CARTER ON
THE ENVIRONMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
JUNE 1977
VOL.THREE. NO.SIX
• -•"•,
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PREPARING
FOR A NEW COAL AGE
The mournful wails of coal train locomotives are
echoing more frequently now as the Nation's
railroads send a mounting number of cars brimful of
coal snaking through mountain passes and rattling
across the Great Plains.
We are witnessing the beginning of a new coal
age in which EPA will play a significant role.
Some of the work being done by EPA's research
program to make coal a more acceptable fuel is
reviewed in this issue of the Journal.
One article is an interview with Stephen J. Gage,
Deputy Assistant Administrator for Energy, Min-
erals and Industry, on the massive interagency
program EPA is guiding to provide more energy
without ravaging the environment.
Other articles on coal include:
A progress report on the status of air pollution
control devices called "scrubbers," which spray
stack gases from burning coal to help remove
pollutants.
A report on strip-mined "orphan lands," which
have been abandoned by their former owners.
A brief review of the history of coal.
An article on the "acid rain," which coal sulfur
helps cause.
An analysis of how much pollution controls may
boost home electric bills.
Also in this issue in the Environmental Almanac
section is a quick look at our fundamental source of
energy—the Sun.
The subject of another article is the discovery of
gold and silver in sewage sludge in Palo Alto, Calif.
The action of Administrator Douglas M. Costle in
proposing a ban on the manufacture and use of
certain gases as propellants in spray cans is also
explained.
The concluding article reports on a study which
found minute amounts of pesticides in the milk of a
majority of nursing mothers tested.
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Printed on recycled paper.
US. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY
Douglas M. Costle,
Administrator
Marlin Fitzwater,
Acting Director of
Public Affairs
Charles D. Pierce,
Editor
VanTrumbull, Ruth Hussey,
David Cohen,
Staff
PHOTO CREDITS:
Don Emmerich. Bill Davis. Ernesi Bucci,
The Chessie Sysiem.
Cover. View from Colorado National
Monument in western Colorado. Photo by
Boyd Norton for EPA's Documerica.
Illustration by John Heinly
The EPA Journal is published monthly,
with combined issues July-August and
November-December, by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Use
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Views expressed by authors do not
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ARTICLES
CARTER PLEDGES STRONG BACKING FOR PAGE 2
ENVIRONMENT
Congress given plan for vigorous Federal efforts
to protect public health and resources.
LIVING WITH KING COAL PAGE 4
An interview with Stephen J. Gage on what
EPA is doing to reduce pollution from coal
and other energy sources.
SCRUBBING COAL FUMES PAGE 8
A review of the status of "scrubbers" used
to clean coal fumes.
RECLAIMING 'ORPHAN' LANDS PAGE 10
Earth scarred by mining can often be restored,
but it takes time, money and effort.
THE BIOGRAPHY OF COAL PAGE 12
A brief history of our most abundant fossil fuel
ACID RAIN: AN ENVIRONMENTAL THREAT PAGE 14
WILL POLLUTION CONTROLS BOOST
ELECTRIC BILLS?
STRIKING GOLD IN SLUDGE
BAN FOR HARMFUL SPRAY-CAN GASES
MOTHERS1 MILK
DEPARTMENTS
ALMANAC
NATION
PEOPLE
UPDATE
NEWS BRIEFS
PAGE 16
PAGE 20
PAGE 21
BACK COVER
PAGE 17
PAGE 18
PAGE 22
PAGE 24
PAGE 25
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CARTER PLEDGES
STRONG BACKING FOR
ENVIRONMENT
Major new responsibilities for EPA have
been recommended by President Carter
in his environmental message to Congress.
The President calls for vigorous Federal
efforts to extend the scope of protection for
the Nation's land, air, and water and for the
health of its citizens.
EPA Administrator Douglas M. Costle said
that the message "demonstrates once again
the President's commitment to the environ-
ment and his sense of its importance to the
future of the Nation and the world. The
message sets forth a comprehensive program
for this Administration—a program which I
fully support."
Costle said that in areas of EPA responsi-
bility the message places priority where it
belongs:
• the effective control of toxic chemicals;
• a strong Clean Air Act to protect public
health;
• continued cleanup of our Nation's
water;
• new approaches to solid waste and pest
management;
• and improved implementation of envi-
ronmental laws.
"It is most encouraging," Costle said, "to
have such strong Presidential support, and
we will do everything in our power to pro-
vide the sensitive administration and ener-
getic enforcement which he has requested of
us."
The President's comprehensive message
included more than a dozen new legislative
initiatives or commitments to submit future
legislation, five executive orders, and a wide
variety of policy statements and directives to
Federal agencies.
The President emphasized his belief that
environmental protection is "consistent with
a sound economy" and has created—and will
continue to create—many more jobs than it
costs.
The message covered a number of major
themes including: controlling pollution and
protecting the public health; energy and the
environment; the urban environment; pro-
tecting natural resources; preserving our na-
tional heritage; the global environment; and
EPA JOURNAL
making environmental laws work more effec-
tively.
Discussing toxic chemicals, the President
noted that his Fiscal 1978 budget provides
nearly $29 million—a threefold increase over
Fiscal 1977—for EPA "to implement this
important Act.
"I have instructed the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency to give its highest priority to
developing 1983-best-available-technology
industrial effluent standards which will con-
trol toxic pollutants under the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act, and to incorporate
these standards into discharge permits. My
Administration will be seeking amendments
to this Act, including revision of Section
307(a), to permit the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency to move more decisively against
the discharge of chemicals potentially injuri-
ous to human health.
"... I have instructed the Environmental
Protection Agency to set standards under the
Safe Drinking Water Act which will limit
human exposure to toxic substances in drink-
ing water, beginning with potential carcino-
gens."
Other areas in which the President as-
signed roles to EPA included:
Clean Air—the President reviewed his sup-
port for amendments previously submitted to
Congress to strengthen the Clean Air Act.
He added that "1 have instructed the Admin-
istrator of the Environmental Protection
Agency to review his Agency's regulations
controlling new industrial growth in areas
now violating air quality health standards and
to recommend to me and to the Congress a
fair and effective policy for meeting these
standards in the future. Adoption of new
legislative provisions in this area should
await the results of this review."
Water Quality—the President recalled that
he had already asked Congress to authorize
the expenditure of $4.5 billion in each of the
next 10 years for municipal wastewater treat-
ment facilities and for an increase in funds
for the Section 208 Planning Program.
"... 1 will be submitting further water
quality amendments for your consideration in
the current session. They will include provi-
sions to make pollution unprofitable as well
as illegal by imposing penalties on firms that
have failed to abate their pollution on sched-
ule; provisions to make law enforcement
more stringent; and provisions necessary to
ensure that actions are taken in accord with
water quality management plans."
Solid Wastes—the President said that the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act,
passed in 1976. gave EPA the authority it
needs to regulate hazardous wastes and to
assure the safe disposal of other residues.
"Now," the President said, "it is impor-
tant to move beyond the symptoms and
address two principal causes of the solid
waste problem: excessive packaging and in-
adequate use of recycled materials.
"The Act requires the EPA to undertake,
through an Interagency Resource Conserva-
tion Committee, a two-year study of ways to
encourage waste reduction, recycling, and
resource recovery with financial incentives
like solid waste disposal charges, refundable
deposits on containers. Federal procurement
of recycled materials, and excise taxes for
litter clean-up. I am asking the Committee to
accelerate its study and within six months
present to me its first recommendations
which are to address the use of solid waste
disposal charges (levies on materials and
products which reflect the costs associated
with thei r ultimate disposal).
"In addition, 1 am taking several actions to
encourage resource conservation within the
Federal Government. In the White House
itself, recycled paper will be used wherever
practicable as soon as present stocks of
paper have been exhausted. I am instructing
the Administrator of the General Services
Administration and the heads of other appro-
priate federal agencies to institute a waste
paper recycling program wherever practica-
ble by the end of this calendar year. I am also
instructing the GSA to revise its paper-prod-
uct specifications to encourage the purchase
of more recycled paper."
Pest Management—"I am asking the Ad-
ministrator of the Environmental Protection
Agency to work with the Congress in enact-
ing an amendment to the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act which would
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allow the EPA to regulate directly 1,400
active chemical ingredients, rather than
40,000 different commercial products which
contain them in varying amounts. This
change will help speed the registration of safe
and desirable pest control compounds, and it
will permit swifter revocation of registration
for those which pose unwarranted risks.
Coal—The President said that "as our
Nation increasingly turns to coal as a re-
placement for our dwindling supplies of oil
and gas, —we must be sure" that environ-
mental safeguards are preserved. He stressed
the importance of swift passage of national
strip mine legislation. He recalled that in his
energy plan he had recognized that "pollu-
tion control technology for direct combustion
of coal is not fully adequate and directed thai
Federal research be increased in certain key
areas." The President said that he is directing
the Administrators of EPA, the Energy Re-
search and Development Administration and
the Secretary of Health, Education and Wel-
fare to establish a joint program to identify
the health and environmental effects of
"each advanced technology that is the sub-
ject of Federal research and development."
He added that he is also directing (he Admin-
istrators of ERDA and EPA "jointly to de-
velop procedures for establishing environ-
mental protection standards for all new
energy technologies. These procedures
should be agreed upon within one year."
Global Environment—Recognizing "the
urgency of international efforts to protect our
common environment," the President said
that he is directing CEQ and the Department
of State, working in cooperation with EPA,
the National Science Foundation, the Na-
tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
tion and other appropriate agencies, to make
a one-year study of the probable changes in
the world's population, natural resources and
environment through the end of the century.
This study will serve as the foundation of our
longer-term planning."
Improving Government—"Various pro-
grams within the Environmental Protection
Agency provide funds to State and local
government for planning, training, monitor-
ing, enforcement and research in pollution
control. They are presently authorized under
different pieces of legislation, funded by dif-
ferent offices within the Agency, and entail
different procedures for allocation of their
funds. In the near future, 1 will submit legisla-
tion to the Congress designed to bring these
programs into one comprehensive environ-
mental grant program." The President also
said that his Administration will promote
better cooperation between government and
industry to solve some of the serious remain-
ing pollution problems. "I have directed the
Administrator of the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency to meet with representatives of
major industrial groups and develop a joint
government-industry research program for '
unsolved pollution problems."
Other general subjects covered in the
sweeping environmental message included:
increased protection of wetlands, more strin-
gent regulation of the use of snowmobiles.
motorcycles and other off-road vehicles on
public lands, the acquisition of more scenic
river and wilderness areas, including huge
tracts in Alaska, and the use of the Agency
for International Development to help pro-
vide assistance for population and health care
programs.
"Americans long thought that Nature
could take care of itself—or thai if it did not,
the consequences were someone else's prob-
lem," the President said. "As we know now.
that assumption was wrong; none of us is a
stranger to environ mental problems.
"Industrial workers, for example, are ex-
posed to disproportionate risks from toxic
substances in their surroundings. The urban
poor, many of whom have never had the
chance to canoe a river or hike a mountain
trail, must nevertheless endure each day the
hazardous effects of lead and other pollutants
in the air."
The President declared that "intelligent
stewardship of the environment on behalf of
all Americans is a prime responsibility of
government. Congress has in the past carried
out its share of this duty well—so well, in
fact, that the primary need today is not for
new comprehensive statutes but for sensitive
administration and energetic enforcement of
the ones we have. Environmental protection
is no longer just a legislative job. but one thai
requires—and will now receive—firm and
unsparing support from (he Executive
Branch."
Commenting on the impact of environmen-
tal protection on the economy, the President
said "previous pollution control laws have
generated many more jobs than they cost.
And other environmental measures whose
time has come—measures like energy con-
servation, reclamation of strip-mined lands,
and rehabilitation of our cities—will produce
still more new jobs, often where they are
needed most. In any event, if we ignore the
care of our environment, the day will eventu-
ally come when our economy suffers for thai
neglect."
In outlining goals, the President said "we
are particularly committed to strong meas-
ures to protect our most important re-
source—human health—from the increas-
ingly apparent problem of hazardous
substances in the environment.
• "We plan to improve enforcement of
our pollution control laws.
• "We intend to make increased use of
economic incentives to achieve our environ-
mcntal.goals.
• "We will seize opportunities to reduce
pollution by conserving resources.
• "We will work with State and local
governments 10 make sure that the job of
controlling pollution is properly planned and
does not stop with the promulgation of regu-
lations in Washington.
• "We will make every effort to see thai
regulation of a problem in one medium such
as water—does not create new environmen-
tal problems in another medium—such as air.
• "And we will squarely face emerging
environmental problems so that they can be
dealt with effectively without an atmosphere
of crisis."
Copies of ihe President's 36-page Environ-
mental Message are available from the Public
Information Center. Printing (PM-215). EPA.
Washington. D.C. 20460.
