United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Volume? Public Awareness (A-107) Numbers Washington DC 20460 March 1981 Protecting the Oceans Oil Tanker Wallowing in Rough Seas ------- New Approaches to the Environ- ment Norman B. Livermore Jr. Liss confrontation and more cooperation between users and protectors of the environ- ment is foreseen by the leader of the Reagan Transition Team for EPA. Norman B. Livermore Jr., the former California Secre- tary for Resources during the eight years when Reagan was governor of that State, said that he anticipates there will be a more balanced approach to environmental problems. "We must recognize," he stated, "that the environment includes other social concerns such as jobs, safety from crime, education and overall energy and economic development as well as the essential protection of the natural environment." Unfortunately, Livermore, a former member of the board of directors of the Sierra Club and the National Audubon Society, continued "there have been many examples of over-zealous environmentalism. I can cite a number of cases in California where excess zeal has hurt the environmental movement. "By pushing too hard in their arguments for expansion of Redwood National Park, envi- ronmentalists antagonized the forest products industry, the U.S. Forest Service, and the whole business community. "In the case of the Mineral King proposal for a ski resort project (which environmen- talists succeeded in killing), they antagonized the skiers, who will play a key role in the settlement of important Cali- fornia wilderness projects. Skiers are now quite hostile to environmentalists because of the over-zealous opposition to any development of Mineral King." Livermore, now a retired businessman who was recently awarded a Sierra Club Conser- vation Award, submitted a re- port to the White House last December for the transition team he headed which dis- banded after reviewing and making recommendations on EPA operations. Discussing the future of EPA, Livermore, who empha- sized that he was speaking unofficially, said that he antici- pates that the Agency will con- tinue to play a strong and responsible role despite cut- backs in operating funds and probable stretching out of the construction grants program. On extending the construc- tion grants program, Livermore noted that "it took us many decades to get as polluted as we are. So whether it takes three years or 10 to correct these undesirable conditions is, in my opinion, not that crucial." He said he expects EPA to be streamlined and reorganized, in part. Livermore added that while he expects some addi- tional delegation of authority by EPA to the States, he recog- nizes that there are "many pol- lution problems which cross State boundaries and thus can't be shoved off on the States." Speaking about the Clean Air Act, which will be reviewed soon by Congress, Livermore said that he is "a very strong believer in.wilderness and parks" and recognizes the need to preserve visibility from the encroachment of pollution in these areas. Yet, he continued, on a ranch he owns with some members of his family in Northern Califor- nia, he has to phone 100 miles continued on page 40 Transition, Task Force Members M' I embers of Liver- more's Transition Team for EPA and the function performed by each were: Christopher DeMuth, policy analysis, lecturer at the Harvard University Kennedy School of Gov- ernment and Harvard Law School; also Director of the Harvard Faculty Project on Regulation; James McAvoy, Federal- State relations, Director, Ohio Environmental Protection Agency; Lou Cordia, budget analysis, Environmental Policy Analyst for the Heritage Foundation; Fred Khedouri, U.S. House of Representatives liai- son, legislative director for former U.S. Rep. David Stockman who is now OMB Director; Nancy Maloley, U.S. Senate liaison, legislative assistant for Senator Richard Lugar of Indiana; W. Ernst Minor, per- sonnel, former EPA Public Affairs Director for EPA laboratories in Cincinnati and Reagan-Bush cam- paign official; Robert T. Herbolsheimer, adminis- trative assistant, environ- mental lawyer and Congressional campaign manager; George Van Cleve, House relations, Legislative Director for Congressman Richard Cheney. The Transition Team completed its review of EPA operations and sub- mitted a report and recommendations to the White House in December. In addition to the Transition Team, Presi- dent Reagan also ap- pointed an Environmental Task Force which dealt with broad environmental policy. Along with Liver- more, this group, which submitted its report to the White House in mid- November, included among its members: Dan Lufkin, former Commissioner of the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protec- tion; John Busterud, former member of the Council on Environmental Quality; Henry Diamond, former Commissioner of the New York Environ- mental Conservation Department; Nathaniel Reed, Director of the National Audubon Society and former Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of the Interior; William Ruckel- shaus, former Adminis- trator of EPA; and Russell E. Train, former Adminis- trator of EPA, Under- secretary of the Interior, and Chairman of the Council on Environmental Quality. D ------- United Stales Environmental Protection Agency Office of Public Awareness {A-107) Washington DC 20460 Volume 7 Number 3 March 1981 &EPA JOURNAL Walter C. Barber, Acting Administrator Charles D. Pierce, Editor Truman Temple, Associate Editor John Heritage, Managing Editor Articles EPA is charged by Congress to protect the Nation's land, air and water systems. Under a mandate of national environmental laws focused on air and water quali- ty, solid waste management and the control of toxic substances, pesticides, noise and radiation, the Agency strives to formulate and implement actions which lead to a compatible balance be tween human activities and the abiftty of natural systems to sup- port and nurture life. Cx, Law of the Sea 2 The progress on this major treaty, by Elliot L. Richardson. Major Oil Spills 6 A photo essay illustrating these marine threats. Initiatives to Protect the Seas 8 A report on the help EPA provides in marine protection treaties, by Alan B. Sielen. Managing the Coastal Environment 11 Measures that can protect coastal areas as growth occurs. Plan for the Caribbean 14 Pollution protection in this regional sea. The Impact of Ocean Pollution 16 A review of efforts to understand our impact on the oceans, by Allan Hirsch. EPA and the Marine Environment 20 The Agency's marine research and regulatory activities. Underwater Scientists at Gulf Breeze How sea diving is aiding marine pollution research, by Betty Jackson. Burning Wastes at Sea A report on plans to incinerate hazardous wastes on special ships at sea, by Charlotte Garvey. Guarding the Sea 26 The need to protect the seas with which our destiny is linked, by Jean-Michel Cousteau with Paula DiPerna. Making Pollution Prevention Pay 32 An analysis of how pollution cleanup can earn dollars for business, by Michael G. Royston. . O Departments Around the Nation Update 30 28 Almanac 37 People 38 News Briefs 40 Front cover: Oil tanker crashes through heavy seas, an example of one of the perils in the mounting transportation