EPA-430/1-74-010
ANALYSIS AND CONTROL
OF THERMAL POLLUTION
TRAINING MANUAL
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WATER PROGRAM OPERATIONS
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EPA-430/1-74-010
August 1974
ANALYSIS AND CONTROL
OF THERMAL POLLUTION
This course is designed for professional personnel
concerned with the monitoring, evaluation, and
control of temperature changes in water bodies.
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Water Program Operations
TRAINING PROGRAM
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CON TENTS
Title or Description Outline Number
The Aquatic Environment 1
Water Resources and Needs 2
Techmques for the Biological Evaluation of Pollutants 3
Significance of “Limiting Factors” to Population Variation 4
The Advent of Thermal Pollution 5
General Effects of Temperature on Aquatic Organisms 6
Physical and Chemical Effects of Water Temperature 7
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Microorganisms 8
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Primary Producers 9
Effects of Thermal Pollution on the Benthos 10
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Fish Life 11
Thermal Acclimation of Aquatic Organisms 12
The Influence of Temperature on Behavior of Fish 13
Effects of Temperature on Reproduction and Growth 14
Temperature Requirements of Centrarchids 15
Potential Effects of Thermal Pollution to Pacific Salmon 16
Effects of Temperature on Pacific Salmon 17
Research on Thermal Effects. Fish 18
Beneficial Effects of Heat Additions 19
Thermal Pollution From Natural Causes 20
Thermal Pollution Resulting from Man’s Physical Alterations
of the Environment 21
Industrial Sources of Thermal Pollution 22
Biological Monitoring of Heated Lakes and Streams 23
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2 Contents
Title or Description Outline Number
Data Requirements, Field Studies, and Instrumentation for
Temperature Prediction 24
Summary Outline of Current Theories Relating to
Temperature Prediction in a Body of Water 25
Dissipation of Heat in a Body of Water 26
The Conservation of Heat in a Body of Water- -The Energy Budget
Approach to Water Temperature Prediction 27
The Energy Budget Approach to Water Temperature Prediction
Example Problem 28
Prediction of Water Temperatures in Rivers and Streams- -
The Exponential Decay of Transient Temperatures 29
Water Temperature and Prediction - Bibliography 30
Thermal Pollution Control Methods 31
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THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
Part 1 The Nature and Behavior of Water
I INTRODUCTION
The earth is physically divisible into the
lithosphere or land masses, and the
hydrosphere which includes the oceans,
lakes, streams, and subterranean waters.
A Upon the hydrospere are based a number
of sciences which represent different
approaches. Hydrology is the general
science of water itself with its various
special fields such as hydrography,
hydraulics, etc. These in turn merge
into physical chemistry and chemistry
B Limnology and oceanography combine
aspects of all of these, and deal not o iy
with the physical liquid water and its
various naturally occurring solutions and
forms, but also with living organisms
and the infinite interactions that occur
between them and their environment
C Water quality management, including
pollution control, thus looks to all
branches of aquatic science in efforts
to coordinate and improve man’s
relationship with his aquatic environment
SOME FACTS ABOUT WATER
A Water is the only abundant liquid on our
planet It has many properties most
unusual for liquids, upon which depend
most of the familiar aspects of the world
about us as we know it (See Table 1)
TABLE 1
UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER
Significance
StabiUzes temperatures of organisms and
geographical regions
Absorbs much ener ’ in Lairs red and ultra
violet ranges, but little in visible range
Hence colorless”
— Property
Highest heat capacity (specific heat) of any
solid or liquid (except NH 3 )
Highest latent heat of fusion (except NH 3 )
Thermostatic effect at freezing point
Highest heat of evaporation of any substance
Important in heat and water transfer of
atmosphere
The only substance that has its maximum
density as a liquid (40C)
Fresh and brackish waters have maximum
density above freezing point. This is
important in vertical circulation pattern
In lakes.
Highest surface tension of any liquid
Controls surface and drop phenomena.
important In ceUular physiolo
Dissolves more substances in gr ter
quantity than any Other liquid
Makes complex biological system possible
Important for transportation of matertais
in solution.
Pure water has the hig1 eat di-electric
constant of any liquid
Leods to high dissociation of inorganic
oubstancea in solution
Very little electrolytic dissociation
Neutral, yet containa both H+ and OH ions
Etelatively transparent
B!. 2le.l.74
1—1
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The Aquatic Environment
Tabular values for density, etc , represent
estimates by various workers rather than
absolute values, due to the variability of
water.
Regular ice is known as “ice I”. Four or
more other “forms” of ice are known to
exist (ice II , ice III, etc. ), having densities
at 1 atm pressure ranging from 1. 1595
to 1.67. These are of extremely restricted
occurrence and may be ignored in most
routine operations.
2 Density
a Temperature and density Ice.
\ ‘ater is the only known substance
in which the solid state will float
on the liquid state. (See Table 2)
This ensures that ice usually
forms on top of a body of water
and tends to insulate the remain-
ing water mass from further loss
of heat Did ice sink, there
could be little or no carryover of
aquatic life from season to season
in the higher latitudes. Frazil or
needle ice forms colloidally at a
few thousandths of a degree
below 0 c It is adhesive and
may build up on submerged objects
as “anchor ice”, but it is still
typical ice (ice I).
TABLE 2
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY
OF PURE WArER AND ICE
Temperature (°C)
Water
Density
Ice
B Physical Factors of Significance
1 Water substance
Water is not simply “H 2 0” but in
reality is a mixture of some 33
different substances involving three
isotopcs each of hydrogen and oxygen
(ordinary hydrogen H 1 , deuterium U 2 ’
and tritium H 3 , ordinary oxygen 0101,
oxygen 17, and oxygen 18) plus 15
known types of ions. The molecules
of a water mass tend to associate
themselves as polymers rather than
to remain as discrete units.
(See Figure 1)
SUBSTANCE OF PURE WATER
Ftg,.lr.
9397
9360
9020
9 77
9229
.9168
- 10
-8
—6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
20
40
60
80
100
99815
99869
.99912
99945
99970
.99987----
99997
1 00000
99997
99988
99973
99823
99225
98324
97183
95838
( )
1-2
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The Aquatic [ rivironrnerit
1) Seasonal increase in solar
radiation annually warms
surface waters in summer
while other factors result in
winter cooling. The density
differences resulting establish
two classic layers the epilimnion
or surface layer, and the
hypohmnion or lower layer, and
in between is the thermocline
or shear-plane.
2) While for certain theoretical
purposes a “thermochne” is
defined as a zone in which the
temperature changes one
degree centigrade for each
meter of depth, in practice,
any transitional layer between
two relatively stable masses
of water of different temper-
atures may be regarded as a
the rmocline.
3) Obviously the greater the
temperature differences
between epilimnion and
hypohmnion and the sharper
the gradient in the thermocline,
the more stable will the
situation be.
4) From information given above,
it should be evident that while
the temperature of the
hypolimnion rarely drops
much below 4 C, the
epihmrnon may range from
00 C upward.
5) When epilimnion and hypolimnion
achieve the same temperature,
stratification no longer exists.
The entire body of water behaves
hydrologically as a unit, and
tends to assume uniform chemical
and physical characteristics.
Even a light breeze may then
cause the entire body of water
to circulate. Such events are called
overturns, and usually result in
water quality changes of consider-
able physical, chemical, and
biological significance.
Mineral-rich water from the
hypohrnnion, for example,
is mixed with oxygenated
water from the epilirnnion
This usually triggers a
sudden grow-th or bloom
of plankton organisms.
6) When stratification is present,
however, each layer behaves
relatively independently, and
significant quality differences
may develop.
7) Thermal stratification as
described above has no
reference to the size of the
water mass, it is found in
oceans and puddles.
b The relative densities of the
various isotopes of water
influence its molecular com-
position. For example, the
lighter °16 tends to go off
first in the process of evaporation,
leading to the relative enrichment
of air by 016 and the enrichment
of water by 017 and 018. This
can lead to a measurably higher
018 content in warmer climates.
Also, the temperature of water
in past geologic ages can be
closely estimated from the ratio
of 018 in the carbonate of mollusc
shells.
c Dissolved and/or suspended solids
may also affect the density of
natural water masses (see Table 3)
TABLE 3
EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED SOUDS
ON DENSITY
Dissolved Solids
(Grams per liter)
0
1
1 00085
2
1.00169
3
1.00251
10
1.00818
35 (mean for sea water) 1.02822
Density
(at 4°C)
1.00000
1-3
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The Aquatic Environment
d Types of density stratification
1) Density differences produce
stratification which may be
permanent, transient, or
seasonal.
2) Permanent stratification
exists for example where
there is a heavy mass of
brine in the deeper areas of
a basin which does not respond
to seasonal or other changing
conditions.
3) Transient stratification may
occur with the recurrent
influx of tidal water in an
estuary for example, or the
occasional influx of cold
muddy water into a deep lake
or reservoir.
4) Seasonal stratification is
typically thermal in nature,
and involves the annual
establishment of the epilimnion,
hypohmnion, and thermocline
as described above.
5) De isity stratification is not
limited to two-layered systems,
three, four, or even more
layers may be encountered in
larger bodies of water
e A ‘plunge line” (sometimes called
“thermal Jane”) may develop at
the mouth of a stream. Heavier
water flowing into a lake or
reservoir plunges below the
lighter water mass of the epiliminium
to flow along at a lower level. Such
a line is usually marked by an
accumulation of floating debris.
f Stratification may be modified
or entirely suppressed in some
cases when deemed expedient, by
means of a simple air lift.
3 The viscosity of water is greater at
lower temperatures (see Table 4).
This is important nDt only in situations
involving the control of flowing water
as in a sand filter, but also since
overcoming resistance to flow gen-
erates heat, it is significant in the
heating of water by internal friction
from wave and current action
Living organisms more easily support
themselves in the more viscous
(and also denser) cold waters of the
arctic than in the less viscous warm
waters of the tropics. (See Table 4)
TABLE 4
Temp.°C
Dissolved solids in gIL
0
5
10
30
-10
26.0
----
----
----
- 5
21.4
----
----
----
0
5
10
17.94
15.19
13.10
18.1
15.3
13.2
18.24
15.5
13.4
18.7
16.0
13.8
30
8.00
8.1
8.2
8.6
100
2.84
----
----
----
4 Surface tension has biological as well
as physical significance. Organisms
whose body surfaces cannot be wet by
water can either ride on the surface
film or in some instances may be
“trapped” on the surface film and be
unable to re-enter the water
5 Heat or energy
Incident solar radiation is the prime
source of energy for virtually all
organic and most inorganic processes
on earth. For the earth as a whole,
the total amount (of energy) received
annually must exactly balance that
lost by reflection and radiation into
space if climatic and related con-
ditions are to remain relatively
constant over geologic time.
VISCOSITY OF WATER (In millipoises at 1 atm)
1-4
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The Aquatic Environment
a For a given body of water,
immediate sources of energy
include in addition to solar
irradiation terrestrial heat,
transformation of kinetic energy
(wave and current action) to heat,
chemical and biochemical
reactions, convection from the
atmosphere, and condensation of
water vapor.
b The proportion of light reflected
depends on the angle of incidence,
the temperature, color, and other
qualities of the water, and the
presence or absence of films
of lighter liquids such as oil.
In general, as the depth increases
arithmetically, the light tends to
decrease geometrically. Blues,
greens, and yellows tend to
penetrate most deeply while ultra
violet, violets, and orange-reds
are most quickly absorbed. On
the order of 90% of the total
illumination which penetrates the
surface film is absorbed in the
first 10 meters of even the clearest
water, thus tending to warm the
upper layers.
6 Water movements
a Waves or rhythmic movement
1) The best known are traveling
waves caused by wind. These are
effective only against objects near
the surface. They have little
effect on the movement of large
masses of water.
2) Seiches
Standing waves or seiches occur
in lakes, estuaries, and other
enclosed bodies of water, but are
seldom large enough to be
observed. An “internal wave or
seich” is an oscillation in a
submersed mass of water such
as a hypolimnion, accompanied
by compensating oscillation in the
overlying water so that no
significant change in surface
level is detected. Shifts in
submerged water masses of
this type can have severe effects
on the biota and also on human
water uses where withdrawals
are confined to a given depth.
Descriptions and analyses of
many other types and sub-types
of waves and wave-like movements
may be found in the literature.
b Tides
1) Tides are the longest waves
known, and are responsible for
the once or twice a day rythmic
rise and fall of the ocean level
on most shores around the world
2) \Vhile part and parcel of the
same phenomenon, it is often
convenient to refer to the rise
and fall of the water level as
‘tide, “ and to the resulting
currents as “tidal currents.
3) Tides are basically caused by the
attraction of the sun and moon on
water masses, large and small,
however, it is only in the oceans
and possibly certain of the larger
lakes that true tidal action has
been demonstrated. The patterns
of tidal action are enormously
complicated by local topography,
interaction with seiches, and other
factors. The literature on tides
is very large
c Currents (except tidal currents)
are steady arythmic water movements
which have had major study only in
oceanography although they are
most often observed in rivers and
streams. They are primarily
concerned with the translocation of
water masses. They may be generated
internally by virtue of density changes,
or externally by wind or terrestrial
topography. Turbulence phenomena
or eddy currents are largely respon-
sible for lateral mixing in a current
These are of far more importance
in the economy of a body of water than
mere laminar flow.
1-5
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The Aquatic Environment
d Coriolis force is a result of inter-
action between the rotation of the
earth, and the movement of masses
or bodies on the earth The net
result is a slight tendency for moving
objects to veer to the right in the
northern hemisphere, and to the
left in the southern hemisphere
While the result in fresh waters is
usually negligible, it may be con-
siderable in marine waters For
example, other factors permitting,
there is a tendency in estuaries for
fresh waters to move toward the
ocean faster along the right bank,
while salt tidal waters tend to
intrude farther inland along the
left bank. Effects are even more
dramatic in the open oceans.
e Langrnuir circulation (or L. spirals)
is the interlocking rotation of
somewhat cylindrical masses of
surface water under the influence
of wind action The axes of the
cylinders are parallel to the
direction of the wmd.
To somewhat oversimplify the
concept, a series of adjoining cells
might be thought of as chains of
interlocking gears in which at every
other contact the teeth are rising
while at the alternate contacts, they
are sinking (Figure 2)
The result is elongated masses of
water rising or sinking together.
This produces the familiar “wind
rows” o foam, flotsam and jetsam,
or plankton often seen streaking
windblown lakes or oceans Certain
zoo- plankton struggling to maintain
a position near the surface tend to
collect in the down current between
two Langmuir cells, causing such
an area to be called the “red dance”,
while the clear upwelhng water
between is the “blue dance”
This phenomenon may be important
in water or plankton sampling on
a windy day
WATER
RISING
Figure 2.. Langmuire Spirals
b. Blue dance, water rising. r. Red
dance, water sinking, floating or
swimming ohjects concentrated.
Li
.2
WATER
SINKING
1-6
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The Aquatic Environment
6 The pH of pure water has been deter-
mined between 5 7 and 7 01 by various
workers The latter value is most
widely accepted at the present time.
Natural waters of coarse vary widely
according to circumstances.
C The elements of hydrology mentioned
above represent a selection of some of
the more conspicuous physical factors
involved in working with water quality
Other items no specifically mentioned
include molecular structure of waters,
interaction of water and radiation,
internal pressure, acoustical charac-
teristics, pressure-volume-temperature
relationships, refractivity, luminescence,
color, dielectrical characteristics and
phenomena, solubility, action and inter-
actions of gases, liquids and solids,
water vapor, phenomena of hydrostatics
and hydrodynan-iics in general
REFERENCES
1 Buswell, A. M and Rodebush, \‘v. H.
\Vater Sci. Am. April 1956
2 Dorsey, N. Ernest. Properties of
Ordinary Water - Substance.
Reinhold Pubi. Corp. New York.
pp. 1-673. 1940.
3 Fowle, Frederick E Smithsonian
Physical Tables. Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collection, 71( 1),
7th revised ed , 1929.
4 Hutcheson, George E. A Treatise on
Limnology. John V ’iley Company.
1957
This outline was prepared by H. \V. Jackson,
Chief Biologist, National Training Center,
Water Programs Operations, EPA, Cincinnati,
OH 45268.
Descriptors
Aquatic Environmpnt, Estuarine Environment,
Lentic Environment, Lotic Environment,
Currents, Marshes, Limnology, Water
Properties
1-7
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THE AQUATIC ENVJ.RONMENT
Part 2 The Aquatic Environment as an Ecosystem
I INTRODUCTION
Part 1 introduced the lithosphere and the
hydrosphere. Part 2 will deal with certain
general aspects of the biosphere, or the
sphere of life on this earth, which photo-
graphs from space have shown is a finite
globe in infinite space.
This is the habitat of man and the other
organisms. His relationships with the
aquatic biosphere are our common concern.
II THE BIOLOGICAL NATURE OF THE
WORLD WE UVE IN
A We can only imagine what this world
must have been like before there was life.
B The world as we know it is largely shaped
by the forces of life.
1 Primitive forms of life created organic
matter and established soil.
2 Plants cover the lands and enormously
influence the forces of erosion.
3 The nature and rate of erosion affect
the redistribution of materials
(and mass) on the surface of the
earth (topographic changes).
4 Organisms tie up vast quantities of
certain chemicals, such as carbon
and oxygen.
5 Respiration of plants and animals
- releases carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere in influential quantities.
6 CO 2 affects the heat transmission of
the atmosphere.
C Organisms respond to and in turn affect
their environment. Man is one of the
most influential.
III ECOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF THE
INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
ORGANISMS, AND BETWEEN ORGA-
NISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT.
A The ecosystem is the basic functional
unit of ecology. Any area of nature that
includes living organisms and nonlivirig
substances interacting to produce an
exchange of materials between the living
and nonliving parts constitutes an
ecosystem. (Odum, 1959)
1 From a structural standpoint, it is
convenient to recognize four
constituents as composing an
ecosystem (Figure 1).
a Abiotic NUTRIENT MINERALS
which are the physical stuff of
which living protoplasm will be
synthesized.
b Autotrophic (sell-nourishing) or
PRODUCER organisms. These
are largely the green plants
(holophytes), but other minor
groups must also be included
(See Figure 2). They assimilate
the nutrient minerals, by the use
of considerable energy, and combine
them into living organic substance.
c Heterotrophic (other-nourishing)
CONSUMERS (holozoic), are chiefly
the animals. They ingest (or eat)
and digest organic matter, releasing
considerable energy in the process.
d Heterotrophic REDUCERS are chiefly
bacteria and fungi that return
complex organic compounds back to
the original abiotic mmeral condition,
thereby releasing the remaining
chemical energy.
2 From a functional standpoint, an
ecosystem has two parts (Figure 2)
BI.2le. 1.74
1—9
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The Aquatic Environment
CONSUMERS
PRO DUCERS REDUCERS
N UTRIENT
MINERALS
FIGURE 1
a The autotrophic or producer
organisms, which construct
organic sbbstance.
b The heterotrophic or consumer and
reducer organisms which destroy
organic substance.
3 Unless the autotrophic and hetero-
trophic phases of the cycle approximate
a dynamic equilibrium, the ecosystem
and the environment will change.
B Each of these groups includes simple,
single-celled representatives, persisting
at lower levels on the evolutionary stems
of the higher organisms. (Figure 2)
1 These groups span the gaps between the
higher kingdoms with a multitude of
transitional forms. They are collectively
called the PROTISTA .
2 \Vithiri the protista, two principal sub-
groups can be defined on the basis of
relative complexity of structure.
a The bacteria and blue-green algae,
lacking a nuclear membrane may
be considered as the lower protista
(or Monera) .
b The single-celled algae and
protozoa are best referred to as
the Higher Protista.
C Distributed throughout these groups will
be found most of the traditional “phyla”
of classic biology.
IV FUNCTIONING OF THE ECOSYSTEM
A A food chain is the transfer of food energy
from plants through a series of organisms
with repeated eating and being eaten.
Food chains are not isolated sequences but
are interconnected.
1-10
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The Aouatic Environment
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FREE LIVING AQUATIC ORGANISMS
Energy Flows from
PRODUCERS I
Organic Materlai Produced .
Usually by Photosynthesis
Left to Right. General Evolutionary Sequence is Upward
CONSUMERS REDUCERS
Organic Material Ingested or Organic Material Reduced
Consu med by Extracellular Digestion
Digested Internally and Intracellular Metabolism
to Mineral Condition
ENERGY STORED ENERGY RELEASED ENERGY RELEASED
Flowering Plants and
Gymnosperrns
Club Mosses. Ferns
Liverworts. Mosses
Multicellular Green
Algae
Red Algae
Brown Algae
Arachnids Mammals
Insects Birds
Crustaceans Reptiles
Segmented Worms Amphibians
Molluscs Fishes
Bryozoa Primitive
Chordates
Rotifers
Roundworms Echinoderms
Flatworms
Coelente rates
Sponges
Basidiomycetes
Fungi Imperfecti
Ascomycetes
Higher Phycomycetes
DEVELOPMEN .T OF MULTICELLULAR OH COENOCYTIC STRUCTIJHE
HI G’HER PROT ISTA
Protozoa
Unicellular Green Algae Lower
Arnoeboid (‘i lhated
Diatoms Phycomycetes
Flagellated, Suctoria
Pigmented Flagellates (non-pigmented) (Chytridiales. et al
DE ELOPMENT OF A NUCLEAR MEMBRAM2
I
I
LOWER
Blue Green Algae
Phototropic Bacteria
Chenioti opic Bacteria
RI ECO p1 2a 1 69
O I I S I A
(Or Monera)
I I Actinornycetes
I I Spirocl iaetes
Sap rophyt ic
I I Bacterial
Types
II
FIGURE 2
1—11
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The Aquatic Environment
B A food web is the interlocking pattern of
food chains in an ecosystem. (Figures 3, 4)
In complex natural corrimurnties, organisms
whose food is obtained by the same number
of steps are said to belong to the same
trophic (feeding) level.
C Trophic Levels
1 First - Green plants (producers)
(Figure 5) fix biochemical energy and
synthesize basic organic substances.
This is “primary production”.
2 Second - Plant eating animals (herbivores)
depend on the producer organisms for
food.
3 Third - Primary carnivores, animals
which feed on herbivores.
4 Fourth - Secondary carnivores feed on
primary carnivores.
5 Last - Ultimate carnivores are the last
or ultimate level of consumers.
D Total Assimilation
The amount of energy which flows through
a trophic level is distributed between the
production of biomass (living substance),
and the demands of respiration (internal
energy use by living organisms) in a ratio
of approximately 1 lO.
E Trophic Structure of the Ecosystem
The interaction of the food chain
phenomena (with energy loss at each
transfer) results in various communities
having definite trophic structure or energy
levels. Trophic structure may be
measured and described either in terms
of the standing crop per urnt area or in
terms of energy fixed per urnt area per
unit time at successive trophic levels.
Trophic structure and function can be
shown graphically by means of ecological
pyramids (Figure 5).
Figure 3. Thagram of the pond eco yst . Baaic units follows. I. abiotic substances—basic inorganic arid
o?ganlc compounds, HA, producers—rooted vegetation. IIB, producers—phytoplankton. 111-lA, primary consumers
(heTbivores)—.bottom forms. III-IB, prunary consumers (herbivores)—zooplankton. 111.2, secondary consumers (car-
vares); 111.3. tertiary consu_meri (secondary carrnvores); IV, decomposers—bacteria and fungi of decay.
1—12
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- The Aquatic Environment
I -
Figure 4. A MARINE ECOSYSTEM (After Clark, 1954 and Patten , 1966)
1-13
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The Aquatic Environment
Figure 5. HYPOTHETICAL PYRAMIDS of
(a) Numbers of individuals 1 (b) Biomass, and
(c) Energy (Shading Indicates Energy Loss).
V BIOTIC COMMUNITIES
A Plankton are the macroscopic and
microscopic animals, plants, bacteria,
etc., floating free in the open water.
Many clog filters, cause tastes, odors,
and other troubles in water supplies.
Eggs and larvae of larger forms are
often present.
1 Phytoplankton are plant-like. These
are the dominant producers of the
waters, fresh and salt, “the grass
of the seas”.
2 Zooplankton are animal-like.
Includes many different animal types,
range in size from minute protozoa
to gigantic marine jellyfishes.
B Periphyton (or Aufwuchs) - The communities
of microscopic organisms associated with
submerged surfaces of any type or depth.
Includes bacteria, algae, protozoa, and
other microscopic animals, and often the
young or embryonic stages of algae and
other organisms that normally grov up
to become a part of the benthos (see below).
Many planktonic types will also adhere
to surfaces as periphytori, and some
typical periphyton may break off and
be collected as pLankters.
C Benthos are the plants and animals living
on, in, or closely associated with the
bottom. They include plants and
invertebrates.
D Nekton are the communit) of strong
aggressive swimmers of the open waters,
often called pellagic. Certain fishes,
whales, and invertebrates such as
shrimps and squids are included here.
E The marsh community is based on larger
“higher” plants, floating and emergent.
Both marine and freshwater marshes are
areas of enormous biological production.
Collectively kno’..’n as “ etlands”, they
bridge the gap between the waters and the
dry lands.
VI PRODUCTIVITY
A The biological resultant of all physical
and chemical factors in the quantity of
life that may actually be present. The
ability to produce this “biomass” is
often referred to as the “productivity’
of a body of water. This is neither good
nor bad per Se. A water of low pro-
ductivity is a “poor” water biologically,
and also a relatively “pure” or “clean”
water, hence desirable as a water supply
or a bathing beach. A productive water
on the other hand may be a nuisance to
man or highly desirable. It is a nuisance
if foul odors and/or weed-chocked
waterways result, it is desirable f
bumper crops of bass, catfish, or
oysters are produced. Open oceans have
a low level of productivity in general.
(a)
Decomposers Carnivores (Secondai
[ I Carrii ores (Primary
I I Herbivores
Producers
(b)
r u
I I
(c)
f ,’ii it
/‘/! ‘/1 / I II / I
liii iiiiiiiii f/i / / / / I
1-14
-------
The Aquatic Environmcnt
REFERENCES 5 Odum, E.P. Fundamentals of Ecology.
\V. B. Saunders Company,
I Clarke, G. L. Elements of Ecology Philadelphia and London. 1959.
John \Viley & Sons, New York. 1954.
6 Fatten, B.C. Systems Ecology
2 Cooke, W . B. Trickling Filter Ecology. Bio-Science. 16(9). 1966.
Ecology 40(2) 273-291 1959.
7 Whittaker, H. H. New Concepts of
3 Hanson, E.D. Animal Diversity. Kingdoms. Science 163 150-160. 1969.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey. 1964.
4 Hedgpeth, J.W. Aspects of the Estuarme This outline was prepared by H.W Jackson,
Ecosystem. Amer Fish. Soc Spec. Chief Biologist, National Traimng Center,
Pubi. No. 3. 1966 Water Programs Operations, EPA,
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Descriptors
Aquatic Environment, Estuarine Environment,
Lentic Environment, Lotic Environment,
Currents, Marshes, Limnology, Water Properties
-------
THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
Part 3. The Freshwater Environment
I INTRODUCTION
The freshwater environment as considered
herein refers to those inland waters not
detectably diluted by ocean waters, although
the lower portions of rivers are subject to
certain tidal flow effects.
Certain atypical inland waters such as saline
or alkaline lakes, springs, etc., are not
treated, as the main objective here in typical
inland water.
All waters have certain basic biological cycles
and types of interactions most of which have
already been presented, hence this outline
will concentrate on aspects essentiaUy
peculiar to fresh inland waters.
II PRESENT WATER QUA UTY AS A
FUNCTION OF THE EVOLUTION OF
FRESH WATERS
A The history of a body of water determines
its present condition. Natural waters have
evolved in the course of geologic time
into what we know today.
B Streams
In the course of their evolution, streams
in general pass through four stages of
development which may be called birth,
youth, maturity, and old age.
These terms or conditions may be
employed or considered in two contexts
temporal, or spatial. In terms of geologic
time , a given point in a stream may pass
through each of the stages described below
or. at any given time , these various stages
of development can be loosely identified
in successive reaches of a stream traveling
from its headwaters to base level in ocean
or major lake.
1 Establishment or birth. This
might be a ‘dry run” or headwater
stream-bed, before it had eroded
down to the level of ground water.
During periods of run-off after a
rain or snow-melt, such a gulley
would have a flow of water which
might range from torrential to a
mere trickle. Erosion may proceed
rapidly as there is no permanent
aquatic flora or fauna to stabilize
streambed materials. On the other
hand, terrestrial grass or forest
growth may retard erosion. When
the run-off has passed, however,
the “streambed ’ is dry.
2 Youthful streams. When the
streambed is eroded below the
ground water level, spring or
seepage water enters, arid the
stream becomes permanent. An
aquatic flora and fauna develops
and water flows the year round.
Yout hful streams typically have a
relatively steep grathent, rocky beds,
with rapids, falls, and small poois.
3 Mature streams. Mature streams
have wide valleys, a developed
flood plain, are deeper, more
turbid, and usually have warmer
water, sand, mud, silt, or clay
bottom materials which shift with
mcrease m flow. In their more
favorable reaches, streams in this
condition are at a peak of biological
productivity Gradients are moderate,
riffles or rapids are often separated
by long pools
4 In old age, streams have approached
geologic base level, usually the
ocean During flood stage they scour
their beds and deposit materials on
the flood plain which may be very
broad and flat. During normal floN
the channel is refilled and many
shifting bars are developed.
Br. 21e. 1.74
1-17
-------
The Aquatic Environment
(Under the influence of man this
pattern may be broken up, or
temporarily interrupted. Thus an
essentially “youthful” stream might
take on some oi the characteristics
of a “mature” stream following soil
erosion, organic enrichment, and
increased surface runoff. Correction
of these conditions might likewise be
followed by at least a partial reversion
to the “original” condition).
C Lakes and Reservoirs
Geological factors which significantly
affect the nature of either a stream or
lake include the following
1 The geographical location of the
drainage basin or watershed.
2 The size and shape of the drainage
basin.
3 The general topography, i. e.,
mountainous or plains.
4 The character of the bedrocks and
soils.
5 The character, amount, annual
distribution, and rate of precipitation.
6 The natural vegetative cover of the
land is, of course, responsive to and
responsible for many of the above
factors and is also severely subject
to the whims of civilization. This
is one of the major factors determining
run-off versus soil absorption, etc.
D Lakes have a developmental history which
somewhat parallels that of streams. This
process is often referred to as natural
eutrophication .
became a lake. Or, the glacier may
actuaUy scoop out a hole. Landslides
may dam valleys, extinct volcanoes may
collapse, etc., etc.
2 Maturing or natural eutrophication of
lakes.
a If not already present shoal areas
are developed through erosion
and deposition of the shore material
by wave action and undertow.
b Currents produce bars across bays
and thus cut off irregular areas.
c Silt brought in by tributary streams
settles out in the quiet lake water
d Algae grow attached to surfaces,
and floating free as plankton. Dead
organic matter begins to accumulate
on the bottom
e Rooted aquatic plants grow on
shoals and bars, and in doing so
cut off bays arid contribute to the
filling of the lake.
f Dissolved carbonates and other
materials are precipitated in the
deeper portions of the lake in part
through the action of plants.
g When filling is v ell advanced,
mats of sphagnum moss may extend
outward from the shore. These
mats are followed by sedges and
grasses which finally convert the
lake into a marsh.
3 Extinction of lakes. After lakes reach
maturity, their progress toward
filling up is accelerated. They become
e.itinct through
1 The methods of formation vary greatly,
but all influence the character and
subsequent history of the lake.
In glaciated areas, for example, a
huge block of ice may have been covered
with till. The glacier retreated, the
ice melted, and the resulting hole
a The downcutting of the outlet.
b Filling with detritus eroded from
the shores or brought in by
tributary streams
c Filling by the accumulation of the
remains of vegetable materials
growing in the lake itself
(Often two or three processes may
act concurrently)
1-18
-------
The Aquatic Environment
III PRODUCTIVITY IN FRESH WATERS
A Fresh waters in general and under
natural conditions by definition have a
lesser supply of dissolved substances
than marine waters, and thus a lesser
basic potential for the growth of aquatic
organisms. By the same token, they
may be said to be more sensitive to the
addition of extraneous materials
(pollutants, nutrients, etc.) The
following notes are directed toward
natural geological and other environ-
mental factors as they affect the
productivity of fresh waters.
B Factors Affecting Stream Productivity
(See Table 1)
TABLE 1
EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE ON STREAM
PRODUCTIVITY
(The productivity of sand bottoms is
taken as 1)
Bottom Material
Relative
Productivity
Sand
1
Marl
6
Fine Gravel
9
Gravel and silt
14
Coarse gravel
32
Moss on fine gravel
89
Fissidens (moss) on coarse
ill
gravel
Ranunculus (water buttercup)
194
Watercress
301
‘ nacharis (waterweed)
452
‘ Selected from Tarzwell 1937
To oe productive of aquatic life, a
stream must provide adequate nutrients,
light, a suitable temperature, and time
for growth to take place.
1 Youthful streams, especially on rock
or sand substrates are low in essential
nutrients. Temperatures in rnoun-
tamous regions are usually low, and
due to the steep gradient, time for
growth is short. Although ample
light is available, growth of true
plankton is thus greatly limited.
2 As the stream flows toward a more
“mature” condition, nutrients tend to
accumulate, and gradient diminishes
and so time of flow increases, tem-
perature tends to increase, and
plankton flourish.
Should a heavy load of inert silt
develop on the other hand, the
turbidity would reduce the light
penetration and consequently the
general plankton production would
diminish.
3 As the stream approaches base level
(old age) and the time available for
plankton growth increases, the
balance betwe en turbidity, nutrient
levels, and temperature and other
seasonal conditions, determines the
o rerall productivity.
C Factors Affecting the Productivity of
lakes (See Table 2)
1 The size, shape, and depth of the
lake basin. Shallow water is more
productive than deeper water since
more light will reach the bottom to
stimulate rooted plant growth. As
a corollary, lakes with more shore-
line, having more shallow water,
are in general more productive.
Broad shallow lakes and reservoirs
have the greatest production potential
(and hence should be avoided for
water supplies).
TABLE 2
EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE
ON LAKE PRODUCTIVITY ‘
(The productivity of sand bottoms is taken as 1)
Bottom Material
Relative
Productivity
Sand
1
Pebbles
4
Clay
8
Flat rubble
9
Block rubble
11
Shelving rock
77
‘ Selected from Tarzwefl 1937
1-19
-------
The Aciuatic Environment
2 Hard waters are generally more
productive than soft waters as there
are more plant nutrient minerals
available. This is often greatly in-
fluenced by the character of the soil
and rocks in the watershed and the
quality and quantity of ground water
entering the lake. In general, pH
ranges of 6.8 to 8.2 appear to be
most productive.
3 Turbidity reduces productivity as
light penetration is reduced.
4 The presence or absence of thermal
stratification with its semi-annual
turnovers affects productivity by
distributing nutrients throughout the
water mass.
5 Climate, temperature, prevalence of
ice and snow, are also of course
important.
D Factors Affecting the Productivity of
Reservoirs
1 The productivity of reservoirs is
governed by much the same principles
as that of lakes, with the difference
that the water level is much more
under the control of man. Fluctuations
in water level can be used to de-
liberately increase or decrease
productivity. This can be demonstrated
by a comparison of the TVA reservoirs
which practice a summer drawdown
with some of those in the west where
a winter drawdown i the rule.
2 The level at which water is removed
from a reservoir is important to the
productivity of the stream below.
The hypolimnion may be anaerobic
while the epilimnion is aerobic, for
example, or the epilimniori is poor in
nutrients while the hypolimnion is
relatively rich.
3 Reservoir discharges also profoundly
affect the DO, temperature, and
turbidity in the stream below a dam.
Too much fluctuation in flow may
permit sections of the stream to dry,
or provide inadequate dilution for
toxic waste.
l v CULTURAL EUTROPHICATION
A The general processes of natural
eutrophication, or natural enrichment
and productivity have been briefly out-
lined above.
B When the activities of man speed up
these enrichment processes by intro-
ducing unnatural quantities of nutrients
(sewage, etc.) the result is often called
cultural eutrophication . This term is
often extended beyond its original usage
to include the enrichment (pollution) of
streams, estuaries, and even oceans, as
well as lakes.
V CLASSIFICATION OF LAKES AND
RESERVOIRS
A The productivity of lakes and impound-
ments is such a conspicuous feature that
it is often used as a convenient means of
classification.
1 Oligotrophic lakes are the younger,
less productive lakes, which are deep,
have clear water, and usually support
Salmonoid fishes in their deeper waters.
2 Eutrophic lakes are more mature,
more turbid, and richer. They are
usually shallower. They are richer
in dissolved solids, N, F, and Ca are
abundant. Plankton is abundant and
there is often a rich bottom fauna.
3 Dystrophic lakes, such as bog lakes,
are low in Ph, water yellow to brown,
dissolved solids, N, F, and Ca scanty
but humic materials abundant, bottom
fauna and plankton poor, and fish
species are limited.
B Reservoirs may also be classified as
storage, and run of the river.
1 Storage reservoirs have a large
volume in relation to their inflow.
2 Run of the river reservoirs have a
large flow-through in relation to their
storage value.
1-20
-------
The Aquatic Environment
C According to location, lakes and
reservoirs may be classified as polar,
temperate, or tropical Differences in
climatic and geographic conditions
result in differences in their biology.
VI SUMMARY
A A body of ‘ ater such as a lake, stream,
or estuary represents an intricately
balanced system in a state of dynamic
equilibrium iviodification imposed at
one point in the system automatically
results in compensatory adjustments at
associated points.
B
The more thorough our knowledge of the
entire system, the better we can judge
where to impose control measures to
achieve a desired result.
6 Tarzwe].l, Clarence M. Experimental
Evidence on the Value of Trout 1937
Stream Improvement in Michigan
American Fisheries Society Trans.
66 l77-l87. 1936.
7 U. S. Dept. of Health, Education, and
Welfare. Public Health Service.
Algae and I\letropohtan \\ astes.
Transactions of a seminar held
April 27-29, 1960 at the Robert A.
Taft Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati, OH. No. SEC TR W61-3
8 Ward and Whipple. Fresh Water
Biology (Introduction). John
Wiley Company 1918.
REFERENCES
1 Chamberlin, Thomas C. and Salisburg,
Rollin P. Geological Processes and
Their Results. Geology 1 pp 1-xLx,
and 1-654. Henry Holt and Company
Ne ’. York. 1904.
2 Frey, David G. Limnology in North
America. Univ. Wisc. Press. 1963.
3 Hutcheson, George E. A Treatise on
Limnology Vol. I Geography, Physics
and Chemistry. 1957. Vol. II
Introduction to Lake Biology and the
Limnoplankton. 1115 pp. 1967
John Wiley Co.
4 Hynes, H. B. N. The Ecology of Ruriru.ng
Waters. Univ. Toronto Press.
555 pp. 1970.
5 Ruttner, Franz. Fundamentals of
Limnology. University of Toronto
Press. pp. 1-242. 1953.
This outline was prepared by H W. Jackson,
Chief Biologist, National Training Center,
Water Programs Operations, EPA, Cincinnati,
OH 45268.
Descriptors
Aquatic Environment, Estuarine nvironment,
Lentic Environment, Lotic Environment,
Currents, Marshes, Limnology, Water
Properties
1-21
-------
THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
Part 4. The Marine Environment and its Role in the Total Aquatic Environment
TABLE 1
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE MAJOR IONS
OF TWO STREAMS AND SEA WATER
I INTRODUCTION
A The marine environment is arbitrarily
defined as the water mass extending
beyond the continental land masses,
including the plants and animals harbored
therein. This water mass is large and
deep, covering about 70 percent of the
earth’s surface and being as deep as
7 miles. The salt content averages
about 35 parts per thousand. Life extends
to all depths.
B The general nature of the water cycle on
earth is well known. Because the largest
portion of the surface area of the earth
is covered with water, roughly 70 percent
of the earth’s rainfall is on the seas
(Figure 1)
Fir,,’, 1. ‘THE WA’T’ t CYtLE
Since roughly one third of the
rain which falls on the land is again
recycled through the atmosphere
(see Figure 1 again), the total amount
of water washing over the earth’s surface
is significantly greater than one third of
the total world rainfall. It is thus not
surprising to note that the rivers which
finally empty into the sea carry a
disproportionate burden of dissolved and
suspended solids picked up from the land.
The chemical composition of this burden
depends on the composition of the rocks
and soils through which the river flows,
the proximity of an ocean, the threction
of prevailing winds, and other factors.
This is the substance of geological erosion.
(Table 1)
(Data from Clark, F ‘N , 1924, “The Composition of River
and Lake Waters of the Unsted States”, U S. Geol Surv
Prof Paper No 135, Harvey, II W , 1957, “The Chemistry
and Fertility of Ses Waters”, cambridge University Press,
Cambridge)
Ion
Delaware River
at
Lambertyille, N J.
Rio Graride
at
Laredo, Texas
Sea Water
Na
K
Ca
Mg
Cl
SO 4
Co 3
6 70
146
17 49
4.81
4 23
17 49
32 95
14 78
85
13,73
3 03
21 65
30.10
11 55
30 4
11
1.16
3 7
55 2
7 7
HCO 3 0 35
C For this presentation, the marine
environment will be (1) described using
an ecological approach, (2) characterized
ecologically by comparing it with fresh-
water and estuarine environments, and
(3) considered as a functional ecological
system (ecosystem).
L I FRESHWATER, ESTUARINE, AND
MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
Distinct differences are found in physical,
chemical, and biotic factors in going from
a freshwater to an oceanic environment.
In general, environmental factors are more
constant in freshwater (rivers) and oceanic
environments than in the highly variable
and harsh environments of estuarine and
coastal waters. (Figure 2)-
A Physical and Chemical Factors
Rivers, estuaries, and oceans are
compared in Figure 2 with reference to
the relative instability (or variation) of
several important parameters. In the
oceans, it will be noted, very little change
occurs in any parameter. In rivers, while
“salinity” (usually referred to as “dissolved
solids”) and temperature (accepting normal
seasonal variations) change little, the other
four parameters vary considerably. In
estuaries, they all change.
SEA SURFACE
BI.21e. 1.74
23
-------
The Aquatic Environment
Type of environment
and general direction
of water movement
Degree of instability
-
Avail-
abi1it
of
nutrients
Turbidity
Salinity
Temperature
Water
elevation
Vertical
strati-
fication
(degree)
1
Riverine
I
I
——
E tuarine
-
—
Oceanic
I
I
•
•
I
Figure 2. RELATIVE VALUES OF VARIOUS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FACTORS
FOR RIVER, ESTUARINE, AND OCEANIC ENVIRONMENTS
B Biotic Factors
1 A complex of physical and chemical
factors determine the biotic composi-
tion of an environment. In general.
the number of species in a rigorous,
highly variable environment tends to be
less than the number m a more stable
environment (Hedgpeth, 1966).
2 The dominant animal species (m
terms of total biomass) which o:cur
in estuaries are often transient,
spending only a part of their lives in
the estuaries. This results in better
utilization of a rich environment
C Zones of the Sea
The nearshore environment is often
classified in relation to tide level and
water depth The nearshore and offshore
oceanic regions together, are often
classified with reference to light penetra-
tion and water depth. (Figure 3)
1 Neritic - Relatively shallow-water
zone which extends from the high-
tide mark to the edge of the
continental shelf.
1-24
-------
The Aquatic Environment
M RINE ECOLOGY
£I s op. / o • C
Lpt
d.pTk
0 CEA iIC -
I Cp ,pil o, Ic
—-< s,
fJXXfJY/JXXXJJJJJJc2J
7
Pp p • / g ‘
,t t#.rI .crh,Ft (fl
—
C U.?’. ( C c, e / .e
0 ,. •
BE NTHI C
100
FIGURE 3—Cl sc1fl .,tio,i of mcrI?:e e :ronnienls
a Stability of physical factors is
intermediate between estuarine
and oceanic environments.
b Phytoplankters are the dominant
producers but in some locations
attached algae are also important
as producers.
c The animal consumers are
zooplankton, nekton, arid benthic
forms
2 Oceanic - The region of the ocean
beyond the continental she]S Divided
into three parts, all relatively
poorly populated compared to the
fleritic zone.
a Euphotic zone - Waters into which
sunlight penetrates (often to the
bottom in the n . ritic zone). The
zone of primary productivity often
extends to 600 feet below the surface
1) Physical factors fluctuate
less than in the neritic zone.
2) Producers are the phyto-
plankton and consumers are
the zoop]ankton and nekton.
b Bathyal zone - From the bottom
of the euphotic zone to about
2000 meters.
1) Physical factors relatively
constant but light is absent
2) Producers are absent and
consumers are scarce.
c Abyssal zone - All the sea below
the bathyal zone.
1) Physical factors more con-
stant than in bathyal zone.
2) Producers absent and consumers
even less abundant than in the
bathyal zone.
P ( L ii 6’ 1 C
P(L 46,C (WCr. ,)
Ngn / c
Ccso e.c
(mp. ’c
Mpiap .Je ,
&m,p.Fc;c
8CNTHIC lOo lIoo)
S , .o.I.t lo , oI
1? 10.01 IIc’?.,,,JoI)
ScbI.fI0 ,Ol
Inn,,
0. lit
Aby nil
CP2 0
‘coo
C 00•
1-25
-------
The Aquatic Environment
III SEA WATER AND THE BODY FLUIDS
A Sea water is a remarkably suitable
environment for living cells, as it
contains all of the chemical elements
essential to the growth and maintenance
of plants and animals. The ratio and
often the concentration of the major
salts of sea water are strikingly similar
in the cytoplasm and body fluids of
marine organisms. This similarity is
also evident, although modified somewhat
in the body fluids of fresh water and
terrestrial animals. For example,
sterile sea water may be used in
emergencies as a substitute for blood
plasma in man.
B Since marine organisms have an internal
salt content similar to that of their
surrounding medium (isotonic condition)
osmoregulation poses no problem. On the
other hand, fresh water organisms are
hypertonic (osmotic pressure of body
fluids is higher than that of the surround-
ing water). Hence, fresh water animals
must constantly expend more energy to
keep water out (i. e., high osmotic
pressure fluids contain more salts, the
action being then to dilute this concen-
tration with more water).
1 Generally, marine invertebrates are
narrowly poikilosmotic , 1. e , the salt
concentration of the body fluids changes
with that of the external medium This
has special significance in estuarine
situations where salt concentrations
of the water often vary considerably
in short periods of time.
2 Marine bony fish (teleosts) have lower
salt content internally than the external
environment (hypotonic). In order to
prevent dehydration, water is ingested
and salts are excreted through special
cells in the gills.
IV FACTORS AFFECTING THE DISTRI-
BUTION OF MARINE AND ESTUARINE
ORGANISMS
A Salinity Salinity is the single most
constant and controlling factor in the
marine environment, probably followed
by temperature It ranges around
35, 000 mg per liter, or “35 parts per
thousand” (symbol 35% ) in the language
of the oceanographer While variations
in the open ocean are relatively small,
salinity decreases rapidly as one
approaches shore and proceeds through
the estuary and up into fresh water with
a salinity of “0 % (see Figure 2)
B Salinity and temperature as limiting
factors in ecological distribution.
1 Organisms differ in the salinities
and temperatures in which they
prefer to live, and in the variabilities
of these parameters which they can
tolerate These preferences and
tolerances often change with successive
life history stages, and in turn often
dictate where the organisms live
their “distribution.”
2 These requirements or preferences
often lead to extensive migrations
of various species for breeding,
feeding, and growing stages. One
very important result of this is that
an estuarine environment is an
absolute necessity for over half of
all coastal commercial and sport
related species of fishes and invertebrates,
for either all or certain portions of their
life histories. (Part V. figure 8)
3 The Greek word roots “eury”
(meaning wide) and “steno” (meaning
narrow) are customarily combined
with such words as “haline” for salt,
and “thermal” for temperature, to
give us “euryhahne” as an adjective
to characterize an organism able to
tolerate a wide range of salinity, for
example, or istenothermalt meaning
one which cannot stand much change
in temperature “Meso-” is a prefi\
indicating an intermediate capacity.
1 -26
-------
The Aquatic Environment
C Marine, estuarine, and fresh water
organisms. (See Figure 4)
______________Salinity ca.35
F gure 4. Salinity Tolerance of Organisms
1 Offshore marine organisms are, in
general, both stenohaline and
stenothermal unless, as noted above,
they have certain life history require-
ments for estuarine conditions.
2 Fresh water organisms are also
stenohaline, and (except for seasonal
adaptation) me so- or stenothermal.
(Figure 2)
3 Indigenous or native estuarine species
that normally spend their entire lives
in the estuary are relatively few in
number. (See Figure 5). They are
generally meso- or euryhaline and
meso: or eurythermal.
