nonintegrated fabricators, and
scrap dealers.
Aluminum has become one of the most important
metals in industry; only iron surpasses it in ton.
nages used. Major uses of the metal are in the
construction industry, air raft motor vehicles.
electrical equipment and supplies, beverage cans.
and fabricated metal products which include a
wide variety of home consumer products. The
automotive industry is a large user of secondary
alum n& m ingot.
Secondary aluminum ingot is produced to specifi-
cation; melting to specification is achieved mainly
by segrating the incoming scrap into alloy types.
The magnesium content can be removed with a
chlorine gas treatment in a reverberatory furnace.
As a result of improved recycling, increased mu-
nicipal mixed-solid waste processing and the in-
criased number of recycling facilities that have
been constructed, the secondary aluminum indus-
try will continue to increase over what has been its
historical share of about 20 percent of the total
aluminum supply, In addition, aluminum has pene-
trated further into market areas such as transpor-
tation. construction, packaging, and distribution.
Based on these trends, it is estimated that the
demand for aluminum may increase 6 percent per
yeartorthe period 1976—1985.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
The most serious emission sources during second-
sty aluminum smelting are: the drying of oil from
borings and turnings, the sweating furnace, and
the reverberatory furnace. Emissions from the dry-
ing process are vaporized oils, paints, vinyls. etc;
the sweating furnace produces vaporized fluxes,
fluorides, etc; and the reverberatory furnace emis-
sions are similar to the other two plus hydrogen
chloride, aluminum chloride, and magnesium chlo-
ride from the chlorine gas treatment used to re-
ALUMINUM
move magnesium. As of 1970, an estimated 25
percent of chlorination station emissions were
controlled, and it is estimated that by 1980, 30
percent will be controlled.
The several processes that cause emissions duing
the operation of a reverberatory furnace must be
understood to calculate control costs properly;
these are:
• Emissions at the forewelt,
• Emissions from the bath, and
• Emissions caused by chlorination.
Emissions at the Fore w8//
Secondary smelters charge scrap directly into the
forewell of the reverberatory furnace, and any oil,
paint, vinyl, grease, etc.. on the scrap vaporizes.
The emissions from the charging process vary
greatly with the material charged. Quantitative
data on farewell emissions or the need for control
are not available and costs or possible costs can-
not be estimated.
Emissions From the Bath
During the time the aluminum bath is molten, it is
covered with a flux to protect it from oxidation.
Emissions Caused by Chlorination
The magnesium content of aluminum can be re-
duced by chlorination, but chlorination produces
chloride emissions. Maximum magnesium re-
moval requires about 1 8 kilograms of chlorine per
metric ton (36 pounds per short ton) of aluminum
which has an emission rate of 9 kilograms of
particulates per metric ton (18 pounds per short
ton) of aluminum. Magnesium removal is practiced
by plants representing 92 percent of the esti-
mated industry capacity. A small portion of these
plants use aluminum fluoride fluxing for magne-
sium removal rather than chlorine. This report as-
sumes that control costs for these few plants are
similar to those that use chlorination. Wet scrub-
bing is the usual means of controlling chlorination
station emissions; recent innovations on a dry
control process are being tested.
Control Technology and Costs
btyer emissions are often treated with afterburn-
ers; however, there are insufficient data relating to
g8
-------
the drying operations to permit evaluations of pos- controlled by using afterburners, followed by a
sible costs that might be expended to meet air wet scrubber or bagno use, for which control costs
quality specifications. have been reported. However, no data are avail-
able on the number, capacity, or location of sweat-
ing furnaces. Thus, realistic estimate of control
Sweating furnace emissions, fluoride emissions costs cannot be made. Industry costs are included
from fluxes, organic materials, oils, etc.. can be in Table 6.9—i.
TABLE 6.9—i. SECONDARY ALUMINUM INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
C’JMULAIIVE PERIODS
1977 1970 —77 1977—31 1 977—36
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS .. ... . 1.50 14.05 0.90 0.90
NEW PLANTS...... .. ..... 0.95 1.39 4.33 11.51
.. 15.64 5.28
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS 1.35 6.4.6 7.36 17.69
NEW PLANTS 0.21 0.33 2.23 8.36
.. .. 2.06 6.79 10.09
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS........ .. ... 2.06 7.19 3.73 19.70
NEW PLANTS . . . . . ........ 0.23 0.37 2.. 8 9.84
TOTAL ...... . . . .... 2.29 7.56 11.23 29.34
ALl. ANNUAL COSTS... ..... .. 4.33 14.35 21.23 56.09
NOTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 OF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT UNE DEPRECIATION ANO 12) INTEREST.
89
-------
6,10 SECONDARY BRASS AND BRONZE
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The secondary brass and bronze industry may be
divided into two segments: ingot manufacturers
and brass mills. Both segments of the industry
charge scrap into a furnace where it is melted and
alloyed to meet design specifications for chemical
composition. Ingot manufacturers use either a sta-
tionary reverberatory furnace or a rotary furnace
for most of their production. The daily capacity
range is from 4.5 to 90 metric tons (5 to 100 short
tons) for reverberatory furnaces, and from 2 to 27
metric tons (2 :o 30 short tons) for rotary furnaces.
Small quantities of special alloys are processed in
crucible or electric-induction furnaces. A few cu-
poles exst in which highly bxidized metal, such as
skimmings and slag, is reduced by heating the
charge in contact with coke. Ingot manufacturing
invariably requires injection of air to refine the
scrap. Brass mills use scrap that does not require
such extensive refining; the channel induction fur-
nace is the most common type used in these mills.
The number of ingot manufacturing furnaces in
1972 was calculated to be 122. Of these furnaces,
13 were large. 29 were medium, and 80 were
small. The large furnaces produced 50 percent of
the total annual ingots, while the medium furnaces
produced 30 percent. and the small furnaces
produced 20 percent.
No substantial growth is expected in the ingot
manufacture; in 1980, ingot production is ex-
pected to be at the level of 272 thousand metric
tons (300 thousand short tons). Adequate capacity
currently exists in terms - of additional available
operating hours to be able to meet the slight
production increase from 1973.
The capacity of channel induction furnaces for
brass mills ranges from 0.5 to 5 metric tons (0.6 to
6 short tons), with smaller furnaces being the most
common. It was estimated that there were 35
plants in 1973 with an average of 3.7 furnaces per
plant or a total of 130 furnaces.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Metallurgical fumes containing chiefly zinc oxide
and lead oxide are the major emissions from the
reverberatory and rotary furnaces used by ingot
manufacturers and from the induction furnaces
used by the brass mills. Fly ash, carbon, and me-
chanically produced dust are often present in the
exhaust gases, particularly from the furnaces used
by the ingot manufacturers. Zinc oxide and lead
oxide condense to form a very fine fume which is
difficult to collect. The emission factors for pat-tic-
ulates are 35 kg per metric ton (70 pounds per
short ton) of metal charged for a reverberatory
furnace, 30 kg per metric ton (60 pounds per short
ton) for a rotary furnace, 3.2 kg per metric ton (6.4
pounds per short ton) for an electric induction
furnace, 6 kg per metric ton (12 pounds per short
ton) for a crucible furnace, and 36.75 kg per met-
ric ton (73.5 pounds per short ton) for a cupola
furnace.
Control Technology and Costs
Ingot manufacturers use fabric-filter baghouses,
high-energy wet scrubbers. and electrostatic pre—
cipitators because of their high efficiency in col-
lecting the fine zinc oxide fumes; 67 percent use a
baghouse, 28 percent use a scrubber, and 5 per.
cent use an electrostatic precipitator.
Assumptions were that the collected dust has a
value of 10 cents per kilogram (4.5 cents per
pound), and an average collector 97.5 percent
efficiency. This value of collected dusts was ap-
plied as a credit to control costs.
Fabric filter baghouses are used on the brass in-
duction furnaces to collect the particulates. Invest-
ment and annual costs were obtained from three
plants that use furnaces with capacities ranging
from 22 to 32 metric tons (24 to 35 short tons) per
day. The average value for the three plants was
used for the model furnace of 25 metric tons (27.6
short tons) per day. No credit for collected dust is
assumed for brass mills.
Control costs are detailed in Table 6.1 0—i.
90
-------
TABLE 6.10—1. SECONDARY COPPER INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1970—77 1977—81 1977—46
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS 1.34 12.61 0.80 0.80
NEW PLANTS...... 0.25 0.72 1.12 2.82
TOTAL...... .. 1. .!9 13.32 1.92 3.62
ANNUAUZEO COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS.... . .... . ....... — 1.66 5.79 7.05 15.87
NEW PLANTS . .. . . .. . ... 0.09 0.19 0.74 2.59
TOTAL .. ..... .. . ..... — .. . . . ..... 1.75 5.97 7.79 18.46
C&M
EXISTING PLANTS 1.00 3.30 4.72 11.58
NEW PLANTS .. 0.02 0.04 0.15 0.52
TOTAL.._ .. .. ........ .. ...... 1.02 3.34 4.87 12.10
AU. ANNUAL COSTS - .. 2.77 9.31 12.66 - 30.56
NOTEz COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 OF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OF THE SECCNO YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COM INAT1ON OF: (1) STRAIG 1IT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
91
-------
6.11 SECONDARY LEAD
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The secondary lead industry is defined as the
industry that recovers lead or lead alloys by smelt-
ing and/or refining lead scrap; this does not in-
clude the activities of scrap dealers who may
sweat lead. A total oi 22 companies in the second-
ary lead industry operate 45 plants. The two lead-
ing producers are estimated to account for about
64 percent of secondary lead production.
Approximately 526 thousand metric tons (580
thousand sho-t tons) of secondary lead were re-
covered from scrap in 1975. In 1971, production
rose to 528 thousand metric tons (582 thousand
short tons) and, by 1973 the production of second-
ary lead had risen to approximately 593 thousand
metric tons (653 thousand short tons).
The assumption of an average emission factor for
cupolas and reverberatory furnaces allows the
breakdown of the secondary lead industry on the
basis of capacity alone. Available capacity data
indicate three model plant sizes. The estimated
industry capacity and model plant data are given
inTable6.1 1—1.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emission of particulates occurs from lead-
processing furnaces. Generally, about 67 percent
or more of the output of the secondary lead indus-
try is processed in blast furnaces or cupolas that
are used to reduce lead oxide in the form of battery
plates or dross, to lead. If oxide reduction is not
needed, then lead scrap can be processed in re-
verberatory furnaces. Kettle or pot furnaces may
be used to produce small batches of alloys for
molding or refining lead. These lead processing
furnaces represent obvious particulate emission
sources, the primary emissions being lead oxide
fumes. Other particulate emission sources are the
slag tap and feeding ports on the cupolas and
reverberatory furnaces. Although lead is occasion-
ally sweated in a reverberatory furnace, reclama-
tion of secondary lead by this means represents a
very small portion of the total lead production.
Emissions factors from slag operations are not
- known.
The industry estimate of 90 percent net control in
1 970 indicates that nearly all plants had emission
controls of some sort. A control increase to 98
percent estimated by 1980 is based on implemen-
tation of the proposed New Source Performance
Standards.
The emission factors for stack emissions are pres-
ently under review and the outcome of this review
will be published in a lead control techniques
document. For fugitive emissions, the ambient air
quality standard of 1.5 micrograms per cubic me-
ter (6.6 x 10 ’ grains per cubic foot) will require
No.
T ot e l
Mod.l
Pi nt
Coo ocity
Cococity
Table 6i1—1.
Model Plant Descriptions for
S.condary Lead Industry
(capacities in metric tons par day with
short tons par day in parentheses)
Ca
Plait
Model
I
83.-181 to
(92—200)
23
2.482
(2.736)
Plait
Model
U
27—82
(31—911
6
327
(360)
Mont
Model
I I I
12—26
( 13—3O
16
253
(279)
45
3.062
109
(20)
54
(60)
15.8
j 7.4)
92
-------
stringent costs. The earliest attainment date is
anticipated to be mid-i 982.
Control Tech nology and Costs
Ether a baghouse or a wet scrubber can be utilized
to achieve emission control. The bagt ouse is cho-
sen for this cost analysis because it is generally
less expensive; it is assumed baghouse life aver-
ages 15 years.
Annual costs include capital charges, operating
and maintenance, and credits for byproduct recov-
ery value. Since the lead oxide collected in the
control equipment is recycled into the smelting
furnace, it has value as a byproduct therefore, the
recovery of this lead oxide lowers estimated oper-
ating and maintenance costs.
The calculated air pollution abatement costs for
the secondary lead industries presented in Table
6.1 1—2 were based on the following key
assumptions:
• Model I plants are assumed to require two
separate baghouse installations; Model II
and Model Ill were assumed to need only
one baghousa for conirol.
• Baghouse airflow needs were estimated at
1 1.2 cubic meters per metric ton (360 cu-
bic feet per short ton) of daily capacity.
• The value of lead oxide recovered from
baghouse operations was estimated to be
5 cents per kilogram (2.3 cents per pound).
plus 50 percent. It was further assumed
that only the lead oxide recovered by going
from 90 percent net control in 1970 to an
estimated 98 percent net control in 1980
should be credited against control costs.
This amounts to 5.6 kilograms per metric
ton (11.2 pounds per ton) of lead proc-
essed. In addition, production at full capac-
ity was assumed.
Estimated control costs are summarized in Table
6.11—2.
TABLE 6.11—2. SECONDARY LEAD INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
1970—77 1977—a! 1977— 36
CUMULATiVE PERIODS
INVESTMENT
EXtST1NG PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS
TOTAL
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS,
NEW PLANTS
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS.
NEW PtANTS........
Tt’1 ’Al
0.4
1.75
0.48
12.42
2.12
2.38
5.26
6.02
1.57
0.06
5.49
0.06
6.68
0.94
15.03
3.86
1.63
5.56
7.62
18.89
0.86
0.03
2.96
0.03
3.67
0.52
3.26
2.12
0.90
3.00
4.19
10.28
2.53
8.56
11.80
29.27
ALL ANNUAL COSTS.
MOTE COSTS SHOWN FOR ‘rEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 CF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF 1-fE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COM8INAT1ON OF: (11 STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION ANO 121 INTEREST.
93
-------
6.12 SECONDARY ZiNC
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Zinc ranks after aluminum, copper, and lead in
tonnage of nonferrous metals produced in the
United States. Major uses in 1976 were zinc-base
alloys, particularly die-cast alloys used in automo-
tive and electrical equipment (38 percent). galva-
nized steel used in construction and electrical
transmission equipment (38 percent), brass and
bronze used for plumbing, heating, and industrial
equipment (15 percent), zinc chemicals, particu-
larly zinc oxide, used in the rubber, paint, and
ceramic indi stnes (4 percent), and rolled zinc
used in dry cells and lithographic plates (3
percent).
Secondary zinc comes from two major sources:
the zinc-base alloys and the copper-base alloys.
Most of the secondary zinc that is recovered co-
mes from reconstituted copper-base alloys; slab
zinc is next, in importance, followed by chemical
products, and zinc dust. For purposes of this re-
port, the 14 operating plants that comprise the
secondary zinc industry use sweating and/or dis-
tilling operations to produce zinc slab, dust, and
oxide solely from scrap. The secondary zinc indus-
try is not considered to include the activities of
• Primary zinc producers that may manufac-
ture zinc from scrap and ore
• Secondary brass and bronze plants that
recover zinc in copper alloys
• Chemical manufacturers that produce zinc
compounds by chemical treatment of zinc
scrap
• Scrap dealers that may sweat zinc.
Assuming that the total secondary zinc industry
operated at an average of 84 percent capacity, the
total secondary industry zinc stab capacity stood
at 26,430 metric tons (29,134 short tons) at the
end of 1974. Total redistilled secondary zinc slab
production in 1974 was 86,400 metric tons (95-
.240 short tons), of that total 22,200 metric tons
(24,470 short tons) were produced by the second-
ary zinc industry and the remainder was produced
by the primary zinc industry. Other zinc materials
produced by the secondary zinc companies in-
cluded zinc dust and zinc ozide. In 1974, slightly
over 29,300 metric tons (3 2.300 short tons) of
zinc in the form of zinc oxide was produced from
zinc scrap. It is assumed that nearly all of this oxide
is produced by the secondary zinc companies.
The production of zinc dustfrom zinc-base scrap in
1974 totaled 29,350 metric tons (32,350 tons). It•
is assumed that much of this production came
from the secondary industry. From these
production figures, the capacity of the secondary
zinc industry is estimated to be approximately 96
thousand metric tons (106 thousand short tons) of
contained zinc per year.
No data are available for sweating capacity which
can be performed in various types of furnaces. It is
assumed that much of th. feed material for
production of refined secondary zinc is sweated;
sweating capacity is therefore placed at 63.5
thousand metric tons (70 thousand short tons) per
year.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
At least four operations generate emissions in the
secondary zinc industry: materials handling, me-
chanical pretreatment, sweating, and distilling.
This analysis considers only control costs for emis-
sions from the sweating and distilling operations,
as insufficient data are available for calculating
the possible costs of controlling emissions from
the other sources.
In the sweating operation, various types of zinc-
containing scrap are treated in either kettle or
reverberatory furnaces. The emissions vary with
the feed material used and the feed material varies
from time-to-time and from plant-to-plant. Emis-
sions may vary from nearly 0 to 1 5 kg of particu-
lates per metric ton (0 to 30 pounds per short ton)
of zinc reclaimed. For purposes of this report, it is
assumed that the maximum emission rate applies.
In the case of the various types of zinc distilling
furnaces, the accepted emission rate is 23 kilo-
grams per metric ton (46 pounds per short ton) of
zinc processed. Some distillation units produce
zinc oxide, and normally utilize a baghouse for
collection of the product. This report assumes that
these baghouses are sufficient to meet national
ambient standards. However, for the purpose of
calculating control costs, it was assumed that es-
sentiatly all of the estimated zinc oxide capacity
94
-------
could be switched to slab zinc or dust production,
and emission controls would be required.
Controlled and uncontrolled emissions from sec-
ondary zinc sweating operations cannot be esti-
mated with an acceptable degree of probable ac
curacy because reliable data are not available.
Control Technology and Costs
The major emission of concern is particulates,
consisting mainly of zinc oxide. Baghouses have
been shown to be effective in controlling both
distillation and sweating-furnace emissions ex-
cept when the charge contains organic materials
such as oils.
A complete accounting of secondary zinc plants
by type of furnaces used and the product or
products produced is not available. Based on the
limited information, it is assumed that the indus-
try’s 1 4 plants can be represented by two models:
two Model I plants, each consisting of 7,260 met-
ric tons per year (8,000 short tons per year) sweat-
ing capacity and 10,900 metric tons per year
(12,000 short tons per year) distilling capacity;
and twelve Model II plants, each consisting of
4,080 metric tons per year (4,500 short tons per
year) of sweating capacity and 4,990 metric tons
per year (5,500 short tons per year) of distilling
capacity.
Estimated control costs for the secondary zinc
industry are detailed in Table 6.12—1.
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXIS ’flNG Pt_ANTS.
NEW PLANTS
INVESTMENT
EXISTING Pt_ANTS
NEW PLANTS
TOTAL ..... ......._._.._.............._.... ..... 0.32
TABLE 6.12-1. SECONDARY ZINC INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(iN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CIJMULATIVE PERIODS
!!ZZ 1970—77 1977—36
0.32 2.97 0.19 0.19
0.0 0.0 0.0 4,Q9
2.97 0.19 3.28
1.36 1.bó 3.73
0.0 0.0 1.44
1.36 5.17
1.28 2.35 6.77
0.0 0.0 2.72
1.28 2.3.5 9.49
2.6.5 4.51 14.66
O&M
EXISTiNG P(.ANTS..
NEW PLANTS
• 0.39
0.0
0.39
• 0.47
• 0.0
0.47
0.86
AU. ANNUAL COSTS.
MOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF HE SEC N0 YEAR USTED.
NOTE; ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS .RE THE COMSINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
95
-------
7. QUARRYING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRIES
Preceding paga blank
For the purposes of this report, the Quarrying and
Construction Industries are defined as those es
tablishments which gather, process, and prepare
materials to be used in the construction industry.
Wood products are specifically excluded; these
are covered in Chaoter 9. The industrial sectors
covered in this chapter are the:
. Cement Industry
• Clay Construction Industry
• Lime Industry
• Asphalt Concrete Industry.
Costs for the abatement of air pollution for these
industries are summarized in Table 7 —1. These
costs and other data are repeated below in the
appropriate section together with the assumptions
and other details specific to each industrial sector.
TABLE 7.-i. AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS FOR THE
QUARRYING & CONSTRUCTiON INDUSTRIES
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTM€NT
INOUSTRY
aMeeT .. .........
1977
4.44
11.04
1970-77
14.58
96.06
1 977—31
13.04
10.24
I 977-86
4 1 .24
15.66
C 1.AY CONSTRUCTION
UME ........ .. .........
ASPHALT...... ....... . . . .... .. ... . ...
TOTAL INVESTMENT......... ..... .. .........
14.67
25.63
55.78
137.94
252.80
501.37
8,80
59.23
96.31
ANNUAL COSTS
8.80
94.76
160.46
c!MENT .._. — .. .......
!!?Z
3.29
37.32
1970—77
7.48
128.59
1977—31
24.22
162.31
1977—36
79.18
237.42
CLAY CONSTRUCTION... — ....
UME
25.05
93.72
159,39
87.68
352.33
576.10
10o. 1
426.51
720.14
220.90
915.16
1562.65
ASPHALT
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
97
-------
7.1 CEMENT INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Portland cement, which accounts for approxi-
mately 96 percent of cement production in the
United States, is processed from a blend of various
calcareous. argillaceous, and siliceous materials
including limestone, snell, chalk, clay, and shale.
As the binder in concrete, portland cement is the
most widely used construction material in the Un-
ited States. The four major steps in producing
portland cement are: quarrying and crushing;
blending, grinding, and drying; heating the materi-
als in a rotary kiln to liberate carbon dioxide and
cause incipient fusion; and fine-grinding the resul-
tant clinker, with the addition of 4 to 6 percent
gypsum. Finished cement is shipped either in bulk
or in bags. All portland cement is produced by
either wet or dry grinding processes, the distin-
guishing characteristic being whether the raw ma-
terials are introduced into the kiln as a wet slurry
or as a dry mixture.
1971, 170 plants producing portland cement
clinker plus five plants operating grinding mills to
produce finished cement were controlled by 5 1
companies and were located in 41 states and
Puerto Rico. By 1974 (year end), some 168 plants
were in operation with an annual capacity of 82
million metric tons (91 million short tons). Fifty
percent of this cement industry capacity s owned
by multiplant companies, and the eight lead ng
companies account for about 47 percent of th
total. Overcapacity has resulted in low profit mar .
gins and has inhibited modernization and con-
struction of new plants. More stringent air-
pollution regulations have increased both capital
and operating costs. Recent trends are toward an
increase in utilization, as evidenced by a cui rent
ratio of 87 percent. Recent trends are toward
increased operations through installation of larger
kilns to replace older marginal kilns, permitting
more economic and efficient pollution control. The
cement manufacturing plant capacity and size dis-
tribution are in Table 7.1—1.
Size distribution is expected to shift upwards as
new plants are constructed and existing plants
modified or closed, so the total number of plants is
expected to remain about the same. It is a)so
assumed that there will be no major shift in
production capacity percentages between dry and
wet grinding processes, with the latter preseit y
estimated at 59 percent.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Primary emission sources are the dry-process
blending and grinding, kiln operation, clinker cool-
Da y Caooó
R anq.
I . 344
thon 60
344—1042
(600—1149)
1043- 1541
(1150—1699)
1542—2086
(1700-2299)
2087—2539
(2300-2799)
2540 and (
(2800 and up)
Bo,ed on 334-oay oo Iio.. .
1.13
(1.25 )
1 1.1
(12.2)
21.2
(23.4)
20.0
(22.1)
101 21.9
(24.1)
466 82.4
(90.8)
7.1 10.4
(7.8)
TabI. 7.1—1.
Cement Manufacturing Plant Siz. Distribution
(capacities in metric tons with short tons in parentheses)
No.
Mo.
Total Annual’
Capacny
Tot* (
P (ants
Kilns
(1,000.000)
Co ocit’r ( (
7
87
130
103
38
4
45
31
35
12
21
168
0.8
13.6
24.2
23.3
27.7
100.0
98
-------
er, and finish grinding. Other sources include the
feed and materials-handling systems. The primary
air pollutant is dust particulates. The estimated
dust-emission factor for an uncontrolled dry-
process kiln is 122 kg per metric ton (244 pounds
per short ton) of cement, compared with 1 14 kg
per metric ton (228 pounds per short toni for the
wet-process plant, giving a weighted average em-
ission factor of 1 1 7 kg per metric ton (234 pounds
per short ton) of product. The corresponding emis-
sion factors for the blending, grinding, and drying
processes are 48 kg (dry) and 1 6 kg (wet) per
metric ton (96 and 32 pounds per short ton),
respectively, for a weighted a erage of 29 metric
ton per kg (58 pounds per short ton).
Control Technology and Costs
Emissions from the blending, grinding, and drying
processes are generally controlled with fabric fil-
ters. Where ambient gas temperatures are en-
countered during grinding, conveying, and pack-
aging processes, fabric filters are used almost
exclusively. The greatest problems are encoun-
tered with high-temperature gas streams which
contain appreciable moisture.
Both fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators
are used in controlling dust emissions from the
kilns. Condensation problems from the high-
moisture content in the wet-process plant may be
overcome by insulating the ductwork and preheat-
ing the systems on start-up. Current state regula-
tions may be met either with fabric filters or with
electrostatic preci pitators; however, New Source
Performance Standards may require the filters. At
least one plant has a wet scrubber, but costs for
the p’ant were estimated on the basis of an elect-
roetatic precipitator.
The total cost of control for portland cement plants
was found by estimating the costs for control
devices for grinding, mixing, and drying (drying
not included in the wet processes) and/or kilns,
which are the major sources of pollutant. Bag-
houses are used for dry-process kilns and electros-
tatic precipitators for wet-process kilns. Bag-
houses were assumed to have been used for the
combined grinding, mixing, and drying processes.
Other sources, including clinker coolers, packag-
ing, and crushing, are not costed due to prevailing
industry control prior to the 1970 Ciean Air Act
and/or minimal costs.
The capital cost of baghouses is assumed to be
proportional to the 0.91 power of capacity, while
the capital cost of electrostatic precipitators is
proportional to the 0.67 power of capacity; in each
case, the operating cost is linearly proportional to
the capacity. The cost of bagnouses for the grind-
ing, mixing, and drying operations was scaled in
the same manner. However, the required size was
scaled by 0.78 (dry) and 0.26 (wet) to account for
the smaller airflow rates of these processes, and
the absence of control required for the wet-
process raw material grinding mills.
Control costs for the cement industry are detailed
in Table 7. 1—2. lt should be noted that only costs
for new sources are indicated; reportedly all exist-
ing plants are in compliance with State Implemen-
tation Plans. (EPA report FR-41U-649, August,
1972).
TABLE 7.1-2. CEMENT IP4DU$TRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
O&M
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS............... .. .. ._.......
1977
0.0
4.44
4.44
1970—77
0.0
14.58
14.58
1977—31
0.0
18.04
18.04
1977_36
0.0
. l.24
41.24
NEW Pt ,I.NTS... . . .........
TOTAL ..
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS... .. . ....
0.0
1.92
0.0
4.36
0.0
13.57
0.0
44.13
MEW PLANTS .. ......— .. . . . ......
TOTAL ....... . .......
EXISTING PLANTS ..
1.92
0.0
1.37
1.37
3.29
4.36
0.0
3.13
3.13
7.48
13.57
0.0
10.64
10.64
24.22
44.13
0.0
35.06
35.06
79.18
NEW PLANTS
TOTAL -.
A&L ANNUAL COSTS
MOTE: CSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE PROM .JULY 151 OP THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH CF E SECNO YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMSINATION CF (1) STL&IGHT.UNE DEPREC1ATICN AND INTEREST.
99
-------
7.2 STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Currently 466 plants in the United States manu-
facture structural clay products, including com-
mon brick, fireclay or refractory brick, and sewer
pipe. The brick category represents approximately
90 percent of the total production of structural
clay materials, with common brick being by far the
largest category, representing approximately 75
percent of total production. Values of shipments in
1972 were $404 million. $143 million, and $13
million for common brick, clay sewer pipe, arid
firectay brick, respectively. Plants are located in
45 states with North Carolina, South Carolina,
Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas accounting for
about 45 percent of production capacity.
For purposes of estimating air abatement costs,
the industry was divided into those plants using
either continuous tunnel kitns or periodic kiins; an
average plant caoaciry was selected for each proc.
ess, as shown in Table 7.2—1.
Miscellaneous clays and shales are used to manu-
facture common brick, sewer pipe, and refractory
brick. Typically, the plants are located in the prox-
imity of the clay mines. me clays are crushed and
ground at the plant, after which they are screened
and mixed with water for the forming operation.
Common brick, sewer pipe, and some refractory
brick are formed by extrusion; most refractory
brick is formed by die pressing.
The formed materials are fire-treated by either
continuous tunnel or intermittent periodic kiln
processes. In the continuous tunnel kiln, the
charge is preheated by airflow escaping from the
bake oven, passed through the oven at tampera-
tures of approximately 1,050 C (1,900 F), then
passed through a cooling stage. In contrast, the
periodic kiln heats the charge from ambient tem-
perature to a peak temperature, after which the
fuel is shut off, allowing the charge to cool to
ambient temperature again; this cycle requires
about 2 weeks, during which fuel is burned about
50 percent of the time. The remainder of the
period is used for cooling and physical discharg-
ing of the product, steps which emit few, if any, air
pollutants.
A process frequently practiced by manufacturers
of common brick is flashing. This process involves
firing the brick in a reducing atmosphere to
achieve architecturally desirable surface colora-
tions. The process is noted because when it is
used in conjunction with periodic kilns, carbon
monoxide and/or hydrocarbon emissions usually
result.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Atmospheric emissions from the manufacture of
clay construction products are primarily sulfur di-
oxides released during me firing process. These
originate from the sulfur contained in the clay and
in the fossil fuels consumed in the firing operation.
Uncontrolled sulfur dioxide emissions are esti-
mated to be about 3.7 kg per metric ton (7.4
pounds per short ton) of clay processed. The flash-
ing process associated with the manufacture of
certain types of brick can also result in hydrocar-
bon and carbon monoxiae emissions. Approxi-
Table 7.2—1.
Plant DIstribution Asw,n.d for Structural Clay Industry
(capacity in thousands of m .tric tons per year with thousands
of short tons p r year in parentheses)
Co.wiwovs Tu w e
kan
Mo.
on
336
Avcoçe
Cooocny
21
(23)
100
(1101
bnmated 1974
CaDacity
( thous nàs )
6.9
(7.61
Total
Caoocit’( % )
35
130
2.9
65
t1 4.21
466
19.8
21.8)
100
100
-------
mately 4.2 kg of hydrocarbons arid/or carbon mo-
noxide are estimated to be released per metric ton
(8.4 pounds per short ton) of brick flashed.
Control Technology and Casts
It is anticipated that wet scrubbers will be used to
control sulfur dioxide emissions from the
production of clay construction materials. Only a
few plants were found to be exercising this or any
other control option. Hydrocarbon and carbon mo-
noxide emissions can be controlled by using after-
burners. The requirement for afterburners will de-
perid on the duration of the flashing treatment at
different plerits. Likewise, it is probable that cer-
tain plants will have minimal requirement for
scrubbers because of the negligible sulfur content
of some clays. About 10 percent of existing plants
producing common brick, sewer pipe, and refrac-
tory brick were assumed to be either equipped
with adequate controls or using new clay materials
sufficiently low in sulfur content to avoid the need
for wet scrubbers.
Costs and industry operating statistics are detailed
in Table 7.2—2.
CUMULATiVE PERICOS
TABLE 7.2—2. STRUCTURAL
ClAY PRODUCTS INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
O&M
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS .. .. ..
1977
1 1.04
0.0
11.04
1970—77
96.06
0.0
96.06
1977.41
7.12
3.13
10.24
7.12
&55
15.óó
NEW PLANTS..... . ...... .... . ..
TOTAL...... ........... .. . ...
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS... . ... .... .. .......
15.63
0.0
53.86
0.0
67.16
1.01
112.90
6.19
NEW PLANTS........................
TOTAL .................... .. . ..............
15.43
21.69
53.36
74.74
68.13
93.22
119.03
209.73
EXISTING PLANTS .. ...... . .....
MEW PtANTS.... . . .. ........ . ...
0.0
21.69
37.32
0.0
74.74
123.39
1.41
94.63
162.81
3.39
337.42
—
AU. ANNUM. COSTS
NOTE. COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF ThE R5T YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COM3INATION CF (1) STRAIGHT-LiNE DEPRECATION AND (2) INTEREST.
101
-------
7.3 LIME INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
As of 1976, there were 1 67 lime-producing plants
in the United States. These plants can be divided
into seven size ranges, based upon output capac-
ity; the number of plants in each size range and
their estimated caoacities are shown in Table
7.3—1.
The U.S. lime industry can be conventionally di-
vided into two product sectors. Approximately 35
percent of the output is consumed by the produc-
er’s, while the remaining 65 percent is sold in the
open market Plants are located in 41 states and
Puerto Rico. Over 22 percent of U.S. capacity is in
Ohio, and other major capacities are located in
Pennsylvania. Texas, and Michigan. Recent trends
are toward the closing of small, old plants and
replacing old kilns with larger units.
T. . 7.3-4.
Lhiss Iodustvy Psoóudi.o Diotribullan hi 1q74
s * ions per y.er (with thensonds of
,brt tons per yons in ponnffios.s)
P o. Estimated 1974 Percent of
S z. Rang . Plants Pmduction (1.000 ) Total
28
35
173 19,632
(21.641)
Seine., Mineral Yeerbooi • Bureau of Mines. 1974.
As shown in the table above, there were 173
plants in the Lime Industry in 1974. In the two-year
period between 1974 and 1976, 6 plants were
closed down. In 1976, producers at 167 plants
sold or used 20.1 million metric tons (22.2 million
short tons). Should the use of lime in processes for
the removal of sulfur oxides from combustion
gases become standard practice, the demand for
lime will be increased substantially. The number of
plants, meanwhile, has declined from 195 in 1970
to 167 in 1976. Further consolidation may be
expected to economically justify the increased
cost of emissions controls.
Lime is formed by expelling carbon dioxide from
limestone or dolomitic limestone by high temper-
tures. This calcination process forms quicklime.
Hydrated lime is made by the addition of water to
the quicklime. The calcination of dolomite results
in dead-burned (refractory) dolomite. Major uses of
lime are for basic oxygen steel furnaces, alkalies,
water purification, other chemical processes, and
refractory dolomite.
About 70 percent of lime is produced in two basic
types of rotary kitns: the long rotary kiln, and the
short rotary kiln with external preheater. Vertical
kilns are used to supply 28 percent of lime. Almost
all new lime production is done using the rotary
process.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Atmospheric emissions from lime manufacture are
3 primarily particulates released when crushing the
limestone to kiln size, calcinirig the limestone in a
3 rotary or vertical kiln, and crushing the lime to size;
also, fly ash is released if coal is used in calcina-
tion. Other emissions, such as sulfur oxides, may
be generated by fuel combustion.
Uncontrolled emissions from rotary kilns are about
100 kg per metric ton (200 pounds per short ton)
42 of lime processed, compared with 10 kg per met-
ric ton (20 pounds per short ton) from vertical
27 kilns. However, economics favor use of the rotary
kiln, and virtually all new and expanded
100 production is expected to use this method.
Control Technology and Costs
Gases leaving a rotary kiln are usually passed
through a dust-settling chamber where the coarser
material settles out. In many installations, a first-
stage, primary dry cyclone collector is used. The
removal efficiency at this stage can vary from 25
to 85 percent by weight of the dust being dis-
charged from the kiln.
0—9
(0-10)
9—23
(10-23)
23-45
125-50)
4 5-91
(50-100)
91—181
(100-200P
181—363
1 20 0 -4 0 0)
Mar. than 363
(Mei. n 100)
Total
157
(173)
576
(635 1
568
(626)
1830
(2017)
2867
p160)
8338
(9191)
5296
(5838)
18
28
28
33
9
102
-------
The selection of a second stage to meet the high
efficiency level of 23 mg per actual cubic meter
(0.01 grain per actual cubic foot) may be either a
high-energy wet scrubber, fabric filter, or electros-
tatic precipitator. The higher capital cost of the
electrostatic precipitator may be more than offset
for specific installations by lower operating and
maintenance costs.
It is believed that vertical kilns can be effectively
controlled to allowable emission limits with bag-
houses, scrubbers, or cyclone/scrubber combina-
tions. In the latter cases, efficiencies of 99 percent
have been reported.
Capital costs for fabric filters for existing plants
were assumed to be twice the cost for new plants.
Capital. costs for wet scrubbers and electrostatic
precipitators in existing plants were assumed to
be 50 percent greater than in new plants.
A new source performance standard of 0.15
kg/metric ton (0.3 lb/short ton) is expected to be
promulgated in early 1 978. The costs in this report
do not reflect this expected change in regulations.
Baghouses, scrubbers, and electrostatic precipita-
tors can be used to meet these standards. Control
cost data are presented i t t Table 7.3—2.
INVESTMENT
ExISTING PLANTS.
NEW PtANTS
TA8LE 7.3-2. LIME INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OP 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATiVE PERIODS
______ 1977—al
1970 -77
1977—86
TOTAL... . ..... ...
ANNUAUZED COSTS
0.0
14.67
0.0
137.94
0.0
8.30
0.0
8.80
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PtANTS............... ....
18.83
0.0
18.83
65.89
0.0
65 .39
80.11
0.0
80.11
171.27
0.0
171.27
MEW PUNTS..... .. ... . .. .. .. . .....
..
O&M
EXISTiNG PUNTS.....
6.23
21.80
26.50
59.62
NEW PLANTS...... ..... . .. .....
0.0
6.23
0.0
21.80
0.0
26.50
0.0
59.62
TOTAL .. ..
NOTE 2 COSTS SHOWN FOR PEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 OF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOT E ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF 1 (1) STRAIGHT-liNE DEPREC;AIION AND (2) INTEREST.
103
-------
7.4 ASPHALT CONCRETE PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Asphalt concrete comprises a mixture of aggre-
gates and an asphalt cement binder. Aggregates.
usually consist of different combinations of
crushed stone, crushed slag, sand, and gravel.
Asphalt concrete plant processing equipment in-
cludes raw-material apportioning equipment, raw-
material conveyors. a rotary dryer, hot-aggregate
elevators, mixing equipment, asphalt-binder stor-
age. heating and transfer equipment, and mineral-
filler storage and transfer equipment.
About 4,400 asphalt concrete plants in the United
States directly employ ab out 15.400 people. In
1975. production was estimated to be 265 million
metric tons (292 million short tons). Based on a
1974 survey conducted by the National Asphalt
Pavement Association (NAPA) covering 960
plants, 78 percent were stationary plants and 22
percent were portable. Continuous mixers com-
prised 27 percent of the portable plants, com-
pared with only 4 percent for stationary plants.
Estimation of the size distribution of plants is diffi-
cult because of a lack of data. Of the plants sur-
veyed by NAPA, 12 percent were less than 98
metric tons per hour (108 short tons per hour)
capacity at average moisture condition. About 60
percent were between 99 and 198 metric tons per
hour (109 and 218 short tons per hour) and 28
percent were larger than 198 metric tons per hour
(218 short tons per hour). The average size was
160 metric tons per hour (176 short tons per
hour). The balance of the industry, 80 percent of
the plants, has only 75 percent of the capacity. By
difference, the average for these plants is 94 met-
ric tons per hour (104 short tons per hour). The
overall industry average is 110 metric tons per
hour (121 short tons per hour).
Plants operate an average of only 666 hours per
year because of the seasonal and intermittent na-
ture of the work.
Asphalt concrete production is essentially a batch-
type operation; continuous-mix represents, at
most, 10 percent of the industry.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
The predominant emissions are dust particulates
from the aggregates used in making asphalt con-
crete. The largest sources of particulate emissions
are the rotary dryer and screening, weighing, and
mixing equipment. Additional sources that may be
significant particulate emitters. if they are not
properly controlled, are: the mineral-filler loading,
transfer, and storage equipment; and the loading,
transfer, and storage equipment that handles the
dust collected by the emission-control system.
Generally, the uncontrolled emissions from as-
phalt batching plants amount to 22.5 kg of dust
per metric ton (45 pounds per short ton) of
product.
Control Technology and Costs
Practically alt plants use primary dust collection
equipment, such as cyclones or settling chambers.
These chambers are often used as classifiers with
the collected aggregate being returned to the hot-
aggregate elevator to combine with the dryer ag-
gregate load.
The gases from the primary collector must be
further cleaned before venting to the atmosphere.
To meet SIP requirements, 98.3 percent abate-
ment is sufficient. This can be achieved by the use
of multiple centrifugal scrubbers. NSPS issued in
1975 allows no more than 90 mg/dscm (0.04
grain per cubic foot) of particulates or an opacity
greater than 20 percent. In effect this requires the
use of a high energy scrubber or a fabric filter
(baghouse). The most common secondary collec-
tar used to meet NSPS is expected to be the
baghouse, although venturi scrubbers are used in
some plants. The baghouse allows dry collection
of dust which can be returned to the process or
disposed of in a landfill. The venturi scrubber
makes dust hauling expensive due to the wetting
of the dust. Also, the use of large settling ponds
and the possible need for water treatment discour-
age the use of venturi scrubbers.
Control costs are detailed in Table 7.4—1.
104
-------
TABLE 7.4—1. ASPHALT CONCRETE INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTiON CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1970—77 1977-81 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS 11.61 223.31 6.97 6.97
NEW PLANTS .... . 14.01 27.49 32.26 87.79
TOTAL ... . 23.63 232.80 59.23 94.76
ANP4UAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS .. 36.67 142.02 151.21 234.87
NEW PLANTS .. — . ... 4.47 6.67 41.32 120.88
TOTAL...... .. . ... 41.14 14a.68 192.23 353.74
C&M
EXLST1NG PLANTS — 52.58 203.65 216.22 387.85
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 17.46 71.57
TOTAL .. 52.38 203.65 234.28 559.41
ALL ANNUAL. COSTS .. .. .. 93.72 332.33 426.31 915.16
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COM8INATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPREC:AT ION AND (2 INTEREST.
105
-------
8. OTHER MANUFACTURING AND SERVICES
The subject group of industries include the follow- materials, their starting materials being manufac-
ing categories: tured items and (2) generating similiar types of
emissions, i.e., solvents and other hydrocarbons.
• Paint Manufacturing
• Surface Coatings Costa for the control of air pollution in these indus-
• Dry Cleaning. tries are given in summary form in Table 8.-i. The
specific aspects and costs of air pollution control
These types of activities have in common the char- for the individual industry segments are given in
acteristics of (1) not being based on primary raw moredetailinthefollowingsections.
TASLE 3.-i. AiR POLLUTION AEATEMENT COSTS FOR
OTHER. MANUFACTURING AND SERVICE INDUSTRIES
(IN MIWONS OP 1977 DOLLARS)
P4 VESTMENT
INOUS TWY 1977 1970—77 1977—al 1977-46
PMNT MANUFAC7URING .. _..._... .. 435 34.33 8.59 18.14
SURFACE COATING....................... .... -..—.—..—-—.—.-- .- . 0.0 0.0 658.82 1707.64
DRY CLEANING _....... . .. . . .._.......................... ... 10.04 141.75 6.73 13.27
TOTAL INVESTMENT..... . . .. . ... .. . . . . . -... 14.89 176.08 674.16 1739.06
ANNUAL COSTS
1977 1970—77 1977—3 1 1977—36
PAINT MAt ’1UFACTURING............................... ...—..—... -. 11.11 36.55 52.33 117.96
SURFAcE COATING.. . .... . . ..... . .... . . .......——..—...—.-—--.—— 0.0 0.0 374.38 1338.20
DRY CLEANING .. ......— ........ 23.07 86.06 95.58
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS ._._. .. . . —. .. 34.18 122.61 522.30 2132.70
107 Preceding page blank
-------
8.1 PAINT MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Paint manufacturing involves mixing or dispersing
pigments in oil, resin, resin solution, or latex at
room temperature. Mixing is then followed by the
additio n of specified proportions of organic sol-
vents orwaterto octain the desired viscosity.
In 1972, 1,599 plants manufactured paint
products in the United States. Plant size varied,
with approximately 32 percent of the plants ac-
counting for nsarly 90 percent of production.
Production of paint by 1 976 is estimated to be
about 4,645 million liters (1,227 million gallons).
Since about 520 plants will produce about 4,134
million liters (1,092 million gallons) of paint per
year, the average production from these larger
plants will be 7.95 million liters (2.1 million gal-
Ions) per year or roughly 31,800 liters (8,400
gallons) per day. The balance of the plants were
omitted from control cost considerations because
they collectively account for only about 5 11 mil-
lion liters (135 million gallons) per year, so their
average annual production is only about 6 percent
of that of the average plant in the larger category.
Current trends in the industry should decrease the
future hydrocarbon emission levels associated
with paint manufacturing. These include the use of
water-based paints and new application tech-
niques such as powder coating. These develop-
ments will continue to have a negative impact on
the demand for organic solvent-based paints; it is
estimated that water-based paints currently repre-
sent about 22 percent of total production volume.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Air pollutants from paint manufacturing are hydro-
carbons originating from organic solvents, and
particulates from paint pigments. About 909
grams of particulates are emitted per metric ton
(1.8 pounds per short tón) of pigment dispersed.
Assuming that 78 percent of the projected 1 976
volume of paint produced was solvent-based, esti-
mated uncontrolled hydrocarbon emissions were
about 24,310 metric tons (26,750 short tons).
Control Technology and Costs
Reduction of hydrocarbon emissions from paint
production by 85 percent, which will meet all SiPs.
may be accomplished by flame combustion, ther-
mal combustion, catalytic combustion, or adsorp-
- tion. Thermal combustion (with heat exchange) is
considered the most feasible method of control;
equipment incorporating heat-exchange devices
was chosen because of currently anticipated fu-
ture fuel shortages and assumed removal effici-
ences of 95 percent. Catalytic combustion units,
while highly promising from the standpoint of
lower fuel requirements (but higher initial invest-
ment costs), still present technical operating prob-
lems. Bagnouses (fabric filters) are suitable for
control of particulate emissions from pigments;
particulate removal efficiences of more than 95
percent are readily achieved.
Estimates for air-pollution control for the total in-
dustry were based on assumed compliance by
plants averaging about 7.95 million liters (2. 1 m14-
lion gallons) of paint production per year; about
520 plants of this capacity were assumed to be in
operation. Future cost predictions are complicated
by the emergence of technological trends away
from the use of solvent-based paints. Control costs
are detailed in Table 8.1—1.
108
-------
TABLE 8.1—1. PAINT MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1970—77 1977—31 1977—36
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS 4.85 34.33 3.72 3.72
NEW PLANTS .. 0.0 0.0 4.87 14.42
TOTAL .. .. .. ........ 4.85 34.33 3.59 18.14
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS .. .. .. 5.59 18.39 24.77 42.93
NEW PLANTS .. ..... .. .. 0.0 0.0 1.56 10.06
TOTAL .. ...... .. .. 5.59 18.39 26.33 52.99
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS 5.52 18.16 24.4.6 55.03
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 1.55 9.94
TOTAL 5.52 18.16 26.00 64.97
ALL ANNUAL COSTS .. 11.11 36.55 52.33 117.96
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH CF THE 53C NO YEAR LISTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE cOMBINArION OF: (1) STRAIGHT -LINE DEPRECATION AND (2) INTEREST.
109
-------
8.2 SURFACE COATINGS INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Emission-abatement costs associated with the use
of or anic-based surface coatings in four indus-
tries were considered: automobiles and light-duty
trucks, wood furniture, major appliances, and
metal or coil coatings. These industries are consid-
ered together because of the general similarities
between the coating processes employed, the na-
ture of the resulting emissions, and the abatement
technologies deemed applicable.
In 1971, approximately 560 miflion liters (148
million gallons) of coatings, i.e., paint, shellac, lac-
quer, and primers, were consumed by these indus-
tries. Most of the coatings materials used were
solvent-based and significant emissions of volathe
organic chemicals (VOC) resulted during the appli-
cation and curing stages of the process. Future
estimates of the volume of hydrocarbon emissions
attributable to surface coating processes must be
considered in light of the following factors:
• Increased use of low-hydrocarbon solvent
materials, sucn as water-based solutions.
• Application techniques involving solvent-
free systems, i.e., powder coatings applied
by electrostatic spraying or fluidized-bed
coating.
Where applicable, these process alternatives
would provide up to 90 percent reduction in VOC
emissions, depending on the type of coating previ-
ously used. Faced with the alternative of conven-
tional emission-control techniques (i.e., incinera-
don or activated carbon adsorption) industries are
expected to adopt the newer coating formulations
and application techniques at an accelerated
pace. By 1986, as mucn as 50 percent of the
coating processes may employ low-hydrocarbon
based materials.
The coating process consists basically of two
steps: application (followed by flash-off) and cur-
ing. Both stages produce hydrocarbon emissions
through evaporation. The coating is generally ap..
plied by a spray gun in a paint spray booth, and the
surface is then cured or oried in a drying oven
where the remaining solvent is evaporated. A sum-
mary of industry production is presented in Table
8.2—I.
Automobii.s ond light.
—
Wood Furmtuce
Furninwe p#..yol/
Coil Coating
Mo 1 or A piionCu
Total 360 (160)
Automotive Finishing. In 1971, 100 motor
vehicle (auto, truck, and bus) assembly plants were
located in 28 states. Included in this product
group are: motor vehicles and car bodies, truck
and bus bodies, motor vehicle parts and accesso-
ries, truck trailers, and travel trailers and campers.
Thts study is limited to the 47 plants that assemble
automobiles and light-duty trucks. They are classi
fled in SIC 37 11 and 3733. These plants con-
sumed about 193 million liters (51 million gallons)
of surface coatings in 1 976. The average increase
in consumption is estimated at 1 percent per year
through 1986.
Furniture Finishing. About 7,000 establish-
ments are engaged in manufacturing the following
types of furniture in the United States:
SIC No.
• Wood Household Furniture
• Wood Furniture— Upholstered
• Metal Household Furniture
• Wood Cabinetry
• Household Furniture, Not Else-
where Classified
• Wood Office Furniture
• Metal Office Furniture
• Public Building Furniture
• Wood Partitions and Fixtures
• Furniture and Fixtures, Not Else-
where Classified.
This study is Uthited to the 6,300 establishmentS
engaged in the manufacture of wood furniture,
TabI. 1.2—4.
Suv&c Coutingt Indus$ry
DistributIon (7977)
4o. of
hi
300
56
1 7
Cooting
Conwmption
(witfl millions of
In
pOrenthe e s )
193 (65)
208 (50)
87 (251
72 (20)
2511
2512
2514
2517
2519
2521
2522
2531
2541
2599
110
-------
including SiC categories 2511, 2512. 2517,
2521,and2S4l,and partsof 2531 and 2599.
Manufacturers of wood furniture used about 203
million liters (55 million gallons) of surface coat-
ings in 1 976. Unlike the metal surfaces coatings,
the use of water-based paints and finishes for
wood furniture is limited in practice because of the
tendency for the occurrence of surface distortions
in the wood. Virtually all wood furniture coatings
used, therefore, are hydrocarbon-based and range
from 30 to 70 percent by weight in volatile organiG
content The average increase in consumption is
estimated at 3 percent per year through 1 986.
Coil Coating. The coil-coating process consists
primarily of the pretreatment of sheet metal in the
strip or coil form, followed by the application of an
organic coating and subsequent curing (or baking)
to obtain the desired surface characteristics. It is
estimated that 56 plants in the United States are
engaged in this coating process. Almost 60 per-
cent of the plants are located in Pennsylvania.
‘Ohio, Illinois, and California. Coil-coated metal is a
small part of SiC 3479.
Consumption of coatings by the coil-coating indus-
try increased by nearly 10 percent per year be-
tween 1968 and 1974. Projecting this growth rate
through 1986 gives consumption of 87 million
liters (23 million gallons in 1976 and 220 million
liters (58 million gallons) in 1986.
Major Appliances. In 1976, 147 U.S. plants
were engaged in producing major household ap-
pliances including: cooking equipment, refrigera-
tors and freezers, and laundry equipment. These
plants produce products classified in SIC 3631,
3632, and 3633. Coatings use was about 72
million liters (19 million gallons) in 1976, having
increased by slightly more than 2.9 percent per
year since 1 964. Projecting this same growth rate.
consumption should be about 98 million liters (26
million gallons in 1986.
Emissions and Sources of Pollutants-
While paint spray booths are a source of hydrocar-
bon emission, the volume of solvent released to
the air through evaporation is dependent on the
degree of overspray, which can vary anywhere
from 10 to 90 percent. Aerosols resulting from
overspray are usually removed by filters or water
scrubbers, but these devices have little impact on
rem-oval of emissions du.e to solvent evaporation.
The major source of emissions attributable to coat-
ing processes is usually the spray booth and its
assoc -iate’a flash-off area.
Control Technology and Costs
EPA’s recommended emission limitations are
based on different control technologies for the
different industries. For coil-coating, where the
entire coating and curing operation can be iso-
lated from personnel, concentrations of VOC emis-
sions can be high (25 percent of the lower explo-
sive limit), and thermal incineration with primary
heat recovery is recommended. “Primary heat re-
covery” means using a heat exchanger to heat
gases coming into the incinerator with the heat of
gases exiting the incinerator.
For the manufacture of automobiles and light-duty
trucks, major household appliances, and wood
furniture, the presence of personnel in spray
booths means that large quantities of air must be
injected into the spray booths to dilute the concen-
tration of VOC’s to limits tolerable to humans.
Consequently, incineration of emissions from
spray booths and their associated flash-off areas is
not economically practical because of the large
fuel consumption required. Incineration from
ovens may be technically feasible, but ovens dis-
charge only about 1 5 percent of the VOC emis-
sions from a coating line. For the automotive in-
dustry, electrodepositiori is recommended for
prime coats and the use of high-solids enamels
instead of low-solids lacquers for topcoats. Two
automobile plants in California use water-borne
topcoats, but this option is not generally feasible.
For manufacturers of major hbusehold appliances,
either electrodeposition or water-borne coatings
are recommended for the prime coat and high-
solids, solvent-borne coatings for the topcoat.
None of these options is technically and econom-
ically practical for the manufacturers of wood fur-
niture. If emissions from the manned coating-
application and associated flash-off area can be
drawn through the low-temperature curing oven,
adsorption of VOC’s with an activated carbon sys-
tem appears to be the most practical means of
emission control.
A summary of estimated investment and annual
operating-costs is provided in Table 8.2—2.
111
-------
TABLE 8.2-2. SURFACE COATJNG IHDUSTRY MR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIUJONS OP 977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE DERIODS
1977 70—77 1977 —81 1 77 ..86
INVESTMENT
EXISTW4G PL&NTS. . .................... ..... . . ... . ._. 0.0 0.0 658.82 1662.86
NEW PLANTS.. .. . . ._. ......... 0.0 0.0 0.0 44.99
TOTAL......... .... . ... __................. 0.0 0.0 658.82 1707.64
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PLNTS........ . ...... . ..... . .._........ . ... . ............. 0.0 0.0 211.11 1033.94
NEW PLANTS . ........... . ....._................................. 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.91
TOTAL..... . ...... . . . . . .._ . .._........ . ...... .. . ... 0.0 0.0 211.11 1039.83
O&M
EXISTING PL&NTS......_._....... . ........................ 0.0 0.0 163.27 812.79
NEW PLANTS .................._ . .._. . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.36
TOTAL....... _... _ . .._ 0.0 0.0 16127 818.35
AU. ANNUAL COSTS..... . . .. .. . .. . . . .. ._. 0.0 0.0 374.38 1858.20
NOTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE; ANNUAL CAPITAL.COSTS ARE ThE COMBINATION OF; (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATiON AND (2) INTEREST.
112
-------
8.3 DRY CLEANING INDUSTRY
production Characteristics and Capacities
There are primarily two types of dry cleaning in-
stallations that release organic-solvent vapors re-
sulting in the formation of photocnemical oxidants
in the atrnospnere. They are those using synthetic
solvent such as perchioroethylene and those using
petroleum solvent such as Stoddard. The trend in
dry cleaning operations is towards the “laundro-
mat” facility and the industrial establishments.
Business in the commercial sector (small neigh-
borhood dry cleaning shops) continues to decline.
It has been estimated that approximately 70 per-
cent of dry cleaning is done using synthetic sol-
vents with the remaining 30 percent using petro-
leum solvents.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
In perchioroethylene plants, average solvent
losses have been estimated to be about 10—1 2 kg
of solvent per 100 kg of clothing. Unlike petro-
leum plants, where no emission controls are used,
many dry cleaner operations using perchioroethy-
lene solvents have vapor adsorbers to reduce sol-
vent usage. Others are equipped with regenerative
filter and a muck cooker. For these facilities, the
total consumption rates averages about 8. 1 kg of
solvent per 100 kg of clothing. For adsorber-
equipped plants. the solvent usage is approxi-
mately 4.9 kg per 100 kg of clothing, equivalent to
340 percent reduction in solvent loss.
Because there is no solvent recovery during the
drying cycle nor from the filter muck. petroieum
plants have much higher solvent losses than syn-
thetic plants. Emissions for petroleum dry cleaners
are estimated to average 23—29 kilograms of sol-
vent per 100 kilograms of materials cleaned. At
the present time, no control systems are known to
be operating in petroleum plants in the U.S. One
plant, however, is currently installing a carbon
adsorber.
Control Technology and Costs
Fire-hazards, economics, and the law-based capac•
ity are the primary reason why ‘carbon adsorbers
are not widely used in the petroleum dry cleaning
industry. The low cost of petroleum solvent pro-
vides little incentive to reduce losses.
However, rising cost of perchloroethylene solvent
has made carbon adsorption attractive. Presently
39 to 50 percent of synthetic solvent plants are
equipped with adsorption units. Maintenance,
however, is generally very poor.
Carbon adsorption can be used in perchloroerhy-
lene and petroleum plants to reduce vented emis-
sions from the wasner, dryer, storage tanks, distil-
lation systems, and chemical separators to a con-
centration less than 200 ppm in petroleum plants
and 100 ppm in perchioroethylene plants.
The application of add-on controls and better
house-keeping practices can reduce annual dry
cleaning solvent consumption by an average of
60—70 percent.
because of the higher cacital investment and oper-
ating costs required for emissions controls on
petroleum-solvent plants, it is believed that most
new plants will use synthetic solvent and that
many of the petroleum-naphtha solvent plants will
shut down or convert to syntneoc solvent opera-
tions by the early 1 980s. Increasing solvent costs
will provide an incentive for more effective evapo-
rative emission control.
Control costs and industry operating statistics are
detailed in Table 8.3—1. Cost calculations indicate
that the installation of controls wiil result in a net
credit in operating “costs” because of the value of
reclaimed solvent. A zero cost is shown for operat-
ing and maintenance costs.
113
-------
TABLE 8.3-1. DRY CLEANING INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(iN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CtJMULA11VE PERIODS
1977 1970—77 1977—31 1977—36
INVE5TMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS.. .. .. ......_... 9.07 138.96 2.44 2.44
NEW PLANTS........ . ....... .......... ........ .. ... . ... 0.97 2.79 4.31 10.84
_..... 10.04 141.75 6.75 13.27
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PI.ANTS.. . ..... .. 22.62 85.16 92.05 .144.56
NEW PLANT5.............. ................... . ._.. ................... 0.45 0.90 3.54 11.97
TOTAL .... . .. . .. . . . ... . .... . . 23.07 86.06 95.58 156.53
O&M
EXISTiNG P1ANTS.. . ........... . . . ....... .. . .. . ..... .. . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PUIr4TS ... . ....... .......... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL..........................._.............. . ........... . ........ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
AU. ANNUAL COSTS....... . ...... . ........ . ...... . ....._. 23.07 86.06 9 5 .58 156.53
MOTh COSTS SHOWN F R YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OF 11 18 SECONO YEAR LISTED.
MOTh ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
114
-------
9. FOREST AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS iNDUSTRIES
For the purpc,se of this report, the Forest and
Agricultural Products Industries are defined as
those establishments which process products
grown on the land. Those covered here are:
• The Kraft Pulp Industry
• The NSSC Paper Industry
• The Feed Mills Industry
• The Grain Mills Industry
The costs of air pollution control for these categor-
ies of industry are listed in summary form in Table
9—1. The industries and more specific details of
controls and costs are discussed in the following
sections.
TABLE 9.-i. AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS FOR THE
FOREST & AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
( 1N MIWONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INDUSTRY
KRAFT PAPER
NSSC PAPER
FEED MIU.S.............
GRAIN PIAI OUNG
KRAFT PAPER
NSSC PAPER.........,
FEED MILLS
GRAIN ANOUNG
1977
250.00
14.00
212.66
229.38
70ó.04
INVESTMENT
ANNUAL COSTS
1977—86
1606.81
129.72
3409.44
3359.65
8420.05
TOTAL INVESTMENT.
1977—81
412.50
17.00
323.81
446. 14
1199.45
1977-86
425.00
17.00
812.97
968.38
2223.34
1970-77
862.50
58.50
1700.61
1623.20
4244.80
1970 -77
247.75
22.87
1023.07
880.71
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS.
1977
120.80
9.68
301.52
272.03
696.55
1977-81
678.20
54.94
1370.31
1309.69
2154.83 3375.84
115
-------
9.1 KRAFT PULP INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The kraft pulp industry currently has a capacity of
about 35.3 million metric tons (38.9 million short
tons) of paper per year, with little scheduled capac-
ity growth. While supplies may be restricted in
several years, current operation is at about 85
percent of capacity, so some increase in
production can be expected from current capacity.
Conventional kraft pulping processes are highly
aikalins in nature and utikze sodium hydroxide and
sodium sulfide as cooking chemicals One modifi-
cation used for the preparation of highly purified,
or high-alpha cellulose pulp utilizes an acid hydro..
lysis of the wood chips prior to the alkaline cook;
this is the prehydrolysis kraft process. Kraft proc-
esses enjoy the advantages of being applicable for
nearly all species of wood and of having an effec-
tive meønS of recovery of spent cooking chemicals
for reuse in the process.
Kraft pulping, in simplified terms, consists of
seven separate processes. The digesting liquor in
this process flow is a solution of sodium hydroxide
and sodium sulfide. The spent liquor (black liquor)
is concentrated, then sodium sulfate is added to
make up for chemical losses, and the liquor is
burned in a recovery furnace, producing a smelt of
sodium carbonate and sodium sulfide. The smelt is
dissolved in water to form green liquor, to which is
added quicklime to convert the sodium carbonate
beck to sodium hydroxide, thus reconstituting the
cooking liquor. The spent lime cake (calcium car-
bonate) is recalcined in a rotary lime kiln to
produce quicklime (calcium oxide) for recausticiz-
Mg the green liquor.
Included in the uses of kraft pulp are the
production of linerboard, solid-fiber board, high-
strength bags, wrapping paper, high-grade white
paper, and food-packaging materials.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Main emission sources in the kraft process are the
recovery furnace, lime kiln, smelt dissolving tank,
and the power boilers. The kraft pulping econom-
ics depend upon reclamation of chemicals from
the recovery furnace and lime kiln. Hence, emis-
sions from these processes are controlled to mini-
mize losses of chemicals.
Particulates and gases are emitted from the van.
ous sources of the kraft process. Numerous van.
ables affect the quality and quantity of emission
from each source of the kraft pulping procs
There are several sources of emissions in the proc.
ass and the applicable control technology and
attainable efficiencies of the control methods de
pend on the quantity and quality of emissions. Th1
gaseous emissions occur in varying mixtures, and
are mainly hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan,
Process
Par$iculates
TRS
Sulfur Ojoxid,
Dig.s$sr
0.0
0.72
Troc .
(0.0)
(1.44)
Wash.,
0.0
(0.0)
0.05
(010)
Troc.
Msh . t
Em c.Wor
0.0
(0.0)
0.18
(0.36)
Trace
R.cov.vy Furnace
60.0
(120)
2.95
(5.90)
1.2
(2.4)
Smelt Tank
7.8
(15.6)
0.05
(0.10)
Troc .
Lime Kiln
34.0
(68.0)
0.22
(0.44)
Trace
Power BoiI t
35.3
(70.6)
0.0
(0.0)
19.7
(39A )
.
Totols
137.1
(274.Z
4.17
(8.34)
20.9
(41.8)
Confroihid
0.0
(0.0)
Trace
Trace
Washer
0.0
(0.0 1
Trace
— E .d
parutui
0.0
(0.0)
Trace
Tracs
R.coemy Furnace
2.00
(4.00)
0.25
(0.50)
1.2
(2.4)
Smelt Tank
0.25
(0.50)
Trace
Tracs
Lime Kiln
0.50
Trace
Pew., toiler
(1.0)
2.47
(4.94)
0.0
(0.0)
10.5
(21.0)
£22
(10.44)
0.25
(0.30)
11.7
(23.4
‘ADMT Air-drlnd metric te*(AOT t Air-druid short tan ).
Fv.1 requirement = 3.26 x 10’ 1 o lns/A0MT (3.09 x 10 Bhj/ADT) . C 5O
provid.s 35%, oil 27%. gas 26%, and bark/wood 12% of the ens’IY
Sulfur consent coal 1.9% nd oil 1.8%. Ash co n tent er coal 8.1%
bavk/wood 2.9%.
Totals
raW. 9.1—1.
sta. ef asi*ac ft.. Kr.ft Prsc. .
(hi k 5 /ADMT wlH. lb/ADT hi
116
-------
dimethyt sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, and some sul-
nit dioxide. The sulfur compounds are generally
efarred to as reduced sulfur compounds. These
very odorous compounds are detectable at a con-
ntration of a few parts per billion. The particu-
late emissions are largely sodium sulfate, calcium
compounds, and fly ash.
rates of uncontrolled and controlled emis-
sions of particulate, total reduced sulfur (TRS), and
ejifur dioxide from various sources of kraft pulp..
leg processing in 1974 were as shown in Table
Li—i.
Most states do not have emission regulations for
pulp and paper making. For this study it has been
assumed that all the states would adopt the most
stringent current state regulations—those of Ore..
pun and Washington. Costs for compliance are
based on all mills meeting these regulations. The
regulations include the following control
provisions:
1. Total reduced sulfur (TRS) compounds
from the recovery furnace: No more than 1
kg/ADMT (2 lb/ADT) (1972) to be reduced
to no more than 0.25 kg/ADMT (0.5
lb/AD1) by .1975.
2. Noncondensible gases from the digesters
and multiple-effect evaporators: Collected
and burned in the lime kiln or proven
equivalent.
3. Particulates from the recovery furnace: No
more than 2 kg/ADMT (4 lb/ACT).
4. Particulates from the lime kiln: No more
than 0.5 kg/ADMT(1 lb/ACT).
5. Particulates from smelt tank: No more than
0.25 kg/ADMT(0.5 lb/ACT).
6. Emissions from power boiler will meet the
Federal emission standard.
Control Technology and Costs
The cost estimates for kraft pulping take into ac-
count the costs associated with each constituent
- . process. Costs are summarized in Table 9.1—2.
TABLE 9.1-2. KRAFT PULP INDUSTRY AIR POU.UTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 1977 DOLI.ARS)
CUMULATiVE PERIODS
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS. .................... ....
NEW PLANTS
TOTAL.
250.00
0.0
250.00
.
862.50
0.0
862.50
412.50
0.0
412.50
425.00
0.0
425.00
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PLANTS..........................
NEW PLANTS .__.__..._....-.._.___..._..._.._...__
TOTAL — ............ - . .... ...
O&M
113.40
0.0
113.40
236.63
0.0
236.63
624.30
0.0
624.50
1470.86
0.0
1470.86
EXISTING PtANTS....................... .
NEW PLANTS .. .._...................... ..._.....
TOTAL..................._........................................._
7.40
0.0
7.40
120.80
.
11.10
0.0
11.10
247.75
53.70
0.0
53.70
678.20
135.95
0.0
135.95
1606.8 1
AU. ANNUAL COSTS ..
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 SI OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUM CAPITAL COSTS ARE ThE COM8INATION OF (I) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
117
-------
9.2 NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMICHEMICAL PAPER INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Current industry capacity is about 3.92 million dry
metric tons (4.32 million short toos) per year. Most
of new capacity is replacement or expansion Ca-
pacity due to the high cost of completely new
mills. Mills are currently operating at between 85
and 90 percent of capacity, so the industry has
some marginal capacity to fill limited increases in
demand.
Semichemical puips are produced by digesting
pulp wood with reduced amounts of chemicals,
followed by mechanical treatment to complete the
fiber separation. The most prevalent semichemi-
cal pulping process is the neutral sulfite semi-
chemical process. In this process, sodium sulfite in
combination with sodium bicarbonate, or ammo-
nium sulfite buffered with ammonium hydroxide.
are used as cooking chemicals. These cooks are
slightly alkaline in contrast to the highty alkaline
kraft, and highly or moderately acidic sulfite
cooks. The semichemical pulping processes are
used for production of high-yield pulps ranging
from 60 to 85 percent of dry wood weight charged
to the digestion vessel, and can include kiaft and
sulfite processes suitably modified to reduce pulp-
ing action in order to produce higher-than-normal
yield puips.
Semichemical pulps are used in preparing corru-
gating medium, coarse wrapping paper, liner-
board, hardboard, and roofing felt, as well as fine
grades of paper and other products.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Discussions and calculations of air emissions from
the Neutral Sulfite Semichemical (NSSC) process
are limited to particulate and sulfur dioxide. The
used cooking liquors are discharged to sewers or’
in some cases they are evaporated and cross-
recovered with an adjacent kraft mill or treated in
a fluidized-bed system. In this study, fluidized-bed
combustion was assumed for the liquor treatment.’
Emissions are summarized in Table 9.2—1.
Control Technology and Costs
Forthe purposes of this report it was assumed that
particulate emissions from the recovery furnace
and power boilers burning coal and bark/wood,
and sulfur dioxide emission from power boilers
burning high-sulfur coal and oil were subject to
control. To meet the particulate emissions stan-
dard from recovery furnaces, a control efficiency
of at least 90 percent is required for the control
system. A sodium-based, double alkali system was
assumed for the control of sulfur dioxide from
coat- and oil-burning power boilers.
A,ioiolwvie E,,,iu ons from d i. Pi end Po i.r Monofoe wiig Indu ivy - R.p.r of NCASI - EPA :-ot i . . Study Pvoi.ct. T.c mieoi
&ud.sin P4o 69, F.Immy 1914.
Tabi. 9.2—L
ControUd and UncsntroIl.d Emissions From
Various Presses.. in th. NSSC Pap.r Industry
(in kg psr ADMT with lb p.r ADT in par.nth .s.Y
Suthw Dioxid .
1971
Conwo&s
L.gidai.d
Caimo&s
1971
Cans,ofr
L.gis ot.d
Conivo.
20.0
(40.01
2.0
(4.0)
0.01
(.02)
0.01
(.02)
35.3
(70.0)
2.47
(4.94)
19.7
(39.4)
10.5
(21.0)
5.5.3
(110.6)
4.47
(8.94)
20.71
(41.421
10.5
(21.0)
118
-------
Control methods for new plants were selected as
f oHows:
P ik.t nt C8ntv01 M,thods
hc ” v urnaci PQrtiCUIOt Ei.ct t c Pr.ci ttøi
Psw SoiIsc P r icti ct* EIe*t ifl c tator
S Ufur Dia id. o ó4. c ij
Coits are summarized n Table 9.2—2. Since cost
data were taken from a specific source, rather than
developed within the computer model, new plant
costs are included with ex isting plants.
TABLE 9.2-2.
MS C PAPER INDUSTRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(114 MIWONS OF 1977 DOU.ARS)
CUMLI1.AT1VE PERIODS
INV€STMEp .IT
EXISTING PLANTS .. ..
1!Z!
14.00
0.0
14.00
1970—77
58.50
0.0
58.50
1977 — I l
17.00
0.0
17.00
1977— 86
17.00
0.0
17.00
NEW PLANTS ..... ........ ._..
TOTAL .. .. ......
ANNUAUZED. COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS.. . ...... ......... ....
NEW PLANTS ..... . . ..... ......... ..
.. ..
O&M
7.48
0.0
7.4
19.57
0.0
19.57
37.32
0.0
37.02
85.87
0.0
85.87
EXISTING PLANTS
2.20
0.0
2.20
9.68
3.30
0.0
3.30
22.87
17.65
0.0
17.65
54.97
44.15
0.0
44.15
129.72
NEW PLANTS .. ....... .. .......
..
AU. ANNUAL COSTS ..
NQTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST 0 THE FIRST ?EAR TO JUNE 30TH CF THE SECCMO YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF 11) STRAIGI4T .UNE DEPRECIATION AND 12) INTEREST.
119
-------
9.3 GRAIN HANDLING INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Traditionally, grain handling is considered in
terms of series of grain storage facilities starting
from the delivery by the farmer and ending with
the ultimate user. These grain storage facilities or
grain elevators, provide storage space and serve
as collection, transfer, drying, and cleaning points.
There are two main classifications of grain eleva-
tors.—country and terminal elevators. Country ele-
vators receive grains from nearby farms by truck
for storage or shipment to terminal elevators or
processors. Terminal elevators (this category is
subdivided into inland and port terminals), are
generally larger than country elevators and are
located at significant transportation or trade cen-
ters. Inland terminals receive, store, handle, and
load these grains in rail cars or barges for ship-
ment to processors or port locations. Port termi-
nals receive grain and load ships for export to
foreign countries. Particulate emission is a func-
tion both of the amount of grain handled and of the
oprarions involved in handling. The cost of equip-
metn for emission control is a function of the size
of the facility and operations involved. Cons-
quently, model sizes for the types of operations
and size of country elevators, inland terminals and
port terminals have been selected, ranging from 0
to 70 thousand cubic meters (0 to 2 million bush-
els, dry measure), 70 to 700 thousand cubic me-
ters (2 to 20 million bushels), and 0.7 to 7 million
cubic meters (20 to 200 million bushels). It should
be noted that very few country elevators fall within
the second range, white some inland terminal ele-
vators may fall within the first capacity range.
Using data for the number and storage capacities
of the country and terminal elevators by states as
of September 30, 1 972, size ranges and number
of facilities per size range are listed in Table 9.3—1.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Grain handling includes a variety of operations
which emit differing amounts of air pollutants,
primarily particulates. The particulates consist of
attrition of the grain kernels and dirt. Hence, the
amount of the dust (particulates) emitted during
the various grain-handling operations depends on
the type of grain being handled, the quality or
grade of the grain, the moisture content of the
grain, the speed of the belt conveyors used to
transport the grain, and the extent and efficiency
of the dust-collecting system being used, such as
hoods and sheds.
Control Technology and Costs
Systems used to control particulate emissions
from grain handling operations consist either of
extensive hooding and aspiration systems leading
to a dust collector or of methods for eliminating
emissions at the source. Techniques which elimi-
nate the sources of dust emissions or which retain
dust within the process are: enclosed conveyors.
covers on bins, tanks and hoppers, and mainte-
Ranç.s
0—70
(0—2)
70-700
(2—20)
700—7.000
( 20-200)
217 55.5
(6.161
70.9 18.1
(2.01)
103 26.4
(2.92)
390.9 100.0
(11.09)
A u
Vohim ,
30.4
(0.363)
171.6
(4J17)
1.615
(43.13)
Table 9.3—L
Groin Handling lndtistvy
Fadl Productien Capodtles
(in th.usands of cubic motors,
millions of bushsls in paronth.s.s)
Te#o
A,wiuol
Av.w
Vojsj . - d 4
(1.000)
tooj
Vokj (%)
No. f
ciht3ei
7.147
413
64
7,624
120
-------
nance of the system s internal pressure below the
external pressure so that airflow is inward rather
than outward from the openings.
Control methods are also available to capture and
coliect the dust entrained or suspended in the air.
The dust- collection systems generally used are
cyclones and fabric filters.
In order to meet the emission standards, it was
assumed that (except for grain drying) fabric filters
will be installed in all existing plants that do not
have them or as replacements for cyclones and
other control devices. After Costs were developed
for this industry, a New Source Performance Stan-
dard was developed (promulgated 8/3/7 8) which
contained a size cut-off 88 thousand cubic meters
(2 1/2 million bushel) storage. To approximate this
development, no NSPS control costs were as-
signed to the expansion of the smaU model plant
category described above. Further, the above as-
sumption of the use of fabric filters may result in
an overstatement of costs, since the standard may
be attainable by the use of high-performance cy-
clones. The cost data for this industry are given in
Table 9.3.-2.
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS.
NEW PtANTS
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30Th CF THE SECOND YEAR UST3D.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE TilE COM8INATIONOF (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPREOAT1ON AND (21 FMTEREST.
TABLE 9.3-2. GRAIN
INVE5TMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS..... . ..........
NEW PLANTS .. ..
TOTAL... . ......... .. .. .. 229.38
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EX ST1NG PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS
HANDLING INDUSTRY AIR POLlUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1970—77 1977—81 1977-16
147.39 138 5.43 88.43 88.4.3
82.00 237.77 357.71 879.95
1623.20 446.14 968.38
634.25 775.10 1743.97
61.80 240.59 833.30
696.06 1015.69 2577.27
159.06 194.39 437.36
25.59 99.61 345.02
184.65 294.00 732.38
880.71 1309.69 3359.65
182.15
31.26
213.41
45.68
12.94
58.62
272.03
AU. ANNUAL COSTS,
121
-------
9.4 FEED MILLS INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Feed manufacture is the process of converting
grain and other constituents into the form, size,
and consistency desired in the finished feed. Feed
milling involves the receiving, conditioning (dr-
ying, sizing, cleaning), blending, and pelleting of
the grains, and their subsequent bagging or bulk
loading.
As of July 1, 1974, the number of existing feed
mills was estimated at 7,866 plants, with a total
capacity of 1 4 million metric tons (148 million
short tons) per year. For this report, these have
been grouped into the size categories as shown in
Table 9.4—1.
Tabl 9.4—1.
Fend MW. Industry Production Capociti.s, 1974
(in mtvic tens with short tons in per.nth.s.s)
Dolly
Sin Rang.
Na.
Mills
Amiual
(L0001
.
Tolal
Capacity (%)
0—44
(0—49 )
4.170
47
(52)
31.8
40
(44 )
4. 5— 90
—
2.790
70
47.3
90
9)
91—136
(100-1501
906
31
(34)
20.9
Emission Sources and Pollutants
The primary emissions from feed manufacture are
particulates, especially dust. The factors affecting
emissions include the type and amount of grain
handled, the degree of drying, the amount of liquid
blended into the feed, the type of handling (cony-
eyor or pneumatic), the configuration of the receiv-
ing pits, and the degree of control. An indication of
the relative ranking of emission sources in a typi-
cal feed mill is given below:
Unloading of bulk incredients is generally ac-
knowledged to be one of the most troublesome
dust sources in feed mills. Centrifugal co!lec ors
used for product recovery and dust control epre-
sent the second largest emission source.
Control Technology and Costs
It is estimated that 88.1 percent of the volume
handled in pellet-cooler operations and 56 per-
cent of the volume handled in grinding operations
have some type of emission control, largely cy-
clones. In receiving, transfer, and storage opera-
tions, roughly one-third of the total volume is con-
trolled by either cyclones or fabric filters, while
only a few installations have installed controls in
shipping operations.