of petroleum on ocean waters. (Article on p. 2) Photo credits: Leo Touchet, The Photo Circle, Inc.; Cecil W. Stougnton, U.S. Department of the Interior; National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration; U.S. Coast Guard; M. Woodbridge Williams, Ralph Anderson, Richard Frear, National Park Service; Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture; Steven Foss, James Patrick, EPA's Gulf Breeze Environmental Research Labora- tory; U.S. Travel Service; The Cousteau Society; EPA's Environ- mental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nev.; F. Mattioli, U.N. Food and Agricul- ture Organization; Bob Wands; Paul Sequeira, and John Messina. Design Credits: Robert Flanagan, Donna Kazaniwsky and Ron Farrah. The EPA Journal is published monthly, with combined issues July-August and November Decem ber, by the U S Environmental Protection Agency Use of funds for printing this periodical has been approved by the Director of the Office of Management and Budget Views expressed by authors do not ..inly reflect EPA policy Con tributions and inquiries should be addressed to the Editor (A-107), Waterside Mali, 401 M St , S W Washington. D C 20460 No per mission necessary to reproduce contents except copyrighted photos and other materials. Subscription S1 2 00 a year, 51.20 for single copy, domestic, 51 b 00 if mailed to ,i foreign address No charge to employees Send check or money order to Superintendent of Docu- ments. U S Government Printing Office Washington. D C 20402 Text printed on recycled paper ------- lt Reyes Nationa , seashore, Calif. ------- Law of the Sea By Elliot L. Richardson I ake Erie must at one time have seemed I far too vast to be affected by man's pollution. Yet everyone is now aware of the harm which has resulted from man's discharge of wastes into this body of water. Many believe that the oceans are too vast to be affected by man's pollution. However, unlike Lake Erie where abatement efforts are aiding natural restoration, the oceans may be too vast to be restored if we wait for precise determinations of the impact of man's pollution on them. All steps must be taken now to curb pollution of the marine environment. Pollution of the oceans comes from several sources. The primary one is pollu- tion from land-based sources directly into the oceans or into streams and rivers which flow into the ocean. Roughly 85 percent of marine pollution emanates from sources on land. Other sources include dumping of man's wastes into the oceans, the atmospheric transport of pollution from land into the sea, natural seepage of oil from the seabed, and pollution resulting from the recovery of oil from the continen- tal shelf. The remaining source of pollution, and the one which attracts the most attention, is pollution from vessels at sea, particularly the large oil tankers which now and again cause disastrous pollution. The wreck of the 233,000 ton Amoco Cadiz off the French coast of Brittany in March of 1978 is a recent and spectacular example. The Law of the Sea Treaty now in the final stage of development by the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea addresses each of these sources of pollution. It is to be an "umbrella treaty" which provides a general legal framework defining the rights and duties of countries with respect to the oceans rather than merely a technical convention designed to spell out specific rules and standards such as tanker construction requirements. Adoption of the treaty will contribute an important step in protecting the marine environment from man's pollution. One of its more important features, as I will point out more specifically later in this article, is that it would incorporate by reference a wide variety of other treaties. Land-Based Sources Land-based pollutants include riverborne substances from domestic sewage, indus- trial waste and agricultural run-off, air- borne pollutants such as vaporized hydro- carbons, and direct discharges of sewage and other wastes from coastal communi- ties. With regard to petroleum, for example, land-based sources account for an esti- mated 50 to 90 percent of the estimated total of 2 to 5 million metric tons of oil which enter the oceans annually. The U.N. Conference on Human Environ- ment held in Stockholm in 1972 repre- sented the first major effort by the inter- national community to come to grips with the question of land-based sources of pollution. This conference, however, was not a treaty-drafting conference but rather attempted to identify the problem and to establish institutional arrangements for dealing with it. One of the significant outcomes of the Stockholm Conference was the creation of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) headquarters in Kenya. UNEP's efforts include alerting countries to the harm to their own interests which results from land-based pollution of the marine environment and encouraging regional action to control such pollution. The recently-concluded Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Ocean is a good example of UNEP's con- structive efforts in this area. However, this is a regional agreement and is severely limited in substantive scope. The Law of the Sea negotiating text also addresses in treaty language the question of land-based pollution. The text imposes a positive legal duty on all states to estab- lish national laws and regulations to prevent, reduce, and control harmful dis- charges originating in their land territory. Specifically mentioned sources include rivers, estuaries, pipelines, and outfall structures. The text also calls on states to convene a separate conference for the purpose of establishing global and regional rules and standards to prevent pollution from land-based sources. Finally, the text requires states to enforce their laws in regard to land-based pollution and to adopt the necessary legislative, administrative, and other measures necessary to implement future international rules and standards. Although this is the first multilateral treaty to contain provisions of this type, more far-reaching provisions were blocked, partly by developing countries concerned that stringent controls on pollution might hamper their development and partly by other nations sensitive to possible infringe- ment of "sovereignty." Pollution from Seabed Activities Such activities account for only a small percentage of total marine pollution. For example, it is estimated that oil develop- ment, the predominant seabed resource activity, produces less than two percent of the oil pollution that enters the world's oceans. However, the localized effects of such activities can be dramatic and devastating. The Santa Barbara incident of several years ago and the recent Mexican blowout vividly bring home the potentially harmful consequences of un- controlled or accidental discharges from oil exploitation on the continental shelf. The text developed by the Law of the Sea Conference reflects the international attention which has been focused on pollution from seabed activities. It calls on all states to ensure that their domestic standards for exploitation on their con- tinental margin are no less effective than the international standards. Unfortunately, there are no such international rules and standards at the