United States Environmental Monitoring EPA-600/9-78-025
Environmental Protection and Support Laboratory September 1978
Agency Cincinnati OH 45268
Research and Development
Viruses in
Renovated,
Other Waters
stracts
0.
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EPA-600/9-78-025
September 1978
VIRUSES IN WASTE,
RENOVATED,
AND OTHER WATERS
Editor: Gerald Berg, Ph. D.
Editorial Assistant: F. Dianne White
1977
BIOLOGICAL METHODS BRANCH
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND SUPPORT LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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AUTHOR AND SUBJECT INDEXES
VIRUSES IN WASTE, RENOVATED, AND OTHER WATERS now contains
an Author Index and a Subject Index. Both listings may be found at the end of
this volume. The Greek letters that appear above each abstract are the coding
for the Subject Index. An explanation for their meanings is given on the first
page of that index.
DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Research Center-
Cincinnati, USEPA and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or
commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
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1977
VIRUSES IN WASTE. RENOVATED, AND OTHER WATERS
M
Akin, E. W., Jakubowski, W. Viruses in Finished Water: The Occoquan
Experience. In "Proceedings AWWA Water Quality Technology Confer-
ence," San Diego, California, December 1976. American Water Works
Association, Denver, Colorado (1977), 1-10.
During the summer of 1975, poliovirus 1 was recovered from three
finished water sites of the Occoquan Reservoir System (Virginia)
by a United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) contractor.
The authors of this paper argue that the viruses were contaminants
because coliform and viral counts at the System's water intakes were
not high, because free chlorine residuals of at least 1 to 2 mg/liter
had been maintained in the waters for many hours, and because a USEPA
laboratory had not recovered viruses from finished waters in a plant
where it had recovered 85 viruses from 100 gallons (378 liters) of intake
water.
TT 8
Appleton. H., Pereira, M. S. (1977). A Possible Virus Aetiology in Outbreaks of
Food-Poisoning From Cockles. LANCET, (8015):780-1.
Large numbers of small, round, virus-like particles were detected in the
feces of three patients with gastroenteritis suffered in an outbreak associated
with the consumption of cockles. The virus-like particles were similar
in size, morphology, and density to particles seen in outbreaks of winter
vomiting (WV) and non-bacterial gastroenteritis (NBG), although the
particles detected in the cockles outbreak appeared to be serologically
unrelated to the particles detected in the WV and NBG outbreaks.
No bacterial pathogens were recovered from the feces of patients or from
cockles.
X i M
Bagdasaryan, G. A., Nedachin, A. Y., Doskina, T. V. (1977). The Effect of
Chemicals on Some Microbial Self Purification Processes in Bodies of Water
GIG SANIT, 0(2): 104-6 Russian.
Enteric viruses were unaffected in a stream polluted by petroleum
wastes and by anion-active SPAV. The enteric viruses were recovered in equal
numbers where the domestic and industrial pollutants mixed and at points 1, 2,
and 3 days flow downstream. Coliphages were also unaffected by the industrial
1
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pollutants. Intestinal bacilli, however, were reduced in numbers by more than
99% after three days of flow.
Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus. present in the stream below the domestic
discharge, was undetectable in the domestic waste-industrial waste mixing
zone but was recovered 1, 2, and 3 days flow downstream in numbers equal to
those in the stream where only the domestic waste was present.
Coliphages appeared to be better indicators of enteric viruses than the
bacterial indicators in waters contaminated with the industrial pollutants.
v p .T
Balluz, S. A., Jones. H. H., Butler, M. (1 977). The Persistence ofPoliovirus in
Activated Sludge Treatment. J HYG, 78{2}:1 65-73.
About 85% of the poliovirus 1 seeded in a single dose or seeded contin-
uously into a model activated sludge treatment plant was associated with the
suspended solids of the sludge. Only small numbers of viruses were recovered
from the effluent.
The efficiency of the plant for removing the poliovirus was closely related
to the plant's capability for removing suspended solids.
7
Bates, R. C., Shaffer, P. T. B., Sutherland, S. M. (1977). Development of
Poliovirus Having Increased Resistance to Chlorine Inactivation. APPL
ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 34 (6):849 53.
Poliovirus 1 (LSc) virions that survived chlorination became increasingly
resistant to chlorine during repeated cycles of exposure to the halogen.
aft
Baylor, E. R., Baylor, M. B., Bianchard, D. C., Syzdek, L. D., Appel, C.
(1977). Virus Transfer from Surf to Wind. SCIENCE, 198(431 7):575-80,
Bubbles in the sea surf adsorbed and carried seeded coliphages T2 and T4
to the surface where they were propelled into the air on tiny jets of seawater
when the bubble burst. The ejected jets became tiny drops of aerosol.
The bubbles adsorption and phage concentration in the surf is analagous
to industrial bubble levitation processes that concentrate metallic ores,
enzymes, and finely divided organic crystals. Bubble levitation of phages
seeded into the surf produced 200 times more phages/ml in the aerosol than
there were in the surf.
Some aerosol drops created by the surf were carried by the wind and fell
out on the beach. The frequency of phage-bearing drops, as measured by the
number of plaques that developed on seeded plates exposed on the beach,
decreased exponentially with the distance downwind from the surf.
aft
Baylor, E. R., Peters, V., Baylor, M. B. (1977). Water-to-Air Transfer of Virus.
SCIENCE, 197(4305}:763-4.
Bubbles rising through suspensions of coliphages T2 and T4 and of
Escherichia coli adsorbed and ejected these particles in droplets that formed
when the bubbles burst.
Electron microscopy demonstrated that the concentration of the viruses in
ejected droplets exceeded the concentration in the suspension by 50-fold.
Similar results were obtained for E. coli.
Many of the adsorbed particles were viable.
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Bellelli, E. Bracchi, U., Sansebastiano, G. <1976). Research on the Water
Quality of the Taro River in the Section Between Fornovo and the River Mouth*
ATENEO PARMENSE, 1 2(3):21 3-38. Italian.
During a study on the water quality of the Taro River from December 1972
to November 1973, a reovirus 1 was recovered in December 1972 and a
poliovirus 1 was recovered in February 1 973. Salmonella were recovered at
the same time.
P v
Bertucci, J. J., Lue-Hing, C,, Zenz. D.. Sedita. S. J. (1977) Inactivation of
Viruses During Anaerobic Sludge Digestion. J WATER POLLUT CONTRL
FED, 49(7):1 642-51.
Coliphage MS2, poliovirus 1, coxsackievirus A9, coxsackievirus B4, and
echovirus 11 seeded into sludge digesting anaerobtcally at 35 C were
inactivated at average rates of 89%, 95%, 98%, 91%, and 54%/24 hours,
respectively.
A
Beytout, D., Charrier, F., Laveran, H., Monghal, M, (1977) Detection of
Small Amounts of Viruses (Enteroviruses) in Drinking Water. ANN
MICROBIOL, 128(2):255-62. French
From 23% to 80% of 60 PFU of enteroviruses seeded into30 litersof water
were recovered by adsorption of the viruses onto cellulose nitrate filters and
subsequent elution therefrom.
Only 10% of a seeded adenovirus was recovered with this technic.
X
Blawat, F., Potajallo, U., Dabrowski, J., Towianska. A., Jarnuszkiewicz, I.
(1976). Survival of Some Viruses in the Sea-Water Samples Collected from the
Gulf of Gdansk. Preliminary Studies. BULL INST MAR TROP MED GDYNIA,
27(3-4}:331-9.
In laboratory studies, poliovirus 1, adenovirus 5, and vaccinia virus seeded
into brackish waters from the Gulf of Gdansk survived for more than 60,50 and
35 days, respectively, at temperatures that fluctuated between 1.5 and 23.5 C.
From about 3 to about 60 TCDSo of the viruses/ml were still viable after these
periods,
The poliovirus, adenovirus, and vaccinia virus were seeded into the
brackish waters at concentrations of 10V" TCD50/ml, 104-' TCDso/ml, and
105-75 TCDso/ml, respectively.
Block, J.-C., Joret, J.-C, Hartemann, P., Schwartzbrod, L., Dixneuf, P.
(1977). Evaluation of the Alginate Membrane Filter Method for the Concen-
tration of Enteroviruses in Water. ZBL BAKT HYG, 165.471-7. German.
From 47 to 80% of poliovirus 1 seeded into synthetic waters were
recovered on alginate membranes. The efficiency of recovery of the seeded
virus from drinking water was about the same. Recoveries were higher in
drinking waters to which AIC!.i had been added, in a final concentration of
0.0005 M. The virus was recovered by dissolution of the membranes in sodium
citrate buffer. Statistical error in the tests was considerable.
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More recoveries of viruses were made from wastewaters by the alginate
membrane technic than by the direct inoculation technic.
Alginate membranes were brittle and filtration through them was slow
limiting the usefulness of the technic to small volumes of waters.
7 T
Boardman, G. D., Sproul, O. J. (1977). Protection of Viruses During
Disinfection by Adsorption to Paniculate Matter. J WATER POLLUTCONTRL
FED, 49(8):1857-61.
Coliphage T7 adsorbed or attached to kaolinite clay, hydrated aluminum
oxide, and calcium carbonate. Phages adsorbed to these paniculate systems
were not protected from inactivation in chlorinated waters. Thus, adsorption
of phages to exposed surfaces provided negligible protection from disinfection.
t n y
Brown, E. R., Sinclair, T., Keith, L., Beamer, P., Hazdra, J. J., Nair, V.,
Callaghan, O. (1977). Chemical Pollutants in Relation to Diseases in Fish
ANN NY ACAD SCI, 298:535 46.
