AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION
of
SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
An Annotated Bibliography
January 1968
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATE
U.S. DEPARTMENT OE THE INTERIOR
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AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION
of
SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
An Annotated Bibliography
by
JAMES P. LAW, Jr. PhD
Research Soil Scientist
Water Quality Control Research Program
Robert S. Kerr Water Research Center
Ada, Oklahoma
January 1968
CWR-2
FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
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Key Words
Agriculture
Irrigation
Sewage Effluent
Sludge
Waste Water Re-use
Plant Nutrients
Soil Conditioners
Pollution Control
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price 45 cents
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Contents
Abstract — iv
Introduction 1
Annotated Bibliography:
1. Sewage Effluent as an Agricultural Water Resource:
Discussion 3
Abstracts:
Prior to 1951 4
1951—1955 11
1956—1960 17
1961—1965 22
2. Agricultural Value of Sewage Sludge:
Discussion 28
Abstracts:
Prior to 1951 30
1951 —1955 33
1956 —1960 35
1961—1965 37
3. Land Disposal of Liquid Wastes—Pollution Abatement
and Effects on Soil Properties:
Discussion 39
Abstracts:
Prior to 1951 40
1951—1955 43
1956—1960 49
1961—1965 52
4. Sanitary Aspects of Waste Water Utilization:
Discussion 59
Abstracts:
Prior to 1951 60
1951—1955 63
1956—1960 70
1961—1965 72
5. Industrial, Recreational, and Other Water Reuse
Applications:
Discussion 74
Abstracts:
Prior to 1951 76
1951—1955 76
1956—1960 77
1961—1965 81
Author index 87
U I
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Abstract
The effluent and sewage sludge from municipal and industrial
treatment plants is a source of water and nutrients for
agricultural uses. Considering its potential, only a few instances
of agricultural uses of waste water in crop production have
been recorded. Most of the literature on this subject is by
scientists in the sewage disposal field.
This report brings together about 300 annotated references on
the agricultural uses of sewage effluents and sludge. Such uses
aid crop production, but also make use of water that would
have been wasted, decrease the pollutant load on the receiving
streams, and preserve the normal stream flow for downstream
uses.
iv
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Introduction
‘f be need to conserve all our water resources is becoming increasingly
evident. New water cannot be manufactured! We are forced to depend
upon the fixed supply to meet all our water needs. Intelligent and
comprehensive planning for the conservation, control, use, and reuse
of water is a must if we are to meet the heavily increasing demands
on our water resources.
Future water needs for agriculture are of major concern. Benefits
to agriculture can come from the use/reuse of water that is normally
wasted to surface drainage and receiving streams. In arid regions,
waste water and sewage effluents at times make up most of the flow
in smaller streams, resulting in serious pollution problems for down-
stream water users. Using such waste waters for agricultural purposes,
therefore, achieves two primary objectives: 1) it makes use of water
that is normally wasted and 2) it decreases the pollutant load on the
receiving stream and preserves the normal stream flow for beneficial
uses downstream. For example, the reuse of treated waste waters for
irrigation of such areas as parks and golf courses has been proved
entirely feasible, particularly in arid regions.
When we consider the potential of waste water reuse, comparatively
few instances of agricultural use of waste water in crop production
have been recorded. More often, the purpose has been the convenient
disposal of waste water rather than its maximum utilization. Agri-
culturists may be overlooking a valuable water source that could be
used much more efficiently than is presently being done.
Interestingly, the bulk of the literature covering agricultural use of
reclaimed waste waters comes not from agricultural scientists, but
from those working in the sewage disposal field.
A primary purpose of this report is to bring many of these references
together hopefully to stimulate interest among crop and soil scientists
in the use of sewage effluents that are presently being wasted to surface
streams.
This report represents the results of a literature survey and the
preparation of abstracts for the references found. These are brought
together in the form of an annotated bibliography for the readers’
ready reference.
The bibliography is divided into five major subject headings:
sewage effluent as an agricultural water resource
agricultural value of sewage sludge
land disposal of liquid wastes
sanitary aspects of waste water utilization
industrial, recreational, and other water reuse applications
The references pertinent to each subject are grouped, with their
abstract, under that heading. At the beginning of each section, a
short discussion describes the scope of references included in that
1
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2 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
subject heading. Many of the works abstracted cover more than one
subject area. These are placed in the section which seemed most
appropriate for the subject matter given the most emphasis by the
author.
The abstracts in each section are arranged, first, in chronological
order (based generally on 5-year periods) and, second, in alphabetical
order by author’s surname for each chronological grouping. An author
index is included at the end of the report.
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1
Sewage Effluent
as an Agricultural \Vater Resource
\X ,Taste water arising from domestic and industrial use is generally
unfit for further use without some treatment. Even though the
increase in solids content because of use is small, it is the nature of
the added material rather than the amount that makes treatment
necessary.
The past century has seen a great advance in technology and the
health sciences, resulting in sewage treatment plants which produce
effluents that are both safe and suitable for irrigation of certain crops.
The type of treatment by a sewage treatment plant determines the
degree to which the suspended solids are removed from the sewage.
Primary treatment by sedimentation may remove only 25 to 40 per-
cent of the suspended solids. Additional treatment by trickling filtra-
tion and secondary sedimentation or by the activated sludge process
may remove as much as 95 percent of the suspended solids. Chlorination
of the clarified effluent from a modern sewage treatment plant produces
reclaimed water that is safe for many reuse applications. It may be
particularly suited to agricultural applications due to the soluble
phosphates and nitrates that remain after treatment. The quantities of
these nutrient materials remaining vary widely and should be deter-
mined for any effluent considered for reuse.
The application of sewage effluent to agricultural land may serve
two primary purposes: (1) to promote the growth of crops, and (2) to
further treat the applied effluent. The effluent must be adequately
treated prior to use on agricultural areas to avoid odor and other
serious nuisance problems.
Proper sanitary management dictates that the constant flow of
effluent be utilized at all times. During periods of heavy rainfall and/or
when crops are not being grown, it may be necessary to provide
3
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4 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
adequate storage in lagoons or lakes to hold the effluent in reserve
for times when it can be properly utilized by the crops.
Modem methods of irrigation management must also be employed
for the most efficient use of the available supply. The water intake
rate and storage capacity of the soil profile should be considered, as
well as the type of crop to be grown, in determining the area required
for the amount of water to be applied. Irrigation must be intermittent
and over-irrigation must be avoided if maximum efficiency is to be
achieved.
Several research reports included in this bibliography have considered
the fertilizing value of sewage effluent. It is generally agreed that some
value is obtained, but this is usually not adequate as a complete nutrient
supply. This again would depend to a great extent on the soil and
the requirements of the crop itself. The requirements should be con-
sidered for each individual set of circumstances.
Irrigation is normally practiced in areas where rainfall is not sufficient
during the growing season for maximum crop production. If irrigation
is desirable, the use of sewage effluent makes use of water that is
normally wasted; it contributes to the economy of an area by increasing
crop yield; and, at the same time, reduces the pollution load imposed
on normal stream flow of the area.
Abstracts
Prior to 1951
1. ANoNYMoUs. 1940. Bioliltration Effluent Used for Irrigation at Santa
Paula. Engr. News-Record 125:834.
Effluent from a biofiltration sewage treatment plant serving 12,000
residents in Santa Paula, California, is used to irrigate orchard lands
adjacent to that city. The city is proud of its attractive and useful plant
which is capable of converting sewage into irrigation water.
2. ANONYMOUS. 1941. Combining Old and New in Sewage Disposal.
Engr. News-Record 126:811-812.
Using a recently developed combination flocculation-clarifier unit,
which gives high efficiency in the removal of suspended solids, Bakers-
field, California supplements this pretreatment of its sewage with broad
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 5
irrigation. Thus, the city secures complete treatment of its sewage and
at the same time irrigates 600 acres of pasture land.
3. ANONYMOUS. 1946. Sewage Farming at Tuseon. Sewage Wks. Jour.
18: 1211.
Average flow of 4 mgd is used to irrigate about 300 acres of city-
owned land with primary treatment effluent. Crops of oats, barley,
and ensilage are rotated on the land. The crops yield a net profit of
$3,000 to $5,000 per year to the city.
4. ABBOT, A. L., ET AL. 1948. Grazing of Cattle on Sewage Farms and
Disposal Works. Public Health (South Africa), Mar. 1948, p. 76-88.
Abst: Sewage Wks. Jour. 21:185-186.
Quoting from the abstract: “It is the consensus of opinion that con-
suniption of sewage effluents by cattle has no harmful effect on milk
production or disease incidence, and introduces no possibility of milk
contamination except indirectly from unhygienic dairy procedures. The
positive advantages of irrigating grazing land with sewage include utili-
zation of valuable fertilizing material and irrigating water as well as
providing a satisfactory sewage disposal method that produces revenue
to partially offset sewage works costs.”
Procedures followed at the Cape Town sewage works are given.
S. Goorwn. , EARL H. 1935. Sewage Irrigation in Texas. Pub. Wks.
66:23. Abst: Sewage Wks. Jour. 7:589.
Since 1900, San Antonio has utilized a part of its sewage effluent to
irrigate up to 3500 acres. At present, about 47 plants in Texas use
irrigation as a means of treatment and disposal.
Spray, border, and furrow methods are used to irrigate grains, grasses,
cotton, alfalfa, nuts, and citrus. Porous sandy soils seem to be most
suitable.
Careful supervision is required so that soil type and crops form
a compatible combination for the efficient utilization of the effluent.
6. HALAMEK, FERDINAND. 1948. Agricultural Utilization of Domestic
Sewage in Europe and U.S.A. Vestnik Ceskoslov. Akad. Zern.
22:396-402. Biol. Abst. 23:3092.
The present status of sewage irrigation and the utilization of fer-
tilizing ingredients in sewage and sewage sludge in Europe and U.S.A.
is presented. Germany uses sewage irrigation and often overlooks the
hygienic problem. In Britain the use of sewage as a fertilizer is de-
creasing. In the U.S.A. sewage irrigation is practiced only in the south-
western states and, there, hygienic regulations are severe. Directions
are given for proper management of sewage irrigation.
7. HARRELL, RILEY B. 1939. Sewage Irrigation as a Method of Disposal.
Proc. 21st Texas Water Works and Sewage Short School, p. 121-123.
Abst: Sewage Wks. Jour. 12:1019.
The author describes sewage irrigation as practiced by the city of
Munday, Texas. Use of row crops is recommended for better weed con-
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6 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
trol. Cotton is most satisfactory crop. In 1934, 24 acres of irrigated land
produced 23 bales of cotton. Dry land produced less than one-third
bale per acre of poorer quality cotton. Serious problem of effluent
disposal has been solved by irrigation.
8. HUTCHINS, WELLS A. 1939. Sewage Irrigation as Practiced in the
Western States. USDA Tech. Bull. No. 675, 60 pages.
A comprehensive review of the agricultural use of sewage as it was
practiced in the Western States during the 1930’s. Differentiates between
“sewage irrigation” and “sewage disposal.” The author points out that
water not safe enough to discharge to streams is not safe for general
irrigation use without the possibility of becoming a health hazard.
Therefore, sewage for irrigation use requires pretreatment.
Some of the important topics discussed are sewage as a source of
irrigation water supply, use of water, irrigable lands, crops, safeguards
and regulations of public health authorities, salts in sewage effluents,
sewage water rights, and the economic feasibility of sewage irrigation.
A list of areas where crop irrigation with sewage is practiced is
included in the appendix. A bibliography includes 52 entries.
9. Hnm, CHARLES G. 1929. Sewage Disposal Practice in Europe. West-
ern Consc. News 4:345-352. Abst: Sewage Wks. Jour. 1:647-650.
The author reports on inspection tour of 28 sewage treatment plants
in Great Britain and Germany. The treatment processes observed are
described. A number of plants employed “broad irrigation” as a means
of treatment. The sewage of Berlin, Paris, and Milan is used to irrigate
crops.
10. JACKSON, LEON W. 1947. Sewage Plant Sells Sludge and Effluent.
Engr. News-Record 139:56-58.
Trickling filters, 175 ft. in diameter, feature the design of a new
sewage treatment plant for the city of Riverside, California. The plant
is so arranged that the entire flow through the plant is by gravity.
Treated effluent will be used for irrigation purposes and dried sludge
will be sold for fertilizer. Complete design and engineering data for
the new plant are given.
11. KREUZ, C. A. 1935. Utilization of Domestic Sewage and Industrial
Wastes by Broad Irrigation. Gesundheits Ing. 58: 190. Abst: Sewage
Wks. Jour. 8:348-349.
The agricultural use of sewage assists in producing foodstuffs high
in protein. Plant nutrient content is valuable as fertilizer constitutents.
Difficulties encountered with broad irrigation are discussed. Waste
treatment by soil filtration with agricultural use of the land in the second
year is recommended.
12. MALOCH, M. 1947. The Effect of Sewage Water on the Yield and
Quality of Grassland. Sborn. Csl. Akad. Zemed. 19:57-107. Soils and
Fertilizers 13:364 (2021), 1950.
Application of sewage water for 3 years to grassland raised the
hay yield by 132.9 percent and the yield of crude protein by nearly
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 7
300 percent. Additions of superphosphate, Ca and K salts to the sewage
waters gave even higher increases. There was evidence of residual
action of N from the sewage, and its effect in increasing the resistance
of the grasses to summer drought was very marked.
13. MITCHELL, GEORGE A. 1930. Sewage Farm Displaces Filter Beds
at Vineland, New Jersey. Engr. News-Record 104:65.
Vineland was one of the first cities to adopt sewage irrigation of
crops as a means of disposal. The raw sewage was piped a distance
of 2.5 miles to a sandy area where a settling tank and sludge-drying
beds were built. The effluent was used to irrigate 50 acres of recently
cleared river sand. The second year produced good yields of sweet
potatoes, sweet corn, eggplant, and rhubarb on this previously sterile
soil with the use of no fertilizer except sewage.
14. MITCHELL, GEORGE A. 1931. Observations on Sewage Farming in
Europe. Engr. News-Record 106:66-69.
Sewage farms were visited in Berlin and other German cities, Paris,
Moscow, Edinburgh, and four towns in England. Some of the cities
of Germany have used this form of sewage disposal for over 60 years,
and very successfully. Cases are cited where very poor sandy land
has been converted to good, productive farmland by sewage irrigation.
Details of sewage farm operations at Berlin, Paris, and Moscow are
given.
In England, sewage irrigation of crops is decreasing due to growth
of cities, and because suitable areas for expansion of the farms are
difficult to find. Tighter, less sandy soils than on the continent require
larger areas for suitable sewage farming practices.
Experience has shown that sewage farming poses no serious threat
to public health. The irrigation of crops with sewage effluent is a
method of disposal well worth considering in the United States.
IS. MITCHELL, GEORGE A. 1937. Municipal Sewage Irrigation. Engr.
News-Record 119:63-66.
A sewage irrigation farm in use since 1928 at Vineland, New Jersey
provides disposal facilities for a population of 8,000 and aids crop
production in poor soil. A detailed description of the operating methods
is given. Distribution system details include land slope and flow, land
preparation, and crops grown. Revenue and cost data are included.
16. PILLAI, S. C., RAJAGORALAN, R. and SUBRAHMANYAN, V. 1945-1949.
Investigations on Sewage Farming. Progress Reports Appearing in
Indian Inst. of S d. 1945, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1949. PHE Abst. 31:S:73
(1951).
Studies were made on the use of sewage as fertilizer and for irri-
gation in India, including response of different crops, fertilizing value
of diluted sewage and mixtures of sewage and textile wastes, the effect
of the nature of the soil in determining the response of crops to sewage,
the effect of application of sewage during different stages of plant
growth, the residual effect on subsequent crops, the decomposition of
sewage in the soil, the accumulation of unavailable phosphorus in the
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S AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
soil, drainage from sewage-irrigated soils, the bacterial quality of crops,
the cause and cure of sewage-sickness of soil, the use of aerated sludge
as fertilizer and for feeding animals, mechanisms of sewage oxidation,
and the culture of fish in sewage effluents. Detailed results of the
investigations are given in tables.
17. POUQUET, F. 1939. Sewage Purification in the Parisian Area. Con-
struction of a Biological Treatment Works at Acheres. Trauvaux 79:
(Mar.) 87-95. Abst: Sewage Wks. Jour. 11:719-720.
A network of sewers is under construction which will terminate in
the agricultural area of Acheres. Sewage of Paris is presently spread
on farms in four different regions at an average rate of 132 million
gpd. Future growth estimates predict increased volume to as much as
634 million gpd. Due to limited areas for expanding farm operations,
biological treatment is being planned to take care of excess flow. Sewage
irrigation has proved satisfactory. Liquid sludge from the new activated-
sludge treatment plant will be disposed of on farm lands.
18. RmEY, W. A. 1928. Irrigation with Sewage Effluents. Sewage Wics.
Jour. 1:108.
Abilene, Texas disposes of effluent from septic tanks by contracting
with farmers to use the effluent for irrigation of row crops.
19. SEGAL, A. 1950. Sewage Reclamation at Fresno, California. Sewage
and md. Wastes 22:1011-1012.
The city of Fresno owns and operates a municipal farm, 1,292 acres
in area, where the treated sewage effluent is used for the irrigation of
crops. In addition to 600 acres of grassland, the water is used to irrigate
such forage crops as alfalfa, sudan grass, and kaffir corn. A herd of
over 600 fine Hereford cattle are maintained on the farm. For the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1949, the city realized an operating profit
of $9,346.
In 1921, the city owned only 812 acres, and disposal of sewage
effluent created a serious problem with a high water table only about
2 ft. below the surface. Law suits were filed by adjacent landowners
for waterlogging and flooding adjacent lands. To correct this situation,
some of the land was lagooned, and 9 wells were installed from 200
to 300 ft. deep with no perforation of the casing less than 100 ft.
from the surface. The wells were successful in lowering the water table.
Water from the wells was diverted to the Fresno Irrigation District for
use in its system. Increased irrigation agriculture and installation of
many wells in the area have helped to improve the groundwater level and
facilitate the percolation of plant effluent into the underground basin.
20. SHREIER, Fiw z. 1950. Problems in Sewage Farming. Berichie der
Abwassertechnischen Vereinigung No. 2, 118. Abst: Sewage and md.
Wanes 25:241.
The problems considered are pretreatment, changes in farming
methods, zoning of urban areas, hygiene, biology, and economics. Pre-
treatment is considered to be imperative. Changes in farming methods
may involve new capital investments. Sewage farming should not be
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 9
permitted near water treatment plants. Odors may interfere in urban
areas. Spraying onto grazing areas is hygienically, biologically, and
economically the best means of sewage utilization.
21. STOKES, W. E., LEUKEL, W. A., and BARNETTE, R. M. 1930. Effect
of Irrigation with Sewage Effluent on the Yields and Establishment of
Napier Grass and Japanese Cane. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agronomy
22:540-548.
Septic tank effluent was used to irrigate forage crop plants for four
years. Yields were higher from the sewage-irrigated plots than from
nonirrigated and the city-water irrigated plots. Analyses of typical sewage
effluent showed the presence of considerable quantities of nitrogen com-
pounds. Analyses of soil following irrigation showed only slight increases
in nitrogen content.
22. SYMPOSIUM. 1935. Experiences with Sewage Farming in Southwest
United States. Amer. Jour. Pub. Health 25:119-127. Abst: Sewage
Wks. Jour. 7:320-322.
1. Texas, V. M. Ehiers: Chief concerns have been to dispose of
sewage without nuisance and reduce stream pollution. Cropping is
secondary, although value of waste water for irrigation is apparent. In
Texas, 68 cities use land disposal, 34 grow crops, and 2 use sub-
surface irrigation. Total area being irrigated for crops is about 4,500
acres. A guide for operators and designing engineers is given.
2. Arizona, F. C. Roberts, Jr.: Describes land disposal operations
at Tucson and Casa Grande. Data are given.
3. California, E. A. Reinke: Gives history of crop irrigation with
sewage in California. At present, 53 cities irrigate cultivated crops, 9
irrigate native crops, and 28 use land disposal with no crops.
State Department of Health regulations concerning use of sewage
effluent for irrigation are discussed. These include types of crops and
sewage treatment required.
23. WIERZBICKI, Ju. r. 1949. Disadvantages and Advantages of Sewage
Disposal in Connection with Agricultural Utilization. Gaz, Woda I Tech.
Sanit. (Polish) 23:198. Abst: Sewage and md. Wastes 22:578-579.
Agricultural use of sewage in Europe dates back to 1559. Rapid
growth of cities and restricted land areas later led to overloading and
unsatisfactory results. Where adequate areas were available, the results
were satisfactory.
Disadvantages include large land area needed, suitable soil porosity
required, must be located downstream from water source, and pumping
cost if it must be transported some distance.
A major benefit is to the economy of an area. Arid acres can be made
productive. Other advantages are the fertilizer value and increasing
humus content of soil. Gravity flow to the fields is best.
24. WIERzBIcKI, JAN. 1949. Modem Methods in the Agricultural Utili-
zation of Sewage. Gaz, Woda i Tech. Sanit. (Polish) 23:298. Abst:
Sewage and md. Wastes 22:969-970.
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10 AGRICULTURAL UT iLIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
Natural sloping terrain of at least 2 percent should be used. Loading
rates are 25 to 50 acres per 1,000 population. Large areas are required.
Any method normally used for applying irrigation water can be em-
ployed. Spraying has many advantages, but a clarified effluent is required.
Fish ponds or forested areas may be utilized to take care of the excess
flows.
25. WIERZBICKI, JAN. 1949. Sewage Farming at Ostrow Wielkopoiski.
Gaz, Woda i Tech. Stinit. (Polish) 23:387. Abst: Sewage and md.
Wastes 22:971-972.
Disposal by sewage farming dates back to 1911 at fields 2.5 miles
from the city. The farm operation is described in detail, giving acres
used, daily flow, treatment processes, and hay and silage yields. The
farms are well managed, show a definite profit to the city, and benefit
the local farmers by providing them with excellent hay.
26. WIERZBICKI, JAN. 1950. Economics of Sewage Disposal in Connec-
tion with Agricultural Utilization. Gaz, Woda i Tech. Sanit. (Polish)
24:193. Abst. Sewage and md. Wastes 22:1508.
European experience with sewer farms is summarized. Developments
leading to the distribution of sewage on irrigation fields and factors
affecting their cost of operation are considered. Hay yields were increased
5-8 fold. Increases in other crops are also reported.
27. WIERzBICKI, JAN. 1950. Effect of Geographical Factors on the Wide-
spread Agricultural Use of Sewage. Gaz, Woda i Tech. Sanit. (Polish)
24:407. Abst: Sewage and md. Wastes 23:941.
Surface irrigation in England is not feasible because of high annual
rainfall, small irrigable areas, large concentrations of population, and
low nutrient value of effluents. Sewage irrigation has developed rapidly
in central Europe due to inadequate rainfall, more permeable soils,
and high nutrient content of sewage.
High temperatures and low rainfall in the western U.S. favor irriga-
tion with clean water or sewage. The potential for sewage irrigation in
Poland is excellent. Gravity flow to the farm is favored, although mod-
erate pumping costs may be permissible.
28. WiLcox, L. V. 1948. Agricultural Uses of Reclaimed Sewage Efflu-
ent. Sewage Works Jour. 20:24-35.
Water is the principal factor limiting development in many arid
regions. Every effort should be made to prevent contamination and
promote the use of effluents for irrigation purposes. The properties
that determine the quality of water for irrigation use are discussed,
and several examples of typical irrigation waters are given. Permissible
limits of concentration, percent sodium, and boron concentration are
given for several classes of irrigation water. The analyses of a number
of sewage effluents are shown and their qualities considered. A number
of substances are listed that might appear as contaminants in sewage
effluents and that are known to be toxic to plants. Boron is the most
common toxic contaminant. Pesticides, certain plant hormones, salts
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 11
of heavy metals, and many organic chemicals would render effluents
unfit for irrigation use. Great care should be exercised in permitting
disposal of industrial wastes into sewer systems if the effluent is to be
used for irrigation water.
1951 — 1955
29. ANONYMOUS. 1951. Water for Irrigation Use. C /tern. Eng. News
29:990. Abst: Sewage and m d. Wastes 23:1214.
A report on papers presented at a symposium. The quality of irriga-
tion water is very important. Availability of the water to plants decreases
sharply with increasing salt concentration, because of the increasing
osmotic pressure. Specific ions may accumulate sufficiently to become
toxic to certain plants. Boron is highly toxic to plant growth at concen-
trations greater than about 3 ppm. The sodium ion tends to cause soil
clogging, whereas calcium and magnesium ions tend to make a soil
permeable. Thus, there is need for obtaining complete information on
the quality of the water to be used for irrigation.
30. ANONYMOUS. 1954. Spray Irrigation. Tech de l’Eau S:No. 92, 23-28,
Water Poll. Abst. 28:224 (1490).
Spray irrigation is useful in that it involves less wastage of water
than methods previously used, requires no land preparation, leaves more
room for the crops, can be used on undulating ground, and can be used
in very permeable soils where other methods are useless. The higher
expense is largely compensated by considerably lower maintenance costs.
Jts use in France is discussed.
31. BACHMANN, G. 1954. The Sewage Utilization Plant at Memmingen.
Wasserw.-Wass. Techn. 4:191. Water Poll. Abst. 29:28 (166).
The author describes the sewage works of Memmingen where sewage,
after sedimentation for 1.5 hours, is used as artificial rain. The yield
of hay on watered land has been increased by 52 percent.
32. FRIES, W. 1955. Agricultural Utilization of Sewage as Artificial
Rain. Der Volkswirt 9:19. Water Poll. Abst, 29:244 (1350).
The author emphasizes the importance of using domestic and industrial
waste waters to the greatest extent for supplementing groundwaters.
One method of achieving this purpose is to apply them to agricultural
land as artificial rain, which has the additional advantages of helping
agriculture and reducing pollution of surface waters. Long experience
with existing sprinkling systems shows that hygienic risks should not be
over-estimated.
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12 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
33. GRUBINGER, H. 1953. The Probeim of Agricultural Utilization of
Sewage. Bodenkultur 7:279-291 * Soils and Fertilizers 18:64 (327),
1955.
The author discusses the technical features of the purification of sewage
and sprinkler irrigation with sewage. Irrigation with 1500-3000 cu.m.
per hectare of purified sewage annually supplies 120-240 kg/ha N;
30-60 kg/ha P 2 0 5 ; and 52-104 kg/ha K 2 0. Irrigation with such waters
and application of the sludge are particularly suited for nitrogen fer-
tilizincr. especially of grassland.