present time. Recognizing this, the Law of the Sea treaty text calls upon states acting through a diplomatic conference to establish such international standards to ensure that seabed activities do not give rise to pollution of the marine environment. The text also addresses pollution emanating from the other exploitation activities conducted on the deep ocean MARCH 1981 ------- floor like the mining of manganese nodules. It requires states to apply domestic stand- ards that are no less effective than the environmental standards developed inter- nationally through the international organization being created to govern the exploitation of these seabed resources. Further, the text makes clear that states may impose on ships flying their flag seabed mining regulations more stringent than those imposed by the Authority. This is particularly important for the United States, since our companies, along with those of a few other industrialized states, enjoy a significant lead in seabed mining technology. The major problem for inter- national organizations and individual states has been the development of an adequate body of scientific knowledge regarding the effects of seabed mining upon which to base intelligent environmental rules and regulations. Dumping The practice of dumping wastes in con- tainers and sometimes without containers into the open ocean has been going on for many decades. However, the high toxicity of some of the wastes which have been dumped and the increased under- standing of the harmful consequences of some past dumping practices have led to international efforts to regulate and control these activities. The first international conference on dumping, convened in London in 1972, resulted in a convention now in force which restricts and limits the dumping that can be conducted by signatories to that treaty. It contains detailed annexes which specify those substances which cannot be dumped and those substances which may be dumped only in accordance with special precau- tionary measures. The Law of the Sea text requires all states to establish dumping laws at least as effective as these global standards. This provision will make the London Dumping Convention standards applicable to all states which ratify the sea treaty whether or not they have ratified the London Dumping Convention itself. Pollution through the Atmosphere Evidence of DDT found in the ice sheet covering Antarctica has convinced even the most doubting skeptics that toxic substances are being distributed by the atmosphere throughout the world not only on the ice sheet of Antarctica but also into the world's oceans. Airborne pollution of fresh-water lakes in North America and in Europe is generating increasing controversy. Thus far. however, little international progress has been made on this complex question. It is difficult to write acceptable standards which limit activities within the borders of one country in such a manner as to ensure that those activities do not adversely affect the citizens of a neighboring country. The global concern about fluorocarbons' possible effects upon the ozone layer dramatically illustrates that the atmosphere upon which all depend is a global resource. Atmospheric loading of carbon dioxide from the com- bustion of fossil fuel, with potentially critical implications for global climate patterns, is another case in point. The interaction between the atmosphere and the ocean often results in transfer of these airborne pollutants to the ocean. The Law of the Sea treaty as an umbrella treaty does not contain detailed provisions on airborne pollution. However, countries are required to establish regulations to reduce and eliminate pollution of the marine environ- ment from and through the atmosphere. Pollution from Vessels Pollution from vessels is dealt with in considerable detail in the Law of the Sea treaty. The detail results from the fact that this source of pollution has long been a subject of international regulation and the fact that the use of the oceans for naviga- tion remains one of the treaty's principal objects. The Law of the Sea text strives to balance the need for protection of the ocean from vessel pollution and the need to ensure that this important avenue of commerce is not foreclosed by the abusive exercise of rights by foreign states. Pollution, particularly oil pollution from vessels, results from accidental discharges such as the Amoco Cadiz disaster or from operational discharges. Accidents are caused by navigational errors, improper equipment, poor training of the crew, and a myriad of other possibilities related to the construction, design, equipment, or manning of a vessel or its operation. Operational discharges often are for the convenience of the vessel operator to the detriment of the marine environment and the coastal state. These discharges result from pumping waste out of the ship's bilges, cleaning tanks which have been used to carry products such as crude oil, or deballasting. International efforts in the International Maritime Consultation Organization have created a complex matrix of standards to reduce the discharge of oil through operational discharges and to seek to prevent discharges of oil from maritime accidents or casualties. The Law of the Sea text does not seek to displace these standards but rather to build upon them by addressing jurisdictional questions whose resolution is necessary for their effective implementation and enforcement. The treaty apportions jurisdiction to deal with vessel source pollution between those states—coastal states—likely to be most affected by it and best capable of dealing with it, the state in which the vessel is registered, and the states to whose ports the vessel is bound. Historically, it was felt that the state in which a ship is registered should be the one to assure its seaworthiness and the competence of its crew. However, many states—those which "provide flags of convenience"—have not fully lived up to their obligations in this regard. Thus the treaty imposes require- ments on flag states more stringent than in any previous multilateral treaty. Flag states are obligated to ensure effective com- pliance with all applicable international rules and standards and their own national pollution laws irrespective of where the violation occurs. They must ensure that vessels flying their flag do not leave port unless the vessels are in compliance with ail applicable international standards including those relating to the design, construction, equipment, and manning of vessels. The draft also sets forth require- ments regarding the certificates vessels must carry to'show compliance with international standards and obligates flag states to perform periodic inspections to assure that the condition of the vessels is in conformity with these certificates. Finally, flag states are required to investigate and prosecute properly documented violations occurring anywhere in the world. Historically, some flag states have argued that certain international standards are not applicable to them because they have not ratified the convention under which the particular standard is promul- gated. The Law of the Sea treaty attempts to solve this problem by elaborating coastal state standard-setting and enforcement