Within a review of fish diseases in a clean and in a polluted water system, a
study is described in which fathead minnows were reared for 11 months in well
water, disinfected sewage effluent, and non-disinfected sewage effluent in
a treatment plant in Wyoming, Michigan. Six to seven times as many lesions
were found in the minnows reared in nondisinfected sewage effluent and in
chlorinated effluent than in minnows reared in well water. Fish reared in
dechlorinated chlorinated effluent, in ozonated effluent, and in effluents
disinfected with BrCI suffered two to four times as many lesions as the
minnows reared in well water did.
Polioviruses were recovered from the lower intestinal tracts of fish reared
in non-disinfected sewage effluents and in effluents disinfected with ozone
and BrCI.
f Ufl/ia
Bryan, F. L. (1977). Diseases Transmitted by Foods Contaminated by
Wastewater. J FOOD PROTECT, 40(1):45-56.
In a review of diseases transmitted by foods contaminated by wastewater,
the recovery and survival of pathogens in sewage and in soils and foods
contaminated by wastewater are extensively documented. Among the
pathogens included were hepatitis A virus and other viruses.
7T
Chassard-Bouchaud, C.. Hubert, M., Bonami, J.-R. (1976). Virology of
Invertebrates—Particles of Viral Nature Associated with the Y Organ of the
Crab Carcinus maenas. CR ACAD SCI, 282(1 6):1565-6. French.
Enveloped, ovoid, virus-like particles 150 to 170 nm long and 70 to 90 nm
wide were detected in the Y organ of the crab Carcinus maenas. Spikes on the
envelope measured 7 to 10 nm in length. The virus-like particles appeared to
form by budding through plasma membranes.
7T
Comps, M. M., Bonami, J.-R., Vago, C.. Campillo, A. (1976). Pathology of
Invertebrates. A Virus of Portuguese Oysters (Crassostrea angulata LMK) CR
ACAD SCI, 282(22): 1991-3. French.
Virions larger than poxviruses and iridoviruses were detected in
Portuguese oysters (Crassostrea angulata) that succumbed during an epizootic
-------
from 1970 to 1973. The capsids of the virions possessed cubic symmetry and
were enclosed in double membranes. The diameters of the viruses were about
350 nm.
rr
Comps, M. M., Duthoit, J.-L. (1976), Virus Infection with Gill
Disease of the Portuguese Oyster Crassostrea angulata, CR ACAD SCI,
283(14):1595-6. French.
Virus-like particles and lesions characterized by hypertrophy were
observed in Portuguese oysters with gill disease.
T) O
Cooper, R, C., Golueke, C. G. (1977). Public Health Aspects of On-Site Waste
Treatment COMPOST SCI, 18(3):8-11,
The hazard of viruses and other pathogens in human wastes is alluded to
within an extensive discussion of the risks and problems in disposing of
such wastes to the land.
7
Cottet, J. (1976). The Disinfection of Drinking Waters and Sewage by
UV Rays. L'EAU, 39(3-4):20. Translation presently not available. French
P X ° T
Damgaard-Larsen, S., Jensen, K. 0., Lund, E., Nissen, 8. (1977). Survival
and Movement of Enterovirus in Connection with Land Disposal of Sludges.
WATER RES, 11(6):503-8.
Coxsackievirus 63 and tritium were seeded into anaerobically digested
municipal sludges that were placed over sandy soil or clay in lysimeters in
Denmark. During a normal Danish winter, 23 weeks were required to
inactivate the 10* TCID5o of viruses that had been seeded into each gram of
sludge. The virus did not penetrate either the soil or clay.
Three hundred mm of rain fell during the December to May period of the
study.
X
Denis, F. A., Dupuis, T., Denis, N. A., Brisou, J. F. (1977). Survival in
Seawater of 20 Strains of DNA and RNA Viruses. J FRAN HYDROL, 8(22):
25-36 French.
In laboratory studies, 99% of seeded poliovirus 2 was destroyed in natural
•seawater in 24 days at 4 C and in six hours at 22 C. For 99% destruction of the
poliovirus in synthetic, filtered, and autoclaved sea water at 4 C, 380 to 450
days were required.
With other strains of polioviruses, up to 72 days were required for 99%
destruction in natural seawater at 4 C. In natural seawater at 4 C, echovirus 6
required 120 days for 99% destruction, echovirus 30 required 96 days,
herpesviruses and poxviruses only 1 to 12 days. Survivals were usually much
longer in autoclaved seawater.
Biological factors probably play an important rote in the destruction of
viruses in seawater.
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7T
Di Girolamo, R., Liston, J., Matches, J. (1977). Ionic Bonding, the
Mechanism of Viral Uptake by Shellfish Mucus. APPL ENVIRON
MICROBIOL, 33{1) 19-25
Studies in which secreted shellfish mucus was selectively degraded, and
carboxyl and sulfate groups on the mucus were chemically blocked indicated
that virions attached to mucus primarily by ionic bonding to sulfate radicals on
the mucopolysaccharide moieties of the mucus.
Drapeau, A. J., Hoang Van, H., Dumoulin, P. P. (1976). Techniques for
Concentrating Viruses from Water Treated for Public Distribution. AN NEE
BIOL. 15(11-12):486-518. French
The methods available for detecting viruses in water are extensively
reviewed and discussed.
Drozdov, S. G., Kazantseva, V. A. (1977). Significance of Virological
Examinations of Sewage: Comparison of Isolations of Enteroviruses from
Sewage and from Feces of Virus Carriers. VOPR VIRUSOL. 5(9-10):
597-602. Russian.
When an enterovirus was excreted by 1 0% of the children in a community,
that virus was usually recovered from the sewage of the community.
Enteroviruses recovered from only occasional excretors were not detected
in sewage.
P v
Eisenhardt, A., Lund, E., Nissen, B. (1977). The Effect of Sludge Digestion
on Virus Infectivity. WATER RES, 1 1(7):579-81.
Coxsackievirus B3 seeded into raw sewage sludge was destroyed at a rate
of 99%/24 hours in an anaerobic sludge digester with a 35-day detention time
maintained at 35 C. The pH of the sludge was about 7. The digester was fed
daily.
e
Elliott, L. F., Ellis, J. R., (1977). Bacterial and Viral Pathogens Associated with
Land Application of Organic Wastes. J ENVIRON QUAL. 6(3):245-51.
The hazards of discharging to the land raw and treated sewages that
contain viruses and pathogenic bacteria are reviewed and discussed.
a i ju
Fannin. K. F., Gannon, J. J., Cochran. K. W., Spendlove, J. C. (1977). Field
Studies on Coliphages and Coliforms as Indicators of Airborne Animal Viral
Contamination from Wastewater Treatment Facilities. WATER RES. 11(2):
181-8.
Activated sludge and trickling filter effluents contained about 100 PFU of
viruses/liter when assayed on Buffalo Green Monkey (BGM) cells, about
400,000 PFU of coliphages/liter and 2,000,000,000 CFU of total coliforms/
liter. No airborne animal viruses were recovered with large-volume air
samplers, but airborne coliphages collected with such samplers ranged in
numbers from 23 to 30 MPIM/m3 of air. Anderson samplers recovered 21 0 CFU
of total coliforms/m' of aerosol.
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Ratios of coliphages to animal viruses in effluents indicated that
wastewater treatment plants were continuous sources of small numbers of
animal viruses in aerosols.
Coliphages are more stable than coliforms in the airborne state and may
be better indicators of airborne viruses than coliforms.
A.
Farrah, S. R.. Gerba. C. P.. Goyal. S. M., Wallis, C., Melnick, J. L. (1977).
Regeneration of Pleated Filters Used to Concentrate Enteroviruses from Large
Volumes of Tap Water. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 33(2):308-11.
Pleated epoxy-fiberglass cartridge filters that concentrate enteroviruses
from volumes of more than 2,000 liters of tap water were regenerated by
treatment with 0.1 N NaOH or by autoclaving. The regenerated filters regained
their ability to concentrate viruses from water at high flow rates.
A
Farrah. S. R., Goyal, S. M., Gerba. C. P.. Wallis. C.. Melnick, J. L. (1977).
Concentration of Enteroviruses from Estuarine Water. APPL ENVIRON
MICROBIOL. 33{5):1192-6.
Poliovirus 1 seeded into 400 liters of estuarine water was recovered on
pleated, epoxy-fiberglass cartridge filters. Adsorption was accomplished at pH
3.5 in the presence of 0.0015 M AICI3. The cartridge filters had a porosity
of 0.45 ^m. Adsorbed viruses were eluted from the filters with three liters of
glycine buffer, pH 11.5. Seventy percent of the seeded viruses were recovered.
Eluates from estuarine waters that contained large amounts of organic
compounds could not be reconcentrated by filter adsorption-elution technics.
Thus, viruses in three liters of filter eluate were adsorbed to aluminum
hydroxide floes and then eluted in 150 ml of buffered fetal calf serum.
Further reductions in volume were achieved by ultrafiltration or by
hydroextraction. With these procedures, 60 to 80% of the viruses
in three liters of filter eluate were recovered in a final volume of 10 to 40 ml.
Fattai, B., Katzenelson, E,, Hostovsky, T., Shuval, H. I. (1977). Comparison
of Adsorption-Elution Methods for Concentration and Detection of Viruses in
Water. WATER RES, 11<11):955-8.
Seventy-seven percent of an attenuated strain of poliovirus 1 seeded into a
20-liter quantity of Jerusalem tap water was recovered by the membrane-
adsorption technic when the adsorbed virions were eluted with 3% beef
extract. Sixty-five percent of the virus was recovered by the same technic with
high pH elution, 70% with the PE60 method, and 50% with the AI(OH)3 method.
When domestic raw sewage that contained enteroviruses was seeded into
20-liter quantities of tap water, all of the viruses were quantitatively recovered
by the membrane adsorption technic when the adsorbed virions were eluted
with 3% beef extract. Eighty percent of the virions were recovered by the PE60
technic, 67% by the membrane adsorption technic with high pH elution, and
40% by the AI(OH)3 technic.