C)
C)
C)
a
C))
0
C.
• C)
.0
C)
0 /J’T 5
6 iô f5 20
Salinity
35
Figure 5. DISTRIBUTION OF
ORGANISMS IN AN ESTUARY
a Euryhaline, freshwater
b Indigenous, e stuarine, (me sohaline)
c Euryhaline, marine
4 Some well known and interesting
examples of migratory species which
change their environmental preferences
with the life history stage include the
shrimp (mentioned above), striped bass,
many herrings and relatives, the salmons,
and many others. None are more
dramatic than the salmon hordes which
lay their eggs in freshwater streams,
migrate far out to sea to feed and grow,
then return to the stream where they
hatched to lay their own eggs before
dying.
5 Among euryhaline animals landlocked
(trapped), populations living in lowered
salinities often have a smaller maximum
size than individuals of the same species
living in more saline waters. For
example, the lamprey ( Petromyzon
marinus ) attains a length of 30 - 36”
in the sea, while in the Great Lakes
the length is 18 - 24.
Usually the larvae of aquatic organisms
are more sensitive to changes in
salinity than are the adults. This
characteristic both limits and dictates
the distribution and size of populations.
D The effects of tides on organisms.
1 Tidal fluctuations probably subject
the benthic or intertidal populations
to the most extreme and rapid variations
of environmental stress encountered
in any aquatic habitat. Highly specialized
communities have developed in this
zone, some adapted to the rocky surf
zones of the open coast, others to the
muddy inlets of protected estuaries.
Tidal reaches of fresh water rivers,
sandy beaches, coral reefs and
mangrove swamps in the tropics; all
have their own floras and faunas. All
must emerge and flourish when whatever
water there is rises and covers or
tears at them, all’must collapse or
retract to endure drying, blazing
tropical sun, or freezing arctic ice
during the low tide interval. Such a
community is depicted in Figure 6.
Fresh Water
Stenohaline
0
1-27
-------
The Aquatic Environment
SNAILS
Littorina neritoides
C L. rudis
O L. obtusata
O L. littorea
flA LtNACLES
‘ ‘ Chthamalus stellatus
Balanus halanoides
B. peiforatus
Zonation of plants, snails, and barnacles on a rocky shore. While
this diagram is based on the situation on the southwest coast of
England the general idea of zonation may be applied to any temper-
atc rocky ocean shore, though the species will differ. The gray
zone consists largely of lichens. At the left is the zonation of rocks
with exposure too extreme to support algae, at the right, on a less
c\posecl situation, the animals are mostly obscured by the algae.
Figures at the right hand margin refer to the percent of time that
the zone is exposed to the air, i. e., the time that the tide is out.
Thi ee major zones can be recognized the Littorina zone (above the
gray zone), the Balanoid zone (between the gray zone and the
laminarias), and the Laminaria zone, a. Pelvetia canahculata
b. Fucus spirahs , c. Ascophyllum nodosum , d. Fucus serratus ,
e. Laminaria digitata . (Based on Stephenson)
Figure 6
-------
The Aquatic Environment
V FACTORS AFFECTING THE
PRODUCTIVITY OF THE MARINE
ENVIRONMENT
A The sea is in continuous circulation. With-
o t circulation, nutrients of the ocean would
eventually become a part of the bottom and
biological production would cease Generally,
in all oceans there exists a warm surface
layer which overlies the colder water and
forms a two-layer system of persistent
stability. Nutrient concentration is usually
greatest in the lower zone. Wherever a
mixing or disturbance of these two layers
occurs biological production is greatest.
B The estuaries are also a mixing zone of
enormous importance. Here the fertility
washed off the land is mingled with the
nutrient capacity of seawater, and many
of the would’s most productive waters
result.
C When man adds his cultural contributions
of sewage, fertilizer, silt or toxic waste,
it is no wonder that the dynamic equilibrium
of the ages is rudely upset, and the
environmentalist cries, “See what man
hath wrought” I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This outline contains selected material
from other outlines prepared by C. M.
Tarzweli, Charles L. Brown, Jr.,
C. G. Gunnerson, W. Lee Trent, W. B.
Cooke, B. H. Ketchum, J. K. McNulty,
J. L. Taylor, R. IVI. Sinclair, and others.
REFERENCES
1 Harvey, H. W. The Chemistry and
Fertility of Sea Water (2nd Ed.).
Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
234 pp. 1957.
2 Hedgpeth, J. W. (Ed.). Treatise on
Marine Ecology and Paleoecology.
Vol. I. Ecology Mem. 67 Geol.
Soc. Amer., New York. 1296 pp.
1957.
3 Hill, M. N. (Ed.). The Sea. Vol.11.
The Composition of Sea \Vater
Comparative and Descriptive
Oceanography. Interscience Pubis.
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
554 pp. 1963.
4 Moore, H. B. Marine Ecology. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
493 pp. 1958.
5 Reid, G. K. Ecology of Inland Waters
and Estuaries. Reinhold Publ.
Corp. New York. 375 pp. 1961.
6 Sverdrup, Johnson., and Fleming.
The Oceans. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
New Yo ’k. 1087 pp. 1942.
This outline was prepared by H. W. Jackson,
Chief Biologist, National Training Center,
Water Programs Operations, EPA, Cincinnati,
OH 45268.
Descriptors
Aquatic Environment, Estuarme Environment,
Lentic Environment, Lotic Environment,
Currents, Marshes, Limnology, Water Properties
1 -29
-------
THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
Part 4. The Marme Environment and its Role in the Total Aquatic Environment
TABLE 1
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE MAJOR IONS
OF TWO STREAMS AND SEA WATER
I INTRODUCTION
A The marine environment is arbitrarily
defined as the water mass extending
beyond the continental land masses,
including the plants and animals harbored
therein. This water mass is large and
deep, covering about 70 percent of the
edrth’s surface and being as deep as
7 miles. The salt content averages
about 35 parts per thousand. Life extends
to all depths.
B The general nature of the water cycle on
earth is well known. Because the largest
portion of the surface area of the earth
is covered with water, roughly 70 percent
of the earth’s ramfall is on the seas.
(Figure 1)
Fip’iro I. ThE WATF21 CEIS
Since roughly one third of the
ram Which falls on the land is again
recycled through the atmosphere
(see Figure 1 again), the total amount
of water washing over the earth’s surface
is significantly greater than one third of
the total World rainfall. It is thus not
surprising to note that the rivers Which
finally empty into the sea carry a
disproportionate burden of dissolved and
suspended solids picked up from the land.
The chemical composition of this burden
depends on the composition of the rocks
and soils through which the river flows,
the proximity of an ocean, the direction
of prevailing winds, and other factors.
This is the substance of geological erosion.
(Table 1)
(Data from Clark, F. W . 1924. “The Composition of River
and Lake waters of the United States”, U S Geol Surv
Prof Paper No 135, Harvey, H W , 1957, “The Chemistry
and Fertility of Sea Waters”, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge)
Ion
Delaware River
at
Lambertville. N. J
Rio Grande
at
Laredo, Texas
Sea Water
Na
K
Ca
Mg
C l
SO 4
CO 3
6 70
146
1749
4 81
4 23
17 49
32 95
14 78
85
1373
3 03
21 65
30 10
11 55
30 4
11
116
3 7
552
7.7
-HCO 3 0.35
C For this presentation, the marine
environment will be (1) described using
an ecological approach, (2) characterized
ecologically by comparing it with fresh-
water and estuarine environments, and
(3) considered as a functional ecological
system (ecosystem).
I I FRESHWATER, ESTUARINE, AND
MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
Distinct differences are found in physical,
chemical, and biotic factors in going from
a freshwater to an oceanic environment.
L-i general, environmental factors are more
constant in freshwater (rivers) and oceanic
environments than in the highly variable
and harsh environments of estuarine and
coastal waters. (Figure 2)
A Physical and Chemical Factors
Rivers, estuaries, and oceans are
compared in Figure 2 with reference to
the relative instability (Dr variation) of
several important parameters. In the
oceans, it will be noted, very little change
occurs in any parameter. In rivers, while
“salinity” (usually referred to as “dissolved
solids”) and temperature (accepting normal
seasonal variations) change little, the other
four parameters vary considerably. In
estuaries, they all change.
SEA SURFACE
BI. 21e. 1.74
1—31
-------
The Aquatic environment
B Biotic Factors
C Zones of the Sea
A complex of physical and chemical
factors determine the biotic composi-
tion of an environment. In general,
the number of species in a highly
variable environment tends to be less
than the number in a more stable
environment (Hedgpeth. 1966).
2 The dominant animal species (in
terms of total biomass) which occur
in estuaries are often transient,
spending only a part of their lives in
the estuaries. This results in better
utilization of a rich environment.
The nearshore environment is often
classified in relation to tide level and
water depth. The nearshore and oceanic
regions together are often classified in
relation to light penetration and v .atei
depth.
1 Neritic - Relatively shallo -v .atei’
zone which extends from the high-
tide mark to the edge of the
continental shelf. (Figure 3)
1 .pe of en ironn enl
and general direction
of ater movement
Figure 2 RELATIVE VALUES OF VARIOUS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FACTORS
FOR RIVER, ESTUARINE, AND OCEANIC ENVIRONMENTS
1—32
-------
The Aquatic Environment
a Stability of physical factors is
intermediate between estuarine
and oceanic environments.
b Phytoplankters are the dominant
producers but in some locations
attached algae are also important
as prothicers.
c The animal consumers are
zooplankton, nekton, and benthic
forms.
2 Oceanic - The region of the ocean
beyond the continental shell. Divided
into three parts, all reLatively
poorly populated compared to the
neritic zone.
a Euphotic zone - Waters into which
sunlight penetrates (often to the
bottom in the neritic zone). The
zone of basic productivity. Often
extends to 600 feet belo\v the
surface.
1) Physical factors fluctuate
less than in the ricritic zone.
2) Producers are the phyto-
plankton and consumers are
the zooplankton and nekton.
b Rathyal zone - From the bottom
of the euphotic zone to about
6, 000 feet.
1) Physical factors relatively
constant but light is absent.
2) Producers are absent and
cOnsumers are scarce.
c Abyssal zone - All the sea below
the bathyal zone.
1) Physical factors more con-
stant than in bathyal zone.
2) Producers absent and
consumers not as abundant
as in the bathyal zone.
Bei tha
Pelagial
Illuminated
200
400
Primal7 subdivisions of the marine habitat.
Figure 3.
600
1-33
-------
The Aquatic Environment
Ill SEA WATER AND THE BODY FLUIDS
A Sea water is a most suitable environment
for living cells, because it contains all
of the chemical elements essential to the
growth and maintenance of plants and
animals. The ratio arid often the con-
centration of the major salts of sea water
are strikingly similar in the cytoplasma
and body fluids of marine organisms.
This similarity is also evident, although
modified somewhat in the body fluids of
both fresh water and terrestrial animals.
For example, sea water may be used in
emergencies as a substitute for blood
plasma in man.
B Since marine organisms have an internal
salt content similar to that of their
surrounding mcdium (isotonic condition)
osmoregulation poses no problem. On the
other hand, fresh water organisms are
hypertonic (osmotic pressure of body
fluids is higher than that of the surround-
ing water). Hence, fresh water animals
must constantly expend more energy to
keep water out (i.e., high osmotic
pressure fluids contain more salts, the
action being then to dilute this concen-
tration with more water).
1 Generally, marine invertebrates are
narrowly poikilosmotic , i e., the salt
concentration of the body fluids changes
with that of the external medium. This
has special significance in estuarme
situations where salt concentrations
of the water often vary considerably
in short periods of time.
2 Marine bony fish (teleosts) have lower
salt content internally than externally
(hypotonic). In order to prevent
dehydration, water is ingested and salts
are excreted through special cells in
the gills.
IV FACTORS AFFECTING THE DISTRI-
BUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS
A Salinity - The concentration of salts is
not the same everywhere in the sea, in
the open ocean salinity is much less
variable than in the ever changing
estuary or coastal water. Organisms
have different tolerances to salinity
which limit their distribution. The
distributions may be in large water
masses, such as the Gulf Stream,
Sargasso Sea, etc., or in bays and
estuaries.
1 In general, animals in the estuarme
environment are able to withstand
large and rapid changes in salinit)
and temperature. These animals are
classified as:
a Euryhaline (“eury” meaning wide) -
wide tolerance to salinity changes.
___________________Salinity ca. 35
Figure 4. Salinity Tolerance of Organisms
b Eurythermal - wide tolerance to
temperature changes.
0
1-34
-------
The Aquatic Environment
SNAILS
O Littorina neritoides
O L. rudis
o L. obtusata
O L. littorea
1 A NACI ES
O Chtharnalus stellatus
Balanus balanoides
B. per foratus
Zonation of plants, snails, and barnacles on a rocky shore. While
this diagram is based on the situation on the southwest coast of
England, the general idea of zonation may be applied to any temper-
atc rocky ocean shore, though the species will differ. The gray
zone consists largely of lichens. At the left is the zonation of rocks
witI exposure too extreme to support algae, at the right, on a less
exposed situation, the animals are mostly obscured by the algae.
Figures at the right hand margin refer to the percent of time that
the zone is exposed to the air, i. e, , the time that the tide is out.
Three major zones can he recognized the Littorina zone (above the
gray zone); the F3alanoid zone (between the gray tone and the
laminarias); and the Laminaria. zone, a. Pelvetia canaliculata ,
h, Fucus spiralis , c. Asc phy1lum nodosum , d. Fucus serratus ,
c. Larninaria digitata . (Based on Stephenson)
Figure 5
1-35
-------
The Aquatic Environment
2 In general, animals in river and
oceanic environments cannot withstand
large and rapid changes in salinity and
temperature. These animals are
classified as
a Stenohaline (“steno” meaning narrow) -
- narrow tolerance to salinity changes.
b Stenothernal - narrow tolerance to
temperature changes.
3 Among euryhaline animals, those living
in lowered salinities often have a
smaller maximum size than those of
the same species living in more saline
waters. For example, the lamprey
( Petromyzon marinus ) attains a length
of 30 - 3i3 ’ in the sea, while in the
Great Lakes the length is 18 - 24”.
4 Usually the larvae of marine organisms
are more sensitive to changes in salinity
than arc the adults This character-
istic limits both the distribution and
size of populations.
B Tides
Tidal fluctuation is a phenomenon unique
to the seas (with minor exceptions). It is
a twice daily rise and fall in the sea level
caused by the complicated interaction of
many factors including sun, moon, and the
daily rotation of the earth. Tidal heights
vary from day to day and p1ace to place,
and are often accentuated by local
meteorological conditions. The rise and
fall may range from a few inches or less
to fifty feet or more.
V FACTORS AFFECTING THE
PRODUCTIVITY OF THE MARE 4E
ENVIRONJ\’ IENT
The sea is in continuous circulation. With-
out circulation, nutrients of the ocean would
eventually become a part of the bottom and
bioinass production would ccase. Generally,
in all oceans there exists a warm surface
layer which overlies the colder water and
forms a two-layer system of persistent
sta1 ility. Nutrient concentration is usually
greatest in the lower zone. Wherever a
mixing or disturbance of these two layers
occurs, biomass production is greatest.
Factors causing this breakup are, therefore,
of utmost importance concerning productivity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This outline contains selected material
from other outlines prepared by C. M.
Tarzwell, Charles L. Brown, Jr.,
C.G. Gunnerson, W.Lee Trent, W.B.
Cooke, B. H. Ketchurn, J. K. McNulty,
J. L. Taylor, R. M. Sinclair, and others.
REFERENCES
1 Harvey, H.W. The Chemistry and
Fertility of Sea Water (2nd Ed.).
Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
234 pp. 1957.
2 Hedgpeth, J.W. (Ed.). Treatise on
Marine Ecology and Palcoecology.
Vol. 1. Ecology Mern. 67 Geol.
Soc. Amer., New York. 1296 pp.
1957.
3 Hill, M. N. (Ed.). The Sea. Vol. II.
The Composition of Sea Water
Compai ative and Descriptive
Oceanography. Interscience Pubis.
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
554 pp. 1963.
4 Ketchum. Bostwick H. The Waters Edge:
Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone
MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 1972.
5 Reid, G. K. Ecology of Inland Waters
and Estuaries. Reinhold Pubi.
Corp. Nr w York. 375 pp. 1961.
6 Sverdrup, Johnson. and Fleming.
The Oceans. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
New York. 1087 pp. 1 12.
This outline was prepared by 11. W. Jackson,
Cnief Biologist, National Training Center,
Water Quality Office, EPA, Cincinnati, 011
452 GO.
1—36
-------
THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
Part 5 \ Tet1ands
INTRODUCTION
A Broadly defined, wetlands are areas
‘ hich are ‘to wet to plough but too
thick to flow. ‘ The soil tends to be
saturated with water, salt or fresh,
and numerous channels or ponds of
shallow or open water are common
Due to ecological features too numerous
and variable to list here, they comprise
in general a rigorous (highly stressed)
habitat, occupied by a small relatively
specialized indigenous (native) flora
and fauna.
B They are prodigiously productive
however, and many constitute an
absolutely essential habitat for some
portion of the life history of animal
forms generally recognized as residents
of other habitats (Figure 8) This is
particularly true of tidal marshes as
mentioned below.
B Estuarine pollution studies are usually
devoted to the dynamics of the circulating
water, its chemical, physical, and
biological parameters, bottom deposits, etc
C It is easy to overlook the intimate relation-
ships which exist betweea the bordering
marshland, the moving waters, the tidal
flats, subtidal deposition, and seston
whether of local, oceanic, or riverine
origin
D The tidal marsh (some inland areas also
have salt marshes) is generally considered
to be the marginal areas of estuaries and
coasts in the intertidal zone, which are
dominated by emergent vegetation They
generally extend inland to the farthest
point reached by the spring tides, where
they merge into freshwater swamps and
marshes (Figure 1). They may range in
width from nonexistent on rocky coasts to
many kilometers.
C \Vetlands in toto comprise a remarkably
large proportion of the earth’s surface,
and the total organic carbon bound in
their mass constitutes an enormous
sink of energy.
D Since our main concern here is with
the “ aquatic ” environment, primary
emphasis will be directed toward a
description o wetlands as the transitional
zone between the waters and the land, and
how their desecration by human culture
spreads degradation in both directions.
TIDAL MARSHES AND THE ESTUARY
A “There is no other case in nature, save
in the coral reefs, where the adjustment
of organic relations to physical condition
is seen in such a beautiful way as the
balance between the growing marshes
and the tidal streams by which they are
at once nourished and worn away
(Shaler, 1886)
Tittti blur.h
iT 1j i
nice Cloy Sub.irotv
— - -
— — — — — — (_.‘
z — - — -- —- — —
Figure I Zomtiou , I n C poCitivO eW En I nd ,.tt ry I Spring tide level. 2 hivan high tide
3 Mean low tide, 4 Dog hole, 5 Ice cleavage pool. 6 Chtcth ol Sporttna tort depoliled by ice
7 Organic ooae alih sasoclated conrnc ity. B welgc..a iZo.tero) , 0 Ribbed ,v ,,..eln imedIoiuil-
clam ( } mud .n.ii I) commoclly 10 Sei lettuc. ilJIv i
COtonnel Mod VIol
I —
2———-
BI.21e. 1.74
1-37
-------
The Aquatic Environment
III MARSH ORIGINS AND STRUCTURES
A In general, marsh substrates are high in
organic content, relatively low in minerals
and trace elements. The upper layers
bound together with living roots called
turf, underlaid by more compacted ?eat
type material.
1 Rising or eroding coastlines may
expose peat from ancient marsh
growth to wave action which cuts
into the soft peat rapidly (Figure 2).
Figure 2 IagrnrflaI c ((Uon of eroding pr t cliff
Such banks are likely to be cliff-like,
and are often undercut. Chunks of
peat are often found lying about on
harder substrate below high tide line
If face of cliff is well above high water,
overlying vegetation is likely to be
typically terrestrial of the area.
Marsh type vegetation is probably
absent.
2 Low lying deltaic, or sinking coast-
lines, or those with by. ener ’ wave
action are likely to have active marsh
formation in progress Sand dunes
are also common in such areas
(Figure 3). General coastal
configuration is a factor.
Figure 3
Development of a Massachusetts Marsh since 1300 BC, involving an
18 foot rise in water level. Shaded area indicates sand dunes. Note
meandering marsh tidal drainage. A 1300 BC, B; 1950 AD.
Terrc . .tr ul turf
Salt marsh peat * —: - - - - — -
Substrate _ — - - - - -
•1
1-38
-------
The Aquatic En-iironrnent
a Rugged or precipitous coasts or
slo ly rising coasts, typically
exhibit narrow shelves, sea cliffs,
fjords, massive beaches, and
relatively less marsh area (Figure 4)
An Alaskan fjord subject to recent
catastrophic subsidence and rapid
deposition of glacial flour shows
evidence of the recent encroachment
of saline aters in the presence of
recently buried trees and other
terrestrial vegetation, exposure
of layers of salt marsh peat along
the edges of channels, and a poorly
compacted young mars-l turf developing
at the new high water level (Figure 5).
Figure 4 A River Mouth on a Slowly Rising Coast Note absence
of deltaic development and relatively little marshland,
although mud fiats stippled are extensive
Figure 5 Some general re atIonshtps In a northern fjord with a rising water level 1. mean low
water, 2 maxlnium high tide, 3. Bedrock, 4 GlacIal flour to depths in excess of
400 meters, 5. Shifting fiats and channels, 8. Channel against bedrock, 7. Buried
terrestrial vegetation. 8. Outcropptngs of salt marsh peat
b Low lying coastal plains tend to be
fringed by barrier islands, broad
estuaries and deltas, and broad
associated marshlands (Figure 3).
Deep tidal channels fan out through
innumerable branching and often
interconnecting rivulets The
intervening grassy plains are
essentially at mean high tide level
2
- :
8
“J
1-39
-------
The Aquatic Environment
c Tropical and subtropical regions
such as Florida, the Gulf Coast,
and Central America, are frequented
by mangrove swamps. This unique
type of growth is able to establish
itself in shallow water and move out
into progressively deeper areas
(Figure 6). The strong deeply
embethied roots enable the mangrove
to resist considerable wave action
at times, arid the tangle of roots
quickly accumulates a deep layer of
organic sediment. Mangroves
in the south may be considered to
be roughly the equivalent of the
Spartina rnarsn grass in the north
as a land builder. When fully
developed, a mangrove swamp is an
impenetrable thicket of roots over
the tidal flat affording sheiter to an
assortment of semi-aquatic organisms
such as various molluscs and
crustaceans, and providing access
from the nearby land to predaceous
birds, reptiles, and mammals.
Mangroves are not restricted to
estuaries, but may develop out into
shallow oceanic lagoons, or upstream
into relatively fresh waters.
Figure 6 Diagrammatic transect of a mangrove swamp
showing transition from marine to terrestrial
habitat
tidal marsh is the marsh grass, but very
little of it is used by man as grass.
(Table 1)
The nutritional analysis of several
marsh grasses as compared to dry land
hay is shown in Table 2.
TASLE 1 General Orders of Magnitude of Gross Primary Productivity in ‘t’erms
of Dry Weight of Organic Matter Flied AnnuaUy
grne/M 2 /year
Frnevetem (erame/sauare rr ieterslyear) lbelacre / year
Land deserts, deep oceans Tens HundredS
Grasslands, forests. eutrophic Hundreds Tbou and 5
lAkes. ordiunry agriculture
Estuaries, deltas, coral reefs, Thousands Ten thous&
intensive agricuittare (sugar
cane, riee)
TABLE 2. Analyses of Some Tidal Marsh Grasses
1-/A Percentage Cornpotton
Dry Wt Protein F t Fiber Water Ash N-free (.tract
D ,siichbs spicara (pure stand dry)
28 53 17 324 82 67 455
Short ,artina aliernHora and SaIccsrtia europaea (in standing water)
12 77 25 311 88 120 377
Spartina alicrn ,llora (tall pure stand tn standing water)
35 7 ’S 20 290 83 155 373
Spert:na pact ns ‘p a’ s,áni) riry)
32 5fJ II 300 81 90 445
Sp.trt .na aIrc’rn itI ’aa and Sp..riirij parent (mired stand, wet)
34 68 1 ’ 298 81 104 428
Sp ,,r,na altern,(I ,,,.a (short wi t)
72 80 24 304 87 133 363
Comparable Analyses for Hay
l st .,,t t ,0 20 362 67 42 449
I ..l , , t lIt) 37 31)5 104 59 305
Analyses performed by Roland W. Gilbert. Department
of Agricultural Chemistry. Ti R.l.
IV PRODUCTIVITY OF WETLANDS
A Measuring the productivity of grasslands
is not easy, because today grass is seldom
used directly as such by man It is thus
usually expressed as production of meat,
milk, or in the case of salt marshes, the
total crop of animals that obtain food per
unit of area. The primary producer in a
?SOaCtt. COsOCrfltuS av ,cls ,aa
‘ottsr teasute., .SSOCILS SSLt t*kPS 5 ASSOCJtS
U’.’
1 -40
-------
The Aquatic Environment
B The actual utilization of marsh grass is
accomplished primarily by its decom-
position and mgestion by micro organisms
(Figure 7) A small quantity of seeds and
solids is consumed directly by birds
Figure 7 The nutritive composition of
successive stages of decomposition of
Spartina marsh grass, showing increase
in protein and decrease in carbohydrate
with increasing age and decreasing size
of detritus particles
1 The quantity of micro invertebrates
which thrive on this wealth of decaying
marsh has not been estimated , nor has
the actual production of small indigenous
fishes and invertebrates such as the
top minnows (Fundulus), or the mud
snails (Nassa), and others.
2 Many forms of oceanic life migrate
into the estuaries, especially the
marsh areas, for important portions
o their life histories as is mentioned
elsewhere (Figure 8). It has been
estimated that in excess of 60% o.f the
marine commercial and sport fisheries
are estuarme or marsh dependent in
s3me way.
3 An effort to make an indirect
estimate of productivity in a Rhode
Island marsh was made on a single
August day by recording the numbers
and kinds of birds that fed on a
relatively small area (Figure 9).
Between 700 and 1000 wild birds of
12 species, ranging from 100 least
sandpipers to uncountable numbers
of seagulls were counted. One food
requirement estimate for three -
pouni poultr r in the confined inactivity
of a poultry yard is approximately one
ounce per pound of bird per day.
Figure 8 Diagram of the life cycle
of white shrimp (after Anderson and
Lunz 1965).
Greater yellow legs (left)
and blaLk duck
Great blue heron
Figure 9 Some Common Itlarsh Birds
1-41
-------
The Aquatic Environment
VI POLLUTION
A No single statement can summarize the
effects of pollution on marshlands as
distmct from effects noted elsewhere on
other habitats.
B Reduction of Primary Productivity
The primary producers in most wetlands
are the grasses and peat mosses.
Production may be reduced or eliminated
by:
1 Changes in the water level brought
about by floDding or drainage.
a Marshland areas are sometimes
diked and flooded to produce fresh-
water ponds. This may be for
aesthetic reasons, to suppress the
growth of noxious marsh inhabitatmg
insects such as mosquitoes or biting
midges, to construct an industrial
waste holding pond, a thermal or a
sewage stabilization pond, a
“convenient” result of highway
causeway construction, or other
reason. The result is the elim-
ination of an area of marsh. A
small compensating border of
marsh may or may not develop.
b High tidal marshes were often
ditched and drained in former days
to stabilize the sod for salt hay or
“thatch” harvesting which was highly
sought after in colonial days. This
inevitably changed the character
of the marsh, but it remained as
essentially marshland. Conversion
to outright agricultural land has
been less widespread because of the
necessity of diking to exclude the
periodic floods or tidal incursions,
and carefully timed drainage to
eliminate excess precipitation.
Mechanical pumping of tidal marshes
has not been economical in this
country, although the success of
the Dutch and others in this regard
is well known.
2 Marsh grasses may also be eliminated
by smothering as, for example, by
deposition of dredge spoils, or the
spill or discharge of sewage sludge.
3 Considerable marsh area has been
eliminated by industrial construction
activity such as wharf and dock con-
struction, oil well construction and
operation, and the discharge of toxic
brmes and other chemicals
C Consumer production (animal life) has
been drastically reduced by the deliberate
distribution of pesticides. In some cases,
this has been aimed at nearby agricultural
lands for economic crop pest control, in
other cases the marshes have been sprayed
or dusted directly to control noxious
insects.
1 The results have been universally
disastrous for the marshes, and the
benefits to the human community often
questionable.
2 Pesticides designed to kill nuisance
insects, are also toxic to other
arthropods so that in addition to the
target species, such forage staples as
the various scuds (amphipods), fiddler
crabs, and other macroinvertebrates
have either been drastically reduced
or entirely eliminated in many places.
For example, one familiar with fiddler
crabs can traverse miles of marsh
margins, still riddled with their burrows,
without seeing a single live crab.
3 DDT and related compounds have been
“eaten up the food chain” (biological
magnification effect) until fish eating
and other predatory birds such as herons
and egrets (Figure 9), have been virtually
eliminated from vast areas, and the
accumulation of DDT in man himself
is only too well known
1-43
-------
The Aquatic Environment
D Most serious of the marsh enemies is
man himself. In his quest for ‘lebensraum”
near the water, he has all but killed the
water he strives to approach. Thus up to
twenty percent of the marsh-- estuarine
area in various parts of the country has
already been utterly destroyed by cut and
fill real estate developments (Figures
10, 11).
/3 /kh e
E Swimming birds such as ducks, boris,
cormorants, pelicans, and many others
are severely jeopardized by floating
pollutants such as oil
/ Zy cU
// ,
Figure 10. Diagrammatic representation of cut-and-fill for
real estate development. nilw = mean low water
Figure 11. Tracing of portion of map of a southern
city showing extent of cut-and-fill real
estate development.
1 -44
-------
The Aquatic Environment
VII SUMMARY
A Wetlands comprise the marshes, swamps,
bogs, and tundra areas of the world.
They are essential to the well-being of
our surface waters and ground waters.
They are essential to aquatic life of
all types living in the open waters. They
are essential as habitat for all forms of
wildlife.
B The tidal marsh is the area of emergent
vegetation bordering the ocean or an
estuary.
C Marshes are highly productive areas,
essential to the maintenance of a well
rounded community of aquatic life.
D Wetlands may be destroyed by
1 Degradation of the life forms of
which it is composed in the name of
nuisance control.
2 Physical destruction by cut-and-fiL
to create more land area.
5 Morgan, J.P. Ephemeral Estuaries of
the Deltaic Environment in’ Estuaries,
pp. 115-120. Pubi. No. 83, Am.
Assoc. Adv. Sci. Washington, DC. 1967.
6 Odum, E.P. and Dela Crug, A.A.
Particulate Organic Detritus in a
Georgia Salt Marsh - Estuarine
Ecosystem. in. Estuaries, pp. 383-
388, Pubi. No. 83, Am. Assoc. Adv.
Sci. Washington, DC. 1957.
7 Redfield, A. C. The Ontogeny of a Salt
Marsh Estuary. in Estuaries, pp.
108-114. PubI. No. 83, Am. Assoc.
Adv. Sci. Washington, DC. 1967.
8 Stuckey, 0. H. Measuring the Productivity
of Salt Marshes. Maritimes (Grad
Schoolof Ocean., U.R.I.) Vol. 14(1).
9-11. February 1970.
9 WiLliams, R. B. Compartmental
Analysis of Production and Decay
of Juncus reomerianus . Prog.
Report, Radiobiol. Lab., Beaufort, NC,
Fiscal Year 1963, USD1, BCF, pp. 10-
12.
REFERENCES
1 Anderson, W. W. The Shrimp and the
Shrimp Fishery of the Southern
United States. USD1, FWS, BCF.
Fishery Leaflet 589. 1966.
2 Deevey, E.S., Jr. Bogs. Sci. Am. Vol.
199(4) 115-122. October 1958.
3 Emery, K. 0. and Stevenson. Estuaries
and Lagoons. Part II, Biological
AspectsbyJ.W. Hedgep th, pp. 693-
728. in: Treatise on Marine Ecolo r
and Paleoecology. Geol. Soc. Am.
Mem. 67. Washington, DC. 1957.
4 Hesse, R., W. C. Allee, and K. P.
Schmidt. Ecological Animal
Geography. John Wiley & Sons. 1937.
This outline was prepared by H. W. Jackson,
Chief Biologist, National Training Center,
Water Programs Operations, EPA, Cincinnati,
OH 45268.
Descriptors :
Environment,
Environment,
Aquatic Environment, Estuarine
Lentic Environment Lotic
Currents, Marshes, Limnology
1-45
-------
WATER RESOURCES AND NEEDS
I WATER RESOURCES C Withdrawals for use are mostly from those
waters in the runoff and groundwater
A The source of all freshwater is the phases, although some oceanic waters are
hydrologic cycle, shown in Figure 1. being utilized.
D Precipitation- -which serves to recharge
groundwaters and surface supplies- - is at
. CIRCUL 0N a relatively fixed annual rate.
EVAPORATION
/ q cP:uATIoN f TRANSPIRAUON i r 0400b11110fl
( 2 Evapo-transpiration losses total
IMPOUNDMENT approximately 21 inches per year or
GROUNDWATER GROUNDWATER approximately 2,940 billion gallons per
_______________________________ day.
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Figure 1 3 The available water totals approximately
9 inches per year or 1, 260 billion
1 Precipitation of water as rain, snow, gallons per day.
hail, sleet or dew.
2 Percolation of water through soil to an II THE DISTRIBUTION OF U.S. WATER
aquifer to form groundwater. RESOURCES
3 Runoff of water which forms lakes, Although the water supply in the hydrologic
streams and rivers, cycle is fixed in amount, it is not distributed
evenly. A wide disparity of water distribution
4 Evaporation of surface water or trans- exists both in time and space. Distribution
piration of water from green plants to of the annual average precipitation is shown
the atmosphere. in Figure 2.
5 Atmospheric recirculation of the water A Distribution of Precipitation
vapor.
1 Dependent upon
B The world’s supply of water is contained
within the hydrologic cycle as a Atmospheric conditions such as
temperature and winds
1 Oceanic water
b The geography of the region
2 Water vapor iii the atmosphere
c The general climate of the area
3 Ice and snow in glaciers and snowpack
2 U. S. areas of high annual precipitation
4 Runoff water in lakes and streams
a The Pacific slope varies from 10 inches
5 Groundwater to greater than 100 inches annually.
W. RE 28e 12 71 2-1
-------
Water Resources and Needs
> 80
b The gulf states precipitation varies
from 20 to 60 inches annually.
c Precipitation in the midwest and
Great Lakes area ranges from 25 to
50 inches per year.
d Precipitation along the Atlantic Coast
averages between 35 to 50 inches
per year.
3 Areas of low annual precipitation
a The Rocky Mountain area precipitation
ranges between 10 and 20 inches per
year.
b Much of the southwest has less than
10 inches of precipitation annually.
4 Distribution of precipitation with time
a The rainy or wet season varies from
summer to winter, or in some areas
there is relatively little change
e year.
Fi ur : 2
b Local storms of high intensity may
reach as much as 30 inches in 24
hours.
B Distribution of Runoff
1 Dependent upon:
a Precipitation in the region
b Infiltration - which is controlled by
the geologic formations and the time
lapse between rains.
c Season of the year controls evaporation,
and snow melt.
d Topography controls the time available
to percolate through the soil.
e Vegetation type and density affects
interception and evapotranspiration.
2 Areas of high annual runoff
a Sections of the Pacific slope have
greater than 80 inches annually.
Distribution of Precipitation
(Average Annual)
Ii ciies
2
-------
Water Resources and Needs
b The eastern 1/3 of the U.S. averages
greater than 20 inches of runoff
annually.
3 Much of the western U.S. has less than
1 inch of runoff annually.
a Southwest
b Rocky Mountain states
c Rocky Mountain plateau
4 Time distribution of runoff
a Overflow--runoff during and immediately
following precipitation.
b Base flow--sustained or fair weather
runoff composed of delayed sub-
surface and groundwater runoff.
See Figure 3 for runoff cycle.
C Distrthution of Groundwater
1 Groundwater volume is affected by the
same factors as runoff.
2 Geologic formations and soils control
percolation and storage of groundwater.
3 Topography controls time available
for percolation.
4 Evapo-transpiration varies with the
season, as does precipitation and
ground saturation.
I I I WATER USE
A Present Water Use in the U. S.
1 Water available for use
a Nine inches or 1, 160 billion gallons
per day are not lost through evapo-
transpiration, and is therefore
theoretically available.
b Water use in the U.S. at the present
time is approximately 390 billion
gallons per day or 3 inches of our
total supply.
c Twenty-one inches are lost through
evapo - transpiration.
(Davis & DeWiest)
Figure 3
THE RUNOFF CYCLE
3
-------
\Aater Resources and Needs
2 The way in which water is used
Water uses can be grouped into two
classes. Those uses which are in situ
such as recreation, fishing, and wildlife
and those uses requiring withdrawal
from the stream. These withdrawals are
a Agricultural uses take 46% of our
supply or 180 billion gallons/day,
only 40% of this water is returned to
the streams.
b Industrial uses take another 46% of our
supply. 2% of the water used by
industry is consumed.
c Municipal uses total approximately
25 billion gallons daily or 8% of the total.
3 Source of water used in U.S.
a National averages show 80% or 312
billion gallons per day to be from
surface sources, while 20% is taken
from the ground.
b The ratio of surface water to ground-
water varies and is dependent on the
quantity and quality available in each
locality, as well as the cost.
4 Seasonal uses of water
a Irrigation waters are used during the
growing season only.
b Some water using industries such as
the canning industry are seasonal.
c The majority of industries needs
water throughout the year.
d Municipal use is higher in the summer.
B Demand for water is increasing
1 The predicted demand of water in 1980
is approximately 600 billion gallons of
water per day, or 220, 000 billion per
year.
2 This is mainly due to expansion of
industry and irrigated agriculture.
3 Much of the demand for water will be
in areas such as the southwest, that
are already short on water.
C Methods for the Development of U. S.
Water Resources for Future Needs
1 Utilization of our present sources of
water, surface and groundwater, must
be increased. This would mean
increased storage, both on the surface
and in underground reservoirs.
2 Desalinization of ocean waters and
brackish waters holds some promise
for regions where transportation will
not be expensive.
3 Reduction of evapo-transpiration losses
will greatly increase our totalavailable
supply.
4 Weather modification methods could
possibly give us precipitation in the
right place at the right time.
5 Greater reuse of our present supply is
both through multiple use and better
waste treatment methods.
IV SUMMARY
The total amount of water available appears
to be fixed. In view of the increasing
demands and the currently inefficient
utilization of the supply, the demand may
very shortly exceed the supply. Better
management of the resource and more
engineering research are urgently needed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Certain portions of this outline contain
training material from prior outlines by
Peter F. Atkins, F. P. Nu on.
2-4
-------
Water Resources and Needs
Table 1. AVAILABIUTY OF GROUND WATER
Areas
Water Use
(excluding water power)
Use in mgd and Percent
of total from Ground
Water Sources
Total
mgd
Ground
water (%)
A Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain area
B Southern Great Plains area
C Appalachian Mountain and Piedmont area
D Rocky Mountains, northern Great Plains,
and northern Pacific Coast area
E Unglaciated central plateaus and lowlands
F-i Basin and range
F-2 Columbia Plateau
G Glaciated area of the East and Midwest
U.S. Total (rounded)
32, 000
2 1, 000
8, 000
28, 000
26, 000
41, 000
24, 000
57, 000
240,000
25
45
50
12
10
42
7
10
20
REFERENCES
1 Ackerman, EdwardA., Lof, George O.G.,
Technology m American Water
Development. The Johns Hopkins
Press. Baltimore. 1959.
2 Senate Select Committee on National Water
Resources. Water Resources Activities
in the United States. Committee Print
No. 3. U. S. Gov. Printing Office.
January 1960.
3 Senate Select Committee on National Water
Resources. Water Resources Activities
in the United States: Committee Print
No. 24. U.S. Coy. Printing Office
January 1960.
4 Lmsley, Ray K., Kohler, Max A.,
Paulttus, Joseph H. Hydrology for
Engineers. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Inc., New York. 1958.
5 Chow, Ven Te. Handbook of Applied
Hydrology. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Inc., New York. 1964.
6 Davis, Stanley N. and DeWiest, Roger,
J.M. Hydrogeology. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York. 1966.
7 The U. S. Water Resources Council, The
Nation’s Water Resources, U. S.
Govt Printing Office, 1968.
8 American Chemical Society. Cleaning Our
Environment the Chemical Basis for
Action. ACS. Washington, DC 20036.
249 pp. (2 75) 1969.
This outline was prepared by Edward D - .
Schroeder, Engineer, formerly with the
National Training Center and revised by
L. J. Nielson, Categorical Programs
Division, EPA, Region X, 1200 Sixth Avenue,
Seattle, WA 98101
2-5
-------
TECHNIQUES FOR THE BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF POLLUTANTS
INTRODUCTION
A Ways in Which Wastes Affect Aquatic Life
1 Indirect by modification of the environ-
ment such as by modifying food chain,
changing average annual temperature,
or reducing DO.
2 Direct physical or physiological
action on the organism itself.
3 Rendering aquatic product distasteful
or dangerous for human consumption.
B Two Basic Approaches field observation,
or laboratory tests.
NOTE Equipment and procedures for
making the following determinations
and interpretations of results, will
not be considered.
II FIELD OBSERVATIONS
A Field evaluations are usually based on
comparisons with an actual or imaginary
unpolluted reference or control? site.
For example, what are the actual con-
ditions
1 In a stream below a point of pollution
as compared to above (an actual or real
control).
2 In any polluted area compared to “what
it might, or should be?? (this is a
theoretical control, depends on the
skill and integrity of the evaluator for
its usefulness).
3 In any polluted area, what are con-
ditions now as compared to what they
were before pollution was introduced 9
This assumes that a pre -pollution
study or observation was made, which
in this case constitutes the control.
Field controls in general are much
less rigorous than laboratory controls
Liberal margins of safety must thus
be provided when extrapolating
laboratory results to field conditions
B Two general types of biological evalua-
tions may be employed in the above
comparisons qualitative (descriptive)
and quantitative (measurement)
Qualitative observation
a The indicator concept is generally
based on the positive thought that
there must be some organism
which is found in polluted areas but
not in unpolluted areas
1) This is true only for the
bacteria where certain forms
present in the intestines of
warm-blooded animals can be
found in sewage Finding and
identifying these organisms
thus demonstrates a strong
likelihood that animal ex-
crement is present
2) Higher forms of life do not
usually live in the sources of
pollution, especially industrial,
and hence are not carried
thence into the receiving water.
There is no known form of
pollution-tolerant higher life
which cannot also be found in
unpolluted places The finding
of a pollution-tolerant orga-
nism does not therefore
necessarily demonstrate
pollution There is, however,
infinite variety to the sensitivity
of various forms of higher life
to the various forms of pollution
b Population balance , that is, the
species composition of the aquatic
community, is very sensitive to
Bl.BIC. 25b 3.71
-------
Techniques for the Biological Evaluation of Pollutants
environmental conditions, and
hence to pollution.
2 Quantitative observation and
measurements
a Quantitative data may have reference
to the entire aquatic community, or
only to selected or individual species.
Reference may be to numbers or to
weight Weight may be wet, dry,
ashed, etc Rate of production may
be involved. Much remains to be
done in this field
b Productivity is the ability of an en-
vironnient to produce or grow a crop
of organisms (corn, hogs, algae, fish,
mayflies). Productivity may be
measured in some stipulated unit of
quantity per unit of volume or area
per unit of time. For example
- Grams of carbon fixed (by photo-
synthesis) per square meter per
day,
- Pounds of fish produced per acre
per year,
- Number of fish catchable per
fisherman-hour
c The standing crop is an estimate of
the quantity (or biomass) of some
specified portion of the aquatic
community present at a point in
time. For example
- Pounds of large mouthed black
bass per acre,
- Grams of pollution-intolerant
bottom invertebrates per square
foot, square meter, etc
- Total plankton count per ml, or
per liter
- Total quantity of all life present
per unit area, volume, etc
3 Various workers have developed
formulas for expressing the degree
or nature of pollution based on one
or more of the above determinations.
While valid and useful in the hands
of the originator and his staff,
none has yet been universally
accepted.
Ill LABORATORY EVALUATIONS
These, too, almost mvariably involve a
comparison or “control” setup. Such
studies may have broad and general
objectives, or be designed to detect life
history stages exhibiting maximum
sensitivity such as eggs, juveniles,
breeding condition, etc.
A Bloassays are assays of the biological
effect of something, employing living
organisms as the yardstick. They are
widely employed in commercial,
scientific, and water quality sur-
veillance activities.
1 Methods useful for aquatic
organisms are described in
Standard Methods. Test
organisms are exposed to a
series of concentrations of
some substance for a stated
period of time under stated
conditions.
a If the material is highly toxic
in the concentrations employed
and the organisms in the
higher concentrations die,
“tolerance limits” can be
calculated. A common
parameter employed is the
concentration which 50% of the
organisms can tolerate (or
survive) for time “t” called
the “median tolerance limit”
(for time “t”). This may be
written “TLm” 96hrs. for the
96 hour median tolerance
limit, for example.
3-2
-------
Techniques for the Biological Evaluation of Pollutants
b Any appropriate organism may
be employed, from protozoa
to fish.
2 “Static jars” or “continuous flow”
apparatus may be employed to
provide the various dilutions of the
toxicant being tested.
a Static jar tests are seldom run
for more than a week, and are
usually read only in terms of
percent survival or kill,
generally termed “acute”
toxicity.
b Continuous flow apparatus may
likewise be employed to
measure short term acute
toxicity, but it is virtually
essential for long term tests
at sublethal concentrations
where parameters other than
lethal thresholds, at given time
intervals, are measured, e. g.,
tests of a series of sublethal
concentrations of a toxicant on
the growth rate and breeding
success of a species of fish,
lasting for one or two years.
B A recently published procedure called
biomonitoring provides for the continuous
surveillance of an industrial effluent
(or a dilution thereof) using live
organisms as the test of its suitability
for discharge.
C A conventional 130D determination is a
bioassay of biologically oxidizable
material present.
D Combination laboratory and field studies
are often conducted to determine the
effects of specific substances or con-
ditions, often on specific organisms,
for example, the effect of heated water
discharges on oysters, or the effect
of eridrin on catfishes
E Post mortem examination of dead
organisms, especially fishes, can
occasionally shed light on the cause
of death. For example, the ratio of
zinc in the gill structure to zinc in the
opercular bone can indicate death
caused by a sudden increase in the
zinc concentration of the water.
Unfortunately, relatively few sub-
stances have been so analyzed.
REFERENCES
1 Hutcheson, George E. A Treatise on
Limnology. John Wiley Company,
New York. 1957.
2 Jackson, H.W., and Brungs, V.A.
Biomonitoring of Industrial
Wastes. Purdue Industrial
Waste Conference, West
Lafayette, Indiana. May 3-5,
3 Mount, D. I. An Autopsy Technique
for Zinc-Caused Fish Mortality.
Trans. Am. Fish Soc. 93 (2) 174-
182. April 1964.
4 Stanthrd Methods for the Examination
of Water and Wastewater. 12th Ed.
APHA, AWWA, WPFC.
Published by Am. Pub. Health
Assoc., New York. 1965.
5 Welch, P. S. Limnological Methods.
Blakiston Co. , Philadelphia, Pa.
1948.
This outline was prepared by H.W. Jackson,
Chief Biologist, National Training Center,
Environmental Protection Agenc’ , OWP,
Cincinnati, OH 45268
1966.
3-3
-------
SIGNIFICANCE OF “LIMITING FACTORS” TO POPULATION VARIATION
I INTRODUCTION
A All aquatic organisms do not react uniformly
to the various chemical, physical and
biological features in their environment
Through normal evolutionary processes
various organisms have become adapted
to certain combinations of environmental
conditions. The successful development
and maintenance of a population or community
depend upon harmonious ecological balance
between environmental conditions and
tolerance of the organisms to variations
in one or more of these conditions.
B A factor whose presence or absence exerts
some restraining influence upbn a population
through incompatibility with species
requirements or tolerance is said to be a
limiting factor . The principle of limiting
factors is one of the major aspects of the
environmental control of aquatic organisms
(Figure 1).
A Liebig’s Law of the Minimum enunciates
the first basic concept In order for an
organism to inhabit a particular environ-
ment, specified levels of the materials
necessary for growth and development
(nutrients, respiratory gases, etc.) must
be present. If one of these materials is
absent from the environment or present
in minimal quantities, a given species
will only survive in limited numbers, if
at all (Figure 2).