competence for the most serious pollution problem—operational discharges. In its territorial sea (12 miles under the treaty), a coastal state may establish and enforce pollution laws and regulations more stringent than international standards so long as such laws do not hamper the tradi- tional navigational right of "innocent passage"—the right to pass peacefully through a territorial sea. For example, a coastal state may prohibit the discharge of any oil in its territorial sea and may estab- lish insurance and liability requirements at any level it deems necessary to assure adequate compensation in case of a major pollution incident. It may also establish laws necessary for the safety of navigation and the regulation of marine traffic. Beyond 12 miles, the international standards for discharges would continue to apply. The Law of the Sea Conference limited the coastal state right to set standards EPA JOURNAL ------- concerning the design, construction, manning and equipment of vessels travers- ing its territorial sea because it felt the potential multiplicity of regulations in these traditional shipping routes would place an undue burden on international commerce. Standards on these subjects would still be established by the Inter-Gov- ernmental Maritime Consultative Organization. However, the treaty confirms the right of all states under existing law to set such standards for vessels entering their ports. For example, the United States has enacted port entry regulations regarding the design, construction, manning and equipment of vessels that far exceed existing interna- tional standards. It seems to me legitimate for coastal states, with due regard for the need to avoid undue burdens on inter- national commerce, through exercise of their own jurisdiction over ships in their ports, to exercise pressure for the strengthening of international standards. Beyond the territorial sea the treaty creates a new zone of jurisdiction called the "exclusive economic zone." In this area, which extends to a distance of 200 miles from shore, the coastal state will have rights over all living and non-living resources. Traditionally this area has been considered high seas, and coastal states had no jurisdiction over vessels with regard to the prevention of pollution. However, because of the potentially serious risk to the resources of the zone, the coastal state will be allowed to take legal proceedings in cases of serious violation of international discharge standards that cause or threaten major damage. One of the more innovative features of the Law of the Sea text, and perhaps its greatest contribution to the effort to control vessel-source pollution, is a new juris- dictional concept in international law. The treaty gives a state the right to take action against a vessel voluntarily within its ports for any violation of international rules and standards. The port state can take legal action against the vessel for violations occurring not only within its own territorial sea and economic zone but anywhere in the ocean. This concept of universal port- state jurisdiction is important for several reasons. First, vessel-source pollution is a global problem not capable of solution solely by action of the jurisdiction where the pollution occurs. Even if a state could eliminate pollution within its own economic zone by effective standards and enforce- ment measures, it could not protect itself from discharges occurring just beyond its zone that are carried landward by winds and currents. Further, unilateral standards applicable only within a limited zone do nothing to protect the oceans as a whole from pollution. It is axiomatic that each state suffers to the extent that the Lighthouse fit Cape Hatteras National Seashore, N.C. overall water quality of the marine environ- ment is degraded. Thus, states not affected by individual pollution incidents within their own jurisdictions will nevertheless suffer over time the effects of discharges occurring in other parts of the ocean. Recent international conventions estab- lished through the Inter-Governmental Mari- time Consultative Organization prohibit any discharges of oil by tankers within 50 miles of land and beyond 50 miles set rigid standards regarding the amount of oil which can be discharged per mile (60 liters) and on the total amount of oil that can be discharged (1 730,000 of the total quantity of the cargo). They also establish higher standards for design, construction and equipment of new vessels and for the retrofit of many existing vessels. The port-state system set forth in the treaty provides an efficient means of enforcing these standards. At one time or another most tankers call at the ports of the United States, Japan, and Western European countries. If these states acting in concert were strictly to enforce these standards, they would have a significant impact in reducing operational discharges of oil throughout the world. A final contribution of the Law of the Sea Conference is the inclusion of compulsory third-party dispute settlement procedures to deal with environmental disputes. Such procedures will allow a body of "case law" to be gra dually builtupthatwill give more precise meaning to the previously men- tioned environmental obligations.This body of law can become an effective means of bringing internal and external pressure on a foreign state to meet its environmental obligations. The threat of suit in and of itseif can be a significant restraint. In addition, dispute settlement procedures can play a major role in reducing the serious international friction that may arise where significant economic interests are at stake. The treaty provides the first global agreement on compulsory third-party dis- pute settlement of broad environmental issues. Conclusion While there are a host of other provisions dealing with the question of pollution of the marine environment, these are among the most important. The Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization is left with the role that it has been filling with increased responsibility in recent years— that of establishing international standards for the construction, design, equipment, and manningof vessels. The international organization continues to set standards for discharges beyond the territorial sea. The Law of the Sea treaty as an umbrella establishes basic jurisdic- tional rights and duties which the organization cannot address. For a country such as the United States, whose ports are entered by 95 percent of the vessels appearing off its coast, the power to set construction, design, equip- ment, and manning standards as a condi- tion for port entry remains an effective tool for preventing pollution of the marine envi- ronment. Similarly, the enforcement pro- visions of the Law of the Sea treaiy, which give the broadest role to the port state, a strong role to the coastal state in the territorial sea and a more limited role to the coastal state in the economic zone, repre- sent a creative accommodation. The oceans are protected from pollution, while at the same time navigational freedoms are also protected. For all these reasons the Law of the Sea treaty, once in effect, will represent an important step in the worldwide effort to prevent and control pollution of the marine environment of the world's oceans. When combined with future international efforts addressing the complex issue of land-based pollution, the Law of the Sea treaty should materially contribute to protecting the world ocean from the fate that once befell Lake Erie. D Mr. Richardson was until recently the President's Special Representative for the Law of the Sea Conference. He is now the Senior Resident Partner in the Washington law office of Mi/bunk. Tweed, Hadley, and McCloy. He has held several cabinet level positions. MARCH 1981 ------- A, The tanker Torrey Canyon, grounded on shoals off the southwestern coast of Great Britain on March 16. 