Seeding concentrations ranged from 160 to 3,300 PFU with the poliovirus
and 12 to 472 PFU with the enteroviruses in sewage.
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n
Fattal, B., Nishmi, M. (1977). Enterovirus Types in Israel Sewage.
WATER RES, 11{4):393-6.
Enteroviruses were recovered from sewage in communities in Israel by
the grab sample and gauze pad technics. Of 489 viruses recovered
from sewage by the picked plaque method during 1968 to 1970, 74% were
polioviruses, 10% were coxsackievirus B, coxsackievirus A9, or echovirus 9,
and 16% were other enteroviruses.
f 6
Feachem, R. G. (1977). Infectious Disease Related to Water Supply and
Excreta Disposal Facilities. AMBIO, 6(1):55-8.
Some viruses transmitted by water or transmitted under conditions of poor
hygiene are discussed within a broad review and discussion of diseases
associated with water sources and feces disposal.
Renters. J. D., Reed, J. M. (1 977). Viruses in Water Supply. J AMER WATER
WORKS ASSN, 69(6):328-31.
The methods used for recovering viruses from water are reviewed and
discussed.
Floyd, R., Sharp, D. G., (1977). Aggregation of Poliovirus and Reovirus by
Dilution in Water. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL 33(1): 159-67.
When diluted 10-fold into distilled water from a little-aggregated stock
(in 0.05 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.2, and 22% to 30% sucrose), poliovirus 1 and
reovirus 3 aggregated into clumps of up to several hundred particles. The
reovirus also aggregated when diluted into phosphate-buffered saline. The
aggregations were concentration-dependent and did not occur when either
viruses was diluted 100-fold or greater into water.
The aggregation of the poliovirus was reversed by sufficient dilution in
saline. The aggregation of the reoviruses was not. Both viruses aggregated
when diluted into buffers at pH 5 and 3, and the poliovirus aggregated at pH 6.
Aggregation of both viruses reversed at pH 7.
Aggregation did not occur at alkaline pH levels, and aggregation at low pH
could be prevented by sodium or magnesium ions. Neither ion caused
aggregation of either virus at pH 7. Calcium ions, however, at a concentration
of 0.01 M, aggregated both viruses.
The initial concentrations of viruses in the preparations used in this study
ranged from about 10'" to 1012 virions/ml.
Foster, D. H., Engelbrecht, R. S., Snoeyink, V. L. (1 977). Application of Weak
Base Ion-Exchange Resins for Removal of Proteins. ENVIRON SCI & TECHN,
A phenol-formaldehyde synthetic resin (Diamond Shamrock Duolite A-7)
adsorbed coliphage MS2 from wastewater, but the effectiveness of the sorbent
resin was significantly reduced by organics in the wastewater that competed
with the viruses for adsorption sites on the resin.
8
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A r
Gerba, C. P., Smith, E. M., Melnick, J, L. (1977). Development of a
Quantitative Method for Detecting Enteroviruses in Estuarine Sediments
APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 34(2):1 58 63.
Seeded poliovirus 1 adsorbed readily to natural marine sediments
collected along the Texas Gulf coast and was eluted f rom sediments with 10%
fetal calf serum and 0.01 M ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) in 0.25 M
glycine buffer, pH 10.5. Sixty percent of the seeded viruses were recovered.
Because the calf serum eluate could not be reconcentrated, large volumes
of sediment were eluated with 0.05 M EDTA in 0.25 M glycine buffer, pH 11.5,
and the eluate was reconcentrated by membrane filtration at pH 3.5 in the
presence of 0.06 M AlCd. The final volume of eluate was 30 to 50 ml.
Fifty percent of the seeded polioviruses were recovered from the sediment with
this technic.
7
Gerba, C. P., Wallis, C., Melnick, J. L. (1977). Application of Photodynamic
Oxidation to the Disinfection of Tapwater, Seawater, and Sewage
Contaminated with Poliovirus. PHOTOCHEM PHOTOBIOL, 26(5):499-504.
Poliovirusl (LSc), seeded into tapwater, sewage, or seawater, was
inactivated by visible light after sensitization by methylene blue. At pH 10,
almost 2.5 logs of the virus were inactivated in 5 minutes by 670 nm light
(20 W/nr) in waters that contained 13 ^M of methylene blue. The virus had
been sensitized in the dark to the dye for 24 hours before it was exposed to the
light.
The inactivation curves for the virus were of the multi-hit type regardless of
dye concentration, pH, temperature, sensitization time, nature of suspending
solution, or sequence of exposure to light.
Preincubation of the dye-virus mixture in the dark at 24 C increased the
rate of subsequent photoinactivation of the virus. Dye concentrations above
26 /^M did not substantially increase the rate of photoinactivation.
Significant inactivation of the virus in the dark occured at high dye concen-
trations.
7
Gerba. C. P., Wallis, C., Melnick, J. L. (1977). Disinfection of Wastewater
by Photodynamic Oxidation. J WATER POLLUT CONTRL FED 49(4)
575-83.
After sensitization in the dark for four hours by 1 mg/liter of methylene
blue at pH 10, more than eight log units of a coliform bacterium seeded into
wastewater were destroyed by exposure for 1 minute to 2,000 /iW of light/cm2
at a wavelength of 670 nm. In similar circumstances, seeded poliovirus 1 (LSc)
was destroyed more slowly. Sensitized in the dark by 5 mg/liter of methylene
blue at pH 10 for 24 hours, two log units of the poliovirus were destroyed in
about 5 minutes by exposure to the same quantity of 670 nm light.
The effectiveness of methylene blue as a light-sensitizing agent increased
with increasing pH, apparently because methylene blue ionizes as pH declines.
The inactivating effect of the light increased with longer periods of sensiti-
zation, with higher concentrations of methylene blue, and with higher
temperatures.
At the dye concentrations studied, methylene blue alone destroyed the
coliforms during the sensitization period but not the poliovirus.
Methylene blue combines with DNA in the dark and oxidizes and disrupts it
upon exposure to 670 nm tight. In procaryotes, metabolic enzymes may be
destroyed also.
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v y
Goncharuk, E. I., Koganovsky, A. M., Girin, V. IM., Salata, O. V. (1976).
Hygienic Assessment of Tertiary Adsorption Treatment of Domestic Sewage
and Industrial Effluent. GIG SANIT, 0{11):36-9. Russian.
In laboratory studies with virus- and pathogenic bacteria-seeded
biologically-treated sewage effluents, activated carbon removed 98.8% of
attenuated poliovirus 2, 97% of coxsackievirus B6, 96% of coliphage 12, and
about 99% of Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella sonnet, and Escherichia coli
0-111.
All of the seeded bacteria in the carbon-treated tertiary effluents were
destroyed within 30 minutes by 1.5 to 2 mg of chlorine/liter. Destruction of all
of the viruses in the effluents required chlorine dose-time couplings of
5 mg/liter and two hours or 10 mg/liter and 30 minutes.
AM
Grigoreva, L. V., Korchak, G. I. (1977). Methods for the Concentration
of Viruses in Water. GIG SANIT, 0(6):62-4. Russian.
Poliovirus 1 seeded into tap water was recovered on gauze pads and then
concentrated by adsorption onto and elution from polyacrylamide. In this
two-step method, elution was accomplished with 0.5 M phosphate buffer.
In wastewaters, twice as many viruses were recovered with this two-step
procedure as with a one-step procedure in which the virus was concentrated by
adsorption to and elution from anionite AV-17.
Bacteriophage M1S2 was concentrated from seeded tap waters by these
methods also.
v
Guy, M. D., Mclver, J.D., Lewis, M.J. (1977). The Removal of Virus by a Pilot
Treatment Plant. WATER RES, 11(5):421-8.
In a pilot water treatment plant, flocculation with 40 mg of Fe2{SO,»)3/liter
and sedimentation removed from 93% to >99.7% of indigenous phages,
seeded vaccine strains of polioviruses 1, 2, and 3, and seeded coliphage T4.
The rapid sand filter and the activated carbon column each removed about
78% of seeded viruses, but were about half as efficient after they were
backwashed. Viruses were not recovered from final effluents that contained a
free chlorine residual of 0.4 mg/liter.
The total plant was capable of removing >99.9995% of influent viruses.
n IJL
Harshbarger, J. C., Chang, S. C., Otto, S, V. (1977). Chlamydiae (with
Phages), Mycoplasmas, and Rickettsiae in Chesapeake Bay Bivalves
SCIENCE, 196(4290) 666 8
Intracytoplasmic Chlamydia-\\ke organisms, some with phages,
Rickettsia-\\ke organisms, and Mycoplasma-\\ke organisms have been
detected by electron microscopy in clams and oysters harvested from
Chesapeake Bay waters.
None of these organisms have been detected before in mollusks, nor have
phages been .detected before in chlamydiae.
10
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(Id
Heinz, F., Bindas, B.r tervenka, P., Zdebska, E. (1976). Epidemics of
Swimming Pool Conjunctivitis Caused by Adenovirus Type 3. CS EPIDEMIOL
25(6):321 5 Czechoslovakian.
An epidemic of adenovirus 3 conjunctivitis occured in swimmers during a
swimmer training course in a school at Vsetin. Morethan48%of thechildrenin
the training course fell ill with conjunctivitis and acute respiratory disease.
n i v
Hoehn, R. C., Randall, C. W., Bell, F. A., Jr., Shaffer, P. T. B. (1977).
Trihalomethanes and Viruses in a Water Supply, J ENVIRON ENGIN DIV
ASCE, 103:£E5:803-14
Poliovirus 1 was recovered from finished waters of the Occoquan system.
Two recoveries of viruses were made at the water treatment plant, and
two recoveries were made at sampling locations in the distribution
system. Each recovery was made on a different day during the summer of
1975.
