MAY 1977
VOL. THREE, NO. FIVE
-------
Conservation is the major theme in the excerpts
from President Carter's landmark energy mes-
sage carried in this issue of EPA Journal. So at
long last conservation is receiving the high priority
that environmentalists have urged.
This issue also reviews the role EPA's re-
search program is playing in helping to develop
knowledge about energy systems and the latest
technology for controlling their harmful effects on
the environment.
Another article in the energy-environment area
is a report on an aerial survey EPA helped to
sponsor in Minnesota to discover homes and busi-
nesses leaking heat.
The subject of another article is a poll revealing
that despite the economic recession and the energy
shortage Americans are still accepting environmen-
tal protection as one of their basic national goals.
The views of Dr. Barry Commoner and others
on environmental cancer are reported in an article
about a recent Washington conference that EPA
helped sponsor.
Also included in this issue is a report on the
massive permit program established to help control
the discharges of cities and industries into the
Nation's waterways. Another research article gives
details on an artificial river developed at EPA's
Environmental Research laboratory in Athens,
Ga., for research on river ecology.
The number of enforcement actions taken by
EPA in its more than six years of existence totals
nearly 19,(X)Q, an article on the Agency's enforce-
ment program reports.
Converting pollutants to useful ingedients for
growing trout, shrimp and other aquatic life is the
subject of the concluding article.
-------
Printed on recycled paper.
US. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY
Douglas M. Costle,
Administrator
Marlin Fitzwater,
Acting Director of
Public Affairs
Charles D. Pierce,
Editor
Van Trumbull, Ruth Hussey,
David Cohen,
Staff
Cover: Towering transmission lines stalk
across landscape near Searchlight, Nev.
Documerica photo by Charles O'Rear.
Photo Credits: John L. Alexandrowicz*,
Lyntha Scott Eiler*. Les Henig, PEPCO,
Don Emmerich, Ernest Bucci, Edison
Electric Institute, Lowell Georgia*, Public
Service Electric and Gas Company,
Newark, N.J.
* Documerica
Conservation illustration by John Heinly
The EPA Journal is published monthly,
with combined issues July-August and
November-December, by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Use
of funds for printing this periodical has
been approved by the Director of the
Office of Management and Budget.
Views expressed by authors do not
necessarily reflect EPA policy.
Contributions and inquiries should be
addressed to the Editor (A-107),
Waterside Mall, 401 M St., S.W.,
Washington, DC. 20460. No permission
necessary to reproduce contents except
copyrighted photos and other materials.
Subscription: $8.75 a year, $.75 for
single copy, domestic; $11.00 if mailed to
a foreign address. No charge to
employees. Send check or money order
to Superintendent of Documents, US.
Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC. 20402.
ARTICLES
WAR ON WASTE PAGE 2
President stresses conservation
in his major message on energy.
EPA'S ROLE IN ENERGY RESEARCH PAGE 4
A two-day scientific conference on energy and the
environment is being sponsored by EPA June 6-7 in
Washington.
AERIAL SURVEY FINDS WASTED HEAT PAGE 6
Photographs taken from low-flying planes have helped
detect buildings leaking heat in Minnesota.
NEW VIEWS PAGE 8
Excerpts from speeches by Administrator Douglas M. Costle
and Deputy Administrator Barbara Blum.
PROGRESS ON THE ENFORCEMENT FRONT
ENVIRONMENTAL CANCER
A discussion of carcinogens at a
conference EPA helped sponsor.
STATUS OF PERMIT GUIDELINES
POLL REAFFIRMS ENVIRONMENTAL SUPPORT.
OUR INDOOR RIVER
EPA'S EYES IN THE SKY.
UNDERWATER FARMS _
PAGE 10
PAGE 12
PAGE 16
PAGE 18
PAGE 19
PAGE 20
.BACK COVER
DEPARTMENTS
NATION
UPDATE
ALMANAC.
PEOPLE _
NEWS BRIEFS
PAGE 14
PAGE 22
PAGE 23
PAGE 24
PAGE 25
-------
WAR
WASH:
Protection of the environment is one of
the fundamental principles on which
President Carter has based his landmark
national energy plan.
In his energy message to Congress on
April 20, the President declared that "the
heart of our energy problem is that our
demand for fuel keeps rising more quickly
than our production, and our primary means
of solving this problem is to reduce waste
and inefficiency ..."
EPA Administrator Douglas M. Costle in
urging strong support for the President's
energy program noted that it "gives to con-
servation the priority which environmental-
ists have long urged. To the extent that we
reduce our demand for energy we reduce
the burden that energy production places on
the environment."
In a televised address to the Nation on
April 18, President Carter warned the Na-
tion about the seriousness of the energy
problem, and said development of his en-
ergy policy had been guided by these princi-
ples.
These principles are:
«... "we can have an effective and com-
prehensive energy policy only if the Gov-
ernment takes responsibility for it and if the
people understand the seriousness of the
challenge and are willing to make sacrifices.
«... "healthy economic growth must
continue . . ."
« "The third principle is that we must
protect the environment. Our energy prob-
lems have the same cause as our environ-
mental problems—wasteful use of re-
sources. Conservation helps us solve both
at once."
Other principles spelled out by President
Carter included: "reducing our vulnerability
to potentially devastating embargoes,"
treating everyone fairly, reducing demand
through conservation, ensuring that prices
should generally reflect the true replace-
ment costs of energy, providing Govern-
ment policies that are predictable and cer-
tain, conserving fuels that are the scarcest
and making the most of those that are more
plentiful, and developing new and uncon-
ventional sources of energy.
The President said "With the exception of
preventing war, this is the greatest challenge
our country will face during our lifetimes.
The energy crisis has not yet overwhelmed
us, but it will if we do not act quickly.
"Ours is the most wasteful Nation on
PAGE 2
Earth. We waste more energy than we
import. With about the same standard of
living, we use twice as much energy per
person as do other countries like Germany,
Japan, and Sweden."
Stating that the struggle for successful res-
olution of the energy problem "would be
the moral equivalent of war." President
Carter said "if successful, this effort will
protect our jobs, our environment, our na-
tional independence, our standard of living
and our future.
"Our energy policy will be innovative, but
fair and predictable. It will not be easy. It
will demand the best of us—our vision, our
dedication, our courage, and our sense of
common purpose.
"This is a carefully balanced program,
depending for its fairness on all its major
component parts. It will be a test of our
basic political strength and ability.
"But we have met challenges before and
our Nation has been the stronger for it. That
is the responsibility that we face—you in the
Congress, the members of my administra-
tion, and all the people of our country. I am
confident that together we will succeed."
Mr. Costle said "It's clear from the Presi-
dent's energy message to Congress that
EPA will be in the mainstream of his energy
program. It will be largely our responsibility
to make many aspects of his program
work."
On the proposed greater use of coal, the
Administrator said this program "will con-
stitute an important challenge for EPA. It is
critical that the best available control tech-
nology be employed and that air quality
standards be maintained as the President
requests."
Commenting on the emphasis on reducing
gasoline consumption, Mr. Costle said
"EPA will play a major role in supporting
this program by measuring the fuel effi-
ciency of new cars as part of the auto
certification program."
The Administrator declared that President
Carter's energy program "provides the lead-
ership we have needed and merits the strong
support of the American people."
Meanwhile, Joseph Kraft, a widely known
syndicated columnist, expressed the opinion
in a recent column that the energy drive has
not sunk the environmental movement.
"Concern for the environment is probably
stronger in Carter than in any past Presi-
dent," Kraft said. "Clean-air standards are
to be maintained at high levels. . . . Part of
the argument for conservation has to do
with preserving ecological balance. Clearly
those who thought the energy crisis-cum-
recession killed the environmental cause
have got it wrong."
Earlier in April, Mr. Costle had announced
at a White House press conference that the
President had asked him to disclose the
Administration's support for maintaining
rigorous standards in the Clean Air Act.
"... Senator Ed Muskie and Congressman
Paul Rogers, and their respective subcom-
mittees, have been working on clean air
legislation over the last six weeks," Mr.
Costle said in his April 18 statement. "The
President and I share their commitment to
achievement and maintenance of our clean
air and public health goals, and appreciate
the leadership they have provided on this
legislation.
"Clean air is essential to the health and
welfare of all Americans. Scientific studies
show a direct relationship between exposure
to polluted air and the incidence of heart
disease, nervous system disorders, lung
cancer, emphysema, asthma, and other res-
piratory diseases, especially among infants
and the elderly. Air pollution is also costly
to property, materials, and vegetation.
"We have made significant progress in
cleaning up the air. Recent studies indicate
that emissions of several pollutants from
power plants, factories, and automobiles
have begun to decline. The quality of our air
has made a small but important reversal
toward healthiness. Many millions of Amer-
icans, especially in large metropolitan areas,
are beginning to see and feel the difference.
"There is still, however, much to be done
before we can say we have fully achieved
our clean air goals. Clean air is not an
aesthetic luxury; it is a public health neces-
sity. Many regions of the country have not
yet met the health-based primary ambient
air quality standards. The legislative recom-
mendations the President has asked me to
explain today will help provide the frame-
work for attaining these standards.
"Environmental issues do not exist in a
vacuum. Environmental requirements must
be carefully examined and related to our
economic and energy goals. The President
and 1 are fully committed to the principle
that our Nation must have a strong environ-
-------
mental program as a necessary prerequisite
to future progress in solving our energy and
economic problems.
Auto Kmissions
"We are committed to maintaining mo-
mentum in cleaning up pollution from auto-
mobiles. The standards we are recommend-
ing today are tough but fair. They are
consistent with our fuel standards. They will
help reduce urban smog and protect public
health.
"The President and I are recommending
that:
"—The statutory standard for hydrocar-
bons of .41 grams per mile be met beginning
with the 1979 model year.
—The standard for carbon monoxide
should be set at 9.0 grams per mile in 1979,
with the statutory standards of 3.4 grams
per mile in effect beginning with the 1981
model year.
"—The standard for nitrogen oxides
should be set at 2.0 grams per mile in 1979,
and 1.0 grams per mile for 1981 and there-
after unless the Administrator decides by
1980, based on health impacts, that the 0.4
grams per mile statutory level is needed
beginning in 1983.
Standards for New Facilities
"The President and I believe that new
power plants and new industrial facilities
should be required to use the best available
control technology to limit emissions. Air
quality requirements should be met with
stacks no taller than normally would be built
under good engineering practice. The instal-
lation of the best available control technol-
ogy for new facilities will provide a basis for
orderly economic growth which will help us
meet our air quality goals.
Prevention of Significant Deterioration
"Our effort to control air pollution must
indude protection of air thai is already
clean. We cannot afford policies which
would create new problems in areas which
are now meeting the ambient air quality
standards. The President supports inclusion
in the Act of a provision to limit additions of
new pollutants in areas which are already
clean to certain specified levels. We also
support mandatory protection for National
Parks and other significant national areas.
Growth in Non-Attainment Areas
"The Nation faces a difficult problem in
deciding how to accommodate new indus-
trial growth in areas that are now in viola-
tion of the health-based standards. We must
find a fair and equitable way to further
reduce emissions from existing sources so
as to permit new growth while keeping on a
path which will result in attainment of the
health standards. Although EPA has
adopted a policy requiring that emissions for
new sources be more than offset by a reduc-
tion in emissions from existing sources
within a non-attainment area, the President
has asked me to review this issue to recom-
mend a strategy which will lead to the
attainment of our national health standards,
We will be asking the Congress to defer
action in this area for one year, to permit
full study of this complex issue, and the
development of a fair and effective policy
for the future.
Coal Conversion
"This Administration is committed to the
achievement of our energy goals in a man-
ner which will not compromise the attain-
ment of our environmental objectives. The
President has stressed the need to switch
from scarce oil and gas to coal. Coal con-
version can be accomplished without sacri-
ficing environmental quality provided we
have sound clean air requirements. The
President is recommending amendments
which would require a converting facility to
attain all applicable Federal standards at the
time of conversion, and to conform with
applicable State air pollution regulations by
January I. 1980.
"In conclusion, let me say that these rec-
ommendations to the Congress are the re-
sult of an intense, cooperative re-examina-
tion of the Clean Air Act by the new
Administration. They provide a solid envi-
ronmental foundation for the energy policy
which the President will propose to the
Congress on Wednesday. They constitute a
strong re affirmation of our Nation's commit-
ment to environmental protection." •
PAGE 3
-------
EPA'S ROLE
ENERGY RESEARCH
More than 1.500 persons represent-
ing both industry and government
are expected to attend a two-day scien-
tific conference on energy and the envi-
ronment in Washington June 6 and 7.
It will be the second annual meeting on
energy-environment research to be spon-
sored by EPA, with the cooperation of 11
other Federal agencies.