1967. lost 36 million gallons of crude oil. Further environmental damage was caused by attempts to clean up the oil chemically with untested detergents. B. On March 3. 1968, the Ocean Eagle ran aground while carry- ing 5.7 million gallons of crude from Venezuela to San Juan, Puerto Rico. The ship dumped two million gallons of oil into the San Juan Harbor. C. A Shell oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico ten miles off the coast of Louisiana burst into nearly uncontrollable flames following an explosion on Dec. 4, 1970. D.Dec. 15, 1976. theSSArgo Merchant, a Liberian tanker carrying over seven million gal- lons of heavy fuel oil, ran aground off the coast of Nan- tucket Island, Mass., and spilled huge amounts of oil. Coast Guard units staged an unsuc- cessful six-day fight to save the vessel, which was broken in half by powerful currents and high winds. striking rise in the amount of oil spilled on the seas over the past decade reached an all-time high in 1979, with 328 million gallons pouring into the oceans from tanker spills. This increase can be attributed in part to growth in oil tanker capacities. Although much publicized, ocean spills actually represent a relatively small percentage of the total 1.8 billion gallons of petroleum discharged yearly into the ocean. (Other sources include operational discharges from ships, river runoff, atmos- pheric rainout, and natural seepage.) But the public spot- light focused on the dramatic tanker spills emphasizes the vulnerability of the world's oceans and the delicate environ- mental balance in which the seas play a vital role. EPA JOURNAL ------- E. In March. 1978. the tanker Amoco Cad in spilled more than 66 million gallons of oil when it ran aground in the Atlantic off the Brittany Coast of France. F. Workmen pump oily water from French shores following the 1978 Amoco Cadiz spill. MARCH 1981 ------- EPAJOURNAL ------- Initiatives to Protect the By Alan Sielen In the past decade the world community has come together at an unprecedented pace to seek solutions to the problems of protecting our planet's natural environment. This is particularly evident with respect to protecting that two-thirds of the earth's surface covered by oceans. United States leadership has contributed immensely to this phenomenon, and, in turn, EPA has played a iarge part in U.S. efforts. The Environmental Protection Agency has been deeply involved in several international initiatives to advance our Nation's far-reaching interests in the seas. The Agency provides expertise to the Department of State and other Federal agencies for negotiations on a number of salt-water issues related to ocean dumping, vessel pollution, the law of the sea, and Antarctic resources. The Agency's largest involvement is in the area of ocean dumping. As lead agency in the Federal Government for implementing the 1972 London Dumping Convention, EPA chairs United States delegations to negotiations held pursuant to the Convention, and provides most of the scientific and policy support for such deliberations. The London Convention is the chief global mechanism for regulating the deliberate disposal of wastes at sea. The Convention entered into force in 1 975, and 46 countries have now ratified or acceeded to it including most of the major industrialized nations. Conceptually, the Convention is similar to our domestic ocean dumping law—extending many of that law's features to the international level. Prospective dumpers are required to obtain a permit from the relevant national authority in their country. There is a list of particularly harmful substances which may not be dumped such as organohalogens, high level radioactive wastes, certain heavy metals, and chemical or biological Shorebirds wheeling over an ocean beach. warfare agents. There is another list of substances requiring "special care" before dumping, and a set of environmental criteria to be considered by the national authority when issuing a permit. Since 1975, the Convention Contracting Parties have reached agreement on a number of regulations and other measures needed to effectively carry out the objec- tives of the Convention. Mandatory regula- tions are now in force to control the innovative technology of incinerating hazardous chemicals at sea. Similarly, several measures have been adopted to tighten controls on the sea disposal of low-level radioactive wastes. Also, bio- assay tests pioneered in the U.S. for determining the effect of pollutants on marine life are now required under the Convention. Recently, there has been special atten- tion focused on the problem of ocean dumping of nuclear wastes. Although the U.S. does not now dump nuclear wastes, we have been in the forefront of much interna- tional work to strictly control their disposal at sea. Through the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development's Nuclear Energy Agency, the U.S. has helped develop environmental assessment and monitoring requirements which will stead- ily inject a greater degree of accountability into this practice. A second area of international environ- mental cooperation is vessel safety and pollution prevention. With a world fleet of nearly 7,000 tankers transporting almost two billion tons of oil each year, potential costs in terms of human life, environmental damage, and economic loss are a fact of lifeat sea. MARCH 1981 ------- The well publicized wrecks of the Torrey Canyon, Amoco Cadiz and Argo Merchant are just a few examples of the risks attending the transport of oil and other hazardous chemicals by sea. Acci- dents often occur near shore where valuable estuarine and coastal areas are particularly vulnerable to damage. More important in terms of volume are the dis- charges of oil from routine vessel opera- tions such as tank cleaning and deballasting. Fortunately, che international maritime community is taking steps to prevent ship pollution and to further protect human life. During the past 25 years, a number of international treaties have been negotiated under the auspices of the Intergovern- mental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO)—a specialized agency of the United Nations—to remedy problems of tanker safety and pollution prevention. The most significant of these agreements were concluded in 1978 largely as a result of the President's call for a total revamping of United States and global rules governing the design, construction, operation, equip- ment and manning of tankers. These agreements, the Safety of Life at Sea and Marine Pollution Protocols of 1978, upgrade previous international regu- lations and establish a