34. HENRY, C. D., MOLDENHAIJER, R. E., ENGELBERT, L. E., and
TRUOG, E. 1954. Sewage Effluent Disposal Through Crop Irrigation.
Sewage and md. Wastes 26:123-1 33.
The utilization of sewage effluent was studied over a 3-year period
by means of lysimeter and field irrigation. The purpose of the study
was to determine how much effluent could be disposed of through irri-
gation, the benefits to the crop of both the additional water and fertilizer
supplied by the waste waters, and the effect of irrigation with effluent
on the chemical content and microbiological population of the per-
colating waters.
The results are summarized as follows:
1. In the area under study, 40 in. or more of sewage effluent can be
applied to a crop of Reed canary grass during the growing season. It is
likely that less effluent could be applied to crops that grow over a shorter
period, or are not as tolerant to wet soil conditions.
2. The crop and soil are effective in removing virtually all of the
nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium from the percolating waters. When
there is high sodium in the effluent, the losses of calcium and magnesium
to the percolate are increased. If too much Ca and Mg are lost, and the
sodium continues to accumulate in the soil, the physical condition of
the soil will be harmed.
3. Crop yields were substantially increased by plant nutrients in the
effluent.
4. Drainage waters from the soil did not increase the coliform
index of the nearby creek. The chloride and sodium content of the
creek waters was increased. The effectiveness of the soil in reducing
the coliform numbers of percolating waters was substantiated by
analysis of the groundwater. The eoliform index (except in one in-
stance) never exceeded 100, in contrast to an index of about 10 million
in the effluent applied to the soil.
35. HUNT, HENRY 1. 1954. Supplemental Irrigation with Treated Sew-
age. Sewage and md. Wastes 26:250-260.
The history of sewage irrigation is reviewed. During the latter
part of the 19th century, several sewage farms were established in
England, Germany, France, and Italy. The first reported use of raw
sewage for this purpose in the U. S. was at Cheyenne, Wyoming in
1883. As the art of sewage treatment developed, it was found that the
application of the effluent was more desirable. It is stated that “under
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 13
present conditions, the effluent from a modern treatment plant is safe
for application to growing crops of all kinds.”
The factors affecting supplemental irrigation are discussed. These are
water requirements, area required, best crops, methods of application,
increased yields, and time and amount of irrigation. Factors influencing
the amount of irrigation are soil type, kind of crop, and local weather
conditions. Lengthy periods of soil saturation must be avoided, since
it is required that soil air enter the root zone. Climatic data are shown
for several U.S. stations.
36. IPpoLrTo, G. 1955. Agricultural Utilization of Sewage. Ingegn.
Sanit. 1:15-20. PI lE Abst. 35:S:77-78. Water PolL Abst. 29:202 (1107).
The author advocates broad irrigation with emphasis on the utilization
of sewage for the growing of crops rather than as a method of sewage
disposal. Before installation, studies of crop selection and rotation must
be made in order to fully utilize the sewage. Sewage treatment plants
will be necessary at most locations to provide acceptable sewage dis-
posal for those periods when crop raising is not practicable. Plain sedi-
mentation is recommended for the sewage prior to its use for irrigation
to reduce the quantity of organic matter in the irrigation water; the
utilization of the resulting sludge as fertilizer elsewhere is recommended.
37. JANERT, H. 1954. The Suitability of Different Methods of Appli-
cation for the Utilization of Sewage. Wasserw.-Wass. Tech. 4:231. Water
Poll. Absi. 29:28 (160).
The author recommends subsoil irrigation as the best method for
agricultural utilization of sewage. Costs of surface and subsoil irrigation
are about the same, while artificial rain costs more than twice as much.
The hygienic advantages of subsoil irrigation are discussed in detail.
38. JEPSON, C. 1951. The Availability of Nitrates in Sewage Effluents.
Jour. Inst. Sew. Purif. (British) 148. Abst: Sewage and md. Wastes
27:355.
Although oxidized nitrogen is a potential source of oxygen, the
latter does not become available for biological life until all the free
dissolved oxygen has disappeared. Presence of nitrate in an effluent
can delay or prevent the onset of putrescence. Given an adequate
retention period during which any dissolved oxygen is exhausted,
settled sewage may be improved in quality by the reduction of oxidized
nitrogen. To obtain a correct estimate of oxidized nitrogen, analysis
should be made as soon as possible after sampling or special precautions
taken to retard biological activity.
39. JULEN, G. 1953. Some Aspects of Irrigating Grassland in Humid
Regions and the Use of Sewage. Proc. Sixth mt. Grassland Conf. 1952,
I, 394-396. Soils and Fertilizers 18:450 (2303), 1955.
Higher grass production can be obtained by irrigating during periods
of drought when insolation is greater than by high rainfall associated
with poor light conditions. Sewage waters are useful, though their high
N content may depress legumes in leys.
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14 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
40. MERZ, ROBERT C. 1955. A Survey of Direct Utilization of Waste
Waters. Calif. State Water Poll. Control lid. Sacramento, Pub. No. 12,
80 pages.
A comprehensive survey of current practices in the use of waste
water by industry, by agriculture, for recreation, and for groundwater
recharge. The study permitted the following conclusions with regard
to the agricultural use of waste water: (a) Sewage effluent has
been shown to be a satisfactory irrigation water, where chemical
concentrations permit and where health regulations pertaining to type
of crop are met; (b) Sewage effluent has been shown to be an adequate
medium for leaching alkali soils, or improvement of barren soils;
(c) Reclamation by land irrigation is a means of protecting the quality
of surface waters; (d) Irrigation provides secondary treatment and dis-
posal of wastes in an economical manner and may provide the munici-
pality with a substantial monetary return; and (e) An ideal use of
oxidized sewage effluent is for irrigation of parks and golf courses and
as a supply for decorative lakes. Conclusions pertaining to other uses
are also given.
Numerous examples of reuse are cited, and pertinent abstracts from
the literature are incuded. The bibliography contains 227 entries.
41. MULLER, W. 1955. Irrigation with Sewage in Australia. Wass. u.
Loden 7:12. Water Poll. A / mt. 29:202 (1108).
The author gives an account of the conditions under which sewage
is used for irrigation in Australia. Only settled and biologically treated
sewage may be used. Surface irrigation is preferred. The amounts
vary from 350 to 7500 mm . per year. Land for arable and pasture
use and for fruit growing is irrigated.
42. PAULSMEIER, F. 1955. Experiences in the Agricultural Utilization
of Sewage. Desinfekt. u. Gesundheitswes. 47:118. Water Poll. A/mt.
29:202 (1109).
From experience with the irrigation fields of Berlin, the author
discusses the agricultural and economic advantages of agricultural
use of sewage. He gives figures for the amounts of nutrient substances
in the sewage of Germany and deals with arguments raised against agri-
cultural utilization.
43. PAULSME1ER, F. 1955. Agricultural Utilization of Sewage as a Muni-
cipal Duty. Kommunalwirsschajt, No. 8, 406. Water Poll. Abst. 29:352
(1931).
The author discusses the economics of agricultural utilization of
sewage with special reference to conditions in Hamburg.
44. ROCKWELL, F. L. 1954. Effluent for Irrigation. Amer. City 69: No.
9, 92. Water Poll. Abst. 28:234 (1559).
Brownsville, Texas has a new plant for sewage treatment consisting
of primary sedimentation tanks, percolating filters, and final sedimen-
tation tanks. Sludge is digested and dried on open beds. Owing to the
shortage of water for irrigation, farmers have been allowed to divert the
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 15
effluent being discharged to the Rio Grande to irrigate crops of cotton
and corn.
45. SCHWARZ, K. 1955. New Experiences in Agricultural Utilization of
Sewage. Wasserwirtschaft, Stuttgart 46:55. Water Poll. A bst. 29:203
(1110).
The author reviews the papers presented at a meeting of the Deutsche
Akademie der Landwirtschaftswissenschaften at Berlin in February 1954.
Subjects dealt with include: experiments in Neustrelitz on the use of
artificial rain on very light soils; the relations between watering, soil,
and plant growth in localities of poor soil and the necessity for adequate
additional organic manuring; the effect of artificial rain on the mainly
heavy soils of Thuringia; economic problems; subsoil irrigation and its
results in Delitzsch; and irrigation fatigue in fields overloaded with
sewage.
46. SCHWARZ, K. 1955. Subsoil Irrigation in the Agricultural Utilization
of Sewage. Wasserw.-Wass. Techn. 5:371-373. Water Poll. Abst. 30:25
(148).
Investigations in the experimental irrigation fields at Greifswald, De-
litzsch, and Neustrelitz, on subsoil irrigation, are not sufficient for a
final judgment of this method of application of sewage. Further experi-
mental irrigation on fields of medium and heavy soils is recommended.
Further investigations on hygiene and the technique of construction
and operation of plants are required.
47. Sisso , DONALD R. 1955. Some Principles of Agricultural Irri-
gation. Proc. 10th md. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. 89:519-526.
Irrigation is one of the more important practices designed to minimize
the “gamble” in modern agriculture. The benefits of irrigation as prac-
ticed in the Midwest are noted. The important factors to be considered
in designing an agricultural irrigation system are discussed, as well as
some of the problems in the use and management of the system. Some
of the hazards and problems associated with waste disposal, by agri-
cultural irrigation are pointed out.
48. SKULTE, BERNARD P. 1953. Agricultural Values of Sewage. Sewage
and md. Wastes 25:1297-1303.
Actual experiences for half a century in Europe with skillfully
designed and properly managed sewage farming has demonstrated that
sanitary sewages and many industrial wastes can be sucessfully used
for agricultural, industrial, and other purposes. Studies and practices
in more than 100 localities in southern states of this country have
shown that land disposal of water recovered from most sewages can
be successfully employed to supplement other water supply sources
in water-short areas. The sewage as used for irrigation is usually given
primary treatment. After that, the processes of natural soil filtration
and biochemical stabilization can produce an oxidized and well-treated
percolation water. Reclamation programs planned only for ground-
water replenishment are usually unsound economic ventures. There-
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16 AGRICULTURAL UTIUZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
fore, the emphasis should be on the agricultural values in sewage, greatly
reducing the immense fertilizer bill and improving soil conditions.
49. SMITH, R. L. and SUBBY, W. 1955. Control of Fertilizing Minerals
in Sewage Plant Effluents. PubI. Wks. 86: No. 2, 91-92. Water Poll.
Abs :. 29:63 (367).
Minerals in sewage-works effluent can cause excessive algae blooms
in lakes due to the fertilizing value of the minerals. Methods suggested
for solving the problem include diverting the effluent from the lake,
with discharge to a flowing stream; disposal on land by furrow or
spray irrigation; or removal of algae and thereby removal of fertilizing
minerals. The first method was found to be costly and ineffectual as the
minerals had already entered the lake. The second method was also
expensive as plants had to be removed before death to prevent return
of excess minerals to the soil and, also, because the area of irrigation had
to be constantly changed. There was danger of producing high nitrate
concentrations in the groundwater in the area. The removal of algae
and minerals was found most satisfactory. The algae removed can be
used for fertilizer. The lake water was filtered through paper in a metal
trough-shaped filler. A description of the filter is given.
50. STONE, RALPH. 1955. Irrigation with Waste Water. Public Works
86:97-98, 134-135. PHE Abst. 36:S:4.
The author states: “The reuse of sewage and industrial waste waters
for irrigation is a means of conserving our available water resources.”
Not all sewage and industrial wastes in all climates can be safely dis-
posed of by irrigation. In California, 69 localities use waste water for
crop irrigation. Beef cattle appear to drink waste water in preference
to potable well water. Sewage and industrial waste must be treated
regardless of its disposition. Therefore, the cost of treatment should
not be charged against the use of water for irrigation. Parks, golf
courses, orchards, pastures, cultivated areas, etc., produce more lux-
uriant crops when irrigated with waste water. Water with a high mineral
content is considered unsatisfactory for irrigation. Ponding of waste
water from over-irrigation creates nuisance and health hazards and
should not be permitted.
51. THACKWELL, H. L. 1955. Sewage and Waste Treatment for Coal
Mining Community, Sunnyside, Utah. Wastes Engr. 26:352-353. Water
Poll. Absi. 29:61 (359).
A new sewage-treatment plant has been constructed. It consists of
bar screens, aeration tank and grit removal, Imhoff tank, dosing tank,
percolating filter, final sedimentation and chlorination tanks, and sludge
drying beds. The final effluent is used for irrigation. A flow diagram of
the plant is given.
52. WEBSTER, It. A. 1954. Sewage Effluent Disposal Through Crop
Irrigation. Discussion. Sewage and md. Wastes 26:133-135.
The author reviews the history of waste water utilization at Sea-
brook Farms, Bridgetown, New Jersey. Two distinct advantages are
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 17
noted: (a) a source of water for crops, and (b) recharge of the
groundwater. There has been no evidence of any harmful effects on
any potable water (wells) in the immediate vicinity of the spreading
area. It has been a happy solution to a waste disposal problem.
Before others try the method, the soil should be carefully examined
with reference to its absorptive characteristics. The groundwater level
should be ascertained to determine the capacity of such a reservoir.
Actual tests give the best answers and may save much difficulty
later.
53. ZUNKER, F. 1955. Fundamental Points on Agricultural Utilization
of Sewage. Wasserw.-Wass. Tech. 5:258. Water Poll. A bst. 29:352
(1933).
A detailed survey is given of the requirements and advantages of
agricultural utilization of sewage and of the operation and economics
of different methods.
1956 — 1960
54. Bociw, J. 1956. The Effect of Sprinkling Irrigation with Sewage
on the Productivity of Meadows and Some Biochemical Phenomena in
the Soil. Soils and Fertilizers 19:2471. Chem. Absi. 52:15808 (1958).
On deep, light, alluvial soil, increases in hay yields obtained by
irrigation with sewage at rates ranging from 90 to 510 mm/ha were
directly proportioned to the amount of sewage applied, and amounted
to about 2 quintals/ha for each 100 cu.m. of sewage (100 mm/ha).
The highest hay yield of 137 quintals/ha was obtained where sewage
was applied at the rate of 510 mm/ha. Irrigation with sewage markedly
increased the number of bacteria in the surface soil layer.
55. BOHANAN, LUTHER B. 1958. Irrigation Use of Water. Jour. Amer.
Water Wks. Assn. 50:310-314.
The author discusses some of the critical aspects of irrigation water
use. Inasmuch as irrigation is a consumptive use of water, large amounts
of water will be needed to meet future irrigation needs if projected
growth rates materialize.
56. DAVIS, IRV ING F., JR. 1959. Ground Water Use and Irrigated Land
Values. Proc. Western Farm Economics Assn., 32nd Annual Meeting
106-117.
Using hypothetical situations, the author considers the effect of
varying rates of pumping from a limited groundwater supply on farm-
land values. Where competitive pumping is involved, legal controls
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18 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
may be necessary to regulate the rate of pumping. The author suggests
cooperation to artificially replenish groundwater supplies as another
method for boosting land values.
57. DAY, A. D. and TUCKER, T. C. 1959. Production of Small Grains
Pasture Forage Using Sewage Effluent as a Source of Irrigation
Water and Plant Nutrients, Agronomy Journal 51:569-572.
Winter pasture forage yields of 11.14 tons per acre were obtained
from barley irrigated with sewage effluent with no additional fertilizer.
Similarly, wheat and oats production was 263 percent and 249 percent
higher, respectively, than for check plots that received only pump water.
Barley was more sensitive to the detrimental effects of sewage effluent
than were wheat and oats.
58. DAY, A. D. and TUCKER, T. C. 1960. Hay Production of Small
Grains Utilizing City Sewage Effluent. Agronomy Jour. 52:238-239.
City sewage effluent can be utilized efficiently to produce hay from
small grains in the irrigated areas of the Southwest and possibly else-
where in the United States and the world where small grains benefit
from supplemental irrigation water and fertilizer.
59. DYE, E. 0. 1958. Crop Irrigation with Sewage Plant Effluent. Sew-
age and (nd. Wastes 30:825-828.
Irrigation with sewage effluent makes use of water which contains
some nutritional value and which is usually wasted. It aids the economy
of an area and reduces the pollution loads on a water course, especially
a dry stream. With few adaptions, it produces no hazards to operators
and others. Numerous facts are now available favoring the use of sewage
effluents for crop production. Sound sanitary principles are required in
application. The increased yield of farm products is a major inducement.
60. HEUKELEKIAN, H. 1957. Utilization of Sewage for Crop Irrigation in
Israel. Sewage and md. Wastes 29:868-874.
Distinction is drawn between the disposal of sewage on land and the
utilization of sewage for crop production. Failures and difficulties en-
countered with the former need not arise when utilization is the main
objective. With land disposal systems, the tendency is to apply more
sewage to a limited area than can percolate through the soil. Water-
logging of the soil and odors result. When application is geared to
the needs of the soil and crop, these problems do not arise. Under
proper climatic and soil conditions and with proper control, irrigation
with sewage effluents need not create nuisance conditions or health
hazards. In certain areas of the world, crop irrigation is an economic
necessity for the development of agriculture, and at the same time it
can solve the sewage disposal problem.
Sewage effluents are proposed as a resource to augment present
water supplies and allow further expansion of irrigated agriculture.
Factors affecting the successful utilization of sewage for crop production
are discussed. Two alternatives for the treatment of irrigation sewage
are suggested:
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 19
1. The sewage could be subjected to secondary treatment and
thorough disinfection and the effluent used for unrestricted crop irrigation.
2. The sewage could be given minimum treatment and the effluent
utilized without disinfection for irrigation of crops not eaten raw by
human beings.
Experiments are described which compared sewage irrigation with
municipal water supply. Significantly greater yields on sewage-irrigated
plots were attributed to regular supply of nutrients throughout growing
season instead of just at beginning.
61. JOHNSON, WILLIAM B. 1958. Not a Drop Wasted. Amer. City
73:111-112 (Feb.).
The city of Ephrata, Washington sells its effluent to be used for
irrigation. Hay and corn are the principal crops grown. Presently, 80
acres are being irrigated.
62. KOWALSKI, J. 1959. Utilization of Sewage for Irrigation. Nasa Veda
6:68-72. Water Poll. Abst. 38:93 (467).
On the basis of calculations to determine the most economical method
of sewage treatment for Bratislava, Czechoslovakia, the author recom-
mends disposal by irrigation.
63. MERZ, ROBERT C. 1956. Report on Continued Study of Waste Water
Reclamation and Utilization. Calif. State Water Poll. Control Bd.,
Sacramento, Pub. No. 15, 90 pages.
A continuation of the study reported in Publication No. 12 (1955).
Reports on the progress of two principal studies. The first concerned
reclamation of liquid, digested sludge in San Diego County for a two-
fold purpose: enrichment of waste lands and lessening of the pollution
of San Diego Bay. The other concerned reclamation of a raw sewage
lagoon effluent at Mojave, California, also for a twofold purpose:
providing a Marine Air Base with a suitable, economical, irrigation
water; and demonstrating that the raw sewage lagoon, when well de-
signed and operated, can be an adequate means of sewage treatment
for the small, desert community. Conclusions and recommendations
are summarized. A short bibliography and 22 pertinent abstracts are
included.
64. MEn, ROBERT C. 1957. Third Report on the Study of Waste Water
Reclamation and Utilization. Calif. State Water Poll. Control Bd.,
Sacramento, Pub. No. 18, 102 pages.
The third and final report prepared on the subject of reclamation
and utilization of waste waters. The two previous reports are Publi-
cation No. 12, 1955, and Publication No. 15, 1956. In addition to
concluding studies previously begun, the report describes a major
undertaking in the field of agricultural utilization of waste waters in
the Talbert Valley of Orange County, California.
The findings of the overall study were conclusive and they reaffirmed
the earlier conviction that waste water reclamation and utilization are
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20 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
both feasible and desirable. Conclusions are summarized for the over-
all study. Fifty-two abstracts from the literature are included.
65. MERZ, ROBERT C. 1958. Report of the Water Reclamation Forum,
Stockton, California. Water and Sewage Works 105:306-307.
Summarizes the reports of five speakers at the forum.
Settled sewage from Santa Ana irrigates 2,250 acres growing alfalfa
and sugar beets, and on a pre-irrigation basis, lima beans and chili
peppers. This effluent is high in dissolved solids, but is considered to
be better than the available groundwater. The cost is $5.00 per acre-ft.
to the irrigators.
San Bernardino sells effluent for irrigation, but plans to improve the
treatment process and use the effluent for recharging the groundwater.
Golden Gate Park uses 0.75 mgd from the San Francisco treatment
plant. Contemplated plant improvements will make 5 mgd available for
irrigation.
Oceanside will use oxidation ponds for final treatment to prepare its
sewage effluent for commercial and irrigation use.
A Marine Corps base in the Imperial Valley pays $55 per acre-ft.
for water piped in from 15 miles away. Reclaiming its sewage plant
effluent by pond treatment and using it for irrigation and flushing will
effect an annual savings of $24,000. Reuse in the desert areas is
expected to increase.
66. PRoca&L, P. 1958. Agricultural Usage of Sewage of the Town of
Zory. Zesz. Nauk. Wyzsej. No. 5, p. 165-183. Chern. Abst. 53:8483.
The nitrogen content of this sewage is 154 mg/I; phosphorous con-
tent is 18 mg/I; and potassium content is 52 mgi!. There is only a
small amount of toxic suffides, but a large amount of toxic lipids. 1.1
used as a fertilizer this sewage should increase meadow crop yields
fivefold, field crops should be doubled, and the yield of fish from
ponds should be increased fourfold.
67. RENSHAW, EDwAIW F. 1958. Value of an Acre-Foot of Water. Jour.
Amer. Water Wks. Assn. 50:303-309.
The author states that the demand for various types of water has
been the subject of several studies. An attempt is made to summarize
information on values of water in such a way as to make comparisons
within and between seven water-use categories.
68. SCOTT, T. M. 1959. Effluent Grows Crops on “Sewer Farm.” Wastes
Engr. 30:486-489.
Bakersfield, California uses semi-arid land in the San Joaquin Valley
to dispose of its sewage effluent. The land is city-owned and leased to
farmers who produce cotton, feed corn, and other crops not used for
human consumption. The farm comprises 2,500 acres. Over 8,000 acre-
feet of primary sewage effluent has been used to reclaim marginal alkali
land of low value into fertile farm land. This method of disposal also
circumvents the problems encountered when plant effluent is discharged
into a stream which has extremely low flow in dry periods.
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 21
The farm acreage can handle about twice the present effluent dosage
of 8,480 acre-feet per year.
Details of the treatment plant operations are given. A portion of the
effluent is chlorinated and retained at the plant for watering lawns and
as cooling water.
69. SKULTE, BERNARD P. 1956. Irrigation with Sewage Effluents. Sewage
and md. Wastes 28:36-43.
The primary objective of early sewer farms was simply disposal with
the result that often too much sewage was used on too little land. New
methods of using sewage for planned irrigation increase its value in
water-short areas.
Reviews the history of sewage farming in Europe where it has
operated successfully for decades. Any acceptable method of appli-
cation may be used. Spray irrigation has proved one of the most
successful.
Urges more emphasis on pilot plant and research installations to
study irrigation with sewage effluents and industrial wastes. Many of
the outstanding problems could thus be solved and the most effective
methods developed.
10. STONE, RALPH and MERRELL, JOHN C., JR. 1958. Significance of
Minerals in Waste-Water. Sewage and md. Wastes 30:928-936.
Mineral quality is the controlling factor in employing reclaimed waste-
water for many purposes. A normal sewage effluent will develop addi-
tional mineralization of 100 to 450 ppm. measured as total dissolved
solids in one municipal water-use cycle. Mineral pickup greater than
600 ppm. is probably attributable to tidal water or oil field brines.
Industrial wastes may contain toxic constituents such as boron or
heavy metals.
Treated sewage effluent can provide water of reasonable mineral
quality, suitable for irrigation of grasses or other vegetation, industrial
water supply, and groundwater recharge.
Analyses of waste water indicate that toxic materials, heavy metals,
and other minerals can be suitably controlled within a sewage system.
71. TONTY, ROBERT L. 1958. Future of Irrigation in the Humid Area.
Jour. Farm Economics 40:636-652.
The status of irrigation in humid areas is reviewed. An explanation
is presented of why irrigation expanded so rapidly in the postwar era.
The competitive water uses, including future needs for irrigation, are
analyzed.
72. TRAv Is, PAUL W. 1960. Organizing a Sewage Effluent Utilization
Project. Pub. Works 91:119-120.
Southern California’s Talbert Water District uses the effluent from
the Orange County Sanitary District’s primary sedimentation plant for
crop irrigation under approval of health officials. Preceding the full-
scale installation, irrigation of a model farm of several acres was studied
for 3 years to observe effects on local soil and on subsoil percolation.
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22 AGRICULTURAL UTJLIZA ION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
Strict regulations were adopted in regard to reservoir management,
pumping from the treatment plant outfall main, and salt accumulation
in the soil. Major points covered in agreements between supplier and
user are discussed. The farmer pays $6 per acre-foot for the effluent
pumped to his highest land. Some 2,800 acres are irrigated in the system.
The farm advisor believes that crops can be doubled with the incidental
application of the added nutrients.
73. WADLEIGH, C. H., Wu cox, L. V., and GALLAT1N, M. H. 1956.
Quality of Irrigation Water. Jour. Soil and Water Conserv. 11:31-33.
The quality of irrigation water is determined by the kinds of dissolved
salts, the relative proportions of certain ions, and the total concentra-
tion. This paper is concerned with evaluation of water quality as affected
by naturally occurring solutes.
74. WLERZBICKI, JAN. 1956. Agricultural Utilization of Sewage Waters.
Soils and Fertilizers 19:2096. Chein. Abst. 52:15806 (1958).
Sewage water contains 80 kg/1,000 cu.m. of N, 20 of P 2 0 5 , and 60
of K 2 0. Irrigation with sewage waters increased the yields of hay by
300 to 400 percent, cereals by 20 to 50 percent, and root crops by 100
percent; and it increased the protein content in bay from 6 to 17 per-
cent.
75. WIERZBICKI, JAN. 1957. Augmenting Water Supply Sources Through
Agricultural Utilization of Municipal Sewage. Gaz. Woda i Tech. Sanit.
(Polish) 31:17. Abst: Sewage and md. Wastes 29:1096.