Stephen J. Gage, Deputy Assistant Ad-
ministrator for Energy, Minerals, and In-
dustry in the Office of Research and
Development, said the conference will
deal with the environmental effects of all
kinds of energy systems and with the
latest technology for controlling harmful
effects. It will focus, he said, on three
major questions:
* What are the major research accom-
plishments?
* How has new information influenced
decision making in energy systems?
* What should be the emphasis of future
research?
Discussion leaders for the first day's
session on control technology will include
Gage. Frank Princiotta. and Steven R.
Reznek of the Office of Energy, Min-
erals, and Industry, and Dr. David G.
Stephan of EPA's Industrial Environmen-
tal Research Laboratory in Cincinnati.
For the second day's discussions of
health and environmental effects, the
leaders will include Dr. Delbert S. Barth,
Deputy Assistant Administrator for
Health and Ecological Effects; George
Morgan, Acting Director of the Environ-
mental Monitoring and Support Labora-
tory at Las Vegas, Nev.; and Dr. A. P.
Altshuller, Director of the Environmental
Sciences Laboratory at Research Trian-
gle Park, N.C.
Discussion leaders from other agencies
will be Marvin Singer, Energy Research
and Development Administration; Dr.
John F. Fink lea. National Institute of
Occupational Safety and Health; and
Dr. Alan Hirsch, Fish and Wildlife Serv-
ice.
Other Federal agencies cooperating in
the conference are the Bureau of Mines,
National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration. National Bureau of Standards,
National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, Tennessee
Valley Authority, Department of Agricul-
ture, and the Geological Survey.
Conference proceedings will be pub-
lished by EPA and are expected to be
available from the Office of Research and
Development in September.
EPA plans and coordinates a Federal
interagency program of research and de-
velopment on the production of energy
and its environmental effects. This coop-
Dr. John Children, physiologist tit EPA's
Environmental Research Laboratory at
Corvallis, Ore., examines vole trapped at
research site near Colstrip, Mont. EPA is
conducting a major research project at this
location to assess the impact of fumes from
a coal-burning power plant.
PAGE 4
-------
Power lines cut across a cloud-streaked xk\.
erative program, under which 18 different
departments and bureaus pool their re-
sources and expertise, under the guid-
ance of EPA, is now in its third year.
It was launched by Congress in the
Energy Reorganization Act of 1974,
which established the Energy Research
and Development Administration
(ERDA). The Act called on the Adminis-
trators of EPA and ERDA to make agree-
ments between themselves and with
other Federal agencies that deal with
energy development or the environment
to cooperate in their research work. The
resulting interagency program is designed
to accomplish three things:
* To permit existing research centers to
concentrate on their specialties, helping
assure efficient use of funds;
* To assure that there are no gaps in the
over-all program and that overlapping ef-
forts are held to'a minimum; and
* Through central planning and coordina-
tion, to facilitate the prompt and full
communication of results to the public
and the research community.
Over the last three years, EPA has
spent more than $1(X) million annually on
energy research, and from 35 to 40 per-
cent of this money has been to support
work in other cooperating Federal agen-
cies.
Coordination of the interagency pro-
gram is the responsibility of the Office of
Energy, Minerals, and Industry, headed
by Gage, who said that EPA's role re-
flects the need for sound environmental
protection to be given equal priority with
the Nation's development of needed en-
ergy resources.
"Because of the pressure to develop
new energy sources and technologies,"
he said, "ERDA cannot be expected to
focus as intensely on the environmental
aspects as it does on its primary energy
development responsibilities.
"EPA's primary mission is environ-
mental protection, and our objective in
the energy area is to enable ERDA's
efforts to progress as rapidly as possible
while assuring that national environmen-
tal goals are maintained.
"Through this division of effort there
develops a healthy, creative tension be-
tween the two agencies to ensure well-
supported planning and strategy deci-
sions." •
Glen Canyon Dam in northern Arizona
rises 583 feet above the Colorado River ami
creates Lake Powell, which extends 186
miles upstream into Utah. Luke'x water is
used for irrigation, recreation, and electric
power.
PAGE 5
-------
AERIAL SURVEY
FINDS WASTED HEAT
This spring residents.of 26Minnesota
communities can consult aerial pho-
tographs to see whether their homes and
businesses have been leaking heat.
The pictures, taken from a low-flying
airplane on cold winter nights, make the
lost heat visible in great detail. Houses
with poor insulation can be distinguished
from well-insulated ones. Heat escaping
from exposed pipes and industrial equip-
ment can be spotted. In parking lots, the
cars that have been there long enough to
cool off can be distinguished from newly-
parked ones.
The aerial heat survey was a joint
project of EPA, the Energy Research and
Development Administration, and the
Minnesota Energy Agency. The Project
may well become a model for other cities
and States as a key initial step in efforts
to control energy waste.
The heat pictures were made with a
thermographic scanner, originally devel-
oped by the Air Force for military pur-
poses, and lent to EPA for experimental
use in pollution spotting and control.
The scanner is sensitive to infrared
radiation (heat) and not to light. The
sensitive "eye" of the instrument sweeps
rapidly across the field of view in much
the same way a TV camera does, and the
heat signals received are processed to
form a TV-like picture of high resolution.
In the pictures, cold areas are dark, hot
areas light, with a wide range of gray
tones in between.
After each flight, specialists at EPA's
Environmental Photographic Interpreta-
tion Complex at Warrenton, Va., proc-
essed the pictures and compared them
with conventional aerial photographs of
the same areas to identify individual
buildings and objects.
PAGE 6
Sets of the heat-loss photos, with
matching conventional photos, are being
made available to the public in each of
the surveyed communities. Local officials
are being trained by EPA specialists to
interpret the photos for their fellow citi-
zens. These representatives will use the
pictures to point out heat-loss problems,
advise on insulation or other remedies,
and answer general questions on fuel
conservation. Any action taken is en-
tirely voluntary.
Aerial scanning cannot be used to
measure actual amounts of heat lost; this
can be done only with ground-based in-
struments and a thorough knowledge of
inside and outside temperatures, wall and
roof materials, and other engineering
data. Some of the scanning flights over
St. Paul last winter were made while
teams from the University of Minnesota
took simultaneous measurements on the
ground and on the roofs of University
buildings. These measurements are being
correlated with the aerial scanning data.
The survey flights started in November
and did not end until mid-March. All
flights were made at night from an alti-
tude of about 2,000 feet. Not every night
was suitable for a flyover; the weather
had to be cold, with low humidity and
clear skies. No flights were made soon
after heavy snowfalls. Since snow acts as
an insulation, accumulated snow on roofs
could mask some of the heat-loss evi-
dence sought.
To support the project Minnesota and
ERDA each provided $50,000. EPA's
contribution was $43,000, including per-
sonnel and equipment.
"Since escaping heat is invisible to the
eye, consumers may not be aware that
energy is being wasted in their build-
ings," said Dr. Maxine Savitz, Director of
ERDA's Division of Buildings and Com-
munity Systems. The heat-scanner pho-
tos can warn consumers of possible prob-
lems, she pointed out, even though they
cannot provide information on specific
amounts of heat lost from buildings.
She said the project would help edu-
cate consumers on energy conservation
as well as demonstrate the usefulness of
aerial surveying to spot energy waste.
EPA researchers have high hopes that
the heat-scanner technique will have
other uses in environmental control.
Many types of air and water pollution
enter the environment in fluid "plumes"
that are hotter than their surroundings.
Oil spills, heated waste water, and com-
bustion gases are obvious examples that
show up in heat pictures. The technique
has also been used experimentally to
detect underground oil leaks and septic
tank seepage. It is regarded as a promis-
ing new weapon in EPA's arsenal of long-
range pollution detection equipment,
which now includes many kinds of color
photography, infrared photography, and
absorbed and reflected laser beams.
More information on the thermo-
graphic scanner program may be ob-
tained from Thomas Osbert at EPA's
Environmental Photographic Interpreta-
tion Complex, Box 1587, Warrenton, Va.
22186.
The Minnesota communities surveyed
were Minneapolis, St. Paul, South St.
Paul, Duluth, Hibbing, Little
. Falls, St. Cloud, New Ulm, Sauk Rapids,
Austin, Stillwater, Shakopee, Faribault,
Litchfield, Hutchinson, Chisholm, Eve-
leth, Virginia, Cloquet, Albert Lea,
Northfield, Winona, St. Peter, Grand
Rapids, Hopkins, and St. Louis Park. •
-------
Thermograph of a four-block area in Hib-
bing. Minn., shows hear radiating from
buildings and land. Dark areas are rela-
tively cold, light areas hoi. While rectangle
near center is a greenhouse. Most buildings
have well-insulated roofs and therefore ap-
pear dark. Bright dots mark chimneys, and
some buildings are outlined by heat leaking
from walls and windows. Plowed streets and
alleys and shoveled sidewalks show u/>
wanner than snow-covered yards. Heat pic-
tures like this one are in'aUable in 26 Minne-
sota communities to help residents deter-
mine how best to conserve fuel.
PAGE 7
-------
NEW VIEWS
"I pledge to you that EPA will be
persistent and consistent in
carrying out our environmental laws."-
Excerpts from remarks of Administrator
Douglas M. Costie before the National Asso-
ciation of Manufacturers, Washington, D.C.,
March 25. Later that morning he gave the
same speech to the National Wildlife Federa-
tion.
"During my tenure as Administrator, I
intend to do all in my power to improve the
performance of this agency. I want the
agency's work to be marked by balance and
judgment, scrupulous credibility, thorough as-
sessment, and tough but fair enforcement.
Our decisions may not always please every-
one, but no one will be able to say that we
are arbitrary, that we discourage diversity of
opinion, and that we do not do our home-
work. EPA's existence is justified primarily
on the basis of our protection and enhance-
ment of life. I hope you will hold us account-
able to that rigorous standard.
"As my predecessor, Russ Train, once
said. 'Environmental concern—the concern
for the basic integrity of our natural life
support system—is not something separate
from all other concerns. It includes and en-
compasses them all.'
"In this context, then. I find it very appro-
priate that my first formal remarks as Ad-
ministrator will be delivered—within the pe-
riod of less than two hours—to two groups
highly sensitive to the popular dichotomy
which has been imposed on the issue of
environmental protection. I am giving this
same message to the National Wildlife Feder-
ation, and to the NAM which is also meeting
in Washington today. Each organization may
look at the mission and impact of the EPA
from a different perspective, but both, I am
certain, would agree that environmental deci-
sion-making is emphatically not something
separate from all its other concerns.
"During my confirmation hearing, one of
the Senators referred to a bumper sticker
which read, ' Hungry and out of work? Eat
an environmentalist.' Bumper stickers and
other graffiti are not to be dismissed lightly.
With humor and irony, they often reflect
some of our most deep-seated fears and
frustrations. Anxiety that pollution control
may cost jobs and undermine the economy is
understandable. But it is also unfounded and
hurtful to the consensus we need if we are to
make progress in environmental protection.
energy conservation, unemployment, or any
of the complex and interrelated crises we are
facing as a nation.
"The blunt truth is that if we do not put
our environmental house in order, it is inevit-
ably going to become a miserable habitation.
And issues of jobs or economic growth will
become academic.
"... I would like to give you . . . my own
priorities for this Agency.
"I pledge to you that EPA will be persist-
ent and consistent in carrying out our envi-
ronmental laws.
"We will be thorough and fair.
"And we will vigorously pursue our man-
date to protect the integrity and health of the
biosphere upon which all human life, growth
and activity depend."
From a speech by Deputy Administrator
Barbara Blum to the American Paper Insti-
tute and the National Forest Products Asso-
ciation, Washington, D.C., April 13:
"When the Environmental Protection
Agency was created in 1970, the ... degra-
dation of our air, land, and water, which
had been going on for decades, was clearly
out of hand. Since then, we have enjoyed a
good deal of success in bringing the belching
smokestacks and grossly polluted waters
under control. Airsheds that were once a
disgrace to the senses and a hazard to health
have seen remarkable improvement, and
many waters that had been thought biologi-
cally dead are seeing the return of pollution-
sensitive fish and other biota . . .
"We have also learned some sobering
lessons. The dimensions of our commitment
to clean up the environment are awesome.
In water use alone—on which the paper
industry is so heavily dependent—the nation
must carefully husband its resources. We
now use about 400 billion gallons of water
each day. an amount which will double by
the end of the century. The demand for
drinkable water for municipalities is proj-
ected to increase from 30 billion gallons
daily to 50 billion gallons.