comprehensive set of safety and pollution prevention require- ments for new and existing ships. The Ma- rine Pollution Protocol strictly limits the amount of oil which may be discharged at sea, and contains effective operation and design requirements for washing of crude oil from cargo tanks, and segregated ballast —the placement of cargo and ballast in separate tanks. Moreover, to prevent loss of oil from accidents, new tankers will be required to place ballast tanks in protective locations on the side or bottom of the ship to cushion cargo tanks in the event of a grounding or collision. These and many other features found in the 1978 Protocols can significantly reduce vessel pollution if conscientiously applied. In the past, maritime nations have been exceedingly slow in ratifying the various IMCO agreements, thus often delaying their entry into force for several years. There is hope, however, that this unfortunate pattern is now being broken. Several nations, including the United States, have already ratified the 1978 Protocols and it appears that these agreements stand a good chance of entering into force soon. The many jurisdictional questions deal- ing with the rights and duties of nations to set and enforce environmental rules are not fully addressed in the treaties on dumping and tankers. Rather, it was felt that such legal issues would be best dealt with in the broader context of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea whose mandate is. to produce a comprehensive agreement on all aspects of ocean use and management—a virtual constitution for the seas. The Conference has produced a Draft Convention on the Law of the Sea, and is expected to adopt a final agreement later this year. As Elliot Richardson discusses in detail elsewhere in this publication, the Law of the Sea Conference has taken enormous strides in creating a new environmental order for the oceans. The present Draft Convention deals in a comprehensive fash- ion with matters dealt with fleetingly, or not at all, in previous conventional internation- al law. It answers basic questions on the distribution and exercise of authority in various areas of ocean space such as ports, territorial seas, 200-mile economic zones, and the high seas. It tells us how far sea- ward, and under what conditions. States can apply national and international regula- tions for the control of specific sources of ocean pollution. New environmental obliga- tions are also created. States must develop contingency plans for responding to spills, monitor the effects of pollution, and assess activities for potentia I impact on the marine environment. Other measures also point to a greater degree of environmental account- ability for marine activities: requirements to comply wtih international environmental rules; compulsory procedures for settling disputes; and obligations regarding liability and compensation for harm to the oceans. Another focus of international attention is Antarctica. Recently, this interest has centered on the resource potential—both living and mineral—of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. The United States is one of thirteen countries party to the Antarctic Treaty. (The others are Argentina, Austra- lia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Soviet Union, United Kingdom). Primarily, the treaty ensures that Antarctica will be used only for peaceful purposes; it encour- ages research in the area; and "freezes" the status-quo on territorial claims, while pre-' serving the right to disagree on the recog- nition of such claims. So far, the Treaty has operated as something of a model of co- operation. With recent interest in the resource potential of Antarctica, however, new stresses will be placed on the treaty system including pressures from nations outside the exclusive orbit of the thirteen. Antarctica is rich in marine life including fish, krill, squid, birds, seals, and whales. Krill—a small shrimp-like crustacean—is an essential element of the Antarctic food- chain, serving, for example, as the main source of food for whales of the Southern Ocean. Krill may also turn out to be a significant source of animal feed and food for humans. The prospect of seriously depleting fish and krill stocks in Antarctica by overexploi- tation prompted Antarctic Treaty members to seek an agreement on conserving and managing the continent's marine living resources. Last year, treaty members con- cluded the Convention on Antarctic Marine Living Resources, which is open to all nations for signature. It is the first world fishery agreement to be based on eco- system management principles. The scien- tific community must now get on with the research necessary to effectively carry out the objectives of the Convention. The possibility of significant oil and gas deposits on the Antarctic continental shelf has also generated new interest in the southern continent. Antarctic Treaty mem- bers are now considering the negotiation of an Antarctic mineral resources regime. Important elements of a regime are a means for determining whether mineral explora- tion and exploitation—presently governed by a policy of "voluntary restraint"— should take place, and if so, where, and under what conditions. The fragile nature of the Antarctic ecosystem, the importance of Antarctica to the world environment, severe weather meaning extremely difficult working conditions, ... and the lure of oil ... all combine to make the Antarctic minerals risk-benefit equation a formidable challenge. There has been real progress in protect- ing the earth's salt-water environment. But much remains to be done. Securing wide- spread acceptance, and effective imple- mentation, of existing agreements must be the first priority. The difficult task of devel- oping realistic strategies for the control of land-based sources of marine pollution— rivers, outfalls, atmospheric fallout—must be met head on. Work on rules to control new or as yet internationally unregulated sources of ocean pollution, such as offshore oil drilling, deep seabed mining and ocean thermal energy conversion must move forward. Such prescriptive activities cannot exist in a scientific vacuum. Concerted national, regional and global efforts to study the impacts, fates and effects of pollutants on the marine environment are needed. This is particularly true with respect to some of the most harmful substances such as trans- uranic radionuclides, synthetic organic chemicals, heavy metals, and petroleum hydrocarbons. The duties of states to con- duct environmental assessments and to monitor the effects of pollution are just now being recognized at the international level. This element of accountability has too long been missing from our collective psyches. General acceptance of these principles is revolutionizing our thinking on ocean use, and paving the way for a better future. D Alan Sielen is Special Representative for Marine Negotiations, Office of International A ctivities, EPA. 10 EPA JOURNAL ------- Managing the Coastal Environment A handbook to help local officials and planners develop programs to protect and manage the Nation's coastal resources has been pub- lished by the Federal Government. The guidebook, Coastal Environmental Management: Guidelines For Conservation of