JUNE 1977
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uvii\<;
WITH KING COAL
An interview with Stephen J. Gage, Deputy Assist-
ant Administrator for Energy, Minerals and Indus-
try in EPA's Research and Development Program.
Dr. Gage has a major responsibility for a Federal
interagency program of research and development
on the production of energy and its environmental
effects. Under this cooperative program 18 different
departments and bureaus, under the guidance of
EPA, pool their resources and expertise. Over the
last three years, EPA has spent more than $100
million annually on energy research, most of it in
projects designed to reduce the environmental im-
pact of coal burning.
"Coal is a 'dirty' fuel, but we have
realized that fact and have made
important progress toward
ensuring that it can be mined and
burned with minimal
environmental damage."
Q: Will environmental protection become a casualty of our war
against energy dependence?
A: No! If we are careful, we can significantly decrease our depend-
ence on foreign oil sources without endangering human health or
ecosystems. I am very encouraged by President Carter's statement
that protection of the environment will be one of the basic principles
of his energy policy. With strong leadership by Administrator Costle,
we can make sure that we don't relax our pursuit of the Nation's
environmental goals even while we redouble our efforts to achieve
new energy and economic goals.
Q: What are we doing in response to President Carter's energy
proposals?
A: My Office has been working with Dr. Schlesinger's Energy
Policy Office in developing an expanded development and demon-
stration program aimed at making available improved control tech-
nology for the control of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and particu-
lates associated with coal combustion. This effort is considered
critical since the President's proposed energy policy strongly empha-
EPA JOURNAL
sizes the increased combustion of coal as a replacement for scarce
natural gas and petroleum fuels between now and 1990.
Q: // the President's energy measures are adopted, what type of
increase in the use of coal can we expect to see in the future?
A: In 1976, the Nation used 700 million tons of coal for the
generating of electricity, raising process steam, and making coke for
metallurgical purposes. By 1990, we expect such usage to increase
by over50 percent !o nearly l.J00 million tons per year.
"If we are careful, we can
significantly decrease our
dependence on foreign oil sources
without endangering human health
or ecosystems."
Q: Is it not ironic, from the point of view of this Agency, that the least
desirable energy source with respect to emissions is being encour-
aged?
A: The environment encompasses economic activities and mineral
resources, for example, as well as air, water, and land resources.
Thus we in EPA cannot take a narrow unrealistic view of what's
good for the Nation. We must deal with reality as it confronts us.
Coal is a "dirty" fuel, but we have recognized that fact and have
made important progress toward ensuring that it can be mined and
burned with minimal environmental damage. Other fuels like oil and
natural gas are too scarce and/or expensive to be burned in power
plants. Besides, comparisons of fuels using only uncontrolled emis-
sions as a basis are misleading. When you look at the environmental
impacts associated with the many links in each fuel supply chain—
coal, oil, gas, nuclear, geothermal, solar, etc.—you are struck by the
fact that there is no perfect fuel. Production and transportation of
JUNE 1977
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even our cleanest fuel—natural gas—results in deaths by offshore
platform fires, pipeline explosions, and hydrogen sulfide poisoning.
Q: // the Nation is to depend heavily on coal for the next several
decades, how can we assure the protection of the environment?
A: First let's make it clear that our policy of stressing coal for our
energy needs means that there will be an adverse impact on the
environment; we must not ignore the fact that this policy is trading
off national security, balance of trade, and other considerations with
environmental protection. The job of this Office is to help insure that
this tradeoff is an acceptable one, by developing the means to sharply
reduce the inevitable impacts.
The number of facets that must "fit together" to assure environ-
mental protection is staggering, and developing proper control tech-
nologies is only one of these facets. Besides assuring that every mine
and conversion facility is equipped with the best control technolo-
gies, we have to carefully control the siting process; insure that
appropriate enforcement takes place; continually monitor the status
of our air, water, and land resources; involve citizens in the decisions
that will so drastically affect their lives; and, well, the list is too long
to complete here. The present "policy system" that deals with coal
development is too fragmented and uncoordinated to assure com-
plete environmental protection, thus, the key to protection is political
and institutional adjustments as well as technological change in the
ways we use coal.
Q: What is the technological and economic status of "scrubbers"—
used to control harmful pollutants from burning coal?
A:~There has been much progress since 1968 when the first genera-
tion of scrubbers were installed in the United States. Scrubber
technology is now at the point where a utility can order a lime or
limestone scrubber system and have a high degree of confidence that
it will operate reliably after a shake-down period. Such a period can
vary from almost no time at all to a few months, depending upon a
variety of factors.
Q: What has been the altitude of industry regarding the adaptation of
scrubbers?
A: We must recognize that industry—in this case, primarily the
electrical utility industry—will never enthusiastically embrace a
technology that substantially adds to the cost of doing business.
However, the utilities' attitude has changed over the last five years
from what could be characterized as complete opposition by the
entire industry to the present situation where attitudes vary consid-
erably. Some utilities have a quite positive attitude toward scrubber
technology, since it allows them to burn local high-sulfur coal
consistent with local regulations. However, other utilities still
strongly oppose scrubbers.
"The President's proposed energy
policy strongly emphasizes the
increased combustion of coal as a
replacement for scarce natural gas
and petroleum fuels between now
and 1990."
Q: Some scrubber systems produce non-reusable materials such as
sludge. How serious is the problem of disposing of this waste in a
satisfactory manner?
A: The scrubber systems most often selected by the utilities are lime
and limestone processes which produce a throwaway sludge. The
sludge quantities produced, on a dry basis, are generally comparable
to the amount of fly ash that is normally collected in an electrostatic
precipitator; such ashes must also be disposed of in an environmen-
tally acceptable manner. The two most significant potential problems
are groundwater contamination due to leaching of trace contaminants
from the sludge and the land use deterioration associated with the
disposing of a non-settling sludge in a disposal pond. However,
technologies are available which can dramatically minimize these
problems. For example, fixation processes are offered commercially
which involve treating the sludge produced with a lime-based
material to produce a structurally sound, environmentally acceptable
landfill material. Another option which is utilized extensively in
Japan on oil boilers and which our R&D program is developing for
coal boilers is to incorporate oxidation in the scrubber process. This
allows the production of gypsum which can either be sold or easily
dewatered and used as landfill material.
"Let's make it clear that our policy
of stressing coal for our energy
needs means that there will be an
adverse impact on the
environment; we must not ignore
the fact that this policy is trading
off national security, balance of
trade, and other considerations
with environmental protection."
Q: Are we encouraging the use of one type of scrubber system over
another?
A: Neither the Clean Air Act nor the Agency in the implementation
of the Act directly mandates the type of sulfur oxide control
technology that is needed. The new Source Performance Standards
for coal-fired power plants, for example, require an emission limita-
tion for sulfur oxides. However, the Clean Air Act does mandate a
relatively stringent time schedule for achievement of air quality goals.
This essentially forces the use of control technology that is currently
commercially available; in this case, lime and limestone scrubbing
technology. However my Office has been active in sponsoring
research, development and demonstration efforts aimed at giving the
utilities alternatives to current lime and limestone technologies, for
example, regenerable scrubber systems which produce a salable
product such as sulfuric acid or sulfur.
Q: Are there alternatives to scrubbers? Low-sulfur coal, pre-combux-
tion. tall stacks, cleaning of coal, etc.?
A: Within the next ten years, a coal burning facility that has to meet
an emission standard can use several sulfur oxide control options.
First, the plant operator can buy naturally occurring low-sulfur coals.
Second, he can in certain applications physically clean his coal.
Finally, he can employ flue gas desulfurization or scrubber technol-
ogy. Beyond 1985. it appears likely that there will be other technolog-
ical options available. These will include fluidized bed combustion—
a method which involves combustion of coal within a bed of
granular, noncombustible material used to absorb and remove pollu-
tants; and coal gasification and liquefaction processes, in which the
sulfur is removed prior to burning. Of these post-1985 options, I
believe fluidized bed combustion offers the greatest promise as an
effective, low-sulfur oxide control approach. Continued on page (,
EPA JOURNAL
JUNE 1977
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Continued from page 5
Q: How much of a monthly electric bill is attributable to the
installation and maintenance of a scrubber?
A: There is no simple answer to this question, since ihe incremental
costs associated with the scrubber installation and operation vary
substantially from utility to utility. For example, a utility system
based primarily on nuclear power generation would obviously have
no incremental costs associated with the use of scrubbers. However,
for a worst-case situation, where the utility was completely depend-
ent upon the burning of coal and every one of its existing and
proposed plants would require scrubbers to meet sulfur oxide
emission regulations, the total incremental costs associated with the
scrubber would be 3 to 5 mills/kw hr. The average cost to produce
electricity from a coal-fired plant without a scrubber is approxi-
mately 30 mills/kw hr. The increased cost of producing the power
with a scrubber would be about 10 to 15 percent higher. However.
power costs represent only about 40-50 percent of the consumer's
electric bill. So even in this worst case, the consumer would only see
increases of 4 to 8 percent.
"The abandoned deep mine
problem has not been solved, ff the
proposed surface mining bill
becomes law, funds would then be
available for the abandoned mine
problem and the controls
developed in our program would be
utilized."
Q: In addition to control of emissions from coal, wliat other ureas arc
included in EPA's energy research program?
A: In addition 10 control of air emissions such as sulfur oxides,
nitrogen oxidos. and particulates. the program includes control of
water pollution from coal combustion wastes—ash ponds, scrubber
sludges, boiler cleaning wastes, etc. In addition, we are concerned
with mining pollution problems (such as acid mine drainage), with
emissions from advanced coal processing systems (such as gasifica-
tion and liquefaction plants), and with thermal pollution from power
plant cooling systems. Some work is also under way in advanced
energy systems such as solar and geothermal power. In the conser-
vation area, our wastes-as-fuel program is a major effort.
Q: Can environmental problems he corrected if widespread strip
mining occurs in the Western Plains States'.'
A: There is still a great deal of uncertainty associated with the
potential for successful reclamation of surface-mined land in the
West, largely because of lack of long-term information on revegeta-
tion success. This is in ihe process of being rectified by a research
program led by the Department of Agriculture with substantial
financial support from EPA.
Although I believe that many people have a picture of the coal
lands in the West as being a pretty uniform place—basically a semi-
arid plain—in fact coal lies under a considerable variety of ecosys-
tem types, with sharp variations in soils, plant cover, rainfall, and
topography. Portions of this land.—in the Northern Great Plains
especially,—offer good potential for successful reclamation, whereas
drier portions of the Southwest may never be reclaimed. We need to
know a lot more about the land between the extremes, where
reclamation is not clearly impossible but where conditions are still
unfavorable. Even after we know which land we can reclaim and
how to do it physically, we still have to devise an enforcement system
to make sure the potential becomes reality.
Q: What are we doing now to prepare for a great speed-up in coal
mining?
A: We have placed more emphasis on coal mining pollution control,
especially in the West where we have the farthest to go. We have
both short- and long-term projects ranging from assessing the
'probable impact of mining to determining the effectiveness of
various reclamation practices. Information from our control technol-
ogy program for mining in the East is well enough along to compile it
into a pollution planning mining manual, which should be ready in
just a few months. This document will stress pre-mining planning so
that controls can be designed into the mining operation at the outset.
Although we consider these technical studies to be crucial to
achieving an environmentally acceptable increase in mining, our
research program recognizes that policy problems are equally criti-
"cal. Such problems include deciding on methods for implementing
new technologies, formulating regulations and economic incentives
to encourage good mining practices,evaluating the distribution of
costs and benefits of increased mining, and determining how to
compensate those who bear the brunt of the costs, etc. Our
Integrated Assessment Program conducts broad policy-oriented as-
sessments of all major coal-producing areas (Appalachia, the Ohio
River Basin, and the Four Corners/Northern Great Plains area).
Q: What has been ihe cost of earlier strip mining in miles of streams
polluted by acid mine drainage? In number of acres of land left as
wasteland?
A: A study performed in 1970 revealed that more than 12,000 miles
of streams in the United States were degraded by mining related
pollution, and about 10.500 of the miles were in Appalachia. It has
been reported that over !'/< million acres of strip mined land exist
and about 30-40 percent of this total needs proper reclamation. These
miles of unsightly streams and devastated areas cause economic
hardships to an already depressed area in the form of fish kills,
streams choked with silt, prevention of water usage, and increased
treatment requirements by municipalities.
"As we all become aware that
gross economic indicators are a
pretty poor measure of our true
quality of life, then I think we will
be better prepared, intellectually
and emotionally, to work toward
real quality improvements."
Q: What are we doing about correcting the problems left by the
earlier strip mining?