‘U
z
z
‘U
>
“a
II PRINCIPLE OF LIMITING FACTORS
This principle rests essentially upon two basic
concepts One of these relates organisms to
the environmental supply of materials essential
for their growth and development The second
pertains to the tolerance which organisms
exhibit toward environmental conditions.
0
0
z
0
0
a.
iUNLIMITED GROWTH
/ DECREASE IN
/
.- LTMTf TIOMNS
I
I
EQUILIBRIUM WITH
ONMENT
IN
TrMI1 IONS
POPULATION DECLINE
TIME
Figure 1 The relationships of limiting factors
to population growth and development
Figure 2. Relationships of environmental
factors and the abundance of organisms
1 The subsidiary principle of factor
interaction states that high concentration
or availability of some substance, or
the action of some factor in the environ-
ment, may modify utilization of the
minimum one. For example
a The uptake of phosphorus by the
algae Nitzchia closterium is influenced
by the relative quantities of nitrate
and phosphate in the environment,
how ever, nitrate utilization appears
to he unaffected by the phosphate
(Reid, 1961).
b The assimilation of some algae is
closely related to temperature
c The rate of oxygen utilization by fish
may he affected by many other sub-
stances or factors in the environment.
tOW — MAGNITUDE OF FACTOR — HIG’H
BI. ECO. 20a. 7.69
1
-------
Significance of “Limiting Factors” to Population Variation
d Where strontium is abundant, mollusks
are able to substitute it, to a partial
extent, for calcium in their shells
(Odurn, 1959).
2 If a material is present in large amounts,
but only a small amount is available for
use by the organism, the amount available
and not the total amount present deter-
mines whether or not the particular
material is limiting (calcium m the form
of CaCO 3 ). ,
B She]Sord pomted out in his Law of Tolerance
that there are maximum as well as minimum
values of most environmental factors which
can be tolerated. Absence or failure of an
organism can be controlled by the deficiency
or excess of any factor which may approach
the limits of tolerance for that organism
(Figure 3).
Minirhum Limit of
Toleration
Range of Optimum
of Factors
Maximum Urn
To leration
it of
Absent Decreasing
Greatest Abundance
Decresstng
Absent
Abundance
Abtmthnce
Figure 3. Law of Tolerance.
1 Organisms have an ecological minimum
and maximum for each environmental
factor with a range in between called
the critical range which represents the
range of tolerance (Figure 2). The
actual range thru which an organism can
grow, develop and reproduce normally
is usually much smaller than its total
range of tolerance.
2 Purely deleterious factors (heavy metals,
pesticides, etc.) have a maximum
tolerable value, but no optimum (Figure 4).
M i
U
z
4
C
z
“ C
w
>
I-
4
1
M i
Figure 4. Relationship of purely harmful
factors and the abundance of
organisms
3 Tolerance to environmental factors
varies widely among aquatic organisms.
a A species may exhibit a wide range
of tolerance toward one factor and a
narrow range toward another. Trout,
for instance, have a wide range of
tolerance for salinity and a narrow
range for temperature.
b All stages in the life history of an
organism do not necessarily have the
same ranges of tolerance. The
period of reproduction is a critical
time in the life cycle of most
organisms.
c The range of tolerance toward one
factor may be modified by another
factor. The toxicity of most sub-
stances increases as the temperature
increases.
d The range of tolerance toward a given
factor may vary geographically within
the same species. Organisms that
adjust to local conditions are called
ecotypes .
CONCENTRATION
2
-------
Significance of “Limiting Factors” to Population Variation
e The range of tolerance toward a given
factor may vary seasonally. In general
organisms tend to be more sensitive
to environmental changes in summer
than in other seasons. This is
primarily due to the higher summer
temperatures.
4 A wide range of distribution of a species
is usually the result of a wide range of
tolerances. Organisms with a wide
range of tolerance for all factors are
likely to be the most widely distributed,
although their growth rate may vary
greatly. A one-year old carp, for
instance, may vary in size from less
than an ounce to more than a pound
depending on the habitat.
5 To express the relative degree of
tolerance for a particular environmental
factor the prefix eury (wide) or steno
(narrow) is added to a term for that
feature (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Comparison of relative limits of
tolerance of stenothermal and
eurythermal organisms.
C The law of the minimum as it pertains to
factors affecting metabolism, and the law
of tolerance as it relates to density and
distribution, can be combined to form a
broad principle of limiting factors.
1 The abundance, distribution, activity
and growth of a population arc deter-
mined by a combination of factors, any
one of which may through scarcity or
overabundance be limiting
2 The artificial introduction of various
substances into the environment tends
to elim inate limiting minimums for
some species and create intolerable
maximums for others.
3 The biological productivity of any body
of water is the end result of interaction
of the organisms present with the
surrounding environment.
III VALUE AND USE OF THE PRINCIPLE OF
LIMITING FACTORS
A The organism-environment relationship
is apt to be so complex that not all factors
are of equal importance in a given situation,
some links of the chain guiding the organism
are weaker than others. Understanding
the broad principle of limiting factors and
the subsidiary principles involved make
the task of ferreting out the weak link in
a given situation much easier and possibly
less time consuming and expensive.
1 If an organism has a wide range of
tolerance for a factor which is
relatively constant in the environment
that factor is not likely to be limiting.
The factor cannot be completely
eliminated from consideration, however,
because of factor interaction.
2 If an organism is known to have narrow
limits of tolerance for a factor which is
also variable in the environment, that
factor merits careful study since it
might be limiting
STENOTHEIMAL STENOTHERMAL
(OLIGOTHERMAL)tURYTHERMAL (POLYTHERMAL)
3
-------
Significance of r?Lim].ting Factors? to Population Variation
B Because of the complexit of the aquatic
environment, it is not always easy to
isolate the factor in the environment that
is limiting a particular population.
Premature conclusions may result from
limited observations of a particular
situations. I’vlany important factors may
be overlooked unless a sufficiently long
period of time is covered to permit the
factors to fluctuate within their ranges of
possible variation. Much time and money
may be wasted on control measures ithout
the real limiting factor ever being dis-
covered or the situation being improved.
C Knowledge of the principle of limiting
factors may be used to limit the number
of parameters that need to be measured or
observed for a particular study. Not all
of the numerous physical, chemical and
biological parameters need to be measured
or observed for each study undertaken.
The aims of a pollution survey are not to
make and observe long lists of possible
limiting factors but to discover which
factors are significant, how they bring
about their effects, the source or sources
of the problem, and what control measures
should be taken.
D Specific factors in the aquatic environment
determine rather precisely what kinds of
organisms will be present in a particular
area. Therefore, organisms present or
absent can be used to indicate environ-
mental conditions. The diversity of
organisms provides a better indication of
environmental conditions than does any
single species. Strong physio-chemical
limiting factors tend to reduce the diversity
within a community, more tolerant species
are then able to undergo population growth.
REFERENCES
1 Odum, Eugene P. Fundamentals of
Ecology, \\. B. Saunders Compan),
Philadelphia. (1959)
2 1 eid, George K. Ecology of Inland Waters
and Estuaries. Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, New York. (1961)
This outline was prepared b . John E.
Matthews, Aquatic Biologist, Robert S. Kerr
Water Research Center, Ada, Oklahoma.
4-4
-------
THE ADVENT OF TF RMAL POLLUTION
INTRODUCTION
A The problem of thermal pollution has
impinged upon our consciousness because
of the tremendous growth in the use of
electric energy, in the size of the central
electricity generating stations, and the
transition from fossil fuels to nuclear
fuels.
B Thermal pollution has been defined as man
caused deleterious changes in the normal
temperature of water.
C Human activity can change the normal
temperature of water in many ways.
Temperature changes may be induced by
altering the environment of the watercourse
through:
1 Road building
2 Logging
3 Creating impoundments
4 Diverting flows for irrigation
D Water temperature may also be changed
directly by adding or taking away heat.
E The first questions we must ask are how
serious is the thermal pollution problem
and what is the magnitude of the problem.
II WASTE HEAT: THE PROBLEM
A Present and future demands indicate that
industrial cooling water, when viewed
nationally, is the most important source
of waste heat.
B Of this industrial source, electric power
generating industry alone accounts for
about 80 percent of the cooling water used.
C The best single index of the thermal pollu-
tion potential lies in projecting future
electric power production.
1 Power generation has approximately
doubled each ten years during this
century.
2 Future demands indicate a shortening
of the time span for similar increases.
D Waste heat output has not multiplied as
fast as power generation because of im-
provements in thermal plant efficiency
and development of hydropower
E Fossil-fueled plants are reaching a limit
of efficiency and nuclear plants are even
less efficient than fossil-fueled ones
F With these considerations in mind, heat
rejection from the predicted mixture of
nuclear and fossil power plants is expected
to increase almost ninefold by the year 2000.
G Waste heat from industry will also increase.
UI MANAGING WASTE HEAT
A The problem is one of managing tremendous
amounts of waste heat in a manner that will
maintain the physical, chemical, and
biological nature of our water resources.
B Water quality standards are being imple-
mented to protect these resources
C Thermal pollution control measures are
costly and complicated.
1 Federal Water Quality Administration
estimated the cost of cooling facilities
needed over the five years- -1968 through
1972--at 1. 8 billion dollars.
2 By comparison, in one year alone (1965),
3 billion dollars was spent on sport
fishing.
3 Thus the potential effect of thermal
pollution on this and other beneficial
water uses must be considered
IV MODIFICATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
BY HEAT WASTES
A Changes can be noted as the thermal regime
of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs change
These changes effect the ecology and these
effects are usually for the worse.
1 Heat killing fish
2 Sublethal effects
WP. TH. 1.8.70
5—1
-------
The Advent of Thermal Pollution
B Though only a small number of fish kills
due to thermal changes have occurred to
date, if unrestricted use of streams, lakes,
and reservoirs for cooling purposes were
allowed, the number would greatly increase.
Therefore, the concern is primarily to
prevent a potential major pollution problem
from occurring.
C Discharging heated waters is equivalent
to discharging organic wastes in the
lowering of the assimilative capacity of a
stream.
D The cooling water requirements for even
a 20°F rise is greater than the minimum
daily flow of the Mississippi River at
Vicksburg (Mathur, 1968).
V SUMMARY
We must develop a thorough understanding of
the causes, effects, and control of thermal
pollution in order to apply equitable, reasonable
and effective approaches toward its solution.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Portions of this outline were taken from “The
Industrial Waste Guide on Thermal Pollution,”
Alden G Christianson and Bruce A. Tichenor,
principal authors and “Thermal Pollution Status
of the Art,” Frank L. Parker and Peter A.
Krenkel, authors.
This outline was prepared by John F Wooley,
Biologist, Manpower and Training Branch,
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory, FWQA
5—2
-------
GENERAL EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON AQUATIC ORGANISMS
I INTRODUCTION
II KNOWN EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
A Water temperature plays a major role in
the ability of any waterbased ecological
system to maintain optimum characteristics
throughout all biological stages. Tern-
perature effects on all organisms in an
aquatic community are important because
of the interdependence of species.
1 For example, temperatures which are
not lethal to fish or shellfish may affect
metabolism, reproduction and growth,
as well as reduce important food
organisms, thereby inducing a change
in the ba]ance of the entire system.
2 AU natural biological systems are
highly complex, hence it is very difficult
and potentially misleading to generalize
on the effect temperature changes have
on the aquatic biota. A more realistic
approach is to direct investigations to
locally important species.
B The scientific literature contains a large
volume of information on the effect of
temperature on all levels of the aquatic
b iota.
1 Data are given which indicate maximum
temperatures, optimum temperature
ranges, maximum permissible temper-
erature changes, acclimation temperatures,
etc., for a wide variety of organisms.
2 These data are based upon both ]ab-
oratory and field investigations of
various degrees of depth.
C The information presented on the biological
effects of thermal pollution is not complete.
Hopefully, however, it will be useful in
detecting potential biological problems
associated with water temperature changes.
Where such problems are anticipated, a
complete analysis of the situation, tailored
to the specific site and problem, is needed.
A The response of aquatic organisms to
elevated water temperatures has been
studied in the laboratory and in situ by
experts in many scientific disciplines.
B These well documented responses are
1 A shift in population structure of the
ecosystem
a The structure of aquatic commu-
nities, often called the “food web”
(Figure 1) is the result of the
relationship between organisms
and the environment as well as
among the organisms themselves.
Most forms of stress cause a
decrease in the complexity of the
aquatic community (Cairns, 1967).
b Patrick (1949) demonstrated the
effects of organic pollution on
population diversity by comparing
the total number of species in each
of seven taxonomic groups with the
number in that group at stations
relatively free of pollution.
Typical results for various degrees
of pollution are shown in Figure 2,
with the related taxonomic grouping
or organisms and interpretation of
results in Table 1.
c Patrick et al (1954) also examined
the effects of pollution on the
diversity of the diatom population.
Diversity-density distribution plots
for an unpolluted stream and for a
polluted one appear in Figure 3.
2 The above examples indicate that a
healthy aquatic community is one in
which many species are present, with
each species having few individuals,
while under stressed conditions, fewer
BI. ECO.he. 3.8.70
6-1
-------
General Effects of Temperature on Aquatic Organisms
INSECTS & OTHER
ARTHROPODS
ER INVERTEBRATES
\
PROTOZOA
BACTER
I
& ORGANIC MATERIAL
SIMPLIFIED AQUATIC FOOD WEB
FIGURE 1
FiSH
ALGAE
INO
6-2
-------
SEMI-HEALTHY
VERY POLLUTED
I II III IV V VI VII
TYPICAL HISTOGRAMS OF VARIOUS DEGREES OF POLLUTION
FIGURE 2
200%
150
100
50
0
200%
150
100
50
0
C)
(D
CD
tlj
(0
C)
0
‘-.3
CD
(0
‘1
CD
0
0’
I-
C)
0
C l ,
C l ,
-------
General Effects of Temperature on Aquatic Organisms
30
25
1
=
20
15
w
c10
C#)
LIJ
C., 5
w
V,
30
25
Li.l
15
V) 10
w
C.,
I 5
0
0- 1- 2- 4- !- 16- 32- 64- !28 256- 512-1024•2048-l 4096-
1 2 4 8 16 32 94 128 256 512 1024 2048 4096 8192
INDIVIDUALS PER SPECIES
DIVERSITY-DENSITY DISTRIBUTION FOR UNPOLLUTED
(UPPER CURVE) AND POLLUTED (LOWER CURVE) STREAMS
FIGURE 3
INDIVIDUALS PER SPECIES
6-4
-------
General Effects of Temperature on Aquatic_Organisms
TABLE 1
TAXONOMIC GROUPING OF ORGANISMS AND INTERPRETATION
OF RESULTS OF PATRICK’S SYSTEM OF BIOLOGICAL
MEASUREMENT OF STREAM CONDITION
Column
Stream Conditions
Or san is ms
Results
species are present with ]arge numbers
of individuals per species.
D Wurtz and Dolan (1960) concluded from the
results of a study on a stretch of the
Schuylkill River into which heated water
was discharged, that the hot water dis-
charge reduced the diversity of the
prevailing biological structure of the river.
III DEATH BEYOND CERTAIN
TEMPERATURES
A Extremes of temperature which can be
endured by fishes have been studied since
the 1940’s (Brett, 1960), with considerably
more emphasis on upper lethal tem-
peratures than on lower ones.
I The blue-green algae, Stigeoclonium, Spfro ra,
Trthonema, and certain rotifers
U Oligochaetes, leeches and pu]monate snails
III Protozoa
IV Diatoms, red algae, and most green algae
V All rotifers not included in I plus c]ams, proso-
branch snails and tric]adid worms
VI All insects and crustacea
VU All fish
Healthy
Semi-Healthy
Col. IV, VI and VII all above 50 percent
Polluted
(a) Either or both Col. VI or VU below 50 percent
and Ccl. I or U under 100 percent, or
(b) Either Col. VI or VU below 50 percent, and
Col. I, U and IV 100 percent or over, or over,
or Col. IV is double width
(a) If either or both of Col. VI and VII are absent,
and Col. I and II are 50 percent or better, or
Very polluted
(b) If Col. VI and VII are both present, but below
50 percent then Ccl. I and II must be 100 percent
or more
(a) If Col. VI and VU are absent and Col. IV is be1o’
50 percent, or
(b) If Col. VI or VII is present, but Col. I or II is
less than 50 percent
6—5
-------
General Effects of Ten perature on Aquatic Organisms
1 Comprehensive tables of lethal tem-
peratures and the associated acclima-
tization temperatures for a large
number of species have been compiled
by Jones (1964), McKee and Wolf (1963),
Mason (1962), FWPCA (1967), and
DeSylva (1969).
B The lethal temperature has been found to
be a function of many factors, including
diet, activity, age, general health,
osmotic stress, and weather.
1 This large number of variables makes
it difficult to determine a useful value
for the lethal temperature since the
lethal temperature changes somewhat
with variations in each of those variables.
2 The aquatic species, its thermal history,
and the exposure time are major factors
which affect lethal temperature levels.
C The tables mentioned above demonstrate
the variety of thermal limits among the
fishes.
1 Brett (1952) demonstrated the variance
of these limits among seven species
acclimated to the same temperature,
using data from three authors
(Figure 4).
2 In the same figure, the effect of
exposure time on the upper lethal
limit for each of the species is shown.
3 The fact that the semi-logarithmic
plots of temperature versus time to
50% mortality are reasonably parallel
is noteworthy.
D The effect of acclimatization (thermal
history) and exposure time on upper
lethal limits for a single species is shown
in Figure 5.
E The extremes of temperature which can
be tolerated indefinitely by a species and
their dependence on acclimatization
temperature can be summarized in a
“tolerance trapezium” simi]ar to Brett’s
(1960), which appears in Figure 6.
1 It is significant that the difference
between the 50% - and 5% - lethal
levels is small, mthcating that a
]arge increase in mortality can result
from a small change in temperature
near the tolerance limits (Brett, 1958).
IV SUBLETHAL FUNCTIONAL RESPONSE
A Extreme temperature is a killer, but
within the zone of tolerance temperature
is.
1 A catalyst
2 A depressant
3 An activator
4 A restrictor
5 A stimulator
6 A controller
B Temperature is one of the most important
and influential water quality characteristics
to life in water (Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, 1967).
C Brett (1969) recognized the limiting
capability of temperature on fishes when
he produced the “tolerance trapezium”
(Figure 6).
1 Well within the zone of tolerance lies
a smaller zone outside which activity
and growth are limited.
2 Within that zone lies an even smaller
one which defines the temperatures
which allow normal reproduction.
3 Although the boundaries of the smaller
zones are not as well defined as those
of the tolerance zone, their significance
is recognized.
o The relationship between rate of metab-
olism and temperature for two species is
shown In Figures 7 and 9 (Fry and Hart,
1948).
6—6
-------
— I I I I IIIIJ I I I I 11111 1 U IUUI .
34
32
3O
(D
ENOTILUSAT;ONACULATUS
CD
. . .
£ a
C.)
0
I’ HINICHTHYS ATRATULUS
C)
Lu
cn
0
I J
26
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CD
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US FONTINALIS
CRISTIVOMER NAMAYCUSH
24 .
I I I I II&!__I __ _ I & I jul I I I I Ii
100 TOOo
TIME 1050% MORTALITY — MINUTES
C)
0
p1
MEDIAN RESISTANCE TIMES FOR FISH ACCLIMATED TO 20°C
U)
FIGURE 4
U)
C)
-------
General Effects of Temperature on Aquatic Organisms
15 100 1,000 10,000
TIME TO 50% MORTALITY, MINUTES
EFFECT OF ACCLIMATIZATION TEMPERATURE ON UPPER
LETHAL LiMit OF SPECKLED TROUT
FIGURE 5
Z 25
ACCLIMATION 24
• 22
TEMPERATURE °C 21
+ 15
• 11
V
29
21
25 -
23
I I I I 11111 1 1 _ I I I I
6-8
-------
General Effects of Temperature on Aquatic Organisms
0 5 10 15 20
ACCLIMATION TEMPERATURE
UPPER AND LOWER LETHAL TEMPERATURES
FOR YOUNG SOCKEYE SALMON
FIGURE 6
25
20
15
10
5
0
C-)
0
LIJ
C.)
I-
LIJ
25
6—9
-------
General Effects of Temperature on Aquatic Organisms
I J
=
I-
I I
I I
I -,
120
80 -
40 -
n
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEMPERATURE AND ACTIVE
AND STANDARD LEVELS OF OXYGEN UPTAKE
FIGURE 7
10
190
120 80
100 1O
80
60 50
40 140
20 30
0 4 8 12 16 2024 28 _32 36 40
TEMPERATURE °C
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAXIMUM AND STANDARD LEVELS OF OXYGEN
UPTAKE LOWER CURVE) AND SPEED AT WHICH GOLDFISH CAN SWIM
STEADILY AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES
FIGURE 8
320
280
240
200
160
120
80
AC TI YE STAND ARD
I I I i I I I I I
I
I I I I I I I I I I
6-10
-------
General Effects of Temperature onA guatic Organisms
50
60 10 - 80°F
I I I I
5 15
10
TEMPERATURE
RELATION OF OXYGEN UPTAKE TO TEMPERATURE
IN ACCLIMATED SPECKLED TROUT
FIGURE 9
1 The difference between active metabolic
rate and standard rate is called the
scope of activity (Graham, 1949).
2 Figure 8 demonstrates the similarity
between the graphs of cruising speed
of gold fish versus temperature and
scope of activity versus temperature.
V DECREASED RESISTANCE TO TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
A Although literature on fish toxicology is
voluminous and excellent, summaries of
published data are available (Doudoroff,
1957).
32
40
0
400
300
200 -
100 -
300
200
100
E
C-,
LI
I-
‘I-
I 1
A CT I V 1 STAN 0 A R D
LIMIT OF NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
ULTIMATE
UPPER LETHAL
I -I
0
I
I
20
25 °C
6-11
-------
General Effects of Temperature on Aquatic Organisms
1 The specific effects of temperature on
the toxicity of many pollutants are not
well documented.
2 DeSylva (1969) has summarized the
avai]able data on the combmed and
synergistic effects of heat and toxic
materials on fish.
B Two conclusions can be drawn from
existmg data.
1 Toxicity usually increases with increased
temperatures.
2 Specimens subjected to toxic materials
are less tolerant of temperature
extremes.
C Since chemical reaction rates increase
with increased temperatures and metabolic
rates generally increase at higher tem-
peratures, these results should be expected.
VI SUMMARY
The Effects of Elevated Temperatures on the
Biota are:
A A shift in population structure of the
ecosystem.
B Heated effluents, causing stress on the
community, cause a reduction in the
number of species with an increase in
numbers of individuals per species.
C Lethal temperatures are affected by many
variables.
D Those variables which are considered as
major factors are acclimation, exposure
time, and the species being observed.
E Sublethal temperatures can act as:
1 A catalyst
2 A depressant
3 An activator
4 A restrictor
5 A stimulator
6 A controller
F Temperature is one of the most important
water quality characteristics to life in
water.
G Temperature can increase the toxic action
of pollutants by increasing the metabolic
rate of the organism and by speeding the
chemical reaction of the pollutants.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.
Material for this outline was taken from
Thermal Pollution: Status of the Art,
Frank L. Parker and Peter A. Krenkel,
authors.
REFERENCES
1 Cairns, J., Jr. The Use of Quality
Control Techniques in the Management
of Aquatic Ecosystems. Water
Resources Bulletin. 3. No. 4. 1967.
2 Patrick, Ruth. A Proposed Biological
Measure of Stream Conditions, based
on a Survey of the Cone stoga Basin,
Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.
Proc. Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia. 101:277-341. 1949.
3 Patrick, Ruth, Hohn, M.H. and Wallace,
J. H. A New Method for Determining
the Pattern of Diatom Flora. Notulae
Naturae. Academy Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia, No. 259. 12. 1954.
4 Wurtz, C.B. and Dolan, T. A Biological
Method Used in the Evaluation of Effects
of Thermal Discharge in the Schuylkill
River. Proc. 15th Industrial Waste
Conference, Purdue University. 461.
1960.
6—12
-------
General Effects of Tem _ perature on Aquatic Organisms
REFERENCES (General Effects of Temper-
ature on Aquatic Organisms)
1 Brett, J.R. Temperature Tolerance in
Young Pacific Salmon, Genus
Oncorhynchus . Journal Fisheries
Research Board, Canada. 9, 265. 1952.
2 Brett, J.R. Implications and Assessments
of Env-ironmental Stress. The
Investigations of Fish Power Problems,
H.R. MacMillan Lectures in Fisheries,
Vancouver, B.C. 1958.
3 Brett, J.R. Thermal Requirements of
Fish - Three Decades of Study, 1940-
1970. Biological Problems in Water
Pollution, Tech. Report No. W60-3.
1960.
4 DeSylva,, D.P. Theoretical Considerations
of the Effects of Heated Effluents on
Marine Fishes. Biological Aspects of
Thermal Pollution, edited by P.A.
Krenkel and F. L. Parker, Vanderbilt
University Press. 1969.
5 Doudoroff, P. Water Quality Require-
ments of Fishes and Effects of Toxic
Substances. The Physiology of Fishes,
edited by Margaret E. Brown, Academic
Press, New York. 403-443. 1957.
7 Graham, J.M. Some Effects of
Temperature and Oxygen Pressure on
the Metabolism and A ctivity of the
Speckled Trout, Salvelinus Fontinalis .
Canadian Journal of Research, Series
D, 27. 1949.
8 Jones, J.R. E. Fish and River Pollution,
Butterworth & Co., Ltd., London.
1964.
9 Mason, K.M. Heated Discharges - Their
Effects on Streams. Report by the
Advisory Committee of Stream Tem-
peratures to the Pennsylvania Sanitary
Water Board, Pub. No. 3. 1962.
10 McKee, Jack E. and Wolf, Harold W.
Water Quality Criteria. The Resources
Agency of California State Water
Quality Control Board, Pub. No. 3-A,
Second Edition. 1963.
6 Fry, F. E. J. and Hart, J. S. The Re]ation
of Temperature to Oxygen Consumption
in the Goldfish. Biology Bulletin, 94,
66—77. 1948.
This outline prepared by John F. Wooley,
Biologist, Manpower & Training Branch,
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory, FWQA.
6—13
-------
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF WATER TEMPERATURE
I INTRODUCTION
A With but a few exceptions, the physical
and chemical effects of temperature
change on water quality are more subtle
than, or subordinate to, the more direct
and dramatic biological effects. The
important direct effects, moreover,
usually are not significant in themselves
to water use, but, rather, as they affect
in secondary or tertiary sequence some
other water property or phenomena.
B The more important primary and secondary
effects are:
1 Density on stratification and density
currents , and the whole array of impacts
stratification and density currents have
on water quality and its management.
2 Density and viscosity on sediment
transport and the array of impacts
this sediment transport mechanism
has on movement and deposition of
particu]ate matter.
3 Vapor pressure on evaporation rate
and its impact on cooling processes
and water loss.
4 Partia ressure of gases on gas
solubiJity (particularly oxygen) and
its impact on reaeration.
5 Microbial reaction rate on
deoxygenation by organic matter and
its impact on the oxygen sag.
U PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF WATER
TEMPERATURE
A Temperature affects many physical
properties of water. Of these, the most
significant to water quality are density,
viscosity, vapor pressure and solubility
of dissolved gases. Table 1 shows the
effect of incremental changes in temper-
ature on these properties for fresh water.
B Very slight differences in density are
sufficient to cause thermal stratLflcation
in quiescent water bodies, but strat-
ification stability also depends on water
movement and depth.
1 While the stratification process in
reservoirs and lakes is weU known,
the resulting changes in water quality
are not. The changes are becoming
increasingly important because of the
growth of complex water resource
systems.
2 At the end of a winter season, the
impounded water is usually of a fairly
uniform quality and has a relatively
low temperature. At the onset of
higher atmospheric temperatures,
the surface water and the Incoming
water temperatures are raised and
this lighter water tends to “float” on
the colder and denser water already
in the lake.
3 Three definite strata may be formed,
the surface stratum or epilimnion, the
lower stratum or hypolimnion, and a
transition zone called the thermocline,
where the maximum rate of change of
temperature with depth occurs.
4 Stratification may exist until autumn,
when the lake begins to lose heat more
quickly than it is absorbed. As the
water becomes cooler and more dense,
the thermocline sinks, unstable con-
ditions occur and the reservoir mixes
or overturns. In climates where the
water temperature goes below 40 C,
two turnovers may occur per year.
5 Many impounded waters circulate com-
pletely but some circulate only partially,
these lakes being called meromictic by
limnologists. This stable, lower layer
can be caused by either an accumulation
of dissolved or suspended solids In the
water and may render this lower portion
of the lake unsuitable for a water Supply.
W.Q.ph.6. 8.70
7—1
-------
Physical and Chemical Effects of Water Temperature
TABLE 1
WATER PROPERTIES
Temperature
(°C) (°F)
Density
(gm/cm 3 )
Abs. Viscosity
(centipoises)
Pressure
(mm Hg)
Dissolved Oxygen
Saturation
(mg/i)
0
32
0.99987
1.7921
4.58
14.6
4
39.2
1.00000
5
41
0.99999
1.5188
6.54
12.8
10
50
0.99973
1.3077
9.21
11.3
15
59
0.99913
1.1404
12.8
10.2
20
68
0.99823
1.0050
17.5
9.2
25
77
0.99707
0.8937
23.8
8.4
30
86
0.99567
0.8007
31.8
7.6
35
95
0.99406
0.7225
42.2
7.1
40
104
0.99224
0.6560
55.3
6.6
6 Stable stratification is common In lakes
and reservoirs where there is a specific
gravity difference of about . 001 or . 002
between waters of the upper layer
(epiimnion) and lower layer (hypolimnion).
Such stratification inhibits vertical
mixing and oxygen transfer to lower
waters.
7 In stratified reservoirs, cool 1 Incoming
waters may travel almost directly to
the dam outlet in a density current at
a depth of compatible specific gravity.
This reservoir characteristic is
important In predetermining release
temperatures and in selecting optimum
discharge elevation.
C Water temperature affects velocity and
sediment transport through changes in
density and viscosity.
1 Stokes t law describes the velocity of
settling particles in a non-turbulent
medium according to the following
equation.
2
= dg (p 5 - p
where V = settling velocity, cm/sec
p = density of settling particle,
gin / cm 3
density of water, gm/cm 3
viscosity of liquid, poises
d = diameter of particle, cm
g = acceleration of gravity =
980 cm/sec 2
As indicated, settling velocity is inversely
proportional to the water viscosity and
density.
2 Both properties contribute to increased
settling rates at elevated temperatures.
These increased settling rates may
promote better water treatment plant
operation, though probably to no
measurable degree.
3 A difference in settling velocities can
have a significant effect on the
location and amount of sediment and
sludge deposition in sluggish rivers,
reservoirs and estuaries.
D Evaporation rate increases as water
temperature rises and elevates water
vapor pressure.
Pw=
=
7-2
-------
Physical and Chemical Effects of Water Temperature
1 Evaporation is caused by the wind and
the difference in water vapor pressure
between the air and the water. Since
vapor pressure is a driving force in
evaporation, an increase in tern-
perature will cause an increase in
evaporation, assuming other factors
to be constant.
2 Evaporation is one of the key mech-
anisms in cooling water bodies.
E Water temperature affects gas solubility
and its resultant impact on reaeration.
1 Most living organisms depend on oxygen
in one form or another to maintain their
life and reproductive processes; thus
an adequate supply of oxygen must be
available for any healthy aquatic environ-
ment. Hence, the relation of water
temperature to gas solubility is a very
important aspect of thermal pollution.
2 Oxygen does not react chemically with
water. Therefore, its solubility is
directly proportional to its partial
pressure at any given temperature under
equilibrium conditions with the atmos-
phere. The effect of temperature on the
solubility of oxygen in fresh water under
one atmosphere of pressure is shown
in Table 1.
3 Temperature changes cause complicated
adjustments in the dynamic oxygen
balance in waters and compound the
difficulty of relating dissolved oxygen
and other factors to oxygen demand,
atmospheric reaeration, photosynthetic
production, diffusion, mixing, etc.
General temperature rises, which
decrease the oxygen holding capacity,
may limit oxygen quantities which are
already less than optimum.
4 Atmospheric nitrogen, with a solubiity
about one-half that of oxygen, is usuaU ’
not considered an important control
parameter for water quality. However,
recent evidence on the Columbia River
indicates that fish may be seriously
affected in waters which have become
super-saturated with nitrogen through
rapid warming or pressure reduction
after dam discharge.
UI CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF WATER
TEMPERATURE
A Many factors affect chemical reactions,
including the nature and concentration
of reacting substances, catalytic influence
and temperature. The last named is
important be cause chemical changes
speed up as the temperature rises. In
general, the speed of a chemical change
is approximately doubled for each 100 C
(18° F) rise in temperature.
B In an irreversible reaction, higher tem-
peratures will decrease the time required
to produce the final products. In a
reversible reaction, the process is
complete when the reactants reach a
point of dynamic stability, i.e., when
the rate of forward reaction equals the
rate of reverse reaction. In this case,
temperature influences both the length
of time required to reach equilibrium and
the proportion of reactants and products
at equilibrium conditions.
C Most of the chemical effects on water
quality, which are influenced by tem-
perature, center around microbial
activity. Any chemical reaction or
change that results from a life process
is properly termed a biochemical reaction.
1 The majority of chemical reactions
that organisms bring about occur
through catalytic action at far lower
temperatures than would be needed
in the absence of catalysts. Such
catalysts are known as enzymes, and
are themselves temperature-sensitive.
2 The rate of microbial activity increases,
to a point, with the rates of chemical
reactions. The majority of organisms
affecting chemical water quality are in
the mesophylic classification and thrive
in a temperature range of 10 to 40°C
(18 to 104°F). For this group, activity
usually reaches a maximum between
30 and 37°C (86 and 99° F), then falls
off as enzymes become less active.
7-3
-------
Physical and Chemical Effects of Water Temperature
D Temperature affects not only the rate at
which a reaction occurs, but the extent
to which the reaction occurs, but the
extent to which the reaction takes place.
1 When considering temperature changes
in a receiving water, one must con-
template changes in ionic strength.
conductivity, dissociation, solubility
and corrosion.
2 With an increase in temperature, these
changes might very well result in
differing chemical requirements in the
water treatment plant.
E Taste and odor problems induced by
temperature-accelerated chemical or
biochemical action are accentuated when
oxygen is depleted.
1 Substances which may accumulate
include hydrogen sulfide, sulfur
dioxide, methane, partially oxidized
organic matter, iron compounds,
carbonates, sulfates, and phenols.
2 In addition to greater amounts of
accumulating substances, tastes and
odors are usually more noticeable in
warmer water due to decreased
solubility of gases.
F Biodegradable organic material entering
water exerts a biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) which must be satisfied before
assimilation of the material is completed.
1 When the temperature of a receiving
water rises, the intensified action of
microorganisms causes the BOD to be
satisfied in a shorter distance from
the discharge than would be accomplished
at a lower temperature. Figure 1
depicts oxygen sag curves for a stream
in which all conditions, i. e., stream-
flow, wasteflow, BOD of the waste,
and initial percent DO saturation, were
held constant, except temperature.
It is apparent from the curves that the
deoxygenation effect caused by waste
assimilation is exerted over a shorter
stream distance at higher temperatures,
also that oxygen depletion occurs to a
greater extent, since the sag point is
lower at elevated temperature. Hence,
it is possible that the discharge of an
organic waste that previously had not
caused excessive oxygen depletion
could pose problems at an elevated
temperature.
G Chemical effects of slightly mcreased
temperatures may have minor beneficial
influences on water treatment.
1 Disinfectant action is generally more
rapid at higher temperatures. For
example, for a given dose of free
chlorine, the period required to
disinfect water at 460F is more than
nine times greater than at 104° F.
2 Reports on coagulant dosages are
contradictory, although reports
indicate a savings of 30 to 50 per
million gallons per each 100F rise
in temperature.
3 The potential beneficial effects must
be weighed against the undesirable
effects such as induced slime or algae
growth, taste and odor problems, or
unpalatable drinking water temperatures.
IV SUMMARY
A The physical and chemical effects of
temperature change on water quality
usually are not significant in themselves
to water use but rather as they affect in
secondary or tertiary sequence some
other water property or phenomenon.
7-4
-------
Physical and Chemical Effects of Water Temperature
FIGURE 1
RELATION BETWEEN TEMPERATURE AND OXYGEN PROFILE
(After La Berge)
B The more important effects relate to:
1 Stratification and density currents
2 Sediment transport and deposition
3 Evaporation
4 Saturation with gases
5 Microbial activity
6 Ta8te and odor
7 Deoxygenation and reaeration
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Material for this outline was taken from
“Thermal Pollution: Status of the Art,”
by Frank L. Parker and Peter A. Krenkel
and “Industrial Waste Guide on Thermal
Pollution,” FWPCA, September 1968
(revised).
This outline was prepared by D. S. May,
Former Microbiologist, Manpower and
Training, PNWL, Corvallis, OR.
E
z
U i
>-
0
Ui
>
-J
0
C ,)
C l ,
tO 20 30
Miles from Outlet Discharging Organic Waste
7-5
-------
EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION ON MICROORGANISMS
I INTRODUCTION
\ hen considering the effect of temperature
changes on bacteria, it is important to
distinguish between rapid changes, which
may induce thermal shock, and slow, gradual
changes. Organisms can adapt to gradual
changes in the environment, however, such
adaptation may take several li.fe cycles. I.e.,
each successive generation is better adapted
to its environment. Since bacteria have very
short life cycles, many generations ma
occur within a re)atively short time. If a
gradual temperature increase occurs over
several life cycles, then each successive
generation is subjected to only a small portion
of this total temperature increase. Thus,
bacteria can adapt to slow temperature
changes more easily than higher forms such
as fish.
U TEMPEP TURE REI TIONSI-UPS AND
GROWTH
A The relationships of temperature to
microorganism growth and survival are
very complex. Bacteria can be grouped
according to their temperature require-
ments for growthS
20°C (68° F) - psychrophiles
20 to 55-65°C (68 to 13 1—149°F) -
mesophiles
55-65°C (131-149° F) - therrnophiles
1 The majority of bacteria are mesophilic.
Many found in natural waters are
saprophytes, i.e., organisms that live
on preformed organic matter, which
have optimum temperatures of 22 to
28°C (70 to 82° F).
2 Parasitic bacteria have optimum tem-
peratures near 37°C (98.6°F) and
include those microorganisms pathogenic
to man. Changes in temperature have
a large effect on these organisms’ rate
of activity.
B In general, the higher the temperature,
the more active a microorganism
becomes, unless the temperature ora
secondary effect becomes a lirrutLng
factor.
1 Metabolic activity of thermophLlic
organisms is much greater at their
optimum than psychrophilic organisms
at their optimum. Examination of the
known effects of temperature on \ astc
treatment processes demonstrates the
validity of this statement.
2 A distinct difference exists bet’ . een the
ability of a microorganism to endure a
given temperature and its ability to
grow well under identical conditions.
C The effect of temperature on bacteria
cannot always be considered separately
from other environmental factors. Some
species are more abundant in winter,
while others abound in the summer when
different environmental conditions are
encountered.
D Rising stream temperatures can be
favorable for those bacteria which
multiply in water by inducing the
recurring cycles of life and death more
rapidly.
1 Higher temperatures in an organicall)
polluted stream generally result in
increased bacterial numbers, and lov
temperatures are not conducive to
rapid growth.
2 Temperatures of 1 to 8°C (33.8 to
46. 4° F) may suppress growth and
multiplication, but bacteria persist
longer at these cool temperatures.
E Increases in bacterial populations are not
necessarily harmnIul.
1 Those bacteria which play an active
role in stream self-purification do
perform a useful function. These
BA. eco. 1.8.70
8-1
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Microorganisms
include the bacteria which aerobically
oxidize organic material, as well as
those responsible for nitrification and
anaerobic decomposition of bottom
sediments.
2 Increases in pathogenic bacteria always
pose a problem when domestic wastes
are present
F Bacterial slimes cause unsightly scums
and foul fishing nets. Rivers carryi.ng a
high organic load often develop such
deleterious slime growths at low tern-
p era t ur e S.
1 A study on the Columbia River indicated
that Sphaerotilus slime grows best at
10 to 15°C (50 to 59° F). Growth ceases
below 4°C (39.2°F).
2 Infestation of Sphaerotilus may occur
below l0 C (500 F), given sufficient
time. Beds of phaerotilus slime
extend farther downstream from a
waste outfall during the winter than
in the summer, because warmer tem-
peratures may inhibit the organism’s
food conversion efficiency, or because
of competition for food from other
microorganisms.
Ill EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
POLLUTION INDICATOR ORGANISMS
A The organism of particular interest to
‘.‘ater quality management is E. coil, as
it is the prime indicator of fecal pollution.
It is shown in Figure 1 that increased
temperatures may lead to optimum growth
conditions for this organism in receiving
waters.
B Recent studies on the survival of bacterial
indicators of pollution showed that, the
lower the temperature, the longer the
survival. Table 1 shows the average
time for 99% reduction in original titers
of microorganisms from three sources.
IV SUMMARY
In summary, the temperature of natural
waters, even during the summer, is usually
below the optimum for pollution-associated
bacteria. Increasing the water temperature
increases the bacterial multiplication rate
when the environment is favorable and the
food supply is abundant. Increasing tem-
perature within the growth range causes a
more rapid die-off when the food supply is
limited.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
Material for this outline was taken from
“Thermal Pollution Status of the Art, “ by
Frank L. Parker and Peter A. Krenkel and
“Industrial Waste Guide on Thermal Pollution,”
FWPCA, September 1968 (revised).
This outline was prepared by D. S. May,
Microbiologist, Manpower and Training,
PNWL, Corvallis, OR.
8-2
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Microorganisms
FIGURE 1
GROWTH RATE OF E. COLI
200
180
60
I A r
ILIIIIIIIIIIIII
I
120
I00
80
60
A f
--
--
-
-
-
---
—
/
20
—
————\—————___—
————— — —-- ————
—
———---- -——
—
——
15 20
DEGREES
25 30
CENTiGRADE
35 40
45 50
8-3
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Microorganisms
TABLE 1
AVERAGE TIME IN DAYS FOR 99.9% REDUCTION IN ORIGINAL TITER
OF MICROORGANISMS AT THREE TEMPERATURES FROM THREE SOURCES
Little
Miami
River
0
hio River
Sewage
28°C
(82.4°F)
20°C
(68°F)
4°C
(39. 2°F)
28°C
(82.4°F)
200C
(68°F)
4°C
(39.2°F)
28°C
(82.4°F)
200C
(68°F)
4°C
(39 2°F)
A.
aerogenes
6
8
15
15
18
44
10
21
56
E.
coli
6
7
10
5
5
11
12
20
48
S.
fecalis
6
8
17
9
18
57
14
26
48
8-4
-------
EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION ON PRIMARY PRODUCERS
INTRODUCTION
In any system we must take into account the
primary producers which make the sun’s
energy available to the zooplankton, fish,
etc., and, finally to us. Generally, in
these northern latitudes, we think of tem-
perature increases as being beneficial in
that they tend to increase production. In
some cases, this may be an advantage but
all production is not necessarily good.
Eutrophication is a problem as important
as thermal pollution and just as complex.
It may be accelerated by the addition of
heat.
LI PRIMARY PRODUCERS
A Algae
1 Blue-greens
2 Pigmented flagellates
3 Noamotile green
4 Diatoms
B Aquatic Macrophytes
C Periphyton (bottom algae)
1 Means “around plants.
2 Aufwuch’s is equivalent to the term
periphyton.
III BLUE-GREEN ALGAE
A What are the blue-green algae 9
1 Microscopic algae
2 Has no nucleus of chioroplast
3 Has blue pigment as well as green
B Where are they found 2
1 Free floating in water
2 Attached to rocks, wood or other
substrates
C When are they most common 9
1 Always found in plankton sample
2 The proportion of blue-greens to other
algae depends on the time of the year
and the chemical composition of the
water. The blue-greens usually occur
in abundance only during the warm
months of the year (late summer and
early fall)
D Of what importance are the blue-green
algae 9
1 They have both positive and negative
economic significance.
a First link in food chain
b Some are nitrogen fixers
c Cause taste and odor problems
d Filter cloggers
IV PIGMENTED FLAGELLATES
A What are the flagellates
1 Free swiLnming
2 Well organized nucleus and plastids
3 Have whip like flagellum
B Where are they found 9
1 Free swimming in water
2 Resting stage found on bottom not
attached
C When are they most common 9
1 Always found year around
2 Predominate in late spring and early
fall
D Of what importance are the pigmented
flagellates
1 Cause taste and odor
2 Clog filters
V NONMOTILE GREEN ALGAE
A What are the noamotile greens 9
BI. ECO. he. 4. 8. 70
9-1
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Primary Producers
1 Filarnentous forms VII PERIODICITY OF FRESHWATER ALGAE
2 Called pond silk, green felt, frog- A Diatoms - early spring, late fafl and winter
spawn algae, and stoneworts (common
names). B Pigmented flagellates - late spring and
early fall
B Where are they found 9
C Nonmotile greens - early summer
1 Attached to a substrate
D Blue-greens - late summer and early fall
2 Some are free floating
C When are they most common 9 VIII TOLERANCE OF ALGAE TO NATURAL
HEAT
1 Found all year
A Diatoms are quite intolerant to increased
2 Predominate in early summer temperatures
D Of what importance are the nonmotile B The pigmented flagellates and nonmotile
green algae 9 greens are moderately tolerant to increased
temperatures.
1 Filter clogging
C Blue-greens are very tolerant to increases
2 Taste and odor in temperature.
3 Cause unsightly growths
IX RANGES OF OPTIMUM PRODUCTION
4 Produce slime which interferes with
some industrial uses of water such as A Cairns of Virginia Polytechnic Institute
paper manufacture and cooling towers. (1956 - Effects of Increased Temperature
on Aquatic Organisms. Industrial Wastes
l(4):(l50-l52) has given the following
VI DIATOMS optimum ranges for primary producers in
an unpolluted stream (Figure 1).
A What are the diatoms 9
1 Diatoms - 18-20°C (64. 4-68°F)
1 Cells of very rigid form
2 Green algae - 30-35°C (86-95°F)
2 Have brown pigment besides green
3 Blue-green algae - 35-40°C (95-104°F)
3 Cell walls have ornamented patterns
B The effect of temperature on population
B Where are they found 9 structure can best be illustrated with a
mixed algal population which is subjected
1 Free swimming (planktonic) to a gradual increase in temperature
Figure 2 demonstrates the shift in pre-
2 Attached to a substrate dominance from diatoms at 20°C to blue
green algae, the species often found in
C When are they most common 9 abundance under conditions of organic
or chemical pollution, in the range of
1 Found year around 35 to 40°C (Cairns, 1956)
2 Predominate in early spring and late C These temperatures may be too high but
fall and winter they do illustrate the point. From this we
see that addition of heat may cause a shift
D Of what importance are the diatoms 9 in the type of organisms in abundance in
any body of water. This could be especially
1 Taste and odor important if the shift is from green to a
noxious blue-green algae. A shift in algal
2 Filter clogging types accompanied by an increase in growth
rates could cause severe problems in water
used for recreation or domestic water
supplies.
9-2
-------
Green algae
OPTIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGES FOR PRIMARY PRODUCERS IN AN UNPOLLUTED STREAM
Blue-green algae
Diatoms
I I
I
35
From Cairns, Effects of locreased Temperatures
Industrial Wastes. 1 (4): 150-152
I
40
On Aquatic Organisms.
I -I
C)
tn
I.
15
20
1.
25
30
Temperature in °C
tn
p-4
CD
C)
..4.
0
‘-4,
CD
I
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Primary Producers
TEMPERATURE — °C.
Figure 2. ALGAE POPULATION SHIFTS WITH CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE
X POPULATION SHIFTS OF AQUATIC
MACROPHYTES CAUSED BY HEAT
ADDITION
A In some areas beds of larger aquatic plants
(aquatic macrophytes) may become a
problem when they clog waterways and
interfere with beneficial uses such as
boating and fishing or when they clog water
intakes.
1 We could expect increases in these
plants with increases in temperature
and increased light penetration if there
is less wash load with the higher
temperature.
2 We could expect shifts in species corn-
position if conditions become more
favorable to warm water forms.
B Anderson, of the American University,
detected such a change around the Chalk
Point steam electric plant on the Patuxent
River estuary, and here it was undesirable.
1 There were extensive beds of Widgeon
grass, Ruppia , in the vicinity of the
outfall and on the other side of the
river. It was later found that any
temperature over 20°C inhibits new
growth from the Ruppia stolon so when
the power plant went in and produced a
temperature of 35°C at the outlet there
was little or no new vegetative growth
and Ruppia was replaced by a species of
Potamogeton .
2 This was important to the area because
the Ruppia was used as food by some 30
species of ducks and birds but the species
of Potaniogeton which replaced it has very
littI food value.