The author reviews the experience of the town of Bielefeld in aug-
menting its groundwater resources through the utilization of municipal
sewage for surface irrigation. Following the sewage utilization program,
the groundwater tables in the area rose, and 620 hectares of formerly
nonutilizable land have been converted into meadows, pasture, and
plowed land.
76. Waco; LLon V. 1958. Water Quality from the Standpoint of Irri-
gation. Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn. 50:650-654.
The author points out that water quality criteria for crop production
differ in many respects from those for domestic or industrial require-
ments. Salinity is the problem most frequently encountered in the use
of city water for irrigation of lawns. The effects of sodium, boron, and
bicarbonate concentrations in irrigation water are discussed.
1961 — 1965
77. ANONYMOUS. 1963. Treated Sewage Irrigates Crops. Engr. News-
Record 171 (Part 2): 45-46 (Oct. 3).
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 23
Pennsylvania State University conducts a spray-irrigation program
to test the effect of treated domestic sewage on forest plantings and
adjacent croplands. The experiments seek to show how plant nutrients
in waste water can be conserved and best put to use in a community.
The program workers expect to learn how much acreage should be
irrigated, best rates of application, and the equipment needed.
Part of the effluent is sprayed on fields planted to rye, wheat, corn,
and alfalfa. That diverted to forested areas is sprayed on tree tops from
elevated nozzles. The experimenters expect to learn its effect on crops
and timber as well as its effect on game and fish.
Initial results look favorable.
78. ANONYMOUS. 1964. Effluent Utilization. Jour WPCF 36:1443.
To abate stream pollution and at the same time provide fertilizer
nutrients for crops, Pennsylvania State University sprays a portion of
its sewage plant effluent on fields to be planted with rye, wheat, corn,
and alfalfa. Other uses include spraying the effluent on tops of trees
from elevated nozzles and lagooning with seepage to an underground
strata. This will help eliminate problems caused by high concentrations
of phosphates in the effluent, which previously caused serious stream
pollution.
79. BLANEY, H. F. 1962. Utilization of Water and Irrigation in Israel.
Jour. Irr. and Drainage Div., Amer. Soc. Civil Engr. 88:1R2, 1, 55.
PHE Abst. 42:319.
The needs for and potentials of reuse of sewage as irrigation water in
Israel is discussed. It is stated that the State of Israel’s future and the
economic welfare of its agriculture are more dependent on the supply
and quality of irrigation water than any other single resource. The total
water resources are estimated at 2,000 million eu.m., of which 1,500
million cu.m. will be allocated to irrigation. Return flow from sewage
and irrigation is estimated at 165 million eu.m.
80. BROWNING, 6. M. 1961. Effective Use of Water in Agricultural
Areas. Jour. Soil and Water Conserv. 16:111-115.
The author concludes that, on the average, there is enough water;
but the crux of the problem of effective water utilization is that it is
not always distributed at the right places at the right time. Thus, we must
adopt measures and practices that minimize the detrimental and en-
hance the beneficial effects of water for all segments of society. Topics
considered in this paper include watersheds, soil and water conservation,
rainfall, supplemental irrigation, drainage, soil moisture, runoff, and
land treatment.
81. CHAPMAN, C. J. 1962. Pasture Fertilization with Sewage Effluent
Irrigation. Compost Science Vol. 3, No. 3, p. 25.
Wisconsin tests show crop yields greatly increased by irrigation with
waters carrying effluent from city sewage disposal system.
82. CORMACK, R. M. M. 1964. Irrigation Potential of Sewage Effluents.
Jour. Inst. Sew. Purif. (British) Part 3, p. 256-257.
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24 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
Scarcity of water in Southern Africa makes the use of sewage effluent
for irrigation attractive and worthy of consideration. Whether reclaimed
water is used for one purpose or another matters little in the final
analysis. Every gallon of reclaimed water represents a saving from other
sources of supply.
The use of reclaimed sewage effluent for agricultural and horti.-
cultural purposes represents not only sound water economy but also
good fertilizer economy. It is estimated that the fertilizer value in
sewage effluent from the Aisleby Works at Bulawayo is about 7 cents
per 1,000 gallons.
83. DAY, A. D., TUCKER, T. C., and VAVICH, M. G. 1962. Effect of
City Sewage Effluent on the Yield and Quality of Grain from Barley,
Oats, and Wheat. Agronomy Jour. 54:133-135.
Grain yields of 3,032; 2,346; and 2,201 pounds per acre were
obtained from barley, oats, and wheat, respectively. Small grains utilized
the nitrogen in sewage effluent as efficiently as they used the nitrogen
in commercial fertilizer to produce high protein grain. Sewage effluent
had no effect on the digestible laboratory nutrients content and bushel
weight of barley, oats, and wheat.
84. DAY, A. 0., TUCKER, T. C.., and VAvICH, M. (3. 1962. City
Sewage for Irrigation and Plant Nutrients. Crops and Soils, Vol. 14,
No. 8.
Municipal sewage wastes may be a blessing in disguise for arid regions
of the world, particularly where irrigation water is in short supply.
Modern sewage-processing plants produce a clear effluent that is safe
for certain agricultural use. When properly treated, this material could
add considerably to our total water supply.
85. DAY, A. D., TUCKER, T. C., and VAvicri, M. G. 1962. Sewage
Effluent. Progressive Agriculture in Arizona, Vol. XIV, No. 5.
In the arid regions throughout the world, the normal rainfall is not
sufficient to provide maximum production from agricultural crops.
Supplemental irrigation water is often unavailable or too expensive for
agricultural use. Many geographical areas that would benefit from supple-
mental irrigation water are faced with the problem of municipal sewage
disposal.
City sewage effluents can be utilized efficiently as a source of irrigation
water and plant nutrients in the production of small grains forage and
grain.
86. DAY, A. D., D ICKsoN, A. D., and TUCKER, T. C. 1963. Effects
of City Sewage Effluent on Grain Yield and Grain Malt Quality of Fall-
Sown, Irrigated Barley. Agronomy Jour. 55:317-318.
In general, the application of sewage effluent to barley resulted in
an increase in grain yield, percentage of nitrogen, and malt diastatic
power; but kernel weight, kernel size, and malt extract percentage were
decreased. Although sewage effluent produced high yields of barley grain,
it tended to cause a lower grain and malt quality.
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 2
87. DYE, E. 0. 1961. Plant Effluent Sold for Irrigation Water. Wastes
Eng. 32:636.
Operational expenditures are defrayed by 40 percent through sale of
the effluent, digested sludge, and digester gas from the activated sludge
plant at Tucson, Arizona. Also, a portion of the water applied for irri-
gation serves to recharge groundwater, thus, replenishing to some extent
the principal water resource in this arid area.
88. DZIEZYC, J. and TRYBALA, M. 1963. The Effect of Irrigation with
Town Sewage on Variously Fertilized Mangel-Wurzel and Sunflower
Grown for Fodder. Zesz. Nauk. Wyz. Szkol. rol. Wroclaw Melior
8:43-52. Soils and Fertilizers 27:327 (2375), 1964.
Application of 300-600 mm sewage water, especially when combined
with mineral NPK, increased size of foliage and root diameter in man-
gold. Growth of sunflower was increased by NPK and depressed by PK.
89. G1LkY, J. FRANK. 1965. Irrigation Processes Using Reclaimed Water
or Effluent Described. West Texas Today 45: (Jan.) 18-19, 23.
Irrigation with sewage effluent at Lubbock, Texas dates back to the
early 1930’s. Presently, approximately 2,000 acres are irrigated. The
successful operation requires a reservoir storage capacity for about 30
days’ output of effluent. The primary difference between irrigation with
effluent and general irrigation practice is the requirement of taking all
effluent produced.
The chief advantages of irrigation with sewage effluent are regularity
of water supply, some fertility value gained, and decreased stream
pollution. Some of the disadvantages are odor nuisance, problems created
by requirement to take water at all times, more difficulty in keeping farm
labor, and over-irrigation which may damage young plants. Data on
crops are given.
90. HARVEY, CLARK and CANTRELL, RONALD. 1965. Use of Sewage Efflu-
ent for Production of Agricultural Crops. Texas Water Development
Board, Austin, Report 9, December 1965.
The report summarizes the results of a 1965 Texas survey on agri-
cultural use of sewage effluent. Discussed are the suitability and cost of
effluent for crop production as well as crops and acreage irrigated.
The authors state that “crop irrigation with effluent can contribute
to the economy of the area and solve satisfactorily the sewage disposal
problem.”
91. HERSHKOV ITZ, S. Z. and FEINMESSER, A. 1962. Sewage Reclaimed
for Irrigation in Israel Farm Oxidation Ponds. Wastes Eng. 33:405.
The authors report on the operation of 36 oxidation ponds in Israel,
serving as secondary treatment facilities for sewage from a total pop-
ulation of approximately 90,000. The quality of the effluent is judged
to be suitable for the planned irrigation reuse.
92. HIGHSMITH, Ricauw M., JR. 1965. Irrigated Lands of the World.
Geographical Review 55:382-389.
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26 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
A comprehensive review of the areas of the world where irrigation
agriculture is practiced. Data were collected from several sources, and
total irrigated acres for each country are presented in tabular form.
A world map is included showing the geographical location of irrigated
areas.
The impact of irrigation on agriculture is realized when the total
irrigated acres are reviewed. In 1961, approximately 37.7 million acres
were irrigated in the United States. World totals were estimated to be
something over 431 million acres.
93. KUTERA, J. 1963. Possibilities of Increasing the Fertility of Light
Soils by Irrigation with Sewage. Zesz. Probi. Postep. Nauk. rol. 40B:
239-260. Soils and Fertilizers 27:69 (465), 1964.
Due to the high availability of N, P, and K in sewage, its application
in irrigation does not result in salt accumulation. It supplies considerable
amounts of organic matter to the soil. In irrigating grassland with
sewage, I cu.m./ha yielded up to 4.5 kg. of high protein content hay.
94. PRAtT, S. and SLADECEK, V. 1964. An Inexpensive Bioassay Aimed
at the Agricultural Disposal of Waste Waters. Hydrobiologia 23:246-252.
PHE Abst. 44:309.
A method of bioassay is described for detecting the toxicity of waste
waters to germinating plant seeds and evaluating the suitability of the
waters for irrigational use. Seeds of the mustard, Sinapis A/ba, are placed
in petri dishes on Silon or nylon textile fabric and irrigated with the
water under investigation. They are kept in the dark at 16-20°C and
observed daily for 3 days. The numbers of germinating seeds, the lengths
of the rootlets, and the ratios of root length to hypocotyl length are
recorded as indices of water quality. Stimulation of growth of rootlets
as well as toxicity of the water can be detected by comparison with
controls.
95. REUTLINGER, S., and SEAGRAVES, J. A. 1962. A Method of Apprais-
ing Irrigation Returns. Jour. Farm Economics 44:837-850.
A method of computing the increased crop yield from a series of
irrigation experiments is described. The method is explained with the
aid of an example in which an expected yield increase and synthetic
cost data are used to evaluate the profitability of investing in irrigation
systems for tobacco in the Coastal Plain of North Carolina.
96. TRYBALA, M. 1963. The Effect of Irrigation with Town Sewage on
the Production of Variously Fertilized Winter Rape. Zesz. Nauk. Wyz.
Szkol. rot. Wroclaw Melior 8:29-42. Soils and Fertilizers 27:327
(2376), 1964.
Application of 150-350 mm sewage water promoted the growth of
rape on unfertilized plots and on plots given minerals P and K.
97. WATSON, JoaN L. A. 1963. Oxidation Ponds and Use of Effluent in
Israel. Effi. and Water Treat. Jour. 3:150-153. PHE Abse. 43:272.
Oxidation ponds are used as aids in reclaiming sewage effluents. They
provide economic and safe treatment of sewage for an effluent suitable
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SEWAGE EFFLUENT AS AN AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCE 27
for reuse. Principal reuse to date has been for irrigation; but ground-
water recharge, makeup water for fish-breeding ponds, and industrial
reuse are contemplated.
98. WELLS, W. N. 1961. Irrigation as a Sewage Reuse Application.
Public Works 92:116-118.
Advantages and limitations in the use of sevw age for irrigation at San
Antonio, Texas, are reviewed. Disposal by irrigation has avoided the
need for a high degree of treatment and has given farmers a dependable
supply of irrigation water. Data are shown concerning the chemical
content of the water and the types of crops grown. Currently, 16 mgd
(approximately one-fourth of the plant effluent) are used to irrigate
4,000 acres for growing cotton, castor beans, feed grains, and forage
crops.
The literature on health hazards in sewage irrigation was reviewed
as supporting evidence that the use of sewage effluents for growing
such crops is not hazardous.
99. WELLS, W. N. 1963. Sewage Plant Effluent for Irrigation. Compost
Science Vol. 4, No. 1, p. 19.
Farmers beat the drought by using effluent from the San Antonio
Treatment Plant. A 3-mile long open canal carries the effluent to
Mitchell Lake which acts as an 850-acre oxidation lagoon. About 4,000
acres of farm and pasture land are irrigated from the canal and from
the lake.
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2
Agricultural Value of Sewage Sludge
soil scientists have long recognized the value of the small organic
fraction in soils. Its favorable influence on physical and chemical
properties of soils is far greater in proportion to the very small quantities
present. The organic matter content of most soils ranges from 1 to 5
percent. Nevertheless, it commonly accounts for a large part of the
cation exchange capacity of soils, and more than any other single factor,
it is responsible for the stability of soil aggregates so ‘essential to good
soil structure and favorable physical soil properties.
Organic materials were the first fertilizers used by farmers. They
were mainly plant and animal residues and were used for their nitrogen-
supplying value. More recently, the lower cost and greater availability
of plant nutrients in mineral fertilizers have led to the replacement of
most organics as fertilizers. Organic materials such as farm manure,
compost, peat, and sewage sludge continue to be used, however, to
improve soil physical conditions. These are commonly referred to as
soil amendments rather than fertilizers because of their relatively low
content of plant nutrients. In addition to the major essential nutrients,
sewage sludges contain appreciable quantities of the minor nutritional
elements such as copper, boron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc. In
many cases, the amendments represent utilization of materials that
otherwise would be wasted.
Farmers are continually encouraged to add organic material to cropped
land. Winter crops are often planted in the f all and then plowed under
in the early spring. Crop residues also are allowed to remain in the soil
where decomposition contributes to the organic matter content of the
soil. Abstracts of reports included in this bibliography clearly indicate
that sewage sludge is a valuable soil amendment for the addition of
organic matter to soils.
Sewage treatment plants are designed to separate the suspended
28
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AGRICULTURAL VALUE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE 29
solids and many soluble constituents from domestic sewage and in-
dustrial waste waters. Sewage sludge includes all of the solid and pre-
cipitated material separated from the sewage. The clarified effluent or
waste water presents much less of a disposal problem than the sludge,
since it usually can be released to natural water-courses or applied
to any number of suitable reuse situations.
The value of sewage sludge for soil improvement depends on the
processes used in the sewage treatment plant. Digested sludge comes
from treatment plants in which the solids have been settled out and
then digested anaerobically. Typically, the liquid sludge is pumped
from the bottom of the digester and allowed to air-dry on sand filter
beds. Much of the soluble plant nutrients drain away and are lost in the
drying process, leaving a dried sludge that is low in fertilizer value.
This type of sludge is seldom sold as a soil amendment.
Activated sludge results from aerobic treatment in which large
quantities of air are bubbled through the sewage mixture. The sludge
is separated from the liquid phase by settling. The excess sludge that
is processed for sale is commonly heat-dried to a moisture content of
5 to 10 percent. The nutrient content of activated sludge is usually
higher than that produced by other treatment schemes. The nitrogen
content may be 4 to 6 percent, and its phosphorus content normally is
3 or 4 percent. Sludge analyses in several reports abstracted in this
bibliography substantiate these figures.
Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Grand Rapids, Michigan have success-
fully marketed activated sludge from their treatment plants. Sizable
revenues from these sales have partially offset the operating costs of
the facilities. Many cities reported using their sludge on parks, golf
courses, sewage plant grounds, and other municipally owned properties.
Others give away the dried sludge for use on lawns or flower gardens.
Sanitary precautions must be taken when digested sludge is used.
Pathogenic nrganisms may survive the treatment process. It is not
advisable to use digested sludge on root crops or any vegetable crop
that can be eaten raw. Incorporation into the soil well ahead (at least 3
months) of planting time leads to destruction of pathogenic organisms.
Nuisance odors from digested sludges can be overcome by immediate
incorporation into the soil. Activated sludges present no odor problems,
and microorganisms are killed in the heat treatment.
The conclusion drawn from the literature surveyed is that sewage
sludges can be a valuable soil amendment when applied to increase
the organic matter content and to improve the chemical and physical
properties of soils.
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30 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
Abstracts
Prior to 1951
100. ANONYMOUS. 1937. Report of the Committee on Sewage Disposal,
APHA: The Utilization of Sewage Sludge as Fertilizer. Sewage Wks.
Jour. 9:861-912.
A comprehensive report resulting from a survey of sludge disposal
practices in the United States and Canada. Data were furnished by State
sanitary engineers, sewage works operators, and municipal officials.
Discussed in connection with use of sludge as fertilizer are soil
fertilization, fertilizer value, use in mixed fertilizers, tonnage of sludge
available, types of sludge, and comparisons of sludge from different
treatment processes.
Results of sludge utilization on many different crops are presented,
and general conclusions based on the results of the survey are given.
A bibliography of 89 entries accompanies the report.
101. DAMOOSE, N. 1941. Liquid Sludge—The Vitamin B Fertilizer.
Sewage Wks. Engr. 12:308-312.
The sale of liquid sludge has been promoted at Battle Creek, Michigan.
After successful trials on the plant grounds, a truck was fitted with a
600-gallon tank for delivery of liquid digested sludge to the public. Use
of this material on lawns produced “astounding” results. Odor and
appearance nuisances were overcome by wetting down with sprinklers
following application.
In addition to the plant food value, the author believes Vitamin B
plays an important role and discusses this in some detail.
102. DETultx, E. E. 1935. Adaptability of Sewage Sludge as a Fertilizer.
Sewage Wks. Jour. 7:597-6 10.
A significant historical review of sewage utilization is made. Com-
parisons of chemical composition and fertilizer value are made between
sludge produced by the activated sludge process and digested or Imhoff
sludge. Digested sludge is also compared to farm manure. Methods of
sludge utilization are discussed.
Future development of sludge-processing methods may well result in
the production of sludge with increased fertilizer value. Even though
sludge may be low in fertilizer value, its organic content should not
be overlooked as a soil-conditioning agent.
103. HARPER, HORACE J. 1931. Sewage Sludge as a Fertilizer. Sewage
Wks. Jour. 3:683-687.
Fertilizing value of sewage sludge depends upon its source and the
sewage treatment process. The nitrogen content may be quite different
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AGRICULTURAL VALUE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE 31
for sludges obtained from Imhoff tank and activated sludge processes.
Activated sludge may contain 5 to 6 percent total nitrogen, with total
phosphoric acid content of approximately 3 percent. Sludge from Imhofi
tanks seldom contains more than 2.5 percent nitrogen and 2 percent
phosphoric acid.
Cites the city of Milwaukee’s experience with “Miorganite” produced
from activated sludge and several experiments concerned with fertilizer
value of sludge. Liquid sludge has considerably more fertilizer value
than dried sludge since much of the nutrient content drains away in
the drying process.
104. MALOY, THOMAS P. 1931. Use of Sludge as Fertilizer. Sewage Wks.
Jour. 3:485-487.
Sludge does not have the high fertilizing value of commercial fer-
tilizers. Experiments indicated that it is very effective in improving
the physical condition of the soil:
“Where the ground was hard and compact before, it is now soft
and resilient. It has a certain amount of spring to it.”
“The whole texture of the soil was improved and made more
pliable.”
105. MITCHELL, GEORGE A. 1931. Sludge Disposal at a Sewage Irriga-
tion Farm. Engr. News-Record 107:57.
The author describes a method of disposing of sludge-bearing sewage
as practiced at Vineland, New Jersey. The sludge is pumped onto a
field prepared with deep furrows. Immediately upon drying, the sludge
is plowed under, and the field prepared to receive another sludge treat-
ment. Once the sludge is plowed under, odor and insect nuisances are
eliminated. The surface soil proved to be an excellent purifier.
106. MULLER, J. F. 1929. The Value of Raw Sewage Sludge as Fertilizer.
Soil Sd. 28:423-432.
Several samples of dried fresh sewage sludge were analyzed, and pot
experiments carried out to determine the fertilizer value of such material.
The analyses showed considerable potential plant food is present.
The carbon-nitrogen ntio was narrowed to below eight by the addition
of available nitrogen, markedly increasing the fertilizer value of the
sludge. A phosphate supplement appears to be necessary for good
plant growth; and a potash supplement, in small quantities, seems
desirable.
The dried sludge alone, with no mineral supplements, when applied
to turf grown on sand gave a good stand of grass and prevented its
dying off.
Dried fresh sludge applied to a sandy soil materially increased its
water-holding capacity, a most desirable result on soils of this type.
Although the experiments reported did not indicate a need for using
lime with the sludge, lime almost certainly would be required after
several years continuous sludge application.
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32 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
107. PEARSE, LANGDON, NILES, A. H., ET . 1946. Utilization of Sew-
age Sludge as Fertilizer. Federation of Sewage Works Associations, Man-
ual of Practice No. 2, 120 pages.
The major topics in the manual are: Fertilizer Requirements of Soils;
Fertilizer Characteristics of Sewage Sludge; Effects of Sewage Treatment
Practices on Fertilizing Elements in Sludge; Processing Sludge for Use
as Fertilizer; Application of Sludge as Fertilizer; Hygienic Aspects of
Sludge Utilization as Fertilizer; Prices, Marketing, and Economic Con-
siderations. A closing chapter includes conclusions and recommenda-
tions relative to sludge utilization. The bibliography contains 251
entries.
108. REINHOLD, F. 1948. New Viewpoints on the Agricultural Utili-
zation of Sewage. Gesundheits ing. 69:296-302. fHE Abst. 31:S:45.
Studies were made to determine the relative fertilizing value of settled
and biologically treated sewage. It was found that treatment iniproved
the availability of nutrient materials other than nitrogen, and it also
increased the formation of humus in the soil.
Spray irrigation allows bacteria to be carried by spray and air move-
ment for distances of 800 meters. They are soon killed by sunlight. The
eggs of worms in digested sludge were not viable.
Raw sewage should not be used for irrigation of any kind, and only
biologically treated sewage should be used for irrigating vegetables.
109. RUDOLFS, WILLEM. 1928. Sewage Sludge as Fertilizer. Soil Sci.
26:455-458.
The nitrogen content of sewage sludge varies with the type of treat-
ment. Aerobically and anaerobically treated sewage sludges contain
about 5 and 2.25 percent nitrogen, respectively. Only one sewage treat-
ment plant markets its sludge on a large scale; at a number of places
the sewage sludge is given away or sold for a small nominal sum. An
estimated 150,000 to 200,000 tons of nitrogen are lost annually. Analy-
sis of sludges from a number of sewage plants indicates that 8,000 to
10,000 tons nitrogen per year could be saved.
110. RUDOLFS, WIu.EM, and CLEARY, E. J. 1933. Sludge Disposal and
Future Trends. Sewage Wks. Jour. 5:409-428.
Present methods of sludge handling and disposal are discussed. The
need for further development is stressed. Sludge as a fertilizer is dis-
cussed from the standpoint of fertilizing value, preparation of fertilizer,
and economic and hygienic considerations. Fertilizer production may
be profitable only for the large plants. Small plants usually must dispose
of sludge material locally as a market develops. Dewatering and in-
cineration offer promise as a means of ultimate disposal.
111. RUDOLFS, WILLEM. 1937. Salvage from Sewage? Engr. News-
Record 119:1055-1057.
Sewage researchers are urged to change theft attitude toward dis-
posal and emphasize the possibilities of by-product recovery and
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AGRICULTURAL VALUE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE 33
utilization. Present as well as possible future uses of sewage by-products
are pointed out.
The agricultural value of returning sewage by-products to the land
should not be overlooked. It is stressed that we should change our
thinking from destruction of waste to conservation and recovery of
useful by-products.
112. SCHRINER, PHILLIP J. 1942. Disposal of Liquid Sludge at Kankakee,
Illinois. Sewage Wks. Jour. 14:876-878.
Cost figures show that liquid sludge disposal by tank truck delivery
constitutes a considerable saving over operation and maintenance of
sludge drying beds. It also eliminates the severe operating difficulties of
sludge drying beds in the winter months. The use of liquid sludge to
fertilize lawns will be promoted, and the practice should show a con-
siderable profit to the city over past experience with sludge drying beds.
113. SKINNER, JOHN F. 1932. Sewage Sludge as Fertilizer. Sewage Wks.
Jour. 4:279-282.
Sludge from four Imhoff tanks at Rochester, New York is utilized
as fertilizer for gardens, shrubs, lawns, and local farm crops. Details of
the operation are described, and sales data are shown.
Liquid sludge has much greater nutrient value than dried sludge.
Consideration is given to dispensing liquid sludge, thus eliminating
cost of constructing and operating drying beds.
114. TATLOCK, M. W. 1932. The Economic Preparation and Sale of
Digested Sludge as Commercial Fertilizer. Sewage Wks. Jour. 4:519-524.
The author describes in detail the operation of the Dayton, Ohio
sewage treatment plant. Cost of operation and income from sales are
given. Results show promise. Sludge can be successfully marketed.
115. WIERZBICKI, JAN. 1949. The Need for Pretreatment of Sewage
Utilized for Agricultural Purposes. Gaz. Woda i Tech. Sanit. (Polish)
23:162. Abst: Sewage Wks. Jour. 21:110.
The agricultural use of sewage results in a high degree of treatment,
along with the advantages of fertilization and enrichment of soil with
humus. Reasons for preferring clarified sewage effluent for irrigation
are listed and discussed. Two disadvantages resulting from pretreatment
are removal of fertilizer materials and increase in cost of operation. If
the sludge is recovered and used as a fertilizer, more of the fertilizing
value will be utilized.
1951 — 1955
116. ANDERSON, MYRON 5. 1955. Sewage Sludge for Soil Improvement.
U.S.D.A. Circular No. 972, 27 pages. PHE Abst. 36:S:81.
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34 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
Chemical compositions of sludges variously prepared in different
parts of the United States are reported. Only 18 to 25 percent of the
nitrogen present in digested sludges is normally nitrified during a 1 6-week
period. Activated sludges show nitrification values of 50 to 60 percent
for a similar period. The bibliography has 41 entries.