A: Abandoned mines represent one of many perplexing problems
facing this Nation. Usually strip mines are connected with nearby
deep mines to such an extent that controlling the problem for all
situations is just not possible. Our program has developed techniques
over the years to adequately control the abandoned surface mine
problem: however the abandoned deep mine problem has not been
solved, if the proposed surface mining bill becomes law, funds would
then be available for the abandoned mine problem and the controls
developed in our program would be utilized. At present, we feel that
maximum benefit will be gained by an emphasis on active mines and
EPA JOURNAL
JUNE 1977
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that only the most promising projects should be implemented in the
abandoned mine area.
Q: Do you hcwe any projects under way to help reduce the impact of
nuclear power on the environment?
A: Our energy/environmental R&D program is primarily oriented
toward fossil fuel combustion and processing with emphasis on coal.
However, we do have a small program in conjunction with the Office
of Radiation Programs to help solve some of the problems associated
with the milling, mining, and waste disposal portions of the nuclear
fuel cycle.
4 'I feel we can have a better life in
a future with much lower per
capita energy and material
consumption."
Q: Why are we moving from one non-renewable form of energy, oil,
to another, coal? Wouldn't it be better to develop other sources, like
sun or wind?
A: The President has emphasized our efforts to develop renewable
energy sources, especially solar. His proposals could significantly
accelerate the installation of solar heating and cooling systems in
new Homes and offices. But such systems wilt contribute to our
national energy needs only gradually and generally within only the
residential and commercial sectors. Thus we need electricity and
process heat for industries and for existing houses and offices. If we
try to stretch out our oil and natural gas supplies, we are left
primarily wilh two fuels—coal and uranium—to help through the 50-
100 year transition to renewable energy sources.
Q: Would use of solar power hwe any undesirable ejjects upon the
environment? Are we engaged in any study of these potential
problems?
A: Solar energy is a potentially very large, but undependable,
domestic resource for the United States which is now virtually
untapped. Among the numerous possible technologies for applying
solar energy for U.S. energy requirements, direct heating and cooling
of buildings offer the best opportunity for early large-scale applica-
tion and commercialization. Since most of these requirements are
now dependent on the use of fossil fuels, either directly or through
the generation of electricity, and since the actual consumption or use
of solar energy releases no effluents or emissions to the environ-
ment, widespread use of solar heating and cooling systems would be
expected to produce a net environmental benefit.
While solar heating and cooling is considered to be an environ-
mentally beneficial technology, a systematic assessment has not yet
been completed of direct and indirect environmental issues of the
solar energy life cycle. The production of components for solar
heating and cooling systems may be accompanied by the develop-
ment of new materials and equipment with unknown environmental
implications.
Q: The President's energy program stresses energy conseivation. Is
ttwenergy research program involved?
A: Yes. Our program has two components—"wastes as fuel" and
"environmental aspects of energy conservation"—that relate to
conservation. We have a broad-based effort under way to develop
technologies for recovering energy from solid waste. One exciting
possibility under development—such as densified refuse-derived
fuel—would make it possible for smaller coal-fired boilers across the
country to burn, rather than bury, this unused resource to raise
steam and generate electricity. Our work on energy conservation is
limited, but will help establish the link between conservation and a
cleaner environment.
Q: Will your Office or any other EPA offices be reorganized into the
new Department of Energy?
A: No. The President specifically indicated, in submitting his energy
reorganization legislation to Congress, that the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission must
remain separate from a Department of Energy. Such a separation
provides the checks and balances on energy resource production and
processing necessary to protect public health and safety.
Q: How much money ha\'e we spent on energy research work? How
many projects are involved? How long will this program continue?
A: We will have spent approximately S330 million through this fiscal
year. Literally hundreds of projects are involved. This includes
research conducted by EPA's laboratories as well as the other
agencies and departments that take part in the interagency program.
We have program plans through 1982 although 1 expect a need
beyond that. In later years, of course, our emphasis will be on new
energy systems that are just being developed.
"I am hopeful that Americans will
come to recognize that increased
consumption of energy and other
resources is not synonymous with
an improved quality of life."
Q: What is the interagency energy/environmental program? When did
it start? Why did it start?
A: In April 1973, the President directed the Chairperson of the
Atomic Energy Commission to prepare a comprehensive and inte-
grated national energy research and development plan. The result,
entitled "The Nation's Energy Future," was completed in December,
1973. Drawing upon the efforts of 37 Federal departments and
agencies as well as the private sector, it recommended a five-year,
SlO-billion energy research and development program. Proposed
funding for, and brief descriptions of, the environmental control
technology R&D required to exploit these resources were incorpo-
rated into the report, which also recommended a supporting envi-
ronmental effects research program. Two interagency task forces
were then commissioned by the Office of Management and Budget
and CEQ to recommend how these funds should be allocated.
Specific recommendations of the task forces formed the foundation
for our divisions role and the interagency program.
Q: What is your prognosis for the quality of life in America over the
next 30 years, assuming passage of the President's energy measures?
A: I am hopeful that Americans will come to recognize that
increased consumption of energy and other resources is not synony-
mous with an improved quality of life. The President's emphasis on
energy resource conservation is probably the most important first
step in what can only be an evolutionary process. I don't expect to
see life-styles change radically overnight. But as we all become
aware that gross economic indicators are a pretty poor measure of
our true quality of life, then 1 think we will be better prepared,
intellectually and emotionally, to work toward real quality improve-
ments. The President's program is just the beginning; the rest is up
to us. I feel we can have a better life in a future with much lower per
capita energy and material consumption. •
EPA JOURNAL
JUNE 1977
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SCRUBBING
COAL FUMES
We must be sure that oil and natural gas are not wasted
by industries and utilities that could use coal instead.
Our . . . strategy will be conversion from scarce fuels to coal
wherever possible.
Although coal now provides only 18 percent of our energy
needs, it makes up 90 percent of our energy reserves. Its
production and use create environmental difficulties, but we
can cope with them through strict strip-mining and clean air
standards.
Excerpted from President Carter's April 20 energy message to Congress and the Nation.
By conservaiive estimates, there is
enough coal encased beneath America's
soil to meet all electrical power needs for
more than 300 years. As liquid and gaseous
domestic fuel supplies dwindle, coal has
become the logical choice for meeting en-
ergy requirements.
However, the coal-burning segment of the
electric power industry is the Nation's chief
producer of sulfur oxides—an air pollutant
which is among the most dangerous to hu-
man health. Released into the atmosphere
during the combustion of coal, this chemical
can irritate the upper respiratory tract and
damage lung tissue, as well as harm vegeta-
tion, buildings and other materials.
Air pollution control devices called
"scrubbers" offer what EPA Administrator
Douglas M. Costle has described as "the
best method we have for controlling this
harmful pollutant." Scrubbers use a liquid
spray to remove pollutants by absorption or
chemical reaction from the gas streams
which rise up the stacks of power plants.
This process is called flue gas desulfuriza-
tion.
"In the last five years, scrubber systems
has'e been greatly developed and improved."
Mr. Costle said. "Operational experience
has shown that most scrubbers can remove
80 percent or more sulfur oxides from plant
emissions, and perform this function in a
highly reliable manner."
According to Dr. Stephen J. Gage. Deputy
Assistant Administrator for Energy. Min-
erals and Industry, scrubbers are "playing a
critical role as an immediately available op-
EPA JOURNAL
lion for attainment of sulfur oxide emission
goals by the cleanup schedule mandated by
the Clean Air Act Amendments."
Flue gas desulfurization systems can be
classified under two general categories:
throwaway product systems, in which the
captured sulfur emissions must be disposed
of as a waste; and salable product systems.
which produce wastes such as sulfuric acid
that can be commercially marketed.
Throwaway product systems include the
use of a limestone or lime slurry which
absorbs the sulfur oxides and produces in-
soluble sludge. Another throwaway product
method is called dual alkali, so named be-
cause it utilizes two alkali chemicals. This
system uses soluble sodium sulfile for
cleaning the flue gas. and through further
chemical actions produces calcium sulfite
and calcium sulfate as waste products.
Salable product scrubber systems include
the Wellman-Lord process, named after the
company which first produced it some years
ago. It uses, sodium sulfite as the scrubbing
reagent. The spent reagent is thermally re-
generated, producing concentrated sulfur
dioxide suitable for sulfuric acid or sulfur
production. Another salable product scrub-
ber system is the magnesium oxide method.
This system uses a magnesium oxide slurry
and yields magnesium sulfite. which upon
heating produces magnesium oxide and con-
centrated sulfur oxide. Such wastes can also
be used for sulfuric acid production. How-
ever, these scrubber systems are less proven
and generally more expensive than simple
throwaway product systems.
Citing the latest summary reports on
scrubber systems. Mr. Costle said. "53
electric power companies have now in-
stalled or are building or planning 124 scrub-
ber systems. This is a 280 percent increase
over the 44 systems planned, in construction
or installed by 24 companies in the fall of
1973. when EPA held special hearings on
actions necessary to bring power plants into
compliance with sulfur oxide air pollution
standards.
"These 124 scrubbers . . . will control
sulfur oxide emissions from the generation
of a total 49,184 megawatts of power. This is
over half-way towards meeting a goal of
90,000 megawatts of scrubber control,
which EPA estimates will be needed to meet
sulfur oxide emission standards by late
1980."
Mr. Costle added, "EPA is aware of the
problems some power plants face in con-
verting to flue gas desulfurization systems.
Scrubbers can initially be expensive to in-
stall and operate, and some equipment prob-
lems have arisen in use. We feel, however,
that much progress has been made in elimi-
nating the mechanical problems; we also
believe that the costs of scrubber installation
and operations are reasonable in the long
run.
"In light of these and other short-term
difficulties, those 53 power firms deserve
special commendation for remaining stead-
fast in their commitment to scrubbers and
to the protection of this Nation's health."
For the last eight years, EPA and its
predecessor agencies have sponsored a com-
prehensive flue gas desulfurization research,
development and demonstration program
which has been instrumental in accelerating
the commercial viability of that technology,
according to Frank Princiotta, Director of
the Energy Process Division of the Office of
Energy, Minerals and Industry. "A major
component of this program has been the
EPA funded (or co-funded) demonstration
projects." Princiotta said.
"The major program in the throwaway-
product-systems area is the lime/limestone
prototype test program operating in cooper-
ation with the Tennessee Valley Authority at
TVA's Shawnee Steam Plant, Paducah. Ky.
This program has been instrumental in iden-
tifying reliable, cost-effective process varia-
tions for both lime and limestone scrubbing
JUNE 1977
-------
systems. Much of this technology has been
utilized at recent commercial installations.
Work continues on developing improved
process variations offering cost and opera-
tional advantages over present commercial
scrubber processes."
EPA also recently completed the first
phase of another demonstration of a new
full-scale sulfur oxide pollution control sys-
tem in Louisville. Ky. The new system will
use a dual alkali process to scixib clean the
sulfur dioxide emissions and will soon be
installed on an existing coal-fired 280-mega-
watt electric generating system of the Louis-
ville Gas and Electric Company's Cane Run
Plant.
The dual alkali process is expected to
consume less than 1.2 percent of the energy
generated by the power plant, or less than
half of the energy required by other flue gas
desulfurization processes now being in-
stalled. The new system is scheduled to
start operation during the last quarter of
1978. Prototype testing of this scrubber sys-
tem has shown removal of sulfur dioxide
has been as high as 99 percent.
"Despite the recent advances in scrubber
technology, more work remains to be done.
including the development of cost-effective
environmentally acceptable disposal tech-
niques for the large quantities of sludge
produced from lime and limestone proc-
esses, evaluation of process variations
which will minimize cost and energy usage,
and the development and demonstration of
economically viable salable product systems
for producing sulfuric acid or sulfur instead
of sludge." Princiotta said. "KPA is working
on a number of different programs to meet
these challenges."
The following options and emerging tech-
nologies may also play a significant role in
sulfur oxide control of power plants over the
next five to 15 years:
Physical coal cleaning. This method is
considered a possible alternative to flue gas
desulfurization systems. Unlike scrubbers.
which remove sulfur oxide emissions from
gas streams after coal combustion, physical
coal cleaning is a pre-combustion process in
which the coal is crushed and then put in a
liquid where the pollutants sink to the bot-
tom and the clean coa! remains on top.
The physical coal cleaning process is
most effective with coal containing large
percentages of pyritic (inorganic) sulfur and
relatively iow percentages of organic sulfur.
it is anticipated that the process will have
wide application in cleaning eastern U.S.
coals, particularly those mined in central
Pennsylvania. Maryland, and West Virginia.
About HX) million tons of coal mined each
year in these areas will probably be suitable
for physical cleaning.
Physical coal cleaning may offer cost ad-
Scrubber system is in foreground in this
photograph of Louisville Gas ami Electric
Co. power plant at Louisville. K\:
vantages over the scrubber method, and it
also eliminates the sludge disposal problem
associated with the latter. If successful, this
method could replace flue gas desulfuriza-
tion sometime around the mid-1980"s.