Table 9.4—2 shows the costs of air pollution con-
trols on an annualized and investment basis.
M I I I
O a,oiions
Rail unloading
Colloctan for product recov.vy nd
dust confrol
Truck unloading
Truck loading (bulk loodout)
Bucket .4.vator leg v.nn
in ,.nIs
Scoil. vwts
Grinding system (f..d.r, spills)
Inane or (waste paper)
Small boiler (Oil)
Rail cor looiing (bulk leodaut)
an.ous ( coo g spouts, pu
mills. feeder lines)
Pa co l otes
Qm*rai,d( % )
25
21
1.5
11
5
5
3
4
2
7
Model
Mill
Size
122
-------
TABLE 9.4-2. PEED MIU3 INDUSTRY AiR POLlUTION CONTROl. CO 1S
(IN MILLIONS OP 1917 QOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE E IODS
1!?! 1970—77 1 77—31 1977— 36
(N VESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS ........... . ........ . . ...... 172.98 1425.97 102.73 103.73
NEW PLANTS .................... ..._..._ 39. 3 7&64 220.02 709.18
TOTAL........... 212.oó 1700.61 323.81 812.97
ANP4UAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EX 1STING PLANTS 213.77 743.20 909.67 2046.76
NEW PUNTS .. ...... .._.. 9.31 14.41 107.01 77.47
TOTAL . ... . . . _. .............. . .......... 223.59 762.81 1016.68 2524.23
C&M
EXISTING PtAMTS....... ._ . .... . ......... 74.71 255.72 3 19.29 725.15
NEW PLANTS ._..... ... .... 3.22 4.73 35.23 180.06
TOTAL ..... .. .. ........... 77.94 280.45 353.62 885.21
AU. ANNUAL COSTS .. _.. . . .. . . .. — 301.52 1023.07 1370.31 3409.44
MOTE: COSTS SHOWN POR YEAR SPANS ARE PROM JULY 1ST OP THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH CF THE SEC2ND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COM3INAT1ON OF: (1) STRAIGIIT .LW4E CEPRECIATICN AND (2) INTEREST.
123
-------
10. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL OR REDUCTION
Except for ocean dumping (which is no longer
widely practiced), the only ultimate disposal for
solid wastes is on the land, either in sanitary land-
fills or in open dumps. Frequently, however, the
volume of solid waste is reduced by burning,
shredding, or composting prior to final disposal in
orderto conserve available land disposal areas.
Solid waste reduction contributes to air pollution
through incineration, with or without heat recov-
ery, and by open burning. Air pollutants emitted to
the atmosphere from these practices include par-
nculates, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides, hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons, hydro-
chloric acid, and odors. The levels of pollutants
emitted are primarily dependent upon the particu-
lar waste being burned. Incinerator emission lev-
els are also dependent upon the incinerator design
and upon the method of operation.
Particulate emissions are the greatest, making
them the specific pollutant subject to controls.
There are no current Federal regulations for odors,
hydrochloric acid, or fluorocarbons. Besides air-
pollution laws, federal and state solid waste
management regulations have had an effect on air
pollution by reducing open dumps, and thereby
reducing open burning. The relative effect of air.
pollution laws versus solid waste regulatory laws
has not been determined.
The solid waste reduction methods that are dis-
cussed in the following paragraphs were in use in
1976 in the amounts shown n Table 10—1:
Taäi. 10—1.
Methods of Roducfion of Solid West. and Amounts in 1916
(in millions of n .$nc tons
with millions .f %hort tans in perenth.s.s)
Reduction .‘Aettiad
Municipal Incinerators
Ind ,t ial Commercial lncinerat rs
Open 6wning Dumps
Ref e.firea Steam Generators
S.waq. Sludge Incinerators
aw Saud/Waste Amount
16 (18)
7.6 (8.4)
3.4 (4)
0.5 (0.5)
3.6 (4)
The costs for control of air pollution from these
categories of operations are shown in summary
form in Table 10—2. The cost of sewage sludge
incineration is not included in this report. These
costs appear in the Cost of Clean Water Report in
Chapter 2.
These costs represent the application of various
control devices to the different types of incinera-
tors except for the case of open burning dumps,
where the costs represent the conversion to sani-
tary landfills.. Details of each category and the
associated costs are given in the following
sections.
125
Preceding page blank
TABLE 1O.-2. AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
INDUSTRY
SCUD WASTE DISPOSAL & REDUC1ON
1977
145.33
1970—77
1744.12
1977—31
718.62
977-.86
2023.34
OPEN SURNING
MUNICPAI. wASTE REDuCTION
0.29
3.11
3.91
1.32
COAL-FIRED STEAM GENERATION
4.00
24.00
10.40
23.40
INDUSTRIAL & 8UILOINGS INCINERATORS
TOTAL INVESTMENT
57.02
206.65
256.61
2027.84
275.62
1005.56
ANNUAL COSTS
693.30
2741.37
OPEN SURNINO
MUNICIPAL WASTE REDUcTION
1977
1112.22
1.64
1970-77
4762,36
7.56
1977 —81
5419.23
.76
1977 —86
15076.59
15.35
COAL-FIRED STEAM GENERAT1ON
4.41
16.63
23.81
59.30
INDUSTRIAL & SU(t.DINGS INCINERATCRS
93.39
270.23
59&.L3
2013.17
TOTAL ANNUAL 05T5
1211.37
5056.37
17164.90
-------
10.1 OPEN BURNING AND OPEN BURNING DUMPS
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Open burning refers to the unconfined burning of
any kind of waste, such as leaves, agricultural
waste. residential waste, etc. An open burmng
dump may be either a municipal or an industrial
dump, at which open burning occurs. Emissions
from open burning reflect the composition of the
waste (volume of paper, plastic, wood, rubber,
etc.), and its ohysical state (degree of compaction,
moisture content, etc). The primary emissions
from open burning are particulates, carbon mo-
noxide, and hydrocarbons.
Control Technology and Costs
There is no control technology that can be applied
to open burning in general. Many common uses of
open burning, such as burning for silvicuttural,
agricultural, range, and wildlife management
training fires for firefighters; and heating for out-
door workers, are allowed only under limited con .
ditions of weather, time, and location. Other fre-
quent sources of open burning, such as forest fires
and coal-refuse pile fires, are accidental, and ar*
extinguished as soon as possible. The only suit.
able emission control for open dumps is to substi-
tute the use of sanitary landfills. For the purposes
of this report, it was assumed that the waste cul L
rently going to open dumps would be d vened to
sanitary landfills.
Costs for converting open burning dumps to sani-
tary landfills are detailed in Table 10.1—1.
TABLE 10.1-1. OPEN BURNING AND OPEN DUMP AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 1917 DOLLARS)
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUM. CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
NEW PLANTS
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
TOTAL
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS
1970—77
1977—81
1977—86
143.33
0.0
1744.12
0.0
158.43
560.19
158.43
1864.92
145.33
1744.12
718.62
2023.34
225.77
0.0
962.82
0.0
977.52
128.00
2199.41
891.45
223.77
962.82
1105.52
3090.86
886.45
0.0
3799.54
0.0
3828.20
45.52
8613.43
3372.30
886.45
3799.34
4313.71
11983.73
1112.22
4762.36
3419.23
15076.39
ALl. ANNUAL COSTS.
NOTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 OF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OP THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE; ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COM8INATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
126
-------
10.2 MUNICtPAL INCINERATORS
operating Characteristics and Capaczties
There are two basic types of municip al incinera-
tors. The refractory-lined furnace is the most com-
mon type in this country and is the type discussed
in this chapter. The other type is the water-wall, or
waste-heat recovery type, more common in Eu-
rope. That type is discussed in the section on
refuse-fired steam generators.
Conventional refractory-lined incinerators are usu-
ally continuously fed, large rectangular chambers.
The amount of air supplied to the combustion
chamber is greatly in excess of the amount theo-
retically needed for combustion. The excess air
serves as a cooling medium, but it also causes
turbulence and entrains large amounts of particu-
late matter. The air-pollution-control equipment
must be large enough to handle the great volumes
of air and particulates. With strict air-pollution-
control requirements, it has become very costly to
build adequate air-pollution-control, systems for
these incinerators. The result has been the sub-
stantial decrease in the popularity of the
refractory-lined incinerator noted above.
Since 1920, 322 municipal-scale incinerators
have been built, and 42 modifications have been
made to increase the capacity of these facilities.
As of December, 1974, only 145 of these plants
were still operating. The number of units. n opera-
tion has continued to fall to a current (1 977) level
of about 50. Estimated current capacity of these
incinerators is 52.6 thousand metric tons (58
thousand short tons) per day.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Municipal incinerators contribute to air pollution
by releasing a variety of pollutants to the atmo-
sphere, but primarily particulates. The levels of
these pollutant emissions are directly related to
the design and operation of the incinerator, as well
as to the composition of the refuse burned. Partic-
ulate limitations generally range from 80 to 200
grams of particulate per 100 kg (0.08 to 0.2
pound per 100 pounds of refuse charged.
Control Technology and Costs
Electrostatic precipitators and wet scrubbers are
used to control particulates. Most commonly how
ever, incinerators are closing, rather than upgrad-
ing facilities to meet air regulations. Thirty-nine
percent (39%) of the operating incinerators closed
from 1969 to 1974.
Costs are summarized in Table 10.2—1.
TABLE 10.2-1. MUNICIPAL WASTE iNCINERATOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
( 1N MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
1970—77
0.29
0.0
0.29
1977—36
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PUNTS.
NEW PtANTS
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXiSTING PUNTS.
MEW Pt.AP4TZ
TOTAL
O&M
EXISTING PUNTS.
MEW PLANTS
kI
CUMULATIVE €RIC0S
0.91
0.0
0.91
2.12
0.0
.12
4.64
0.0
4.64
3.11
0.0
3.11
3.81
0.0
3.81
3.75
0.0
3.75
7.56
0.75
0.0
0.75
0.89
0.0
0.39
1.32
0.0
1.32
3.60
0.0
3.60
11.75
0.0
11.75
15.35
AU. ANNUAL COSTS 1.64
NOTE : COSTS SHOWN FOR “EAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 CF ThE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND ‘ ‘EAR LISTED.
MOTE; ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE ThE CCMIINAflCN OF: (1) STRAIGMT.UNE DEPRECh JiCM AND (21 NTE EST.
127
-------
10.3 REFUSE-FIRED STEAM GENERATORS
Operating Characteristics and Capacities
Domestic, commercial, and industrial solid wastes
contain large quantities of combustible material
which can be used s fuel in a steam generater. In
some cases, refuse may be the ohly fuel or refuse
may be supplemental to fossil fuels. Both cases
are covered in this section. Other waste-to-energy
techniques, such as pyrolysis and small modular
incinerators which recover energy in the form of
hot water, are not covered.
The amount cf recoverable, dry, combustible ma-
terial in various wastes is shown in Table 10.3—1.
It is estimated that solid wastes from the largest
metropolitan areas in the U.S. could be converted
to supply a small but significant percentage of the
nation’s energy needs.
Two principal technologies are used for refuse-
fired steam generators. One is production of
steam in a waterwall incinerator, burning refuse
(with or without prior shredding and classifiction)
on moving grates. The other technology is the
preparation of refuse-derived fuel (RDF). which in-
volves shredding, followed by separation of the
wastes into the light organic (fuel) fraction, and the
heavy, principally inorganic, fraction which may
undergo additional processing for recovery of
metals and glass. The RDF is generally suspension..
fired in a utility-type boiler, often as a supplement
to fossil fuel.
Of the 14 existing refuse-fired steam generators in
the U.S.. four are RDF-fired utility boilers, and 10
are waterwall incinerators. Five RDF facilities are
under construction, or expected to be under con.
struction by the end of 1977. Two waterwall inciri.
erators are under construction. It has been esti-
mated that 30—40 such facilities will be committed
by 1982. Therefore an average growth rate of 4
facilities per year was assumed.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Refuse-fired steam generators emit principally par .
ticulates, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides. Un-
controlled emissions from coal-fired utility boilers
and for municipal incinerators are shown in Table
10.3—2. Proposed regulations will limit particu-
Lates to 1 3 g per 10’ joules (0.03 pound per 10’
Btu) input at new sources. Existing sources are
limited to 34 g per 10’ joules (0.08 pound per 10’
Btu).
Control Technology and Costs
Electrostatic precipitators are capable of meeting
the particulate standards for existing sournes.
Most utility boilers burning supplemental RDF will
be equipped with ESP’s. The proposed regulations
for new sources will necessitate the installation of
fabric filters. Sulfur oxides are not expected to
occur in excess of standards due to the low sulfur
content of solid waste. Nitrogen oxides emissions
are controlled by maintaining the furnace temper-
ature within a range in which nitrogen oxides do
not form in significant amounts.
Costs for pollution control for a typical waterwall
incinerator and for a typical utility boiler burning
supplemental ROE are as shown in Table 10.3—3.
Table O.3 —1.
Recoverable, Dry, Combustible Material
ffi Various Wastes
1990
MiUIOn MiIIen
Metric Toes Si oj4 T in
98.0 108.0
16.5 18.2
49.9 35.0
A i jhupsI W ,p.
210.2 231.7
325.1 358.4
316.2 34.3
456.4 503.0
384.6 424.0
549.0 603.2
Ea,4 , 7O s
Woss. $$,mni
Mumicipol Solid Wait.
dit , iol Wait.
Mill io.
MilUon
Million
Million
M t,ic
Tons
Short
7cm
M.tnt
To,,s
Short
Tens
1980
61.1 67.4
11 .5 12.7
42.3 46.6
78.0 86.0
4.0 15.4
4.2
128
-------
Table 10.3—2.
Uncontrolled Emissions Factors From Coal-Fired
Utility Boilers, and From Incinerators
(in kg per metric ton feed with lb per short ton feed in parentheses)
P rt cuIa,es” Suifur Oxides ’ t litroqen Oxsàe
Puiven e bituminaui
c ai-fIred boilers” (8(1611 [ AF ’ (19 (38)) (5)” 9 (18)
Munic pai incine,aton” 15 (30) 1.25 (2.5) 1.5 (3)
Fo, utdity boilers with greater than lOOxIO Btuihour heat input.
“ Th. cOnstant A stanàs foe the percent osh in th. coal.
“ The COnstant S ttands f r the percent ,u,fur in th. coal.
FOC UCIPGI incinerators burning mer, than 50 tonsi4ay of r,fus..
Table 10.3-3.
Pollution Control Casts For a Typical Utility
Boiler Burning Refuse-Derived Fuel
(in 1977 dollars)
Ezisting Source New Source
Watsewall indner r lnv,*,m ,nt 2.000.000 360,000
O&M 14,000 98,000
R OP/Utilty Inye stm.nt 2,00&000 950,000
N 14,000 100,000
Total costs for the control of emission from refuse- with new plants are included in the same category
fired steam generators- are summar zednae. ... _as ..existing plants, due to the nature of the cost
10.3—4. In this particular case, costs associated data available.
TABLE 10.3—4. REFUSE FIRED STEAM GENERATiON AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS) -
CUMULATiVE P€ CDS
1977 1970—77 1977—31 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS 4.00 24.00 10.40 21J.0
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
... 4.00 24.00 10.4.0 23.40
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PLANTS 4.23 15.95 20.18 35.08
MEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0
TOTAL 423 15.95 20.18 45.08
C&M
EXISTING PLANTS 0.18 0.68 3.63 14.71
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 0.18 0.68 3.63 14.71
AU. ANNUAL COSTS 4.41 16.63 22,21 59.80
NOTE CCSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SP&NS ARE FROM JULY 1 ST CF THE F!RSTYEAR 10 JUNE 30TH CF THE SECCt’ 0 TEAR USTED.
MOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL C 5T5 ARE ThE COMBINATION OF (1 ) STRAIGIIT-UME OEPREC:ATION AND (2) NrE E 51.
129
-------
10.4 SEWAGE SLUDGE INC1NERAT ON
Operatrng Characteristics and Capacities
Incineration is one of several methods currently
practiced for disposing of sludges accumulated by
municipal sewage treatment plants.
The majority of existing installations are the
multiple-hearth type. The estimated capacity distri-
bution of sewage sludge incinerators in 1976 is
shown in Table 10.4—1.
Based upon projected municipal sewage treat-
ment plant construction, it is estimated that 80
raw sludge incinerators will be constructed annu-
al)y in the United States during the next few years.
The growth reflects more widespread use of incin-
eration as an alternative to other disposal methods
such as landfills, barging to sea, and fertilizer
application.
as on Sour s arId Pollutants
sr&u ate er s o s from uncontrolled sewage-
sludge incinerators are estimated to be 50 kg per
metric ton (100 pounds per short ton) dry solids
incinerated. Particulate emissions from existing
facilities controlled by wet scrubbers are esti-
mated to be 1.5 kg per metric ton (3 pounds per
short ton) dry solids. New Source Performance
Standards proposed by EPA limit the particulate
emissions to no more than 650 grams per metric
ton ti .30 pounds per short ton) dry solids, and an
opacity of 20 percent.
Control Technology
All sewage sludge incinerators in the United
States are equipped with wet scrubbers that have
varying collection efficiency. The scrubbers range
from low-energy types, with pressure drops in the
60 to 150 kg per square meter (2.5 to 6 inches of
water), to high-energy scrubbers with a pressure
drop of 460 kg per square meter (18 inches of
water).
The costs associated with the control of sewage
sludge incineration are included in the Cost of
Clean Water Report in Chapter 2. The 1978 Needs
Survey takes into account the cost of sewage
sludge disposal, including air pollution control.
Since the air pollution control problem would not
exist without the imposition of effluent limitadons,
these costs are being attributed to the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act.
P s,csnt of
Ifl$, IIOhØfl$
( bynumb.tl
27.1
54.8
4.3
3.8
‘ 100.0
Table 10.4—1.
Size Distribution of Sewage Sludge
lucinarators Operating in 1976
(in metric tons par day dry solids with short tons per day
in parentheses)
Capacity Tota l
Co ocity CODOCItY (% )
0.21—8.2 4.8 794 5.1
(0.27—9.1) (5.3) (875)
8.3—41.1 18.8 6.253 39.9
(9.2-45.3) (20.7) (6,893)
41.2—82.3 57.3 5.004 31.9
(45.4-90.7) (63.4) (5,516)
82.4—247 157.3 3.618 23.1
(90.8—272) (173.4) (3,988)
‘ 15,689 100.0
(17,272)
130
-------
10.5 INDUSTRIAL COMMERCIAL AND BUILDING INCINERATORS
Operating Characteristics and Capabilities
In 1972. approximately 100,000 on-site incinera-
tors were in use in this country. These
intermediate-sized units are usually associated
with office buildings, large retail stores, and apart-
ment buildings. Of the over 24 million metric ton
(26 million short tons) of solid waste incinerated
annually in the United States, more than one-third
is processed by on-site units that typically process
about 82 metric ton (90 short tons) annually, or
approximately 103 kg (228 pounds) per hour.
States bordering the Great Lakes (Minnesota.
Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Indiana, New
York, and Pennsylvania) account for about 60 per-
cent of the total number of on-site units in the
United States.
There are two types of commercial building and
industrial incinerators: single-chamber and
multiple-chamber. Single-chamber incinerators
are similar to residential or domestic units and
consist of a refractory-lined chamber with a grate
on which the refuse is burned. Combustion
products are formed by contact between under-
fire air and waste on the grate. Additional air (over-
fire air) is admitted above the burning waste to
promote complete combustion. Multiple-chamber
incinerators employ a second chamber to which
combustion gases from the primary chamber are
directed for further oxidation of combustible
gases. Auxiliary burners are sometimes employed
in the second chamber to increase the combustion
temperature.
It is estimated that the use of apartment incinera-
mrs. which account for about 6 percent of installa-
tions for refuse disposal, will virtually disappear
during the 1 976—85 period. The number of indus-
trial and commercial units should remain stable
during that decade because new installations will
primarily be replacements of older units.
Approximately 88 percent of all on-site incinera-
tors are the multiple-chamber type; emissions
from multiple-chamber incinerators are generally
lower than from the single-chamber incinerators.
The design capacity of the incinerator considered
in this report is from 23 kg (50 pounds) per hour to
1,800 kg (4,000 pounds per hour, and the aver-
age incinerator operates between 3—5 hours a day.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
While on-site units emit various products of com-
bustion, only particulates are released in sufficient
quantities to warrant installation of controls. Ap-
proximate emission factors for single-chamber
and multiple-chamber incinerators of intermediate
size are respectively 7.5 and 3.5 kg per metric ton
(1 5 and 7 pounds per snort ton) of refuse charged.
Estimated uncontrolled particulate emissions in
1978 are projected to be approximately 23
thousand metric tons (25 thousand snorttons).
Control Technology and Casts
Operating conditions (e.g.. air supply to the com-
bustion chamber), refuse composition, and basic
incinerator design have a pronounced effect on
the volume and composition of air emissions. Af-
terburners and wet scrubbers can be installed to
control particulate emissions and some other corn— - -.
bustion products. However, with the shortage of
natural gas and the expense of fuel oil, the use of
afterburners as retrofit controls on building incin-
erators will probably be curtailed. Furthermore,
the newer multiple-chamber units already employ
auxiliary firing techniques which, in effect, fulfill
the function of an afterburner.
Wet scrubbers will achieve an approximately 80
percent reduction in particulates emissions. This
level of control is sufficient to meet Federal partic-
ulate emission standards of 2 kg per metric ton (4
pounds per short ton) of refuse charged.
Unit investment cost for a wet scrubber required
to control an intermediate size ncmerator (approx-
imately 82 metric tons or 90 short tons per year) is
estimated to be $7,500. Annual operating and
maintenance costs will be about $1,500 per
installation.
Control costs are detailed in Table 10.5—1. No
costs are shown in the new plantS ’ category due
to the above-mentioned conditions of net decreas-
ing use of such incinerators.
131
-------
TABLE 10.3 —1 INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCiAL INCiNERATOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(iN MIWONS Oi 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
970. .77 1977—81 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXtSTING PLANTS .. .. .. ... 57.02 256.61 275.62 693.80
N8W H.ANYS .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
- - ............ .. __.. 57.02 256.61 275.62 693.80
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANT!..... . ... . . . . . . .. 41.76 121.28 267.59 859.36
N W PLANTS ...... . ...... ................. ......... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
_.. .. ... . ... 41.76 121.28 267.59 859.36
O&M
EXISTiNG PIANTS . . .. . .... . .. . ......._..... . ........... . .. . ._.. 51.32 149.05 328.84 1153.81
NEW PLANT! ......... . ......._ _ . . . . . ._......._... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
.. . ......... . ...._-__..__.. . 51.32 149.05 328.84 1153.81
AU. ANNUAL COSTS . ._............_ ._. . ... 93.09 270.33 596.43 2013.17
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: AHNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
132
-------
THE COST OF CLEAN WATER
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS - WATER
Page
1. Introduction and Summary .. 1
2. Government Expenditures for Water Pollution Control 7
3. Energy Industries 15
3.1 Coal Mining 16
3.2 Oil and Gas Extraction 18
3.3 Petroleum Refining Industry .. 21
3.4 Steam Electric Power Generating Industry 24
4. Chemicals Industries .. 27
4.1 Organic Chemicals Industry 28
4.2.1 Inorganic Chemicals Industry (Phase I) 31
4.2.2 Inorganic Chemicals Industry (Phase II) 38
4.3 Plastics and Synthetics Industry 43
4.4 Rubber Manufacturing 46
4.5 Soap and Detergent Industry 5 1
4.6 Carbon Black Industries .. 54
4.7 Explosives Industries 57
4.8 Pestickies and Agricultural Chemicals 59
4.9 Fertilizer Manufacturing Industry .. 63
4.10 Phosphorus Chemicals Industry 66
4.11 Paint Formulating Industry .. 70
4.12 Printing Ink Formulating 72
4.13 Photographic Processing - .. 74
4.14 Textiles Industry 77
5. Metals industries 81
5.1 Ore Mining and Dressing Industries 82
5.2 Iron and Steel Industry 86
5.3 Ferroalloy Industry 91
5.4 Bauxite Refining Industry 94
5.5 Primary Aluminum Smelting Industry .. 96
5.6 Secondary Aluminum Smelting Industry 99
5.7 Other Nonferrous Metals industries 102
5.8 Electroplating Industry 109
6. Mineral Based Manufacturing 113
6.1 Mineral Mining and Processing Industry 114
6.2 Glass Manufacturing Industry 118
6.3 Insulation Fiberglass Industry .. 122
6.4 Asbestos Manufacturing Industry 124
6.5 Cement Industry 127
6.6 . Paving and Roofing Materials Industry 129
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS — WATER
(Continued)
Page
7. Forest Products Industries ....... ....... 131
7.1 Timber Products Processir g Industry .. .. 132
7.2 limber Products Processing (Furniture) Industry 135
7.3 Gum and Wood Chemicals Industry 137
7.4 Pulp and Paper Industry 141
& Foods and Agricultural Industries .. ...... 145
8.1 Grain Miffing Industry .. 146
8.2 Sugar Processing 149
8.3 Canned and Preserved Fruits and Vegetables Industry 156
8.4 Canned and Preserved Seafood Industry .. 159
8.5 Dairy Products Processing Industry 162
8.6 Feedlots Industry 1 64
8.7 Meat Packing Industry .. 167
8.8 Leather Tanning and Finishing Industry .. 1 74
9. Other Industries 177
9.1 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Industry 177
9.2 Hospital Industry 1 81
10. Nonpoint Source and Toxic Substances 183
10.1 Nonpoint Source Pollution 183
10.2 Toxic Substances 186
-------
1. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
PURPOSE AND SCOPE
Section 516(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Act amendments (PL92—500, hereafter
FWPCA) of 1972 requires an annual report on the
costs of meeting the provisions of that act; this
report is submitted in response to these
requirements.
Costs reported include those attributable directly
to control measures (devices, process changes,
etc.) and program costs for research, administra-
tion, enforcement at the Federal, state, and local
levels. Sources of water pollution are broken down
into industrial, municipal, and nonpoint categor-
ies, and direct control costs are estimated for
these categories.
Industrial costs at the plant level are taken for the
most part from the Effluent Guidelines Develop-
ment Documents, which were prepared under
Sections 304, 306, and 307 of PL92—500. These
documents define the levels of pollutant removal
that must be achieved by each industry category at
the interim level, best practicable technology (B PT)
to be achieved by July 1, 1977, and the final level,
best available technology (BAT) to be achieved by
July 1,1983.
This report was prepared in 1978, and reflects the
regulatory framework in existence early in 1978.
Projections beyond past expenditures are subject
to change. Significant changes in regulations will
shortly affect the control technologies and asso-
ciated costs. -
The Clean Water Act of 1977 allows for less
stringent controls for conventional pollutants.
However, more stringent guidelines may result for
the 21 industries covered by the 1976 Consent
Agreement.
The magnitude of these changes will vary consid-
erably on an industry-by-industry basis. An ex-
treme example is the Explostves industry. The Cost
of Clean Water estimates show slightly over $2
billion of investment from 1977—1986. Prelimi-
nary estimates emanating from the current BAT-
review process indicate that new investment will
be only about S3—4 million for this industry. While
this is not representative of the magnitude of the
changes to be exp cted, it does indicate the de. .
gree of uncertainty in the present estimates.
Therefore, the reader should keep in mind that the
costs presented here represent what industries
would have had to pay if the regulations in effect in
early 1978 remained unchanged.
Municipal costs are presented as total capital in-
vestment achievable under the existing and
projected Federal contract authority (i.e., what will
be spent rather than what is needed), as distin-
guished from the industrial costs, which are esti-
mates of what will be required to achieve given
control levels. This assumption is a recognition of
the fact that the municipal needs are substantially
in excess of available resources.
All abatement costs in this report are stated in July
1. 1977 dollars. Where costs were derived relative
to another time period, these costs were updated
using the implicit price deflater of the gross na-
tional product (Fixed non-residential investment
part).
No measures have been promulgated by the
agency that apply to the control of pollutants for
non-point sources. A section of this report does
discuss the problem of control of water pollution
from non-point sources. Estimates of the costs for
these controls assuming that the coals of PL
92—500 are applied to this category appear in
Chapter 10.1. However, these estimates are not
presented in the National totals.
This report does not attempt to include all costs
associated with the reduction of the pollution of
the Nation s waterways. Various state and local
regulations, with associated costs, antedated Fed-
eral water pollution control regulations. Thus the
costs described in this document are restricted to
incremental costs, over and above any costs of
control incurred on the level of control practiced
prior to the FWPCA. Fiscal year 1972 is taken to be
the baseline from which incremental costs were
calculated.
Within this framework, the estimated direct COStS
and benefits of measures to control water pollu-
tion from industrial and other sources are caicu-
1
-------
Investment costs are projected through
1986.
Note that this report specifically does not dictate
EPA policy with respect to the application of pres-
eiflly available or projected technology for the
control of effluent quality to any rndustry or activ-
y. Simplifying assumptions were required in or-
der to estimate the effect of EPA Regulations on
the industries included. The control technologies,
or mix thereof, which were assumed in order to
provide these estimates are neither specifically
required by law nor by EPA; no contrary interpreta-
tion of the contents of this document should be
made.
Aurilform costing methodoLogy has been applied
to the industrial sectors incurring water pollution
abatement costs. Being free of the requirements of
macroscopic input-output models, this methodol-
ogy permits examining each industrial sector at
the most appropriate level of disaggregation and
allows independent determination of industry
growth. In addition, municipal charges have been
included in a uniform manner which is consistent
with Federal policy.
As a result of court action or industry objection
some of the regulations proposed or promulgated
under PL 92—500 have been withdrawn, suspend-
ed, or revoked. Forthe purposes of this report, with
one exception, the assumption has been that the
regulations were defective only in a technical
sense and that similar regulations, incurring simi-
lar costs but possibly with diffenng standards for
effluent quality, will be promulgated.
COSTS OF IMPLEMENTING THE ACT
Estimates of the capital investment and annualized
costs required for implementing the FWPCA over
the periods 1972—77, 1977—81 and 1977—86
arid the year 1977 are summarized in Table 1—1.
Each number in Table 1—1 is repeated within the
appropriate chapter of this report where specific
assumptions and background data are presented
and discussed.
Table 1—1 does not include an estimate for the
control of rionpoirit sources. EPA has not yet is-
sued regulations controlling nonpoint sources;
and the control technology and degree of control
is still uncertain. This report does contain a discus-
sion of nonpoint sources (agriculture, silviculture,
urban runoff and new construction runoff control)
in Chapter 10.1. Preliminary estimates indicate
that future investment needs will be about $58
billion in the next five years. No estimate is avail-
able on what portion of this investment need will
actually be spent.
2
-------
TABLE 1.-i. WATER POLLUTiON ABATEMENT COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
1972—77 1977-11 1977—86
TOTAL INVESTMENT.......... .. _.lO926.43 35930.34 28244.47 61609.75
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS.......... .. . ..._.. . .. 8891.23 22459.90 46339.13 130714.96
INVESTMENT
C ST TO GOV RNMENT.... ......_..._............... 5065.00 21593.00 19677.00 45882.00
ANNUAL COSTS
COST TO GOVERNMENT .. ... ... 4049.00 11761.90 22343.00 66123.00
INVESTMENT
INDUSTRY 1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—86
METALS INDUSTRIES
ORE MINING AND DRESSING INDUSTRY... ....._..... 152.50 389.39 251.00 251.00
IRON & STEEL...... . ..... —* 660.94 1410.22 1056.48 1692.30
FRROALLOYS...... .._... ._.. _..._. 1.33 11.06 1.57 3.26
8AUXITE REPINING ......_......_________________ 0.0 52.81 0.0 0.0
PRIMARY ALUMINUM............. . 19.51 4045 29.21 46.95
SECONDARY ALUMINUM ........ 2.23 5.20 3.49 7.82
NON-FERROUS METALS...._.. .. 1.43 3.11 0.0 0.16
EL ECTROP LAT1NG .. .......__. . ..... 49.79 264.74 81.35 81.55
TOTAl. INVESTMENT................_ —— 887.73 2177.18 1423.30 2083.04
ANNUM COSTS
1977 1972—77 1977 .- Il 1977—86
ORE MIP4IPIG AND DRESSING INDUSTRY.._____ 8.4.58 145.97 603.18 1340.06
IRON & STEEL. ....................... - .... 556.66 1984.58 321.63 8805.44
FERQOMLOYS_......._._._................. . ................. 536 16.52 29.49 73.34
BAUXITE REFINING ...._...... ....... 12.58 38.40 30.34 113.26
PRIMARY AWMINUM..._ — 15.31 28.31 82.26 228.4.5
SECO 4DARY ALUMINUM... ..... 2.49 5.05 14.73 44.52
NON-FERROUS METALS - 1.77 3.32 7.29 15.47
ELECTROPLATING__________________________ 141.7.4 316.31 751.27 1771 ,01
TOTAL ANNUM COSTS— 820.69 2538.46 4660.19 12393.93
INVESTMENT
IP4OUSTR’r 1977 1972-77 1977-81
MIN€RAL-IASZD MANUFACTURING
MINERAL MINING ........ ...______ 28.53 87.96 0.0 0.0
GLASS MANUFACTURING.......... — 0.81 2.64 11.91 18.83
INSULATION FIBERGLAS5. 2.60 6.97 2.72 7.57
ASBESTOS..— . . 0.33 1.90 3.13 6.31
CEMENT MANUFACTURING. 3.30 2059 6.93 15.04
PAVING & ROOFING............... 0.24 1.41 3.37 4.90
TOTAL INVESTMENT_ ...._ 33.81 121.47 28.11 52.64
ANNUM COSTS
1977 1972-77 1977-81 1977-86
MINERAL MINING...... .. * 23.02 42.33 110.14 234.60
GLASS MANUFACTURING...... .... ......._._. 0.80 1.75 9.99 37.88
INSULATION FIBERGLAS&_..................... ... 2.11 4.41 10.43 29.40
ASBESTOS . ........ .. - 0.88 2.03 6.49 22.92
CEMENT MANUFACTURING ...... ......... 3.20 12.58 24.66 62.38
PAVING & ROOFING..._..... — 1.41 562 9.17 26.14
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS_..... 33.48 68.72 170.87 413.32
3
-------
TA ! E 1.-I. WATh* POLLUTION ABAThMENT COSTS
ON MIIUONS OF 977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
INDUSTR Y 1972-77 1 977-a I I 977-86
FOREST PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
IIM8ER PRODUCTS 1Q Q4 53.05 74.04 99.15
GUM & WQOQ CHEMICALS ............._.. 0.02 3.53 0.20 0.22
PULP PAPER & PAPERBOAW MANU?ACTI.JR1P40 .... 700.30 2178.75 44 1.25 1511.05
FURNITURE MANUFAC URIMG.... . ....... . . ......._ 0.0 0.0 2.80 4.80
TOTAl. INVESTMENT _. .. 710.07 2237.38 518.29 1615.22
ANNUAL COSTS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977-36
TIMBER PRODUCTS 42.34 73.92 203.41 548.85
GUM & WOOD CHEMICALS ... . ._ ... 1.13 4.60 &74 10.31
PULP PAPER & PAPER8OARD MANUFACTURING .... 528.53 1144.20 2281.20 6478.66
FURNITURE MANUFACTURING .. 0.0 0.0 1.37 12.59
TOTAL ANNUAl. COSTS... ..... —. 572.01 1224.71 2490.72 7050.41
INVESTMENT
INDUSTRY 1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977-46
FOODS AND AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIE5........... . .........
GRAIN MILLS........... .. — . .. . . . 1.56 3.83 4.41 7.53
SUGAR PROcESSING
RAW CAME SUGAR PROCESSING ...... 1.18 3.54 2.91 6.03
CANE REFINING SEGMENT........... . .... — .. 2.34 8.21 14.87 23.36
SEET SUGAR PROCESSiNG ... . ......... .. 3.73 9.91 5.13 9.01
CANNED AND PRESERVED
FRUITS & VEGETABLES .. .. 193.99 636.69 93.94 134.06
CANNED AND PRESERVED SEAFOOD .. . .... 22.98 3.59 79 ,44 114.78
DAIRY PRODUCTS PROCESSING...... .. 21.27 136.96 20.s l 39.52
F€Wt . 0T5 ...... . . ... 26.66 97.92 12.06 29.3.
MEAT PRODUCTS...... .. ... ...... .... 9.86 24.82 147.76 211.78
LEATHER TANNING & FINISHING ........... . ... ... . ... 10.67 29.36 101.44 135.23
TOTAL INVESTMENT.. . . .._..........,.... . . . . ....... . .. . . . ... 294.74 994.83 482.39 711.2 1
ANNUAL COSTS
1977 1972—77 1977.41 1977—86
GRAIN MIU.S . .. .. . ..... . .. . .... 0.89 1.73 5.92 19.08
SUGAR PROcESSING
RAW CANE SUGAR PQOC 55 1NG.......... . .. . . ......... 1.34 3.08 7.72 22.72
CANE REFINING SEGMENT . .._... .......... 1.75 3.68 13.07 43.4D
BEET SUGAR PROCESSING .. . ....,_ 1.53 3.05 7.97 21.91
CANNED & PRESERVED FRUITS & VEGETABLES 843.07 1844.29 3412.54 7760.00
CANNED AND PRESERVED SEAf000........ . . ... . ..... . .. 9.77 17.62 67 .93 211.91
DAIRY PROC PROcESSiNG .... 21.23 57.95 93.98 232.80
FEEDI.OTS . ....... . .. . .._.. . ... . . .... . . . . . . ... 27.86 69.65 119.69 290.26
MEAT PRODUCS...... . ..................... . ...... . ._.. . ...... . ....... 11.22 29.2.5 173.49 657.09
LEATHER TANNING .& FINISHING.. . ... . ......... . . . ..... . .. 3.01 16.27 83.42
TOTAl. ANNUM COSTS............................._ ... 926.69 2046.58 3985.74 9552.39
4
-------
TABLE L . .1. WATER POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
INDUST V 1977 972—77 1977—81 1 977-.ao
MtSC!LL NEOUS
TOXIC SUBSTANCES . .... 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09
P ARMACEUTtCAL MANUFACTURING .._. 15.52 46.23 15.03 40.55
HOSPITALS INOUSTR’V .... .. .. .._.. 24.50 69.77 23.6.5 69.56
TOTAL INVESTMENT... ....._._.._.._.__... 41.11 117.08 41.77 111.20
ANNUM COSTS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—86
TOXIC SUISTANCES .... ........... ................... 0.55 0.55 4.43 9.97
PHARMACEUTICAL MANU ACTURING._ . .... . ...... . ... 10.79 23.09 31.47 139.39
HOSPITALS INDUST I’ . ... .... . ..__... . . . ........ . .. 16.37 34.69 79.65 219.62
TOTAl. ANNUAL COSTS . ............ . .... . .. . . . ... . .. . .. . ....... 27.71 58.34 135.33 368.98
5
-------
2. GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES FOR
WATER POLLUTiON CONTROL
INTROO(JCTIO N
Government funds for water pollution control are
spent for three major purposes:
• To conduct programs of monitoring, en-
forcement. technical assistance, grant as-
sistance, and research,
• To abate pollution created at government-
owned facilities, and
• To treat wastewater at municipal treatment
facilities.
Generally, states have primary responsibility for
monitoring and enforcement, with financial and
other assistance provided by the Federal govern-
ment research is conducted primarily by the Fed-
eral government, and treatment of municipal
wastewater is the responsibility of local and state
governments, with major financial assistance from
the Federal and state governments.
Federal and State Program Costs
This discussion centers on the general program of
Federal and state governments, and it projects
their respective program costs over a 10-year pe-
nod; it also includes estimates of the cost of abat-
ing pollution at Federal facilities. Details of the
analysis are not presented here since the main
purpose of this effort is to determine the magni
tude of this category of expenditure in relation to
other expenditures in the report.
Federal and state program costs are summarized
in Table 2.-i. Federal expenditures (exclusive of
construction grants and grants to states) are
projected to decrease from the 1975 level of 326
million dollars to 1 87 million dollars in 1978. The
Federal share of program expenditures is also
projected to decline over the forecast period as
the states gradually assume greater responsibility
in implementing the programs and regulations.
Total decade expenditures for this category are
projected at 3,17 1 million dollars.
Federal Program Costs
Federal responsibilities that are exercised primar-
ily through the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), encompass a broad range of author-
ities. particularly since enactment of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1 972
and 1977. On the one hand, they encourage com-
pliance through grants and other types of assis-
tance; on the other hand, they require compliance
through regulatory programs.
Assistance Pro grams
The EPA conducts several assistance programs,
including grants for wastewater treatment works,
grants for regional water quality planning program
development. technical assistance, and man-
power development.
The construction grants program is by far the
largest, involving authorization of as much as $5
Table 2.- I.
Projected. State oi d Fed rc l Pi’ogrom Ca t
Costs per Fiscal Year
(In Millions of 1977 Dollars)
Tron-
1976 titian’
1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1084 1985
Tota l
F,d.r ’ 211 41 215 187 137 187 162 162 162 162 162 1,338
State
130 33 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 1,333
341 74 345 317 317 317 292 292 292 292 292 3.171
1 Excludes ConsiTuction Grant costs which are included n the Municipal Cost tecnan.
2 Excludes State Program Grant costs wnicfl are inciuded in the state torass.
3 Thre.-manrfl p.ricci July 1 through Cctoder 31. 1976, caused by change of Fiscal “ear
frees July 1 .June 30. to Octaoer 1 -Septemó.r 30. -
7
-------
billion in Federal funds per year for fiscal years
1 979—1982. The level of assistance has gradually
increased since the first permanent Federal pollu-
tion control legislation was enacted in 1956; to-
day, the Federal share is 75 percent of most
project capital costs. A variety of projects are
eligible for funding, including treatment plants
and interceptor sewers.
The EPA also provides program grants to assist the
states, interstateand regional agencies to expand
and improve a variety of activities essential to the
control of water pollution. The activities include
water quality planning and standards setting, sur-
veillance, enforcement, issuance of permits, exec-
utive management. and administration of the con-
struction grants program. The level of assistance
vanes from one activity to another, as well as from
ycarto year. In 1975 and 1976 over $200 million
was granted to regional agencies for areawide
waste treatment management plans. However, in
ttie future. funding for this.program will drop to a
low maintenance level.
The feasibility of a new consolidated grants pro-
gram is currently under study by the Agency. The
new program would combine the state assistance
programs for water quality, air quality, water sup-
ply, a d solid waste. If such a program were initiat-
ec , t o t o ement and control would drop
by an smount roughly equal to the water quality
state assistance program. Since allocation of
these consolidated funds among four categories
might become a state option, forecasting future
water quality expenditures would require addi-
tional analysis.
Technical assistance is another program receiving
major EPA attention. Many pollution problems are
too complex for states. communities, and indus-
tries to handle alone. The EPA assists in such cases
by providing services ranging from technical ad-
vice and consultation to extensive, long-term field
and laboratory studies. Within the limits of avail-
able resources, this assistance is provided on re-
quest, primarily to the states and municipalities.
As might be expected, the rapid expansion of
pollution control activities has placed a strain
upon the supply of trained manpower. In providing
assistance, the EPA pursues a number of ap-
proaches; these include providing short-term train-
ing by EPA staff to upgrade the skills of those
already in the field, and employing a variety of
ways to train sewage treatment plant operators.
Regulatory Programs
To facilitate enforcement of the many new pollu-
tion control requirements, the 1972 Act and 1977
Amendments replaced former enforcement au-
thorities with new authorities and provided a new
regulatory scheme based largely on the imposition
of specific requirements through a system of per-
mits termed the National Pollutant Discharge Elim-
ination System (NPDES). Permit conditions and
other requirements of the Act are enforceable
through EPA compliance orders and civil suits;
violators are subject to penalties. A state may
assume the responsibility if it meets certain re-
quirements, including the capability and authority
to modify, suspend, or revoke a permit, and it has
the powers and procedures necessary for criminal
penalties, injunctive relief, and other enforcement
mechanisms.
The Act also required Federal agencies to comply
with Federal, state, interstate, and local pollution
control and abatement requirements to the same
extent as any person must comply. The EPA ’s role
stems from the Act and is amplified in Executive
Order 11752. The role includes review of Federal
facilities compliance with applicable standards,
providing guidance to the Federal agencies for
implementing provisions of the Order, providing
coordination of Federal agencies’ compliance ac-
tions with state and local agencies, and providing
technical advice on waste treatment technology.
Table 2.-2 projects a stabilized Federal water qvaI
ity program beyond FY78, reflecting the need for
Federal fiscal restraints and the gradual accep-
tance of greater environmental responsibilities by
the states. Water quality program expenditures
are usually divided into three categories: (1) abate-
ment and control covers the numerous manage-
ment and assistance activities of the water quality
program, (2) research and development provides
the scientific and technical support for the pro-
gram, and (3) enforcement covers actions seeking
compliance with the law. Table 2.-2 shows
projected Federal program expenditures accord-
ing to the three categories listed.
Expenditures by Other Federal Agencies
Although covering a wide range of activities, Fed-
eral environmental programs are classified in
three broad categories: pollution control and
abatement; understanding, describing, and pre-
dicting the environment, and environmental pro-
tection and enhancement activities. It is difficult to
attribute non-EPA Federal expenditures to specific
pollution control legislation in many cases, but an
approximation of P.L 92—500 related expendi-
tures is given by the water quality expenditures in
the Pollution Control and Abatement category.
Principal activities in this category include actions
necessary to reduce pollution from Federal Facili-
8
-------
Totois
ThbIe 2...2.
Pj.ct. Pe .tol Wuter Quality Pre iam Exp.o iIure
F1 col Year xpei olturn
(In Millions of 1977 OoUars)
Iran.
1976 4,jon 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985
21.1 5.3 21.1 21.1 21.1 21.1 21.1 21.1 21.1 21.1 21.1
210.9 41.1 214.5 186.5 186.5 186.5 161.5 161.5 161.5 161.5 161.5
State Program Costs
State Role
designed to be the central management
toots of the states in administering their
water quality programs.
• States are responsible for reviewing area-
wide waste treatment management plans
catted for by Section 208 and prepared by
local agencies.
• States have major responsibilities in the
administration of the construction grants
program, including the responsibility for
assigning priorities to projects eligible for
Federal financial assistance. It is intended
that certain Federal responsibilities, such
as review of plans and specifications, be
transferred to the states as they are able to
assume them. Some states provide funds
to assist communities in constructing
waste treatment works. Prmaiy responsi-
bility for monitoring municipal treatment
plants to see that they operate correctly
also rests with the states.
• States have the basic responsibility for
planning and implementing programs for
control of nanpoint sources of pollution.
a Some states have assumed, and others are
in the process of assuming, responsib ity
for the NPDES permit program. States that
have received the resnonsibi(ity have con-
currently assumed extensive enforcement
responsibilities associated with permit
compliance.
• States and the Federal government share
responsibility for enforcement.
a States establish and implement water qual-
ity standards. Under the 1972 Act, such
standards are extended to intrastate, as
well as interstate, waters.
• States perform monitoring and surveil-
lance functions to identify and assess ‘exist-
ing and potential water pollution problems,
and also to measure the effectiveness of
the permit and construction grants
programs.
Abat.m.nt and
and
0.ve opmem
145.2 24.6 148.8 120.8 120,8 120.8 95.8 95.8 95.3 95.3 95.8
44.6 11.2 4.4.6 44.6 44.6 44.6 44.6 44.6 44.6 44.6 44.6
ties; the establishment and enforcement of stan-
dards; research and development; and the identifi-
cation of pollutants, their sources, and their impact
onhealth. Non-EPA water quality expenditures by
the Federal government in FY1976, the transition
quarter, and FY1977 are 527, 83, and 467 million
dollars, respectively.
Since Federal spending is strongly influenced by
policy and competing social needs, forecasting is
always problematical. The best estimate is that
such expenditures will remain stable over the next
several years, with only minor growth or decline. If
non-EPA Federal outlays in this category were to
be held constant at the FY 1977 level, total decade
expenditures would be about 4.8 billion dollars.
While this is a large amount on an absolute basis, it
is relatively small compared to total expenses in
the nation for P.L 92—500.
Althougri the Federal government has taken an
increasingly greater hand in dealing with water
pollution, the states continue to bear the major
share of the responsibility. States inherently have
broad powers to deal with water pollution, and
these powers, together with delegated Federal
authorities, place the states in a strong position to
regulate all sources of pollution. State powers and
responsibilities under the Act are exercised
through a broad range of activities, including:
• States prepare an annual strategy and pro-
gram report that describes the interim
goals to be achieved during the year. the
state resources to be assigned in meeting
the goals, and the method of assigning
resources.
States prepare basin water quality man-
gagement plans, as required by Section
303(e) of the 1972 Act. These plans ‘are
9
-------
Aggregate State Program Expenditures
As shown in Table 2 —1, state program expendi-
tures are expected to remain level at about $ 1 30
million per year. Within this stable budget, expen-
ditures will gradually shift from planning to en-
forcement. The assumptions behind the analysis
suggest a continuation of activity in almost every
area. Revisions of water quality standards, issu-
ance of a new round of permits, compliance, moni-
toring, and construction grant review, in fact, may
require the maintenance of state programs at a
higher expenditure level than projected. However,
anticipated revenue constraints at the State and
Federal level, combined with competing social
needs, lend credence to a level projection.
Municipal Control Costs
Introduction
The 1972 amendments to the Clean Water Act
established technology objectives and water qual-
ity objectives for controlling pollution from munici-
pal sources. The objectives were restated and
clarified by the 1 977 amendments to the Act. The
technology objectives require that all publicly
owned treatment works be upgraded to secondary
treatment levels by 1977 and best practicable
wasteweter treatment levels by 1983. Currently,
secondary treatment (85 percent removal of or-
ganic and suspended solids waste loads, with the
plant effluent quality not to exceed 30 mg/i for
both SOD 5 and suspended solids, and PH between
6.0 and 9.0) is considered equivalent to best prac-
ticable treatment. In addition, publicly owned
treatment works must control their waste dis-
charge as necessary to meet water quality stan-
dards by 1983. These standards are based on
achieving a level of water quality that will provide
for the protection and propagation of fish, shell-
fish, and wildlife, and will provide for recreation in
and on the water. This section reports the costs
associated with meeting these dual objectives.
Defining And Measuring Need
The 1978 Survey conducted in compliance with
Sections 205(a) and 5 1 6(b)(2) of the Act (known as
the 1978 Needs Survey), requested that municipal
treatment authorities estimate the expenditures
required to meet existing technology and water
quality standards and to provide for replacement
or expansion of facilities as necessary to serve the
population projected to 2000. Thus, a “need” con-
sists of the resources associated with the upgrad-
ing. replacement, expansion, or construction of
treatment facilities which State or local govern-
ments consider to be necessary, based upon the
Federal standards, or more stringent state
standards.
Details of the Needs Survey may be found in a
separate report, “Cost Estimates for Construction
of Publicly Owned Wastewater Treatment Facilj.
ties — 1978 Needs Survey,” EPA-43O/9—79—OO1.
Defining Cost
While all other sections of the report estimate
costs for compliance with effluent or emission
standards, several complications preclude
presenting that type of analysis in this case. Com-
pliance with the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act by all publicly owned sewage treatment plants
in existence on July 1,1977 would require them to
achieve a secondary treatment level for all efflu-
ents. Because of the difficulty facing municipali-
ties in raising capital, and limitations in Federal
construction grants, treatment plants cannot be
built fast enough to assure compliance with the
Act. Instead, it is assumed in this report that new
plants will only be built as rapidly as permitted by
Federal appropriations and state and local match-
ing funds. The total investments shown in Table 2.-
3 are composed of Federal outlay estimates for the
given year, plus required state and local matching
funds.
ToW. 2.4
Pv.i.c*.d F.d.ral, Stat. and Local
kweahaaq,t f.. S.avog. Tr.atu .M Syst.nis Auirniing
aa,oc .d Pundsnç of $4 . 5 SIW.on p.r Y..r
for Period FY7S-FYE7
(Mlftl.n. of Current Dollars)
Fiscal Veor C 4.ndo, Y.oi ’
1976
3.628
1976
4,463
10
1,304
—
—
1977
5,282
1977
5.065
1978
4,414
1978
4,538
1979
4.913
1979
3,034
1980
5,413
1980
5,276
1981
4,866
1981
.
4,829
1982
4,720
1982
4,873
1983
5.333
‘1983
3.333
1984
5,333
1984
3,333
1983
5,333
19 85
5,333
1986
5,333
1986
5,333
33,416
35,923
Not all costs reported herein are properly attribut-
able to the standards created under the authority
of P.L 92—500. The costs attributable to those
standards are incremental; only those costs asso-
ciated with upgrading from an existing level of
treatment to a higher level of treatment necessary
to meet technology and water quality objectives
are properly attributable to the standards. Thus,
costs for replacement of facilities built prior to
1972 which do not require a different level of
treatment, the cost associated with the lower level
of treatment that would otherwise have been
achieved in facilities built after 1972. and the cost
associated with a higher level of treatment than is
necessary trt meet the standards should be ex-
TOTALS
10
-------
ciuded from the costs attributed to meeting stan-
dards. l-4owever, since Section 5 1 6(b) directs as-
sessment of the costs of “carrying Out the provi-
sions of the Act.” and the construction grant pro-
gram is an integral part of the Act, the entire range
of costs attributed to that program are reported
herein.
Status of Public Sewerage
Since 1940, the nation’s public sewage treatment
systems have improved aramatically through ex-
pansions in the scope of their coverage and in
their capabilities for treatment, but the systems
have not kept pace with the amount of residuals to
be processed. The coverage of the systems has
kept pace with population growth and expanded
to encompass parts of the population previously
not served. According to a survey done by Engi-
rteering News Record, between 1940 and 1974,
U.S. population served by sewers increased by
146 percent. and the population served by treat-
ment facilities increased ‘by 337 percent. The
1978 Needs Survey showed that 70.0 percent of
the population in 1977 was served by collection
systems, and that 69. 1 percent was served by
treatment systems.
The capability of the systems to treat waste has
improved as well. In the period 1940 to 1976, the
number of persons whose wastes receive at least
primary treatment (physical processes that re-
move rough y 40—50 percent of solids and about
35 percent of BO0 ) had almost quadrupled. The
population employing secondary treatment more
than doubled, and now includes about 60 percent
of the population employing sewers. Not only have
more persons been connected to more advanced
types of sewerage treatment fac:lities, but techno-
logical modifications have improved the removal
efficiencies of each type.
Although the coverage and treatment capability of
the systems have increased, the systems have not
kept pace with the increasing volume of residuals
to be removed. While one portion of the system,
the treatment facilities, increased by over 400
percent the amount of BOD 5 diverted from our
waterways another portion, sanitary sewers, more
than offset that improvement by delivering more
BOOS for treatment. These figures may be overly
pessimistic as they pertain to sanitary sewerage
only; they do not reflect the net result of initiating
public treatment for a large (but unknown) number
of industrial facilities that previously discharged
directly into our waterways. On the other hand,
they do not take into account the increased con-
centration of wastes in sanitary sewage resulting
from such innovations as kitchen garbage
disposals.
Although expenditures in the past two decades
have significantly expanded the capital stock of
public sewerage facilities, the prospect for future
decades is that replacement expenditures may
consume larger proportions of the annual invest-
ment in sewerage facilities. Between 1855 and
1973, the nation invested an estimated $61.8
billion (1977 dollars) in its public sewerage facili-
ties (see Table 2.-4). This investment represents
about 5 percent of the total state and local govern-
ment capital expenditures for alt purposes since
1915 and resulted in approximately $34 billion
worth of facilities in place by 1 97 1. The replace-
ment costs shown here represent an upper bound
since they are based on conservative lifetimes of
50 and 25 years for sewers and treatment plants.
respectively.
‘T bI 2.—i.
h,,.stineet in Public S.wetag. P ciiltl.
(SllIieiis f 1911 OelI ri)
End of
Petiod
Met Caoitoli.
Reolcceqnent ’ In vest me nt
Based on data puaiislteQ by the Oeoarunenr of Commerce and by the
EPA all values convested to 1977 de.lart throu 9 ii use of the EPA ’s
sewerage construction cost indicet and me isconnnucss Associated
General Contractor’s Inøex of Consrruction Costs.
Estimated funds re uzred to “reoIace existing facilitie . rather than add
new ooacity. Computed at o rate or 2 percent far sewerl anO A percunt
for plants, based on estimates of trio relative velqflt of each in each
period.
Two aspects of this series f investments stand
out. First, the bulk of sewerage capital has been
installed very recently; almost 80 percent since
1929, 60 percent since World War I I, and more
than 30 percent since 1 96 1. Second, the stock of
capital-in-place is so large compared to annual
investments that replacement of existing facilities
has absorbed approximately 50 percent of all capi-
tal expenditures since 1961. The current level of
replacement costs is close to $ I billion a year and
rising in proportion to the growth of the capital
stock.
Needs Survey Summary
Although the Needs Survey data are not used
Period
1856—69
1870—79
I 88O—89
1890—99
1900—09
1910-19
1920—29
1930—34
1935—39
1940-45
1946—56
1957—61
1962—67
1968—73
Totals
Gross
Investment’
5 0.5
0.6
0.8
1.2
1 -5
2.7
5.7
2.5
4.8
2.1
10.8
7.5
91
12.0
$61.8
$0.1 $0.4
0.1 0.5
0.2 0.6
0.4 0.8
0.6 0.9
0.9 1.3
1.6 4,1
1.3 1.2
2.3 (0.21
5.1 5.7
3.2 4.3
4.8 4.3
5.4 6.6
527.6 534.2
5 0.4
0.9
1..5
2.3
3.2
5.0
9.1
10.3
13.5
13.3
19.0
23.3
27.6
34.2
11
-------
directly in preparation of the comprehensive na-
tional cost estimates, they do provide essential
background for comparison with actual estimated
expenditures that are strongly influenced by Fed-
eralsubsidies. In this interest, the 1978 Needs
Survey is summarized below.
Categories of Need
The states’ estimates of the cost of constructing
publicly owned treatment works needed to meet
the 1983 goals of the Act are divided into the five
major categories used in the 1973 Survey, plus
one new category for treatment and/or control of
stormwaters; two of these categories were divided
for the 1974 Survey and retained for the 1976
and 1978 Surveys. All six categories are briefly
described below.
Category I. This includes the costs of facilities
which would provide a legally required level of
secondary treatment, or best practicable wastewa-
tar treatment technology (BPWTT). For the pur-
pose of the Surveys. BPWTT and secondary treat-
ment were to be considered synonymous. In-
cluded in Category U are the costs necessary to
raise the treatment level of Category II facilities to
secondary ev s , e.g.. if the existing treatment
leval of fac&y s o ir ,ary then costs necessary to
raise the treatmem level to secondary are reported
in Category li together with the costs for treatment
levels greater than secondary.
Category IL Costs reported in this category are
for treatment facilities that must achieve more
stringent levels of treatment This requirement ex-
ists where Water quality standards require removal
of such pollutants as phosphorous, ammonia, ni-
trates, or organic substances.
Category lilA. These costs are for correction of
sewer system infiltration/inflow problems. Costs
could also be reported for a preliminary sewer
system analysis and for the more detailed Sewer
System Evaluation Survey.
Category IIIB. Requirements for replacement
and/or major rehabilitation of existing sewage col-
lection systems are reported in this category.
Costs were to be reported if the corrective actions
were necessary to the total integrity of the system.
Major rehabilitation is considered extensive repair
of existing sewers beyond the scope of normal
maintenance programs.
Category IVA. This category includes costs for
replacement or major rehabilitation of existing
collection systems necessary to the total integrity
and performance of waste treatment works.
Category IVB. This category consists of costs
of new collection systems in existing communiti 5
with sufficient existing or planned capacity to ada-
quately treat collected sewage.
Category V. Costs reported for this category
are to prevent periodic bypassing of untreated
wastes from combined sewers to an extent violat-
ing water quality standards or effluent limitations
It does not include treatment and/or control of
stormwaters.
Category VI. States were also asked to make a
rough cost estimate in a sixth category, “Treat-
ment and/or Control of Storrnwaters”. This in-
cludes the costs of abating pollution from storm-
water run-off channelled through sewers and
other conveyances used only for such run-off. The
costs of abating pollution from stormwaters chan-
nelled through combined sewers that also carry
sewage are included in Category V. Category V I
was added so the survey would provide an esti-
mate of all eligible facility costs, as explicitly re-
quired by P.L 93—243.
The estimates were to be reported in January
1978 dollars. Estimates were to be based on the
projected 2000 population.
Results of the Survey
The results of the 1978 Survey are presented in
Table 2.-5 in aggregate national totals, by cate-
gory. Various subtotals are presented to give an
indication of needs versus priorities. For example,
36 percent of the $ 167.8 billion total is required
for stormwater control. State-by-state data for the
same categories may be found in the aforemen-
tioned separate report.
Tablo 2.-S.
-z v Tobi. of Na$..,ol Estimates I., Construction
of Pubilck ,—Q ’irmsø Wastewotur Treatment Focititias
(Billion, of 1918 Dotlan)
2000 EPA Backlog
Au.,*m.nt Ettimot .
I (S.coridmy Tr...tuu.nt ) 13.09 9.66
Ii (Mar. Slrin ent Treatm.nt$ 20.5 10.63
A. To ocM.,. S. d... 1 L . .ls ( 0.2)
B. Advonc.d S., . ondory L.v.h (6.8)
C Aè. .ud Tr.ann.n L.vah (3.31
l i lA l ,. ltvution/lnf o ’w 2.44 2.44
IllS (R.ploc.m.nt/R.àab ltationI 4.88 4.87
VA (N.w CoS.ctoc S.w,ys) 19.02 19.02
IVB (P4w #to. ptar S.wers) 18.47 6.69
V (ComOin.d Sews, Ov.rRows) 25.74 25.74
Total I, II, ond IVB 34.07 26.98
Total I.V 106.13 79.03
VI (Control of Storm W aT er) 61.67 45.70
Total 1-Vt 167.82 124.75
12
-------
Assessment of Backlog
Anew addition to the Survey in 1976 and retained
in 1978 was the assessment of need for present
populations (the backlog of need). Needs for Cate-
gories I-V present populations are estimated to be
879.1 billion, or 74 percent of the 2000 needs.
Note that because of their nature, 2000 Needs for
Categories lI lA and IllS are almost exclusively all
backlog needs as well. In addition, because of the
limitations of eligibility for Category IVA as de-
tailed in Section 211 of P.L 92—500 and the
Construction Grant Regulations (40 CFR
35.925—13), all of the Category IVA needs for
2000 are theoretically backlog needs. The differ-
ences. therefore, are most graphically illustrated
in Categories I, II, and IVB. where backlog needs
represent 50 percent of the 2000 needs.
The costs reported for the backlog are sufficient
only for the facilities necessary to serve the June
1977 populations. They do not include any costs
for the reserve capacity which would be required
by the Act to be included in these facilities for
population growth beyond 1 977. They also ex-
clude estimates for treatment and sewers that
were not necessary at all in 1 977, but are
projected to be necessary for the 2000
populations.
Table 2.-3 shows the anticipated year-by-year capi-
tal investment for murncipal treatment facilities as
controlled by Federal grant awards. Some of the
funds expended during the period are from grants
awarded prior to P.L 92—500, wh,ch were
matched by state and local funds averaging about
60 percent of total project costs. The $ 1 8 billion
from P.L. 92—500. the $480 million from P.L.
94—447, and the $ 1 billion from P.L 95—28 re-
quire only 25 percent state and local matching
funds. The matching funds are included in the
totals. 1986 values are projected to be the same
as 1985 values.
The total investment over the decade of $26.4
billion is seen to be 83 percent of the category I, II,
and VB backlog total needs, but only 35 percent
of the category I-V backlog total and 24 percent of
the category l-Vl backlog total. Therefore, the EPA
recommended in 1977 that the construction grant
program be augmented by $4.5 billion per year for
the period 1978—1987. If Congress were to appro-
priate these funds, the expenditure schedule
shown in Table 2.-3 would result, with the
1976—85 decade total being $55.9 billion, which
exceeds the Category I, II, and IVB (highest priority)
requirements for 2000 population. The amounts
actually authorized by Congress in the 1977
Amendments were $4.5 billion for fiscal year
1978, and $5 billion forfiscal years 1979—82.
Time Phasing and Annualization of Costs
Annual costs are the sum of the annualized capital
costs and 0&M costs. These annualized capital
costs are calculated by amortizing the investment
over its economic life at a discount rate of 10
percent.
Capital investment is assumed to be equal to the
schedule presented in Table 2—3. This assumes
funding past 1 983 is equal to 1983 funding.
As in the industrial sectors, the total capital-in-
place used to calculate annualized capital costs is
the cumulative investment beginning with year
1 972. The standard capital recovery formula was
used to calculate increased annualized costs as a
function of new investments.
Results of these analyses are in Table 2..6.
- Tdbl 2.-6.
Tet& Mw icip& C . st ef W t Polkdieti C ntr l,
977 -1986
( iiH n o 1977 Dallers)
1977—1986
7977 1978 7979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1956 Total
Annuaaz.d
Coø,tai 2.54 3.07 3.66 4.28 4.85 5.42 6.0.5 6.67 7• 1 Q 7.93
O&M 1.09 1.19 1.27 1.34 1.44 1.53 1.67 1.78 1.90 2.02 15.23
3.63 4. 6 4.93 562 6.29 7.00 7.72 8.45 9.20 9.95
Ta*a
51.77
67.05
13
-------
3. ENERGY INDUSTRIES
For the purpose of this report, the broad category • Steam-Electric Power Generation
Energy Industries ” was defined to include those
industries that gather, transfer, process, and de- Costs for the reduction of water pollution for these
liver energy to the ultimate user. These include: industries are summarized in Table 3.-i.
These costs and other data are repeated below in
• Coat Mining the appropriate sections together with the as.
• Petroleum & Natural Gas Extraction sumptions peculiar to the industry and other
• Petroleum Refining details.
TABLE 3.-i. WATER POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS
(1$ MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
INDUSTRY 1977 1972—77 1977-86
ENERGY INDUSTRIES
COAL MINING - ... ... ._. 9.24 53.50 16.25 30.34
OIL & GAS EXTRACTiON ._ 554.61 892.33 337.42 651.78
PETROLEUM REPINING ........... ......... 735.68 2575.30 668. 8 0 789.59
STEAM .ELECTR$C POWER GENERATiON. —. 1026.78 1638.67 877.15 2637.12
TOTAL INVESTMENT. .._ — 2326.30 5159.80 1899.62 4108.83
ANNUAL COSTS
V#77 1972-77 1977-81 1977-86
CDAI. MINING. ........ 36.31 147.75 227.56 367.89
OIL & GAS EXTRACTION._ —. 381.24 347.74 1699.04 4272.51
PETROLEUM REFINING._ .. ... 302.57 1242.8.4 2505.84 6287.09
STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER GENUAT1ON.................... 722.76 1293.68 240.4.96 5923.74
TOTAL ANNUM COSTS .......... 1662.85 3234.02 6837.40 17051.24
15
-------
3.1 COAL MINING
Introduction
The disruption of the earth’s surface by mining
operations causes chemical and physical modifi-
cations that often adversely affect both surface-
and ground-water resources. The major causes of
concern are sedimentation from disturbed areas
and acid mine drainage discharges.
Although coal mining activities exist in numerous
states acid mine drainage is a more critical prob-
lem in the eastern coal fields. Because of limited
coal production, variations in mining practices.
lack of precipitation, abundance of limestone, high
natural alkalinity of surface water, and scarcity of
acid-forming materials in some coal producing
areas, the distribution of acid mine drainage varies
markedly from state to state and within the states.
While significant areas of disturbed land may be
identified in most states, the estimated costs of
abating acid mine water pollution developed for
this report are based on the treatment of water
from active operations, assuming compliance with
all promulgated (BPT) and proposed (BAT, NSPS)
regulation.
Current Production
The preliminary 1976 Mineral Industries Surveys
indicates a production of 603 million metric tons
(665 million short tons) of bituminous and lignite
coal, and anthracite coal production for 1976 is
reported to be 5.8 million metric tons (6.4 million
short tons). It is estimated that .40.5 percent of
bituminous and lignite, and 99.2 percent of an-
thracite coals were cleane.d by some physical me-
thod in 1976. Industry sources estimate that the
industry had a 1976 capacity of about 735 million
metric tons (810 million short tons) of coal. The
industry indicates plans for expansion to a 1985
capacity of 1.1 billion metric tons(1.2 billion short
tons), with conservative estimates of demand at
about 910 million metric tons (1.0 billion short
tons) of coal in 1985.
Current Bituminous and Lignite
Coal Production.
Mine water must be pumped out to allow mining to
continue. This technique is also used to prevent
aquifers from being polluted by metals in solution,
COD, and acid formation, although flooding the
mine may also prevent acid formation. To develop
costs for BPT, BAT, and NSPS compliance, “Eco-
nomic Document” model plants and costs were
used for BPT and NSPS compliance levels. For
BAT compliance costs, neutralization equipment,
chemicals, and distribution piping and pumps re-
mained the same but the settling pond was dou-
bled in size and cost, and a limited amount of
flocculation agents were added. To determine
costs . for BPT and BAT level compliance,
production for 1 976, 1 983, and 1 986 was split
into large, medium, and small model mines. It was
assumed that all mines will require treatment at
least for suspended solids and pH.
Anthracite Coal
Anthracite coal is showing a long term decreasing
production trend. Costs were estimated using
model facility costs as in the previous section. In
estimating mine pumpout treatment costs it was
assumed that 42 percent of yearly production is
surface mined and 10 percent is deep-mined (the
remainder is assumed to be comb-bank and auger-
mined). Because the production rate of anthracite
is decreasing, it was assumed that treatment facili-
ties equivalent to 6.4 million metric tons (7 million
short tons) per year capacity would be required to
install water treatment facilities.
This methodology has overstated costs in that
many cleaning plants are at the “mine mouth”, and
mine pumpout is often used as process water in
the cleaning plant (the effluent then needs treat-
ment only once).
The resulting estimated costs of compliance are
listed in Table 3.1—1.
16
-------
TABLE 3.1-1. COAL MINING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULaTIVE PERIODS
1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
4NVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS.... .... ..
.. 6.78 44.29 0.90 0.90 0.90
BAT ...... . .. 0.0 0.0 4.27 5.69 5.69
NEW PLANTS.... . . ....... — .. 2.46 9.20 11.07 17.43 23.75
PRETREATMENT._[[[ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
....... ....._..... 9.24 53.50 16.25 24.03 30.34
MUM. RECOVERY......._............_ — 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ... ._ ... 9.24 53.50 16.25 24.03 30.34
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS... ............ . ...... . .... . .
BPT - .. . . .. . .. ....._.... 14.23 38.99 17.36 17.49
......... 0.0 0.0 3.08 5.98 7.06
NEW PLANTS .. . ............. . .. . .. _. . . . . ... .. 2.68 7.32 12.99 20.44 29.91
____ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL........ . ................. . . ... ..... . .... . .. ...... 16.91 46.31 33.42 43.92 54.46
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS......... ...................._
_________ 32.65 84.95 132.92 199.55 290.49
___________ 0.0 0.0 14.35 33.49 62.19
NEW PLANTS 6.76 16.50 46.87 83.37 151.75
PRETREATMENI............... . ........................................ 0.0 - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
- .__. 39.40 101.45 194.14 316.60 513.43
INDUSTRY TOTAL- - _ . . . . . . . .. 56.31 147.75 227.36 360.52 367.89
MUNICIPAL CHARGE -
INVEST RECOVERY._............ . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ..... — - - .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ..... ..._ .........._ 56.31 147.75 227.56 360.32 . 567.89
ALL ANNUAL COSTS 56.31 147.75 227.56 360.52 367.89
MOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30Th OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
-------
3.2 OIL AND GAS EXTRACTiON
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were revoked on May 1 2, 1976. The EPA
believes that the reasons for this action were tech-
nical in nature and that similar regulations differ-
ing only in the pollutant reductions required and
incurring similar costs will be promulgated in the
future. This discussion, therefore, was based on
the costs derived in the support documents for the
present regulations).
Industry Structure
The extraction of gas and . oil through the use of
conventional welts, the subject of this chapter,
constitutes all of the commercial activity in SIC
category 1311 since the other activities (produ-
cing oil from oil sands and oil shale) are at the
present time only in the research and development
stage in the United States. The extraction of oil
and gas consists of the production from wells
onshore and offshore. The number of onshore and
coastal wells in the United States in 1975 was
497.000. Of these 368,000 or about three-fourths
of the total were stripper welts. In addition, there
were about 900 far-and near-offshore platforms.
primarily in the Gulf of Mexico off the coast of
Louisiana. The offshore wells beyond the historic
state limit, in what is known as the Outer Continen-
tal Shelf (or Far Offshore) Waters are under Fed-
eral jurisdiction. Wells in offshore waters inside
the State limit are classified as being in Near
Offshore Waters. The bayous and estuaries of Lou-
isiana and Texas are known as Coastal Waters. In
the Coastal Waters, things are complicated be-
cause water from a well onshore may discharge its
formation water to a bayou nearby or a platform
built out in the water may pipe its formation water
onshore for treatment followed by dumping or
injection. The onshore wells can be subdivided
into stripper wells, wells with beneficial use of
formation water, and other nonstripper wells.
Stripper wells are those that produce 10 barrels of
oil per day or less. Wells that produce water that is
sufficiently low in salinity that it can be used for
agricultural or livestock watering purposes consti-
tute the beneficial use category. The balance of
the onshore wells in the United States can be
categorized as other nonstrippef onshore wells.
The pollution regulations discussed below’ are
grouped by these categories.
The interrelation of gas and oil production is com-
plex. When oil and gas are found together, the
usual case, the gas is spoken of as being asso-
ciated gas. Gas from wells having no oil
production is called nonassociated gas. However,
the nonassociated gas has a high content of va-
pors of petroleum liquids; before the natural gas is
put into the pipeline, these vapors are condensed
and sold as natural gas liquids. (This activity is
discussed in the section of the Clean Air Report on
Natural Gas Processing). Some oil wells have so
little associated gas that it is not economical to
bring this gas to a pipeline.
Gas wells have been included for the offshore
region since these data were readily available and
the costs of the proposed regulations are so high.
Nonassociated gas wells onshore have been ig-
nored in this study as well as in the EPA studies
done previously since the pollution problems in-
volved are small.
Nature of Pollutants and
Control Technologies
The chief pollutant from the operation of oil and
gas wells onshore is the brine that is produced
with the oil and gas. (In certain areas of the West.
the water is low in salts and is acceptable for
watering stock). There are a number of ways to
handle brine produced onshore. It can be stored in
a pit and allowed to evaporate or it can be rein-
jected into the producing formation or into some
other formation beneath the surface. The last is by
far the most common disposal technique.
Although the salts in the brine are nonpolluting
when added to ocean water, the oil dispensed in
the brine is a potential pollutant. The oil-laden
water can be treated with coalescers and dis-
solved air flotation equipment to lower the oil
content to an acceptable level before discharge to
the ocean. If complete elimination of oil discharge
is derived, injections into underground strata can
be used, although this is expensive, especially if
the well is in deep water. In the regions close to
shore, it is also possible to send the water ashore
by pipeline for treatment followed by dumping.
reinjection, or by evaporation from a pit area.
One way to increase the total amount of oil that is
recovered is to inject water into the formation, a
18
-------
process known as water flooding. Very frequently,
the production water is reinjected. Since this is an
economic use of the water and is not related to the
pollution abatement that is obtained as an inciden-
tal by-product, the cost of reinjection for purposes
of secondary recovery is not included in this
report
Another source of pollution is oil from drill cuttings
and from spent muds that are discharged. Water-
based muds and drill cuttings can be washed
before dumpin g offshore. Onshore, they can be
landfllled. Oil-based muds used offshore can be
collected and hauled ashore and then disposed of
in a landfill. Hauling to shore is also used to dis-
pose of refuse and toxic chemicals from platforms.
Water running off the deck of a platform is another
possible source of pollution since the deck is fre-
quently spotted with oil. Deck washings and rain
water can be collected and treated in the same
manner as the produced water. Another potential
source of water pollution is the sanitary sewage
water. This can be treated and then chlorinated
and discharged. All of the above potential sources
of pollution are from activities that are more or less
expected in every-day operations. The prevention
of blowouts and catastrophic spills is not treated
here.
Regulations
E8ch of the states where oil and gas is produced
has its own set of regulations governing the dis-
charge of water, casing depth, reinjection of
water, as well as the disposal of solid waste from
drifting and operation of the well. Since the coastal
states have jurisdiction out to their historic bound-
ary (usually 3 miles, but in the case of Texas, 9
miles offshore), they also promulgate regulations
concerning possible pollutants from offshore oil
-and gas rigs and platforms in the coastal and near
offshore waters. The State of California has a limit
of 20 parts per million for the long-term average of
oil and grease. Louisaria ’s limit is 30 ppm. In
Texas, a permit is issued for each platform based
on the potential impact on the local water quality.
Some of the permits in sensitive areas have a limit
of oil and grease as low as 25 ppm. In the area of
Federal control, the outer continential shelf, the
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has the authority to
issue regulations designed to protect the environ-
ment and to make navigation safe. For example,
the USGS’s regulations limit the average oil and
grease discharge to no more than 50 ppm.
The EPA has issued effluent guidelines that cover
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently
Aveilable (40FR42543, 41FR44942). Proposed
guidelines for New Source Performance Stan-
dards. Best Available Technology Econom icaIIy
Achievable and pretreatment standards have been
published (40FR42573, 41FR44949). Although
no EPA regulations are in effect at this time, in the
analysis for this report it was assumed that the
proposed regulations would go into effect in 1 978
or 1983, as is appropriate.
Cost of Abatement Equipment and
Operation for the Disposal
of Formation Water
The costs given in the Development Document
were used for the contiguous 48 states. The Alas-
kan offstiore platforms pipe their produced forma-
tion water to shore where it is treated and
dumped. The costs for Alaska are assumed to be
about three times as high as they would be for the
contiguous 48 states. (The water is treated and
dumped even though the fields use water for sec-
ondary recovery. This is because the produced
formation water is incompatible with the sea water
that is used for the repressurization of the.
reservoirj.
Cost of Meeting Other Pollution
Regulations
EPA requirements concerning the disposal of
trash, drill cuttings, spent mud, and sanitary
wastes from offshore platforms duplicate require-
ments that were in the various state or U.S. Geo-
logical Survey Regulations. Hence, no incremental
costs are occasioned by the Water Pollution Con-
trol Act. The cost of extra casing to meet the Clean
Drinking Water Act’s provisions have not been
included in this analysis.
Number of Wells or P/a tforrns Impacted
The costs for disposal of oil from onshore wells in
Alaska has been omitted from this study because
there is a lack of data. The number of wells, the
amount of water produced, and the cost of abate-
ment under the rigorous Arctic conditions have
not been reported.
California Offshore The cost impacts have been
estimated using the number of discharge ppints as
detailed in the study for the National Commission
on Water Quality, which were then disaggregated
by flow per day. There are an estimated 565
discharge points in the Far Offshore Region, 66 in
the Near Offshore Region and 805 in Coastal
Waters.
A/as/ca Offshore The data from the Offshore Eco-
nomic Analysis showed that 14 platforms exist in
Alaska. One discharge per platform was assumed
(currently produced water is piped to shore,
treated and discharged).
19
-------
Onshore The number of onshore wells not inject.
ing produced water, the average well size, and
average water production were calculated from
data in the Economic Analysis. The formation
water from an estimated 1 2,967 wells is not rein-
jected. Of these 3,209 wells produce water that is
used beneficially.