0
I-
-J
0
a-
-J
(D
-J
9-4
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Prir.:ar Proth ce’ s
C Some work like this is now being done to
determine effects of heat on other primary
producers but much still needs to be done.
The whole problem is extremely complex
and effects of temperature increase are
often difficult to separate from eutrophication.
EFFECTS UPON PERIPHYTON
A Trembley (1960) chose the periphytori as
a group of organisms showing promise as
an indicator of the effects of heated
thscharges. Periphyton is a collective
name for all those attached aquatic plants
and animals when solid surfaces are
exposed to natural waters.
B To follow changes in periphyton populations
of the river, Trembley used a so-called
Pralgometer, which is simply a device for
suspending microscope slides in the stream.
1 Only one point in each river transect
was sampled.
2 Stream organisms attach to the glass
slides, even grow, within a few days.
3 Differences in counts (species and
individuals) above and below the source
of heated water should indicate the effect
of the heat upon the population.
C Trembley concluded that the periphyton
was considerably altered by the power
plant discharge. Return to normal condi-
tions occurred by 4, 500 feet downstream.
X II SUM) 1ARY
\ e need to know a great deal more about
thermal effects on aquatic organisms to
really predict the effects on our environment
but enough is already knov n about many
organisms to allow us to take some positi e
measures in avoiding thermal effects
A CN NOW LEDG ME NT
Material for this outline was taken from the
technical seminar paper ‘Biologica Effects,
Dr. Ronald Carton, author
REFERENCES
1 Cairns, J , Jr , Effects of
Increased Temperatures on Aquatic
Organisms. Industrial Wastes 1 956a
2 Cairns, J., Jr Effects of Heat on Fish
Industrial Wastes. 1. 180. 1956b
3 Cairns, J., Jr The Use of Quality Coitrol
Techniques in the Management of Aquatic
Ecosystems. Water Resources Bulletin
3. No. 4. 1967.
4 Trembley, F. J Research Project on
Effects of Condenser Discharge \\ ater
on Aquatic Life. Progress Report, 1960.
The Institute of Research. Lehigh Univ.
1961.
5 Trembley, F. J Research Pro iect on
Effects of Condenser Discharge \\ ater
on Aquatic Life. Progress Report,
1956-59 The Institute of Research,
Lehigh Univ. 1960.
This outline was prepared by John F \\ oolev,
Biologist, Manpoi er and Training Branch,
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory, FWQA
9-5
-------
EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION ON THE BENTHOS
I INTRODUCTION
A Fish may be obviously important but they
are not the only important orgamsms or
the only ones being studied at present.
The food organisms are just as important
in the long run. Lose the organisms which
convert the energy of the primary pro-
ducers to a form usable by the fish and
we lose the fish themselves
B In a river, most of the microscopic popu-
lation are benthic organisms, since the
plankton have difficulty maintaining position
in the stream flow. The benthos is a
stationary community which should reflect
the action of the temperature in the area
of influence. Of course, bottom debris
may serve to protect bentluc organisms
to some extent from full exposure to the
heated water.
II SUBLETHAL EFFECTS ON AQUATIC
INSECTS
A In most western streams the stoneflies,
caddisflies and rnayflies are the primary
fish food organisms At the same time,
these organisms have definite environ-
mental requirements and cold, well-
oxygenated water is a prime factor.
1 Preliminary work at the Duluth
Laboratory indicates that tempe ratures
would probably become lethal to any
cold water fish like trout before the
insects would die.
a According to tJsinger (1956), the
heat tolerance of macroscopic
invertebrates is well above that of
fish.
b For example, soldier fly
(stratiomyidae) larvae were found
living in thermal waters at tempera-
tures up to 12 0°F.
2 Table 1 shows 96 hour TL values
determined for some insec 1 species by
Nebeker and Lemke of the Duluth
Laboratory.
a These temperatures are well above
the 12°C suggested as the maximum
limit for spawning and egg develop-
ment in salmon and trout.
b This doesn’t tell the whole story
because the insects may he harmed
in other ways.
B Gaufin, formerly of Utah, and also Nebeker
of the Duluth Laboratory, have demonstrated
that temperature increases can cause pre-
mature emergence
1 A 10°C rise from ambient winter tem-
perature caused one species of stonefly
to emerge in January instead of May
ItOne must imagine how perplexed these
organisms must be as they expect nice
warm spring weather only to freeze to
death as they emerge.
2 Nebeker found that a temperature in-
crease for another species caused the
males to emerge as much as two months
ahead of the females’
C Either situation would prevent reproduction
and would be fatal to the species although
not fatal to individuals prior to emergence
D Even without lethal effects we may find
changes in community due to variation in
optimum temperatures between species.
This has not been studied enough in the
field to really determine the overall effect
on a natural system but it is something
which we will have to know more about in
the future.
LU SUBLETHAL EFFECTS ON SHELLFISH
A Most shellfish, such as clams, oysters,
crabs and lobsters, winch are directly
beneficial to man as a food source, are
marine, stenothermal organ isms. Some
species are stenothermal for one develop-
mental stage and eurytherroal for another
Generally, however, breeding and spawning
requirements are stenothermal.
1 The time of mollusc, e. g. clams,
oyster, etc., Spawning is temperature
dependent.
2 Most molluscs with specific temperature
breeding relationships spawn in the spring
and summer, and many do not spawn until
a certain temperature is reached.
B The American oyster Crassostrea virgiruca
spawns at temperatures between 15 and 4’ C
BI. ECO. he. 5. 8. 70
10-1
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on the Berithos
TABLE 1
Temperatures t which 50 7c of the test species died after 96 hours
exposure (TLm 6 ) when acclimated at 10°C for one week.
— 96o
Species Tested TLm ( Celcius)
Taeniopteryx maura (winter stonefly) 21 0
Ephemerella subvaria(mayfly) 21. 50
Isogenus frontalis (stonefly) 22 50
Allocapnia granulata (winter stonefly) 23 0
Stenonema tripunctatum (mayfly) 25 5°
Brachycentrus americanus (caddisfly) 29
Pteronarcys dorsata (stonefly) 29 5°
Acroneuria lycorias (stonefly) 30 0
Paragnetina media (stonefly) 30 50
Atherix variegata (true fly) 32 0
Boyeria vinosa (dragonfly) 32 50
Ophiogomphus rupirisulensis (dragonfly) 33 ° -
12°C (55°F) Maximum temperature recommended in Water Quality
Criteria for spawmng and egg development of salmon and trout
Fronv Nebeker, Alan V. and Arniond E. Lernke, 1968. Preliminary
studies on the tolerance of aquatic insects in heated waters. Journal
of Kansas Entomological Society 41: 413-418. July, 1968.
10-2
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on the Benthos
(59 and 93. 2°F) depending on its condition,
and spawning is usually triggered by a
rise in temperature.
C Many species tolerate temperatures in
excess of those at which breeding occurs.
1 For e arnple, the shore crab Carcinus
maenas thrives, but does not breed, at
temperatures of 14 to 28°C (57. 2 to
82. 4°F).
2 In this case, temperature limits the
population, but migration of organisms
can occur from outside the heated area.
D Physiology, metabolism and development
are all affected by temperature.
1 The American oyster C virginica
ceases feeding at temperatures below
7°C (44. 6°F).
a Above 32°C (89. 6°F) ciliary activity,
which is responsible for water move-
ment, is decreased.
b At 42°C (107. 6°F) almost all body
functions cease, or are reduced to a
minim urn.
2 The European oyster Ostrea lurida
tends to close its shell as temperatures
drop.
a At 4 to 6°C (39.2 to 42 8°F) the
oyster’s shell remains closed most
of the time.
b At 6 to 8°C (42. 8 to 46. 4°F) the
shell opens for about 6 hours per day.
c At 15°C (59°F) the shell stays open
for 23 hours a day
E Very little is known about prolonged effects
of temperatures above 32 to 34°C (90 to
94°F) on oysters, however, long exposure
to such temperatures may impede the
oyster’s normal rate of water circulation.
When either low or high temperatures cause
shells to close or ciliary action to cease,
oysters cannot feed and subsequently lose
weight. Thus, temperature changes can
produce an effect similar to chronic
toxicity.
F The distribution of benthic organisms is
temperature dependent.
1 The American oyster C. virginica
is present in Gulf Coa i waters that
that may vary between 4 and 34°C
(39. 2 and 93. 2°F), but the European
oyster 0. edulis is restricted to water
temper tures of 0 to 20°C (32 to 68°F)
2 The opossum shrimp Neornysis
americana is not often tound at tempera-
tures above 31°C (87. 8°F) in the
Chesapeake estuary.
Iv LETHAL EFFECTS
A Studies of particular species of benthic
macroinvertebrates have indicated that
lethal temperatures vary considerably
with the type of organism.
1 Laboratory investigations on the fresh-
water snail Lymnaea stagnalis showed
a lethal temperature of 30. 5 C (89. 6°F),
while the species Viviparous malleatus
did not succumb until the temperature
reached 37. 5°C (99. 5°F).
2 Agerborg (1932) observed a freshwater
snail, Physa yrina , living and repro-
ducing nicely in zones up to 91. 4°F in
heated wastewater.
3 Hutchinson (1947) reported that
Viviparous rnalleatus , a freshwater
snail, was not killed until the tempera-
ture reached 37. 5°C (99°F)
B Several snails, including Australorbis
glabratus , suffered heat damage atH15. 8°F
Von Brand, et.al. 1948)
C Other examples show that the limpet,
Ancylus fluviatilus , was not hurt bdy a
temperature of 96. 8°F while 87 8 F was
lethal to Acrolexus lacustris (Berg, 1952)
D When an unidentified species of crayfish
was acclimated to 45°F, it had a lethal
temperature of 93°F (Trembly 1961).
E Sprague (1963) reported a 24-hour lethal
temperature of 94. 3 F for a freshwater
sowbug, Asellus intermedius , and a scud,
Gammarus fasciatus . Another scud,
Hyalella azteca , was killed at 91. 8°F
F Field work on rivers has indicated that
benthic organisms decrease in number
when water temperature exceeds 30°C
(86°F).
1 The macroinvertebrate riffle fauna of
the Delaware River has decreased due
to heated water discharges
10-3
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on the Benthos
a At 35°C (95°F) many caddisfly,
Hydropsyche , were dead, and those
which remained alive were extremely
sluggish.
b This study suggests that there is an
upper tolerance level near 32. 2°C
(90°F) for a variety of different
benthic forms with extensive losses
in numbers and diversity accompany-
ing a further increase in temperature.
V POPULATION SHIFTS CAUSED BY HEAT
ADDITION
A Trembley (1960) studied the bottom fauna
of the Delaware River at the Martins Creek
Power Plant.
1 In the zone of maximum temperature rise
rise just below the outfall 1 there was
obvious reduction of species and
individuals.
2 In the cool water unaffected by the
thermal overflow, there was no reduction
in macroinvertebrates.
3 During the cooler seasons there was
repopulation of the areas affected during
the hot months by thermal discharge.
4 Even during the summer, there was a
significantly higher standing crop at the
downstream site in comparison to the
normal river control station.
B Coutant (1962) followed Trembley’s
Martins Creek research with a study of
the niacroinvertebrate bottom fauna of
the riffle areas of Big Kaypush and Little
Kaypush Rapids.
1 He confirmed Trernbley’s conclusions.
From July through October, there was
substantial reduction in the number,
diversity, and biomass of benthic
organisms in the path of the heated
water.
2 At a distance of one mile downstream
from the point of discharge, he found
a normal population structure.
3 In his traverse studies, he observed
an increase in both variety and number
of organisms as he progressed from
hot to cool water, demonstrating the
effect of temperature as the primary
limiting factor.
4 The work also showed the restricted
effect of heated discharges in changing
the biological communities. The data
suggest a tolerance limit near 90°F for
a normal population structure with
extensive loss in numbers and diversity
of organisms accompanying further rise.
C Wurtz and Dolan (1960) reported a study on
bottom organisms in the Schuylkill River
at the Cromby Power Plant.
1 These authors gave no temperature data,
however, the subcommittee of the
Pennsylvania Electric Association (Mason,
1962) showed severe temperature altera-
tion in this reach of river since the plant
used 85% of the river flow as cooling water
2 The river showed a very elevated tem-
perature and slow recovery. Wurtz and
Dolan evaluated the effects of heated dis-
charges in terms of biological depression,
biological distortion, and biological
skewness.
3 Station 10 at Phoenixville Pumping Station,
0. 5 miles below the plant, showed the
greatest deviation.
4 At Station 13, six miles below the power
plant, the river biology had recovered.
This case illustrates ultimate recovery
from an extreme condition.
VI SUMMARY
It is clear from the valid biological data pre-
sented that increased temperature of the water
does alter the species and individual composi-
tion of the benthic population which, of course,
being generally sessile, is unable to avoid
exposure.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Material for this outline was taken from
The Industrial Waste Guide, Bruce A Tichenor
and Alden G. Christianson, authors, Thermal
Pollution: Status of the Art, Frank L Parker
and Peter A. Krenkel, authors, and Technical
Seminar Paper, Biological Effects, Dr Ronald
Garton, author.
REFERENCES
1 Agersborg, H. P. K The Relation of
Temperature to Continuous Reproduction
in the Puirnoriate Snail. Nautilus, 45
121. 1932.
10-4
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on the Benthos
2 Berg, K. On the 02 Consumption of
Kncylidae (Gastropoda) from an
Ecological Point of View.
Hydrobiologia. 4. 225. 1952.
3 Coutant, C C The Effect of a Heated
Water Effluent Upon the Macroinverte-
brate Riffle Fauna of the Delaware
River. Penn. Acad. Science. 37. 58.
1962.
4 Hutchinson, L. Analysis of the Activity of
the Freshwater Snail, Vinparous
malleatus (Reeve). Ecology 28. 335.
1947.
5 Sprague, J. B Resistance of Four Fresh-
water Crustaceans to Lethal High
Temperatures and Low Oxygen. Journal
Fisheries Research Board, Canada. 20.
387. 1963.
7 Usinger, R. L. Aquatic Insects of
California. University of California
Press. 1956
8 VonBrand, T., Nolan, M. 0., and Man,
E. R. Observations on the Respiration
of Australorbis abratus and Some
Other Aquatic Snails. Dfology Bulletin
95 199. 1948
9 Wurtz, C B., and Dolan, T A Biological
Method Used in the Evaluation of Effects
of Thermal Discharge in the Schuylkill
River. Proc 15th Industrial \Vaste
Conference. Purdue University. 461
1960.
6 Trembley, F. J. Research Project on
Effects of Condenser Discharge Water
on Aquatic Life. Progress Report.
1960. The Institute of Research Lehigh
University. 1961.
This outline was prepared by John F Wooley,
Biologist, Manpower and Training Branch,
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory, Federal
\Vater Quality Administration.
10-5
-------
EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION ON FISH LIFE
I INTRODUCTION
A The physiology of fishes is directly
affected by temperature.
1 Fishes are classed as Poikilothermic
animals, i.e., their body temperatures
follow changes m environmental tem-
peratures rapidly and precisely.
2 In such animals, the factors favoring
heat loss tend to equal the factors
producing body heat, and thus the body
approaches environmental temperatures.
3 In a majority of fishes, the body tem-
perature differs by only 0 5 to 1. 00 C
(0.9 to 1.8°F) from that of the
surrounding water.
4 A fundamental requirement of fishes is
that the external temperature be well
suited to internal tissue functionality.
B The single most important point in
analyzing or predicting the effects of
temperature change on a fishery is to
look at the individual species important
to the specific water body under study
II GENERAL
A Metabolism - -Rates of metabolism and
activity increase with increasing tem-
perature.
1 According to Van’t Hoff’s law,
metabolic activity can double or even
triple over a 10°C (18°F) rise in
temperature.
2 This increase in metabolic rate and
activity will occur over most of the
tolerated temperature range and then
often cease suddenly near the upper
lethal temperature.
3 The rates of increased activity vary
with different species, metabolic
processes, and temperature ranges or
levels.
4 The rates may also be modified by
salinity and oxygen factors.
5 Changes in metabolic rates caused
by temperature changes may be
signaling factors for spawning or
migration
6 Chemical reactions within the fish’s
body cells may be accelerated by
temperature increases.
7 Temperature induced changes in cell
chemistry are associated with four
possible death mechanisms.
a Enzyme inactivity caused by the
acceleration of the enzyme
reaction to such a state that the
enzyme is no longer effective.
b The coagulation of cell proteins
c The melting of cell fats.
d The reduction in the permeability
of cell membranes.
8 Cells may also be killed by the toxic
action of the products of metabolism.
B Reproduction - the temperature range
within which many fishes reproduce is
narrower than that required by the
majority of functions.
1 Fishes generally spawn when a certain
temperature level is reached. Of
course, this level varies from species
to species.
2 Some fish spawn on a drop in tem-
perature, while others respond to a
rise in temperature.
3 Even though the temperature require-
ments for breeding are narrow, fishes
may populate a heated area by con-
tinued migration from the outside.
BI.ECO.he.6 8.70
11—1
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Fish Life
C Development - temperature changes affect
fish development in several ways.
1 Abnormal temperatures can affect
embryonic development.
2 LO V temperatures may slow down
development, but in some cases, fish
attain a larger final size because of
their slow, long continued growth
rather than the rapid growth expe-
rienced at higher temperatures
D Distribution - temperature is one of the
more important factors governing the
occurrence and behavior of fish life, it
affects the general location of a given
species and may also modify the species
composition of a community or an
ecosystem.
1 Tropical and subtropical fishes are
more stenothermal than those found
in fresh water.
2 Some cold water stenothermal forms
may be eliminated by heated discharges,
while the effect on some eurythermal
(tolerant of a wide temperature range)
species may be to increase the popu-
lation.
3 In tropical areas, species live close to
their upper thermal limits, thus the
effect of a thermal discharge can be
quite severe.
4 In northern areas, species may live in
temperatures as much as 160C
(28. 8°F) below their upper lethal
temperature and will not be as
severely affected
5 Laboratory tests have shown that a
slow rate of decrease in environmental
temperature is more important for
maintaining life than a slow rate of
increase.
6 Lethal cold can be more important than
lethal heat as a factor limiting the
distribution of marine fish and as a
hazard to some in their native habitats.
E Synergistic Action - synergism is defined
as the simultaneous action of separate
agents which together, have a greater
total effect than the sum of their individual
effects.
1 In reference to water temperatures,
synergistic action refers o the fact
that temperature rises increase the
lethal effect of toxic substances to
fish and may also increase the sus-
ceptibility of the fish to many diseases.
2 A lOOC (18° F) rise in temperature
doubles the toxic effect of potassium
cyanide, and an 8 0 C(l4.40F) rise
triples the toxic effect of o-xylene.
3 The temperature effect on toxicity
varies with each substance and with
concentrations of any specific
material, rio hard and quick rule may
be formulated to determine this
temperature effect.
4 Since domestic and industrial wastes
are numerous in our nation’s waters,
the synergistic action between tem-
perature and toxicity is a relatively
common occurrence.
a Fish kills have accompanied small
temperature rises which might have
been relatively harmless in an
unpolluted stream free of toxic
substances.
b The ccincentration of a substance
may be harmless at one temperature
but may contribute to fish mortalities
when combined with the stress
imposed by higher temperatures.
5 The virulence of fish pathogens may be
increased by higher temperatures.
a The myxobacteria Chondrococcus
columnaris , which can cause death
through tissue destruction, becomes
more virulent as temperature is
increased.
11—2
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Fish Life
F Dissolved Oxygen - two factors associated
with rising water temperature are
decreases m available oxygen and
increases in metabolic rates.
1 These factors combine to render the
aquatic environment less compatible
to fish life at higher water temperatures.
2 At low water temperatures in the range
of 0 to 4°C (32 to 39.2°F) a dissolved
oxygen level of 1 to 2 mg/i is sufficient
for survival of many freshwater fish
species. When the temperature reaches
15 to 200C (59 to 68°F), less than 3 mg/i
of dissolved oxygen is often lethal.
3 At these temperatures, oxygen levels
as high as 5 mg/i are sometimes
required to support normal activity
beyond that of merely staying alive
G Acclimation - the temperature to which
fish become adjusted over an extended
period of time, i e., the thermal history,
is important because of its influence on
lethal temperature levels.
1 The capacity to acclimate depends on
the genetic background, environmental
history, physiological conditions, and
age of the organism involved.
a The resistance of animals to cold is
much more variable than resistance
to heat.
b The resistance to cold varies with
size, smaller fish resisting best.
2 Acclimation to different temperatures
may involve changes in orientation,
migration, and other behavioral aspects
such as territorialism and biological
rhythms.
a Gradual temperature changes are
tolerated much better than rapid
changes.
b Brief or intermittent exposure to
high temperature can result in
markedly increased resistance to
heat which is not readily lost on
subsequent exposure to low temperature.
c It is the rapid onset of low tern-.
peratures that probably causes
death, outstripping the ability of
fish to acclimate and resulting in
greater mortality.
d Deaths resulting from the inability
of fish to rapidly acclimate to
lowering temperatures have been
reported.
3 Acclimation to low temperature usually
tends to shift the lower thermal limit
downward, and acclimation to high
temperatures tends to shift the upper
limits upward
a The ability to acclimate affects the
temperature range that a fish can
tolerate.
b Fish acclimated to cold winter
temperatures are often subjected
to lethal temperatures in the spring
as warmer water is encountered
III FRESHWATER FISHES
A Maximum Temperatures - maximum
temperatures have been determined for
numerous species of freshwater fish
1 These temperatures indicate the highest
temperature at which a fish can survive,
but they are often higher than the
maximum temperature at which a species
can survive for long periods
2 Maintaining water temperature at these
maximums does not insure the main-
tenance of a fish population.
3 Table 1 shows maximum and minimum
temperatures for various species and
acclimation temperatures
a Values shown are LD 50 temperatures,
i.e. temperature survived by 50%
of the test animals.
b These figures are based on specific
test conditions, so care must be
taken in interpreting the data.
11 -3
-------
Effects of Thermal. Pollution on Fish Life
TABLE 1
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES FOR CERTAIN FRESHWATER FISHES
Fish
Acclimated To
Minimum Temperature
Maximum Temperature.:
0 0
0 C
°F Times Hr
0 C
F Time,
Hr.
Bass, largemouth
20.0 68 0
30.0 86 0
5 0
11 0
41.0 24
51 8 24
32 0
34.0
89 6 72
93 2 72
Bluegill (Lepomis
macrochiruspurpurescens)
15 0 59 0
30.0 86.0
15.0 59.0
25.0 77.0
3.0
11.0
0 0
6 0
37 4 24
51 8 24
32.0 24
42.8 24
31.0
34 0
30.0
34 0
87.8 60
93 2 60
86.0 24
93.2 24
Catfish, channel
Perch, yellow
(winter)
(summer)
5.0 41 0
25 0 77 0
25.0 77.0
---
4.0
9.0
—-- --
39 2 24
48 2 24
21 0
30.0
32 0
69 8 96
86.0 96
89.6 96
Shad, gizzard
25.0 77 0
35 0 95.0
11 0
20.0
51.8 24
68.0 24
34.0
37.0
93.2 48
98.6 48
Shiner, common
(Notropis cornutus
5 0 41.0
25 0 77.0
30 0 86 0
---
4 0
8.0
--- --
39.2 24
46 4 24
27.0
31.0
31.0
80.6 133
87.8 133
87.8 133
frontalis)
Trout, brook
3 0 37 4
20.0 68.0
---
---
--- --
--— -—
23.0
25.0
73 4 133
77.0 133
Va1ues are LD 50 temperature
of the test fish
tolerance limits,
i e.,,
water temperatures
survived
by 50 percent
c Temperature limits for a given species
will vary slightly depending on the
fish’s rate of heating, size, and
physiological condition.
4 A temperature need not kill a fish
directly for it to be lethal.
a Brook trout were found to be com-
paratively slow in catching food
minnows at 17.2° C (63°F) and
virtually incapable of catching
minnows at 21°C (70° F).
b Even though their lethal limit is 23
to 25°C (73.4 to 77°F) the fish
could not survive in this temperature
due to a lack of food (Table 1).
B Preferred Temperatures - most biologists
agree that fish can live for short periods
in waters of abnormally high temperatures,
but at these high temperatures the fish
cannot perpetuate their population.
1 Fish seek out the temperature that is
best suited for their survival.
2 This “preferred temperature” is given
in Table 2 for several species of
yearling fish based upon laboratory
experiments.
3 Table 3 shows the temperature at which
fish in the natural environment seem to
congregate, thus indicating their
“preferred temperature.”
11-4
-------
Effects_of Thermal Pollution on Fish Life
TABLE 2
THE FINAL PREFERRED TEMPERATURE FOR VARIOUS SPECIES
OF FISH AS DETERMINED BY LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
F ma 1
Species
Preferred Temperature
Authority
0 C
°F
Bass, largemouth
30.0-32.0
86.0-89.6
Fry, 1950
Bass, smailmouth
28.0
82.4
Fry, 1950
Bluegill
32.3
90.1
Fry & Pearson, 1952
Carp
32.0
89.6
Pitt, Garside & Hepburn,
1956
Muskellunge
24.0
75.2
Jackson & Price, 1949
Perch, yellow
24 2
75.6
Ferguson, 1958
Perch, yellow
21.0
69.8
McCracken & Starkma,
1948
Trout, brook
14 0-16 0
57 2-60.8
Graham, 1948
Trout, brown
12 4-17.6
54.3-63.7
Tait, 1958
Trout, lake
12.0
53 6
McCauley & Tait, 1956
Trout, rainbow
13.6
56.5
Garside & Tait, 1958
4 The level of thermal acclimation
influences the range of temperatures
preferred.
In general, the difference between the
acclimation temperature and the pre-
ferred temperature decreases as the
acclimation temperature increases.
5 Competition between species is also
important to distribution and survival
since different species have different
species have different preferred tem-
peratures.
Temperatures higher than optimum may
not kill trout, but they may produce
environmental conditions favorable for
the production of coarse fish and reduce
the trout’s food supply.
IV MARINE, ESTUARINE, AND
ANADROMOUS FISHES
A Spawning - limits of temperature require-
ments for spawning are usually much more
stringent than for adult fish survival.
1 The normal spawning temperature for
sockeye salmon is between 7 2 and
12. 8°C (45-55°F), lower and upper
lethal limits are 0°C (32° F) and about
25°C (77° F), respectively.
2 Pink salmon spawn best near 100 C
(50° F).
3 During migration salmon do not feed,
so high water temperatures which
increase their metabolic rate may
result in fuel depletion before spawning
can occur.
11-5
-------
PREFERRED TEMPERATURES FOR
BASED ON
TABLE 3
VARIOUS SPECIES OF FRESHWATER FISH
FIELD OBSERVATIONS
Preferred
Species °C
Temperature
Water Body
—____
Location Authority
tn
CD
C)
‘-‘-
(n
0
CD
‘1
1)
I - .
0
‘ -I.
I-
0
0
C l )
CD
Alewife
4.4- 8.8
39.9-47.8
Cayuga Lake
New York
Gallioan, 1951
Bass, laroemouth
26 6-27.7
80 0-81 9
orris lies
Tennessee
Dendy, 1943
Bass, rock
14.7-21.3
58.5-70 3
Lakes
Wisconsin
Rile & 1941
20 7
69 3
Streams
S Ontario
Hallaii, 1958
Bass, smalimouth
20 3-21.3
68 5-70.3
Nebish Lake
Wisconsin
Hue 1941
21.4
70.5
Streams
S Ontario
Hallam, 1958
Bass, spotted
23 5-24.4
74 1-75.9
Norris Res.
Tennessee
Dendy
Perch, yellow (small)
12 2
54 0
Muskellunge Lake
Wisconsin
Hue Juday, 1941
Perch, yellow (large)
20 2-21.0
68.4-69.8
Lakes
Wisconsin
Rile & Juday, 1941
Shad, gizzard
22.5-23.0
72.5-73.4
Norris Res
Tennessee
Pendy
Trout, brook
14.2-20 3
57 6-68 5
Moosehead Lake
Maine
Coooer & Fuller
“
15 7
60 3
Streams
S Ontario
1958
12.0-20.0
53 6-63 0
Redrock Lake
Ontario
Hallarii,
1948
Trout, lake
10.0-15.0
50.0-59.0
Cayuga Lake
New York
Gallician, 1951
14 0
57.2
White Lake
Ontario
Kennedy, 1941
11.0-11.5
51 8-52.7
Moosehead Lake
paine
Cooper & 1945
“
8.0-10 0
46.4-50 0
Louisa & Redrock
Lakes
Ontario
Martin, 1952
Walleye
20.6
69.1
Trout Lake
Wisconsin
Rile & Juday, 1941
22.7-23 2
72.9-73.8
Norris Res
Tennessee
Den y, 1948
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Fish Life
4 Fish migration is hampered by
unfavorable temperature conditions.
5 A thermal block of 21 1OC (70° F)
at the mouth of the Okanogan River,
\Va shington, prevented migration into
the stream from the Columbia River.
6 Generally for salmon, upstream
migration and reproduction occur best
at temperatures between 7.2 and 15.60 C
(45 and 60° F).
B Eggs - the incubation of eggs and develop-
ment of fry generally have more critical
temperature requirements than either
fingerling or adult fish.
1 Table 4 shows the minimum and
maximum temperatures reported for
the successful hatching of various
species of marine, estuarine, and
anadromous fish eggs.
2 Care must be taken not to equate
successful hatching with fry survival,
Chinook salmon eggs incubated at
16. lOC (61° F) hatched successfully,
but suffered severe mortality in the
late fry stage
TABLE 4
C Young Fish - Table 5 shows the tem-
perature limits for the survival of
various species of young marine,
estuaririe, and anadromous fishes at
several acclimation temperatures.
1 This information is based on laboratory
tests which often produce data not
directly transferable to the natural
envii onment.
2 Laboratory tests on striped bass
fingerlings showed an upper lethal
temperature of 35°C (95°F), but
studies in the Atlantic Ocean indicated
striped bass fish kills occurring at
temperatures of 25 to 27°C (77 0 to
80 6° F).
3 Fish in the estuarine environment are
more susceptible to temperature
changes than those in fresh water.
However, wider ranges of tolerance
between species exist in estuarine
waters
4 Decreases in temperature seem to have
more of an effect on estuaririe fishes
than on freshwater fishes.
TEMPERATURE RANGES FOR SUCCESSFUL EGG HATCHING OF VARIOUS
MARINE, ESTUARINE, AND ANADROMOUS FISHES
Species
Lower
Limit
Uoper
Limit
Authority
0 C
°F
°C
°F
Bass, strined
12 8
55 0
23
9
75 0
Albercht, 1964
California killifish
16 6
61 9
28
5
83 1
Hubbs, 1965
California grunion
14.8
58 6
26
8
80 1
Hubbs, 1965
Salmon, Chinook
5 8
9 4
5 6
42 4
48 9
42 1
14
14
14
2
4
4
57 6
57.9
57.9
Combs & Burrows,
Seymour, 1956
Leitritz, 1962
1957
Salmon, sockeye
4
4-5 8
39.9-42 4
12
8-14
2
55
0-57.6
Combs, 1965
Sea lamprey
15 0
15 6
59.0
60 1
25
21
0
1
77 0
70 0
McCauley, 1963
Piavis, 1961
11-7
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Fish Life
TABLE 5
LETHAL TEMPERATURE RANGES FOR YOUNG MARINE, ESTUARINE, AND ANADROMOUS FISHES
a In studies of young greenfish to
determine the resistance and
acclimation of marine fishes to
temperature changes, Doudoroff
found that heat resistance was gained
rapidly and lost slowly.
b Acclimation to decreasing temper-
atures was slower than acclimation
to increasing temperatures.
c Transposed to the practical case,
this fact implies that the shutdown
of a power generating plant may be
more detrimental than its normal
discharge of heat
5 Anadromous fingerlings have maximum
growth in the temperature range of 10
to 15. 6°C (50 to 60°F).
6 Research on the effects of temperature
on swimming speed indicates that for
young sockeye salmon optimum
cruising speed occurred at 150C
(590 F), and for young silver salmon
at 20°C (68°F), thus, the fish’s
mobility for protection and feeding is
affected by temperature changes.
D Adult Fish - Table 6 shows the lethal
temperature limits for several species
of adult marine, estuarme, and
anadromous fishes.
1 Adult fish are usually able to select
their preferred temperatures, unless
trapped in shallow water or forced to
migrate through thermal blocks.
Acclimation
Species
Temperature
Lower Lethal Temperature
pp er Lethal Temperature
Authority
°F
°C
F
Greenf isJi
12.0-28
0
53 6-82 4
4.1-13 0
39 2—55 4
28.7-31 5
83 7—88 7
Doudor off, 1942
Herring
7.5-15
5
45.5-59 9
-1.8
to -0.75
28.8-30 7
22.0-24 0
71.6-75 2
Blaxter, 1960
Salmon,
Chinook
“
5
10
41
50
—---
0 8
———-
33 4
21 5
24.1
70 7’ Brett, 1956
75.7
“
“
15
59
2.5
36 5
25 0
77 0
20
23
68
73 4
4.5
7.4
40.1
45!3
25 1
----
77 2
----
Brett, 1952
--
----
----
----
26 7
80 0
Kerr, 1953
Salmon,
chum
“
5
10
41
50
----
0.5
----
32 9
21 8
22 6
71 2
72 7
Brett, 1956
15
59
47
405
231
736
“
20
68
6.5
43 7
23.7
74 7
“
‘
23
73.4
7 3
45 2
----
----
Brett, 1952
Salmon,
pink
5
10
41
50
----
—-- -
- ---
-—- -
21 3
22 5
70 3
72 5
Brett 1956
“
15
59
—-—-
—---
231
736
“
20
68
----
----
23.9
75 0
Salmon,
silver
5
10
41
50
0 2
1 8
32 4
35 1
22 9
23 7
73 2
74 7
Brett, 1956
“
15
59
3 5
38 3
24 1
75 7
20
68
4.5
40 1
25 0
77 0
“
‘
23
73 4
6 4
43 5
- ---
----
Brett, 1952
Sa1p n,
‘
sockeye
“
5
10
41
50
0 0
3 1
32 0
37 6
22 2
23 4
72 0
74 1
Brett, 1956
“
15
59
4 1
39 4
24.4
75 9
20
68
4 7
40 5
24.8
76.6
“
23
73.4
6.7
44 1
----
----
Brett, 1952
Topsrnelt
20
68
50.2
31 8
89 2
Doudoroff, 1942
11-8
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Fish Life
LETHAL TEMPERATURE LIMITS
TABLE 5
FOR ADULT MARINE, ESTUARINE, AND ANADROMOUS FISHES
Species
Acclimation
Temperature
Lower Lethal Temperature
Upper Lethal
Temperature
Authority
U
UF
Or
°C
OF
Alewife
-—-
---
--- ---
26 7-32 2
80 0-90 0
Trernbley, 1960
Bass. striped
---
---
6 0- 7 5 42 8-45 5
25.0-27 0
77.0-80 0
Talbot, 1966
California killifish
14 0-28 0
57 2-82 4
--- ---
32 3-36 5
90 1-97 7
Doudoroff, 1942
Comon silverside
7 0-28 0
44 6-82 4
1 5- 8 7 34.8-47 8
22 5-32 5
73 3-90 3
Hoff & Westman,
1966
Flounder, winter
21 0-280
698-824
1 0-S4 338-41 6
---
---
‘
7 0-280
446-82 4
--- ---
22 0-29.0
71 6-84 2
‘
Herring
---
---
-l 0 30 2
19 5—21.2
67 1-70 1
Brawn, 1960
Northern swelifish
14 0-28 0
57 2-82 4
8 4-13 0 47 1-55 4
-—-
---
Hoff & Westman,
1966
“
100-280
500-824
--- ---
28 2-33 0
82.9-90 4
‘
“
Perch, white
4 4
40.0
—-- ---
27 8
82.0
Trembley, 1960
Salmon (general)
-——
--—
0.0 32.0
26 7
80 0
Columbia Basin
agency Conmi
Inter-
1966
A CKNOWLEDGMENTS
Material for this outline was taken from the
“Industrial Waste Guide on Thermal Pollution,
Alden C. Christianson and Bruce A Tichenor,
principal authors.
REFERENCES
1 Brett, J.R. Some Principles in the
Thermal Requirements of Fishes.
Quarterly Review of Biolo ’ 3 1(2)’
75-87. 1956.
2 Brett, J. R. Thermal Requirements of
Fish--Three Decades of Study, 1940-
1970. Biological Problems in Water
Pollution. Transactions, 1959
Seminar. Robert A. Taft Engineering
Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. Technical
Report W60-3, 110-117. 1960.
3 Brett, J.R., Hollands, M. and Alderdice,
D. F. The Effect of Temperature on
the Cruising Speed of Young Sockeye
and Coho Salmon, Journal of the Fish.
Research Bd. of Canada. 15(4). 587-
605. 1958.
4 Burrows, R. E. Water Temperature
Requirements for Maximum Pro-
ductivity of Salmon. Water Temperature
Influences, Effects, and Control.
Twelfth Pacific Northwest Symposium
on Water Pollution Research, Pacific
Northwest Symposium on Water
Pollution Research, Pacific Northwest
Water Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon.
29-38. 1963,
5 Doudoroff, P. The Resistance and
Acclimation of Marine Fishes to Tem-
perature Changes I. Experiments with
Girella nigricans (Ayres). Biological
Bulletin. 83 219-244 1942
11-9
-------
Effects of Thermal Pollution on Fish Life
6 Doudoroff, P. Water Quality Requirements
of Fishes and Effects of Toxic Substances.
In The Physiology of Fishes. M. E.
Brown, Ed. Academic Press, Inc.,
New York. 403 -430. 1957.
7 Ellis, M.M. Temperature and Fishes.
F h Leaflet No. 221, U.S Fish and
Wildlife Service. 1947.
8 Ferguson, R. C. The Preferred Tem-
perature of Fish and Their Midsummer
Distribution in Temperate Lakes and
Streams. Journal of the Fish.
Research Bd. of Canada. 15 607-624.
1958.
10 Gunter, G. Temperature, Chapter 8.
Treatise on Marme Ecology and
Palaeoecology. I.J.W. Hedgepeth,
Ed. Geology Society American
Memoirs. 67 159-184. 1957.
11 Kinne, 0. The Effects of Temperature
and Salinity on Marine and Brackish
Water Animals. I. Temperature.
Oceano-Marine Biological Annual
Review. 1 301-340. 1963.
12 Laberge, R.H. Thermal Discharges.
Water and Sewage Works. pp. 536-
540. 1959.
13 Major, R. L and Mighell, J. L.
Influence of Rocky Reach Dam and the
Temperature of the Okanogan River on
the Upstream Migration of Sockeye
Salmon. Fisheries Bulletin. U. S.
Fish and Wildlife Service. 66(1) 131-
147. 1966.
14 Naylor, E. Effects of Heated Effluents
on Marine and Estuarine Organisms,
In Advances in Marine Biology.
Sir Fredrick S. Russell, Ed. Academic
Press. 63—103. 1965.
15 Nikolsky, 0. V. TheEcology of Fishes.
Academic Press 1 New York. 352 pp
1963.
16 Olson, P.A. and Foster, R.F.
Temperature Tolerance of Eggs and
young of Columbia River Chinook
Salmon Trans of American Fish.
Soc., 58thAnnualMeetmg. pp 203-
207. 1957
17 Pennsylvania Department of Health.
Heated Discharges--Their Effect on
Streams. Report by the Advisory
Committee for the Control of Stream
Temperatures to the Pennsylvania
Water Board, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
Pennsylvania Department of Health
Publication No. 3. 108 pp 1962
18 Prosser, C. L. Physiological Variations
in Animals. Biological Review.
30(3Y 229-262. 1955.
19 Prosser, C L., Brown, F.A , Bishop,
D. W., John, T L., and Wuiff, V J
Comparative Animal Physiology.
W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
1950
20 Stanier, R Y., Doudoroff, M. and
Adelburg, E.A The Microbial World.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J
753 pp. 1963.
21 Talbot, G B. Estuarine Environmental
Requirements and Limiting Factors
for Striped Bass. A Symposium on
Estuarme Fisheries. American Fish.
Soc. Special Publication No. 3, pp. 37-
49. 1966
22 Rarzwell, C.M. Water Quality Criteria
for Aquatic Life. Biological Problems
in Water Pollution. Robert A Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati,
Ohio. 246—272. 1957.
23 Technical Advisory and Investigations
Branch, FWPCA. Temperature and
Aquatic Life - Laboratory Investigations-
No. 6, Cincinnati, Ohio. 151 pp. 1967.
24 Warinner, J. E and Brehmer, M. L.
The Effects of Thermal Effluents on
Marine Organisms. International
Journal of Air and Water Pollution
10(4) 277-289.
This outline was prepared by John F Wooley,
Former Biologist, Manpower & Training Branch,
Pacific Northwest Laboratory Lab., EPA.
9 Fish. Bd. of Canada.
196 1-62. 206 pp
Annual Report
1962.
11-10
-------
THERMAL ACCLIMATION OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS
INTRODUCTION
A The upper limit of heat tolerance range
is not an unalterably fixed point.
B Organisms can be trained to live at higher
temperatures (up to a certain limit) by
intermittent or gradual exposure to higher
temperatures than those in the environ-
ment in which they live.
1 This training process is called
acclimation or acclimatization.
2 Bullock (1955) has reviewed the sub3ect
of physiological compensation for
temperature changes in the poikilotherms.
3 Young animals are more easily accli-
mated than mature animals (Shelford,
1929)
4 Acclimation can last for some time
alter return of the organism to an
environment of a lower temperature.
II HISTORY OF TEMPERATURE
A CCLI MA TIO N
A Temperature acclimation of animals
has been known for many years.
1 Davenport and Castle (1895)
acclimated toad tadpoles to 24-25°C
for four weeks while controls were
held at 15°C.
2 The temperature necessary to produce
heat rigor was 3. 2°C higher in the
acclimated organisms.
3 Loeb and Wasteneys (1912) studied the
time requirements to hold Fundulus
at 27°C in order to render the fish
“immune’ 1 to sudden transfer to 35°C
a All fish held at 27°C for 44 hours
survived.
b Fish held for only 21 hours suffered
some mortality.
c These workers also learned that
acclimation does not require con-
tinuous exposure.
III LABORATORY ACCLIMATION
A Fry, et al. (1942) found that the upper
lethal temperature of goldfish could be
raised to 41°C by increasing the acclinia-
tion temperature to the limit, 36. 5°C.
B lezzi, et al (1952) was able to acclimate
the following fish species to higher lethal
temperatures Bluegill sunfish ( Lepomis
rnacrochirus rnacrochirus) , brown trout
( Salrno fario) . bluntnose minnow
( Hyborhynchus notatus) , brown bullhead
( Ictalurus nebulosus) , and fathead minnow
( Pirnephales promelas )
C Black (1953) found that the black bullhead
( Ictalurus melas melas ) and ( Cypririus
carpio ) could be acclimated tohigher
temperatures
D Many other fishes were investigated and
most could be acclimated
IV METHODS OF ACCLIMATION
A Different methods of acclimation have been
tried
1 Fry, et al. (1946) acclimated young
speckled trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis )
at a rate of 1°C rise per day, a method
which they felt might serve for all types
of fish.
2 Cocking (1959) said that 1/20°C per
hour rise (1 2°C per day) until the
desired temperature was reached gave
complete acclimation
B Before stocking rainbow trout in lower
Nashotah Lake in southeastern Wisconsin,
Threineri (1958) acclimated the fish in the
following way
1 The fish were placed in a tank truck
containing the same spring water in
which the fish had been living The
temperature was 51°F
2 The truck was allowed to stand in the sun
from 9 00 a. m until 600 p m when the
temperature reached 63°F
3 The next morning sufficient warm water
was added to increase the temperature
to 65°F.
BI. ECO he. 7. 8. 70
12-1
-------
Thermal Acclimation of Aquatic Orgarasms
4 The fish were then put into the tank 5 On May 14, the lagoon had warmed to
which had a surface temperature of a gradient of 83°F - 92°F.
73°F.
6 Fish were swimming 83°F water which
5 No mortality was observed, was lethal one week earlier.
V NATURAL ACCLIMATION VI SUMMARY
A Acclimation of organisms occurs in their A Organisms can be acclimated to live at
natural habitat with seasonal temperature temperatures higher than those they have
changes. been living in.
1 Hathaway (1928) found that the gradual B Many fish species were investigated in
natural rise in stream temperature in laboratory experiments and most could be
the spring raised the upper lethal level acclimated.
for five fish species.
C Acclimation of organisms occurs in their
2 The species were yellow perch, natural habitat with seasonal temperature
largemouth bass, bluegill, pumpkin changes.
seed and toad tadpoles.
D It has been noted by several observers
B Brett (1944) determined the upper lethal that acclimated fish lost this acclimation
temperature for a number of fish in very slowly.
Canadian lakes.
1 The upper lethal temperature rose with ACKNOWLEDGMENT
increasing lake temperatures.
Materials for this outline weretaken from
2 Species studies were: bullhead, golden Thermal Po1lution Status of the Art, Frank L
shiner, creek chub, fathead minnow, Parker and Peter A. Krenkel authors
redbelly dace and finescale dace.
C Trembley (1960) described an interesting
case of natural acclimation which developed
in a week.
1 On May 7, he observed a school of
alewives trapped in the lagoon.
2 This lag 8 on had a temperature gradient
from 80 F to 90°F.
3 All fish were milling about in the 80°F This outline was prepared by John F Wooley,
water. Biologist, Manpower and Training Branch,
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory, Federal
4 When his movements frightened the Water Quality Administration.
alewives into the hotter water, many
died of heat shock.
12-2
-------
THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON BEHAVIOR OF FISH
I INTRODUCTION
Observations of heated water discharges have
indicated that fish tend to move toward them
in colder months and to move away during
summer months. This is an example of
temperature selection by motile organisms.
A Organisms move toward some preferred
temperature.
B This is also temperature avoidance, since
the organism is migrating away from an
undesirable temperature
C This phenomenon of temperature selection
then is a type of protective response.
II TEMPERATURE PREFERENCE
A Doudoroff (1938) reported that Girella
nigricans and other marine fish showed
selection of temperatures which were
high in comparison to their environment.
The fish tended to avoid areas of rapid
temperature change.
B StUiman (1943) found that the vertical
distribution of eggs and larvae of the
pilchard ( Sardmops caerulca ) was cor-
related with the vertical temperature
gradient of the water.
C Examples of species of fish showing
temperature selection were large mouth
bass (Fowler, 1940), young Pacific
salmon (Brett, 1952), carp (Pitt, et al,
1956), roach (Alabaster and Downing, 1958),
rainbow trout (Garside and Tait, 1959,
and Threineri, 1958), young sturgeon
Dyzan, 1962), and golden shiner (Trembley,
1960).
D Dryer and Benson (1957) described operations
at the New Johnsonville Steam Plant. Water
for condenser cooling is drawn from
Kentucky Lake and the spent water, raised
in temperature 100 F, is released into a
rectangular discharge harbor from which
it eventually flows back into the lake.
1 Tremendous numbers of shad were
observed in the harbor during the
winter months
2 The shad became rare after March 15
when the temperatures approached
60° F.
3 Blue catfish, channel catfish and
bluegill then concentrated in the
harbor.
4 The catfish left the harbor when the
temperature exceeded 800 F.
III AVOIDANCE OF HIGH TEMPERATURES
A Mantlernan (1960) found that very young
fish reacted most quickly in avoiding
undesirable temperatures.
B Alabaster (1963) described field
observations which indicated that larger
fish move away from heated effluents
1 Fish clearly avoided certain high
temperatures
2 Trout and bleak seldom swam into
water warmer than 200 C.
3 Grayling and tench never went into
water warmer than 18 or 260 C,
respectively.
C Slow rates of temperature increase cause
no movement of fish
D An increase from 60 C to 90 C very
suddenly drove fish away.
E The data on temperature selection
(or avoidance) indicates that fish will
not remain in a potentially harmful
environment.
BI. ECO.he. 8.8.70
13-1
-------
The Influence of Temperature on Behavior of Fish
1 Fish vill move toward a more favorable
situation if an escape route is available.
2 The majority of fish, given the
opportunity, successfully avoid lethal
temperatures.
IV SUMMARY
A Most fish will avoid lethal temperatures
in the environment if escape routes are
available.
B Unfortunately, during some of the critical
life stages, i. e. • egg and fry development,
the organisms are capable of little or no
motility, thus they are subjected to all
environmental conditions in their
immediate area.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENT
Material for this outline was taken from
‘Thermal Pollution Status of the Art,
F rank L. Parke and Peter A. Krenkel,
authors.