117. HAYOB, HENRY. 1954. Disposal of Wet Digested Sludge at Marshall,
Missouri. Sewage and laid. Wastes 26:93-95.
Sludge drying beds were eliminated, and liquid sludge is now hauled
by tank truck to be spread directly onto farming land. No mention is
made of crops grown, soil type, or crop yields. Several problems were
solved with this new type of disposal.
118. KUBLEWIND, C. 1954. The Necessity for Utilization of Sewage.
Kommuna lwirtschaft, 1953/54, p. 376. Water Poll. Abst. 29:353
(1934).
The author deals with the fertilizing value of sewage, giving figures
for nutrient matter, water, and humus contents. He dicusses the advan-
tages of agricultural utilization.
119. ThOMSON, JAMES F. and MORGAN, JAMES M., JR. 1955. Conser-
vation Potential of Sewage Sludge. Water and Sewage Wks. 102:532-535.
PHEAbst. 36:S:7.
Sewage sludge has been used with varying degrees of success to
replace fertility of soils. Sludge contains differing amounts of lime,
humus, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash. Recommended applications are
10 to 60 cu. yd. per acre for flowers, vegetables, and grass and 10
tons of wet sludge per acre for orchards. Dewatering has been accomp-
lished by pressing (in England), vacuum filtration (mainly in United
States), and centrifuging (in Europe). Sludge processing cost varies
from $5.14 to $37.53 per ton, and sale price (1953) ranged from
$13.95 to $20.00 per ton.
Average sludge production for the United States is estimated at one
million tons per year. Based on analyses from several cities, this would
yield 32 thousand tons of nitrogen, 23 thousand tons of phosphate,
and 3 thousand tons of potash. There is usually a wide margin between
the plant nutrients removed from soil and that which is put back. If all
sludge produced in 1949 and 1950 had been used as fertilizer, it prob-
ably would have increased production only about 0.5 percent. In spite
of this relatively small yield, nothing should be overlooked to increase
our agricultural potential.
120. VAN KLEECK, LEROY W. 1954. Fertilizer Value in Waste Disposal
Methods. Amer. Jour. Pub. Health 44:349. Abst: Sewage and md.
Wastes 26:1509.
Dried or partially dewatered sewage sludge makes an excellent soil
conditioner and a good, though incomplete, fertilizer. Heat-dried raw
activated sludge is the best sludge product, both chemically and hygieni-
cally, although some odor may be encountered in its use.
The reasons why more sludge is not used are discussed, as are the
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AGRICULTURAL VALUE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE 35
advantages and disadvantages of broad irrigation and sewage farming.
Garbage composting, both alone and in connection with sewage sludge,
is receiving more attention although current practice leaves much to
be desired.
1956 — 1960
121. ANONYMOUS. 1958. Sewage Sludge as Soil Conditioner. Water
and Sewage Wks. 105:484-489. PHE Abst. 39:S:46.
Reprinted with permission of Managing Editor, Organic Gardening
and Farming Magazine. The results of a national survey are presented.
Reports the increased sale and demand for sewage sludge to be applied
to soil in recent years. Many examples and case histories are cited.
Sludge analyses, sales trends, prices, etc., are tabulated for a large
number of cities where sludge is sold.
Sludge is recommended for lawns, parks, and flower gardens. It
deepens the color of grass and stimulates a luxurious growth that is
noticeable for longer than one season. It should be applied late in
March and again in September, if desired. It provides needed humus
as well as a moderate amount of nitrogen to flower garden soils.
122. ANDERSON, MYRON S. 1956. Comparative Analyses of Sewage
Sludges. Sewage and md. Wastes 28:132-135.
Additional study is needed to understand better the value of sewage
sludge for agricultural use. The following topics are indicative of the
need for research on the subject.
1. To what extent is the phosphorus in sewage sludges available
to plant life?
2. Do the specific feeding powers of various plants differ with respect
to their utilization of phosphorus in sewage sludges?
3. What chemical characteristics of sludges most effectively influence
the rate of nitrification?
4. Biology of the trickling filter.
5. How is the high nitrogen content developed in activated sludges?
123. ANDERSON, MYRON S. 1959. Fertilizing Characteristics of Sewage
Sludge. Sewage and md. Wastes 31:678-682.
The chemical composition and fertilizer value of sewage sludge
depend in part on the method of treatment from which the sludge is
obtained. Undigested sludge from secondary treatment has the greatest
fertilizer value. Digested sludge from primary treatment has a lower
fertilizer value but may be beneficial as a soil conditioner or mulch.
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36 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
The nitrogen content of digested sludge is appreciably lower. Heat
treatment is recommended for sanitary purposes before sludge is sold as
a fertilizer.
It is important that prospective users be told what to expect from
sludge applied to soil. The plant responses will vary with type of soil,
kind of plants grown, and climatic conditions.
124. DELANO, E. HUNTLEY. 1957. Sale of “RAPIDGRO” Gives Grand
Rapids $150,000 Revenue from Dried Sludge. Wastes Engr. 28:30-3 1.
PHEAbst. 37:S:88.
The city of Grand Rapids has produced an organic soil builder
from its sewage treatment plant since 1932. In the past 14 years, its
dried sludge sales have totaled $ 150.975 against operating costs of
$87,771. Analyses of the sludge are given. The cost and other manu-
facturing aspects of “RAP1DGRO” production are discussed in detail.
125. FLEMING, JULIAN R, 1959. Sludge Utilization and Disposal. Sew-
age and /nd. Wastes 31:1342-1346.
Presents a resume of general methods of sludge disposal and
summarizes methods used in 28 towns in Alabama, Arkansas, florida,
Kentucky, South Carolina, and Tennessee. Soil conditioning and fer-
tilizer value of digested sludge are discussed, as are problems associated
with the agricultural use of sludge.
126. LEAVER, ROBERT E. 1956. Sludge Disposal Practices in the Pacific
Northwest. Sewage and m d. Wastes 28:323-328.
Summarizes the sludge disposal practices at several communities in
the Pacific Northwest, principally the State of Washington. Four
communities are cited as typifying current practice in the disposal of
liquid sludge. Some of it is sold, and some is free to private haulers.
Other examples are cited in which communities dispose of air-dried
digested sludge and filter-dried sludge. Income from sales is given.
Fertilizing ingredients are compared in tabular form for various types
of sludge, manures, and other organic materials. The Washington
State Department of Health, “General Guide for the Utilization and
Disposal of Sewage Sludge,” is presented as an appendix to the report.
127. MERz, ROBERT C. 1959. Utilization of Liquid Sludge. Water and
Sewage Wks. 106:489-493.
A method for reducing the cost of treatment plant operation plus
reclamation of waste land is presented. The city of San Diego has found
land disposal a satisfactory and practical method of utilizing the liquid
digested sludge produced at its sewage treatment plant. Sludge-drying
facilities have been shut down, and all sludge is now utilized for soil
improvement. The value of organic matter in the soil for maintaining
and storing moisture is well known.
The San Diego liquid sludge disposal operation has shown that
(a) waste land can be reclaimed for agriculture with liquid sludge of
reasonable solids content at less cost than with dried sludge; (b) sludge
loadings as high as 100 tons dry solids per acre can be apphed without
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AGRICULTURAL VALUE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE 37
impairing crop growth; (c) sludge loadings as low as 25 tons dry solids
per acre will produce crop growth comparable to that achieved by the
use of commercial fertilizer at conventional application rates; (d) an
initial sludging with 50 tons dry solids per acre will grow a second
superior crop due to residual fertilization not uscd up by the first; and
(e) it is possible to avoid serious sludge handling or nuisance problems.
128. OLDS, JERoME. 1960. How Cities Distribute Sludge as a Soil Con-
ditioner. Compost Science Vol. 1, No. 3, p. 26-30.
This report describes the experiences of cities which have been
marketing and distributing sludge for soil conditioning purposes and
also offers suggestions to improve distribution of these organic wastes.
129. VAN KLEECK, LEROY W. 1958. Do’s and Don’t’s of Using Sludge
for Soil Conditioning and Fertilizing. Wastes Engr. 29:256-257, 274.
PHE Abst. 38:5:89.
Various methods of sludge disposal are discussed with emphasis
on use as a soil conditioner. The characteristics of both raw and various
forms of digested sludge which affect the soil and crops are pointed
out. As a guide to the attitude of public health authorities on the
use of sludge on soils, the author quotes the policy of the Connecticut
State Department of Health.
1961 — 1965
130. EBERHARDT, H. and ERMER, H. 1962. Utilization and Disposal of
Sewage Sludge. Stadtehygiene 13:175-179. Water Poll. Abst. 37:92
(458).
The authors discuss the various methods of sewage sludge utilization
or disposal and the conditions under which each can be applied. Methods
are described for the agricultural use of wet or dry sludge, for drying
and composting, and for disposal on land or at sea. Methods for in-
cinerating sludge and for producing gas are also discussed.
131. GLATHE, H. and MAKAWI, A. A. M. 1963. The Effect of Sewage
Sludge on Soils and Micro-Organisms. Z. Pflernahr. Dung 101:109-121.
Soils and Fert. 26:273 (1983) 1963.
In pot experiments with sewage sludge applied to loam and sandy
soil, fresh sludge had a superior effect in increasing total counts of
micro-organisms and cellulose decomposers. Though there was little
difference in the effect of autoclaved and ethylene-oxide-sterilized sludge
in increasing microbial populations, the former material had the greatest
effect in promoting azotobacter. Application of fresh, sterilized, and
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38 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
autoclaved sewage sludge (in this decreasing order of efficiency) in-
creased CO 2 production in soil and promoted the production of NO 3 and
NH 4 . Fresh sewage contained large numbers of coliform bacteria which
rapidly increased in soil for eight days after application and persisted
even after thirty days.
132. HUSEMANN, C. and PANNIER, D. 1962. Effect of Different Putrefy-
ing Waste-Water Sludge Applications on the Water-Storage CapacIty and
Yield of a Sandy Soil. Z. Kulturtech 3:193-204. Soils and Fertilizers
27:327 (2374) 1964.
Applications of sewage sludge markedly increased the water-holding
capacity of the soil and increased yields of lettuce. Effectiveness of the
sludge depended on its source, composition, consistency, and preliminary
treatment.
133. VLAMIS, J. and WILLIAMS, D. E. 1961. Test of Sewage Sludge for
Fertility and Toxicity in Soils. Compost Science Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 26-30.
California researchers report on studies comparing the growth of
plants receiving applications of sludge and chemical fertilizers. Both
fertility and toxicity are considered.
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3
Land Disposal of Liquid Wastes
— — Pollution Abatement
and Effects on Soil Properties
p or a long time, soil was considered to be the “universal” disposal
medium; more recently, it has been recognized that certain persistent
materials resist degradation and appear as pollutants in ground- and
seepage-waters. Neverthe [ ess, soil remains as one of the few means
for the satisfactory tertiary treatment for domestic wastes. In addition,
soil has been proved as an economical and effective means of treatment
and disposal for such industrial wastes as those from vegetable and
fruit canneries, dairy- and meat-processing plants, and paper and pulp
mills.
The methods of application vary widely and are governed by the
type and quantity of waste, soil type, land form, and soil permeability.
Spray applications are popular for industrial waste disposal since little
land preparation is required and the system is flexible and easily
managed.
Whether disposal is to cultivated row crops, forage crops, grassland,
or forested areas matters little as far as treatment and ultimate disposal
are concerned. Waste water applied to land infiltrates the soil, is “puri-
fied,” and much of it ultimately joins the groundwater reserve from
which it can be withdrawn for other uses. Groundwater recharge is
the primary objective of many land disposal systems.
Not to be overlooked is the objective of pollution control and
prevention in surface waters. Most waste materials create serious pollu-
tion and nuisance problems when discharged directly to surface streams.
Their disposal to land areas greatly reduces those problems and supple-
ments the underground water supply. The importance of land disposal
as a surface water pollution control measure cannot be over-emphasized.
Chemical and physical soil properties are affected by the addition of
organic wastes. The research reports abstracted in this bibliography
39
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40 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
discuss many of these effects such as: (I) increased biological activity,
(2) cation exchange, (3) changes in salinity, (4) reduced soil perme-
ability, and (5) increased organic matter content.
As with other irrigation systems, efficient land disposal operations
require good management practices. Failure and/or decreased efficiency
seem to be due most often to overloading. Adequate area must be
provided to accommodate the wastes without overloading. For success-
1W operation, irrigation must be intermittent, allowing drainage and
aeration of the soil between treatments. Cultivation is recommended
after the drying cycle to break up the organic layer on the surface and
increase infiltration.
Land disposal systems are worthy of consideration in those areas
where suitable and sufficient acreage is available. The literature reviewed
shows such disposal to be an effective, efficient, and economical opera-
tion. The evidence presented indicates conclusively that the use of soil
for waste treatment has a definite place in pollufion control and waste
water reclamation.
Abstracts
Prior to 1951
134. ALLISON, L. E. 1947. Effect of Microorganisms on Permeability of
Soil Under Prolonged Submergence. Soil Sci. 63:439-450.
The permeability of continuously submerged soils usually decreases
slightly at first and then increases appreciably as the entrapped S is
removed by solution in the percolate. Eventually the soil virtually seals
up.
Sterile permeability tests to determine the cause of decreased per-
meability under prolonged submergence gave no evidence of soil awe-
gate breakdown due to purely physical causes. The reduced perme-
ability appears to be due solely to microbial sealing. The soil pores
probably become clogged with the products of growth, cells, slime, or
polysaccharides. If the observed reduction in permeability was due in
part to disintegration of soil aggregates, the dispersion is believed to be
due to biological causes, that is, the attack of microorganisms on the
organic materials which bind soil into aggregates.
Soils may be readily sterilized in the laboratory with ethylene oxide
gas with no appreciable change in physical properties. For certain
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LAND DISPOSAL OF LIQUID WASTES 41
research purposes, this method offers advantages over that of steam
sterilization.
135. ANONYMOUS. 1938. Irrigation with Sewage. Engr. News-Record
121:821.
A storage lake and land irrigation solved the sewage disposal problem
at Kingsville, Texas. In this region of low rainfall and high evaporation,
suitable streams for the disposal of sewage are practically nonexistent.
The distribution and disposal system is described. The storage lake
makes the system quite flexible. Disposal operations continue even when
irrigation is not in progress.
136. ELDRIDGE, EDWARD F. 1947. Industrial Wastes — Canning Industry.
md . and Engr. Chem. 39:619-624.
Canneries operate on a seasonal basis. Their wastes consist largely
of washings from the preparation of products for canning. Waste volume
and characteristics vary widely with the type of product packed. The
material in the wastes consists largely of organic solids in suspension
which cause objectionable conditions when they decompose. Effective
screening should be a common practice with all cannery wastes. This
may be followed by chemical precipitation, sedimentation, biological
filtration, or lagooning, or a combination of these, depending upon the
degree of treatment necessary. The required treatment is established by
governmental agencies in each case.
Lagooning and irrigation are desirable in that the method completely
eliminates stream pollution. Operating methods and cost figures are
presented.
137. HEDGER, HAROLD E. 1950. Los Angeles Considers Reclaiming Sew-
age Water to Recharge Underground Basins. Civil Engr. 20:323-324.
Reclamation of waste water from sewage constitutes an important
potential source of water for spreading and recharge of underground
basins. Experimental tests have shown that the percolated effluent is
bacteriologically safe within a depth of 7 feet from the ground surface.
Irrespective of the groundwater recharge, it is proposed as a means
of creating a freshwater barrier to seawater encroachment.
138. LUDWIG, RUSSELL G. 1950. Reclamation of Water from Sewage
and Industrial Wastes in Los Angeles County. Sewage and md. Wastes
22:289-295.
Discusses the use of reclaimed waters for augmenting underground
water resources, including beneficial use for industrial and agricultural
purposes, which indirectly aids in building up groundwater reserves by
curtailing existing draft on the underground basins. Excellent opportu-
nities for industrial use exist in Los Angeles County, and such projects
are under current study.
The direct recharge of underground basins through the use of natural
sand filters seems especially significant for the following reasons:
1. The sand filters not only serve as the means of recharge but also
act as a final check on water quality.
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42 AGRICULTURAL UTILiZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
2. The vast underground water storage basins are most advanta-
geously used in a storage capacity; thus, they allow intermittent opera-
tion of reclamation plants and at the same time maintain a firm water
supply.
3. Finally, water so returned to the underground can be used for
any beneficial purpose, including domestic consumption.
139. O’CONNELL, WILLIAM J., JR. and Git.&y, HAROLD F. 1944. Emer-
gency Land Disposal of Sewage. Sewage Wks. Jour. 16:729-746 (Re-
printed from Calif. Sew. Wks. Jour., Vol. 15, No. 2, 1943.)
The shifting of population during the war years brought on over-
crowding in certain localities and overloading of waste treatment and
disposal facilities. Land disposal should be considered as an emergency
measure where these conditions exist. At the same time, the authors
feel that land treatment or land disposal of sewage is legitimate, effective,
practical, and worthy of consideration, especially for small cities in
arid or semi-arid regions. They point out the basic principles, adapta-
bility, and limitations, and present the fundamental factors in suc-
cessful design and operation.
Land disposal may have as its primary purpose an agricultural opera-
tion or a disposal operation. Over-irrigation must be avoided. Intermit-
tent application followed by cultivation is recommended for good soil
condition and weed control. If properly operated, no appreciable odors
should result from using a well-clarified effluent.
Discussions by C. G. Gillespie and W. T. Knowlton are included.
140. PEU1IFOY, R. L. 1939. Sewage Irrigation as a Method of Disposal.
Proc. 21st Texas Water Works and Sewage Short School, p. 115-121.
Abst: Sewage Wks. Jour. 12:1018-1019.
Constituents in sewage that are beneficial to soil are listed, as well
as certain others that are objectionable. Results of irrigation with
sewage at Kingsville, Texas are described. Methods of application are
varied. Condition of subsoil as well as texture of surface layer are im-
portant considerations. Reservoir for storage of at least three months’
supply is recommended.
Sewage disposal by irrigation is safe, effective, and economical. Cities
should seriously consider irrigation as a possible method of disposal.
141. SPENCER, B. R. 1943. Sewage Disposal by Irrigation. Public Health
(South Africa) 7:15-28. Abst: Sewage Wks. Jour. 16:655-657.
Land disposal is necessary in South Africa since few places permit
effluent to be discharged to streams. Reviews history of land disposal.
First recorded sale of effluent for irrigation was at Broinford, England,
in 1869.
Water requirements of different crops are considered. Over-irrigation
has resulted in raised water tables and “brackish” soil conditions. Deep
plowing has been employed to help alleviate the situation.
ItaJian rye grass has been found to be satisfactory. Its several advan-
tages are enumerated.
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LAND DISPOSAL OF LIQUID WASTES 43
142. WINSLOW, C. E. A. and PHELPS, E. B. 1906. Investigations on the
Purification of Boston Sewage. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply
Paper 185, 163 pages.
One method of sewage disposal consists of distributing the sewage
over broad areas and allowing the liquid to recharge the groundwater.
The method has been widely used in Europe since the sixteenth century.
Conditions for “sewage farming” are specially favorable in the arid por-
tions of the western United States. Plants in Utah, California, and
Wyoming are mentioned. In areas selected for sewage application, the soil
should be light and the subsoil sandy or gravelly to obtain suitable
recharge rates. Recharge rates in England range between 0.006 and
0.046 feet per day and in Germany between 0.006 and 0.021 feet
per day.
1951 — 1955
143. BELL, JAMES W. 1955. Spray Irrigation for Poultry and Canning
Wastes. Public Works 86:111-112. PHE Abst. 36:S:16.
Liquid waste disposal from two poultry-processing plants and a can-
ning plant in Arkansas is described. In each case, septic tank failure
and/or lagooning resulted in objectionable conditions. Plant wastes are
screened and applied to the soil directly or by spraying. Rates of applica-
tion vary from 10 to 60 inches per year; and 0.25 to 0.7 inches per day
for short periods. Spray irrigation is considered a water conservation
method. The three plants consider this method of disposal to be satis-
factory and suitable where municipal disposal facilities are not available.
Some monetary return is realized from the irrigated land.
144. BROWN, H. D., HALE, H. H., and SHEETS, W. D. 1955. Disposal
of Cannery Wastes by Irrigation. Food Packer 36:28-30. PHE Abst.
36: 5:37.
Four methods of irrigation now used are furrow, ditch, flood, and
spray. The soil type and land contour determine the appropriate method
to use. Stagnant water must be avoided. Vegetation assists in water
disposal by transpiration and soil conditioning. Details are given on spray
irrigation field tests. Costs are considered. Information is given on the
best type of spray nozzle.
145. BUSH, A. F. and MULFORD, S. F. 1954. Studies of Waste Water
Reclamation and Utilization. Calif. State Water Poll. Control Rd., Sacra-
mento, Pub!. No. 9. 82 pages. Abst: Sewage and md. Wastes 27:119.
This report covers the determination of (a) relationship of under-
ground water pollution to methods and rates of spreading and percola-
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44 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
tion of reclaimed waste waters; (b) the effects on underground water
pollution of increasing the percolation rates of reclaimed waste waters
by means of cropping and vegetation, additives to top layers of soil,
forced irrigation, or other means; (c) degree of contamination and/or
pollution of a variety of truck crops on maturity where the reclaimed
waste waters from various sources, including sewage and industrial
wastes, have been applied to the crops and spreading areas by flooding,
spraying, or other means; and (d) the extent of odor and other nuisances
which may result from this procedure.
It is recommended that waste water be considered a water resource
and that further studies be made of percolation rates and degree of
treatment required to handle the pollution load, also to remove salts
(particularly sodium and boron) from sewage and industrial wastes.
Useful references and a bibliography are included.
146. CANHAM, ROBERT A. 1955. Some Problems Encountered in Spray
Irrigation of Canning Plant Wastes. Proc. 10th md. Waste Conf., Purdue
Univ. 89:120-134.
Seasonal operation requires that waste treatment systems have relatively
low capital investment and reasonable operating cost. The organic loading
may vary widely with different types of canning wastes. Other waste
characteristics are discussed.
Considers the problems encountered in spray irrigation, such as
availability of land, soil type, ground slope, frequency of application,
cover crops, and spray distribution systems.
147. DENNIS, JOSEPH M. 1953. Spray Irrigation of Food Processing
Wastes. Sewage and md. Wastes 25:591-595.
Many food-processing plants are located in small towns where treat-
ment plant facilities are not adequate to accommodate both industrial
waste and domestic sewage. To discharge the wastes into small streams
creates serious nuisance and pollution problems, especially in periods
of low streamfiow or dry periods. Disposal by spray irrigation has solved
the problem for many processing plants. Examples are cited, and costs are
discussed. The method must be adapted to the individual situation. The
need for more research is recognized.
148. DUNSTAN, GILBERT H. and LUNSFORD, JESSE V. 1955. Cannery
Waste Disposal by Irrigation. Sewage and md. Wastes 27:827-834.
Industries operating on a seasonal basis often produée wastes exceeding
the capacity of municipal disposal facilities. Separate pretreatment or
completely separate disposal may be required. Under such conditions,
disposal of industrial wastes by irrigation may prove the most economical
method. Several examples of cannery waste disposal by irrigation are
cited.
Experiments were conducted at Dayton, Wash., in which cooled
blancher waste water was used to irrigate alfalfa and permanent pasture
test plots. The grass appeared to be less susceptible to the high organic
loadings than was the alfalfa.
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LAND DISPOSAL OF LIQUID WASTES 45
The authors attributed the killing effect of the blancher waste to high
organic loading, similar to an over-application of fertilizer, although no
proof of this was offered.
149. GOTAAS, HAROLD B., ET AL. 1953. Final Report on Field Investiga-
tion and Research on Waste Water Reclamation and Utilization in Rela-
tion to Underground Water Pollution. Calif. State Water Poll. Control
Bd., Sacramento, Pub. No. 6, 124 pages. Abst: Sewage and IS. Wastes
26:927-928.
Circular spreading basins, 19 feet in diameter, were constructed and
equipped so that samples of the percolating liquid could be collected
at various depths for bacteriological and chemical analyses. Spreading
was studied with three liquids: fresh water; sewage treatment plant final
effluent having a BOD of about 10 ppm; and settled sewage with a BOD
of about 100 ppm. A number of operating variables were studied to
determine the conditions which gave maximum percolation rates and
minimum contamination or pollution of the groundwater. These included
(1) nature of liquid, (2) length of spreading period, (3) length of rest-
ing period, and (4) effect of surface treatment such as spading, sand
cover, and application of soil stabilizer.
Some of the conclusions were:
1. A bacteriologically safe water can be produced from settled sewage
or final effluent if it passes through at least 4 feet of soil.
2. A water of satisfactory chemical quality can be produced provid-
ing high concentrations of undesirable industrial wastes are not in-
cluded in the raw sewage.
3. A highly treated sewage effluent must be used to obtain high rates
of percolation.
4. A percolation rate of 0.5 acre-ft. per acre per day can be expected
when spreading a final effluent on Hanford fine sandy loam.
5. The optimum method of operation is to spread continuously for
about a month, allow the basin to rest until moisture content approaches
permanent wilting point, then cultivate the dry soil. Continuous applica-
tion of effluent may then be carried on for as long as 6 months. Resting
and cultivation may then be repeated.
6. Mosquito control will be necessary, and algae control may be
required.
7. Study was conducted on Hanford fine sandy loam. Further investi-
gations would be necessary to generalize the findings to include other soil
types.
150. GREENBERG, ARNOLD E. and ThOMAS, JEROME F. 1954. Sewage
Effluent Reclamation for Industrial and Agricultural Use. Sewage and
md. Wastes 26:761-770.
Planned reclamation is designed to produce a usable water from
sewage. Such reclaimed waters may be used by industry or agriculture
“directly” or “indirectly.” The latter involves replenishing groundwater
basins from which industrial, agricultural, or domestic supplies are
drawn.
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46 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
Experiments performed by the University of California’s Sanitary
Engineering Research Laboratory are discussed, and the conclusions are
summarized:
1. A bacteriologically safe water can be produced from settled or
more highly treated sewage if the liquid passes through at least 4 feet
of soil.
2. A water of chemical quality satisfactory for most uses can be
produced from settled sewage or final effluents, provided high concentra-
tions of undesirable wastes are not included in the raw sewage.