Growth of Unit Numbers
The growth of the number of discharge points in
the offshore region was estimated as follows. For
the coastal and near offshore regions, it was as-
sumed that the number of abandonments would
equal the number of new wells so that there would
be no net growth. For the far offshore, the historic
rate of growth of platforms was used as an approx-
imation of the growth with the number of dis-
charge points, using data from Offshore (June 20,
1977). For 1977—1978, a 10 percent increase
was assumed; for 1979—1985, 15 percent per
year. This iS Consistent with the rate of growth for
offshore oil projected by President Carter in his
National Energy Plan.
These percentages include expected growth in the
Gulf of Alaska and offshore Atlantic.
The growth rate for onshore well numbers is based
on the Project Independence Report using the
Business-as-usual, $ 11 per barrell scenario.
The cost for the abatement of pollution problems
in oil and gas extraction has been calculated to be
as shown in Table 3.2—1.
1977
1972—77
SUBTOTAL
1977-.81
MUPI. RECOVERY.
flSV As
554.6 1
0.0
0.0
0.0
3. 54.61
1977.43
ANNUAUZED COSTS
1977—86
892.33
0.0
0.0
0.0
892.33
A$NUAL CAP1IAL.
EXISTING PLANTS.
25.43
224.71
87.28
0.0
337.42
0.0
554.61
25.4.3
299.62
168.86
0.0
493.91
0.0
892.33
apr....
BAT...
NEW PLANTS..,
25.43
299.62
326.73
0.0
631.78
0.0
337.42
fl.. ? . ’
0.0
493.91
C&M
0.0
651.78
117.32
0.0
0.0
0.0
117.32
TABLE 3.2-I. OIL & GAS EXTRACTION INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIIUONS OF ‘1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PI.ANTS............... . ....
.-.......
3AT._ . . .... .. ... ..
NEW PLANTS
....._
I ’ S ” ” —
I ,S,n_. -
AU. ANNUAL COSTS .. ...
NOTES COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 157 CF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION CF (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION ANO 121 INTEREST.
EXISTING PLANTS.
BPT
167.97
0.0
0.0
0.0
167.97
NEW PLANTS..
482.65
59.09
24.09
0.0
565.83
Tr TAI
722.97
137.37
62.87
0.0
924.71
1085.95
256.05
169.55
0.0
1511.53
INDUSTRY 1OTAL
MUNICPAI. CHARGE
263.92
0.0
0.0
0.0
263.92
379.77
0.0
0.0
0.0
379.77
INVEST RECOVERY.
USER CHARGES
1076.38
39.45
16.39
0.0
1133.21
381.24
1613.42
92.05
54.13
0.0
1759.60
547.74
2418.24
170.95
171.78
0.0
2760.97
1699.04
0.0
0.0
381.24
2684.32
0.0
0.0
547.74
4272.52
381.24
0.0
0.0
1699.04
547.74
0.0
0.0
2684.32
1699.04
0.0
0.0
4272.52
2684.22
4272.32
20
-------
3.3 PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were remanded on August 11, 1976. The
EPA believes that the reasons for this action were
technical in nature and that similar regulations
differing only in the pollutant reductions required
and incurring similar costs will be promulgated in
the future. This discussion, therefore, was based
on the costs derived in the support documents for
the present regulations).
Production Characteristics and Capacities
As of early 1977, the petroleum refining industry
comprises about 139 firnis operating about 266
refineries in 39 states, pIus 3 in Puerto Rico. one in
the Virgin Islands, and one in Guam. All refineries
are necessarily multi-product. As of 1974, the 1 7
largest firms accounted for about 80 percent of
the industry’s capacity.
The petroleum refining industry produces hun-
dreds of distinguishably different products, which
can be grouped into four broad product classes:
gasoline, middle distillate, residual oil, and all oth-
era. Gasoline accounts for about 45 percent of
industry output. Middle distillates, comprise about
33 percent (this description includes military and
commercial jet fuel, kerosene, space heating oil,
and diesel fuel). Residual fuel amounts to about 8
percent of domestic petroleum production. Other
products include asphalt, lubricants, liquefied pe-
troleum gas (mostly propane). naphthas and sol-
vents, coke, petrochemicals, and petrochemical
feedstocks. Crude oil is the most important raw
material used by the industry. Natural gasoline and
gas liquids which are products of the natural gas
industry furnish about 5 percent of refinery in-
takes. There are no other significant raw materials.
Although a typical oil refinery is technically com-
plex, the process is conceptually simple. Crude
oils, which are liquid mixtures of many carbon-
containing compounds, are first separated into
several fractions of varying molecular size. The
chemical composition of some of these fractions is
then altered by changing the average molecular
size and/or the shape or structure of the mole-
cules. Many of the intermediate fractions are
“treated” to make the impurities innocuous or to
remove them completely. These are then blended
to produce finished products, to which various
substances, known as additives, may be added to
impart certain desirable properties.
Based upon an analysis fo refinery raw waste
loads. EPA has divided the industry into five subca-
tegories for the purpose of regulating effluents:
Topping
Topping plants are refineries whose processing is
largely confined to converting oil into raw
products by simple atmospheric distillation. The
topping subcategory excludes all refineries with
cracking processes.
Cracking
Refineries in this subcategory are those that have
topping and cracking operations but make neither
petrochemicals nor lubricants. The term cracking
applies to a group of processes in which high
molecular weight fractions are broken down into
lower molecular weight fractions. Catalytic crack-
ing, hydro cracking, and thermal cracking proc-
esses like coking and visbreaking are included in
this definition.
Petrochemical
Plants in this subcategory have topping, cracking,
and petrochemical operations.
Lube
This subcategory includes refineries with topping,
cracking, and lube oil manufacturing processes.
Integrated
Integrated refineries are those with topping, crack-
ing, lube oil manufacturing processes, and petro-
chemical operations.
In general, the number and complexity of refining
operations increases with increasing refinery size.
Most of the simple topping refineries are small
while the petrochemical and integrated refineries
are generally large. There are some fairly small
lube oil refineries.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Wastewater pollutants generated in the various
refining processes, such as BOD, COD, total or-
ganic carbon, total suspended solids, oil and
21
-------
grease. phenols, ammonia, sulfides, chromium,
and pH, are present in untreated refinery effluent.
Same pollutants enter the wastewater directly
from processing, while others enter the waste
stream from washing tanks, equipment, catalysts,
etc.; from cooling water blowdown; and from leaks
and spillage. Additional flows and waste loads are
created by storm water runoff from the ref mary
grounds and from the disposal of tanker ballast
water.
The following parameters are covered under the
effluent limitations guidelines: BOO 5 , total sus-
pended solids, COD, oil and grease, phenolic com-
pounds, ammonia (as N), sulfide, total chromium,
hexavalent chromium, and pH. The effluent limita-
tions for each pollutant varies with the type. size,
and complexity of the refinery.
Control Technology and Costs
Wastewater treatment processes currently used in
the petroleum refining industry include equaliza-
don and storm water diversion; initial oil and solids
removal (API separators or baffle plate separators);
further oil and solids removal (clarifiers, dissolved
sir flotation, or filters); carbonaceous waste re-
moval (activated sludge, aerated lagoons, oxide-
don ponds, trickling filter, activated carbon, or
combinations of these); and filters (sand or multi-
media) following biological treatment methods.
BPT guidelines are based upon both in-plant and
end-of-pipe control practices widely used within
the industry. These include the above listed end-of-
pipe technologies plus:
• Installation ‘of sour water strippers to re-
duce the sulfide and ammonia concentra-
tions entering the treatment plant
• Elimination of once-through barometric
condenser water by using surface con-
densers or recycle systems with oily water
cooling towers.
• Segregation of sewers, so that unpolluted
storm runoff and once-through cooling
waters are not treated with the process and
other polluted waters.
• Elimination of polluted once-through cool-
ing water by monitoring and repair of sur-
face condensers or by use of wet and dry
recycle systems.
BAT guidelines call for further reductions of water
flow in-plant, and the addition of a physical-
chemical treatment step (activated carbon) in the
end-of-pipe treatment system. BAT in-plant tech-
nology is based on control practices now in use by
some plants in the industry and include:
• Use of air cooling equipment.
• Reusing: sour water stripper bottoms in
crude desalter: once-through cooling water
as make-up to the water treatment plant:
boiler condensate as boiler feedwater;
overhead accumulator water in desalters;
and heated water from the vacuum over-
head condensers to heat the crude.
• Recycling: water from coking opertions,
waste acids from alkylation units, and over-
head water in water washes.
• Use of wastewater treatment plant effluent
as: cooling water, s-crubbing water, and
influentto the water treatment plant.
• Use of closed compressor and pump cool-
ing water system.
• Use of rain water runoff as cooling tower
make- up or water treatment plant feed.
Control costs are detailed in Table 3.3—1.
22
-------
TABLE 3.3 - i. PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1 972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS...._.........._...
670.58 2123.40 83.00 37.83 —186.71
_____ - 0.0 0.0 440.00 662.00 662.00
NEW PLANTS_____________ _______ 65.10 451.90 143.80 212.00 314.30
PRETREATMENT —. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 735.68 2575.30 668.80 931.83 789.59
NUN. RECOVERY_______________________ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL_ 735.68 2573.30 668.80 931.83 789.39
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
IPT_________________________ 271.41 605.17 1115.19 1676.26 2457.08
BAT___________________________ 0.0 0.0 140.60 295.64 549.48
NEW PLANTS _._..... — 57.76 146.03 290.60 455.96 736.68
PRETREATMENT. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
329.17 751.20 1546.39 2427.86 3743.25
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS.
BPT.......________________________ 106.71 323.04 461.06 699.63 1057.49
BAT _... 0.0 0.0 162.79 342.32 636.26
NEW PLANTS...___________________ 66.70 168.60 335.60 526.40 850.10
PRETREATMENT.. ______....._...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 173.4) 491.64 959.45 1568.33 2543.85
INDUSTRY TOTAL____ — 302.57 1242.8.4 2505.84 3996.21 6287.10
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES — 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 302.57 1242.Ss 2305.84 3996.21 6287.10
AU. ANNUAL COSTS________________ 502.57 1242.84 2503.84 3996.21 6287.10
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30Th OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1 $TRAIGMT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
23
-------
3.4 STEAM ELECTRIC POWER GENERATING INbUSTRY
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were remanded on May 1 6, 1 976. The EPA
believes that the reasons for this action were tech-
nical in nature and that similar regulations differ-
ing only in the pollutant reductions required and
incurring similar costs will be promulgated in the
future. This discussion, therefore, was based on
the costs derived in the support documents for the
present regulations).
Industry Categories and Production
Capacities
The steam electric power industry has been di-
vided into three subcategories according to size
and age of generating plants, and a fourth based
on area runoff. A summary of the subcategories
follows:
Smoll Unit < 25
Old Unit >500 On or b.fore 1-1-1970
<500 On or bofer. 1—1—1970
Ar. Runoff oil uzss
The steam electric power industry can also be
subdivided according to the type of fuel consumed
in the production of electricity, i.e.. fossil fuels
(coal, gas, and oil) and nuclear fuels. Capacity, by
fuel type, in 1 974 and as projected for 1983 and
1985 isshown in Table 3.4.-i:
TabI. 3 .4.-i.
RUan,It and Pr.4.d.d NatIonal Stnom-E1 .ctric
P*ws, G .n.ratinq Capacity by Fuof Typ.
(in nHlU.sn of 1(W)
% ch .
1983 1935 1974—1985
Pollutants, Pollutant Sources and
Entrainments
Effluent guidelines promulgated October 8, 1974
(39 FR 36186—36207) control the following
pollutants:
• pH
• PCB
• Tss
• Oil and grease
• Total copper
• Total iron
• Free available chlorine
Main sources contributing to the total waste load
are:
• Low volume wastes which include scrub-
ber waters, discharge from ion exchange
treatment systems, water treatment, evapo-
rator blowdown, laboratory and sampling
streams, floor drainage, cooling tower ba-
sin cleaning wastes, and blowdown from
recirculating house service water systems
• Metal cleaning wastes
• Ash transport water
Boiler and cooling tower blowdown
• Area runoff from material storage and con-
struction areas.
Section 31 6(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Act Amendments of 1972 requires that the
location, design. Construction, and capacity of
cooling water intake structures reflect the best
technology available for minimizing adverse envi-
ronmental impact.
Projected 1985 capacity affected by chemical,
thermal, and entrainment regulations are shown in
Table 3.4—2:
TobI, 3.4-2.
Pr.4oct.d 1935 SI.am- ladric Powor Gon.roting
Capacity Aff.ctnd by FWPCA R .qulation by Fu.4 Typo
(in ibIullon of 1(W)
Pretreatment standards for steam electric power
generating facilities discharging to publicly-
owned treatment works are in the process of being
developed. The capacity of plants discharging to
municipal sewers is approximately 1 4,500 mega-
watts. Pollutants that would be controlled by Level
• Total residual chlorine
• Corrosion inhibitors
• Zinc
• Chromiumo3;
• Phosphate
• Heat
Generating Unit
G.n.ranng
Cocacity. MW
25
500
Oat, of
Initial Ooeration
After 1—1—1974
After 1—1—1970
Fu e l
08
Gas
deor
1974
185.3
66.3
87.4
31.4
310.1
93.2
44.
110.7
332.9 — 72.9
91.2 + 37.6
41. — 53.1
132 —317.7
Coal
oil
Gas
Mud.
c emico l
195
91.2
41
52.5
Thermal
69.7
7.3
0.8
32.3
Entvainment
3.4
1.8
0.8
4.5
24
-------
C pretreatment as described in the Development
Document 1 are:
Pollution Control Technology
A variety of control and treatment technologies
are in use by or available to the steam electric
power generating industry. Water management
programs thus vary among plants.
The amount of heat rejected to available waters is
reduced by in-process means, use of cooling tow-
ers, and by dissipating the heat in on-property
cooling ponds or lakes.
Clarification, flotation, and filtration are common
methods of removing suspended solids. Chemical
reduction, ion exchange, and chemically-induced
precipitation are among the methods used to con-
trol metals in wastewater. Oil and grease is re-
moved by skimming flotation, demulsificatiori and
coagulation.
Approaches to controlling chlorine in effluents
involve reducing dosage frequency, amount.
and/or duration, splitting the effluent into two
streams and chlorinating one stream at a time, use
of feedback control systems, dissipation, and
aeration.
Costs
A summary of the costs to the steam-electric gen-
erating industry associated with the implementa-
tion of the FWPCA provision is given in Table
3.4—3.
• rss
.lron
• Copper
pH
Oil arid grease
Free chlorine
TABLE 3.4-3. STEAM ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
INVESTI4%EI4T
EXISTING PLANTS.
SPT ——
SAT_. ..
NEW PtANT$ —
C I IWTI ? I
1977
1972—77
1977—81
1977—83
1977—86
852.7 1
11 10. 16
38.42
38.42
38.42
0.0
0.0
0.44
0.59
0.59
174.07
528.52
838.29
3409.55
2598.11
0.0
0.0
0.00
0.00
0.00
1026.78
1638.67
377.15
1448.36
2637.12
MUN. RECOVERY ......... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
SAT._.
NEW PLANTS
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS
PRETREAT I ENT.. .._
At
1026.78
143.96
0.0
69.49
0.0
215.44
145.15
0.0
362.17
0.0
507.32
722.76
0.0
0.0
722.76
722.76
1638.67
218.95
0.0
153.53
0.0
374.48
216.69
0.0
704.51
0.0
921.20
1293.68
0.0
0.0
1293.68
1295.68
877.15
396.46
0.12
347.20
0.00
1143.78
599.86
0.01
661.32
0.00
1261.18
2404.96
0.0
0.0
240.4.96
2404.96
INDUSTRY TO1’AL_.... ...
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY.
USER CHARGES._
1 1TAI
1448.36
998.47
0.27
1016.86
0.00
1915.60
901.09
0.02
817.92
0.00
1719.02
363.4.62
0.0
0.0
3634.62
363.4.62
0.0
2637.12
1351.49
0.50
2080.24
0.00
3432.24
1315.41
0.03
1176.07
0.00
2491.51
5923.75
0.0
0.0
5923.75
5923.75
AU. ANNUAL COSTS.
NOTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30Th OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COM8INATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2j INTEREST.
25
-------
REFERENCES
Supplement for Pretreatment to the Devel-
opment Document for the Steam-Electric
Power Generating Point Source Category,
Draft EPA, 440/1—76/084, November
1976.
2. “Draft Development Document for Pre-
treatment Standards — the Steam-Electric
Power Generating Industry” Prepared for
EPA HIT-667, September. 1976.
26
-------
4. CHEMICALS INDUSTRIES
For the purpose of this report, the Chemicals In-
dustnes are defined as those establishments
which manufacture products primarily by chemi-
cal modification of raw materials and for which the
final product is a chemical. These include:
• Organic Chemicals
• Inorganic Chemicals
• Plastics & Synthetics
• Rubber Manufacturing
• Soaps & Detergents
• Carbon Black Industry
• Explosives Industry
• Pesticides & Agricultural Chemicals
• Fertilizer Manufacturing
• Phosphate Manufacturing
• Paint Formulating
• Printing Ink Formulating
• Photographic Processing
• Textiles Industry
The textiles industry has been included in this
grouping primarily because it is largely the chemi..
cat operations within that industry which are re-
sponsible for water pollution. Costs associated
with the implementation of the FWPCA for the
Chemicals Industries are summarized in Table
4—1.
TABLE 4.-i. WATER POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
4DUSTRY
CHEMICAL INOUSTRIES... ...
1977
835.88
179.78
89.92
1972-77
1704.54
471.65
241.25
1977-81
1140.52
379.38
118.73
1977-86
2322.07
547.91
367.47
ORGANIC CHEMICALS
INORGANIC CMEMICALS_
PLaSTICS & SYNTHETICS
RUBBER MANUFACTURING .. . .. .. .
72.25
2.33
0 9O
232.56
9.63
70.46
39.09
2.20
0.20
6.21
2 .21
1565.61
169.04
4.24
2.38
612.00
25.50
145.67
56.00
8.46
1.96
14.47
37.34
3544.99
19.76
2.74
0.0
1327.56
0.0
113.25
33.29
3.03
0.58
5.39
1030.21
4174.64
46.47
4.68
0.0
2057.56
0.0
200.66
64.71
8.36
0.80
15.69
1410.16
7046.53
SOAPS & DETERGENTS ..._.... . ............
CARBON BLACK INDUSTRY ....
EXPtOS IVES INDUSTRY........ ..—.—..
P!STIC IDES 3. AGRICULTuRAL CHEMICALS .—..
FERT1UZER MANUFACTURING - _........_...
PHOSPHATE MANUFACTURING____ ....
PAINT FORMULATING.
PRINTING INK FORMUIATING.._
PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCE 53ING. . ..._ —......
TEXTILES INDUSTRY....______ —.. . .. .
TOTAl. INVESTMENT......_..._..........—
ORGANIC CHEM$CAS.._._._......... .—..—....
1977
322.34
136.53
42.26
39.67
1972—77
575.73
285.22
91.46
79.67
ANNUAL COSTS
1977-41
1929.38
787.06
221.11
171.12
1977—86
5211.75
2277.34
663.43
412.96
INORGANIC CHEMICALS......_._.............—..
PLASTICS & SYNTHETICS -
RUBBER MANUFACTURING .____ ——
SOAPS & DETERGENTS .._..._.._. -
CARBON SLACK INDUSTRY .. . .._——...-
EXPLOSIVES INOUSTRY........................... ..—.—
PESTICIDES & AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS.... . .........
0.82
0.36
120.46
6.4 5
1.51
0.71
242.13
13.04
4.30
1.57
943.98
13.41
12.73
3.53
3069.88
30.17
FERTILIZER MANUFACTURING ........._.. ..— -
81.53
135.45
441.49
1260.92
PHOSPHATE MANUFACTURINQ . .... . .... . .............—... -.
- PAINT FORMCLATING ..... . .. . . ..... . _.—.—-.—.
14.3$
2.05
24.76
5.06
V 78.32
9.98
229.34
. 27.62
PRINTING INK FORMULATING ........... .—.
PHOTOGRAPHIC ROCESSIp4G................ —.—
TEXTILES INDUSTR ’ r.. ...__............__V
0.34
4.46
27.42
799.12
1.16
8.43
64.01
1528.35
1.38
21.99
1089.87
571546
3.80
59.67
4499.59
17763.15
TOTAL ANNUAL -.
27
-------
4.1 ORGANIC CHEMICALS INDUSTRY
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were revoked on February 10, 1 976. The
EPA believes that the reasons for this action were
technical in nature and that similar regulations
differing only in the pollutant reductions required
and incurring similar costs will be promulgated in
the future. This discussion, therefore, was based
on the costs derived in the support documents for
the present regulations).
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Approximately 470 companies operating over
680 establishments are engaged in producing or-
ganic chemicals; however,’the four largest produc-
ers account for a minimum of 36 percent, and the
hundred largest for more than 92 percent of the
total shipments. Much of the industry’s production
is accounted for not only by the large chemical
companies, but also by the major petroleum refin-
eries. At the other end of the spectrum are many
small companies operating small plants. There are
about 27 plants employing more than 1,000, and
about 220 plants with less than 10 employees.
The organic chemicals industry includes a vast
number of products and processes. The Phase I
effluent limitations guidelines cover only part of
the organic chemicals industry. At the time of this
report. no Phase II regulations had been proposed
for other parts of the organic chemicals industry.
Primary petrochemical processing, (i.e., chemicals
produced at petroleum refineries), plastics, fibers,
agricultural chemicals, pesticides, detergents,
paints, and pharmaceuticals are not included.
These are discussed elsewhere in this report.
Synthetic organic chemicals are derivative
products of naturally occurring raw materials (p-
etroleum, natural gas, and coal) which have under-
gone at least one chemical conversion. The or-
ganic chemicals industry was initially dependent
upon coal as its sole source of raw materials.
However, during the last two decades it has moved
so rapidly from coal to petroleum-based feeds-
tacks that the term “petrochemicals” has come
into common use.
The basic raw materials are usually obtained by
physical separation processes in petroleum r,efin-
eries. The raw materials are then chemically con-
verted to a primary group of reactive precursors;
these precursors are then used in a multitude of
specific chemical conversions to produce both
intermediate and final products.
Processing of organic chemicals usually involves
four stages:
• Feed preparation — vaporization, heating,
compressing, and chemical or physical pu-
rification of raw materials
• Reaction — the reaction of the raw materi-
als, frequently in the presence of a catalyst
• Product separation — condensation, distil-
lation, absorption, etc., to obtain the de-
sired product
• Product purification — distillation, extrac-
tion, crystallization, etc., to remove
impurities.
Processing methods may be carried out either in
continuous operations or in individual batches.
Facilities using the continuous processing method
manufacture products at much greater volumes
and at lower unit costs than those using batch
methods.
The effluent limitations guidelines promulgated to
date by EPA (for Phase 1) apply only to those
products of the organics chemicals industry
produced in continuous processing operations.
These operations have been divided into seven
subcategories, based first upon the degree of
process water used, and second upon the raw
waste loads generated; Table 4.1—1 lists the seven
subcategories and the products and processes
included.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Water is used in many production processes as a
reaction vehicle, and also as a vehicle to separate
or to purify the final products by scrubbing, steam
stripping, or absorption. In addition, a consider-
able amount of water is used for heating (steam)
and cooling, and for washing reaction and storage
vessels, etc.
The effluent limitations guidelines for the organic
chemicals industry cover the following pollutants:
29
-------
BOOS. COD, total suspended solids, phenols, and
pH. The limitation placed upon pH in all cases is
between 6.0 and 9.0. it should be noted that
process wastewaters subject to limitations include
all process waters exclusive of auxiliary sources.
such as boiler and cooling water blowdowri, water
treatment backwash, laboratories, and other simi-
lar sources.
Control Technology and Costs
Technologies employed in the organic chemicals
industry for the control of wastewater pollutants
include in-process modifications, pollution control
equipment, and end-of-pipe wastewater treat-
ment. From a pollution-control standpoint, the
most significant change that can be made in proc-
ess chemistry is from a “wet” process to a “dry”
process; that is, the substitution of some other
solvent for water in which to carry out the reaction
or to purify the product Other in-process technolo-
gies observed or recommended for the organic
chemicals industry include the substitution of sur-
face heat exchangers for contact cooling water,
the substitution of mechanical pumps for vacuum
pump steam jet ejectors, the recycle of scrubber
water, and the regeneration of contact process
steam from contaminated condensate.
Biological treatment systems are the most corn-
ror and-of-pipe ethnologies used in the organic
chemicals industry today. These systems include
activated sludge, trickling filters, aerated lagoons.
and anaerobic lagoons. Other systems used in-
clude stripping towers, deep-well disposal, physi-
cal treatment, activated carbon, and incineration.
Where phenols are present in wastewaters, they
may be removed by solvent extraction, carbon
absorption, caustic precipitation, or steam strip-
ping. Cyanide may be removed by oxidation. Five
of 34 plants surveyed discharged their effluent to
a municipal treatment system; three had no cur-
rent treatment systems.
In-process controls commensurate with BPT in-
clude segregation of waste streams, the substitu-
tion of nonaqueous media in which to carry Out the
reactions or to purify the products, recycling or
reuse of process water, and the recovery of
products and byproducts from the wastewaters by
solvent extraction, aosorption, or distillation. End-
of-pipe treatment commensurate with BPT is
based on the use of biological systems as men-
tioned above. These systems include additional
treatment operations such as equalization, neutral-
ization, primary clarification with oil removal, nutri-
ent addition, and effluent polishing steps, such as
coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration. Phenol
removal is also required in some cases.
Table 4. 1 .-I.
Organic Chetnicals Manufaciurtng lndvstry
Prod ct* and Related Proc.ssos
Subcet.gory A Non Aqu..us Process . .
Products Pr c.ss Descnptiorn
SIX Aromotics
SIX Asomatics
Cydanexane
y ,t yl a ioria.
Hydrotreatinent of pyrolytis gosolrn.
Solvent extract on from reionnote
Ifydrogenction of benz.ne
Addition of hydrochietic acid to
ac—In.
Subcot.g.ry S Proc... wiN, Process Wator Con-
tact as Steen. Dilu.nt or Absorbent
Si Products SI Process Dasaiptions
Acetone
Sutadlsn.
Ethyl b.nzene
— and Propylene
Ethyisne dicklorid.
Ethylin . aside
Formaldehyde
Methanol
Methyl amine.
v__ acetate
Vinyl chloride
52 Ptod cts
Ac.o Id.h)d .
rodidne
Styrs ...
Dehydrogenation of isoproponol
Co.pvoduct of ethylene
Alkylotion of benrene with etflyh?na
Pyrolysis of napksttsa or liquid
petroleum gas
Direct chlorination of ethylene
C tolytic oxidation of ethylene
Oxidation of methanol
Steam reforming of natural gas
Addition of ammonia to methane
Synthesis of ethylene and acetic acid
Cracking of ethylene dichlo,id.
52 Ptoc. .s Description ,
Odaydrogenction of ethanol
Portiol oxidation of ‘neman.
De+.ydvogenotion of n .bu,an.
Oxidativ.-del .ydrog.natian of n.bu,ane
Odaydrogenation of •1$sylbenz.n,
Subc.teg.ry C Aqueous Uquid Ph.s.e Ra.csle.,
Systams
C l Products C l Process Oescrionons
Acetic acid
AayilC acid
Coal tar
—
Tatepinhalic acid
T.n . 9 .Jilhallc acid
2 Products
Metukiebyd .
C-
Cool Tar
Oxe Own,...ls
Phenol and Acetone
Oxidation of acetaldehyd.
Synthesis with cotoor monoxid, and
ace l ene
Distillation of cool tar
Hydrogenation of ethylene oxide
Catalytic oxidation of . yien.
Puriiicution of crud. tereptithalic
acid
C2 Process Descriptions
Oxidation of ethylen, with oxygen
Oxidation of cyctohexan.
Pitch forming
Corbonylosion and condensation
Came.,, oxidation and ti .q ag .
c3 Products C3 Process Descriptions
Sisph.nol A
Denethyf terepinhoict.
Oxidation of eatylene with air
Nitration and hydrogenation of benz , , ,.
Condensation of phenol and acetone
Eaterificotion of .rephttsalic acid
CA Products C4 Process Descriptions
Methyl methaaylai.
T.replithaiic acid
Tetroemyl leod
EsserHlcation of acrylic acid
Sulfonanon of toluene
Acetone cyanonyomn process
Ndtic acid process
Addition of ethyl chloride to
Source, EPA Demlopinont Document. April 973, pp. 28-29.
-------
Technology commensurate with BAT’ includes the
addition of activated carbon to the SPI biological
systems to achieve substantia reductions of dis-
solved organic compounds. In-process controls
applicable to BAT include:
• Substitution of non-contact heat exchan-
gers for direct contact water cooling
• Use of nonaqueous quench media
• Recycle of process water
• Reuse of process water as a make- up to
evaporative cooling towers
• Use of process water to produce low pres-
sure steam by non-contact heat exchange
• Recovery of spent acids o’r caustic solution
for reuse
• ‘ .Recovery.and reuse of spent catalysts.’
• Use of nonaqueous solvents for extraction
products.
End-of-pipe technology for NSPS is defined as
biological treatment with suspended solids re-
moval via clarification, sedimentation, and sand or
dual-media filtration. ri addition, exemplary in-
process controls, as previously enumerated, are
also assumed to be applicable, particularly where
biotoxic pollutants must be controlled.
Costs
A summary of the costs to the organic chemicals
industry associated with the implementation of
FWPCA provisions is given in Table 4.1—2.
TABLE 4.1-2 ORGANIC CHEMICALS INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
cUMULATiVE PERIODS
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS.
BAT
NEW PLAP4TS........
C . IftTr TAa
MUN. RECOVERY.....
TOTAL
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PtANTS. ..
NEW PLANTS
TOTAL
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS.
NEW PLANTS.._
1972—77
1977—81
1977—83
1977—89
69192
1189.57
462.61
462.61
462.61
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
141.96
514.97
677.91
1097.72
1859.4.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
835.88
1704.54
1140.52
1360.33
2322.07
0.0
0.0
.
0.0
0.0
0.0
835.88
1704.54
1 140.52
1360.33
2322.07
156.40
238.94
860.19
1294.62
1946.28
0.0 -
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
67.71
163.62
485.78
881.21
1712.45
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
224.10
402.57
1345.96
2175.83
3658.73
72.31
110.47
397.71
598. 57
899.86
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
25.93
62.69
185.71
336.60
653.17
0.0
0.0
0.0
, 0.0.
0.0
98.24
173.17
583.42
935.16
1553.03
322.34
575.73
1929.38
3111.00
3211.75
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
322.34
0.0
575.73
0.0
1929.38
0.0
3111.00
0.0
3211.73
322.34
573.73
1929.38
3111.00
3211.75
INDUSTRY TOTAL
MUPIIOPAL cHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY.
USER cHARGES
AU. ANNUAL COSTS.
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 57 OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBIP4A11Ot4 OF: (1) STRA4GHT-UP40 DEPREQA.TION ANO (2) INTEREST.
30
-------
4.2.1 INORGANIC CHEMICALS INDUSTRY (PHASE I)
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were remanded on March 10, 1976 and/or
revoked on November 11, 1976. The EPA believes
that the reasons for this action were technical in
nature and that similar regulations differing only in
the pollutant reductions required and incurring
similar costs wilt be promulgated in the future.
This discussion, therefore;was based on the costs
derived in the support documents for the present
regulations).
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The complex and heterogeneous inorganic chemi-
cals industry produces thousands of chemicals.
Each of the chemicals covered by the effluent
guidelines is manufactured by one or more proc-
esses, most of which are covered by the current
guidelines. Because the various products and
processes differ considerably from one another, it
is not possible to describe them in detail. Genera I-
t y, they can be said to involve the chemical reac-
tion of raw materials, followed by the separation,
collection, and purification of the product. Table
4.2.1—1 identifies each of the processes covered
and’summarizes briefly the raw materials used and
the nature of each process.
Table 4.2.1—1
Inorganic Chemicals (Phase I)
Industry Products and Processes
by Ptiass I Effluent
Product (Us.) Limitations Guidelines
Ahiminum chloride (C a tDIY*t wi
p.IrOcMiIIICol and
Muminmn suifote
(waser purfficaho
Raw Materials
Gaseous chlorine, molten
ohiminum
Bauxite, coke, chlorine
Hydrated alumina or bauxite
ore; hydrochloiic acid
Bauxite are or other aluminum
compound, concentrated
si furic acid
Description
Chlorine introduced below surface
of aluminum, product tublim.s
and is collected by condensation.
Produces onnydrout aluminum
chloride.
Ground ore and acid reacted
in a digester. Muds and
insolublet settled arid
filtered out.
Calcium corbid. (manufacture
of acetylene)
Calcium chimid. (delcing
and dust cønlyol on roads,
s$ab z.r in pavement
and cem.mtj
Cokiom oxide and coknsn
— - —
d id and indi thal um
Uncovered fvrnac.s
Brine extraction
All
Limestone; coke, petroleum
colic or anthracite
Soft brines or Soiroy process
waste liquor
Limestone
Limettone and carbon reacted
in a furnace.
Brinet concentrated and purified
then evaporated to yield product
WhiCh is flaked and calciried to
yleld a dry product.
Limestone calcined in a kiln.
chlorine and sodium or potassium
— (ôNor .alkoh) Imeny
indd.w id used
Mercury cell
Diapriragni cell
Sodium Chlorid, or potassium
Chloride bonet
Brine. purified, then .lectro.
lyzed. Producti collected at
electrodes and purified.
ttydreddu. .c acid (many industrial
end Ch c uses. pesricelafly
piciilln of stesl
re c t
hyd . reaction
Oderirie, —
Hydrogen end chlorine gases
reacted in a verti ol burner.
Acid is cooled arid aDsorbed
in water.
H dral acid (production
all &e.....s..d organics and
Sidluric .ci , fluonpor
Materials reacted in a furnoc..
acid cooled and aheorbed in
water, then redittilled.
31
-------
Table 4.2.1—1 (Continued)
Inorganic Chemicals (Phase I)
Industry Products and Processes
Product (Use )
Hydrogen peroxide (bleaching
Raw Materials
Ammonium (or other) hi-
sulfate; wOter
Alky) anthraquinone; hydrogen;
oxygen
Description
Bisulfate electrolyzed to
persulfate. which is then
reacted with water.
Alkylanthraquinene reduced by
hydrogen over a catalyst, then
ox,dized in a forced gas stream
to produce the original olkyl-
onthroquinone and hydrogen
peroxide.
Nitric acid (fertilizers,
explosives)
Potassium metal (used in
onjono-potossium compounds
and in sodium-potassium
manufacture)
Only concentrations
up to 66% by weight.
Reaction of sodium
nitrate and sulfuric
acid not included.
AU
Ammonia; air; water
Potassium chloride;
sodium vapor
Ammonia oxidized over a cat-
alyst to form nitrogen dioxide
which is reacted with water
under pressure to form the
product.
Potassium chloride melted,
then exposed to sodium vapors
in an exchange column.
Potassium dichromate (glass
pigment and photographic
Potassium sulfate (agriculture)
Sodium bicarbonate
(baking soda)
(wide variety of uses
k ciuding food processing
and manufacturing)
Sodium dichrosnate; potassium
chloride
Langbeinite; potassium chloride
Sodium carbonate; water;
carbon dioxide
Potossium chloride added to a
dichromate solution. Product
crystallized out.
Potassium chloride added to a
solution of crushed longbeinite.
Product precipitated Out.
Materials reacted under pressure.
Product precipitated.
Sodium carbonate (soda ash)
(glass and non-ferrous metals.
other products)
Solvay process
Ammonia; salt brine; carbon
dioxide
Sodium bicarbonate produced
from reacting the row material
in an aqueous solution.
This is then converted to soda
ash by heating.
Sodium chloride (table salt)
Solar evaporation
Salt water
Salt water concentrated by
evaporation in open ponds.
Sodium chloride is then
crystallized from the brine.
Solution brine mining
Water; salt deoosits
Water pumped into on under-
ground salt decosit. Brine
pumped out and purified.
Product crystallized out.
Sodium dicisromat. (manufoctus’-
hg of pigments, other industrial
uses, corrosion inhibition)
All
Chrome ore; sodium carbon-
ate; lime; sulfuric acid
Raw materials cakined. then
leached. Soluble ctiromotes
converted to dichromo;es with
sulfuric acid. Dictiromotes
crystallized out.
Sodium metal (manufactur, of
lefrosthyl lead and other
products; nuclear coolant)
Downs cell process
Sodium chloride; alkali
flourides;caicium
chloride
Mixture melted and electrolyzed.
Sodium collected at cathode.
Sodium silicate )manufocture
of silica gel)
then charged into a
Sodium Sulfite (bleaching;
food preservative; boiler
feed water additive)
All
Reaction of sulfur
dioxide and soda ash
Caustic soda; silica
Sulfur dioxide gas; sodium
carbonate (soda ash)
Caustic soda and
silica sand mixed,
furnace. Water and steam added
to dissolve the silicate.
Silicate evaporated.
Gas passed into a soda ash
solution. Solution heated.
Sulfate is purified, filtered,
crystallized.
Processes Covered
by Phase I Effluent
limitations Guidelines
Electrolytic process
Organic process
All
All
All
32
-------
Table 4.2.1—1 (Continued)
inorganic Chemicals (Phase I)
Industry Products and Processes
Product fUsel
Processes Coveted
by Phase I Effluent
limitations Guidelines
Row Moletiols
DescriOtion
Titanium dioxide lwhite Chloride process
pigment in point, ink, and
othet products)
Sulfate process
rnaniwyi dioxide Ores;
chlorine; Cok e
T,taniutn dioxide OfSI;
u funk acid
Sulfur burned to yield sulfur
dioxide, mixed with air,
neat.d, and then introduced
into a Catalytic converttt to
produce wlfur trioxide. This
gas is then cooled and absor ed
in a sulfuric acid so$ution.
Chlorination of ores produces
titanium setrachlaride. which
is then oxidized to form the
Ores diu,olv.d in sulfuric
acid at high temperatures to
produc, titanium sulfate which
is hydrolyzed to form a hydrate.
This is th€n cahcin.d to form
the product.
Production capacity of some of the chemicals is
concentrated in the hands of a few producers; in
the case of potassium dichromate, there is only
one. The market for other products is much more
competitive; for example, there are over 100 pro-
ducers of lime. The total production of the inor-
ganic chemicals covered by the Phase I effluent
limitations guidelines was about 126 million met-
nc tons (139 million short tons) in 1971. Of this
total production, about 44 million metric tons (48
million short tons) or 34 percent actually comes
within the control of the guidelines. The remaining
66 percent is comprised of chemicals which are
either produced by processes not covered by the
guidelines or are produced in plants that are clas-
sified as other industries, such as pulp mills and
steel mills.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Water is used in inorganic chemical manufactur-
ing plants for three principarpurposes:
• Cooling. Non-contact cooling water.
• Process. Contact cooling or heating water,
contact wash water, transport water,
product and dilution water.
• Auxiliary water.
The effluent limitations guidelines apply to proc-
ess wastewater pollutants only. This includes
those wastewater constituents in water which di-
rectly contacts the product, byproduct, intermedi-
ate, raw material, or waste product. Examples are
waters used for barometric condensers; contact
steam drying; steam distillation; washing of
products, intermediates, or raw materials; trans-
porting reactants or products in solution, suspen-
-sian, or slurry form; and water which becomes an
integral part of the product or is used to form a
more dilute product.
The following basic pollutant parameters are cov-
ered in the effluent limitations guidelines fo the
inorganic chemicals industry: total suspended so-
lids (TSS), cyanide, chromium, chemical oxygen
demand (COD), iron, lead, mercury, total organic
carbon (TOC), and pH.
Control Technology and Costs
The manufacture of some of the inorganic chemi-
cals covered by the effluent limitations guidelines
produces no waterborne wastes. In these cases,
the only control technology required is the isola-
tion, handling, and often reuse of water from leaks,
spills, and washdowns. The most common waste-
water treatment practices in the remainder of the
industry are neutralization, the settling of sus-
pended solids in ponds, storage, and discharge of
the neutralized and clarified effluent to surface
waters. Deep-well disposal is also used, particu-
larly for sodium chloride brine-mining waters.
When more control is necessary because of the
presence of harmful wastes, more advanced tech-
nology, such as ion exchange and chemical reduc-
tion and precipitation, is employed. In-process
control measures commonly employed include
monitoring techniques, safety practices, good
housekeeping, containment provisions, and segre-
gation practices.
Table 4.2.1 .-2. summarizes the control techniques
associated with BAT and BPT guidelines. BPT as-
Sulfuric acid (fertilizer,
petroleum refining,
explosives, aShen)
Contact process
(single and double
abs aiptio
Sulfur
33
-------
umes the normal use of practical in-process con-
trols, such as recycling and alternative use of
water, and recovery and/or reuse of wastew.ate.r
constituents. BAT assumes the highest degree of
in.process controls that are available and are eco-
nomically achieveable.
New source performance standards (NSPS) are
the same as BPT for all chemicals except calcium
chloride, chlorine (chlor-alkali), hydrogen perox-
ide, sodium chloride., sodium dichromate, sodium
metal, sodium sulfite, and titanium dioxide. Metal
anodes may be used in chlorine prodijction to
eliminate lead discharges. For both chlorine and
sodium dichromate. NSPS guidelines assume de-
creased water discharges based on improved
water-processing designs in new plants. NSPS for
the other exceptions are the same as BAT.
Table 4.2.1—2.
Inorganic Chemicals (Phase I)
Industry Summary of Control Technologies
Aluminum chloride
Aluminum iuifate
Calcium carbide
Beat Practicable Technology (BPT )
No water scrubbers for white or
grey aluminum chloride production,
For y.llow aluminum chloride
production, gas scrubbing and sole
of scrubber wastes as aluminum
chlorid, solution, or
Gas scrubbing followed by chemical
tr.atm.nt to precipitate aluminum
hydroxid, and recycle
Settling pond and reuse
Dry dust collection system
Best Available Technology (BAT )
5am. as SF1
Same as BP1 ’
Sam. as BPT
Hydrochloric acid
chlorine burning
Acid containment and isolation with
centralized collection of acid
wastes and reuse
Sam. as BPT
Hydraffuoric acid
Acid containment and isolation,
and reuse
Sam. as SF1 ’
Sodium bicarbonate
Evaporation and product recovesy,
or
Recycle to process
Same as BPT
Sodium chloride
(solor process)
Sodium silicate
Sulfuric acid
(sulfur burning
contact process)
Urn.
Hydrogen peroxide
(alectro lyticl
Sodium dichromate and
sodium sulfate
Good housekeeping to prevent
contamination of waste salts
Storage of wastes in on evaporation
pond, or
Ponding and clariAcation
Acid containment and isolation with
recycle to process or sell as
w.ak acid
Dry bog collection systems,
or
Treatment of scrubber water by
ponding and clarification and
recycle
Ion exchang. to convert sodium
ferrocyonide to ammonium
I errocyanide which is then reocted
with hypochlorite solution to
oxidize it to cyanate solutions.
and
Settling pond or filtration to remove
catalyst and suspended solids
Isolation and containment of spills.
leaks, and runoff, and
Botthwise treatment to reduce
hexavalent chromium to trivalent
chromium with NaHS. plus precipi-
tation with lime or caustic; and
Settling pond ‘with controlled discharge
Ponding or clarification and
recycle of treated wastewater
Same as BPT
Same as BPT plus segregation of
wastewater from cooling water
and evaporation of the waste
stream and recycle of the
distillcte
Some as BPT plus evaporation of
the settling pond effluent with
recycling of water and land
disposal or recovery of solid
waste
Same as BPT
Same as SF1
34
-------
Tabi. 4.2.1-2 . (Continu.d)
Inorganic ch.micah (Phas. I)
Inâusry Summary of. Control T.chnologi.s
Best Practical. Technology (RI )
Best AVO1IObI. walogy (BAT )
ch lor-&ko l s
(diaphragm cell)
Asbestos and cell rebuild wastes are
flk...d or settled in ponds then
land dumped, and
chlorinated organic wastes ore
ate incinerated at
d dumped, and
muds front brine purili-
cation ors returned to solt cavity or
s.nt to evaporation pond/settling
—, and
Weak caustic-brine solution from the
caustic filters is partially recycled
Some as BPT plus:
Reuse at sell waste sulfuric acid
Catalytic t tment of the
hypocltiorite waste and reuse
Of recovery
Recycle of oil weak brine
Conversion to stable anodes
Ch lor-alkolI
(mercury cell)
Nitric odd
Cell rebuilding wastes are flitred
at placed in settling pond, then
used for landfill, and
Chlo. .*d organic weetes are
incinerated or placed is cntu re
and d dumped, and
Purdication muds from ban. puti
cation are returned to brine cavity
or sent to evaporation/settling
— and
Partial recycle of brine wste Ibeams,
and
Acid coatainment and isolation
and reuse
Sons, at BPT plus:
Reuse or recovery of waste
sulfuric acid
Catalytic treatment of the
hypachiarite w fte and
reuse Of recovery
Recycle of ll weak brine
Sate. as BP1’
Potø*sjunt (metal)
Pateulum dichiomat.
Potassium sulfate
Na process water usad in manufacture
of borom.t,ic candensers
with non-contact heat exchangers;
recycle of process liquor
vu,.oro$ion of brine waters with
recovery of magnesium
at
Reus, of brine solutia hi process
it place of process water
Some or BPT
Same as BPT
Some as BPT
Coldum atide
(brine extraction)
Settling pond or
Some as BPI plus r.olacesnent of
børamettic condensers with
noø-CoMaCt heat exchangers
and odditsonal recycle
H). og. .n peroxide
(orgamuc )
Isolutiun and ca . .h nment of
process wastes; oil s .p . .. .t .on
and darificotlun
ch.mical decomposition for
peroxide removal arid carbon
adsorption fat organic removal
Sodisen (metal)
II’ pond.
end
Partial recycle of brine waste
solution alter heatment
)OO% brin, recycle and reuse or
sal. of spent sulfuric acid
Sod deoride
thon mwingj
Coswoinm,serw ønd isolotioø of spills.
packaging wastes, saubb.rs, etc;
— recycle to brine cavity
Same as BPT plut replacement of
baronietric condensers with
non-contact heat exchangers
Soda ads
Process
Ai oxijat,iso of sodium suth$e
waste* to sodium sutiat.—94%
.4.ctive, and final filtration to
remove suspended solids
Sam. as BPT plus recovery of
wcste sodium sulfate
Settling ponds arid dorificatian
Odet-olkak
— ce
Rsc... s.j and reuse of mercury effluent
by c .,,b isolation and
coll.dion of nwcury-con+aining
streams, then treatment with sodium
adflde
35
-------
Table 4.2.1—2. (Continued)
Inorganic Chemicals (Phase I)
Industry Summary .1 Control Technologies
Chensical Best Practicable Technology (BPT) Best Available Technology (BAT )
Titanium dioxide Neutralization with lime or caustic, Same as BPT plus additional
(cniaride Process) and clarification and polishing
Removal of suspended solids with
settling ponds or clarifier.
thickener, and
Recovery of byproducts
Titanium dioxide Neutralization with lime or caustic. Same as BPT plus additional
(sulfate process) and clarification and polishing
Removal of suspended solids with
settling ponds or clarifier-
thickener, and
Recovery of byproducts
Six chemicals in Phase I of the Inorganic Chemi- RecOmmended Psetr.atmen$ Technologies for
cals Industry were found for which the manufac- Plies. I of the inorganic Chemicals Industries
turers do or may discharge process wastewaters Aluminum Aluminum Potassium
to publicly owned treatment works (POVvVs) and Chionce Sulfate Dichromate
for which pretreatment guidelines and standards
Metal Precipitation X X
were recommended. These products are:
N,utral izotion X X X
• aluminum chloride, -
Settling X
• aluminum sulfate,
• calcium carbide, Thickening X
• calcium chloride, Filtration X X X
• potassium dichromate, and Oisdi. ing to P01W X X X
• sodium bicarbonate.
Sanitary Landfihiing X X
chemical Landflliing X
No pretreatment of process wastewater was found
to be needed for facilities that manufacture cal- (a )Chemicalchromoteremovoi
cium carbide, calcium chloride or sodium bicar-
bonate. Recommended pretreatment technolo- Control costs and other industry data are summa-
gies are shown in Table 4.2.1—3. rized inn Table 4.2.1—4.
36
-------
TABLE 4.2.1-4. INORGANIC CHEMICAL INDUSTRY (PHASE I)
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1 Q77—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS .. ..
BPT 162.58 416.85 7.59 7.59 7.59
8AT .. .... .. 0.0 0.0 327.39 4.36.52 436.52
NEW PLANTS . . . . .. . ... 7.71 29.63 33.17 51.32 80.83
PRETREATMENT - .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL .. .. .. 17029 446.48 368.15 495.43 525.94
MON. RECOVERY ..... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 170.29 4.46.48 368.15 495.43 324.94
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PLANTS .. ..
BPT .. .. ..... 54.81 112.70 223.21 334.82 302.22
BAT .. 0.0 0.0 86.09 200.87 373.04
NEW PLANTS .. . ....... .. . . .. 3.89 9.60 26.32 46.40 86.00
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ... .......... 58.70 122.30 335.62 582.08 961.26
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS ....... ..
BPT - .. .. .. 63.18 129.95 255.90 382.69 570.65
BAT ...... ..... 0.0 0.0 112.87 263.37 487.96
NEW PLANTS ......... 5.86 14.41 40.05 70.97 132.74
PRETREATMENT ...... . .. .. .......... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL...... ..... _..... .... ... 69.04 14.4.36 408.82 717.03 1191.34
INDUSTRY TOTAL...... .. . .._.. 127.74 266.66 744.45 1299.11 2152.60
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY.................. .. ... ..... . ..... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ..... ... .. ...... ........ . ..... 127.74 266.66 744.45 1299.11 2152.60
ALL ANNUAL COSTS........... . ..... ..... ..... 127.74 266.66 74 .4.45 1299.11 2152.60
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OP THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.LINE DEPRECIATION AND 2) INTEREST.
37
-------
4.2.2. INORGANIC CHEMICALS—(PHASE U)
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were revoked on November 23, 1976. The
EPA believes that the reasons for this action were
technical in nature and that similar regulations
differing only in the pollutant reductions required
and incurring similar costs will be promulgated in
the future. This discussion, therefore, was based
on the costs derived in the support documents for
the present regulations).
Production Characteristics and Capabilities
Of the 4 1 inorganic chemicals included in this
category, effluent limitation5 guidelines and new
source performance standards have been pro-
posed for 27. No standards have been proposed
for the following 14 products, which will not be
considered further in this report:
Five other compounds in this category are also
excluded from this study, for the following rea-
sons. Treatment costs for chromic acid are in-
cluded in Phase I under sodium dichrornate. There
are no water effluents, hence no treatment costs,
for stannic oxide or refinery by-product hydrogen.
Only one facility not associated with the DOE prod-
uces fluorine, and that uses a process from which
there is no waterborne discharge. Finally, there are
no water-treatment costs cited in the Development
Document for facilities that produce chrome pig-
ments and iron blue.
The Phase II inorganic chemicals included in this
study may be divided into four categories based
on the character of pollutants in the treated efflu-
ents. The basis for the categorization is as follows:
Category A chemicals have processes that
yield no discharge of suspended solids or harmful
materials in their treated effluent waters.
Category B chemicals have processes which
yield suspended solids in the treated effluent, but
there are no harmful materials present.
Category C chemical processes have treated
effluents containing no suspended solids, but
harmful materials are present.
Category D chemical processes have treated
effluents containing both suspended solids and
harmful materials.
Some of these inorganic chemicals are produced
by more than one process and occupy more than
one category. A summary of the categorization is
shown in Table 4.2.2—i.
Teble 4.2 .2 .-I.
Cat.gonzetlon uf Phax. I I Inerganic Chemical Process.,
Category Product Procest
Table 4.2.2—2 shows the latest production and
capacity data for the 22 products included in this
category. No production data are available after
1 975, and for many of the products the data are
even older. Capacity data are given in terms of
numbers and average sizes of model plants. When
actual plant sizes were not known, estimates were
based on production and the number of plants.
Ammonium hydroxide
Barium carbonate
Carbon dioxide
Cuprous oxide
Ferrous sulfate
Manganese Sulfate
Potassium permanganate
Sodium bisulfite
Sodium hydrosulfide
Sodium hydrosulfite
Sodium thiosulfat.
Sulfur dioxide
Nitric acid (strong)
A Ammonium Chlorid . anhydrous neutralization
Borax mining and Trona
Boric Acid Tron a
Bromine
Calcium Hydroxide
Copper Sulfate
Ferric Chloride
Hydrogen Cyanide acrylonitnie by-product
lodü a
Utf ium Carbonate Trona
Potauium Chloride mining and Tiona
Sodium Fluorid e antiydroui neutralization
Zinc Sulfate
Zinc Oxide dry
B Calcium Carbonate
Lithiu m Carbonate Spodumene ore
C Ammonium Chloride
Carbon Monoxide and
Hydrogen reforming
Nitrogen and Oxygen air distillation
0 Aluminum Fluoride
Boric Acid
Capper Sulfat, recovery
Hydrogen Cyanide Andruuow
Lead Oxide
Nickel Sulfate impure ro’ — materiali
Potassium Iodide
Silver Nitrate
Sodium Fluoride from Sodium 5ilicenuoride
Sodium Silicofiuoride
38
-------
TabIs 4.2.2—2.
Production and Med.) Plants fos
Phos. II Inorganic Chemicals
(Production and Capacity in thousands of metric tons/yr *tih
thousands of short tens/yr in parentheses)
Model Plants
Product PrDdUC tiOn ” Average Range Plants Co acity
Aluminum fluoride 127 (14Cr 24 (26)” 2 6 100.00
Amnioniun, chloride 16.5 (18.2r 3 (3.3)”’ 6 100.00
Sorox (from ore) 456 ( . 5 03 )ni 346 (381) 50-650 2 100.00
Boric acid 68 (75) 25 (28)”' 3 100.00
Bromine 189 (208) 13.6 (15) <40 (<44) 5 23.80
54.4 (60) 40— (44—) 4 76.20
Calcium carbonate 182 (200”' 10.6 (11.7) 1 19 100.00
Carbon ,nonox ,oe and
by-product hydrogen 148 (163r ,n 9 (9.93”' 2 18 100.00
Copper sulfate, from copper 2 (2.2)”' 2 9 40.91
Copper sulfate, recovered 38 (42)” 2 (2.2) 1 13 59.09
F.rnc chloride 75 (83) 9.7 (10.8) <25 10 25.55
( <27.5)
56.6 (62.4) 25÷ (27.5 —.) 5 7445
Hogen cyanids 79 (87)”,” 56 (61.7) 36—91 3 100.00
(37—100)
Iodine 1 (1.1r 0.3 (.33) 1 4 100.00
Lead monoxide 127 (l . 4O ,4 (10.4” 1 15 100.00
Lithium carbonate 12 (13”' . 2.7 (3.0)”' 1 5 100.00
Nichel sulfat. 9 (10)”' 0.8 (Mm 1 12 100.00
Oxygen and nitrogen 42,320 (46,650)” ' 22 (35) <75 (<82) 40 4.48
98 (108) 75—149 43 14.72
(83-164)
251 (277) 150—500 40 34.86
(165—550)
661 (7293 > 500 ( >5003 20 45.94
2,006 (2,211) 173 (196) <300 (<300) 6 37.95
438 (493) 300— (330) -,- 4 62.05
Potassium iodide 1 (1.1)”' 9.12 (10.1)” 1 9 100.00
14 41 m 0.6 (.66)” 2 7 100.00
Sodium , )jcfi,,or3de 5.5 (61)” 10.2 (1127” 1 6 100.00
Zinc Sulfate 19 (21)” 9.2 (10.01 4—20 6 100.00
Sou,cee Development Document
Chemical Economics Hondboolt
1977 Directory of Chemical Producers
‘um. otherwis, indicated by footnote, production is for 1975.
‘Production for 1973. -
‘A,eir g n eds1 plo use estimated by assuming production was at 90 percent of capacity, then dividing estimated capacity by number of plants.
‘ igsire cited in Development Document as 1971 production.
‘Total production was 531 thousand kg (531 thousand tons), of which 456 thousand kkg (503 thousand toes) was estimated to have been produced from ore
(rather than brodi.
Prupductian for 1974.
‘Pteduchon based on carbon monoxide.
‘T.mi production wos 122 thousand kkg (13.4 thousand tons), of which 79 thousand kkg (87 thousand tons) was estimated to be primary (versus recovered).
‘Production far 1912.
“ Huirber .,ps.sents quantity of air ..po,ated, and was derived from oxygen produced end ratio of oxygen to oxygen plus nitrogen.
39
-------
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The major wastewater pollutants generated in the
production of inorganic chemicals are suspended
solids and dissolved or suspended materials that
may be harmful to one or more forms of life. These
harmful materials may be unrecovered products or
may be by-products of the main process.
Category A — Many chemicals in this category
are produced in nonaqueous processes. In other
cases, the process waters are continuously recy-
cled and evaporated for recovery of products. A
relatively small amount of wastewater is produced
in housekeeping operations. Because proposed
BPT and BAT guidelines specify no discharge of
process water pollutants, wastewater quality pa-
rameters are not defined for this category.
Category B — Wastewaters generated in the
production of Category B chemicals carry a sub-
stantial burden of suspended solids from process
streams, including wet air scrubbers. In order to
define waste characteristics, the following basic
parameters were used to develop guidelines for
meeting BPT and BAT: (1) total suspended solids
(TSS) and (2) pH.
Category C — Production of chemicals in this
category involves generation of process wastewa-
tars which contain relatively little suspended so-
lids but which are potentially harmful because of
the presence of toxic materials, oils, or oxygen-
depleting pollutants. Commonly, these wastewa-
tars are wet scrubber effluents. In order to define
waste characteristics, the following basic parame-
ters were used to develop guidelines for meeting -
BPT: (1) total suspended solids (TSS), (2) five-day
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD 5 ), (3) chemical
oxygen demand (COD), (4) oil and grease (0 & G),
(5) ammonia (NH3), (6) fluoride (F), (7) manganese
io n (Mn), and (8) pH.
Category D — Most of the chemicals in this
category are toxic to many life forms, and in all
cases toxic pollutants are generated in their
production. Wastewaters usually carry a substan-
tial burden of suspended solids as well as heavy
metal or other toxic ions. In order to define waste
tharacteristjcs, the following basic parameters
were used to develop guidelines for meeting BPT
and BAT: (1) total suspended solids (TSS), (2)
chemical oxygen demand (COD). (3) biochemical
Oxygen demand (BODe), (4) oil and grease (0 & G),
(S)ammonia (NH3), (6) cyanide (CN), (7) fluoride (F),
(8) sulfide (S), (9) sulfite (SO 3 ), (1 0) silver ion (Ag),
(11) arsenic ion (As), (1 2) barium ion (Ba), (1 3)
Copper ion (Cu). (14) hexavalent chromium ion
iCr’), (15) manganese ion (Mn), (16) nickel ion (Ni),
(17) lead (Pb), (18) selenium ion (Se), (19) zinc (Zn),
(20) iron (Fe), and (2 1) pH.
Control Technology and Costs
Wastewater control technologies differ among the
various categories of inorganic chemical
production.
Category A—The only wastewaters generated
in production of most Category A chemicals result
from housekeeping operations. Where significant
process wastewaters are produced, current prac-
tice provides disposal without discharge. Some of
the chemicals, such as borax, are produced in arid
regions, and wastewaters may be contained in
evaporation ponds. Others, such as copper sulfate,
are produced from pure chemicals, so that all
process waters may be recycled for product recov-
ery. Bromine and iodine are manufactured by
brine extraction, and the spent brine is returned to
the well. Proposed BPT and BAT guidelines and
New Source Performance Standards for plants in
this category specify no discharge of process
water pollutants to be achieved by improved con-
tainment and reuse of wastewaters.
Category B — Only calcium carbonate and
lithium carbonate from spodumene ore are classi-
fied in this category. BPT guidelines can be
achieved by neutralization and settling, but evapo-
ration to remove dissolved solids is required to
meet BAT guidelines.
Category C — This category includes ammo-
nium chloride as a by-product of the Solvay soda
ash process, carbon monoxide and hydrogen from
reforming, and oxygen and nitrogen from air distil-
lation. For ammonium chloride, BPT guidelines
can be met by neutralization, returning filter muds
and sludges to the Solvay process, and replacing
one barometric condenser to reduce ammonia em-
issions. All barometric condensers must be re-
placed to meet BAT guidelines. For carbon
monoxide/hydrogen production, oil separation,
neutralization, and sludge disposal are sufficient
to meet BPT guidelines. Additional segregation of
wastes is required to meet BAT guidelines. Both
BPT and BAT guidelines can be met for air distilla-
tion by oil separation, ponding, isolation of oil-
contaning water, separation, and disposal.
Category D — Wastewaters generated in
production of chemicals in this category are
treated chemically for removal of toxic materials
and retained in settling ponds for removal of sus-
pended solids. Specific treatment processes may
be required, e.g. wastewaters from barium carbon-
40
-------
ate production contain barium sulfide, which can
be precipitated as barium sulfate by vigorous aera-
tion. Other materials, such as heavy metals, are
precipitated by lime. Proposed BPT guidelines for
plants discharging to waterways call for removal
of toxic ions by appropriate chemical treatment
and removal of suspended solids by settling and
filtration. Proposed BAT guidelines and New
Source Performance Standards specify no dis-
charge of process water poljutants for most subca-
tegories, to be achieved by evaporation.
Nine chemicals in Phase II of the Inorganic Chemi-
cals Industry were found for which the manufac-
turers do or may discharge process wastewaters
to publicly-owned treatment works (POTWs) and
for which pretreatment guidelines and standards
were recommended.
These products are:
• copper sulfate,
• ferric chloride,
• lead monoxide,
• nickel sulfate,
• nitrogen and oxygen
• potassium iodide
• silver nitrate
• sodium fluoride.
No pretreatment of process wastewaters was
found to be necessary for facilities that manufac-
ture potassium iodide. Recommended pretreat-
ment technologies for the others are shown in
Table 4.2.2—3.
Costs
Control costs for the various Phase
products are shown in Table 4.2.2—4.
II inorganic
x x
Ndvoç.n
and
Oxygen
x x
x
TaM. 4.4.24
Rcomm.nd.d Pv.tv.atm.nt TC*IOO1.gis for Phase II
Of Tb. $nor wiic Cb.micals h,dustri.s
Lead P4ick&
Monoxide 5 fo*e
Si er
Nitrate
C-
Oiic*iorgiig Ia P01W
x
x
x
x
—
x
x
x
x
x
—
x
—
—
—
—
—
x
x
x
x
x
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
x
—
x
—
—
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
41
-------
TABLE 4.2.2-4. tNORGANIC CHEMICALS INDUSTRY (PHASE II)
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MtWONS OF 977 DOLLARS)
CUMUtAT1VE PERIODS
1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
p IVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS.... . ....
BPT .. ... . ... .. 8.76 22.65 0.46 0.47 0.47
BAT... .. .. .. 0.0 0.0 8.55 17.11 17.11
NEW PtANTZ _ .. . .. 0.51 1.95 2.20 3.41 5.38
PRETREATMENT... .. ....._. ... . . . .... 0.22 0.58 0.01 0.01 0.01
SUITOTAL.......... ........ .. ........ 9.49 25.17 11.23 21.00 22.97
MUM. RECOVERY........ .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 9.49 25.17 11.23 21.00 22.97
ANNIJAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 2.98 6.19 12.15 18.23 27.35
BAT 0.0 0.0 1.69 5.62 12.37
NEW PLANTS 0.26 0.63 1.74 3.07 5.69
PQETREATMENT 0.08 0.16 0.31 0.46 0.70
TOTAL .. 3.31 6.98 15.88 27.38 46.11
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
SF1 .. 4.79 9.95 19.52 29.26 43.86
BAT .. 0.0 0.0 2.72 9.08 19.96
NEW PLANTS 0.55 1.34 3.95 7.14 13.83
PRETREATMENT...... — .. .. 0.14 0.29 0.54 0.80 1.18
TOTAL.... .. . ... .. 5.48 11.58 26.73 46.28 78.84
NQUSTRY TOTAL . 8.79 18.56 42.61 73.66 124.94
MUMOPAL OIAIGE
iNVEST RECOVERY ....... ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ..... .. .... . ......... ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAl. .. .. .._. . ... .. .. 8.79 18.56 42.61 73.66 124.94
AU. ANNUAL COSTS... 8.79 18.56 42.61 73.66 124.94
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUM CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATiON OF: (1) STRAIGHT .UNE DEPRECIATION AND 21 INTEREST.
42
-------
4.3 PLASTICS AND SYNTHETICS INDUSTRY
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were remanded on March 10. 1976 and
revoked on August 4, 1976. The EPA believes that
the reasons for this action were technical in nature
and that similar regulations differing only in the
pollutant reductions required and incurring similar
costs will be promulgated in the future. This dis-
cussion, therefore, was based on the costs derived
in the support documents for the present
regulations).
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The plastics and synthetics industry comprises 13
product subcategories in Phase I (for which the
promulgated effluent guidelines and standards
were revoked on August 4, 1976) and eight
product subcategories in Phase II. The subcatego-
ries in Phase I include polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl
acetate, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyethylene
(high-density and low-density), cellophane, rayon,
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and styrene-
acrylonitrile (SAN), polyester fiber, nylon 66, nylon
6, cellulose acetate, and acrylics. Those in Phase II
include ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers (EVA),
polytetrafluoroethylene, polypropylene fibers, al-
kyds and unsaturated polyester resins, cellulose
nitrate, polyamide (nylon 6/12), polyester resins
(thermoplastic), and silicones. Other products cov-
ered in the Development Documents but for which
there are no effluent limitations guidelines include
epoxy. phenolic, melamine, and urea resins, cellu-
lose derivations (ethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cel-
lulose, methyl cellulose, and
carboxymethylcellulose), polyvinylidene chloride,
polyvinyl butyral, polyvinyl, ethers, nitrile barrier
resins, and Spandex fibers.
Production of the various resins and plastics ma-
terials involves a variety of chemical polymeriza-
tion processes in which large synthetic polymers
ira formed from small monomers. Organic fibers,
such as polyester, polypropylene, the nylons, ray-
on, and cellulose acetate, are produced by adding
a spinning process after the polymer has been
produced.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Ifl order to set effluent limitations guidelines, the
dimension of wastewater characteristics was cho-
sen as a basis for subcategorization. The four
major subcategories are defined as:
• Major Subcategory I: Low waste load (< 10
kg/metric ton), low attainable BOD 5 con-
centration (< 20mg/i). Products affected:
polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate, poly-
styrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, ethy-
lenevinyl acetate, fluorocarbons, and poly-
propylene fiber.
• Major Subcategory II: High waste load (>
10 kg/metric ton), low attainable BOD 5
concentration (< 20 mg/i). Products af-
fected: ABS/SAN, cellophane, and rayo? .
• Major Subcategory Ill: High waste load (>
10 kg/metric ton), medium attainable
80D 5 concentration (30—75 mg/i).
Products affected: polyesters, nylon 66, ny-
Ion 6, cellulose acetates, alkyd and unsatu-
rated polyester resins, cellulose nitrate, po-
lyamides, saturated thermoplastic polyes-
ters, and silicones.
• Major Subcategory IV: High waste load (>
10 kg/metric ton), low treatability. Product
affected: acrylics.
The main sources contributing to the total waste
load come from spills, leaks, and accidents. Other
sources include: washdown of process vessels,
area housekeeping, utility blowdown, and labora-
tory wastes. Waste streams from cooling towers,
steam-generating facilities, and water treatment
facilities are generally combined with process
wastewater and then are sent to the treatment
plant.
In order to define waste characteristics, the follow-
ing basic parameters were used to develop guide-
lines for meeting BPT, BAT, and NSPS: BOO 5 ,
COD, TSS, zinc, pH. phenolic compounds, and
total chromium.
Control Technology and Costs
Waste treatment methods in the plastics and syn-
thetics industry include the following: biological
treatment, single- or double-stage aeration, ad-
sorption, granular activated carbon systems,
chemical precipitation, anaerobic processing, air
stripping, chemical oxidation, foam separation, al-
gal systems, incineration, liquid extraction, ion ex-
43
-------
change, reverse osmosis, freeze-thaw, evapora-
non, electrodialysis, and in-plant controls.
BPT guidelines for existing point sources are
based on the application of end-of-pipe technolo-
gy,such as biological treatment for BOD reduction
by activated sludge, aerated lagoons, trickling fil-
ters, aerobic-anaerobic lagoons, etc., with prelimi-
nary treatment typified by equalization, dampen-
ing of shock loadings, settling, and clarification.
BPT also calls for chemical treatment for the re-
moval of suspended solids, oils, and other ele-
ments. as well as pH control and subsequent treat-
ment typified by clarification and polishing proc-
esses for additional BOD and suspended solids
removal, and dephenolizing units for phenolic
compound removal when needed. In-plant tech-
nology and other changes that may be helpful in
meeting BPT include segregation of contact proc-
ess wastewater from non-contact wastewaters,
elimination of once-through barometric condens-
ers, control of leaks, and good housekeeping
practices.
BAT standards call for the segregation of contact
process waters from non-contact wastewater,
maximum wastewater recycle and reuse, elimina-
tion of once-through barometric condensers, con-
trol of leaks, good housekeeping practices and
end-of-pipe technology, further removal of sus-
pended solids and other elements typified by
multi-media filtration, chemical treatment, etc.
Also included are further COD removal as typified
by the application of adsorptive flocs, and inciner-
ation for the treatment of highly-concentrated.
small-volume wastes, as well as additional biologi-
cal treatment for further BOD 5 removal when
needed.
New Source Performance Standards are based on
BPT and call for the maximum possible reduction
of process wastewater generation and the applica-
tion of multi-media filtration and chemical treat-
ment for additional suspended solids, other ele-
ment removal, and additional biological treatment
for further BOD removal as needed.
Control costs are detailed in Table 4.3—1.
44
-------
TABLE 4.3—i. PLASTICS AND SYNTHETICS INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXIST iNG PLANTS...
BPT .. .. 68.37 168.04 4.25 4.25 4.25
BAT .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS .. 21.24 72.47 114.46 195.86 363.20
PRETREATMENT .. .. . .._. . ... 0.31 0.74 0.02 0.02 0.02
SUBTOTAL .. . ...... ...... 89.92 241.25 118.73 200.13 367.47
MUN. RECOVERY .... . .... . . . . .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. ..... . ....... 89.92 241.25 118.73 200.13 367.47
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAl.
EXISTiNG PLANTS
BPT .. .. 22.09 4.5.83 90.61 135.91 203.86
SAT — .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS..... .. .. 9.53 22.51 73.53 138.41 286.39
PRETREATMENT .. 0.10 0.20 0.40 0.61 0.91
TOTAL .. 31.72 68.34 164.34 274.92 491.16
O&M S
EXISTING PLANTS .. .. ..
BPT .. 6.65 13.77 26.92 40.01 59.19
SAT .. ....... ..... 0.0 . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 3.75 8.85 29.08 54.85 113.85
PRETREATMENT .. 0.14 0.29 0.57 0.86 1.28
TOTAL .. 10.34 22.91 56.57 95.72 174.32
INDUSTRY TOTAL . .. 42.26 91.46 221.11 370.6.4 665.48
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY ..... . . . . ...... .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ....._.._._. .. ... ._ .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL . . . . . .. ...... ... 42.26 91.46 221.11 370.64 665.48
ALL ANNUAL COSTS .. 42.26 91.46 221.11 370.64 665.48
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-UP4E DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
45
-------
4.4. RU8 ER MANUFACTURING
production Characteristics and Capacities
This industry includes the manufacture of tires and
inner tubes; synthetic rubber; general molded, ex-
truded. and fabricated rubber products; reclaimed
rubber; latex-dipped products; and latex foam.
Tires and inner tubes are classified in S1C 3011.
The typical tire manufacturing process includes
the following:
• Preparation or compounding of the raw
materials
• Transformation of these compounded ma-
terials into five tire components—tire bead
coating, tire treads, tire sidewall, inner liner
stock, and coated cord fabric
• Building, molding, and curing the final
product.
The raw materials used include a variety of syn-
thetic and natural rubbers; three categories of
ompounding materials: filler, extenders, and rein-
forcers (carbon black and oil are two common
examples); and other chemicals that are used as
antioxidants, pigments, or curing and accelerating
agents. Compounding is usually carried out in a
batch-type, internal mixing device called a Ban-
bury mixer. After mixing, the compound is sheeted
out in a roller mill, extruded into sheets, or pelle-
tized. The sheeted material is tacky and must be
coated with a soapstone solution to prevent the
materials from sticking together during storage.
The compounded rubber stock is transformed into
one of the tire components by molding, extruding,
calendering, and a variety of other operations. The
tire is built up as a cylinder on a collapsible, round
rotating drum by applying the inner layer, then by
adding layers of cord, beads, belt, and tread. Fl-
nafty the “green” tire is molded and cured in an
automatic press, and the excess rubber is ground
off. Inner tubes are produced using the same basic
processing steps.
Tire and tube products are produced in 56 plants
in the United States; about 70 percent of these
plants are operated by Firestone, General Tire,
Goodrich. Goodyear, and Uniroyal. The remaining
plants are operated by 11 other companies. Tire
plants vary widely in capacity; the largest produce
approximately 30,000 tires per day, and the small-
est produces less than 5,000 per day.
The production of synthetic rubber is classified in
SIC 2822. For the purpose of establishing effluent
limitations guidelines, the synthetic rubber indus-
try has been divided into three subcategories: em-
ulsion crumb, solution crumb, and latex. Crumb
rubbers, generally for tires, are sold in a solid form,
and are produced through two different proc-
esses: emulsion polymerization and solution po-
lymerization. Latex rubbers, generally for specialty
products, are sold in latex form, and are produced
through emulsion polymerization.
Emulsion polymerization is the traditional and
dominant process for producing synthetic rubber.
The raw materials (monomers) are usually styrene
and butadiene, to which a catalyst, activator, and
modifier are added in a soap solution to produce
an emulsion in an aqueous medium; polymeriza-
tion proceeds step-wise through a train of reac-
tors. The product rubber is formed in the emulsion
phase of the reaction mixture, which is a milky
white emulsion called latex. Unreacted monomers
are then recovered from the latex by vacuum strip-
ping; the production process ends at this point for
latex rubbers. If crumb rubber is desired, sulfuric
acid and sodium chloride are added to the latex to
coagulate out the crumb rubber, which is then
dewatered, rinsed, filtered, and finally dried with
hot air to produce the final product.
The production of synthetic rubbers by solution
polymerization is a step-wise processing operation
very similar to emulsion polymerization. For solu-
tion polymerization, the monomers must be ex-
tremely pure, and the solvent (hexane, for exam-
ple) must be completely anhydrous. The polymer-
ization reaction is more rapid (1 to 2 hours) and is
taken to over 90 percent conversion as compared
to 60 percent conversion for emulsion polymeriza-
tion. Both monomers and solvents are generally
passed through drying columns to remove all
water. After reaction, the mixture leaves the reac-
tor as a rubber cement; i.e. polymeric rubber solids
dissolved in solvent. As with emulsion polymeriza-
tion, coagulation, washing, dewatering, and dry-
ing processes produce the final product.
Fourteen companies operating 28 plants produce
the major synthetic rubbers in the United States.
Most of these plants are part of diversified com-
plexes that produce other products, such as rub-
46
-------
bar processing chemicals, plastics, and basic in-
termediate organic chemicals. Latex is produced
by 21 plants owned by 13 companies, nine of
wt ich are not included in the preceding listing.
The U.S. production of major elastomers in 1 976
was as follows:
P,.duc*ian
$h.ossnds of sv c tons (thousands of shost Ions)
Slyv.n.-butodi.n. (SBR)’
Bu
Po bu*oth.n.
Poty sopts n.
lolol
dud .
‘ dssnsopr.ns.
L346 (L484)
26 ( 39)
77(85)
:354 (390)
74 (82)
34 fl48)
256 (282)
2,368 (2.6 O)
General molded, extruded, and fabricated rubber
products include such disparate items as rubber
footwear (SIC 3021), rubber hose and belting (SIC
3041), fabricated rubber products not elsewhere
classified (SIC 3069), rubber gaskets, packings,
and sealing devices (SIC 3293), and tire retread-
ing (SIC 7534). SIC 7534 was not included in this
analysis. There are about 1,450 plants in the other
four 4-digit SIC codes. The value of shipments by
all establishments in these four categories is esti-
mated to have been $6 billion in 1976 and should
reach about $ 10.5 billion in 1986.
The manufacturing processes for these rubber
products include compounding of the rubber
stocks, then forming of the compounded stock by
a variety of means, such as molding, extrusion, lay-
up, or other fabrication means.
Reclaimed rubber is classified in SIC 3031. The
reported consumption of reclaimed rubber de-
clined from 268,000 metric tons (295,000 short
tons) in 1966 to 172,000 metric tons (190,000
short tons) in 1973. Because of higher costs of
petrochemical feedstocks for synthetic rubber,
consumption of reclaimed rubber may have
reached 204,000 metric tons (225,000 short
tons) in 1976 and could roach 272,000 metric
tons (300,000 short tons) in 1986.
Scrap separation and size reduction steps are
common to all reclaim rubber processes. In wet
digestion processes, the ground rubber is partially
depotymerized by heating with reclaiming agents
and water in an autoclave, followed by digestion
with defibering agents to remove fibers. In the pan
process, the ground rubber scrap is further re-
dUced in size and defibered by additional grinding.
It is blended with reclaiming oils and heated in
open pans in a pressure vessel. In the continuous
mechanical process, the finely ground, fiber-free
scrap is fed continuously intc a heated, high-shear
screw machine in the presence of reclaiming
agents and depolymerization agents. The re-
claimed products are shipped in slabs or bales.
Latex-based products are ;ncluded in S 1C 3069,
Fabricated Rubber Products not Elsewhere Classi-
fied. Information is Not available relative to the
number and sizes of plants producing latex-dipped
products and latex foam products. Plants produc.
ing such products are not considered separately in
this report from the category of general molded,
extruded, and fabricated rubber products.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The primary water usage in the tire a d inner tube
industry is for non-contact cooling and heating.
Discharges from service utilities supplying cooling
water and steam are the major source of contami-
nants in the final effluent. However, these non-
process related discharges are not covered by
effluent lim tations guidelines for this industry.
The process wastewaters consist of mill area oily
waters, soapstone slurry and iatex dip wastes,
area washdown waters, emission scrubber waters,
and contaminated storm waters from raw material
storage areas, etc. For the purposes of estab’ish-
ing effluent limitations guidelines for manufactur-
ers of tires and inner tubes, the following pollutant
parameters have been designated as significant:
suspended solids, oil and grease, and pH. Pollu-
tant parameters considered to be of less signifi-
cance are biochemical oxygen demand, chemical
oxygen demand, dissolved solids, temperature
(heat), and chromium.
The principal waste streams from synthetic rubber
manufacture are steam and condensate from the
monomer recovery stripping operation, overflow
of coagulation liquors, and overflow of the crumb
rubber rinse waters. Area washdown and equip-
ment clean-out wastewaters are also major
sources of pollutants, particularly in latex rubber
plants where clean-up is more frequent because of
smaller production runs. For manufacturers of syn-
thetic rubbers, the following pollutant parameters
have been designated as significant: chemical ox-
ygen demand, biochemical oxygen demand, sus-
pended solids, oil and grease, and pH. Pollutants
also present in measurable quantities in the waste
streams, but not designated as significant, in-
clude: total dissolved solids, surfactants, color,
and temperature (heat).