"We are also learning of some unantici-
pated problems . . . our water supplies,
even relatively deep aquifers, are vulnerable
to contamination. We know now that some
families of chemicals must be kept out of
PAGF. 8
-------
"No one industry—or municipality,
or citizen—should be exempt iYom its
responsibilities to help toward the common goal."- Bu,m
natural cycles to the greatest extent possi-
ble. This is because of their tendency to
accumulate in the bodies of living creatures.
We know now that some pollutants, once
considered annoyances or inconveniences,
are in fact threats to human and environ-
mental well-being. Acid rains can spoil
crops miles from the source of the original
pollutant, and can lower the pH level of
waters to the point that desirable forms of
aquatic life perish . . .
" You should know that I come to E PA as
someone who has been involved with many
efforts to preserve and protect the integrity
of our environmental heritage. Equally im-
portant, I have also had a good deal of
experience as a businesswoman. 1 know
about the realities of cash flow, amortiza-
tion, and the borrowing market. I am now in
the federal government, but both Doug Cos-
tie and I have been on the other end of
Federal regulations. I know very well the
impact laws and regulations—even the best
intentioncd—can have on the day-to-day
business of getting things done. I have heard
many complaints about an excess of red
tape and regulations in many areas of fed-
eral involvement, and I can often sympa-
thize with those complaints.
"Everyone here knows, however, that
the tensions that sometimes exist between
EPA and industries regulated by pollution-
control laws go beyond red tape. Disagree-
ments between the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency and the industries it is charged
to regulate, and alternative interpretations
of the same set of 'facts.' are perhaps
inevitable. What we at EPA can do. to the
benefit of both industry and the agency, is
to help ensure that disagreements are not
based on misunderstandings or mispercep-
tions on anyone's part.
"For our part, we will try to understand
as thoroughly as possible the realities that
face you, and to implement regulations with
an awareness of those realities. To a large
extent, our success in this regard will de-
pend not only on what EPA does, but on
your continued active participation as we
propose guidelines and institutional struc-
tures, and as we draft regulations . . .
"EPA's continued effectiveness will de-
pend on how well we do our homework.
Part of that homework is to become inti-
mately familiar with every aspect of your
needs and practices as an industry . . .
Another, perhaps more important, part of
the homework . . . involves the way we
model projected industry costs and needs as
we try to set up realistic guidelines and
goals. It should go without saying that EPA
has been, and will continue to be. scrupu-
lously careful to cost out the impact of its
decisions on industry and on consumer
prices . . .
"Lastly. ! think it is of paramount impor-
tance that the cost of meeting our national
environmental goals should be distributed
fairly. No one industry, or portion of the
economy, or class of citizens, or geographic
region should have to assume an unfair
proportion of the burden . . .
"I am sure that you understand that
meeting this goal of fairness is no simple
matter. About half of one percent of the
inflation we have experienced in recent
years can be attributed to environmental
controls. We know now that pollution
abatement ultimately creates more jobs than
it dislocates. These figures make it appear
that pollution control can happen without
significant dislocation.
"But we at EPA do not overlook the fact
that a broad spectrum of industries have
devoted, and must continue to devote, a
substantial portion of their available capital
to pollution abatement. Among others.
these include power generating companies.
smelters, organic chemical producers, auto-
mobile makers—and the pulp and paper
industry. Nor are we overlooking the fact
that pollution abatement will affect the cost
of your products. Speaking as a business-
woman. 1 can understand the reluctance to
commit large amounts of money in ways
that do not immediately improve one's mar-
ket position.
"As 1 said, fairness is difficult to attain in
an imperfect world. But it should be a
touchstone for our decisions. 1 want to
assure you that we will continue to act as
fairly and impartially as possible in imple-
menting the laws entrusted to us. This will
mean that, just as we do our best not to give
one company within an industry a competi-
tive advantage by delaying or waiving its
environmental responsibilities, no one in-
dustry—or municipality, or citizen—should
be exempt from its responsibilities to help
toward the common goal."
PAGE 9
-------
PROGRESS ON THE
ENFORCEMENT FRONT
A total of 6,613 actions was taken by
EPA during the first nine months of
last year in enforcing the Nation's Federal
environmental protection laws. These activi-
ties, which occurred in the pesticide, air. and
water pollution control areas, are docu-
mented in a recently-published Progress Re-
port by the Office of Enforcement. The
report also includes updated information on
Ihe noise pollution enforcement program.
"The new report, which is the fourth in a
series, outlines enforcement activities for
1976 over the January 1 through September
30 period to coincide with the recently modi-
fied Federal fiscal year." explained Stanley
W. Legro, EPA Assistant Administrator for
Enforcement. "This brings the total number
of such actions taken in the Agency's six
years of existence to nearly 19,(XX).
"The report documents enforcement activ-
ities carried out directly by EPA, and as
such, it enumerates only the Federal portion
of the environmental enforcement activities
in this country. The enforcement of the Na-
tion's environmental laws is a task shared by
the Federal, State, and local governments. A
continuation of that strong partnership re-
mains one of the Agency's highest priorities
in accomplishing the task of improving the
quality of our Nation's environment," said
I ,egro.
From EPA's beginnings in December 1970
to September 1976, over S11.7 million in fines
and penalties have been imposed, not includ-
ing over SI million assessed on May 4. 1976
against the Reserve Mining Company, which
is appealing that decision. Major enforcement
actions which have occurred in the interval
from September 1976 to present include
criminal action against the Semet-Solvay
coke plant at Ashland. Ky., for air pollution
regulation violations, which led to a fine of
$925.(XX). U.S. Steel and EPA signed a con-
sent order to control paniculate pollution
from the Clairton Coke works in Pennsylva-
nia (the largest coke oven plant in the world).
which will result in a paniculate emission
reduction to less than half of the present
levels. Another consent order containing a
plan worked out between the Agency and the
EMC Corporation will halt further spills of
carbon tetrachloride into the Kanawha River
from FMC's chemical plant in South Charles-
ton. W. Va.
A recent action against General Motors
PAGE 10
Investigator from EPA's National Enforce-
ment Investigations Center in Denver uses
protruding meas/ii'i/ii; device to test emis-
sions in this industrial smoke slack.
will result in the recall of 530.(XX) automo-
biles; another recall order recently issued to
Chrysler Corporation involves 208,000 vehi-
cles.
And on October 5. 1976. Allied Chemical
Corporation was fined SI3.28 million for dis-
charging the pesticide Kepone into Virginia's
James River—the largest fine ever imposed
for violation of environmental regulations
(that fine was later reduced to S5 million
dollars in response to Allied's efforts to alle-
viate the effects that had occurred, including
payment of $8 million to a trust.)
AIR enforcement activities were ad-
dressed by the 1976 report under two cate-
gories: stationary sources, such as industrial
and power plants; and mobile sources, such
as motor vehicles.
The Progress Report states that "enforce-
ment of standards for stationary sources is an
immense task, viewing the fact that more
than 200.000 stationary sources are now sub-
ject to ... emission limitations. Nearly
22,(XX) of these are . . . facilities individually-
capable of emitting more than 100 tons of a
pollutant each year. ... By September 1976.
the States and EPA had brought 20,010 (92
percent) of these into final compliance, or
had placed them on firm schedules leading to
compliance in the very near future . . . The
compliance level is expected to climb to
about 95 percent by the end of Fiscal Year
1977."
The report estimates that air pollution con-
trol measures taken to abate stationary
source emissions keep 22.4 million tons of
particulate matter and 7.4 million tons of
sulfur oxides out of the air annually.
The Progress Report also observes that
"compliance in the steel industry still lags far
behind most other stationary sources. In
October 1976, 489 (49 percent) of the major
steel air pollution sources had yet to achieve
full compliance with emission limits.. . .
"However, major progress has occurred,
especially in the last year. As an example.
control of pushing operations (a major source
of fugitive emissions at coke batteries) has
increased steadily such that the number of
-------
plants with at least one battery equipped with
a pushing emission control device has risen
from less than three in 1972 to nearly 20 at
the present time."
Another area of attention in the stationary
source category is power plants, '['he report
states that about 59 percent of the Nation's
coal- and oil-fired capacity now operates in
full compliance with sulfur oxide limitations
or meets Federally enforceable schedules.
Regarding mobile source enforcement.
EPA secured the recall by automobile manu-
facturers of 620,(XX) vehicles to correct emis-
sion-related defects. Beside testing the emis-
sion levels of vehicle prototypes, a Selective
Knforcement Audit Program designed to test
emissions of vehicles coming off the assem-
(.ivorge Stone (foreground) unil Paul /)<•-
Perdu of EPA'* National Enforcement
Investigations Center in Denver operating
a H-iiter Miinplint] device.
bly line was conducted on a trial basis (since
January 1. 1977, the audit program has been
in full operation). In addition, some 23.4(X)
inspections of service stations to ensure
compliance with unleaded fuel regulations
were conducted.
WATER—Over 2.400 enforcement actions
were initiated by EPA during the time span
covered in the new report, which states.
"compliance of major industrial and munici-
pal facilities has been substantial." In addi-
tion, the Virgin Islands received permit pro-
gram approval bringing the total of approved
States to 28.
In other water areas, the Progress Report
describes the interagency agreement on en-
forcement of the wetlands' protection section
(Section 404) of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act entered into by E.PA. the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers and the Depart-
ment of Justice; activities taken under the
Safe Drinking Water Act and the Marine
Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act;
and the work of the National Enforcement
Investigations Center in Denver. Colo.
PESTICIDE enforcement activities re-
vealed violations which resulted "in the issu-
ance of 269 civil complaints. 257 stop sale.
use, or removal orders. 225 recall requests
and 717 notices of warning.
"The violations involved . . . include non-
registration; false registration; misbranding
. . .; adulteration or contamination of con-
tents; false claims as to effectiveness; and
contents differing from those represented at
the time of registration . . ."
The Progress Report also discusses the use
surveillance program, which is a relatively
new program implemented to focus on those
areas where the opportunity for adverse ef-
fects from pesticide misuse are greatest. As a
result of violations found under this program.
56 civil penalty warnings and 19 stop sale.
use. or removal orders were issued.
Also, an enforcement strategy for the con-
trol of toxic substances was developed, and a
cooperative State enforcement grant program
was introduced.
NOISE enforcement regulations for new
medium and heavy duty trucks and portable
air compressors were promulgated during the
first three quarters of 1976. Additional stand-
ards are presently being developed for motor-
cycles, buses, wheel and crawler tractors,
truck refrigeration units and truck mounted
solid waste compactors. Also, a new noise
enforcement facility was opened in San-
dusky, Ohio, in late October of 1976.
Copies of the 1976 Progress Report are
available by wilting: U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Public Information Center
(PM-215). 401 M Street. SW.. Washington.
D.C. 20460. •
PAGE 11
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL
CANCER
Because of "the unquestionable scientific
evidence that most of the U.S. cancer
incidence is due to environmental agents, the
only possible prevention for the disease is to
reduce contact with these agents," Dr. Barry
Commoner emphasized at a recent two-day
conference on cancer which EPA helped to
fund.
Speaking at the meeting in Washington
D.C., Dr. Commoner, Director of the Center
for Biology of Natural Systems. Washington
University, St. Louis, said, "Tests on labora-
tory animals, particularly rats and mice,
have produced a list now approaching a
thousand substances known to cause cancer
in one or more species. What does this
information tell us about the likelihood that
a particular substance will cause cancer in
people?
"A basic fact about animal tests is this:
Laboratory animals are strains which have
been intentionally bred into highly uniform
populations. Most laboratory animal strains
are highly uniform in their sensitivity to
carcinogens.
"One of the most important factors that
determines the sensitivity of a species or
strain of animals is the activity of the enzyme
system which converts environmental carcin-
ogens into active metabolic products that
actually trigger the cancer. . . .
"Human populations are, of course, much
more variable in their characteristics than
inbred strains of laboratory animals. There is
now specific evidence that this greater varia-
bility occurs in the enzymes that are involved
in activating environmental carcinogens. . . .
"People then, are more variable than
purebred strains of laboratory animals in
their genetically determined level of enzyme
activity (this may well explain why not all
smokers develop cancer). In addition, peo-
ple are exposed to a much more variable
environment of substances (such as tobacco
smoke) that can stimulate the carcinogen-
activating enzymes.
"This very different range of variability
among populations of laboratory animals and
of people must be carefully considered in
interpreting animal tests on carcinogens. In
the absence of direct data on people, there is
little point in comparing the entire human
population to either a population of carcino-
gen-sensitive rats or to a population of car-
cinogen-resistant guinea pigs. Rather, be-
PAGE 12
cause the human population is so variable, it
will contain some individuals who react like
one species, some who react like the other,
and many who occupy the whole range in
between. Once it is established that a sub-
stance is carcinogenic toward any species of
laboratory animal, it is likely that it will
cause cancer in some individuals in the
human population. . . .