REFERENCES
1 Alabaster, J. S. Effects of Heated
Effluents on Fish tnt Journal
Air-Water Pollution. 7, 541. 1963
2 Alabaster, J. S and Downing, A. L.
The Behavior of Road ( Rutilus rutilus L.)
in Temperature Gradients in a Large
Outdoor Tank. Proc. Indo -Pa cific
Fish. Coun. 3, 49 1958.
3 Silliman, R. P. Thermal and Diurnal
Changes in the Vertical Distribution
of Eggs and Larvae of the Pilchard
( Sardmops caerulea) . Journal
Marme Research. 5, 118. 1943.
4 Threinen, C.W. Cause of Mortality of
a Midsummer Plant of Rainbow Trput
in a Southern Wisconsin Lake, with
Notes on Acclimation and Lethal
Temperatures Progressive Fisheries
Culturist. 20, 27. 1958.
This outline prepared by John F. Wooley,
Biologist, Manpower & Training Branch,
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory, FWQA.
13—2
-------
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH
I INTRODUCTION
What are some of the significant effects of
temperature on fish and fish food organisms?
The importance of reproduction in maintaining
a population of organisms need not be
emphasized. Fishermen are well aware of
the spawning seasons for fish. The bass
fisherman knows that the largemouth bass
is in shallow water guarding its nest in the
spring and this is a good time to take the
fish. Most angling seasons are set up to
protest fish during the spawning seasons.
II REPRODUCTION
A Studies on the natural history of fish give
more information on the relationship of
spawning season to water temperature.
1 Largemouth bass in Minnesota begin
spawning activity in the spring when
water temperatures reach 150C
(Kramer and Smith, 1962).
2 In Alabama, largemouth bass have been
observed to spawn at temperatures
from 20-24° C (Swingle, 1956).
3 Such studies only tell us what tem-
peratures fish ‘can spawn at, but don t t
give any valid or precise temperature
which must not be exceeded for an
extended period during the spawning
season.
B Work at the National Water Quality
Laboratory includes determination of the
thermal requirements for reproduction of
several fish species.
1 Brook trout exposed continuously to
various constant temperatures for five
months spawned successfully at 100 C.
2 There was 50% reduction in spawning
success at 130 C, and very little
spawning or hatching occurred at 160 C.
3 At 19°C fish appeared to be sexually
mature but they did not spawn.
4 At 21°C males were sterilized and in
the female the eggs never became ripe
and soon were resorbed.
C In other species such as the yellow perch,
temperature has a greater influence on
the rate of development of the gametes.
1 Perch exposedto 16°C spawned one
month earlier than fish exposed to
4-8° C.
2 At excessive temperatures, eggs of
sexually mature females were aborted,
(unpublished data,’ NWQL).
D When fish are exposed to warm water for
long periods, maturation can be inhibited
as observed for the fbur-spined stickle-
back (Merriman and Schedi, 1941).
1 The maturation process should be
thought of as a growth process whereby
the food reserves are being channeled
into the egg as well as into fish flesh.
2 It was concluded for this species that
normal maturation of the eggs requires•
temperatures below a certain threshold.
3 The function of low temperature is to
slow down the metabolism and activity
of the fish so the normal increase in
yolk-content of the egg can be processed,
as it does in nature.
4 At high temperatures, more food
reserves are required and greater
amounts of potential yolk material is
used for combustion for energetic
sources.
E Once the eggs have been deposited,
another portion of the year is devoted
to their successful development.
BI.ECO.he. 9.8.70
14-1’
-------
Effects of Temperature on Reproduction and Growth
1 The major effect of temperature is on
the rate of development
2 Brook trout eggs hatch in 45 days at
10°C and 90 days at 5°C.
3 At abnormally high and low temperatures,
the rate constant changes which corres-
ponds to a reduction in the hatchability
of the eggs and an increase in deformities.
F Development in short can be regarded as
a chain of reactions linked in sequence
(Hayes, et al, 1953).
1 These chains branch and the effect of
temperature is to encourage some of
the branches more than others.
2 The result of abnormal temperatures
is to accelerate some branches out of
phase of the others which produces
disorganization and deformed fry.
C There is considerable difference in
maximum incubation temperatures for
several fish species.
1 For whitefish, the maximum tem-
perature for normal hatch was 40 C
(Price, 1940), for brook trout 12°C
(Embody, 1934), for northern pike
18°C (Lillelund, 1966), and for
largemouth bass 24°C (Kelly, 1968).
2 A difference of 3-60 C may mean a
highly successful hatch and not hatch
Ill GROWTH
A Another important parameter in the
production of desirable aquatic organisms
is good growth rates.
1 Fast growing fish and big fish are
important to fishermen, but statistics
tell me that only 10% of the fishermen
want quality fishing, most only want
fish to catch.
‘2 Faster growing fish generally mature
at an earlier age and produce a greater
total weight of eggs than slower growing
fish of the same size (McFadden, et al,
1965).
B Bluegills and bass in southern states may
spawn after 1 year’s growth (Swingle and
Smith, 1950), but don’t reach sexual
maturity until 2-3 years in northern
states (Lagler, 1956, Reigier, 1963).
These differences result primarily
from differences in the length of the
growing season.
C The size of young fish has been demon-
strated to influence their survival.
1 In a laboratory experiment, over
winter mortality of young small-
mouth bass was greater among small
fish (MacLeod, 1967).
2 Field observations on migrating
sockeye salmon smolts indicated
that smaller fish were more vulnerable
to predation (Forester, 1954).
D In general, high growth and reproductive
rates impart a natural resiliency to the
population enabling it to withstand
pressures from predation and exploitation
E Growth rates increase with increase in
temperature up to an optimum temperature
and then begin to decrease.
1 Growth should be considered the net
result of temperature acting on
several other variables simultaneously,
these are the appetite or food con-
sumption, activity, and basal metabolic
rate which influences the amount of
food required to maintain body weight
2 At high water temperatures, it
becomes extremely difficult to in-
crease in weight when activity and food
consumption decreases and the food
requirements increases with the basal
metabolic rate.
F In the absence of adequate nutrition,
higher temperatures will accelerate loss
of weight (Wohlschlag and Juliano, 1959).
Low water temperature is the only means
these organisms have to slow down their
basal metabolism and conserve their
energy reserves.
14-2
-------
Effects of Ternperature on Reproduction and Growth
G Examination of the growth rates of several
larval fishes at various temperatures has
shown that the temperature for maximum
growth is less than 30 C from their lethal
temperatures.
1 Optimum temperature for growth was
270C and deformities were induced in
14 days at 300C
2 These deformities were not reversible.
however, mortality decreased when
removed to lower temperatures
3 The margin of safety between max-
imum growth and lethal temperature
is very slim for several larval fishes.
IV SUMMARY
The temperature requirements for repro-
duction are more restrictive than for growth
and activity which is again more restrictive
than lethal conditions. Fish apparently
prefer temperatures near optimum conditions
which is manifested through their behavior.
This same philosophy holds for most aquatic
animals, but has been worked out in more
detail for fish.
It is quite apparent that no single item will
characterize a species as a cold- or warm-
water organism. Their entire physiological
makeup has adapted to their environment.
Another point to emphasize is that no single
number will protect any given species
throughout the entire year These organisms
have evolved in an environment that undergoes
regular seasonal changes in temperature.
As a consequence, the thermal requirements
for reproduction is much lower than for
growth and activity. It follows that higher
temperatures would not only be permissible,
but desirable during a portion of the year to
allow for good growth rates.
A CKNOW LEDGMENT
Material for this outline was taken from
“Biological Effects of Heated Waters,
presented at the Technical Seminar on
Thermal Pollution, by Kenneth E. F.
Kokanson, PhD , Aquatic Biologist,
National Water Quality Laboratory, FWQA,
Duluth, Minn.
This outline was prepared by John F.
Wooley, Biologist, Manpower & Training
Branch, Pacific Northwest \\ater Laboratory,
FWQA.
14-3
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TEMPERA TURE REQUIREMENTS OF CENTRA RCHIDS
I INTRODUCTION
The family Centrarchidae includes many of
the so-called pan fishes. It is safe to say that in
North America there is a Centrarachid for
every type of water warmer than that suitable
for trout.
II DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A COLD- AND
WA RM TA TE R FISH
A Table 1 compares the difference between
a cold-water fish, the brook trout, and a
warm-water fish, the largeniouth bass
B Table 1 illustrates that temperature
requirements for reproduction are more
restrictive than for growth and activity
which is agair more restrictive than lethal
conditions
C It is quite apparent from these results that
no single item will characterize a species
as a cold-or-warm-water organism
D The organism’s entire physiological
make-up has adapted to their environment.
III SPAWNING HABITS AND TEMPERATURE
TABLE 1
A L rgemoutn, smailmouth, and spotted
bass have been reared in hatchery ponds
for many years, thus a good deal of
information is available on spawning
habits as related to temperature
1 Lamkin stated, when the water reached
56°F (13.3°C), largemouth bass
began nest building
2 Spawning did not take place, however,
until the waters were about 66°F
(18 9°C).
3 The spawning temperature of the
spotted bass is 64°F (17 8°C), as
observed by Howland.
4 Thus, spotted bass spawn at temp-
eratures about 20 F lower than the
largemouth bass and 2° F higher than
the smallmouth bass. -
5 The spawning temperature of the small-
mouth bass is about 62°F (16 7°C) as
observed by Troutman This 40 F or
more lower than that of the ].argemouth
bass.
Item
Max. egg development
Optimum Growth
Optimum A ctivity
Final Preferred Temp
(A dult)
Max. Tolerance
(1 week)
Max. Tolerance
(1 hour)
Brook Trout
100 - 12°
13° - 160
100 - 18°
14° - 19°
25°
28°
Temperature ( 0 C)
Citation Largemouth Bass
(Embody, 1934) 24° - 27°
(Baldwin, 1956) 28° - 30°
(Job, 1955) 22° - 29°
(Fry, 1951) 27° - 28°
(Fry, et al , 1946) 35°
(Fry, et al , 1946) 38°
Citation
(Kelly, 1968)
(Strawn, 1961)
(Johnson, 1960)
(Dendy, 1948)
(Hart, 1952)
(Hart, 1952)
BI.ECO.he. 10. 8.70
15-1
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Temperature Requirements of Centrarchids
IV THE EFFECTS OF CHANGING WATER
TEMPERATURE ON THE DEVELOPING
EGGS AND EMBRYOS
A Under extreme weather conditions, tem-
peratures of the water may rise quite
rapidly for as much as 13° or 140 F.
1 Tester records the death of embryos
as the result of a 2-day temperature
rise from 610 to 73.5° (16 1° to
23. 10 C).
2 Drops in temperature will also cause
loss of nests as the parents abandon
them. Lydell reported a loss of eggs
when the water temperature dropped
from 65° to 45°F (18.4° to 7 2°C).
3 Meehan observed that the smailmouth
bass abandoned their nests when water
temperature dropped from 58° to 48°F
(14.4° to 8.9°C).
4 Kramer and Smith reported the death
of largemouth bass embryos when
temperatures dropped from the high
60’s to below 500 F.
V LETHAL TEMPERATURES
A Brett lists upper and lower lethal tem-
peratures for largemouth bass that
previously have been acclimated to
temperatures of 200, 250, and 300C
These are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. LETHAL TEMPERATURES OF
LARGEMOUTH BASS
High Temperatures
Acc. Temp. Lethal Temp.
20 0 C(68°F)
--- 32.5°C(90.5°F)
25° C (77° F)
--- 34.5°C (94. 1° F)
30°C (86°F)
--- 36 4°C (97.5°F)
Low
Temperatures
Lethal Temp.
Ace. Temp.
20°C(68°F)
--- 5 5°C(41.9°F)
30 0 C(86 0 F)
—-- ll.8°C(53.2°F)
B Similar tests made on bluegills indicated
that they were more sensitive to high
temperatures than largemouths but some-
what superior in their ability to withstand
low temperatures. Similar information
for spotted arid smaflrnouth bass is
apparently not available.
VI PREFERRED TEMPERATURES
A According to Fry, fish prefer a certain
temperature range which is “the region,
in an infinite range of temperature, at
which a given population will congregate
with more or less precision--a temper-
ature around which all individuals will
ultimately congregate, regardless of their
thermal experience before being placed
in the gradient
B Ferguson lists field observations of the
preferred temperature for largemouth
bass as 26.6° to27.7°C(79.9° to
81.9°F), spotted bass as 23.5° to
24 4°C (74.30 to 75.9°F), and small-
mouth bass as 20. ° to 71.3°C
(68 5° to 70. 3°F).
C The preferred temperatures for large-
mouth and spotted bass were based,
however, on field observations in
Tennessee and the smaliniouth from
northern Wisconsin.
1 One might assume that smailmouths
from northern Wisconsin would
demonstrate a lower preferred tem-
perature than this species in waters
farther wouth where summer water
temperatures normally greatly
exceeded 210C (69.8°F).
2 Laboratory tests with smailmouths
showed the preferred temperature was
28°C (82.4° F), but such tests with
both largemouths and smalimouths
showed higher preferred temperatures
than those recorded in field observations.
15—2
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Temperature Requirements of Centrarchids
V I I SUMMARY
The information presented does not define the
environment but rather shows that the require-
ments of these fish are not very specific. It
also shows that the early stages in the life
cycle of these fish are more vulnerable to
thermal variation.
A CKNOW LEDGMENT
Material for this outline was taken from the
paper on ‘The Environmental Requirements
of Centrarchids with Special Reference to
Largemouth Bass, Smailmouth Bass, and
Spotted Bass,” 3rd Seminar on Biological
Problems in Water Pollution, George W
Bennett, author.
REFERENCES
1 Brett. J.R. Some Principles in the
Thermal Requirements of Fishes.
Quart. Rev, of Biol. 3 1(2) 75-87. 1956.
2 Ferguson, R G The Preferred Tem-
perature of Fish and Their Midsummer
Distribution in Temperate Lakes and
Streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can.
15(4):607—624. 1958.
4 Fry, F E.J. Effects of Environment on
AnnualActivity Ont. Fish. Res
Lab 68 1—62 1947.
5 Howland, J W Experiments in the
Propagation of Spotted Black bass
Am. Fish. Soc. Trans. 62(1932),
185-188.
6 Kramer, R H. and Smith, L. L., Jr.
Formation of Year Classes in Large-
mouth Bass. Am. Fish Soc. Trans.
91(1) 29—4 1. 1962
7 Larnkin, J. B The Spawning Habits of
the Largemouth Black Bass in the
South (Ga.) Am. Fish Soc Trans.
29 129—153. 1900.
8 Lydell, D. Increasing and Insuring the
Output and Natural Food Supply of
Smallmouth Black Bass Fry, and Notes
on Combination of Breeding and Rearing
Ponds. Am Fish. Soc. Trans
40 133—143 1911.
9 Tester, Albert L Spawning Habits of the
Smalimouthed Black Bass in Ontario
Waters. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans.
60:53—61 1930.
3 Meehan, W.E. Observations on the
Smailmouth Black Bass in Pennsylvania
During the Spawning Season of 1910.
Am. Fish. Soc. Trans. (1910), 129—132
1911.
This outline was prepared by John F. Wooley,
Biologist, Manpower & Training Branch,
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory, FWQA.
15-3
-------
POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION
TO PACIFIC SALMON
INTRODUCTION
A Investigators have usually regarded
temperature as a variable to be tolerated,
and if it couldn’t be tolerated, then they
attempted to determine its effects, mainly
in regard to its effects on their experiments.
B As a result, the literature does not fully
contain the data that are needed immediately
to determine the allowable levels of heat
that will not harm Pacific salmon.
C Because temperature affects physical,
chemical and biological aspects, it is
entirely possible to seriously and
adversely affect salmon without directly
killing them from heat death
D In view of the above it is necessary to
postulate some of the potential effects of
thermal pollution, if only to cause the
reader to realize that the ramifications
of heat discharge can be very subtle but
very potent.
CLASSIFICATION OF THERMAL
TOLERANCE
A All forms of aquatic life can be classified
according to their tolerances of different
temperature regimes.
1 Homoiothermic animals are the so-
called warm-blooded thermal regulators,
and in this case these are the higher
vertebrates such as birds and mammals.
These will probably not be affected by
thermal pollution except as it influences
their food supply.
2 Poikilothermic animals, on the other
hand, are the so-called cold-blooded
or thermal conformers. These
animals maintain a body temperature
very similar to the temperature of the
water and they have no choice but to
conform to the ambient water temperatures.
B We can further classify poikilothermi.c
animals as to the range of temperatures
which they will tolerate.
1 For example, stenothermal animals
tolerate a narrow temperature range
They are both cold-water stenothermic
animals such as salmon, trout,
grayling, etc • which tolerate only a
narrow range of temperature at the
colder end of the spectrum, and there
are warm-water stenotherms which
tolerate only a fairly narrow range of
temperatures at the upper or warmer
end of the spectrum, these are the
tropical fish, guppies, etc.
2 In fresh water we have both cold-water
stenotherms and warm-water steno-
therms, as well as a third class, the
eurytherrnals that tolerate a wide
range of temperatures and span the
spectrum from about 32°F (00 C) to as
high as 99°F (370 C). These are the
bass, bluegill, carp, etc., with which
we are so familiar and describe
generally as rough or pan fish.
3 Most saltwater poikilotherms are
stenothermal and tolerate a narrow
temperature range either at the upper,
at the middle, or at the lower range.
B We can further subdivide temperature
tolerance by examining a single species,
and we usually find that some life stages of
that species will be more demanding,
more sensitive, more stenothermal than
other life stages
1 For example, embryonic stages are
usually more stenothermal than any
other life stage.
2 This is because cell division processes
are occurring which produce the
primitive cells that eventually produce
whole organs.
BI.ECO.he. 11.8. 70
1 6-1
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Potential Effects of Thermal Pollution to Pacific Salmon
3 Any interference with these cell
division processes can have serious
repercussions and may latently cause
the death of the organism.
C It should also be noted that some tissues
are more stenothermal than other tissues
and that the temperature tolerance of the
organism varies accordingly
1 For example, brain tissue is very
easily injured by high temperatures
that do not adversely affect many other
organs.
2 Another heat-sensitive tissue is that
of the gonads and high temperatures
can adversely affect sperrnatogenesis.
Ill GENERAL EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
A The general effect of a temperature
increase is that a given biological reaction
will be accelerated by about 100% per
10°C rise in temperature
B Another general effect of a temperature
is noted in the time required for fish eggs
to hatch.
1 For trout, the general rule is that they
will hatch in 50 days when they are held
at 50° F.
2 Higher temperatures will cause the
eggs to hatch in less than 50 days,
whereas colder temperatures will
cause the eggs to hatch in more than
50 days.
3 One should not imply that the additional
heat and the shortening of the hatching
time are beneficial to the resulting fry.
4 Temperatures above approximately
62°F usually have produced extensive
mortality among trout and salmon eggs.
5 Furthermore, those eggs that are
incubated at higher temperatures, and
subsequently hatch sooner, usually
produce fry that are smaller and less
robust than those which are incubated
at colder temperatures for longer
periods of time
IV OXYGEN CONSUMPTION, ETC.
A Oxygen consumption is a function of
temperature, up to a certain point at
least.
1 -Given an organism that is metabolizing
at a standard rate, a 100C rise in
temperature will increase the oxygen
consumption by approximately 100%,
and this will remain a fairly linear
response until the organism becomes
somewhat stressed
2 After the stressful level of heat is
reached, the relationship between
oxygen consumption and temperature
becomes nonlinear and a lO0C rise in
temperature may cause the organism
to consume oxygen at a rate of over
200% above the previous level.
B The effects of temperature on cardiac and
ventilation rates have been discussed
somewhat earlier, but suffice it at this
point to say that high temperatures can
cause extremely nonlinear ventilation
rates.
1 Quite probably this effect is mediated
by chemical receptors which test the
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels of the
blood and in turn call for more water
over the gills, more ventilation, to try
and balance the resulting inequities.
2 But whatever the mediating factors may
be, the net effect is to have water
pumped over the gills faster than the
heart is beating, thus wasting effort
to some extent.
V ENZYME SYSTEMS
A The effects of temperature on enzyme
activity is extremely important because
the enzymes provide almost all the bio-
chemical machinery by which all the body
functions are performed
16-2
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Potential Effects of Thermal Pollution to Pacific Salmon
1 In vitro studies amply demonstrate that
enzyme activity closely follows Van’t
Hoff’s law and is generally increased
100% by a 100 C rise.
2 These circumstances do not adequately
describe the situation in vivo where
feedback and other protective mechanism
alter these circumstances.
B Another problem that may result from
excessive enzyme activity is that the sub-
strate may produce an excessive level of
a toxic product such as ammonia.
1 If the production of a toxic product occurs
at a rate faster than the cell can handle
this material, the result may affect the
other cellular processes which are
dependent upon that particular metabolic
pathway, and it can even cause the
death of the cell itself
VI TOXICITY
A A discussion of the effects of toxicity and
temperature would be incomplete without
pointing out that toxicants cause their
action by attacking one or more enzyme
systems.
1 Higher temperatures can increase
toxicity because higher temperatures
cause greater metabolic demands,
hence they allow less interference
with any of the metabolic processes.
B While it is true that higher temperatures
generally increase the effects of toxicants,
there are notable exceptions to this
generalization
1 For example, DDT is less toxic at
higher temperatures than it is at lower
temperatures.
2 The extent to which other insecticides
or other toxicants display a similar
effect is generally unknown.
VII NUTRITION
A The effects of higher temperatures on
nutrition are poorly understood but we
can generalize to say that higher tem-
peratures cause higher rates of
metabolism, hence higher rates of cell
destruction, hence higher maintenance
cost to the organism.
1 As discussed earlier, the production
of gametes is a process which can be
very adversely affected by either
excessively high or excessively cold
temperatures.
2 Photo—period seems to trigger the
initial reproductive development and
gameteogenesis processes.
B Studies of the effects of high temperatures
on gamete maturation, that is, ripening
of the sex products, have been attempted
on Pacific salmon, but these studies have
always been frustrated by serious out-
breaks of disease.
1 Where disease was not an overwhelming
problem, the females and males
delayed their sexual maturation con-
siderably when held at high temperatures.
2 As a result, the associated hatcheries
were not able to collect spawn in early
September, and in some cases this was
delayed to as long as December.
C The effects of altered spawning time could
be quite profound.
1 Late spawning may be rapidly followed
by winter temperatures which can drop
so low that they actually kill the embryo.
2 But a more subtle effect would be that
the young fish would probably hatch
late and may not have the growth needed
to allow them to migrate successfully.
16—3
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Potential Effects of Thermal Pollution to Pacific Salmon
3 Additional effects of high temperatures
to embryonic development include
teratogenesis, or monster formation,
causing somatic aberrations which may
produce Siamese twins or two heads on
one body or two tails on one body and
these teratogenic embryos do not survive
X GROWTH
A Growth and maturation can also be influenced
adversely by elevated temperatures.
Mention has already been made of the
effects of elevated temperatures on
nutritional requirements.
1 It is widely recognized that coho salmon
smolts that grow too fast and are too
large at the time of migration usually
return precociously (called Jacks)
within seven or eight months after they
were liberated.
2 This is one year too soon and the result
is that these weigh about one-third less
than normal adult fish and these Jacks
are generally incapable of reproduction.
XI NITROGEN EMBOLISM
A Nitrogen embolism or “gas-bubble disease”
is another problem associated with tem-
perature increments.
1 Heat added to water will decrease the
solubility of dissolved gases and this
may cause gas bubbles to form internally
in the fish.
2 This may produce a blockage of cap-
illary beds, or in more extreme cases
cause undue pressure on nerves or
form gas locks in the coronary cham-
bers.
3 A more subtle effect of supersaturated
water is that it may form a gas bubble
in the mouth or buccal cavity of fry.
a This blocks the passage of water
across the gills and in essence
suffocates the fish.
b After death, the bubble is lost and
there is no evidence of what killed
the fry.
c Similarly, recent studies have
shown that adult salmon lulled by
nitrogen embolism lose all of the
characteristic symptoms (gas
blisters under the skin, etc.)
thusly destroying within 24 hours
the evidence that indicated the
cause of death.
B When adult salmon were acclimated to
sublethal levels of supersaturated
nitrogen, these fish could tolerate
essentially no temperature increase or
vigorous exercise. This is particularly
important in view of the fact that the
Columbia River is supersaturated from
its mouth to Grand Coulee t m through-
out the summer runoff when water passes
over the spiliways
XII TISSUE REPAIR
A One must consider the potential effects of
thermal pollution to tissue repair pro-
cesses in Pacific salmon. When migrating
upstream to spawn, these fish are con-
tinuously being abraded and cut by their
vigorous attempts to ascend falls, rapids
and fishways
B Hatchery managers have noted that injured
salmon will repair these cuts and atrasioris
provided they are held in “cold water.”
Fish held under similar conditions, but
in “warm water, “ did not repair their
wounds, and unfortunately, developed
sufficient fungal and other infections to
produce a high incidence of mortality
The exact tolerable levels for tissue
repair are as yet undefined
XIII SUMMARY
The reader should be aware that even slight
increases in temperature may have a pro-
found effect on Pacific salmon The precise
levels which will not adversely affect such
vital aspects as enzyme activity, reproduction,
downstream migration, nutritional
16-4
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Potential Effects of Thermal Pollution to Pacific Salmon
requirements and tissue repair have not
been determined. One can only suggest that
all due caution should be exerted m estab-
lishing permissible water temperature
standards, until the potential physiological
effects are better understood and clarified.
ACKNOW LEDGMENT
This paper was presented by Dr Gerald R
Bouck, Chief, Biological Effects Research
Branch, Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory,
FWQA, at a Technical Semmar on Thermal
Pollution, November 1968, PNWL.
This outline was prepared by John F.
Wooley, Biologist, Manpower & Trainmg
Branch, Pacific Northwest Water
Laboratory, FWQA.
16-5
-------
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON PACIFIC SALMON
I INTRODUCTION
5 Acclimation
A Pacific salmon ( Oncorhynchus spp.) are
unique in several ways:
1 They provide the most important
commercial fin-fishery in the
United States, in addition to an
invaluable sport fishery.
2 They migrate between the ocean and
their natal stream where they spawn
only once before death.
3 They are cold water stenothermal fishes,
and hence thermal pollution presents
a greater threat to salmon than possibly
any other fishes.
4 For these reasons, and because pro-
jected power requirements will
necessitate steam-electric stations,
thermal pollution presents a partic-
ularly urgent problem in the Pacific
Northwest.
U EFFECTS ON LIFE STAGES
A Temperature effects on each life stage
(egg, fry, fingerling, yearling and adult)
were considered individually for the five
species of Northwestern Pacific salmon
(sockeye, chinook, coho, pink and chum).
B Particular emphasis was given to the
following subject categories:
1 Lethal and Optimum temperatures and
the effects (lethal and sublethal) of
temperature on reproduction and
development.
2 Movement and activity (including
migration).
3 Feeding and growth.
4 Compound stress (changes in conjunction
with limiting conditions such as oxygen).
6 Disease
7 Physiological responses more or less
at the cellular level
C Whenever ambient temperature was
reported, its equivalent in degrees
Celsius or Fahrenheit was added in
parenthesis.
UI THERMAL TOLERANCE
A The principles involved in the thermal
requirements of fishes were described
by Brett (1956).
1 The fundamental requirement is an
external temperature that is best suited
for internal tissues.
2 Other important principles emphasizing
the multiple role of temperature are
that warm water fishes generally have
a higher level of thermal tolerance than
those which inhabit cold water.
3 Lethal levels are very important in
setting geographical thstribution.
4 Performance is best in the region of
preferred temperature.
5 Sensitivity to small temperature
gradients may also act as a directive
factor.
B Temperature can be a lethal, a loading, or
an inhibiting stress to salmon (Brett, 1958).
1 Beyond the thermal tolerance zone is a
high stress area that causes rapid death
to salmon exposed to such extremes.
2 Within the thermal tolerance zone,
loading stress encloses an area where
growth and swimming would be impaired
seriously.
BI.ECO..he. 12.8.70
17-1
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Effects of Temperature on Pacific Salmon
3 At still lower temperatures an inhibiting
stress level may affect the normal
endocrine balance necessary for spawning.
C Salmonidae have the least tolerance to high
temperatures and their maximum upper
lethal temperatures barely exceed 25°C
(770F) (Brett, 1956).
1 The ultimate lethal levels between
salmon and goldfish can differ by as
much as 17°C(30.6°F)(Brett, 1960).
2 Most salmonid eggs suffer when the
water temperature goes above 550F
(12.8°C)orbelow 35°F(l.7°C), but
the tolerance level of later stages in
most species falls to 32°F (0.0°C)
(Royce, 1959).
D Salmonid fish have a temperature tolerance
zone that falls between 38 and 65°F
(3.3 and 18.3° C).
E Lethal zones for some species exist from
about 55 to 77°F (12.8 to 25.0°C) and
from 35 to 32°F (1.7 to 0.0°C) (Brett,
1960).
F Davis (1961) stressed that salmonids
require water between 45 and 550F
(7.7 to 12.8°C). The preferable tem-
peratures are 48 to 52°F (8.9 to 11. 1° C).
IV ACCLIMATION
A Temperature changes require continuous
acclimation while governing the scope for
the metabolic rate (Brett, 1956).
1 Temperature tolerance also depends on
acclimation (Brett, 1967).
2 There is no single end point so high and
low temperatures can be lethal to young
salmon over a range of about 21.5 to
25°C (70.7 to 77°F) and 7 to -0.1°C
(44.6 to 31.8°F), depending on the
species and acclimation.
B Temperature, if acting alone, can deter-
mine the distribution of fish in laboratory
apparatus (Ferguson, 1958).
1 Factors which interfered with tem-
perature responses included light,
feeding routines and social behavior.
2 The level of thermal acclimation
influenced the range of preferred
temperatures.
3 The preferred temperature was higher
than the acclimation temperature at
low thermal acclimations, but this
difference decreased to a final
preferendum where both coincided.
V EARLY DEVELOPMENT
A The rate of development and time of
emergence of young salmon is strongly
dependent upon the temperature during
development (Hoar, 1958).
1 At higher temperatures the growth rate
is accelerated, but the size of the fish
produced is reduced, primarily due to
higher maintenance requirements.
2 Larger emergent fry have a better
chance of survival.
3 Emergence time, which is affected by
temperature, is important because
through acceleration or deceleration
of emergence, fish could be placed in
an unfavorable environment either from
the standpoint of predator activity or
available food.
VI MIGRATORY RELATIONSHIPS
A Optimum water temperatures for salmonid
migration in the Northwest was suggested
to range from 45 to 60°F (7.7 to 15.6° C)
(Snyder et al. , 1966, cited in Pacific
Northwest Laboratories, 1967).
B Burrows (1963) also cited these temper-
atures as best for the upstream migration
of salmon.
17—2
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Effects of Temperature on Pacific Salmon
C The peak of the seaward migration of
juvenile salmon was reported to occur
regularly at temperatures of 10°C (500 F)
or lower (Keenleyside and Hoar, 1954).
D Temperature was not believed to play a
primary role in the timing of migrations
(Hoar, 1958).
I Juvenile salmon migration is caused
primarily by increased thyroid activity
according to a hypothesis by Baggerman
(1959).
2 External factors, including increased
photoperiod and temperature, act along
with other intrinsic factors to induce a
preference for seawater and a disposition
to migrate.
3 It was emphasized that migration is
probably not induced by any one factor,
but is a result of interaction between
a number of factors.
E Water temperature also controls the
activity of fish predators, hence it influences
degree of predation encountered by salmon
fingerlings (Burrows, 1963).
1 The preferred or optimum temperatures
of both the mi.igrant and the predator
influence migrant survival.
2 Warmer temperatures generally favor
predation.
XII OXYGEN RELATIONSHIPS
A The decreased solubility of oxygen at
increased temperatures was discussed
by Shaw (1946).
1 His studies stressed the markedly
increased oxygen consumption by
salmon and trout at higher temperatures.
2 Normal consumption increased 400
percent from 45 to 68°F (7.7 to 20° C).
B Leitritz (1962) emphasized that a rise in
temperature, as well as activity and feeding,
will increase the oxygen requirements in
salmon.
XIII DISEASES
A Most fish diseases are favored by
increased water temperatures (Davis, 1961).
1 While higher water temperatures
drastically increase the effects of
kidney diseases, furunculosis, vibrio
disease and columnaris disease in
young salmon (Ordal and Pacha, 1963).
constant water temperatures are also
conducive to disease development
(Burrows, 1963).
B The causative agent for columnaris
disease, Chondrococcus columnaris ,
ordinarily attacks fish at comparatively
high temperatures (Davis, 1961).
1 The optimum temperatures for growth
of C. columnaris have been given as
25 to 31°C (77 to 87.8°F), and although
it will grow at much lower temperatures,
it is rarely injurious at temperatures
below 15°C (59°F) (Garnjobst, 1945).
2 Borg (1948) stated that the disease
progressed rapidly and produced
recognizable lesions when the tem-
perature was above 180C (640 F).
C An average water temperature below
50°F (10° C) was believed by Fish (1944)
to represent the optimum for tissue repair
and also to adversely affect the growth of
columnaris disease.
1 He showed that the mortality to
prespawning injured salmon could
be kept to a minimum by retaining
the fish in an average water tem-
perature not exceeding 50°F (10° C).
2 Davis (1961) believed that infections
were most likely to occur at water
temperatures above 70°F (21. 1°C)
among fish that have been handled or
otherwise injured.
D The major damage by columnaris disease
to Columbia River salmon was believed by
Ordal and Pacha (1963) to occur to
juvenile, rather than adult fishes.
17-3
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Effects of Temperature on Pacific Salmon
1 These authors suggested that high-
virulence strains of C. columnaris
in the Columbia River Basin might be
due to increased multiplication, hence
increased likelihood of mutation, as a
result of higher water temperatures.
2 Field observations have confirmed that
conditions at fish ladders can be
important factors in the incidence of
columnaris disease (Fjuihara and
Olson, 1962).
E Furunculosis disease affects chiefly the
salmonid fishes (Davis, 1961).
1 These pathogenic bacteria grow best
at comparatively low temperatures
with an optimum at 10 to 15°C (50 to
59° F).
2 The disease is likely to reoccur at a
hatchery if the temperature of the water
is raised above the optimum.
F Borg (1948) isolated Cytophaga psychrophi]a ,
the causative agent for “cold-water disease.”
1 This disease is found at low water
temperatures and disappears at 550F
(12. 8° C).
G Fungal infection by Saprolegnia sp. causes
mortality chiefly by secondary infection in
previously injured or debilitated fish.
Mortality was delayed when olding ponds
were kept at temperatures below 58 to
65°F (14.4 to 18. 3° C) (Fish, 1944).
H Ceratomyxa sp. was reported to be most
virulent to Columbia River salmon when
water temperatures approached 650F
(18. 3°C) (Snyder, 1968).
“Gas-bubble disease” occurs in the
Columbia River when the water becomes
supersaturated with nitrogen.
2 This water can initiate the formation
of gas bubbles in the blood and tissues
of salmoriids resulting in death
(Davis and Snyder, 1967), Snyder,
196 8a).
3 Thermal additions would increase the
seriousness of the existing problem.
IV SUMMARY
An excellent analysis and review of thermal
plant and thermal pollution problems and
their relationships with salmonid fish in the
Columbia River and the Pacific Northwest
was provided by Snyder (1968a). Delayed
migrations, nitrogen gas effects, and effects
on predators, competitors and diseases were
among the problems that were emphasized.
The problem of how temperature increases
can be compounded by low flows and tidal
fluctuations was discussed by Snyder (1968b).
Tidal action causes flow reversal in the
lower Columbia where thermal power plants
are planned.
This could force juvenile migrants to move
prematurely from the estuary into cooler
ocean water. Juvenile salmon also could
be subjected to a 20°F (11. 1°C) thermal
shock if they are passed through thermal
electric plant cooling condensers. While
the fish may not be killed directly by a 20°F
(11. 1OC) increase at low river temperatures,
this increase could be fatal when the river
temperatures are approaching 70°F (21 10 C).
A CKNOW LEDGMENT
Material for this outline taken from “Thermal
Pollution Status of the Arts, “by Frank L.
Parker and Peter A. Krenkel.
1 During the spring and summer runoff
period, large amounts of water plunge
over the spi.llways, entrapping and
dissolving excessive amounts of air.
This outline was prepared by John F. Wooley,
Biologist,, Manpower & Training Branch,
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory,
FWQA.
17-4
-------
RESEARCH ON THERMAL EFFECTS FISH
I INTRODUCTION
The most obvious effects on the biota and the
effects of most concern to the public will be
the effects of temperature on fish production.
Since fish are so important for both commer-
cial and recreational use, these are the
organisms currently receiving the most
attention in thermal effects research.
Two main areas of concern are 1) the
limiting temperatures for fishes of special
interest, 2) chronic effects of heat addition
to fish of special interest.
I i LIMITING TEMPERATURE RESEARCH
PROGRAMS
A Priority questions at FWQA’s Water Quality
Laboratory at Duluth, the National Marine
Water Quality Laboratory in Rhode Island
and with the Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries research barge in the Columbia
River in Oregon are those pertaining to
limiting temperatures for fish.
B The Duluth Laboratory is working on
limiting temperatures and egg develop-
ment.
1 Some studies have been completed on
optimum temperatures for northern
pike growth. The optimum temperature
for growth was 21° C.
2 Duluth has not started a study using
brook trout which will be held at
temperatures ranging from 10 to 210C
to see the effect of temperature on
spawning.
3 Wild trout eggs will be tested at
different temperatures. These eggs
and fry from these eggs will be sub-
jected to thermal shock to see what
effect it has on them and to see if some
eggs and fry will become acclimated if
raised at higher temperatures from the
start.
C The Duluth studies are being planned so
we can hopefully be able to apply the ideas
more widely than some of the research
has allowed in the past.
1 Work has been started on tolerances
of pike, white sucker and lake herring.
2 These fish are representative of the
general types found in nature.
a Lake herring naturally live in deep,
cold water with a stable temperature
range
b Pike live in a habitat that has a
greater temperature range than
the herring but less of a range than
the suckers.
c With these three organisms all
ranges are included.
D Tolerance data from these forms will be
used in a broad sense so it may be applied
to fish of a similar ecological type.
Presently we do not have time to wait until
tolerances can be determined for every
species.
E Researchers in Rhode Island are working
with marine fishes.
F The studies on the Columbia River are
mainly concerned with the salmonid fishes.
III RESEARCH ON CHRONIC EFFECTS OF
HEAT ADDITION
A Lethal temperatures of fish are being
determined first, but long range studies
covering all life stages are needed.
B Temperature preference and avoidance
studies are being conducted by Battelle
Northwest on salmon in the Columbia
River.
BI.ECO.he. 13.8.70
18-1
-------
Research on Thermal Effects’ Fish
C Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory is looking
at the same problem using other types of
fishes.
D Oregon State University is doing research
on the relationship of temperature to
metabolism in fish.
E Work is being done by the Pacific North-
west Water Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon,
on the effects of temperature on enzyme
activity and at the Columbia River on
effects of temperature on egg and fry
survival.
F The Fisheries Research Board of Canada
at Nanaimo, B. C., have been studying the
re]ationship of acclimation to lethal
temperatures.
IV SUMMARY
So far, almost all fish research has been
directed at the individual or single species
level. This basic data is needed first but
we must go on to an ecosystem approach to
really assess the complete effect of tem-
perature.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
Material for this outline was taken from the
Technical Seminar Paper on Biological Effects
by Ronald Garton, PhD.
This outline was prepared by John F.
Wooley, Biologist, Manpower & Training
Branch, Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory,
FWQA.
18-2
-------
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF HEAT ADDITIONS
I INTRODUCTION
Though the predominant results of heating
our natural waters are detrimental to the
propagation of game fish and reduce the
assimilative capacity of a stream, there
are some beneficial effects due to the warmed
waters The total amount of waste heat
produced per year, however, is so great that
even if all the suggestions for use of waste
heat for beneficial use were adopted, the
excess heat remaining would still be a prob-
lem. For example, the waste heat from
power generation would be more than sufficient
to heat every home in America.
U DISTRICT HEATING
A Possibly the most advanced use of waste
heat is for district heating (Santala, 1966).
B This has been used in Finland for the
20, 000 inhabitants of the city of Tapiola
Garden since 1953.
C The English also have used waste heat for
district heating.
Ill INCREASED BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTION
A Though it has been observed on the
Potomac River and many other rivers
that fishermen tend to congregate in the
winter in the heated pools below power
stations for better fishing, it has also
been noted that fishing is poorer in the
summer (Elser, 1965).
B Research into the possible increased
growth of fish below steam electric
generating plants has been underway
at least since 1953. However, definitive
statements are still not possible.
1 In 1953, the Central Electricity
Generating Board determined the rate
of growth of flounder at the Newton
Abbot Generating Station (lies, 1963a).
2 Some of the earlier work had dealt
with the possibility of utilizing
increased yields of algae for food
material and talked of farms below
the sea (Rayrnont, 1957).
3 In 1962, the experiments were
extended to feed the algae to clams
to help solve the problems of har-
vesting the algae and to ease the
preparation of the final product
(Ansell, 1962). The economics of
the production has not been completed.
C Mthursky has suggested a variety of
possible constructive uses of thermal
additions to estuaries, including a com-
plete recycling of organic wastes from
humans to sewage treatment plants to
inorganic fertilizers to algae, zoo-
plankton, shellfish and fish to food
processing to people to organic wastes,
etc.
1 Utilization of the waste heat could be
made at the sewage treatment plant,
in the enhanced growth of algae,
zoop]ankton, shellfish and fish, and
district heating (Mihursky, 1967).
2 Studies of individual sections of this
cycle are being carried out.
D At Turkey Point, shrimp farming in the
effluent of the Turkey Point Power Plant
is being studied. Pompano cultivation will
also be studied there.
E Lobsters may also benefit from heated
waters.
1 It has been suggested that the lower
yields of lobster in recent years may
be due to cooler waters in their breeding
rounds off the Marine Coast.
2 It has been further suggested that the
heated discharge from cooling stations
could be used to warm shoreline coves
to increase lobster yields.
El. ECO. he. 14. 8. 70
19-1
-------
Beneficial Effects of I-Teat Additions
F Long Island Lighting Company at Northport,
New York is experimenting with the
aquaculture of oysters in the heated dis-
charge from their nuclear power plant
(Kovaly, 1968).
G A report from the Electric Boat Division
has suggested that it might be possthle to
raise 18 million kilograms (8. 63 million
pounds) of warm water fishes annually by
using thermal discharges.
1 Present annual per capita consumption
of fish is approximately 10. 5 pounds
(Lerner, 1968).
2 Perhaps the most original suggestion
is that heated waters in England be
used to raise ornamental fish, some
of which sell for over $140 per pound
(Isles, l963a).
H Some inadvertant beneficial use of the
warmed waters may have already
occurred. The growth and spread of the
American hard-shell clam in English
waters may well have been due to the
warming effect of cooling water effluents
(Ansell, 1963).
IV CONTROL OF MARINE FOULING
A The reversal of the flow of cooling sea
water streams through the intake pipes
in order to raise the temperature to limit
the creatures inhabiting the pipes is not
new.
1 The use of heated waters for the
control of mussels for a station on the
coast of California is shown to be less
expensive than the use of chlorine
(Chadwick. Clark, Fox, 1950).
2 A followup of the original work 10 years
later shows that thermal control was
still the most successful as well as the
most practical means of control of
fouling (Fox and Corcoran, 1958).
V WATER WORKS TREATMENT
A Many studies have been made on the effect
of temperature on water treatment pro-
cesses (Burnson, 1938. Camp, Root,
Bhoota, 1940, Renn, 1957, Velz, 1934).
1 Renn sums up the experience to that
time (1956) by noting that Fair and
Geyer (1954) find that “the efficiency
and effectiveness of flocculation and
of filtration of floc-bearing water
rises with rising temperatures.
2 Most other authors agree though
Velz (1934) disagreed
B Camp’s studies (Camp, Root, Bhoota,
1940) showed that the optimum condition
for flocculation is determined by three
variables--iron-alum dose, pH, and
temperature.
1 Velz’s findings may be m agreement
with this since he also showed that
isoelectric point of the flocculating
system shifts drastically with tem-
perature.
2 Because of tius increased efficiency
in flocculation, the State of
Pennsylvania’s Committee on the
Effects of Heated Discharges found
in 1962 that savings in chemicals for
water treatment would be 30 to 50 cents
per million gallons for each 100F rise
in temperature (Arnold, 1962).
3 This may be compared with an average
cost of chemicals of $14 for treating
water and a range of $3 to $30 per
million gallons.
VI WASTE TREATMENT
A There is a considerable body of literature
on the effects of heating sludge, but little
information on the effects of temperature
greater than 600 C.
19-2
-------
Beneficial Effects of Heat Additions
1 Recently, raw sewage has been heated
to 1000 C to determine if there were
any improvements in settling efficiency
2 Crotty, et al (Crotty, Feng, Skrinde,
Kuzminsky, 1968) found that heat
treated wastes were more homogenous
and settled faster. However, further
work is required
3 Earlier German work cited by Crotty
on preheating sewage and raw sludge
to 100-120° C shows that they will be
more amenable to sedimentation and
biological treatments.
V I I IRRIGATION
A The intake of the Oroville Power Plant on
the Feather River was especially con-
structed at considerable extra expense to
draw water from various levels to avoid
damage to downstream agricultural
interests by excessively cool water
(Raney, 1963)
B The same results could have been achieved
by mixing the heated waters from a thermal
power station with the discharge from the
hypolimnion of a storage reservoir.
VIII ICE-FREE SHIPPING LANES
A A recent study by Dingman, et al (1968)
has shown that it should be possible to
keep significant portions of the Saint
Lawrence Seaway open the year around
by the judicious location of central station
electric power complexes.
B This would save transportation costs of
several million dollars per year.
C It is estimated that a 600 mw reactor
could keep a stretch of the river between
11 and 16 miles ice-free.
D No study was made of the ecological effect
of such an undertaking, however.
D C WATER AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE
A Since the viscosity and density of water
decreases with temperature, a change in
temperature should have an effect on both
sediment transport and water flow.
1 It had previously been thought that the
variation of only a few degrees would
have a small effect (Burke, 1966).
2 More recent data, however, suggests
that these effects may be quite
important (Burke, 1969).
B Colder water is more viscous than
warmer water and therefore has a higher
carrying capacity for sediment than does
warmer water.
1 In warmer water, coarser material
settles out and so for any crossing in
the river (which acts as a submerged
weir) there is less flow past that
cross-section for the same stage
2 Decreasing water temperature may be
assumed to make a difference of 10 to
20 percent in expected discharge for a
given state (Burke, 1969).
3 Sudden rises in temperature may cause
such a deposition of coarse material
to ground ships following sailing lines
C Studies by Colby and Scott have indicated
that changes in temperature affect bed
material discharge in complex ways
(Colby and Scott, 1965).
1 The thickness of the laminar sublayer
is changed with the temperature, but
it is usually only a small effect.
2 The vertical distribution of suspended
material is greatly affected by tem-
perature changes and indicates an
approximate doubling of bed material
discharge when temperatures drop
from 80°F to 40° F, assuming that the
mean velocities, depths, and sizes of
bed sediments remain constant.
19-3
-------
Beneficial Effects of Heat Additions
3 Finally, the bed configuration and
therefore, the resistance to flow are
effected by changes in temperature
The effect may be large or small.
D Colby in an earlier summary of fluvial
sediments (Colby, 1963) had noted that
the full velocities of sediment particles
increase with an increase in water
temperature.
1 For particles larger than 1 mm,
however, the percentage increase
is small.
2 For sediments in the size range 0. 1
to 0. 4 mm, fall velocity, vertical
distribution and discharge of sediments
is greatly affected by temperature
changes (Colby, 1963).
E Franco (1968) in a more recent study
confirms some of these results and finds
that the effects of water temperature on
bed load appear to be mostly in the
formation of the bed and bed roughness.
X WATER SUPPLY SOURCE
A A serendipitous benefit was obtained in
Henderson, Kentucky, when it was found
necessary to replace the town’s water
supply system.
1 Over one quarter of a million dollars
was saved by the use of the condenser
cooling waters as the intake to the
tower’s water supply system
(Highland, 1962).
2 Fortunately, no chemicals were added
to the intake water and the warmer
water had not to that date caused any
problems.
Xl SUMMARY
Though it has already been pointed out that it
is highly unlikely to find beneficial uses for
all the heat that would ordinarily be wasted
to the atmosphere or hydrosphere, there are
some uses, as already indicated, which could
reduce the negative effects of present day
discharges.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
Material for this outline was taken from
“Thermal Pollution Status of the Art,”
Frank L Parker and Peter A. Krenkel,
authors.