3. To obtain relatively high rates of percolation, a highly treated
sewage plant effluent must be used for spreading.
4. A percolation rate of 0.5 acre-ft. per acre per day, can be expected
when spreading final effluent on Hanford fine sandy loam.
5. The optimum method of operation is to spread continuously for a
month, preferably with liquid containing large amounts of organic matter,
then to allow the basin to rest until it is air dried. Thereafter, cultivation
of the dry soil is desirable. Following this preliminary treatment, con-
tinuous application of a final effluent may be carried on for as long as
6 months. Resting and cultivation may then be repeated.
6. Mosquitoes in spreading basins will create a nuisance and health
hazard unless control measures are adopted. If algal odors are pro-
nounced, the control of algae also may be necessary.
7. Further investigation is needed of sewage percolation in different
soils and of phenomena associated with the movement of water into
such soils to generalize the conclusions reached as a result of this study
with Hanford fine sandy loam.
151. GREENBERG, ARNOLD E. and MCGAUHEY, P. H. 1955. Chemical
Changes in Sewage During Reclamation by Spreading. Soil Sci. 79:33-39.
In arid and semi-arid regions, treated sewage is spread on the ground
and the water percolates down to the groundwater. Results of chemical
analyses of percolating liquids in four spreading basins in California
are tabulated. Samples were collected and analyzed to a depth of 13 feet.
Concentrations of Ca, Mg, Na, and Cl ions remained the same. K de-
creased by 50 percent. Ammonia and P were completely removed within
the first 4 feet, Sulphates and bicarbonates increased by 30 percent and
nitrate by about 200 percent. Nitrification accounts for the increase in
nitrate. It is suggested that these changes are due to biological activity
in the soil.
152. LOWE, ROBERT P. 1952. Pollution Control of the Rio Grande in
New Mexico. Sewage and md. Wastes 24:1021-1024.
Irrigation of agricultural crops is by far the major use of water on the
Pecos and Rio Grande rivers in New Mexico. Water shortages have
limited industrial development that must depend on adequate water
supply. The demand for use of all available water in New Mexico,
Texas, and the Republic of Mexico necessitates close control of pollution
so that the maximum usage of water may be obtained. This need has
been reflected in New Mexico through constant demands for use of
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LAND DISPOSAL OF UQUID WASTES 47
sewage effluents for irrigation. Growth is expected to continue, increasing
the need for domestic sewage and industrial waste treatment facilities.
Only continued and alert control can prevent extensive problems from
being created.
153. MATHER, Joimi R. 1953. The Disposal of Industrial Effluent by
Woods Irrigation. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union 34:227-239. Re-
printed: Proc. 8th md. Waste Conf., Purdue University 83:439-454.
The author describes the design and operation of a disposal system
for the Seabrook Farms Co., Seabrook, New Jersey in which food
processing wastes are sprayed over wooded lands. The forest soils were
selected for their much higher water absorbing and holding capacity.
The spreading of 400 to 600 inches of water onto forest soil during
an eight-month period caused a rise in the water table, but did not
seriously harm the vegetation, clog the soil, or result in swamps or a
completely saturated soil. Vegetative growth increased after second and
third year of operation. The water table returned to its original level dur-
ing the four winter months when operations ceased.
Waste disposal by woods irrigation at Seabrook is entirely satisfac-
tory. With careful study and planning, other types of nontoxic, organically
polluted wastes might be successfully disposed of in a similar operation.
154. MILLER, PERRY B. 1953. Spray Irrigation at Morgan Packing Com-
pany, Austin, Indiana, Proc. 8th md. Waste Conf,, Purdue. 83:284-287.
The plant operates the year round, processing beans, soups, hominy,
beets, etc., plus a seasonal pack of tomato products. The company in-
stalled a spray irrigation system for disposing of cannery wastes in 1952.
The system’s appealing features were its simplicity and the possible
solving of a stream pollution problem. The estimated waste flow was 1.3
million gallons per 16-hour day. Details of the installation are given.
The rate of application of the sprinkler system was 0.44 inch per hour.
Two sprinkler lines were operated while two others were being moved
to new locations. There was no appreciable odor or insect problem in
the irrigated fields. In the irrigated area, Kentucky fescue grew to twice
the height of that in the area that had not received plant wastes.
155. NELSON, LEONARD B. 1952. Cannery Wastes Disposal by Spray
Irrigation. Wastes Engr. 23:398-400. PHE Absi. 32:S:74-75.
In 1951, an installation in Minnesota used 24 million gallons of can-
nery waste waters to irrigate 110 acres of crops. Crop yields were in-
creased, and no nuisance odors resulted. Portable aluminum pipe was
used for sprinkler lines. The pipe was moved as required to control
distribution of water to the crops. Cost data are given for the installation.
156. Oaos, U. T. and BUTLER, R. 0. June 1955. An Investigation of
Sewage Spreading on Five California Soils. SERL, Univ. of Calif., Tech.
Bull. No. 12, I.E.R. Series 37, Berkeley.
The infiltration rate for each soil was found to follow the same general
pattern: (1) an abrupt decrease in rate attributed to dispersion of soil
particles; (2) an increase in rate due to solution of entrapped gases
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48 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
into the percolating liquid; and (3) a decrease due to accumulation of
biological slimes in the soil voids. Infiltration rates in the third phase
ranged from 30 feet per day for the most permeable soil to 0.6 feet per
day for the fine soils.
Infiltration of settled sewage applied to soil lysimeters decreased
sharply due to clogging of soil surface by particulate matter. Coliform
removals were generally highest in the fine soils. Increases in calcium
and magnesium concentrations and decreases in sodium and potassium
concentrations in the percolates were observed.
Aerobic conditions existed for the first few weeks of sewage spreading
after which anaerobic conditions persisted. Increases in BOD in the
effluents from the soils were obtained after the anaerobic stage pre-
dominated. Organic matter penetrated the surface strata of the lysimeter
soi1s causing decreases in permeability and infiltration rates. Abrupt
loss in hydraulic head through surface strata was experienced for all
soils receiving the sewage application.
Particle-size characteristics of the five soils studied could not be cor-
related with the observed infiltration rates. Therefore, field performance
of a soil cannot be predicted by comparing its particle-size characteristics
with those of other soils for which infiltration rates have been estab-
lished.
157. REPLOH, H. 1955. Land Treatment of Sewage. Koinmunaiwirt-
schaft, No. 8, 401. Water Poll. Abst. 29:352 (1932).
The author discusses the advantages of agricultural utilization of
sewage, methods of preventing odor nuisance and spreading of bacteria,
and the importance of this method of disposal to the groundwater
supply.
158. SANB0RN, N. H. 1953. Disposal of Food Processing Wastes by
Spray Irrigation. Sewage and md. Wastes 25: 1034-1043.
Spray irrigation has provided a means for the disposal of food-
processing wastes which does not pollute streams or create odors. The
method can be extended to certain other industrial wastes. Several exam-
ples of successful disposal operations are cited.
Disposal systems for typical food-processing plants are described and
cost figures given. Certain problems and limitations of spray irrigation
systems are discussed.
159. STEEL, ERNEsT W. and BERG, F. J. M. 1954. Effect of Sewage
Irrigation on Soils. Sewage and md . Wastes 26:1325-1339.
The relatively small changes in the soils studied indicate that sewage
irrigation is neither especially beneficial nor injurious to soils. Sewage
irrigation encourages accumulation of chlorides. Leaching of the chlorides
was readily accomplished and there should be no injurious accumulations
under normal operation. A slight increase in organic matter (humus) can
be expected.
Pore space is increased by sewage irrigation, and crumb structure
shows some improvement.
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LAND DISPOSAL OF LIQUID ‘WASTES 49
Sewage-irrigated soils accumulate slightly more phosphorous than
water-irrigated soils. Boron also will be contributed to soils by sewage.
160. STONE, RALPH. 1953. Land Disposal of Sewage and Industrial
Wastes. Sewage and md. Wastes 25:406-418.
The author discusses the disposal of waste effluents by irrigation of
restricted crops, or within spreading areas. Soil organisms and filtration
provide a “high-quality, fully oxidized, pathogen-free, nonturbid water”
Intermittent dosage assures an aerobic environment which is required
for nuisance-free disposal. Several examples are cited along with data
describing operations. Variable factors important to the design and opera-
tion of land disposal facilities are discussed.
Nuisance and health hazards may be controlled through proper design
and technical supervision of the operation. Certain highly mineralized
industrial wastes may present special problems. Land disposal methods
appear to be satisfactory for domestic sewage effluent.
161. TALATI, R. P. 1954. Effect of Sewage Irrigation of Soil Profiles.
Proc. of Ninth Meet. Crops Soils Rd. Agric. India, March 1952, 156-160.
Soils and Fertilizers 18:50 (243), 1955.
Studies have shown that sewage irrigation improves soil condition,
provided suitable crop rotations and proper cultivation methods are
used.
1956 — 1960
162. CANHAM, ROBERT A. 1959. Industrial Waste Disposal by Spray
Irrigation. Southwest Water With. Jour. 41:14-16, 18, 20, 22 (Dec.).
PHE Abst. 40:S:89-90.
The author discusses the many advantages of waste disposal by spray
irrigation. Among these are: (1) affords complete and adequate treat-
ment (2) minimizes offensve odors; (3) cost of operation compares
favorably with other disposal methods; and (4) does not require highly
trained personnel.
Soil characteristics and cover crops are important considerations for
successful operation. Recommends that waste waters be screened before
spraying.
163. CHASE, WILLIAM J. 1960. Spray Disposal of Domestic Wastes. Pub..
Works 91:137-141 (May). PHEAbst. 40:S: 107.
Emphasizes the need for proper disposal methods in relation to spray
irrigation of pasture and wooded areas with domestic wastes. Requir e-
ments are given in regard to pretreatment, allowable volumes according
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50 AGRICULTURAL UTIliZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
to conditions, spray-nozzle arrangement, prevention of harm to foliage,
and other details of application. Deep silty soil is preferable. Clay sub-
soil may lead to bad effects from adsorption of sodium through ion-
exchange.
164. DIETZ, MAX R. and FRODEY, RAY C. 1960. Cannery Waste Dis-
posal at Gerber Products. Compost Science Vol. 1, No. 3, p. 22-25.
Spray irrigation as a means of disposing of cannery wastes has given
satisfactory results at the Fremont, Michigan plant of Gerber Products
Company. The operation is described.
165. GELLMAN, I. and BLO5SER, R. 0. 1959. Disposal of Pulp and
Papermili Waste by Land Application and Jrrigation Use. Proc. 14th
md. Waste Con t., Purdue Univ. 104:479-494.
Some of the reasons for increased attention being given land disposal
of mill effluents are briefly reviewed. Factors considered important to
such disposal are: physical characteristics of the soil, microbial activity,
and organic decomposition in the soil. Current land and crop irrigation
practices are discussed. Water quality as required for irrigation and the
problem of water salinity are considered. Results of 18 mill studies are
summarized and additional studies suggested.
166. HICKERSON, R. C. and MCMAHON, 13. K. 1960. Spray Irrigation of
Wood Distillation Wastes. Jour. WPCF 32:55-64.
Spray irrigation seems particularly suited for nontoxic, high BOD,
water soluble organic wastes. Greenhouse and field tests were run using
fescue, blue grass, rye grass, and ladino clover.
Utilization of these wastes for irrigation greatly alleviated a stream
pollution problem. It proved a useful and practical means for industrial
waste disposal at the Wrigley wood distillation plant.
Steps to be followed in evaluating a particular waste disposal problem
are suggested.
167. JOHNSON, CuRTIs E. 1957. Utilizing the Decomposition of Organic
Residues to Increase Inliltration Rates in Water Spreading. Trans. Amer.
Geophys. Union 38:326-332.
Decomposition rates were determined for several plant residues which
were incubated under controlled conditions in the absence of soil. Three,
ranging in rates from high to low, were mixed with soil and incubated.
Decomposition rates with soil were similar to those without soil. Microb-
ial counts made during decomposition of the plant residues in soil
showed the greatest number of microorganisms occurred in the soils con-
taining plant residues which decompose rapidly. Ammonium nitrate
mixed with the soil stimulated decomposition slightly.
Percolation rates of soil mixed with organic residues varied with the
amount of material applied, decomposition rate of the material, and
length of the incubation period. The studies indicate that initial decompo-
sition at a moisture content near field capacity, followed by decomposi-
tion at near saturation, produces the highest infiltration rate for a given
amount of organic residue. Data are given and the use of organic residues
to increase the infiltration rate of water-spreading areas is discussed.
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LAND DISPOSAL OF LIQUID WASTES 51
168. MCDOWALL, F. H. 1958. Dairy Wastes: Disposal by Spray Irriga-
tion on Pasture Land. Dairy Engr. 75:25 1-254, 266. Dairy Sci. Abst.
20:923. PHE Abst. 39: 5:36.
The author discusses the disposal of effluents from New Zealand dairies
by irrigation and describes a typical installation using high-pressure
rotating sprays and a suitable irrigation technique. He gives the reasons
why this method is particularly applicable in New Zealand.
169. MCKEE, FRANK J. 1957. Dairy Waste Disposal by Spray Irrigation.
Sewage and md . Wastes 29:157-164.
Disposal of dairy wastes by spray irrigation has proved satisfactory
for remote areas having no access to sewers. Stream pollution has been
reduced, and pasture land improved by the practice. Spray irrigation
systems are described, and numerous typical installations are cited. Land
area needs are discussed regarding slope, soil type, and vegetation. Winter
operation is considered also.
Application of wastes varies from 2,500 to 10,000 gpd per acre, de-
pending on soil and vegetation. There are no runoff or odor nuisances
under normal conditions.
170. MoNsoN, HELMER. 1960. Cannery Waste Disposal by Spray Irriga-
tion. Compost Science Vol. 1, No. I, p. 4 1-44.
Ten years of spray irrigation by a large cannery show that this method
has increased promise for conserving water, reducing stream pollution,
and enhancing soil fertility. The economical operation holds considerable
appeal for canners.
171. OaoB, GERALD T. and BUTLER, ROBERT G. 1956. Use of Soil
Lysimeters in Waste Water Reclamation Studies. Jour. San. Engr. Div. ,
Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Engr. 82:SA3:1002.
Soil lysimeters were found to provide a convenient and inexpensive
means of studying the fundamental behavior of soils under various condi-
tions of water and sewage spreading. They were shown to be of value
in estimating the performance of soils under large-scale spreading opera-
tions.
The lysimeters were constructed of corrugated iron pipe sections, 3 feet
in diameter and 5-feet deep. Twenty lysimeters were used to study the
characteristics of five agricultural soils under various loading conditions
with fresh water and clarified effluent from primary4reated municipal
sewage.
Data are presented in infiltration rate versus time curves. The methods
and results are discussed.
172. PETER, YEHUDA. 1958. A Report of Present Activities in Israel.
Water and Sewage Works 105:493.
The primary effluent from a number of sewage treatment plants is
pumped to a 55-acre sand dune at the rate of 2,000 to 2,500 gpd/acre.
Sandy loam underlies the dune at depths of 13 to 23 feet. The annual rain-
fall averages 20 inches. Cattle fodder is grown, and a good humus layer
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52 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
formed during the first year of cultivation, helping to stabilize the
shifting sands.
A natural depression is used as an experimental percolation area.
Sewage effluent is applied at the rate of 85,000 to 100,000 gpd/acre,
ten times the agricultural irrigation rate. This raises the freshwater table
and prevents saltwater intrusion.
173. SIMMERS, R. M. 1960. Effluent Disposal by Irrigation. New
Zealand Engr. 15:410-413.
The author describes a scheme whereby slaughterhouse wastes are
disposed of by irrigation over grazing land. Fodder growth has been
extraordinary, being capable of grazing over 20 sheep per acre. No
nuisance has been apparent, and no stock troubles have been encountered
in grazing cattle or adult sheep on the area.
In suitable localities, irrigation with clarified effluent from anaerobic
digesters should be considered. The readily available nitrogen would be
higher, and the risk of stale areas from ponding would be reduced.
174. STONE, A. R. 1960. Land in Sewage Purification, Jour. Inst. Sew-
age Purif. (British) Part 4:417-424.
The author cites British experience with land disposal and discusses
reasons behind several monumental failures. The agricultural disposal
of sludge is dealt with in some detail and is recommended as an integral
part of land disposal of sewage.
Experience at Nottingham is described in detail, where sludge disposal
and irrigation with effluent have been studied.
175. ToDD, DAVID K. 1959. Annotated Bibliography on Artificial Re-
charge of Groundwater Through 1954. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply
Paper 1477, 115 pages.
The author lists the various methods used in artificial recharge opera-
tions and considers the factors that are important in the selection of the
method. The bibliography lists the literature pertaining to artificial
recharge of groundwater up to and including the year 1954. Each refer-
ence is abstracted, authors are listed alphabetically, and an index based
on subject and locality is included. The blibliography section covers
pages 5 through 107 of the report.
1961 — 1965
176. ANONYMOUS. 1964. Effluent Treatment by Spray Irrigation. Water
and Waste Treatment 10:105.
Spray irrigation is employed in New Zealand as an effective and
economical method of treatment and disposal of a variety of trade wastes.
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LAND DISPOSAL OF LIQUID WASTES 53
Initial BOD values are in some cases very high. The BOD values of
drainage from the fields and of nearby rivers receiving the drainage are
closely checked and found to be satisfactory. Up to 65,000 gpd are being
disposed of in this way, using land areas of 3 to 60 acres. The technique
is successful on a variety of soil types and in locations near rivers. In
most cases, the effluent is used on grassland, which is exploited by grazing
livestock. Lagooning may be employed as a means of reducing pollution
before spraying. Several specific examples are cited with details of
operation.
177. BLOSSER, RUSSELL 0. and OWENS, EBEN L. 1964. Irrigation and
Land Disposal of Pulp Mill Effluents. Water and Sewage Wks. 111:424-
432.
Interest in land disposal of many industrial wastes has increased in
recent years. For the many industrial wastes that are unsuitable for agri-
cultural irrigation purposes, the primary concern is disposal. Paper mill
effluents fall in this category, usually having a high sulfite content and
low pH.
Laboratory studies dealt with changes in effluent characteristics, in soil
characteristics, and in cover vegetation conditions when a wide variety
of effluents were applied to the soil in simulated irrigation practice.
Grasses were used for cover vegetation. Alta fescue was found to have
high moisture resistance and reasonably high salt tolerance with an exten-
sive root system. Results of the study are discussed.
178. Boc,xo, J. and SZERSZEN, L. 1962. Chemical Changes in Soil Ir-
rigated with Municipal Sewage. Zesz. Nauk. Wyz. Szkol. Rol. Wroclaw
Melior 7:71-82. Soils and Fert. 26:273 (1982), 1963.
No significant changes were observed in humus and nutrient content
in the soil after sprinkling with sewage at low rates of application; but
alkalinity increased slightly, especially in the deeper soil layers. In filtra-
tion fields, because of the high sewage load, organic substances ac-
cumulated in the soil and the sorption capacity increased. A constant
supply of sewage resulted in a decrease in pH. No accumulation of
alkalis occurred in light-soil filtration fields.
179. BocKo, J. 1965. Displacement of Iron in Soil Irrigated with Sew-
age. Zesk. Nauk. Wyzsz. Szk. Roin. Wrocl. Melior 10:209-217, Soils and
Fertilizers 29:82 (527), 1966.
Decomposition of sewage in soil causes oxygen deficit, resulting in a
reduction of Fe 3 and leaching of Fe 2 to the lower horizons. The dis-
placed Fe accumulates in the lower horizons, forming an impermeable
layer inhibiting water percolation into the drains.
180. FISK, WILLIAM W. 1964. Food Processing Waste Disposal. Water
and Sewage Wks. 111:417-420. P IlE Abst. 45:68 (1965).
Two methods of waste disposal are employed at Gerber Company
plants. At Asheville, North Carolina, the wastes are ground, solids re-
moved, and used for animal feed. The waste water is discharged to the
French Broad River.
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54 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
At Fremont, Michigan spray irrigation is employed. Large solids are
removed for animal feed. Waste water is pumped to a 140-acre site
having 50—ft. depth of Ottawa Sand. Sprinklers are spaced at 120 ft. and
deliver 81 wm over an area 210 ft. in diameter. Several cover crops
have been grown. Solids accumulation and surface compaction require
“subsoiling” the spray area every 2 or 3 years. Test wells 500 ft. from
the spray area reveal no measurable effect on groundwater level or
quality.
181. HUSEMANN, C. and WESCHE, J., 1962. The Purifying Effect of Dif-
ferent Methods of Sewage-Water Treatment in Investigations of Berlin
Sand Soil. Z. Kulturtech 3:291-307 - Soils and FertÜizers 27:153 (1097),
1964.
Surface flooding (soil filters), border irrigation, contour-furrow irriga-
tion, sub-irrigation, and sprinkling irrigation were compared. Soil filters
were unsatisfactory, leaving a high content of N and other plant nutrients
in the seepage water. The other irrigation methods were better; but, by
far, the best was sprinkling irrigation which resulted in almost complete
purification of the seepage water.
182. JoNEs, JOE H. and TAYLOR, GEORGE 5. 1965. Septic Tank Effluent
Percolation Through Sands Under Laboratory Conditions. Soil Sci.
99:301-309.
In a gravel-sand column in which septic tank effluent first percolates
over the gravel, the zone of most rapid clogging is the sand-gravel inter—
face. Organic and inorganic deposits are also highest in the interfacial
region. The gravel accumulates up to 20 per cent of the total deposits,
and because of its better aeration affords higher organic decomposition.
Soil clogging under effluent loading occurs 3 to 10 times faster under an
anaerobic than under an aerobic environment, and sands of initially
high hydraulic conductivity are clogged at a much slower rate than those
of initially low conductivity.
Under aerobic conditions, there are three distinct phases of clogging
in sand. The first is a period in which the conductivity declines to near
25 percent of its initial value. During the second phase, the conductivity
fluctuates near the latter value for many months and declines slowly to
near 10 per cent of the original conductivity. In the third phase, the
conductivity drops rather sharply to 1 or 2 percent of its initial value.
Under anaerobic conditions, the second phase of clogging is absent, and
the first and third phases are indistinguishable.
183. KLEIN, STEPHEN A, JENKINS, DAVID, and MCGAUHEY, P. H.
1963. The Fate of ABS in Soils and Plants. Jour. WPCF 35:636-654.
Adsorption and bio-degradation of alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS)
from water percolating through each of five soil types under saturated
and unsaturated, sterile and biologically-active, and under continuous
and intermittent flow conditions were studied. The results arc discussed
and significant conclusions enumerated. Water solutions of ABS were
compared to primary sewage effluents containing added amounts of ABS
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LAND DISPOSAL OF LIQUID WASTES 55
on both fertilized and unfertilized soils. Sunflower and barley were grown
in water culture at ABS concentrations of 0, 10, and 40 mg/i. Sun-
flower, barley, and Lupinus atbus were grown in soil at ABS concentra-
tions of up to 50 mg/i. Although ABS severely inhibited growth in water
culture, only sunflower was adversely affected in soil. Growth of plants
irrigated with sewage far surpassed those irrigated with water, regardless
of soil fertilization practices or the addition of up to 15 mg/i ABS to
the sewage. It was concluded that irrigation with sewage is beneficial
to plants despite the presence of ABS in any amount likely to occur in
sewage at the present time.
184. LULEY, H. G. 1963. Spray Irrigation of Vegetable and Fruit Proc-
essing Wastes. Jour. WPCF 35:1252-1261.
A large food-processing company uses spray irrigation for waste dis-
posal at two of its eastern factories. Experience indicates that the method
can be operated successfully even though the soil and terrain were not
considered optimum for the spray fields. It has been used for year-round
disposal in the climate of southern Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Dis-
posal by spray irrigation is practical, simple in concept, and straightfor-
ward in operation. Through careful planning and control, it can be
adapted to various ground conditions and terrain. The wastes must not
be toxic to ground-cover vegetation. The land required for disposal
operations should be available at a reasonable price and in close prox-
imity to the factory site.
185. PARKHURST, Jom4 D. 1963. Reclaiming Used Water. Amer. City
78:83-85 (Oct.). PHE Abst. 44-153.
The Whittier Narrows plant in Los Angeles is designed to salvage the
treated waste water for reuse rather than dump it into the ocean. A
constant 10 mgd of raw sewage is diverted from the trunk sewer to the
activated sludge plant, which consists of 2 primary sedimentation tanks
(detention 2.6 hr), 3 aeration tanks (25 percent return, detention 5.8
hr), and 5 final settling tanks (detention 2.2 hr). This treatment, fol-
lowS by chlorination, produces an effluent averaging about 10 mg/liter
BOD and soluble solids. Percolation through the ground after spreading
recharges the aquifer for underground storage and further reduces the
impurities. All by-products (e.g., sludge) go back into the trunk sewer
for removal and disposal at existing downstream treatment facilities.
186. ROBECK, GORDON G., COHEN, JESSE M., SAYERS, WILLI.&M T.,
and WOODWARD, Ric &iu L. 1963. Degradation of ABS and Other
Organics in Unsaturated Soils. Jour. WPCF 35:1225-1236.
Soil lysimeter studies showed the alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) in
a septic tank effluent can be degraded from 5 to 35 mg/i to less than
0.5 mg/i if applied properly to certain unsaturated soils. Under inter-
mittent loading on a daily basis aerobic organisms survived. Most sandy
soils handled at least 0.5 to 1.0 foot per day of waste. Organisms usually
found in sewage and soil were able to degrade ABS, 2,4,5-T, 2,4-D, and
o-cresol if time were allowed to adjust and handle new organics in the
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56 AGRICULTURAL UTIUZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
waste. Coliform organisms, odor, turbidity, and COD were greatly re-
duced and nitrification took place when the ABS was degraded below
0.5 mg/i.
187. koRE a, GORDON G., BENDIXEN, THOMAS W., SCHWARTZ, WARREN
A., and WOODWARD, Ricauw L. 1964. Factors Influencing the Design and
Operation of Soil Systems for Waste Treatment. Jour. WPCF 36:971-983.
Soil lysimeter studies with septic tank effluent indicate that soil systems
can degrade the new synthetic organics as well as the usual COD com-
ponents. It appears that groundwater can be protected when wastes are
properly applied to the soil. Several important design and operational
features are listed which will help effect a 90 to 95 percent reduction
of ABS and other COD components in a septic tank effluent and also
protect the groundwater from microbial forms.