"The over-all annual incidence of cancer
in the United States is about 0.3 percent;
and at that rate cancer is the second highest
cause of death ... In order to measure such
a small statistical effect in a laboratory
experiment, huge numbers of animals would
be needed. Therefore much higher doses of
carcinogen are used, so that the cancer
incidence among the test animals is usually
between 50 and 100 percent.
"The purpose of the animal test is not to
determine whether people would get cancer
from such high exposures, but only to decide
in a feasible, statistically significant way,
whether or not the substance will cause
cancer in the test animal. Such tests can
usually give an unequivocal answer, at the
large doses that are customarily used. For
example, animals fed large amounts of sugar,
aspirin or sulfa drugs do not develop cancer.
It is therefore scientific nonsense to assert,
as some people have, that 'any chemical
given in a sufficiently high dose will cause
cancer'.. . .
"Animal tests tell us that the risk is not
zero, but do not tell us the size of the risk
. . . Once the attempt is made to weigh the
risks against the benefits of a food additive—
or of any of the numerous synthetic chemi-
cals introduced into the environment—very
far-reaching economic, social, and even po-
litical questions are raised. In practical
terms, a substance is designated as a 'car-
cinogen' by animal testing . . . Once this
information is in hand, a decision regarding
whether and how human exposure to it is to
be controlled becomes inescapable. Such a
decision can be made in two alternative
ways:
1. ABSOLUTE (i.e. the Delaney Amend-
ment, which forbids the addition to food of
any amount of a substance known to cause
cancer in any species of animal): This ap-
proach involves the decision that, given the
disastrous health effects of cancer, no benefit
from a particular substance is worth the risk,
however small it may be ... Accordingly
there is a scientific support for the scientific
assumption inherent in the Delaney Amend-
ment—that a positive animal test for carcino-
genicity is evidence of a risk to people, in
effect, then, this approach involves no fur-
ther evaluation by society, other than the
assertion that no risk of cancer to people is
ever, under any circumstances, to be deliber-
ately induced.. . .
"2. RELATIVE (i.e. risk/benefit evalua-
tion): This approach is now being urged in
opposition to the Delaney Amendment . . .
This method asserts that action should be
based on the socially perceived balance be-
tween the carcinogenic risk of exposure to a
substance, and the benefits to be derived
from using the substance.. . .
"For example ... the social benefit of an
anti-leukemia drug which is itself carcino-
genic may be quite high, whereas the social
benefit of a carcinogenic food dye is very
low.. . .
"In effect, then, if the risk/benefit ap-
proach is adopted, it means that society must
undertake to determine on the basis of their
value to society, what chemical substances
are to be produced, and are to be permitted
to come into contact with people. This will
require social governance of decisions—
about what chemicals to produce and for
what purposes—which, in our present eco-
nomic system, are governed not by social,
but by private interests," Dr. Commoner
concluded.
The following excerpts in this article—
taken from an environmental cancer confer-
ence which EPA helped fund—were selected
because they represent important areas of
concern in the continuing debate surround-
ing the topic of environmental carcinogens.
It must be noted, however, that these re-
marks do not refer to EPA's regulatory
authorities for the control of suspected car-
cinogens, nor do they address the Agency's
current approach in making rigorous as-
sessments of health risk and economic im-
pact in developing regulatory decisions
where cancer risk is a key factor. The
Agency's approach to regulatory action for
suspect carcinogens will be reviewed in a
future issue of the EPA Journal.
-------
Over 20 leading authorities from govern-
ment, industry, labor, and the scientific
community participated in the environmen-
taJ cancer conference. Dr. Lawrence Plum-
lee. EPA Medical Science Advisor, served as
a panel moderator.
Along with EPA. the National Cancer In-
stitute and the National institute of Environ-
mental Health Sciences helped fund the
March meeting, which was sponsored by the
Urban Environment Conference.
In another presentation. Dr. Robert Hoo-
ver of the National Cancer Institute, analyzed
the occurrence of environmental cancer us-
ing maps he had helped to plot as one of the
authors of IheAtlax of Cancer Mortality far
U.S. Coiintii'x, 1950-1969. The maps, which
show levels of cancer death rates (deaths
per 100.(XX) population) over the geographi-
cal United States, tend to suggest both
general environmental factors and possible
occupational factors for the prevalence of
cancer.
"Melanoma [a rare skin cancel'] deaths
occurred predominantly in the southern
United States. In areas of the Southwest
bordering Mexico, rates were somewhat
lower." an HEW report on the cancer atlas
states. "Scientists have known for many
years that sunlight is a major cause of skin
cancer, and that darker-skinned persons are
less susceptible.
"Cancel's of the colon and rectum, be-
lieved to be related to diet, were found in
both sexes at above average rates in the
Northeast and in urban areas along the Great
Lakes. Low rates were found in the southern
and central parts of the U.S. Surprisingly.
breast cancer showed a similar pattern, sug-
gesting that this disease may have an environ-
mental factor in common with cancers of the
large intestine.
"High rates in the Northeast for cancers of
the esophagus, larynx, mouth, throat, and
bladder were limited to males, suggesting the
influence of occupational factors. In a corre-
lation study, the National Cancer Institute
identified high rates of cancers of lung, liver,
and bladder in counties with significant em-
ployment in the chemical industry. Additional
studies are needed to clarify any occupa-
tional risks."
It is nearly certain, according to the
report, that "industrial exposures have
produced the striking geographic concentra-
tions of bladder cancer deaths in males in the
East.
"National Cancer Institute scientists have
also found above-average lung cancer death
rates in counties where a significant percent-
age of the work force is engaged in smelting
and refining of copper, lead, and zinc ores.
Arsenic, a known human cancer-producing
agent, is an airborne by-product of the smelt-
ing operation for these ores. Above-average
rates were found for females as well as males
in these counties, suggesting spread of an
occupational risk to the surrounding commu-
nity."
Dr. Hoover cautioned that such epide-
miological studies should not be considered
the final word. "We consider this material to
gain clues." he said. "The chief value of the
maps will be to stimulate scientists and other
health professionals to conduct studies of
intriguing cancer patterns in their own lo-
cales."
Dr. Hoover's paper notes that these statis-
Dr. Bttrry Commoner
tics apply only to the white population: "The
smaller number of nonwhites in the US.
make modification of the mapping technique
necessary to ensure reliable results. Another
mapping study now under way will examine
geographical differences in cancer death rates
for nonwhites." Since the writing of the
paper, the Alias of Cancer Mortality Among
U.S. Nonwhites 1950-1969 has been pub-
lished.
Speaking on behalf of industry, Christian
Hansen. Vice-Chairman, Chemical Industry
Council of New Jersey, said. "The chemical
industry would like to reiterate its interest
and concern with all aspects of safety and
health on the job and in the safety of sur-
rounding communities. We want to deter-
mine as much as anyone the causes of can-
cer. At this point, we are not aware of any
problems for which remedies have not al-
ready been set in motion. If new problems
are found, prompt, effective action will be
taken by industry in cooperation with gov-
ernment. We strongly support the idea of
continuing studies to insure that there are no
factors unknown to us and we pledge coop-
eration with any responsible groups and
agencies. . . .
"The industry's most important asset is its
employees and we want to protect them. The
chemical industry has a fine safety record,
among the best in American industry. . . .
"Chemical worker are healthier than the
general populace. They have longer life ex-
pectancies, and lower rates of cancer than
the population in general. . . .
"We believe that emissions from chemical
industry operations are adequately con-
trolled. Each vent, and all effluents from
each plant must have permits from either
State or Federal governments, or both. We
don't think responsible operators in the
chemical industry have any uncontrolled or
unknown emissions which might be causing a
problem.
"There are many other and different
sources of emissions; from cars, from planes.
from power plants, vaporization, painting.
and on and on. These could be causing a
problem since New Jersey is a highly urban-
ized State," Hansen said.
Copies of the full proceedings for the con-
ference are available by writing the Urban
Environment Conference, 1714 Massachu-
setts Ave., N.W.. Washington, D.C. 20X136. •
PAGE 13
-------
AROUND
THE
NATION
discharge permits
Region I has approved a water discharge
permit for Boston Edison's proposed Pilgrim
nuclear power plant at Plymouth. Mass.,
although construction has not begun. The
plant will use ocean water to cool its con-
densers and will release the warmed water
into Plymouth Bay. The plans were judged
sufficient to protect fish, shellfish, and wild-
life.
Other recent discharge permits in the Region
included three that will require capacitor
manufacturers to restrict their output of
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). They
were issued to Sprague Electric Co., North
Adams, Mass., and Aero vox Corp. and Cor-
nell- Dubilier. New Bedford. Mass.
recycling list
A directory of recycling centers in New
England has been published by EPA's Region
1 Office. It lists where the centers are. what
materials they recycle, hours of operation,
etc. It also tells how to prepare various waste
materials for salvage and gives tips on how to
start a recycling center.
PAGE 14
timetable set
The U.S. District Court has set deadlines for
carrying out four controversial measures to
reduce auto traffic (and air pollution) in New
York City. By Sept. 14 this year, taxi cruising
must be reduced at least 5 percent, by Feb.
14. 1978, ten percent, and by a year later 20
percent. The city must submit plans to EPA
to reduce and manage parking in southern
and midtown Manhattan so as to cut morn-
ing auto entries into the area by the same
percentages and dates.
Also the city must submit to EPA by July 14
detailed schedules for at least two demon-
stration projects aimed at relieving conges-
tion from delivery trucks. Finally, by August
31. 1978, the State and city must establish
tolls at the presently free bridges across the
Harlem and East Rivers and use the net
earnings for mass transit subsidies.
dealer charged
At the request of EPA. the Justice Depart-
ment recently filed a civil complaint against
Stanley Motors, Irvington, N.J., for discon-
necting a car's emission control system. Re-
gional officials said the Chrysler dealer had
knowingly rendered the control system ino^
perative while trying to correct a stalling
tendency that had existed since the car was
first sold by Stanley Motors. Maximum pen-
alty for each proved violation is $ 10,000.
vinyl chloride
Enforcement personnel have completed in-
specting all facilities in Region III that pro-
duce vinyl chloride. None of the six plants in
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and West
Virginia was found to pose an immediate
public health hazard because of emissions of
the toxic chemical. All plants, however, have
been placed on compliance schedules de-
signed to meet the EPA's emission standards
to insure against long-term health effects. All
six plants are expected to achieve compliance
by Oct. 21, 1978.
variance for tva
Another court fight seems likely over at-
tempts to let the Tennessee Valley Author-
ity's coal-burning power plants emit more
sulfur dioxide than air pollution regulations
allow.
Region IV has issued draft administrative
orders to the power agency to move toward
compliance at seven big plants, four in Ten-
nessee, two in Alabama, and one in Ken-
tucky, The Tennessee legislature and various
industry groups have asked the State's Air
Pollution Control Board to grant TVA a
variance. EPA had previously rejected a TVA
request to use tall smokestacks to disperse
the sulfur dioxide pollution.
Regional Administrator Jack Ravan has ex-
pressed concern to several State agencies
over what he termed "delaying tactics" by
TVA. In a telegram to Tennessee Gov. Ray
Blanton, Ravan asked support for the Clean
Ai r Act and its public health goals.
preplanning
Region V officials' advice was sought re-
cently by planners of a new industrial com-
plex proposed for Conneaut, Ohio, on the
shore of Lake Erie in the northeast corner of
the State. U.S. Steel, which is considering
building the world's largest steel-making facil-
ity at Conneaut, met there with EPA, the
Army Corps of Engineers, and Ohio and
Pennsylvania officials to discuss environmen-
tal protection requirements before making
their final site selection.
scientists on air
Researchers at EPA's laboratory in Duluth,
Minn., were interviewed by explorer
Philippe Cousteau for the first program of a
television series, "Oasis in Space," to be
shown soon on the Public Broadcasting Sys-
tem network. The laboratory workers at
Duluth first found asbestos fibers in the mill
waste discharged into Lake Superior by the
-------
Reserve Mining Co. plant at Silver Bay,
Minn. In the taped program Cousteau also
talks to mining company officials, environ-
mentalists, and Duluth citizens who are ex-
posed to the mineral fibers in theirdrinking
water.
phosphate ban
Legislators in two more States want to re-
strict the growth of algae in the Great Lakes
by banning phosphates from household de-
tergents.
The Michigan House of Representatives'
Conservation Committee has held hearings
on two bills to bar the saJe of phosphate
detergents, and a proposed ban in Ohio was
discussed recently by the Water Quality
Board of the International Joint Commis-
sion(LJC), the Canada-US. Great Lakes
policy body. The Ohio EPA supports such a
ban, as do the UC and Region V officials.