EPA is involved in a demonstration proj-
ect of this method of coal cleaning. The
project is being built near Indiana. Pennsyl-
vania, at the Homer City Generating Com-
plex, which is owned by the Pennsylvania
Klectric Co. and the New York State Hlec-
tric and Gas Corp.
Utilization of naturally occurring low-sul-
fur coal. According to Mr. Princiotta. "Nat-
urally low-sulfur coal is the most straightfor-
ward control option. Unfortunately.
projected production capacity is limited and
most low-sulfur coal reserves are in I he-
West, far away from Midwestern and Kast-
ern users.
"It has been estimated that low-sulfur
coal production will supply less than 44
percent of anticipated demand in 1980. Utili-
zation of low-sulfur coal east of the Missis-
sippi leads to substantial transportation
costs, making over-all power production
costs greater.
"Also, any tightening of the air qualiu
standards on sulfur emissions would essen-
tially eliminate the low-sulfur coal option,
since the best low-sulfur coals can barely
meet the present levels for new sources,"
Princiotta said.
Fluidizvd-bt'd combustion. This process,
which may play a significant role in the
post-1985 period, involves the combustion
of coal within abed of granular, noncombus-
tible material, such as limestone. The bed is
supported by a distributor plate, through
which the passage of air causes the granular
bed particles to become suspended, or flui-
dized. These particles then absorb and re-
move the sulfur oxides generated by com-
bustion. Whereas physical coal cleaning
takes place before coal combustion, and
flue gas desulfurization takes place after
combustion, fluidized-bed cleaning takes
place during combustion.
While the main responsibility for the de-
velopment of fluidized-bed combustion
technology lies with the Energy Research
and Development Administration. EPA is
working closeK with l-'RDA. the Tennessee
Valley Authority and the Federal Energv
Administration on a total environmental as-
sessment of this technology
EP-\ is also helping to fund an experimen-
tal tluidi/ed-bcd combustion plant in Lin-
den, N.J.. built by the Exxon Research and
Engineering Co.
Coal liquefaction and gasification. As an
alternative to its direct combustion, coal
may first be converted to either a synthetic
oil or a gas. Although such oils and gases
will not he available for years to come, the
processes to produce I hem either exist or
are under development. In 1980. the Energ\
Research and Development Administration
plans to start up a commercially-sized coal
liquefaction unit. Actual commercial facili-
ties for this purpose arc not expected to he
available until 1993. F.RDA also plans to
start up a coal gasification demonstration in
1980, and have it commercially available by
1990. HPA is running an environmental as-
sessment program of these technologies to
carefully check for emissions, effluents and
other environmental effects vihich might
require the development of controls. •
EPA JOURNAL
JUNE 1977
-------
RECLAIMING
'ORPHAN* LAIKDS
About two million acres of land
in the United States which
have been scarred by strip
mining are often referred to as "orphan"
land, because no one is responsible for re-
clamation. Orphan lands exist in every State,
but they are especially plentiful in mineral-
rich regions.
EPA is improving the future of orphan
lands through demonstration projects that
show how they can be reclaimed faster.
easier, and more cheaply through the use of
sewage sludge.
Thousands of tons of sewage sludge are
produced yearly by wastewater treatment
plants that protect the quality of America's
water. Sludge cannot be burned without af-
fecting the quality of the air. But sludge has
what orphan lands need.
The characteristics of these lands varies
according to which mineral was mined from
them. But all have some things in common
thai make them unable to support vegetation
and minimize water pollution. The earth dis-
placed during mining (the overburden) or
discarded after the mineral has been removed
(mine spoils) is often left in heaps or scat-
tered along sleep slopes subject to erosion.
They are low in nutrients, organic matter,
and necessary bacteria. Often they are stony
materials that won't hold water and that
contain substances toxic to plants.
Sewage sludge contains most of what is
essential to make mine spoils livable for
plants. It has organic matter that improves
the coarseness of the spoil and increases
water-holding capacity. The alkalinity of
sludge counteracts the acid condition of the
spoils. Nutrients in the sludge reduce the
need for mineral fertilizers. And sludge sup-
ports bacteria that speed ihe recovery of soil
microorganisms.
EPA has demonstration projects in Penn-
sylvania and Virginia that apply sludge on
strip-mine spoils before the land is replanted.
These projects are of special interest because
of President Carter's energy plan and his
statement that emphasis will be placed on
coal as an energy source without sacrificing
environmental goals.
EPA JOURNAL
A Senate report released in 1975 estimated
that some 1,000 acres of land are disturbed
each week by surface mining of coal.
Many of the orphan lands in the U.S. were
abused and abandoned before 1960. More
recently State mining laws have provided for
acceptable reclamation. EPA officials feel the
situation wilk improve further when pending
Congressional surface mining legislation is
approved. This law draws heavily from EPA
research and development projects, especially
those relating to abandoned mines.
In 1976. Dr. Stephen Gage of EPA told the
House Committee on Science and Technol-
ogy, "EPA and its predecessor agencies have
been concerned about the environmental ef-
fects of the extractive industries, particularly
the coal industry, since the early 1%0's.
"The Agency's current research and devel-
opment effort entails investigation into the
environmental damages and control associ-
ated with all forms of extraction, including
coal ..." The Deputy Assistant Administra-
tor for Energy, Minerals and Industry contin-
ued: "The early efforts to curb the environ-
mental degradation caused by coal mining
were iarge-scaie demonstration projects—in
cooperation with the Bureau of Mines, the
Geological Survey, the Bureau of Sports
Fisheries and Wildlife, and a number of
Stales—to control acid drainage from aban-
doned mines. These efforts began in 1962 and
have had Congressional encouragement."
Section 107 of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act authorizes EPA to grant funds or
contract for demonstration projects that seek
to eliminate or control acid mine drainage
and other water pollution resulting from min-
ing activities. The Act specifically mentions
using sewage sludge and other municipal
wastes to diminish pollution and restore af-
fected land to usefulness.
Some successful reclamation projects use
lime and commercial fertilizers to give vital-
ity to the soil. When used by themselves
these are expensive medicines. The applica-
tion of digested sewage sludge to reclaimed
lands, however, is proving to be an effective
antidote to the acid sickness that afflicts
mine spoil. Sludge is the only material avail-
10
able in quantity that can rapidly increase the
humus content of the soil.
Orphan lands are often located far from
the urban wastewater treatment plants
that produce large quantities of sludge. A
problem with using sewage sludge to reclaim
land is the cost of hauling it to remote areas.
An EPA research and development report
estimates that more than 12,000 miles of
streams in the United States have been signif-
icantly degraded by mining-related pollution.
While erosion and sedimentation can be se-
vere during a mining operation, the most
persistent and widespread pollution is acid
mine drainage. When ground or surface
water flows through or over a mined area it
interacts with sulfur-bearing materials (pyr-
ites) commonly associated with coal deposits.
Acid mine drainage generally has lots of iron
and sulfates and significant concentrations of
aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and man-
ganese.
Researchers have found that some plants
and animals are killed outright by acid mine
drainage. Others are weakened and their
tolerance for other changes in their environ-
ment is lowered by the deterioration of water
quality.
In some communities acid-tainted waters
may also be used for municipal, industrial.
and navigational purposes. This requires ad-
ditional water treatment facilities and high
costs for corrosion resistant materials or re-
placement of equipment and structures that
touch the water.
To prevent acid mine drainage from form-
ing, she mine spoils must be kept from
making contact with air or water. Imperme-
able barriers of concrete, asphalt, latex, and
clay have been tried with occasional success,
but they are expensive and have limited
application. Soil is one of the most effective
sealants and easiest to use. It must cover the
spoils to a certain depth and be held by
vegetation to prevent erosion and a return to
the acid drainage problem.
Topsoil is rarely available at surface mine
sites. It gets buried under and mixed with
mining spoils during operations and is expen-
JUNE 1977
-------
sive to replace. Without topsoil it is difficult
to replant a strip-mined site.
The materiais left by mining are often
coarse and sterile, containing no nutrients to
support plant life and incapable of holding
sufficient water. The mine spoils are often
dark in color, absorbing the sun's rays and
raising surface temperatures to a level that
scorches struggling plants. Toxic substances
like copper, zinc, iron, and aluminum abound
in the spoil. The biology of the soil has been
disrupted on these sites, and few supportive
bacteria remain to aid the •establishment of
growing things.
"Acid mine drainage pollution is a natural
phenomenon accelerated by mining activi-
ties," Dr. Gage said. "Once begun and not
properly controlled, the formation and re-
lease to the biosphere can continue for centu-
ries after the mining has ceased. A similar
phenomenon occurs for sediment (erosion),
heavy metals, dust, and salinity. Control of
these pollutants must be an integral part of
EPA JOURNAL
Acid drainage from an abandoned C'n/orado
mine pollutes a stream.
the mining effort during the planning, min-
ing, and reclaiming phases, if effective con-
Irol is to be realized."
An EPA project in Tioga Count). Pa.,
sHowed marked improvement in vegeta-
tion growth in plots that had been treated
with sludge. This project includes inade-
quately reclaimed mined land in the wa-
tershed of the Tioga River. Deep mines as
well as strip mines existed in the area. Large
amounts of water ran over the strip-mined
surface, collected in the deep mine workings.
and severely degraded the quality of local
streams.
In one 8()-acre portion of the demonstra-
tion project, along Morris Run. vegetation
was spotty: scattered patches of a few acid-
tolerant species. HPA. working with the
II
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental
Resources, made plans to recontour the site.
channel water a\vay from the deep mines, and
plant legumes and grasses to prevent further
infiltration.
The land was' cleared, regraded. and ero-
sion control practices were implemented
where necessary. Lime and fertilizer were
spread over and mixed into most of the soil
in preparation for seeding. A demonstration
plot of 43 acres was treated with sludge from
nearby Williamsport, but no lime or other
fertilizers were used. An infiltration ditch
was built around the sludge-treated area.
then 400 tons of sludge were hauled to the
site and worked into the regnided spoils. The
entire 80 acres was seeded with fescue.
birdsfoot trefoil, and rye grass, and mulched
with hay in the fall of 1975.
Last August researchers tested the site to
see if the sludge had in fact affected the plant
growth. Grasses were cut from 12 equal
plots; six from the sludge-treated area and six
from the adjacent limed and fertilized area.
The average weight of grasses from the
sludge-treated plot was nearly three times
that of grasses from adjacent plots.
Another project, set on 45 acres along
Contrary Creek in Louisa County. Va.. is
using sewage sludge from the Blue Plains
wastewater treatment plant in Washington.
D.C. Some 8.000 tons of anaerohically di-
gested wastes were spa-ad on 16 acres of soil
as a conditioner in addition to more tradi-
tional soil amendments like lime and fertil-
izer. A disking machine was used to mix the
sludge, fertilizer, and lime into the spoil to a
depth of ? to 6 inches. It is important that soil
conditioners be thoroughly integrated with
mine spoil to that depth, or else developing
surface vegetation will he retarded when
roots reach down into the sterile materials.
The reclaimed areas were planted with
grasses, but revegetalion was hampered by a
dry summer and severe cold last winter. The
area was reseeded this spring.
Both projects were planned and paid tor in
a cooperative effort with State agencies, ac-
cording to the project officer, Ronald Hill of
Ll'-Ys Cincinnati laboratory. The cost of the
Tioga County project was split with the Stale
of Pennsylvania. The project at Contrary
Creek is supported 60 percent with funds
from l-'.l'A and 40 percent through in-kind
services, project management, and monitor-
ing work by the Virginia State Water Conser-
vation Board. The Soil Conservation Service
supplied engineering, inspection, and agro-
nomic services.
Since 1965 EPA and its predecessor agen-
cies have led research and development ef-
forts concerned with abating pollution from
abandoned mines. Through 1975. approxi-
mately SI million has been funded for some
2H projects relating to abandoned and inac-
tive mines. •
JUNE 1977
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THE
BIOGRAPHY OF COAL
Coal, which fathered the Industrial
Revolution, smelted the iron and
steel, drove the trains and ships, is now
a keystone of President Carter's energy
policy for the United States.
The President wants America to return
to this plentiful fuel for power generation,
industrial processing, and commercial
heating so that oil and natural gas can be
saved for such special high-grade uses as
gasoline for autos and home heating fuel.
To oldtimers who remember banking a
furnace fire at night and carrying out
ashes in the morning, the use of coal may
seem a step backward.
However, coal-burning in industry to-
day is a high-technology operation.
Crushed to dust as fine as talcum pow-
der, the coal is mixed with air and
sprayed into the boiler. Combustion is
fast, complete and closely monitored by
instruments that control the process. Hot
gases are cooled and most soot particles
and other pollutants are removed before
they go up the stack. Ash removal is also
automated, and in many plants the fine
ash is saved and sold as fill material or
concrete aggregate.