47
-------
The major wastewater streams from the
production of general molded, extruded, and fabri-
cated rubber products are spills, leakage, wash-
down, and runoff from processing and storage
areas; vulcanizer condensate from the curing of
lead-sheathed and cloth-wrapped hoses; and vul-
canizer condensate from the cure of cement-
dipped items. Process wastewaters are of a low
flow rate and have little impact on the total effluent
flow rate. The most significant process wastewa-
tar streams occur by spillage, leakage, wash-
downs, and runoff. They contribute the majority of
the suspended solids and oil in the final effluent.
The flow rate of this type of process wastewater is
dependent on plant size, and increases relative to
production level as plant size decreases.
The primary source of process wastewater load-
ings for wet-digestion reclaimed rubber is dewa-
taring liquor. High COD and oil loadings are char-
acteristic of this discharge. When mechanically
defibered scrap is fed to the wet digester process,
suspended solids are contained in the dewatering
liquor owing to the carrying over of depolymerized
rubber fines. If defibering is carried out chemically
in the digestion step, additional suspended solids
due to the fiber will be present.
A second major source of contaminant loadings
for both wet and dry processes is spills, leaks, and
washdown from processing areas. The discharge
is qualitatively similar to the corresponding dis-
charge from general fabricating processes; how-
ever, flow rates and loading on a per-day basis are
substantially higher. Another major source of con-
taminant loadings is air-pollution control equip-
ment used to collect light organics which are va-
porized or entrained in the vapors leaving the pan
devulcanizers or the wet digester system. Flows
and loadings from the wet digester process are
substantially higher than those of the pan process.
In the wet digestion process, the oil contained in
these condensates can be recycled.
Product wash waters are the principal source of
wastewaters from the manufacture of latex-based
products. These waters are characterized by load-
ings of BOO, COD, dissolved solids, and sus-
pended solids. In addition, wash waters from latex
foam facilities can contain high concentrations of
zinc. Spills, leaks, washdown, and runoff from
latex storage, compounding, and transfer areas
will contain latex and are characterized by COD,
BOO, suspended solids, dissolved solids, oil, and
surfactants. Form cleaning wastewaters in latex-
dipping operations may contain COD, BOD, sus-
pended solids, and possibly chromium (from chro-
mic acid cleaning solutions).
Control Technology and Costs
In the tire and inner tube industry, the emphasis
for present environmental control and treatment
technologies is placed on the control of air quality
and the reduction of pollutants in non-process
wastewaters. As a result, no adequate overall con-
trol and treatment technology is employed by
plants within the industry. Primary emphasis is on
removal of separable solids from the non-process
boiler blowdowns and water treatment wastes,
and from process washdown waters from the
soapstone area. Because of substantial dilution of
process wastewater by non-process waters, treat-
ment is much less effective than could be expect-
ed, especially for oil and grease.
The technologies recommended to meet the efflu-
ent limitations guidelines for the manufacture of
tires and inner tubes are:
1. Elimination of any discharge of soapstone
solution by:
• Recycling
• Installation of curbing and the sealing of
drains in the soapstone dipping area
• Reuse of the recirculating system washwa-
ter as make-up for fresh soapstone
solution.
2. Elimination of any discharc e of atex solu-
tion by:
• Installation of curbing and the sealing of
drains in the latex dipping area
• Containment of all wastewaters in the area
and disposal by landfill.
3. Segregation, control, and treatment of all
oily waste streams.
4. Isolation of process waters from non-
process wastewaters.
5. Treatment of process wastewaters with
API-type gravity separators to remove sepa-
rable oil and solids.
6. Additional treatment through an absorbent
filter for further oil removal.
The control and treatment technology recom-
mended to meet BPT and NSPS guidelines for
emulsion crumb and latex plants is chemical coag-
ulation and biological treatment, improved hou-
sekeeping and maintenance practices, as well as
in-plant modifications, particularly the use of
crumb pits to remove crumb rubber fines from
coagulation liquor and crumb rinse overflows. BAT
48
-------
has been defined as BPT plus the equivalent of
dual-media filtration followed by activated carbon
treatment of the effluent from the biological treat-
ment systems. Because solution crumb wastewa-
ters do not contain uncoagulated latex solids, the
chemical coagulation step is not necessary. BPT
and NSPS technology for solution crumb plants
have been defined as comparable to primary clari-
fication and biological treatment, with the use of
crumb pits to catch crumb rubber fines before
treatment. BAT for solution crumb plants is the
same as thatfor emulsion crumb plants.
The control and treatment technology recom-
mended for general molded, extruded, and fabri-
cated products plants to meet BPT and NSPS
guidelines consists of eliminating anti-tack or latex
solution discharge and isolation, control, and
treatment of all oily waste streams. The discharge
of anti-tack and latex solutions can be eliminated
by recycling of soapstone solution, installation of
curbing around the soapstone dipping area and
latex storage and transfer areas, sealing of drains
in the dipping area and latex use areas, reuse of
the recirculating system wash water as make-up
for fresh soapstone solution, and the containment
of all latex-contaminated waste streams.
Control and treatment of oily waste streams in-
volves segregation, collection, and treatment of
runoff from oil storage and unloading areas and
leakage and spills in the process areas. Press and
mill basins, when present, are included in the
process area. BAT guidelines are the same as BPT
guidelines except for limitations on lead effluents
for plants that use a lead-sheathed cure in hose
production. Flow rates of these emissions are
small, and they can sometimes be controlled by
containerization. In other cases, precipitation or
ion exchange will be required.
Only one wet-digestion reclaim rubber plant dis-
charges directly, and it is meeting BAT guidelines
through use of a waste stream recycle and reclaim
system. No new plants will use the wet-digestion
process.
Wastes from the pan, mechanical, and dry diges-
tion reclaim processes are comparable to those
from the general molded rubber plants. The tech-
nology recommended for meeting BPT, BAT, and
NSPS guidelines includes eliminating anti-tack so-
lution discharge and segregation, control, and
treatment of all oily waste.
The control and treatment technology recom-
mended for latex-dipped products to meet BPT,
BAT, and NSPS guidelines includes chemical co-
agulation. separation, and disposal of waste latex
followed by treatment of the clarified waste
stream in an aerated lagoon and subsequent set-
tlihg and removal of the settled solids. Careful
housekeeping and good latex handling practices
can reduce or potentially eliminate the latex-laden
wastes.
For latex foam, the technologies recommended to
meet BPT and NSPS guidelines include chemical
coagulation and clarification of latex-bearing
wastewaters and chemical precipitation of zinc
from the rinse waters. The clarified wastewaters
from these two streams are combined in a neutral-
ization tank and the pH is adjusted to a level
suitable for biological treatment. For BAT guide-
lines, an activated sludge biological treatment is
recommended.
A minimum level of pretreatment must be given to
wastewaters that will be discharged from new
production facilities to publicly owned treatment
works, and pollutants which would inhibit or upset
the performance of such treatment w ,rks must be
eliminated. Pretreatment recommendations for
process wastewaters from the tire and inner tube
industry include the separation of oils and solids in
an API gravity separator and the use of an equaliza-
tion basin to prevent shock loads of oil, suspended
solids, or batch dumps of dipping solutions. For
non-process wastewaters. such problems as acidi-
ty, alkalinity, solids, oils, and heavy metals may
require control at the plant to conform to local
ordinances for discharge to publicly owned treat-
ment works.
The following pretreatment requirements apply to
wastewater discharges to publicly owned water
works from synthetic rubber plants:
Emulsion Crumb Subcategory — Gravity sepa-
ration of crumb fines in crumb pits, chemical
coagulation and clarification of latex-laden
wastewaters, and neutralization or equalization
of utility wastes.
Solution Crumb Subcategory— Gravity separa-
tion of crumb fines in crumb pits, and neutral-
ization or equalization of utility wastes.
Latex Subcategory — Chemical coagulation of
latex-laden wastewaters, and neutralization or
equalization of utility wastes.
Pretreatment recommendations for process
wastewaters from facilities producing molded, ex-
truded, and fabricated rubber products; wet-
digestion reclaimed rubber; and pan, mechanical,
and dry digestion reclaimed rubber include the
separation of oils and solids and the use of an
49
-------
equalization basin to prevent shock loads of oil, products must be treated. If fibers are digested
suspended solids, or batch dumps of dipping solu- with rubber scrap, a large sedimentation lagoon
don from upsetting the performance of treatment may be required.
works. In addition, lead-laden wastewaters from
general rubber products, chromium from latex-
dipped products, arid zinc from latex foam Control costs are detailed in Table 4.4.-i.
TABLE 4.4—1 RUBBER INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CIJMUL4J VE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977-83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS
BPT .. 68.08 153.18 1.55 1.55 1.55
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 4.17 15.86 18.22 28.33 44.92
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 72.25 169.04 19.76 29.88 46.47
MUN. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 72.25 169.04 19.76 29.88 .46.47
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 20.14 39.47 81.37 122.06 183.09
BAT . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 2.09 5.12 14.22 25.17 46.91
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 22.22 44.59 95.59 147.22 229.99
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 15.63 30.63 63.16 94.74 142.12
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 1.81 4.44 12.36 21.89 40.85
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 17.44 35.08 75.53 116.64 182.97
INOUSTRY TOTAL 39.67 . 79.67 171.12 263.86 412.96
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 39.67 79.67 171.12 263.86 412.96
AL !. ANNUAL COSTS 39.67 79.67 171.12 263,86 412.96
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATiON OF: (1) STRAIGHT.LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
50
-------
4.5 SOAP AND DETERGENT INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Soap and detergent industry establishments are
engaged in the manufacture of soap, synthetic
organic detergents, inorganic alkaline detergents.
or any combination of these processes. The term
“soap” refers to those cleaning agents which are
derivatives of natural fat. The term “detergent” is
generally restricted to cleaning compounds de-
rived largely from petrochemicals.
Soaps and detergents are produced by a variety of
manufacturing processes. For the purpose of es-
tablishing effluent limitation.guidelines and stan-
dards of performance the industry has been di-
vided into 19 subcategories based on processes
and products:
Soap Manufacture
• Soap Manufacture — Batch Kettle and
Continuous
• Fatty Acid Manufacture by Fat Splitting
• Soap From Fatty Acid Neutralization
• Glycerine Recovery
• Glycerine Concentration
• Glycerine Distillation
• Soap Flakes & Powders
• Bar Soaps
• Liquid Soap
Detergent Manufacture
• Oleum Sulfonation & Sulfation (Batch &
Continuous)
• Air-SO 3 Sulfation and Sulfonation (Batch &
Continuous) -
• SO 3 Solvent and Vacuum Sutfonation
• Sulfamic Acid Sulfation
• Chlorosulfonic Acid Sulfation
• Neutralization of Sulfuric Acid Esters & Sul-
fonic Acids
• Spray Dried Detergents
• Liquid Detergent Manufacture
• Detergent Manufacturing By Dry Blending
• Drum Dried Detergents
• Detergent Bars & Cakes
The leading products for each class are toilet bars
in the soap segment and laundry detergents in the
detergent segment. In 1976 household laundry
detergents accounted for 59 percent of the total
value of shipments of soaps and detergents made
by all industries.
Data from the U.S. Industrial Outlook, 1977, iden-
tify 642 establishments in the industry. The larg-
est fraction of these establishments, 32 percent, is
located in the North Central region of the United
States. Although there are a large number of pro-
ducers, the soap and detergent industry is an
oligopolistic industry. Fifteen of the establish-
ments, 2 percent, account for 47 percent of the
industry’s value of shipments, and 33 establish-
ments, 5 percent, account for 69 percent of the
industry’s value of shipments. ‘The “big three”
companies in the soap and detergent industry are
Proctor & Gamble. Lever Brothers, and Colgate-
Palmolive.
According to the U.S. Industrial Outlook, 1977, the
value of shipments for the soap and detergent
industry in 1976 was $5.7 billion, a 14 percent
increase over 1975. Estimates for 1977 are $6.5
billion, a 14 percent increase over 1976. Contin-
ued growth is expected.
Production is expected to increase at an annual
growth rate of 6.5 percent until 1980, and 4.6
percent during the period 1980 to 1985.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The manufacturing of soaps and detergents repre-
sents a minor source of water pollution. Approxi-
mately 98 percent of the plant effluents go to
municipal treatment plants with the remaining 2
percent of the industry discharging as point
sources. Raw waste loads from the soap and deter-
gent manufacturing processes vary considerably.
The processes that are heavy effluent generators
are: (1) batch kettle, (2) fatty acid manufacturing by
fat splitting and distillation, (3) glycerine recovery,
(4) bar soap manufacture, (5) spray drying of deter-
gents, and (6) manufacture of liquid detergents.
The major pollution sources for these processes
are: washout of equipment, leaks and spills, dis-
charge of barometric condenser water, cooling
tower blowdown, and discharge of scrubber.
waters from air pollution control equipment. Con-
stituents of these wastewater streams are fats,
fatty acids, glycerine, oil and grease, salts, lye, and
the soap or detergent produced in the plant.
51
-------
The other processes are able to recycle their
wastewater or use a dry cleanup process. There-
fore, they are virtually non-polluting.
The pollutants covered by the effluent limitations
guidelines for the soap and detergent industry are
90D 5 , COD, suspended solids, surf actants, oil and
grease, and pH.
Control Technology and Costs
The largest reductions in the pollution load from
this industry can be made through lower process
water usage. One of the biggest improvements
would be either changing the operating tech-
mques associated with the barometric condensers
or replacing them entirely with surface condens-
ers. Large reductions in water usage in the manu-
facture of liquid detergents could be achieved
through the installation of additional water recy-
ding, and by the use of air rather than water to
blow outfilling lines.
BPT guidelines call for plants to adopt good hou-
sekeeping procedures, adopt recycling where ap-
propriate, and install biological secondary treat-
ment (bioconversion). BAT guidelines assume im-
provement in manufacturing processes such as
the replacement of barometric condensers by sur-
face condensers, the installation of tandem-chilled
water scrubbers (for spray-dried detergents), and
the use of a batch counter-current process in air-
SO 3 sulfation and sulfonation. In addition, im-
provements in end-of-pipe treatment are expected
including the addition of sand or mixed-media
filtration or the installation of a two-stage, acti-
vated sludge process. New source performance
standards are the same as BAT for most product
subcategories. lmprovements over BAT are ex-
pected where the installation of new, lower-
polluting processes, such as continuous proc-
esses instead of batch processes, is possible.
Since approximately 98 percent of the soap and
detergent manufacturers discharge into municipal
sewers, the total cost to the industry of meeting
these guidelines is low. For the purpose of estimat-
ing annualized control costs, three model plants
were created. These models contain principally
those processes to be heavily impacted by the
effluent guidelines recommendations. The models
are:
(1) a small soap company
(2) a small liquid detergent company
(3) a very large integrated soap and
detergent company
The control costs for the industry are shown in
Table 4.5.-i.
52
-------
TABLE 4.5-1. SOAP AND DETERGENT INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 3 977.-83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS .. ..
BPT .. ..... 1.99 3.00 0.75 0.75 0.75
BAT .. ...... 0.0 0.0 0.53 0.70 0.70
NEw PLANTS .. .. .......... 0.34 1.23 1.46 2.12 3.22
PRETREATMENT .. ....... ...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL. .. ...... ....... 2.33 4.24 2.74 3.57 4.68
MUN. RECOVERY .. .. . .. ......... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL. ........ ... 2.33 4.24 2.74 3.57 4.68
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT .. 0.39 0.63 1.97 2.96 4.44
BAT ..... 0.0 0.0 0.14 0.32 0.60
NEW PLANTS .. .. 0.16 0.39 1.14 1.97 3.58
PRETREATMENT .. .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL. .. ....... .. 0.36 1.02 3.25 5.26 8.62
O&u
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT .. .. 0.19 0.30 0.95 1.42 2.34
BAT .. 0.0 - 0.0 0.06 0.15 0.27
NEW P1.ANTS ........... .. . ... 0.08 0.19 0.54 0.94 1.71
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL . .. . ... ... . ... 0.27 0.49 1.55 2.51 4.11
INDUSTRY TOTAL .............................. ..... 0.82 1.51 4.80 7.77 12.73
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
LNVEST RECOVERY..... ................... .. . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES .............. . . .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL..... ..................................... .. 0.82 3.51 4.80 7.77 12.73
AU. ANNUAL COSTS............................. .. 0.82 1.51 4.80 7.77 12.73
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.UNE DEPRECIATION AND 2) INTEREST.
53
-------
4.6. CARBON BLACK INDUSTRiES
The Product and Its Manufacturing
Carbon black is a black, fluffy, finely divided pow-
der consisting of 90 to 99 percent elemental car-
bon. Carbon black is uniquely different from other
bulk carbons, such as charcoals and cokes, both in
terms of properties and applications. Although
there are many different grades of carbon black, it
tsgeneraliy treated as a single product.
In essence, carbon black is manufactured by prod-
ucing carbon from either liquid or gaseous hydro-
carbon materials. Depending upon the process,
the production is achieved either by thermal deg-
radation or incomplete combustion. In the United
States, there are currently four different manufac-
turing processes employed. Each process is briefly
described below.
The Furnace Black Process
In the furnace black process, carbon black is
produced by the partial combustion of natural gas
or petroleum distillates. In the gas furnace proc-
ess, natural gas is partially combusted in
refractory-lined furnaces. The carbon particles are
removed from the gas stream by means of bag
filters. Yields (in terms of the percent of carbon in
the feedstock actually converted to carbon black) -
for plants employing the gas furnace range from
iOta 30 percent.
Inthe oil furnace variation, low-sulfur oil, similar to
residual oil, is generally atomized into a natural
gas-fired combustion zone. The carbon black parti-
des are collected by bag filters in the same man-
ner as the in gas furnace variation. Yields for the oil
furnaces range from 35 to 65 percent. Higher
yields, coupled with an increasing shortage of
natural gas, have been responsible for a trend
toward oil furnace installations.
In terms of total installed capacity the furnace
black process is the predominant one.
The Thermal Black Process
The thermal black process is based on the crack-
ing of hydrocarbons rather than on partial combus-
lion, as in the case of furnace black. Thermal black
furnaces are operated in alternating heating and
production cycles. During the heating cycle, the
furnace is heated by burning hydrogen gas previ-
ously liberated from a production or cracking cy-
cle. When heated to the proper temperature, the
feedstock (generally natural gas) is introduced into
the furnace, and the production cycle begins. Car-
bon is collected from quenched effluent gases
also by means of bag filters. Yields generally range
from 40 to 50 percent. Although the thermal proc-
ess is the second most predominant production
process, the increasing price of natural gas does
not favor its growth.
The Channel Black Process
The channel black process is an almost obsolete
process in which carbon black is made by partially
burning natural gas in special chambers where the
flames are made to impinge upon cooled surfaces.
Carbon black deposited on the surfaces is continu-
ously removed by mechanical scrapers. The yields
are very low, varying from 1 to 5 percent. Low
yields, coupled with the rising price of natural gas,
have virtually eliminated this process. In fact, there
is only one channel black plant currently in
operation.
The Lampb/ack Process
The lampblack process is the oldest method of
manufacturing carbon black (its origin dates back
to ancient times). Lampblack, as carbon black
manufactured by this process is called, is manu-
factured by burning selected oils in a restricted
supply of air. In terms of its contribution to total
industry-wide production, lampblack manufacture
is relatively insignificant. Since there are certain
special applications for lampblack, it is still manu-
factured in the United States at two different
plants.
Manufacture, Production, and Markets
Carbon black is currently manufactured by eight
U.S. firms in a reported total of 36 active manufac-
turing facilities. As of 1974, the carbon black
industry had a production capacity of approxi-
mately 1.89 million metric tons (2.09 million short
tons) per year.
Over three fourths of the carbon black production
capacity is located in Louisiana and Texas. The
concentration of carbon black plants in the Gulf
54
-------
Coast area was originally the result of a need to be
near natural gas feedstock suppliers.
More than 9 1 percent of all carbon black currently
produced is manufactured by the furnace process.
Most of the remainder is manufactured by the
thermal process. The amount of carbon black man-
ufactured by the channel and lampblack proc-
esses is essentially insignificant (less than 0.1
percent of total production). The carbon black
industry typically operates reasonably close to its
production capacity. During 1973, the total
production was 1.59 million metric tons (1.75
million short tons) or 83 percent of estimated total
capacity.
In terms of markets, the carbon black industry has
a very clearly defined group of major end users.
The major end users of carbon black are found in
the manufacture of rubber, printing ink, paint, pa-
per and plastics. Typically, more than 93 percent
of total carbon black consumption is in rubber
applications, and the rubber tire industry is by far
the principal consumer. (Upwards of 90 percent of
all carbon black produced is destined for tire man-
ufacturing.) Printing ink represents the second
largest use of carbon black. The United States is a
net exporter of carbon black (typically 5 percent of
total production). Recently installed overseas
producton capacity has resulted in a trend toward
shrinking U.S. exports, however.
Water Pollution Control Problems,
Technology, and Costs
Neither the channel black process nor the lamp-
black process produces a contaminated process
wastewater stream.
The thermal black process produces an inherent
process wastewater stream. It consists of a recir-
culating cooling water purge contaminated with
carbon black. In the thermal black process, fur-
nace gas is quenched with water to reduce its
temperature before it is passed through bag filters
where the product carbon is removed. The
hydrogen-containing exit gas thus contains an ap-
preciable humidity, which must be removed be-
fore recycling the hydrogen back into the process
as a fuel. The humidity in the gas stream is re-
moved by cooling the gas stream with water
sprays, thus lowering the gas temperature below
the boiling point of water and thereby condensing
out most of the moisture. The spent spray water
undergoes a temperature rise caused by the liber-
ated heat of condensation and must, therefore, be
cooled prior to reuse. Typically, the spray water is
part of a cooling water circuit in which fresh
makeup water is added to replenish inevitable
losses within the system. As with most cooling
circuits, it is necessary to purge or “blow down” a
certain fraction of the total circulation to prevent
the buildup of undesirable contaminants. In the
thermal black process, this blowdown stream is
contaminated with small amounts of carbon black
lost from the process. Certain thermal black plants
eliminate this blowdown stream by using it to
quench the hot gases leaving the furnaces. Other-
wise, the purge stream forms a point-source
discharge.
Carbon black manufacturing plants employing the
furnace black process do not produce an inherent
process wastewater stream. Certain furnace black
plants, however, do have small plant washdown
streams and stormwater runoff streams. The local
rainfall/evaporation relationship plays a large role
in determining whether there is, or is not, a point-
source discharge from the plant. Of a total of 29
furnace black plants, 19 do not have point-source
discharges. Some plants have no discharge pri-
marily because of favorable climate conditions,
while others are able to use excess water as
quench water.
At least two (possibly three) out of a total of four
thermal black plants presently do not discharge.
The cost model used here is based on two waste-
water treatment steps: Step 1 consists of sedimen-
tation and Step 2 consists of filtration. It is antici-
pated that certain plants will require only Step 1,
while other plants will require both Step 1 and
Step 2. In any case, the cost model provides for the
treated effluent to be totally recycled back to the
process.
Furnace Black
Of the 29 plants in this subcategory, only 10
plants (representing approximately 35 percent of
the total furnace black production) discharge
wastewater; therefore, it is unlikely that the other
19 will incur wastewater treatment costs.
Thermal Black
Of the four plants in this subcategory, only two
plants appear to have point-source wastewater
discharge.
Costs and other data for the Carbon Black Industry
are summarized in Table 4.6.-i.
55
-------
TABLE 4.6—L CARBON BLACK INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 0.90 2.38 0.0 0.0 0.0
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 0.90 2.38 0.0 0.0 0.0
MUN. RECOVERY 0.0 o.o 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 0.90 2.38 0.0 0.0 0.0
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
SPI 0.31 0.63 1.25 1.88 2.82
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 0.31 0.63 1.25 1.88 2.82
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 0.05 0.08 0.32 0.48 0.72
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 0.05 0.08 0.32 0.48 0.72
INDUSTRY TOTAL 0.36 0.71 1.57 2.35 3.53
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. 0.36 0.71 1.57 2.35 3.53
AU. ANNUAL COSTS 0.36 0.71 1.57 2.35 3.53
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
56
-------
4.7. EXPLOSIVES INDUSTRIES
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The U.S. explosives industry includes over 600
plants. Explosives plants generally are evenly dis-
tributed in the eastern portion of the United
States, away from large population centers. Plant
sites range from a few hundred to several
thousand acres. The general production process
for the manufacture of explosives involves the
nitration of an organic molecule. Raw materials
used in this process are nitric acid, acting as a
nitrate source, and sulfuric or acetic acid, acting as
a dehydrating agent. After nitration, these organic
molecules produce the following products: nitro-
glycerin and dinitroglycerin; trinitrotoluene and
dinitrotoluene, trinitroresorcinol; nitromonnite;
and nitrocellulose, respectively.
For the purpose of establishing effluent limitations
guidelines, the explosives industry has been di-
vided into the following 4 subcategories based
upon the raw material used and the process
empo ’ sc :
• Explosives — Category A
• Propellants — Category B
• Load, Assemble, and Pack plants (LAP) —
Category C
• Initiating-Compound Plants — Category D.
Explosives are compounds or mixtures of com-
pounds which, when ignited, decompose rapidly,
releasing a large volume of gases and heat. Propel-
lants differ in their mode of decomposition in that
they are designed to burn rather than detonate.
Manufacturing plants in these two categories are
generally large and complex. Load, Assemble, and
Pack Plants are those that may buy all the neces-
sary ingredients from an outside supplier and then
mix and pack them as a final product. Initiating-
Compound Plants are those manufacturing “sensi-
tive’ explosives.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The wastewater sources associated with each sub-
category are presented in the following:
Manufacture of Explosives
The wastes from this category are characteristi-
cally high in SOD 5 , COD, nitrates, sulfates, and
TOC. Highly variable pH is also characteristic of
the wastewater from the explosive industry. The
major waste loads generally come from the finish-
ing area where the crude explosive becomes the
finished product.
Manufacture of Propel/ants
The waste loads associated with the manufacture
of propellants are usually higher than those asso-
ciated with the manufacture of explosives. Sus-
pended solids are a troublesome problem, spe-
cially in the manufacture of nitrocellulose. Wide
variation in pH is also a problem. High BOD 5 , COD,
and TOC levels can be attributed to the organic
compounds and solvents involved in the process-
-es, while high nitrate and sulfates can be attrib-
uted to the use of nitric acids and sulfuric acids
respectively.
Load, Assemble, and Pack Plants
Waste loads from this category are the mildest in
the explosive industry but the most variable. BOD ,
COD, nitrates, sulfates, TOC, TSS, are in the efflu-
ent waste loads.
Initiating-Compound Plants
The waste loads associated with the manufacture
of initiating compounds are the highest of any
category in the explosive industry, due to the
highly concentrated waste streams and small vol-
umes of production. Because of the small quanti-
ties, batch processes are used in this category and
recovery of spent materials is not attempted.
Waste loads are high in the following parameters:
SOD 5 , COD, nitrates, sulfates, TOC, TSS, and TKN
(Total Kehidahl Nitrogen).
For the purpose of establishing effluent guidelines
for the explosive industry the following parame-
ters have been defined to be of major polluting
significance: SOD 5 , COD, TSS, pH, and oil and
grease.
Control Technology and Costs
The technology for the control and treatment of
waterborne pollutants in the explosive industry
can be divided into two broad categories: in-
process and end-of-pipe. In-process depends on
two major conditions.
57
-------
• Altering the processes that generate water
pollutants
• Controlling water use in non-process as
well as process areas.
Specific in-process control practices applicable to
the explosive industry include good water
management, which, with recycling of process
cooling water, can have a significant effect on
hydraulic loading and would reduce treatment
costs. Separation of process and non-contact
waters is a first step in economical pollution abate..
ment. Prior to end-of-pipe treatment, the following
plant control measures will be mandatory: neutral-
ization facilities, catch tanks on finishing explosive
lines, and other pretreatment facilities.
The recommended technology for achieving BPT
guidelines relies upon the use of an activated
sludge treatment plant for Categories A, B, and D.
For Category C an extended aeration package
system was recommended. Also, since many of
the waste streams have extreme pH values, neu-
tralization is necessary.
The recommended technology for achieving BAT
guidelines relies upon the use of dual-media filtra-
tion and activated carbon adsorption for Categor-
ies A, B, and D. For Category C treatment consists
of chemical coagulation and filtration added to the
BPT extended aeration package treatment system.
Costs for this industry are summarized in Table
4.7—1.
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS.
BPT....
SAT
NEW PLANTS
DOC1DC 1 .C T
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
C, .fl11vs
TABLE 4J-L
EXPtOSIVE INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTiON CONTROL
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
1977 1972—77 1977—81
232 56 . 612.00 232.56
0.0 0.0 1095.00
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
232.56 612.00 1327.56
COSTS
1977—83
232.56
1823.00
0.0
0.0
2057.36
0.0
2057.36
MUN. RECOVERY
ANNUAUZEO COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANT
a p i.
SAT
NEW PLANTS
PRETREATMENT...
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
aPT
SAT
NEW PLANTS......
0.0
232.56
80.44
0.0 -
0.0
0.0
80.44
40.00
0.0
0.0
0.0
40.00
120.44
0.0
612.00
161.73
0.0
0.0
0.0
161.73
80.40
0.0
0.0
0.0
80.40
242.13
1977—86
232.36
1825.00
0.0
0.0
2057.56
0.0
2057.36
989.15
1455.64
0.0
0.0
2444.78
360.00
265.10
0.0
0.0
625.10
3069.88
0.0
1327.56
433.96
303.92
0.0
0.0
737.88
160.00
46.10
0.0
0.0
206.10
943.98
656.03
735.82
0.0
0.0
1391.85
240.00
126.80
0.0
0.0
366.80
1758.65
MUNICIPAL
CHARGE
INVEST
USER
RECOVERY 0.0 0.0
CHARGES 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0
0.0
AU. ANNUAL COSTS.
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMRINAT1ON OP: (1) STRA GHT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
120.44 242.13 943.98 1758.65 3669.88
120.46 242.13 943.98 1758.65 3669.88
58
-------
48. PESTICIDES AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS
The pesticide chemicals manufacturing industry is
classified under SIC 2879. and has been subdi-
vided for pollution control purposes into six subca-
tegories. Five of these relate to the type of product.
and the sixth to a specialty operation concerned
with formulating and packaging. The subcatego-
ries are as follows:
• Subcategory A — Halogenated Orgsnscs production
• Subcetegory B — Organo.phosphorus production
• Subcategory C — Organo-nitrogen production
• Subcategory 0— Mets 110-organic production
• Subcategorv E — Formulation and packaging
• Subcategory F — Miscellsaeous pesticides not other-
wise classified.
In 1974. the United States International Trade
Commission reported that 82 companies in the
U.S. manufactured pesticides.
Products
The products of the pesticide industry have gener-
ally bears divided into three basic classes — herbi-
cides. fungicides, and insecticides. The largest
group in terms of value is the herbicides. In 1975,
this group accounted for 60 percent of the total
value, while providing less than 45 percent of the
total poundage.
The products of this industry are highly varied and
over 400 have been identified according to the
various subcategories. Note that separate, more
strict standards have been enacted for several
pesticides as toxic pollutants. These are discussed
in Chapter IX under the heading of Toxic
Substances. -
Ha/ogenated Organic Compounds
Ninety eight products were identified in this sub-
category. These have been further broken down
into 5 groups, and are related to their major use as
showninTable 4.8.-i.
Organo-Phosphorus Compounds
This category contains 93 compounds used pri-
marily as insecticides. Some widely used materi-
als in this group are listed below:
Methyl parathion
Fenthion
Ronnel
Diazinon
Guthion
Malathion
Disulfoton
Organo-Nitrogen Compounds
Two-hundred-nine (209) compounds were identi-
fied as belonging to this group which contains
some of the largest selling pesticides produced.
These have been further classified into seven
groups, as shown in Table 4.8.-2. Most of the large
selling items are herbicides, with minor
production of insecticides and fungicides.
Tab s 4.3—2.
Ni$vsgan C.n+simng P.s$ióde Greupings nd Us.
Grouping Primcry Use
C Aryl and olicyicoibanotes Ins .cticides, herbicides
c2) Thiocorbamates Herbicides
C3) Amides and amities Herbicid*s
C4) Ureos and Urocils Herbicides
CS) s -Triazines
C6) Nitia compounds Herbicides
C7) Other Fungicides, herbicides
Idol. 4.L-L
IIal.gs.ut .d Organic Pesticid. Groupings and Us.
A) 001* Insecticide
Dithiocorbainates Fungicide
Mettioxychior Insecticide
A2 2.4-0 Herbicide
2.4,5.1* Herbicide
MCPA Herbicide
A3 Toxopliene Insecticide
Ch lordon./h.ptoch lor Insecticide
Ind,o.u l lon Insecticide
Enthin Insecticide
AS Methyl bromide • Fumigant (insects,
weeds, rodents etC.)
Undone Insecticide
AS Dicamba* Herbicide
Repr.sentotise of the wbcategory and used in the economic impact
anølysis of the prepared stondaros on this suticategoty.
59
-------
Metaio-organic Compounds
This is the smallest category of pesticides in both
volume and value. Products are primarily fungi-
cides and herbicides.
Formulations
In addition to the many pesticides directly manu-
factured. there are also many products on the
market produced by formulation of combinations
of pesticides or other chemicals. Good statistics
are not readily available on the distribution of
establishments belonging to this classification.
The chemistry involved in the production of pesti-
ides is highly varied and complex, so that many
different chemical operations are used. In addi-
fon, the plants which formulate rather than
produce the pesticides usually employ a number
,f operations.
Trends
Annual growth trends show that from 1 960—1968
there was strong overall growth in the pesticide
industry. This growth stowed during the
1968—1974 period to about one-third that of the
earlier rate. However, the three basic segments of
the industry did not have a uniform growth pat-
tern. The most rapid early growth, and subsequent
slowdown, was in the herbicide sector. The pat-
tern for insecticides came closest to matching the
pesticide industry. By contrast, the fungicide sec-
tor was nearly static during the 1960—1968 pe-
riod. In the 1968—1974 period there has been very
little change in the volume of the fungicide market.
but a very sharp increase in the value of the
products produced. -
Pollutant Characteristics
The pesticide chemical manufacturing industry is
involved in the production of many complex or-
ganic materials utilizing sophisticated processes.
Wastewater pollution is therefore, highly variable
from plantto plant.
Halogenated Organic Pesticides
The manufacture of this type of pesticide, usually
results in wastewaters that contain high loadings
of organic materials from operations such as de-
canting, distillation, and stripping. Spillage, wash-
downs, and runoff can also be significant if suit-
able operational control is not maintained. The
most significant pollutants are BOD, COD, sus-
pended solids, phenol, and the pesticide product.
Organo Phosphorus Pesticides
There are many sources of wastewater from the
manufacture of organophosphorus pesticides.
These include decanter units, distillation towers,
overhead collectors, solvent strippers, caustic
scrubbers, contact cooling, hydrolysis Units, and
equipment washing.
The most significant pollutants are considered to
be BOD, COD, suspended solids, ammonia, nitro-
gen, phosphorus, and the pesticide product.
Organo-Nitrogen Pesticides
In the manufacture of this type pesticide, the prin-
cipal sources of wastewater are decanting,
extractor/precipitator units operations, scrubbing,
solvent stripping, product purification, rinsing,
and runoff of spillage. The significant pollutants
are the same as those identified for organo-
phosphorus pesticides.
Mete/b-Organic Pesticides
The primary wastewater sources from the
production of organo-metallic pesticides are
product stripping, washing, caustic scrubbing,
and cleaning operations. The significant pollu-
tants are dissolved solids, suspended solids, BOD,
COD, and the pesticide product.
Formulation and Packaging
Washing and cleaning operations are the principal
sources of wastewater in the establishments.
Multicategory Producers
Previous discussions were related to plants for
which the production was restricted to one cate-
gory of pesticide, or to plants for which the waste
from one category was identifiable. However,
there are plants which produce more than one
category of pesticide and, for these, the individual
wastes are not readily separated.
Control and Treatment Technology
The plants producing pesticides are highly vari-
able in nature; therefore, the control technology in
plants producing essentially the same product can
also be highly variable. Factors such as econom-
ics, pollutant concentration, and wastewater flow
have to be considered when choosing the control
and treatmenttechnologyto be used.
As in the case of other industries, treatment tech-
nologies can conveniently be divided into (1) in-
plant control and treatment and (2) end-of-pipe
control and treatment.
In-P/ant Control and Treatment
In-plant control and treatment includes steps to
reduce wastewater strength and/or volume. Im-
portant in-plant techniques include proper waste-
60
-------
water segregation in the plant, use of dry housek-
eeping equipment, replacement of steam jet ejec-
tors and barometric condensers by vacuum
pumps and surface condensers, and replacement
of process water by an appropriate organic
solvent.
End-of-Pipe Control and Treatment
The recommended methods for end-of-pipe treat-
ment basically involve various clean-up steps such
as settling, skimming, equalization, or other treat-
ment, followed by detoxification, usually with car-
bon absorption, followed by biological treatment.
However, because of the highly variable nature of
this industry, it is difficult to generalize about the
advantages and disadvantages of the various
treatments. Rather, the approach used has been to
handle each on an individual basis, and to provide
case histories from background information which
has been obtained.
Control Costs
For the purpose of this report the approach used to
estimate control costs was to develop model sys-
tems which would meet the wastewater guidelines
and then make cost estimates for implementing
those model systems in actual plants.
Model systems were planned (1) for end-of-pipe
treatment to a BPT level of Subcategories A, B, and
C only. Plants in Subcategories D and E should not
have a wastewater discharge if properly operated.
All three model plants are similar in that each
waste stream contains separable organics which
must be removed by an oil separator of the API
type. Wastewater streams for Subcategory C also
contain considerable quantities of suspended so-
lids which can be removed in combination with the
organic material. Some wastestreams contain ma-
terials from distillation tower bottoms which need
to be removed and incinerated. Wastewater from
Subcategory A can be detoxified by carbon ab-
sorption, while hydrolysis is the most satisfactory
method for detoxification of wastes from Subcate-
gories B and C.
The basic biological treatment consists of an acti-
vated sludge system. This should’ include aeration
basins, flocculator-clarifiers, and sludge handling
facilities.
Cost data are summarized in Table 4.8—3.
61
-------
TA3LE 4. —3. PE$TICIDE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS INDUSTRY
WATER POLLUTiON CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMUI.ATIVE PERIODS
1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 9.63 25.50 0.0 0.0 0.0
BAT .. .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS ..... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT ... — 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL .. .. .. .. .. 9.63 25.50 0.0 0.0 0.0
NUN. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 9.63 25.50 0.0 0.0 0.0
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PLANTS
BPT 3.35 6.75 13.41 20.11 30.17
BAT 0.0 0.0 0,0 0.0 0.0
MEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 3.35 6.75 13.41 20.11 30.17
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 3.13 6.28 0.0 0.0 0.0
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 3.13 6.28 0.0 0.0
INDUSTRY TOTAL 6.48 13.04 13.41 20.11 30.17
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 6.48 13.04 13.41 20.11 30.17
AU. ANNUAL COSTS 6.48 13.04 13.41 20.11 30.17
NOTE; COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE; ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OP (1) STRAIGHI-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
REFERENCE
Development Document for lnter m Final
Effluent Limitations Guidleines for the Pes-
ticide Chemicals Manufacturing Point
Source Category, EPA 440/1 —7 5/060d,
United States Environmental Protection
Agency, November, 1976.
62
-------
49 FERTILIZER MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The fertilizer industry can be divided into phos-
phate and nitrogen fertilizer production areas, con-
taining a total of 1 1 subcategories:
Phosphate Fertilizers
• Phosphate rock grinding
• Wet process phosphoric acid
• Phosphoric acid concentration
• Normal superphosphate (NSP)
• Triple superphosphate (TSP)
• Ammonium phosphates
• Sulfuric acid
ever, in 1973, world demand increased so dramat-
ically that substantial shortages were created in
the inc ustry. Several new plants have become
operational since 1974.
Projections published by the National Fertilizer
Development Center of the Tennessee Valley Au-
thority indicate that the shortages in supply of
phosphate materials will be alleviated as signifi-
cant surpluses develop by 1977. The nitrogen
Toble 4.9—1.
Basic F.r$*Uz. Ch.micels M.nJ oduring Pieces.
______ Raw Mot,riol Procest
Phoiphot, rock, Mixing.
uric acid, water.
Sulfuric acid. ground Mixing, curing
phaspnat. rock, water. for 3-8 weeks.
Ground phosohate ,ock,Run of p4.
phosphoric acid, water. process mixing,
or
Granular triple
supetahosphate
process (GTSP)=
mixing into a slurry,
drying.
Anwnenia , wet process Similaq to GTSP
— acid. above.
SO 2 . 02, )ed tiz.d
vomiodwni oxide cata-
lyst, water.
added to form ln&
—.
Ammoniumn corbomate
fainted then deity-
drated by priilisig
or cryitoMisapion
to form urea.
Combined to
neutralize ocid,
then priMed or
ev a orated to con-
centrate the product.
Ammonia xidtzed
catalytically by
air, nitrogen pen-
toxid. obiorbed in
water.
Nitrogen Fertilizers ___
• Ammonia - Wet process
• Urea Phosphoric odd
• Ammonium nitrate Normal super-
• Nitric acid
These subcategories include both mixed and non-
mixed fertilizers.
The manufacture of these fertilizers involves a
variety of chemical processes. Three of the proc.
esses — phosphate rock grinding, phosphoric acid
concentration, and phosphoric acid clarification
— do not require process waters. The remaining
processes are summarized in Table 4.9 .-1. Amnmonmum
Sulfuric acid and nitric acid are intermediate
products in the basic fertilizer chemicals industry.
Approximately 25 percent of the plants produce
these chemicals as part of the production of the
final products listed abova they are not consid-
ered as separate plants for the purposes of this
report. Plants which produce sulfuric acid or nitric
acid as end products are covered under the inor-
ganic chemicals industry.
Because fertilizers are traded in a world-wide mar-
ket. and the raw materials used are also used in a
wide variety of markets, the fertilizer market is
subject to many outside influences. These influ- lititate
ences include world-wide agricultural demand,
the use of nitrates in explosives, and hence pres-
sures from the international military situation, and
the world market ior synthetic fibers. Nitric acid
In 1972. the fertilizer industry was suffering from
overcapacity with no new plants being built. How-
Sulfur -butning process
S0g2 catalyzed
to form SO 3 , water
Hydrog.ri production
followed by cataly-
SiS with nitrogen to
form ommon .
Natural gas or other
hydrogen sasrce, IW-
tiogeti from air,
cataiysts
Ammonia, corbon
dioxid ..
Ammonia, nitric acid.
Ammonia, air, water,
p.otinum -thodium
gauze catalyst.
63
-------
shortage is expected to continue longer, with a
balanced market developing in the tate 1970’s.
The shortage of natural gas in the winter of
1976—1977 further compounded the nitrogen
shortage
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The major fertilizer waste components include the
following: pH, phosphorus, fluorides, total sus-
pended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS),
high temperature, cadmium, total chromium, zinc,
vanadium, arsenic, uranium, radium 226, COD, oil
and grease, ammonia, ammonia nitrogen, organic
nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, iron, and nickel.
The main waste sources contributing to the total
waste toad can be identified as coming from the
following processes in each production area:
Phosphate Fertilizers
• Water treatment plant effluent including
raw water filtration and clarification, water
softening, and water deionization.
• Closed-loop cooling tower blowdowri.
• Boiler blowdown.
• Contaminated water (gypsum pond water).
• Spills and leaks.
• Area-source discharges including surface
runoff from rain or snow that become
contaminated.
Nitrogen Fertilizers
• Water treatment plant effluent including
raw water filtration and clarification, water
softening, and water deionization.
• Closed-loop cooling tower blowdown.
• Boiler blowdown.
• Process condensate.
• Spills and leaks that are collected in pits or
trenches.
• Area sources collected from rain or snow.
In order to define waste characteristics, the follow-
ing basic parameters were used to develop guide-
linesfor meeting BPT and BAT:
• Phosphate Fertilizers: phosphorus, fluo-
rides, total suspended solids and pH
• Nitrogen Fertilizers: ammonia, organic ni-
trogen, nitrate, and pH.
Control Technology and Costs
Waste treatment practices in the fertilizer industry
include: monitoring units, retaining areas, cutoff
impoundments, reuse, recycling, atmospheric
evaporative cooling, double-liming (two-stage lime
neutralization) surrounding dikes with seepage
collection ditches, sulfuric acid dilution with pond
water, evaporation, ammonia stripping (steam and
air), high pressure air/steam stripping, urea hydro-
lysis, nitrIfication and denitrification, ion ex-
change, cation/anion separation units, selective
ion exchange for ammonia removal, oil separation,
and ammonium nitrate condensate reuse.
BPT guidelines for the phosphate segment call for
limitations art pH, TSS, phosphates, and fluorides
by installing the following: double-lime treatment
of gypsum pond water, pond design to contain a
10-year storm, monitoring system for sulfuric acid
plant control, and facilities for contaminated water
isolation. BPT guidelines for the nitrogen segment
can be met by installing the following: ammonia
steam stripping, urea hydrolysis, leak and spill
control, containment and reuse, plus oil
separation.
BAT guidelines call for increased limitations of the
above parameters by installation of pond water
dilution of sulfuric acid for the phosphate seg-
ment, and by installation of one of the following
for the nitrogen segment: ammonia steam strip-
ping followed by either high-flow ammonia air
stripping or biological nitrification-denitrification,
continuous ion exchange followed by denitrifica-
tion, or advanced urea hydrolysis followed by
high-flow ammonia air stripping.
NSPS standards call for the following process
improvements for the nitrogen segmeit (the phos-
phate segment NSPS is the same as BAT):
• Integrate ammonia process condensate
steam stripping column into condensate
boiler feed water systems of ammonia
plant.
• Use centrifugal rather than reciprocating
compressors.
• Segregate contaminated water collection
systems so that common waste streams
can be treated more efficiently and
cheaply.
• Locate cooling towers upw!rtd to minimize
chance of absorbing ammonia in tower
water.
• Design low velocity airflow prilt tower for
urea and ammonium nitrate to minimize
dust toss.
• Design lower pressure steam levels in or-
derto make process condensate and recov-
ery easier arid cheaper.
• Install air-cooled condensers and exchan-
gers to minimize cooling water circulation
and blowdown.
Control costs are summarized in Table 4.9—2.
64
-------
TABLE 4.9-2. FERTILIZER MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977-.86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS .....,
BPT .. 61.32 111.49 0.0 0.0 0.0
BAT .. 0.0 0.0 72.16 96.21 96.21
NEW PLANTS.. .. ... 9.14 34.18 41.10 64.68 104.45
PRETREATMENT .. .. ...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAl. .. .. ..... .. . ..... 70.46 145.67 113.25 160.89 200.66
MUN. RECOVERY .. .. ........_ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. .. . .. 70.46 145.67 113.25 160.89 200.66
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAl. CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PLANTS .. -. ..
BPT .. .. .. ...... 14.66 21.25 58.63 87.94 131.92
BAT..... .. ... .. ...... 0.0 0.0 18.97 4.4.27 82.22
NEW PLANTS...... .. ... ..._.. . .. . ... . .. 4.49 10.98 31.17 33.58 104.87
PRETREATMENT.... ....... ...... .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL.. . ...... .. . ... 19.15 32.23 108.77 187.80 319.00
O&M . p
EXISTING PLANTS . .... . . . ..... ..
BPT .. .. 49.56 71.86 198.23 297.34 446.00
BAT .. ... .. .......... 0.0 0.0 45.76 106.78 198.30
NEW PLANTS ...... . . .. ..... . .. 12.82 31.34 88.72 158.02 297.61
PRETREATMENT ...... .. ... . ....... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. . .... . ... . 62.38 103.20 332.72 362.14 941.91
INDUSTRY TOTAl. ...._ .... . ....... . ...... . ... 81.53 135.43 4.41.49 749.94 1260.92
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY .. ._ . . . ... . . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ...._. . . . . . ..... . . . .... _.. . .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL........ . ....... . . . .... . ....... 81.53 135.43 441.4.9 749.94 1260.92
AU. ANNUAL COSTS..... . ._.......... . .... . ..._ 8133 135.43 441.49 749.94 1260.92
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATiON OF: (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
65
-------
4.10 PHOSPHORUS CHEMICALS INDUSTRY
PHOSPHORUS CHEMICALS (PHASE I)
production Characteristiàs and Capacities
Establishments included in the phosphorus chemi-
cals manufacturing industry as defined by the
Phase I effluent limitations guidelines are manu-
facturers of the following chemicals:
. Phosphorus
• Ferrophosphorus
• Phosphoric acid (dry process)
• Phosphorus pentoxide
• Phosphorus pentasulfide
• Phosphorus trichioride
• Phosphorus oxychloride
• Sodium tripolyphosphate
• Calcium phosphates
(food grade)
• Calcium phosphates
(animal feed grade).
This industry is almost entirely based on the
production of elemental phosphorus from mined
phosphate rock. Elemental phosphorus and ferro-
phosphorus (a byproduct) are manufactured by the
reduction of phosphate rock by coke in very large
electric furnaces, using silica as a flux. Because-
elemental phosphorus is relatively low in weight
compared to phosphate rock and to phosphoric
acid, the elemental phosphorus is produced near
the mining site and shipped to locations near the
final markets for further processing.
Over 87 percent of the elemental phosphorus is
used to manufacture high-grade phosphoric acid
by the burning of liquid phosphorus in air, the
subsequent quenching and hydrolysis of the phos-
phorus pentoxide vapor, and the collection of the
phosphoric acid mists.
The manufacture of the anhydrous phosphorus
chemicals-phosphorus pentoxide (P 2 0 5 ), phospho-
rus pentasulfide (P 2 S 5 ), and phosphorus trichlo-
ride (PCI 3 ) — is essentially the direct union of
phosp1 orus with the corresponding element.
Phosphorus oxychloride (POC 13) is manufactured
from PC i 3 and air or from PCi 3 , P 2 0 5 , and
chlorine.
Sodium tripolyphosphate is manufactured by the
neutralization of phosphoric acid with caustic
soda and soda ash in mix tanks. The resulting
mixture of mono-and di-sodium phosphates is
dried and the crystals calcined to produce the
tripolyphosphate.
The calcium phosphates are similarily made by the
neutralization of phosphoric acid with lime. The
amount and type of lime used and the amount of
water needed in the process determine whether
anhydrous monocalcium phosphate monohydrate,
dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, or tricalcium
phosphate is the final product. Animal feed grade
dicalcium phosphate is produced by almost the
same process as the other calcium phosphates.
Because of the lower purity needed in the final
product, defluorinated, wet process phosphoric
acid is normally used and the reaction may be
conducted without excess water.
For the most part, the products included in the
phosphorus chemical industry are produced by
divisions of large chemical or petroleum compa-
nies. The derivatives of phosphorus are generally
manufactured by the same companies that
produce elemental phosphorus, but in different
locations. Furthermore, a large proportion of the
products are used internally by the producing
company for the production of other products and,
hence, are not sold on the open market.
The biggest factors determining the future of the
industry are government regulations and techno-
logical innovations. The declining production of
phosphorus, for example, is the result of govern-
ment bans on phosphate detergents. In addition,
the TVA plant was shut down in 1976, as a shift to
production of wet phosphoric acid was
accomplished.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Water is primarily used in the phosphorus chemi-
cal industry for eight principal purposes: non-
contact cooling water, process and product water,
transport water, contact cooling or heating water,
atmospheric seal water, scrubber water, auxiliary
process water, and water used for miscellaneous
purposes. Very large quantities of non-contact
cooling water are used for cooling the electric
66
-------
furnaces used in phosphorus production. Contact
cooling water is used to quench the slag from the
phosphorus furnaces. Process or product water
contacts and generally becomes part of the
product, such as the hydrolysis and dilution water
used in phosphoric acid manufacture and the
water used as a reaction medium in food-grade
dicalcium phosphate manufacture. Because yel-
low phosphorus spontaneously ignites on contact
with air, air is kept out of reaction vessels with a
water seal. Liquid phosphorus is protected by stor-
age under a water blanket; these seal waters are
considered process waters. Auxiliary process
waters include those used in such auxiliary opera-
tions as ion exchange regeneration, equipment
washing, and spill and leak washdown.
The following pollutant parameters have been des-
ignated for the industry’s process wastewaters:
total suspended solids, phosphate and elemental
phosphorus, sulfates and sulfites, fluoride, chlo-
ride, dissolved solids, arsenic, cadmium, vanadi-
um, radioactivity, temperature (heat), and pH. The
primary parameters. i.e., those which need to be
used to set effluent standards, are total suspended
nonfilterable solids, total phosphorus, fluoride, ar-
senic. and pH. The remaining pollutants are either
adequately treated when the primary parameters
are treated, or are present only in waste streams
for which a no discharge standard has been set.
The effluent limitations guideline for most of the
phosphorus chemical industry is no discharge of
process wastewater pollutants to navigable
waters. Process water is defined as any water that
comes into direct contact with any raw material,
intermediate product, byproduct, or gas or liquid
that has accumulated such constituents.
The only exceptions to these standards are the
BPT guidelines for phosphorus and ferrophospho-
rus, phosphorus trichioride, phosphorus oxychlo-
ride, and food-grade calcium phosphates.
Control Technology and Costs
Traditional sanitary engineering practices that
treat effluents containing organic material in order
to reduce biological oxygen demand are inap-
plicable to the phosphorus chemical industry
where such pollutant constituents are not signifi-
cant. Hence, control and treatment of wastes are
of the chemical and chemical engineering variety.
Thes. include neutralization, precipitation, ionic
reactions, filtration, centrifugation, ion exchange,
demineralization, evaporation and drying. In-
process abatement measures include segregation
of waste streams, recycling of scrubber water, dry
dust collection, containment of leaks and spills,
and minimization of the quantity of wash water.
Many of the manufacturing establishments cur-
rently have no treatment installed, while others
have already achieved a no discharge status.
The technology recommended to achieve zero dis-
charge of wastewaters in the phosphorus chemi-
cal industry consists of:
• Recycling atmospheric seal (“phossy”)
waters, scrubber liquors, and other process
waters following lime treatment and sedi-
mentation (or alternative methods of reduc-
ing water flow, such as the use of dilute
caustic or lime slurry instead or pure water
in the process)
• Use of dry dust collectors
• The return of process waste streams and
blowdown streams to the process.
Zero discharge of arsenic-rich still residues from
the manufacture of phosphorus tfichloride can be
achieved through treatment with
trich loroethylene.
For those industry subcategories where some dis-
charge is allowed, the recommended treatment
consists of waste-reducing steps such as those
above, but with some discharge following lime
treatment and sedimentation, sometimes with
flocculation. Additional treatment to achieve no
discharge for these subcategories consists of:
• Total recycling of all process waters by the
phosphorus producer
• Control of PC i 3 vapors by installation of
refrigerated condensers, minimization of
wastewaters with treatment by lime neu-
tralization followed by evaporation to dry-
ness (for manufacturers of phosphorus tn-
chloride and phosphorus oxychloride)
• The addition of vacuum filtration of treated
wastewaters followed by total recycling
(for producers of food-grade calcium
phosphates).
PHOSPHORUS CHEMICALS (PHASE II)
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Establishments included in this industry sector
manufacture phosphate products by processes
that include a defluorination step. The specific
products included are defluorinated phosphate
rock, defluorinated phosphoric acid (both in SIC
2874, Phosphate Fertilizers), and sodium tripoly-
phosphate (STPP, in SIC 2819, Industrial Inor-
ganic Chemicals, N.E.C.) produced from wet-
process phosphoric acid. The one plant that prod-
67
-------
uces STPP by this process was included in the
Phase I report with the 1 7 plants that use furnace
process phosphoric acid, so STPP will not be con-
sidered further.
The defluorination of phosphate rock is accom-
plished in a rotary kiln or fluid-bed reactor. The
rock is blended with sodium-containing chemi-
cals, wet-process phosphoric acid, and silica then
defluorinated in the reactor at 1 200—1 400C
(2200—2600F).
Wet-process phosphoric acid is deftuorinated by
either of three processes. In two of the processes,
wet-process phosphoric acid is dehydrated by
evaporation to produce superphosphoric acid, and
defluorination is accomplished adventitiously. The
evaporation may be accomplished by either vac-
uum or submerged combustion processes. Defluo-
nnated phosphoric acid can be produced by an
aeration process in which fine silica is added to
wet-process phosphoric acid and is removed ulti-
mately, along with fluoride, as volatile silicon tet-
rafluoride under conditions that do not remove
water.
The 1976 capacity for producing defluorinated
phosphate rock is 462 thousand metric tons (5 10
thousand short tons) per year in four plants. Ten
plants produce superphosphoric acid, with an ag-
gregate capacity of 894 thousand metric tons
1985 thousand short tons) per year. The two plants
that produce defluorinated phosphoric acid have a
combined annual capacity of 11 8 thousand metric
tons(1 30 thousand short tons).
The major use for defluorinated phosphate rock is -
asan ingredient of animal feeds. Production of this
product has been increasing at a rate of nearly 4.5
percent per year since 1968, and is expected to
show a similar growth rate through 1 986. A large
fraction of defluorinated phosphoric acid is used
to produce dicalcium phosphate for animal feeds.
Increasingly large quantities are being used in
liquid fertilizers and as an intermediate in the
production of dry mixed fertilizers. The production
of superphosphoric acid from wet-process phos-
phoric acid is expected to increase at about 9.5
percent per year. Defluorinated phosphoric acid
other than the super acid is expected to increase at
about 4 percent per year.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The major source of water pollution in these proc-
esses is the water used to scrub contaminants
from gaseous effluent streams. Process conditions
are such that recirculated contaminated water can
be used for this purpose. Spills and leaks are
collected and added to the contaminated water
pond.
The proposed effluent limitations guidelines spec-
ify no discharge of process wastewaters except
under certain chronic or catastrophic precipitation
events. If wastewaters must be discharged under
such events, they must be treated so they do not
exceed the following limitations:
Suspended solids 150
Phosphorus 105
Fluoride 75
pH Within the range 6.0 to 9.0
Control Technology and Costs
The major control technology is the use of ponds
of adequate size. To accommodate rainfall inci-
dents for BPT, at least 60 cm (24 inches) freeboard
is required (150 cm or 60 inches in Florida). For
BAT, additional dike height is required (assumed
for cost purposes to be 1 5 cm or 6 inches).
To achieve the necessary reduction of contami-
nants for discharge of waters, pond water can be
treated with lime to neutralize phosphorus and
fluorides. Solids are then settled prior to dis-
charge. Two separate settling ponds are needed
for contaminated water treatment — one each for
calcium fluorides and calcium phosphates. Most
of the existing plants already meet BAT guidelines.
Estimated costs for controlling water pollution in
this industry are included in Table 4. 10—1.
Doily
Mazimum,
mgi 1
30 .Day
overage,
mg/I
50
35
25
68
-------
TABLE 4.1O-.1. PHOSPHORUS CHEMICALS INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMUI.AT!VE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS ..
BPT .. 36.74 47.10 0.00 0.00 0.00
.. ... 0.0 0.0 21.24 28.31 28.31
NEW PLANTS .. ...... .. .. 2.36 8.90 12.06 20.21 36.39
PRETREAIMENT........ ...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL....... — ... 39.09 56.00 33.29 48.53 64.71
MUI . RECOVERY ... . ... .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. .. .. 39.09 56.00 33.29 48.53 64.71
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS . .. . . . . .. . ....
BPT ......... .. .. .. 6.19 9.60 24.77 37.15 55.73
.. .. 0.0 0.0 .5.58 13.03 24.20
NEW PLANTS ...... ... .. .. ..... LIT 2.93 8.45 15.54 31.11
PRETREATMENT.... . . . ...... ... . . . ..... . .... ..... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL...... ....... . . . . . ... ....... -. 7.36 12.53 38.80 65.72 111.04
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT — ..... 5.53 8.49 22.53 33.87 50.88
BAT .. 0.0 0.0 6.10 14.24 26.45
NEW PLANTS .. 1.50 - 3.75 10.88 20.19 41.17
PRETREATMENT .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
.. ... 7.02 12.24 39.52 68.30 118.50
INDUSTRY TOTAL...... . . . ... 14.38 24.76 78.32 134.02 229.54
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY . . ......... . . . . ._. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ... . . .... . . . ...... ... . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL . . 14.38 24.76 78.32 134.02 229.54
ALL ANNUM COSTS ...... ........_ 14.38 24.76 78.32 134.02 229.54
NOTE. COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUM CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIA11ON AND (21 INTEREST.
69
-------
4.11 PAINT FORMULATING INDUSTRY
ome or alt of the regulations governing this in-
stry were revoked on May 12.1976. The EPA
believes that the reasons for this action were tech-
nical in nature and that similar regulations differ-
log only in the pollutant reductions required and
incurring similar costs will be promulgated in the
future. This discussion, therefore, was based on
the costs derived in the support documents for the
present regulations).
Production Characteristics and Capacities
lbs manufacturing of paint involves the mixing or
aspersion of pigments in oil,, resin, resin solution,
latex. Mixing is then followed by the addition of
iecifled portions of organic solvents or water to
obtain the desired viscosity.
to 1972 there were 1,599 plants manufacturing
pint and allied products in the United States.
Production is not divided evenly among these
plants. The 629 plants each employing fewer than
10 persons shipped only 3.3 percent of the total
lue of shipments for the industry, whereas the
53 plants each employing 250 or more shipped
32.9 percent of the total.
The trend since 1963 has been to fewer and larger
plants. In 1963 there were 1,788 plants. 34 per-
cent of which employed 20 or more persons. In
1967 there were 1,701 plants, 40 percent ot
which employed 20 or more. In 1972, 43 percent
olthe 1,599 plants employed 20 or more. This
trend toward fewer and larger plants is expected
cont inue.
Production of paint in 1972 was about 3,848
million liters (1,017 million gallons), of which
asarly 20 percent was water-based. In 1978, total
production is estimated at 4,644 million liters
(1,227 million gallons), with about 22 percent
water-based. It is estimated that total production
will be about 7,525 million liters (1,988 million
Jailons) in 1986, 29 percent of which is expected
be water-based. Production of water-based
paints was 754.4 million titers (199.3 million gal-
l Oris) in 1972, about 1,022 million liters (270
thillion gallons) in 1976, and should be about
2.184 million liters (577 million gallons) in 1986.
Effluent Sources and Pollutants
The products of the paint industry are eit ier
‘-. f - -)
1. Li
solvent-based or water-based. The production of
solvent-based paints produces little wastewater
effluent. The bulk of the wastewater from the
industry is the result of clean-up operations in the
manufacture of water-based paints. Most paint
plants are located in highly industrialized urban
areas near the markets, and most of the wastewa-
ter is discharged to municipally operated sewer
systems, with or without pretreatment.
The major wastewater contaminants in paint
plants are pigments and latex. Other significant
water pollutants are driers and wetting agents,
oils, resins, and caustics (used in cleaning). There
may also be some contamination by fungicides
(including mercurials), heavy metals, and solvents.
Recent State and Federal regulations are forcing
the paint industry to find substitutes for mercurial
biocides. Cadmium, lead, and other heavy metals
should appear mainly as insoluble pigments and
should be readily controllable as suspended so-
lids. Furthermore, the Lead-Based Paint Poisoning
Prevention Act of 1973 has forced the search for
suitable replacements for lead pigments and dry-
ing agents. The quantities of organic solvents that
reach wastewater streams are very small.
Control Regulations
The published regulations cover only solvent-
based production operations. The technical and
economic background documents are based on
the premise that water-based production opera-
tions would also be required to achieve no dis-
charge of process wastewater pollutants. The fol-
lowing discussion is based on the same premise
as the background documents. In cases where the
discharge of water-based paint wastes could
cause sewer maintenance problems because of
solids settling in low spots or adhering to sewer
walls, pretreatment is required.
Control Technology and Costs
For solvent-based paint production. good housek-
eeping, with control of spills and leaks, will allow
all wastewater pollutants to be collected in sumps,
placed in drums, and periodically disposed of in a
landfill. The base level of practice is already no
discharge of process waste liquids, so BPT, BAT,
and NSPS can be achieved at no cost. Negligible
cost would be required to insure good housekeep-
70
-------
ing and prevent leaks and spills from being dis-
charged to surface waters.
For water-based paints, the control technology
selected to minimize costs is greatly affected by
plant size. Small plants, averaging about 7,600
liters per day (2,000 gallons per day) of paint
production, can best achieve zero discharge by
minimizing water use and recycling wash waters
through a packaged system for settling and sludge
collection. Larger plants, averaging about 1 9,00Q
liters per day (5,000 gallons per day) production,
would be better off installing a mechanical auto-
matic high-pressure spray-cleaning system with
recycle.
The added cost of achieving no discharge of water
pollutants in manufacturing oil-based paints is
zero. Most water-based paints are produced for
trade sales, not industrial finishes. Data extrapo-
lated from a survey conducted by the National
Paint and Coatings Association (NPCA) shows that
only 44 plants producing trade sales paints were
discharging water pollutants to surface water. All
other plants producing trade sales paints were
discharging wastewaters in some apparently ap-
proved manner, and should have no compliance
costs for meeting EPA standards. Of these 44
nonconforming plants, 22 were large, 10 medium,
6 small, and 6 very small.
Based on the anticipated production of approxi-
mately 2,200 million liters (575 million gallons) of
water-based paints in 1986, new capacity above
the 1972 level wilt be required to produce about
1,400 million liters (370 million gallons) per year,
or about 5.5 million liters(1.44 million gallons) per
day. This new production can be achieved with
240 new large plants, producing an average of
23,000 liters (6,000 gallons) of paint per day.
These new plants will be required to meet New
Source Performance Standards. Control costs
based on the above condit , on are summarized in
Table 4.11—1.
TARLE 4.fl-1 PAiNT FORMULATION INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(Iti MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1972—77 ______ 1977—83
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PtAI
IPT
BAT...
NEW PLANTS
Cl lttflY A I
MUN. RECOVERY
Tà ’ TAI
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANT
BPT......
BAT......
NEW PLANTS
Yj t £ I
1977
137
0.0
0.62
0.0
2.20
0.0
2.20
0.82
0.0
0.29
0.0
Lii
0.69
0.0
0.25
0.0
0.94
2.05
6.23
0.0
2.23
0.0
8.46
0.0
8.46
2.04
0.0
0.71
0.0
2.74
1.72
0.0
0.60
0.0
2.32
5.06
O&M
EXISTING PLAN
BPT
BAT....
NEW PLANTS
1977-81
0.0
0.0
3.03
0.0
3.03
0.0
3.03
3.28
0.0
2.13
0.0
5.41
2.77
0.0
1.80
0.0
4.57
9.98
0.0
0.0
9.98
9.98
INDUSTRY TOTAL
MUNICiPAl. CHARGE
1977—86
0.0
0.0
8.36
0.0
8.36
0.0
8.36
7.37
0.0
7.59
0.0
14.96
6.24
0.0
6.42
0.0
12.65
27.62
0.0
0.0
27.62
27.62
0.0
0.0
4.92
0.0
4.92
0.0
4.92
4.91
0.0
3.88
0.0
8.80
4.16
0.0
3.29
0.0
7.44
16.24
0.0
0.0
16.24
16.24
TflTA
INVST RECOvERY . ... . .. . ......_. . .. . .. . ...._ . . . .._. . ....... . ... 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES . . .... . .._. . ... 0.0 0.0
2.05 5.06
ALL ANNUAL COSTS . ._........ . ...... . . .. . ..... . ....... . .. 2.05 5.06
NOTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE ANNUAl. CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
71
-------
4.12. PR(NT1NG INK FORMULATiNG
production Characteristics and Size
The ink manufacturing industry bears many re-
semblances to the paint manufacturing industry,
although it is considerably smaller in size. The
industrial sector described here is contained in
SIC 2893 with captive shops appearing in SIC 27.
Printing ink production in the United States now
exceeds 450 thousand metric tons (one billion
pounds) per year. The major components include
drying oils, resins, varnish, shellac, pigments and
many specialty additives. In 1974 the industry was
comprised of 670 printing ink producers, but
seven companies share over 50 percent of the
market.
The profile of the paint industry is applicable to
inks also. Many of the raw materials are the same
and the methods of producing ink and the equip-
ment used are nearly identical to those for produc-
ing paint. Milling is used more extensively in the
Ink industry as a method of dispersing pigments.
Printing inks can be either water- or oil-base. Many
of the raw materials are the same regardless of the
vehicle. The waste characteristics are similar to
the paint counterpart.
A check of the Refuse Act Permit Program applica-
tions and consultation with industrial representa-
tives led to the conclusion that there are no ink
manufacturing plants in the country discharging
process wastes to surface streams.
Many of the plants that are on municipal systems
practice no discharge of wastewater pollutants.
Ink process wastewaters are either sent to sanitary
landfills for disposal or the wastewaters are recy-
cled and reused within the plant. A limitation of
no discharge of wastewater pollutants” would
have little, if any, effect on the industry.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Oil-base ink discharges contain substances whose
entry into most municipal sewer systems or sur-
face waters is prohibited. Most cities have waste
Ordinances which have attempted to deal with the
release of these obviously deleterious substances.
Due to the highly volatile nature and the odor pf
these materials, the source of any substances that
do find their way into the sewer system through
accidental spills could quickly be located.
Water-base ink discharges would generally be
classified as acceptable to municipal treatment
systems. The possibility of solids causing sewer
maintenance problems depends on the pipe size
and hydraulic load in the sewer. Some of the
organic pigments have colors that are highly per-
sistent and therefore they are not removed by
existing treatment methods.
The general practice of the ink formulating indus-
try is to discharge only to municipal sewers. There
are no known discharges of process wastes di-
rectly to waterways.
Control Technology and Costs
As ink formulators do not discharge wastes to
water courses and their wastes are generally con-
sidered to be compatible with municipal treatment
except for problems of brilliant colors and solids,
there are few data available on the waste charac-
teristics. The practices of recycling wastewater
and water conservation can reduce the quantity of
ink waste discharged to the sewers.
The significant parameters for measuring the pol-
lution potential of ink wastes are BOD 5 , COD, pH,
total suspended solids (TSS), heavy metals, and
brilliant color.
As the ink manufacturing plants discharge only to
municipal systems, there is little sophistication in
the treatment methods. The complexity of the
treatment process is a function of the restrictions
applied by the municipality. In areas where high
surcharges are placed on BOD and TSS, there is a
trend toward strict water conservation, reuse, and
disposal of ink solids to landfills.
Sedimentation is the most common treatment me-
thod employed due to the high level of suspended
solids in the wastewater. Flocculation is also used
to increase the effectiveness of removing sus-
pended solids. Neutralization, principally of caus-
tic cleaning solutions, is employed to some
degree.
72
-------
The only wastewaters requiring control in the ink
industry are the wash and rinse solutions resulting
from cleanup. A summary of the costs for the
printing ink industry is shown in Table 4.12—1.
TABLE 4.12-1. PRINTiNG INK FORMULATiNG INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MiLLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1912-77 1977-Ri 1977-83 1977-86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS.... . .... . . ... ...
BPT.... .... . .. .... . . . .. .. . ...... 0.20 1.96 0.58 0.74 0.80
BAT . ... .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS ......... ....... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT . .............. .. . ....... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL.... .. ................... . . . . . . .. 0.20 1.96 0.58 0.74 0.80
MUM. RECOVERY ......... . ..... . .. . ......... . .......... .......... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL... 0.20 1.96 0.58 0.74 0.80
ANP4UAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS .. ... . ...
............ 0.26 0.94 1.23 1.93 3.02
......_._ _.. . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS ..... . ....... ..... . ........... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT . . . .................. . ....... . .. . . . ........ .......... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
...... .. . .. . .... . ... . ...... 0.26 0.94 1.23 1.93 3.02
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS_...... . . . . . .....
BPT.... . ...._........_..... . . . . . .. . .............. . . . . . ..... 0.09 0.22 0.35 0.52 0.78
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
MEW PlANTS ___.. . .._ . .. . . . . . ... . .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL_................... . .... . ......._..... . ........ . ..... . .. 0.09 0.22 0.35 0.52 0.78
INDUSTRY TOTAl 0.34 1.16 1.58 2.45 3.80
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY....._ . . ......._... ....._........... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES .......... . ........ . ..._... . . .......... . ..... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
... . ....—...... . . . ._. . ..._. 0.34 1.16 1.58 2.45 3.80
ALL ANNUM COSTS..... ..._... ........ . . 0.34 1.16 1.58 2.4.5 3.80
NOTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 Of THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION Of: (1) STRAIGHT-tINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
73
-------
4.13 PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS 1NG
The photographic processing subcategory of the
photographic point source category is defined to
include all film processing activities listed under
SIC 7221 (Photographic Studios, Portrait), SIC
7333 (Commercial Photography, Art, and
Graphics), SIC 7395 (Photofinishing Laboratories),
and SIC 7819 (Developing and Printing of Com-
mercial Motion Picture Film).
Nature of the Industry
Of the estimated 12,500 processing plants in the
United States, approximately 3,000 are amateur
operations, 3,000 are “captive” laboratories in
business and industrial firms, 650 are major labs
specializing in work for professional and industrial
photographers, and the remaining plants are por-
trait and commercial studios.
The photographic processing subcategory serves
the photographic trade, the military establishment,
the scientific community, the medical profession,
the dental profession, and the general public in the
developing of films and in photoprinting and en-
larging. Of the estimated 1 2,500 photographic
processing plants in the United States, only 650 of
these facilities are considered major laboratories
with significant wastewater discharges. Approxi-
mately 5 percent of all major photoprocessing
plants are classified as existing point sources and,
therefore, are subject to the effluent limitations
discussed here. The remaining 95 percent of the
plants discharge their wastewater to municipal
treatment systems and are regulated by the pre-
treatment guidelines for those systems.
Plant sizes range from small amateur operations to
the major laboratories which may process as much
as 9,000 square meters (100,000 square feet) of
film and paper daily. Many plants process be-
tween 2,000 and 5,000 square meters (between
25.000 and 50,000 square feet) per day. These
plants are located in urban areas throughout the
Country.
The products produced by the industry are primar-
ily finished color and black and white films and
prints of both, produced in a wide variety of photo-
Processing machines used to finish a specific film
or paper. The nature, basic principles and waste
characteristics of the photographic processing are
the same in all facilities regardless of size and age.
Only the quantity of waste per unit of production
shows a consistent relationship.
Waste Characterization
The raw waste loadings (RWL) for the photopro-
cessing industry were determined from analyses
of samples collected during plant visits. The over-
all industry RWL flow is 1 63 liters per square
meter (4 gallons per square feet); the overall indus-
try RWL BOD 5 is 36.7 grams per square meter
(7.50 lbs per 1,000 square feet) and the overall
industry RWL, COD is 1 23.0 grams per square
meter (25. 1 lbs per 1,000 square feet). The field
survey revealed no full scale secondary treatment
plant installations for stand-alone photographic
processing plants.
Concentrations of the various parameters were
determined from grab samples collected from the
combined wastewater overflows and wash waters
from each process.
The constituents of the wastewater for which RWL
were determined were those parameters which
are frequently present in the wastewater and
which may have significant ecological conse-
quences once discharged. Other parameters
which may be potentially toxic to municipal treat-
ment plants, such as cadmium and chromium
were generally found in trace quantities.
Parameters of major concern are BOO 5 , COD, sil-
ver and cyanides in various forms including com-
plexes (ferrocyanide and ferricyanide).
BOO 5 and COD have been selected as pollutants of
significance because they are the primary mea-
surements of organic pollution. In the survey of the
industrial categories, most of the effluent data
collected from wastewater treatment facilities
were based upon BOO 5 , because most of the end-
of-pipe treatment facilities and municipal treat-
ment systems were biological processes. Where
other processes (such as evaporation, incinera-
tion, activated carbon or physical/chemical) are
utilized, either COO or TOC may be a more appro-
priate measure of pollution.
After varying degrees of in-plant pollution abate-
ment measures which serve as a pretreatment
step most photographic processing plants dis-
74
-------
charge their effluents to municipal sewer systems.
Certain constituents (i.e., silver and cyanide) which
could exert toxic effects on a biological system
and various non-biodegradable material may also
be present. Therefore, in-plant measures or pre-
treatment to reduce the concentrations of such
contaminants to levels acceptable to local authori-
ties must be utilized.
Control Technology and Cost
To avoid substantial economic injury to small busi-
ness concerns, a size exemption for photographic
processing plants handling less than 150 square
meters (1,600 square feet) per day of film was
established. Implicit in the recommended guide-
lines for the photographic processing subcategory
of the photographic point source category is the
use of in-plant control measures to reduce silver
and cyanide. In-plant modifications will lead to
reductions in wastewater flow, increasing the
quantity of water used for recycle, and improving
the raw wastewater quality. In-plant treatment
technologies should be utilized by the photo-
graphic processing subcategory to achieve BPT
effluent limitations and guidelines.
To meet BAT effluent limitations and new source
performance standards, treatment technologies
equivalent to in-plant treatment followed by cyan-
ide destruction, dual-media filtration, and ion ex-
change for silver removal are recommended.
The selection of technology options depends on
the economics of that technology and the magni-
tude of the final effluent concentration. Control
and treatment technology may be divided into two
major groupings: in-plant pollution abatement and
end-of-pipe treatment. Applicable technologies
are outlined as follows:
In-plant Pollution Abatement—Regeneration and
Reuse:
A. Silver Recovery
Metallic Replacement
Electrolytic Recovery
Ion Exchange
Sulfide Precipitation
B. Regenertion of Ferricyanide Bleach
Persulfate Regeneration
Ozone Regeneration
C. Developer Recovery
Ion Exchange
Precipitation and Extraction
D. Use of squeegees (to inhibit carry over from
one tank to next)
E. Use of Holding Tanks (for slow release
rather than dumping)
End-of-Pipe Treatment:
p
A. Biological Treatment
Activated Sludge
Lagoons
B. Physical/Chemical Treatment
Ozonation
Activated Carbon Adsorbtion
Chemical Precipitation
Reverse Osmosis
In-plant modification costs for a 20,000 gpd flow
system which incorporates electrolytic silver re-
covery, squeegees on photoprocessing machines,
and bleach regeneration is approximately
$67,000 on an installed basis. These in-plant con-
trols constitute the BPT treatment model.
A summary of costs for the treatment of photo-
graphic wastes appears in Table 4.13—1.
75
-------
MBLE 4.13-1. PHOTOGRApHIC PROCESSING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1 977...81 1977—83 1977—So
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
aPT 14.47 1.24 1.24 1.24
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 4.35 7.91 14.45
PRETREATMENT .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 6.21 14.47 5.59 9.15 15.69
MUN. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. . ... 6.21 14.47 5.59 9.15 15.69
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT... 2.35 .&46 10.23 15.29 20.90
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS — .. 0.0 0.0 1.38 3.65 9.58
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. 2.35 4.46 11.60 18.94 30.49
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 2.11 3.99 . 1ó 13.73 20.60
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 1.23 3.27 8.58
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 2.11 3.99 10.39 17.00 29.18
INDUSTRY TOTAL 4.46 8.45 21.99 35.94 59.67
MUNIOPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0,0
TOTAL.... .. 4.46 8.45 21.99 35.94 59.67
AU. ANNUAL COSTS .& -46 8.45 21.99 35.94 59.67
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COM8INATION OF: fl) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
76
-------
4.14. TEXTILES INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Thetextile industry includes those establishments
which are engaged in the following operations:
• Spinning of natural and synthetic fibers
into yarn
• Weaving or knitting the yarn into fabric
• Dyeing and finishing of the woven fabric.