In Indiana, which already has a phosphate
ban, an effort to repeal the law was defeated
in February.
city cited
Region VI officials have formally charged
Houston, Texas, with violating the Federal
unleaded fuel regulations in the operation of
police cars. The complaint served on Mayor
Fred Hofheinz, alleges that leaded gas was
used in vehicles that require unleaded fuel to
protect their emission control systems, that
small nozzles for unleaded fuel were attached
to pumps dispensing leaded fuel, and that the
city failed to post the required notices and
labels at its pumps. Civil penalties totalling
$46,750 for ten violations were proposed by
EPA. The city may request a hearing.
quality awards
Awards for outstanding environmental work
in Region VI were recently awarded by Re-
gional EPA officials as follows: State govern-
ment, Dick Whiltington, Deputy Director of
the Texas Water Quality Board; local govern-
ment, Henry Graeser, retired Director of the
Dallas Water Department; educator. Dr. Ear-
nest Gloyna, University of Texas College of
Engineering; media, Harold Scarlett, Hous-
ton Post reporter; citizen group, the Aquifer
Protection Association, San Antonio, Texas;
youth group. Students Concerned Over Pol-
lution of the Environment, Leonville High
School, Opelousas, La.; institution. Corpus
Christ! Area Oil Spill Control Association;
and special recognition. Cliff Harris of the
Dallas Cowboys football team.
railroad fined
The Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Rail-
road Co. recently pleaded guilty of failing to
report an oil spill and was fined 53,500 by
Federal District Court Judge Edward Mc-
Manus. The spill had occurred at Manly,
Iowa, into Rose Creek, a tributary of the
Shellrock River. Failure to report is a crimi-
nal offense under the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act and carries a maximum fine of
$10,000. Charles V. Wright, Acting Regional
Administrator, said, "The person in charge of
any facility from which there is a discharge of
oil in harmful quantities . . . must notify the
Coast Guard ... or an EPA Regional Of-
fice."
coping with drought
The Mountain States have had an unusually
dry winter, resulting in lowered reservoirs,
snowmelt, and groundwater levels. Some
communities may have to restrict water use,
starting this spring, and others may run
completely out of water. Charles W. Murray,
Water Division Director for Region V1H,
heads a Drought Task Force that includes
representatives named by the six governors
of the Region's States to make plans for
coping with the drought. Two major pres-
sures are expected: to develop new water
resources and to relax EPA requirements
and discharge permit conditions.
Drought increases the potential for severe
public health problems. Murray pointed out,
and States and communities are likely to
seek more technical assistance than usual
from EPA. Regional officials are also study-
ing how best to implement EPA's proposed
regulations for "general" discharge permits.
These rules, proposed in February, would
primarily affect irrigation farming. The Re-
gion has more than 10 million acres of
irrigated land. Genera! permits may be re-
quired for each irrigated farm's return flow
outlet.
las vegas jackpot
All industrial process wastes formerly dis-
charged into the Las Vegas Wash have been
completely eliminated. Nine companies
near Las Vegas and Henderson, Nev., have
eliminated their discharges by recycling,
evaporation or other treat ment, and by in-
plant process changes. The Wash drains into
Las Vegas Bay, a heavily used arm of Lake
Mead.
Cleanup by municipalities in the area is
progressing, aided by $34 million in EPA
construction grants to the Clark County
Sanitation District.
In December 1971 EFA started its enforce-
ment actions to clean up the Wash. The
elimination of the industrial discharges com-
pletes a major portion of the program.
pulp mills cited
Region X officials have started enforcement
actions against six pulp mills in western
Washington: Boise-Cascade Corp., Steila-
coom; Crown Zellerbach, Port Angeles and
Port Townsend; Georgia-Pacific, Bel-
lingham; ITT Rayonier, Port Angeles; and
Scott Paper, Everett. The mills were cited
either for operating without a valid dis-
charge permit or for failure to comply with
schedules for installing secondary wastewa-
ter treatment equipment.
Regional Administrator Donald P. Dubois
said the State Department of Ecology had
issued the mills' discharge permits between
August 1974 and May 1975 and that the
plants were from nine to 14 months behind
in their compliance schedules. Apparently,
Dubois said, they cannot now meet the July
1 deadline set in the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act for applying the "best practica-
ble" pollution control techniques.
Dubois said the six cases have been referred
to the U.S. Attorney's office in Seattle for
possible civil action. He noted that 28 other
pulp mills in the Region are complying with
their discharge limitations and schedules.
PAGE 15
-------
STATUS OF PERMIT
GUIDELINES
Five years ago Congress decreed that
every known polluter of the Nation's
waterways must have a permit. The permits
would set limits on each kind of pollutant
discharged, and the limits would grow pro-
gressively stricter to achieve the goal of no
man-made water pollution by 1985. All this
was spelled out in the Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Act of 1972.
Known polluters, called "point sources,"
include every facility that has a definite
outlet where pollution-bearing waste water
can enter a stream, a lake, or coastal ocean
water. About 20,000 of them are municipal
sewage systems, but the big majority—more
than 40.000—are industries that use water in
their operations and discharge it, with added
pollutants from their processing, directly into
a waterway.
Pollution from sewage is being reduced by
building new treatment works and upgrading
old ones with massive subsidies from the
Federal Government. These construction
grants will total about S4.5 billion annually,
or five times the Environmental Protection
Agency's operating budget.
Industrial point sources, the law says, must
pay for their own pollution control. There is
no EPA subsidy. The Agency's role is limited
to technical assistance, guidelines and stand-
ards, plus research and demonstration of new
control techniques.
By July 1 .this year, according to the Act.
all industries must achieve the "best practica-
ble pollution control technology available."
By July 1983 all industries must improve
their pollution control performance to the
"best available" methods "economically
achievable."
By setting two target dates, the second
stricter than the first. Congress recognized
that there would be advances in the technol-
ogy of pollution control, and the law was
framed to anticipate them. Congress also
recognized that the costs required of indus-
try should not be excessive; benefits should
be worth the money spent for them.
To carry out the Act's requirements for
curbing industrial pollution EPA undertook
two big tasks simultaneously: issuing more
than 40.000 discharge permits (at the start no
one knew how many industrial dischargers
there were) and writing "effluent guidelines"
for each type of industry.
PAGE 16
Discharge permits are difficult to frame
without knowing what pollutants and how
much of each kind are in the plant's waste
water. There was. of course, some general
knowledge: paper mills discard a lot of cellu-
losic material; cannery wastewaters contain:
a lot of organic material, peelings, hulls, etc.;
petroleum refineries are heavy on phenols
and sulfides, steel rolling mills on acids for
cleaning the finished metal.
But without detailed knowledge of an in-
dustry's operations, not only at one plant but
at similar plants throughout the country, it
was difficult to decide what pollutant levels
reflected the best practicable control meth-
ods to be reached by July 1977. Even more
knowledge of research advancements and
trends in technical development was needed
to set the discharge levels that would repre-
sent the best available methods that would be
economically achievable in that industry six
years later.
EPA officials in all ten Regions set about
the gigantic task of listing all point
sources and issuing permits as fast as sensi-
ble specifications could be made. They also
encouraged States to set up the legal and
regulatory mechanisms to qualify them to
take over administration of the permit pro-
gram within their own boundaries. Twenty-
eight States and territories have now assumed
this function, and EPA issues permits only in
the remaining 26jurisdictions.
At the outset the permit program concen-
trated on the largest polluters, industries
known to contribute heavily to water pollu-
tion, and the largest plants in those indus-
tries. Only when the big offenders were
gathered in did the regulators turn to mop-
ping up the little ones.
The hard, nuts-and-bolts work of analyzing
particular industries and deciding what was
good pollution control practice for each fell
to the Effluent Guidelines Division in the
Office of Water Planning and Standards in
Washington, now headed by Robert Schaffer.
"During the first round of issuing permits
EPA people often had to guess what the best
practicable technology was and set the dis-
charge levels accordingly." said Schaffer.
"This was before much work had been done
on industry effluent guidelines. Neverthe-
less, not many of those permits had to be
changed later.
"Even the industries being regulated
tended to agree with us on what the best
technology was. Most responsible industries
promptly began the construction work and
the process changes needed to comply with
their permits."
Effluent guidelines are supported by de-
tailed technical manuals that survey an indus-
try and its processes with particular attention
to controlling and reducing water pollution.
They are compiled in draft form by inde-
pendent engineering firms under EPA con-
tract. Each document undergoes extensive
review and revision before it is adopted by
EPA. Copies are sent to State environmental
agencies, other Federal departments, public
interest and environmental groups, and in-
dustrial and trade groups for comment and
criticism. EPA staff members and a scientific
advisory committee established under the
Act also review the proposed guidelines.
They are made available to the public at
EPA's Regional Offices and libraries and
through publication in the Federal Register.
The Act itself named 28 categories of
industry, ranging from asbestos manufactur-
ing to timber products, for which EPA was
required to develop effluent guidelines. And
it ordered EPA to add other categories when
it felt that was desirable. Twenty-four have
been so added: petroleum extraction as well
as petroleum refining, concrete products as
well as cement manufacturing. Almost all of
the 52 broad categories have been divided
into subcategories. For example, nonferrous
metal manufacturing now includes seven dif-
ferent sections, each with its own set of
effluent guidelines: bauxite (aluminum ore)
refining, primary and secondary aluminum
smelting, primary and secondary copper
smelting, zinc, and lead.
Altogether EPA has developed more than
500 subcategories, because each one differs
from the others in the types of pollutants
produced and in the best methods of control.
Each guidelines document is based on a
thorough engineering study of a particular
type of industry, its processes, its typical
waste products, and the methods available to
control or treat these wastes, including new
technology that is still in the development or
pilot stage.
-------
Permits to discharge waste water into rivers
must he monitored regularly to insure com-
pliance. Here a Pennsylvania State em-
ployee samples the water from an industrial
outfall on the Monongahela River at West
\iifflin, near Pittsburgh.
The analysis also considers costs. How
much new investment is needed for different
methods of control? How much expenditure
for operation and maintenance? How much
energy? What will happen to product costs
and business profits?
For most of the industrial categories and
subcategories, EPA publishes a separate eco-
nomic analysis document, which is also given
an exhaustive review both inside and outside
the Agency and is available for public inspec-
tion and criticism before publication.
The effluent guidelines furnish a sound
technical base for the discharge permits.
They also provide guidance to the permit-
issuing authority, either a State government
or EPA Regional officials, for judging the
degree of pollution control the plant is able to
achieve at a reasonable cost.
The 500-odd guidelines documents already
published cover an estimated 95 percent of
American industry. For the small minority
of industries remaining, the permit-issuing
authorities still have to "wing it." For exam-
ple, a buggy-whip manufacturer applying for
a permit would get one with pollutant limits
based on common sense, a survey of the
plant's wastewater. and perhaps some tech-
niques borrowed from the guidelines for the
leather tanning and finishing industry.
Have effluent guidelines and discharge per-
mits helped improve the quality of our water-
ways?
"Of course they have," said Schaffer.
"though I cannot tell you how much. We in
the Effluent Guidelines Division know that
where the guidelines are applied and permits
are in force, there is much less pollution
pouring out of industrial outfalls into the
rivers. Thousands of industrial plants will
soon be required to 'pretreat' wastewater
that they discharge into public sewer sys-
tems. Such wastes are often incompatible
with normal sewage and can disable or spoil
the purification processes in the treatment
plants. In this way, the guidelines for indus-
trial pollution control can help improve mu-
nicipal pollution control."
EPA's whole approach to water pollution
control was changed by the 1972 Act, Schaf-
fer pointed out. The quality of the water in a
river or lake used to be the base on which
EPA and its predecessor agencies worked.
"How much pollution can be tolerated in this
waterway?" was the basic question. Now it's
"What are the specific pollutant sources and
how can we curb them before they reach the
river?
"This approach puts the job of monitor-
ing progress on the polluter. An industry
with guidelines and a permit must keep
track of its discharges and report periodi-
cally to the State or E PA.
"The desired water quality in a particular
lake or river is still important, however. Per-
mits for discharging into the Finger Lakes in
upstate New York would be a lot more
stringent than for the Hudson River to pro-
tect established quality standards."
Schaffer thinks a significant long-run bene-
fit will come also from the "new source
performance standards" that are included in
the guidelines. These describe the pollution
controls required of all polluting facilities on
which construction begins after publication of
the proposed standards. In some cases the
new source standard may be more stringent
than either the 1977 or 1983 limitations on
existing sources, because better systems for
reducing or treating wastes, or both, can be
built right into new plants.