As King Coal makes his comeback in
America, let's look at where he came
from.
A little girl takes a piece of coal to
mark Sines on the sidewalk for hopscotch.
She doesn't know that the black marks
are made of carbon particles from fern-
like plants that flourished in a tropical
swamp when the only animals on earth
were amphibians, reptiles, and insects
(including the cockroach, who is still
here). There were no seed-bearing plants.
Birds and mammals would not appear for
200 million years.
The swamp vegetation got thicker and
thicker. Dead plants accumulated, only
partly rotted, as other plants-grew on top
ER\ JOURNAL
of them. After some thousands of years a
thick wet mass of dead plant material
was formed.
It is called peat, a spongy brown mate-
rial that is used in America for garden
dressing and in Ireland as household fuel,
when dried. Peat smoke gives Irish
whisky its flavor.
Peat is the precursor of coal. Even a
layman can see it is made up of plant
forms: leaves, stems, roots, etc.
The next step in coal formation de-
pended on further compression of the
peat as sedimentary rocks were laid
down above it. Mud and silt deposited on
top of peat eventually became shale and
slate. Shells and skeletons of tiny water
creatures piled up for ages to form lime-
stone. Wind- or water-borne sand be-
came sandstone.
When such rocks formed above a peat
bog the peat was squeezed some more.
Water and volatile hydrocarbon com-
pounds were driven out, and the peat
slowly changed to lignite, or brown coal.
Then to bituminous, or soft coal. The
final stage was anthracite, hard coal,
Typical plant forms from ancient coal beds.
12
which is nine-tenths pure carbon.
Other forces beside compression are
involved. Heat from the Earth's core can
affect coal formation in deeply buried
seams. Complex chemical interactions
may take place between the growing coal
and adjacent water and minerals. The
Earth's crust can rise and fall. Volcanoes
and earthquakes can pierce or shake the
coal seam. Level strata can be folded or
twisted into strange shapes.
All the coal in the Appalachian Moun-
tains was formed flat and later bent and
wrinkled so that some coal beds crop out
high on the sides of mountains.
Geologists estimate that about 20 feet
of dead plant material are needed to form
one foot of coal. The plants use radiant
energy from the sun to take carbon diox-
ide from the air and convert it to cellu-
lose (woody fiber), lignin (a kind of glue),
and other carbon compounds. The stored
carbon holds a portion of the solar en-
ergy received by the plants millions of
years ago, energy we use by burning the
carbon and turning it back into carbon
dioxide.
There are more kinds of coal than
there are French irregular verbs. Peat
counts only as a precursor. Lignite, bitu-
minous, and anthracite are broad general
divisions, of little use to the geologist or
power plant engineer. Coals can be
ranked or graded in many ways, accord-
ing to their physical and chemical proper-
ties or by the uses they are best suited
for.
One common ranking is by heating
value: how many British Thermal Units
per pound. Another ranking is by carbon
content. Oddly, some bituminous coals
with 56 percent carbon have more heat in
them than anthracite with 88 percent
carbon.
JUNE 1977
-------
The percentage of ash is also impor-
tant. It can range from 4 to 5 percent to
more ,than 15 percent. High-ash coal is
unsuited for many types of industrial
boilers and firing systems.
A coal's sulfur content is of prime
concern to environmentalists. Sulfur pol-
lutes the air, and great pains must be
taken to "scrub" sulfur oxides from stack
gases to meet EPA emission standards.
For manufacturing steel, coal must
first be converted to coke: porous,
strong, baseball-sized pellets of almost
pure carbon. Coke is formed by heating
to drive off the volatile elements in the
coal. Only bituminous coals that are low
in sulfur, phosphorus, and ash are suita-
ble for coking. Good coking coal com-
mands a premium price, and many mil-
lions of tons are exported to Europe and
Japan each year.
The volatile elements in bituminous
coal, usually 30 to 40 percent, are
sources for manufactured gas (coal gas)
and various liquid, hydrocarbons ranging
from light oils to heavy oils, tar, and
asphalt. The modern chemical industry
began with "coal tar" products.
An important energy research project
today is devoted to finding ways to con-
vert coal's carbon content as well as its
volatiles into gaseous and liquid fuels and
chemical feedstocks.
The story of coal is intertwined with
geology, the story of the earth. The oldest
coal beds were laid down in the Devon-
ian period nearly 400 million years ago,
the latest in the Pleistocene, the glacial
era, around 30 million years ago.
The early coals were made from primi-
tive plants—ferns, horsetails, and club
mosses—the later ones from vegetation
much like our own—flowering plants,
grasses, and woody trees.
Starting in the Victorian era, more
EPA JOURNAL
than a century ago, scientists identified
plant remains and fossil plants in coal.
Their estimates of when various beds
began to form have held up remarkably
well. They have been largely confirmed
by modern dating methods, such as
measuring the radioactive carbon isotope
and lead-uranium ratios.
Much information about primitive
plants has come from "coal
balls," found in coal beds or in overlying
shales. These are masses of plant mate-
rial varying in size from an inch to
several feet in diameter, which somehow
became petrified instead of carbonized.
The most delicate plant forms are pre-
served in them.
In the later coal beds, the impressions
of tree roots have been found preserved
in underlying rocks, though the tree itself
has disappeared in the amorphous black
seam. In the coal seam itself, the plant
parts that resist change the longest are
the tiny germ cells: spores, pollen, and
seeds. A whole new science, palynology,
has grown around the study of pollen and
spores, both preserved intact in sediment
and glaciers or mineralized, but keeping
their form, in coal.
The use of coal by man is lost in
antiquity. There is no record of the first
man to build a fire on a coal outcrop and
notice that the black stones burned too.
Aristotle mentioned flammable stones
found in Thrace and northern Italy. Ro-
man garrisons burned coal in Britain
before 400 A.D., but ignored it in France
despite the fact that their aqueduct build-
ing uncovered many coal seams.
When William the Conqueror's
Domesday Book inventoried all the prop-
erty in England in 1085, there was not
one mention of coal. First reference to
coal mining in Britain came around 1200,
about the time the Chinese opened the
Fu-shun mine in Manchuria to fuel a
copper smelter, the earliest known com-
mercial use.
Joliet and Ftere Marquette found coal in
Illinois in 1673, and US. coal mining is
believed to have started in the Richmond
Basin, Virginia, early in the 1700's. Be-
fore 1800, coal was found in many places
in Pennsylvania, Virginia (including what
is now West Virginia), Maryland, Ohio,
and Kentucky. The Lewis and Clark Ex-
pedition reported finding the first west-
ern coal, in outcrops along the Missouri
River, in 1804.
Starting about 1830, coal mining grew
rapidly with the railroads, which used the
coal themselves and transported it to
other users throughout the country.
US. coal production reached a peak in
3918, during World War I, that was not
exceeded until 1944, during World War
II.
How much coal have we got? The
experts differ both as to the total amount
and the number of years it may last. But
a reasonable figure is more than three
trillion tons, which would be enough to
last more than 4,000 years at the record
consumption rate of 1944. •
JUNE 1977
-------
ACID RAIN:
EIWIRONMEOTAL THREAT
Much of the world's Tain today con-
tains acid, and the degree of acidity
is rising, especially in areas downwind from
regions of heavy industry.
Scientists believe ihe increased acidity
comes largely from sulfur compounds
spewed into the air from the burning of coal
and oil and from nitrogen oxides produced
by virtually all high-temperature fuel com-
bustion, including automobile engines.
The two kinds of chemicals combine with
water vapor in air to form strong mineral
acids—sulfuric acid and nitric acid—that may
travel hundreds of miles from the pollution
source before they are washed to Earth by
rain and snow.
The northeastern part of the country is the
principal affected region, with acid rains
being recorded over the last decade in up-
state New York, the Adirondack Mountains.
and the White Mountains of New Hamp-
shire. There is mounting evidence that many
other states east of the Mississippi are af-
fected.
Rainfall in the Northeast now averages
about pH 4 on the acid-alkaline scale, ac-
cording to Gene E. Likens, professor of
ecology at Cornell University. This is about
one-tenth as acid as vinegar (see table). Most
people would not be able to taste this degree
of acidity, but its effects on the environment
are likely to be far-reaching.
Already acid rain has been blamed for
sharp declines in fish populations in many
mountain lakes. One Cornell study found
more than half of the Adirondack lakes above
2.(KX) feet elevation were highly acidic, and
90 percent of the acidic lakes were "devoid"
offish life. Acidity is believed to kill fish and
amphibians (frogs, salamanders) in the egg
stage or soon after the eggs hatch into finger-
lings and larvae.
Acid rains have also increased greatly in
Sweden and Norway and are believed to be
the result of air pollutants.that originate in
Britain and central Europe, several hundred
miles away, and are carried by prevailing
winds to Scandinavia.
EPA scientists are concerned about other
possible effects of acid rain on the environ-
ment. How does it affect the growth of trees
and other plants? What does it do directly to
leaves and stems? How does it influence the
chemistry of the soil and the complex web of
living organisms?
At the Corvallis (Ore.) Environmental Re-
search Laboratory. EPA scientists are en-
gaged in a two-year study of acid rain on
sugar maple and red alder trees and on the
complex ecosystem of the hardwood forest.
;
Dr. David \\'eher samples drainage from
tine of the test plots.
EPA JOURNAL
Each miniature forest is contained in one
of these boxes. The poles are sprinklers.
14
JUNE 1977
-------
Dr. Jeffrey Lee. system ecologist. and Dr.
David Weber, plan! pathologist are project
officers.
Sixteen miniature forests, each about five
feet square, were built on Oregon State Uni-
versity's experimental farm. A transparent
roof over the row of plots permits sunlight to
reach the maple and alder seedlings, but the
plots are artificially watered with differing
degrees of acid rain, while scientists observe
the trees" growth and record the chemical
and biological changes that take place in the
litter under the trees and the soil beneath.
Kach test plot is really a box set in the
ground, built of strong plywood and lined
with glass fiber. Before the trees were
planted, the boxes were filled with carefully
reconstructed layers of subsoil, topsoil. and
leaf litter from a natural maple or alder
forest. Probes were buried at various levels
to monitor the flow and chemistry of water
and nutrients in the soil. Water draining from
the bottom of the boxes was likewise meas-
ured and analyzed.
The plots are watered regularly with
water of four degrees of acidity: pH
5.7, the normal acidity stemming from car-
bon dioxide in the air; pH 4. the present
average for the Northeast; pH 3.5. found in
some northeastern areas; and pH 3. repre-
senting a possible extreme thai may prevail if
the present trend continues.
During each simulated "rain" a shade
cloth is drawn over the plot to give the low
light conditions plants normally experience
on rainy days.
The acid rain experiments have been going
on for 10 months. During this period. Weber
and Lee report, the leaf canopy of the trees
and the litter on the forest floor have had
little "buffering" effect on the acidity of rain
entering the soil. That is. passage of rain
through the canopy and litter does not neu-
tralize the acid, as some theories had indi-
cated would happen.
.Although all of the chemical sampling has
not been analyzed, there is evidence. Weber
and Lee said, that the acid rain treatments
are leaching calcium—an important plant and
animal nutrient—from the forest litter. How-
ever, clay particles in the soil tend to adsorb
sulfates from the acid water, an action that
may be an important factor in the leaching of
nutrients from the soil.
Weber. l,ee. and Donald Lewis arc devel-
oping mathematical models for various nu-
trient cycling processes, for predicting
changes as the experiment progresses, and
for assessing the impact of acid rain on large
scale forests over longer periods of lime.
They are still analy/.ing their data on tree
growth, chemical transport of ions» and ef-
fects on microscopic plants and animals in
the forest litter and soil. •
What Is Acid Rain?
What Is Acid?
The chemical symbol pH measures ac-
idity and alkalinity on the same scale.
running from 0 (totally acid) to 14 (totally
akaline). Neither extreme is e\er actually
reached. The midpoint. pH 7, is neutral.
neither acid nor alkaline. The scale is loga-
rithmic: each shift of one unit downward
means a tenfold increase in acidity. One unit
higher means one-tenth the acidity (or a ten-
fold increase in alkalinity),
The H stands for the hydrogen ion. a
hydrogen atom stripped of its one electron
and carrying a positive electric charge, very
active chemically and ready to join up with
any available negatively charged compound
or radical.
Rain is not called acidic until its pH is
below 5.7. This is because natural rain dis-
solves enough carbon dioxide from the air to
form carbonic acid. H.XTO.,. At normal pres-
sures and temperatures this gives a pH of
5.7.
This weak acid has been sufficient, over
geologic ages, to form all the earth's lime-
stone caves and perform many other rock-
weathering chores. ( There are traces of some
other weak acids in normal rain).
If rain of pH 4 is acidic, what does that
mean in everyday terms'.' Most people cannot
taste the sourness of pH 4. Household vine-
gar, is pH 3.1, almost ten times as sour.