Poliovirus 1 was also recovered from the raw waters at the water intakes of
the treatment plant and from the stream above and below the intakes. Total
coliform counts at these sampling locations ranged from 130 to 7,900/100 ml.
All of the polioviruses were virulent by marker tests.
The viruses were recovered from waters concentrated on filters by the
Baylor concentrator technic and detected in BGM and in primary monkey
kidney cells.
The finished waters from which viruses were recovered had undergone
coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and chlorination to a total chlorine
residual (mostly free) of 1.3 to 1.7 mg/liter.
Trihalomethanes, mostly chloroform, were formed during chlorination of
finished waters. Discharge of chlorinated sewage did not alter appreciably the
trichloromethane concentration of the receiving tributary.
f 7T 6
Hughes, J. M., Merson, M. H., Gangarosa, E, J. (1977). The Safety of Eating
Shellfish. J AMER MED ASSN, 237(18):1980-1
The transmission of hepatitis A by the consumption of uncooked and
partially cooked bivalve shellfish isdiscussed within a broad review of shellfish-
transmitted disease.
v
lostovetskii, Y. K., Tolstopyatova. G. V., Chudova, I. G., Yerusalimskaya,
L. F., Didertko, O. V., Radzanovskii, A. A. (1977). Sanitary Evaluation of
Effectiveness of Urban Sewage Purification in Oxidation Ponds GIG SANIT
0(1 ):81 -5. Russian.
In the winter, the number of total coliforms, all bacteria (total counts),
and bacteriophage were almost as high in the effluents of oxidation ponds as in
the influents. However, the numbers of enterococci were about 90% lower in
the effluents than in the influents.
In the summer, total coliform numbers and total counts were about ten
times higher in the effluents than in the influents, but the numbers of
bacteriophages were three times higher in the influents than in the effluents.
Enteric viruses were also present in the effluents.
11
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X
Katzenelson, E. (1976). A Rapid Method for Quantitative Assay of Poliovirus'
from Water with the Aid of the Fluorescent Antibody Technique ARCH
VIROL, 50197-206.
Fluoresceinisothiocyanate-labeled gamma globulin preparations
(adsorbed with Vero cell powder) mixed with rhodamine-labeled bovine
albumin stained poliovirus 1 -infected BGM cells that had been washed with
acetone.
Stained single infected cells fiuorescing green against a background of
reddish brown-rhodamine-stained normal cells were distinguishable nine
hours after infection indicating that bursts had occured ending the first cycle
of infection. Counts of fluorescent centers 1 8 to 20 hours after infection were
similar in numbers to plaque counts, but counts of centers nine hours after
infection were somewhat lower. Moreover, distinguishing non-specific
fluorescence was difficult with nine-hour stainings.
Plaque counts of poliovirus 1 recovered from seeded tap water gave a fair
correlation with fluorescent center counts, with the plaque counts tending to
be higher.
Contamination of the cultures was a lesser problem with the shorter-
incubation fluorescence technic than with the plaque technic.
With improvement in the quality of the labeled gamma globulin
preparations, the 1 8 to 20 hour incubation period needed for the fluorescence
technic, already several days shorter than that needed for plaque assay, may
be reducible to nine hours.
Katzenelson, E. (1977). Concentration and Identification of Viruses from
Sea Water. REV INT OCEANOGR MED, 48:9-16.
Methods for recovering viruses from saline waters are reviewed within a
discussion of the problem of viruses in seawater.
X
Kokina, A. G., Lukashevich, N. A., Novitskaya, N. V., (1977). Effect of
Chemical and Microbiological Quality of Groundwater on the Survival of
E ntero viruses and Enterobacteria. GIG SANIT. 0(5):111-3. Russian.
In waters from clean and contaminated wells, echovirus 7 survived for up
to 66 days at 20 C and for up to 1 1 3 days at 1 0 C. Coxsackievirus B3 survived
almost as long, but poliovirus 1 (LSc) survived only about half as long as the
echovirus survived.
Escherichia coli survived for up to 76 days at 10C in these well waters and
for up to 57 days at 20 C. Under similar conditions, Salmonella typhi survived
for at least half as long, but Shigella sonne and Shigelta flexneri usually
survived for only six or seven days at both temperatures.
The viruses had been seeded into the well waters at concentrations of
2 x 104 TCDM)/fiter. The bacteria had been seeded at concentrations of 105
CPU/liter.
Konowalchuk, J., Speirs, J. I. (1977). Virus Detection on Grapes CAN J
MICROBIOL, 23(9):1301 3.
Poliovirus 1 and coxsackievirus B5 inoculated into grapes were recovered
equally well by washes in water, 0.5% polyethylene glycol, and phosphate-
12
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buffered saline that contained 1% serum.
Many of the viruses in the water wash were noninfective untiltreated with
0.5% polyethylene glycol.
i v x
Kott, Y. (1977). Some Thoughts Concerning Water Pollution Indicators
ISREAL J MED SCI, 13{6):646
Coliphages may serve as indicators of enteric viruses in waste and other
waters. Coliphages are present in waste and other waters in which human
enteric viruses are present and in numbers at least equal to the numbers
of enteric viruses present. Coliphages are more resistant to chlorine
than enteroviruses. Coliphages persist in sand columns for months
longer than poliovirus 1 does. During several breakdowns in water supply
treatment systems, 10 to 1,000 times more coliphages than enteroviruses
were recovered from these systems.
v
Lance. J. C., Gerba, C. P. (1977). Nitrogen. Phosphate and Virus Removal
from Sewage Water During Land Filtration. PROG IN WATER TECHNOL
9(1):157-66.
Most of the poliovirus 1 (LSc) seeded into secondary sewage effluents was
removed in the top few centimeters of a column of loamy sand from the dry
Salt River bed near Phoenix. Few of the viruses were detected in the column
below the 160 cm depth.
Most of the nitrogen and phosphorus in the sewage was also removed by
the column,
See in 1976 Literature Abstracts: Lance, J. C., Gerba, C. P. Melnick, J. L.
(1976). Virus Movement in Soil Columns Flooded with Secondary Sewage
Effluent. APPL MICROBIOL, 32(4):520-6.
X
Lepakhina, N. K. (1977). Concentration of Poliovirus and Coliphages on
Ion-Exchange Resins. GIG SANIT, 0(2):56-9. Russian.
Polioviruses and coliphages were concentrated from waters by anionic-
exchange resins designated AV-17-IK, AV-17-8, AN-22D, and AN-31G. The
effective resins for this purpose were AV-17-1K and AN-31G. The optimal pH
range for concentrating the viruses on the resins was 5.5 to 6.5. The addition
of 10 gm of CaCI2 to each liter of test water increased the numbers of viruses
adsorbed to the resins.
Concentration of viruses was most effectively achieved from volumes of at
least three liters of water and from waters that did not contain heavy organic
loadings.
The viruses were eluted from the resins with an elutant that contained
beef extract and 10% bovine serum in Earles' balanced solution, pH 8.2.
Bacteriophages were concentrated somewhat less effectively than
polioviruses were.
Lo. S. H., Sproul, O. J. (1977). Polio-Virus Adsorption from Water Onto
Silicate Minerals. WATER RES. 11(8):653-8.
In batch studies, from 64 x 10" to 89 x 104 PFU of poliovirus 1 was
adsorbed/mg of the silicate minerals actinolite, enstatite, kyanite, microcline,
olivine and sillimonite. In a continuous flow column, microcline was equally
13
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effective. Extraneous organic matter competed for adsorption sites and also
desorbed the virus. Under groundwater flow conditions, the virus broke
through the column more rapidly when the virus was adsorbed from a
secondary effluent than when it was adsorbed from a clean water.
X
Mahnel, H., Otlis, K., Herlyn, M. (1977). Stability in Drinking and Surface
Water of Nine Virus Species from Different Genera. ZBL BAKT HYG
164(1-2):64-84. German.
At 9 C, with initial virus concentrations of about 10" infectious units/ml,
Teschen, vaccina, reovirus, HCC, and Newcastle disease viruses survived
in natural waters for more than 200 days. Under similar conditions, foot and
mouth disease, Aujeszky, vesicular stomatitis, and Sindbis viruses survived for
20 to 50 days.
It is probable that in natural waters with small amounts of viruses present
initially, even among the labile togaviruses, herpesviruses, rhabdovtruses,
and the pH labile picornaviruses, some virions remain infective for some days.
Paramyxoviruses may remain infective for weeks. None of these viruses,
however, are important contaminants of water.
Very stable viruses such as enteroviruses, reoviruses, adenoviruses and
poxviruses may remain viable for weeks to months. Of these only poxviruses
are not important contaminants of water.
Water hardness, pH, and a number of other factors did not affect the
survival of these viruses. However, viruses were more stable at lower
temperatures than at higher temperatures.
AM
Main!, P., Piva, I. (1977). Isolation of Viruses from Urban (Ferrara) Sewage
Comparison of Methods. BOLL ISTSIEROTER MILAN, 56(3):201-5. Italian.
The aluminum hydroxide procedure was significantly better than the
polymer two-phase separation, cellulose membrane filtration, and direct
inoculation procedures for recovering viruses from raw sewage. Viruses were
recovered on Vero and HEP2 cells. The two-phase separation procedure was
about equal to the direct inoculation method. No recoveries of viruses were
made on membrane filters (Sartorius SM113) at pH 3 in the presence of MgCI2.
All viruses recovered were adenoviruses.
H v y
Malakhova, T. S. (1977). Presence of Enteroviruses in Sewage After Purifi-
cation. MIKROBIOLZH, 39(2):228-9. Ukrainian.
From 1972 to 1975 in the Ukraine, enteroviruses were recovered from 86
(17.6%) of 486 sewage samples studied. Enteroviruses were also recovered
from sewage in a treatment plant at all stages of treatment and after
chlorination.
Maximum numbers of virus recoveries were made between June and
November.