The level of control for new sources is
described in the Act in different words from
the 1977 and 1983 limitations: "the best
available demonstrated control technology.
processes, operating methods or other alter-
natives including;, where practicable, ci stand-
ard permitting no discharge of pollutants,"
"Many industry representatives have
worked with us on developing the effluent
guidelines. The more progressive and envi-
ronmentally conscious have been helpful to
EPA and its contractors in drafting the stand-
ards." said Schaffer. "We hope this will
continue as we work to revise the 1983
standards to focus on the most noxious pollu-
tants.
"Most industries are going to meet this
year's goal of 'best practicable technology.'
Those that lag are under pressure to catch
up, and this pressure comes from their com-
petitors as well as from EPA and State
regulators. 1 think this is a very healthy
situation, which will continue through the
six-year drive to meet the 1983 goals and
through the constant, natural process of
building new production facilities." •
PAGE 17
-------
POLL REAFFIRMS
ENVIRONMENTAL
SUPPORT
Americans have accepted environmental protection as one of
their basic national goals, and even the combined pressure of an
economic recession and energy shortage over the 1974-76 period
has not shaken that commitment.
This is the conclusion of a newly released study—"Protecting the
Environment: Progress, Prospects, and the Public View"—prepared
by Potomac Associates, a Washington, D.C.-based policy research
organization. The study involves public opinion findings obtained
from a May 1976 survey of 1,07! Americans.
The study was prepared and published with the support of the
Rockefeller Foundation, the Charles F. Kettering Foundation, the
Institute for International Social Research, and other organiza-
tions.
Similar surveys were conducted by Potomac Associates in 1972
and 1974, enabling the authors to define trends in public perception
of environmental issues over the past few years. The following table
shows how respondents viewed the progress the Nation has made in
reducing water and air pollution:
OPINION
Made much progress
Made some progress
Stood still
Lost some ground
Lost much ground
Don't know
•'Americans in general feel that the Nation has taken some
worthwhile steps toward eventual solution of the problems of water
and air pollution," the study states.
"Despite a distinct sense of environmental progress, however,
responses to other questions in our survey show that Americans are
far from convinced that all of our problems are solved. Indeed, they
continue to demonstrate an extremely high level of concern about
the task of cleaning up our environment."
The following table from the study shows the level of concern
among the respondents about water, air, and solid waste pollution:
WATER
1972
4%
45
23
12
8
8
1974
6%
49
19
10
7
9
1976
5%
54
21
9
3
8
AIR
1972
3%
46
25
11
7
8
1974
7%
50
21
9
5
8
1976
5%
54
22
8
3
8
CONCERN AIR
WATER
SOLID WASTE
1972 1974 1976 1972 1974 1976 1972 1974 1976
A great deal 61% 51% 57%
A fair amount 29 35 32
Not very much 7 10 7
Not at all I 2 2
Don't know 222
60% 46% 55%
28 36 32
9 12 8
I 3 3
2 3 2
53% 46% 48%
34 33 32
10 16 14
I 3 5
2 2 1
"Corroboration of this strong public concern about environmental
problems was provided by the November 1976 Harris Survey . . .
which reported that the number of Americans who are now worried
about water and air pollution has reached record peaks.
In a third measure of the American public's attitudes toward
environmental issues, public willingness to devote tax dollars to
programs designed to curb water and air pollution was tested.
These are the results:
WATER
1972
64%
26
4
1
5
1974
56%
36
2
1
5
1976
59%
30
6
i
4
AIR
1972
61%
28
4
1
6
1974
47%
42
4
2
5
1976
52%
34
8
2
4
ATTITU DE
Favors increased spending
Keep at present level
Reduce
End altogether
'Don't know
Noting a downward shift in the intensity of public support for
government spending on the environment from 1972 to 1976, the
authors point out that in both cases—water and air pollution—such
changes took place from 1972 to 1974. From 1974 to 1976, support
for government spending on the environment remained relatively
stable. Also, such shifts were consonant with the majority of other
government spending programs similarly rated.
"The over-all decline here does not mean that Americans are no
longer interested in paying for government actions aimed at im-
proving the environment," the authors contend, stating that their
analysis indicates "unmistakable public support for increased
spending to reduce water and air pollution.
"To sum up ... U.S. public attitudes toward reducing water and
air pollution display a distinct pattern. Most Americans tend to
believe that progress has been made recently in both areas, but
nevertheless remain deeply concerned about environmental prob-
lems and are strongly in favor of increased government spending to
help move quickly toward their solution. Our citizens, in short, see
cleaning up the environment as a national task of first priority, and
they show no interest in easing up on abatement programs now," the
study states.
However, on the environmentally-related topics of limiting popula-
tion and economic growth, the results indicate a greater disparity of
opinion. When asked if world population and economic growth will
have to be regulated to avoid serious shortages of national re-
sources, the results were as follows:
Yes
No
Don't know
1974 1976
64% 67%
29 25
7 8
But when asked "Do you, yourself, feel that population and
industrial growth in this area where you live should or should not be
regulated?" the results were:
Growth should be regulated
Should not be
Don't know
1974 1976
54% 44%
37 44
9 12
"... the conclusion most worthy of note here may not be that
there has been a drop of 10 percentage points between 1974 and 1976
in the proportion of Americans who believe that growth should be
controlled, but that even in 1976—as the Nation continues to struggle
out of a painful recession—half of those who expressed any opinion
on this question continued to feel that the interests of environmental
protection and preservation of the quality of life require some curbs
on population and economic growth," the study states.
The study also found that 69% of all those asked favored trying to
reduce the growth of the national population through encouraging
birth control. This figure was two percentage points lower than the
one obtained in the 1974 sampling.
Authors of the study were Gladwin Hill of The New York Times,
Lloyd A. Free of the Institute for International Social Research, and
Donald R. Lesh of Potomac Associates. •
PAGE 18
-------
OUR INDOOR RIVER
When ram washes pollutants from large-
areas of land into the Nut ion's rivers.
what becomes of them'.' Do they harm the
river water and its plant and animal life?
What changes are worked by the river eco-
system on the pollutants themselves, the silt,
the nutrient chemicals, the pesticides'"
To help answer such questions, EPA has a
small, indoor river at its Environmental Re-
search Laboratory at Athens. Ga., that can
duplicate most of the conditions found in
natural rivers.
It is called the Aquatic Ecosystem Simula-
tor, and it cost about $1 million when it was
built four years ago.
The heart of this system is a narrow tank
about 20 meters (64 ft.) long in which the
simulated river flows under carefully con-
trolled conditions. Pure water containing arti-
ficially introduced chemicals is generally
used, or natural water from a particular river
or lake can be brought to the laboratory in
tank trucks.
Microscopic water plants and animals, al-
gae, bacteria, zooplankton. etc.. are placed in
the tank by the scientists if pure water is
used for an experiment, or water containing
natural populations of organisms can be
taken from a lake or stream. In either case
the tank will contain a balanced ecosystem
that can be maintained throughout the stud-
ies.
Controlled amounts of pollutants are intro-
duced along the .stream. Water samples are
drawn off at nine stations along its length and
given a variety of tests to measure the inter-
actions of pollutants and the river ecosystem.
A wide range of environmental conditions
can be maintained. The temperature of the
water, and the air above it. can be varied
from 0 to 40 degrees C (32 to 104 degrees F).
Relative humidity of the air in the laboratory
can range from 20 to 80 percent.
An overhead bank of 833 fluorescent
lamps of different colors and MX) infrared
lamps simulates the sunlight necessary for
the natural growth of water plants.
The maximum flow rate is 7.570 liters
(2.0(X) gallons) per day. taking about 12 hours
for water to travel the length of the channel.
This short residence time is somewhat offset
by submerged paddle wheels that can stir the
channel up to white-water turbulence if de-
sired.
The simulated river is now being used in a
one-year study of what happens to plant
nutrients in a river. Such nutrients are a
principal cause of algal growth and the pre-
mature aging of lakes and rivers. Runoff from
cultivated land is believed to be one of the
The effects oj nutrients and other pollutants
on cii/utitic lift.' (ire slHtlied in this 64-t'oot-
l<»iX artificial river at EPA 'x laboratory in
Athens, (id. Researcher Hein:. Kollii; ix
checking the instruments that automatically
.sample water i/nality.
major nonpoint sources of nutrient pollution.
The studies are concentrating on how nu-
trient nitrogen compounds entering a river
ecosystem undergo chemical changes and
affect the river's microscopic life, according
to Dr. Ray R. I.assiter. Chief of the labora-
tory's Environmental Systems Branch.
Ammonia is the nitrogen compound intro-
duced. It is widely used in chemical fertil-
izers.
In the river simulator. EPA scientists are
tracing the conversion of ammonia to nitrates
by bacteria in the water under various envi-
ronmental conditions.
The bacteria float in the water and form
colonies on the walls and paddle wheels.
They carry out two processes in the nitrogen
cycle: first they convert the ammonia to
nitrites (compounds with two oxygen atoms)
then to nitrates (three oxygen atoms).
"Both processes are called nitrification.
and both tend to take free dissolved oxygen
from the water." said Dr. I.assiter. "They
can cause localized water pollution problems
when an overload of nitrogen-rich organic
materials from farm fields, for example, en-
ters a stream. Bacterial action on this mate-
rial can deplete the oxygen balance in the
stream, often killing fish and other orga-
nisms."
The studies are part of a continuing effort
to characterize the complete nitrogen cycles
and the effects of different kinds of nitrogen
compounds on the oxygen balance ot
streams.
In an earlier project, the simulator was
used to investigate what happens to the pesti-
cide malathion in rivers.
Knowing how pollutants are transported in
streams and what happens to them along the
way can help State and local officials make
the right decisions on water quality manage-
ment.
The laboratory river project was conceived
in the mid-l%0's by Dr. Walter M. Sanders
111, who is now the laboratory's Associate-
Director for Water Quality Research, l! was
dedicated in March 1973.
"Knowledge of how these pollutants he-
have in livers is essential for intelligent con-
trol." he said.
"This kind of research produces compli-
cated and apparently conflicting conclusions
that are best cast into 'models'—mathemati-
cal formulas that describe what can happen
under various conditions." said Dr. Sanders.
"We have already modeled pesticide and
fertilizer transport in particular watersheds in
the Midwest Corn Belt and the Southeast
Piedmont sections of the country."
"The artificial river is used to check and
refine the mathematical models." said Dr.
David W. Duttweilei, laboratory Director. It
bridges the gap between small-scale labora-
tory experiments, which can be carefully
controlled but may not be realistic, and stud-
ies in the field where the problems are real
but little experimental control is possible.
"Although this system cannot reproduce
all conditions found in the natural environ-
ment, it gives EPA aquatic research capabil-
ity that, to our knowledge, is not duplicated
anywhere in the world." •
PAGE 19
-------
EPA'S EYES IN THE SKY
The white chopper hovers low over a
bayou backwater and gently settles its
pontoons into a secluded stretch of the river.
A side panel bearing the blue and green EPA
symbol slides back, and several scientists
lean over the side with technical equipment
and clipboards. Here in the Atchafalaya
River Basin EPA is monitoring water quality
to assess the environmental impact of water
management measures used on the river.
The UH-1H (Huey) helicopter used to
reach this rural Louisiana area is part of
what is often referred to as the EPA "air
force." The Agency currently operates eight
aircraft through the Environmental Moni-
toring and Support Laboratory at Las Ve-
gas. The fleet of five helicopters and three
fixed-wing aircraft is based at McCarran
Field there.
At times EPA has had as many as 11
aircraft, but the size of the fleet changes to
meet program needs. The aircraft serve as
an arm of the Lab's research mission by
collecting data that could not be gathered
effectively any other way.A plane or heli-
copter that cannot be modified to gather the
necessary information is phased out of the
fleet. EPA-owned aircraft are turned over to
the General Services Administration for sur-
plusing, and those on loan from the military
are returned. When no other means can be
found to complete the mission the Agency
sometimes leases aircraft for short periods
of time.
"In each mission the aircraft provide
some unique service," says Dr. David Mc-
Nelis of the Las Vegas Lab. "Although
some photographic missions are contracted,
most air and water monitoring missions are
performed by Agency aircraft. This is not
like having a car and a driver on call. The
people and aircraft are part of an integrated
system that depends on a mission-trained
pilot, an aircraft that provides an instru-
mented platform for necessary research,
and a mix of scientisis on board to complete
the work."
McNelis, the Deputy Director of the Moni-
toring Operations Division at Las Vegas,
continued, "The aircraft provide a highly
cost-effective method of collecting informa-
tion or performing analyses over a large area.
They give us access to areas that would
otherwise be difficult, if not impossible, to
reach."