Lemon juice is about pH 2.3. the standard
solution of hydrochloric acid about pH I.
On the alkaline side, a 1 percent solution
of baking soda is pH 8.2. a 1 percent solution
of lye (sodium hydroxide) ph 10.7. and a
"tenth-normal" lye solution pH 13.
In more technical terms. pH is the negative
logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration, or
activity, in gram equivalents per liier. Nobel
Laureate Linus Pauling put it this way: "In-
stead of saying the hydrogen ions in gram
equivalents per liter in pure, neutral water is
one divided by 10 million (It) to the 7th
power), we say the pH of pure water is
V •
PH
1
2
lemons
3
4
tomatoes
5
milk
ells
borax
10 bteach
11
SHi
EPA JOURNAL
15
JUNK 1977
-------
WILL POLLUTION
CONTROLS
BOOST ELECTRIC BILLS?
The switch to coal as a primary energy
source has already begun.
dictated because domestic reserves of coal
are enormous compared to those for oil and
gas. Bui power companies that burn more
coal will also be increasingly obligated to
install expensive pollution control equip-
ment. How will these added environmental
costs affect the power industry? And even
closer to home, how will they affect your
monthly electric bill'.'
A study entitled Lctuininic and l-'imincial
l/n/HH Is < if l-'i'dcrtil Air tintl Water Pollution
Control* on thf i'.lcclric Utility Industry at-
tempts to project answers to these questions.
The report was prepared for KPA's Office of
Planning and Kvaluation.
According to James Speyer. Acting Divi-
sion Director of Policy Planning, the study
indicates that "the cost of electricity in the
future will still remain affordable, despite
increased capital investment in pollution con-
trols.
"It is projected that in 1985, the average
consumer will he paying about $5.80 per
month more than in 1975 for all goods and
services because of such pollution abate-
ment. This includes an increascvot $2.80 in
the average electric bill of $42.40 per month."
Speyer said.
The study estimates capital expenditures
for a plant in service during the 1975-1985
period will increase by 10.5 percent over
normal as a result of added environmental
controls. In hard figures, this translates to
$25 billion more than regular expenditures of
$2.17.1 billion. It is projected that 60 percent
of this increased capita! investment in pollu-
tion abatement technology will be required
through 1980. and the remaining 40 percent
through 1985.
Water pollution control regulations will ac-
count for only a small percent of this in-
crease, six percent by 1980 and 20 percent by
1985. The rest will go into air pollution
prevention equipment.
Most expensive per kilowatt of the devices
to protect air quality are scrubbers, which
remove sulfur oxides from gases released
during combustion. These will account for 39
percent of future capital outlays for environ-
mental protection. Precipitators and wet
scrubbers, used to capture paniculate fly
ash. will account for Mi percent, and cooling
towers will make up 16 percent of the capital
expenditures.
HPA JOURNAL
Meeting this increased level of capital in-
vestment will mean increased external fi-
nancing (floating of bond issues, etc.). The
report predicts that during the 1975-1985
period, external financing will increase for
investor-owned power-producing utilities by
12.5 percent, or $19.3 billion over the SI55
billion required before consideration of pollu-
tion control equipment.
The report states that "assuming the
power industry is able to pass on the costs of
pollution control equipment to its customer's
and to offer investor's a competitive return on
equity, the industry generally will be able to
obtain the financing required both for regular
needs and for pollution control equip-
ment. . .The financing outlook for pollution
control is guardedly optimistic due to favora-
ble trends in earnings and in recent regula-
tory decisions."
Speyer explained that "what is meant by
'favorable trends in regulatory decisions' is
that the Suites which regulate power compa-
nies have been willing to allow them larger
returns of revenue. The plants usually accom-
plish this by increasing utility bills. The study
indicates that larger power companies should
encounter little difficulty with external fi-
nancing of pollution control equipment. In
the ease of smaller companies. States may
have to allow them higher returns on their
service."
A Montana Power and Light Co. power
plant al Colstrip. Mom., is Hi up like a
Christmas live at night.
16
With regard to what kind of utility bills we
can expect to be receiving in the future, the
report states, "To view these costs in per-
spective, it is useful to relate them to the
average monthly bill paid by residential cus-
tomer. The average bill is projected to in-
crease even in the absence of pollution
control impacts at a real growth of ap-
proximately five percent per year, or from
$25.60 per month in 1975 to $42.40 per month
in 1985. reflecting a continuing growth in
electricity usage per customer. In current
dollars the bill is estimated to be $70.80 per
month in 1985.
"The direct increase in an average residen-
tial electric bill as a result of Federal pollution
control regulations will be approximately
$1.80 per month in 1980 and $2.80 per month
in 1985. In relative terms, those impacts
represent 5.3 and 6.6 percent increases."
When price increases other than the $2.80
added to the electric bill are included—such
as increased cost of products produced by
electricity-intensive industries—the entire
monthly increase attributable to costs for
environmental controls is $5.80 per month.
as Speyer previously noted.
"Generally the impacts of expenditures on
pollution controls will be very small both on
major users of electricity and on other areas
such as the sulfur industry." the report indi-
cates. "Product price increases in the most
electricity-intensive industry, primary alumi-
num, would be only 1.1 percent by 1985 if all
increased electricity costs due to. pollution
control were passed directly on in the form
of increased product prices."
The report also notes that "the sulfur
industry does not appear to be threatened by
the volume of potential production of by-
product sulfur from. . .scrubber's."
The report states that when broken down
by geographical region, percentage increases
in average customer charges are expected to
be as follows: Mountain. 11.1 percent; East
South Central. 10.2 percent; West North
Central, 10.1 percent; West South Central,
9.0 percent; East North Central, 8.3 percent;
South Atlantic. 5.2 percent; Middle Atlantic.
4.1 percent; New England, 1.8 percent; and
Pacific. 1.3 percent.
The report was prepared for EPA by Tem-
ple. Barker & Sloane. Inc. of Wellesley Hills,
Mass. Copies are available through the Na-
tional Technical Information Service. Spring-
field Virginia. 22151. •
JUNE 1977
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL ALMANAC
A GLIMPSE OF THE NATURAL WORLD WE HELP PROTECT
JUNE
SUN AND SUMMER
"TMie silent rotating of vast celestial
•*• machinery will bring us summer
at 8:14 a.m. June 21 Eastern Day-
light Time, the exact moment when
the Sun will be at its northernmost
point from the equator.
All over the world's northern hem-
isphere summer will arrive at the
same instant, although individual
clock readings will depend on the
various time zones. This is the sum-
mer solstice when the tilted Earth's
north pole is pointing more toward
the-Sun than at any other time of
the year.
Of course, at the same instant in
the southern hemisphere winter will
be officially ushered in.
The sunward tilt of the northern
sphere will give us our longest day
of the calendar year.
The Sun will rise in the Washing-
ton area at 5:43 a.m. on that day
and linger in the heavens until 8:37
p.m.
This gigantic atomic furnace blaz-
ing from more than 90 million miles
away in space will shine this sum-
mer on a people concerned as never
before with looming energy short-
ages.
Yet most of us who will use ever
more costly gasoline to drive to the
beaches and relax in the sun are
rarely conscious of the fact that ali
energy used on Earth, with certain
exceptions such as chemicals in bat-
teries and nuclear reactors, can
trace its origin to the Sun.
Not many of us basking on the
beach and listening to the roar of
the ocean think about the Sun's
energy being equal to a million
million megaton atomic bombs each
second.
The sweltering crowds in our big
EPA JOURNAL
cities noting 90-degree readings on
bank clock-thermometers are largely
indifferent to the fact that the Sun is
a ball of glowing gases big as a
million earths.
Fortunately for us most of the
Sun's extraordinary scorching en-
ergy is lost in space. Yet we all
know life would be impossible with-
out the fraction of sunlight that
reaches the Earth.
As we learned in school it is the
heat from the Sun that stirs the
atmosphere to make the weather. So
it is the Sun that powers the wind,
evaporates water and creates the
clouds that bring the rain.
In our new-found interest with the
possibilities of making direct Vise of
solar power to heat houses, we
should not overlook the basic fact
that we are all solar-powered. The
Sun's energy is stored in the vegeta-
bles we eat. Also dependent on sun-
grown vegetation are the cattle and
other animals we consume.
Oil and coal are captured sun-
shine—fossils of plants and trees
which solar power helped fashion
millions of years ago. Each of the
billions and billions of leaves on
plants and trees living today are
sunshine traps. Energy' from the Sun
is used by these green plants in the
vital processes of photosynthesis.
While sunlight offers enormous
promise, it can, of course, be dan-
gerous if treated without the care
and respect it deserves.
Ultraviolet rays from the Sun are
17
responsible for much of the increase
in skin cancer cases in this country.
The reduction of the ozone blanket
in the stratosphere which protects
us from the Sun's harmful rays has'
become a cause of international con-
cern. This is why EPA has proposed
a ban on the manufacture and use
of certain spray-can propellants
which reduce the ozone layer.
It is also the Sun which cooks the
noxious brew of smog in Los Ange-
les and in other major cities, using
as ingredients the auto fumes we
allow to be discharged into the air.
Yet we cannot forget that the
Sun's energy is the richest resource
on Earth and solar power is among
our few options for a future supply
of energy. More than 90 percent of
the energy now used to run the
Nation comes from fossil fuels which
once used will be gone forever.
The problem of course is to cap-
ture this energy and make it avail-
able in useful forms. The promise of
this renewable energy resource is
tantalizing. It can drive electric
power plants that are smokeless and
silent. It produces neither chemical
nor radioactive pollutants.
Critics of our national energy poli-
cies have pointed out that fossil and
nuclear fuels exact a much larger
cost in the form of environmental
degradation than their market price
indicates and predict that the Sun's
full impact on our lives is yet to be
felt.
Indeed, if through some intellec-
tual blindness we fail to harness this
limitless power source for future
use, our descendants may recall
Milton's memorable phrase "0 dark,
dark, dark, amid the blax.e of
noon."—C.D.P.
JUNE 1977
-------
AROUND
THE
NATION
phosphate ban
Vermont has a new law banning phosphates
in detergents. (Phosphates pollute lakes and
rivers by encouraging the growth of algae.)
Wholesale distribution of phosphate-
containing products is forbidden in Vermont
after Jan. I next year, and retail sale and use
by commercia! establishments three months
later. Violators may be fined as much as
$100 per day to a limit of $2.500 fora single
series of violations.
ecology awards
Winners of Region I's fifth annual Elemen-
tary Education Ecology Poem and Poster
Program were honored recently at ceremo-
nies held in the capitols of the six New
England States. U.S. Senators Brooke (Mas-
sachusetts), Ribicoff (Connecticut), Chaffee
(Rhode Island). Mclntyre (New Hamp-
shire). Muskie (Maine), and Leahy (Ver-
mont) participated with Regional Adminis-
trator John McGlennon. More than 3,500
teachers sponsored the program in their
classrooms, and about 100,000 pupils partic-
ipated.
$100,000 penalty
A tuna packing firm in Puerto Rico has
agreed to pay a civil penalty of $100,000 for
violations of its wastewater discharge permit.
Star-Kist Caribe, Inc., of Mayaguez, was
charged with failing to submit timely reports
and to abide by a compliance schedule,
agreed to in its permit issued two and a half
years ago, to abate the discharge of packing
plant wastes into Mayaguez Bay. The penalty
is believed to be the largest ever for compli-
ance schedule violations. The firm and two
other tuna plants in Mayaguez are now build-
ing an advanced wastewater treatment sys-
tem.
spill emergency
Region II officials ordered EPA's trailer-
mounted water treatment unit to Oswego,
N.Y., recently to prevent leaking oil and
chemicals from contaminating Lake Ontario.
The wastes, many of them of unknown com-
position, were stored in metal drums on the
property of Pollution Abatement Services, a
waste collection firm. Many of the 7,500
drums were rusted and leaking and EPA
officials were concerned that the hazardouj
contents might be washed by rainwater into
Wine Creek, which drains into the Lake.
State officials helped assess the situation and
diverted the site's drainage into a lagoon.
Both runoff and lagoon water were filtered
and decontaminated by the trailer unit, which
can treat 300,000 gallons per day and is based
at EPA's Edison, N.J., laboratory.
water survey
An EPA survey recently identified 77 organic
compounds in Philadelphia's Northeast sew-
age plant effluent and 78 in the Delaware
River. The survey also found 44organic
compounds in the intake water of the city's
Torresdale drinking water plant and 31 in its
finished water.
Chloroform was found in concentrations of
160 parts per billion, above the recom-
mended limit of 100 ppb, but the levels of
other compounds are not believed to pose
any long-term health risks.