Malakhova, T. S., Leibenzon, A. S. (1977). Sanitary Virological Study of
Dnieper River Water in the Region of a Drinking Water Supply Intake. GIG
SANIT, 0(6):62-4. Translation presently not available. Russian.
14
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Melnick, J. L., Gerba, C., Wallis. C. (1977). Viruses in Water: Growing
Urgency of the Problem and Approaches to its Resolution. VESTN AKAD MED
NAUK SSR, 0(6) 70 5. Russian.
The problems of viruses in water and wastewater and the removal of
viruses from the environment by treatment processes are extensively
reviewed.
P X °
Moore, B. E.. Sagik. B. P., Sorber, C. A. An Assessment of Potential
Health Risks Associated with Land Disposal of Residual Sludges. In "Sludge
Management Disposal and Utilization," Proceedings of the Third National
Conference on Sludge Management Disposal and Utilization. Information
Transfer Inc., Rockville. Maryland (1977), 108-12.
More than 90% of the enteroviruses in activated sludge mixed liquors are
solids-associated. Enteroviruses seeded into raw or digested sludges are
inactivated at a rate of approximately 90%/24 hours when the temperature is
in the range of 25 to 35 C.
There seems to be an optimal moisture content in soil that favors virus
survival. Viruses do not survive as long in dry soils as in soils with moisture
contents of 15 to 25%.
Viruses adsorbed to soils are released during distilled water washes as
cation concentrations are reduced.
Muzychuk, N. I.. Vorobeva. A. M., Kulskij, L. A., Matskevich, E. S. (1977)
On the Problem of Intensifying Action of the Electric Field in the Processes of
Water Disinfection. DOPOV AKAD NAUK UKR, 0(8):750-3 Ukrainian.
Viruses and bacteria in autoclaved tap water were destroyed by cations in
an electric field generated between two graphite electrodes 40 mm apart.
In an electrical field of thirty V/cm, at a current of 280 mA, 0.5 mg of AgV
liter or 9.8 mg La'Vliter destroyed 54% of coxsackievirus A21,56% of coxsack-
ievirus B6, 78% of poliovirus 2, and 99% of coliphage T2 in three minutes.
Escherichia coli, Shigella sonnei, andSalmonellatyphimurium were destroyed
more rapidly. Resistance of the viruses and bacteria to the cations in the
electric field decreased in the following order: coxsackievirus A21> coxsack-
ievirus B6> coliphage T2>£". coli>S. sonnei>S. typhimurium.
Cff2, Co*2, Mn+2, Nat2, Znt2 were also microbicidal in the electric field.
Direct current was more effective than alternating current.
X *
Nagel. R., Straub. O. C., Strauch, D. (1976). The Rotating Aeration (System
FUCHSjfor Treatment of Liquid Animal and Municipal Wastes. 6 Preliminary
Investigations on the Effect of Aerobic Treatment of Pig Slurry Containing a
Bovine Enterovirus. BERL MUNCH TIERAERZTL WOCHENSCHR. 89(22):
443-5. German.
A bovine enterovirus(CBV-D) seeded into a pig slurry in a concentration of
102-' TCDjo/ml survived in a rotating aeration system for 30 hours at pH 6.6
and temperatures up to 48 C and for 22 hours at pH 9.2 and temperatures up to
30 C.
Within a glass ampule, the virus survived even longer under otherwise
similar conditions.
15
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fj.
Nestor, I., Costin, L, Sovrea, D., lonescu, N. (1977). Enterov/ruses in
Roman/an Zones of the Danube and Black Sea. VIROLOGIE, 28(3):207-12.
Polioviruses 1 and 2 and a coxsackievirus A were recovered from five of 33
water and sand samples collected along the coast of the Black Sea during the
summer of I975. All of the polioviruses were vaccine-like. Water samples were
collected by the high-volume gauze pad technic.
Because there were no sewage discharges in the area and because the
number of viruses recovered from the Danube, which empties into the Black
Sea in this area, was small, the source of the viruses was believed to be bathers
in the area.
O'Brien R. T., Newman, J. S. (1977). Inactivation of Polioviruses and
Coxsack'ieviruses in Surface Water. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 33(2):
334-40.
In studies with membrane dialysis chambers immersed in the Rio Grande
(23 to 27 C), 90% mactivation of poliovirus 1, poliovirus 3, and coxsackievirus
A1 3 occurred in 25, 1 9, and 7 hours, respectively. At 4 to 8 C, 90% inactivation
of poliovirus 1 and coxsackievirus B1 occurred in 46 and 58 hours, respectively.
Studies with labeled poliovirus 1 and labeled coxsackievirus B1 and with
infectious viral RNA indicated that inactivation of these viruses was brought
about by damage to the viral RNA.
Throughout the year, inactivation of viruses occurred more rapidly in
natural Rio Grande water than in heat-sterilized Rio Grande water.
Oza, P. P., Chaudhuri, M. (1976). Virus-Coal Sorption Interaction. J ENVI-
RON ENGIN DIV, ASCE, 102:EE6:1 255-62.
Bituminous coal adsorbed seeded coliphage MS2 from water. Adsorption
of viruses increased with increasing ionic strength and temperature, and
decreased with increasing pH. The adsorption of viruses to the coal was
consistant with the Langmuir equation and with irreversible second-order
reaction kinetics. Adsorption of viruses to coal involved a specific interaction,
presumedly hydrogen bonding, between the surface functional groups on the
virus and the exterior surface of the coal.
Oza, P. P., Chaudhuri, M. (1977). Some Notes on Virus Sorption on Coat. J
GEN APPL MICROBIOL, 23(1):1 6
Coals with greater ratios of hydrogen to carbon (H/C) and hydrogen to
oxygen (H/O) adsorbed greater numbers of the RNA-containmg coliphage MS2
than coals with smaller H/C and H/O ratios. Bituminous Giridih coal, with
relatively high H/C and H/O ratios, was more adsorptive than Churcha and
Neyveli coals with relatively low H/C and H/O ratios.
In the presence of albumin, a competitor for adsorption sites, the numbers
of coliphages adsorbed to Giridih coal were reduced. Wastewater components
and the DNA-containing coliphage T4 similarly interfered with the adsorption
of MS2 to the coal.
MS2 apparently adsorbed to bacteria, where these were present, and
many of the bacteria adsorbed to the coal.
In column studies, Giridih coal removed more of the coliphages as column
height increased and more efficiently as loadings of the phage decreased.
16
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n
Primrose, S. B., Day, M. (1977). Rapid Concentration of Bacteriophagesfrom
Aquatic Habitats. J APPL BACTERIOL, 42(3):417-21
Five different coliphages seeded into water were adsorbed by filtration
onto hydroxylapatite (CaHPO4) and eluted with 0.8 M sodium phosphate buffer,
pH 7.2. Recovery efficiencies ranged from 33% to 90%.
With this technic, 70 different phages were recovered from river waters.
f 8 6
Ramzin, S. K. (1975). Protection of the Water from Virus Contamination.
VODOPRIVREDA, 7(36-7):36-47 Yugoslavian.
The diseases associated with enteroviruses of man, the nature of those
viruses, the epidemiology of hepatitis A and other infectious diseases
(especially of viral etiology} in Yugoslavia and Serbia, and the need for good
sewage treatment, especially disinfection, are reviewed.
v K
Rao, V. C., Lakhe, S. B., Waghmare, S. V., Dube, P. (1 977). Virus Removal in
Activated-Sludge Sewage Treatment. PROG IN WATER TECHNOL,
9:113-27.
From 1 972 to I974, in the tropical environment of Bombay, India, primary
settling removed 29%, 65%, 52%, and 64% of the viruses in sewage during the
monsoon, autumn, winter, and summer seasons, respectively. During these
periods, the total removal of viruses by primary settling and the activated
sludge process averaged 97%, 94%, 97%, and 97%, respectively.
Composites of hourly grab samples collected from 7 AM to 1 2 noon were
processed on the same day or on two successive days (blending and centrifu-
gation on the first day and pH adjustment, centrifugation, filtration, and elution
on the second day}, and, with no loss of viruses, the eluates were stored for up
to seven days in the refrigerator before they were assayed for viruses.
y
Rogers, M. R., Kaplan, A. M., Vitaliano, J. J., Pillion, E, (1977), Military
Individual and Small Group Water Disinfecting Systems: An Assessment.
MILITARY MED, 141{4);268-77.
The usefulness of Globaline (buffered tetraglycine hydroperiodide) as a
water disinfectant is reviewed.
When dissolved in water, Globaline releases h slowly into solution.
Elemental iodine, and its hydrolysis product HOI, are rapid bactericides and
virucides.
Globaline, long used as a canteen disinfectant by the military, is also used
today by campers and travelers.
pc
Ruschi, A., Matteucci, D. (1975). Search for Cytopathic Viruses in Surface
and Coastal Sea Water in the Province of Pisa, Italy. RIV ITAL IG, 35(4-6):
103-9. Italian.
Twenty-six percent of the samples from the Serchio River, 46% from the
Morto River, 60% from the Arno River, and 65% from seawater collected near a
sewage outfall yielded viruses in one or more different cell lines. Echoviruses,
adenoviruses, polioviruses, and group A and B coxsackieviruses were
recovered. The polioviruses recovered appeared to be of vaccine origin.
17
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Saleh. F. A. (1977). Recovery and Susceptibility Patterns of Faecal$\rep\.ococc\
Bacteriophages. WATER RES, 11(4).403-9.
Nineteen of 20 sewage samples yielded at least one phage type on primary
enrichment medium that contained MgSO4 and L-tryptophan.
Host range studies for 1 6 phage types showed that phages that attacked
Streptococcus faecalis and its two variants did not attack S fecium, S. bovis or
S. equinus.
-.
Sarrette, B. A.r Danglot, C. D., Vilagines, R. (1977), A New and Simple
Method for Recuperation of Enteroviruses from Water. WATER RES, 11(4):
355-8.