Resources and Protection Against Storm Hazards, was prepared by the Conservation Foundation for the Federal Insurance Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency, the President's Council on Environmental Quality, and several other Federal agencies. The guidebook deals with such problems as beach ero- sion, wetlands conservation, saltwater intrusion into drink- ing water supplies, estuarine pollution, and the possibility of hurricane damage. The guidelines proposed by the document are aimed at helping communities plan for sound development while conserving resources and pro- tecting lives and property from natural hazards. Traditionally, the guidebook notes, many coastal protectors and coastal developers have thought that conservation and development were at odds. But, the guidebook says, weli- planned development generally adds to the prosperity of a coastal community, while bad development will, sooner or later, have a negative effect, including costs to the public in higher taxes to handle crowd- ing and unplanned services. Management techniques can serve multiple purposes, the guidebook notes. For example, setback requirements for beach- front building can save the nesting sites of turtles in sand dunes, and also protect beach- front homes from erosion and storm waves. The guidebook offers a series of physical management poli- cies which can help local managers tailor their coastal protection programs to match local needs and local environ- mental goals. The book also contains a description of relevant Federal and State programs. Highlights of the coastal problems and proposed solu- tions as discussed by the guidebook follow: Common tern rises from nest on Cape Cod, Mass. MARCH 1981 1 1 ------- Beaches Coastal Floodlands Dunelands While beaches serve as the main protective bulwark for property along the shores of oceans and large sounds, the guide emphasizes, they are fragile. If a community allows removal of sand, improper building, or blocking of sources of sand replenishment the beach may be severely damaged or destroyed, the handbook points out. For instance, Miami's once wide and beauti- ful beach has been reduced to fragments. The probable cost for repair is about $60 million tax dollars, the guidebook says. The guidebook calls for community beach management programs to limit building, prevent excavation, and control inlet and beach protection structures. This would include locating all structures inland of the beach and encouraging effective restoration of seriously eroded beaches. Coastal floodlands are sporad- ically struck by storm waves and flooded by storm tides, with the most devastating effects produced by hurricanes. These floodlands attract many users, the guidebook notes—industry, commerce, recreational de- velopment, homes. They are often cleared, graded, filled, and built on without regard to their ecologic and hazard- resistant functions. The result includes increased danger to life and property from sea storms and hurricanes, and land subsidence. To protect the floodlands, communities may need con- struction setbacks, provisions for elevation of homes and other structures, and restraints on excavation and groundwater pumping, the guidebook says. They may also need restraints on soil erosion, wetland altera- tion, and the modification of water courses. The guidebook explains that dunelands—the area of dunes, sand ridges, and flats between the beach and higher ground— are a unique natural habitat; they are also highly susceptible to storm damage. The guidebook cautions that while the risk of building directly on the beach is obvious, the risk of building in the dunelands behind may not be so apparent. Active dunelands, like beaches, are uncertainly balanced between the erosive forces of storms and the restorative powers of tides, winds, and currents, making them a risky place in which to have a home. The guidebook says dune- lands need to be protected so they can continue to buffer the force of storm seas, store and provide sand to protect beaches and shorelands, and furnish valuable wildlife habitat. Management needs for dune- lands, the guidebook says, include setbacks, construction standards, excavation re- straints, and traffic control. This includes prohibiting excavation and removal of active dunes and beach ridges and building all structures landward of active dunes. EPA JOURNAL ------- Banks and Bluffs Coastal Uplands Saltwater Wetlands The banks and bluffs that border many coastal waters are attacked by currents and waves, which may cause slumping and sliding. Water seepage from above may further weaken their stability. As a result, bank and bluff tops can be hazardous sites for development, the handbook notes. Many wildlife species breed and sometimes live in natural bank and bluff habitats. To protect banks and biuffs and minimize hazards, the community will need to enforce construction setbacks and con- trols on such factors as water seepage and physical alteration, the guidebook says. Engineer- ing techniques can be used to prevent damage and restore already damaged banks and bluffs. Coastal uplands might be farm fields, woodlands, or suburban neighborhoods. They might extend from a few feet back of the water's edge to a mile or more. Uplands terrain and water systems—streams, ponds, and wetlands—collect and hold large amounts of storrn water, acting as a natural sponge, providing a balanced rate of runoff flow plus protect- ing against flooding. Their vegetation and soils cleanse the water as well. The guidebook warns that upland benefits are diminished when 'the terrain is cleared of vegetation or paved, or changed to speed drainage; when sur- face water bodies and water- courses are filled, detoured, or channelized; or when the natural pattern of freshwater flow to the coast is changed. Soil conservation and pro- tection of natural water systems in the uplands are the manage- ment methods emphasized by the guidebook. Saltwater wetlands—marshes and mangrove swamps—are a key part of the coastal environ- ment, the guidebook points out. They support waterfowl, nour- ish marine life, cleanse the waters of the coast, diminish storm flooding, and beautify the shore. The more intensely developed an area, the more crucial is the need for wetland preservation through land-use controls and special regula- tions, according to the guidebook. Management tools recom- mended by the guidebook in- clude restraining excavation, filling, clearing, paving, and grading; discouraging activities that alter the natural water systems, such as draining and diking, and restraining the discharge of pollutants into wetlands. Reviewing the overall picture, from dunes to bluffs, the guide- book says there are plenty of examples of poorly controlled development that has had a serious negative effect on the value of coastal resources. Demands for retirement and vacation housing and other investments in waterfront land have been intense. Developers have encouraged and satisfied these demands and, in so doing, have frequently imposed high capital and servicing costs on coastal communities, according to the handbook. The costs of development impacts are felt by the public in higher taxes, the guidebook points out. In addition, poorly managed development can be destroyed quickly, at great cost to the community, in floods, severe storms, and hurricanes, the document says. "Thus, our primary goals, conservation of coastal resources and maintain- ing nature's systems, can also in the long run save the taxpayer money," says the guidebook. Other agencies contributing to the guidebook were the National Oceanic and Atmos- pheric Administration's Office of Coastal Zone Management, the Corps of Engineers, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Copies are available from the Superintendent of Docu- ments, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. The order number is 064-00-00009-8; the price is $5.50. D MARCH 1981 13 ------- Plan for the Caribbean St. Thnrnns h,irbor in the U.S. Virgin Islands with the town of Charlotte Ama/ie in the background, 3 picturesque area in the Caribbean. 