EPA, City, and State officials discussed reme-
dial actions, including improved treatment at
Northeast, changes in processing at Torres-
dale, and reducing the industrial discharge of
organics into the Delaware.
hexa is a hex
A jawbreaker chemical—hexachlorocyclo-
pentadiene—said to resemble the phosgene
poison gas of World War I, recently turned
up in a sewage treatment plant at Louisville,
Ky. About 30 plant workers were sickened by
the stuff when it bubbled up in fumes in the
plant's grit chamber.
Thousands of tons of sewage sludge were
contaminated, as was plant equipment and a
major sewer line. EPA representatives from
Enforcement, Surveillance and Analysis,
Water Supply, and Public Affairs rallied to
help local officials solve the problems: Who
was dumping "hexa" in the Louisville sew-
ers? How can the plant be decontaminated?
What should be done with the tainted sludge?
One more item brought screams of anguish.
The term "hexa," used by the public media
to describe the chemical, turned out to be a
trade name for an entirely different, and
innocent, product.
noise exhibit
Acting Mayor Michael Bilandic of Chicago
and Senator Adlai E. Stevenson III attended
the opening of EPA's noise pollution exhibit
at Chicago's Museum of Science and Indus-
try in March. The permanent exhibit, EPA's
first on noise, features visitor-activated films,
slides, and recordings to teach people of all
ages about environmental noise: sources,
health effects, and methods of abatement.
-------
hoosier energy
Regional officials have given preliminary ap-
proval for a new electric generating facility in
Sullivan County, Ind. The Hoosier Energy
plant, a subsidiary of Indiana Statewide Ru-
ral Electric Co., will have two 490-megawatt
coal-fired units and will begin production in
1980.
plant is warned
The Commonwealth Edison Company, Chi-
cago-based electric utility that is one of the
largest in the country, was formally notified
April 20 that EFA is not satisfied with the
operation of its Quad Cities nuclear plant
near Moline, 111. Region V enforcement offi-
cials said the plant's intake structures that
take cooling water from the Mississippi River
destroy too many fish and fish eggs. They
also objected to the plant's alternate cooling
system, an array of canals and sprays that
does not operate well, EPA officials said, in
certain weathers.
open meeting
More than 200 persons attended an open
meeting in Bartlesville, Okla., April 11 to
discuss the proposed upgrading of the Chick-
asaw waste water treatment plant. The meet-
ing lasted four and a half hours, and Regional
Administrator John C. White said, "EPA will
not reach a final decision until the citizen
comments have been carefully evaluated."
dedication
A new building for health and environmental
sciences was dedicated April 15 at Oscar
Rose Junior College, Midwest City, Okla.
Region VI officials had been instrumental in
the development of this project. Governor
David Boren spoke. Certificates were pre-
sented to 40 persons who had completed
wastewater treatment training at the college.
project scale
About 600 Iowa high school students are
taking part in an unusual environmental edu-
cation program that emphasizes political ac-
tion. Called SCATE (for Students Concerned
About Tomorrow's Environment), the pro-
gram is funded under the Environmental
Education Act by the Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare. It is in its second
year.
SCATE members select an environmental
issue in the local community, study it and
determine possible solutions. These are then
discussed and voted on in Regional and State
assemblies. Final recommendations are pre-
sented in person to State legislators and
agency heads.
Recommended by the 1977 SCATE State
assembly: a ban on leaf burning in any Iowa
city, increased funding for solar energy re-
search in Iowa universities, a mandatory
deposit on all beverage containers, and a
State income tax credit for persons who
heat their homes with solar energy.
center opens
An Energy-Environment Information Center
opened last month in Denver's Conservation
Library. The interagency project's first year
of operating expenses will be borne by EPA
Region VIII and the Energy Research and
Development Administration. The Center
collects and disseminates published data on
energy and the environment throughout the
Region. Governmental bodies, industries,
universities, and the public may get hard
copy or microfilm copy from the Center,
referral to experts, and computerized search
and retrieval service.
The Center was suggested by an ad hoc
committee headed by Regional Administrator
John A. Green. Other participating agencies
include the Federal Energy Administration
and the Departments of Interior, Commerce,
and Health, Education and Welfare.
dredge warning
Region IX officials have issued civil com-
plaints against the Bethlehem Steel Corpora-
tion and the Crowley Maritime Corporation
for violation of ocean dumping regulations.
The companies are charged with dumping
polluted dredging spoils in the middle of the
outbound shipping lane from San Francisco
Bay, about seven miles from the authorized
dump site. Penalties could run as high as
$100,000.
tacoma smelter
The smelting plant at Tacoma, Wash., of
ASARCO, Inc., is exceeding State-set limits
forsulfurand paniculate airpollution, ac-
cording to Region X officials. The firm,
formerly called the American Smelting and
Refining Co., was notified of its emission
violations April 7. Donald Dubois, Regional
Administrator, said the action was the first
step in a wider crackdown by Federal,
State, and area officials.
"Emissions of arsenic from the smelter, the
health of people in the community, and the
workers inside the plant must also be consid-
ered," Dubois said. "The EPA enforcement
process signals the start of a comprehensive
review of air pollution and related public
health matters at the smelter. In this process
the Puget Sound Air Pollution Control
Agency, the State, other Federal agencies,
and interested citizen groups have roles to
play . . ." The State has decided to cancel a
five-year variance on air emissions granted to
the company last year by the Puget Sound
agency, o
19
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STRIKING GOLD
IN SLUDGE
By Larry O'Neill
Valuable gold anil silver deposits have
he tin found in the lxalo Alto. Calif.,
sewage sludge ash. according to the U.S.
Geological Survey.
If (he ash left after the sludge is incinerated
were an ore body, the Geological Survey
s;iid. "it coukl be called a 'bonanza' ore."
Samples of the sludge ash showed gold
content as high as 28 and 32 parts per million
(ppin) and silver content as high as 680 and
630 ppm. the geological agency said. Its
estimated worth of more than S2(X) per met-
ric ion of sludge "is greater than the value of
much of the ore from the mines of the
Comstock Lode in Virginia City. Nov., in it's
heyday."
Hut before you trade in the family station
wagon for a burro and shovel to stake your
claim at the nearest treatment plant, consider
this caution from Robert Bastian of HPA's
Municipal lechnology Branch:
"The Palo Alto case sounds unique. It's
rare lo find measurable gold residues in
sludge. Silver is more common but normally
doesn'l occur in amounts as large as those
found in Palo Alto."
The Geological Survey attributes the high
concentrations at Palo Alto primarily to the
discharge of wastes by the photographic and
electronic industries into the area's sewage
tiealment plant.
Among firms of this type in the area are a
major Kastman-Kodak film processing oper-
ation. Fairchilii Industries. ITT, and Hewlett-
Packard.
The Geological Survey said that many of
these plants probably recover some gold and
silver from their waste sstreams hut that a
portion of the metals—including some from
the Survey's own photo development shop—
must slip through.
The Palo Alto metals were discovered by
Survey scientists during a study of the sludge
as a possible source of phosphate fertilizer.
Recapturing as much as possible of the gold
and silver "could help defray—perhaps even
eliminate—the cost of incinerating the
sludge." the Survey said. But Palo Alto
officials think recovery costs could exceed
the metals' value. They are studying the
issue.
Gold and silver are not the only heavy
metals found in sludge, and incineration isn't
the only disposal method.
Traces of metals like cadmium, copper.
molybdenum, nickel, and /.inc found in
sludge prevent the application of much of this
material to cropland.
An EPA report on the subject* says. "Ap-
plication of sewage sludge to cropland usu-
ally benefits agriculture because of the value
of sludge as a soil conditioner and as a
source of many essential plant nutrients.
O'Neill ix
-------
BAN FOR HARMFUL
SPRAY-CAN GASES
A
proposed ban on the manufacture and
use of certain gases as propellants in
spray cans was announced May 11 by Ad-
ministrator Douglas M. Costle.
Similar plans were announced by the Food
and Drug Administration and the Consumer
Product Safety Commission for spray-can
products under their jurisdiction.
The action would be the first to be taken
by FPA under the new Toxic Substances
Control Act. It would become fully effective
in April 1974.
The gases in question are usual!) called
chlorofiuorocarbons, trade name Freons.
They are synthetic hydrocarbons containing
chlorine and fluorine.
The compounds are not toxic or harmful in
themselves, but when they escape into the air
they migrate upward and lyaci to deplete the
ozone layer. A thin blanket of ozone in the
stratosphere serves as a shield to keep most
of the sun's ultraviolet radiation from reach-
ing the Harth's surface.
Scientists believe that depletion of the layer
of ozone—a form of oxygen—could result in
permanent injury to human health (princi-
pally from increases in skin cancer, known to
be caused by ultraviolet rays). They also
believe that additional ultraviolet radiation
might have upsetting, but still undefined.
effects on the delicate ecological balances
that have evolved among the plant life that
converts the Sun's energy into food for itself
and all other forms of life. These balances
have developed over millions of years under
the ozone's protective shield. No one knows
what might happen if that shield is removed.
More than one million metric ions of chlo-
rofluorocarbon compounds are manufactured
each year, about half of them in the United
States and Canada. They are completely
synthetic, that is. they do not exist in nature.
At sea level they are inert and stable and do
not burn. Their most useful property is that
they absorb a lot of heat when changing from
the liquid to the gaseous state and release a
lot of heat when the process is reversed. This
makes them very efficient and convenient
refrigerant fluids.
Refrigerant Freons would not he banned
by the proposed FPA rule, since these are in
closed piping systems, and the gases do not
escape to the environment unless there is
21
leakage or possibly when the refrigerating
mechanism is eventually scrapped. Costle
said F.R*\ plans to propose regulations next
year to control such releases. Refrigeration is
regarded as an essential use. offering no
present hazard, and there are no acceptable
substitutes.
In spray cans, however, the chlorofluoro-
carbons serve as the vehicle to apply droplets
of some other product: hair sprays, body
deodorants, perfumes, household cleaners.
paints, and insecticides. The Freon goes di-
rectly into the air and cannot be recovered.
Costle noted that other propellant gases are
available to do this work—compressed car-
bon dioxide, for instance—and many such
products can be sprayed mechanically, by
pressing a finger plunger', or applied by other
means.
Costle said he chose to act under the new
Toxic Substances law. rather than under the
Clean Air Act. because the ban would be
easier to administer. Less than hail'a Jo/en
companies manufacture Freons. making the
control of manufacture, shipment, and end-
use regulation a relatively simple matter.
Under the Clean Air Act. all the States
having aerosol manufacturing or packing
plants would have to file for changes in their
implementation plans and hold separate hear-
ings.
The regulations are to be formally adopted
ne.x! Oct. 15. Coslle said. They uotild ban
the manufacture of any "fully halogenated
chlorofluoroalkanes (ihe technical name) for
any aerosol propellant use." Fxccptions will
be made for:
• Siench warning devices used in mini's.
No satisfactory alternative is a\ailable. and
these devices are crucial for miners' safety.
• Release agents for plastic molds.
• Insecticides to kill flying insects in gran-
aries, poultry coops, and non-residential fix>d
handling establishments, anil for the fumiga-
tion of aircraft.
The manufacturing ban would take effect
Oct. 15, 1978, and three months later. Dec.
15, 197H. the ban would apply to processing
(putting the propellant gas in the aerosol
can). After April 15. 1979. spray cans con-
taining chlorofluorocarbon propellants would
he haired from interstate commerce. •
-------
PEOPLE
Charles S. Warren has been
named Director, Office of
I x-gislation. succeeding Bryan F.
I .aPlante, who has retired.
Warren, 36, has been chief
legislative assistant to Sen. Jacob
.lavits of New York since 1970.
Before that he practiced law in
Washington, [>(_'.. and in New
York City.
Warren is a native of Cleveland.
Ohio, and was graduated from
the University of Florida in
I%2. He earned his law degree
from Columbia University in
1965 and a master's degree in
tax law from New York
University two years later.
"Chuck Warren should be a
definite asset for EPA and for
continued environmental
progress on Capitol Hill,"
Administrator Douglas M.
('ostle said.
George F. Armstrong Jr., M. D.,
a specialist in aerospace
physiology and biomedical
engineering, has been appointed
Director of the Health Effects
Division in EPA's Research and
Development Office. This is a
new post, reporting to the
Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Health and Ecological
Effects, Dr. Deibert S. Barth.
Dr. Armstrong, scheduled to
assume his new position June 5,
has been associated for 13 years
with the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration's
Manned Spacecraft Center in
Houston Texas, where he
headed the Space Physiology
Branch, the Biomedical
Technology Division, and the
Health Services Division. For
the last year he has been a
medical officer with the Center's
Operations Group.
Dr. Armstrong was born in
Houston, Mississippi, 53 years
ago and attended the University
of Mississippi, Jackson, for two
years before joining the Naval
Reserve, where he had four
years' active duty as an officer
and qualified as a Naval Aviator.