The pH of ten liters of water seeded with 1 to 104 PFU of poliovirus 1
(LSc 2ab)/liter was adjusted with HCI to 3.5, and the water was injected under
low pressure (0.15 bar) into the bottom of a column that contained 5 gm of
powdered glass. The rate of flow of the water upward was adjusted to enable
the powdered glass to remain in dynamic suspension. The polioviruses that
adsorbed to the powdered glass were eluted with 50 ml of glycine buffer, pH
1 1.5 and thereby concentrated 200-fold. The recovery efficiency was 40% to
60% and did not depend upon the initial concentration of the virus inthe water.
.
Sattar, S. A.. Westwood, J. C. N. (1977). Isolation of Apparently Wild Strains
of Poliovirus Type 7 from Sewage in the Ottawa Area. CAN MED ASSN J,
In the first four months of 1974, viruses were recovered on BSC1 cells
from 1 1 1 (79%) of 1 40 gauze pad samples collected in the Ottawa area. Of the
72 (65%) isolates identified by serology and electron microscopy, 56 (78%)
were reoviruses and 16 (22%) enteroviruses. The enteroviruses recovered
included one coxsackievirus B4, one vaccine strain of poliovirus 3, nine vaccine
strains of poliovirus 1, and five strains of poliovirus 1 that were different
from vaccine strains serologically and by temperature marker tests. That
these strains were present in sewage when the immunity in the community
against polioviruses was declining was a cause for concern.
a
Schaub, S. A., Sorber, C. A. (1977). Virus and Bacteria Removal from Waste-
water by Rapid Infiltration Through Soil. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 33(3):
609-19.
Together with a front of percolating primary effluent, tracer coliphage f2
penetrated the unconsolidated silty sand and gravel of a rapid infiltration land
wastewater application site and into groundwater. The site had been in
continuous operation for more than 30 years. The phage did not concentrate on
the upper soil layers.
The concentration of tracer phage in a 60-foot-(about 18.3-m-) deep
observation well directly beneath the wastewater application area began to
increase within 48 hours after the tracer was applied to the soil. The concen-
tration of tracer phage in this well stabilized after 72 hours at a level of
approximately 47% of the average applied concentration. Enteroviruses
indigenous to the effluent and tracer coliphage f2 were detected in the ground-
water sporadically at a horizontal distance of 600 feet (about 1 83 m) from the
application zone.
18
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Soil adsorption studies in the laboratory confirmed the poor adsorption of
viruses noted at the site. This was especially true of surface soils seeded with
wastewater.
Enteric indicator bacteria concentrated on the surface of the soil mat.
However, some fecal streptococci that penetrated through the surface mat
migrated into the groundwater and were detected at the same locations as the
tracer phage and enteric viruses.
A
Schwartzbrod, L, Block, J.-C., Dixneuf, P.. Schwartzbrod, J.. Brochet,
J. C. (1975). Concentration of Viruses in Water by the Polymer Two Phase
System: Quantitative Study. CR SEANCES SOC BIOL FIL, 169(3}:641-4.
French.
More than 75% of a poliovirus seeded into water was recovered with the
polymer two-phase system. Usually, all of the viruses were recovered when
about 100 infective doses of the virus were seeded into one liter of water.
When greater numbers of infective doses were seeded into water, the
efficiency of recovery with the polymer two-phase system diminished.
Sedita, S. J., O'Brien, P., Bertucci, J. J., Lue-Hing, C., Zenz, D. R. Public
Health Aspects of Digested Sludge Utilization. In "Land as a Waste Manage-
ment Alternative," edited by R. C. Loehr. Ann Arbor Science Publishers,
Ann Arbor, Michigan (1977), 391-410.
Anaerobically digested sludge (4% solids} from the Greater Chicago area
is stored in holding basins and, primarily from April through October, applied
to the land by spray or by incorporation into the soil. Corn is grown on most of
the land.
Monthly tests for viruses showed annual averages that ranged from about
10 to several hundred infective doses of viruses/4 liters on a stream above the
disposal site, 5 to 70 infective doses/4 liters on the same stream below the site,
and 3 to 10 infective doses/4 liters at a reservoir that drained the application
site. The numbers of infective doses of viruses recovered did not correlate well
with the numbers of fecal coliforms, total coliforms, or fecal streptococci
recovered.
Viruses were recovered on primary rhesus monkey kidney cells or on BGM
cells from 4-liter samples of water by the aluminum hydroxide or PE60technic.
The data were interpreted to mean that disposal of digested sludges to the
land posed no health hazard from viruses.
Shaffer, P. T. B., Meierer, R. E., McGee, C. D. (1977). Virus Recovery from
Natural Water. J AMER WATER WORKS ASSN, 69(10) 528-31 .
The methods for recovering viruses from water are reviewed.
v n
Slade. J. S. (1977). Enteroviruses in Partially Purified Water. J INST WATER
ENGRS & SCIENTISTS, 31(3}:219-24.
During the spring of 1 975, reservoir storage, practiced by the Metropolitan
Water Division of the Thames Water Authority brought about a marked
reduction in the levels of viruses in the stored water, but significant numbers of
viruses survived this treatment.
19
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A
Sobsey, M. D., Gerba, C. P. Wallis, C., Melnick, J. L. (1 977). Concentration
of Enteroviruses from Large Volumes of Turbid Estuary Water CAN J
MICROBIOL, 23(6):770-8.
Seeded enteroviruses were recovered from 50-gaflon (about 190-liter)
quantities of turbid estuarine water by adsorption of the viruses onto 10-inch
(about 25.4 cm) fiberglass depth cartridge and 2- and 0.65-jum epoxy-fiberglass
filters arranged in series. The pH of the water was adjusted to 3.5, and AICI,
was added to a molarity of 0.0005 before the water was filtered.
Adsorbed viruses were eluted from the filters with basic glycine buffer
(pH 1 1.5), and the eluate was reconcentrated in a precipitate formed by the
addition of FeCI.,. The viruses were eluted from the precipitate with fetal calf
serum.
The concentration factor was 9,000 to 1 2,000. The efficiency of concen-
tration was 41%.
y T
Stagg, C. H.. Wallis, C., Ward, C. H. (1977). Inactivation of Clay-Associated
Bacteriophage MS-2 by Chlorine. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL 33(2)
385-91.
Freely suspended bacteriophage MS2 was inactivated by HOCI twice as
quickly as MS2 adsorbed to bentonite.
The titer of unadsorbed viruses, clay concentration, cation concentration,
temperature, stirring rate, and soluble organics affected the rate and extent of
adsorption of the phage to the bentonite. The adsorption rate constant varied
with stirring speed indicating that adsorption of the phage was a diffusion-
limited process; the adsorption reaction had an apparent activation energy of
1 kcal/mo1.
y tt
Stanley. J. L., Cannon, R. E. (1977). Serological Typing and Chlorination
Resistance of Wastewater Cyanophages. J WATER POLLUT CONTRL FED
49(9):1 993-9.
A serological survey of Lyngbya-Phormidium-Plectonema (LPP)-
attacking cyanophages at the North Buffalo Creek Sewage Treatment Plant in
Greensboro, North Carolina showed that LPP-2 cyanophages predominated
9:1 over LPP-1 cyanophages.
In wastewater, combined chlorine residuals of 2.5 mg/liter inactivated
99% of stock strains of both LPP-1 and LPP-2 cyanophages in 17 minutes.
Cyanophages recovered at the wastewater treatment plant were substantially
more resistant to combined chlorine than laboratory strains of LPP-1 and
LPP-2.
Steinmann, J. (1977). Detection of Viruses in Water of the Baltic Sea. ZBL
BAKT HYG, 1 64(5-6):492-7 Translation presently not available. German.
P X ^
Subrahmanyan, T. P. (1977). Persistence of Enteroviruses in Sewage Sludoe
BULL WLD HLTH ORG, 55<4):431 -4.
Thirty-two percent of the poliovirus 1 homogenized into digested sludge
was eluted with Earles' balanced salt solution (EBSS), pH 9.5. Recoveries in
EBSS were lower at lower pH levels.
20
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Enteroviruses seeded into sewage sludges at concentrations of several
hundred to several thousand/ml (polioviruses 1 and 3, coxsackieviruses A9
and B2, B4, and B5, and echoviruses 6 and 9) survived for many weeks at room
temperature.
The viruses in sewage sludges destined for land application should be
inactivated before the sludges are discharged to the land.
f 7 A v
Symons, G. E., Henderson, K. W. (1977). Disinfection—Where are We?
J AMER WATER WORKS ASSN, 69(3):148-54
Within a general review of the status of drinking water disinfection, the
need for better methods for detecting viruses in waters is underscored, and the
effectiveness of water treatment procedures and disinfection for removing and
destroying viruses in water are discussed.
X
Tama'si, G. (1977). Studies on Microbiological Control of Liquid Manure
Handling. WATER AIR SOIL POLLUT. 8(2): 165 70.
Seeded into a filtered, sterilized pig manure extract, an echovirus survived
for one week at 20 C and for six weeks at 4 C.
At both temperatures, seeded Escherichia coli and staphylococci
survived for one week and aerobic spore formers for more than 30 days.
Seeded lactobacilli survived for 3 and 13 days, and salmonellae for
4 and 28 days at 4 and 20 C, respectively.
The numbers of viruses and bacteria seeded were not given.
M
Thraenhart, O., Kuweit, E., Worringen, W, (1 977). Poliomyelitis Surveillance
in an Urban Population of the Ruhr Valley (Essen) by Virological Studies of
Sewage. ZBL BAKT HYG, 164{4):328-39. German.
Laboratory-adapted wild-type poliovirus strains were readily detected by
the monkey stable (MS) cell market test in each of 30 mixtures of different
virus types and strains. The wild-type polioviruses were detected in only 22 of
the 30 mixtures by the ret marker.