Acãording to the Census of Manufacturers in
1972 there were 5,910 establishments engaged
in Such operations. These establishments are lo-
cated primarily along the northeastern seaboard
and throughout the south. Ninety-three percent of
the plants are located in these geographic areas.
The operations are divided into two types Of proc.
esses dry (spinning, weaving, and knitting) and
wet (known collectively as finishing). The wet proc-
esses are the primary producers of waste
effluents.
For the purpose of establishing effluent limitations
guidelines, the textile industry has been divided
intO seven subcategories based upon the raw ma-
terial used and the process employed:
• Wool scouring
• Wool finishing
• Greige mills
• Woven fabric finishing
• Knit fabric finishing
• Carpet mills
• Stock and yarn dyeing and finishing.
Wool scouring is the process of washing the raw
wool with detergent or solvent to remove natural
grease, soluble salts, and dirt. Wool finishing oper-
ations include carbonizing (removing vegetable
matter by treating the wool with sulfuric acid at
high temperatures), rinsing and neutralization, full-
ing (chemical treatment followed by washing and
mechanical working to produce controlled
shrinkage), dyeing and/or whitening or bleaching,
and moth-proofing.
Dry processing mills include greige mills (any mill
making unfinished fabric) and producers of coated
‘fabrics, laminated fabrics, tire cord fabrics, felts,
carpet tufting, and carpet backing.
Woven fabric finishing operations include desiz.
ing (acid or enzyme treatment to remove chemi-
cals applied prior to weaving), scouring, bleach-
ing, mercerizing (treatment with sodium hydroxide
followed by neutralization and washing to in-
crease dye affinity and add tensile strength), car-
bonizing, fulling, dyeing, printing, resin treatment,
waterproofing, flame proofing, soil repellency,
and a number of special finishes.
Knit fabric finishing operations are the same as
woven fabric except for the sizing/desizing and
mercerizing operations which are not required.
Stock and yarn dyeing and 1 nishing require mer-
cerizing but not sizing/desizing. Carpets are made
mostly from synthetic yams. The yarn is looped
through a woven mat backing, dyed or printed,
and then backed with either latex foam or coated
with latex and a burlap-type woven fabric backing
put over the latex. The processing operations per-
formed in commission finishing may be any se-
quence of the operations discussed above.
The basic raw materials used in these manufactur-
ing operations are natural and synthetic fibers.
The natural fibers include wool and cotton and the
synthetic fibers include rayon, acetate, nylon,
acrylic, polyester, polypropylene, and glass fibers.
Mill consumption of these fibers is estimated to
increase 9;1 percent in 1977 from 1976. Con-
sumption by category is forecast as follows: 67
percent synthetics, 32 percent cotton, and 1 per-
cent wool. On a fiber basis, the largest increase is
expected in polyester during the next five years.
The textile industry is anticipating a good business
year for 1977. Sales are projected to increase
8—10 percent from 1976. The annual rate of ship-
ment of products is estimated to reach approxi-
mately $39 billion, a $3 billion increase over last
year. Exports are expected to increase from $2.2
billion in 1976 to $2.4 billion in 1977. However,
imports will still outgain exports. Imports are fore-
cast to increase from $4.9 billion in 1976 to $5.2
billion in 1977. Industry growth has been
projected to be 4.0 percent annually from the
present to 1980. For the period 980 to 1985 the
growth rate has been forecast to decline to ap-
proximately 2.9 percent annually. This decline is
attributed to the expected increase of imports
77
-------
which could account for 50 percent of all product
linesby 1988.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The textile industry discharges 605.3 billion liters
(159.9 billion gallons) of water annually of which
42 percent receives pretreatment. The largest
water uses are woven fabric dyeing and finishing
andyarn and stock dyeing and finishing.
Water is used in the textile industry for the wash-
ing and cleaning of equipment from dry processes
and for the processing and finishing of textile
fabrics from wet processes. About 80 percent of
all the water used in textile wet processing is used
for removing foreign material — either that carried
on the raw material, or that resuJting from process-
ing operations. The waste streams that are gener-
ated from these processes contain a wide variety
of pollutants such as animal and vegetable wastes,
dyes, bleaches, and chemicals.
For the purpose of establishing the effluent guide-
lines for the textile industry, the following parame-
ters have been defined to be of major polluting
significance: total suspended solids, BOD, COD, oil
and grease, color, total chromium, sulfide, phenol,
fecal coliform, and pH.
Control Technology and Costs
The technologies for contro’ and treatment of wa-
terborne pollutants in the textile industry can be
divided into two broad categories: in-process and
end-of-pipe. The in-process technologies include:
• Better housekeeping procedures
• Containment of leaks and spills
• Good maintenance practices
• Segregation and treatment of selected
concentrated wastewater streams.
The end-of-pipe technologies are biological treat-
ment processes that include:
• Activated sludge
• Biological filtration (trickling filter)
• Rotating biological contactor.
Advanced wastewater treatment methods also ap-
plicable to the industry include:
• Phase change processes (distillation and
freezing)
• Physical separation processes (filtration,
reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration and
electrodialysis)
• Sorption systems processes (activated car-
bon and ion exchange)
• Chemical clarification processes.
BPT guidelines are based on preliminary screen-
ing, primary settling, chlorination, better housek-
eeping procedures, and secondary biological
treatment. Processes whose effluents contain
grease, latex, and dyes need pretreatment be-
cause these pollutants interfere with the biological
processes. BAT guideflnes icli e B T techno’-
ogy plus the use of advanced end-of-pipe treat-
ment methods. NSPS guidelines are the same as
BAT.
Control costs are summarized in Table 4. 14—1.
78
-------
TABLE 4. 4-l. TEXTILE INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 977 DOLLARS)
CUMUI.ATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
IP4VESTM ENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS -......
BPT .. _...... ..._. . ... 11.99 42.39 0.43 0.43 0.43
BAT .. ... 0.0 0.0 991.99 1322.65 1322.65
NEW PLANTS . .. . . .. . . . .. ...... 8.90 33.71 37.67 56.43 86.96
PRETREATMENT.. ......_ .. ... 3.32 11.74 0.12 0.12 0.12
SUBTOTAL.... .. .. ..... 24.21 87.84 1030.21 1379.63 1410.16
MON. RECOVERY.... ... ...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL. . . . ....... .. .. ....... 24.21 87.84 1030.21 1379.63 1410.16
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUM CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS ...... ..
BPT .. . . .. .. ......... . ....... 5.57 12.27 22.52 33.78 50.66
BAT . . ._. 0.0 0.0 260.84 608.63 1130.31
NEW PLANTS......... . ... 4.43 10.88 30.15 52.59 96.09
PRETREATMENT...... .. ...... ... . ....... . ... 1.54 3.40 6.24 9.36 14.04
TOTAL..... .. .. ......... . . . . 11.55 26.55 319.74 704.36 1291.10
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS.... . ................. . ....._.......
BPT ... ... . ... . . . ..... 4.38 9.64 17.69 26.53 39.80
BAT .. . ..... .. . .. . .. ._.... . .. . ... .. ...., 0.0 - 0.0 678.32 1582.75 2939.40
NEW PLANTS .. ... ..... 10.04 24.63 68.25 118.75 216.09
PRETREATMENT ........ .... ... . ... 1.45 3.20 5.87 8.80 13.20
TOTAl. ..._ . ._... . ......... . .L. . ... . . . ... . ._...__... 15.87 37.47 770.13 1736.84 3208.49
INDUSTRY TOTAL........... ....... . .. . . . . . . . ...... ... . . . .. 27.42 64.01 1089.87 24.41.19 £499.59
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY.............. . . . ... . . . .... . ..... . .. . .. . .. . . . .. . .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ..................... ._ . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL _ . .... . ... . ................ . .. . . . ... . . . . ....... 27.42 64.01 1089.87 2441.19 . 4.499.59
ALL ANNUAL COSTS............................ . . . ......... 27.42 64.01 1089.87 2441.19 4499.59
r .1OTh COSTS SHOWN FOP YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30Th OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUM CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION 0F (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND 12) INTEREST.
79
-------
5. METALS INDUSTRLES
For the purpose of this report, the Metals Indus-
tries have been defined as those establishments
which are primarily engaged in the mining, refin-
ing, extracting, processing, fabricating or recover-
ing of ferrous and nonferrous metals, and proc-
esses performed by establishments in direct sup-
port of these operations. The industries included
are the:
Ore Mining & Dressing Industries
Iron & Steel Industries
• Ferroalloys
• Bauxite Refining
• Primary Aluminum
• Secondary Aluminum
• Nonferrous Metals
• Electroplating
Costs associated with the implementation of the
FWPCA for the metals industries are summarized
inTable5.-1.
TABLE 5.-i. WATER POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS FOR THE
METALS INDUSTRIES
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
INDUSTRY
1977
ORE MINING AND DRESSING INDUSTRY
152 50
389.59
251.00
251.00
1692.30
IRON & STEEL . ........
FERROAU.OYS
BAUXITE REFINING
PRIMARY ALUMINUM
660.94
1.33
0.0
19.51
1410.22
11.06
52.81
40.45
1.57
0.0
29.21
3.49
3.26
0.0
46.95
7.82
SECONDARY ALUMINUM ..
2.23
1.43
5.20
3.11
—0.01
81.55
0.16
81.55
NON-FERROUS METALS
ELECTROPLATiNG
49.79
887.73
264.74
2177.18
1423.30
2080.04
TOTAL INVESTMENT
ANNUAL COSTS
ORE MU ’4ING AND DRESSiNG iNDUSTRY
1977
84.58
1972—77
145.97
1977—81
603.18
2632.10
1977—86
1340.06
8245.47
IRON & STEEL
407.92
556.66
1714.68
1984.58
38.40
3121.63
50.34
8805.44
113.26
FERROALLOYS —
BAUXITE REFINING
PRIMARY ALUMINUM .....
12.58
15.31
28.31
5.05
82.26
14.73
228.45
44.52
SECONDARY ALUMINUM
NON-FERROUS METALS ..
1.77
3.32
316.31
7.29
751.27
15.47
1771.01
ELECTROPLATING
141.74
81
-------
5.1. ORE MINING AND DRESSING JNDUSTR ES
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were revoked on May 12, 1976. The EPA
believes that the reasons for this action were tech-
nical in nature and that similar regulations differ-
ing only in the pollutant reductions required and
incurring similar costs will be promulgated in the
future. This discussion, therefore, was based on
the costs derived in the support documents for the
present regulations).
The Ore Mining and Dressing Industry category is
defined as including the mining, milling, and be
nefication of the following in the U.S.:
7) ferroalloys ores’
8) uranium, radium, and
vanadium ores’
9) titanium Ore
10) platinum ore’
11) antimony ore’
12) mercury ore
Those subsectors marked with an asterisk cur-
rently have their effluent guidelines reserved, at
the time of this analysis, and have not been investi-
gated. Only BPT effluent guidelines had been pro-
mulgated for the Ore Mining and Dressing cate-
gory. Thus, there are no cost estimates for BAT and
NSPS.
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The production of ore in the U.S. is closely asso-
ciated with the rise and fall of the U.S. Gross
National Product Many subsectors have a small
production rate in the U.S. due to competition with
high grade foreign ores (e.g., ferroalloys) or envi-
ronmental concerns (e.g., mercury). Gold and sil-
ver prospecting activity has increased and, since
gold and silver production is allowed to be sold on
th. open market now, mining activity may in-
crease. For gold, mining in most areas is still not
especially profitable.
Iron Ore
There are presently a total of 58 iron ore mining
operations (39 of these are major operations) in
the United States that mine about 200 million
metric tons (200 million long tons) of crude iron
ore annually. These operations are located in the
states of Wyoming, California, New York, Wiscon-
sin, Alabama, Minnesota, Utah, Pennsylvania,
Michigan, Texas, Georgia, Missouri and Colorado.
Sixteen of these mines are in Minnesota and five
are in Michigan—these account for the major part
of the ore produced in the United States. The
industry’s net production of concentrates in 1976
was 87 million metric tons (87.4 million long tons).
The maximum production was 90 million metric
tons (90.6 million long tons), occuring in 1973.
Copper Ore
Open pit mines produce 83% of the total copper
output with the remainder of U.S. production com-
ing from underground op%rations. Ten percent of
the mined material is treated by dump (heap) and
in-situ leaching. Recovery of copper from leach
solutions by iron precipitation accounted for
87.5% of the leaching production; recovery of
copper by electro-winning amounted to 12.5%.
Production for 1974 was down 7% to 245 million
metric tons (270 million short tons), due mainly to
increased copper prices and labor strikes.
Lead and Zinc Ores
Lead and zinc ores are produced almost exclu-
sively from underground mines. There are some
deposits which are amenable to open pit opera-
tions; a number of mines during their early stages
operated as open-pit mines and then developed
into underground mines. The most common lead
mineral mined in the U.S. is galena (lead sulfide).
This mineral is often associated with zinc, silver,
gold, and iron minerals. There are, however, nu-
merous other minerals which contain zinc. The
more common include sphalerite (zinc sulfide).
zincite (zinc oxide), willemite (zinc silicate), and
franklinite (an iron, zinc, manganese oxide
complex). Sphalerite is often found in association
with sulfides of iron and lead. Other elements
often found in association with sphalerite include
copper, gold, silver, and cadmium. Raw ore
production data are not available from the Mineral
Yearbook, but the NCWQ Report’ 1 cites a 1972
production of 16.0 million metric tons (17.6 mil-
lion short tons) and a 1974 production of 19.4
million metric tons (21.4 million short tons) of raw
ore.
Silver Ore
Current domestic production of new silver is de-
rived almost entirely from exploitation of low-
grade and complex sulfide ores. Only one-fourth of
1) iron ore
2) copper ore’
3) lead/zinc ore’
4) gold ore’
5) silver Ore
6) bauxite ore
82
-------
this production is derived from ores in which silver
lathe chief value and lead, zinc, and/or copper are
valuable byproducts. About three-fourths of the
production is from ores in which lead, zinc, and
copper constitute the principal values, and silver is
a minor but important byproduct. Free-milling—
simple, easily liberated—gold/silver ores, proc.
essed by amalgamation and cyanidation now con-
tnbute only 1 percent of the domestic silver
produced.
Primary recovery of silver is largely from the mm-
eraltetrahedrite, (Cu, Fe, Zn, Ag) 12 Sb 4 S 13 . A tetra-
hedrite concentrate contains approximately 25 to
32 percent copper in addition to the 25.72 to
44.58 kilograms per metric ton (750 to 1 300 troy
ounces per short ton) of silver. A low-grade (3.43
kg per metric ton or 100 troy oz. per short ton)
silver/pyrite concentrate is produced at one mill.
Antimony may comprise up to 1 8 percent of the
tetrahedrite concentrate and may not be extracted
prior to shipment to a smelter. Total 1974
production is estimated at 1 million metric tons
(1.1 million short tons) of ore.
Gold Ore
The domestic production of gold has been on a
downward trend for the last 20 years, largely as a
result of the reduction in the average grade of ore
being mined, ore depletions at some mines, and a
labor strike at the major producer curing 1972.
However, large increases in the free market price
of gold during recent years (from approximately
$70 per troy ounce in 1972 to over $200 per troy
ounce in 1978) has stimulated a widespread in-
crease in prospecting and exploration activity.
In the United States, this industry is concentrated
in eight states: Alaska, Montana, New Mexico,
Arizona, Utah, Colorado, Nevada, and South
Dakota.
Gold is mined from two types of deposits: placer
and lode, or vein, deposits. Placer mining consists
of excavating gold-bearing gravel and sands. This
is currently done primarily by dredging but, in the
past, has included hydraulic mining and drift min-
ing of buried placers too deep to strip. Lode depos-
its are mined by either underground or open-pit
methods, the particular method chosen depend-
ing on such factors as the size and shape of the
deposit, the ore grade, the physical and mineralog-
ical character of the ore and surrounding rock, and
the depth of the deposit.
Bauxite Ore
Bauxite mining, for the eventual production of
metallurgical grade alumina, occurs near Bauxite,
Arkansas, where two producers mined approxi-
mately 1.85 million metric tons (2.05 million short
tons) of ore in 1973. Both operations are asso-
ciated with bauxite refineries, at which purified
alumina (A( 2 0 3 ) is produced. Characteristically,
only a portion of domestic bauxite is refined for
use in metallurgical smelting; one operation re-
ports that only about 10 percent of the alumina it
mines is smelted, while the remainder is destined
for use as chemical and refractory grade alumina.
A gallium byproduct recovery operation occurs in
association with one bauxite mining and refining
complex.
Ferroalloy Ores
The ferroalloy ore mining and milling category
embraces the mining and beneficiation of ores of
cobalt, chromium, columbium and tantalum, man-
ganese, molybdenum, nickel, and tungsten. SIC
1061, although presently including few opera-
tions and relatively small total production, covers a
wide spectrum of the mining and milling industry
as a whole. Sulfide, oxide, silicate, carbonate, and
anionic ores all are, or have been, mined for the
included metals. Open-pit and underground mines
are currently being worked; placer deposits have
been mined in the past and are included in present
reserves. Operations vary widely in scale, from
very small mines and mills intermittently worked
with total annual production measured in hun-
dreds of tons, to two of the largest mining and
milling operations in tne nation. Geographically,
mines and mills in this category are widely scat-
tered,. being found in the southeast, southwest,
northwest, north central, arid Rocky Mountain re-
gions. These operate under a wide variety of cli-
matic and topographic conditions. Historically, the
ferroalloy mining and milling industry production
has undergone sharp fluctuations in response to
variations of the prices of foreign ores, govern-
ment policies, and production rates of other met-
als with which some of the ferroalloy metals in the
U.S. are found. Ferroalloy ores in the U.S. are
usually of lower grade (or more difficult to concen-
trate) than foreign ores and consequently are only
marginally recoverable or uneconomic at prevail-
ing prices. At present, ferroalloy mining and mill-
ing (with the exception of molybdenum) is being
conducted at a very low level of production. In-
creased competition from foreign ores, the deple-
tion of many of the richer deposits, and a shift in
government policies from stockpiling materials to
selling concentrates from stockpiles have resulted
in the closure of most of the mines and mills that
were active in the late 1950’s. For some of the
metals, there is little likelihood of further mining
and milling in the foreseeable future; for others,
increased production in the next few years is
possible.
83
-------
Uranium Ores
Uranium mining practice is conventionaL There
were 122 underground mines as of January 1,
1974, with a typical depth of 200 meters (220
feet). SpEcial precautions for the ventilation of
underground mines reduce the exposure of miners
to radon, a shortlived gaseous radioactive decay
product of radium which can deposit daughter
decay products in miners’ lungs. Because of the
small size of pockets of high-grade ore, open-pit
mines are characterized by extensive develop-
ment activity. At present, low-grade ore is being
stockpiled for future use. Ore stockpiles on poly-
ethylene sheets are heap-leached at several loca-
tions by percolation of dilute sulfuric acid through
the ore. In January. 1974, 33 open-pit mines were
being worked, and 20 other (e.g., heap leaching)
sources were in operation. Because it is uneco-
nomical to transport low-grade uranium ores very
far, mines are closely associated with mills that
yield a concentrate (yellowcake) containing about
90 percent uranium oxide. This concentrate is
shipped to plants that produce compounds of nat-
ural and isotopically enriched uranium for the nu-
clear industry.
Titanium Ores
The principal mineral sources of titanium are ii-
menite (FeTiO 2 ) and rutile (1102). The United States
is a major producer of ilmenite but not of rutile.
Since 1972, however, a new operation in Florida
has been producing rutile (5,964 metric tons or
6,575 short tons, in 1974). About 85 percent of
the ilmenite produced in the United States during
1972 came from two mines in New York and
Florida.
Platinum Ores
The geologic occurrence of the platinum-group
metals as lodes or placers dictates that copper,
nickel, gold, silver, and chromium will be either
byproducts or coproducts in the recovery of plati-
num metals, and that platinum will be largely a
byproduct. With the exception of occurrences in
the Stiliwater Complex, Montana, and production
as a byproduct of copper smelting, virtually all the
known platinum-group minerals in the United
States come from alluvial deposits in present or
ancient stream valleys, terraces, beaches, deltas,
and glaciofluvial outwash. The other domestic
source of platinum is as a byproduct of refining
copper from porphyry and other copper deposits
and from lode and placer gold deposits, although
the grade is extremely low.
Mercury and Antimony Ores
Mercury and antimony ore are currently produced
at two respective mines in the U.S. Antimony
production has fallen because of the state of the
ctjrrent market and availability of foreign supphes.
Mercury production has increased due to the
opening of a large mine in Nevada, currently the
only significant mercury mining operation in the
U.S.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Effluents are generally from two distinct sources:
mine dewatering, and ore-dressing operations
(milling, washing, and separation of ore). The efflu-
ent from dressing operations is usually higher in
suspended solids. Effluents from this industry are
generally high in suspended solids, dissolved met-
als (depending on the solubility of the specific
ores), and small quantities of flotation and floccu-
lation reagents. The suspended solids result from
the opening of geological structures to seepage
and erosion, and from the milling of the ore for
beneficiation.
The wastewaters are generally discharged to a
tailings or settling pond in which the suspended
solids are allowed to settle. A portion of the water
is recycled if possible, and a portion discharged.
Raw tailings wastewater contains on the order of
70,000 to 500,000 mg/i suspended solids. The
settling rates of solids in tailing ponds vary. Ninety-
eight percent of the solids settle rapidly. Howaver,
garillaceous materials present in raw ore and fines
produced in grinding operations settle very slowly.
The principal method of water effluent treatment
consists of settling ponds. Almost all mines and
beneficiation plants use settling ponds and recy-
cle water. The wastewater currently discharged
could be treated by further retention to reduce the
suspended solids content. The retention times in
many of these pond systems, however, are not
sufficient to reduce the level of suspended solids
adequately, particularly during periods of heavy
surface run-off. The basic differences between the
operation of present tailings systems and that
proposed as BPT are the increased retention time
achieved by additional ponds, or clarifiers, coagu-
lation flocculation systems, and the use of lime
neutralization. Some cases will require the de-
struction of cyanides and the selective precipita-
tion of specific metals. Where settling ponds are
not sufficient, filters can be used to augment
treatment.
Table 5.1—1 contains a summary of BPT compli-
ance costs for all the above categories of ore
mining, based on the models and costs identified
in the Guidelines Development Document and as-
suming compliance by July 1,1977.
84
-------
TAELE 5.1-1. ORE MINING AND DRESSING INDUSTRY
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1 972.-77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
3PT 152.50 38959 251.00 251.00 251.00
BAT .. .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS .. .. .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL ....... . — .. 152.50 389.59 251.00 251.00 251.00
MUN. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. 152.50 389.59 251.00 251.00 251.00
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 63.40 124.08 384.13 592.63 844.71
BAT 0.0 0,0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. .. ... . .. 63.40 124.08 384.13 592.63 844.71
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT .. 21.18 21.89 219.05 29.57 495.36
BAT .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT.. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 21.18 21.89 219.05 329.57 495.36
INDUSTRY TOTAL .. .. 84.58 145.97 603.18 922.20 1340.06
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY - .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ..... .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. .. 84.58 145.97 603.18 922.20 1340.06
ALL ANNUAL COSTS 84.58 145.97 603.18 922.20 1340.06
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
REFERENCE
P.L. 92 —500 ”, National Commission on
1. “Cost of Implementation and Capabilities Water Quality, Industry Category 4, July,
of Available Technology to Comply with 1 s 5.
85
-------
5.2 IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were remanded on November 7, 1975 and
on September 14. .1977. The EPA believes that the
reasons for these actions were technical in nature
and that similar regulations differing only in the
pollutant reductions required and incurring similar
costs will be promulgated in the future. This dis-
cussion, therefore, was based on costs derived on
the basis of published regulations and associated
treatment technologies.)
Industry Characteristics.
The iron and steel industry, as defined for the
purposes of analyzing water pollution control
costs, is comprised of 1,931 establishments en-
gaged in processing iron ores, coke, hot metal, pig
iron, scrap, and ferroalloys into finished products
such as sheet, pipe, tube, wire, bars, etc., with and
without galvanized, tinned, or other finishes. The
products of the facilities are included in the Stan-
dard Industrial Classification Codes 331 2-blast
furnaces (including coke ovens), steel works, and
rolling mills; 331 5-steel wiredrawing and steel
nails and spikes; 331 6-cold rolled steel sheet,
strip, and bars; and 331 7-steel pipe and tubes.
The American steel industry historically has been a
major employer of industrial workers. The industry
has consistently employed 2.6 to 3.7 percent of all
persons involved in manufacturing since the end
of World War II.
Raw steel production decreased 1.0 percent from
118 million metric tons (128 million short tons) in
1976 to 115 million metric tons (126.7 million
short tons) in 1977. As a result of a reduction in
producer’s inventories, shipments of steel mill
products increased 2.9 percent from 81.3 million
metric tons in 1976 (89.4 million short tons) to
82.7 million metric tons in 1977 (91 million short
tons). In 1974, the top ten steel companies con-
tributed to over 75 percent of total industry ship-
ments. Table 5.2—1 ranks the major steel compa-
nies by production levels.
The capacity utilization rate for steel production
for 1977 was 77.9 percent. The total capacity was
147.5 million metric tons (162.16 million short
tons). This study projects a zero growth rate for the
peliod 1977—1985 for the iron and steel industry.
This. projection is based on three factors, the pri-
mary factor being that the iron and steel industry
has failed to modernize its facilities. A second
factor which limits the expansion of steel usage is
the substitution of aluminum and plastic for steel.
Finally, the improvements in the quality and dura-
bility of steel have allowed substantial decreases
in the tonnage of steel used.
Historically, iron and steel mills have tended to
concentrate close to raw materials, transportation,
and steel-consuming industries. For these reasons,
many plants have been established in the Great
Lakes region. Approximately 67 percent of the
establishments are located in the Northeast and
North Central parts of the United States.
Future changes in raw materials availability are not
expected to have much effect on the established
geographic concentration patterns. By the late
1950’s. because existing high-grade ore supplies
(50 percent iron content) were becoming deplet-
ed, the industry faced a choice of Importing ores,
seeking out new ore fields in other geographic
areas, or working with the available low-grade ore.
The industry chose to retain production facilities in
existing locations and transport raw materials
from greater distances to production sites. To do
so economically, the industry developed a new
technology, the concentration of lower-grade ore
(25 percent or less iron) to 70 percent iron.
The iron and steel industry has posed some of the
nation’s most serious water pollution problems.
especially where several plants are grouped to-
gether, as in the Mahoning River Basin in Ohio. In
March, 1976, the EPA issued special effluent
TABLE £2—i. Major Steel Copwiiee
by Pv.âuct oa L.’vels
Rank
1 U.S. Steel
2 BethI.*, en
3 Arvnce
4 Republic
5 Na*ionol Steel
6 Inlond
7 Jones & Lau lthn
B Youngstown Sheet and Tube
9 • Wheeling Pittsburgls
10 M .g+sessy Ludlum
Source tele ..cela) .
-------
guidelines for eight steel plants in the Mahoning
Valley. These plants have been allowed substan-
tially lower abatement requirements than those
applied to steel mills in the rest of tha nation.
According to the EPA, enforcement of national
regulations for these older facilities of U.S. Steel.
Republic Steel, and Youngstown Sheet and Tube
would cause “severe economic and employment
disruptions.”
General Description of Iron and
Steelmaking Processes
One step in the manufacturing of iron and steel is
the production of coke. Coke is produced by two
methods. The first method is the by-product or
chemical recovery process. This process consists
of ovens in which bituminous coal is heated, out of
contact with air, to drive off the volatile compo-
nents. The residue remaining in the oven is coke.
The volatile components are recovered and proc-
essed in the by-product plant to produce tar, light
oils, coke oven gas and other materials of potential
value. The second method used to produce coke is
the beehive process. In the beehive process, air is
admitted to the coking chamber in controlled
amounts for the purpose of burning the volatile
products distilled from the coal to generate heat
for further distillation. The beehive oven produces
only coke.
Iron is produced when iron ore, coke, and lime-
stone are charged into a blast furnace. The coke is
used to produce carbon monoxide gas which com-
bines with the ore to produce carbon dioxide gas
and metallic iron. The limestone is used to form a
slag which combines with unwanted impurities in
the ore. The molten iron is periodically withdrawn
from the bottom of the furnace and the molten slag
is skimmed off the top.
The iron is purified into steel in either an open
hearth, basic oxygen, or electric furnace. Each
method generally uses the same type of basic raw
materials to produce steel. The basic raw materials
are hot metal or pig iron, steel scrap, limestone.
burned lime, dolomite, fluorspar, iron ores, and
won bearing materials such as pellets or mill scale.
Depending on the elements added to the basic
raw materials either carbon or alloy steel is
produced.
Steel is further refined by vacum degassing. This
process reduces hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen
content, improves steel cleanliness, allows
Production of very low carbon steel, and improves
the mechanical properties of the steel.
Following refinement, the next step is casting of
the molten steel. Molten steel is cast by two me-
thods. The first process is Continuous casting. In
continuous casting billets, blooms, slabs, and
other shapes are cast directly from the teeming
ladle. The second process is ingot casting. In ingot
casting the molten steel is cast into iron ingot
molds.
The final step is turning the raw steel into products
at finishing mills. Finishing operations include hot
forming and shaping, surface preparation and
scale removal, cold forming and coating, and alloy
and stainless steel pickling and descaling.
For purposes of analyzing water pollution control
costs, there are considered to eb 28 different
categories of operations in the manufacture of
steel products. Operations from the raw materials
yard through ingot and continuous casting are
considered steelmaking processes and are re-
ferred to in this study as “Phase I processes.” Steel
forming and finishing processes include primary
breaking of ingot steel through final end-product
finishing and are referred to as “Phase II opera-
tions.” Table 5.2—2. lists the processes.
The principal source of wastewater pollutants
from the iron and steel industry is cooling water.
Large amounts of water are used in the steel-
making process to cool furnaces and finished
products, and to quench hot coke, slag, etc. Much
of this is “once-through” cooling water, although
blowdown from recirculating systems and baro-
metric condenser water is also present. Chemical
pollution is caused by the addition of chemicals to
the cooling water to inhibit vegetation growth on
the cooling equipment. Chemical pollution is espe-
cially difficult to treat because of the low concen-
tration of chemicals that must be removed from
large volumes of cooling water. Water used in
“semi-wet” air pollution control systems consti-
tutes the second most important source of waste-
water from the iron and steel industry. Other sig-
nificant sources of wasterwater include excess
ammonia liquor and light oil recovery wastes from
byproduct coke-making, and gas cleaning water
from blast furnace operations. The source of
wastewater pollution for Phase I and Phase II oper-
ations are listed in Table 5.2—3.
The parameters considered to be of pollutional
significance are ammonia, BOD5, cyanide, phenol,
oil and grease, suspended solids, and heat.
The treatment technologies available to achieve
the BPT, BAT, and NSPS effuent limitations guide-
lines are summarized in the following listing:
87
-------
Blast furnace 1. Heated furnace cooling water
2. Gas washe, wOter
Basic oxygen furnace 1. Heated furnace cooling water
2. Scrubbing wateri
Open hearth furnace I. Heated furnace cooling water
2. Scrubbing wO$ef3
Electric arc furnace I. Heated furnace cooling water
2. Fume collection cooling water
Vacuum degauing
L Flange cooling wOt r
2. Barometric condenser
cooling water
Row Materials
or,—
Coal yaal
S aa
Cake o,en
Blast furnace
Sisekeoking
T.kê. 5.2-2. Steal Production Psec..,.s
Phase I
Open hearth
Bode asygen furnace
U
Vacuum degossing
— _ u
Ca ons
Co ume —
P*ose II eruhiens
Continuous costing
ingot costing
Pig casting
Hot forming — —
Hot furming - section
Hot forwung —
plot mils
Hot strip mills
P e end tube m
1. Coaling water
1. MInimal sources
. Minimal sources
L Quenching water
Phase II Proceues
L Heat from furnace cooling water
2. Iron oxide rc a 1 .
3. Oils and greases
4. Traces of alloying elements
1. Heat from furnace cooling water
2. Iran oxide scale
3. Oils and greases
4. Troces of alloying elements
1. Heat from fwnace cooling water
2. Iron oxid, r c aie
3. Oils and greases
4. Traces of alloying element
L Heat from cooling water
2. Iron oxide scale
3. Oils and greases
heeokdewv -bleoen
P.. .. . . 1 breakdown- .-bull.ts
heeokdaum-dabs
Hsasy stredurde
Cold folidi.d basi
Wfr,mJ
u —
Notsivipm
Welded pipe
Cold r,dection
Tm p&Is..
Table 5.2—3. S.sec.e of Wat., Pollutants
F ,.. boo sod Stool Precess Opasatlons Pb . .. I
M . I ocesses
1. Ammonid liquor
2. FInal cooling wat o ., .rfto.
3. Light oil , eco.. wastes
e. Indirect cooling water
5. Cok, wharf drainage
6. Coal pil, runoff
L Waste water from wet saubbers
. Ferrous salts
2. Spent sulfuric acid
3. Spent hydrochloric acid
4. Rinse water
CoidroB i ng LOin
2. Heat from roll cooling water
(a) Source: Reference
. ALamo cleaning rinses
2. Sulfuric or hydrochloric acid rinses
3. Chromate or phosphate rinses
4. Sulføtes, chlorides, phosphates,
silicates, zinc. chormium
5. Oils
1. Alkulin. or mineral spirit
_,ng solution
2. Sulfuric or hydrochloric
acid rinses
3. Oils
4. Sulfates, chlorides. iron, lead, tin
1. Spent nitric.hydtofluoric or
nitric acid
1. Rinse water containing hexavalent
chromium as cyanide
By-product Coking: Lime/Neutralization/Single-
State Bioxidation-Areation/M ulti State Biologi-
cal Treatment/Filtration/Recycle
Blast Furnace: Recycle/Cooling Tower Blowdown
— Chlorination/Lime/Neutralization/Filtra-
tion/Carbon Adsorption.
Source: R -L e(1).
Hot coating-
Tern,
Combi..u*a. . acid
Soft bath scale
Ry.fh.4I. t coke
ISikis , e
88
-------
T.bl. 5.2.4. S.wr .. af Weter P&lu$em$.
Pros. Iron and Steel Pn.c*ss Op.rati n, p Batch Sulfuric Concintrote Equalization, Settling Pond
Recover/Reuse
/ Ploc .sses
Sctch Sulfuric Rinse. Reuse/Recyci./
Settling Pond/Recover/Reuse
.ctvic Arc F locculation/Scrubbing- B iowdown Centi,,uoin
Urn, Neutralization, Sedlientotion Sulf ic c . tm
Recover/ Reu .
Bode Oxygen Furnace F loculot ion/Thickening/Neutro lizqtion
Settling, Coagu3at ion Continuous Sulfuric Rinse: Equalizotion/S.ttling Pond
Recover/Reuse
Open llenrt$s: Chemical Flocculation/Recycle
Lime Pr ipitation/N .utaIizat / Batch HC Concentrate Settling Pond/Hauling
Sedtmentation/Oenitnficatloss Recover/Recycle
Csininuous Casting: Recycle/Bed Filter! Botch HC1 Rinse: Settling Pond
Cooling Tower/Oil Skimming Aeration/Settling Lagoon
Bode Oxygen Furnace: Floccu lation/Thiciorn ing/Neutralizatia n Continuous HCT. Settling Pond/Urn,
Settling! Coagulation! Lime Neutralization
Continuous HC Rinse: Equalizoflon/Urne/
P ISS. Ii Adserption/C lorifl cation
Equalization/Ume/Adsarption/Aera tjon
Cold Rol ling: Chemical Treatment/Neutralization
Prisary Hat Farming: Clarification/Flocculation/Neutralization
Carificotion/Flocculation/Filtration
Section lot Forming: Recycie/Oorification/ Costs of Water Pollution Control
Flocculation/Neutralization
Canficotion/Flocculoflon/Fi ltyatiaqj
The determination of the costs of water pollution
Rot Hat Forming: Recycle/Clarificanon/Flocc ula*io n
C arificationlFlocculanonJFi ltraflon control for this large, complex, and highly signifi-
cant industry involved two separate approaches.
Pipes & Tubes: Settling/Adsorption The most recently available published document
Recycle
representing extensive economic analysis by a
Net Coatings: Equa lization/N.utrol izorian/ firm under contract to EPA, but utilizing data from
Precipitation
Equalizatlon/Neutrclization/ numerous sources, was an&yzed in terms of water
Urn. Treolment pollution control costs due to Federal regulations.
Cold Coatings: Equalization/N.utra iization/Precipitation The Costs SO derived are summarized in Table
Equalization/Lime Treatment, Filtration 5.2—4.
89
-------
TABLE 5.2-4. IRON AND STEEl. INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMUI.ATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS......... ...... . ..
BPT _ . . . . -. 487.05 1236.33 451.82 451.82 451.82
BAT .. .. ...... 118.18 116.18 373.80 560.70 841.05
NEW PLANTS . .... 57.7 1 57.71 230.86 346.29 399.43
PRETREATMENT....... . ...... .. . . . . ........ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL........ ...... . ... . . . . ..... 660.94 1410.22 1056.48 1358.81 1692.30
MUN. RECOVERY...... .. ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL...... .. .. . . .... . .. —. 660.94 1310.22 1056.48 1358.81 1692.30
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUM CAPITAl.
EXISTING P1.ANTS .. .. ..
BPT .. ... 162.54 283.70 798.60 1242.43 1908.19
BAT.. . .. .. .. . . ..... .. ........ 15.27 15.27 183.85 349.63 690.30
NEW PLANTS.. . ._..... . . . ... . . .. . .. . ... .. 7.59 7.59 106.23 204.88 378.20
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 • 0.0 0.0
TOTAL — .. ........ 185.40 306.56 1088.78 1796.94 2976.69
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS .. . .......... .......
BPT .. .... _. . . . . ... . .. 365.47 - 1672.24 1849.96 3007.56 4802.06
BAT ... .. __..... . .. 0.0 0.0 103.50 345.00 750.59
NEW PL&NTS.. .. . ...... 5.78 5.78 79.39 154.60 276.10
........ ........ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL.. .. ... ..... 371.26 1678.02 2032.85 3507.16 5828.75
INDUSTRY TOTAL . ........................... 556.66 1984.58 3121.63 5304.10 8105.44
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY.... . . . ._— ... .. . .. . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES.. . ....... .. ... . .._.. ........ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL.. _ ... _.... . . . . . . . . .......... . .... . ...._.... - ..... 556.66 1984.58 3121.63 5304.10 8805.44
ALL ANNUAL COSTS . ._._. . .... . .. 556.66 1984.58 3121.63 5304.10 8805.44
NOTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRMGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND 12 INTEREST.
90
-------
5.3 FERROALLOY INDUSTRY
The ferroalloy industry produces most of its
products through electric-furnace smelting, exot-
hermic refining, and electrolytio. processing.
The products of electric-furnace smelting and/or
exothermic refining include such products as fer-
rosilicon, silicon metal, ferromanganese, silico-
manganese, ferromanganese-silicon, ferrochromi-
urn. ferrochrome-silicon, calcium-silicon, ferrotita-
nium, ferrovanadium, ferrocolumbium, and silico-
manganese-zirconium. The products of the elec-
trolytic process are primarily manganese, manga-
nese dioxide, and chromium.
Since electric-furnace smelting is also the manu-
facturing process for calcium carbide, and the
largest producers of calcium carbide are ferroalloy
companies, calcium carbide is considered within
the ferroalloy industry (rather than the inorganic
chemicals industry) for pollution abatement con-
siderations. The products of the ferroalloy industry
are classified in SIC 3313 (Electrometallurgical
Products); calcium carbide appears in SIC 2819
(Industrial Inorganic chemicals, Not Elsewhere
Classified).
The total industry Consists of 24 companies oper-
ating 42 plants, most of which are located east of
the Mississippi River. A total of 138 furnaces (22
companies) produce ferroalloys and 7 furnaces (4
companies) produce calcium carbide.
For purposes of establishing water effluent limita-
tion guidelines and standards of performance, the
industry has been divided into the following
categories: -
A. Ferroalloy Smelting and Refining Segment
1. Open Electric Furnaces with Wet Air
Pollution Control Devices
2. Covered Furnaces and Other Smelting
Operations with Wet Air Pollution Con-
trol Devices
3. Slag Processing
B. Calcium Carbide Segment
1. Covered CaC 2 Furnaces with Wet Air
Pollution Control Devices
2. Other (i.e., Open) Calcium Carbide
Furnaces
C. Electrolytic Segment
1. Electrolytic Manganese
2. Electrolytic Manganese Dioxide
3. Electrolytic Chromium
Most of the water usage by this industry is for
noncontact cooling purposes. From 700 to 5000
gallons per minute (or 3000 to 11.000 gallons per
megawatt-hour) may be used to cool the furnace
and components of the electrical systems. The
largest source of water-borne pollutants in the
ferroalloy smelting and refining segment and the
calcium carbide segment related to the use of wet
methods (e.g., wet scrubbers and precipitators) to
control air pollution. Scrubbers are the principal
wet air pollution control device (APCD) presently
used in the industry. Scrubber water usage ranges
from about 500 to 3500 gallons per megawatt-
hour.
The ferroalloy and calcium carbide segments are
further divided and categorized based upon the
furnace operation being of the open or closed
type. In the open furnace operation, the carbon
monoxide rich off-gas is combusted at the top of
the furnace mix and the burned gases plus excess
air are subsequently ducted to the air pollution
control device. In the closed-type operation, the
furnace is covered to exclude air from the furnace
interior. However, as the closed furnace gases to
be cleaned are uncombusted, they contain compo-
nents such as cyanide and phenols, which are not
found in appreciable amounts in the open-furnace
off-gases. Additional water treatment is required
for the effluent from wet pollution control devices
(APCD) serving closed furnaces.
Slag processing is an additional source of water
pollution in several of the ferroalloy plants. As it
represents an additional source of water pollution,
slag processing is introduced as a separate subca-
tegory. Thus, in the case of the ferroalloy and
calcium carbide smelting and refining segments,
the preferred categorization factor for water efflu-
ent considerations is the type of furnace equip-
ment (i.e., open or closed furnace, dry or wet
APCD) and the auxiliary processing (i.e.. slag proc-
essing) utilized.
91
-------
Tabi. £3— I. F.rroalloy Industry Pollutants
The preferred basis for water effluent characteri-
zation and treatment for the electrolytic segment
of the industry is by product, i.e., manganese (Mn),
manganese dioxide (Mn0 2 ) or chromium(Cr).
It should be noted and appreciated that many of
the large ferroalloy plants have concurrent in-plant
operations which fall in several of the water efflu-
ant categories and subcategories. Thus, as pro-
posed by EPA, the water guidelines and perfor-
mance standards may be applied to specific plants
on the basis of a “building block” or unit operation
approach, with the total plant effluent limitations
based on the summation of each pollutant in each
category. The same approach is taken for costing
the required water treatment systems for a multi-
operation plant As expected, the costs associated
with the treatment of a particular plant’s wastewa-
tar are best determined through detailed engineer-
ing and cost analysis for the specific plant and
operation.
Open Electric Furnaces
with Air Pollution
Control Devices
Covered Electric
Furnace and other
5_ o_
wills Wet Air
Pollution Control Devices o
Slag Processing
Qased CoCO 2 Furnace
Electrolytic Manganese
155
Chromium Total
Chromium VI
Mongnese Total
15$
Chromium Total
Chromium VI
Manganese Total
Cyanide Total
Ph.nol s
TSS
Chromium Total
Manganese Total
TS S
Cyanide
TSS
Manganese
Chromium
P4 11 3 -N
The water pollutants to be controlled for each
segment are presented in Table 5.3—i. The
achievement of BPT limitations for all segments is
based upon physical/chemical treatments, while
BAT limitations require physical/chemical treat-
ment plus partial recycle of water.
Water Pollution Control Costs
The estimate of water pollution control costs re-
ported here were developed on the basis of a
plant-by-plant review to determine the type of air
pollution control device (wet or dry) in use, and the
use of published costs of water pollution control
for some specific plants. Where published data
were not available, engineering estimates of costs
based on cost factors from Guideline Develop-
ment Documents were applied. The costs listed in
Table 5.3—2. are largely involved by that portion of
industry using wet air pollution control devices.
92
-------
TABLE 5.3-2. PERROALLOY INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT ..... 1.33 11.06 0.81 0.81 0.31
BAT 0.0 0.0 . 0.65 1.94 1.94
NEW P1_ANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT .. ......... ..... 0.0 0.0 0.11 0.34 0.51
SUBTOTAL . 1.33 11.06 1.57 3.09 3.26
MUN. RECOVERY .. . . - . .. 0.0 • 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
.. — ....... 1.33 11.06 1.57 3.09 3.26
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXIST 1NG PLANTS
8PT 1.67 5.64 7.10 10.65 15.98
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.09 0.51 1.45
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.01 0.09 0.28
TOTAL 1.67 5.64 7.20 11.25 17.70
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS .. ..
SPY .. 3.89 10.88 22.29 34.25 52.20
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.14 5.64
NEW PLANTS . ...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. 3.89 10.88 22.29 35.40 57.84
INDUSTRY TOTAL .. 5.56 16.32 29.49 46.65 75.54
MUNIOPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY . .. ...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
.. ... 5.56 16.52 29.49 4663 75.54
AU. ANNUAL COSTS .. .. ....... 5.56 16.52 29.49 46.65 75.34
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.LINE DEPRECiATION AND (21 INTEREST.
93
-------
5.4 BAUXITE REFINING INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
There are nine U.S. bauxite refineries owned by
five primary aluminum producers. Bauxite refining
is done only by these primary aluminum produc-
ers. usually in very large-scale installations.
Size range distribution and alumina production
capacities of the refineries are classified as: small
(less than 500,000 metric tons — 550,000 short
tons per year). medium (500,000 to 1,000,000
metric tons — 555,000 to 1,000,000 short tons,
per year). and large (>1,000,000 metric tons —
1,000000 short tons, per year).
The bauxite refining industry is a subcategory of
the aluminum segment of the nonferrous metals
industry. Bauxite is the principal ore of aluminum
and the only one used commercially in the United
States. It consists of aluminum oxide (hydrated)
and contains various impurities, such as iron ox-
ide, aluminum silicate, titanium dioxide, quartz,
and compounds of phosphorous and vanadium.
Two processes are used in alumina refining: the
Bayer process and the combination process.
The Bayer process is classiciaHy used in the United
States. Impure alumina in the bauxite is dissolved
in a hot, strong alkali solution (generally NaOH), to
form sodium aluminate. Upon dilution and cool-
ing, the sodium aluminate hydrolyzes, forming a
precipitate of aluminum hydroxide which is fil-
tered and calcined (roasting or burning to bring
about physical or chemical changes) to alumina
(pure).
The combination process is applied to high-silica
bauxites. It is similar to the Bayer process but
includes an additional extraction step. This is ac-
complished by mixing the red mud residue from
the prior step with limestone and sodium carbon-
ate, and then sintering this mixture at 1 100 to
1200C (2000F-2200F). Silica is converted to
calcium silicate and residual alumina to sodium
aluminata. The sintered products are leached to
produce additional sodium aluminate solution,
which is either filtered and added to Ihe main
stream for precipitation or is precipitated sepa-
rately. The residual solids (brown mud) are slurried
to a waste lake.
The United States produced 1.8 million metric
tons (2 million short tons) of bauxite ore in 1975;
1976 production is estimated at 2.0 million metric
tons (2.2 million short tons) and will probably
remain near this figure. Imports will remain in the
range of 12—15 million metric tons (13—17 million
short tons... annually, plus an additional 85
thousand metric tons (94 thousand short tons)
imported from the Virgin Islands.
Higher taxes and levies on imported bauxite have
increased the interest in the possible use of alter-
native materials located in the United States to
produce alumina. Efforts to use domestic sources
of raw materials, such as clays, alunite. and anor-
thosite, are increasing, and a U.S. producer is now
using a Soviet process termed successful in ref in-
ing alumina from alunite.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The primary waste from a bauxite refinery is the
gangue (worthless rock) from the ore, known as
red or brown mud, that is produced in large quanti-
ties. From about one-third to one ton of red mud or
2 to 2 1/2 tons of brown mud is produced per ton
of alumina.
The principal wastewater streams in a bauxite
refinery are the following: red mud stream, spent
liquor, condensates, barometric condenser cool-
ing water, and storm water runoff.
The major process waste is the mud residue. The
Bayer process produces a red mud while the com-
bination process treats this mud and forms a
brown mud. However, these differences do not
alter the problem of disposal.
Wastewater parameters used for determining ef-
fluent guidelines include: alkalinity, pH, total dis-
solved solids, total suspended solids, and sulfate.
Mud residue resulting from process operations is
produced on a large scale (500 to nearly 4,000
metric tons or 550 to nearly 4,400 short tons, per
day). Use of wastewater recycle systems, along
with complete waste retention, will eliminate the
discharge of all process wastewater pollutants to
receiving waters.
The guidelines for all three levels of control (B PT,
BAT and NSPS) are essentially zero discharge of
94
-------
process wastewaters to navigable waters. To &-
low for certain climatic conditions, the guidelines
permit a bauxite refining plant to discharge an
amount of water equal to the amount by which
rainfall exceeds the natural evaporation. This
amount is applicable to only that rainfall landing
directly in impoundment areas, such as active and
dormant mud lakes and neutralization lakes.
Control Technology and Costs
Since enormous quantities of aqueous waste sus-
pensions are generated in bauxite refining, no
practicable or currently available treatment or con-
trol technology for these wastes exists, except for
impoundment. In all but two plants, a large diked
area for impounding the red mud has been made
available. Wastes containing high alkalinity or
acidity can be neutralized, but this leads to the
creation of dissolved so’ids. Mud and other pollu-
tants from refining, however, can be impounded in
a red mud lake system. Cooling towers may be an
alternative for the cooling water supply for baro-
metric condenser effluents.
Two plants are known to be operating currently
with no discharge of water. Four other plants have
prepared or are implementin’g plans to achieve a
status of no discharge of process waters before
the effective date of effluent limitations. Two
plants are currently discharging all wastes, but are
implementing plans to impound red mud.
TABLE 5.4-4 BAUXITE
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS,
aPT
BAT
NEW PLANTS
REFINING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1!Z 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
SUBTOTAL
NUN. RECOVERY..
TOTAL
ANN(JAUZEO COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS.
apT
RAT
NEW PLANTS...
PRETREATMENT.
TOTAL
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT
BAT
NEW PLANTS
PRETREATMENT
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
52.81
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
52.81
0.0
6.94
0.0
0.0
0.0
24.30
0.0
0.0
0.0
27.78
0.0
0.0
0.0
41.66
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.94
24.30
27.78
41.66
5.64
0.0
0.0
0.0
14.10
0.0
0.0
0.0
22.56
0.0
0.0
0.0
33.84
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.64
22.56
33.84
1977—86
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
62.49
0.0
0.0
0.0
62.49
50.76
0.0
0.0
0.0
50.76
113.26
0.0
0.0
113.26
113.26
INDUSTRY TOTAL 12.58
MUNICIPAL
CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY 0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
12.58 38.40 50.34 75.51
ALL ANNUAL COSTS 12.58 38.40 50.34 75.51
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COM8INATJON OF: (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
95
-------
5.5 PRIMARY ALUMINUM SMELTING INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The primary aluminum industry has three
production stages: bauxite mining, bauxite refin-
ing to produce alumina (aluminum oxide), and the
reduction of alumina to produce aluminum metal;
this last state is commonly known as aluminum
smelting.
The reduction of alumina to produce aluminum
metal is carried out in electrolytic cells, or pots.
that are connected in series to form a pottine. The
facility containing a number of potlines is referred
to as the potroom. The electr.olysis takes place in a
molten bath composed principally of cryolite,
which is a double fluoride of sodium and alumi-
num. Alumina is added to the bath periodically. As
electrolysis proceeds, aluminum is deposited at
the cathode, and oxygen is evolved at the carbon
anode. The oxygen reacts with the carbon to
produce a mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide while the anode is consumed.
Two methods of replacing the anodes are prac-
ticed; these are referred to as the prebaked anode
(intermittent replacement) and the Soderberg an-
ode (Continuous replacement). For either system,
the anode preparation begins in the anode paste
plant, where petroleum coke and pitch are hot-
blended For prebaked anodes, the anode paste is
pressed in molds, and the anodes are baked in the
anode bake plant. The baked anodes are used to
replace consumed anodes, and the anode butts
are returned to the anode preparation area. In the
Soderberg anode system, the anode paste is not
baked initially, but is fed continuously through a
tublar steal sleeve into the pot. As the paste ap-
proaches the hot bath, the paste is baked in place
to form the anode. Soderberg anodes are sup-
ported in the sleeves by vertical or horizontal
studs.
The continuous evolution of gaseous reaction
products from the aluminum reduction cell yields a
large volume of fumes that require ventilation sys-
tems for removal from the potroom. The ventila-
tion air must be scrubbed to minimize air pollution
and both dry and wet scrubbing methods are used
for this purpose. Water from wet scrubbers, used
for air pollution control on potroom ventilation air,
is the major source of wastewater in the primary
aluminum industry.
The liquid aluminum produced is tapped periodi-
cally, and the metal is cast in a separate cast-house
facility. The molten metal is degassed before cast-
ing by bubbling chlorine or a mixed gas through
the melt. The chlorine degassing procedure also
produces a fume which must be scrubbed for air
pollution control.
A few aivmtnum smelters have metal fabrication
facilit es, such as rod mills, rolling mUls, etc., on
the primary reduction plant site. Since these metal
fabrication operations will be covered under sepa-
rate effluent limitations, they are not covered by
this report.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
As mentioned previously, the major source of
wastewater in the primary aluminum smelting in-
dustry is the water used in air pollution control
equipment (scrubbers) that are installed on potlirie
and potroom ventilation air systems. Scrubbers
are also used on anode bake furnace flue gas, and
on cast-house gases. Other significant sources of
wastewater include: cooling water used in casting,
rectifiers, and fabrication; boiler blowdown; and
storage area run-off, especially water contami-
nated with fluoride from spent cathodes.
Significant pollutants from the primary aluminum
smelting industry for the purposes of establishing
effluent limitations guidelines are: fluoride, total
suspended solids, and pH. Other wastewater poUu-
tants identifiable with the industry, but not consid-
ered significant, include: oil and grease, cyanide
- dissolved solids, chloride, sulfate, chemical oxy-
gen demand, temperature, and trace metals.
Control Technology and Costs
The existing technologies for controlling wastewa-
tar volume in this industry include dry fume scrub-
bing, and recycling of water to wet scrubbers after
precipitation by lime or alum, absorption on acti-
vated alumina or hydroxyapatite, and reverse os-
mosis. Table 5.5—1 summarizes the present and
potential control and treatment technologies for
the primary aluminum smelting industry.
96
-------
Table 5.3 — I.
Primary Aluminum Smelting lndu try Control Technology
Wostewater Source
Pot Iprimary) wet scrubber
Pot (primary) wet scrubber
Pot (primary) wet scrubber
Pot (primary) wet scrubber
Potroam (secondary) wet scrubber
Potroom (secondary) wst scrubber
Cast l ou . wet scrubber
Anod, bake plant plant w.t
Past. plant wet scrubber
Cost bout. cooling
R .ctifler cooling
Rainfall runo
Present Practsce
Discharge without
treatment
Discharge without
treatment
Lime and settle
once —through
Cryolite or lime
precipitation with
recycle
Discharge without
treatment
Lim, and settle
once —through
Settle
Settle
Settle
Discharge without treatment
Discharg. without treatment
Discharg, without treotment
Possible
Added Control
Convert t dry
scrubbing
Install cryolite or
with bleed
Install recycle with
bleed
Install cryolite
or lim, precipitation
plus recycle
Install recycle
adsorption
Convect to alternate
degassing
Recycle
Recycle
close loop
Convect to air.
cooled rectifiers
Route to cryolite
recovery and recycle
Possible
Added Treatment
Install lime treatment of
lime precipitation
Install alumina adsorption
Install lime treatment of
bleed stream
Install alumina
Plocculate and aerate
Cooling tower
Cooling tower
Reproduc.d from EPA Development Document; March 1974.
BPT includes the treatment of wet scrubber water
and other fluoride-containing effluents to precipi-
tate the fluoride, followed by settling of the precip-
tate and recycling of the clarified liquor to the wet
scrubbers. A holding pond or lagoon might also be
necessary to minimize the discharge of suspended
solids. Precipitation methods currently available
use lime. Alternate control technologies which can
be employed to achieve the required effluent lev-
els include dry fume scrubbing, total impound-
ment, and reuse of effluent water by a companion
operation.
The application of the BPT described above results
in a relatively low-volume, high-concentration
bleed stream from the recycling system. BAT is
lime or calcium chloride precipitation treatment of
the bleed stream to further reduce the discharge
of fluorides. Use of this technology assumes that
the volume of fluoride-containing effluent is re-
duced to approximately 5,000 liters per metric ton
(1,200 gallons per short ton) of aluminum. Alterna-
tively, volumes as high as 50,000 liters per metric
ton (12,000 gallons per short ton) of aluminum
may be possible if the effluent is treated by absorp-
tion methods (activated alumina or
hydroxyapatite).
NSPS technology assumes the application of dry
fume scrubbing systems or, alternatively, wet
scrubbing equipment together with total impound-
ment or total recycling of the scrubber water. The
treatment for fluoride and suspended solids re-
moval is essentially the same as for BPT above.
The NSPS require the restriction of the discharge
volume to 835 liters per metric ton (200 gallons
per short ton) of aluminum with a final fluoride
concentration of 30 mg per liter; or an equivalent
combination of fluoride level and volume. Alterna-
tives for reducing water use and pollutant levels
include air-cooled, solid state rectifiers; non-
chemical methods of molten metal degassing; and
careful cleaning of the anode butts before
recycling.
Approximately two-thirds of the primary aluminum
smelting plants in the United States are currently
operating with discharge levels of pollutants
within theJuly 1977 guidelines.
97
-------
TABLE 5.5-2. PRIMARY ALUMINUM INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(1$ MILUONS OF 977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977-83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS .. .... .. ..
....... . . .. 17.90 35.79 0.75 0.75 0.75
... . .. . . . ... . . . . . .. 0.0 0.0 21.34 28.45 28.45
NEW PINTS.................... _ . . . .. . . . 1.61 4.66 7.12 11.13 17.75
PRETREATMENT _......................._ ...... .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
$UBTOTAL.... .... . ..___......... .......... 19.51 40.45 29.21 40.33 46.95
MUN. RECOV RY. ............ . ....... . .... ... . ....... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 19.51 40.45 29.21 40.33 46.95
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAl.
EXISTING PtANTS ..... . . . . . ..
EPT.... _. . . . ... . . .. .. . ... . ._. 4.71 8.68 19.12 28.72 43.13
... .... 0.0 0.0 3.61 13.09 24.32
NEW PLANTS .......... .. ..._ . . ... .... . .. . . . .. 0.61 1.21 4.74 8.63 16.57
PRETREATMENT..... ......... ..... ...... ........ 0.0 0.0 ‘ 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTM....... . . .. . .. 3.32 9.88 29.47 50.44 84.02
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS ._. . ..
891 .. — . . . ._. . . .. — 9.99 18.42 40.59 60.99 91.39
...... ....... . . ......... . . . . ... . . . .. 0.0 0.0 12.19 28.45 32.84
NEW PLANTS .. . ........ . .._...._......_ —.. . .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
P2ETREA1MENT............... .........._. . ........ . ......... ..... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL... ... . .. . . . ._. . ... . .. . .. . .. . . . ._ . .. . . 9.99 18.42 32.78 8944 144.43
INDUSTRY TOTAL.......... . .__. . ........... . ....... 5.31 28.31 82.26 139.89 228.45
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY . .. . ..... . ............. . ............... . .. . ....... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .... .._. ........... . ...... . ...... 15.31 28.31 82.26 139.89 228.45
AU. ANNUM COSTS...._....... . ._.............. 15.31 28.31 82.26 139.89 228.45
p10Th COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATiON AND (2) INTEREST.
98
-------
5.6 SECONDARY ALUMINUM SMELTiNG iNDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The secondary aluminum industry comprises an
estimated 54 firms with 66 plants. Other sources
list the industry as having more plants, but these
numbers include sweaters, scrap dealers, and non-
integrated fabricators. For purposes of this report.
the number of plants reported excludes these por-
tions of the industry as they do not employ any of
the processes included in the effluent limitations
guidelines.
The secondary aluminum smelting industry is a
subcategory of the aluminum segment of the non-
ferrous metals manufacturing category. This in-
dustry recovers, processes, and remelts various
grades of aluminum-bearing scrap to produce me-
tallic aluminum or an aluminum alloy as a product.
This product is used primarily to supply the follow-
ing industries: construction, aircraft, automotive,
electrical equipment, beverage cans, and fabri-
csted metal products (which includes a wide vari-
ety of home consumer products). The largest user
of secondary aluminum ingot is the automotive
industry.
Secondary aluminum ingot is produced to specifi-
cations; melting to specification is achieved
mainly by segregating the incoming scrap into
alloy types. The magnesium contained in the scrap
is removed, as desired, by a chlorine-gas treatment
(demagging) in a reverberatory furnace.
The estimated 1973 capacity was approximately
967,000 metric tons (1.07 million short tons). The
top four firms account for about 50 percent of the
capacity.
Estimated production of secondary aluminum in-
got has increased at the average rate of 5.3 per-
cent annually for the period 1963 to 1971. How-
ever, domestic secondary recovery in 1974 was
reported by the 1976 U.S. Industrial Outlook to be
1.18 million metric tons (1.30 million short tons)
and in 1975 was estimated to increase by 10
percent to about 1.3 million metric tons (1.43
million short tons).
Increased emphasis on recycling should cause
more metal to become available to secondary pro-
ducers. Also, since the decontrol of aluminum
Scrap in December 1973, increased quantities of
waste and scrap have improved the production
rate and price structure.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Wastewaters are generated by the following proc-
esses: (1) ingot cooling and shot quenching,
(2) scrubbing of furnace fumes during demag-
ging, and (3) wet milling of residues or residue
fractions.
The following are the primary wastewater pollu-
tants discharged by the above processes: oil and
grease, suspended and dissolved solids, and salts
of aluminum and magnesium.
In metal cooling, molten metal in the furnace is
usually either cast into ingot or smaller (sow)
molds or is quenched into shot. Ingot molds are
sprayed while on conveyor belts to solidify the
aluminum and allow its ejection from the mold.
Shot is solidified by having metal droplets fall into
a water bath. The wastewater generated is either
vaporized, discharged to municipal sewerage or
navigable waters, recycled for some period and
discharged (6-month intervals), continuously recy-
cled with no discharge, or discharged to holding
ponds.
Fume scrubbing is necessitated when aluminum
scrap contains a higher percentage of magnesium
than is desired for the alloy produced. Magnesium
removal, or “demagging”, is done either by pass-
ing chlorine through the melt (chlorination) or with
aluminum fluoride. When magnesium is extracted,
heavy fuming results; this requires passing the
fumes through a wet scrubbing system. Water
used in scrubbing picks up pollutants, primarily in
the scrubbing of chlorine demagging fumes.
Residue processing takes place in the industry
since residues are composed of 10 to 30 percent
aluminum, with attached aluminum oxide fluxing
salts (mostly NaCI and KG!), dirt, and various other
chlorides, fluorides, and oxides. The metal is sepa-
rated from the non-metals by milling and screen-
ing (which is performed either wet or dry). In wet
milling, the dust problem is minimized but the
resulting waste stream is similar in make-up to
scrubber waters but more concentrated in dis-
solved solids. Water is passed into a settling pond
before discharge.
99
-------
The major wastewater parameters stem from two
wastewater streams: wet milling of residues and
fume scrubbing. Pollutant parameters for waste-
water from wet milling of residues include: total
suspended solids, fluorides, ammonia, aluminum,
copper, COD, and pH. Pollutant parameters for
wastewater from fume scrubbing include: total
suspended solids, COD, and pH.
Control Technology and Costs
Approximately 10 percent of the industry is cur-
rently discharging directly to navigable waters.
The majority of the industry discharges effluents
to municipal treatment worlcs, usually with some
pretreatment.
Currently, some plants are utilizing various control
alternatives for each of the three major wastewa-
tar sources. The control technologies required to
meet BPT and BAT are as follows:
BPT
Metal Cooling
Air cooling or continuous recycling of cooling
water with periodic removal, dewatering, and
disposal of sludge.
Fume Scrubbing
Chlorine Fume Scrubbing (for magnesium removal
using chlorine): pH adjustment and settling. Flu-
oride fume scrubbing (for magnesium removal
using aluminum fluorides): pH adjustment, set-
tling, and total recycling.
Residue Milling
Adjustment of pH with settling and water recycle.
p
Metal Cooling
BAT
Air cooling, water cooling (for complete
evaporation), and total use and recycle of cool-
ing water by use of settling and sludge
dewatering.
Fume Scrubbing
Use of aluminum fluoride for magnesium removal,
and entrapment of fumes without major use of
water, using alternatives such as the Alcoa
process,, Derham process or the Tesisorb
process.
Residue Milling
Dry milling, and a water recycle, evaporation, and
salt reclamation process.
Control costs are summarized in Table 5.6—1.
100
-------
TABLE 5.6 —1. SECONDARY ALUMINUM INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 1.79 3.59 0.07 0.07 0.07
BAT 0.0 0.0 1.41 1.88 1.88
NEW PLANTS 0.44 1.61 2.00 3.18 5.86
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 2.23 5.20 3.49 5.14 7.82
MUN. RECOVERY o.o 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 2.23 5.20 3.49 5.14 7.82
ANP4UAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
aPT 0.47 0.87 1.92 2.88 4.32
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.37 0.87 1.61
NEW PLANTS 0.21 0.51 1.49 2.67 5.20
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 0.68 1.38 3.77 6.41 11.14
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT .. 1.25 2.31 5.10 7.66 11.50
BAT .. 0.0 0.0 1.95 4.56 8.46
NEW PLANTS 0.56 1.33 3.91 7.00 13.42
PRETREATMENT .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. 1.81 3.67 10.95 19.22 33.38
INDUSTRY TOTAL 2.49 5.05 14.73 25.63 44.52
MUNIOPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY 0.0 - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 2.49 5.05 14.73 25.63 44.52
ALL ANNUAL COSTS 2.49 5.05 14.73 25.o3 4.4.52
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30Th OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT4INE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
101
-------
5 7 OTHER NONFERROUS METALS INDUSTRIES
The categories studied vary in terms of production
processes, raw material sources, reagents used,
and the treatment necessary for the resultant
waste streams. They are, therefore, discussed
separately.
Primary Magnesium
Today the primary magnesium industry is located
in the states of Texas, Utah, and Washington. In
1973, domestic production of primary magne-
sium was 111,068 metric tons (122,431 short
tons); more recent data have been withheld.
Production and consumption of magnesium have
increased over the past 8 years. The price has
continued to increase during the 1 970s.
The primary magnesium industry encompasses
four companies with a total rated annual capacity
of 195 thousand metric tons (215 thousand short
tons). One of these will be using the magnethermic
production process (a type of ferrosilicon reduc-
tion process) and begar production in 1976. An-
other, after a shutdown in mid-i 971 to comply
with air quality requirements, has resumed
production.
Electrolytic Processes
At this writing, only electrolytic processes are be-
ing used to produce magnesium commercially. In
the electrolytic processes, magnesium chloride is
decomposed by electrolysis to produce elemental
magnesium and chlorine. Three magnesium-
bearing materials are the raw materials for electro-
lytic processes in the United States today; seawa-
ter, lake brine, and well brine. Various methods for
concentration of magnesium, depending on the
raw material type, are used in the preparation of
feed for the electrolytic cells. Cell-feed makeup is
basically chlorides of magnesium, calcium, and
sodium. Depending on cell design, small amounts
of other chlorides are added to increase conductiv-
ity and density and reduce the electrolyte melting
point, resulting in higher cell efficiency.
Magnetherrnic Processes
The magnethermic process, a unique type of ferro-
silicon reduction process using dolomite, is em-
ployed at one commercial magnesium plant that
started production in 1976. The process uses an
electric furnace for the heating of a liquid slag
made up of dolomite, ferrosilicon, and alumina.
Preheated materials are introduced into the fur-
nace in granular or powdered form. Under re-
duced pressure, magnesium condenses on the
walls of a chamber attached to the furnace, and is
collected.
Primary Columbium (Niobium) and
Tantalum
General
p
Columbium and tantalum refiners in the United
States produce a variety of products, including
metal powders and ingots, purified salts, and al-
loys, from ore concentrates and from alloys con-
taining columbium and tantalum. Essentially all
production of the metals, alloys, and salts is from
imported raw materials. Columbium, produced as
metal, oxide, or ferrocolumbium, is used primarily
as an alloying agent in the production of high-
strength steels. The dominant use of tantalum is in
the electronics industry for the production of ca-
pacitors, although usage in chemical equipment,
in nonferrous alloys, and in metal cutting tools (as
the carbide) is also significant.
Total U.S. columbium shipments for 1975, the last
year for which statistics are available, amounted to
482 thousand kg (1,064 thousand pounds) of con-
tained columbium, almost 90 percent of which
was in the form of ferrocolumbium. Tantalum ship-
ments totaled 392 thousand kg (865 thousand
pounds). Seventy-five percent of that total was
tantalum metal in the form of powder, anodes,
ingots, and mill products. Production and con-
sumption of both metals is expected to continue to
increase through the year 2000, with prices (in
constant dollars) remaining fairly stable at about
current levels of about $ 1 8-$45/pound for colum-
bium and $ 35-S 120 for tantalum products.
Overall Process Technology
U.S. plants processing columbium and tantalum
vary widely in raw materials and end products.
Representatives of the industry, as listed by the
U.S. Bureau of Mines, include producers and users
of ferrocolumbium and the three groups below
which are considered in this document:
• Producers of metals and salts from concen-
trates and slags
102
-------
• Producers of only purified salts from con-
centrates and slags
• Producers of metals and carbides from Pu.
rifled salts.
Production of columbium and tantalum from con-
centrates and slags generally proceeds in four
basic steps: (1) ore opening, or leaching; (2) sepa-
ration and purification of the metals in solution; (3)
precipitation of purified salts; and (4) reduction of
the salts to yield columbium and tantalum metals.
The first three steps are always accomplished
together. Reduction of the purified salts which
result (generally, Cb O 5 , and/or K 3 TaF 3 )may be
performed at the same site, or the salts may be
shipped elsewhere for reduction to metals.
Primary Beryllium
Statistics relative to domestic primary production
of beryllium metal are regarded by the industry as
proprietary and are, therefore, unavailable. How-
• ever, the amount of beryl consumed domestically
in the production of beryllium metal, alloy, and
oxide for ceramics was 3,393 metric tons (3,740
short tons) in 1976. A significant development
during 1973 was the discontinuation of primary
production at one of the two domestic beryllium
metal producers due primarily to a weak market.
There are no plans for future production of metal
atthis plant.
At present, only one U.S. company processes be-
iyllium ore into beryllium. This company is fully
integrated, as it owns and operates the single
bertrandite mine. It also owns a miUing facility,
located near the mine, where the beryllium ore is
processed by acid leaching and solvent extraction. -
‘The beryllium content of the ore is subsequently
converted to beryllium hydroxide, which is
shipped to a separate plant for processing into
metal. In addition to facilities for beryllium metal
production, this plant also has manufacturing and
fabrication facilities for beryllium/copper master
alloy and beryllium oxide ceramics.
The very high reactivity of beryllium when hot
makes it impracticable to smelt the ore normally.
For this reason, the several methods which have
been developed for the extraction of beryllium
from beryl all rely on multistage chemical proc-
esses for the conversion of beryl to pure beryllium
oxide or, more often, hydroxide (which is then
used as the starting material for metal
preparation).
Germanium
Until the post-war development of the transistor in
1948, there was negligible commercial demartd
for germanium, but current :onsumption in the
U.S. is well over 20 metric tons (40 thousand
pounds) annually. Development and use of germa-
nium transistors revolutionized the electronics in-
dustry, although silicon has since made inroads in
many semiconductor applications, where germa-
nium has its major use. The decline in germanium
consumption in the electronics sector has been
partly offset by its use in optics because of its high
refractive index and transparency to infrared light.
It is used in camera lenses and special glass for
spectroscopes and infrared devices. Other appli-
cations are in metallurgy, chemotherapy, polymer
chemistry, and nuclear radiation devices.
There are two operations capable of primary ger-
manium refining. Of the existing operations, one
operation deals entirely with scrap. The latter facil-
ity has not processed a concentrate for 8 years,
but implementation for this raw material would
require only minor adjustments. A proposed refin-
ery will be located near a major electronics pro-
ducer and will process scrap in addition to its
dioxide reduction operation.
Present technology for - primary germanium
production is based on availability of zinc smelter
residues from ores of the Tn-State District. One
smelter has a stockpile of roasting residue which
contains about 1 percent germanium, and the
concentrate is shipped to a nearby germanium
refinery. The latter plant also recovers gallium
from the concentrate and processes both gallium
and germanium scrap.
The basic germanium refining process, regardless
of raw material, consists of two phases, which are
arbitrarily separated for consideration of water
use. The first phase involves chemical conversion
of the germanium in the raw material to the tetra-
chloride, with subsequent transition to the dioxide.
The second phase entails pyrometallurgical con-
version of the dioxide to zone-refined bars.
Secondary Lead / Antimony
Secondary Lead
The raw material used for production of lead and
lead alloys at secondary lead smelters consists of
scrap and other lead residues. This feedstock is
much different than the ore concentrate used in
primary lead smelters. The feedstock to secondary
lead smelters consists primarily of used battery
storage plates and lead drosses and residues.
Other feedstock used in secondary lead smelters
in minor amounts includes solder, common bab-
bitt, cable coverings, type metals, soft lead, and
antimonial lead. The secondary lead industry per-
forms a valuable environmental service by reclaim-
103
-------
ing lead from used storage batteries, which other-
wise would be directly disposed in dumps or sani-
tary landfills. It is estimated that approximately 35
million batteries are reclaimed annually by sec-
ondary smelters. This represents approximately
95 percent of the 36.5 million replacement batter-
ies produced in 1975.
Estimats of the number of secondary lead smelters
in the United States vary widely. The Bureau of
Mines has estimated that there are as many as 98
secondary lead smelters in the U.S. The best esti-
mate of the number of smelters, made from trade
association and individual company contacts dur-
ing the course of this study, is 75 to 80. Plants are
located principally in urban areas, so as to be close
to the supply of waste batteries. Major concentra-
tions of plants are in the Great Lakes states, south-
east Texas, and California.
Secondary lead smelters are quite small in corn-
panson to primary lead smelters. Production Ca-
pacities of individual plants vary from 25 metric
tons (27.6 short tons) of lead per year to approxi-
mately 36 thousand metric tons (40 thousand
short tons) annually. The majority of plants
produce between 10 to 30 thousand metric tons
(11 to 33 thousand short tons) of lead per year.
The major products recovered from lead scrap are
refined soft lead and antimonial lead. Recovered
soft lead containing no antimony is used princi-
pally to prepare battery lead oxide paste. Antimo-
nial lead containing about 5 percent antimony is
used to manufacture battery plate grids. Recovery
of soft lead and antimonial lead is estimated to
account for over 85 percent of the products recov-
ered. Products recovered in minor amounts in-
clude cable lead, solder, lead-base babbitt white
metal, and type metal.
Both hard and soft lead are produced by pyrome-
tallurgical processes from battery scrap and other
lead scrap. Recovery of lead from discarded stor-
age batteries represents approximately 80 per-
Cent of the secondary lead recovered. Reverbera-
tory furnaces and blast furnaces are the major
equipment employed at secondary lead smelters.
Soft lead (i.e., pure lead) is recovered by reverbera-
tory smelting. The recovered metal is often con-
verted to lead oxide, either by the Barton process
or by a melting process. Slag from the reverbera-
tory furnace is then smetted in a blast furnace,
usmg scrap iron as a reducing agent, for recovery
of antimonial lead. Alternatively, scrap battery
waste may be smetted directly in the blast furnace
to produce antimonial lead directly. Both soft lead
and antimonial lead are further refined in remelt
kettles. At that time, alloying metals, including
ar enic and copper. may be added.
Since battery scrap is a major input to secondary
lead smelters, used batteries are often processed
on site. In this operation, the tops of the batteries
are sawed off, and the spent electrolyte (sulfuric
acid) is dumped. The battery plates and paste are
then removed and stored for input to the smelting
furnaces. The battery cases are normally disposed
of as solid wastes; however, at some locations, the
plastic cases are gound up and the plastic recov-
ered. The spent sulfuric acid electrolyte, mixed
with wash water and water used to cool the saw,
comprises the major effluent from secondary lead
smelters. A number of smelters receive battery
scrap which has been processed by scrap dealers
and do not generate waste acid.
Secondary Zinc
There are approximately 10 major producers of
secondary zinc slab and dust in the United States.
These secondary zinc plants are dispersed
throughout the country and are generally located
close to large urban areas, near sources of scrap
material and inexpensive transportation. Two ma-
jor processes are employed by these companies to
produce secondary zinc: sweating (resmelting)
and redistillation.
In 1974 71,246 metrictons(78,513 shorttons)of
secondary redistilled slab zinc and 1,581 metric
tons (1,743 short tons) of secondary remelt slab
zinc were produced in the U.S. However, 74 per-
cent of the redistilled slab zinc produced was
processed at primary zinc smelters. As a result,
total zinc slab production at secondary plants actu-
ally was only 20,133 metric tons (22,193 short
tons). In addition to secondary slab production.
26.376 metric tons (29,075 short tons) of zinc
dust was recovered from scrap processed in the
U.S. during 1974.
Raw Materials
Raw materials used for secondary zinc production
may be classified as either new or old scrap.
Drosses from galvanizing and diecasting opera-
tions, skimmings, and zinc-base and copper-base
alloy scrap from manufacturers are defined as
new scrap. Old scrap includes a variety of dis-
carded manufactured items, including diecastings
and engravers’ plate.
Zinc diecastings are small manufactured items,
such as decorative parts on cars and appliances,
made of zinc-base alloy. The zinc-base alloy typi-
cally contains 3.5—4.3 percent aluminum, up to
104
-------
1.25 percent copper, and 0.03—0.08 percent mag-
nesium. The primary copper-base alloys are
brasses (5 to 45 percent zinc) and bronzes
(copper/tin alloys containing up to 4.5 percent
zinc).
Products
Zinc-base scrap is recovered in the secondary zinc
industry in the form of slab zinc and zinc dust.
Product specifications vary depending on raw ma-
terial, process employed, and customer require’.
tnents. However, for a given product line, the ma-
terials are generally indistinguishable from those
produced at primary smelters and refiners. Bypro-
duct materials are primarily residues containing
zinc oxide plus aluminum, copper, ferrous, and
nonferrous unmeltable attachments. These resi-
dues, which are generated during sweating and
distillation operations, are recovered and sent to
primary smelters or alloyers for reprocessing.
Scope of Processing
Processing of zinc scrap into slab zinc and zinc
dust involves: (1) pretreatment (sorting and segre-
gating scrap materials); (2) sweating or remelting
of zinc scrap to produce metal; and (3) redistilla-
tion of the zinc metal to produce high-quality slab
and dust.
Pertinent Regulaiions
The recommended effluent limitation guidelines
based on the Best Practicable Control Technology
Currently Available and Best Available Technology
Economically Achievable are summarized in Table
5.7—1. Of the eight subcategories listed for which
separate limitations are recommended, it is recom-
mended that facilities in three subcategories
achieve a status of no discharge of process waste-
water by 1983.