The Agency now owns a Volpar Turboli-
ner, a converted Air Force C-45 with two
turboprop engines; a second C-45 equipped
with two piston engines, which serves as
PAGE 20
backup for the other fixed-wing aircraft;
and a Douglas Monarch, a converted B-26
that carries the heaviest payload, flies the
fastest, and has the longest range of all
EPA's aircraft. EPA also owns two Sikorsky
S-58 helicopters and is using three Huey
helicopters on loan from the Department of
Defense.
The Las Vegas-Lab has a staff of 11 pilots
and technicians who fly and maintain the
planes. These people spend as much time
away as they do at home, according to Dr.
McNelis, because their missions take them
all over the country from New England, to
Florida, to the Pacific Northwest.
They are part of an organization of over
200 scientists, technicians, and support per-
sonnel who work in the five buildings the
Lab occupies at the University of Nevada.
The laboratory staff analyzes and interprets
the information collected by their high-flying
colleagues, making the data available to envi-
ronmental specialists throughout the Agency.
The planes and helicopters serve as "plat-
forms" for technical, devices or instruments
that identify and measure pollutants and
other indicators of environmental quality.
They also carry a wide variety of photo-
graphic equipment to record visual aspects
of the landscape for later interpretation.
With the bird's eye view provided from
the air, EPA scientists can document the
impact of industrial air emissions on the
surrounding countryside, locate oil storage
facilities that must be checked for compli-
ance with oil spill prevention regulations, aid
in the assessment and cleanup of oil spills,
outline thermal mixing zones in water bod-
ies, and check rivers for sources of munici-
pal or industrial pollution.
EPA inherited some aircraft when the
Southwestern Radiological Health Labora-
tory carne into the Agency from the Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare in
1970. Small airplanes had been used in
connection with nuclear testing, to collect
air samples and locate and track radioactive
clouds.
This work is still being carried on by the
Volpar. The plane is used almost exclusively
on work accomplished under a memoran-
dum of understanding between EPA and the
Energy Research and Development Admin-
istration. The plane is in the air whenever
underground testing takes place at the Ne-
vada Test Site. It is equipped with a scintil-
lator, Geiger counter, and other more sensi-
tive radiation instruments.
Over the last seven years the nucleus
represented by those first planes has
expanded into an important tool that gives
the Agency the means to find the source of
pollutants, track their movements, and doc-
ument their evolution over periods of time
and through changing conditions. Many of
EPA's major research projects depend on
the air force to collect the data they need.
The Regional Air Pollution Study that
was conducted in St. Louis, Mo., from 1972
to 1977 used the Laboratory's Sikorsky S-
•58 helicopters to collect information on the
processes that determine the concentrations
of air pollutants so that they can be de-
scribed in a system of mathematical models.
The aircraft were fitted with instruments
that measured ozone, oxides of nitrogen,
non-methane hydrocarbons, carbon monox-
ide, sulfur dioxide, and particulates. They
also had equipment to measure temperature,
dew point, and altitude. Special air samples
were collected in large plastic bags at var-
ious altitudes.
The information collected by these instru-
ments will be converted into data to validate
the computer models EPA is using to predict
the behavior of air pollutants in the atmos-
phere.
The Agency's three Huey helicopters
have been used extensively over the last
four years to sample lake water as part of
the National Eutrophication Survey. Heli-
copter teams of a pilot, a limnologist, and a
technician visited some 820 lakes all over
the country. The helicopter landed at prese-
lected sites and members of the team meas-
ured the temperature, conductivity, turbid-
ity, acidity, and dissolved oxygen content of
the water with an electronic sensor package.
The sensor also took water samples at se-
lected depths for later laboratory analysis.
The information assembled from those sam-
ples is being interpreted now by the Las
Vegas laboratory staff.
Not all Las Vegas aircraft monitoring is by
direct sampling. The fixed-wing aircraft are
also involved in remote sensing research. The
Douglas Monarch carries an infrared scanner
that measures temperature differences in day-
light or darkness. It can be used to detect
and map heated water discharges or oil spills.
The Monarch also carries two aerial pho-
tography devices. One is a mapping camera
that photographs large areas without distor-
tion in color, black and white, or infrared
false-color. The other is a reconnaissance
camera that compensates for the speed of the
plane, giving clear detailed photos. These
-------
pictures are valuable since they can' be used
for evidence in legal proceedings.
Infrared scans collected and analyzed by
EPA experts were key evidence in a
Chicago water pollution trial in 1974. The
State of Illinois sued Inland Steel Company
on charges that the industry polluted Lake
Michigan, the source of Chicago's drinking
water. At the Region's request the Las Vegas
aerial surveillance team flew over the Lake
Michigan shoreline where Illinois and Indi-
ana meet and obtained infrared scanning
imagery. The scan showed heated water
discharged from the Indiana Ship Canal in
East Chicago where Inland Steel has a big
mill, drifting north into Illinois waters. This
heated water made it possible to track the
"plume" of pollution, which was shown
moving northwest toward Chicago's water
intake when winds were from the southeast.
Illinois" Attorney General considered the
infrared pictures provided by EPA to be "a
cornerstone for liability in this complex en-
vironmental litigation."
The aerial photographs taken by the crew
of the Monarch offer a wealth of informa-
tion to the expert interpreter. The photoin-
terpreter can pinpoint and inventory waste
outfalis, industrial facilities, solid waste
dumps, feedlots. and water pollution
sources in mining and lumbering areas. Pho-
tographs of oil storage facilities are used to
assess spill prevention needs and aid en-
forcement efforts. When an oil spill does
occur, whether on land or at sea. aerial
reconnaissance helps map the spread of the
contaminant, locates access routes for
cleanup crews, and aids in the assessment of
the long-term ecological effects. The plane
carries closed-circuit television equipment
that can record the scene for live transmis-
sion to ground-based viewers for rapid as-
sessment of oil and ha/.ardous materials
spills that could involve danger to the pub-
lic.
Much work still needs to be done on the
technique of coping with oil spills. Informa-
tion garnered by the Las Vegas research
staff is shaping this growing technology.
After a 3.2-million-gallon fuel oil tank burst
near Jersey City. N.J. on May 26. 1976. the
retaining wall around the oil company com-
pound broke. This released oil into sur-
rounding marshlands and the Hackensack
River. A common assumption would be that
A specialty-equipped EPA Sikorsky H-34
helicopter measuring sulfur dioxide in a
plume from a 600-ft. high smokestack at a
copper smelter in Anaconda, Montana. The
data will he used by Region Vlll to assess
the smeller's impact on air quality in the
urea.
oil flows downstream with the river thereby
endangering the lower part of the stream
and Newark Bay.
Lab personnel took aerial photographs
over a 50-square-mile area along the Hack-
ensack that showed the effects of wind and
tidal action in the spread of water pollution.
In addition to local site damage and the
expected downstream impact, the photo-
graphs showed that strong tidal flows from
the Atlantic, aided by the wind, had pushed
the oil upstream on the Hackensack River
and the Passaic River. The oil also back-
washed into the Hackensack Meadowlands
between Jersey City and Secaucus upriver
from the site of the break.
Another attempt to meet the emergency
needs raised by spill disasters is the Enviro-
Pod, a compact, low-cost unit that will ena-
ble pollution officials to take clear photos
from medium or low altitudes. The pod was
developed by the U.S. Air Force Avionics
Laboratory at the request of EPA. The
program is being supervised by a field sta-
tion of the Las Vegas Lab. at Warrenton.
Va.
The Enviro-Pod is a light portable unit that
can be temporarily attached to a light air-
plane such as a Cessna 172 and take high
resolution photos from medium altitudes or
low level close ups. Dr. Wilson Talley, EPA
Assistant Administrator for Research and
Development, anticipates that the Enviro-
Pod will provide the best means yet for
photographing such environmental disasters
as oil spills, forest fires, and water pollution.
Talley said, "Environmental officials need
this kind of flexibility and quick reaction to
ecological disasters. The pod could also be
used for urban area studies, monitoring agri-
cultural runoff, and collecting evidence of
violations of existing regulations."
The problems of measuring pollutant dis-
charges and assessing their effects goes well
beyond the outfall pipe and the smokestack.
Air and water pollutants can travel long
distances over vast areas, sometimes in a
short time. •
PAGE 21
-------
UPDATE
A listing of recent Agency publica-
tions, and other items of use to
people interested in the environment.
GENERAL
PUBLICATIONS
Single copies available from the Pub-
lic Information Center, Printing, (PM-
215), US EPA. Washington, D.C.
20460.
Now Is The Time To Speak Up (April
1977) A 12-page pamphlet explain-
ing the 208 process for water quality
management planning with sugges-
tions on how the public can get in-
volved through each step of the plan-
ning process.
Your Drinking Water (April 1977) A
10-page reprint from the EPA Journal
that reviews some of the problems
and opportunities for providing better
drinking water in the United States
and abroad.
EPA Enforcement, A Progress Report
1976 (January 1977) This 210-page
document is the fourth report on en-
forcement actions. It covers air,
noise, water, and pesticide actions
initiated by EPA.
Oil Spills and Spills of Hazardous
Substances (March 1977) An illus-
trated 100-page booklet that de-
scribes spill effects, prevention, re-
sponse, legislation, and several spill
incidents.
Pesticides Safety Tips (Reprinted
March 1977) A handy 4x9 card that
lists important things to remember
when using, storing, and disposing
of pesticides.
The Clean Water Report to Con-
gress, 1975-76. This 75-page book is
the third annual report describing
measures taken to implement the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act.
Among the topics it covers are water
quality monitoring, municipal con-
struction, the nonpoint source pro-
gram, and public participation.
Wastewater: fs Muskegon's Solution
Your Solution? (MCD 34) A 50-page
book prepared by EPA's Region V
that looks at wastewater utilization
and renovation through land treat-
ment. It shows a cost-effective way to
PAGE 22
clean wastewater and then use it to
irrigate and fertilize previously un-
productive land.
Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory (March 1977) An 18-page
illustrated booklet about the research
mission of the laboratory. It describes
various laboratory projects including
wetlands studies, marine and estuar-
ine research, investigation into
chemical substitutes for hazardous
pesticides, and energy-related re-
search.
FEDERAL REGISTER
NOTICES
For copies of Federal Register No-
tices, write Office of the Federal Reg-
ister, National Archives and Records
Service, Washington, D.C. 20408.
Medium and Heavy Trucks. EPA
adopts noise emission standards, ef-
fective 5-31-77. Tuesday, March 1.
Phosphate Fertilizer Plants. EPA an-
nounces availability of final guide-
lines for the control of atmospheric
fluoride emissions. Tuesday, March 1.
Toxic Substances. EPA proposes in-
ventory reporting requirements as
prescribed by the Toxic Substances
Control Act. Wednesday, March 9.
Pesticide Products. EPA issues na-
tional list of priority needs for minor
use registration. Thursday, March 10.
Pesticides. EPA establishes toler-
ances for thiophanate-methyl in or
on raw agricultural commodities, ef-
fective 3-17-77. Thursday, March 17.
Pesticides. EPA changes effective
date to 4-15-77 for labeling statement
on aerosol products regarding chlo-
rofluorocarbons. Monday, March 21.
Pesticides. EPA establishes toler-
ances for aldicarb in or on raw agri-
cultural commodities. Monday,
March 21.
COMING EVENTS
More information about these events
and EPA participation in them is
available from Sue Sladek. Phone
202426-4188.
EPA National Conference on 208
Planning and Implementation, St.
Louis, MO., May 24-26.
The Second National Conference on
the Interagency Energy/Environment
Research and Development Pro-
gram, June 6-7, Washington, D.C.
Environmental Research Informa-
tion Center Seminar—Small Waste-
water Treatment Systems, San Fran-
cisco, CA., May 24-26; Denver, CO.,
June 7-9.
Environmental Research Informa-
tion Center Seminar—Sludge Treat-
ment and Disposal, Atlanta, GA.,
May 11-12; Boston, MA., June 14-15.
Environmental Research Informa-
tion Center Seminar—Water Treat-
ment, Portland, OR., May 25-26;
Washington, D.C., June 1-2.
MOVIES
Speak Up. This 10-minute, 16-mm
color film is designed to alert people
to the issues which may be consid-
ered during 208 planning and how
these issues may affect their lives. To
be used as an introduction to pro-
grams that discuss specific local
issues and local planning processes.
(Single copies of this film may be
borrowed from: EPA, Office of Public
Affairs(A-l07), Washington, D.C.
20460.)
Can We Fish Again? A little boy and
his father go fishing on the Great
Lakes and later find out that certain
fish are contaminated by hazardous
chemicals. This 14-minute, 16-rnm
color film looks at the effects of toxic
substances and describes the need
for regulation. (Single copies of this
film can be borrowed from : Filrn-
Comm, 208 South Lasalle Drive, Chi-
cago, IL, 60604.)