Replication kinetics of wild-type and vaccine strains of polioviruses in
secondary monkey kidney cells and in MS cells were strain specific. This
allowed tentative strain differentiations after two days of incubation.
In a field study, sewage was collected weekly over a five-month period at
nine different points from the sewers of a large urban community (290,000
people). During this time no wild-type polioviruses were recovered, and no
cases of poliomyelitis occurred.
£ P X
Tierney, J. T., Sullivan, R., Larkin, E. P. {1977). Persistence of Poliovirus 1 in
Soil and on Vegetables Grown in Soil Previously Flooded with Inoculated
Sewage Sludge or Effluent. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 33(1):109-13.
Lettuce and radishes were planted in soil flooded with poliovirus 1 -seeded
sludge or effluent either one day before the planting or three days afterward.
The poliovirus was detected up to 96 days after flooding during the winter
months and up to 11 days after flooding during the summer months.
Poliovirus 1 was recovered from mature vegetables 23 days after flooding
of the plots had ceased. Lettuce and radishes are usually harvested three to
four weeks after planting.
21
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y <•
Tifft, E. C., Moffa,P. E., Richardson, S. L, Field, R. I. (1977). Enhancement
of High-Rate Disinfection by Sequential Addition of Chlorine and Chlorine
Dioxide. J WATER POLLUT CONTRL FED, 49(7): 1652-8.
Application of 25 mg of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI)/liter or 12 mg of
chlorine dioxide (CIOi)/liter to combined wastewater overflows reduced the
numbers of indicator bacteria and viruses to levels acceptable for discharge to
recreational waters.
Twelve mg of Ct02/liter destroyed 99.99% of seeded poliovirus 1 in 2
minutes. Coliphage f2 and tf»x 174 were destroyed by CI02 even more rapidly.
NaOCI, as applied, destroyed the phages a little more slowly than the CIO2 did.
A 12 mg/liter-2 minute CICVtime coupling destroyed 99.9996% of total
coliforms. Fecal streptococci were destroyed less rapidly by the same
concentration-time coupling. NaOCI, as applied, destroyed both indicator
bacteria more slowly than the CIO: did.
Applied sequentially at 15- to 30-second intervals, 8 mg of the NaOCI/
liter and 2 mg of CIO2/liter destroyed more bacteria in two minutes than
corresponding single-stage disinfection data predicted. This effect may have
been brought about by an interaction between the two disinfectants.
Tyrrell. D. A. J. (1977). Some Health Hazards Associated with Agricultural
Improvements, PROG R SOC LONO, 199(1134):33-5.
The hazards of transmitting viruses and other pathogens in crops irrigated
with feces are discussed.
66
Vili'm, V., Pesek, J., Brejcha, O., Zakova, M., Jindra, J.,Pruchova,M. (1977).
Viral Hepatitis A—Water Epidemic in a Bungalow Community. CESK
EPIDEMIOL MIKROBIOL IMUNOL, 26(1) 46-51. Czechoslovakia!!.
In August and September 1975, 24 adults and children became ill with
hepatitis A in a recreational community in Cernovice. A total of 180 people
resided in the community. All of the patients were negative for HBsAg.
The index case appeared to be a child who during the incubation period
resided in a bungalow from which sewage penetrated into a well. A tracer
experiment with NaCI indicated waterborne transmission from the well.
Closure of the well terminated the epidemic.
Walter, R., Riidiger, S. (1977). Studies on the Occurrence of Viruses in
Ground Water. Z GESAMTE HYG, 23(7):461-3. German.
Eight of 62 samples collected between August 1974 and February 1975
from a ground water source for a large water supply system contained viruses.
Fourteen MPNCU of viruses were recovered from 10 liters of one of the
samples of water. Echoviruses 3, 6, and 30. coxsackieviruses B1, 84, and B5,
and several unidentified viruses were recovered. Viruses were also recovered
from surface water samples.
Viruses were concentrated from 10-liter samples of water by flocculation
with Al2(S04b and recovered in FL cells.
22
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p A 7
Ward, R. L. Inactivation of Enteric Viruses in Wastewater Sludge. In "Sludge
Management Disposal and Utilization," Proceedings of the Third National
Conference on Sludge Management Disposal and Utilization. Information
Transfer Inc., Rockville, Maryland (1977), 138-41.
Large numbers of poliovirus 1 were mixed with raw sludge for 15 minutes
and subsequently recovered by sonication of the sludge in sodium dodecyl
suifate. The efficiency of recovery was 100%.
Ammonia (NH}) appeared to be the only important agent in raw or digested
sludges that inactivated poliovirus 1 at pH levels between 4.5 and 9.5. Polio-
virus 2, coxsackieviruses A13 and B1, and echovirus 11 were also inactivated
quickly by NH.,. In 0.5 M NH4CI solution (pH 9.5), >99.9999% of these viruses
were inactivated at 21 C in 24 hours. Only 97% of reovirus 1 was inactivated
under similar conditions.
NH/ was not virucidal.
Digested sludge contained ammonia (NH, + NH/) at a 0.055 M concen-
tration. The pH of raw sludge was about 6. The pH of anaerobically digested
sludge was about 9.
At pH 7, more than 99% of ammonia exists as NH/. At pH 8, 5% occurs as
NH3, at pH 9, 41% is NH3, and at pH 10, 87% is NH,.
Elevating the pH levels of sludges may significantly reduce the virus
populations in those sludges.
P y
Ward, R. L. (1977). Inactivation of Poliovirus in Wastewater Sludge with
Radiation and Thermoradiation. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 33(5);
1218-9.
Sludge protected poliovirus 1 (CHAT) against heat and against ionizing
radiation. The heat-sparing protection of the sludge increased with increasing
solids concentration to a threshold solids level of a little under 1%.
Applied simultaneously, heat and gamma radiation destroyed the polio-
virus more rapidly than the same exposure to heat and radiation separately.
P y
Ward, R. L., Ashley, C. S. (1977). Discovery of an Agent in Wastewater
Sludge That Reduces the Heat Required to Inactivate Reovirus. APPL
ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 34(6):681-8.
A natural component in raw and in anaerobically digested sludges
increased the rate at which reovirus 3 (Dearing) was destroyed by heat. This
component was associated with sludge solids, but could be washed from these
solids with water.
The activity of the sludge component was greater in alkaline solutions than
in acid solutions, probably because it was insoluble at low pH. The component
was nonvolatile and heat-stable at 300 C, but it was inactivated within 30
minutes at 400 C. The rate of inactivation of the reovirus by heat in the
presence of the sludge component was rapid, even at 35 C.
The sludge component did not affect inactivation of poliovirus 1 (CHAT) by
heat.
23
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p y
Ward, R. L, Ashley, C. S. (1977). Identification of the Virucidal Agent in
Wastewater Sludge. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 33(4):860-4.
The NHi in anaerobically digested sludge irreversibly inactivates polio-
viruses and other picornaviruses. Reoviruses are resistant to NH3.
Because NH3 is not virucidal in its charged state, it has little activity at
pH values lower than eight. Increasing the pH of sludge, therefore, should
bring about rapid inactivation of indigenous picornaviruses.
P 7
Ward, R. L., Ashley, C. S. (1977). Inactivation of Enteric Viruses in Waste-
water Sludge Through Dewatering by Evaporation. APPL ENVIRON
MICROBIOL, 34{5}:564-70.
The infectivity of poliovirus 1 (CHAT) seeded into sludge gradually
decreased with loss of water from the sludge until the solids content reached
about 65%. With an increase in the solids content from 65% to 83%, a decrease
in virus numbers of more than three orders of magnitude occurred. This loss of
infectivity was irreversible because viral particles released RNA. The RNA was
extensively degraded.
Viral inactivation may have been brought about by the evaporation process
itself. Similar effects on poliovirus particles occurred in distilled water after
loss of some water by evaporation.
Coxsackievirus B1 and reovirus 3 were also inactivated in sludge under
evaporation.
Dewatering by evaporation may be a feasible method for inactivating
enteric viruses in sludge.
y
Young, D. C., Johnson, J. D., Sharp, D. G. (1977). The Complex Reaction
Kinetics of ECHO-1 Virus with Chlorine in Water. PROC SOC EXPER BIOL
MED, 156{3):496-9.
A small fraction of the virions in a monodispersed suspension of echovirus
1 (Farouk) was briefly more resistant than the remainder of the virions to
hypochlorous acid (HOC!). This resistant fraction was genetically homo-
geneous with the total population.
The resistant virions may possess a capsid conformation different from
that of the capsids of most of the virion population, a conformation that may
slow the penetration of the HOCI into the capsid.
y
Young, D. C., Sharp, D. G. (1977). Poliovirus Aggregates and Their Survival
in Water. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL. 33(1 ):168-77.
Inactivation of aggregated poliovirus 1 by bromine was characterized by a
continuously decreasing reaction rate.
Polioviruses released from infected cells by alternate freezing and thawing
in water without electrolytes were aggregated. The aggregates persisted even
on 7,000-fold dilution in ion-free water. Virions released from infected cells
into phosphate-buffered saline solution were well dispersed, but aggregated
when sedimented in a salt-free sucrose gradient or when diluted as little as
10-fold in water. Dispersed virions diluted in water in one large step remained
dispersed.
Aggregated virions diluted in one large step (7,000-fold) in distilled or in
untreated lake water did not disperse. Aggregated virions did disperse in one
24
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such large step dilution in phosphate-buffered saline or in clarified secondary
sewage effluent. Dispersed virions aggregated at all dilutions in alum-treated,
finished water from a city filter plant perhaps as a result of complex formation
with insoluble material rather than by virion-virion aggregation.
A simple rate-zonal centrifugation procedure (with different concen-
trations of sucrose set in colored layers) is described for rendering a very dilute
suspension of mixed virion aggregates into a three-part spectrum of sizes.