He returned to the University
and earned bachelor's degrees in
physics and medicine and a
master's in physiology and then
transferred to the University of
Illinois, where he won his
medical doctorate in 1956. He
taught physiology and biophysics
at the University of Mississippi
and was on the graduate faculty
of the University's School of
Medicine before joining the
Spacecraft Center in 1964. He
received a Superior Achievement
Award from the Center in 1969.
He has written or co-authored 34
technical medical articles.
•.
Dr. Alvin R. Morris, former
Region III Deputy
Administrator, is serving as
Acting Region EH Administrator.
He succeeded Daniel J. Snyder
III. who resigned to practice law
with a Philadelphia firm.
Dr. Morris, who began his career
as a biologist with the Federal
Water Pollution Control
Administration, served as
Assistant Regional
Administrator for Management
in EPA's Region II office in New
York City before becoming
Deputy Regional Administrator
in Philadelphia.
He received his Bachelor of Arts
degree from Lafayette College in
1957. His graduate work was
done at Lehigh University,
where he received his M.S. in
Microbiology in 1959 and his
Ph.Din biology in 1963. He was
awarded the EPA Bronze Medal
in 1973 and the EPA Silver
Medal for Superior Service in
1976.
Thomas P. Meloy, engineering
administrator for the National
Science Foundation, has been
named Director, Industrial and
Extractive Processes Division, in
the Office of Research and
Development, reporting to the
Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Energy, Minerals, and
Industry.
With NSF for three years. Dr.
Meloy was responsible for
awarding some 7(K) grants
worth $36 million annually.
Before that he did research and
development work in private
industry: four years with Meloy
Laboratories Inc.. Springfield,
Va.. a firm he helped to found,
on electronic pollution
monitoring devices; three years
with Melpar, Inc.. Falls Church,
Va.; and five years with Allis-
Chalmers. Inc., Milwaukee.
Wise. He has also worked for
the General Electric Co. in
Schcnectady, N.Y., and
Evandale. Ohio, and taught at
Boston University and the
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Dr. Meloy, 51, was graduated
from Harvard University with a
degree in physics and earned a
B.S. and a Ph.D in mining
engineering from MIT.
Richard E. Reavis was recently
appointed Deputy Director of
the Water Division. Region VII,
Kansas City. In this post he will
supervise the Region's water
supply program, water quality
standards, and the River Basin
Commission staff.
Reavis is a Public Health Service
officer and has worked with the
Indian Health Service and as a
city engineer and public works
director. He holds a B.S. in
sanitary engineering from the
University of Missouri, Rolla,
and an M.S. in public health
administration from
Northwestern University.
-------
Elva Slagie, Safety Management
Officerfor EPA's Region VI,
Dallas, is the first woman to
serve on the National Safety
Council's Executive Committee,
Research and Development
Section.
She heads the group's
Associations Committee, a
liaison and focal point for the
exchange of information among
44 national safety associations.
This fall in Chicago she will
chai r a research and
development session at the
Council's annual conference.
Ms. Slagie has had 21 years of
Federal service, starting with the
Veterans' Administration in
1948. She joined EPA in 1970.
She has served as secretary and
chairman of the Dallas-Fort
Worth Federal Safety Council
and is in charge of personnel
security at the First
International Building, where
EPA and several other Federal
agencies are located. She and
her husband have four children
and two grandchildren.
Patrick K. Monahan has been
appointed Director of the Air
and Hazardous Materials
Division in ER
-------
UPDATE
A listing of recent Agency publi-
cations, and other items of use to
people interested in the environ-
ment.
GENERAL PUBLI-
CATIONS
Single copies available from the
Public Information Center, Print-
ing, (PM-215), US EPA, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20460.
Trends in the Quality of the Na-
tion's Air (June 1977) A 16-page
booklet that explains and illus-
trates with pictures and charts the
improvements in air quality
brought about by the 1970 Clean
Air Amendments. It covers total
suspended particulates, sulfur
dioxide, photochemical oxidants,
carbon monoxide, and nitrogen
dioxide.
EPA—Protecting Our Environ-
ment (June 1977) This 28-page
booklet looks at the mission of
EPA. It discusses the changes that
have taken place in the environ-
ment since the Agency was
formed in 1970. New Legislation
such as the Resource Conserva-
tion and Recovery Act and the
Toxic Substances Control Act are
included.
Soil and Pollution (June 1977) A
16-page reprint from the EPA
Journal that reviews how our use
of the land affects air and water
quality.
Clean Water and the Rubber
Processing Industry (May 1977)
One of a series of booklets on
industries that are subject to
EPA's effluent guidelines. This 16-
page booklet explains what effect
compliance with the laws will
have on the rubber processing
industry.
Clean Water and the Beet Sugar
Industry (May 1977) Another in
the effluent guidelines series. This
24
16-page booklet examines how
pollution control will affect the
beet sugar industry technologi-
cally and economically.
Safe Storage and Disposal of
Pesticides (June 1977) This 8-page
illustrated booklet is designed to
inform large-scale pesticide users
of EPA guidelines for storing pes-
ticides, and disposing of leftover
materials and empty pesticide
containers.
FEDERAL REGIS-
TER NOTICES
Copies of Federal Register notices
are available at a cost of $.20 per
page. Write Office of the Federal
Register, National Archives and
Records Service, Washington,
D.C. 20408.
Pesticide Programs. EPA issues
notice on registration of products
containing amitraz. Wednesday,
April 6.
Pesticide Products. EPA cancels
registration for certain products
containing copper arsenate and
copper acetoarsenite. Thursday,
April 7.
Pesticide Program. EPA notice of
intent to cancel registrations of
pesticide products containing
chlordecone (kepone) and re-
sponse to USD.M. and Science Ad-
visory Panel comments on can-
cellation. Monday, April 11.
Air Pollution. EPA amends rules
on maintenance of national am-
bient air quality standards. Fri-
day, April 15.
High Altitude Motor Vehicle
Emission Requirements. EPA
identifies counties designated as
high altitude: effective 4/20/77.
Wednesday, April 20.
Toxic Substances Control. EPA
proposed procedures for rulemak-
ing: comments by 7/1/77. Thurs-
day, April 21.
COMING EVENTS
More information about these
events and EPA participation in
them is available from Sue Sla-
dek (202) 426-4188.
American Environmental Forum,
Portland, Oregon, June 15.
Air Pollution Control Association
40th Annual Meeting, Sheraton
Centre Hotel, Toronto, Canada,
June 20-24.
MOVIES
Movies are available on a free-
loan basis from Modern Talking
Picture Service, Inc., Central Dis-
tribution Office, 2323 New Hyde
Park Road, New Hyde Park, N.Y.
11040. Please request movies well
in advance of planned showing
date.
Jet Roar. The problem of airport
noise is examined by this 15-min-
ute, color, 16-mmfilm. It looks at
what people, airports, and air-
lines personnel are doing to cut
engine noise.
An Investment To Protect. Mil-
lions of tax dollars have been
spent to build wastewater treat-
ment plants as an investment for
clean lakes and rivers. This 13-
minute 16-mm color film explains
that dedicated operations person-
nel, an adequate operating
budget, and support from local
people are necessary to protect
our investment, o
-------
news "briefs
TOUGHER STANDARDS FOR COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS?
EPA held public hearings May 25 and 26 in Washington on the
possibility of tightening its sulfur dioxide standards for new
and modified coal-fired power plants. EPA issued its original
standards in 1971. The Sierra Club and some chapters of the
Navajo Tribe petitioned EPA last year to tighten these standards.
EPA has been making a study to determine whether the sulfur
dioxide standards should be revised and is expected to reach
a decision by early 1978.
EPA HOLDS CONFERENCE ON COAL CLEANING
Methods of cleaning coal so it can be burned without polluting
the air were discussed at a conference in Arlington, Va., May
24-25, sponsored by EPA and Battelle Laboratories, of Columbus,
Ohio. Executives and planners from the coal industry, power
companies, banks, and government bodies exchanged ideas on the
technology and costs of sulfur removal by pretreatment, special
combustion methods, and flue gas scrubbing.
COSTLE TAKES PART IN WORLD ENVIRONMENT DAY OBSERVANCE
World Environment Day was commemorated June 1 at a two-hour
public meeting in the State Department auditorium, Washington.
Speakers scheduled included EPA Administrator Douglas M. Costle;
Undersecretary of State Lucy Wilson Benson; Patsy T. Mink,
Assistant Secretary for Oceans, International Environment, and
Scientific Affairs; Charles Warren, Chairman, Council on
Environmental Quality; and Curtis Farrar, of the Agency for
International Development.
STUDIES LAUNCHED ON TWO COMMON PESTICIDES
New inquiries into the benefits and risks of two well-known
pesticides have been started by EPA. They are Toxaphene and
Pronamide. Toxaphene - used for 20 years on cotton, soybeans,
and other crops - has been blamed for fish kills and may cause
cancer in laboratory animals. Pronamide - a weed killer widely
used on lettuce, alfalfa, and golf courses — is also a suspected
carcinogen.
-------
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS (A-107)
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20460
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
Return this page if you do NOT wish to receive this publictioni ). or if change of address is needed! ). list change, including zipcoae.
MOTHERS' MILK
Detectable levels of three pesticides have
been found in the milk of a majority of
nursing women tested.
This finding is based upon analyses of milk
samples from nearly 1.500 subjects, the larg-
est survey program of i's kind ever under-
taken. The results, recently released by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
showed extremely small amounts of the
chemical dieldrin in about 80 percent of all
milk samples, heptachlor epoxide in roughly
63 percent, anil oxychlordane in 74 percent.
Health experts both at EPA and among the
university researchers who conducted the
study during 1975 believe that the levels
detected pose no immediate health hazard to
either the mothers or their newborns. How-
ever, the possible long-term consequences of
these minute amounts are uncertain. The
1.436 women who served as subjects are
being informed of the results, which have
also been made available to the Department
of Health. Education and Welfare for review
and assessment.
Milk samples were tested for six pesticide
compounds: dieldrin. heptachlor. a break-
down product of heptachlor called heptachlor
epoxide. chlordane and its breakdown prod-
uct called oxychlordane. and Mirex. No
chlordane or Mirex was observed in any of
the samples.
All of these pesticides have been curbed to
one extent or another by F1P.A. primarily
because they are suspected of causing cancer
in humans. Dieldrin. heptachlor and chlor-
dane have been prohibited for most uses.
including all food crop uses. Mirex. a fire ant
pesticide, may not be applied in the U.S. after
June 30. 1978 as the result of an agreement
between EPA and the producer.
Lower levels of the dieldrin. ox\ chlordane.
and heptachlor epoxide in human milk may
be expected to occur in the future because of
such restrictions on their use. In 1975. for
instance, the Agency reported that levels of
, ^
Maternal Caress, a color print by Mary
Cassatt. National Gallery of Art. Wash-
ington. D.C'.. Chester Dale Collection.
DDT in human fatty tissue were declining
due to decreased application of this pesticide
in the early 7()'s.
Assessing the significance of the new
study. Dr. Jack Griffith, head of the Human
Effects Monitoring Branch. Office of Pesti-
cide Programs, said. "EPA now has the
means to statistically estimate, nationally, the
«U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977 720-136/6 1-3
magnitude of certain pesticides residues in
human milk, and to effectively monitor what-
everchanges may occurin the future."
The milk sampling program was per-
formed under contract to F'PA by Colorado
State University in Fort Collins with assist-
ance from the Medical University of South
Carolina. Mississippi State University, and
the State health departments of Michigan
and Utah. One hundred and fifty hospitals
were randomly selected from 7,(XX) general
care units in 46 States. Both high and low
pesticide usage areas were picked to ensure
the representativeness of the sample.
The average detectable amounts of the
minute traces of the three pesticides found in
the women's milk varied: The mean level for
dieldrin in the fatty part of the milk was 164
parts per billion (one part per billion is
roughly comparable to one inch in 16.(XX)
miles). The mean level for the heptachlor
epoxide was 91 parts per billion, and the
mean level for oxychlordane was % parts per
billion.
Some of these same milk samples were
also analyzed last year for PCB's. the oily
substance used in heavy-duty electrical
equipment and found to cause serious health
problems in laboratory animals. An initial
group of 379 of these samples contained
PCB's that ranged from barely detectable to
low parts per million. All of the remaining
samples are now being examined for PCB's.
In addition, the samples have been tested
for other pesticides, including DDT. BHC.
HCB, l.indane and transnonachlor. a break-
down product of chlordane. The mathemati-
cal portion of this study is still in progress.
but a report of findings is expected later this
year.
Copies of the milk study may be obtained
from the Environmental Protection Agency.
Office of Ftesticide Programs, Human Effects
Monitoring Branch (WH-569). 401 M Street,
SW.. Washington. D.C. 20460. •
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