188. ROHDE, (3. 1962. The Effects of Trace Elements on the Exhaustion
of Sewage-Irrigated Land. Jour. Ins:. Sew. Purif. Pt. 6, 581-585. Water
Poll. Abs:. 36:421 (2063).
At the Berlin sewage farm, some of the soil has recently shown signs
of exhaustion, and crop yields have fallen. Samples of exhausted soil and
soil on which healthy plants were growing were examined, particularly
for trace elements. The results were compared with analyses of similar
samples from a sewage farm in Paris where signs of exhaustion had also
been observed. The soil at the Berlin farm is sandy and acid, while that
at the Paris farm is rich in lime. The results of the analyses are tabulated
and discussed. ft appears that the main cause of exhaustion at both Berlin
and Paris is the presence of high concentrations of copper and zinc.
189. SCHRAIJFNAGEL, F. H. 1962. Ridge-and-Furrow Irrigation for In-
dustrial Waste Disposal. Jour. WPCF 34:1117-i 132.
Where the soil is suitable and conditions favorable, ridge-and-furrow
irrigation can accomplish a consistently high degree of treatment at low
cost and with little maintenance. In some cases, a complete job of disposal
can be accomplished. The history of the method is traced, and its use in
disposal of canning, dairy, meat processing, municipal, and other wastes
is discussed. Design, application rates, and tile drainage are considered, in
addition to vegetation and water quality for irrigation. The method, in
many cases, has been the solution to chronic pollution and nuisance
problems.
190. SCOTT, RALPH H. 1962. Disposal of High Organic Content Wastes
on Land. Jour. WPCF 34:932-950.
The author describes the practical aspects of strong waste application
to land and cites experience gained from the practice. Disposal of liquid
digested sludge, cheese whey, and spent sulfite liquor is discussed. Exam-
ples and cost figures are given. Careful planning is needed to safeguard
groundwater quality, especially where spent suffite liquor is involved.
191. SPRWASTAVA, P. B. L. and MEHROTRA, C. L. 1962. The Effect of
Leaching Saline Alkali Soils with Irrigation Waters of Different Kinds on
the Permeability and the Composition of the Soils and the Composition
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LAND DiSPOSAL OF LIQUID WASTES 57
of the Leachates. Jour. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 10:93-98. Soils and Fertilizers
26:27 (189), 1963.
Results of laboratory tests are reported on the effect of leaching with
sewage, canal, and well waters, in the absence or presence of ½ to 1 ton
Ca SO 4 , on the conductivity, Ca + Mg, monovalent cation and anion
contents and percolation in different soils (pH 8.3-8.85) of originally
31-51 percent saturation.
Canal waters tended to increase soil alkalinity, but improved percola-
tion, especially in combination with small doses of CaSO 4 . Sewage waters
decreased salinity and alkalinity in soils affected by the application of
canal waters.
192. STANBRIDGE, H. H. 1964. From Pollution Prevention to Effluent
Reuse. Water & Sewage Wks. 111:446-451 and 494-499. PHE Abst.
45:112-113.
Recent methods and future proposals for the reuse of effluents that now
pollute England’s rivers are presented. The need for greater conservation
of water resources is discussed in relation to the rapidly growing needs
of industries and the public in various areas of England and Wales. The
author concludes: “As the demand for water increases and sewage
effluents and river water are used more extensively, quality will be de-
termined by the use to which the water is to be put rather than by the
need to prevent nuisance or support fish.”
193. STEFFEN, A. J. 1964. Control of Water Pollution by Wastewater
Utilization: The Role of the WPCF. Water and Sewage Works
111:384-385.
As the 1965 President of the Water Pollution Control Federation, the
author states: “Reclamation of wastewater by recharging groundwater
basins, by irrigation, and by direct use as industrial water supply elim-
inates the wastewater from surface streams and thus qualifies as com-
plete pollution control.” He encourages the further development of
methods for wastewater reclamation and criteria for its reuse. The Fed-
eration and its member associations continue to encourage reuse studies
through publications and awards.
194. WATSON, JOHN L. A. 1964. Solving a Pollution Problem in Israel.
Effi. and Water Treat. Jour. 4:126-127, 146. Water Poll. Abs:. 38:229
(1114).
Before the construction of a sewage treatment plant at Haifa, Israel,
the river Kishon was heavily polluted with domestic sewage which was
discharged untreated or after primary treatment only. The new plant,
treating domestic sewage and some industrial wastes, provides complete
treatment by high-rate biological filtration. It is planned to use the
effluent for irrigation and industrial purposes. Effluent is presently being
used successfully in two fish-breeding ponds. Sludge is digested, dried
on beds, and sold for composting with refuse.
195. WEiss, RUDOLPH W. 1961. Using Treated Sewage Effluent for Crop
Irrigation. Compost Science Vol. 2, No. 3, p. 33-34.
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58 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
The city of Kerrville, Texas solves a stream pollution problem and
provides water for growing crops at the same time. In 1952 the Soil
Conservation Service assisted the city in planning an irrigation program
on its 320-acre farm. The treatment plant design and operation are given.
The wet digested sludge is diluted with sewage effluent and discharged
onto the land in conjunction with the regular irrigation program, thereby
eliminating the need for sludge drying beds and the tedious labor in-
volved. The operation won Kerrville an award for the most efficient dis-
posal of sewage sludge in the State of Texas.
196. WE5TENHOU5E, Rsx. 1963. Irrigation Disposal of Wastes. TAPPJ
46:160A-161A. PI lE Abst. 44:72 (1964).
Land disposal of kraft mill condensates was accomplished by sprinkler
irrigation methods. Application rates of 0.5 in./day produced slight
surface flooding. Sixty acres of land provided sufficient pasture for
80-100 head of livestock. Burning of vegetation by the 150°F con-
densates was controlled by the use of higher system pressures and in-
creased trajectory from the nozzle outlet. More than 50 percent of the
total mill waste load was disposed of on land by this method.
197. WISCHMEIER, W. H. and MANNERING, J. V. 1965. Effect of Organic
Mailer Content of the Soil on Infiltration. Jour. Soil and Water Conserv.
20:150-152.
Measurements of soil physical properties were obtained from 44 dif-
ferent soils and related to runoff. Soil texture classes included sandy loam,
loam, silt loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, and silty clay. Organic matter
contents ranged from 1 to 4 percent, and slopes from 4 to 14 percent.
The organic matter content of the soil was the measured variable most
closely correlated with runoff. Results of linear regression analyses are
discussed.
The study indicated that the entry of rain into the soil was influenced
much more by the organic mailer content and by management practice
than by texture and topography.
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4
Sanitary Aspects
f \\T j 1 \Vater Utilization
gricultural utilization of sewage treatment plant effluent should not be
confused with sewage disposal. The two are not synonymous. Irriga-
tion with sewage effluent, on the contrary, should be considered as a
corollary of sewage disposal. In years past, irrigation first was used pri-
marily as a convenient and relatively inexpensive method of disposing
of sewage; but, as knowledge of the spread of disease increased, health
standards were updated. Health authorities are generally agreed that
water not safe enough to discharge into surface streams is unsafe for
general irrigation use. Sewage for general irrigation use, therefore, re-
quires pretreatment, such as is commonly given before discharging it to
streams. In such cases, use is made of waste water which, for all intents
and purposes, the city has already discarded.
In a few places irrigation is still used as a partial solution to municipal
sewage disposal. Elsewhere, it is more properly an agricultural considera-
don. The use of sewage effluent on the farm, either as a permanent or
supplemental water supply, is a matter of agricultural engineering design
and planning.
On the other hand, the primary purpose of sewage disposal is to avoid
health hazards. After all health factors have been adequately safeguarded
to the satisfaction of State and local authorities and the waste water has
been released by the city, there is no reason why it should not be made
available for supplemental irrigation use—especially in arid regions where
it may be an economic asset. The economic feasibility, however, must
be determined for each individual case. One further consideration is that
of water rights, which of course are governed by local law.
Public interests in irrigation with sewage effluents, then, are twofold:
the efficient utilization of supplemental water supplies for crop produc-
tion and, above all, the safeguarding of public health. The latter neces-
sitates strict conformance with State health regulations and local sanitary
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60 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
requirements. The State health authority should be consulted in each
case to determine which regulations apply.
A review of the literature covered in this bibliography leads to the
following conclusions regarding the sanitary aspects of sewage irrigation:
(a) Raw, untreated sewage should never be used for irrigation regard-
less of the crop grown.
(b) Sewage effluent receiving at least primary treatment may be used
for irrigation of crops not for human consumption.
(c) The use of primary treated, and preferably completely treated,
sewage effluent on feed and pasture crops for animal consumption is
considered safe and should be encouraged.
(d) 11 handled properly, the use of treated sewage effluent will not
be hazardous to the operators.
(e) Properly treated and clarified sewage effluent may be rendered
bacteriologically safe for use on any irrigated crop by chlorination after
treatment. The practice should be routine as a safeguard of public health
whenever the effluent is to be used for crop irrigation. Chlorination
simply removes any uncertainty.
Abstracts
Prior to 1951
198. CRAWFORD, A. B. and FRANK, A. H. 1940. Effect on Animal
Health of Feeding Sewage. Civil Engr. 10:495-496.
A study was conducted at the U. S. Department of Agriculture’s
Beltsville Research Center in which swine and cattle remained in good
condition after a severe six-month feeding period including raw sewage,
treatment plant effluent, and sludge. This study concluded that virulent
bacteria were not present in sufficient concentration in the incoming
sewage, effluent, or sludge of this sewage treatment plant to cause disease
in susceptible animals. These test animals were subjected to a more
severe exposure to effluent than would normally be expected to occur.
199. Ding.., PAu l.. A. 1936. Treatment Required for Sewage Reused for
Irrigation Purposes. Abst: Sewage Wks. Jour. 8:503.
About 100 cities, most of which are in California and Texas, use
sewage for irrigation purposes. Oil and grease should be removed as
well as all solids that might settle out in the irrigation ditches. For use
on garden crops, the sewage should be sterilized and filtered.
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SANiTARY ASPECTS OF WASTE WATER UTILIZATION 61
200. FALK, LLOYD. L. 1949. Bacterial Contamination of Tomatoes
Grown in Polluted Soil. Amer. Jour. Pub. Health 39:1338-1342.
The concentration of coliform bacteria on the surfaces of tomatoes
grown in polluted soil indicated no abnormal gross contamination. Even
when sprayed with fecal suspensions, surface coliform counts were no
greater after one month than on control tomatoes. The failure to find
Salmonella cerro seven days after its application to growing tomatoes
upholds the contention that organisms of fecal origin will not be present
in sufficient number to cause gross contamination.
It is felt that tomatoes grown on soils receiving night soil or sewage
sludge fertilization would yield fruit which, if eaten raw, would not be
likely vectors for the transmission of human bacterial enteric diseases.
201. MULLER, WILHELM. 1949. The Agricultural Use of Sewage. Wasser
und Boden (Germany), p. 124. Abst:Sewage and md. Wastes 22:589.
During recent years, the agricultural use of sewage has often been
discussed in Germany with no final answer being reached on this im-
portant question. Public health requires a hygienic sewage disposal, but
local authorities alone cannot solve the problem. It is a task for the State
organization, especially in densely settled countries.
Water conservation has become more important and water use must
be regulated. Within this water planning, sewage has its own part. In
particular, the agricultural use of sewage by different technical means
may appreciably increase a country’s productivity. For this purpose,
sewage must be fully treated and freed of pathogenic organisms.
The humus matter and the manure value of sewage should be used
in agriculture to compensate for the organic matter exported from the
country as food. Sewage disposal into the ocean only “manures” the
sea water. Treated sewage should be discharged into rivers only in such
volume as is necessary to manure the rivers for fishing industries.
202. PAWN, A. M. 1934. Salvage of Sewage Studied. Civil Engr. 4:471-
472.
A report of the Joint Committee of the Sanitary Engineering and Ir-
rigation Division based on questionnaires mailed to Public Health Di-
rectors of the 48 States and the District of Columbia to learn the extent
of sewage use for irrigation in each of the States, the influence of such
use on public health, and the standards that should be prescribed and
enforced if water and fertilizer reclaimed from sewage are to be used in
the production of foodstuffs to be eaten raw, to be cooked, to be used as
fodder crops, or to be used in the irrigation or fertilization of public
grounds.
Nine of the forty States responding acknowledged experience with
sewage inigation. Four claimed illnesses could be traced directly to such
use; one claimed cattle pastured on raw sewage-irrigated fields developed
poorly and were infected with a disease that rendered the meat unfit for
human consumption.
Others indicated no difficulty, probably because of the manner of
irrigation and the nature of the crops grown. Many of the States without
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62 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
experience indicated that such practice would be prohibited in any
form on vegetables or fruits to be eaten raw. The majority expressed a
willingness to allow its use on fodder crops or on lawns and parks.
Other results of the survey are also discussed.
203. RAWN, A. M., ET AL. 1942. Salvage of Sewage: Final Report of the
Joint Committee of the Sanitary Engineering Division and the Irrigation
Division. Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Engr. 107:1652-1687.
This comprehensive report considers the salvage of products from
sewage: “Water, fertilizer, gas, grease, and such other materials as may
be separated from sewage in the treatment plant or elsewhere and used.”
From Public Health considerations, the following are considered im-
port ant guidelines:
(a) Raw sewage, or its untreated solids content, or the soil which it
has recently irrigated shall not come in contact with food-stuff designated
for human consumption; nor shall livestock graze upon pasture irrigated
therewith;
(b) Forage crops which are to be harvested and cured may be ir-
rigated with the untreated effluent from adequate subsidence tanks.
(c) For use in the cultivation of human foodstuff, particularly that
to be eaten raw, the water reclaimed from sewage must be well oxidized
and thoroughly sterilized at all times; and
(d) Sewage solids to be used as fertilizer must be digested and dried,
or if undigested may be kiln-dried at temperatures which will destroy all
inimical pathogenic organisms.
Discussions cover the reclamation and use of water from sewage, both
for irrigation and industry, and the reclamation and use of fertilizer from
sewage.
A bibliography with 65 entries is included.
204. TANNER, FRED W. 1935. Public Health Significance of Sewage
Sludge When Used as a Fertilizer. Sewage Wks. Jour. 7:611-617.
The application of sewage sludge to soil on which vegetables, which
may be eaten raw, are grown should be practiced with caution. While
longevity of pathogenic bacteria in sludge would probably be greatly
influenced by the nature of the sludge and the conditions under which it
is stored and handled, sufficient data have been recorded to indicate
the presence of viable Bacterium typhosum cells in sludge. At best, the
sludge should be added to the soil in the late fall, winter, or early
spring. Wolman’s advice, probably sound, is that sludge not be added
to growing crops. Sanitary districts and others concerned with the sale
of sewage sludge to farmers might well consider the health hazards in-
volved.
20S. WRIGHT, C. T. 1950. Pollution of Irrigation Waters. Sewage and
md. Wastes 22:1403-1412.
The report emphasizes the importance of irrigation for the economic
and agricultural development of the western states. Jn this connection,
pollution of irrigation waters is a problem that must be solved in some
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SANJTARY ASPECTS OF WASTE WATER UTILIZATION 63
areas to permit maximum utilization of water resources. Opinions differ
among health authorities as to the health hazards associated with the use
of polluted water for irrigating edible crops. This is reflected in the
lack of uniform requirements or standards covering such use. As no
widely accepted requirements or standards exist for the quality of irriga-
tion waters or the streams from which they are drawn, there is a definite
need for basic data on which reasonable requirements can be based.
No conclusions can be drawn from current studies relating to the pollu-
tion of irrigation waters, and health authorities agree that more research
is needed to develop methods which will permit full utilization of existing
and potential irrigation waters. These studies should include epidemio-
logical investigations to determine the relationship between the use of
truck crops exposed to polluted irrigation waters and enteric infections.
There appears to be some agreement regarding the use of well-oxidized
and adequately disinfected effluents for irrigating fruits and vegetables. In
the absence of widely accepted requirements or standards, health au-
thorities must require a high degree of treatment for domestic and in-
dustrial wastes where irrigation waters are involved in order to eliminate
possible health hazards.
1951 — 1955
206. ANoNYMOUS. 1955. Hygiene of Jrrigation and the Use of Sewage
Residues. Szadtehygiene 6:259-260. Water Poll. Abst. 29:244 (1348).
A draft is given of a proposed standard (DIN 19650) dealing with
requirements for water used for irrigation and with the use of sewage
and sludge in agriculture.
207. BUTLER, R. G., ORLOB, G. T. and MCGAUHEY, P. H. 1954. Under-
ground Movement of Bacterial and Chemical Pollutants. Jour Amer.
Water Wks. Assn. 46:97-111.
The movement of bacterial and chemical pollutants via water per-
colating through the soil above the water table has been studied somewhat
more extensively than the travel of pollution via groundwater movement.
Emphasizes the need for investigations in both areas. From reports in
the literature and the results of field and pilot-scale studies conducted
by the University of California Sanitary Engineering Research Labor-
atories (SERL), several significant conclusions were drawn. These are
listed and briefly discussed. A bibliography with 29 entries is included.
208. DUNLOP, S. G., TWEDT, R. M., and WANG, W. L. 1951. Salmonella
in Irrigation Water. Sewage and md. Wastes 23:1118-1122.
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64 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
Salmonella were recovered from a significant proportion of samples
of irrigation water contaminated with a primary-treated sewage plant
effluent. These same organisms, however, were not recovered from sam-
ples of vegetables irrigated with this water. Furrow irrigation was the
method of application. Any organisms in the water would have to be
splashed onto the leaves and stems above the ground or conveyed to
the plant by some other means. Root crops might be expected to be con-
taminated to a greater extent.
209. DUNLOP, STUART 6. 1952. The Irrigation of Truck Crops with
Sewage Contaminated Water. The Sanitarian 15: 107-110. (Nov.-Dec.).
PHEAbst. 33:S:28.
Evidence is presented that a significant proportion of irrigation water
samples, contamined with treated and untreated sewage effluents, contain
pathogenic enteric microorganisms. Such organisms, however, were only
rarely isolated from the washings of vegetables irrigated with this water.
The author points out that it would therefore appear that the health
hazard associated with the use of sewage-contamined water for the irriga-
tion of truck crops to be consumed raw is not as great as has been as-
sumed in the past; nevertheless, the fact that the water has been demon-
strated to be contaminated indicates that a hazard still exists, and that
every effort must be made to provide adequate treatment of all domestic
and industrial wastes before discharging into streams to be used later for
irrigation purposes.
210. DUNLOP, S. G., TwErrr, R. M., and WANG, W. L. 1952. Quantita-
live Estimation of Salmonella in irrigation Water. Sewage and md.
Wastes 24:1015-1020.
A quantitative method was developed for estimating Salmonella num-
bers in sewage-contaminated irrigation water. Of 11 such samples, 8
were positive for Salmonella. The median value for the 11 samples was
0.9 per 100 ml. Only 1 to 14 samples of vegetables irrigated with this
water was positive for these organisms. Ratios of 225,000 coliforms and
4,800 enterococci to one Salmonella were computed from the median
values obtained from the water samples.
211. FALKENHAIN, H. S. 1953. Regulations for Irrigation and the Use of
Sewage Sludge. Wasserw.-Wass. Tech. 3:293-294. Water Poll. Abst.
28:273 (1805).
Proposed German regulations for irrigation and for the use of sewage
sludge are discussed. The author considers the divergent views in the
literature on the subject of preliminary treatment of sewage and trade
waste waters for use in agriculture. Special importance attaches to the
destruction of parasitic worms and pathogenic bacteria. During sedimen-
tation the numbers of these are reduced, but the danger of infection is not
removed.
212. HARMSEN, H. 1955. Hygiene of Land Treatment of Sewage.
Stadtehygiene 6:253-259. Water Poll. Abst. 29:244 (1347).
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SANJTARY ASPECTS OF WASTE WATER UTILIZATION 65
The author discusses the hygienic risks and the precautions necessary
m the various methods for disposing of sewage on land and the agricul-
tural utilization of sewage, with special reference to infectious sewage.
The conditions required for satisfactory disposal and the effect of these
methods and also of methods of sewage treatment in sewage works
on pathogenic bacteria are considered.
213. KozlokowsKl, BOHDAN. 1953. Public Health Aspects of Sewage
Farming. Gaz. Woda i Tech. Sanit. (Polish) 27:100. Abst: Sewage and
hid. Wastes 25:1480.
Secondary treatment of the sewage should precede its use in sewage
farming, but this is costly and fertilizer value is reduced by 20 percent
over that of primary treatment. The spraying of primary effluent on
fields and forests is recommended, but produce taken from these fields
should be processed properly before consumption.
214. KREY, W. 1954. Agricultural Utilization—Including Application as
Artificial Rain—of River Water and Sewage. Desinfektion 46:82. Water
Poll. Abst. 29:28 (162).
The author discusses regulations for the use of sewage and sludge as
fertilizer, the hygienic advantages of using surface water, and the possible
carriage of disease by sewage. He argues strongly against the use of
untreated sewage and emphasizes the need for strict supervision of
agricultural use.
215. KRUEZ, C. A. 1955. Hygienic Evaluation of the Agricultural Utiliza-
tion of Sewage. Gesundheits Ing. 76:206-211. Water Poll. Abst. 29:28
(161).
The author discusses the hygienic problems arising from the agricul-
tural utilization of sewage and the amount of agricultural use in the
United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and Germany. He con-
siders the dangers to health, precautions necessary in the use of sewage
and sludge, the fertilizer and humus-forming effects of sewage and
sludge, and the effect of treatment on the fertilizing constituents.
216. NORMAN, NoAH N. and KABLER, PAUL W. 1953. Bacteriological
Study of Irrigated Vegetables. Sewage and md. Wastes 25:605-609.
The coliform content of the irrigated soils studied reflects, in general,
the coliform density of the waters they receive. Vegetables irrigated with
waters of high coliform count exhibit a higher coliform flora than vege-
tables irrigated with relatively pure water. The coliforni density of leafy
vegetables irrigated with polluted water is higher than that of smooth
vegetables grown under similar conditions.
Under the conditions of this study, the enterococcus indices of soils
and vegetables showed no direct relationship to the indices of irrigation
waters.
Salmonella were present in the irrigation waters in readily demonstra-
ble numbers, were present in soils in only low concentration, and were
insufficiently numerous on the vegetables to be demonstrated by the pro-
cedures used.
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66 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
217. REINKE, B. A. 1951. California Regulates Use of Sewage for Crop
Irrigation. Wastes Engr. 22:364, 376.
The State Department of Public Health has adopted regulations gov-
erning use of sewage for crop irrigation. They prohibit use of raw sewage
on growing crops; provide that partially disinfected effluents shaH not
be used to water growing vegetables, garden truck, berries, or low-
growing fruits such that fruit is in cotitact with the ground; but may be
used on nursery stock, cotton, and such field crops as hay, grain, rice,
alfalfa, sugar beets, fodder corn, cowbeets, and fodder carrots.
Well-oxidized, nonputrescible and reliably disinfected or filtered ef-
fluents, which meet the bacterial standards established for drinking
waters, may be used without restriction.
The degree of sewage pollution of irrigation waters varies with the
source of supply.
218. RUDOLE 5, W., FALK, L. L ,, and RAGOTZKIE, R. A. 1951. Contami-
nation of Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil: I. Bacterial Contamination.
Sewage and irid. Wastes 23:253-268.
“Field experiments during two growing seasons were designed to
evaluate and compare the extent of coliform contamination of tomatoes
to those grown in a similar but uncontaminated environment. The pollu-
tion consisted of either furrow irrigation with settled sewages normally
used for the purpose, or direct application of feces suspensions to the
fruit and leaves, which may represent spray types of irrigation on direct
application of night soil as frequently practiced. In addition, the survival
of pathogenic types, such as Salmonella and Shigella genera, was in-
vestigated to supplement with direct evidence the findings with coliform
organisms. The results show that if sewage irrigation or night soil ap-
plication is stopped one month before harvest, the fruit, if eaten raw,
would not be likely vectors for the transmission of human bacterial
enteric diseases.”
219. RUDOLFS, W., FALK, L. L., and RAGOTZK IE, R. A. 1951. Contami-
nation of Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil: II. Field and Laboratory
Studies on Endamoeba Cysts. Sewage and md. Wastes 23:478-485.
“Laboratory and field experiments on the survival of Endamoeba his-
tolytica cysts applied either in suspension or in conjunction with feces
to tomatoes and leaf lettuce direct, or to soil in which the plants were
growing, show that the cysts are extremely sensitive to desiccation. Ad-
dition of organic matter in the form of fecal suspensions does not
enhance survival of the cysts. Crops growing in the field may become
contaminated directly during the course of irrigation with sewage polluted
water or night soil, or indirectly through contact with polluted soil. Con-
taminated tomatoes and lettuce are free from viable cysts within three
days after contamination occurs, the time of decontamination decreasing
with a decrease in the degree of wetness of the soil. Field-grown crops
consumed raw and subject to contamination with cysts of E. histolytica
are considered safe in the temperate zone one week after contamination
has stopped and after two weeks in wetter tropical regions.”
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SANITARY ASPECTS OF WASTE WATER UTILIZATION 67
220. RUDOLFS, W., Faic, L. L., and RAGOTZKIE, R. A. 1951. Contami-
nation of Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil: III. Field Studies on Ascaris
Eggs. Sewage and md. Wastes 23:656-660.
“Field experiments on the survival of Ascaris suum eggs were con-
ducted by spraying suspensions of Ascaris eggs and feces on growing
tomatoes and lettuce. Plants and fruits were harvested at intervals. Re-
sults show that a reduction of the number of eggs took place with time,
but some eggs remained on the plants and fruits for more than a
month. Development of eggs was greatly retarded and completely de-
veloped eggs containing motile embryos required for infection were not
recovered. The exposure of undeveloped eggs to field conditions reduced
greatly the viability of the eggs. It appears that resistance of Ascaris
eggs on vegetable surfaces is less than might be expected from considera-
tions of their resistance in soil, feces, or night soil. All eggs degenerated
after 27 to 35 days and were incapable of development for infection.”
221. RUDOLFS, W., FALK, L. L., and RAGOTZKIE, R. A. 1951. Contami-
nation of Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil: IV. Bacterial Decontamina-
lion. Sewage and md. Wastes 23:739-751.