The New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)
recommended for operations begun after the pro-
posal of guidelines for the miscellaneous nonfer-
rous metals industry are identical to BPCTCA and
BATEA recommended effluent limitations.
105
-------
m A...........a ee
No Bcttry Cracking
No Disdiorge
No Diwhacge
Wastewat
and Costs
Treatment Technology
Primary Magnesium
The plants which comprise this industry meet the
recommended BPCTCA and BATEA standards. No
additional costs for effluent treatment will be in.
curred by the industry.
Primary Columbium and Tantalum
This industry is divided into two subcategories.
Plants assigned to the first subcategory are en-
gaged in processing mineral concentrates or stags
to produce the metals or purified salts. The second
subcategory encompasses plants processing salts
of columbium and/or tantalum to produce the
metals.
Subcategory I
Lime precipitation for removal of fluoride is cur-
rently practiced at discharging plants in this sub-
category. Additional technology required is de-
scribed below.
BPT — Ammonia steam stripping is the recom-
mended treatment method for plants in Subc te-
gory I.
BAT — Treatment to meet Level B consists of
alum addition, at a rate of 300 mg/liter (2.5
lb/1000 gal), and clarification. The clarifier is
sized for 16-hour retention.
Subcategory II
Plants in Subcategory II utilize lime neutralization
and alum to treat the wastewater.
BPT — Treatment Consists of lime neutraliza-
tion followed by settling in a concrete pit. The pit is
designed for 3 days of retention. Lime addition is
at a rate of 60 gm/liter (5 00 lb/i 000 gal).
T ble 5.7—1.
Effhj.nt Umitotion For Minor N©n-For?ous
Mo &s lndu triei
(in kg/metric ton or lk/1000 Ib)
BPT
BAT
Pvoty Magnesium & Electrolytic
Pr ory Calumbium and Tantalum
Processing of Ore Concentrates
& Slugs
Processing of Purified Salts
Pm y/S o4 .j Germanium
5erudory Leod/Antimany
4.2
10
2.5
8.4
20
5.0
30 .Day
24-Hour
30 - 0 ey
24*tow
Parameter
Average
M a imwn
Parameter
Average
Masimum
pH
6.0 to 9.0
pH
6.0 to 90
TSS
25
100
TSS
25
100
Free Chlomin.
1
22
Free CHlorine
I
p 44
6.0 to 9.0
pH
6.0 to 9.0
155
4.2
8.4
TSS
Ammn i&”
10
20
Ammonia ”
Fluerid.
5.9
11.8
Fluoride
pH
6.0 to 9.0
pH
6.0 to 9.0
155
3.0
6.0
T SS
Fluoride
4.2
3.4
Fluonde
p 44
6.0 to 9.0
pH
6.0 to 9.0
1S5
4.6
29.2
TSS
8.7
17.4
Ammonia’”
17.5
35.2
Ammonia’
17.5
35
Fbaorid.
14.6
29.2
Fluoride
5.8
11.6
clwomluin
0.03
- 0.06
Chromium
0.03
0.06
B eryliuum
0.09
0.18
Bery lhum
0.9
0.18
pH
&0 to 9.0
pH
6.0 to 9.0
155
0. 025
0.05
155
0.025
0.05
Lead
0.0005
0.00
Lead
0.0005
0.001
Arwiic
0.00005
0.0001
Arsenic
0.00005
0.0001
Cadmium
0.00002
0.00004
Cadmium
0.00002
0.00004
3.0
1.8
6.0
3.6
NoD . d iorge
106
-------
BAT — Treatment to meet BAT regulations con-
5asts of alum addition and clarification for Subca-
tegory II plants.
Primary Beryllium
The proposed standard requires the removal of
ammonia and fluoride from the wastewater. This
activity is in addition to current treatment prac-
tices. which include recycling, lime precipitation,
settling, and discharge.
Two methods are available for ammonia removal:
steam stripping (BPT) and air stripping (BAT), the
former being more efficient. Requirements for am-
monia stripping systems are very sensitive to spe-
cific operating parameters and conditions. The
application of this technique in this industry has
been very limited. Ammonia air stripping is an
accepted sewage treatment process; however,
this technology has received only limited applica-
tion in the metals industry, but has been used in
other industry categories.
Fluoride removal — three treatment alternatives
are recommended for fluoride removal:
• C — electrochemical
• D — alum fluoride removal
• E — activated alumina adsorption.
Little information is available on the electrochemi-
cal process. For fluoride removal by the use of
alum, 600 mg/liter (5 lb/1000 gal) of alum are
added to the wastewater.
For activated alumina adsorption, the tower pack-
ing is regenerated monthly with a 4 percent H 2 S0 4
solution.
Germanium
Asingle plant is the only primary germanium refin-
ery operating at present. The wastewater emanat-
ing from the germanium refinery is combined with
wastewater from a boron-i 0 refinery and a gal-
lium refinery, which are colocated. At present, part
of the waste stream of 38 thousand liters/day (10
thousand gal/day), flows into a 2.8 hectare (7-
acre) containment pond; the remainder into a
freshwater pond. The plant is situated in a 13 cm
(5-inch) net evaporation area.
The requirements to meet the recommended stan-
dards include recycling of the wastewatet from
the aspirators and further treatment of the waste-
water flowing into the containment pond. Several
choices appear available for the latter activity.
Three alternatives are considered for resolving the
Containment pond problem.
• Level A — treat the daily inflow by lime
neutralization, and construct a second con-
tainment pond in series with the existing
pond. The combined surface areas of the
two ponds would then be sufficient to evap-
orate the daily inflow.
• Level B — separate the germanium refinery
waste stream, and construct a lined pond
with sufficient surface area to evaporate
the daily inflow of 1,100 liters (300
gallons).
• Level C — replace the existing containment
pond with a new, lined lagoon with suffi-
cient surface area to evaporate the daily
inflow of 38 thousand liters (10 thousand
gallons).
The costs incurred with two of the alternatives—
namely those entailed in the construction of an
additional pond and in the replacement of the
existing pond—include the treatment of the boron-
10 refinery and gallium refinery wastewater, as
well as that generated in germanium refining. Ad-
ditionally, the annual cost of each treatment alter-
native will be reduced by savings of water costs
obtained through the aspirator water recycling
operation.
Secondary Lead/Antimony
The major treatment processes for secondary lead
smelters are liming, flocculation, settling, and vac-
uum filtration for the plants discharging to
streams, and neutralization with NH 3 and settling
for the plants discharging into sewers.
Many smelters engage in battery cracking as a
source of raw material. Cracked battery cases are
accumulated near the plants. The standards re-
quire collection, temporary storage, and subse-
quent treatment of the runoff from these areas.
Additionally, all plants are required to construct
concrete pits fortemporary sludge storage prior to
land disposal. The pits are sized to hold a 20-day
accumulation of sludge.
Secondary Zinc
The plants comprising this industry will incur no
additional costs to attain the recommended efflu-
ent standards.
Aggregation of Industry Costs
Costs for the control of waterborne pollutants in
the Nonferrous Metals industries are summarized
in Table 5.7—2.
107
-------
TABLE 5 .7 -2. OTHER NONFERROUS METALS INDUSTRIES WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS .. ._.... . . . ..
BPT....... ........ ........ .. — L43 2.96 —0.0 0.36 0.16
_.. . ......... ...... .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS .. .. _..... 0.0 0.15 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT......... ..._... . . . ...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAl. ........—...— —..—.. 1.43 3.11 —0.0 0.36 0.16
MUN. RECOVERY....._.... ..... .. _ . ....... .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ... ... ........_...... 1.43 3.11 —0.0 0.36 0.16
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUM CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS .. .. ......
BPT.. . ... . . ... .. 0.39 0.72 1.56 2.44 3.69
BAT .. .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS ..... 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.18
PRETREATMENT.... - .. .. ......... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ........ 0.41 0.77 1.64 2.56 3.88
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS.....
... . .. .. 1.32 2.48 5.50 8.03 11.25
....... . ... .._.._.. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS........ .. ..... .. ............ 0.0.4 0.08 0.15 0.23 0.34
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL..... ......._.... ... 1.36 2.55 5.65 8.26 11.59
INDUSTRY ..... 1.77 3.32 7.29 10.82 15.47
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY ......_..._.... ..... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ..._.._... ..._. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL....... . ......_ .... . ........... . ...... ....... . .. .... . .. . . . .... 1.77 3.32 7.29 10.82 15.47
AU. ANNUAL COSTS..........._..... . .......... .._....... 1.77 3.32 7.29 10.82 15.47
NOTE COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF ThE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTEz ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHI-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (21 INTEREST.
108
-------
5.8 ELECTROPLATING INDUSTRY
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were revoked on December 3, 1976. The
EPA believes that the reasons for this action were
technical in nature and that similar regulations
differing only in the pollutant reductions required
and incurring similar costs wilt be promulgated in
the future. This discussion, therefore, was based
on the costs derived in the support documents for
the present regulations.)
Industry and Process Description
The Electroplating Point Source Category is a sub-
category of the metal finishing industry and in-
cludes establishments engaged in applying sur-
face treatments by electrolytic deposition and
other methods. These treatments provide corro-
sion protection, wear or erosion resistance, anti-
frictional characteristics, lubricity, electrical con-
ductivity, heat and tight reflectivity, or other spe-
cial surface characteristics.
The industry structure and process characteristics
each show large ranges of variation and complexi-
ty, so that few generalizations are possible for
economic analysis.
The industry is principally characterized by a divi-
sion into independent job shops and captive
shops. Independent job shops, which report under -
SIC’s 3471 and 3479, are estimated, to date, to
amount to about 3,000 separate installations vary-
ing in size from the range of 1—5 employees to
more than 150 employees, and offering a range of
surface finishes involving from one to 1 5 techno-
logically different processes. Captive shops are
those operated as part of an overall manufacturing
process, and are judged to be principally located
in manufacturing firms reporting in SIC’s 34
through 39, and possibly in other S 1C’s. The varia-
tions in size and processes of captive shops are
believed to be similar to those of independent job
shops, with the implication of similar water pollu-
tion potential. No definitive census of captive
shops exists to date. However, the EPA estimates
that there are more than 6,000 captive metal fin-
ishing operations.
Over 70 percent of the shops have fewer than 20
employees, while the largest shops have more
than 150 employees. The area of the products
being electroplated varies from less than 10 so
more than 1 ,000 square meters per day (less than
100 to more then 10,000 square feet per day).
Products being plated vary in weight from less
than 30 grams (less than an ounce) to more than
9,000 kilograms (more than 10 short tons). Most
of the plants perform specialized batch opera-
tions, but in some plant operations, continuous
strip and wire are plated on a 24-hour per day
basis. Some companies have capabilities for elec-
troplating 10 or 12 different metals and alloys;
others specialize in just one or two.
The range of process variations in this segment of
industry may be indicated by a listing of the sub-
catgories used in the various draft/proposed regu-
tations issued to date:
A — Electroplating of Common Metals
B — Electroplating of Precious Metals
C — Electroplating of Specialty Metals
(Reserved)
D — Anodizing
E — Coating
F — Chemical Etching and Milling
G — Electrofess Plating
H — Making Printed Circuit Boards
Processes
An electroplating process involves cleaning, elec-
troplating, rinsing, and drying. The cleaning opera-
tion comprises two or more steps, usually sequen-
tial treatments in an alkaline solution and an acid
solution, to remove grease, oil, soil, and oxide films
from the basic metal surfaces to insure good adhe-
sion. In the electroplating operation, metal ions in
either acid, alkaline, or neutral solutions are re-
duced on the work pieces being plated, which
serve as cathodes. Hundreds of different electro-
plating solutions have been adopted commercial-
ly, but only two or three are utilized widely for a
single metal or alloy. For example, cyanide solu-
tions are popular for copper, zinc, and cadmium.
Acid sulfate solutions and non-cyanide alkaline
solutions containing pyrophosphate or another
chelating agent are also used. The parts to be
plated are usually immersed in the electroplating
solutions upon racks, although small parts are
allowed to tumble freely in open barrels.
109
-------
Mechanized systems have been developed for
transferring both barrels and racks from cleaning,
plating, and rinsing tanks. In some instances.
dwell time and transfer periods are programmed
on magnetic tape or cards for complete
automation.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Water is used in electroplating operations to ac-
complish the following tasks:
• Rinsing of parts, racks, and equipment
• Washing equipment and washing away
spills
• Washing the air in ventilation ducts
a Preparing operating solutions (with dump-
ing of spent solution)
• Cooling water to cool solutions (usually
reused for rinsing).
Approximately 90 percent of the water is used in
rinsing operations; this water is used to rinse away
the films of processing solutions from the surface
of the work pieces. In performing this task, the
water is contaminated by the operating solutions
and is not directly reusable.
In electroplating facilit’es the wastes are derived
principally from the material plated and the oper-
ating solutions. The most important wastes are
made potentially toxic by the formation of heavy
metal salts and cyanide salts.
For the purpose of establishing effluent limitations
guidelines, the major wastewater constituents of
polluting significance have been defined to be:
cadmium, lead, copper, nickel, hexavalent chromi-
um, total chromium, zinc, silver, cyanide which is
amenable to oxidation by chlorine, total cyanide,
suspended solids (SS), and pH. Other wastewater
constituents of secondary importance that are not
the subject of the guidelines include: total dis-
solved solids, chemical oxygen demand, biochem-
ical oxygen demand, oil and grease, turbidity, col-
or, and temperature.
Control Technology
Pollution control and wastewater treatment tech-
nologies for reducing the discharge of pollutants
include both in-plant controls and end-of-process
treatment system. The most commonly-used treat-
ment in the electroplating industry is a chemical
method. The rinse waters are usually segregated
into these three streams prior to treatment
• Those containing hexavalent chromium,
• Those containing cyanide, and
• The remainder containing water from acid
dips, alkali cleaners, acid copper, nickel,
and zinc baths, etc.
The cyanide is oxidized by chlorine, and the hexa-
valent chromium is reduced to trivalent chromium
with sulfur dioxide or other reducing agents. The
three streams are then combined and the metal
hydroxides are precipitated by adjusting the pH
through chemical addition. The hydroxides are
allowed to settle out, often with the help of coagu-
lating agents, and the sludge is hauled to a lagoon
or filtered and used as landfill. These chemical
facilities may be engineered for batch or continu-
ous operations.
Water conservation can be accomplished by: in-
plant process modifications and materials substi-
tutions requiring little capital or new equipment
(substituting low concentration electroplating so-
lutions for high concentration baths or the use of
noncyanide solutions), good housekeeping prac-
tices, reducing the amount of rinse water lost
when parts are removed from the solution, and
reducing the volume of rinse water used by install-
ing counterilow rinses, adding wetting agents,
and installing air or ultrasonic agitation. Signifi-
cant amounts of water can also be conserved by
using advanced treatment methods, such as ion
exchange, evaporative recovery, or reverse osmo-
sis to treat and recycle in-process waters. Other
more experimental in-process treatment methods
include freezing, electrodialysis, ion-flotation, and
electrolytic stripping. One system currently in op-
eration has achieved zero discharge of pollutants
through the use of reverse osmosis followed by
evaporation and distillation of the concentrated
waste stream from the reverse osmosis unit.
Proposed BPT for the electroplating industry is
based upon the use of chemical methods of treat-
ment of the wastewater at the end of the process
and controls to conserve rinse water and reduce
the amount of treated water discharged. Proposed
NSPS are based upon the above technology plus
the utilization of the best multi-tank rinsing prac-
tices after each process. Maximum use of combi-
nations of evaporative, reverse osmosis, and ion
exchange systems for in-process control are also
recommended. Proposed BAT is the use of in-
process and end-of-process control and treatment
to achieve a statistical no discharge of pollutants.
Regulations
The regulations to be applied to this industry have
been developed in increasing depth since the ini-
tiation of the study to produce the Development
Document for Copper, Nickel. Chromium, and Zinc
in 1973. Analysis of the economic impact of regu-
110
-------
lations has been particularly complex for this seg-
ment of industry.
After two previous issues. interim Final Limitations
and Standards for subcategories A through F
(above) were issued on April 24, 1975 including
limitations based on best practicable technology
(8PT), best available technology economically
achievable (BAT), standards of performance for
new sources (NSPS), and pretreatment standards
for new sources. These Interim Final Regulations
were suspended on December 3, 1976. Subse-
quently, Interim Final Regulations; Pretreatment
Standards for Existing Sources were issued on
July 12, 1977 (42FR 35813—35834), covering
subcategories A through H. These were followed
by Proposed Pretreatment Standards for Existing
Sources on February 14, 1978 (Fed. Regis., Vol
43, no. 31, pp. 6560—6573). The July and Febru-
ary regulations are the basis for this report.
Costs Under Current Regulations
In brief, the regulations pertinent at the time of this
estimate may be denoted in the following terms:
• pretreatment regulations for existing
sources discharging to publically-owned
treatment works
• regulations covering operations in Subca-
tegories A through H
• a three-year compliance period
• plants in all categories which discharge
less than 151,412 liters (40,000 gallons)
per day are limited to a 30-day average of
0.08 milligrams per liter of cyanide amena-
ble to destruction by chlorination
• plants in all categories which discharge
more than 157,412 liters (40,000 gallons)
per day must meet the following 30-day
averages:
CN,A <0.08 mg/i
CN,T <0.24 mg/i
Cr,Vl <0.09 mg/i
pH 7.5—10.0
where CN,A ’ is cyanide amenable to treatment
by chlorination, “CN,T” is total cyanide, and
“Cr,Vl ” is hexavalent chromium. The limitations
imply, respectively, the application of technolo-
gies to destroy cyanide, reduce hexavalent chro-
mium, and neutralize to the indicated pH.
The economic impacts on independent job shops
of the above regulations are reported as being:
• 38 million dollars in capital investment
costs
.• 1 5 million dollars per year in annual costs
(including capital charges and operating
and maintenance costs)
• 235 possible shop closures representing
5,900 jobs
The estimated possible closures represent eight
(8) percent of the independent job shop sector of
this industry.
The above estimate of economic impact does not
include the captive shop sector of the industry,
and, of course, being associated with pretreat-
ment regulations, considers only that portion of
the industry which discharges to publically owned
treatment works.
The above estimate is one published with the
promulgation of the subject regulations. This esti-
mate is based on the latest and one of the most
detailed cost analysis programs performed to date
in association with discharge regulations for this
industry category. Although the actual derivation
of the cost estimate has not been published, an
interim report detailing some of the methodology
of costing and estimation of the closure rate has
been published.
Estimated abatement costs are summarized in Ta-
ble 5.8—i. The costs include estimates for all
shops for all regulations, including the costs for
pretreatment by job shops, as given above.
REFERENCE
1. “Preliminary Economic Analysis of Interim
Final Pretreatment Standards for Existing
Sources of The Electroplating Point Source
Category”, EPA-230/3—77—0 16; June,
1977.
111
-------
TABLE 5.8 -1. ELECTROPLATING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977 —81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXIS11NG PLANTS . ....... ..
40.73 255.68 0.0 0.0 0.0
SAT -. .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT .. .. .. 9.06 9.06 81.55 31.55 81.55
SUBTOTAL.............. .. 49.79 264.74 81.55 81.55 81.55
MUN. RECOVERY .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. 49.79 264.74 81.55 81.55 81.55
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS . . ... .. -
BPT . . .. .. .. 33.62 92.36 134.46 201.69 302.54
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT .. 1.19 1.19 37.53 61.35 97.09
TOTAL .. .. 34.81 93.55 171.99 263.05 399.63
O&M
EXISTiNG PLANTS......
BPT . . ... ..... 106.93 222.76 509.20 763.80 1145.70
BAT .. .... .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS ........ .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT ....... .. 0.0 0.0 70.08 132.32 225.68
TOTAL........... ... .... .. .. 106.93 222.76 579.28 896.12 1371.38
INDUSTRY TOTAL........... ......... . ... 141.74 316.31 751.27 1159.16 1771.01
MUNICiPAl. CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY... .. . . . . ... .. . . .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES .................. . ........... . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
141.74 316.31 751.27 1159.16 1771.01
ALl. ANNUAL COSTS......... . 141.74 316.31 751.27 1159.16 1771.01
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF (1) STRAIGHT.LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
112
-------
6. MINERAL BASED MANUFACTURING
• Asbestos
• Cement Manufacturing
• Paving and Roofing Industries.
Costs for the reduction of Water Pollution for these
industries are summarized in Table 6.-i. These
costs and other data are repeated below in the
appropriate sections together with the assump-
tions peculiar to the industry and other details.
For the purpose of this report Mineral-Based Man-
ufacturing Industries are defined as those estab-
lishments primarily engaged in the gathering or
physical processing of minerals into a form suit-
able for use by the ultimate consumer. These in-
clude the:
• Mineral Mining
• Glass Manufacturing
INDUSTRY
MINERAL MINING
GLASS MANUFACTURING
INSULATION FIBERGLASS
ASBESTOS
CEMENT MANUFACTURiNG
PAVING & ROOFING
TOTAL INVESTMENT
MINERAL MINING
GLASS MANUFACTURING
INSULATION FIBERGLASS
ASBESTOS
CEMENT MANUFACTURING
PAVING & ROOFING
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS.
TABLE 6. -i. WATER POLLUTiON ABATEMENT COSTS FOR THE
MINERAL-BASED MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
ON MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
1977
1972—77
1977—81
1977—86
28.53
87.96
0.0
0.0
0.87
2.64
11.97
18.83
2.60
6.97
2.72
7.57
0.33
1.90
3.13
6.31
3.30
20.59
6.93
15.04
0.24
1.41
3.37
4.90
35.87
121.47
28.11
52.64
ANNUAL COSTS
1977
1972—77
1977—81
1977—86
23.02
42.33
110.14
234.60
0.80
1.75
9.99
37.88
2.11
4.41
10.43
29.40
0.88
2.03
6.49
22.92
5.20
12.58
24.66
62.38
1.48
5.62
9.17
26.14
33.48
68.72
170.87
413.32
113
-------
6.1. MiNERAL MINING AND PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Industry Structure
The mineral mining and processing industry is
concerned with the mining, separation, cleaning,
and beneficiation of the following minerals:
dimension stone potash
crushed stone
construction sand
& gravel
industrial sand
gypsum
asphaltic minerals
asbestos
& wollastonite
lightweight aggre-
gates
mica
barite
fluorospar
bora es
salinas
tripoli
gamet
phosphate rock
ta lc
kaolin
feldspar
Those sectors bearing asterisks currently have
their effluent guidelines reserved, and have not
been included here. Only BPT effluent guidelines
have been promulgated so far for the Minerals
Mining category. Therefore; no cost estimates for
BAT or NSPS compliance have been prepared.
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The production of minerals in the U.S. is closely
associated with the rise and fall of the U.S. Gross
National Product. Many subsectors have a small
production rate in the U.S. due to competition with
higher grade or cheaper foreign minerals, small
demand for selected U.S. minerals, or cheap alter-
nate supplies of minerals, e.g. sulfur, which is a by-
product of many chemical and pollution control
processes. Production of minerals from year to
year is a dynamic phenomenon for the separate
sectors, showing great growth and recession.
Crushed Stone
There are currently slightly over 4,800 crushed
stone quarries in the United States as reported by
the Bureau of Mines. Of these, approximately 2,-
000 are considered by the Bureau of the Census
(SiC’s 1422, 1423, and 1429) to be commercial
operations primarily concerned with the
production of crushed stone. The remaining 2,800
plants consist of quarries operated by federal,
state, and loca) governments; quarries that are
part of integrated (cement, time, etc.) operations:
quarries operated on a temporary basis by estab-
lishments not concerned primarily with the
production of stone (e.g., highway contractors,
SIC-161 1); and small quarries operated without
paid employees, but proprietor-operated. Some of
the latter categories enter the market intermit-
tantly. The 4,800 quarries are served by approxi-
mately 3,600 plants. The approach used for tne
impact analysis tends to overstate the adverse
economic impact, since the analysis is based ‘r
the assumption that there are 4,800 quarry/ple”
facilities.
The costs considered here are for 1,106 facilities
that need some type of control equipmern
insta lied.
Sand and Gre ’e/
Sand and gravel are recovered from both wet and
dry land-based pit operations and the dredging of
rivers, bays or oceans. The mining equipment used
varies from small, simple units such as tractor-
mounted high-loaders and dump trucks to sophis-
ticated mining systems involving large power
shovels, draglines, bucket-wheel excavators, belt
conveyors, barges, and other components. In-
creasingly, mining systems are being designed to
provide for efficient and economical land rehabili-
tation. Sand and gravel is also dredged from river
and take bottoms that are rich in such deposits.
Peak annual production has approached 775 mil-
lion metric tons (850 million short tons).
Industrial Sand
Industrial sands are deposits that have been
worked by natural processes into segregated min-
eral fractions. Such deposits are utilized for their
contained quartz (5102). The deposits are found in
a broad range of locations and formations, some
trona
sodium sulfate
mineral pigments
lithium
bentonite
diatomite
Frasch sulfur
graphite
jade
magnesite
novaculite
shale & common ctay
aplite
attapulgite &
montmorillonite
rock sait
kyanite
fire clay
ball clay
114
-------
as loose and visible as dune sand, others as dense
and obscure as the hardest of rocks buried under a
variety of surface materials, and in literally all
intermediate types of formations. They may be
found as low-lying water-bearing sands or as hard-
faced bluffs and cliffs—as out-cropped es arp-
rnents on a level plain or as a massive ridge or
mountain face. It is believed that there is only one
operating underground mine. Production in 1974
approached 26 million metric tons (29 million
short tons).
Gypsum
Gypsum is mined at 65 sites in the United States.
An estimated 57 of these facilities use no contact
water in their process. Two known facilities use
heavy media separation and washing to benefici-
ate the crude gypsum ore, resulting in a process
effluent.
Asphaltic Minerals
Of the asphattic minerals, bituminous limestone,
oil-impregnated diatomite, and gilsonite, only gil-
sonite operations currently have any discharge to
surface water. The only gilsonite facility is located
in Utah.
Asbestos
Asbestos is mined and processed at five locations
in the U.S.: two in California, and one each in
Vermont, Arizona and North Carolina. One facility
in California uses wet processing while the re-
mainingfourfacilities use a dry process.
Dante
Of the twenty-seven known significant U.S. facili-
ties producing barite ore or ground barita, nine
facilities use dry grinding operations, fourteen use
log-washing and jigging methods to prepare the
ore for grinding, and four use froth flotation tech-
niques. In Missouri, where most of the washing
operations are located, tailings ponds are com-
monly constructed by damming deep valleys. It is
customary in lot-washing operations to build the
initial pond by conventional earthmoving methods
before the facility opens so that process water can
be recycled. Afterwards the waste rock is used to
Construct dikes to increase the pond capacity. This
procedure provides a use for the gangue and also
provides for storage of more clay and mud tailings.
The clay and mud are used to seal the rock and
gravel additions. A washing facility located in Ne-
vada also uses tailing ponds with total recycle of
wastewater and no discharge of wastewater at
any time. Because the recycle facilities are part of
the total processing facility already in-place, no
pollution control impacts result. Flotation is used
on either beneficiated low-grade ore or high-grade
ore which is relatively free of sands, clays, and
rocks. Therefore, flotation operations produce sig-
nificantly less solid wastes (tailings) than washing
operations, and consequently have less cost for
waste treatment. Waste water treatment is similar
to that previously described for washing opera-
tions: pond settling and storage of tailings fol-
lowed by recycle. Of the three facilities investi-
gated in this category two are in the East and one
in the West. The western facility has achieved a no
discharge status; the two eastern facilities have
not yet done so.
Fluorspar
The mining of fluorspar, because of its geographi-
cal locations, usually has no mine wastewater to
be discharged. Beneficiation of mined fluorspar
ore is accomplished by heavy media separations
and/or flotation operations. Although these tech-
nologies are used separately in some instances,
generally beneficiation facilities employ both tech-
niques. The primary purpose of heavy media sepa-
rations is to provide an upgraded and preconcen-
trated feed for flotation facilities. Five of the six
heavy media operations have no wastewater dis-
charge. The sixth facility uses a pond to remove
suspended solids and then discharges to surface
water.
Brine Extraction
The extraction of several mineral products from
lake brines is carried out at two major U.S. loca-
tions: Searles Lake in California and the Great Salt
Lake in Nevada. Also, lithium carbonate is ex-
tracted at Silver Peak, Nevada. The only wastes are
depleted brines which are returned to the brine
sources.
Borax
The entire U.S. production of borax is carried out
in the desert areas of California by two processes:
the mining and extraction of borax ore and the
trona process. The latter is covered in the section
on salines from lake brines. Since the trona proc-
ess returns all residual brines to the source, there
is no need for treatment and there are no treat-
ment costs. The mining and extraction process
accounts for about three-fourths of the estimated -
U.S. production of borax. All wastewater is evapo-
rated in ponds atthisfacility.
Tripoli
There are several tripoli producers in the United
States. The production process is dry both at the
facilities and the mines. One small facility has
installed a wet scrubber. There is only one facility
in this subcategory that has any process wastewa-
ter. This is only from a special process producing
115
-------
10 percent of that facility’s production. Therefore,
costs are considered to be negligible.
Novaculite
There is only one novaculite producer in the Un-
ited States. Processing is a dry operation resulting
in no discharge of wastewater. A dust scrubber is
utilized and the water is recycled after passing
through a settling tank. Both present treatment
costs and proposed recycle costs are negligible.
Magnesia
There is only one known U.S. facility that produces
magnesia from naturally occurring magnesite ore.
This facility is located in a dry western climate and
has no discharge of wastes to surface water by
virtue of a combination evaporation-percolation
pond.
Phosphate Rock
“Phosphate rock” is a commercial term for a rock
that contains one or more phosphate minerals—.
usually calcium phosphate—of sufficient grade
and suitable composition to permit its use, either
directly or after concentration, in manufacturing
commercial products. The term “phosphate rock”
includes phosphatized limestones, sandstones,
shales, and igneous rocks.
Present western phosphate mining operations are
open pit. However, most of the western reserve is
deep, requiring selective underground mining,
which will continue to be economically viable only
if future phosphate rock prices are high. The west-
em region accounts for only 13 percent of domes-
tic phosphate rock production. Due to local min-
eral characteristics and corresponding process
practices, and because of the favorable
rainfalVevaporation balance existing for the west-
ern facilities, all six producers in this region will
soon be operating with no discharge of wastewa-
tars. Therefore, they will experience no incremen-
tal costs upon implementation of the proposed
effluent guidelines. Producers in the eastern dis-
trict must already comply with effluent guidelines
close to those proposed. Only four facilities are
known to be exceeding the proposed limits; alt
four are in Central Florida. As far as is known, the
facilities in North Carolina and Tennessee (each
state accounting for only about 5 percent of na-
tional production) w tl not be affected.
Potash
Potash is produced in four different locations by
four different processes, all of which are in dry
climate areas of the western U.S. Two processes,
involving lake brines, have no wastewater. Since
residual brines are returned to the lake, there are
no treatment costs. The third process, at the Carls-
bad Operations, consists of dry mining followed
by wet processing to separate potash from sodium
chloride and other wastes; the operation utilizes
evaporation ponds for attaining no discharge of
wastewaters.
Sodium Sulfate
Sodium sulfate is produced from natural sources
in three different geographical areas by three dif-
ferent processes:
(1) Recovery from the Great Salt Lake
(2) Recovery from Searles Lake brines
(3) Recovery from West Texas brines.
Operations (1) and (2) have rio wastewater treat-
ment or tre ment costs. All residual brines are
returned to the lakes. Operation (3) has wastewa-
ter which is percolated and evaporated in existing
mud flat lakes. There is no treatment. The waste-
water flows to the mud lake by gravity. Costs are
negligible.
Bentonite
There is no wastewater from the processing of
beritonite. Therefore, there is no treatment cost
involved.
Diatom/fe
Diatomite is mined and processed in the western
U.S. Both mining and processing are practically
dry operations. Evaporation ponds are used for
waste disposal in all cases. The selected technol-
ogy of partial recycle and chemical treatment is
practiced at the better facilities. All facilities are
currently employing settling and neutralization,
thus there are no additional costs involved.
Graphite
There is only one producer of natural graphite in
the United States. For this mine and processing
facility, mine drainage, settling pond seepage, and
process water are treated for suspended solids,
iron removal, and pH level. The pH level and iron
precipitation are controlled by lime addition. The
precipitated iron and other suspended solids are
removed in the settling pond and the treated
wastewater discharged. Present treatment costs
to meet these regulations are negligible.
Jade
The jade industry is very small and involves very
little wastewater. One facility that represents 55
percent of the total U.S. production generates only
190 liters per day (50 gpd) of wastewater. Sus-
pended solids are settled in a small tank. The
cleansed overflow water is used to irrigate the
116
-------
company lawn. Treatment costs are considered to
be negligible.
Sulfur
There are two subcategories of sulfur mining:
(1) Anhydrite deposit mining
(2) On-shore salt dome mining.
The industry described by the anhydrite deposit
mining subcategory consists of two facilities, 5
and 7 years of age. Both facilities are located in
western Texas. There are nine facilities in the U.S.
producing sulfur from on-shore salt dome opera-
tions. There is only one operational off-shore salt
dome facility. Bleedwater is directly discharged
without treatment into the Gulf of Mexico. Dis-
solved methane gas, occurring naturally in the
bleedwater, provides initial turbulent mixing of
bleedwater and sea water. Dissolved oxygen in the
sea water reacts with the sulfides present.
TABLE 6.1-1. MINERAL MINING
WATER POLLUTION
(IN MILUONS OF
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Effluents from the mineral mining and processing
industry are generally high in suspended solids
and mineral content, depending on the solubility
of the specific ores. Typically, treatment technol-
ogy consists of settling ponds to remove sus-
pended solids and sometimes lime precipitation to
remove metals and adjust pH. For difficult sus-
pended solids, flocculant addition and thickeners
can be used. Where settling ponds are not suffi-
cient, filters can be used to augment treatment.
Effluents are generally from two distinct sources,
mine dewatering and beneficiation operations
(milling, washing, and separation of minerals). The
effluent from beneficiation operations is usually
higher in suspended solids than that from mining
operations.
Table 6.1—i is a summary of compliance costs for
the above categories of the mineral mining and
processing industry.
AND PROCESSING INDUSTRY
CONTROL COSTS
1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PlANTS.
aPT
BAT
NEW PLANTS
C i l 1t YI
1977—81
1977
28.53
0.0
0.0
0.0
28.53
0.0
MUN. RECOVERY.
TOTAL
ANNUALIZED COSTS
1977—33
1972—77
87.96
0.0
0.0
0.0
87.96
0.0
1977—36
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
O&M
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
aPT
BAT
NEW PLANTS
PRETREATMENT
TOTAL
14.32
0.0
0.0
0.0
14.32
8.70
0.0
0.0
0.0
8.70
23.02
0.0
0.0
23.02
27.53
0.0
0.0
0.0
27.53
14.79
0.0
0.0
0.0
14.79
42.33
0.0
0.0
42.33
57.26
0.0
0.0
0.0
57.26
52.88
0.0
0.0
0.0
52.88
110.14
0.0
0.0
110.14
85.81
0.0
0.0
0.0
85.31
79.31
0.0
0.0
0.0
79.31
165.12
0.0
0.0
165.12
115.63
0.0
0.0
0.0
115.63
118.97
0.0
0.0
0.0
118.97
234.60
0.0
0.0
234.60
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT
BAT
NEW PLANTS
PRETREATMENT
TOTAL —
INVEST RECOVERY
USER CHARGES
INDUSTRY TOTAL
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
1 E\T . .. I
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT .LINE DEPRECIATION AND t2) INTEREST.
117
-------
6.2 GLASS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
FLAT GLASS (PHASE I)
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The flat glass industry may be divided into six
major subcategories based on the processes
employed.
These are:
Sheet Glass Manufacturing
• Rolled Glass Manufacturing
Plate (or primary) Glass Manufacturing
e Float Glass Manufacturing
• Automotive Glass Tempering
• Automotive Glass Laminating
The sheet, float and rolled glass manufacturing
industries do not contribute a significant wastewa-
ter discharge and can be controlled with minimal
costs. Thus, they will not be considered for the
rposes of this rsport. The major division withir
the industry is between primary and automotive
glass manufacturers and the processes they use.
Automotive glass manufacture is a fabrication
process using primary glass.
There were 47 establishments in the flat glass
industry in 1972. They produced 222 million
square meters (2,390 million square feet) of pri-
mary glass and 77 million square meters (830
million square feet) of automotive glass. It is esti-
mated that 34 of the industry’s plants generate
waste process water. The plants that are contribut-
ing to effluent discharge produced 7,400 metric
tons per day (8,200 short tons) of primary glass
and 172.700 square meters (1,860,000 square
feet) per day of automotive glass in 1972.
Glass is produced by combining the following raw
materials: sand (silica), sodium carbonate, calcium
carbonate, magnesium carbonate, and cullet. Cul-
let is waste and broken glass; a substantial portion
of this can be reused.
In primary glass production, the following proc-
esses affect wastewater discharge: (1) washing.
(2) batching, and (3) grinding and polishing. In the
production of automotive glass, the following
processes affect wastewater discharge:
(1) seaming, (2) grinding, (3) drilling, (4) cooling,
and (5) washing.
The batching process in primary glass manufactur-
ing brings together the raw materials and blends
them to- a homogeneous mixture for charging to
the glass furnace.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
A grinding and polishing process is used for plate
and tempered glass. This process uses either a
single or twin configuration. (The twin configura-
tion grin’ds and polishes simultaneously.) The
grinding part of the process uses a slurry of sand
and water from which a side stream is continu-
ously being blown down in order to be recycled
and classified as a progressively finer grinding
medium is needed. The polishing process uses a
polishing surface of animal felt, and a polishing
medium of water and iron oxide or cerium oxide
slurry. The glass is reduced in thickness by approx-
imately 1 5 percent in the combined grinding and
polishing process.
The washing process is used for plate glass to
remove the slurry, and in float glass to remove the
protective chemicals coated on the rollers which
prevents the glass from getting marked.
The cooling process utilizes water for cooling in all
the melting tanks, the float tanks, and bathing
tanks. Water is also used for cooling the rollers for
plate glass, for cooling the annealing Iehr and the
bending Iehr, and in the tempering process.
The seaming and drilling processes in automotive
glass manufacture are basic fabrication processes
that aid in handling and meeting product
specifications.
The tempering process includes heating and then
rapidly cooling the glass.
Primary glass is specified for almost all architec-
tural and building requirements and is the basic
component for fabricated flat glass products. Au-
tomotive glass is used primarily for windshields
and safety glass.
The number of flat glass plants has increased in
recent years but plate glass plants have decreased
due to the greater profitability of the float glass
process. Flat glass exports by the United States
are not significant. There has been a gradual in-
118
-------
crease in the quantity of imports, with imports
comprising about 21 percent of the total con-
sumption in 1975. The demand for tinted or col-
ored glass for reflective architectural uses and for
tempered glass for safety applications in buildings
is expected to grow. However, the demand for flat
glass moves with the level of residential construc-
don and automobile manufacturing and down-
turns in these industries may adversely affect the
growth of the industry.
The major glass manufacturing wastes include:
sand, silt, clay, grease, oil, alkalinity, and thermal
pollution (4 7e C or 8.5’ F over ambient
temperature).
The main sources contributing to the total waste
load come from the following processes in each
segment of the industry:
• Plate—batching grinding and polishing,
and washing;
• Tempered—seaming, grinding, drilling,
cooling, and washing (wash-water is the
major source); and
• Laminated—cooling, seaming, and
washing
In order to define waste characteristics, the follow-
ing pollution parameters were used to develop
effluent guidelines for meeting BPT and BAT: total
suspended solids, oil, pH, and total phosphorus.
Effluent limitations and standards of performance
for new sources are no discharge for the sheet
plate glass manufacturing subcategory and the
same as best available control technology for the
remaining subcategories.
Control Technology and Costs
Waste treatment practices vary in each segment
of the flat glass industry. Some use a lagoon sys-
tem with a polyelectrolyte flocculant or partial
recycling of process water. Others require no treat-
ment or have only eliminated detergent in the
wash water. Control methods include: filtration
alone, filtration and recycling, total recycling with
a reverse osmosis unit, coagulation-
sedimentation, use of a two-stage lagoon with
mixing tank for proper polyelectrolyte dispersion,
use of an oil absorbing diatomacous earth filter,
and sludge dewatering by centrifugation.
The guidelines for BPT call for control and removal
of total suspended solids (TSS), oil, pH, and total
phosphorus. BPT calls for the following control
methods for each segment of the industry:
• Plate—Two-stage lagoon with a mixing
tank for proper polyelectrolyte dispersion.
• Tempered and Laminated—Coagu-
lation/sedimentation.
The BAT guidelines assess the availability of in-
process controls, as well as call for additional
treatment techniques. The following additional
treatment methods under BAT guidelines for each
segment of the industry are:
• Plate—Addition of a return of filter back-
wash to lagoon systems.
• Tempered—Addition of oil-absorptive,
diatomacousearth filtration.
• Laminated—Introduction of recycling of
post-Iaminat on washing and initial hot
water rinse, gravity separation of remain-
ing rinse waters, reduce detergent usage
and addition of oil absorptive diatoma-
ceous earth filtration.
GLASS (PHASE 11)-PRESSED AND
BLOWN GLASS INDUSTRY
and Capacities
Production Char
The effluent limitations guidelines for the pressed
and blown glass manufacturing industry cover
manufacturers of glass containers for commercial
packing, bottling, home canning, and the manu-
facturers of glass and glassware, which is pressed,
blown, or shaped from glass produced in the same
establishment.
The industry has been divided into the following
subcategories, based upon differences in
production processes and wastewater
characteristics:
• Glass containers
• Machine-pressed and blown glass
• Glass tubing
• Television picture tube envelopes
• Incandescent lamp envelopes-forming!
and frosting
• Hand-pressed and blown g(ass-leaded and
hydrofluoric acid finishing, non-leaded and
hydrofluoric acid finishing, and non-
hydrofluoric acid finishing.
Four manufacturing steps are common to the en-
tire pressed and blown glass industry: weighing
and mixing of raw materials, melting of raw materi-
als, forming of molten glass, and annealing of
formed glass products. Further processing (finis-
hing) is required for some products, especially
119
-------
television tube envelopes, incandescent lamp en-
velopes, and hand-pressed and blown glass.
Sand (silica) is the major ingredient of glass and
accounts for about 70 percent of the raw materials
batch. Other ingredients may include soda or soda
ash (13—16 percent), potash, lime, lead oxide, bo-
ric oxide, alumina, magnesia, and iron or other
coloring agents. The usual batch also contains
between 10 and 50 percent waste glass (cutlet).
Melting is done in three types of units: Continuous
furnaces, clay pots, or day tanks. Methods used to
form glass include blowing, pressing, drawing,
and casting. After the glass is formed, annealing is
required to relieve stresses that might weaken the
glass or cause the product to fail. The entire piece
of glass is brought to a uniform temperature that is
high enough to permit the release of internal
stresses, and then it is cooled at a uniform rate to
prevent new stresses from developing; finishing
steps include abrasive polishing, acid polishing,
spraying with frosting solutions, grinding, cutting,
acid etching, and glazing..
In 1972, approximately 300 plants manufactured
pressed and blown glass products in the United
States, and almost half of these manufactured
glass containers. The glass container industry is
relatively concentrated, with the eight largest
firms producing about 80 percent of the industry’s
shipments and operating about two-thirds of the
individual plants. Because of the special nature of
their products, the machine-pressed and blown
glass industry is also relatively concentrated, as
are the tubing, television picture tube envelope,
and incandescent lamp envelope industries. On
the other hand, the hand-pressed and blown glass
industry is characterized by a large number of
family-owned and-operated, single-plant compa-
nies. Of the 46 firms in this industry, only four
operate more than one plant.
Competition from other types of containers is ex-
pected to keep the annual growth rate of glass
containers’ production down to approximately 1.5
percent per year. This projection may be materially
affected by the growing trend towards state and
local regulations mandating returnable bottles.
The machine-pressed and blown glass and the
hand-pressed and blown glass subcategories are
expected to grow at about the same annual rate as
the GNP.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Water is used in the pressed and blown glass
manufacturing industry for non-contact cooling,
cutlet quenching, and product rinsing following
the various finishing operations. Water may also
be added to the raw materials batches for dust
suppression. Wet fume scrubbers used in acid
polishing areas also contribute wastewater
discharge.
For the purposes of establishing effluent limita-
tions guidelines, the following pollution parame-
ters have been designated as significant: fluoride,
ammonia, lead, oil, chemical oxygen
demand(COD), total suspended solids(TSS), dis-
solved solids, temperature(heat), Sand pH. These
parameters are not present in the wastewater frarn
every subcategory, and may be more significant in
one subcategory than in another. Wastewaters
from non-contact cooling, boilers, and water treat-
ment are not considered process wastewaters and
are not covered by the guidelines.
Control Technology and Costs
The pressed and blown glass industry is currently
treating its wastewaters to reduce or eliminate
most of the pollutants. Oil is reduced by using
gravity separators. Treating for fluoride and lead
involves adding lime, rapid mixing, flocculation,
and sedimentation of the resulting reaction
products, although some manufacturers of tamp
envelopes are switching from fluoride etched
products to the soft lights rather than install ex-
pensive waste treatment facilities. Several glass
container plants recycle non-contact cooling and
cutlet quench water. Treatment for ammonia re-
moval is presently not practiced in the industry.
Additional treatment systems that are applicable
to the industry include chemical or physical me-
thods to reduce oil levels further, (such as high-rate
filtration, diatomaceous earth filtration, and
chemical addition or coagulation); additional treat-
ment of fluorides by ion-exchange or activated
alumina filtration; and ammonia removal by steam
or air stripping, selective ion exchange,
nitrification/denitrification, or break-point
chlorination.
Because current treatment practices in the
pressed and blown glass industry provide waste-
water pollutant concentrations that are already at
low levels, no additional control technologies are
proposed for most subcategories to meet BPT
guidelines. The major exception is the addition of
steam stripping to control ammonia discharges
from the incandescent lamp envelope manufactur-
ing subcategory.
Additional technologies required for BAT and
NSPS guidelines include segregation of non-
contact cooling water from the cullet quench
water, recycling of cutlet quench water, treatment
of cutlet quench water blowdown by dissolved air
120
-------
flotation and diatomaceous earth filtration, and
treatment of finishing wastewaters by sand filtra- Machi .-prn & Housekeeping Recycle, gravity oil
tion and activated alumina filtration. glass separation and
filtration
Table 6.2—1 summarizes the control technologies Glass tubing Housekeeping Cooling tower and
recommended for each subcategory; as indicated, filtration
most of the plants in the pressed and blown glass iv tube envelopes Lime addition, Sand filtration.
industry already have sufficient operating technol- coagulation, activated alumina
ogy to meet BPT guidelines. In addition only about and sedimen- filtration
one-third of the approximately 300 plants covered
by these guidelines discharge to surface waters. Inc fldescent lame Steam stripping, Sand filtration,
The remaining plants either have achieved a no envelopes hniepre pu . activated alumina
discharge status or, in most cases, discharge to ca rbonization
municipal systems.
Hand-pressed & 8atsth lime pre- Sand filtration,
blown glass cipitotion, activated alumina
Toll. 6.2 —1 coagulation, filtration
Ppees.d end Blown Giast sedimentatian
Industry Pollution Control Technologies
NSPS are the som, as BAT for all subcategories.
Subcategories BPT BAT
Glass Containers Heusels..psng Recycle, gravily oil All costs for all the above categories of the glass
- filtration industry are summarized in Table 6.2—2.
TABLE 6.2-2. GLASS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS Of 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977-81 1977-43 1977.46
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
8P1 ’ 0.52 1.40 0.0 0.0 00
BAT .. 0.0 0.0 10.16 13.55 13.55
NEW PlANTS 0.35 1.23 1.80 3.00 . 5.28
PRETREATMENT .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 0.87 2.64 11.97 16.55 18.83
MUN. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.87 2.64 11.97 16.55 18.83
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
a p i ’ 0.18 0.38 0.74 1.11 1.11
BAT 0.0 0.0 2.67 6.23 11.58
NEW PLANTS 0.16 0.39 1.21 2.24 4.49
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 o.o o.o 0.0
TOTAL 0.35 0.76 4.62 9.59 71.73
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 0.27 0.54 1.06 1.59 2.39
BAT 0.0 0.0 2.90 6.77 12.57
NEW PLANTS 0.19 0.45 1.40 2.59 5.18
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.45 0.99 5.36 10.95 20.15
INDUSTRY TOTAL 0.80 1.75 9.99 20.54 37.88
MUNIOPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 0.80 1.75 9.99 20.54 37.88
AU. ANNUAL COSTS 0.80 1.75 9.99 20.54 37.88
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST F THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT .LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
121
-------
6.3 INSULATION FIBERGLASS INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The insulation fiberglass industry has no subcate-
gories. The raw materials for fiberglass production
are 55—73 percent silica and 27—45 percent flux-
ing oxides (e.g., limestone and borates) to ma flu-
facture the fiberglass filaments, and a phenolic
resin to bind the filaments together. Four basic
types of glass are used: low-alkali lime alumina
borosilicate, soda-lime borosilicate, lime-f roe boro-
silicate, and soda-time.
The basic process for fiberglass manufacture is as
follows. The raw materials batch is melted to form
a homogeneous glass stream. There are two ways
that the melting process can be done: direct melt-
ing or marble process. The, molten glass stream is
then fibenzed to form a random mat of fibers
which are bonded together with a thermosetting
phenolic binder or glue. The glass is fiberized by
either flame attenuation or rotary spinning. The
trend in the industr’j 25 toward more dfrect melting
and rotary spinning.
The primary domestic uses for insulation fiber-
glass are: insulating material, noise insulation
products. airfitters, and bulk wool products.
There are 19 insulation fiberglass plants owned by
three major companies. Ten of these plants cur-
rently have BPT equipment in place. The typical
plant produces 123 thousand metric tons (136
thousand short tons) per year, and alt plants have a
wastewater discharge.
In 1 972, total fiberglass production amounted to
0.77 million metric tons (0.85 million short tons).
Of the $427 million in annual sales, exports
amounted to $8.4 million and imports were $0.7
million. Therefore, foreign trade is not a significant
portion of total consumption.
•Waste Sources and Pollutants
The main sources contributing to total waste load
are summarized in Table 6.3—1.
Control Technology and Costs
Because of the large volume of process waters and
because the chain wash water often co itains phe-
nol, formaldehyde, and other contaminants, total
recycling of wastewaters is the most economical
treatment alternative for the insulation fiberglass
industry. Sample recycling systems consist of
T b1. 6.3—1.
Insulation Fiberglass Industry Pollutant Sources
Specific
Color Turb di$ Conâuctonce
— — — x x — — — — x x x
— — — x x — — x — x x x
x x x x x x x x x x — x
CuI
Coo 5n — — — X X — — — — —
Fv. i W $,r
___ — — — X X — — X — X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X
Cn e Wasur — — — x — — — — — — x x
Source EPA D. . .,.L,.ui.M Dooa . t, ioeu y 974.
Wa 1, S$,.aei
Oil &
Phenols COD D5 SS Grease Anwnonia
x x x x x
— — — x x x x
x —
122
-------
coarse filtration, followed by either fine filtration
or flocculation and settling.
Effluent control costs are summerized in Table
6.3—2.
TABLE 6.3-2. INSULATION FIBERGLASS INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 2.08 5.14 0.15 0.23 0.30
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS .. 0.52 1.83 2.57 4.22 7.26
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 2.60 6.97 2.72 4.45 7.57
MUN. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 2.60 6.97 2.72 4.45 7 57
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXIST1P4G PLANTS
BPT 0.68 1.34 2.75 4.16 6.30
B-AT .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS .. .. .. .. ... 0.24 0.58 1.77 3.25 6.42
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL...... . ..... 0.92 1.92 4.53 7.41 12.72
O&M
EXISTiNG PLANTS
SPI.... .. ..... .. 0.87 1.74 3.56 5.38 8.16
BAT...... .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS ......... 0.32 0.75 2.34 4.30 8.53
PRETREATMENT...... .. ................ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 1.19 2.49 5.90 9.69 16.68
INDUSTRY TOTAL .... 2.11 4.41 10.43 17.10 29.40
MUNIOPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY .. ._.. 0.0 - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER NMGES ..... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. 2.11 4.41 10.43 17.10 29.40
AU. ANNUAL COSTS 2.11 4.41 10.43 17.10 29.40
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
MOTE: ANNUM CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.IJNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
123
-------
6.4 ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Asbestos Manufacturing (Phase I)
Production Characteristics and Capacities
There were 68 plants operating in this portion of
the asbestos manufacturing industry in 1972. A
majority of these asbestos plants generate waste-
water during production.
The asbestos manufacturing industry (Phase I) can
be subdivided into six parts; these are:
• Cement pipe
• Cement sheet
• Paper
• MiHboard
• Roofing materials
• Floor tile
Asbestos cement products manufacturers are the
largest overall users of asbestos fibers; cement
pipe manufacture is the largest element of this
category. Asbestos sheet is used for laboratory
table tops and other structural uses. Asbestos pa-
per and millboard have a wide variety of uses, but
are particularly used for applications where direct
contact with high temperatures occur. Asbestos
roofing and floor tiles are fabricated products that
take advantage of the unique qualities of asbestos.
With the exception of roofing and floor tile manu-
facturing, there is a basic similarity in the manufac-
turing methods of various asbestos products. The
asbestos fibers and other raw materials are slur-
ned with water and then formed into sheets. Save-
ails (settling tanks) are used in all processes. In
roofing manufacture, asphalt or coal tar is soaked
into asbestos paper. In floor tile manufacture, as-
bestos is added to the tiles for its special structural
and dimension-holding qualities.
A favorable trade balance may be projected for
asbestos products, regardless of any price effects
resulting from the effluent standards. However,
there has been a recent trend towards an increase
in the value of imports, with an increase from 88.8
million in 1969to $11.3 million in 1972.
Westa Sources and Pollutants
Asbestos manufacturing wastes include: total sus-
pended solids (which include asbestos fibers),
BOD 5 . COD. pH (alkalinity), high temperature, total
dissolved solids, nitrogen, phosphorus, phenols,
toxic materials, oil and grease, organic matter,
nutrients, color, and turbidity.
The major source of wastewater in the asbestos
industry is the machinery that converts slurry into
the formed wet product. Water is used as: an
ingredient, a carrying medium, for cooling, and for
auxilliary uses such as pump seals, wet saws or for
pressure-testing the pipes. In most plants, waste-
water is combined and discharged into a single
sewer. In all subcategories, water is removed dur-
ing various steps to the save-all system (settling
tank). Waste characteristics are defined by the
following parameters: total suspended solids
(TSS), COD, and pH.
Control Technology and Costs
Waste treatment methods used in the asbestos
manufacturing industry are summarized in Table
6.4—1.
Asbestos Industry (Phase II)
Production Characteristics and Capacities
For purposes of establishing water effluent guide-
lines, the Phase II asbestos industry covers four
processes: coating of asbestos textiles, solvent
recovery, vapor absorption, and wet scrubbing.
There are a total of 5 1 asbestos plants in the Phase
II portion of the industry. However, only 9 plants
have wastewater streams from the processes cov-
ered by the guidelines. The majority of products
are manufactured by a dry process and this
production does not generate process
wastewaters.
The primary reasons for the use of asbestos fiber
in textile products are its properties of durability
and resistance to heat, fire, and acid. Asbestos is
the only mineral that can be manufactured into
textiles using looms and other textile equipment.
Asbestos textile products are primarily used for
friction materials, industrial packing, electrical in-
sulation, and thermal insulation.
The manufacture of asbestos textile products in-
volves a variety of processes. The textile plants
124
-------
forms a continuous mat of material. This mat is
divided into strips, or slivers, and mechanically
compressed between oscillating surfaces into un-
twisted strands. The strands are wound on spools
to form the roving. Roving is the asbestos textile
product from which asbestos yarn is produced.
The roving is spun into yarn in a manner similar to
that employed to manufacture cotton and wool
yarn. The strands of roving are converted into a
single yarn by the twisting and pulling operations
of a spinhing machine. The yarn produced in the
spinning and twisting operation is the basic com-
ponent of several other asbestos textile products.
Asbestos twine or cord is produced by twisting
together two or more yarns on a spinning frame
similar to those used to manufacture cotton cord.
Braided products are made by a series of yarn-
carrying spindles, half traveling in one direction
and half in the opposite direction to plait the yarn
together and form a braided product.
Asbestos yarn can also be twisted or braided into
various shapes to form packing and gaskets. The
braided material can be impregnated with differ-
ent compounds. Graphite is commonly used to
impregnate braided packing material; the graphite
serves to lower the frictional properties and im-
prove the binding properties of the packing.
Asbestos cloth is woven from yarn on looms that
operate in a manner similar to those used for the
manufacture of other textile products. The warp
yarn is threaded through the heddles and the reed
of the loom and the filler yarn is wound on quills
and placed in a shuttle. The cloth is woven as the
filler yarn in the shuttle interweaves the warp yarn
transversely. Following weaving, the asbestos
cloth is inspected for strength, weight, and asbes-
tos content.
Asbestos yarn or cloth may be coated for fabrica-
tion into friction materials and special textile
products. The material is drawn through one or
more dip tanks and the coating material is spread
by rollers, brushes, or doctor blades. The coated
textile product then passes through a drying oven
where the solvent is evaporated.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Water is not normally used in an asbestos textile
manufacturing plant. Two exceptions are the addi-
tion of moisture during weaving or braiding and
the coating operation. Wastewater is generated
only in the latter process.
The basic parameters used to define wastewater
characteristics are: COD, suspended solids, and
pH. Two of the nine plants discharge to municipali-
ties, while six of the plants already provide BPT
receive the asbestos fiber by rail car in 100-lb.
bags. The bags are opened, and the fibers passed
over a vibrating screen or trommel screen for
cleaning. The fibers are lifted from the screen by
air suction and graded. After preparation, the fiber
is mixed and blended. Chrysolite is the predomi-
nant fiber used in textiles. Crocidolite and amosite
asbestos fibers may also be added to the chryso-
lite. Small percentages of cotton, rayon, and other
natural or synthetic fibers serve as carriers or
supports for the shorter asbestos fibers, and they
improve the spinnability of the fiber mixture. Typi-
cally, the organic fiber content is between 20 and
25 percent. The blending and mixing operations
are primarily done during carding of the fibers, but
can also be performed in multi-hopper blending
units.
In the carding operation, the fibers are arranged
by thousands of needle-pointed wires that cover
the cylinders of the carding machine. The fibers
are combed by passing bet veen the carding ma-
chine main cylinder and the worker cylinders rotat-
ing in the opposite direction. The carding machine
1.61. 6.4—1.
Asbestos Manufocturüsq Industry
West. Trostmetit Methods
Seolmentation & Complete
Subcategories Neutralization Recycle
Athesto* Cement
Pip.
x —
BAT — X
NSPS X —
Asbesto* Cement
eet
BPT X —
BAT —. X
NSP S — X
Sedimentation & Comolete
Coagulation Recycle
Asbestos Pop.r
aPT x —
SAT — X
NSPS — X
Sedimentation Complete
(Elastrometnc Recycle
binderl ( Starch binderl
Miflboard
BPT — X
BAT — X
NSPS — X
Sedimentation & Complete
Skimming Recycle
Roofing
BPT X
BAT — X
NSPS — X
Floor TUe
aPT X —
SAT X
NsPs x
125
-------
treatment prior to discharge to surface waters.
Only one plant does not have BPT treatment in-
stalled on a Phase I I wastewater stream. This facil-
i is planning to incorporate total recycling of all
waters.
Control Technology and Costs
New plants are expected to be designed for zero
effluent discharge. Increased user charges are ex-
pected to be negligible since the waste streams
for Phase I I processes are small. There are no
pretreatment standards. It is estimated that the
costs for the Phase I I guidelines will be zero.
Best practical technology for the Phase II asbestos
industries varies from cooling, recycle, sedimenta-
tion, and activated sludge. New plants are ex-
pected to recycle all processed wastewater and
have no discharge.
Best available technology for this industry is car-
bon absorption treatment or total recycle.
Total asbestos industry water pollution control
costs are summarized in Table 6.4—2.
TA8LE 6.4-2. ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION
(IN MIWONS OF 977 I OLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 __ __
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS... .. ........
SPT.._.... . ......... .. .... . . . ... 0.10
aAT 0.0
0.23
0.0
0.33
NEW PLANTS
CC*!T OI. COSTS
CI .a? ?n
MUM. RECOVERY
1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
1f YLI
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING
O&M
0.77
0.0
1.90
1.22
0.0
3.13
2.07
0.0
4.61
3.76
0.0
6.31
0.0
0.33
0.15
0.0
0.10
0.0
0.25
0.27
0.0
0.35
0.0
1.90
0.34
0.0
0.24
0.0
0.58
0.62
0.0
0.83
0.0
3.13
0.59
0.50
0.78
0.0
1.88
1.09
0.80
2.72
0.0
4.61
0.89
1.17
147
0.0
3.53
1.64
1.86
5.11
0.0
6.31
1.33
2.18
3.02
0.0
6.53
2.45
3.46
10.48
- .._... . .... . . ... . . ...
BAT —*
NEW PL*NTS....... ,._.... ........_.... . ...
PRETREATMENT..._..._.. . ._ _
......_ . . . . .
EXISTING PTS . . . ...... . .... . ._..._... . . . ...... . ..
BPT.. ....... . . . . . . . .... . ._... . . . ....
.. . ..........
NEW PLANTS . . . ....... . ....... . ... . . . . . . . .... . ..._ ...... . ...
PRETREATMENT_........ . . . .. . ..... . ._... . . . .. . ... . ... . . . . . . ... . .. . ..
0.0
0.63
0.88
0.0
0.0
0.88
0.0
1.45
2.03
0.0
0.0
2.03
0.0
4.61
6.49
0.0
0.0
6.49
0.0
8.61
12.14
0.0
0.0
12.14
0.0
16.40
22.92
0.0
0.0
22.92
TOTAL.... . ...... . ........_... . ........ . .... . ..._.. . ._
INDUSTRY TOTAL..........
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY...................... . .. ..... . .. . ...... . ....
USER CHARGES ... ....... . . . ... . . . .. . ..
TOTAL...
ALL ANNUAL COSTS .. ... . . . . .. .....
0.88
2.03
6.49
12.14
22.92
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
I 26
-------
6.5 CEMENT INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The cement industry is divided into two basic
manufacturing processes: wet and dry.
A facility using the wet process grinds up the raw
materials with water and feeds them into the kiln
as a slurry.
A facility using the dry process drys the raw ma-
terials. grinds and then feeds them into the kiln in a
dry state.
In each of these processes;there are three major
steps: grinding and blending, clinker production,
and finish grinding. Clinker is a material about the
size of a large marble which has been through the
kiln but has not been fine-ground into finished
cement
The raw materials for cement production include
lime (calcium oxide), silica, alumina, iron, and gyp-
sum. Lime, the largest single ingredient, comes
from cement rock, oyster shell marl, or chalk.
The cement industry numbered 1 66 establish-
ments in 1972 with the typical plant production
estimated to be 525 thousand metric tons (579
thousand short tons) per year.
In 1973, 80.5 million metric tons (88.7 million
short tons) of cement were produced. From 1967
to 1973, production increased at a compound
annual average rate of 5.3 percent. Imports have
risen to meet demand. growing from 1.0 million
metric tons (1.1 million short tons) in 1967 to 6.1
million metric tons (6.7 million short tons) in 1 973.
Exports have increased to 454 thousand metric
tons (500 thousand short tons) in 1974. Ship-
ments in 1975 declined because of the severe
drop in overall construction activity. Total ship-
ments dipped about 28 percent below 1974 to
about 59 million metric tons (65 million short
tons). However, because of higher cement prices.
value of industry shipments in 1 975 dropped only
about 5 percent to $2.1 billion. According to the
U.S. Industrial Outlook, an increase was expected
in 1976 of about 21 percent in the value of Port-
land cement industry shipments to $2.5 billion,
reflecting the higher prices and higher demand for
new housing construction.
Prices have increased due to higher production
costs and pollution abatement costs. Fuel cost
increases are also expected to affect’prices.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
In terms of the generation of water pollutants, the
cement industry is divided into three
subcategories:
• Leaching plants. The kiln dust comes into
direct contact with water in the leaching
process for reuse and from the wet scrub-
bers that control stack emission.
• Non-leaching plants. The contamination of
water is not a direct function of the water
usage.
• Pile materials. Kiln dust, clinker, coal or
other materials that are subject to rainfall
runoff.
The main sources contributing to the total waste
load come from the following: in-plant leakage,
non-contact cooling water, process water, kiln
dust pile runoff water, housekeeping water, and
effluent from wet scrubbers.
In order to define waste characteristics, the follow-
ing basic parameters were used to develop guide-
lines for meeting BPT and BAT: pH, total dissolved
solids, total suspended solids, alkalinity, potassi-
um, sulfate, and temperature (heat).
BPT for plants in the non-leaching subcategory has
been defined as no discharge of pollutants from
manufacturing except for thermal discharge for
which an increase of 3 ’C (5.5SF) is permitted.
For plants in the leaching subcategory, BPT is the
same as for the non-leaching subcategory except
for the dust-contact streams where a reduction of
pH to 9.0 and of suspended solids to 0.4 kg/metric
ton of dust leached is required. For plants subject
to the provisions of the Materials Storage Piles
Runoff Subcategory, either the runoff should be
contained to prevent discharge or the runoff
should be treated to neutralize and reduce sus-
pended solids.
BAT for both leaching and non-leaching plants is
defined as zero discharge of pollutants. For plants
127
-------
subject to the provisions of the Materials Storage
Piles Runoff Subcategory, the definition of BPT is
applied to BAT.
NSPS is the same as BPT except that no discharge
is permitted for plants with materials storage pile
runoff.
Control Technology and Costs
The main control and treatment methods for the
cement industry involve recycle and reuse of
wastewater. The devices employed include cool-
ing towers or ponds, settling ponds. containment
ponds, and clarifiers.
For leaching plants, additional controls are
needed for adequate control of alkalinity, sus-
pended solids, and dissolved solids. Alkalinity is
controlled by neutralization, or carbonation; sus-
pended solids by clarification, sometimes with the
addition of flocculating agents. Although none of
the leaching plants currently use a treatment me-
thod to control dissolved solids, several processes
that might be employed include, precipitation, ion
exchange, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, and
combinations of these followed by total
evaporation.
In-plant control methods include good mainte-
nance and operating procedures to minimize solid
spillage and to return dry dust to the process.
Solids introduced into storm water runoff can be
minimized by paving areas for vehicular traffic,
providing good ground cover in other open areas,
removing accumulations of dust from roofs and
buildings, and by building ditches and dikes to
control runoff from materials storage piles.
Control costs are summarized in Table 6.5—1.
TABLE 6.5-1. CEMENT INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
INVESTMENT
NG A ____
3.30
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.30
0.0
3.30
20.59
0.0
0.0
0.0
20.59
0.0
20.59
0.0
2.19
4.73
0.0
6.93
0.0
6.93
0.0
2.92
7.47
0.0
10.40
0.0
10.40
0.0
2.92
12.11
0.0
15.04
0.0
15.04
IPT.
- —
UT
NEW PtANTS...._ _.______
P RETREATMB4T ..... -.
SI . STOTA I.
MUN. RECOVERY......
........... —
TOTAL _.
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPVIM
G
2.71
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.71
6.61
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.61
10.83
0.58
1.52
0.0
12.93
16.25
1.35
3.30
0.0
20.89
24.37
2.50
7.45
0.0
34.31
IPT.. ...— .... . ..._— _.
NEW PLANTS.
PRETREATMENT -.. . .. . ._.
-. .. . ......... . . .. ..
EXISTING PLANTS. . . . ....... ......... _ ._.
..._....
.._................. ...... ..
2.49
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.49
5.20
5 96
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.96
12.58
11.22
0.51
0.0
0.0
11.73
24.66
17.04
1.19
0.0
0.0
18.23
39.12
23.77
2.21
0.08
0.0
28.07
62.38
NEW PLANTS_ .__ .
PRETREATMENT —
O M
INDUSTRy TOTAL...........
MWIIOPAL cHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY.
USER cHARGES —
1OTAL ________
ALL ANNUAL COSTS.
NOTh COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JIJtY 151 Of THE FIRST YEAR TO JUPIE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTh AI*IUM CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINAT)C)N 0F (1) STRA’GHT.UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
. 5.20
12.58
24.66
39.12
62.38
5.20
12.58
24.66
39.12
62.38
28
-------
6.6. PAVING AND ROOFiNG MATERIALS INDUSTRY
Industry Description
Establishments covered under these guidelines
include: (1) Asphalt emulsion plants (SIC 295 1); (2)
Asphalt concrete plants (SiC 2951 and 1611); (3)
Asphalt roofing plants (SIC 2952) and (4) Linoleum
and asphalt felt flooring (SIC 3996). The regula-
tions forthis industry are cited in 40CFR443.
Asphalt Emulsion Plants
About 50 plants produce asphalt emulsions. The
chief source of pollutants is water from the wet
collection of waste fumes and the runoff of
precipitation.
The costs of meeting the regulations for a typical
plant of 5,500 metric tons (6,000 short tons) per
day have been developed by EPA for the BPT. BAT,
and NSPS case, and are applied to the 7 plants not
in compliance in 1974, the year the regulations
were proposed. Eighteen plants at that time were
meeting the BPT standards, of which 8 met BAT
standards. (This was industry practice, not antici-
pation of the regulations.) Twenty-five plants dis.
charge to municipal sewers.
industry size was static from 197 1—75 but is ex-
pected to grow at 4 percent per year through
1980 and at 1.65 percent per year from 1981 to
85. These estimates are based on expected high
way construction and repair.
Asphalt Paving Plants
Approximately 3,1 80 plants use wet scrubbers to
remove particulates from the air, thereby creating
a potential water pollution problem. (The rest of
the industry group uses fabric filters.) The BPT,
BAT, and NSPS requirements are the same—no
discharge of pollutants. This can be easily
achieved by the use of an earthen stilling basin or
lagoon, or by use of a mechanical sedimentation
tank. Costs derived in the EPA development docu-
ment have been used. No pretreatment costs have
been calculated since, according to a recent sur-
vey, only one plant discharges to a municipal sys-
tem. Forty percent of new plants or expansions
occuring after 1974 are expected to use wet
scrubbing; the balance will use dry air pollution
control methods and thus will not incur water
pollution control costs. Of the plants using wet
scrubbers in 1974, 10 percent (308 plants) were
not in compliance with the water regulation. Only
55 percent of these are expected to continue to
use water systems. The balance are estimated to
have changed to fabric filters to abate air pollution
and avoid the costs of upgrading their water clean-
up system. Forty percent of future plants are ex-
pected to use wet systems. The overall industry
growth rate is expected to be the same as for
highway construction and repair.
Asphalt Roofing
In 1974, 225 plants produced a variety of asphalt
and tar roofing materials including shingles, felts,
siding materials, and coatings. The chief pollution
problem arises from oil and particulate in the cool-
ing water that is used directly on the material. In
addition most plants have a tower for blowing
asphalt. The ground adjacent to this unit is usually
saturated with asphalt so that precipitation runoff
becomes contaminated with oils.
The costs for meeting BPT, BAT, and NSPS for a
plant of 450 metric tons per day (500 short tons
per day) have been developed by EPA and have
been applied to the 21 plants not conforming to
BPT regulations and the additional 2 1 plants meet-
ing BPT but not BAT standards.
Growth of the industry is assumed to be 3.5 per-
cent per year.
Linoleum and Asphalt Felt Flooring
This industry segment of the tar and asphalt
products industry is quite small (3 plants esti-
mated) and the costs for conforming to the regula-
tions are small, $6,100 capital investment and
$2,570 0&M for a typical plant. For these reasons,
the costs have not been tabulated or included.
The total costs for asphalt emulsion plants, asphalt
paving plants and asphalt roofing plants are
shown in Table 6.6—1.
129
-------
TABLE 6.6—I. PAVING AND ROOFING MATERIALS INDUSTRY
WATER POLLUTiON CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PtANTS. . . . .........._ .. ..
.. 0.11 1.09 0.26 0.29 0.35
... ..._. 0.0 0.0 2.59 3.45 3.45
NEW PLANTS.............._...__......... .......... 0.13 0.32 0.53 0.75 1.10
... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0
SUBTOTAL...... . .. __....... 0.24 1.41 3.37 4.49 4.90
MUN. RECOVERY ................. . . . ... * 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL........... _.......... 0.24 1.41 3.37 4.49 4.90
ANP4UAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING P 5..
BPT .. ..... ...... ...... 0.19 0.75 0.89 1.35 2.04
.. ........ .. 0.0 0.0 0.68 1.59 2.95
NEW PLANTS .. . .. ..... 0.04 0.07 0.35 0.61 1.12
......... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .....__..._........................ ........ 0.24 0.82 1.92 3.55 6.11
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS * . ....
....... .. 1.21 4.74 5.52 8.40 12.84
...... . .. ..... .... 0.0 0.0 1.04 2.43 4.51
NEW PLANTS _.............. . ...... . .... 0.03 0.07 0.69 1.35 2.67
P RE T EEATMENT... . .. ..._. . ._ . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.24 4.80 7.26 12.19 20.02
1NUU$TRY TOT L... _... ... . . . . . ............. .... 1.48 5.62 9.17 15.74 26.14
MUNIOPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY... ..._._ . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ...... . ........ . ............... .... . .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 1.48 5.62 9.17 15.74 26.14
ALL ANNUAL COSTS....._.......... . ...... ...... 1.48 5.62 9.17 15.74 26.14
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINAT1ON OF: (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
130
-------
7. FOREST PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
For the purpose of this report, the Forest Products
Industries are defined as those establishments
engaged in gathering and processing forest
products and in the manufacture of consumer
goods from these materials. These are the:
• Timber Products Processing Industry
• Timber Products Processing (Furniture)
• Gum and Wood Chemicals Industry
• Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Manufactur-
ing Industry
Costs for the reduction of Water Pollution for these
industrial sectors are summarized in Table 7—1.
These costs and other data are repeated below in
the appropriate sections together with the as-
sumption peculiar to the industry and other
details.
TABLE 7 .- I. WATER POLLUTION ABATEMENT COSTS FOR THE
FOREST PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
INDUSTRY
TiMBER PRODUCTS
1977
io.o.
0.02
1972-77
55.05
3.58
74.04
0.20
99.15
0.22
GUM & WOOD CHEMICALS
PULP PAPER & PAPERBOARD MANUFACTURING
700.00
2178.75
441.25
1511.05
FURNITURE MANUFACTURING
0.0
710.07
0.0
2237.38
2.80
518.29
4.80
1615.22
TOTAL INVESTMENT ..
ANNUAL COSTS
TiMBER PRODUCTS
GUM & WOOD CHEMICALS ......
PULP PAPER & PAPERBOARD MANUFACTURING
1977
42.34
1.13
28.53
1972—77
73.92
4.60
1146.20
197741
203.41
4.74
2281.20
197746
548.85
10.31
6478.66
12.59
FURNITURE MANUFACTURING
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
0.0
572.01
0.0
1224.71
2490.72
7050.41
131
-------
7.1. TIMBER PRODUCTS PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The plywood, hardboard, and wood preserving
segment of the timber products processing indus-
try is a large and complex conglomerate. For pur-
poses of establishing effluent limitations guide-
lines, and standards of performance, it has been
divided into ten subcategories as follows: (1) bark-
ing, (2) veneer, (3) plywood, (4) hardboard — dry
process. (5) hardboard — wet process, (6) insula-
tion board (no steam), (7) insulation board with
steam or hardboard, (8) wood preserving, (9) wood
preserving — steam, and (10) wood preserving —
boultonizing.
As of 1974, the industry had over 3600 establish-
ments under the following subsectors:
“Barking” includes the operations that remove the
bark from logs, either through mechanical abra-
sion or by hydraulic force. “Veneer” includes con-
verting barked logs or heavy timber into thinner
sections of wood, which may be later cut and
conditioned to improve the quality of the product.
‘Plywood” includes operations of laminating lay-
era of veneer to form finished plywood, either
softwood from veneers of coniferous or needle
bearing trees or hardwood from veneers of decidu-
ous or broad-leaf trees. “Hardboard” includes the
operations leading to the production of panels
from chips, sawdust, logs, or other raw materials,
using either the dry (air) or wet (water) matting
processes for forming the board mat. “Insulation
board” includes operations producing a low den-
sity board from wood particles, chips, and saw-
dust. “Wood processing” includes all pressure or
non-pressure processes employing water-borne
salts (copper, chromium, or arsenic), in which
steaming or vapor drying is not the predominant
method of conditioning. “Wood preserving-
steam” includes steam impingement on the wood
being conditioned. “Wood preserving-
boultonizing” uses a vacuum extraction of water
as the conditioning method. Timber products are
used primarily for the building and Construction
industry, commercial uses, and home and decora-
tive purposes.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Wastewater sources are given for the following
segments:
• Barking. Hydraulic barking contributes
high suspended solids and BOD, as does
drum barking.
• Plywood and veneer. Log conditioning,
cleaning of veneer dryers, washing of the
glue lines and glue tanks, and cooling
water.
• Hardboard and Insulation Board. Wastewa-
ter discharge is low for dry processing but
can occur due to washing. Sources from
wet processing include: raw materials han-
dling, fiber and mat formation, and
processing.
• Wood preserving. Pollutants include oils,
simple sugars, cooling water, steam con-
densate, boiler blowdown, and metals
salts.
The major pollutant parameters common to all
subcategories, but not necessarily present in proc-
ess water from all the categories for which effluent
guidelines and standards are presented, include
the following: BOO 5 . COD, phenols, oil and grease,
pH, high temperature, dissolved solids, total sus-
pended solids, phosphorus, and ammonia.
Wood preserving subcategories may also include
the following pollution contributors: copper, chro-
mium, arsenic, zinc, and fluorides. The above pol-
lutants are not always present in process water
from all the subcategories, and their presence
depends on the processing methods.
Presently achieving a no discharge status are
about 50 percent of the veneer and plywood
plants, about 40 percent of the hardboard manu-
facturers and 10 percent of the wood preserving
plants.
Plants
2400
382
338
390
74
37
17
Subsectors
Sawmills
Plywood mills
Veneer plywood mills
Wood preserving plants
Particle board mills
Hardboard mills
Insulation board mills
132
-------
Control Technology and Costs
Current technology includes the following:
• Barking. Use of CIa rifiers.
• Veneer. Reduction in the amount of waste-
water by reuse and conservation.
• Plywood. Use of minimal wastewater and
effecting a reduction in water use.
• Hardboard — Dry. Oil and water separation
and use of waste retention ponds or spray
irrigation.
• Hardboard — Wet. Use of water recycling.
filtration, sedimentation, coagulation,
evaporation, and biological oxidation such
as lagoons, aerated lagoons, and activated
sludge systems.
• Wood Preserving. Storage of wastes or dis-
charge to sewers, evaporation and inciner-
ation, flocculation, and sedimentation.
BPT includes the following:
• Barking. Use of primary screening and set-
tling followed by biological treatment.
• Veneer. Substitution for direct steam con-
ditioning of logs by: hot water spray tun-
nels, indirect steaming, or modified steam-
ing with the use of steam coils. Land dis-
posal of solid waste.
• Plywood. Use of steam to clean spreaders
where applicable and the use of high pres-
sure water for cleaning, use of glue applica-
tors that spray water for glue makeup, and
evaporation and spray application of glue
water on bark going to the incinerator.