REFERENCES
1 Anonymous, 1968a. Thermal Effluent
May Cut Cost of Shrimp Cocktail.
Electrical World 30.
2 Anonymous, 1968b. Lobsters, Warmed
and Simulated. Science News. 93,
169.
3 Ansell, Alan D. An Approach to Sea
Farming The New Scientist.
14, 3657-3667. 1962.
4 Ansell, Alan D Venus Mercenaria (L)
in Southampton Water. Ecology.
44, 397. 1963.
5 Arnold, G E. Thermal Pollution of
Surface Supplies. Journal of American
Water Works Association. 54, 1336.
1962.
6 Ascione, R., Southwick, W. and Fresco,
J. H. Laboratory Culturing of a
Thermophilic Algae at High Tem-
perature. Science 153, 754. 1966
7 Brock, T.D and Brock, M.L.
Temperature Optima for Algal
Development in Yellowstone and
Iceland Hot Springs. Nature. 209,
734. 1966.
8 Burke, P.P. Effect of Water Temperature
on Discharge and Bed Configuration -
Mississippi River at Red River Landing,
Louisiana. Corps of Engineers,
Vicksburg, Miss. 3. 1966.
9 Burke, P.P Water Temperature and
Discharge. American Society of Civil
Engineers preprint, 12, Red River
Landing, Louisiana. 1969.
19-4
-------
Beneficial Effects of Heat Additions
10 Burnson, B. Seasonal Temperature
Variations in Relation to Water
Treatment. Journal of American
Water Works Association. 30, 793.
1938.
11 Camp, T.R., Root, D.A. and Bhoota,
B.V. Effects of Temperature on Rate
Floc Formation. Journal of American
Water Works Association. 32, 1913.
1940.
12 Chadwick, W. L., Clark, F. S. and Fox,
D. L. Thermal Control of Marine
Fouling at Redondo Steam Station of the
Southern California Edison Company.
American Society of Mechanical
Engineers - Transactions. 72, 131.
1950.
13 Colby, B.R. Fluvial Sediments. U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin #1181-A.
U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 1963.
14 Colby. B.R. and Scott, C.H. Effects of
Water Temperature on the Discharge
of Bed Material. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 462-G, United
States Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. G-I. 1965.
15 Crotty, P., Feng, T., Skrinde, R. and
Kuzmmski, L. The Use of Heat to
Improve Water Treatment. Presented
at the First Annual Northeastern
Regional Anti-Pollution Conference,
University of Rhode Island. 23. 1968.
16 Dingman, S. L., Weeks, W. F. and Yen,
Y. C. The Effects of Thermal Pollution
on River Ice Conditions. Water Resources
Research. 4. 1968.
17 Elser, H. J. Effects of a Warmed-Water
Discharge on Angling in the Potomac
River, Mary]arid, 1961-1962. Prog
Fish. Cult. 27, 85. 1965.
18 Fair, G.M. and Geyer, J.C.
and Wastewater Disposal.
& Sons, New York. 1954
19 Fox, D. L. and Corcoran, E. F.
Thermal and Osmotic Counter-
measures Against Some Typical
Marine Fouling Organisms. Corrosion.
14, 131 1958.
20 Fresco, John J Effects of Water
Temperature on Bed-Load Movement.
Journal of the Waterways and Harbors
Division. Proceedings of the American
Society of Civil Engineers 343 -352.
1968.
21 Highland, J. T. Power-Plant Cooling
Water Provides Domestic Supply.
Public Works. New York 93, 101-
104. 1962
22 fles, R. B. 1963a. Cultivating Fish for
Food and Sport in Power Station
Water. New Scientist. 117, 227—229.
23 Iles, R.B. l963b. The Subtropical
Waters of Britain. Journal of the
Institution of Electrical Engineers.
9, 245-246.
24 Kovaly, Kenneth H. Heat Pollution -
or Enrichment. Industrial Research.
31. 1968.
25 Lerner, W. Statistical Abstract of the
United States. U. S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C
1968.
On Possible Con-
of Thermal Additions
Bio-Science, 17,
27 Raney, F. Rice Water Temperature.
Rice Journal. December 19-22, 1963
28 Raymont, J. E. G Sea Plants for Food.
The New Scientist. 10-11. July 18,
1957.
29 Renn, Charles E. Warm-water Effects
on Municipal Supplies Journal of
American Water Works Association.
49, 410. 1957.
26 Mihursky, J.A.
structive Uses
to Estuaries.
698-702. 1967
Water Supply
John Wiley
19-5
-------
Beneficial Effects of Heat Additions
30 Santa]a, Veikko. How District Heating
Serves Finnish City of 20, 000.
Heating, Piping, and Air Conditioning.
38, 129—135. 1966.
31 Velz, C.J. Influence of Temperatures
on Coagulation. Civil Engineering.
4, 345. 1934.
This outline was prepared by John F.
Wooley, Biologist, Manpower & Training
Branch, Pacific Northwest Water
Laboratory, FWQA.
19-6
-------
THERMAL POLLUTION FROM NATURAL CAUSES
I INTRODUCTION II NATURAL HEAT SOURCES
Although the term “pollution” is almost A The energy budget - as related to a water
universally reserved for use in describing mass, the energy or heat budget is
the results of man’s activities, at times it frequently expressed as (Randall, 1962)
can also define adverse environmental effects
from other causes. Adverse thermal effects = s r - - h - e +
from natural causes have been observed
since the first man appeared on the earth. where = increase of energy stored
H one accepts the biblical story of Adam and
Q = solar radiation incident to
Eve, he could easily imagine Adam, on a S
water surface
hot summer day, telling Eve how difficult
it was to work in the extreme heat, or in r = reflected solar radiation
wintertime, the two of them huddling together
Q. = net energy lost through long-
for added protection from the cold. 0
wave radiation
In this outline, consideration will be given to = conduction loss to atmosphere
the natural thermal sources and how they
may affect the aquatic environment. e = evaporation heat loss
= advective heat loss or gain
This is shown schematically by Figure 1.
short-wave solar radiation
reflected solar radiation
long-wave atmospheric radiation
long-wave radiation from the water surface
reflected atmospheric radiation
conduction heat loss or gain from atmosphere
evaporation heat loss
I I condensation heat gain
11,1
Heat advected _____
________ ) Heat advected out
in I
Conduction heat loss or gain (bottom)
FIGURE 1
HEAT FLOW - RELATED TO WATER MASS
W.Q.ph.7.8.70 20-1
-------
Thermal Pollution From Natural Causes
Although the energy budget equation is used
as a base for predicting thermal pollution, at
this time we will use the schematic (Figure 1)
only as a means of identifying heat sources
which may affect the environment.
B Volcanic Heat
Volcanic heat or heat from the earth’s
core may contribute considerable thermal
energy to the aquatic environment. This
heat is, however, usually confined to areas
of hot springs and volcanos.
Some of these areas have become famous
as resort areas and as such the volcanic
heat in the environment is not considered
pollution even though this heat may cause
considerable deviation from the norm.
Studies of the aquatic biota in Yellowstone
National Park have revealed some very
definite variations from the normal. It is
highly likely these forms have adapted to
their “hot water” environment over a
period of many thousands of years.
Although some proposals have been made to
tap heat from these sources, until this time
man has not made any sigiuficant alteration
in the release of volcanic heat from the
earth’s core into the habitable environment.
In Figure 1, this heat source is shown as heat
advected in by the hot water flow or by heat
conduction directly from a stream or ]ake
bottom.
C So]ar Radiation
Short-wave radiation received from the
sun is equal to 1. 95 ]angleys per minute,
of which approximately 40% reaches the
earth’s surface on an average of about
8000 calories per square meter per
minute. The balance of radiation received
from the sun is either reflected or absorbed
by the atmosphere. Approximately 45%
of the total received (0. 88 langleys) is
reflected back into space by the atmosphere.
The atmosphere absorbs about 15% of the
total (0. 29 langleys). This ]atter helps to
maintain atmospheric temperature and
promote its circulation.
Although a total of 19, 500 calories per
square meter per minute reaches the
earth with the sun directly overhead, the
amount of this short-wave radiation which
reaches the surface to be absorbed by a
water mass is affected by
1 The duration of sunlight per day, which
is a factor of season and latitude.
2 The elevation of the sun. When the sun
is directly overhead, its rays have the
least distance to travel through the gas
molecules making up the atmosphere.
As the sun moves from the vertical
this path increases (Figure 2) permitting
greater absorption and scattering of the
solar radiation by gas molecules in the
air.
The result of phenomenon is to alter
the rate, throughout the day, at which
solar radiation reaches the earth’s
surface. The function of this change
is approximately parabolic as shown
by Figure 3 for a selected day at 45
north latitude
(90°
atmosphere
9
FIGURE 2
20-2
-------
Thermal Pollution From Natural Causes
biD
0
-I
00
—
+.
u O
c -.( )
—
(I)
3 Cloud cover affects amount of energy
reaching the surface because of
absorption and scattering of the rad.i-
ation in and by the water molecules.
4 In addition to direct sunlight the surface
of a water mass also receives skyUght
radiation from sunlight that has been
scattered by the atmosphere. This
factor becomes more important in
higher latitudes where the angle of the
sun from the vertical decreases the
amount of direct solar radiation and
increases atmospheric scattering.
5 The reflective condition of the water
surface, for example, calm, smooth
surface or windswept waves is another
important factor because as much as
2 to 50% of solar radiation reaching the
water surface will be reflected from
the surface depending upon surface
conditions.
D Long-wave Radiation
Short-wave solar radiation absorbed into
the atmosphere is altered to long-wave
radiation in which form it may reach the
water surface to be absorbed. Likewise
long-wave radiation is lost from the water
mass into the overlying air. Whether or
not the long-wave radiation results in a
net gain or loss of heat in the water mass
is dependent upon temperature of the
atmosphere, the water, and humithty.
REFERENCES
1 Chow, Var Te. Handbook of Applied
Hydrology. McGraw-Hill. 1964.
2 Pickard, G. L. Descriptive Physical
Oceanography. Pergamon Press,
New York. 1963.
3 Nielson, L. J. Evaluation of Pre-
impoundment Conditions for Prediction
of Stored Water Quality. Reservoir
Fishery Symposium. 153-168.
Univ. of Georgia. April 5-7, 1967.
4 Raphael, J. M. Prediction of Temperature
in Rivers and Reservoirs. Proc.
ASCE 88P0Z. 157-181. 1962.
This outline was prepared by L. J. Nielson,
Manpower Development Training Officer,
OWP, EPA, Region X, Corvallis,
OR 97330.
—— 1.4approx.
0.9 Mean
a. rn.
FIGURE 3
night
20-3
-------
THERMAL POLLUTION RESULTING FROM MAN’S PHYSICAL ALTERATIONS
OF THE ENVLRONMENT
I INTRODUCTION
Heat as a pollutant has been shown to have
numerous adverse effects on water and the
aquatic environment. Because of these
effects, we should examine activities of man
that may tend to change the environment in
such manner as to affect the natural thermal
regime of our waterways.
If RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTION
Reservoir construction has long been con-
sidered as an environmental change which
affects the aquatic environment. This affect
may take one of two routes to alter the down-
stream thermal regime.
A Bottom withdrawal of cold water causing
a somewhat lower stream temperature
than normally experienced during the
summer months. The solar energy
absorbed by the water mass is retained
within the reservoir in the upper layer
or epilixnnion. Often this heat energy
promotes algal blooms. During the die-
off period, the dead algal cells settle to
the thermoclme and decompose. In some
instances, this decomposition produces
hydrogen sulfide which, if discharged to
a stream, will result in a fish kill.
B Surface discharge from reservoir releases
the epilimnion waters which, during
transit through the reservoir, have stored
so]ar energy in the form of heat. The
discharge thus elevates downstream water
temperatures.
Whether or not either of these conditions
will adversely affect the downstream
ecology can only be determined on a case
by case basis and evaluation of the
environment and water use.
Heat storage is frequently shown by the
equation
S = I-O+R±C-E
Where
S = heat storage in reservoir
I heat in inflow waters
0 = heat in outflow
R = net energy absorbed from radiation
C = sensible heat exchange
E = evaporation heat loss
Most of the heat entering the reservoir
does so as either advected heat in the
inflow or from radiation with radiation
usually being the greater. This can be
readily seen by analyzing the difference
in surface area (stream surface/reservoir
surface) open to the sun as a result of the
impoundment. Inasmuch as a mean rate
of approximately 8000 to 9000 calories per
square meter per minute reaches the
water surface during daylight hours,
considerable energy can be added to the
water mass because of the increased
water surface exposed. If alternate sites
are available, the impoundment area
should, if possible, be oriented to
minimize absorption of solar radiation.
Ill LOGGING PRACTICES
Logging in such manner as to completely
expose a stream to solar radiation can add
considerable heat to the flowing water.
This can best be shown by an example
problem.
Assume an area to be logged will remove the
shade and completely expose a stream for a
distance of 1000 feet . This small stream has
an average velocity of 0. 5 feet per second.
W. Q.ph. 8.8.70
21—1
-------
Thermal Pollution Resulting From Man’s Physical Alterations of the Environment
Incoming radiation is 1.4 langleys per
minute and the albedo is 0.02. Find the
energy added to the stream as a result of
shade removal. Neglect change in long-
wave radiation, sensible heat exchange, and
evaporation. Then:
S = R - (R - R 1 ) t where:
S additional heat stored in the water
mass
R = net energy absorbed from radiation
R = short-wave solar radiation
8
Rf= the reflected solar radiation
t = time of exposure to sun’s rays
R = aR
f s
a = albedo (reflectivity of the water
surface)
water quality by leaving vegetation along
stream banks to shade the water surface
from the sun’s rays.
IV IRRIGATION RETURN FLOW
It has been pointed out the effect to be
expected when water is diverted for irrigation.
In instances of ridge and furrow irrigation,
water is exposed not only to the heating
caused by direct solar radiation, but also
by sensible heat exchange from the soil of
solar energy absorbed by the earth prior to
application of irrigation water. In this case,
however, evaporation becomes a very sig-
nificant factor in helping to reduce the
amount of heat stored in irrigation return
flow waters. In the western United States
where irrigation is widely practiced,
elevated stream temperatures have been
frequently observed.
V SUMMARY
Cal
S 1.4
CM 2 Mm
Cal
(1.4 ) (0.02)
CU Mm
Man can and does alter the physical environ-
ment in such manner to change the thermal
regime of the aquatic environment.
Thus, in this short stretch each centimeter
of stream width will absorb more than 45
calories. If the stream is shallow, say an
average depth of about 4 inches, the water
temperature would rise on the order of 4.5oC
or 8. 1° F.
He should recognize the effects of these
changes and, where possible, their
occurrence.
In those instances where alteration of water
temperatures is unavoidable, such as might
occur by construction of a reservoir, the
dam should be designed to permit manage-
ment of discharges in a manner to minimize
adverse thermal effects.
Although the problem was simplified somewhat
by ignoring sensible heat exchange, long-wave
radiation and evaporation, an error of sufficient
significance was not introduced to invalidate
our result. It becomes apparent that serious
consideration should be given to protecting
This outline was written by L. J. Nielson,
Manpower Development Training Officer,
OWP, EPA, Region X, Corvallis,
OR 97330.
( 1000 ft sec” \
0.51t )
(Min’\
60 see)
S = (1.37 Cal (33.3 mm)
CM Min
S = 45.7 calories/CM 2
21-2
-------
INDUSTRIAL SOURCES OF THERMAL POLLUTION
I INTRODUCTION
The utilization of water by man is as old as
man himself. This hfe-givtng, universal
solvent has many uses. It can be used for
drinkmg or to carry away sewage wastes
A river may be used for transportation,
recreation, food production (for fish habitat)
or for waste disposal. These uses of water
for man’s benefit may be good but the result
is a complex problem.
Competition between water uses is keen and
growing intensely with the rapid growth in
water demand. It is estimated that the
nation’s dependable continuous water supply
is only 850, 000 cubic feet per second, an
amount which will be equaled by the demand
by 1980. This makes it necessary to manage
the resource for multiple use. Antagonistic
uses must be resolved to obtain maximum
resource benefits.
Heat discharged to a stream conflicts with
such other uses, as fish production, domestic
use, and recycling as cooling water.
U WASTE HEAT FROM INDUSTRY
A General
There are few industries in the United
States that do not to some extent add to
the thermal loading on the nation’s water-
ways. Almost one-half of all water used
in this country is utilized for cooling and
condensing by the power and manufacturing
industries. The electric power industry
accounts for more than eighty percent of
the total cooling water used (Table 1).
Although most industry uses water for
cooling, not all heat entering the aquatic
environment is from cooling water. In
many instances process waters contain a
thermal pollution load in addition to other
contaminants.
B Electrical Power Production
Because the power industry accounts for
such a large portion of total cooling water
usage, power requirements offer a good
correlation to future waste heat loads.
Production of electricity has become a
more efficient process throughout the
years, that is the net heat rate (the
number of BTU’s needed to generate on
KWH) has declined an average of 2.8%
per year over the past 40 years. Even
with this increase in efficiency, however,
total power generation has increased at a
net rate of 7.2% annually That is, doubled
every 10 years resulting in greatly
expanded cooling water use. Comparatively,
manufactured goods production is expected
to increase by 4. 5% annually over the next
few years, and cooling water requirements
will increase correspondingly This rate
indicates doubling every 16 years.
Because of a number of factors, heat
rejection is expected to increase at least
as fast as power production. First of all,
fossil-fueled plants are approaching a
limit of efficiency, that is, each incremental
gain in efficiency is becoming harder to
attain. Secondly, the advent of nuclear
power will increase heat rejection because
of nuclear plants’ inherent lower efficiency
than fossil-fueled plants. Finally, hydro
power will constitute a smaller percentage
of the new generating capacity in the future
because remaining sites are rapidly being
depleted. This is very evident in the
Northwest, where the present hydro-base
of power will gradually change to a thermal
base.
Indications are that waste heat load from
power plants, on a national basis, will
double before 1980 and probably increase
ninefold by the year 2000.
An understanding of the steam cycle may
assist in evaluating the problem.
WP. TH. 3.8.70
22-1
-------
Industrial Sources of Thermal Pollution
TABLE 1
USE OF COOLING WATER BY U. S. INDUSTRY, 1964
Industry
Electric Power
Primary Metals
Chemical and Allied Products
Petroleum and Coal Products
Paper and AUled Products
Food and Kindred Products
Machinery
Rubber and Plastics
Transportation Equipment
AU Other
TOTAL
Cooling Water Intake
( 1 i11i of ( ct11nn
40, 680
3, 387
3, 120
1,212
607
392
164
128
102
273
50, 065
% of Total
81. 3
6. 8
62
2.4
1.2
0. 8
0. 3
0. 3
0. 2
0. 5
100. 0
The basic steam plant cycle is as follows:
the steam drum furnace combination turns
water into high-pressure steam, which is
carried to the turbines at a speed of about
200 miles per hour. Within 1/30th of a
second the steam rushes through the tur-
bines, traveling through a series of
stationary nozzles and revolving buckets
which spin the turbine rotor and connected
generator shaft at either 1800 or 3600
revolutions per minute.
Drastic changes occur in the steam as it
releases its ener ’ to the rotating buckets.
Steam may enter the turbines at tem-
peratures of over 10000 F and leave at less
than 1000 F. It enters at a pressure of
2000 or more psi, expands to a thousand
times its entrance volume, and leaves at
a pressure less than atmospheric.
From the turbine exhaust the expanded,
low-pressure steam goes to the condenser,
where it is cooled until it condenses to
water. The process reduces the volume
of the steam by a factor of 27, 000 in a near-
perfect vacuum, thereby returning it to a
state in which it can be easily handled.
The water is returned to the boiler
through the feedwater heater to be used
over and over again as the cycle continues
endlessly.
As the cycle repeats, it is necessary to
continuously remove from the condenser
an amount of heat equal to that given up
in converting exhaust steam into water.
Plant and operational refinements reduce
the amount of heat entrained in exhaust
steam which, in effect, increases the
overall plant thermal efficiency.
Nuclear-fueled plants are inherently less
efficient than fossil-fueled plants even
though they too utilize the basic steam
cycle to spin turbines and generate power.
The major factor in the efficiency limitation
is that imposed through reduced operating
temperatures. Technological difficulties
make it impractical, uneconomical, or
unsafe to produce high-pressure, super-
heated steam in a water-cooled reactor
system. Whereas modern fossil-fueled
plants utilize steam at temperatures near
10500 F and pressures over 3000 psi,
nuclear-fueled reactors of the boiling
22-2
-------
Industrial Sources of Thermal Pollution
STEAM — ELECTRIC STATION
A.H. Air Heater
Con. Condenser
Econ Economizer
Evap. Evaporator
F.M. Feedwater Heater
Gen. Generator
H.P.T. High Pressure Turbine
I. P. T Intermediate Pressure Turbine
L.P.T. Low Pressure Turbine
M.U. Make-up (water)
P.T. Electrostatic Precipitator
R.H. Reheater
S. D Steam Drum
S. H. Super Heater
LEGEND
: ::i lnco ning
1 Heated dir
___________ Steam
Water
22-3
-------
Industrial Sources of Thermal Pollution
water or pressurized water types produce
steam at about 6000 F and about 1000 psi
or 2000 psi, respectively.
The efficiency of a power plant naturally
affects the amount of waste heat rejected
to cooling water. Efficiency, n , is the
electrical output divided by the thermal
input times 100, for percent.
For one kilowatt hour.
3413
n = Xl00
t 3413 + Waste Heat
One kilowatt-hour is equal to 3413 BTU’s.
The denominator of the efficiency equation
represents the heat required to produce
one kilowatt-hour of electricity. It is used
as a measure of a plant’s efficiency, being
inversely proportional to efficiency itself,
and is called the plant “heat rate. “
The national average heat rate at the
present time is around 10, 400 UTU’s - -
which means it takes 10, 400 BTU’s to
generate 1 kwh of electricity equal to only
3, 413 BTU’s. The difference between the
two figures, almost 7, 000 BTTJ’s is
rejected to cooling water or lost to the
atmosphere through plant and stack losses.
The heat rate of even the best present day
fossil-fueled plants is about 8, 500 BTU’s.
So we see that, even at best, we must
somehow dissipate about 5, 000 BTU’s of
heat for each kwh of electricity we produce.
We can evaluate more closely the amount
of heat rejected to cooling water from a
plant, knowing the efficiency or heat rate
and by assuming some reasonable plant
losses. For fossil-fueled plants losses
account for about 15% of the thermal input,
which is the heat rate. About 10% goes
out the stack, 5% is lost within the plant.
So the heat that must be rejected to cooling
water, per kwh, is equal to:
Ht to CW = 0. 85 X Heat Rate - 3413
For a nuclear plant, stack losses are not
involved and the in-plant losses are taken
to be 5% of the input. Therefore, the heat
rejected to cooling water, per kwh, is
equal to
0.95 X Heat Rate - 3413
For a fossil-fueled plant at 40% efficiency
Heat Rate = 8533 BTU
Heat to cooling water = 0 85 (8533) - 3413
= about 3800 ETU/KWH
for a nuclear plant at 33% efficiency
(that’s about the maximum for plants
planned to 1975)
Heat Rate = _ _ _ _ = 10, 340 BTU
Heat to cooling water = 0.95 (10, 340) - 3413
= about 6400 BTU/KWH
It can be seen that nuclear plants will not
lessen the potential thermal pollution
problem. Instead, they will reject about
65% more waste heat to cooling water.
For example, consider 1000 MW plants.
As calculated for a 40% efficient fossil-
fueled plant, waste heat to cooling water
is about 3800 BTUI KWH. For a 1000 MW
plant, the total heat output would then be
3.8 X 10 BTU/hr. Suchaplant might
circulate 1000 cfs through it. ( to stream
20 ft wide, lOft deep, running at 5 ft/sec).
The temperature of this 1000 cfs would be
raised 17°F through the 1000 MW fossil-
fueled plant.
Heat from a 1000 MW nuclear-fueled
plant would be 6. 4 X l0 BTU/hr. If,
for comparison, we want a 170F tem-
perature rise through this plant also, it
would require a cooling water flow of
1650 cfs.
The following relationship can be used to
determine a heat load (HL) streamfiow (Sf)
or temperature (i sT) rise if values are
known for 2 of the 3 factors.
= HL
Sf 31 62.4
22-4
-------
Industrial Sources of Thermal Pollution
where: T = change in stream water
temperature, 0 F
HL = heat load in BTU/sec and
Sf = streamfiow in cubic feet
per second
62.4 = Wt. of water, lb/cu.ft.
C Manufacturing Industries
As shown in Table 1, about 80% of all
industrial cooling water is used by the
power industry, and the remaining 20%
by manufacturing industries. Manu-
facturer’s cooling facility needs are
expected to increase at a 4. 5% annual
rate, compared to the 7.2% annual increase
expected by the power industry.
To assess the impact of an industry or an
industrial complex on the thermal properties
of a stream, one must determine the
quantity of waste heat, i. e., total ETU’s,
discharged from each plant. Specific
values of heat wasted by various processes
are generally not applicable to individual
plants, due to the wide range of production
processes, equipment combinations, and
efficiencies employed Therefore, no
attempt to formulate quantitative guide-
lmes will be made here. Rather, it is
suggested that the situation be approached
through studying each manufacturing
plant’s discharge and sources of heat
additions both to process waters and
cooling water streams. In this manner,
incorrect assumptions will not be used
and a more valid heat load determination
will be assured.
ACKNOW LEDGMENT
Material for this outline was taken from the
“Industrial Waste Guide on Thermal Pollution,
OWP, Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory,
September 1968 (revised).
This outline was prepared by Lyman J.
Nielson, Manpower Development Training
Officer, OWP, EPA, Region X,
Corvallis, OR 97330.
22—5
-------
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING OF HEATED LAKES AND STREAMS
INTRODUCTION
A Laboratory conditions usually include
constant temperatures, closed systems,
and feeding of test organisms. Natural
environments are anything but constant
1 Lakes stratify in summer and produce
marked thermal gradients.
2 Streams have springs and impounded
areas which provide for contrast in
temperatures, and heated water dis-
charges have nuxing zones which have
sharp isotherms.
3 Fish have a choice to select water
favorable for their growth and survival.
4 Natural waters must also produce
suitable food organisms and fish must
compete with other species, as well
as their own, for the available food
resources.
B The relationship between growth, mortality,
reproduction, and behavior is anything
but constant.
1 Fluctuations in abundance may vary
more than 25 fold from year to year
(Smith and Krofting, 1954).
2 Survival of white fish eggs to maturity
has been estimated to be only about
0. 03% on the average (Braum, 1967)
3 Growth rates generally show an inverse
relationship to population size.
a Fishermen usually know about lakes
where the fish are quite stunted and
numerous, and other lakes where
fish grow to a large size but are not
so numerous.
b Although the number of fish present
are highly variable from year to
year, or from lake to lake, the
tendency is for the loss of numbers
to be compensated for by increase
in weight Thus, the pound of fish
flesh produced per acre per year
tends to be constant for any body
of water much the same as an
agricultural crop.
4 Variations in production rates are
related to the fertility of the watershed
and to the temperature.
a Serious loss of production rates
can be expected at abnormal tem-
peratures when the compensatory
mechanisms are no longer effective
to make up for the loss in numbers
from reduced reproduction, increased
mortality, and avoidance of large
areas of food producing waters.
5 Because of the complexity of the
problem of heated waters, there is a
strong need for testing laboratory
findings in the field to determine their
adequacy for the protection of aquatic
life.
II UMNOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
A In any river or stream in which a flow of
water is maintained, the continual mixing
of water prevents the establishment of a
thermal stratification such as found in
lakes.
1 Heat discharges to shallow turbulent
streams will result in complete mixing
with the receiving water raising its
temperature before being cooled by
evaporation
2 The entire water mass will influence
the distribution of organisms, since
little temperature differences occur
B Addition of heat to the surface of lakes
and slow, deep streams will result in
thermal stratification.
BI.ECO.he. 15. 8.70
23-1
-------
Biological Monitoring of Heated Lakes and Streams
1 These discharges may have no sigrnficant
effect on the adult population living in
deeper water
2 Larval fishes living m surface waters
may be adversely affected.
C Report of the committee on Water Quality
Criteria (1968) recommends that the
hypolimnion of lakes should not be warmed
or used for cooling waters.
1 Such use of the cold water layer may
cause a decrease in its volume,
increase in volume of the warm sur-
face layer, prolong the period of
stratification and the growing season,
decrease its oxygen concentration,
and decrease the living space of cold-
water fishes (Eipper, et al, 1968).
2 Documentation of these predicted
biological changes is needed for both
cold - and warm - water organisms.
D The type of discharge which may be sur-
face or bottom, on shore or off shore,
the temperature at various loads, flow
conditions, and seasons, and the flow rate
of the discharge will ultimately generate
isotherms that will have varying effects
upon the aquatic environment.
1 Some areas may not be habitable during
parts of the year
2 Only a small fraction of the total
environment, however, may actually
be utilized by any life history phase
of a fish at any time of the year.
3 It is important that these requirements
for specthc isotherms are recognized
and that sufficient “living space” is
available to insure adequate production
of the desired species.
4 Engineers try to predict the isotherms
generated under various conditions and
it should be the biologist’s goal to be
able to predict the consequences of such
isotherms, to recommend changes in
heat distributions and to suggest areas
to be monitored and for Site selection.
III ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
A One of the more important ecological
considerations is the relationship of the
desired organisms to their food supply.
1 Fishes are among the first group of
animals to disappear from the environ-
ment and the algae and food organisms
are among the last.
2 One of the most heat tolerant fish, the
goldfish, dies at 400 C.
3 (Wurtz and Renn, 1965), observed 19
macroinvertebrate species which
survived temperatures up to 4lOC in
a Pennsylvania stream.
4 TVA (1968) reports that zooplankton
were extremely abundant at 350 C, but
36° C represents the lethal threshold
for the dominant species of the Green
River
5 A 50% reduction in the number of
species of macromvertebrate fauna
of the Delaware River occurred at a
temperature of 34°C (Coutant, 1962).
B These observations are consistent with
principles of toxicology, the greater the
number of species within a group of
organisms, the greater their range of
tolerance.
1 One could logically argue that survival
of fish is the most critical factor and
that ample food would be available, if
criteria are set for fish alone.
2 Most species of fishes will alter their
food habits considerably depending on
what type is available.
C The dependency of a population of fish on
a single food organism has not been
demonstrated until recently.
1 (Swedburg, 1968) found that the increased
growth and abundance of the freshwater
drum in Lewis and Clark Lake was
related to an increased abundance of its
preferred food, the burrowing inayfly
(Hexagenia).
23—2
-------
Biological Monitorin g of Heated Lakes and Streams
2 Food that newly hatched fry can eat are
much more restricted than the types
available to a larger fish of the same
species (Siefert, 1968).
3 The preferred food organisms,
especially the food of fish fry, must
be protected in order to raise a crop
of fish.
4 The effect of heated waters on these
food organisms must be taken into
consideration in order to evaluate
changes in fish production.
D Another important consideration is the
timing of life cycle events.
1 Each organism is adapted to not only
water temperature, but to other factors
such as thy length and other species of
animals and plants in the same habitat.
2 The interrelationships of species, day-
length, and water temperature are so
intimate that abnormal temperature
cycles may have adverse effects
3 The temperature cycle must be in phase
with the light cycle or reproduction will
be inhibited.
4 A stonefly nymph reared under a con-
stant high temperature of 20°C
emerged in January, but emerged in
May at normal temperatures. The air
temperature can reach -200 F in
Minnesota in the winter. It doesn’t
have to be emphasized that the mating
of this insect would be impaired at that
temperature.
5 It could well be that other organisms
will suffice as the missing link in the
food chain, but this relationship must
be studied.
E Dilferent zooplankers have different
cycles of abundance depending on the
differential effect of several factors,
including water temperature
1 These cycles of abundance are very
important for the survival of first-
feeding fish fry.
2 The availability of the right species
of food organism of the right size (age)
in sufficient numbers must exist at the
time when the fry begin to feed.
3 There would be no survival advantage
in having abundant adults, since they
are too large
4 The period when bluegill fry begin to
feed and when they starve to death is
only two days at 23°C (Toetz, 1966)
and this period is shortened at higher
temperatures.
5 Whether adequate food wiil be available
to these fry at higher temperatures is
a matter of speculation that needs
critical examination.
6 So important is this relationship that
success of reproduction for most fish
species is usually determined within
the first month of life even at normal
temperatures.
F The effect of water temperature on
development of fish diseases is another
area of research that needs considerable
attention.
1 Laboratory and field observations
indicate that many fish diseases are
favored by increased water temperatures.
a Columnaris infections of salmon
migrating in the Columbia River
system reached epidemic pro-
portions only at temperatures in
excess of 210C (Ordal and Pacha,
1963).
b Increased water temperatures in the
main Columbia River in 1957 and
1958 contributed to the increased
incidence of columnaris disease
and reduced the salmon run into
RecLfish Lake in Idaho.
2 Increased water temperatures are the
combined results of the chain of
impoundments on the Columbia River
system and warm seasons
23-3
-------
Biological Monitoring of Heated Lakes and Streams
a Warm-water discharges which
attract infected warm-water fishes
aid the over winter survival of this
disease.
b Closer examination of the thermal
requirements of this fish, the
sockeye salmon, shows that the
ultimate lethal temperature is 24 C
(Brett, 1952) while the temperature
of maximum activity and growth is
about 18°C (Brett, 1960).
3 Apparently, survival at temperatures
above the optimum temperature range
of a fish is conditional, making the
concept of lethal temperatures more
nebulous.
G It should be emphasized that high natural
mortality rates occur in nature and the
role of diseases in regulating populations
under stress is well known.
1 Fish diseases are common in over-
crowded populations or in starving
populations (Wohlschlag and Juliano,
1959).
2 Mortalities from diseases are common
in fishes, when water temperatures
rise rapidly in the spring (Davis, 1922).
3 This is related to the period when
resistance of fishes to diseases is at
its lowest level (Liebmann, et al, 1960).
4 Fish collected below domestic waste
discharges in the Mississippi River
were all diseased.
5 The stress of laboratory confinement,
such as handling, crowding, accumu-
lation of excess food and waste products,
are all known to be contributing to
disease.
6 It was found that the only way to keep
yellow perch alive and healthy at
temperatures in excess of their optimum
of final preferred temperature range
was by routine treatment with fungicides,
bactericides, and antibiotics.
H High temperatures are known to increase
the toxicity of several wastes to aquatic
life.
1 As a general rule, the survival time
of an organism in a lethal concentration
decreases by a factor of 2 to 3 for a
temperature increase of 100C (Lloyd
and Herbert, 1962).
2 Even the dissolved oxygen require-
ments of fish is a function of temperature.
a The minimum concentration of
dissolved oxygen survived by blue-
gill sunfish for 24 hours was 0. 8 mgl
at 25° C.
b Itwas l.2mglat 35°C(Moss and
Scott, 1961).
3 The differences in the preferred
temperatures of young and adult fishes
may be explained by the differences in
the efficiency of their respiratory
mechanisms.
a Larger fish have a relatively
smaller surface area of their gills
(Price, 1931, Saunders, 1962) and
are less efficient than the young in
extracting the limited amounts of
oxygen available at higher tem-
perature s.
b It can be argued that larger fish
seek cooler waters then their young
in order to maximize the efficiency
of respiration even though they have
similar lethal temperatures.
Several species of aquatic life occur
naturally together in each body of water.
Where there is competition with other
ecologically similar species, the range
of habitat conditions which the species
occupies generally becomes restricted
to the most favorable conditions where
the species has an advantage over its
competitors (the optimum temperature
range).
23-4
-------
Biological Monitoring of Heated Lakes and Streams
1 The d]Iferent thermal requirements of
fish may result in spatial separation
of the species whereby they never
come into association with one another.
When requirements are similar,
competition becomes more severe.
2 In Quebec, introduction of yellow perch
into lakes has resulted in severe com-
petition with brook trout.
3 This is attributed in part to their
similar thermal thermal requirements
and food habits and is aggravated by
the higher reproductive potential of
perch.
J In streams where temperatures are more
uniform, changes in species composition
takes place as one proceeds downstream.
Numerous examples exist of the ecological
succession of cold-water species in the
headwaters to the warm-water species near
the mouth.
1 II any appreciable heat load is intro-
duced into a stream, the species
composition will be shifted towards
the one of a more southerly water.
2 The warm-water species are more
active, grow faster, and consume
greater amounts of food, while the
cold-water species are less active,
less efficient in converting food into
growth, have lower survival of their
young, and are vulnerable to diseases
and other adverse conditions.
3 The change in species can take place
without any spectacular fish kills.
a Whether these changes are detri-
mental or beneficial depends on
what species you are trying to
protect.
b Thermal requirements for a desired
species, therefore, must consider
the requirements of the other species
which may become dominant through
slight changes in environmental
temperatures.
K The natural downstream movement of
planktonic organisms and of aquatic
invertebrates in streams are important
factors in the re-population of areas
below heated discharges and are part
of the production dynamics.
1 The young of many fish species may
be part of this stream drift during
short periods of the year and are
vulnerable to entrainment into cooling
water intakes.
2 Spawning migrations of several fish
species occur during portions of the
year
a It is essential, therefore, to provide
adequate passageways for the
movement or drift of these orga-
nisms, e pecially during the critical
periods of the year.
L Survival of organisms in the mixing zone
depends on several factors, the pattern
of dispersion of heated water, the heat
and cold tolerance of each species which
varies with their environmental tem-
perature history, the temperatures of the
heated discharge and the receiving water,
and the rate of change in temperatures
The pattern of heat discharge determines
the thermal gradient to which organisms
are expressed
1 Some fish cannot avoid sharp gradients
and are killed when they swim into
lethal temperatures (Van Bliet, 1956).
2 Fast rates of change in heated discharge
temperatures do not have any appre-
ciable effect on the lethal temperatures
of several species of fish (Trembley,
1960), (Cocking, 1959), and aquatic
invertebrates.
3 Slow rates of change on the order of
10 C per day may alter their lethal
temperatures by influencing the rate
of gain in heat and cold tolerance.
4 In general, sharp thermal gradients
and large increments of heat above
ambient water temperatures should
23—5
-------
Biological Monitoring of Heated Lakes and_Streams
be avoided especially in winter, when
fish are attracted to these areas
a If the heated effluent raises the cold
tolerance (acclimation) of the most
sensitive species above the receiving
water temperature, kills may be
expected when the supply of warm
water is interrupted or when they
move into the receiving water.
b Similarly, the effluent should not
exceed the heat tolerance of fish
acclimated to the cooler receiving
waters.
IV SUMM.A EtY
A Water pollution must be defined m the
context of water use
1 The first 3ob, therefore, is to decide
what the water should be used for.
2 If the general public decides that
protection of aquatic life should be
given high priority, then they must
decide what species should be protected.
B The thermal requirements for each species
is different and no single temperature will
protect a species throughout the year on
all age groups of the same species.
1 These organisms have adapted to an
environment where natural thermal
gradients exist and where daily and
seasonal temperature fluctuations
occur.
2 Until further research shows otherwise,
it is important that these gradients and
cycles be maintained.
C Current thinking on the thermal criteria
for aquatic life is that each species has a
seasonal maximum temperature which
must not be exceeded
1 This is to insure successful completion
of all life history phases.
2 A portion of the year is devoted to
maturation of eggs of fish.
3 Two weeks to two months may be
devoted to complex spawning behavior,
another portion of the year is devoted
to incubation of the eggs and the
remaining portion of the year con-
cerns growth and well being of both
the young and adults.
4 Adding a constant temperature
increment above surface water
temperatures would have different
effects depending upon whether it is
a cold or warm season and if it is in
the northern or southern part of the
range of a species.
5 A more realistic approach is to set
seasonal maxima for each desired
species
6 More flexibility can be afforded by
recognizing monthly, daily, and hourly
requirements of these organisms.
D It is recognized that mixing zones are
inevitable for any waste discharge.
But it is important that large increments
of heat with sharp thermal gradients be
avoided to prevent fish kills.
1 Zones of passage for the downstream
drift and movement of migratory
species should be provided
2 It is also important that the seasonal
maximum temperature should be
confined to some minimum area near
the discharge to provide Itliving space”
for the desired species
3 It is hoped that seasonal maximums
will be set for desired organisms and
that realistic limits will be imposed
on isotherms generated from heated
discharges.
E Temperature criteria are the most difficult
to determine, since temperature has an
incluence on every conceivable function
and activity of aquatic organisms.
1 Any change in temperature will bring
about changes in the environment.
23-6
-------
Biological Monitoring of Heated Lakes and Streams
2 These changes are brought about by
subtle effects of temperature on
reproduction, growth, and behavior
of each species and through complex
interactions with their environment.
3 Dramatic fish kills are only of secondary
importance.
F These changes can be detrimental or
beneficial.
A CKNOWLEDGMENT
Material for this outline was taken from the
paper “Biological Effects of Heated Waters,
Dr. Kenneth E.F. Kokanson, author.
REFERENCES
1 Brett, J. R. Temperature Tolerance in
Young Pacilic Salmon. Genus
Oncorhynchus . J. Fish Res. Bd.
Can. 9(6) 265-324. 1952.
2 Brett, J.R. ThermaiRequiremerits of
Fish - Three Decades of Study, 1940-
1970. In. Biological Problems in
Water Pollution. Trans. of the 1959
Seminar. p. 110-117. 1960.
3 Cocking 1 A.W. The Effects of High
Temperatures on Roach ( Rutilus
rutilus) . II. The Effects of Temp-
ature Increasing at a Known Constant
Rate. J. Exp. Biol 36.217-236.
1959.
4 Eipper, A W. et al. Thermal Pollution
of Cayuga Lake by a Proposed Power
Plant. CornellUniv., Ithaca, N.Y.
9 pp. 1968.
5 Liebmann, H., Offhaus, K and
Riedmuller, S. Elekrophoretische
Blutunte rsuchunger be i normalen und
bauchwasseisuch Kranken Karpfen.
Alig. Fischereiztg. 85 (reprint). 1960.
6 Lloyd 1 R And Herbert, D.W.M. The
Effect of the Environment on the
Toxicity of Poisons to Fish. J. Inst.
Pub. Health Eng. p. 132-145 1962.
7 Moss, D D. and Scott, D.C. Dissolved
Oxygen Re quirements of Three
Species of Fish Trans. Am Fish.
Soc 90(4)377-393. 1961.
8 Ordal, Erling J. and Pacha, Robert E.
The Effects of Temperature on
Diseases in Fish. In. Water Tem-
perature. Influences, Effects and
Control. Proc. 12th Pacific N.W
Symposium on Water Pollution
Research. p. 39-56. 1963.
9 Price, J.W. Growth and Gill Develop-
ment in the Smailmouthed Black Bass
Micropterus dolomieu Lacepede.
Ohio State Univ. F. T. Stone Lab.,
contribution No. 4, pp 3-46. 1931
10 Saunders, Richard L. The Irrigation of
the Gills in Fishes. II Efficiency of
Oxygen Uptake in Relation to
Respiratory Flow Activity and Con-
centrations of Oxygen and Carbon
Dioxide. Can. J. Zool. 40 817-862.
1962.
11 Siefert, R. E. Reproductive Behavior,
Incubation and Mortality of Eggs, and
Post]arval Food Selection in the White
Crappie. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
97(3)252—259. 1968.
12 Swedberg, Donald V Food and Growth
of the Freshwater Drum in Lewis and
Clark Lake, South Dakota Trans
Amer. Fish. Soc. 97(4) 442-447.
1968.
13 Toetz, Dale W The Change from
Endogenous to Exogenous Sources of
Energy in Bluegill Sunfish Larvae
Invest. Indiana Lakes and Streams
VII (4) fl 5 .44 1966
14 Trembly, F. J. Research Projection
Effects of Condenser Discharge
Water on Aquatic Life. Progress
Report 1956 to 1959. Institute of
Research. Lehigh Univ. 1960.
23-7
-------
Biological Monitoring of Heated Lakes and Streams
15 TVA. Reply of Tennessee Valley Authority.
Thermal Pollution - 1968. Hearings
before the subcommittee on air and
water pollution of the committee on
public works - U.S. Senate - 19th
Congress - 2nd Session, p 1017-1025.
1968.
16 Van Vliet, Richard. Effect of Heated
Condenser Discharge Water upon
Aquatic Life. Lehigh Univ. Institute
of Research Paper. 1956.
18 Wurtz, Charles B and Renn, Charles E.
Water Temperature and Aquatic Life.
Cooling water studies for Edison
Electric Institute Res Project No. 49,
99 pp. 1965
17 Wohlschlag, D E. and Juliano, R.O.
Seasonal Changes in Bluegill
Metabolism. Limnol. Oceanogr.
4(2).l95—209. 1959.
This outline was prepared by John F
Wooley, Biologist, Manpower & Training
Branch, Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory,
FWQA.
23-8
-------
DATA REQUIREMENTS, FIELD STUDIES, AND INSTRUMENTATION
FOR TEMPERATURE PREDICTION
I INTRODUCTION
Some simple basic equations which can be
used to predict temperatures with certain
simplifying assumptions have been developed.
The following discussion concerns methods
for acquiring the physical data necessary to
the solution of these equations.
The first thing to be done in any situation is
to learn ii any data are already available and
if it is suitable for the intended purpose. Two
basic types of data are required--hydrologic
and meterologic.
Two good sources for hydrologic information
are the U. S. Geological Survey and the Corps
of Engineers. Meteorologic information is
available from the U. S. Weather Bureau and
the Federal Aviation Agency. These four
Federal agencies would be the first to contact
although many other sources might be available.
U DATA REQUIREMENTS
In order to assess the data required, each
situation must be examined independently.
A Example Problem
A 1000 megawatt electric output nuclear
power plant is to be located on a well-
mixed river. The problem is to determine
the effect this plant will have on down-
stream temperatures.
1 Assume there is not adequate Weather
Bureau data available, and the infor-
mation necessary to solve the basic
stream temperature prediction
equations developed earlier must be
collected. Further assume major
interest is in summer (June-September)
temperatures, and the study must be
completed in only one summer.
Adequate hydrologic data is available,
so only meteorological data will be
obtained. Since only one summer’s
data can be collected, it will be
necessary to rely on comparisons
with past regional weather data to
determine whether this one summer
was average or whether it was hotter
or colder than average. Extreme
conditions will be estimated from the
collected data and its relationship to
past regional data.
2 Under the circumstances described,
it would be necessary to do a fairly
intensive survey of relevant meteor-
ological conditions at the site, plus
acquiring river temperatures at
several points down-stream. Recorders
should be used as much as possible in
order to obtain continuous records of
variations in the measured parameters.
3 What data should be obtained 7 This
question may be answered by
examining the basic equations.
a Energy exchange coefficient
K = l5.7+(0.26+B)bw
b Equilibrium temperature
E + 0.051 E 2 - HR - 1801 + K - 15.7
K - K K
c Stream temperature
T =(T -E) oX + E = - K
x 0 e pC U
py
4 The following physical variables are
required to solve the preceding
equations
a Wind speed (w)
e - C (/3)
0.26 ÷ /3
+ O •26Tp
0.26 + /3
WP. TH.2. 8.70
24-1
-------
Data Requirements, Field Studies, and Instrumentation for Temperature Prediction
b Net radiation input (HR)
c Vap3r pressure of ambient air (ea)
d Air temperature (Ta)
e Water temperature (T)
f Stream depth (y)
g Stream velocity (U)
Ill INSTRUMENTATION
Methods used to collect data will be con-
sidered. Comments will be restricted to
the operation and design of the sensing
elements of the instruments, and will not
include methods of recording the information.
Whenever an electrical signal or mechanical
motion is an output, automatic recording can
be achieved. The need for recording the
data on a continuous basis depends on the
type of study to be conducted, but should be
practiced if at all possible.
A Wind Speed
Wind speed is one of the most critical
meteorological variables in water tem-
perature studies. As can be seen, wind
speed is the only variable which affects K.
It is sensitive to location, and care is
necessary to assure an unobstructed air
flow past the sensing device. In addition,
the height above the ground or water sur-
face at which the wind is measured is
important.
He
A profile of wind speed near the ground
is an exponential type curve (Figure 1)
which, if plotted on semilog paper, would
be linear. This type of profile exists
within the turbulent boundary layer which
may extend from 50 to several hundred
feet above the surface of the earth. Thus,
at any location, several different readings
for wind speed could be obtained depending
on the height at which it was measured.
This fact is evident when one examines the
various experimental equations for
evaporation of the form
H bw(e -e )orH bW (e -e
e s a e z s a
The z subscript indicates the height at
which the wind and vapor pressure were
measured.
Several types of anemometers are avail-
able. These include cup type, fan or
blade type, pressure-tube, and hot-wire.