Zdrazilek, J., Sramova, H., Hoffmanova, V. (1977). Comparison of Poliovirus
Detection in Sewage and Stoo/Samples; A Study in a Creche in the Third Week
After Vaccination. INT J EPIDEMIOL, 6{2):169-72.
In the third week after the vaccination of children with live attenuated
poliovirus 1 (March 1975) and after the same interval following vaccination
with polioviruses 2 and 3 combined (May 1975), corresponding poliovirus types
were detected in stool samples and in sewage. Sewage was sampled by the
gauze pad technic. The study was done in a Prague creche.
Polioviruses were detected in sewage when they were excreted by
approximately 1% of persons in the sewer catchment area of the small
community.
y
Zotova, V. I.. Doskina. T. V. (1977). Effect of Ultrasonics on the Chforination of
Viruses in Tap Water. GIG SANIT. 0(9):99-100. Russian.
Coliphage f2 that had been sonicated were destroyed more rapidly by
chlorine than phage of the same preparation that had not been sonicated.
Sonication may have broken apart clumps of virions thereby fully exposing to
the disinfectant virions that had been partially or fully protected before
sonication.
25
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AUTHOR INDEX
Author Page
Akin, E. W 1
Appel, C 2
Appleton, H 1
Ashley, C. S 23, 24
Bagdasaryan, G. A 1
Balluz, S. A 2
Bates, R. C 2
Baylor, E. R 2
Baylor, M. B 2
Beamer, P 4
Bell, F. A., Jr 11
Bellelli, E 3
Bertucci, J. J 3, 19
Beytout, D 3
Bindas, B 11
Blanchard, D. C 2
Blawat, F 3
Block, J.-C 3, 19
Boardman, G. D 4
Bonami, J.-R 4
Bracchi, U 3
Brejcha, 0 22
Brisou, J. F 5
Brochet J. C 19
Brown, E. R 4
Bryan, F. L 4
Butler, M 2
Callaghan, 0 4
Campillo, A 4
Cannon, R. E 20
Cervenka, P 11
Chang, S. C 10
Charrier, F 3
Chassard-Bouchaud, C 4
Chaudhuri, M 16
Chudova, I. G 11
Cochran, K. W 6
Comps, M, M 4,5
Cooper, R. C 5
Costin, L 16
Cottet, J 5
Dabrowski, J 3
Damgaard-Larsen, S 5
Danglot, C. D 18
Day, M 17
Denis, F. A 5
Denis, N. A 5
Didenko, 0. V 11
Di Girolamo, R 6
Dixneuf, P 3, 19
Doskina, T. V 1, 25
Drapeau, A. J 6
Drozdov, S. G 6
Dube, P 17
Dumoulin, P. P 6
Dupuis, T 5
Duthoit, J.-L 5
Eisenhardt, A 6
Elliott, L F 6
Ellis, J. R 6
Engelbrecht, R. S 8
Fannin, K. F 6
Farrah, S. R 7
Fattal, B 7, 8
Feachem, R. G 8
Fenters, J. D 8
Field, R. 1 22
Floyd, R 8
Foster, D. H 8
Gangarosa, E. J 11
Gannon, J, J. 6
Gerba, C 15
Gerba, C. P 7, 9, 13, 20
Girin, V. N 10
Golueke, C. G 5
Goncharuk, E. 1 10
Goyal, S. M 7
Grigoreva, L. V 10
Guy, M. D 10
Harshbarger, J. C 10
Hartemann, P 3
Hazdra, J. J 4
Heinz, F 11
Henderson, K. W 21
Herfyn, M 14
Hoang Van, H 6
Hoehn, R. C 11
Hoffmanova, V 25
Hostovsky, T. 7
Hubert, M 4
Hughes, J. M 11
lonescu, N 15
lostovetskii, Y. K 11
Jakubowski, W 1
Jarnuszkiewicz, 1 3
Jensen, K. 0 5
Jindra, J 22
Johnson, J, D 24
26
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Jones, H, H 2
Joret, J.-C 3
Kaplan, A. M 17
Katzenelson, E 7,12
Kazantseva, V. A 6
Keith, L 4
Koganovsky, A. M 10
Kokina, A. G 12
Konowalchuk, J 12
Korchak, G. 1 10
Kott, Y 13
Kulskij, L. A 15
Kuwert, E 21
Lakhe, S. B 17
Lance, J. C 13
Larkin, E. P 21
Laveran, H 3
Leibenzon, A. S 14
Lepakhina, N. K 13
Lewis, M. J 10
Listen, J. 6
Lo, S. H 13
Lue-Hing, C 3, 19
Lukashevich, N. A 12
Lund, E 5, 6
Mahnel, H 14
Maini, P 14
Malakhova, T. S. 14
Matches, J 6
Matskevich, E. S 15
Matteucci, D 17
McGee, C. D 19
Mclver, J. D 10
Meierer. R. E 19
Melnick, J. L 7, 9, 15, 20
Merson, M. H 11
Moffa, P. E 22
Monghat, M 3
Moore, B. E 15
Muzychuk, N. 1 15
Nagel, R 15
Nair, V 4
Nedachin, A. Y 1
Nestor, I. 16
Newman, J. S 16
Nishmi, M 8
Nissen, B 5, 6
Novitskaya, N. V 12
O'Brien,? 19
O'Brien, R, T 16
Ottis, K 14
Otto, S. V 10
Oza, P. P 16
Pereira, M. S 1
Pesek, J 22
Peters, V 2
Pillion. E 17
Piva, 1 14
Potajallo, U 3
Primrose, S. B 17
Prtichova, M 22
Radzanovskii, A. A 11
Ramzin, S. K 17
Randall, C. W 11
Rao, V. C 17
Reed, J. M 8
Richardson, S. L 22
Rogers, M. R 17
Rudiger, S. .,.., 22
Ruschi, A 17
Sagik, B. P 15
Salata, 0. V 10
Saieh, F. A 18
Sansebastiano, G 3
Sarrette, B. A 18
Sattar, S. A 18
Schaub, S. A 18
Schwartzbrod, J 19
Schwartzbrod, L 3, 19
Sedita, S. J 3, 19
Shaffer, P. T. B 2, 11, 19
Sharp, D. G 8,24
Shuval, H. 1 7
Sinclair, T 4
Slade, J. S 19
Smith, E. M 9
Snoeyink, V. U 8
Sobsey, M. D 20
Sorber, C. A 15, 18
Sovrea, D 16
Speirs, J. 1 12
Spendlove, J. C 6
Sproul, O. J 4, 13
Sra'mova, H 25
Stagg, C. H 20
Stanley, J. L 20
Steinmann, J 20
Straub, O. C 15
Strauch, D 15
Subrahmanyan, T. P 20
Sullivan, R 21
Sutherland, S. M 2
Symons, G. E 21
Syzdek, L, D 2
27
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Tama'si, G 21
Thraenhart, 0 21
Tierney, J. T 21
Tifft, E. C 22
Tolstopyatova, G. V 11
Towianska, A 3
Tyrrell, D. A, J 22
Vago, C 4
Vilagines, R 18
Vili'm, V 22
Vitaliano, J. J 17
Vorobeva, A. M 15
Waghmare, S. V 17
Wallis, C 7, 9, 15, 20
Walter, R 22
Ward, C. H 20
Ward, R. L 23, 24
Westwood, J. C. N 18
Worriqgen, W 21
Yerusalimskaya, L. F 11
Young, D. C 24
Za'kova, M 22
Zdebska, E 11
Zdrazilek, J 25
Zenz, D 3
Zenz, D. R 19
Zotova, V. 1 25
28
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SUBJECT INDEX
Each subject category listed on this page is coded by a Greek letter to
simplify the identification of abstracts that contain information that relates to
that category. To use the subject index, note the pages listed for the category,
and read those abstracts marked by the Greek letter that codes for the category.
Abstracts that are marked by more than one Greek letter contain
information in more than one subject category.
Code Subject Page
a Aerosols • 2, 6
/? Bathing Waters 2,11
7 Disinfection 2, 4, 5, 9, 10. 14, 1 5, 1 7, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25
S Epidemiology 1,6,8,11,17,22,25
t Fish 4
£ Food 4, 12, 19, 21, 22
ry General 5, 8
6 Hepatitis A 4, 11, 17, 22
i Indicators 1,6, 11,13, 19, 22
\ Methodology 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 1 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23
fj. Recovery from the Environment
1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25
v Removal by Treatment Processes
2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 21
t Review 4, 6, 8, 11, 12, 15, 17, 19, 21, 22
TT Shellfish : 1,4,5,6,10,11
p Sludges 2,3,5.6,15,19, 20,21,23,24
a Soils 4, 5, 15, 18, 19
T Solids 2, 4, 5, 9, 20
X Survival 1,3,4,5,12,13,14,15,16,20,21
29
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing}
1. REPORT NO. 2.
EPA-600/ 9-78-025
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Viruses in Waste, Renovated and Other Waters
1977 Literature Abstracts
7. AUTHORIS)
Gerald Berg, Editor
F. Dianne White, Editorial Assistant
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Biological Methods Branch
Environmental Monitoring § Support Laboratory-Gin
ERC, Cincinnati, USEPA
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Monitoring £ Support Laboratory-Cin
Office of Research and Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
5. REPORT DATE
September 1978
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
10 PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BD612
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
In House
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Literature Review - 1977
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/06
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The volume comprises the abstracts of the published papers and books on
viruses in waste, renovated, and other waters for 1977.
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS b.lDENTtFI
*Viruses, Waste water, Water, Sewage
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT 19. SECUHI
Release Unlimited .{^CU
20. SECURI
UNCU
EPS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
13B
TY CLASS /This Report) 21. NO. OF PAGES
OSSIFIED 32
lUm^r™'1 22'PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
*USGPO: 1979 — 657-060/1570
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