• Hardboard-Dry. Recycling of log wash and
chip wash water and disposal of the solids
by landfill or use as boiler fuel, operation of
the resin system as a closed system with
wash water being recycled, and land appli-
cation of solids.
• Hardboard-Wet, Hardboard, Insulation
Board. Recycling of process water as dilu-
tion water, utilization of heat exchangers to
reduce temperature. use of gravity settling,
screening, filtration or flotation to reduce
suspended solids, use of primary settling
plus screening followed by aerated la-
goons or activated sludge or both with pH
adjustment, and disposal of sludge by aero-
bic digestion in sludge lagoons, recycling
or as landfill.
• Wood Preserving. Recovery of contami-
nated water, modifications of existing non-
pressure processing equipment, use of oil
recovery equipment, biological treatment,
neutralization, flocculation, evaporation,
and landfill disposal.
BAT consists of the following:
• Barking. Reduction in water use and
recycle.
• Veneer. Use of dry veneer dryer cleaning
methods or proper land disposal.
• Plywood. Elimination of discharge from glu-
ing operation and dry housekeeping
procedures.
• Hardboard-Dry. Same as BPT.
• Hardboard-Wet. Installation of a pre-press
and evaporation system, primary treatment
followed by biological treatment, and use
of recycle of process water.
• Wood Preserving. Implementation of good
housekeeping practices, and minimizing
water use.
NSPS is the same as BPT for barking, and the same
as BAT for the remaining processes in the industry.
Control costs are summarized in Table 7.1—1.
133
-------
TABLE 7.1—1. TiMBER PRODUCTS PROCESSING INDUSTRY
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLiONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATiVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS..... -
BPT ............ . ......... .. 4.8.4 31.85 0.0 0.0 0.0
BAT...... . ......... . . . ... . .................. . ............. 5.20 23.20 71.04 112.15 94.15
NEW PLANTS ........................... __. . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT....... .......... . 0.0 0.0 3.00 5.00 500
SUBTOTAL. ............._____ 10.04 53.05 74.04 117.15 99.15
MUN. RECOVERY . . ....... . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ............_..............._.............. . . ._....... 10.04 55.05 74.04 117.13 99.15
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPI1AL
EXiSTiNG PLANTS..
.. . ..__....... . ... 4.19 11.06 16.75 25.12 37.69
3.05 6.73 31.52 65.83 116.08
NEW PI.ANT$.._ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT.................................... _.._.. 0.0 0.0 0.79 1.97 3.94
TOTAL.._...................... . ..... 7.24 17.79 49.06 92.94 157.71
O&M
EXiSTING LANTS.._....__.. -
29.59 47.12 128.80 193.20 289.80
BAT.. . ..........................._....................... 5.52 9.01 24.51 47.85 92.64
NEW PLANTS ..._ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PEATMENT................_...._............................. 0.0 0.0 1.04 3.46 8.71
TOTAL. —- __................. 35.10 56.13 154.35 24.4.51 391.15
INDUSTRY TOTAL..... .... ____________ . 42.34 73.92 203.41 337.45 548.83
MUNICWAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL . 42.34 73.92 203.41 337.45 548.85
ALL ANNUM COSTS ..... 42.34 73.92 203.41 337.45 548.85
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1I STRAIGHTUNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
134
-------
7.2 TIMBER PRODUCTS PROCESSING (FURNITURE) INDUSTRY
ProductIon Characteristics and Capacities
This industry segment, covered by the SIC 25
category, includes the following subcategories:
SIC Sector
25’)’)
2512
25 ’ )7
2521
2531
2534
254
Wood household furniture. unupholseered
Wood household furniture, upholstered
Wood television, radio, phonograph, and
sewing macnine cabinets
Wood office furniture
Public building related.fu,ndure
Kitchen cabin*ts
Wood partitions, office and store
furniture
There are about 6,000 establishments, with no
single establishment accounting for more than 3%
of industry sales, indicating a diversified and frag-
mented industry employing on the average, less
than 25 people per establishment
Furniture operations can generally
five steps:
(1) raw material handling
(2) machining
(3) wood bending and fitting
(4) assembly and gluing
(5) finishing.
be split into
Of these operations, gluing, cleaning, and finish-
ing are the chief sources of effluents. The gluing
process effluent is essentially washwater from the
cleanup of excess and spilled glues. Cleaning ef-
fluent is from the cleaning of wiping rags and
protective clothing. Finishing effluents are oils,
solvents, resins, pigments, and particulates, and
overspray collected typically in spray booths using
either water sprayers or filters. The significant
effluent descriptors for typical effluent from the
furniture industry are:
Primar Signi cance
(1) Chemical Oxygen Demand
(2) Tet l Suspended Solids
(3) Dissolved Solids
(41 pH
(5) Temperature
Secondary Signi cance
(1) Biological Oxygen Demand
(2) Phenols
(3) Color
(4) Oil and Grease
(5) inorganic Ions
Potential treatment technologies for industry efflu-
ents are:
(1) Incineration via spraying or scrap
fuel
(2) Evaporation ponds
(3) Spray irrigation
(4) Trucking to landfill
(5) Disposal to municipal systems
Guidelines for the furniture and fixtures industry
for both BPT and BAT call for zero discharge of
wastewater pollutants to navigable waters, and as
of 1974, 95 percent of all furniture and fixtures
plants were in compliance with these guidelines.
Table 7.2—1 is a summary of compliance costs for
the SIC 25 group. It should be noted that SIC 2531
and S1C 254 1 encompass the metal fabricated
furniture industry, which has negligible gluing ef-
fluents and significantly reduced spray booth em-
issions compared to the wood furniture industry.
Only the costs of effluent control in the wood
furniture industry are included in Table 7.2—1.
135
-------
TA3L 7.2-1. T M ER PRODUCTS PROCESSING (FURNITURE) IN )USTRY
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(I 4 M LUONS O 977 I OLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1’2—77 1977—81 1977—83
19 7—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS.
BPT
BAT
NEW PLANTS
PRETREATMENT......
SUBTOTAL
NUN. RECOVF ’
TOTAl
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EX 1SI1P4G
BPT
BAT
NEW ThNTS
PRETREATMENT
TOTAL... . . ...
O&M
EXISTING PLAV4TS
AT
?L
PLANTS.... .. —
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.80
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.80
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.80
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.80
4.80
i.S0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.80
4.80
4.00
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.63
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.89
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.79
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.63
LEF’
3.79
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
D.C
0.0
0.74
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.52
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.74
3.52
0.0
0.0
1.37
5.42
NEW PlANTS -.
PRETREATMENT.
— ‘ WA ,
INDUSTRY TOTAL...............
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY..Z . .. . . . . . . . .. ......... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ..... ............_..._ . . . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL.......... _. . .._ ..... 0.0 0.0 1.37 5.42
AU. ANNUAL COSTS.... . ................................... 0.0 0.0 1.37 5.42
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 151 OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUM CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: ( ) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPREC)ATION AND (2) INTEREST.
0.0
8.80
0.0
3.0
8.80
12.59
0.0
0.0
12.59
12.59
136
-------
7.3 GUM AND WOOD
General Industry Description
The Gum and Wood Chemicals Industry corre-
sponds to SIC’s 2861 and 2899 and has been
divided, for pollution control purposes, into six
categories as follows:
• Char and charcoal
• Gum rosin and turpentine
• Wood rosin, turpentine, and pine oil
• Tall oil rosin, fatty acids, and pitch
• Essential oils
• Rosin derivatives
Twelve major companies have been identified
with this industry.
The 1972 Census of Manufacturers reported that
the gum and wood chemicals industry included
139 facilities employing 5,900 people with an
annual payroll of $47.6 million. Over 50 percent of
the establishments are in the South.
The gum and wood chemicals industry produces a
variety of products which had a value in excess of
$300 million in 1972. These products are used by
many different industries. The major products and
their primary use are as follows:
Wood Char — Principal uses are in the
production of charcoal briquettes for cooking and,
to a lesser extent, as an industrial fuel source.
Secondary uses are in the manufacture of acti-
vated charcoal and the production of carbona-
ceous chemicals, such as calcium carbide, and
certain types of graphite. -
Turpentine — Turpentine consists of the vola-
tile hydrocarbon constituents of the oleorosin con-
tained in coniferous trees. It is basically a mixture
of C 1 H 15 hydrocarbons. Primary uses are in the
manufacture of synthetic pine oil, insecticides.
terpene resins, flavors and perfumes, refined ter-
penes and derivatives, solvents, and other miscel-
laneous industrial uses.
Rosin — Rosin is the solid resinous component
of the oleoresin contained in the wood of conifer-
ous trees. It is a complex mixture of rosin acids and
some extraneous nonacidic compounds. Primary
end uses include paper size, applications in the
CHEMICALS INDUSTRY
manufacture of synthetic rubber, adhesives, coat-
ings, inks, and resins, and other miscellaneous
uses.
Tall Oil Fatty Acids and Other Products From
Tall Oil Fractination — The fatty acids from tall oil
comprise 3 1 percent of the U.S. market for fatty
acids. These are used to make plasticizers, soap,
synthetic detergents. textile treating and finishing
compounds, rubber chemicals, cutting oils, stabi-
lizers, emulsifiers, asphalt additives, fungicides,
and fuel oil additives.
Pine Oil — Pine oil produced by the distillation
of southeastern pine stumps is called natural pine
oil. This is used as an ingredient in insecticides,
deodorants, polishes, sweeping compounds, and
cattle sprays.
Cedarwood oil — Cedarwood oil is obtained
from two varieties of trees and is used in soaps, as
a fixative for various perfume fragrances, and a
perfumant in shoe and furniture polishes.
Processes
A brief description of the manufacturing proc-
esses are given below:
Char and Charcoal — Char and charcoal are
produced by thermal decomposition of raw wood
in a kiln above 270C (520F). Both condensable
and noncondensabie products are given off and
recovered for their fuel value. The char residue
may be used as such, or mixed with a binder and
made into briquettes.
Gum Rosin and Turpentine — Crude raw gum is
collected from scarified longleaf and slash pine
trees. This is melted and filtered to remove impuri-
ties. The purified gum is then distilled to separate
the turpentine.
Wood Rosin, Turpentine and Pine Oil—The raw
material for this process is the stumps from cut-
over pine forests. These are uprooted by bulldoz-
ers and delivered on railroad flat cars to an extrac-
tion plant. The stumps are cleaned and reduced to
chips. These are then extracted in a sequential
process to (1) remove water, (2) remove resinous
material and (3) remove solvent. The resinous frac-
137
-------
tion is then distilled to obtain the desired products,
and the spent wood chips are burned for fuel.
Tall Oil Rosin. Fatty Acids, and Pitch — These
products are produced using very modern distilla-
tion techniques starting with crude tall oil as the
raw material.
Essential Oils — Essential oils are obtained by
the steam distillation of scrap wood fines from
comparable wood. For example, cedarwood oil is
obtained by distilling cedarwood, etc.
Rosin Derivatives — Rosin is commonly chemi-
cally modified to enhance particular properties.
Many different types of chemical reactions are
involved in the various modifications, none of
which can be considered as typical.
The general trend in the gum and wood chemicals
industry is toward a decrease in production. This is
primarily due to more effiëient use of rosin for
sizing in the paper industry and a predictable
decline of the gum naval stores industry in the
United States. Trends in specific products are as
follows:
Rosin — The U.S. Department of Agriculture
reports that the U.S. consumption of rosin has
been decreasing over a period of many years. in
1974, consumption was only 78 percent of 1960
consumption, and the downward trend is ex-
pected to continue. A variety of reasons for this
have been identified. For example, fortified rosins
now used by the paper industry are more effective
than rosin itself. A variety of substitute and com-
petitive materials have also been developed which
are gradually replacing rosin.
Turpentine and Pine Oil — The apparent con-
sumption of turpentine is parallel to that of rosin.
The demand increased until the late 1960’s, after
which there has been a slow decrease which is
expected to continue. By contrast, the demand for
pine oil is estimated to be increasing at approxi-
mately 5 percent per year. However, the wood
chemical industry produces only about one-half
the pine oil; the kraft pulping industry produces
the remainder.
Tall Oil Fatty Acids — The production of tall oil
fatty acids depends upon the availability of crude
taft oil which is a by-product of the kraft pulping
process. The production of tall oil fatty acids has
been distorted because of a shortage of crude tall
oil in 1974 and 1975. However, an increase of 3
percent yearly is estimated provided that suffi-
- cientcrudetall oil is available.
Pollutant Char
ristics
Tue pollutant characteristics for the six categories
of gum and wood chemicals are outlined below.
Char and Charcoal
No wastewater discharge has been identified from
this process since it involves high temperature kiln
distillation. One possible discharge is stormwater
runoff which carries suspended solids. This can be
controlled, however, by proper materials handling
systems that reduce dust and solid materials in the
plant area.
Gum and Rosin Turpentine
Three wastwater sources have been identified in
this process. These are (1) rosin washing to re-
move soluble impurities, (2) distillate condensa-
tion, and (3) brine used to dehydrate the gum rosin.
This waste load is largely generated during wash-
ing operations.
Wood Rosin, Turpentine and Pine Oil
Process wastewater includes stripping as well as
vacuum and steam condensates from the distilla-
tion ooeration. Another possible source of waste-
water is from the washing of stumps for dirt re-
mo ia . £r a prcperi ’ ope ate p’ant, however, this
washwater is returned to a settling pond ard
reused after the solids ha”e settled out. The solids
are then periodically removed to a land fill.
Tall Oil Rosin, Pitch and Fatty Acids
This is a highly efficient distillation process, with
the primary source of wastewater being an acid
wash given to the crude tall oil. Additional waste-
water is accumulated during washdowns of proc-
ess equipment.
Essential Oils
This process generates large amounts of wastewa-
ter since it is based primarily on steam distillation
and the use of separators to recover the desired
oils from the steam condensate. This results both
in large amounts of wastewater and a high waste
load in the water.
Rosin Derivatives
These processes produce wastewater from a vari-
ety of point sources, including water of reaction,
spray steam, vacuum jet steam, and condenser
cooling water.
Control and Treatment Technology
The Development Document identified 139 facili-
ties in this industry category and found that ap-
138
-------
proximately one-third used municipal sewage
plants and were not covered by the final effluent
guidelines. Approximately 20 percent o f the
plants had treatment ponds with no direct dis..
charge, while 8 percent used the effluent for land
irrigation in remote areas. Only approximately four
percent had point-source discharges, and of these,
eighty percent had no additional requirements to
meet the BPCTCA guidelines.
Treatment of wastewater has consisted both of in-
plant and end-of-pipe treatment.
In-P/ant Treatment
In-plant treatment techniques generally amount to
more efficient housekeeping practices such as:
• Separating drainage lines so that effluent
not requiring treatment (i.e. storm water) is
handled separately.
• Improved efficiency 9 f equipment washing
procedures such as the use of several small
quantities of rinsewater which can be recy-
cled into the process.
• Use of techniquees such as a squeegee to
remove material before rinsing.
End-of-PFpe Treatment
Applicable end-of-pipe treatment processes in-
clude the use of primary clarifiers. aerated la-
goons, oxidation ponds, dissolved air flotation and
combinations of these. Additional improvement in
wastewater quality can be obtained through the
use of filtration or carbon absorption of the biolog-
ical treatment plant effluent.
Control Costs
The cost of controlling the waste load in the efflu-
ent for 5 categories of the Gum and Wood Chemi-
cals Industry has been estimated at three levels of
control (BPCTCA, BADCT, and BATEA). To obtain
the estimate, model systems were developed for
the various subcategories, and cost estimates
made based on end-of-pipe treatment. In-plant
costs were not included because of their highly
variable nature depending upon the purpose for
which the plant was constructed.
To evaluate the economic impact of the control
treatments, it was necessary to choose uniform
end-of-pipe treatment models which would pro-
vide the desired level of treatment. These were
chosen as follows:
End-af .Pip.
T.chnolegy Level
SPCTCA
3AOCT
BATEA
Treatment Model
Activated sludge
Activated sludge plus
filtration
Activated sludge plus
filtration plus carbon
absorption
Costs derived for these models are summarized in
Table 7.3—1.
139
-------
TABLE 7.3—1. GUM AND WOOD CHEMICALS INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF ‘?“ DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 0.02 3.58 0.20 0.21 0.22
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 0.02 3.58 0.20 0.21 0.22
MUN. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 0.02 3.58 0.20 0.21 0.22
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUM CAP1TAI.
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 0.63 2.56 2.63 3.95 5.85
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 0.63 2.56 2.63 3.95 5.85
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 0.50 2.03 2.11 3.09 4.46
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.50 2.03 2.11 3.09 4.46
INDUSTRY TOTAL 1.13 4.60 4.74 7.05 10.31
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 tO 0.0 0.0 , 0.0
TOTAL .. 4.60 4.74 7.05
ALL ANNUAL COSTS 1.13 4.60 4.74 7.05 10.31
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: ( i i STRAIGIIT.LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
140
-------
7.4. PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The Pulp and Paperboard M I II and Converted Pa-
per Products Point Source Category is considered
here to include the following subparts:
The majority of industry production is from un-
bleached kraft and cross recovery processes. A
description of major process and product use by
subcategories follows:
Unb/eached Kraft
Pulp is produced without bleaching using a “full
cook” process with a high alkaline-sodium hydrox-
ide and sodium sulfide cooking liquor. Un-
bleached kraft products are used for linerboard,
the smooth facing in corrugated boxes, and gro-
cery sacks.
Sodium Base-Neutral Sulfite Semi-Chemical
(NSSC)
Pulp production occurs without bleaching, using a
neutral sulfite cooking liquor with a sodium base;
mechanical fiberizing follows the cooking stage.
The main product is the corrugating medium or
inner layer in the corrugated box “sandwich.”
Ammonia Base-Neutral Sulfite Semi-Chemical
(NSSC)
Pulp is produced without bleaching, using a neu-
tral sulfite cooking liquor with an ammonia base.
Products are similar to sodium base NSSC.
Unbleached Kra ft-Neutral Sulfite Semi-Chemical
(cross recovery)
Unbleached kraft and sodium base NSSC proc-
esses are in the same mill. NSSC liquor is recov-
ered within the unbleached kraft recovery prpc-
ess. The products are the same as for the un-
bleached kraft and NSSC subcategories.
Builder’s Paper
The raw materials are prepared by cooking, beat-
ing, and pulping in a blending chest to reduce
them to individual fibers. These fibers are then
formed on a paper machine and dried by a steam-
heated multidrum dryer. Finishing coats are then
applied to protect the fibers; the coatings gener-
ally consist of mineral fragments in a bitumen or
asphalt medium, depending upon the specifica-
tions of individual clients.
All of the processes are similar in their digestion of
wood chips with a chemical cooking liquor and the
subsequent removal of the spent liquor. Process
differences relate primarily to the preparation,
use, and recovery of the cooking liquor. In the case
of paperboard, no pulping is involved.
Exports are primarily woodpulp and liner board.
American producers have a cost advantage be-
cause of cheap raw material sources; however,
this advantage may be eliminated by the European
Economic Community tariff increases scheduled
for 1980. (Europe comprises 43 percent of the
export market.) Pulp, paper, and paperboard
products from Canada are the only significant
imports.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The main sources contributing to the total waste
load come from the following processes: wood
preparation, pulping processes, and the paper
machine.
In order to define waste characteristics, the follow-
ing basic parameters were selected as guidelines
for meeting BPT and BAT guidelines: 8005. TSS,
pH, and color.
Control Technology and Costs
Waste treatment practices in the pulp, paper and
paperboard industry include the following
methods.
• Reuse of gland, vacuum pump seal, knot
removal shower, wash, and condensate
waters
Unbleoched Kraft
Sodium Based Neutral
Sulfite Sem.-Chemical
Ammonia Base Neutral
5ulflt, Semi-Chemical
Unbleoched Kraft-N* tyaJ
Sulfite Semi-Chemical
Paperboord From Waste
Pap.,
Dissolving Kraft
Market Ble ch.d Kroft
3d Bleached Kraft
Fine Bl . ch.d Kraft
Pop.rgrud . Sulfite
t.ow Alpha Dissolving
Sulfite Pulp
Gr oundwood.Chemj .Mech 0 njc 0 l
Groundwood-Thermo -Me. J anic aj
Oroundwooc-CMN Paper
Groundwood-Pine Paper
Soda
D.ink
NI Fine Paper
NI Tissue Paper
NI I su. tFWP)
High Alpha Dissolving Sulfite Pulp
Papergrade Sulfite Market Pulp
Builder ’s Paper and Roofing Felts
141
-------
a Internal spill collection: hot stock screen-
ing and cherncal and dregs recovery
• Land disposal: save-all systems
Screening and neutralization
• Suspended solids removal through use of
mechanical clarifier, earth basin, filtration.
and dissolved air flotation
a BOD 5 removal by use of aerated stabiliza-
tion basins, activated sludge processes,
and storage control
Foam control through the use of chemical
and mechanical means
• Color removal through the use of lime treat-
ment. activated carbon, coagulation-alum,
and reverse osmosis
The use of resin adsorption, ultra-filtration.
amino treatment and ion flotation.
The control technologies called for in BPT, BAT,
and SPS guidelines are summarized as follows;
BPT -Pap.r Machines
BAT4 ntsm i d
SIUdçL dtsposo by loridf lliriç
or .,cjneratias,
Us. of wOter show.n
egregatior of whit. wOtcr
Press water filtration by
ibra$ing or CVIt ifUQO! sc,eo
us. of caa.c ior systen for vcw —
pump S eUl
Reduction ‘q gl qwj water us.
Refuse of fresh water filter
baâwosh
Control of spils tlwough rut.ritios ,
, .Ul. Of s.pOfOtS treatment
Reduction of pulp wash arid
extinction water
Internal reuse of pro u
wotefl
Hot sp and
eeuparWu . bolI.out dosage, us. of
— -
Non.po&j*iog spent Bqeor
— by partial . 4upoiuIi..../
,a$ian use of ø. d bed
155 reduction by the us. of . .iik.n
basin, m.chos cul drdi , and
— rs. ..umd . and dlsiohad
ox
1005 reduction by: the use of . .clKW.d
—, oxai.d
tin basin, and storage/oxidation
a 5 , J solids , ..m.,.sd by. the use of
methan ci u , s Bng
—. stffing ponds win
aerated stabilization basin. or
q . .cS.t zone rn . .wied
stabilization basis. beyond the
influenc, of aeration .quip.n.nt
Sepora$ion of co 1ing t ’otevs trauv
the other woste ’wotet streams n f
treatment. removal, and ruvse
of these waters
Reduction of gland water
1005 reduction by: the use of
biological oxidation with uIvier
addition. TSS reduction by: the us. of
mixed media filtration and
chemical addition and coogulotio
Color reduction through th. use of
mininum km. treatment for creu recovery
mills and reverse osmosis for
NSSC both sodium and ammonia
bose m
Coagulation and filtration are not
included for any wbcategacies,
color reduction for both WSSC
bases are not included. Otl ie ,r ’ise
same ox BAT, with substairtiolly ‘so
process changes but changes to
increase efficiency.
Water pollution control costs appear in Table
7.4—1. These costs are derived from an economtc
analysis document, and costs are grouped
accordingly.
T,dut ,kigy Se .ød
VT Ex al
BAT -Exturnal
NSPS
142
-------
TABLE 7.4—1 PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUM U LAT I YE . ER 0 OS
1977 1972—77 19 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 700.00 2178.75 88.75 93.75 101.05
0.0 0.0 352.50 1037.50 1410.00
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 700.00 2178.75 44125 1151.25 1511.05
MUM. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 700.00 2178.75 441.25 1151.25 1511.05
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 286.45 621.71 1190.50 1787.72 2685.97
BAT 0.0 0.0 46.34 278.07 834.20
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 286.45 621.71 1236.84 2065.78 3520.17
O&M
EXISTiNG PLANTS
BPT 242.08 524.49 1006.11 1510.83 2269.99
BAT 0.0 0.0 38.25 229.50 688.50
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 242.08 524.49 1044.36 1740.33 2958.49
INDUSTRY TOTAL 528.53 1146.20 2291.20 3806.11 6478.66
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 528.53 1146.20 2281.20 3806.11 6478.46
AU. ANNUAL COSTS 528.53 114.6.20 2281.20 3806.11 6478.66
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBiNATION OF: (1 )STRAIGHT1INE DEPRECIATiON AND (2) INTEREST.
‘43
-------
8. FOODS AND AGRICULTURAL NDUSTR S
For the purpose of this report the Foods and Agri-
cultural Industries are defined to include those
establishments which prepare or process farm or
ranch products for delivery to an ultimate con-
sumer. Farms and ranches are specifically ex-
cluded; these are discussed in Chapter IX under
Nonpoint Sources. The industries covered in this
chapter are:
e Grain Mills
a Sugar Processing
• Canned and Preserved Fruits and
Vegetables
• Canned and Preserved Seafoods
a Dairy Products Processing
a Feedlots
a Meat Product
• Leather Tanning and Finishing
Costs for the abatement of water pollution for
these sectors are summarized in Table 8.-i. These
costs and other data are repeated below in the
respective sections of this chapter, together with
the assumptions peculiar to the industry and other
details.
TABLE 8.-i. WATER POLLLJT1OP4 ABATEMENT COSTS FOR THE
FOODS AN AGRICUTURAL INDUSTRIES
(IN MIWONS OF 19?7 DOLLARS)
INVESTMENT
INDUSTRY
GRAIN MIU.S........... ....... ._... ...._.
1977
1.56
P72-77
3.83
1977-81
4.41
1977-86
7.38
SUGAR PROCESSING
RAW CANE SUGAR PROCESS NG....................... .....
1.18
3.54
2.91
6.03
CANE REFINING SEGMET. . .... . .... . ... . ........ . . .............
BEET SUGAR PROcESSING........... . ............
2.84
3.73
8.21
9.91
14.87
5.13
23.86
9.01
CANNED AND PRESERVED
FRUITS & VEGETABLES... ... ............... . . ....
CANNED AND PRESERVED SEAFOOD..... . .. . ........ . . ........
193.99
22.95
636.69
43.59
93.94
794.4
134.06
114.78
DAIRY PRODUCTS PROCESS 1PIG.......... . . . .... . ...........
21.27
26.66
9.86
10.67
294.74
136.96
97.92
24.82
29.36
994.83
20.41
12.06
147.76
101.44
482.39
ANNUM COSTS
39.52
29.34
211.78
135.25
711.21
FEEDLOTS .._. .......
MEAT PRODUCTS...... ..._............ _ . .._...._ . .......
LEATHER TANNING AND FINISHING................... .....
TOTAL INVESTMENT................... . .... . ........ .....
-
1977
1972—77
1977—81
1977—86
GRAIN MILLS.... .... ..............
SUGAR PROCESSING.................... .. .. ...
RAW CANE SUGAR PROCESSING .. ..
0.89
1.34
1.73
3.08
3.92
7.72
19.08
21.72
CANE REFINING SEGMENT........
BEET SUGAR PROCESSSP4G ...... . . ._. ..
1.75
1.55
3.68
3.05
13.07
7.97
43.40
21.91
CANNED AND PRESERVED
FRUITS & VEGETA BLES.._.... .... .. ..
8.43.07
9.77
1844.29
17.62
3412.34
67.93
7760.00
211.91
CANNED AND PRESERVED SEAFOOD................._
DAIRY PRODUCTS PROCESSING....... ...........
21.23
57.95
93.98
232.80
FEEDLOTS . . ............. ..
27.86
11.fl
69.65
29.25
119.69
173.49
290.26
657.09
MEAT PRODUCTS ....... .... . . . .._ .. .. ..
LEATHER TANNING AND FINISHING ..
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS......... .....
8.01
926.69
16.27
2046.38
83.42
3985.74
294.73
9552.89
145
-------
8.1 GRAIN MILLING INDUSTRY
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were remanded on May 5, 1975 and re-
voked on November 11, 1976. The EPA believes
that the reasons for this action were technical in
nature and that similar regulations differing only in
the pollutant reductions required and incurring
similar costs will be promulgated in the future.
This discussion, therefore, was based on the costs
derived in the support documents for the present
regulations.)
GRAIN MILLING INDUSTRY (PHASE I)
Production Cha ractaristlés and Capacities
For purposes of establishing water effluent guide-
lines, the grain milling industry is divided into four
major subcategories: wet corn milling, dry corn
milling, bulgur wheat flour milling, and parboiled
rice milling. Two other subcategories, normal
wheat flour milling and normal rice milling, have
been excluded because they do not use process
water.
Wet corn milling comprises three basic process
operations: milling, starch production, and syrup
manufacturing. The finished products of starch
and corn sweeteners are used for paper products,
food products, textile manufacturing, building ma-
terials, laundries, home uses, and miscellaneous
operations.
Dry corn milling processes separate the various
fractions of corn, namely the endosperm, hull, and
germ. These fractions are later ground and sifted
after separation. The final products include: corn
meai, grits, flour, oil, and animal feed.
Bulgur wheat flour milling produces parboiled,
dried, and partially debranned wheat for use in
either cracked or whole grain form. Bulgur is
produced primarily for the Federal Government as
part of a national effort to utilize surplus wheat for
domestic use and for distribution to underdevel-
oped countries.
Parboiled rice milling utilizes rice that is carefully
cleaned, parboiled by soaking in water, and then
cooked to gelatinize the starch. After cooking, the
water is drained and the parboiled rice is dried
before milling. The bran and germ are later sepa-
rated from the milled rice. The final product has
superior nutritive qualities because vitamins from
the bran are forced into the endosperm.
According to the USDA, shipments of wet corn
milling products have increased at an annual rate
of 7.5 percent over the period 1968—1976; this
growth rate is expected to continue. The use of dry
corn milling products directly in foods has de-
clined significantly over the past 20 years but this
decline has been offset by the growing use of the
products as ingredients in processed foods. Total
production has remained about constant. Con-
sumption of bulgur wheat flour milling products
has been increasing in developing nations due to
the high nutritional values of bulgur wheat. A 10
percent increase in shipments from 1 974 to 1 980
is expected. Rice milling including parboiled
products are about 60 percent exported and 40
percent used for domestic trade. An increase in
nce mill products of 2.3 percent is expected annu-
allyfrom 1976 to 1985.
sste ourc s d Pt
Principal wastewatar sourc e r. wet corn milling
are modified starch washing, condensate from
steepwater evaporation, mud separation, syrup
evaporation, animal feeds, and corn steeping. Dry
corn milling process wastes originate from infre-
quent car washing arid washing of corn. Bulgur
wheat flour milling process wastewater stems
from steaming and cooking of bulgur. although
these quantities are relatively smai . Parboiled rice
milling process wastewate! sternt from steeping
or cooking operations, and at least one pient uses
wet scrubbers for dust control, wn h generates
an additional source of wastewaterS
The basic parameters used to define wastewater
characteristics are B0D 5 , suspended soiid , and
pH. About one-fourth of the wet corn milling plants
discharge directly into surface water. The majority
of the plants in the other subcategories discharge
into municipal systems.
Control Technology and Costs
Except for wet corn milling, little attention has
been focused on either in-plant control or treat-
ment of wastewaters. In many instances, the treat-
ment technologies deveioped for wet corn milling
can be transferred to the other industry subcatego-
146
-------
ries. Current in-plant control ccns sts of water re-
cycling cooling systems (barometric condensers),
and some plants use bio’ogical treatment (act-
ivated sludge).
Best practicable technology for the four subcate-
gories consists of the following:
Wet corn milling—Equalization of flows, ac-
tivated sludge treatment, and stabilization
lagoon
• Dry corn milling—Primary sedimentation
and activated sludge treatment
e Bulgur wheat flour milling—Activated
sludge treatment, and
Perbo Ied rice miUing—Activated sludge
treatment.
The best available technology for the four subcate-
gories is deep bed f:ltration in addtion to BPT. New
source perforrr nce technology is the same as
BAT.
Since the wet corn m ng industry contributes the
largest amount of wastewater discharges, control
costs forthis industry are of primary concern.
Control costs re sum T arized in Table 8.1—1 -
P 4ILL IG h’A0 STRY ( IAS H)
Production Characteristics and Capacities
For purposes of establishing water effluent guide-
lines. the Phase H segments of the grain milling
industry consist of three major subcategories: ani-
mal feed, breakfast cereal (ready-to-eat and hot
cereal), and wheat gluten and starch. Animal feed
and hot cereal mills do not generate any signifi-
cant process wastewaters.
There are a total of 23 grain milling plants in-
cluded in the two subcategories that generate
wastewater. Of these plants, 1 7 are ready-to-eat
cereal mills, and 6 are wheat gluten and starch
mills. The ready-to-eat cereal subcategory has
been divided according to average daily
production into plant classes consisting of: small
(91 metric tons or 100 short tons per day), medium
(230 metric tons or 250 short tons per day), and
large (540 metric tons or 600 short tons per day).
The division of the wheat gluten and starch subca-
tegory daily production values is: small (30 metric
tons or 33 short tons per day), medium (45 metric
tons or 50 short tons per day), and large (60 metric
tons or 66 short tons per day).
The animal feed, breakfast cereal, and wheat glu-
t?n and starch industries all utilize products from
the basic grain processing mills for raw materials
Grain and grain milling by-products are the chief
ingredients in animal feed. The manufacture of
breakfast cereals utilizes both milled and whole
grain, particularly corn, wheat, oats, and rice.
Wheat gluten and starch manufacturing emplov
wheat flour as its raw materiaL
Animal feed manufacturing comprises: ingredi-
ents mixing, meal production, pelleting, cooling
and drying pellets, rolling, and finally, formation of
granules. Of all the cereal grains produced . the
U.S., only about 15 percent is used directhi as food
for human consumption The vast majority of th
grain harvest is used to feed poultry and livestock.
Breakfast cereals can be broadly classified ar ei
ther hot cereals or ready-to-eat cereals. Hot cerea’s
require cooking before serving and are normally
made from oats or wheat. Ready-to-eat cereal mae --
ufacturing methods vary depending on the type o
cereal. Raw materials include whole grain wheat
and rice, corn grits, oat flour, sugar, and other
minor ingredients. The general processes involved
include ingredient mixing, cooking, drying, form-
ing (either flaking or extruding), toasting or puff-
ng, and vitamin addition.
The wheat starch industry may be properly terrne
the wheat gluten and starch industry, as the gluter
presently brings a higher economic return than the
starch. Basically, wheat starch manufacturing in-
volves the physical separation and refinements of
the starch and gluten (protein) components of
wheat flour.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Animal feed and hot cereals manufacturing plants
utilize little or no process water and generate no
wastewaters. Water is used quite extensively in
ready-to-eat cereal manufacturing plants. The vari-
ous operations where water is used include: grain
tempering, flavor solution makeup, cooking, extru-
sion, and coating. Water is also used for cooling
flaking and forming rolls, extruders, and for wet
scrubbers. Most of the unit processes do not result
in process wastewaters. Only the cooking opera-
tion in shredded cereal manufacturing generates a
Continuous or semi-continuous waste stream. In
wheat starch manufacturing, process water is
used for dough making, dough washing, back-
washing of screens, and countercurrent washing
of centrifuge discharges. Water is also used for
plant clean up and for auxiliary systems such as
boiler feed water and cooling.
147
-------
The basic parameters used to define wastewater
characteristics are BOO 5 , suspended solids, and
pH. For all practical purposes, all of the plants in
both the ready-to-eat cereal and wheat gluten and
starch categories discharge to municipal systems.
Control Technology and Costs
The only costs for the industry categories in this
group are increased user charges for plants dis..
charging to municipal sewerage. New plants may
be expected to pretreat their process waste before
discharging to municipal systems or to provide
secondary treatment.
Best practical technology (BPT) for the ready-to-eat
cereal subcategory is activated sludge treatment
and sedimentation. Activated sludge treatment
and equalization is required for wheat gluten and
starch plants.
Best available technology (BAT) for these two sub-
categories is deep bed filtration.
Abatement costs for Phase U of the Grain Milling
Industry are included in Table B. 1—i.
TABLE 8.1—I. GRAIN
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS,
aPT
BAT
NEW PLANTS
PRETREATMENT
ci I rrir i
MUN. RECOVERY.
1_t_ .1. A:
1977—86
AHNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS.
BPT
NEW PLANTS
MILUNG INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTiON CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83
1.37
0.0
0.18
0.0
1.56
0.0
1.56
0.43
0.0
0.07
0.0
0.50
0.31
0.0
0.07
0.0
0.39
0.89
0.0
0.0
0.89
0.89
O&M
EXISTING PLAN
BPT
BAT....
MEW PLANTS
n f l CPa C A C S. CS £1.
0.0
0.53
0.41
3.13
0.88
0.62
4.40
1.41
0.72
4.51
2.35
3.83
0.0
4.41
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.43
7.58
3.83
4.41
0.0
6.43
0.0
7.58
0.83
0.0
0.16
0.0
1.87
0.81
0.56
0.0
2.88
1.95
1.03
4.46
3.73
2.05
0.98
3.23
0.0
5.86
0.0
10.24
0.60
0.0
0.15
0.0
1.35
0.79
0.55
0.0
2.08
1.90
1.02
3.22
3.64
1.98
0.75
2.69
0.0
5.00
0.0
8.84
rr irAi
INDUSTRY TOTAL
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY.
USER CHARGES
•tr tA I
0.0
0.0
1.73
1.73
ML ANNUAL COSTS
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND 12) INTEREST.
0.0
0.0
5.92
5.92
0.0
0.0
10.86
10.86
0.0
0.0
19.08
19.08
148
-------
8.2 SUGAR FROCE S NG
(Some of the regulations governing this industry
were suspended on January 17, 1977. The EPA
believes that the reasons for this action were tech-
nical in nature and that similar regulations differ-
ing only in the pollutant reductions required and
incurring similar costs will be promulgated in the
future. This discussion, therefore, was based on
the costs derived in the support documents for the
present regulations.)
CAI 1E SUGAR REFINING INDUSTRY
(SUGAR PROCESSING, PHASE I)
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Raw sugar consists primarily of crystals of sucrose
with small percentages of dextrose and levulose.
Various impurities such as particulates, organic
and inorganic salts, and micro-organisms will also
be present. A film of molasses is contained on raw
sugar. Crystalllr e raw sugar is washed to remove
part of the molasses film, put into solution, taken
through various purification steps, and finally
recrystallized.
The major processes involved in cane sugar refin-
ing are: (1) melting, (2) clarifing, (3) decolorizing,
(4) evaporating, (5) crystallizing, and (6) finishing.
Melting is the first step in which raw crystals are
put into solution by heating; this syrup is then fine
screened to remove insoluble materials. In the
clarifing step, screened melt liquor which still con-
tains fine suspended and colloidal matter is
treated chemically to cause these to precipitate.
Decolorizing involves the physical absorption of
impurities; bone char is the primary absorbent
used to remove color. The object of the evaporat-
ing process is a concentration of the decolorized
sugar liquor and sweet water (water containing
syrup); this is done in continuous evaporators.
Crystallizing of the concentrated sugar liquor and
sweet waters is done in batch evaporators called
vacuum pans. Finishing is a drying or granulation
step in which moisture is removed and the crystals
are separated and later cooled and fine screened.
The molasses produced as a by-product of cane
sugar refining is used as a sweetener, as an ingre-
dient for animal feed, for making alcohol, for or-
ganic chemicals, and for other uses.
The cane sugar refining industry consists of two
subcategories: (1) crystalline cane sugar refining,
and (2) liquid cane sugar refining. Liquid sugar
production is essentially the same as crystalline
sugar production except that the primary prothct
is not recrystallized.
A total of 29 cane sugar refineries are in the
continental United States and Hawaii. Of these, 22
are crystalline, 5 are liquid, and 2 are cornb nat.on
crystalline-liquid refineries. Crystalline cane refin-
eries are classified into two size ranges: ‘i 70—500
and 640—3,200 metric tons per day (1 90—550 and
700—3,500 short tons per day) of melted sugar;
there is a single range for liquid cane sugar refiner-
ies: 270—770 metric tons per day (300—850 short
tons per day) of melted sugar. It is estimated that
the total capacity of the cane sugar industry in
1971 was 30,540 metric tons (33,660 short tons)
per day of melted sugar. According to the U.S.
Industrial Outlook (1976), the value of shipments
of cane sugar in 1976 is expected to reach $5.5
billion, 6 percent above 1975 shipments of $5.2
billion. These increases reflect expected higher
prices.
Sugar prices were at record levels in November
1974. The 1974 average wholesale price of re-
fined sugar (Northeast) was 34.35 cents a pound.
Wholesale prices were adjusted frequently during
1975 and for the first 8 months of the year aver-
aged 36.40 cents a pound. High prices of sugar
and sugar-containing products and competition
from fructose corn syrup in 1975 resulted in a
decline in per capita sugar consumption to an
estimated 41 kg (90 pounds), down from 44 kg
(97 pounds) in 1974. Prices receded further in
1976 and 1977 to below 20 cents per pound.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Major process wastewaters from cane sugar refin-
ing include char (and activated carbon process
water from nonchar refineries) wastewater from
decolorization. Most of the waste streams
produced in other processes are recovered as low
purity sweet water. Wastewater from barometric
condenser cooling is usually recirculated and rep-
resents a minor waste stream.
Wastewater contaminating pollutants are asso-
ciated with (1) the water used as an integral part of
149
-------
the process (primarily the decolorizing steps of
either bone char or activated carbon washing), (2)
the result of entrainment of sucrose into baromet-
nc condenser cooling water, and (3) the water
used to slurry the filter cake.
Parameters under effluent guidelines for meeting
BPT, BAT, and NSPS include BOO 5 , suspended
solids, and pH. Additional parameters of signifi-
cance to the industry include COD, temperature,
sucrose, alkalinity, total coliforms, fecal coliforms,
total dissolved solids, and nutrients.
Currently, 50 percent of crystalline sugar refiner-
ies and 60 percent of liquid cane sugar refineries
discharge into municipal systems. On an average
38,400 liters per metric ton (9,200 gallons per
short ton) of wastewater is discharged from crys-
talline sugar refineries: the corresponding figure is
18,800 liters per metric ton (4,500 gallons per
short ton) from liquid cane sugar refineries.
Control Technology and Costs
Current technology for control and treatment of
cane sugar refinery wastewaters consists primar-
ily of process control (recycling and reuse of
water, preventing sucrose entrainment in baro-
metric condenser cooling water and recovering
sweet waters), impoundaga (land retention), and
disposal of process water to municipal sewerage
systems.
Best Practicable Technology (BPT) consists of a
combination of in-plant changes and end-of-pipe
treatment. In-plant changes include: (1) collection
and recovery of all floor drainage. (2) use of im-
proved baffling systems. demisters, and/or other
control devices in evaporators to minimize sucrose
entrainment in barometric condenser cooling
water, and (3) dry handling of filter cakes after
desweetening, with disposal to sanitary landfills,
or complete containment of filter cake slurries.
End-of-pipe treatment consists of biological treat-
ment of all wastewater discharges other than un-
contaminated (noncontact) cooling water and
barometric condenser cooling water.
Best Available Technology (BAT) is essentially the
same as BPT but, in addition to BPT, the following
are applicable: (1) recycle of barometric con-
denser cooling water by utilizing either a cooling
tower or pond, (2) biological treatment of the (a-
ssumed 2 percent) blowdown from the cooling
system, and (3) sand filtration of effluent from the
biological treatment system. Essentially the same
control technology is applicable to both crystalline
and liquid cane sugar refineries.
Control costs are detailed in Table 8.2—1.
RAW SUGAR CANE PROCESSING INDUSTRY
(SUGAR PROCESSING, PHASE U)
Production Characteristics and Capabilties
Sugar cane milling (SIC 2061) involves the conver-
sion of freshly harvested sugar cane into raw
sugar and molasses. Because the quality of the
juice drops rapidly after harvest, sugar mills are
located close to the fiçlds in which the cane is
grown. On the other hand, refineries, which con-
vert raw sugar to refined sugar, are typically lo-
cated close to the market area. Only a few cane
mills are integrated with a refinery. (Pollution prob-
lems in sugar cane refining are discussed else-
where.) The indicated sugar crop to be processed
in 1977 is 25.1 million metric tons (27.7 million
short tons). Of this, 8.2 million metric tons is from
Florida, 9.2 from Hawaii, 6.5 from Louisiana, and
1.1 from Texas (9.0, 10.1, 7.2 and 1.2 million
short tons, respectively). In 1976, domestic refin-
ers received 619,000 metric tons (682,000 short
tons) of raw sugar from Hawaii, 142.000 metric
tons (156,000 short tons) from Puerto Rico, and
924,000 metric tons (1.02 million short tons) of
domestically produced raw sugar, a total of 1.685
million metric tons(1 .357 million short tons).
The processes carried out ic the sugar mill are
conceptually rather simple. The cane is hauled into
the mill, weighed, and dumped. ln areas where
collection procedures cause large amounts of dirt
and rocks to be included in the material brought to
the mill (Hawaii, Lot isiana, and Puerto Rico), the
cane is usually cleaned by blowing air through it
and by washing it with water. Rocks are removed
by passing the material over grates. (In some re-
gions of Hawaii, it is not unusual for 50 percent of
the gross weight of cane brought to the mill to be
rocks, dirt, and field trash such as leaves). The
clean cane is then chopped or run through ham-
mermill and ther cn shed with rollers that squeeze
much of the juice out. This is foflowed by 4—6
three-roll mills that squeeze out almost all the
remaining sugar. Water is added at the last mill to
help wash the last of the sugar from the fiber. This
juice is then used to wash the fiber in earlier
stages so that a countercurrent extraction is
achieved. The bagasse from the last mill has about
50 percent moisture anci is sent to the boiler or to
the bagasse house. The bagasse can be not only
used as boiler fuel but also processed to make the
chemical furfural on can be used in making wall-
board or paper. In some regions where fuel is
cheap or where the bagasse exceeds the needs for
the boiler and where no by-product industry exists,
unwanted bagasse is either landfilled or dumped
in the ocean.
150
-------
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
The fresh cane juice is heated and treated with
lime to precipitate impurities. The precipitate,
“mud”, is separated from the clarified juice by
decantation and vacuum filtration of the sludge
from the clarifier. The mud, which is mostly inor-
ganic material but which contains sugar, wax, or-
ganic salts, and fine bits of bagasse, is frequently a
disposal problem. The clarified juice is next evapo-
rated using multiple effect evaporators to reduce
Its volume and increase the concentration of
sugar. After the solution is partly evaporated, it is
conveyed to vacuum pens in which it is further
concentrated. The final concentrated sugar solu-
tion in the vacuum pans is seeded with crystals of
pure sugar and, because the solution is supersatu-
rated, the sugar grows around these seeds exclud-
ing the water and impurities. The final product is
raw sugar, which is centrifuged, washed with hot
water, and discharged. It is pure enough to be free-
flowing even though it has a light brown color. The
centrifugate, which is known as blackstrap molas-
ses, contains roughly 44 percent sugar but also
contains dissolved salts and water. ft is sold for
animal feed or as a starting material for rum or
other fermentation products.
Pollution Problems
A number of points in the process can give rise to
water pollution. The greatest problem in areas
with dirty cane is the handling of the cane wash-
ings. In the washing process, some sugar is lost to
the washwater and organic particles are sus-
pended in it, each of which give rise to a biological
oxygen demand. In addition, there are large
amounts of suspended dirt and dissolved inor-
ganic solids. In areas where irrigation is practiced,
the cane wash water can be used for irrigation. In
other areas, storage in ponds followed by appro-
priate treatment is needed. The solid trash, rocks,
etc., are landfilled.
TABLE E 2-i. CANE SUGAR REFINING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CO dT OL COSTS
(IN MIUJONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
BPT.
NEW PLANTS..
MUN. RECOVERY
t,%_ St
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUM CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS.
BPT
BAT
NEW PLANTS. . .. . ...
bD rD AYS J?
A *
1977
‘1972—77
1977—81
1977—83
1977—86
2.75
0.0
0.09
0.0
2.84
7.88
0.0
0.33
0.0
8.21
1.05
10.78
3.0.4
0.0
14.87
1.57
15.19
4.86
0.0
21.63
1.57
15.19
7.Ø ’
0.0
23.86
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.84
8.21
14.87
21.63
23.8
4.49
2.78
1.14
0.0
6.94
6.72
2.39
0.0
10.67
12.7
5.07
0.0
8.42
16.05
28.40
1.36
0.0
0.06
0.0
2.81
1.23
0.62
0.0
4.3.4
2.96
1.30
0.0
6.66
5.60
2.73
0.0
4.65
8.60
13.07
24.65
O&M
EXISTING PLAPt
BPT
BAT...
NEW PLANTS..
2.16
0.0
0.11
0.0
2.27
1.04
0.0
0.04
0.0
1.08
0.65
0.0
0.02
0.0
0.67
1.75
0.0
0.0
1.75
1.75
INOUSNY TOTAL... . .......
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY.
USER CHARGES
1.41
3.68
0.0
0.0
3.68
3.68
13.07 24.65
ALL ANNUAL COSTS ....._._ 13.07 24.65
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NQTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
43.40
151
-------
The mud which is removed from the vacuum filters
contains about 75 percent water which has dis-
solved organic and inorganic material in it. To
avoid problems some mills dry the mud, which can
then be returned to the fields. In other sugar mills.
the filter mud is slurried and discharged to water-
ways. which cars present a significant water
problem.
In the final stage of the multiple effect evaporator,
and in the vacuum pans, barometric condensers
are used; that is, cooling water is mixed directly
with the steam to condense it and create a vac-
uum. This allows sugar particles that are entrained
in the steam to become mixed into the condenser
water, producing a biological oxygen demand
when that water is ultimately discharged. Con-
denser water can amount to as much as 25
(thousand liters per metric ton thousand gallons
per short ton) of cane processed and can have a
BOOS loading of up to 1.5 kg per metric tons (3
pounds per short ton) of c ane processed. When
this water is used for irrigation, there is no signifi-
cant problem. On the other hand, in areas where
irrigation is impractical, the water produces a pol-
lution problem if discharged into navigable water-
ways. Control can be obtained by impoundment
followed by biological treatment before discharge.
Alternatively, the condenser water can be used in
cane washing. If the cane wash water is collected
and treated it can be recycled to the condenser.
Minor sources of problems are the water from
washing the floors of the sugar mill which contain
sugar from the spills and spatters that continually
occur in the mill as well as mud tracked in on
boots. The boiler systems can also give rise to
pollutants. The water in which the ash is slurried
for removal from the boiler can cause problems as
well as the blowdown water from the boiler itself.
Regulation Control Technology
BPT regulations have been issued (40FR8498,
February 27, 1975) and BAT and NSPS regula-
tions proposed (40FR8506. February 27, 1975).
The regulations originally proposed for the Hilo
Coast of the Island of Hawaii have been sus-
pended (42FR3 164, January 17, 1977). It is ex-
pected that new regulations will be proposed
soon. Note that the regulations do not require any
particular technology. The following have been
suggested as methods of comphar%ce.
BPT Technology for Louisiana.
Improved controls and practices to reduce pollu-
tion such as the reduction of entrainment of suc-
rose in the barometric condenser cooling water
are recommended. The use of settling ponds to
remove solids from the wash water and biological
treatment for the effluent from settling ponds and
all other waste streams except barometric con-
denser cooler water and excess condensate are
recommended.
BAT and NSPS Technology—Louisiana.
Recycling of barometric condenser cooling water
and cane wash water and biological treatment of
blowdown and miscellaneous waste streams is
suggested.
BPT, BAT, and NSPS Technology—
Florida and Texas.
The containment of all wastewaters is required
except when rainfall causes an overflow from a
facility designed to contain wastewaters.
BPT, BAT, and NSPS Technology—
State of Hawaii except for H/b Coast.
These are the same as for Florida and Texas.
BPT, BAT, and NSPS Technologies—
Puerto Rico.
These are the same as for Louisana.
Cost for Pollution Abatement
The Economic Analysis Document gives the ex-
pected pollution costs for Lou isana and for Puerto
Rico for the promulgated BPT and proposed BAT
and NSPS regulations. These costs were devel-
oped through the use of several model plants. The
degree of conformance of each of the existing
mills to a model plant was evaluated and costs for
upgrading each one were developed separately.
Current practices in Florida and Texas and in the
portions of Hawaii other than the Hilo Coast are
such (irrigation or recycle) that there is already a
full compliance with BPT and BAT requirements.
Therefore there are no costs involved in these
regions. Since the regulations for the Hilo Coast of
Hawaii are in suspense. no costs have been calcu-
lated for this region.
Pretreatment
No limitations have been proposed for pretreat-
ment before discharge to municipal sewage sys-
tems. No sugar mills are now known to be dis-
charging to municipal sewers.
Growth Rates
The domestic sugar industry in recent years has
not been very profitable with the exception of
1974 when the prices of sugar were very high.
Currently, there is very keen competition from
foreign sugar producers. Although a price support
system has recently been activated, a resurgence
of the industry is not expected. Rather, it is be-
152
-------
l%eved that this wilt protect the industry as it is and
will not encourage increased acreage of cane or
the building of new sugar mills. As a matter of fact,
in a period from 1973 through 1976, three mills
closed in Louisana. three in Hawaii, and the rated
capacity in Puerto Rico declined. For these rea-
sons, the study used a zero growth rate.
Costs are summarized in Table 8.2—2.
Beet Sugar Industry
Production Characteristics and Capacities
There were 52 beet sugar plants owned by 11
companies in 1973. As three new plants (all large)
began operation by 1975, the beet sugar industry
now contains 55 plants.
The plant size ranges are classified according to
production capacity, small (less than 2,100 metric
tons or 2,300 short tons per day), medium (2-
,i00—3,500 metric tons or 2,300—3,900 short
tons per day), and large (greater than 3.500 metric
tons or 3,900 short tons per day).
Typical plant production is estimated to be 3,200
metric tons (3,600 short tons) of sliced beets per
day. The main products from this industry are
refined sugar, dried beet pulp (used for animal
feed), and molasses.
The beet sugar processing industry is a subcate-
gory of the sugar processing industry. Water is
commonly used for six principal purposes:
(1) transporting (fluming) of beets to the process-
ing operation, (2) washing beets, (3) processing
(extraction of sugar from the beets),
(4) transporting beet pulp and lime mud cake
waste, (5) condensing vapors from evaporators
and crystallization pans, and (6) cooling.
NEW PLANTS...
PRETREATMENT.
MUN. RECOVERY.
1977
1.18
0.0
1972 .-77
3.5.4
0.0
1977—81
0.0
2.91
1977—83
0.0
5.82
1977 —86
0.0
4.03
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
SUBTOTAL............_....... ............. ..
1. 18
0.0
3.34
0.0
2.91
0.0
5.82
0.0
6.03
0.0
—.....—..—... . .....
1.18
0.58
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.54
1.22
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.91
2.31
0.79
0.0
0.0
5.82
3.46
2.45
0.0
0.0
6.03
4.5.4
5.80
0.0
0.0
SPT...
BAT .. . . .... . . . .. ........ ..........
NEW PLANTS ... . ._ . . . __ .....
PRETREATMENT .. ._ . . . _ .....
TOTM............. ._...... .. .. . .._. ......
0.58
1.22
3.10
5.91
10.34
PLANTS .. .. ..
BPT . .. . ... . ..
0.76
0.0
0.0
1.28
0.57
0.0
4.63
0.0
0.0
6.94
0.55
0.0
10.41
0.66
0.0
BAT .. ..
NEW PLANTS .. . .. . . .... .. .. .......
PRETREATMENT . .. .. . . .. ..... .......
0.0
0.76
1.3.4
0.0
1.86
3.08
0.0
4.63
7.72
0.0
7.48
13.39
0.31
11.38
21.72
.._.... .. ..._..
. . ..... .. ..
INVEST RECOVERY . . . . .. . . .. ...
0.0
0.0
1.34
1.34
0.0
0.0
3.08
3.08
0.0
0.0
7.72
7.72
0.0
0.0
13.39
13.39
0.0
0.0
21.72
21.72
USER CHARGES .. .. . . . . . ..... ..
- - - — ...
AU. ANNUM COSTS.........
NOTh COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 ST OF THE FiRST YEAR TO JUNE 30Th OF THE SECOND YEAR LiSTED.
NOTh ANNUM CAPiTAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATiON Of: (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND 12) INTEREST.
TABLE 8.2-2. RAW CANE SUGAR PROCESSING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS OF 977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLA
BPT.
RAT
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUM CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS.
O&M
EXISTING
TI TAI
INDUSTRY TOTAL.
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
TflTAI
153
-------
Beets are transported into the plant by water flow-
ing in a narrow channel (flume) that removes ad-
hered soil. The beets are then lifted from the flume
and spray washed. Flume water accounts for
about 50 percent of the total plant water
consumption.
Process water is associated with the operations of
extracting sugar from the beets. Diffusers draw
the raw juice from the beets into a solution which
contains 10—15 percent sugar. Exhausted beet
pulp is later pressed to remove moisture. This
exhausted pulp water is usually recycled back to
the diffuser.
Lime mud cake waste results when lime is added
to the raw juice and the solution is purged with
carbon dioxide gas, causing calcium carbonate to
precipitate. The sludge formed removes impurities
which were suspended in the juice.
Water from barometric condensers is employed in
the operation of pan evaporators and crystallizers
in the industry. Water is used in large quantities.
Condenser water is usually cooled by some device
and recycled for use in the plant.
In addition to the above, about 40 percent of the
plants employ the Steffen process to recover addi-
tional sugar. In the Steffen process, syrup remain-
ing from the above processes is concentrated to
form molasses, which is then desugared to re-
cover the sugar. In this step, water is used to dilute
the molasses and calcium oxide is added to the
solution, causing a precipitate to form. The precipi-
tation process produces the Steffen filtrate and
recovered sugar; the filtrate may be directly dis-
charged as a waste or it may be mixed with beet
pulp to produce by-products.
The rated 1973 capacity in beets sliced per day
was 161,400 metric tons (177,900 short tons).
The projected 1980 capacity is estimated to be
183,300 metric tons (202,000 short tons) per day.
According to the U.S. Industrial Outlook. the value
of shipments for 1975, 1976, and 1985 are $1.5,
$1.6. and $2.8 billion, respectively. These in-
creases reflect an annual increase of 6.4 percent
in value of shipments.
Areas of future growth of beet sugar production
are expected to be along the Red River between
northern Minnesota and North Dakota, and in the
Columbia River Basin.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The major waste sources stem from the primary
production processes. These include: (1) beet
transporting and washing, (2) processing (extra-
ction of sugar from the beets), (3) carbonating of
raw juice, and (4) Steffen processing (for those
plants involved in desugaring of molasses). Baro-
metric condensers are also a wastewater source.
The primary wastewaters resulting from the beet
sugar processing industry are: flume water, lime
mud cake from the carbonation process, baromet-
ric condenser water, and Steffen process water
used to dilute molasses for desugarization.
The basic parameters used in &stablishing water
effluent guidelines to meet BPT are: B0D , total
suspended solids, pH, and temperature.
Control Technology and Costs
Presently, 14 of the 55 operating plants are
achieving no discharge of wastewaters to naviga-
ble waters. Five plants discharge flume and/or
condenser water to municipal sewerage systems.
Current pollution control technology does not pro-
vide a single operation that is completely applica-
ble under all circumstances. The major disposal
methods are: reuse of wastes, coagulation, waste
retention ponds or lagooning, and irrigation.
BPT and BAT involve extensive recycle and reuse
of wastewaters within the processing operation
with no discharge or controlled discharge of proc-
ess wastewater pollutants to navigable waters. To
implement these levels of technology, the follow-
ing actions are necessary:
• For flume waters, recycling with partial or
complete land disposal of excess wastewa-
ter. This includes: (1) screening, (2) sus-
pended solids removal and control in the
recirculating system, and (3) pH control for
minimization of odors, bacterial popula-
tions, foaming, and corrosive effects.
e For barometric condenser water, recycling
for condenser (or other in-plant) uses with
land disposal of excess water.
Land disposal of lime mud slurry and/or
reuse or recovery.
• Returning of pulp press water and other
process water to the diffuser.
• Using continuous diffusers.
• Using pulp driers.
Handling all miscellaneous wastes (washw-
aters) by subsequent treatment and reuse
or land disposal.
• Using entrainment control devices on baro-
metric condensers to minimize
entrainment.
Note: BAT permits no discharge of wastewaters.
One method of accomplishing this is to apply the
154
-------
wastewaters to the land after BPT steps have been crops grown on these lands. It is uncertain how
taken. It is possible that after sufficient concentra- long the soil can remain stable under these
tion of wastewaters, only salt-tolerant grasses conditions.
could be grown. Farm lands may be taken out of
production and no credit is taken for the value of Control costs are summarized in Table 8.2—3.
TABLE 8.2-3. BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY WATER POLLUVOP4 CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILUONS. O 977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 3.o7 9. 6 0.0 0.0 0.0
BAT 0.0 0.0 317 4.23 4.23
NEW PLANTS 0.06 0.24 1.96 3.04 4.78
PRETREATMENT .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 3.73 9.91 513 7.27 9.01
NUN. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL . ... . . . .. 3.73 9.91 5.13 7.27 9.01
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT .. 1.27 2.48 5.08 7.62 11.44
BAT .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.83 1.95 3.61
NEW PLANTS .......... 0.03 0.08 0.76 1.55 3.30
PRETREATMENT .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ...... _ . . . . .... — ...._... 1.30 2.56 6.68 11.12 18.35
O&M
EXISTING PlANTS...
... . _ . ... .. ... .. ...... 0.25 0.48 0.98 1.47 2.21
BAT ...... . . .._. _ . .. . ..... _.... 0.0 0.0 0.16 0.33 0.70
NEW PLANTS..... . ........................ . ... 0.01 0.02 0.15 0.31 0.66
PRETREATMENT...... ......... ... ........ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ............. . ... ... ........ ... .... 0.25 0.50 1.30 2.16 3.57
INDUSTRY TOTAL..... ......... .. 1.55 3.05 7.97 13.28 21.91
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY ........ .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ...... .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
.. . ..... .. ...... ... 1.55 3.05 7.97 13.28 21.91
AU. ANNUAL COSTS ...... .. ... 1.55 3.05 7.97 13.28 21.91
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE ANNUM CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
155
-------
8.3 CANNED AND PRESERVED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics arid Capacities
The fruits and vegetables processing ndustry in-
cludes processors of canned fruits and vegeta-
bles, preserves, jams, jellies, dried and dehydrated
fruits and vegetables, frozen fruits and vegetables,
fruit and vegetable juices, and specialty items. The
effluent limitations guidelines issued by the EPA
are limited to processors of apple products (except
caustic peeled and dehydrated products), citrus
products (except pectin and pharmaceutical
products), frozen and dehydrated potato products,
and specialty fruits and vegetables. The principal
items in each group are as follows:
• Apples: slices, sauce, and juice (cider)
• Citrus: juice, segments, oil, dried peel, and
molasses
• Potatoes: chips, frozen products, dehydra-
ted products, canned hash, stew, and soup
products.
• Specialty fruits and vegetables.
The manufacturing processes employed after har-
vesting depend on the particular product to be
manufactured. Specific processes include receiv-
ing, storing, washing and sorting, peeling and
coring, sorting, slicing, segmenting or dicing,
pressing or extracting (for juice products), cook-
ing, finishing, blanching (for potatoes), juice con-
centrating. dehydrating, canning, freezing, can
rinsing and cooling, and cleaning up. Many proc-
esses previously performed by hand, such as peel-
ing and coring, have been automated. Peeling, for
example, may be performed mechantcally or caus-
tically. In the caustic process the fruit or vegetable
is dipped in a hot lye solution to loosen and soften
the peel, which is then removed by brushes and
water spray.
The fruits and vegetables canning and freezing
industry comprises approximately 1,680 plants
that are subdivided into 1,038 canned fruits and
vegetables plants plus 642 frozen fruits, vegeta-
bles, and specialities plants. These plants are fur-
ther subdivided into canning plants, freezing
plants, combination canning and freezing plants,
and dehydrating plants. According to the 1.976 U.
S. Industrial Outlook, shipments of canned and
frozen fruits and vegetables were expected to
roach $11 billion in 1976, an increase of ‘11
percent over 1 975. Approximately 70 percent of
all these plants are multiproduct producers, al-
though an equivalent percentage confine their op-
erations to either fruits or vegetables.
The canning and freezing industry is characterized
by a large number of small, single-plant firms.
These firms share a very small segment of the total
market and have very little influence on industry
prices and total supply. Over the past 20 years,
there has been a steady trend in the industry to
fewer large plants from many smaller operations.
The four largest firms in the canning, freezing, and
dehydrating industries account for approximately
20, 25, and 35 percent, respectively, of the total
value of irtdustry shipments. Although a large pro-
portion of the plants are relatively old, the industry
has generally maintained modern technology
through renovation and equipment modernization.
it is likely that the trend toward fewer plants will
continue. New large plants will probably continue
to replace the production capacity of the small,
older plants that will close.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Water is used extensively in alt phases of the food
procesing industry; it is used as:
• A cleaning agent to remove dirt and foreign
material
• A heat-transfer medium for heating and
cooli ig
• A solvent for removal of undesirable ingre-
dients from the product
• A carrier for the incorporation of additives
into the product
• A vehicle for transporting and handling the
product.
Although the steps used in processing the various
commodities display a general similarity, there are
variations in the equipment used and in the
amount and character of the wastewaters
produced. For example, caustic peeling produces
a much higher pollution load than does mechani-
cal peeling. Similarly, water transport adds a great
deal to a plant’s wastewater flow compared to dry
transportation methods.
156
-------
The pollutant parameters that have been desig-
nated by EPA as being of major significance for
apple, citrus, and potato processors are BOD, sus-
pended solids, and pH. Minor pollutant parame-
ters include COD, total dissolved solids, ammonia
and other nitrogen forms, phosphorus, fecal coli-
forms, and heat.
Control Technology and Costs
Control technologies applicable to wastewaters
from the fruit and vegetable processing industry
consist of both in-plant (or in-process> technolo-
gies and conventional end-of-pipe waste treat-
ment technologies. In-plant control methods in-
clude field washing of crops; substitution of dry
transport methods for flumes; replacing conven-
tional hot water and steam blanching methods by
fluidized bed, microwave, hot gas, or individual
quick blanching methods; using high pressure noz-
zles and automatic shutoff valves on hoses; reus-
ing process waters in coUntercurrent flow sys-
tems, recirculating of cooling waters. etc.; and
minimizing the use of water and detergents in
plant clean up.
End-of-pipe treatment technologies used in the
fruits and vegetables processing industry gener-
ally include preliminary screening, equalization,
the use of catch basins for grease removal, sedi-
mentation and clarification, followed by a biologi-
cal treatment system such as activated sludge and
the use of trickling fiters, anaerobic lagoons, or
aerated lagoons. Where necessary, neutralization
and chlorination are also included. Other technolo-
gies that are or may be used by the industry
include solids removal by air flotation or centrifu-
gal separation, chemical coagulation and precipi-
tation, biological treatment (through the use of a
rotating biological contactor), sand or diatoma-
ceous earth filtration, and other advanced treat-
ment technologies. The liquid portion of cannery
wastes can be “completely” treated and dis-
charged through percolation and evaporation Ia-
goons or by spray irrigation.
Because the wastes from fruit and vegetable proc-
essing plants are primarily biological, they are
compatible with municipal sewage treatment sys-
tems, therefore, discharge into municipal systems
is also a practicable alternative for fruit and vege-
table processors.
BPT guidelines are based upon the average per-
formances of exemplary biological treatment sys-
tems. Thus, the technology demanded includes
preliminary screening, primary settling (potatoes
only), and biological secondary treatment. The use
of cooling towers for the recirculation of cooling
water is considered a BPT for the citrus industry.
tn-plant control methods should include good hou-
sekeeping and water use practices. No special in-
plant modifications are required. Land treatment
methods such as spray irrigation are, of course,
not excluded from use.
BAT and NSPS guidelines assume the use of BPT,
plus additional secondary treatment, such as more
aerated lagoons and/or shallow lagoons and/or a
sand filter following secondary treatment; disin-
fection (usually chlorination) is also included.
Management controls over housekeeping and
water use practices are assumed to be stricter
than BPT. Although no additional in-plant controls
are required, several modifications may be eco-
nomically more attractive than additional treat-
ment facilities. These include: recycling raw ma-
terial wash water, utilizing low water-usage peel-
ing equipment, recirculating of cooling water, and
utilizing dry clean up methods. Where suitable
land is available, land treatment is not only recom-
mended from the discharge viewpoint, but will
usually be more economical than other treatment
methods.
Control costs are summarized in Table 8.3—1.
157
-------
TABLE 8.3. -I. CANNED AND PRESERVED FRUITS a VEGETABLES INDUSTRY
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 189.46 619.07 0.0 0.0 0.0
BAT 0.0 0.0 82.29 108.86 108.86
NEW PLANTS 4.53 17.62 11.65 18.07 25.20
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 193.99 636.69 • 93.94 126.93 134.06
NUN. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 193.99 636.69 93.94 126.93 134.06
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUM CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 81.39 179.59 325.57 488.34 732.52
BAT 0.0 0.0 21.82 50.45 93.38
NEW PLANTS 2.32 5.74 13.04 21.99 37.80
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 83.71 185.33 360.42 560.78 863.77
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 758.72 1657.40 3029.27 4540.36 6803.84
BAT 0.0 0.0 18.70 43.21 79.24
NEW PLANTS 0.63 1.57 4.14 7.28 13.16
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 759.36 1658.96 3052.12 4590.86 6896.23
INDUSTRY TOTAL 843.07 1844.29 3412.54 5151.64 7760.00
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 843.07 1844.29 3412.54 5151.64 7760.00
ALL ANNUAL COSTS 843.07 1844.29 3412.54 5151.64 7760.00
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.UNE DEPRECIATiON AND (2 INTEREST.
158
-------
8.4 CANNED AND PRESERVED SEAFOOD INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
There are approximately 1,800 seafood proc-
essors located In the United States, including tuna
processing plants located in Puerto Rico and
American Samoa. The crab, shrimp, and catfish
processors include a large proportion of small
producers. Some of these are associated with
large national seafoods processors, but there is no
significant degree of concentration in these indus-
tries. In the crab processing industry, there seems
to be an increasing number of multiptarit firms and
a growing importance of large plants. The catfish
processing industry is very small and fragmented.
This study’s count of 30 plants does not include a
number of very small “backyard” operations
which are thought to be scattered throughout the
South. In general, these segments of the seafood
processing industry can be characterized as pos-
sessing many small, under-utilized, old plants that
in some cases compete with efficient, low-cost
for&gr: producers.
On the other hand, the tuna industry is dominated
by five firms that operate 14 large-scale plants
which account for over 90 percent of the industry
production.
In general. the volume of production is dependent
upon the amount of seafood harvested, both do-
mestic and imported. Analyses by the U.S. Na-
tional Marine Fisheries Service indicate that a 3.1
percent annual compound growth rate can be
sustained through 1985 by the extension of the
U.S. fisheries jurisdiction to 200 miles, raising
additional fish by aquacukure, and by encourag-
ing the catch and sale of presently under-utilized
fish species. A fully operational predictive model
to forecast the effect of the 200-mile limit is not
yet available.
Catfish processors have historically exhibited a
low utilization of capacity due to geographically
limited demand. Growth has been at 2.0 percent
per year in the recent past and is expected to
remain at that level in the future unless there is an
unanticipated new market sector.
Effluent guidelines have been promulgated by EPA
to cover both the Phase I and Phase II segments of
the industry.
The effluent limitations guidelines issued for the
seafood processing industry by the EPA cover the
processing of crab, shrimp, tuna, farmed catfish,
fish meal, salmon, bottom fish, sardine, herring,
clams, oysters, scallops, and abalone. All methods
of preservation, fresh-pack, freezing, canning, or
curing, are included.
Processing seafood involves variations of a com-
mon sequence of operations: harvest, storage, re-
ceiving, preprocessing (washing, thawing, etc.),
evisceration, precooking, picking or cleaning, pre-
servation, and packaging. Many of the operations,
such as picking, shelling, and cleaning, have been
mechanized, but much of the industry still de-
pends on conventional hand operations.
For the purpose of establishing effluent limitations
guidelines, the seafood processing industry has
been divided into 33 subcategories, as listed in
Table 8.4—1. Of these, 14 are in Phase I and 1 9 are
in Phase h. The gro pi gs are based upon the type
of product, the degree of mechanization, and the
location or remoteness of the processing plant.
Remote Alaskan plants have been placed in a
separate subcategory because their isolated loca-
tions render most wastewater treatment alterna-
tives infeasible because of the high cost of over-
coming engineering obstacles and the undepend-
ability of access to transportation during extended
severe sea or weather conditions.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Pollution sources in the seafood processing indus-
try include both the fishing boats (mostly their
discharged bilge water) and the processing plants
themselves. Water uses in the processing plants
include: washing the seafood, plants, and equip-
ment; flumes for in-plant transport of product and
wastes; live holding tanks; cooling and ice making;
cooking; freezing; and brining.
The solids and effluents from all fish and shellfish
operations consist of:
, Solid portions consisting of flesh, shell,
bone, cartilage, and viscera.
• Hot and cold water (fresh or seawater) solu-
tions containing dissolved materials (pr-
oteins and breakdown products).
159
-------
o Suspended solids Consisting of bone, shell,
or flesh.
• Foreign material Carried into the plant with
the raw material.
The following pollutant parameters are controlled
by the effluent limitations guidelines for the sea-
food processing industry: 5-day biochemical oxy-
gen demand (BOD 5 ), total suspended solids (TSS),
and oil and grease. Pollutants of peripheral or
occasional importance that are not specifically
controlled by the guidelines include heat (elevated
temperatures), phosphorus, coliforms, chloride,
chemical oxygen demand, settleable solids, and
nitrogen.
Control Technology and Costs
Control technologies applicable to the seafood
processing industry include both in-plant changes
and end-of-pipe treatment. Basic in-plant changes
include:
• Minimizing the use of water by substituting
dry handling for flumes, using spring-
loaded hose nozzles, etc.
• Recovering dissolved proteins by precipita-
tion from effluent streams, enzymatic hy-
drolysis, brine-acid extraction, or through
the conventional reduction process for con-
verting whole fish or fish waste to fish
meal.
• Recovering solid portions for use as edible
product or as by-products by mechanical
deboning and extruding, and by shellfish
waste utilization.
Very few end-of-pipe waste treatment systems are
currently installed in the seafood processing in-
dustry. However, the essentially biodegradable na-
ture of the wastes allows for the easy application
of conventional treatment methods. These include
screening and sedimentation to remove sus-
pended solids; air flotation and skimming to re-
move heavy concentrations of solids, greases, oils,
and dissolved organics; biological treatment sys-
tems, such as activated sludge, rotating biological
contactors, trickling filters, ponds, and lagoons to
remove organic wastes; and land disposal me-
thods where land is available.
In general, BPT guidelines caU for in -plant ‘good
housekeeping” practices, but do ot assunie sig-
nificant equipment changes. End-of-pipe technolo-
gies associated with BPT are represented by sim-
ple screening and grease trap methods, with dis-
solved air flotation for tuna plants and grinders or
comminutors, followed by discharge to deep
water for remote Alaskan processors where ade-
quate flushing is available. BAT and NSPS guide-
lines place much more emphasis on in-plant
changes, including in-process modifications
which promote efficient water and wastewater
management to reduce water consumption, recy-
cling some water streams, and solids or byproduct
recovery where practicable. End-of-pipe technolo-
gies associated with BAT and NSPS guidelines
include more extensive use of dissolved air flota-
tion, plus the addition of aerated lagoons or acti-
vated sludge treatment for tuna processors in
1983.
Control costs and industry operating data are sum-
marized in Table 8.4—2.
P 1 , 0 5 .1
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
((3)
(14)
Pfrta5, /1
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6$
(7)
(8$
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
Table 8.4-i.
Seafood Processing Industry Subcategones
Fcrm Raised Catfish
Convenflon 0 l Blue Crab
Mechanized Blue Crab
Non-Remote Alaskon Crab Meat
Remote Alaskan Crab Meat
Non-Remote Alaskan Whole Crab and Crab Section
Remote Ala køn Whole Crab and Crab Section
Dungeness and Tanner Crab Processing in the Contiguous
States
Non-Remote Alaskan Shrimp
Remote Alaskan Shrimp
Northern Shrimp in the Contiguous States
Southern Men-Bre aded Shrimp Processing in the
Contiguous States
Breaded Shrimp Processing in the Contiguous St t.s
Tuna
Fish Meat
Alaska Hand-Butchered Salmon
Alaska Mchanjzed Salmon
West Coost Hand Butchered Salmon
West Coast Mechanized Salman
Alaskan Bottom Fish
P4on.Alaskan Conventional Bottom Fish
Non-Alaskan Mechcnizd Sorfom Fish
Hand Shucked Clam
Mechanized Clam
Pacific Coast Hand Shucked Oyster
Pacific Coast. Aflontic and Gulf Coast Hand-Shucked Oyster
Steamed nd Canned Oyster
Sardine Processing
Alaskan Scallop Processing
Non.Alaskon Scallop Processing
Alaskan Herring Fillet
Non-Alaskan Herring Fillet
Abalone Processing
160
-------
TA L L4-.2. CANNED AND PRESERVED SEAFOOD INDUSTRY
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1 977—B 1 1977—83 1977—86
I 4VESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS ...... ..
BPT.. . ... — . . ._. . ....... 20.63 34.04 1.69 1.69 1.69
.. 0.0 0.0 69.78 93.11 93.11
NEW PLANTS -. . . . . . .. .... 2.35 9.55 7.97 12.48 19.97
PRETREATMENT......... ...• .. ...... .. ...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SU BTOTAL.. . ..... . . .. 22.98 43.59 79.44 107.28 114.78
MUN. RECOVERY .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. .. 22.98 43.59 79.44 107.28 774.78
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PlANTS -. ....
8FF .. 4.48 7.22 18.79 28.19 42.28
BAT * 0.0 0.0 18.35 42.83 79.56
NEW PLANTS.. .._.. .. . ... 1.26 3.12 7.59 73.08 23.71
PRETREATMENT... .. ... . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. ... .. -. 5.73 10.34 44.73 84.10 745.55
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS..... .._
. .. . ..... _. . ...... ...... 3.25 . 5.24 13.44 20.02 29.76
BAT . . . . . ._..... 0.0 0.0 4.65 10.80 19.95
NEW PLANTS . . . ......... ._..... 0.79 2.05 5.11 8.98 16.65
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL...... ...... . ._........ . ............ . . . .... 4.04 7.29 23.20 39.79 66.36
INDUSTRY TOTAL.................._.. . ......._...._.._ . ..._.._. 9.77 17.62 67.93 123.89 211.91
MUNIOPAL cHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY......................................... . ...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ........_...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
... 9.77 17.62 67.93 123.89 211.97
AU. ANNUAL COSTS....... . . . ... . .... .... 9.77 17.62 67.93 723.89 211.91
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR 1IST D.
NOTE.. ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPREC1ATON AND (2 INTEREST.
161
-------
8.5 DAIRY PRODUCTS PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
In 1970, there were 5,241 dairy plants reported in
the United States. By 1972 the number had
shrunk to 4,590, a decline of 12 percent. The size
of each plant is determined by the number of
employees required, where a small operation has
1-19 employees, a medium one has 20—99 em-
ployees, and a large plant over 100 employees.
The dairy processing industry comprises 12
product-related subcatagories: (1) receiving sta-
tions, (2) fluid products, (3) cultured products,
(4) cottage cheese, (5) butter, (6) natural cheese,
(7) ice cream, (8) ice cream mix, (9) condensed
milk, (10) dry milk, (1 1) condensed whey, and
(12) drywhey.