“Studies on coliform decontamination of raw tomatoes grown on
sewage polluted soils, or sprayed with E. coli or feces, show that the
natural death rate of these bacteria under ordinary storage conditions is
slow and does not insure adequate decontamination. Vigorous washing
for 15 mm. with plain water removes most of the sprayed-on contami-
nants, but does not remove coliform from tomatoes grown on polluted
soil. In general, vigorous washing with anionic, nonionic, and cationic
detergents is not materially better than washing with plain water. Chlorine
and its compounds in high concentration in solution do not remove
organisms protected by dirt, or in cracks, crevices, or bruises. Chlorine
gas is a good decontaminating agent, but causes bleaching in the con-
centrations required. Nitrogen trich loride and t-butyl hypochlorite are
not effective in the concentrations normally used for fruit spoilage control.
The most effective method for consistently obtaining a low coliform
residual, without affecting the appearance and condition of the vegetables,
is soaking them in water at a temperature of 60°C for 5 minutes.”
222. RUDOLFS, W., FALK, L. L., and RAGOTZKIE, R. A , 1951. Contami-
nation of Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil: V. Helminthic Decontami-
nation. Sewage and md. Wastes 23:853-860.
“Physical and chemical means of decontaminating vegetable surfaces
contaminated by Ascaris suum eggs included vigorous washing and soak-
ing in plain water, detergent solutions, germicidal rinses, and use of warm
water. The results show that the eggs adhere tenaciously to solid sur-
faces. Various detergents and germicidal rinses were not effective killing
agents, but cationic detergents will cause more than 90 percent removal
of eggs from smooth surfaces, such as tomatoes. The removal is less
effective when cracks, crevices, or bruises protect the eggs. The only
effective method to insure vegetable decontamination with respect to
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68 AGRICULTURAL UTIUZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
helminth eggs is immersion of the vegetable in warm water (55° to
60°C) for 10 minutes. Such immersion does not alter the appearance
or character of the vegetables tested.”
223. RUDOLFS, W., FALK, L. L., and RAGOTZKJE, R. A. 1951. Contami-
nation of Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil: VI. Application of Results.
Sewage and Md. Wastes 23:992-1000.
The authors state the following general conclusions:
1. No evidence has been found that pollutional bacteria, amoeba, or
helminth eggs penetrate healthy, unbroken surfaces of vegetables or
cause internal contamination.
2. Vegetables to be eaten raw can be grown without health hazard
in soils subjected to sewage irrigation, night soil application, or polluted
stream water irrigation in years prior to the season in which the vege-
tables are grown.
3. Vegetables grown under conditions of surface sewage irrigation
show no higher coliform concentrations than those grown on normally
farmed soil, whether sewage was applied before the plants were set or
while the plants were growing.
4. If sewage sludges or night soil are applied on the soil surface, or
sewage effluents are applied by overhead irrigation during growth of
vegetables, applications should be stopped at least one month before
harvest. If this precaution is taken, the crop will show no higher bacterial
contamination than when farmyard manure or artificial fertilizers are
applied.
5. Strains of Salmonella and Shigella do not survive on vegetable
surfaces for more than one week. Hence, conclusions based upon
coliform contamination offer a considerable margin of safety.
6. Bacteria applied to vegetable surfaces are tenaciously held and
protected from the external environment. This permits their survival
under field conditions and explains the difficulty of their removal by
various types of washes or kill by germicides.
7. The resistance of cysts of Endamoeba histolytica to the external
environment depends almost entirely on the amount of moisture present.
Death of the cysts occurs immediately upon desiccation.
8. During dry periods, cysts of E. histolytica survive less than 3 days
on vegetables growing above ground in the field. To reduce to a mini-
mum the danger of transmitting amoebic dysentery through crop con-
tamination, the last application of contaminating material to the soil
before harvest should be at least one week in the temperate zone and two
weeks in the wetter climates of tropical regions.
9. Eggs of Ascaris suum were recovered in reduced numbers from
vegetables one month after application, but all had degenerated, and no
completely developed eggs were found on plants in the field. The pos-
sible dangers of the transmission of Ascaris are greatly reduced if fecal
matter fertilization is stopped one month before harvest.
10. Storage, washing of vegetables in plain water, or washing with
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SANITARY ASPECTS OF WASTE WATER UTILIZATION 69
various detergents, including anionic, nonionic, and cationic compounds,
are ineffective as means of bacteriological decontamination.
11. Germicidal rinses of chlorine and its compounds are superior to
water and detergents for bacterial decontamination, but are unreliable.
12. Water, anionic, most nonionic detergents, and chlorinated com-
pounds are not effective decontaminants for helminth eggs; cationic deter-
gents aid in removal of eggs from vegetable surfaces. The eggs are
resistant to the killing effects of disinfectants which could be used in
vegetable decontamination.
13. The only reliable method for decontamination of bacterial, amoe-
bic, and helminthic organisms is pasteurization at 600 C for 5 minutes.
224. SNYDER, CHARLES W. 1951. Effects of Sewage on Cattle and Gar-
bage on Hogs. Sewage and md. Wastes 23:1235-1242.
In making use of sewage effluents, the degree of treatment required
must be governed by its subsequent reuse if the greatest social and eco-
nomic advantages are to be realized. Since there are many diseases com-
mon to both man and animals, the possibility of disease transmission by
sewage must not be overlooked.
Experiments are cited in which swine were fed with incoming sewage
mixed with bran; others were fed with effluent mixed with bran. Careful
post-mortem examinations revealed no evidence of disease. Cows were
supplied with effluent for drinking. Likewise, no evidence of disease was
found. It was concluded that virulent bacteria were not present in
sufficient concentration in the sludge and effluent of the treatment plant
at Beltsvffle to cause disease in susceptible animals.
The feeding of raw garbage to hogs can lead to trichinosis in the
animals and transfer to man if the meat is not properly cooked. Garbage
can be cooked to destroy the infection before feeding to the animals.
225. WANG, WEN-LAN Lou and DUNLOP, S. G. 1954. Animal Parasites
in Sewage and Irrigation Water. Sewage and md. Wastes 26:1020-1032.
An investigation was made to determine the efficiency of primary
sewage treatment plus chlorination, as practiced in the Denver sewage
disposal plant, on the removal of animal parasites. The results indicated
that about 20 percent of the A scarfs ova and 46 percent of the End. coli
cysts found in the raw sewage were still present in the final effluent.
However, the sewage treatment showed a removal of over 99 percent
of the coliform and enterococci.
When the effluent joined the South Platte River and the flow reached
Gardeners’ irrigation ditch, the number of A scarfs ova and End. coli
cysts was found to be reduced considerably. The coliform organisms and
enterococci, on the other hand, showed a higher incidence in this ditch
than in the effluent.
Definite conclusions concerning the public health significance of these
findings cannot be stated since little is known of the minimum infecting
doses of these organisms.
226. WARRINGTON, SAM L. 1952. Effects of Using Lagooned Sewage
Effluent on Farmland. Sewage and 2nd. Wastes 24:1243-1247.
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70 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
From a public health standpoint, the degree of treatment and the
types of crops grown should be of utmost importance. Where complete
treatment is not practiced, the use of the effluent and crops grown should
be carefully controlled. Crops which do not come in contact with the
water may be grown with comparative safety. In areas where salt naturally
tends to build up, the water should be used with caution. Its salt content,
particularly chlorides, should be checked often. The fertilizing value of
sewage effluent is great, and when it can be used, the process can convert
a liability into an asset.
227. WEILAND, K. 1955. Development and Present Condition of Sewage
Treatment and Utilization in Berlin. Wasserw.-Wass. Techn. 5:229.
Water Poll. Abst. 29:347 (1897).
A detailed description is given of the historical development and
operation of the Berlin irrigation fields and of the construction and design
of the Stahnsdorf and Wassmannsdorf sewage works. The author then
discusses the hygiene of agricultural utilization of sewage, the principles
of operation, and the necessary precautions and conditions.
228. WIERZBICKI, JAN. 1952. Sewage Disposal by Land Irrigation. Gaz.
Woda i Tech. Sanit. (Polish) 26:34. Abst: Sewage and md. Wastes
24: 1554.
A description is given of a land irrigation system in Lower Silesia,
which was built in 1906 and has continued in operation to the present
time. Data are presented on soil variation with depth in irrigated and
nonirrigated soils as well as the humus, P 2 0 5 and K 2 0 contents, and
pH changes. Various vegetables are grown, but are not irrigated during
the growing season. Workers employed in the fields for over 30 years
have had no illnesses or disease outbreaks that could be attributed to the
agricultural utilization of sewage wastes.
1956 — 1960
229. BERGER, B. B. 1960. Public Health Aspects of Water Reuse for
Potable Supply. Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn. 52:599-606.
The author discusses the feasibility of treating sewage so that the re-
claimed water may serve all municipal purposes, including water for
drinking. The recent reuse experiences of Chanute and Lyndon, Kansas,
are described. It was concluded that modern sewage treatment processes
are designed to produce an effluent that will be easily assimilated by the
receiving body of water, and that they are not intended to produce a
water suitable for a municipal water supply.
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SANITARY ASPECTS OF WASTE WATER UTILIZATION 71
230. HARMSEN, H. 1957. Irrigation and Utilization of Sewage Residues
(Hygienic Regulations). Stadtehygiene 8:25-27. Water Poll. A /nt.
30:385 (2182).
In view of the objections raised, especially from a hygienic point of
view, to the provisions of DIN 19650 issued in 1956 and dealing with
irrigation and the use of sewage, the author surveys work done and legal
enactments on the hygienic problems of use of sewage on land.
231. HERZIK, G. R., JR. 1956. Texas Approves Irrigation of Animal
Crops with Sewage Plant Effluents. Wastes Engr. 27:418-421.
The author reviews the findings of Willem Rudolfs et al. of Rutgers,
concerning the growing of vegetables in polluted soil. Also refers to
other work relative to bacteria and virus infections of raw vegetables.
In June 1952, the Texas Board of Health approved a resolution defin-
ing its stand on this matter as follows:
“The use of raw or partially treated sewage or the effluent from a
sewage treatment plant is prohibited for use as irrigation water on
any food crop which might be consumed in the raw state. Such prac-
tice is the deliberate exposure of food to filth as defined by Art. 707
of our Texas Penal Code.”
Outlines the point of view of the State Department of Health regard-
ing the public health aspects of sewage irrigation as follows:
1. Do not favor use of raw sewage for irrigation regardless of type
of crop. Sewage effluent receiving at least primary treatment may be used
for irrigation, but not for crops for human consumption. Encourages
use of primary treated, and preferably completely treated, sewage on
feed and pasture crops used for animal consumption or as an adjunct
to soil conservation practices.
2. The practice should be followed in such a way as to prevent the
creation of a public health hazard, nuisance, or stream pollution.
3. If handled properly, the sewage used at an irrigation farm should
not be hazardous to the operators.
4. Sewage sludge has certain soil conditioning and fertilizing charac-
tëristics. It likewise is not recommended for use on crops for human
consumption.
5. Sewage irrigation makes use of water that is usually wasted, aids the
area economy, reduces pollutional loads on streams, and is not hazardous
to the operators. From these considerations, its continued favorable
consideration is heartily endorsed.
232. JEY, B. N., AOADZHANOV, R. A., ALLAKHVERDYANTS, S. A., DASH-
KOVA, E. M., MA IOROVA, L. A., and SHTOK, F. S. 1960. The Results of
Sanitary and Hygienic Investigations of ASHKHABAD Sewage Farms.
Gigiena i Sanitariya No. 12, 18-20. PHE Absi. 41:S:41.
It was found that irrigation of farm fields with sewage from Ashkhabad
City produced heavy contamination of the soil. The processes of mineral-
ization and natural soil purification during the 3-6 day interval between
applications could not cope with the amount of organic waste introduced
into the soil.
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72 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
Vegetables grown on the farms, especially those in contact with the
irrigated soil, were contaminated with Esch. Coil and eggs of behninths.
In contrast to other parts of the USSR, in these regions the eggs of
helminths are found in water, soil, and on vegetables only during
autumn and spring months.
233. MULLER, G. 1957. Infection of Vegetables by Application of Do-
mestic Sewage as Artificial Rain. Stadtehygiene 8:30-32. Water Poll.
Abst. 30:385 (2184).
The author describes experiments in which plots of land, on which
carrots, cabbages, potatoes, and gooseberry bushes were growing, were
watered with sealed sewage. The soil, vegetables, and fruits were tested
for the presence of Bad. coli and Salmonella at intervals up to 40 days
after application of sewage. The amounts of sewage used were small,
but Salmonella were detected in the soil and on the potato tubers after
40 days, on carrots after 10 days, and on cabbage leaves and gooseberries
after 5 days.
234. REPL0H, H. and HANDLOSER, M. 1957. Investigations on the Spread
of Bacteria Caused by Irrigation with Waste Water. Arch. Hyg. (Berlin)
141:632-644. PHE Abst. 39:S:54.
High values for the spread of bacteria as given in the literature cannot
be obtained when the present customary types of sprinkling equipment
are employed. But it has to be assumed that, at high wind velocity, very
small droplets containing bacteria are spread considerably beyond the
proper zone of action. When the use of sprinkling equipment is projected,
this must be taken into consideration and strips of land of sufficient size
provided for protection from the spread by wind. Probably, the zone
spread can be safely lessened by planting hedges for protection from the
wind.
1961 — 1965
235. BAB0v, D. M. 1962. Bacterial Contamination of Soil and Vegeta-
bles on Fields After Seasonal Sewage Irrigation in the Southern Ukraine.
Gigiena i Sanitariya No. 11, 37-41. PHE Abst. 43:112.
The investigation showed that the use of sewage for irrigating agricul-
tural fields in the Southern Ukraine is accompanied by contamination of
soil and vegetables with intestinal bacteria. However, as the result of
energetic self-purification processes, the ripe vegetables harvested from
these fields do not differ in level of bacterial contamination from those
in the market. In case of serious infringements of the irrigation regimen
and of the time fixed for cessation of irrigation before harvest, live
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SANITARY ASPECTS OF WASTE WATER UTILIZATION 73
pathogenic bacteria may be found on vegetables. An almost complete
absence of intestinal bacteria on corn silage points to the advantages of
agricultural sewage irrigation of fields for the growing of corn.
236. DUNLOP, STUART G. and WANG, WEN-LAN LoU. 1961. Studies on
the Use of Sewage Effluent for Irrigation for Truck Crops. Jour. Milk
and Food Tech. 24:44-47.
The authors report on studies which were designed to assess the public
health hazards associated with the use of sewage effluent for irrigation
under field conditions. These studies concluded that no significant con-
tamination results from the use of chlorinated effluent diluted in streams
and subsequently used in furrow irrigation.
237. LEHMANN, A. F. 1965. Why Sewage Effluents Must be Chlorinated.
Amer. City Vol. 80, July, p. 79-81.
Growing water reuse and increased recreational requirements on our
streams and reservoirs are making effluent chlorination not only desirable
but imperative in more and more areas.
Microbiologists agree that secondary treatment reduces the number
of pathogenic organisms in waste water, but they also recognize the
need for chlorination to reduce them “below demonstrable levels.” Un-
chlorinated raw or settled waste water constitutes a health hazard when
discharged to bodies of water with which people may come in contact.
Secondary treatment reduces but does not eliminate the risk.
Costs are not prohibitive. Estimates based on observed practices are
given.
238. SHUVAL, HILLEL I. 1962. Public Health Aspects of Waste Water
Utilization in Israel. Proc. 17th md. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ.
112:650-665.
It is estimated that total water reserves in Israel can be increased by
at least 10 percent through waste water reclamation programs. Early
efforts were devoted to direct agricultural irrigation with treated sewage
effluent. Some 50 projects of this type are in operation. Results have
been good, and there has been no indication of any resulting menace
to the public health. However, due to restrictions by the Ministry of
Health as to the types of crops that can be irrigated and other engineering
and health considerations, more recent efforts are being directed toward
groundwater recharge with treated waste water. A major groundwater
recharge project in the Dan Region is described.
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5
Industrial, Recreational,
and Other Water Reuse Applications
. 1 lthough agricultural utilization of waste water was the major area con-
sidered in preparing this bibliography, other important reuse applica-
tions should not be overlooked. Innumerable examples of water reuse
by industry can be found in the literature. A few significant reports are
included to provide the reader a basis for further review.
There are two important considerations in the industrial use of waste
water. In general, industry requires a fairly constant supply of water; at
the same time it consumes only a small portion of the water it uses.
Waste water such as sewage effluent is generally available on a con-
tinuous basis. It is thus possible for an industry to arrange a mutually
satisfactory agreement with a city for the supply of uniformly large
quantities of waste water. Since only a small portion of the water supply
is consumed, water used for cooling, various washing operations, or
even for the conveyance of materials can often be recycled with little
treatment and reused many times over. The factors which influence in-
dustry to make use of waste water are largely economical. For instance,
sewage effluent may be the cheapest water source available, especially
if its quality is such that little additional treatment is required.
Water quality requirements of an industrial water supply are depend-
ent upon the intended use of the water, and may differ considerably
from those for municipal or agricultural uses. In many cases, a high
mineral content water or one which does not meet bacteriological drink-
ing water standards may be used. In such cases, with industry utilizing
reclaimed waste water of poor quality, it is then possible to apportion
the higher quality, waters in greater volume to other beneficial purposes.
Another valuable water reuse application, which is covered exten-
sively in the literature, is for recreational purposes. Under this heading
are grouped such uses as irrigation of parks, golf courses, and other
public property; maintaining the desired levels in small, decorative lakes
74
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INDUSTRIAL, RECREATiONAL, AND OTHER WATER REUSE 75
in parks or golf courses; and water supply for fish-breeding ponds and/or
wildlife areas. Modern technology makes it possible to produce a de-
pendable supply of effluent for such uses with a minimum of health and
aesthetic problems. Significant financial advantage can often be realized
by a city when its sewage effluent is utilized as an alternate water source
on recreational, areas instead of the normal municipal supply. The prac-
tice conserves available potable water for other uses.
The quality requirements of a waste water are not as critical for
recreational irrigation as for general agricultural irrigation. Many grasses,
shrubs, and trees are much more tolerant to sodium and salinity hazards
than are many agricultural crops. The beneficial fertilizer elements in
reclaimed effluents are an important consideration in park and golf course
irrigation, and the value of the organic content as a soil-conditioning
agent may be even more important than the nutrient content. As with
other agricultural applications, it is desirable to prevent the introduc-
tion of highly mineralized industrial wastes into the sewerage system if
the effluent is to be reclaimed for irrigation. Many reports in the litera-
ture indicate that reclaimed waste water is superior to potable water
supplies for growth and maintenance of vegetation.
Reclaimed waste water has been reported to be a practical and feasible
method to recharge groundwater aquifers. Recharge can be accomplished
in several ways. Injection wells and spreading basins have been em-
ployed. In coastal areas, planned recharge has been used to create a
freshwater barrier against the intrusion of saline water into overdrawn
aquifers. Other recharge may be simply to replenish the underground
reservoir. Some recharge occurs incidental to agricultural irrigation,
especially where excessive water is applied. Increased demand and
rising water costs in the future may greatly enhance the popularity of
recharge operations; underground aquifers are nature’s best storage
reservoirs.
One other reuse application is that of potable water supply. A city
seldom recycles its own effluent, although cases are on record where this
has been done due to necessity. Consider, however, the city which takes
its supply from a river that contains the effluent of upstream neigh-
bors. Modern treatment methods can produce an effluent which meets
the bacteriological standards for drinking water. Better effluent from in-
creasingly effective treatment plants will dilute river water and its quality
may be improved. Further emphasis on pollution control should serve
to greatly improve the quality of our river waters over some that are
presently referred to as “open sewers.”
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76 AGRICULTULiL UTIUZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
Abstracts
Prior to 1951
239. MCQUEEN, FRANK. 1934. Sewage Treatment for Obtaining Park
Irrigating Water. Pub. Wks. 64:16-17. Abst: Sewage Wks. Jour.
6:145-146.
Golden Gate Park (1,013 acres), San Francisco, was originally ir-
rigated with sewage from an outfall sewer traversing the park. This was
soon discontinued because of objectionable odors. The purchase of
potable water proved too costly. A new sewage treatment plant, com-
pleted in 1932 and employing the activated-sludge process, supplies
1 mgd for irrigation of the Park. The water is clear, odorless, and com-
pletely satisfactory for the purpose. Odors and suspended matter are
so completely removed that the excess plant effluent is used for lakes and
waterfalls.
240. RAWN, A. M. 1950. Blending of Sewage Effluent with Natural
Waters Permits Reuse. Civil Engr. 20: 324-325, 373.
Reclaiming water from sewage is not a new idea; the reuse of sewage
or effluent for agriculture, industry, and other purposes has been well
established.
Water reclamation from sewage depends on sound engineering prin-
ciples. Public acceptance of unrestricted reuse of sewage waters often
depends on the inclusion of a “natural” purification process, such as
blending with lake, river, or underground waters.
1951 — 19.55
241. HATHAWAY, GAIL A. 1954. Water—A Critical Material. Civil Engr.
24:534-536. PilE Abst. 34:W:64
The author predicts that water requirements in the nation may double
by 1975. The two highest priorities for water use are recognized as
human and animal consumption. Priorities for irrigation, recreation,
power, navigation, etc., are in conflict due to divergent interests. Chang-
ing interests and economic pressures may influence the operating policy
of a water resource project.
Future water problems must be solved by recirculation, reclamation
of used water, regulation of streams, development of new groundwater
storage, reduction of transpiration losses by elimination of heavy water-
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INDUSTRIAL, RECREATIONAL, AND OTHER WATER REUSE 77
using vegetation, and possibly removal of salt from sea water. A sound
national policy and coordinated efforts wifi be required if future water
problems are to be solved.
242. HOAK, R. D. 1953. Water Use and Conservation Policy. Chem.
Engr. News 31:3448-3454. Abst: Sewage and md. Wastes 26:1056.
The article is a synopsis of a symposium on “Water Use and Con-
servation Policy” held in Los Angeles in April 1953. It discusses the
difficulties of developing a sound policy; a survey of the water resources
of various regions; economics of land reclamation; flood control; hydro-
electric power; recreation; pollution control; water reuse in industry; and
irrigation water.
243. KEATING, R. J., and CA UsE, V. J. 1955. Treatment of Sewage Plant
Effluent for Industrial Re-Use. Sewage and md. Wastes 27:773-782.
One practical and substantial source for additional industrial water
supplies is the effluent from municipal sewage treatment plants. The
author discusses current developments and factors involved in the de-
sign of equipment for treatment of sewage plant effluents for reuse in
industrial processes and boiler feed applications.
244. MARTIN, BENN. 1951. Sewage Reclamation at Golden Gate Park.
Sewage and b id. Wastes 23:319-320.
The processes employed in the sewage treatment plant in San Fran-
cisco’s Golden Gate Park are described. The plant has a design capacity
of 1 mgd, and produces effluent at a cost of 7 per 1,000 gal. Chlorina-
tion is carefully controlled and the final effluent meets drinking water
standards. The effluent is used for irrigation and to maintain the level
of Stow Lake, where a boating concession operates.
1956 — 1960
245. ANONYMOUS. 1957. Industry Utilizes Sewage and Wastes Effluents
for Processing Operations. Wastes Engr. 28:444-448.
This article discusses industrial use of sewage and wastes effluents.
Several examples of reuse are cited.
246. CONNELL, C. H. 1957. Utilization of Waste Waters. md. Wastes
2:148-151. PHE Abst. 38:S:50.
In Texas, indirect reuse of water can seldom be practiced because few
streams have sufficient flow to dilute and purify a plant effluent and carry
it to a downstream water intake. Texas uses more sewage effluents for
cooling and boiler makeup water than any other state. The total use
of these waters in Texas is less than 4 mgd, or about one-half the total
amount of such waters used in the U. S. The big users of sewage ef-
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79 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
fluents are the Cosden Petroleum Corporation of Big Spring, Texas,
and the Texas Company of Amarillo, Texas.
247. CONNELL, C. H., and BERG, E. J. M. 1959. Industrial Utilization of
Municipal Wastewater. Sewage and md. Wastes 31:212-220.
Industrial use of municipal wastewater constitutes approximately one
percent of the total available. The potential use may be as high as
25 percent.
Experience, to date, indicates that municipal wastewater can and
should be given more consideration as a source of industrial water
supply. This may lead to increased use, especially in areas where com-
petition for water is increasing. Nineteen industrial plants are listed
that now use municipal wastewater supply. No adverse health effects
have been observed in such usage.
248. DERBY, RAY L. 1957. Water Use in Industry. Jour. Jrr. and Drain-
age Div., Amer. Soc. Civ. Engr. 83:1R2, 1364, pp. 1-9.
This article briefly discusses the three major considerations of indus-
trial water use: quantity, quality, and reuse. A listing of the average
water use in some typical industries is presented. Methods of water
treatment are divided into seven classes, and water quality requirements
for various industries are given. The savings in cost and in water quan-
tity requirements brought about by the reuse of water are considered.
249. GLOYNA, E. F., DRYNAN, W. R., and HERMANN, E. R. 1959. Water
Reuse in Texas. Jour. Amer. Water Works Assn. 51:768-780.
The possible reuse of wastewater throughout the eastern one-third of
Texas was investigated. The factors studied were: (a) wastewater quan-
tity, (b) criteria of quality, (c) needs and cost of reclamation, (d) ef-
fects of public opinion on such reuse, and (e) administration of the
reuse program. Numerous data were collected, calculations made, and
the results presented in tabulations and graphs.
250. GUYMON, Bon E. 1957. Sewage Salinity Prevents Use of Effluent
for Golf Course Irrigation. Wastes Engr. 28:80-83. PilE Abst. 37:5:69.
The salinity of the treated sewage of the city of Coronado, California,
was found to be too high to permit its use for irrigating a proposed
18-hole public golf course on land bordering San Diego Bay. The an-
nual cost of irrigating the tract with the municipal supply was estimated
to be $26,000. The author presents salinity data for both the public
water supply and the sewage, covering a typical 24-hour day. A method
of separating the merging flows of two main outfall sewers, one high in
salinity and the other acceptable, is illustrated and briefly explained.
251. MCGAUHEY, P. H. 1957. The Why and How of Sewage Effluent
Reclamation. Water and Sewage Wks. 104:265-270. Water Poll. Abst.
30:422 (2394).
The author discusses the need for sewage reclamation in California
and the amount of water available from sewage. The total volume of water
which could be reclaimed would be only 8 percent of that required for
crop irrigation but would be of more value for industry and irrigation
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INDUSTRIAL, RECREATIONAL, AND OTHER WATER REUSE 79
purposes in towns. Sewage effluent can be used to recharge groundwater
supplies by spreading on the soil. The bacteria present are removed
during the first four feet of travel through the soil. Groundwater may
also be recharged by direct injection of effluent into water-bearing
strata. Bacteria do not travel more than 100 feet in moving groundwater.