-------
J
ENVIRONMENTAL ALMANAC
A GLIMPSE OF THE NATURAL WORLD WE HELP PROTECT
MAY
BLOSSOMS IN THE TREES
Early May is often the time
when orchards in the major
apple-growing areas of the Shenan-
doah Valley in Virginia, Washington
State, and the New York-New Eng-
land area reach full bloom.
Hillsides and ridges are decked
with aromatic white and pinkish
blossoms. Although the exact timing
of the blooming is controlled by
weather conditions, the apple blos-
soming" is the last of the season for
the major fruit trees. The peach,
pear, and cherry trees have all
bloomed earlier in clouds of white
and pink flowers.
Leading the world in the produc-
tion of apples is the United States.
The success of each multi-million
dollar apple crop is of major impor-
tance to the agricultural economy.
Yet, as in most farm crops, the
fate of the apples depends on the
vagaries of the weather and the
grower's success in enlisting the
cooperation of some insects and in
fighting off others.
The key factor in the production-
of the apples is the development of.
the blossoms. If there are no flow-
ers, there will be no seeds. Flowers
are the reproductive organs of a
plant and their function is to pro-
duce, nurture and distribute the
seeds of their species.
Each spring a good-sized apple
tree produces from 50,000 to
100,000 blossoms whose fragrance
and color attract bees, which are
often rented from apiarists and
placed in the orchards during the
pollination period. A bee lands on a
petal and while sipping the nectar
from the flower cup transfers the
pollen picked up on its body from
the last drinking stop.
After receiving the pollen, the
ovary at the base of the blossom
grows into the seed-bearing apple.
In nature's plan the apple is merely
a lure to help spread the seeds
within and thus continue the spe-
cies
Most blossoms end up in the
dust because this system of pollina-
tion is complicated and not very
efficient. Only 2 to 5 percent of the
apple blossoms develop into fruit,
providing a yield of 15 to 30 bushels
of apples from a mature tree. If all
the blossoms produced apples, the
trees could not supply them with
the necessary nutrients or bear their
weight.
The apple and most of our north-
ern fruit trees are members of the
rose family, which also includes the
ornamental rose plants. The liber-
tine mating behavior of this family
has long been a scandal in botanical
circles.
Much more sedate, far less color-
ful, and rarely noticed is the early
Apple blossoms
spring flowering of such trees as
oak, elm, and maple. The aerial
display of. these trees is rarely seen
because their wind-pollinated flow-
ers hanging high in the bare
branches are so tiny.
Some of these trees such as the
elm have undressed flowers with no
petals, leaving bare the essential
stamens that manufacture the pol-
len and the pistil that produces the
seed after it is fertilized.
Showy petals could hinder the
breezes from delivering the pollen
which is distributed in great clouds
from the elm's dangling anthers or
the swaying catkins of the oak,
poplar or walnut.
Wind-pollinated trees far out-
number insect-pollinated kinds, but
because their masses of blossoms
are inconspicuous they are not usu-
ally thought of as flowering trees.
The petals of insect-pollinated
flowers are often marked with lines
or spots that point the path to the
nectar. The tulip poplar's green tu-
lip-shaped blossoms, for example,
carry an orange target circle near
the inner flower base.
Insect-flower trees which will
bloom this summer include the
basswood whose creamy and fra-
grant blossoms attract swarms of
bees. The flowers of horse chestnut
and catalpa will stand erect against
masses of foliage. The Franklinia
will wait until late summer or early
autumn and barely has time to
ripen its fruits before the onset of
cold weather.
Last of all comes the flashing
yellow of the witch hazel whose
little yellow ribbon-like flowers—
easily seen in the bare November
woods—offer the final provisions for
late-working bees.—C.D.P.
PAGE 23
-------
Harold P. Cahill Jr., Director of
the Municipal Construction Di-
vision, has been chosen as one
of the "top ten men-of-the-year"
in the public works field. The
awards are given each year by
the American Public Works As-
sociation in recognition of out-
standing service'by public works
officials in all levels of govern-
ment, according to John J.
Koark. Association president.
Cahill's award will be presented
later this month at a ceremony
to be held in Washington in con-
junction with National Public
Works Week, May 22-28.
John T. Rhett, Deputy Assistant
Administrator for Water Pro-
gram operations, said Cahill was
first recommended for the
APWA award by the Manage-
ment Advisory GroupofEPA's
Construction Grants Program
particularly for his "outstanding
record of managing E PA's con-
struction grants program" and
for his notable ability "in bring-
ing together all the groups, pri-
vate and public, tojointly work
out equitable solutions" to the
technical and managerial prob-
lems of this multi-billion-dollar
effort to clean up pollution from
municipal sewage.
Dr. A. F. Bartsch, Director of
EPA's Corvallis (Ore.) Environ-
mental Research Laboratory,
spent two weeks in South Africa
recently surveying water re-
sources and recommending a
work program for the South Af-
rican Water Research Commis-
sion. He then visited Nairobi,
Kenya, to confer with Dr. Mos-
tafa Tolba. Executive Director of
United Nations Environmental
Program, which has its head-
quarters in Nairobi.
PAGE 24
PEOPLE
Mary K. McCarthy has been
appointed Headquarters Train-
ing Officer, replacing James E.
Guy, who has been moved to the
Personnel Management Divi-
sion's national training staff.
McCarthy has been with the
Civil Service Commission for
two years, working with com-
mission teams that give advice
and assistance to selected agen-
cies on their employee training
problems. Before that she
worked with the President's
Commission on Personnel Inter-
change. She is 35 years old, a
native of New York City and a
graduate of the State University
of New York. She earned a mas-
ter's degree at Manhattan Col-
lege. Riverdale. N. Y., and has
done graduate work at Columbia
and George Washington Uni-
versities.
These 10 EPA women at the
Jefferson Memorial comprised
EPA's first women's running
team which participated in the
Interagency Jogging Meet held
in Washington recently. They are
(from left) Carol Dennis, Paula
Bass, Jo-ann Bassi, Claire Gesal-
man, Merie Clark, Anne "Sam"
Marvin, Barbara Mayo, Jana
Scolt, Marie Berez, and Claire
Matassoni. In competition with
other women from EPA and
other Federal agencies, Dennis
finished in first place over-all
and was also first in the cate-
gory for women 30 to 39 years
old, Matasonni was second over-
all and first in the race for those
20 to 29. and Marvin, who is
holding the trophy given the first
women's team in the meet, was
first for those between 40 and
49.
John M. Ropes was recently ap-
pointed Director of State and
Local Programs in the Office of
Noise Abatement and Control.
He previously had been assigned
to the Office of Federal Activi-
ties where he headed EPA's
manpower development and
training programs in water pollu-
tion control for the last three
years.
He joined the Federal service in
1968 as Chief, State and Local
Manpower Development, in the
Federal Water Quality Adminis-
tration, an EPA predecessor
agency. Before that he served
three years as assistant to the
governor of Iowa and di rector of
the executive staff of the Iowa
Manpower Development Coun-
cil.
Mr. Ropes. 52, is a native of
Onawa. Iowa, and earned a B. A.
in sociology and political science
and an M.S. in sociology and
secondary education from Drake
University. Chicago. He and his
wife, the former Mary Lou Gar-
dow, have one son. Dr. Milton B.
Ropes.
Donald A. Townley, Acting Dep-
uty Administrator in Region VII,
Kansas City, has retired. Town-
ley had previously headed the
Region's Surveillance and Analy-
sis Division and its Air and Haz-
ardous Materials Division. A
Public Health Service officer, he
had also served as enforcement
chief for Kansas City's Division
of Water Supply and Pollution
Control and as Supervisor of
Environmental Sanitation for
the Missouri Division of Health.
He and his wife will continue to
live in Liberty. Mo.
-------
briefs
LEAD STANDARD BEING PREPARED
EPA officials are reviewing comments received at a public
hearing held last month to assist in developing information
for a national ambient air quality standard for lead. Under
a court order EPA must propose a lead standard by Aug. 10
and promulgate a final standard by Nov. 10.
FLUOROCARBON MEETING
EPA, the Food and Drug Administration and the Consumer Product
Safety Commission hosted an international meeting on fluorocarbon
regulations April 26-28 at the State Department in Washington.
Purpose of the meeting attended by major fluorocarbon producers
and international organization representatives was to share
information on the global problem of ozone depletion resulting
from fluorocarbon emissions. Chairman of the meeting was
Administrator Douglas M. Costle.
PAPERWORK CUT ORDERED
EPA Deputy Administrator Barbara Blum has ordered a 30 percent
cut in paperwork related to Agency reporting requirements. Blum
has convened a special task force of EPA and State officials to
develop recommendations for reducing reporting requirements
involving EPA regulations. The cuts will be ordered as part
of the Agency's Fiscal Year 1978 operating guidance to regional
offices.
ROUSH NAMED EPA STAFF DIRECTOR
J. Edward Roush, a former U.S. Congressman from Indiana, has
been named by Administrator Douglas M. Costle as Director of
EPA's Office of Regional and Intergovernmental Operations.
Roush, who succeeds Peter L. Cashman in this EPA post, served
eight terms in Congress. Costle said "Ed Roush brings a wealth
of experience in local and Federal government to this key
position."
PACK 25
-------
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS (A 107)
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20460
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
THIRD CLASS BULK RATE
Relum this page if you do NOT wish to receive this publication ( ), or if change of address is needed ( ), list change, including zip code.
UNDERWATER FARMS
The use of polluted wastes to help grow
trout, shrimp, and other fish on under-
water farms is covered by new regulations
issued by FPA.
Under the Agency's rules, permits will be
issued by FPA Regional Administrators to
insure thai safe levels of usable pollutants
are not exceeded.
The main sources of pollution used for fish
farms and other aquaculture projects are
heated industrial waste water, waste water
from food processing activities, and treated
municipal sewage which has high levels of
such nutrients as nitrogen and phosphorus.
F.PA's regulations will apply only to those
projects where pollutants are being dis-
charged into U.S. inland and coastal waters
to help grow catfish, clams, oysters and
other marine animals.
Hermit applications must be made jointly
by the operators of both the aquaculture
project and the facility supplying the waste
water to he used. To prevent the discharge of
excessive pollutants, applicants must provide
information on the kinds and amounts of
pollutants to be used.
The use of waste water in aquaculture
projects may he an effective way to turn
certain pollutants into useful products. F.PA
believes. Using waste water to grow fish and
other marine animals could prolong the
growing season for certain fish or provide
needed nutrients inexpensively.
There are only a few projects now using
such methods, although KPA believes that
interest in these techniques may increase. In
Hamilton. New Jersey, a township near Tren-
ton, the warm water from a power generating
station has been used since 1973 to cultivate
rainbow trout and a freshwater species of
edible shrimp with considerable success.
The plant is owned by Public Service El-
ectric and Gas, and with help from a National
Science Foundation grant and biologists
from Trenton State College and Rutgers
University, the company has established a
commercial-scale fish farm on its acreage at
the power plant.
The warm water used at the plant is
diverted in a constant flow to artificial ponds
and raceways where its warm temperature
(40°-96° F) stimulates rapid growth in the
trout and shrimp.
The trout are raised in the cooler winter
months, from November to April, and toler-
ate a temperature range of 34°-79° F. with the
fastest growth occurring at 57° F.
In the warmer months, when the water is
too warm for optimum trout breeding, the
company switches to the shrimp which are a
tropical species and thrive in the warmer
water, in temperatures up to 98° F.
The trout reach a length of ten inches in
about four months, and the shrimp reach a
harvest size of three inches in nine months
(compared to I'/a years naturally). Both the
trout and shrimp have passed health and taste
tests. The trout have been donated to the
State of New Jersey for trout stocking. The
Marine biologists harvest trout raised in the
warm water discharged by a Public Sen'ice
Electric & (ieis Company power plant in
Hamilton, New Jersev.
shrimp have so far been used for research
needs at nearby institutions and for market-
ing evaluations by restaurants and project
personnel.
The practice of aquatic husbandry dates
from ancient times in the Middle East. Inter-
est in this form of protein production has
been increasing in recent years due to such
factors as the global food shortage that has
resulted from a greatly expanding world pop-
ulation.
Many aquatic animals can be efficiently
produced as sources of protein, since they
can use a higher percentage of their energy
intake for growth than is possible with terres-
trial animals. They can do this because their
body density closely approximates that of the
surrounding water, meaning that they have to
use less energy to maintain supportive struc-
tures, such as a skeleton. Also, since most
aquatic animals are coldblooded they do not
have to expend additional energy to maintain
a high body temperature.
EPA's regulations were originally proposed
in July 1974. under authority of the 1972
Federal Water Pollution Control Act. They
will appear soon in the Federal Register and
become effective 30 days thereafter. •
------- |