The most common is the 3-cup type,
which has a starting speed of less than
two miles per hour, depending on the
inertia of the cups. More sensitive units
use light weight plastic cups to reduce
inertia.
A fan type wind speed indicator such as
a Biram anemometer is useful for making
spot checks of wind speed.
B Net Radiation Input
Net radiation input is equal to incoming
short-wave solar radiation plus
atmospheric long-wave radiation minus
reflected short-wave radiation minus
reflected atmospheric radiation.
1 Solar radiation
Incoming solar short-wave radiation
can be computed, but the calculations
require several empirical coefficients.
Therefore, it is usually measured.
w
24-2
-------
Data Requirements, Field Studi.es and Instrumentation for Temperature Fr edict ion
a The instrument used to measure
direct solar radiation at normal
incidence is called a pyrheliometer.
These instruments are mounted so
as to always be directly facing the
sun.
b Instruments which are used to
measure solar radiation (including
scattered) from the whole hemnishere
are called pyranometers. These
instruments are placed so their
detecting surfaces are level and
they measure the solar radiation at
all angles as the sun passes over.
Since they are used to measure all
1800 of the sun’s radiation they are
often called 180° pyrheLiometers.
From a variety of available
pyranometers, two of the most
common are the Eppley type and
Moll-Gorczynski type.
acts as a wavelength screen so that
only short-wave radiation can reach
the detecting surfaces.
C Atmospheric Long-Wave Radiation
This cannot be measured directly, except
at night in the absence of solar radiation,
and can be calculated only to within 10 to
20% of the actual value.
D Reflected Short-Vvave Radiation
This could be measured by using a
pyranometer point downward towards the
water surface, but this is not usually
done. It can be calculated from a knowledge
of sun altitude, cloud height, and cloud
cover. Sun altitude can be taken from a
solar ephmeris and cloud height and cover
are usuafly “eyeball” estimates. Empirical
relationships are then used to compute
short-wave reflectivity.
1) Eppley
E Reflected Long-Wave Radiation
- 2 concentric silver rings
- one white, one black
- temperature difference pro-
portional to solar radiation
intensity
- thermocouple junctions give
voltage output
- a 50 junction model which is
more sensitive than the 10
junction model
2) Kipp and Zonen solimeter
- flat black surface (to permit
uniSorm absorption of long and
short-wave) thermopile con-
sisting of 14 thermo-couples
- both units give voltage utput
proportional to cal/cm mm.
c Care must be taken to place the
pyranometer in a location where it
will not be obstructed by shade.
The glass which covers the units
This cannot be measured directly, except
at night, but it is estimated to be about
3% of the incoming long-wave radiation.
F Net Long-Wave and Short-Wave Radiation
Instruments are available which can
measure the net radiation through a
horizontal surface. These are pyrradio-
meters and the two most common types
are the Gier and Dunkle flat plate
radiometer and the Thornthwaite miniature
net radiometer.
1 The Gier and Dunkle radiometer uses
a thermopile (groups of thermocouples)
in the form of a flat plate which is
mounted on the end of a blower tube to
maintain air flow over both sides of the
plate. This prevents unequal convection
currents from developing on either side
of the plate. The thermopile indicates
the temperature difference between the
top and bottom of the plate which is
proportional to the net radiation.
24-3
-------
Data Requirements, Field Studies, and Instrumentation for Temperature Prediction
2 The Thorrithwaite miniature net radio-
meter consists of a the rmopile which
measures the temperatures of both
sides of a black disc. The disc is
covered on top and bottom by hemispheres
of clear polyethylene which is trans-
parent to all relevant wavelengths and
has a low absorption. The pressure
inside the hemisphere is about 2 psi
and the air is dried before being
inserted into the space to prevent
moisture from entering the area.
These meters measure both the net
radiation input (HR) and the back
radiation (H. ). Therefore, H is
R
computed by subtracting l Lb from the
net radiation.
3 Another device which is used to
measure net radiation is a Cummings
Radiation Integrator. This device is
merely an isolated pan of water on
which energy budget calculations are
performed. There are no set sizes,
although 4 foot diameters and 20 inch
depths are common. They are placed
so as to be exposed to the same
radiation conditions as the water body,
but are usually sheltered from the wind
to minimize evaporative and conductive-
convective heat exchange. Water
removed by evaporation is replaced
as often as possible to maintain a con-
stant mass. Temperature measure-
ments are made in the pan, and the
change in water temperature over a
period of time indicates the total
energy change. Since evaporative
loss is known, convective exchange
can be reasonably estimated via the
Bowen Ration. Back radiation can
also be easily computed and thus the
remaining energy change is due to
radiation. U. S. G. S. experiences with
these units at both Lake Hefner and
Lake Mead have been favorable.
(Measurements needed wet and dry
bulb air temperature, water tem-
perature, barometric pressure, and
precipitation temperature).
C Vapor Pressure of Ambient Air (e)
The pressure of the water vapor in the
air (e ) can be computed by multiplying
the re Iative humidity by the pressure
of saturated water vapor in the air at the
same temperatureS
e = (r.h.) (e @T)
a sat a
e is a constant for any air temperature
a can be found in published psychrometric
tables and other standard references
(i. e., Handbook of Chemistry and Physics).
1 The relative humidity can be computed
from the air temperature and either
the wet-bulb or dew-point temperature.
2 The wet-bulb temperature of the air is
found by passing an air stream over a
wetted temperature sensing element.
The latent heat lost by evaporation
will lower the temperature of the
sensing element until a heat balance
is obtained. This steady state tem-
perature is the wet-bulb temperature.
a The sling psychrometer is the type
most often used. Fan aspirated
psychrometers are becoming more
popular. The Assmann type employs
mercury thermometers and a spring
wound fan motor.
3 Dew-point determinations are made
with two basic types of units. One
type employs a shiny surface which
at the dew-point will cloud up.
Electronic units are available for this
type which uses changes in the char-
acter of the light reflected from the
surface to record dew-points. Another
type of dew-point detector uses a
chemical compound such as lithium
chloride which changes its electrical
resistance under different moisture
conditions. When this material
becomes saturated the resistance will
be constant, and the dew-point is
indicated.
24-4
-------
Data Requirements, Field Studies, and Instrumentation for Temperature Prediction
Regardless of whether dew-point or
wet-bulb readings are used, they should
be taken at the same height above the
water surface as the wind speed.
4 Relative humidity (or e ) can be deter-
mined with a wet-bulb t emperature
(and associated dry-bulb temperature)
or a dew-point temperature.
a Tables are available which relate
the difference in air temperature and
wet-bulb temperature (called wet-
bulb depression) to relative humidity
as a function of air temperature.
The barometric pressure of the
atmosphere also has a slight effect,
and this is taken care of in the tables.
(The higher the barometric pressure
at a given wet-bulb depression the
lower the relative humidity).
b e can be directly obtained from
d w-point measurements. The dew-
point is the temperature at which the
water vapor in the air becomes
saturated. Therefore merely by
looking up the saturated water vapor
pressure at the dew-point will
provide ea.
c Instruments called hygrometers are
available for directly measuring
relative humidity. These instruments
use sensing elements, such as hair
or animal membranes, which expand
and contract with changes in moisture
content. High quality hygrometers
are reasonably accurate at moderate
temperatures and between relative
humidities of 30 to 80%. At low
temperatures and at relative
humidities outside these limits,
the accuracy of hygrometers falls off.
H Air Temperature
1 Dry-bulb air temperature measure-
ments should be made at the same
level as wind speed and wet-bulb or
dew-point determinations. Care must
be taken not to expose the sensing
element to direct sunlight, and some
air movement is also desirable.
2 There are a variety of ways to measure
temperature, including:
a Mercury or alcohol filled glass
thermometer
b Bi-metaflic deflection type (like on
a home furnace thermostat)
c Gas or liquid filled systems with
Bourdon tubes
d Electrical types
-Thermocouples--junction of 2
dissimilar metals which generates
a voltage when there is a tem-
perature difference.
- Thermistors--semi-conductor
materials whose electrical
resistance varies with temperature.
- Resistance Thermometers--
metallic materials whose
resistance varies with temperature.
I Water Temperature (T)
1 For complex hydraulic situations with
spacial temperature variations, care
must be taken to position water tem-
perature sensors in such a manner as
to adequately describe the temperature
regime. In a well-mi.xed water body,
there is, by definition, no spacial
variation in temperature, so the
location of the sensing element is less
critical. One factor which should be
recognized is that the water temperature
dependent heat exchange components of
the energy budget are related to the
surface water temperature. It is
usually difficult to determine the tem-
perature of the very thin top layer.
however, it is normally assumed that
a foot below the surface is adequate.
For the example problem, IT-A, the
river temperature would be continuously
monitored at one point above the
proposed site, at the site, and at
several points below the plant. The
spacing of the measuring points would
24-5
-------
Data Requirements, Field Studies, and Instrumentation for Temperature Prediction
depend on the time interval for which
predictions are required and on the
speed of the river. Any influent
streams or downstream discharges
from the plant would also require
monitoring. The downstream tem-
peratures will be used to check
temperature predictions made for
natural conditions, and can also be
used as checks in the future to note
changes from the river’s natural
thermal regime.
2 Basically, the same type of instruments
are used for water temperature
measurements as for air temperature
determinations. However, water tem-
peratures need to be measured at some
distance from the indicating mechanism,
therefore a connecting cable or tubing
is required.
a The Whitney Underwater Thermometer
is a very precise and accurate
instrument. This model has a range
of 0_400C in eight 5°C stages. The
instrument is very rugged and is
specifically designed for field
application. Cables of up to 1000 ft.
can be ordered. Cables are marked
at regular intervals for easy reading.
The unit is especially useful for lake
surveys.
b In the Foxboro liquid filled thermo-
graph, the liquid changes its volume
as the water temperature changes
and a Bourdon tube actuates the pen.
The unit is temperature compensated
so the temperature inside the case
will not affect the readings. The
chart is driven by a spring wound
motor. This unit has a temperature
range of 30-90° F.
c These are only two of the many
different types of equipment which
can be used to measure water tem-
perature. Most water temperature
measurements are made by
immersing the sensing element.
However, remote sensing equipment
is also available. Since water emits
back body radiation at a rate
proportional to the fourth power
of the surface temperature, this
back radiation can be used to
determine surface temperatures.
The past few years has seen the
development of remote radiometers
which are used to perform this
function. Operated from airplanes,
or even orbiting satellites, these
devices can give an aerial picture
of a water body’s surface tem-
perature. Such remote scanners
are especially valuable for synoptic
surveys over large distances.
J Stream Depth and Velocity
Hydrologic data and maps can be used to
acquire this data. Stream velocity can be
simply computed by V = Q/A.
K Remote Sensing of Thermal Pollution
Most outstanding of the work already done
on the use of remote sensing techniques
to determine the dis ’harge and spread of
heated waters has been the use of the
NIMBUS satellite high resolution infrared
imagery to detect contours of the Great
Lakes (National Council on Marine
Resources, 1967). Though some of the
needed information in this area is still
classified, sufficient data is known to
enable one to use the technique and its
airplane and laboratory versions to study
the patterns of temperature distribution
on water surfaces.
1 A number of commercial firms are
available on a contract basis to
provide complete service. Infrared
wavelengths, in the 1. 5 to 14 micron
range are used in hydrologic studies
because in this region the infrared
energy emitted by land and water
bodies is at a maximum and atmospheric
absorption is at a minimum (Lukens,
1968). A typical scanner is sensitive
to 1/40 C surface temperature changes
and can be calibrated with surface
instrumentation to 1/20 C.
24-6
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Data Requirements. Field Studies, and Instrumentation for Temperature Prediction
2 A brief evaluation of the use of remote
sensors in hydrology was presented at
the International Conference on Water
for Peace (Robinove, 1967). At that
time 1 photographic sensors were stifl
most favored because of the easy
interpretability and the minimum data
reduction and specialized training needed
for their use. Infrared sensors offer
hope of great things in thermal pollution
work, but are hampered in a quantitative -
not qualitative - sense at present by
problems of emissivity measurement.
In any case, infrared imagery is only
a function of the surface temperature of
the waters and does not give any
indication of the thermal profile.
I II CONCLUSION
The type of study will normally dictate the
accuracy required of the data and this in turn
will dictate the quality of the instruments
required. It would be costly to buy extremely
accurate instruments designed for sophisticated
scientific studies if they were to be used only
on preliminary surveys. On the other hand,
trying to skimp on instruments can leave one
with poor quality data which may be useless
for its intended purpose. No hard and fast
rules can be applied to equipment selection,
but an evaluation of the potential uses of the
instrument is necessary before a choice is
made. Finally, a recorder should be as good
as the instrument with which it will be used.
A poor recorder will give questionable data
no matter how good the measuring instrument.
With respect to cost, a complete meteorolog-
ical setup of reasonably high quality would
run about $4, 000. A water temperature
recorder would add to this figure.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Material for this outline was taken from a
paper prepared for a seminar series, 1968-
69, by Bruce Tichenor, National Thermal
Pollution Research Program, FWQA,
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory,
Corvallis, OR.
This outline was prepared by James A.
Montgomery, Sanitary Engineer, River
Basin Planning, OWP, EPA, Washington,
DC 20242.
24-7
-------
SUMMARY OUTLINE OF CURRENT THEORIES RELATING
TO TEMPERATURE PREDICTION IN A BODY OF WATER
I INTRODUCTION
A The causes, effects, and methods of
controlling thermal pollution have been
discussed. The following analytical tools
may be used to determine the physical
impact of a potential thermal pollution
source.
B The ability of the engineer working for
regulatory agencies to accurately predict
water temperatures is necessary in order
to determine the thermal impact of
1 Proposed waste heat discharges
2 Changes in the hydraulic characteristics
of a water body or stream -- for
example, due to dam construction
3 Releases of water from stratified
reservoirs with multi -level outlets
4 Unusual meteorological conditions
In short, there is a need to be able to
predict water temperature effects of any
natural or man-caused phenomenon which
may alter the hydrologic or meteorologic
regime.
II THE ENERGY-BUDGET APPROACH
A The energy budget attempts to equate the
net exchange of heat between a body of
water and its environment to changes in
water temperature. Energy-exchange
processes normally considered include
(Notations from Schroepfer)
1 The difference between incident and
reflected solar radiation(+AT
S
2 The difference between incident and
reflected atmospheric radiation and the
loss of heat by thermal radiation from
the water surface (i. e., net exchange
of long-wave radiation) (- ATE)
3 The loss of heat due to evaporative
processes (_ATE)
4 The gain or loss of heat due to tem-
perature difference at the air-water
interface ± (AT
c
5 The heat gain due to discharge, for
example, of cooling water into the
reach (+ AT )
B These incremental temperatures, then,
are added algebraically to the upstream
temperature, TA, to estimate the down-
stream interface temperature, TB. as
follows
TA + ATA+ AT 5 - ATE ± AT - ATR = TB
Other processes actually involved, but
usually disregarded, are biochemical
reactions and conduction of heat at the
water-channel bottom interface.
Since computation of evaporation and
thermal radiation exchange depend on the
assumed downstream temperature, the
equation cannot be solved directly.
Formulae, such as the above, can be
solved by successive trials assuming
downstream temperatures, TB.
C This method is used, equally well on
streams in their natural, steady-state
condition as on streams receiving large
amounts of cooling water or cold,
reservoir water.
For detailed descriptions of theory and
data relative to individual energy-budget
parameters, the interested reader is
referred to several references in the
bibliography (1, 6, 7, 8, 17).
W.Q.ph.2. 8.70
25—1
-------
Summary Outline of Current Theories Relating to Temperature Prediction
Ill EQUIUBRIUM TEMPERATURES AND
EXPONENTIAL DECAY OF TEMPERATURE
INCREMENTS
This second approach is a two-fold operation.
A First, the steady-state, or equilibrium,
temperature of the water is estimated by
any one of several methods
1 Energy-budget equations, as just
discussed
2 Simple correlation with air temperature
as Gameson, Hall and Freddy did on
the Thames Estuary in 1957
e. g., The Thames Estuary data yielded
the following relationship
Equilibrium Temperature =
9 = 0 5 ÷ 1 109 T
a
3 Estimation of the natural stream tem-
perature according to its response to
its thermal environment as expressed
by Duttweiler T s equations Heat input
Q-25 BT +CT
T = i i + 1 ad B a(X -
C’’ X Bl+CB x
T(t) =
Q - 25 =
B 1
T
ad
CB
T
a
input temperature
net radiation input
= slope of saturation vapor pressure
vs. air temperature curve
= dewpoint temperature
= bowen ratio coefficient (0. 61)
= air temperature
X = heat exchange coefficient
Water temperature =
a
T (x t) T + E T sin (nut + - an)
m u.n n
n= 1
T (x, t) = water temperature with distance
and time
T
m
= mean temperature with time
= infinity
u absolute maximum and minimum
value of water temperature
n = number of cycles
w = u/12
t = time in hours
= arctan A /B where A and B
are coor ina es of the Amplitude
Point
a = lag factor-arctan n
k = rate constant
The first of these equations is plotted
from a knowledge of climatological data.
Short time intervals will yield points on
a modified sine curve
The second equation is merely a reflection
of the first modiSied by an amplification
factor (T /T 1 ) and phase lag (a).
B Second, transient temperatures due to
thermal additions are decayed exponen-
ti.ally downstream
Regardless of what form the equilibrium
temperature takes, transients can be
accounted for by computing the initial
temperature increment and reducing it
exponentially downstream The
exponential decay factor can be expressed
as follows
e
k
x
V
25-2
-------
Summary Outline of Current Theories Relating to Temperature Prediction
Thus T 1 = T 0 e
k
x
V
Where v = average velocity
x dist downstream
And k has been evaluated by Major
Duttweiler as —
z
Where z = average depth
And A C 1 + C 2 U 2 = 1. 35 + 0 2 U 2
Where U 2 = estimated wind speed in mph
A CKNOWLEDGMENT
Materials for this outline were taken from
“Summary of Current Theories and Studies
Relating to Temperature Prediction “ 12th
Pacific Northwest Symposium on Water
Pollution Research. Water Temperature
Influence, Effects and Control manual
Presentation by Robert Zeller.
REFERENCES
1 Anderson, E. R , Anderson, L J. and
Marciano, J. J. A Review of
Evaporation Theory and Development
of Instrumentation. U. S. Navy
Electronics Lab. Rept 159.
February 1, 1950
2 Burt, W. V. A Forecast of Temperature
Conditions in the Clearwater River
Below the Proposed Bruces Eddy Dam,
Corps of Engineers, Walla Walla
District November 30, 1960
3 Duttweiler, D. W. A Mathematical Model
of Stream Temperature. Dissertation
for School of Engineering Science
John Hopkins University 1963.
4 Gameson, A. L. H., Gibbs, J. W. and
Barrett, M. J. A Preliminary Tem-
perature Survey of a Heated River.
Water and Water Engineering, 63:13+.
January 1959.
5 Gameson, A.L.H., Hall, H and Freddy,
W. S. Effects of Heated Discharges on
the Temperature of the Thames Estuary,
Parts I and II. Combustion, p. 33+,
December 1960, p. 37+, January 1961
6 Harbeck, G. E , Jr., Kohier, M A
Koberg, G. E., etal. Water-Loss
Investigations Lake Mead Studies,
Technical Report, U. S C S.
Professional Paper 298. 1958
7 Harbeck, C E., Jr. A Practical Field
Technique for Measuring Reservoir
Evaporation Utilizing Mass-Transfer
Theory. U.S.G.S. Professional
Paper 272-E. 1962
8 Heat Dissipation in Flowing Streams
Advanced Seminar Report, Dept. of
Sanitary Engineering and Water
Resources The Johns Hopkins
University. June 30, 1962
9 LeBosquet, M,,, Jr. Cooling-Water
Benefits from Increased River Flows.
Journal New England Water Works
Association. 60 111-6. June 1946
10 McAlister, B. N. Rogue River Basin
Study, Parts I, II, and III. Water
Research Association Report. May 5,
1961, May 15, 1961, November 22, 1961
11 Organization for Water Temperature
Prediction and Control Study, Umpqua
River Basin. Oregon State Water
Resources Board Report. February
1963.
12 Raphael, J. M. Prediction of Temperature
in Rivers and Reservoirs. Power
Division Journal, ASCE Proc 88 157+,
July 1962
13 Raphael, J. M. The Effect of Wanapum
and Priest Rapids Dams on the
Temperature of the Columbia River.
Report for PUD No. 2 of Grant Co
Washington. September 1961
25-3
-------
Summary Outline of Current Theories Relating to Temperature Prediction
14 Raphael, J M The Effect of Wells and
Rocky Reach Dams on the Temperature
of the Columbia River Report for PUD
No 2 of Grant Co , Washington
January 1962.
15 Schroepfer, G.J., Susag, R.H , et al
Pollution and Recovery Characteristics
of the Mississippi River, Vol. 1, Part 3
Report by Sanitary Engineering Division,
Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Minnesota for Minneapolis-
St. Paul Sanitary District September
1961
16 Velz, C. J and Gannon, J J.
Forecasting Heat Loss in Ponds
and Streams Journal Water
Pollution Control Federation,
32392-4l7 April 1960
17 Water Loss Investigations Lake Hefner
Studies, Technical Report, U. S. G. S
Professional Paper 269. 1954
This outline was prepared by J.A.
Montgomery, Sanitary Engineer,
River Basin Planning, OWP, EPA,
Washington, DC 20242.
25-4
-------
DISSIPATION OF HEAT IN A BODY OF WATER
I INTRODUCTION
Obviously, the simplest method of disposing
of waste heat is to discharge it directly to
the receiving water and then allow natural
forces to bring the water back to an equilib-
rium temperature. In order to predict the
behavior of these heated effluents, it is
necessary to resort to an energy balance.
Much of the work on the heat balance has been
primarily concerned with the prediction of
evaporation rates. A brief presentation of
completed studies will be made. For a more
extensive literature review of this subject,
the reader is referred to references (2, 15,
55 and 57) listed in the Water Temperature and
Prediction Bibliography placed at the end of
ti-us section of the training manual.
II THE BALANCE OF ENERGY
A The use of the energy budget approach for
estimating evaporation has been applied to
compute evaporation from water bodies of
all sizes The relatively recent develop-
ment of more sophisticated instrumentation
has allowed the energy budget approach to
be utilized with a fair degree of reliance.
1 The components of the energy budget
per unit surface area of a reservoir per
unit time may be written as follows
(World Meteorological Organization,
1966):
Eq. 1
where
short-wave radiations incident
to the water surface
reflected short-wave radiation
incoming long-wave radiation
from the atmosphere
reflected long-wave radiation
b= long-wave radiation emitted by
the body of water
net energy brought into the body
of water in inflow, including
precipitation, and accounting
for outflow
e= energy utilized by evaporation
h energy conducted from the body
of water as sensible heat
Q energy carried away by the
evaporated water
Q = increase in energy stored in
the body of water
2 Edinger and Geyer (1965) have depicted
the heat transfer terms across a water
surface as shown on Figure 2, noting
temperature dependent terms and typical
value. The addition of heated water dis-
charges simply superimposes the heat
addition upon the natural dissipations
and additions of energy.
3 Figure 3 demonstrates the relationship
of rate of heat dissipation to elevation
of the water surface temperature over
natural temperature and the mechanisms
by which this dissipation is achieved. It
is significant to note that the rate of heat
dissipation for a given rise in temperature
is greater in summer than in winter and
also that the heat dissipation by evapora-
tion is much greater in summer than in
winter.
B While the terms in the energy budget are
discussed in detail by Anderson (1954) and
Edinger and Geyer (1965), brief comments
pertaining to their determination are in
order.
1 Short wave radiation, Q 5
Short wave radiation originates directly
from the sun, although the energy is
depleted by absorption by ozone, scatter-
ing by dry air, absorption scattering by
particulates and absorption and scattering
by water vapor. It varies with latitude,
time of day, season and cloud cover.
Thus, while this quantity can be empir-
ically calculated, it is much better to
measure it using a Pyrhehometer which
will give the accuracy required for the
energy budget
2 Long wave atmospheric radiation, a
Long wave atmospheric radiation depends
primarily on air temperature and humid-
ity and increases as the air moisture
content increases. It may be a major
input on warm cloudy days when direct
solar radiation approaches zero It is
IN. PPW. th. 1. 8. 70
26-I
-------
Dissipation of Heat in a Body of Water
_______ STEAM
BOILER NE ‘1 TRICAL
EAZ GENERATOR POWER
CONDENSER
o---
CHEMICALS I RETURN LINE
I I
I I
CIRCULATING
WATER PUMP INTAKE DISCHARGE
Q STREAM
RUN OF THE RIVER ELECTRICITY GENERATING
STATION COOLING SYSTEM
Figure 1
26-2
-------
Dissipation of Heat in a Body of Water
H = Solar Rad (400-2800 BTU ft 2 Day 1 )
SHa = L.W. Atmos. Rad (2400-3200 BTU ft 2 Day ’)
Fib = L W. Back Rad (2400-3600 BTU ft 2 Day 1 )
He = Evap. Heat Loss (2000-8000 BTU ft 2 Day’)
H = Cond. Heat Loss, or Q in 1
C (-320- +400 STU ft Day
H = Refl. Solar
sr (40-200 BTU ft 2 Day 1 )
H = Atmos. Refi.
ar (70-120 BTU ft 2 Day 1)
— — — — — -
NET RATE AT WHICH HEAT CROSSES WATER SURFACE
AH = (H + Ha - Hsr - Har) - ± H + He) BTU ft 2 Day 1
Temp. Dependent Terms
HR ‘ ir’ (T + 46O)
Absorbed Radiation H - (T - T )
Independent of Temperature C 5 a
H —W(e -e)
e 5 a
FIGURE 2
MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER ACROSS A WATER SURFACE
NOTE H’s are used instead of Q’s
26-3
-------
Dissipation of Heat in a Body of Water
H eat
From
Water
Surface
10 BTU
Per
Acre Hr.
0 10 20 30 40
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40
Water Temperature Above Natural °F
HEAT DISSIPATION FROM WATER SURFACE BY EVAPORATION, RADIATION,
CONDUCTION, AND ADVECTION DURING JANUARY AND JUNE
Data from Bergstrom (1968) for a
water surface in Illinois.
Figure 3
actually a function of many variables,
including carbon dioxide and ozone. It
can be measured with the Gier-Dunkle
Flat Plate Radiometer, although it is
more convement to calculate by
empirical formulation than to measure
directly.
3 Reflected short wave and long wave
radiation, r and ar
Solar reflectivity, (B ), is more
variable than atmosp1 ric reflectivity,
(R ), inasmuch as the solar reflectivity
isYfunction of sun altitude and cloud
cover, while atmospheric reflectivity is
relatively constant. The Lake Hefner
studies demonstrated the atmospheric
reflectivity to be approamately 0. 03,
while on an annual basis, the solar
reflectivity was 0 06. The Hefner studies
used the equation
b
B =aS
sr a
Eq. 2
to determine solar reflectivity, where
S is the sun altitude in degrees and a
aPid b are constants depending on cloud
cover. Note that B = Q IQ and
B Q sr r s
ar ar a
26-4
-------
Dissipation of Heat in aBody ofWater
4 Long wave or back radiation,
Water sends energy back to the atmos-
phere in the form of long wave radiation
and radiates almost as a perfect black
body. Thus, the Stefan-Boltzman
fourth power radiation law can be
utilized, or:
= 0. 97a (T 0 + 273) Eq. 3
where:
0 97 Emissiv-ity of water
= long wave radiation in calories!
S cm 2 /day
o = Stefan-Boltzman constant =
1.171 X 10 calories/ cm 2 !
deg 4 ! day
T = water surface temperature in
0 °Centigrade
All that is required to compute Q is
the water surface temperature aAW a
table giving the value of Qh 5 for any
temperature, T 0 , is readily available
or computable.
5 Energy utilized by evaporation, e
Each pound of water evaporated carries
its latent heat of vaporization of 1055
BTWs at 68°F, thus e is a significant
term in the energy budget. The Lake
Hefner study was explicitly promulgated
for determining correct evaporation
relationships and resulted in the follow-
ing equation:
e= ll.4W(es_ea)BTU/ft 2 /day Eq.4
which is of the general type of evapora-
tion form ula
E = (a+ bWx)(es - ea) Eq.5
where.
a, b = empirical coefficients
W, = wind speed in mph at some
elevation, x ft. above water
= air vapor pressure, mm-Hg
saturation vapor pressure of
water determined from water
surface temperature, mm-Hg
E = evaporation = Qe L ft/day
p = density of evaporated water
lbs/ft
L = latent heat of vaporization
BTU/lb
Many expressions have been developed
for estimating the evaporation rate,
the coefficients differing because of
variation in the reference height for
measurement of wind speed and vapor
pressure, the time period over which
measurements are averaged and local
topography and conditions. As stated
byEdinger andGeyer (1965), “It would
also be expected that the coefficients
would be much different for rivers and
streams than for lakes and might well
be dependent on water velocity and
turbulence, particularly in the case of
smaller rivers’
Ta= temperature of air in
T 0 =
temperature of water surface
in
e 0 = saturation vapor pressure
corresponding to temperature
of water surface in millibars
6 Energy conducted as sensible heat,
Heat enters or leaves water by conduction
if the air temperature is greater or less
than water temperature. The rate of
this conductive heat transfer is equal to
the product of a heat transfer coefficient
and the temperature differential.
A single direct measurement of this
quantity is not available and recourse
to an indirect method is necessary.
The method involves using average
figures of air temperature, water sur-
face temperature and humidity for the
period in question and computing the
ratio of Q , to Q , which is known as the
Bowen Ratio and expressed as:
Eq 6
RB=Qe =
where:
0. 61 p (T 0 - Ta )
1000 (e 0 - ea)
P = atmospheric pressure in millibars
ea
e 8
ea vapor pressure of air at height
at which Ta is measured in
mi ilib a r s
7 Energy carried away by evaporated
water,
Water being evaporated from the surface
is at a higher temperature than the lake
water, and thus energy is being removed
This term is relatively small and can be
readily computed from the following
equation:
26-5
-------
Dissipation of Heat in a Body of Water
cal
= e c E (Te - Tb) = Eq. 7 evaporation is estimated, and the unknown
cm -day terms are found by trial and error.
where 9 Increase in energy stored, Q
density 3 of evaporated water, The change in storage in the energy-
gm/cm budget equation may be either positive
or negative, and is found from properly
c specific heat of water, cal/ gm averaged field measurements of tempera-
E = volume of evaporated water, ture and the following equation:
gmlcm 2 / day
Te= temperature of evaporated Q=cP 1 V 1 (T 1 -T 0 )-cP 2 V 2 (T 2 -T 0 — At Eq. 9
water, 0 C
in which:
Tb = base or reference temperature,
oc
Q = increase in energy stores in the
body of water in cal cm day
8 Advected energy, Q
c = specific heat of water ( 1 cal g 1 )
The net energy contained in water
entering and leaving the lake may be p 1 = density of water at T 1 ( 1 g cm 3 )
computed from the following expressionS V 1 = volume of water in the lake at
Q c .V p (T -T )+c V p (T -T ) the beginning of the period of cm 3
v si Si Si si b gi gi gi gi b T 1 = average temperature of the body
of water at the beginning of the
-c V p (T -T )- c V p (T Tb) period in
so so so so b go go go go
-3
c V p (T _Tb) A Eq. 8 = density of water at T 2 ( 1 g cm
p pp p
V 2 volume of water in the la 3 ke at the
end of the period, in cm
in which
-2 -1 T 2 average temperature of the body
Q = advected energy in cal cm day of water at the end of the period
V in°C
c = specific he t of w ter T = base temperature in
( lcalg deg ) ° 2
A = average surface area in cm
V = volume of ir 1owin or outfiowing during the period
water in cm day
1 -l t length of period in days
p = density of water ( 1 cal g deg
T = temperature of water in
III CONCLUSION
A = average surface area of
reservoir in crii 2
From this necessarily brief discussion of the
various parameters comprising the energy-
The scripts are as follows: balance, it may be concluded that it is possible
to predict heat dissipation using these concepts.
si surface inflow
Obviously, the reliability of the results will
= groundwater inflow depend on the degree of sophistication used
in the theoretical approach and the frequency
so = surface outflow and accuracy of the measurements taken.
go = groundwater outflow
A CKNOWLEDGMENT
p precipitation
Materials for this outline were taken from
b = base or reference temperature, Chapter VI of the publication ‘Therrnal Pollution
usually taken as 0°C Status-of-the-Art, IT Frank L Parker and
Peter A. Krenkel, authors.
Since some of the terms in equation 8
may not be measurable, a water budget This outline was prepared by James A.
is performed for the same period, Montgomery, Sanitary Engineer, Manpower
and Training. Pacific Northwest Water Labora-
tory, Corvallis, Oregon.
26-6
-------
THE CONSERVATION OF HEAT IN A BODY OF WATER--
THE ENERGY BUDGET APPROACH TO WATER TEMPERATURE PREDICTION
I INTRODUCTION
A In the past few years, a great deal of work
has been done to develop and perfect
methods for predicting temperatures in
rivers, lakes, reservoirs, estuaries,
and marine waters. These methods can
be loosely lumped together under the term
“mathematical models.” Mathematical
models can be thought of as groups of
equations which together describe a real-
world physical phenomena. These
equations may or may not be put together
in the form of a computer program.
Unfortunately, mathematical models are
only as good as the assumptions which
are used to “build” them. Only on rare
occasions is one able to truly simulate a
natural process by a mathematical
expression and usually reliance is placed
on simplifying assumptions to make the
equations tractable. The recent develop-
ments in the use of high-speed digital
computers has led to significant reductions
in such simplifying assumptions, but
assumptions about real-world processes
must still be made in order to be able to
construct models to simulate them.
B With these thoughts in mind, let us
attempt to build a mathematical model
to simulate the temperature regime in
a body of water.
The following discussion presents the
basic approach which is used to solve
temperature prediction problems.
However, the mathematical formulation
of the physical heat transfer processes
which occur is not a simple matter.
The scope of this outline prevents a
presentation of the mathematical deri-
vations leading to temperature prediction
models for all situations. However, a
simplified case is presented in the
example problem of the next section.
For information on more sophisticated
models, the reader is urged to consult
the technical literature. An excellent
basic reference is the Edison Electric
Institute’s Publication No. 65-902,
Heat Exchange in the Environment , by
J.E. EdingeraridJ.C. Geyer, Depart-
ment of Sanitary Engineering and Water
Resources, the Johns Hopkins University,
June 1, 1965.
II HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
In order to describe temperature regimes
mathematically, it is necessary to consider
heat transfer mechanisms in water and
between water and the atmosphere. For
localized problems, e. g , outfalls or
plumes, the mechanisms acting in the water
are most important, analysis of conditions
throughout larger systems (rivers,
reservoirs, etc.) requires emphasis on the
air-water heat transfer mechanisms as well
as those in water. In either case, specific
predictions are desirable so that effective
control or management techniques can be
applied.
A Heat Conservation
The energy budget approach to water
temperature prediction is based upon
the idea of conservation of energy, or
heat in this case. An equation can be
simply written to account for all of the
heat entering, leaving, or stored in a
body of water.
(Heat In) - (Heat Out) + (Heat Stored) +
(Heat Exchange at the Boundaries) = 0
The problem of developing a mathematical
model for dealing with any water tem-
perature prediction problem is simply a
matter of evaluating these four terms.
However, the problems which one must
deal with are many times more complex
than this statement implies.
1 The first two terms represent the
energy entering or leaving a system
within masses of water. For example,
W.Q.ph.3.8. 70
27-1
-------
The Conservation of Heat ma Body of Water
in a lake or reservoir, tributary inflow,
groundwater inflow, and precipitation
represent sources of water, while
releases at the dam (or trthutary out-
flows in the case of a lake), and water
loss by evaporation represent depletions.
In order to assess the effects of these
items on the conservation of heat for
the system, one needs to know the
volume and temperature of the flows.
This information is combined with the
values for density and specific heat in
the following way:
[ vol. )(T) ( ) (Cp I [ it3 (OF)Ej ..
= Heat In (or Out) in BTU’s
The time rate of change of this heat
would be written
dT
Vol. pC - -
2 The third term involves a determination
of the temperature rise or fall within
the water body.
Unless the water body is completely
mixed (no temperature difference in
any of the three physical dimensions
at any point in time), it is necessary
to describe the distrthution of tem-
perature within the water before and
after the time period for which the
determination of heat storage is to be
made (usually rate of heat storage is
computed, and thus interest would be
in a value in terms of BTU’s per unit
time), In order to determine the
temperature distribution within a body
of water, it is necessary to understand
the heat transport mechanisms which
occur within water. These two
mechanisms are called advection and
diffusion,
a Advection is the transport of heat
energy by the movement of a mass
of water, It can occur in all three
spacial dimensions of a water body.
Longitudinal advection is the down-
stream movement of heat energy
within the river flow. Lateral
advection can occur due to a dis-
charge normal to the river flow or
because of density gradients.
Vertical advection can take place
in a stratified system when surface
cooling makes a thin upper layer
sink promote an upward movement
of lower water mass. If the longi-
tudinal, lateral, and vertical axes
are designated as x, y, and z,
respectively, advection terms are
written as
V - v- I V . I.
x 3x’ y y’ z z
b Diffusion of heat energy can occur
under both turbulent and laminar
flow conditions. Eddy diffusion is
a consequence of turbulent flow and
results from the movement of small
fluid masses called eddies, which
are random both in size and orien-
tation. Molecular diffusion occurs
under non-turbulent flow conditions
and results from the random motion
of molecules. Heat transfer by
molecular diffusion is much lower
than by turbulent diffusion. In most
cases molecular diffusion is ignored.
Turbulent diffusion is often called
turbulent mixing or dispersion, and
as with advective heat transfer, it
can take place along all three spacial
dimensions. Examples of the
process of turbulent mixing occurring
when a heated effluent is discharged
into a flowing stream are shown in
Figure 1,
Turbulent mixing can be expressed
mathematically as:
arD T 1
L J
Where, ID , D , and D are coefficients
of turbuleflt m mg Z
(L 2 It).
arij BT 1
—I X —
XL ax
aIDaTl
— I z —I
a
27—2
-------
The Conservation of Heat in a Body of Water
3 The fourth term in the heat conservation
equation concerns the heat exchange
at the boundaries of the water body:
Note: H’s are used instead of U’s
As you can see from the sketch, there
are eight different mechanisms that
can cause heat exchange at the boundaries
of the water body. The eighth term,
H Bottom, is usually neglected,
although under some circumstances it
may be significant. It would include
terrestrial heating, heat transfer by
conduction through the bottom and
biological and chemical heating in the
bottom sediments.
a Of the seven remaining terms, the
magnitudes of four are independent
of temperature. These are H H
S a
H ,andH
sr ar
LATERAL MIXING
VERTICAL MIXING
FIGURE 1
Hb 1
/
H bottom
27-3
-------
The Conservation of Heat in a Body of Water
1) H - Incoming short-wave solar
ridiation. This is the energy
which comes directly from the
sun. It falls within a wavelength
range of 0. 14 microns to 4 microns,
reaching maximum intensity at
0. 5 microns. The amount of so]ar
radiation reaching a surface
normal to the earth’s outer
atmosphere is almost constant
at 10,200 BTU/ft 2 day. Therefore,
the amount of solar radiation at
any point on the earth’s outer
atmosphere is a function of
latitude, time of day, and season
of the year. As the radiant energy
passes through the atmosphere,
it is diminished by ozone absorp-
tion, scattering by gases,
absorption, scattering and
reflection by particulate matter,
and absorption and scattering by
water vapor. A normal range
of values of incoming solar 2
radiation is 400 to 2800 BTUJft
day.
2) H - Incoming long-wave
a nospheric radiation. Long-
wave radiation is sometimes
referred to as “black body”
radiation and its magnitude is
proportional to the fourth power
of the absolute temperature of the
radiating body. Within the
atmosphere many materials
function as radiators of long—
wave radiation. They include
water vapor, ozone, carbon
dioxide, and other gases and
particulate matter. Clouds are
good radiators of long-wave
radiation, and thus one can
expect significant increases in
atmospheric long-wave radiation
on cloudy days. Long-wave
radiation falls within a wavelength
range of 4 to 120 microns, with a
maximum intensity at 10 microns.
A normal range of atmospheric
long-wave radiation is 2400 to
3200 BTIJ/ft 2 day.
The physical difference between long-
wave and short-wave radiation is
exhibited by a phenomenon called “the
greenhouse effect.” In a greenhouse
only the short-wave radiation passes
through the glass, however, the black
body radiation emitted by the plants,
which is long-wave, does not exit from
the glass. The bottom of the glass also
radiates long-wave radiation and so you
have a net heating effect within the
greenhouse. In nature the same phenom-
enon exists. The long and short-wave
radiation from the atmosphere impinge
upon the ground, the ground then radiates
black body radiation, which is long-wave
radiation. However, this long-wave
radiation cannot penetrate up through the
atmosphere and part of it is re-radiated
back to the ground, thus having a net
heating effect. The reflected short-wave
radiation, however, enters back through
the atmosphere and is lost into space.
This is the reason why on clear nights
it’s much colder than on cloudy nights.
3) Finally, two surface heat
exchange mechanisms which are
independent of temperature
(as shown on the sketch) are H
and H both of these are sr
reflec d radiation terms. H
indicates the amount of incom g
solar radiation which is reflected
by the water surface, and H
indicates the amount of long iave
radiation which is reflected by
the water surface. The reflectivity
of incoming short-wave solar
radiation is a function of the
angle of the sun, the type of cloud
cover, the elevation of the clouds,
and the amount of cloud cover
measured in tenths. At a sun
altitude of greater than 40°, the
reflected solar radiation is about
5% of incoming short-wave
radiation. The reflected
atmospheric radiation remains
relatively constant at about 3%
of the incoming long-wave
radiation.
27-4
-------
The Conservation of Heat in a Body of Water
These four terms, H , H , H
and H , which are a l n epe ent
of wa e’ surface temperature, can
be added together and called “net
radiation input” (HR). Care must
be taken to account for their
direction during the addition
H =H +H -H
H s a sr
-H
ar
b The three terms which are dependent
on water surface temperature are
H. , H , andH
br C e
1) H. 0 is the back radiation emitted
froco the water surface. It is
long-wave radiation and has the
same wavelength range as
atmospheric long-wave radiation
of 4 to 120 microns. Water
exhibits the properties of an
almost perfect black body so the
Stephan-Boltzrnan fourth power
radiatiorial law can be used to
compute the amount of black body
radiation which is emitted by the
water surface. This law states
that back radiation from the water
surface is proportional to the
emissivity of the water, times
the Stephan-Boltzman constant,
times the absolute water tem-
perature to the fourth power.
Normal ranges for long-wave
back radiation from the water
surface are 2400 to 3600
BTU’s/ft 2 day.
2) H is the heat exchange due to
conduction and convection. This
heat exchange is proportional to
the wind speed and to the difference
between water temperature and
air temperature. Normal values 2
for H are -300 to +400 BTU’s/ft
C
day.
3) Finally, H represents the energy
lost due toeevaporation. For
every pound of water which
evaporates from the water surface,
approximately 1000 BTU’s are
carried away as latent heat of
vaporization. Therefore, if the
volume of water evaporated can
be computed, it is a very simple
matter to compute the amount of
energy lost due to evaporation.
There are many theoretical and
experimental equations for com-
puting evaporation rates, however,
the one which is most often used
relates evaporation to the product
of wind speed and the difference
between vapor pressure of
saturated air at the water tem-
perature and the water vapor
pressure in the overlying air.
A normal range for heat loss
due to evaporation is 2000 to
8000 BTU’s/ft 2 day
B Thus far, discussion of the energy budget
terms has been qualitative. A discussion
of the computations and evaluation of each
of these terms follows
The overall heat exchange at the surface
of a water body is determined by the
algebraic sum of the seven components
mentioned above. Such a sum is often
referred to as the energy or heat budget
of the water surface
Thus,
Net Exchange Rate = H + H - H - H
S a ar
-FL -H-H
br e C
Since H + H - H - H equals the
s a ar sr
Net Radiation Input
sr
The following terms must be evaluated in
order to be able to make a water surface
energy budget.
1 H represents the net atmospheric and
s ar (long-wave and short-wave)
radiation at the water surface
Equations are available which enable
the computation of the four components
of HR. Usually, however, one or more
of these components are measured
directly with appropriate instrumentation
27-5
-------
The Conservation of Heat in a Body of Water
It is quite common to measure incoming
short-wave radiation (H) and then
compute the other three components.
2 Long-wave atmospheric radiation (Ha)
can be computed with any of several
empirical formulations. One of the
most commonly used is Brunts formula:
H = 4.5X10 8 (T +460) (C+ 0.031 .1i)
a a a
where
Ha = Long-wave atmospheric radiation,
BTIJ/ft 2 day
C = An empirical coefficient based
on the relationship between air
temperature and the ratio of the
measured solar radiation to the
clear-sky solar radiation.
Ta and e should be measured about
six feet ibove the water surface.
This equation will provide estimates
which are within 10-20% of true values.
3 Preceding comments on the reflected
solar radiation (H ) indicated the
factors to be cons S ered in its com-
putation. The empirically developed
graphs used in its computation are not
presented, but for sun altitudes of less
than 40° its evaluation is not extremely
reliable.
As stated previously, the long-wave
reflected radiation can be assumed to
be 3% of the incoming atmospheric
long-wave radiation.
4 The information )ust presented on the
computation of the energy budget com-
ponents of HR is sketchy. If more
information is required, one of the
several good references available which
cover these equations should be con-
sulted. These references include
Edmger and Geyer and a recent pub-
lication by TVA, Heat and Mass Transfer
Between a Water Surface and the
Atmosphere . This excellent reference
includes formulations for all components
of the energy budget.
The reason the computation of H R is
not stressed is that recent develop-
ments in instrumentation now make it
possible to measure it directly, and
the use of measured values may be
preferred over calculated values.
5 Back radiation emitted from the water
surface (H ,r) may be computed by the
Stephan - floltzman radiation law
I L 7 a(T +46O) (460) a
Dr w 5 w
T
+ l)
460
Hb = 1801 +
460
where .y = emissivity of water, 0. 97
a = Stephan-Boltzman constant 4
(4.15 X 10-8 BTTJ Ift day°R
T Water Surface Temp, 0 F
Hb
= Back-radiation, BTU/ft 2 day
6 Evaporative heat loss (He) is usually
computed using an equation of the form:
H =bw(e -e)
e s a
where b = Evaporation coefficient
= pressure of saturated
water vapor in air at the
temperature of the water,
mmHg
e = pressure of water vapor
a in ambient air, mmHg
w = wind speed, mph
H = Evaporative heat loss,
e BTU/ft 2 clay
The fact that equations of this form
are used for computing evaporative
heat loss does not mean that it is the
best formulation. More realistic
equations are available, they require
much more sophisticated data for their
solution.
27-6
-------
The Conservation of Heat in a Body of Water
The value selected for b is often a point . ö. 26 (T - Ta ) pl
of controversy. The value most often . . H = BH =1 S —]
C e
used is the Lake Hefner Coefficient, L (e - e ) 760
s a
which for the units shown is [ 1.4.
However, this value was determined [ bw (e - e )]
S a
empirically at Lake Hefner, and may
not be applicable to other localities.
H 0.26bw(T -T )—
Research indicates that when con- c s a 760
sidermg streams rather than lakes, a
higher value for b is more realistic. Usually P 1760 is very close to one,
Another point to consider is that b is
really not a constant. If one looks at
the theoretical equations for mass . . Hc = 0. 26 bw (T - T
S a
transfer in the turbulent boundary layer
it is easy to see that b depends on the (A positive Hc indicates a heat loss)
stability of the atmosphere. Thus one
could use a value for b at a given Lumping all these terms together gives:
location that would work fine one time,
but which might fail to give the correct H = HR - H. 0 - H
r e
answer some other time. ,,._..
7 H , conduction-convection (heat transfer = H - 1801 (4 - + i) - bw (e - e ) -
S a
m ichanisrn) is computed by utilizing a
relationship between H and H called
c e
the Bowen ratio:
H
B = Bowen ratio = H /H C
C e
B can be calculated as
0.26bw(T -T
s a
B = O 26 (Ts _ Ta ) p
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
(e -e) 760
S a
Material for this outline was taken from a
paper written by Bruce Tichenor, Sanitary
where T = air temp, °F Engineer, PNWL, Corvallis, Oregon for
a
presentation at a series of thermal pollution
P = atmospheric pressure,
seminars, 1968-69.
mmHg
This outline was prepared by James A.
Montgomery, Sanitary Engineer, Manpower
and Training, Pacific Northwest Water
Laboratory, Corvallis, OR.