The author considers the present use of effluents and suggests methods
of increasing future use.
252. MERZ, ROBERT C. 1956. Direct Utilization of Waste Waters. Proc.
11th k id. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ., 91:541-551. Water and Sewage
Wks. 103:417-423.
A survey shows that more than 150 industries in 38 states reclaim
industrial wastes, and about 15 in 9 states employ sewage effluent. The
primary reason is that there are significant savings. Specific examples
are cited.
Land and climate are the primary factors affecting agricultural utiliza-
tion of waste water. Several successful operations are described. Restric-
tions are the amount of water to be disposed of, quality of the effluent,
and health regulations.
Other direct utilization is employed for recreational areas (golf
courses, decorative lakes, parks, etc.) and groundwater recharge. The
author states: “The investigations made thus far indicate strongly that the
reclamation of sewage effluents is a sound practice for industry, agricul-
ture, and other uses.”
253. MERZ, ROBERT C. 1959. Waste Water Reclamation for Golf Course
Irrigation. Jour. San. Eng. Div., Amer. Soc. Civ. Engr. 85: SA6, 1,
79-85.
Three years’ experience at municipal and military golf courses shows
that reclaimed wastewater can be properly used for irrigation purposes.
Value is derived from the fertilizing constituents. Difficulties may arise
in certain soils due to increased sodium content of the water. Chiorina-.
tion will prevent odor nuisance as well as the spread of B. coil through
wind action.
254. METzLER, DWIGHT F., CULP, R. L., STOLTENBERG, H. A., Woon-
WARD, R. L., WALTON, G., CHANG, S. L., CLARKE, N. A., PALMER, C. M.,
and MIDDLETON, F. M. 1958. Emergency Use of Reclaimed Water for
Potable Supply at Chanute, Kansas. Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn.
50:1021-1060.
In 1956-51, during the most severe drought in Kansas history, the
city of Chanute, on a temporary emergency basis, recirculated treated
sewage effluent through a stabilization pond, the water treatment plant,
and the water distribution system. One complete cycle required about
20 days. The authors describe in detail the effects of this reuse on the
chemical content, taste, color, and odor of the water. This reuse lasted
for five months, and indications were that it could have been continued
for another two weeks. The resulting water was safe to drink, but the
reuse of sewage treatment effluent to supplement deficient water sup-
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80 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
plies should be considered or permitted only under the most severe
emergency conditions. A discussion of the results of the Chanute water
reuse by C. H. Connell is included.
255. Moiutis, SAMUEL B. 1958. Resolving Conificting Demands for
Water. Jour. Jrr. and Drainage Div. , Amer. Soc. Civil Engr. 84:IRI,
1501, pp. 1-8.
The author discusses some of the problems caused by conflicting
demands for water especially in water-short areas. Some of the types
of conflicts are considered. The discussion deals especially with irriga-
don usage and the competition between this and other uses.
256. ONGERTH, HENRY J., and HARMON, JUD 5ON A. 1959. Sanitary En-
gineering Appraisal of Waste Water Reuse. Jour. Amer. Water Wks.
Ann. 51:647-658.
This article briefly summarizes the historical development of waste
water reclamation and describes ways in which waste water may be
utilized. The engineering, public health, economic, legal, and aesthetic
problems encountered in waste water reclamation are discussed.
257. PowEa, SHEPPARD T. 1956. Adaptation of Treated Sewage for
Industrial Use. kid, and Engr. Chem. 48:2168-2171.
The treatment of liquid wastes for further use has passed the experi-
mental stage and offers a practical solution for many industrial water
problems.
Intelligent appraisal and engineering principles can solve the prob-
lems of collection, treatment, and reuse of sewage. The value of this
type of water conservation should be publicized at both local and na-
tional levels, especially with regard to its adaptability and means for
processing.
The California State Water Pollution Control Board has stated:
“There appears to be no physical reason for treating waste water as
being fundamentally different from any other water source. The uses
to which it can be put are the same, and the precautions taken before
using it are the same.”
258. RAWN, A. M. and BOWERMAN, F. It 1956. Sewage—A Raw Water
Supply. Water and Sewage Wks. 103:463-467.
The authors recommend planned water reclamation from sewage by
establishing water treatment plants. Several historical examples are cited:
Grand Canyon, Arizona, Golden Gate Park, and Baltimore.
Design factors are discussed, and comparative costs are given.
259. Scaq 1 n, THEODORE M. 1960. Activities of the Senate Select Com-
mittee on National Water Resources. Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn.
52:965-969.
The author discusses a Senate committee assigned to forecast water
needs and water supplies of the future. Projections are being assembled
on a regional basis. The committee will probably indicate the nature
and extent of development required for each river basin and recommend
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INDUSTRIAL, RECREATIONAL, AND OTHER WATER REUSE 81
legislative policy. According to the author, the only practical answer
to future water needs is to use the available water over and over again.
260. SCHERER, CLARENCE H. 1959. Sewage Plant Effluent is Cheaper
than City Water. Wastes Engr. 30:124-127.
The author gives the history of the agreement by which Amarillo
supplies sewage plant effluent meeting certain specifications to the Texaco
refinery. Of particular interest is the Texas Company’s decision to reuse
wastewater so as to preserve the ground water for future use by a
progressive community.
261. SCHERER, C. H. and ALEXANDER, D. D. 1959. Wastewater Trans-
formation at Amarillo. Sewage and md. Wastes 31:1103-1108.
Municipal waste water is transformed into a source of industrial water
and sold to a petroleum refinery. Experience indicates there is nothing
in the effluent from a well-operated activated sludge plant that would
preclude its use as an industrial water.
262. SLOAN, GARRETT. 1960. Waste Water Reclamation for Golf Course
Irrigation. Discussion. Jour. San. Eng. Div., Amer. Soc. Civil Engr.
86:SA3, 1, 167-168.
Discussion of Merz’s (1959) report: Describes the use of effluent
from the 0.5 mgd Virginia Keys activated sludge plant at Miami, Florida.
Before being applied to a golf course, the effluent is treated by rapid sand
filtration, then diluted with city water to reduce chloride content from
1300 to below 900 mg/i.
263. STONE, RALPH. 1960. Waste Water Reclamation for Golf Course
irrigation. Discussion. Jour. San. Eng. Div., Amer. Soc. Civil Engr.
86:SA2, 1, 125-126.
Discussion of Merz’s (1959) report: Emphasizes the need of long-
time storage of the chlorinated effluent, improving disinfection through
prolonged contact time; the fertilizing value due to nitrogen, phosphorous,
and potassium content; and proper engineering planning to prevent
chloride and boron poisoning of the soil. Warns against excess chlorina-
tion leading to corrosion problems, over-irrigation, and difficulties with
clay soils.
Automatic sprinkling in early morning hours is preferred.
1961 — 1965
264. ANONYMOUS. 1961. Sewage Reclamation Studies for University
City. Jour. San. Engr. Div. , Amer. Soc. Civil Engr. 87 :SA4, 2, p. 5.
University City is being planned in Orange County, California, as a
community of 100,000 population, with a new 1,000-acre campus for
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82 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
the University of California. Reclaimed sewage flow of 10 mgd will be
used to irrigate agricultural lands, recreational parks, golf courses, and
the campus grounds. Chemical flocculation, sand filtration, and chlorina-
tion will supplement primary and secondary treatment for that effluent
which goes into artificial lakes to be used for recreational purposes.
265. BAUER, J. H. 1961. Air Force Academy Sewage Treatment Plant
Designed for Effluent Reuse. Public Works Vol. 92, No. 6, p. 120-122.
Because of limited rainfall and the planned landscaping of the site,
the need for a large amount of irrigation water was foreseen. It was
planned to utilize the sewage plant effluent to meet this need. Only the
excess effluent was to be released to the creek.
Engineering design data and operating results are given.
266. BONDERSON, PAUL R. 1964. Quality Aspects of Waste Water Recla-
mation. Jour. San. Engr. D iv. , Amer. Soc. Civ. Engr. 90:SA5, 1, pp. 1-8.
The author examines the effects of reclamation projects on the water
resources of an area. The subjects considered are: (1) trends in waste
water reclamation, (2) modes of augmenting water resources by such
reclamation, and (3) quality aspects associated with such augmenta-
tion.
267. BUNCH, ROBERT L. and ETTINGER, M. B. 1964. Water Quality
Depreciation by Municipal Use. Jour. WPCF 36:1411-1414.
Future reuse of sewage effluents will not be a question of economics,
but one of necessity. By 1980, 75 percent of the population wifi reside
in metropolitan areas, and six-time reuse can be anticipated. The study
provides information on the organic and inorganic load contributed by
one cycle for five cities. The analytical data are tabulated. Generaliza-
tions are unwise without considering the loading on the specific treat-
ment plant and the contributions of industrial wastes. Orders of magni-
tude are indicated that would be helpful in making rough calculations
for planning wastewater utilization.
26$ CANNON, DANIEL W. 1964. Industrial Reuse of Water: An Op-
portunity for the West. Water and Sewage Wks. 111:250-254.
The author discusses the reuse of water within the petroleum and
steel industries. He briefly refers to industrial use of water which has
been previously used for municipal purposes; to agricultural use of water
previously used for industrial purposes; and to municipal use of water
previously used for industrial purposes.
269. CECIL, LAWRENCE K. 1964. Sewage Treatment Plant Effluent for
Water Reuse. Water and Sewage Wks. 111:421-423. PilE Abst. 45:112.
The cost of sewage treatment may be partially recovered by selling the
treated effluent to industry for reuse. The merit of this practice will
depend on how well the effluent qeality meets the needs of the prospec-
tive user as well as how it compares with other sources of water.
Additional treatment processes may be necessary to reduce concentra-
tions of undesirable components such as ammonia, phosphates, calcium,
and foam-producing organic compounds. The extent of additional treat-
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INDUSTR IAL, RECREATIONAL, AND OTHER WATER REUSE 83
ment is limited by cost and is practical only where overall cost is less
than that for an alternate source.
Refineries at Duncan and Enid, Oklahoma, and a zinc smelter in a
desert area found that effluents from nearby sewage treatment plants
provided a better and less variable quality of water than was available
from other sources.
270. CONNELL, C. H. and FORBES, M. C. 1964. Once-Used Municipal
Water as Industrial Supply: In Retrospect and Prospect. Water and
Sewage Treatment 3:397-400.
The authors state that the total amount of used municipal water
is approaching 20 bgd and that over 40 percent of it may in time be
used for industrial water. In reviewing direct industrial utilization of
sewage effluents, the authors briefly discuss the availability and costs
relevant to water quality.
271. ELIA 5SEN, ROLF, WYCKOFF, BRUCE M. and TONKIN, CHARLES D.
1965. Ion Exchange for Reclamation of Reusable Supplies. Jour. Amer.
Water Wks. Ann. 57:1113-1 122.
The authors describe experimental studies on the removal of phos-
phates and nitrates from sewage plant effluents by an ion-exchange
process. The laboratory work was performed at Stanford University, and
the pilot plant work was done in cooperation with the city of Palo Alto,
California. The work included an economic study of the ion-exchange
process. The removal of phosphates and nitrates is desirable to prevent
the growth of algae and to permit maximum reuse of this large potential
water resource.
212. FLEMING, RODNEY R. 1963. Water Reuse by Design. The Amer.
City 78:106-108.
The author reviews the reuse of sewage effluents as practiced in the
United States. Large quantities areS reclaimed for both industrial and
agricultural reuse. Other reuse includes groundwater recharge to prevent
salt water intrusion. Over 200 municipal plants in Texas supply ef-
fluent for irrigation. Several Arizona and New Mexico cities water golf
courses and parks with sewage effluent. Other examples of reuse are
cited ,
273. MARKS, R. H. 1963. Waste Water Reclamation: A Practical Ap-
proach for Many Water-Short Areas. Power 107:47-50 (Nov. 1963).
The author describes the operation of a water reclamation plant at
Whittier Narrows in Los Angeles County. The system of treatment and
the equipment used are discussed and illustrated. At present, this water
is used to recharge ground water supplies, but the plant could furnish
water for other uses if necessary. Such a treatment plant could be used
in other areas for recharge, irrigation, and industrial water supplies.
274. MERRELL, J. C., JR., KATKO, ALBERT, and PINTLER, H. E. 1965.
The Santee Recreation Project, Santee, California. Summary Report,
1962-1964. PHS Pubi. No. 999-WP-27.
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84 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
This paper presents the results of a study of the Santee, California
recreational lakes. These lakes were deliberately planned to utilize the
community’s reclaimed sewage effluent. The seven-agency cooperative
study evaluated the fate of viruses along with total and fecal coliform
and fecal streptococci through the conventional secondary treatment
process, the tertiary processes, and the recreational lakes. The correlating
physical and chemical data are presented along with a biological study
of the lakes and related land area. Discussions of eutrophication, vector
control, epidemiology, and the social acceptance and ecology of the entire
recreational park are developed. The study concludes that the treatment
provided by intermittent sand filtration has met the nutrient requirements
of the emerging ecology and that no health hazards have been dem-
onstrated by the viral or other findings for the present recreational
uses of boating and fishing.
275. MIDDLETON, F. M. 1964. Advanced Treatment of Waste Waters
for Reuse. Water and Sewage Wks. 111:401410.
Some examples of waste water reuse and the need for advanced waste
treatment processes are briefly discussed. The status of advanced waste
treatment processes is reviewed by presenting nine process descriptions
which represent progress reports of studies in this area. No firm cost
figures for these processes could be given; however, estimated costs are
made based on projections of data at hand.
276. PARKHURST, Jom D. 1965. Progress in Waste Water Reuse in
Southern California. ASCE Proc. Jour. In-. and Drainage Div. 91:
IR1:79-91.
The author emphasizes the extensive planning behind Los Angeles
County’s current water reuse operation. Waste water reclamation falls
into two categories: (1) that which is incidental to water pollution con-
trol in inland areas; and (2) planned reclamation for the production
and reuse of reclaimed water. The latter would be for the purpose of
meeting a particular water resource need as in Los Angeles County.
Factors and conditions which justify water reclamation facilities are
discussed. The plan developed in southern California should stimulate
interest in planning for reuse in other communities that are concerned
about their future water resources. The author states, “The question is
not whether there will be water reuse, but when, where, and how well
it will be implemented.”
277. RAWN, A. M., BOwERMAN, F. R. and STONE, RALPH. 1963. Inte-
grating Reclamation and Disposal of Waste Water. Jour. Amer. Water
Wks. Asvz. 55:483490.
The authors state that, in propounding the need for separating waste
water reclamation from disposal, there is danger that the instances in
which the two may be integrated will be wholly overlooked. This paper
discusses the circumstances which dictate separation and those which
permit the integration of waste water treatment and waste water
reclamation.
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INDUSTRIAL, RECREATIONAL, AND OTHER WATER REUSE 85
278. STONE, RALPH. 1963. Waste Water Reclaimed for Golf Course Use.
Pub. Works 94:88-90.
Reclaimed water from the Ontario, California sewage treatment plant
is used at the rate of 0.5 mgd for decorative lakes and golf course ir-
rigation. Another 5.5 mgd is diverted to nearby spreading basins for
ground water recharge and other irrigation.
Before use on the golf course, the water is retained 30 days in
stabilization ponds with 24-hour chlorine contact time and post-
chlorination as it is pumped to the golf course.
279. SYMPOSIUM. 1963. Water Renovation. C /tern. Engr. Progress
59:19-40.
This series of eleven articles deals with several aspects of water renova-
tion for the purpose of deliberate reuse.
280. TODD, DAvID K. 1965. Economics of Groundwater Recharge.
ASCE Proc., 91 :HY4:249-270.
Many variables are involved in determining the cost and economic
advantage to be gained from artificial recharge of ground water aquifers.
Information upon which to base such estimates is scarce. The size,
purpose, and method of recharge are significant factors, as are land
and water costs. Data from several recharge operations are presented
in an attempt to arrive at a logical basis for estimating these costs.
281. VIES5MAN, WARREN, JR. 1965. Developments in Waste Water
Reuse. Public Works 96:138-140 (April).
The author discusses several possible reuse applications for reclaimed
waste water. Among these are irrigation, industrial use, and ground
water recharge. Examples of reuse are cited. Consideration is given to
the quantities of waste water available and to those operations which
this would satisfy economically. The Santee project in southern Cali-
fornia is cited as an excellent example of the use of sewage effluent for
recreational purposes.
282. WATSON, K. S. 1964. Updating Water Resources Thinking to Meet
Space Age Requirements. Water and Sewage Wks. 111:160-164.
In examining progress in the water resources field, the author considers
water management, waste water reuse, advanced waste treatment,
desalination, and pollution control, including enforcement.
283. WHETSTONE, GEORGE A. 1965. Reuse of Effluent in the Future
with an Armotated Bibliography. Texas Water Development Board, Aus-
tin, Report 8, December 1965. (187 pp.).
An excellent comprehensive review of the literature dealing with
reuse of effluent for purposes of irrigation, recreation, industry, ground
water recharge, and potable water supply. There is a total of 663 ab-
stracts dating from 1892 through 1965. The literature reviewed is broad
in scope, covering historical development, current status, and unresolved
issues in the reuse of effluents. The abstracts are indexed by authors and
subject, and are presented in chronological order.
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86 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
284. YACKEY, HAROLD H. 1961. Future Developments in Water Supply.
Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Ass , ,. 53:409-412.
The author discusses future water needs and how existing facilities
should be expanded to meet these needs. Salvaging waste water is one
big step that can be taken.
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Author index
(Figures refer to abstract number)
Abbot, A. L., 4
Agadzhanov, N.. A., 232
Alexander, D. E., 261
Allakhverdyants, S. A., 232
Allison, L. E., 134
Anderson, M. S., 116, 122, 123
Babov, D. M., 235
Bachmann, G., 31
Bamene, N.. M., 21
Bauer, J. H ,, 265
Bell, J. W., 143
Bendixen, T. W., 187
Berg, E. J. M., 159, 247
Berger, B. B., 229
Blaney, H. F., 79
Blosser, R. 0., 165, 177
Bocko, J., 54, 178, 179
Bohanan, L. B., 55
Bonderson, P. R., 266
Bowerman, F. R., 258, 277
Brown, H. D., 144
Browning, 0. M., 80
Bunch, R. L., 267
Bush, A. F., 145
Butler, N.. G., 156, 171, 207
Calise, V. J., 243
Canbam, R. A., 146, 162
Cannon, D. W., 268
Cantrell, R., 90
Chang, S. L., 254
Cecil, L. K., 269
Chapman, C. J., 81
Chase, W. J., 163
Clarke, N. A., 254
Cleary,E.J., 110
Cohen, J. M., 186
Connell, C. H., 246, 247, 270
Cormack, R. M. M., 82
Crawford, A. B., 198
Cuip, N.. L., 254
Damoose, N., 101
Dashkova, B. M., 232
Davis, I. F., Jr., 56
Day, A. D., 57, 58, 83, 84, 85,
86
Delano, B. H., 124
Dennis, J. M., 147
Derby, N.. L., 248
DeTurk, E. B., 102
Dickson, A. D., 86
Diebl, P. A., 199
Dietz, M. N.., 164
Drynan, W. N.., 249
Dunlop, S. G., 208, 209, 210,
225, 236
Dunstan, 0. H., 148
Dye, E. 0., 59, 87
Dziezyc, J., 88
Eberhardt, H., 130
Eldridge, B. F., 136
Eliassen, N.., 271
Engelbert, L. E., 34
Ermer, H., 130
Ettinger, M. B., 267
Falk, L. L., 200, 218, 219, 220,
221, 222, 223
Falkenhain, H. S., 211
Feinmesser, A., 91
Fisk, W. W., 180
Fleming, J. N.., 125
Fleming, N.. R., 272
Forbes, M. C., 270
Frank, A. H., 198
Fries, W., 32
Frodey, N.. C., 164
Gallatin, M. H., 73
Gellman, I., 165
Glathe, H., 131
Gloyna, E. F., 249
Goodwin, B. H., 5
Gotaas, H. B ,, 149
Gray, H. F., 139
Gray, J. F., 89
Greenberg, A. E., 150, 151
Grubinger, H., 33
Guymon, B. E., 250
Halamek, F., 6
Hale, H. H., 144
87
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88 AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
Handloser, M., 234
Harmon, J. A., 256
Harmsen, H., 212, 230
Harper, H. J., 103
Harrell, R. B., 7
Harvey, C., 90
Hathaway, U. A., 241
Hayob, H., 117
Hedger, H. E., 137
Henry, C D., 34
Hermann, E. R., 249
Hershkovitz, S. Z., 91
Herzik, 0. R., Jr., 231
Heukelckian, H., 60
Hickerson, R. C., 166
Highsmith, P.. M., Jr., 92
Hoak, R. D., 242
Hunt, H. J., 35
Husemann, C., 132, 181
Hutchins, W. A., 8
Hyde, C. 0., 9
Ippolito, 0., 36
Jackson, L. W., 10
Janert, H., 37
Jenkins, D., 183
Jepson, C., 38
Jey, B. N., 232
Johnson, C. E., 167
Johnson, W. E., 61
Jones, J. H., 174
Julen, 0., 39
Kabler, P. W., 216
Katko, A., 274
Keating, R. J., 243
Klein, S. A., 183
Kowaiski, J., 62
Koziorowski, B., 213
Krey, W., 214
Kruez, C. A., 11, 215
Kuhiewind, C., 118
Kutera, J., 93
Leaver, P.. E., 126
Lehmann, A. F., 237
Leukel, W. A., 21
Lowe, P.. P., 152
Ludwig, R. Ci., 138
Luley, H. Ci, 184
Lunsford, J. V., 148
Maiorova, L. A., 232
Makawi, A. A. M., 131
Maloch, M., 12
Maloy, T. P., 104
Mannering, J. V., 197
Marks, P.. H., 273
Martin, B., 244
Mather, J. P.., 153
McDowall, F. H., 168
Mc0auhey, P. H., 151, 183,
207, 251
McKee, F. J., 169
McMahon, E. K., 166
McQueen, F., 239
Mehrotra, C L., 191
Merrell, J. C., Jr., 70, 274
Men, P.. C., 40, 63, 64, 65, 127,
252, 253
Metzler, D. F., 254
Middleton, F. M., 254, 275
Miller, P. E., 154
Mitchell, 0. A., 13, 14, 15, 105
Moldenhauer, P.. E., 34
Monson, H., 170
Morgan, J. M., Jr., 119
Morris, S. B., 255
Mulford, S. F., 145
Muller, 0., 233
Muller, J. F., 106
Muller, W., 41, 201
Nelson, L. E., 155
Nilcs, A. H., 107
Norman, N. N., 216
Otonnell, W. J., Jr., 139
Olds, J., 128
Ongerth, H. J., 256
Orlob, 0. T., 156, 171, 207
Owens, E. L., 177
Palmer, C. M., 254
Pannier, 1)., 132
Parkhurst, J. D., 185, 276
Paulsmeier, F., 42, 43
Pearse, L., 107
Peter, Y., 172
Peurifoy, P.. L., 140
Phelps, E. B., 142
Pillai, S. C., 16
Pintler, H. E., 274
Pouquet, F., 17
Powell, S. T., 257
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AUTHOR INDEX
89
Prat, S., 94
Prochal, P., 66
Ragotzkie, R. A., 218, 219, 220,
221, 222, 223
Rajagoralan, R., 16
Rawn, A. M., 202, 203, 240,
258, 277
Reinhold, F., 108
Reinke, i i A., 217
Renshaw, E. F., 67
Reploh, H., 157, 234
Reutlinger, S., 95
Riney, W. A., 18
Robeck, G. G., 186, 187
Rockwell, F. L., 44
Rohde, G., 188
Rudolfs,W., 109, 110, 111,218,
219, 220, 221, 222, 223
Sanborn, N. H., 158
Sayers, W. T., 186
Seagraves, J. A., 95
Schad, T. M., 259
Scherer, C. H., 260, 261
Schraufnagel, F. H., 189
Schriner, P. J., 112
Schwartz, W. A., 187
Schwarz, K., 45, 46
Scott, R. H., 190
Scott, T. M., 68
Segel, A., 19
Sheets, W. D., 144
Shtok, E. S., 232
Shreier, F., 20
Shuval, H. I., 238
Simmers, R. M., 173
Sisson, D. R., 47
Skinner, J. F., 113
Skulte, B. P., 48, 69
Sladecek, V., 94
Sloan, G., 262
Smith, R. L., 49
Snyder, C. W., 224
Spencer, B. R., 141
Sprivastava, B. P. L., 191
Stanbridge, H. H., 192
Steel, E. W., 159
Steffen, A. J., 193
Stokes, W. E., 21
Stoltenberg, H. A., 254
Stone, A. R., 174
Stone, R., 50, 70, 160, 263, 277,
278
Subby, W., 49
Subrahmanyan, V., 16
Szerszen, L., 178
Talati, R. P., 161
Tanner, F. W., 204
Tatlock, M. W., 114
Taylor, 0. S., 182
Thackwell, H. L., 51
Thomas, J. F., 150
Thomson, J. F., 119
Todd, D. K., 175, 280
Tonkin, C. D., 271
Tonty, R. L., 71
Travis, P. W., 72
Troug, E., 34
Tucker, T. C., 57, 58, 83, 84,
85, 86
Trybala, M., 88, 96
Twedt, R. M., 208, 210
Van Kieeck, L. W., 120, 129
Vavich, M. 0., 83, 84, 85
Viessman, W., Jr., 281
Vlamis, J., 133
Wadleigh, C. H., 73
Walton, 0., 254
Wang, W. L., 208, 210, 225,
236
Warrington, S. L., 226
Watson, J. L. A., 97, 194
Watson, K. S., 282
Webster, R. A., 52
Weiland, K., 227
Weiss, R. W., 195
Wells, W. N., 98, 99
Wesche, J., 181
Westenhouse, R., 196
Whetstone, 0. A., 283
Wierzbicki, J., 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
74, 75, 115, 228
Wilcox, L. V., 28, 73, 76
Williams, D. E., 133
Winslow, C. E. A., 142
Wischmeier, W. H., 197
Woodward, R. L., 186, 187, 254
Wright, C. T., 205
Wycoff, B. M., 271
Yackey, H. H., 284
Zunker, F., 53
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1fl00.300-flS
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