A great variety of operations are employed in the
dairy products industry. For simplification, they
are considered to be a chain of operations involv-
ing: (1) receiving and storing, (2) clarifying, (3)
separating. (4) pasteurizing, and (5) packaging.
Receiving and storing of raw materials is con-
ducted by using bulk carriers, pumps, and refriger-
ated tanks. Clarifying is the removal of suspended
matter by centrifuging. Separating is the removal
of cream by centrifuging. Pasteurizing is accom-
plished by passing the material through a unit
where it is rapidly heated then cooled by contact
with heated and cooled plates or tubes. Packaging
involves the final handling of the finished product
prior to storage.
In 1970, a total of 5 1 billion kilograms (11 2 billion
pounds) of milk was processed. From this total,
36.5 billion kilograms (80.5 billion pounds) of final
products were produced. In 1 972, output of final
products rose slightly to 38.7 billion kilograms (85
billion pounds)). Growth in different subsectors of
the industry during the period 1967—1972 was
variable with the Natural and Processed Cheese
category showing the greatest expansion. This is
consistent with earlier trends. Overall industry
growth averaged 1.9 percent on an annual basis.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Materials are lost during direct processing of raw
materials into finished products and from ancillary
operations. The former group consists of milk, milk
products, and nondairy ingredients (sugar, fruits,
nuts, etc.), while the latter consists of cleaners and
sanitizers used in cleaning equipment and lubri-
cants used in certain handling equipment. All of
these contribute to the release of organic materi-
als, which appear as high BOO and suspended
solids, in the process water. Phosphorus, nitrogen,
chlorides, heat, and dairy fat can also be found.
The major sources of wastes in the dairy products
processing industry are the following: (1) the
washing and cleaning out of product remaining in
tanks and piping which is performed routinely
after every processing cycle, (2) the spillage
produced by leaks, overflow, freezing-on, boiling-
over and careless handling, (3) processing losses,
(4) the wastage of spoiled products, returned
products, or by-products such as whey, and (5) the
detergents used in the washing and sanitizing
solutions.
The primary waste materials that are discharged
to th waste streams ir practic l’y al! dairy plants
include: (1) miik and milk products received as
raw materials, (2) milk products h ndied in the
process and end-products manufacture,
(3) lubricants (primarily soap and silicone-based)
used in certain handling equipment, and
(4) sanitary and domestic sewage from toilets,
washrooms, and kitchens. Other products, such as
nondairy ingredients (sugar, fruits, flavors, and
fruit juices) and milk by-products (whey and butter-
milk) are potential waste contributors.
The basic parameters used in establishing effluent
guidelines are: 8005, suspended solids, and pH. It
is recommended that the pH of any final discharge
be within a range of 6.0—9.0. Wastes from various
dairy industry subcategories contain compatible
pollutants as defined by EPA Pretreatment Stan-
dards; hence pretreatment is not required. No
toxic materials as defined in the EPA Toxic Pollu-
tant Effluent Standards are present in wastes from
this industry.
Control Technology and Costs
Dairy wastes are usually subjected to biological
breakdown. The standard practice for reducing
the concentration of oxygen-demanding materials
in the wastewater has been to use secondary or
biological treatment consisting of: activated
162
-------
sludge, trickling filters, aerated lagoons, stabiliza-
tion ponds, or land disposal. Tertiary treatment
(sand filtration, carbon adsorption) is practically
nonexistent at the present time.
BPT and BAT consists essentially of the same
practices. In-plant control includes improvement
of plant maintenance, waste monitoring equip-
ment and quality control improvements. End-of-
pipe control includes biological treatment (act-
ivated sludge, trickling filters, or aerated lagoons)
If in-house controls are not used, end-of-pipe bio-
logical treatment must be supplemented by rapid
sand filtration. Small dairies may be able to meet
BPT through land disposal options. The recom-
mended effluent reductions attainable through the
application of BAT assume the use of BPT technol-
ogy plus the additional step of a polishing pond.
sand filter, or other polishing operation. The guide-
lines for new sources are the same as the BAT
limitations for the respective industry
subcatagories.
Control costs are summarized in Table 8.5.-i.
TAELE 83-1. DAIRY PRODUCTS PROCESSING INDUSTRY
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MIWOI45 OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS.
BPT
NEW PLANTS........
MUN. RECOVERY
?F TA I
ANNU LI2ED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PlANTS.
891
RAT
NEW PlANTS
DO TD A1& I.1Y
O&M
EXISTING PLAN
891
RAT
1977
1972—77
1977—81
1977 —83
1977—86
19.05
127.76
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
9.69
12.82
12.82
2.21
9.20
10.72
16.91
26.70
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
21.27
136.96
20.41
29.73
39.52
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
21.27
136.96
20.41
29.73
39.52
16.80
46.16
67.19
100.79
151.18
0.0
0.0
2.56
5.93
10.99
1.21
3.06
8.28
14.73
27.56
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
18.01
49.22
78.03
121.45
189.73
2.89
7.87
10.81
15.85
23.14
0.0
0.0
2.76
6.42
11.88
0.33
0.87
2.37
4.26
8.06
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.22
8.74
15.95
26.53
43.08
21.23
5795
93.98
147.98
232.80
NEW PLANTS...
PRETREATMENT.
Ta_v Al
MUNICIPAL
CHARGE
INVEST
RECOVERY .... ... .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL............. ......... 21.23 57.95 93.98 147.98 232.80
AU. ANNUAL COSTS.......... ... 2L23 57.95 93.98 147.98 232.80
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE TilE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.LINE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
163
-------
8.6 FEEDLOTS INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
Feedlots is a term which applies to many different
types of facilities used to raise animals in a “high
density” situation. For the purpose of establishing
effluent limitations guidelines, the term feedlot
has been defined by the following three
conditions:
• There is a high concentration of animals
held in a small area for periods of time in
conjunction with the production of meat,
milk, eggs, and/or breeding stock; and/or
the stabling of horses:
• There is transportation of feed from other
areas to the animals for consumption and;
• By virtue of the confinement of animals or
poultry, the land or area will neither sustain
vegetation nor be available for crop or for-
age production.
The effluent limitations guidelines issued to date
(Phase I) by the EPA cover feedlots for beef cattle,
dairy cattle, swine, chickens, turkeys, sheep,
ducks, and horses. A variety of facility types are
included within the definition of feedlots. These
include: open tots, housed lots, barns with stalls,
free-stall barns, slotted-floor houses, solid con-
crete floor houses, a variety of poultry houses, and
wet lots containing swimming areas for ducks.
Raw materials used in the feedlots industry are
simply feed, water, and in some cases, bedding.
The production processes are defined by the type
of facilities employed, and, consist mostly of deliv-
ering supplies to the animals and carrying away
manure and titter.
Although most of the feedlots are classified as
small, the bulk of production for many animals is
accounted for by the very large producers. Only
1.4 percent of the fed-cattle feedlots accounted
for over 60 percent of 1972 production. Although
this concentration is not so dominant in some of
the other animal groups. the trend toward larger
units of production is common to all segments of
the industry.
Many producers have diversified into grain
production for direct marketing and production of
other livestock and poultry. Some are involved in
feed grain producing, feed-manufacturing, feeder-
cattle producing, and/or meat packing.
Ownership of commercial feedlots ranges from
sole-proprietorships to corporate farms, including
co-operatives. The feedlot operator may own the
animals being fed or, (particularly in the case of
fed-cattle) may custom-feed animals owned by
others.
Projections of production capacity through 1983
for the cattle, dairy, and hog segments of the
feedlots industry anticipate that the trend is to-
ward fewer numbers of production units with the
very large units continuing to increase their output
volume. Similar projections are not available for
the remaining segments of the feedlots industry.
However, the growth of production of major agri-
cultural commodities for the period 1970—85 has
been estimated. The percentage changes are as
follows: beef and veal (33 percent); pork (13
percent); milk (2 percent); chicken (36 percent);
turkey (44 percent); eggs 1O percent); and lamb
and mutton (65 percent). In a t segments of the
feedlots industry, it is anticipated that the trend
toward larger feedlots will continue. No substan-
tive growth projections are available for the duck
or horse subcategories.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Animal feedlots wastewater originates from two
principal sources:
Rainfall runoff
e Flush or washdown water used to clean
animal wastes from pens, stalls, milk center
areas, houses; runoff from continuous over-
flow watering systems or similar facilities;
spillages; runoff from duck swimming
areas; runoff from washing of animals; ru-
noff from dust control; etc.
The amount of wastewater varies considerably.
depending upon the way manure, bedding, etc.,
are stored and handled; in the outdoor feedlots,
rainfall and soil characteristics determine waste-
water characteristics.
Animal feedlot wastes generally include the fol-
lowing pollutants:
164
-------
• Bedding or litter (if used) and animal hair or
feathers
• Water-and milking-center wastes
e Spilled feed
a Undigested and partially digested food or
feed additives
• Digestive juices
• Biological products of metabolism
• Micro-organisms from the digestive tract
• Cells and cell debris from the digestive
tract
• Residual soil and sand.
The primary discharge constituents of concern for
pollution control can be described as organic so-
lids. nutrients, salts, and bacterial contaminants.
The following specific pollutant parameters have
been identified as being of particular importance:
BOD 5 , COD, fecal coliform, total suspended solids.
phosphorus, ammonia and other nitrogen forms,
and dissolved solids.
With the exception of the duck feedlot subcatego-
ry, the EPA has concluded that animal feedlots can
achieve a BPT level of waste control which pre-
vents the discharge of any wastes into waterways,
except for overflows due to excessive rainfall or
similar unusual cPmatic events (a 10-year, 24-hour
2 5 defined by the National Weather
Service), The effluent limitations for discharges
from duck foedlots have been set at 0.9 kilogram
(2 pounds) of SOD 5 per day for every 1.000 ducks
being fed, and a total viable coliform count less
than that recommended by the National Technical
Advisory Committee for shellfish-producing
waters, which is 400 fecal coliform per 100 millili-
ters. The effluent limitations guidelines for all sub-
categories effective July 1, 1983 (BAT), and for all
new sources (NSPS) are no discharge of wastewa-
ter pollutants, except for overflows due to rainfalls
in excess of the 25-year, 24-hour storm (as defined
by the National Weather Service).
Control Technology and Costs
In-process technologies used for the control of
wastewaters from animal feedlots include: site
selection, selection of production methods, water
utilization practices, feed formulation and utilize-
tion, bedding and litter utilization, and housekeep-
ing procedures. All of these are important in mini-
mizing wastewater flow and pollutants.
The various technologies available for end-of-
process treatment may be classified as either par-
tial or complete. Partial technologies are defined
as those that produce a product or products which
re neither sold or completely utilized on the feed-
lot. Thus, gasification and incineration of manure
are considered partial technologies because each
generates a significant quantity of ash that must
be disposed of. Lagoons, trickling filters. and other
biological systems are classified as partial technol-
ogies because the effluent may not be suitable for
discharge, and, in all cases sludge disposal is
necessary. Complete treatment technologies
produce a marketable product or a product that
can be entirely reused at the feedlot, and which
has no appreciable by-products, residues, or pol-
luted water discharge. The dehydration and sale of
manure, for example, is a complete technology.
Spreadtng animal wastes on land for crop fertil za-
tion is also a complete control technology.
The 1977 BPT guidelines for all animal feedlots
(except those for ducks), the 1 983 BAT, and the
NSPS guidelines all assume the use of complete
control technology. The BPT guidelines are based
on the containment of all contaminated liquid ru-
noff and the application of these liquids, as well as
the generated solid wastes, to productive crop-
land at a rate which will provide moisture ar a
nutrients that can be utilized by the crops. Tech-
nologies applicable to BAT guidelines include
some of the complete technologies, such as was
telage (addition of waste products to feed), oxida-
tion ditch mixed liquor ref eed, and the recycling of
wet-lot water for ducks, which are not yet fully
available for general use. The BPT guidelines for
duck feedlots require the equivalent of primary
settling, aeration, secondary settling, and chlorina-
tion prior to discharge.
Comprehensive and reliable data are not available
on the number of feedlots that will require con-
struction of pollution control facilities to meet the
effluent limitations guidelines. It is generally ac-
cepted that housed (total confinement) and pas-
ture operations can generally meet the guidelines
without new investment or operating cost outlays.
Furthermore, open or partially open feedlots may
be situated so that they are not point-source dis-
chargers. Finally, some feedlots have already in-
stalled control facilities which meet the guidelines’
requirements. Recent estimates suggest that only
10 to 40 percent of all feedlots will require addi-
tional investment for control facilities.
Control costs are summarized in Table 8.6—1.
165
-------
TABLE 8.6—i. FEEDLOTS INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMUI.ATIvE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 21.78 79.87 0.81 0.81 0.81
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 4.88 18.05 11.25 17.68 28.53
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 26.6?, 97.92 12.06 18.48 29.34
MUN. RECOVERY 0.0 .0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 26.66 97.92 12.06 18.48 29.34
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 10.50 26.41 42.21 63.43 95.25
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 2.37 3.78 13.11 22.07 38.97
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 12.87 32.19 35.33 85.50 134.22
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 12.22 30.74 49.13 73.82 110.86
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 2.76 6.73 15.23 25.62 45.18
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 14.98 37.4?, 64.36 99.44 136.04
INDUSTRY TOTAL 27.86 69.65 119.69 184.94 290.26
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
‘NVEST RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 27.86 69.65 119.69 184.94 290.26
ALL ANNUAL COSTS 27.86 69.65 119.69 184.94 290.26
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: 11) STRAIGHT .UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
168
-------
8.7 MEAT PACK!NG INDUSTRY
MEAT PACKING (PHASE I)
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in-
dustry were remanded on November 27, 1975.
The EPA believes that the reasons for this action
were technical in nature and that similar regula-
tions differing only in the pollutant reductions
required and incurring similar costs will be pro-
mulgated in the future. This discussion, therefore,
was based on the costs derived in the support
documents for the present regulations.)
Production Characteristics and Capacities
According to the Department of Agriculture, there
were 5,991 meat slaughtering plants in the United
States on March 1, 1 973. Commercial slaughter of
beef, hogs, calves, sheep, and lambs totaled 26.9
million metric tons (29.6 million short tons) in
1972 according to the USDA. Of these plants. 84
were large plants (over 91.000 thousand metric
tons or 100,000 short tons annual live weight
killed (LWK), 309 medium plants (1 1,300—90,000
metric tons or 1 2.5O0 -100,0QO short tons annual
LWK), and the rest were small. Of the small plants,
the Development Document estimated 5,200 to
be “locker” plants (very small meat packing plants
that slaughter animals and may produce proc.
essed meat products which are usually stored in
frozen form). The other 400 plants are assumed to
be plants between 450 and 11.300 metric tons
(500 and 12,500 short tons) annual LWK.
A total of 90 percent of the industry’s production is
accounted for by 15 percent of the plants. Al-
though the total number of plants in the Develop-
ment Document slaughterhouse and packing-
house categories is only 793, it was assumed that
these plants produce 90 percent of the output, and
that locker plants account for the remaining 10
percent.
The meat processing industry comprises four sub-
categories: simple slaughterhouse, complex
slaughterhouse, low-processing packinghouse,
and high-processing packinghouse, The plants in
this industry range from those that carry out only
one operation, such as slaughtering, to plants that
also carry Out commercial meat processing.
Simple slaughterhouses have very limited by-
product processing and usually no more than two
other operations such as: rendering, paunch and
viscera handhng, blood processing, or hide proc-
essing. Complex slaughterhouses carry out exten-
sive by-product processing with at least three of
the aforementioned operations. Low-processing
packinghouses process only animals killed at the
plant; normally they process less than the total kill
High-process ng packinghouses process both ani-
mals slaughtered at the site and additional carS
casses from outside sources.
Income from meat slaughtering and meat process-
ing plants in 1972 was $23.8 billion. Factors
serving to restrain potential growth of the Amer-
can meat packing industry include higher meat
prices, removal of import quotas, and the availab’l-
- ity of synthetic (soybean protein) substitutes. The
trend is for any new plants to be larger and more
specialized (such as large beef or pork slaughter-
houses) and to be located closer to the animal
supply (movement from urban to rural areas).
Waste Sou ’ces a d Poilu e ts
Wastewaters from slaughterhouses and packing-
houses contain organic matter including grease,
suspended solids, and inorganic materials such as
phosphates, nitrates, and salt. These materials en-
ter the waste stream as blood, meat and fatty
tissue, meat extracts, paunch contents, bedding,
manure, hair, dirt, curing and pickling solutions,
preservatives, and alkaline detergents.
Water is a raw material used in the meat process-
ing industry to cleanse products and to remove
unwanted material. The primary operations where
wastewater originates are: animal holding pen op-
erations (waste from water troughs, washdown,
and liquid wastes), slaughtering (killing, blood
processing, viscera handling and, offal washing,
and hide processing), and clean-up.
The basic parameters used to define waste charac-
teristics are BOD 5 , suspended solids, grease, and
ammonia (NSPS and BAT). The total number of
municipal dischargers is 70 percent of the number
of plants. The average wastewater flows for sim-
ple slaughterhouse, complex slaughterhouse, low-
process packinghouse, high-process packing
house are 1.1 7, 4.40, 3.4 1 and 4.38 million liters
(0.31, 1.1 5, 0.90, 1.2 million gallons, respectively
per day). About 70—75 percent of the total waste-
water volume is discharged to municipal systems.
167
-------
Present Control Technology and Costs
Current end-of-pipe treatment for direct dischar-
gers assumes that all plants have in-plant controls
for primary treatment, and a secondary treatment
system employing anaerobic and aerobic lagoons.
Dissolved air flotation is used for primary treat-
ment, either alone or with screens; however, 30
percent of the plants use a catch basin. Since a
small percentage of the industry has more ad-
vanced secondary treatment systems (such as acti-
vated sludge, trickling filters, or spray irrigation)
and a small percentage of meat packers have no
waste treatment beyond primary treatment, it can
be assumed that the typical plant today is charac-
terized by primary treatment plus anaerobic and
aerobic lagoons.
Best Practicable Technology consists of end-of-
pipe treatment represented by anaerobic-plus-
aerated lagoons and aerated lagoons with effi-
cient solid-liquid separation: Disinfection by chlori-
nation is also required. Land disposal, when avail-
able, may be an economical option, especially for
small plants. End-of-pipe treatment is assumed to
be preceded by in-plant controls; these are: reduc-
tion of water use through shut-off valves, extensive
dry cleaning, use of gravity catch basins, blood
recovery and dry dumping of paunch waste. NSPS
are the same as BPT with an additional require-
ment for control of ammonia.
In addition to BPT, Best Available Technology sug-
gests chemical additions prior to dissolved air
flotation, nitrification-denitrifiCatiOn (or ammonia
stripping), and sand filtration following secondary
treatment.
MEAT PRODUCTS (PHASE II ) .—
RED MEAT PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
In 1972, the Census of Manufactures listed a total
of 1,311 plants under SiC 2013 — Sausage and
Other Prepared Meat Products. Plants have been
classified in size according to the production of
finished product {FP). A small processor produces
less than 2,750 kilograms (6,000 pounds) per day
while a large processor produces in excess of that
amount. Large processors are further divided into
the following product mix categories: (1) meat
cutter, (2) sausage ard luncheon meat processor.
(3) ham processor. and (4) canned meat processor.
Production processes for subcategories in this
segment of the red meat industry are varied but
most often include: (1) receiving, and storage, (2)
boning and sizing, (3) cooking, preserving or other
preparing of finished products. (4) packaging, and
(5) finished product storing and shipping.
The value of shipments in the meat processing
industry from 1967—1972 increased by $1.86
billion, a compound annual increase of 5.1 per-
cent. Growth in terms of product was 1.8 percent
annually during the same period. The sausage and
luncheon meat subcategory exhibited the most
rapid increase—three percent per year.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Wastewaters from meat processing plants contain
organic matter, suspended solids and inorganic
materials, such as phosphates, nitrates, nitrites,
and salt. These materials enter the wastestream as
meat and fatty tissues, grease, meat juices,
product spills, curing and pickling solutions, pre-
servatives, and detergents. In order to define
waste characteristics, the following basic parame-
ters were used to develop guidelines for meeting
BPT and BAT: (1) five-day biochemical oxygen
demand (BOO 5 ), (2) total suspended solids (TSS),
(3) oil and grease (0&G), and (4) fecal coliforms.
The wastes from the meat products industry con-
tain compatible pollutants. There is no evidence
that toxic pollutants as defined in the EPA toxic
pollutant effluent standards are present in the
wastewaters from any of the meat products indus-.
try subcategories.
Control Technology and Costs
Waste treatment practices in the meat processing
industry vary widely according to the age, size,
and location of plants. Many now use primary
treatment (including screening and catch basins)
for waste material recovery. Where secondary
wastewater treatment is practiced, anaerobic
processes are commonly employed, followed by a
trickling filter, aerated lagoon, or activated sludge
process. BPT guidelines for large plants discharg-
ing to waterways call for a major removal of BOD 5 ,
TSS, and grease through installation of primary
treatment (screening, equalization, dissolved air
flotation> followed by secondary biological treat-
ment, such as activated sludge or extended aera-
tion combined with a facultative lagoon and disin-
fection. EPA assumed that BPT investment for
existing plants was limited to chlorination equip-
ment. BAT guidelines project a further reduction in
6005, TSS. and oil and grease by means of filtra-
tion. In-plant controls for reduction in wastewater
volumes are also assessed. Septic tanks are con-
sidered to provide BPT and BAT for small
processors.
Control costs for the Meat Packing (Phase I) and
Red Meat Products (Phase II) categories are given
in Table 8.7—1.
1 68
-------
TABLE 8.7 -1. MEAT PACKING AND
WATER POLLUTION
(IN MIWONS OF
RED MEAT PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
CONTROL COSTS
1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
MEAT PROCESSING (PHASE 0)—
POULTRY PROCESSING
Production Characteristics and Capacities
In 1974, there were 1,846 poultry processing
plants in the United States under Federal inspec-
tion. Of this total, 1.178 plants processed both red
meat and poultry. The size of a model plant is
determined by the number of birds processed per
day. Large plants may process in excess of 120.-
000 birds in a single day.
This segment of the meat products industry has
been divided into the following subcategories: (1)
Chicken processor. (2) Turkey processor. (3) Fowl
processor (mature chickens, geese, and capons),
(4) Duck processor, and (5) Further processor (no
slaughtering).
The production processes for poultry processing
include: (1) receiving birds; (2) killing, (3) bleeding,
defeathering, including scalding, picking, singe-
ing and washing. (4) eviscerating, including vis-
cera removal, giblet processing, and carcass
washing. (5) weighing, grading and packaging,
chilling, and (6) shipping. These steps with minor
variations, are used in the processing of chickens,
turkeys, fowl and ducks.
“Further Processing” includes those poultry plants
that conduct further processing of poultry
products only, but do no on-site slaughter. Further
processing of poultry products (chickens, fowl,
turkeys or ducks) includes the following steps: (1)
receiving and storage; (2) thawing; (3) cut-up oper-
ations; (4) cooking; (5) battering and breading; (6)
cooking; (7) freezing and packaging, and (8) cold
storing; or alternatively, after (2) thawing; (3) bon-
1977
1972—77
1977—81
1977—83
1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS .. ......-
3.52
11.47
0.0
0.0
0.0
BPT...... ... ..._.._.._
BAT .. . ... . ...._....
4.01
2.34
4.01
9.34
136.23
11.53
179.19
18.89
179.19
32.59
NEW PlANTS ..... ..
PRETREATMENT ..._ . . .. ..
0.0
9.86
0.0
9.86
0.0
24.82
0.0
24.82
0.0
147.76
0.0
147.76
0.0
198.09
0.0
198.09
0.0
211.78
0.0
211.78
SUBTOTAl. ...__... . . . .. ....._.....
MUN. RECOVERY
..... .. .......
...... ... ..
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PLANTS .. ......... ..
1.53
3.66
6.11
9.16
13.74
IPT ...... .....
BAT....... .. ... . ... ........ ..
0.53
1.23
0.53
3.07
39.09
8.55
87.27
15.47
159.53
30.10
NEW PIANTS...... ........... . . . . .. . .. ... .....
PRETREATMENT...... .. ......... ..
0.0
3.28
0.0
7.25
0.0
53.75
0.0
111.90
0.0
203.37
TOTAL . .... . ...... . . . . . . . . .. ..... . _.....
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS....... . ................... . .. . ......... . . . . . . ._....
....... ,. ............... . .. . ..._...
BAT .. .. .. ... ..
NEW PLANTS..
PRETREATMENT......................................... . ............_..
5.58
0.0
2.36
0.0
7.94
15.86
0.0
6.13
0.0
21.99
21.95
80.50
17.29
0.0
119.74
32.74
185.52
31.68
0.0
249.94
48.72
342.43
62.57
0.0
453.72
TOTAL..__............_....................._..................
INDUSTRY TOTAL............_ .._....._..
11.22
29.25
173.49
361.83
657.09
MUNIOPAL CHARGE
ye,yA I
INVEST RECOVERY.._—_ .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES ..__....... . .__ ...... . ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
AU. ANNUM COSTS.
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE ThE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHT.UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
11.22
29.25
173.49
361.83
657.09
11.22
29.25
173.49
361.83
657.09
169
-------
ing; (4) dicing, gnnding, and chopping; (5) mixing
and blending; (6) stuffing or canning, (7) cooking;
(8) final product preparing; (9) freezing and pack-
aging; and (10) cold storing.
U.S. Department of Agriculture statistics show the
following values for poultry production for 1972
in metric tons (short tons in parentheses): chick-
ens, 4,970,000 (5,480,000); fowl (mature chick-
ens) 375,000 (4 1 4,000); turkeys 1,034,000
(1,140,000); ducks. 32.370 (35,670); and other
poultry 4,280 (4,700); for a total of 6,4 1 6,000
(7,070,000). Further processed poultry products
of all subcategories totalled 743,000 metric tons
(819,000 short tons) for 1 972.
The poultry industry has been growing; U.S. per
capita consumption of combined turkey plus
chicken has approximately doubled in the last two
decades, during which period total red meat con-
sumption increased less than 1 5 percent.
Production in Federally inspected poultry plants
was in excess of 8.9 billion kilograms (13 billion
pounds) in 1971.
The compound annual growth rate over the period
1973 to 1980 has been estimated at between 4.9
and 5.6 percent. -lowever, the 1972 Census of
Manufactures indicates a growth of 4.0 percent
between 1967 and 1972.
Waste S t rcas ani Poi utants
Materials are generated through direct processing
of raw matenals into finished products and from
ancillary operations. The former group Consists of
blood, viscera, fat, and flesh scraps, while the
1 atter consists of cleaners and sanitizers used in
clearing equipment and lubricants used in certain
hanthng equipment. All of these contribute to the
release of organic materials, which exert a high
BUD and elevate the oil, grease and suspended
solids levels in the process water. Phosphorus,
nitrogen species, and chlorides can also be found.
The most significant single waste source in the
poultry products processing industry is blood from
the walls of the blood tunnel which is washed into
sewers.
In order to define waste characteristics, the follow-
ing basic parameters were used to develop guide-
tires for meeting BPT: (1) five-day biochemical
oxygen demand (80D 5 ), (2) total suspended so lids
(TSS), (3) oil and grease (0&G), (4) fecal coliforms.
and (5) pft It is recommended that the pH of any
final discharge be within a range of 6.0—9.0.
Wastes from various poultry industry subcatego-
ries contain compatible pollutants as defined by
EPA Pretreatment Standards, hence pretreatrrfent
is not required. Furthermore, no toxic materials as
defined in the Toxic Pollutants Effluent Standards
are present in wastes from this industry. In addi-
tion, ammonia control is required for BAT.
Control Technology and Costs
Poultry wastes are usually amenable to biological
breakdown. A few plants in various subcategories
of this industry are currently meeting the BPT
limitations promulgated by EPA. Most plants in all
subcategories either discharge to municipal treat-
ment systems or utilize some form of secondary
biological treatment. Either a three-lagoon system
or an activated sludge system, both followed by
chlorination, are suitable alternatives for meeting
BPT timitations provided that in-plant grease and
solids recovery are practiced. Spray irrigation
(land application) is practiced by a few plants. The
sale of crops grown on the irrigated acreage can
help defray the costs of the land.
To meet BAT limitations, most plants in all subca-
tegories will require, in addition to the BPT require-
ments, in-plant water conservation practices, dis-
solved air flotation with pH control and chemical
flocculation for oil and grease removal, an ammo-
nia control process, and a final sand filter or
microstrainer.
Control costs for the poultry products industry
included in Table 8.7—2.
MEAT PRODUCTS (PHASE ll)-= .
RENDER ERS
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The 1972 Census of Manufactures lists 5 11 inde-
pendent renderers, down 77 from 588 in 1967.
According to the National Renderers Association,
the number of plants dropped to 450 or less by
1973. Independent rendering resulting in inedible
products is distinguished from on-site rendering
(slaughterhouse or packinghouse) which produces
edible (lard) products.
Independent rendering plants range in size from
very small plants having only one to four employ-
ees and a value of shipments of about $ 1 50,000
to large plants hiring in excess of 100 employees
and having annual sales of $ 12 million. Average
size plants, according to EPA, employ 23 persons
and have annual sales of about $1.5 million. For
purposes of pollution control costing, three cate-
gories of plant size are used — one to nine employ-
ees, 10—49 employees, and 50 and over
employees.
170
-------
A single product-related subcategory has been
deemed adequate to represent the activities and
the pollutants of this industry.
The production steps in independent inedible ren-
dering are as follows:
• Raw material recovery
• Crushing and grinding
• Cooking and moisture removal
• Liquid-solid separation
• Grease clarifying, storing, and
shipping
• Meal grinding and screening
• Blending
f Meat storing and shipping
• Hide curing.
- Variations in the overall rendering process occur
depending on whether batch or continuous sys-
tems are used.
The value of shipments in the industry has climbed
from $510.4 million in 1967 to $808.6 million in
1972. Output of final products rose from 2.4
billion kilograms (5.4 billion pounds) of grease and
tallow to 2.7 billion kilograms (6.0 billion pounds)
during the five year period while production of
meat meal and tankage increased from 36.3 mil-
lion to 37.2 million kilograms (80 million to 82
miflion pounds) per year. Very few projections of
long range growth have been made for this
industry.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
Rendering is a process to convert animal products.
by heating, into fats, oils, and proteinaceous so-
TA L &7—2. POULTRY PROCESSING INDUSTRY WAT POLWT O COSTS
(IN MIWONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATiVE PERIODS
_______ _______ 1977—83
INVESTMENT
EXISTING Pt.ANTS.
BPT
BAT..
NEW PLANTS
1972—77
ef ,a? P —
1977—81
1977
1.53
5.44
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
16.50
21.83
1.80
7.00
10.93
19.13
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.33
12.43
27.43
40.96
MUN. RECOVERY ...... . ....._...... . . . .. . . . .... 0.0 0.0 0.0
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING t A .tYC
O&M
1977—86
0.0
21.83
36.02
0.0
57.87
0.0
57.87
6.4.3
1872
27.86
0.0
53.01
5.84
30.95
18.17
0.0
54.95
107.96
27.43
2.86
4.36
7.03
0.0
2.73
7.31
4.47
0.0
14.51
28.76
BPI ......... .. .... . ...
......... . . .....
NEW PLANTS .. ..
0.71
0.0
0.92
0.0
1.74
0.0
2.28
0.0
PRETREATMENT
.....
1.63
0.73
0.0
0.55
0.0
1.27
4.02
1.77
0.0
1.43
0.0
3.21
EXISTING PLANTS :... . .. . .....
BPT — .. .....
......
NEW PLANTS ...... . . . . . . . .. . . . .. ....
PRETREATMENT.._....... ... . .. . ... ..... ..........
TOTM....................._..........................
2.91
0.0
0.0
2.91
2.91
7.22
0.0
0.0
7.22 28.76 37.18 i07.9
INVEST RECOVERY........ ...... . ...
USER CHARGES ......_........ . ............
TOTAL.. ..........................................
ALL ANNUAL COSTS.......... .._... .........
0.0
40.96
&29
10.10
13.32
0.0
27.71
4.01
16.87
8.58
0.0
29.47
57.18
INDUSTRY TOTAL
MUNICIPAl. CHARGE
0.0
D.C
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATiON OF: (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
171
-------
lids. A variety of waste meat products including fat
trimmings, meat scraps, feathers, offal, bone, and
whole carcasses are processed continuously or in
batches. The raw material is crushed, then cooked
under pressure as required. Fats and oils are al-
lowed to drain off, and the solid material remain-
ing is pressed, ground, and screened to provide a
protein-bone meal mixture. Tallow and greases are
separated. The large amounts of moisture re-
leased cooking are collected by condensation.
Plants-which process a large number of dead
animals may include facilities for hide curing.
The principal operations and processes in render-
ing plants where wastewater originates are (1) raw
material receiving, (2) condensing cooking vapors,
(3) plant cleanup, and (4) truck and barrel washing.
Wastewaters from rendering plants contain or-
ganic matter, suspended solids, and inorganic ma-
terials, such as phosphates, nitrates, nitrites, and
salt. These materials enter the wastestream as
blood, meat and fatty tissue body fluids, hair, dirt,
manure, tallow and grease, meal products, deter-
gents, and hide curing solutions (where used).
The wastes from all subcategories in the meat
products industry contain compatible pollutants.
There is no evidence that toxic pollutants as de-
fined n the EPA toxic pollutant effluent standards
are present in the wastewaters from any of the
meat products industry subcategories.
t n order to define waste characteristics, the follow-
ing basic parameters were used to develop guide-
lines for meeting BPT and BAT: five-day biochemi-
cal oxygen demand (BOO 5 ), total suspended solids
(TSS}, oil and grease (O&G), pH, fecal coliforms,
and ammonia.
Control Technology and Costs
Wastes in the independent rendering industry are
amenable to biological treatment. Off-site render-
ing plants are divided nearly evenly between those
which discharge to municipal sewer systems and
those which treat their wastes. Of the latter group,
half achieve no discharge of pollutants by means
of spray irrigation or ponding. The treatment tech-
nology is essentially the same as for meat proc-
essors. BPT guidelines for plants discharging to
waterways call for a major removal of BOO 5 , TSS,
grease and fecal coliform bacteria through instal-
lation of primary treatment (equalization, screen-
ing, dissolved air flotation and disinfection). Next
is secondary biological treatment, such as acti-
vated sludge or extended aeration combined with
a facultative lagoon and disinfection. BAT criteria
call for further reductions in 30D 5 , TSS, and
grease, to be achieved by sand filtration; ammonia
control is also mandated. In-plant controls for re-
duction in wastewater volume are also assumed.
New source performance standards are the same
as BPT for existing plants with the addition of
ammonia limitations.
Control costs for the Rendering Industry are de-
tailed in Table 8.7—3. Industry in Table VlIl-7--4.
172
-------
TA L 8J-3. RENDERING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OP 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS
BPT 0.31 1.01 0.0 0.0 0.0
BAT 0.0 0.0 10.67 14.02 14.02
NEW PLANTS 0.05 0.22 0.22 0.35 0.57
PRETREATMENT ..... .. .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL ..... 0.36 1.22 10.89 14.37 14.59
NUN. RECOVERY .. ....... 0.0 0.0 • 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. 0.36 1.22 10.89 14.37 14.59
ANNUALIZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS .. .....
BPT 0.13 0.31 0.53 0.80 1.19
.. 0.0 0.0 2.84 6.52 12.03
NEW PLANTS ...... .. 0.03 0.07 0.19 0.33 0.61
PRETREATMENT .. ........ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ... ._ . .. .. ..... 0.16 0.38 3.55 7.65 13.85
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS .. ...........
aPT _ . . . .. ..... 0.31 0.72 1.14 1.66 2.38
SAT ....... ......... 0.0 0.0 5.72 12.93 23.11
NEW PLANTS ..... ......... 0.03 0.09 0.23 0.40 0.76
PRETREATMENT .......... ... .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL ....._.____.____......._..._. 0.34 0.81 7.08 14.09 26.25
INDUSTRY TOTAL..._.... ..._ ... . ... .. ..... 0.50 1.19 10.64 22.64 40.10
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY . .... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER cHARGES ............. . . . .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL............ ...__.......... 0.50 1.19 10.64 22.64 40.10
ALL ANNUAL COSTS...... .. . .............................. 0.50 1.19 10.64 22.64 40.10
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATiON OF: (1) STRAIGHT-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
173
-------
8.8 LEATHER TANNING AND FINISHING INDUSTRY
(Some or all of the regulations governing this in
dustry were remanded on March 10, 1976. The
ERA believes that the reasons for this action were
technical in nature and that similar regulations
differing only in the pollutant reductions required
and incurring similar costs will be promulgated in
the future. This discussion, therefore, was based
on the costs derived in the support documents for
the present regulations.)
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The leather tanning and finishing industry in-
cludes those establishments which are engaged in
the processes of converting animal skins into
leather. The principal hide used by the industry is
cattlehide. In 1976 cattlehide leather accounted
for 86 percent of the hides tanned. The second
largest volume of raw materials used are sheep-
skins and lambskins followed third by pigskin.
Other types of skins or hides processed include
goat, kid, hairsheep, and horse. Those skins
tanned on a more limited basis include deer, elk,
moose, antelope, rabbit, alligator, crocodile, seal,
shark, and kangaroo. Currently there is a tight
demand on the raw materials for leather
production due primarily to the continued expan-
sion of cattlehide exports. According to the U.S.
Industrial Outlook. 1977, in 1976, exports ac-
counted for 57 percent of the total production of
hides.
The processes utilized to convert raw materials to
finished leather are: beamhouse; tanhouse; retan,
color, and fatliquor; and finishing.
Beamho use
Beamhouse processes are used exclusively for
cattlehide tanning. The hides received have previ-
ously been cured green. salted, or brined at the
packing house. Therefore, the first step at the
beamhouse is siding and trimming. Next the sides
are washed and soaked followed by flushing. The
final step is removal of the hair either mechanically
or chemically. The hair is either saved or pulped.
Tanho use
Steps at the tanhouse include the degreasirig of
sheepskiriS and pigskinS and pickling of cattle-
hides and pigskins. SheepskinS have been pickled
prior to arrival at the tanhouse. All pickled hides
and skins are then either chrome-tanned or
vegetable-tanned. The tanned hide is then split to
form a grainside piece and a flush-side layer.
The next step is the retan, color, and fatliquor
process. The skins are usually colored with syn-
thetic dyes. Fatliquoring is the operation in which
oils are added to replace the natural oils lost in the
beamhouse and tanhouse processes and to make
the leather pliable. The amount of oil added de-
pends on the end use of the leather.
Finishing
The final process is finishing which includes a
number of operations such as drying, wet-in coat-
ing, staking or tacking, plating, skiving, carding,
clipping, sanding, and buffing.
For the purpose of establishing effluent limitations
guidelines and standards of performance, the pri-
mary processes employed in the tanning and fin-
ishing industry nave been divided iito major sub-
categories. These subcategories are listed in Table
8.8—1.
Table 3.3.-i.
L.affi.r Tanning e i s a Finishing Subcet.ganes
Subcotegory Beomhouse Tanning _______
1 Pulp Hair Chrome
2 Save Hair Chrome
3 Save Hair Vegetable
4 Hair previously Previously Yes
removed tanned
5 Hair previously Chrome
removed or re-
tained
6 Pulp or Save Chrome or Mo
Hair no tanning
Source: Development Document, March. 1974.
Leather tanning and finishing is a declining indus-
try. The number of tanneries has steadily de-
creased from around 7,500 operating in 1 865 to
approximately 1,000 in 1900. According to the
U.S. Industrial Outlook, 1977, the number of es-
tablishments has continued to decrease from the
turn of the century to approximately 430 in 1976.
Leather
Pinishing
Yes
Yes
Yes
174
-------
Control Technology and Costs
The major factors contributing to the decline have
been competition from synthetic leathers and in-
creasing international competition. The industry
has been severly impacted by international com-
petition from both the large exports of hides and
the rising imports of finished leather products. A
zero growth rate is being projected for the industry
for the period 1972 — 1985. The no growth
projection is based on a historical extrapolation of
the annual quantity of finished products given in
the 1972 Census of Manufacturers.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The leather tanning and finishing industry may be
regarded as high y water dependent. Water is a
convenient vehicle for removal of arge amounts of
wastes and a vita ingredient for the chemical
formulas involved in virtually all tanning methods.
In 1972 a total of 27.6 billion liters (7.3 billion
gallons) of wastewater were discharged. Of this
amount, 55 percent was discharged to public sew-
erage utilities and 4 perceni was discharged
directly to surface waters. The number of plants in
the industry which dischatge wastewater is only
about 190, not the entire industry. The largest
quantities of wastewater effluents are generated
by the beamhouse and tanhouse processes. The
various constituents of these processes are as
foIlows:
Urn. Su9ors a d s;
Hi d. saops Oi * , fats, and eose
Sv lf ides
Amiess Mines acids
Ch urn so Dyes
Tannin Solvents
Sal* Soda oW
For the purposes of establishing effluent guide-
lines for the leather tanning and finishing industry,
the following parameters have been defined to be
of major polluting significance: BOD 5 . COD, total
suspended solids, total nitrogen, chromium, oil
and grease, sulfide, and pH.
The technologies for control and treatment of Wa-
terborne pollutants in the ‘eather tanning and fin-
ishing industry can be divided into two broad
categories: in-process and end-of-pipe. The in-
process technologies include: water conservation;
process solution reuse or recovery; and in-plant
treatment to remove a waste constituent.
End-of-pipe technologies consist of pretreatment
processes and secondary biological treatment
processes. Pretreatment is necessary due to the
amounts of suffides, oil and grease, and chromium
present in the wastewater.
Advanced end-of-pipe technologies include:
• Deep-bed filtration or microscreening
• Carbon absorption
• Coagulation, flocculation, and settling
• Chlorination
• Biological nitrification-denitrification
• Ammonia stripping
• Ammonia ion exchange
• Freezing
• Evaporation
Eectrodialyss
Ion exchange
• Reverse osmosis
BPT guidelines call for a major removal of BOD 5
and suspended solids through the installation of
preliminary treatment (chromium removal, screen-
ing, equalization and primary clarification) and
secondary biological treatment activated sludge,
aerobic, or anaerobic lagoons). BAT guidelines
include BPT plus reductions in sulfide and nitro-
gen through use of aeration and mixing with a
carbon sorbent to cause denitrifiction, and filtra-
tion of the final effluent using deep-bed, mixed-
media filters to remove suspended solids. New
source performance standards are the same as
BPT for existing plants.
Control costs are detailed in Table 8.8—2.
Hai
Pi.c.s of Aesh
mood
Man
Dirt
Su ace ac ve —
175
-------
TABLE 88—2. LEATHER TANNING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUT1ON CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977.-83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 9.5 I 26.16 0.0 0.0 0.0
SAT 00 13525 13525
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 1.16 3.19 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 10.67 29.36 101.44 135.25 135.25
NUN. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 o.o
TOTAL 10.67 29.36 101.44 135.23 135.25
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PLANTS
BPT 3.4.4 6.98 13.76 20.64 30.96
SAT 0.0 0.0 26.67 62.24 115.58
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.42 0.85 1.68 2.52 3.78
TOTAL 3.86 7.84 42.11 85.39 150.31
O&M
EXISTiNG PLANTS
SPT 3.57 7.25 14.29 21.43 32.15
BAT 0.0 0.0 24.70 57.64 107.04
NEW PLANTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PRETREATMENT 0.58 1.18 2.32 3.4 5.22
4.15 8.43 41.31 82.55 144.41
INDUSTRY TOTAL 8.01 16.27 83.42 167.95 294.73
MUNIOPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 8.01 16.27 83.42 167.95 294.73
AU. ANNUAL COSTS 8.01 16.27 83.42 167.95 294.73
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (11 STRAIGHT-LiNE DEPRECIATION AND 12) INTEREST.
176
-------
9. OTHER NDUSTR ES
9.1 PHARMACEUTICAL MANUFACTUR NG fl’JDUSTRV
The pharmaceutical indutry produces hundreds
of medicinal chemicals by means of many com-
plex manufacturing technologies. There are six
basic processing techn,ques in common use in the
pharmaceutical manufacturing industry. These
techniques, all distinctly different, are: fermenta-
tion, chemical synthesis, formulation, fractiona-
tion, natural extraction and the growth and isola-
tion of cultures. The first three of these techniques
are by far the most widely used.
Fermentation plants are large water users and the
basic process steps used at these facilities are
similar throughout the industry. The major waste.
water from processing techniques are spent beers
from the initial fermentation step.
Chemical synthesis is another major production
process in pharmaceutical manufacturing. Hun-
dreds of different products are made each yeer
using chemical synthesis techniques, which in-
clude alkylations, carboxylation. esterification,
halogenation, suifonation, etc. Chemical synthesis
plants are also large water users.
Formulation is the third major production process
in pharmaceutical manufacturing. Formulation
plants receive bulk chemical and fermentation
products as raw materials and subsequently man-
ufacture the final dosage forms (tablets, liquids,
capsules, etc.). Compared to the fermentation and
chemical synthesis processes, formulation is a rel-
atively small water user.
Fractionation, natural extraction and biological
culture growth and separation processing tech-
niques are used on much smaller production
scales than the three previously discussed
techniques.
Natural extraction techniques use animal and
plant tissues as product raw materials and also
consist of various separation and chemical extrac-
tion steps.
Cultures are grown under optimum conditions and
then go through a series of seeding, isolation,
incubation and drying steps. These three process-
ing techniques are generally conducted in labors-
tories on a bench-top scale and therefore are very
small water users.
For the purpose of establishing effluent limitation
guidelines and standards of performance, the
pharmaceutical manufacturing point source Cate-
gory has been divided (on the basis of manufactur-
ing techniques, product type, raw materials and
wastewater characteristics) into five separate sub-
categories. The five subcategories are:
A. Fermentation Products. Most antibiotics
and steriods are produced in batch fermen-
tation tanks in the presence of a particular
fungus or bacterium and then are isolated
by various chemical processes or are sim-
ply concentrated or dried.
B. Biological and Natural Extraction Products.
Biological and natural extraction products
include various blood fractions, vaccines.
serums, animal bile derivatives and ex-
tracts of plant and animal tissues. These
products are usually produced in laborator-
ies on a much smaller scale than most
pharmaceutical products.
C. Chemical Synthesis Products. The
production of chemical synthesis products
is very similar to fine chemials production.
Chemical synthesis reactions generally are
batch types which are followed by solvent
extraction of the product.
0. Mixing/Compounding and Formulation.
The manufacturing operations for formula-
tion plants may be either dry or wet. Dry
production involves dry mixing, tableting or
capsuling and packaging. Process equip-
ment is generally vacuum-cleaned to re-
move dry solids and then washed down.
Wet production includes mixing, filtering
and bottling. Process equipment is washed
down between production batches.
E. Microbiological, Biological, and Chemical
Research. Research is another important
part of the pharmaceutical industry. Al-
though such facilities may not produce spe-
cific marketable products, they do gener-
ate wastewaters. These originate primarily
177
-------
Products
from equipment and vessel washings and
small animal cage washwaters. Large-
animal research farms produce significant
quantities of manure and urine, which may
justify future subclassificatjon of research
facilities.
The pharmaceutical manufacturing industry is di-
vided into three product areas: Biological
Products, Medicinal Chemicals and Botanical
Products, and Pharmaceutical Preparations.
Within the Medicinal Chemicals and Botanical
Products classification, there are three additional
major product areas: fermentation products,
chemical synthesis products and natural extrac-
tion products. Fermentation products are primarily
steroids and antibiotics. Chemical synthesis
products include intermediates used to produce
other chemical compounds as well as hundreds of
fine chemical products. Biological products in-
clude vaccines, serums, and various plasma deriv-
atives. Natural extractions include such items as
animal gland derivatives, animal bile salts and
derivatives and herb tissue derivatives. Formula-
tion products are manufactured from the end
products of the other manufacturing areas and
include the mechandise which is finally marketed
to the public.
Raw Materials
The pharmaceutical manufacturing industry
draws upon worldwide sources for the myriad
quantity of raw matrials it needs to produce medic-
inal chemicals. Fermentation plants require many
raw materials falling into general chemical classift-
cations such as carbohydrates, carbonates, steep
liquors, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds,
anti-foam agents, and various acids and bases.
Hundreds of raw materials are required for the
many batch chemical synthesis processes used by
the pharmaceutical manufacturing point source
category. These include organic and inorganic
compounds, and are used in gas, liquid, and solid
forms.
Plant and animal tissues are also used by the
pharmaceutical manufacturing industry to
produce various biological and natural extraction
products.
Plant Size
Plant size, measured in terms of production, appar-
ently has no significant effect on the pounds of
pollutant per pound of production (Raw Waste
Load). Plant size, measured in terms of total gross
floor area, is used as the basis for computing raw
waste loads for pharmaceutical plants.
PlantAge
Plant age is not a significant factor in determining
the characteristics of a plant’s wastewater. Both
the presence and absence of separate sewer sys-
tems for sanitary and process- wastewaters have
been observed in both old and new plants. The age
of a plant is related more to the location of the
plant than to the quantity or characteristics of the
wastewaters. The older plants tend to be located
in urban areas, whereas the newer plants are sited
in rural areas. This will affect the cost of treatment
facilities because of land costs and land
availability.
Plant Location
Plant location does not affect the quality or quan-
tity of the process wastewater streams. Geograph-
ical location does affect the management of non-
process streams such as non-contact cooling
water. Recirculation of cooling water is more com-
mon in the warm climate areas (where water con-
servation is of more concern) than in cooler geo-
graphical regions.
Housekeeping
The pharmaceutical industry has been under a
form of pollution contro’ for a number of yers.
Certain control standards for cleanliness, sanita-
tion, hygiene, and process control are matters of
particular mporta e o the industry because of
its concern about prodi!ct quality. Tha pharmaceu-
tica industry nas for years been subject to certain
manufacturing and operational restrictions and
inspections pertaining to the regulations of the
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. Gbod man-
ufacturing practice regulations promulgated by
the FDA have been in force, with modifications,
since 1963. Housekeeping practices are excep-
tionally good and therefore are not a factor in
affecting wastewater quantities and characteris-
tics. Except for the nuclear industry, the pharma-
ceutical industry places greater emphasis upon
the purity of its products than does any other
industry.
hiature of Wastes Generated
Various pharmaceutical manufacturing processes
have been examined for the types of contact proc-
ess water usage associated with each. Contact
process water is defined as all water which comes
in contact with chemicals (including pharmaceuti-
cal products) within the pharmaceutical manufac-
turing process. The type and quantity of contact
process water usage are related to the specific
unit operations and chemical conversions within a
process.
178
-------
The characteristics of the wastewaters generated
by the different manufacturing techniques utilized
by the pharmaceutical manufacturing industry
vary considerably. The wastewaters from fermen-
tation processes consist of high strength spent
fermentation beers, equipment washwaters, floor
washwaters, and waste solvents. The many batch
operations used in chemical synthesis operations
were a cause of highly variable wastewaters con-
taining many constitutents. The wastewater flows
from formulation operations are almost exclu-
sively equipment and floor washwaters.
Biological, natural extraction, and research facili-
ties generate much less wastewater than the other
manufacturing processes. Their wastewater flows
are intermittent and animal wastes are often found
in the effluents from research buildings.
Treatability of Wastewaters
The pollutant loading from plants within the differ-
ent manufacturing areas varied widely and there-
fore the treatment technologies employed by com-
panies throughout the industry varied from highly
sophisticated thermal oxidation plants to small
biological package plants.
The wastewaters generated by fermentation and
chemical synthesis processes contain much
higher pc!lutam concentrations than those gener-
ated from the manufacturing of biological and
natura! extraction products. Formulation plants
generally discharge wastewaters with moderate
strength. The lowest strength wastes sampled
were those attributed to research facilities.
Pharmaceutical plants operate throughout the
year. Production processes are primarily batch
operations with significant variations in poIlu-
tional characteristics over any typical operating
period. The characteristics of wastewaters vary
from plant to plant according to the raw matrials
used, the processes used, and the products
produced. Depending on the product mix and the
manufacturing process, variations in wastewater
volume and loading may occur as a result of cer-
tain batch operations (filter washing, crystalliza-
tion, solvent extraction, etc.). thus adequate equal-
ization of the waste load may be imperative prior
to discharge to a waste treatment system.
Pharmaceutical manufacturing plants use water
extensively both in processing and for cooling.
The plant wastewater collection systems are often
segregated to permit separate collection of proc-
ess wastewaters and relatively clean non-contact
cooling waters. The process wastewaters are usu-
ally discharged to a common sewerage system for
treatment and disposal.
The major sources of wastewaters in the pharma-
ceutical manufacturing point source category are
spent broths or beers from fermentations, resi-
dues of reactants and by-products of chemical
syntheses, product washings, extraction and con-
centration procedures, ion exchange regeneration
procedures, equipment washdowns, and floor
washdowns.
Existing control and treatment technologies, as
practiced by the industry, include in-plant abate-
ment as well as end-of-pipe treatment. Recovery
and reuse of expensive solvents and catalysts are
widely practiced in the pharmaceutical manufac-
turing point source category for economic rea-
sons. Current end-of-pipe wastewater treatment
technology involves biological treatment,
physical/chemical treatment, thermal oxidation,
or liquid evaporation. Biological treatment in-
cludes activated sludge, trickling filters, biof !ters,
and aerated lagoon systems.
The effluent limitations and guidelines are based
solely on the contaminants in the contact waste-
waters. No specific limitations are proposed at this
time for pollutants associated with non—contact
wastewaters. Effluent limitations and guidelines
for specific streams are being developed in a sepa-
rate set of regulations for the steam and non-
contact cooling water industries.
Raw waste loads (RWL) and the related effluent
limitations developed for the pharmaceutical man-
ufacturing point source category are based solely
on contact process wastewater. Other non-contact
wastewaters (including domestic wastes) are not
to be included in effluent limitations.
Organic oxygen-demanding material is the major
contaminant in wastewaters generated by the
pharmaceutical manufacturing point source Ca-
teogry. Ammonia, organic nitrogen, and phospho-
rus are also found in significant quantities. The
best approach to control these pollutants appears
to be in-plant measures or at-source treatment in
those special cases where excessive discharge is
encountered.
Because of extensive in-plant recovery and recycle
operations, metals and other toxic materials are
not found in significant quantities in pharmaceuti-
cal plant wastewaters.
Sludge disposal systems generally Consist of
sludge thickening, aerobic digestion, vacuum fil-
tration, and ultimate disposal via landfill. Effluent
diversion basins, effluent polishing ponds, neutral-
ization facilities, and biological treatment systems
are generally required in some plants.
179
-------
m for specific cases indude the enmy âf the spe-
itations guidelines are based on the addition of
multi-media filtration to the proposed BPT treat-
Costs are summarized in Table 9.1—1.
ment technology.
TABLE 9.1-1. PHARMACEUTiCAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1917 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 1977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTiNG PLANTS
BPT 14.11 40.44 0.0 0.0 0.0
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 1.41 15.03 24.21 40.55
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL — 15.52 46.23 15.03 24.21 40.55
MUM. RECOVERY ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 15.52 46.23 15.03 24.21 40.55
APINUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTiNG PLANTS
BPT 5.32 11.09 21.27 31.90 47.85
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
MEW PLANTS 0.76 1.92 7.82 15 08 31.11
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL .. 6.08 13.01 29.08 46.98 78.96
O&M
EXISTiNG PLANTS
BPT 4.18 8.72 16.72 25.09 37.63
BAT . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 0.53 1.36 5.66 10.99 22.80
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 4.71 10.09 22.39 36.07 60.43
INDUSTRY TOTAL 10.79 23.09 51.47 83.06 139.39
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 10.79 23.09 51.47 83.06 139.39
ALL ANNUAL COSTS 10.79 23.09 51.47 83.06 139.39
MOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
MOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATiON OF: (1) STRAIGHTUNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
180
-------
9.2 HOSPITAL INDUSTRY
Production Characteristics and Capacities
The U.S. Hospital industry includes over 7,000
hospitals primarily engaged in providing diagnos-
tic services, extensive medical treatment, surgical
services, and other hospital services as well as
continuous nursing services. Specific hospital
types are:
• General medical and surgical hospital
• Psychiatric hospitals
• Specialty hospitals except psychiatric hos-
pitals; childrens hospitals, orthopedic hos-
pitals, chronic disease hospitals, maternity
hospitals, geriatric hospitals, eye, ear, nose.
and throat hospitals, tuberculosis
hospitals.
The vast majority of hospitals are non-profit institu-
tions in which expenses are recovered by charges
for hospital services. Most hospitals are located in
densely populated areas and discharge into mu-
nicipal sewers. The Development Document esti-
mated that approximately 90 percent of all hospi-
tals discharge into municipal sewers. Table 9.2—1
presents estimated numbers of hospitals that have
their own treatment facilities.
Tobi. 9.2—1.
—
Estinoled Number of
Total Number Hospitals With Own
of Hospitok Treatment FOCMIIi.*
50—99
1,748
175
100-199
1.533
153
200—299
766
77
300-399
444
44
100-499
291
29
S 0 0 0rMore
634
63
Au. eption Only 10% of all hospitals in each siz, category will hove their
own wOstewaref tf,otmsnt focibtieL
Sa c. “Kospital Statistics; 1975 Edition”.
Waste Sources and Pollutants
The primary sources of wastewater streams from
hospitals include sanitary wastewaters, dis
charges from surgical rooms, laboratories, laun-
dries, X-ray departments, cafeterias, and glass-
ware washings. Wastewaters from hospitals can
be characterized as containing BOD 5 , COD, and
TSS concentrations comparable to normal domes-
tic sewage and readily amenable to biological
treatment.
Specific contaminants in hospital wastewater in-
clude mercury, silver, barium, beryllium, and bo-
ron. Mercury is used in laboratories, silver and
boron result from X-ray development. Barium is
used in diagnostic injections and beryllium is used
in dental clinics.
Control Technology and Costs
The technology for the control and treatment of
waterborne pollutants in the hospital industry can
be divided into two broad categories: in-plant-
control and end-of-pipe control.
Specific in-house control practices that are appli-
cable to the hospital industry include: recovery of
silver from spent X-ray developer, prevention of
discharge of volatile solvents and toxic chemicals
into drains, and restriction of the discharge of
mercury-containing compounds into the sinks and
drains.
To meet NSPS and BAT limitations, guidelines and
new source performance standards, end-of-pipe
treatment technologies equivalent to biological
treatment followed by multi-media filtration is
recommended.
Relatively few hospitals treat their wastewater
since most hospitals are located near urban areas.
Of the hospitals that treat their own wastewaters,
the most prevalent end-of-pipe wastewater treat-
ment system is the trickling filter plant; however
some hospitals use activated sludge treatment
systems.
Treatment costs are summarized in Table 9.2—2.
181
-------
TABLE 9.2—2. HOSPITAL INDUSTRY WATER POLLUTiON CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
1977 1972—77 977—81 1977—83 1977—86
INVESTMENT
EXISTING PI.ANTS
BPT 19.13 50.35 0.0 0.0 0.0
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 5.37 19.42 25.65 41.41 69.56
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SUBTOTAL 24.50 25.65 41.41 69.56
MUN. RECOVERY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 24.50 69.77 25.65 44.41 69.56
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PLANTS
6.62 13.30 26.48 39.72 59.57
BAT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS 2.55 6.16 18.35 33.27 64.50
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 9.17 19.47 4.4.83 72.99 124.07
O&M
EXISTING PLANTS
BPT 5.30 10.66 21.21 31.82 47.73
AT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NEW PLANTS...... 1.89 4.57 13.60 24.67 47.81
PRETREATMENT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 7.20 15.23 34.82 56.49 95.54
INDUSTRY TOTAL 16.37 34.69 79.65 129.48 219.62
MUNICIPAL CHARGE
INVEST RECOVERY 0.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USER CHARGES 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 16.37 34.69 79.65 129.48 219.62
ALL ANNUAL COSTS 16.37 3469 79.65 129.48 219.62
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1ST OF THE FIRST YEAR TO JUNE 30TH OF THE SECOND YEAR USTED.
NOTES ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (I) STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION AND (21 INTEREST.
182
-------
1O NONPOINT SOURCES AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES
10.1 NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Non-point sources (NPS) of pollution are major
contributors to water quality problems in the U.S.
For the Nation as a whole, about one-third of the
nver pollution is from non-point sources. Many
basin planning studies are reaching similar con-
clusions regarding the extent of pollution of the
Nations lakes due to non-point sources.
No specific regulations similar to the Federal efflu-
ent guidelines have been issued for non-point
sources. For this reason, no discrete treatment
technologies have been identified which will be
required for all non-point sources. The implemen-
tation of controls on nonpoint sources will occur
most at the State and local level. Initially, imple-
mentation has concentrated on solution of readily
controllable problems and on laying the basis for
subsequent full scale NPS control planning and
action, through problem assessment, defining
technical and institutional remedial approaches,
and developing the planning framework for spe-
cific state and local programs. These efforts sup-
port a second phase of activities, characterized by
the development of state or areawide plans for all
areas of the country. The second phase was sched-
uled to become fully effective in 1978.
Programs will emphasize development of non.
structural solutions such as land use, land
management and regulatory provisions, with the
objective of minimizing reliance on capital inten-
sive remedies.
Non-point source pollution encompasses many
categories of activities and many subcategories
within each category. Included under the heading
of non-point sources are the following activity cat-
egories and subcategories:
Agriculture
Irrigated Agricultural Land
Non-irrigated cropland in tillage
Other cropland
Pastureland
Rangeland
Silviculture
Forest culture
Logging activity
Urban or urbanizing
Urban runoff
Construction
• Added by the 1977 Amendments to the Act
Mining
The mining industries are discussed in other chap-
ters. Cost estimates for mining as a non-point
source of acid or sediment have, therefore, not
been included in this Chapter. In addition, NPS
includes concern for the protection of ground
water and pollution sources which are either point
sources smaller than the size defined for permit
issuance under the NPDES or are non-point-
associated but may be defined or treated in a point
source control fashion. Following implementation
of point source controls, the NPS program will be a
major component of the national effort to achieve
water quality goals.
Agriculture
Agriculture is the greatest single contributor to
non-point pollution. Over 385 million hectares
(950 million acres) of land area in the U.S. are
devoted to farmland in grass, pasture land, crop-
land plus farmsteads and roads. Cropland repre-
sents about 157 million hectares (387 million
acres) or about 41 percent of the total.
Pollutant Sources
The pollutants contributed by agricultural activity
to nearby streams and lakes are varied and include
sediment, salts, plant nutrients, pesticides, biode-
gradable organic materials and pathogens. In
terms of overall impact, sediment appears to be
the most serious contributor to water pollution.
Control of water pollution attributable to soil ero-
sion will also reap additional benefits in the con-
trol of other agriculturally related pollutants. Of the
five previously listed classes of pollutants, four
(plant nutrients, pesticides, biodegradable organ-
ics, and pathogens) either interact with or are at
least partially physically or chemically-associated
with soil particles.
183
-------
Cost Estimates
The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) and the Agri..
cultural Stabilization and Conservation Service
(ASCS) work closely with landowners to develop
conservation plans which are tailored to the needs
of an individual’s parcel of land. Once a plan has
been written by the SCS, the landowner may apply
to have the required practices cost-shared by the
Federal government through the ASCS.
Once every ten years the SCS compiles a very
detailed and thorough summary of rural land use
and conservation treatment needs. The most re-
cent data were obtained in 1967 and a new survey
is now in progress.
Conservation treatment needed on agricultural
land was determined by field inspection of statisti-
cally selected sample areas. Decisions were based
on focal SCS technical guides, the prevailing agri-
cultural operations, and the practical bases ordi-
narily used in developing resource conservation
plans.
Silviculture
About 20 percent of the area of the 50 states is
devoted to commercial forests. The potential for
generating non-point-source pollution from this
203 million hectares (500 million acres) is very
high. Quantities of pollutants actually discharged
to streams and lakes depend in large part on the
type of management given the forest. Pollution
control, as it pertains to silviculture, is not
treatment-oriented because of the very large quan-
tities of water which must be dealt with. Rather it
involves a total resource management system. The
system can be divided into two parts, the first of
which involves the method of harvesting of the
trees and transport of the log from the felling site
to a truck or other means of moving the wood to
the mill. This is the subcategory of logging activity.
The second subcategory, forest culture, includes
growth promotion, forest protection (fire, disease,
insects, and weed trees), and reforestation.
Pollutant Sources
Like agricultural land, silvicultural land can con-
tribute a variety of pollutants to waterways. These
pollutants include sediment, both organic and in-
organic, pesticides, plant nutrients, and fire retar-
dants. In terms of mass, sediment contributes the
largest amount of pollution.
Control of soil erosion will also achieve good nutri-
ent recycling and minimize transport of pesticides
and fire retardants (which, increasingly, are nutri-
ents themselves).
Cost Estimates
The SCS also includes forested land in the
conservation-needs inventory. The type of forest
management practiced by SCS is limited to ref-
orestation and stand improvement. Appropria-
tions and time limitations prevented the develop-
ment of cost information for practices such as
alternative harvesting or logging road construc-
tion which reduce water pollution from forest land.
Attention might be given to this area in future Cost
of Clean Water reports.
Urban Runoff
The “1978 Needs Survey, Cost Methodology for
Control of Combined Sewer Overflow and Storm-
water Discharge provides the most recent esti-
mate of the cost to control pollution from urban
stormwater runoff. The cost to control the current
urban stormwater runoff problem is estimated at
$45,704 million in 1 978. This cost is expected to
increase by $694 million per year as a result of the
conversion of rural to suburban and suburban to
urban land uses. Thus, from the beginning of 1978
to the end of 1 983, the added cost to control
pollution from urban runoff is expected to increase
by $4,164 million. On a per unit basis, the capital
cost of control of pollution for urban runoff is
equivalent to $473 per resident of the urban area
or $ 1 ,9 13 per acre of urbanized area.
Construction Areas
Each year about 590,000 hectares (1.5 million
acres) are converted from rural to suburban or
urban usage. This includes areas brought into de-
velopment for housing, highways, shopping cen-
ters, schools and so forth. ft has been estimated
that, on an area basis, construction causes about
ten times more solids loss per year than does
tillage.
Pollutant Sources
Sediment is one of the greatest pollutants result-
ing from construction activity. Sediment includes
inorganic and organic materials. Nutrients are
transposed in and on the soil particles. Sedimenta-
tion caused by rainfall and runoff from construc-
tion sites is deposited downstream or in other
receiving waters such as ponds, reservoirs, and
dams. Sediment deposition occurs under some of
the following conditions: when runoff carries a
sediment load requiring more energy to carry then
the runoff can furnish; when the runoff is inter-
cepted by a grassed waterway, slow-flowing
stream, or ponds: and when the sediment consists
of ‘arge soil particles that settle quickly due to the
force of gravity.
184
-------
Petroleum products are the largest group of or-
ganic polluting materials consumed in construc-
tion activities. Petroleum products consist of oils.
grease, fuels, certain solvents, and many others.
Pollutants from construction activities may in-
clude: crankcase oil wastes, fuels from leaky stor-
age containers, oil solvents, dust control oils, oils
from minor spills during transfers and transporta-
tion. oil-laden rags, and degreasers.
A majority of these materials float on the surface
of the water and spread easily over a wide area.
Oils and other petroleum products are readily ab-
sorbed by sediment that becomes the main carrier
of these materials. Sediment contaminated with
oil is carried in runoff to receiving streams. The
inherent properties of petroleum products make
them extremely difficult to control after entering
water bodies.
Cost Estimates
The amount and type of pollutants generated dur-
flQ Construction will depend upon the type and
time duration of the various construction prac-
tices, the location and size of the construction site,
the rainfall distribution and frequency, pest con-
trol measures, the resistance of the soil or land
surface to erosion by gravity, water, and wind, the
chemical properties and geology of subsurface
soils, and the number of people and machines
linked with each construction site.
The costs of pollution control reflect the extent of
disturbance at a given site and the amount of
planning devoted to mitigating potential impacts
before they become a problem. Very few compila-
tions of construction area pollution control costs
have been made. However, it seems reasonable to
assume that the types of practices that are effec-
tive on agricultural land would also be relevant to
construction sites.
Summary
Non-point sources of pollution have been catego-
rized as agricultural, silvicUltural, or urban in na-
ture. Because standards for the control of non-
point sources have not been promulgated, the
estimated costs represent an interpretation of the
philosophy of FWPCA. In the case of agricultural
and silvicuttural sources the tremendous land area
involved precludes many of the ordinary engineer-
ing practices for wastewater treatment. On the
other hand, good land management has benefits
for long range maintenance of land productivity
and water quality. The degree to which the aggre-
gate costs reflect each of these two overall objec-
tives is moot. It has been assumed that at this time,
no distinction is possible for two reasons. First,
resumably, non-point source controls will be im-
plemented on an “as needed” basis. Some areas
of the country may not require the level of control
specified by the SCS and some may require a
higher level. Second, the agricultural conservation
program up to this point has been completely
voluntary. While some landowners are quick to
recognize the long term advantages of land
management, the rapid turnover in ownership of
some areas, especially in developing suburban
fringes, has reduced the effectiveness of conser-
vation programs. Unless and until mandatory com-
ponents of programs are introduced the continuity
of non-point source pollution control cannot be
assured.
Urban non-point sources, although they represent
large areas relative to point sources, are concen-
trated enough to utilize primary treatment for
storm water runoff. Since the pollUtant wash-off is
relatively rapid from impervious areas the volume
of water that must be treated is amenable to com-
mon wastewater engineering practice.
Costs for non-point source pollution control are
summarized in Table 10.1—1. Since these costs
reflect the investment need and not the projected
actual investment, they have been excluded from
the National totals presented in the Introduction
(Chapter 1). -
Tab4. 10.1—1.
Capitol 1nv.shn.f t Cost
1918 to 1983
(in mill,ons ol 1977 dollars)
Subcatagovy InVUITh.nt
Noe -Structu ol 1645.
$i,uctwol 130L
Total 2946.
5121.’”
Urbanized Areas
Existing in 1978
Growt+,, 1978—1983
45704.
4164.
Total (excluding stwctu,oi
controls) 56634.
Total (including struci xol
conlvo ls) 57935.
rnc include reforestation and stand improvement only.
185
-------
10.2 TOXIC SUBSTANCES
Following settlement of a suit filed against the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) by envi-
ronmentalists who charged that the Agency was
shirking its responsibility under the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act of 1972, EPA began develop-
ing water pollution standards to cover 65 chemi-
cals or classes of chemicals. Late in 1976, EPA set
final standards to control water pollution from five
toxic chemicals—benzidine, used to make certain
dyes, and the pesticides endrin, toxaphene, aldrin-
dieldrin, and DOT. It was determined that no costs
were involved in the control of benzidine as this
chemical was manufactured strictly as an interme-
diary in the production of cestain dyes and control
of benzidine effluents was industry practice.
Polychiorinated Biphenyls (PCB’s) were subse-
quently added to this group. The single plant man-
ufacturing PCB’s has since discountinued
production.
De cription of Sactor
Pesticide manufacturing is a major sector of the
U.S. chemical industry. In 1975, the value of syn-
thetic organic chemical ingredients produced by
this industry exceeded $2,160 million at the man-
ufacturer’s level. The major market for pesticides
in the U.S. is agriculture which consumes more
than 90 percent of the pesticides used. The physi-
cal volume of pesticide production more than dou-
bled between 1960 and 1974, while the manufac-
turers’ value increased by more than 400 percent.
Nearly all domestic production of pesticides falls
within three classes—herbicides, fungicides. or
insecticides. The largest single component of U.S.
pesticide production in tecms of value is herbi-
cides, accounting for about 60 percent of total
pesticide value while providing less than 40 per-
cent of pesticide weight.
The portion of the pesticide industry covered by
standards for toxic pollutants is the manufacture
and formulation of toxaphene, DDT, endrin, and
aldrin/dieldrin. All of these pesticides are chlori-
nated organic compounds and all are used as
insecticides.
There is a considerable concentration in the pesti-
cide industry with the 10 largest firms accounting
for about 75 percent of total U.S. pesticide sales.
Furthermore, less than 10 percent of the products
are responsible for nearly 70 percent of the total
pesticide sales value.
Toxaphene is the most widely used insecticide in
the U.S. in terms of total weight. The most signifi-
cant use of toxaphene has traditionally been in the
control of cotton insects. Other important uses are
on livestock and various field crops, including
soybeans and peanuts. Four companies manufac-
ture toxaphene in the U.S. The four producers
supply 100 percent of U.S. and 60 percent of non-
U.S. toxaphene demands. In 1974. manufacturers
produced approximately 41 million kilograms (90
million pounds> of toxaphene. Toxaphene
production dropped significantly in 1975 due to a
30 percent decrease in cotton acreage.
Only one plant manufactures DOT in the U.S. That
plant and one other facility are the only U.S. formu-
lators of DOT. All DOT from these plants is export-
ed, since the use of DOT is banned in the U.S.
except under special conditions. The single U.S.
manufacturer is not a direct discharger and ‘ vould
not be affected by the toxic sta da ds.
Only one facility manufactures endriri in the U.S. It
produces about 2,700 metric tons (3,000 short
tons) of endriri per year. About two-thirds of the
endrin produced is used on cotton; the other major
use is on corn. The manufacture discharges into a
municipal system.
In 1974, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) banned the agricultural use of
aldrin/dieldrin. At that time there was only one
producer in the U.S.; however, this facility has
ceased production of aldrin/dieldrin. There are no
other manufacturers that are direct dischargers
nor any formulators of aldrin/dieldrin in the U.S.
Description of Pollution
The toxicity of endrin, toxapherie, DDT, and
aldrin/dieldrin, their persistence and degradabili-
ty, and the nature and extent of their effect on
organisms in waters are extensively documented.
Studies show that aldrin/dieldrin and DOT are
extremely toxic, that Lhey are persistent and
mobile in the environment, that they bioaccumu-
late in aquatic organisms, and that they pose sub-
stantial risks to human health. Like other chlori-
nated hydrocarbon pesticides. toxaphene is a per-
186
-------
sistent chemical and a long-lived environmental
contaminant. Like toxaphene, endrin is highly
toxic to a wide variety of organisms. Plants, fish, or
animals may bioaccumulate endrin. It is toxic to
consumers of aquatic life, including humans. In
addition to demonstration of the toxicity of benzi-
dine to aquatic life, studies have conclusively iden-
tified benzidine as a human carcinogen, primarily
including cancer of the bladder.
Regulations
Effluent standards for the manufacturers and for-
mulators of DDT, aldrin/dieldrirt, endrin, and toxa-
phene pesticides covered by the U.S. EPA under
the authority of Section 307(a) of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972. include limitations on the discharge of the
respective pesticides to navigable water, ex-
pressed in terms of concentrations (gil) and mass
emissions (g/kg of production) in the effluent
stream. For pesticide formulators, the standards
specify a prohibition on the discharge of
pollutants.
Similar standards are imposed upon benzidine
manufacturers and dye applicators. The applica-
ble effluent standards are summarized in Table
10.2—1.
Control Technology and Cost
In the development document 1 ” four treatment
technologies are suggested for treating effluents
containing toxaphene: (1) adsorption on activated
carbon, (2) adsorption on XAD-4 ion exchange
resin, (3) reductive degradation, and (4) adsorption
on XAD-4 resin followed by reductive degradation.
Cost estimates for adsorption on activated carbon,
resin adsorption, reductive degradation, and resin
adsorption followed by reductive degradation
were considered.
The only DOT plant now in operation does not
discharge into a navigable stream; thus, effluent
treatment standards apply only to new DDT plants
that might be constructed. Solvent extraction fol-
lowed by a Friedel-Crafts reaction, adsorption on
)(AD-4 resin, adsorption on activated carbon, or
two-stage extraction with monochlorobenzene are
possible technologies for treating effluents con-
taining DDT. Any new DDT manufacturing opera-
tion would be able to meet the proposed toxic
standards using a treatment technology which is
less expensive than the technology now being
used by the single U.S. manufacturer. The toxic
standards would have no economic impact on new
manufacturers.
W t.r
0
C-
Tóbl. 10.2—1.
Toxic PoIIut.n Effluent Stand i’d
‘Pesticide fomuilmors — no discharge a ed .
* d ‘ pp’ ia . — oliow.d 25 and 10 micrograms/i conc.nivutian.
M o
M d iu/D i s l*in’
DOT (DDD.DDEI’
0.003
0.001
0.004
0.005
0.1
Effluent Standard
Maximum AMewable
Con ....ivutio. ,
microgra ms/I
Monthly Average
Daily Loading,
g/metric ton
Wosldimg
Day
Monthly Ave.
Existing Sources
No Discharge
No Discharge
7.5
1.5
0.6
7.5
13
0.03
50.
10.
130.
Nw Sources
No Discharge
DOT (DOD, DDE )’ — No Discharge
— 03 0.1
1- 0.5 0.1
50. 10.
0.04
0.002
130.
187
-------
Adsorption on XAS-4 resin, reductive degradation,
adsorption on XAD-4 resin followed by reductive
degradation, or adsorption on activated carbon
are possible technologies for treating effluents
containing endrin.
Evaporating the effluent stream from an
aldrin/diejdrin manufacturing plant is a possible
technology for achieving the goals of the
regulation.
There are no aldrin/djeldrin manufacturers that
are point-source dischargers. Thus, the toxic stan-
dards have no economic impact upon any current
aldrin/dieldrjn manufacturers. If the facility manu-
facturing aldrin/dieldrin prior to the 1974 ban on
the use of this chemical were to resume man ufac-
ture, there would be no impact due to the regula-
tions because that facility already meets the
standards.
Costs for the control of Toxic Pollutants are sum-
marized in Table 10.2—2.
TABLE 10.2—2. TOXIC POLLUTANT (PESTICIDE) WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
(IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
CUMULATIVE PERIODS
INVESTMENT
EXISTING Pt.AN
aPT....
BAT....
NEW PLANTS...
OflCPtenrnenn’
MON. RECOVERY
1 1 A I
ANNUAUZED COSTS
ANNUAL CAPITAL
EXISTING PlANTS.
aPT
BAT
MEW PLANTS........
1.09
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.09
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.09
0.0
0.0
1.09
0.0
0.0
1.09
0.0
0.0
1.09
1.09
1.09
0.0
1.09
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.09
1.09
1.09
1.09
1.09
0.0
1.09
0.14
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.14
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.72
0.0
0.0
0.0
257
0.0
0.0
0.0
O&M
EXISTING PtANTS.
BPT
BAT
NEW PLANTS
OflCytCSTtACk,f
0.14
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.14
0.41
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.41
0.55
0.41
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.41
0.55
INDUSTRY
MUNICIPAL
TOTAL
CHARGE
INVEST
RECOVERY .. 0.0
0.0
3.29
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.29
4.43
0.0
0.0
4.43
4.43
4.93
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.93
6.65
0.0
0.0
6.65
6.6.
7.39
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.39
9.97
0.0
0.0
9.97
9.97
TOTAL 0.55 0.55
ALL ANNUAL COSTS .. 0.55 0.55
NOTE: COSTS SHOWN FOR YEAR SPANS ARE FROM JULY 1 ST OF THE FIRST YEAR 10 JUNE 30TH CF THE SECOND YEAR LISTED.
NOTE: ANNUAL CAPITAL COSTS ARE THE COMBINATION OF: (1) STRAIGHI-UNE DEPRECIATION AND (2) INTEREST.
REFERENCE
Wastewater Treatment Technology Docu-
ment for Aldrin/Dieldrin, Toxa-
phene ,Endrin, DOT. February 6, 1976.
188
------- |