27-7
-------
THE ENERGY BUDGET APPROACH TO WATER TEMPERATURE PREDICTION
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
1 INTRODUCTION
This outline presents a problem concerning
temperature prediction on a well-mixed
stream and the sizing of flow-through cooling
ponds A complete explanation of the method-
ology is beyond the scope of this outline and
the reader is urged to consult the literature
for an in-depth review of the many available
computational techniques. The problem solu-
tion uses basic methods, all of which can be
found in the publication by Edinger and Geyer
(reference 15 in Bibliography). As an aid in
analyzing the problem, references to appro-
priate pages in this reference are given.
II EXAMPLE PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION
A The Situation
A 1000 MV ’ electrical output nuclear power
plant of 33% efficiency is to be located on
a medium-sized river in the temperate
region of the nation. Using applicable
hydrologic and meteorologic data, we wish
to compute
1 Downstream temperature, assuming
once-through cooling and complete
mixing in the river.
2 The area of a flow-through cooling pond
necessary to prevent violation of water
temperature standards.
B Problem Solution (Part A)
1 Compute the heat energy entering the
cooling water.
a For 33% thermal efficiency
3413 3413
Heat Rate = — 100 = 33
nt
10, 340 BTU/ KWH
b Assuming a 5% in-plant heat loss:
Heat to cooling water = (0. 95 >< Heat
Rate - 3413) BTU/KWH
Heat to cooling water [ 0. 95(10, 340) -
3413] BTU/KWH
Heat to cooling water = 6410 BTU/ KWH
Total heat to cooling water foA’ the
1000 MW (106 NW) plant l )0 NW X
6410 BTU/KWH = 6.41 X 10 BTU/hr
2 Compute the temperature rise in the
stream, assuming once through cooling
and complete mixing.
Given a design flow in the stream of
3000 cfs, which in terms of lb/hr is
Q = (3500 cfs) (62.4 lb/ft 3 ) (3600 sec/hr)
Q = 7.86 >< 108 lb/hr
Since 1 BTU will raise the temperature
of 1 lb of water 1°F,
AT = AT in river =
r (6.41 X 1O 9 BTUIhr)
( 7 86 X 108 lbfhr)(1 TU/1b °F )
ATr = 8. 2°F
3 Equation for computing downstream
temperatures
Downstream temperatures are computed
by assuming exponential temperature
decay. This concept is presented mathe-
matically as
-K(T-E) (Edinger and Geyer, p.43)
where = net rate of water surface heat
dt
exchange (BTU f( 2 day 1 )
K = energy exchange coefficient
(BTU ft 2 day’ OF_l)
T = water surface temperature
(°F)
E = equilibrium temperature (°F)
For a well-mixed stream, this equation
can be written as
pC yU _ -K(T -E)
(Ediriger and Geyer, p. 129)
where = water density (62 4 lb ft 3 )
C = specific heat of water
p (1 BTU lb °F’)
y = mean stream depth (ft)
U mean stream velocity
(ft day )
IN PPW th.2 8.70
28-1
-------
The Energy Budget Approach to \Vater Temperature Prediction
3 T longitudinal temperature
T gradient (°Fft )
x = downstream distance (ft)
Define T temperature at x = o, then
0
fl-Kx
LPCPYU
T = (T - E)e
0
-Mx
By defining ‘ = , then
p C yU
4 Meteorologic Data
The data shown in Table 1 are used in
determining K and E.
5 Determination of K
The energy exchange coefficient is
computed using a variation of the
equation given on page 48, Heat Exchange
in the Environment, by Edinger and
G eye r.
K = [ l5.7 (0 26 + /3)(bW)]
where W = wind speed (mph)
b = experimental evaporation
coefficient (a value of 15
is used in this example)
/3 = proportionality coefficient
(see following table)
Range of E /3
( °F) ( mmHg°F )
Thus, for an average daily value of K,
using W = 8. 5 mph
K = (15.7 + 10.26 + 3] 1(15) (8. 5)1)
Using appropriate values of i3 for two
ranges of E
E
( °F )
60 to 70
70 to 80
6 Determination of E
The equilibrium temperature is reached
when the rate of change of energy at the
water surface equals zero. Edinger and
Geyer present a method for computing E
The method involves assuming a likely
10°F temperature range for E and by
using the appropriate value for K and
the given meteorological data, computing
a value for E. If the computed value of
E falls within the assumed range, the
process is complete. However, if the
computed value of E falls outside the
assumed range, another range must be
Table 1
i
Forl
ForE
Time Period
(6 hr. intervals)
Wind
Speed ‘ ‘
(mph)
Net Radiation ‘H
Input ‘
(BTtJ fr 2 hr )
H’
Air
Temp ‘
(°F)
t T
a’
Relative
Humidity
( )
Water Vapor
Pressure of (e
Ambient Air
(mm Hg)
)
a
1 ’Iidnight - 6am
4 0
120
65
40
6.3
6 am - Noon
12. 0
290
75
30
6. 7
Noon - 6 pm
12. 0
320
85
20
6. 2
6 pm - Midnight
6.0
130
70
35
6.6
DAILY AVERAGE 8.5
215
74
- -
6 5
50 to 60
60 to 70
70 to 80
80 to 90
0. 405
0. 555
0 744
0. 990
T (T 0 - E)e°’ + E
K
(BTU ft 2 day 0F 1 )
120
144
28-2
-------
The Energy Budget Approach to Water Temperature Prediction
a = - 0. O322x t
assumed and the process repeated
until E falls within the proper limits.
Thus, E is computed by a trial and
error method.
For the stated meteorological conditions
and computed values of K, we can
determine a daily average E by the
following seven steps
Step 1 Assumed range of E = 70 to 80°F
Step 2. Compute F(K) for use in Step 6
F(K) = K K
As computed for an E range of 70 to
80°F, K = 144 BTU ft ’ 2 day °F’
F(K) = 144-15.7 = 0.891
Step 3. Compute E 1 for use m Step 6.
HR - 1801
E 1 - K
From the meteorologic data table,
H 215 BTU ft 2 hr or i terms
OIRcIaYS, HR = 5160 BTU ft day
- 5160 - 1801 23 3
144 —
Step 4. Compute E 2 for use in Step 6’
E = ( 0. 26) (Ta )
2 (0.26+13)
From the meteorologic data table,
Ta = 74°F, and from the table of E
range vs. /3, 13 = 0. 744
E — ( 0.26)(74 ) - 1
• • 2 - (0.26 + 0. 744) - 9.2
Step 5. Compute E 3 for use in Step 6
E - ea - C( / 3 )
3 (0.26+13)
From the meteorologic data table,
ea = 6. 5 mm Hg. C( /3) is related
to ranges of E as follows:
Range of E C($)
( °F) ( mm Hg )
50to60 —11.22
60 to 70 -20. 15
70 to 80 -33. 30
80 to 90 -53. 33
0
Thus for an E range of 70 to 80 F,
C(/3) = —33. 3
E — 6.5 - (—33.3 ) - 39 6
3 - (0. 26 + 0. p744) -
Step 6. Compute M for use in Step 7’
M = E 1 + F(K) (E 2 -1- E 3 )
M = 23.34- (0 891) (19.2 + 39.6) = 75 7
Step 7. Compute E using the following
relationship
M=E+ 0.05lE 2
Inserting M and K and setting up a
quadratic equation gives’
E 2 ( 0.051 ) + E - 75. 7 0
0.000354E 2 + E -75.7 = 0
Solving this equation using the
quadratic formula gives
E - - 1 ± 1 1 - (4) (0. 000354)(-75. 7)]1/2
- 2 (0. 000354)
E - - 1±(1. 10719)1/2 - - l ± (1.05223 )
- 0. 000 708 - 0 000708
Rejecting the negative value gives
- 0. 05223 - 73 °F
E- 0.000708 - . 8
(This value is acceptable because it
falls within the assumed range of 70
80°F.)
7 Compute average stream velocity
Q = 3500 cfs
Given an average cross section 800 feet
wide and 5 feet deep:
3 -l
- 3500 ft sec -
- (800 ft)(5 ft) - 0. 875 ftl see =
75, 600 ftl day
8 Evaluation of a
-Kx
a pC YU
For x’ in miles a = ( 62 5pp )
28—3
-------
The Energy Budget Approach to Water Temperature Prediction
9 Solve for T , for x’ = 10, 20 50
miles
Assume unheated river temperature
74°F
T = 74°F + ATR = 74°F + 8. 2°F =
82. 2°F
T 1 (T 0 - E)e 0 0322x’ + E
For x’ = 10 miles
—(0. 0322)(l0) + 73 8
T, = (82.2 - 73.8,e
-0. 322 + 73. 8
T = (8.4)e
T, (8. 4)(0. 725) + 73. 8 = 79. 9°F
For Xt = 20 miles
Use same value of a and replace T by
T for x = 10 miles:
T = (79.9 — 73. 8)(0. 725) + 73.8 = 78. 2 I
For x’ = 30. 40. 50 mUes
Following the same procedureS
30 miles, T 1 (78. 2 - 73. 8)(0. 725) +
73.8 = 77. 0°F
40 miles, T = 76. 1°F
50 miles, T:: = 75. 5°F
These values represent the exponential
temperature decay which is graphically
shown on the following plot
LI
0
. 1o
E T 0
( °F ) (°F)
53. 8
79. 2
84. 0
58. 1
71
72
78
76
10 This graph presents an idealized
picture of the downstream temperatures,
since the computations were based on
average daily conditions, and thus no
diurnal effect is evident. It also assumes
that the weather data on which K and E
are based are indicative of conditions
along the 50-mile stretch of the river.
In addition, no tributary inflows or
heated thscharges are accounted for in
the 50 miles.
11 The diurnal effect may be evaluated
by using the six-hour average meteor-
ologic conditions given previously.
Following the methods described, values
of K and E were computed as
The values of water temperature (T 0 )
Just upstream from the plant reflect
natural diurnal fluctuations.
12 Using the exponential temperature decay
relati onslup presented previously and
assuming slug flow in the stream, i. e.,
no longitudinal mixing, the variation in
temperature was computed for a parcel
of water which left the plant location at
6 pm. The following graph demonstrates
the effect of diurnal variations m
meteorological conditions of the tem-
perature of the water parcel for a
distance of 50 miles downstream.
Distance Downstream from Plant
Time Period K - -1
( 6 hr. intervals) ( BTU ft 2 day
Midnight to 6 am
6am to Noon
Noon to 6 pm
6 pm to Midnight
56
196
241
76
28-4
Plant 10 20 30
40 50
(miles)
-------
The Energy Budget Approach to Water
Temperature Prethction
TEMPERATURE OF A WATER PARCEL
I I I
c..1
C 1
Note that the initial temperature of the
parcel is equal to the natural stream
temperature (T 0 ) plus the tempera-
ture increase of 8. 2°F caused by the
plant discharge.
C Problem Solution (Part B)
1 Assuming a maximum allowable daily
average stream temperature of 80°F,
what flow-through cooling pond area
would be required at the site’ The
sketch on the following page descrIbes
the plant-river-pond layout.
2 Temperature rise through plant
Heat to cooling water = 6.41 X 1O 9 BTU/hr
Condenser flow = 1500 cfs - 3. 37 X 1 o8 lb/hr
T through condenser =
(6.41 X 10 BTU hr =
(3 37 X 10 lb/hr)(1 BTU lb°F
19. 0°F
T 3 = 74°F -1- 19°F = 93°F
3 Temperature drop through pond
A flow-through cooling pond is assumed
to be well mixed in each cross section,
but as in a stream, there is a longitudinal
temperature decay. Thus, the equation
for predicting the temperature drop
through the pond is equivalent to the
exponential temperature decay equation
used on well-mixed streams.
85
0
a,
=
(5
a,
E
E
(5
a,
4-
15
10 20 30
Miles Downstream from Plant
Time (Military)
I I I I I I I I I
=
Co . c C 1 C 1
— c 1 —
28-5
-------
The Energy Budget Approach to Water Temperature Prediction
Q 1 =1500 cfs
= 14°F
RIVER
3500 cfs
= 74°F
a Using the temperature subscripts
given on the sketch, the tempera-
ture from the pond can be computed
by
T 4 = (T 3 - E)ea’ + E
Edinger aixi Geyer, Heat Exchange
in the Environment, p. 113.
KA
where a’ = ________
r C
‘ -p 3
Q 3 = plant discharge (ft 3 day 1 )
A = pond area (ft
b Using an experimental evaporation
coefficient (b) of 12, K = 118 and
E = 76. 9°F. These values are
used in the subsequent cooling pond
calculations.
Case I - Fond area required for
discharge from pond 80°F.
Solving the prediction equation for
a”:
80 = (93 - 76. 9)e ” + 76.9
e = (80- 76. 9)1 (93 - 76.9)
e = 0.193
a’ 1.65
Solving the a’ equation for A
118A
a’ - (62. 2)(1)(1500)(24 hr/day)(3600sec/hr)
a’ = (1.46 X 10 8 A 1.65
T 4 = 80°F
C 4 = 1500 cfs
14 = 7
= 3500 cfs
15 = ?
A = (1. 65)! (1.46 X 10-8) =
11 3 X 1O 7 ft 2
( 11.3 )< 10 7 ft 2 )
Ir acresA= 4 2
(4.36 > 10 ft /acre)
2590 acres
Case II - Pond area required for
mixed river temperature = 80°F
If a mixing zone is allowed in the
stream such that the mixed river
temperature below this zone is
equal to or less than 80°F, a much
smaller pond could be used.
Referring to the sketch
T 4 Q 4 + T 2 Q 2
T 5 = =80°F
Solving for T 4 :
T 5 Q 5 - T 2 Q 2 - ( 80)(3500)(74)(2000 )
T 4 = - 1500
. .T 4 88.0°F
By using the same computational
techniques as for Case I:
a’ = 0.373
A = (0. 373)/(1.46 =
2. 55 >( ft 2
In acres A = ( 2. 55 X 1O 7 ft 2 )
( 4.36 X lO 4 ft 2 f acre ) =
585
acres
03 = 1500 cfs
T 3 = 93°F
Q 2 2000 cfs
12 — 14 F
28-6
-------
The Energy Budget Approach to Water Temperature Prediction
A CKNOW LEDG ME NT
Materials for thjs outline were taken from
Heat Exchange in the Environment Cooling
Water Studies for Edison Electric Institute,
John Hopkins University. June, 1965.
J E Edinger and J C. Geyer, authors.
This outline was prepared by James A.
Montgomery, Sanitary Engineer, Manpower
and Training. Pacific Northwest Water
Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon.
28-7
-------
PREDICTION OF WATER TEMPERATURES IN RIVERS AND STREAMS-
THE EXPONENTIAL DECAY OF TRANSIENT TEMPERATURES
KS F
dF_. s
dt L
I INTRODUCTION
The computational methodology for the
prediction of stream temperature in rivers
differs somewhat from that used for reser-
voirs because of the difference in their
physical characteristics. Because of the
dynamic nature of a river, relatively short
periods must be used to account for diurnal
fluctuations in meteorological phenomenon.
Allowance must also be made for stream
velocity and changes in hydraulic geometry.
There are two currently used methods for
predicting stream temperatures. One method
uses a combination of an energy budget or
other method to determine the steady-state,
equilibrium, temperature of the stream, and
the subsequent imposition of the transient
temperature, which is assumed to decay
downstream in an exponential manner.
II EXPONENTIAL DECAY OF TRANSIENT
TEMPERATURES
A LeBosquet (1946) proposed a mathematical
basis for predicting heat loss in a flowing
stream using river flow, temperature
differential between water and air,
hydraulic characteristics and a heat loss
coefficient. While the method appears to
be quite useful, it is somewhat limited
because the value of the heat loss
coefficient must be obta ined from field
observations. LeBosquet found the 2
coefficient to vary from 6 to 18 BTU/ft I
hr ! 0 F of excess water temperature over
air.
The mathematical model proposed is
____ Eq-l
where
K = Heat loss coefficient, BTTJ/ft 2 /hr/OF
of excess temperature of water over
air
F = Excess temperature of water over
air at distance, D miles, 0 F
A = Surface area, ft 2
L = Weight of water, lbs
Integration and simplification of this
equation yields
FA
- Q log 10 — Eq-2
K - 0.0102 WD
where
Q = Average discharge, cfs
FA = Initial excess temperature, OF
(water over air)
W = Average stream width, ft
D = Reach distance, miles
It should be noted that the driving force
utilized by LeBosquet is incorrect,
inasmuch as the water will tend to
approach some equilibrium water tem-
perature rather than the temperature
of the air.
B Gameson et al., (1960-61) made art
exhaustive study on heated discharges
into the Thames Estuary and proposed
the following mathematical model
describing the process
dO - I
9 Eq-3
where:
9 = Initial temperature increment
f = Exchange coefficient
z = Average river depth
t = Time
W. Q.ph.4. 8.70
29—1
-------
Prediction of Water Temperatures in Rivers and Streams
Using statistical methods, they defined V = Saturation vapor pressure
w
the natural or equilibrium temperature, corresponding to surface
TE. as: temperature in Hg
TE = 0.5 + 1.109 Ta Eq-4 VE = Saturation vapor pressure
corresponding to surface tem-
perature E, in Hg
where
E = Equilibrium temperature, °F
Ta = Air temperature, OC (unknown)
The solution to this equation utilized a 0. 00722 H C (1. + 0. 1 W)
V
was
t
w
= o exp - ( —f- dt Eq-5 T = Water temperature, OF
z
t = Time, hr
H Rate of heat loss from t 1 he water
where
surface, BTU ft hr -
= Initial excess temperature b = Depth of the river, ft
= Excess temperature after a time 62.4 = Product of the water density
length equal to two tides
and heat capacity, BTU ft -
oF l
Values of the exchange coefficient for the
Thames Estuary were found to average = (1.8 + 0. li W)
approximately 4 cm/hr.
H = Latent heat of vaporization,
C Velz and Cannon (1960) assumed that the v BTU 1b* at assumed water
rate of temperature change is directly
temperature
proportional to the rate of heat loss from
the water surface,
C = Evaporation coefficient ranging
from 10—15
dT
w=_ H Eq-6
dt 62.4b W = Windspeed at 25 feetabove water
surface, mph
Their solution was-
T = Air temperature,° F
a
T
a
A = - 224, 640 j. 2 V = Vapor pressure of the air, in.
Hg
T 1 Eq-7 H = Heat gain by solar radiation,
S BTTJ ft 2 hr 1 (measured)
dT
w
a (V - V ) + /3 (T - E) They derived a relationship for the long-
w e w term unheated equilibrium water
temperature as follows:
where.
(1.8 + 0.16W) E + 0.00722 H C
A = Surface area of the river between V
(1 + 0. 1W) V
the points where T = T and T = E = Eq-8
w 1 w
T 2 , ft 2 /cfs stream flow (1. 8 + 0. 16W) T + 0. 00722 HvC
(1+0.1W)V +1-I
a s
29-2
-------
Prediction of Water Temperatures in Rivers and Streams
The total increment of temperature
between the initial heated condition and
the desired downstream temperature is
divided into equal increments ( ATM ,) with
TW and V the mean temperature and
mean saturation vapor pressure in each
increment. Long-term weather averages
are used in the computations.
D Duttweiler (1963) proposed a mathematical
model for stream temperature by equating
the heat gained in an incremental reach of
stream to the time change in enthalpy of
the water in the reach. As in previous
studies, Duttweiler assumed that the time
rate of temperature increase is proportional
to the deficit between the actual temperature
and some equilibrium temperature. The
resulting one dimensional model was.
÷ I=! A(TE -T)Eq-10
vax Pc z
where
T = Water temperature
t = Time
v = Velocity at x and t
x = Distance along the stream
p = Water density
c Heat capacity of water
A = Parameter dependent upon
atmospheric conditions
dT - 1 A (TE
dt ç z
t
x- 1 x =
0
‘0
It is obvious that A (TE - T) is the net
heat transfer rate through the air-water
interface, 4j1, if evaporation losses, Q ,,
are exclude’a, or
A (TE - T) = + S Eq-13
Duttweiler presents values for A based on
published meteorological data and gives
solutions to equations 10 and 12 in integral
form.
E Edinger and Geyer (1965) pr posed that
the net rate of heat transfer through the
air water interface was represented by
a = -K(T - E) Eq-14
dt
where
AR = Net heat transfer rate throu h
air-water interface, BTU/ft /day
E = Equilibrium temperature, 0 F
T = Water surface temperature, 0 F
K = Exchange coefficient, BTU/ft 2 /
day / 0 F
Nomograms for determining E when K is
known were presented and methodology
defining the exchange coefficient were
given.
This equation is solved by successive
approximation, assuming values for the
equilibrium temperature and using Meyer’s
evaporation formula. The resulting value
of E, the equilibrium water temperature is
then used in the following working equation
to estimate the required water surface
area for cooling:
ATw Eq-9
A = -224,640 S
z = Hydraulic depth of the stream or
the cross-sectional area divided
by the surface width
TE= Equilibrium water temperature
Using Lagrangian coordinates, the
expression for river temperature
becomes
- T)
T 1 &(Vw VE)+/ 3 (Tw E)
and its position may be found from
Eq-il
Eq-12
vdt
29-3
-------
Prediction of Water Temperatures in Rivers and Streams
Assuming that the river reach considered x 2 = Distance across the stream, ft
was at steady state, they proposed one-
dimensional and two-dimensional models T Temperature of a thermal
for temperature prediction. The one 0 discharge at the point x 1 x 1 = 0,
dimensional model was OF
pC yU = -K (T — E) Eq-15 C 1 = U/D , ft 1
p x x
K
C 2 = ____
and the two-dimensional model, which p 2’ ft
accounts for lateral mixing and advection
= Coefficient depending on boundary
as
U - + D 2 T + K Eq-16 conditions
2 2 PC d (T ‘- E) = 0 W Stream width, ft
xl p
T = Water temperature at upstream
The solution presented for equation m
Eq-15 was end of reach, °F
- E Edinger and Geyer’s study includes basic
T - E = exPL pC yuj Eq-l7 concepts of the energr balance.
m
p
Several useful models of temperature
and for equation Eq-16 distribution in reservoirs and rivers are
presented and ensuing applications of the
methods presented demonstrate the
Tx-E E
T - E - exPL x exp [ - x 1 J methodology. However, the difficulties
encountered in applying the nomograms
0
are not sufficiently stressed. Also, the
exp [ -2& (W - x 1 )] systems studied are primarily steady-
state in nature or the temperatures are
1 + exp [ -2a’W] Eq-18 known and the transfer coefficients are
computed rather than the usual case of
where attempting to predict the temperatures.
3 F The work of the advanced seminar at
p Water density. lb/ft
Johns Hopkins University should also be
C = Heat capacity of the water, BTu/Ib mentioned (Anon. 1962), where the following
p conclusions were drawn
U = Mean velocity of the stream at X 1 , 1 The quantitative determination of heat
ft/day
transfer within a natural body of water,
Y = Mean depth of the stream at , ft or between a body of water and its
surroundings, is extremely difficult
= Longitudinal temperature gradient, and complex.
OF/ft
2 Temperature change within a body of
T = Water temperature, 0 F water is primarily effected by the
operation, either independently or
x = Longitudinal distance on the jointly, of two mechanisms: turbulent
stream, ft mixing of two or more batches of water
of different temperatures eventually
D 2 Lateral mixing coefficient, a 2 ssum?d resulting in a single batch of water at
constant over the channel, ft the weighted mean temperature, and
29-4
-------
Prediction of Water Temperatures in Rivers and Streams
heat exchange of the water with its
surroundings, primarily the atmosphere,
governed by the mechamsms of con-
duction, convection, evaporation,
condensation, and radiation.
3 Temperature change is effected to only
a minor degree by molecular diffusion
and conduction within the body of water.
4 Forecasting of heat loss from arti-
ficially heated batches of water may
be attempted by use of certain of
three principal techniques depending
on the availability of data and on the
adherence of the specific situation to
certain specialized requirements.
5 Where heat is discharged to a stream
from a point source, and where com-
plete vertical mixing may be assumed,
turbulent mixing may be considered the
dominant heat transfer mechanism until
horizontal mixing is complete, that is,
until that downstream transect is reached
where the cross-section temperature
is uniform from bank to bank.
6 Assuming that there is no horizontal
temperature gradient, either as a
result of effective turbulent mixing as
described in No. 5 above, or as a
result of heat discharge from a thoroughly
diffused source, and assuming complete
vertical ml.xlng, heat loss may be eval-
uated by either use of the heat budget
theory method or equilibrium tem-
perature theory method.
7 The complexity of the heat budget
theory makes this method infeasible
for field use except where extremely
precise, reliable, and rugged
instrumentation is available.
8 At present, not all of the instrumentation
required by No. 7 above is available.
9 The relative simplicity of the equilibrium
theory method, coupled with its feasi-
bility for use under field conditions
suggests its use for forecasting heat
loss both in specific field situations and
in generalized design situations using
combmations of ambient conditions
selected according to statistical
considerations.
IV SIJ1VIMARY
A The excellent summary prepared by
Roesner (1969) compares several of the
previously described models
“Although the models discussed in this
section appear quite different in the form
of their solutions, some of them are
actually quite similar and could be
expected to produce nearly the same
answers when applied to a given problem.
For example, it can be shown that
Schroepfer’s model and the Advanced
Seminar model differ only in the following
respects
1 Method of computing long-wave
atmospheric radiation
2 Units and empirical coefficients used
3 Inclusion of heat exchange by eddy
diffusion by the Advanced Seminar
B By comparing dilferential forms, it can
be shown that the models of Gameson,
Gibbs, and Barrett, Velz and Gannon,
Duttweiler, and Edinger and Geyer are
very similar. For ease of comparison,
the models are collected in Table 1.
Consider a river reach which is receiving
a thermal discharge and observe the
following (assuming consistent units)
1 If mean daily or monthly temperatures
are used for the natural stream tem-
perature, the equilibrium temperature
of Duttweiler (TE) and of Edinger and
Geyer (E) can be considered equal to
the—natural river temperature. Thus
(T - TE) and (T - E) can be equated to
Gamesori, Gibbs, and Barrett’s excess
temperature 9. i.e.
9 = (T - TE) = (T - E)
29-5
-------
Prediction of Water Temperatures in Rivers and Streams
TABLE 1
COMPARISON OF STREAM TEMPERATURE PREDICTION MODELS
Gameson, Gibbs, and Barrett
dt z
where 9 = excess of water temperature
over natural water temperature
I = exchange coefficient
z = mean river depth
Velz and Gannon
Duttweiler
dT 1 - (T -T)
z E
water temperature
rate of heat loss from
water surface
b = river depth
where T = water temperature
A parameter dependent on
atmospheric conditions
hydraulic depth
equilibrium temperature
z =
TE =
Edinger and Geyer
aT
C Ud = -K(T-E)
p ax 1
where T = water temperature
U mean stream velocity
d = mean stream depth
K = exchange coefficient
E equilibrium temperature
p = water density
dT
w - H
dt - 62.4b
where T =
w
H
29-6
-------
Prediction of Water Temperatures in Rivers and Streams
2 The time of travel t, and the longitu-
dmal distance along the stream x, are
related as
dx u
dt
where U is the mean velocity of the
stream at the point x, thus
dT dT
dt - U dx
3 If the time base for travel time is
short compared to the time interval
for which the natural stream tem-
perature is averaged, then E and TE
can be considered constant and
dQ d(T _ TE ) - dT
dt -
and
dO - d (T - E ) - - U
dt dt - dt - d x
4 By use of items (1) and (3), it is
observed that
- A - K
pC pC
The essential difference is that A and
K are defined in terms of atmospheric
variables and parameters, while f is
strictly empirical.
5 It is observed that the net rate of heat
loss from the river H, in Velz and
Gannon’s model can be equated as
1 - I = A (T - TE) = K (T - E)
Thus for the conditions stated in item (1)
the basic models of Gameson, Gibbs, and
Barrett, Duttweiler, Edinger and Geyer,
and Velz and Cannon can be considered
identical. The solutions however will
not give identical answers because of the
different approaches taken in integrating
the individual models. The other models
reviewed here are individualistic either
in their derivation or in the methods used
to obtain the working equation and thus
cannot be compared.
C The models described above define the
state of development of temperature
prediction equation for streams. Note
that all the models presented here are
one -dimensional except for Edinger and
Geyer’s two-dimensional model which is
quite simplified.”
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
Materials for this outline were taken from
“Thermal Pollution Status -of-the-Art”,
Frank L. Parker and Peter A, Krenkel,
authors.
This outline was prepared by James A.
Montgomery, Sanitary Engineer, Manpower
& Training, Pac i fic Northwest Water
Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon,
29-7
-------
WATER TEMPERATURE AND PREDICTION
BIB LJOGRAPHY
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Paper 269. 1954.
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Hypohrnnetic Heating in Castle Lake,
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Water Temperature, Influences and
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Water Temperature, Influences and
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12 Dutton, J.A. and Bryson, R.A. Heat
Flux in Lake Mendota. Limnology
and Oceanography, 7(1), 80. 1962.
13 Duttweiler, D.W. A Mathematical
Model of Stream Temperature. Thesis ,
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14 Edinger, J.E. Heat Exchange in the
Environment. Johns Hopkins
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15 Edinger, J. E. and Geyer, J. C. Heat
Exchange in the Environment. Cooling
Water Studies for Edison Electric
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16 Fleuret, J. Computer Techniques for
Estimation of the Cooling Capacity of
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Combined Energy-Budget and Mass-
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1963.
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Barrett, M. J. A Preliminary
Temperature Survey of a Heated
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W.Q.ph. 5.8.70
30-1
-------
Water Temperature and Prediction - Bibliography
19 Gameson, et al. Effects of Heated
Discharges on the Temperature of the
Thames Estuary. Parts I and II,
Combustion. 1960 and 1961.
20 Garrison, J.M. and Elder, R.A.
A Verified Rational Approach to the
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21 Goubet, A. Influence des Centrales
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22 Goubet, A. Problemes Poses Par L.a
Refrigeration Naturefle Des Cours
D’Eau. Electricite de France, Paris,
France. 1966.
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Plants by Transfer Across Water
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24 Halleaux, G. Etude due Profil Thermique
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282. 1953.
26 Harbeck, G.E., Jr. Water Loss
Investigations Lake Mead Studies.
U. S. Geological Survey, Professional
Paper 298. 1958.
27 Harbeck, G.E., Jr. A Practical Field
Technique for Measuring Reservoir
Evaporation Utilizing Mass Transfer
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Hughes, G. H. The Effects of the
Addition of Heat from a Power Plant
on the Thermal Structure and
Evaporation of Lake Colorado City,
Texas. U. S. Geological Survey,
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of Selective Discharge from Lake
Roosevelt to Cool the Columbia River
Battelle Northwest Laboratory.
Report No. BNWL-208. February 1966.
30 Jaske, R.T. and Spurgeon, J.L.
A Special Case, Thermal Digital
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Wave Radiation from the Atmosphere
and Reflected Solar Radiation from a
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E L. The Effects of Pumped Storage
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30-2
-------
Water Temperature and Prediction - Bibliography
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Proceedings, 12th PaciSic Northwest
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40 Orlob, 0. T. A Mathematical Model of
Thermal Stratification in Deep
Reservoirs. Paper presented at the
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September 24, 1965.
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June 30, 1967.
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Water Temperature and Prediction - Bibliography
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R.A., Heilman, W. L. and Reynolds,
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Materials for this outline were taken from
“Thermal Pollution Status of the Art,
Frank L. Parker and Peter A. Krenkel,
authors.
60 Ward, J. C. Annual Variation of Stream
Temperature. Journal Sanitary
Engineering Division, American
Society of Civil Engineers.
December 1963.
This outline was prepared by James A.
Montgomery, Sanitary Engineer, Manpower
and Training, Pacific Northwest Water
Laboratory, Corvallis, OR.
30-4
-------
THERMA L POLLUTION CONTROL METHODS
I INTRODUCTION
Nationally, thermal pollution has become an
increasingly important topic for conside ration
in water management and pollution control
circles. With the approval of State-Federal
water quality standards, the criteria and
implementation plans for control of waste
heat discharges have been established.
This outline will consider several of the
accepted methods now being used to control
thermal pollution.
II CONTROL IN INDUSTRY
A Industrial process changes to reduce
waste heat production.
Efficiency gains in fossil-fueled, steam-
electric stations have reduced their waste
heat discharge rate by approximately
one-half over the past 30 years. Such
gains have been accomplished through a
number of refinements in the plant itself
arid in operating conditions, which increases
the overall plant thermal efficiency by
reducing the amount of heat entrained in
the exhaust steam The refinements that
have been developed include the followingS
1 Increasing steam pressure- - elevating
the steam pressure at the turbine
entrance reduces exhaust heat by
varying increments, but in general a
100 psi pressure increase will reduce
exhaust heat per unit of electricity by
0. 4%.
2 Superheating steam- -steam generated
in the boiler is heated even more in a
superheat section of the furnace Each
50°F additional temperature rise
reduces exhaust heat per unit of
electricity by about 1 4%.
3 Reheating steam- -after the steam has
passed through the high-pressure turbine
section it is returned to the furnace
reheat section to absorb additional heat
energy. Again, each 500F increase
here reduces exhaust heat per unit of
electricity by about 1 4%.
4 Boiler feedwater heating--a portion of
the steam is withdrawn before it reaches
the final turbine exhaust, thereby
eliminating its passage through the
condenser. This steam is utilized to
increase the temperature of water
entering the boiler. Feedwater heating
can reduce exhaust heat up to 37% per
unit of electricity, depending on the
number of heaters used
5 Reducing exhaust pressure--the
pressure in the condenser is transmitted
to the turbine exhaust, i e , turbine
backpressure. This pressure influences
heat rejection to the extent that each
1 psi reduction in pressure reduces
exhaust heat per unit of electricity by
25%.
Modern power plants are designed to
make use of these efficiency refine-
ments as much as possible. Through
such techniques, new fossil-fueled
plants attain efficiencies near 40%,
nuclear-fueled plants about 33%
B Development of new methods of power
generation producing less waste heat
production.
Generating processes are more efficient
today than they were 25 to 30 years ago,
but they are still not good enough Today,
we use about 10, 000 BTU’s to produce one
kwhr, on the average, compared with
16, 500 BTU’s per kwhr in 1938 Some
highly efficient new plants are down to
8, 900 BTU’s per kwhr, but this is still
only 38 2% efficiency The Federal
Power Commission suggests that average
heat rates of 8, 500 BTU’s per kwhr are
likely by 1980. While this would reduce
thermal pollution by almost 20%, it still
means only 40. 2% efficiency At best,
WP. TH. 4.8.70
31-1
-------
Thermal Pollution Control Methods
then, by 1980, 60% of the heat from a coal-
fired plant will be wasted and will have to
be put to other uses or dissipated.
New and non-polluting methods of power
generation are being intensively researched.
High temperature gas turbine-blade cooling
could result in a 50% reduction of the cooling
waters required Electrogasdynamics,
magnetohydrodynamics, and the rmionic
power generation, if they can be developed
economically, could greatly reduce our
water- and air-pollution problems. Fuel
cells and thermal electrical systems which
do not require steam cycles for power
generation also are being studied and
present hope for the future
1 Gas turbines- -air is taken from the
atmosphere, compressed, and sub-
sequently burned with a liquid or gaseous
fuel. The re suiting high-temperature,
high-pressure gases expand through a power
turbine and theLl exit to the atmosphere.
Today’s gas turbine efficiencies of less
than 25% are not competitive for power
production on a large scale, although
some relatively small turbines are
being used for standby and peaking
operation Future development may
achieve higher operating temperatures
and increased air flow, which in turn
would increase efficiency to a level near
that of fossil-fueled steam plants.
Heat exhausted from gas turbines might
possibly be put to use in a conventional
steam-electric plant Such a com-
bination would reduce the waste heat
discharge rate, although cooling water
would still be used.
2 Fuel cells- -fuel cells are somewhat
similar to conventional storage
batteries in that they consist of two
electrodes separated by an electrolyte.
The fuel cell does not contain a store
of energy, it generates current as long
as fuel and oxidant supply chemical
energy for conversion to electricity.
Individual fuel cells produce very small
quantities of power. Hence, thousands
of cells would have to be connected in
groups to increase power output to a
level which would permit large-scale
production Predicted eventual
efficiencies of 50 to 85% is a further
attribute of the fuel cell system
3 Magrietohydrodynamics (MHD)
generators--MHD generators utilize
the principle of passing a conductor
through a magnetic field to produce
current. In this system the moving
conductor is an ionized gas. Very
high temperatures and gas velocities
must be maintained, which at the
present time presents some major
technical difficulties In theory, the
application of a MHD generator can be
visualized, possibly in combined
operation with a conventional steam
plant, but major advances in materials
must be achieved before the future of
MHD Power generation can be predicted
4 Nuclear fueled steam electric plants--
The principal advantage of nuclear fuel
is its tremendous energy density. One
ton of uranium has the energy potential
of three million tons of coals. Present-
day reactors convert only about 0 5%
of this energy to usable heat, i.e.,
combustion efficiency is 0.5%. Advanced
reactor design, i e., breeder types,
will convert much more energy into a
useful form However, while advanced
designs will improve fuel consumption,
they will not necessarily increase the
thermal efficiency to reduce waste heat
in steam-electric plant operation.
Reduction of waste heat output from
nuclear plants will depend on develop-
ment of advanced converters which
will allow higher operating temperatures.
Such converters will employ a reactor
coolant other than water in the primary
flow loop, which circulates fluid through
the reactor core for heat absorbtion.
The heat is then transferred to steam
through a heat exchange process in a
steam generator Systems of this type,
still in developmental stages, are using
fluids such as helium, liquid sodium or
liquid potassium for coolants. Reactor
outlet temperatures of over 10000 F are
possible.
31-2
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Thermal Pollution Control Methods
Because of the vast energy stores in
nuclear fuel, its utilization for power
production is inevitable For the next
15 to 20 years, the number of plants
in the 30% efficiency class will increase
rapidly, which indicates that more
efficient systems will surely lag behmd
our demands for power. This being the
case, our immediate efforts must focus
on waste heat utilization and dissipation
while technology is being developed for
more efficient power production methods.
C Waste Heat Energy Utilization
The optimum solution to problems
associated with waste heat disposal would
be the use of rejected heat for beneficial
purposes. When dealing with power plant
discharges, however, one is confronted
with immense quantities of water which
are of low quality when considered as a
heat source. Utilization of waste heat ui
this form is therefore restricted to only
a very few possible applications.
1 Agriculture--one potential for such
utilization is the farming of plants or
animals in fresh or salt water This
has already been successfully practiced
in Japan and elsewhere. Heated dis-
charges are used to enhance the
environment and mcrease production
of commercially valuable species such
as pompano, catfish, shrimp, oysters,
and scallops. Research, development,
and pilot studies are in progress to
determine the feasibility of such
cultivation in American waters.
Heated discharges may have application
in irrigating and creating controlled
environments for agricultural crops.
In this manner, growing seasons could
be lengthened in certain areas for
common crops, and subtropical or
tropical varieties might be produced
where they are not normally adaptable.
2 Commercial shipping- -some nuclear
plants could possthly be located to
provide beneficial use of heated dis-
charges in keeping shipping lanes free
from ice for extended seasons. The
recommendation for such application
to the St. Lawrence Seaway has been
proposed to extend the shipping season
to the end of December or even
January.
3 Recreation- -cooling water may provide
heat to warm swimming areas. Such
use should be guided by the National
Technical Advisory Committee on
Water Quality Criteria which recommends
“In primary contact recreation waters,
except where caused by natural con-
ditions, maximum water temperature
should not exceed 30°C (85° F).
4 Industrial utilization--perhaps the most
logical use for the waste heat is to plan
for its conversion into an inexpensive
energy source for satellite industries
that will be constructed simultaneously
with the power plant.
When there is rio longer any question
that the waste heat cannot be put into
the nearest body of water, then our
American industrial ingenuity will
certainly solve the problem of turning
this waste heat into an economic asset
that can be sold, rather than spend
millions of dollars for cooling towers
just to get rid of it.
Our industries are based on the use of
energy, vast sums of money are spent
for it Why not surround the power
plant with new industry and bring about
the development of nuclear- -industrial
parks 9 Why not computerize the
planning of entire industrial complexes
based on a nuclear power center instead
of our present disorganized approach to
industrial siting 9 We may stand on the
brink of a modern mdustrial revolution
which could be triggered by the absurd
fact that fish can’t stand heat
D Alternative methods to thermal discharge
or waste heat utilization.
There are several methods providing air-
water contact for removal of waste heat
from water through evaporation and/or
conduction-convection As water is
31-3
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Thermal Pollution control Methods
vaporized, heat is consumed at the rate
of approximately 1000 BTU per pound of
water evaporated About 75% of heat loss
from cooling is accomplished through
evaporation. The remainder is accomplished
through conduction- convection losses.
The different types of cooling devices now
being utilized include the followmg
1 Cooling ponds- -the cooling pond is the
simplest and most economical method
of water-cooling (assuming land is
inexpensive and available), however,
it is also the most inefficient It may
be constructed simply by erecting an
earth dike 6 to 8 feet high and may
operate for extended periods with rio
makeup water
Its main disadvantages are the low heat-
transfer rate and the large areas
required For a still pond, the heat
dissipated averages 3 5 BTU/hr/ft 2
surface/degree temperature difference
between pond surface and air
2 Spray ponds- -cooling can be accelerated
in a pond by introducing the warm water
through a spray system located 6 to 8 feet
above the water surface Such a system
may reduce the required pond surface
area by a factor of 20 through increased
cooling efficiency This advantageous
savings in land area may be negated
through spray system cost, pumping
costs, and increased water loss with
its associated problems
Spray ponds may handle as much as
120, 000 gpm of water and their low
head requirements result in lower
pumping costs than for cooling towers.
Performance is limited, however, by
the relatively short contact time of air
and water spray. Also, impurities may
easily enter the system Properly
designed spray ponds may produce over-
all cooling efficiencies up to 60%.
(Figure 1)
3 Cooling towers--the terminology
applied to the many versions of cooling
towers stems from basic differences
in design or operation which serve to
categorize the types
A tower may be either “wet or “dry,
depending on whether water is exposed
directly to the air, “natural draft” or
“mechanical draft,” depending on
whether fans are employed for air
movement, “cross-flow” or “counter-
flow,” depending on horizontal or
vertical air flow through the heat
transfer section of the tower. In
mechanical draft towers, air flow can
be either “forced, “ i e , pushed
through by fan on bottom, or “induced,”
i e., pulled through by fan on top.
See Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
illustrating these different types of
cooling towers
a Mechanical draft towers --as
implied, the mechanical draft tower
utilizes fans to move the air through
the tower. Thus no dependence is
placed on natural draft, or wind
velocity The arrangement of the
fans dictates the method in which
the air is moved through the system,
each arrangement havmg certain
advantages and disadvantages.
$ : ; i;,’ t ‘ ‘ i, ”
MRIJ
WATER IN I•
SPRAY POND
I ifll I I
AIR OUT
31-4
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Thermal Pollution Control Methods
AIR OUT
)>)) ))) >>)))>))Y>)
:,
.- ‘!ic’ ‘ “
WATER
IN —-: ___
WATERL
_ ±
OUT ___________
FORCED DRAFT TOWER
, PACKING
L__ FAN
AIR
INDUCED DRAFT CROSSFLOW TOWER
FIGURE 3
IN
PACKING
IN
FIGURE 2
AIR OUT
AIR
WAlE
OUT
31—5
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Thermal Pollution control Methods
AIR OUT
WATER OUT
ftO
NG
INDUCED DRAFT COLJNTERFLOW TOWER
FIGURE 4
WATER IN —
AIRIN , ttt ,
WATER OUT
SPRAY•FILLEO NATURAL DRAFT CROSSFLOW TOWER
FIGURE 5
AIR OUT
WATER IN
AIR IN
31-6
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Thermal Pollution Control Methods
WATER OUT
PACKING
AIR OUT
PACKED NATURAL DRAFT CROSSFLOW TOWER
FIGURE 6
‘ J AIR OUT
AIR IN PACKING
>>)))>>)) /‘
IN
WATER
OUT
1... WATER
IN
HYPERBOLIC TOWER
FIGURE 7
WATER IN
31—7
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Thermal Pollution Control Methods
4 44 AIR OUT
WATER OUT
I
COOLER
SECTION
DRY, INDUCED AIR FLQ W
MECHANICAL-DRAFT TOWER
FIGURE 8
F A N
WATER IN
=
—r—
i!r
]I L
T
.....L
I 1p
I I
I I
AIR
I
1
AIR IN
31-8
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Thermal Pollution Control Methods
b Natural draft or atmospheric towers- -
an atmospheric tower implies that
air movement through the tower is
only dependent on atmospheric con-
ditions. A spray-filled tower depends
solely on spray nozzles for increasing
the air-water interface, while the
packed tower sprays the water over
filling or packing. The packed tower
is no longer common, however.
Atmospheric spray towers are of the
simplest design and may cool up to
1.5 gpm of water per square foot of
active horizontal area with the wind
blowing at 5 MPH (Marks, 1963).
Their advantages include no mechanical
parts, low maintenance costs, no
subjectivity to recirculation of used
air, and long, trouble-free life.
Disadvantages include high initial
cost (approximately identical to a
mechanical-draft tower), high
pumping head, location in an
unobstructed area, required great
length because of rather narrow con-
struction, high wind losses, and
nozzle clogging. This design is well
suited for small operations, however.
c The chimney or hyperbolic towers- -
the hyperbolic tower operates similar
to a huge chimney the heavier out-
side air enters at the tower base,
displaces the lighter, saturated air
in the tower, and forces it out the
top The initial cost is higher, but
it is balanced against savings in
power, longer life, and less main-
tenance. Their operation is counter-
current, they can cope with large
water loads, and they require a
relatively small area.
These towers will probably become
common in the United States as the
cooling-tower requirements expand.
d The dry-cooling tower--the dry-
cooling tower is not an evaporative
cooling device, instead, it cools
fluids by forcing or inducing
atmospheric air across a coiled
cross-section. They eliminate
water problems, such as availability,
chemical treatment, water pollution,
and spray nuisance, and there is no
upper ].imit to which air can be
heated.
However, the dry-cooling tower is
much less economical than an
evaporative cooling device, the
specific heat of air is only one
fourth that of water, and main-
tenance costs are high
Thus, the cost of dry-cooling towers
is presently thought to be prohibitive
for most installations, even though
many conservationists believe these
are the only answer to the thermal.-
pollution problem.
UI FIELD CONTROL METHODS
A Logging Operations- -measurements of
summer temperatures in small streams
flowing through logged and unlogged
forest areas show water temperature
increases of 14-160 F in the unprotected
stream Temperature increases of this
magnitude produce stream temperatures
which are far in excess of optimum and
are even in the range of temperatures
known to be damaging to resident and
anadromous fish which spawn, grow,
and migrate in the small forest streams.
Such increased temperatures make
possible the rapid growth of trash fish,
slime bacteria, and algae.
Soil erosion on, and logging debris from,
roads, landings, skidways, and slopes
disturbed by yarding activities during a
logging operation can also seriously affect
streams. Much of this damage can be
prevented by using all reasonable means
and alternatives that will keep every road
and logging activity as far from the stream
courses as possible.
B Agriculture- -clearing of fields to the
water’s edge exposes the stream to the
full impact of heating by the sun with
resulting increases in water temperatures.
31-9
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Thermal Pollution Control Methods
Therefore, leave buffer strips of native
vegetation, incluthng an overhead canopy,
between cleared fields and any perennial
streams they parallel. Bulfer strips not
only reduce the quantity of sediment and
pesticide and fertilizer drainage that reach
the streams, but also help prevent stream
water temperature increases and loss of
natural stream beauty Thus, they assist
with the preservation of water quality and
the attainment of temperature objectives
for fish management
IV SUMMARY
We see that there are methods available for
reducing or controlling thermal pollution
through process changes and the development
of new methods of power generation. The
advances that have been made, however, have
been slow in coming. Waste heat utilization,
therefore 1 takes on more and more importance
as it is obvious that water quality standards
set for interstate streams and coastal waters
can only be expected to become more stringent
in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
Material for this outline taken from the
following sources “Thermal Pollution,
1968, Part I, Hearings before the
Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution,”
“Thermal Pollution Status of the Art,” by
Frank L. Parker and Peter A. Krenkel,
“Industrial Waste Guide Logging Practices,”
February 1970, FWQA, “Biological Aspects
of Thermal Pollution,” Vanderbilt
University Press, 1968, by Frank L. Parker
and Peter A. Krenkel, “Engineering Aspects
of Thermal Pollution, “ Vanderbilt University
Press, 1969, by Frank L Parker and
Peter A. Krenkel, and “Industrial Waste
Guide on Thermal Pollution,” September
1968 (revised), FWQA.
This outline was prepared by James A.
Montgomery, Sanitary Engineer, River Basin
Planning, OWP, EPA, Washington,
D.C. 20242.
31-10
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