14 EPA JOURNAL ------- Most of the 26 states of the wide-rang- ing Caribbean region, including the Gulf of Mexico, plan to join forces at a meeting April in Kingston, Jamaica, to do something about the deteriorating environ- ment of their common sea and their coastal areas. The principal objectives are to assess the state of the environment in the region and to assist Caribbean governments to solve or minimize environmental problems through careful management of develop- ment activities. At the April meeting, top level represen- tatives of the Caribbean governments are scheduled to sign an ambitious Caribbean Action Plan designed to meet these objec- tives. They are also slated to set up a small secretariat in the Caribbean region to carry out the plan. The action plan was prepared by scien- tific and legal experts selected by these governments at a meeting last month in Managua, Nicaragua. Activities under the plan are to deal with oil spill prevention and control, coastal water pollution, the impact of tourism, the protection of coral reefs and mangroves, the destruction of tropical rain forest, and the special problems of fragile island eco- systems. Included are strategies to improve early warnings for natural disasters such as hurricanes, and programs to train scien- tists and technicians and equip marine laboratories. Three concerns facing Caribbean gov- ernment officials at the April conference will be: (1) what priorities should be assigned to the 66 projects proposed as part of the action plan; (2) is a Caribbean environmental treaty needed, and if so, what kind; (3) how can a Caribbean Trust Fund be set up to help pay for environ- mental activities in the region and who will give how much. The Caribbean meetings are being spon sored by the United Nations Environment Program, and the U.N. Economic Commis- sion for Latin America. The broad sweep of the arbitrarily- created area known as the wider Caribbean draws in those states bordering on or part of the coastal and open waters of the Caribbean Sea proper, the Gulf of Mexico, and adjacent waters of the Atlantic Ocean —every land mass from the tiny, unde- veloped island of Montserrat to the large, rich lands of the industrialized States along the U.S. Gulf Coast. The word Caribbean conjures up visions of clear blue waters lapping onto white, sandy beaches, soft sea breezes, and swaying palm trees. But in addition to the wealth of natural beauty to be found in many of the countries in the Caribbean, the region is also known to be rich in petro- leum, gold, silver, copper, bauxite, man- ganese, nickel, iron, lead, and zinc. The countries with extensive petroleum holdings plan to develop energy-intensive industries such as petrochemical pro- cessing; iron, steel, and aluminum smelting; and chlorine production. Those countries without such natural resources are trying to attract light industries and tourism. For many reasons, including easy waste disposal and ease of trans-shipment, much of this development will occur in the fragile coastal zone. Development and urbaniza- tion, especially when the environmental consequences of these activities are not known or sought, carry the risk of pollution and financial ruin. For example, an island with bountiful mangroves may, as a result, have a thriving shrimp industry. This island seeks in- creased tourism. Not knowing that the shrimp fishery depends on the existence of healthy mangroves, the government decides to destroy the mangroves to build harbors, marinas, and other tourist centers. The loss of the mangroves results in a ruined shrimp fishery. Had the government known that the two were intertwined, it might have changed its development course. A regional association is the key to pro- tecting the Caribbean from such disasters, many observers believe. Tiny countries which cannot tackle alone the environ- mental problems they may face could benefit enormously from a regional organi- zation, said Arsenio Rodriguez, a scientist associated with the Caribbean-wide project. Even the wealthiest of states in the region cannot muster the resources to solve prob- lems that transcend their borders, he added, in an article in Chemical & Engineering News. With the pending action plan, "The region has come together to work on common problems, to incorporate the en- vironmental dimension in the planning and development process," said A. Mel Gajraz, a senior research officer on the regional project. Assessing the state of the environment and the region's resource base will be crucial in establishing the sound manage- ment practices envisioned by the plan, officials working with the Caribbean effort pointed out. Among pollutants to be moni- tored are petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals, toxic organic chemicals, and nutrient loads from agricultural runoff and domestic wastewaters. Officials believe additional research is needed to determine the environmental quality criteria suitable for tropical waters. Adoption of an action plan for the wider Caribbean region could be a crucial first step in preventing the environmental dis- ruption of this relatively unpolluted region now on the verge of rapid growth, many knowledgeable observers believe. D MARCH 1981 15 ------- OURNAL ------- Threats to the marine environment are increasing. The oceans are the ultimate repository for many of man's wastes, which arrive there through various routes. Con- tinuing concentration of population and economic development in the world's coas- tal zones is increasing the potential for marine pollution through direct discharge to estuaries and coastal areas through ocean outfalls. River flows also contribute contami- nants from discharge points far upstream; the contamination of blue fish in Chesa- peake Bay by Kepone released into the James River many miles above the mouth is an example. This incident resulted in the closing of the commercial fishery. Marine transportation activities contribute to ocean pollution, not only through highly spectacu- lar, but relatively infrequent, major oil spills, but also through a continuing low level discharge of contaminants irom small spills of oil and other hazardous wastes, and as a normal part of tanker operations. Barging of wastes, both industrial and municipal, to sea for dumping is another source of marine pollution, In recent years the-United States, through both national legislation and international agreement, has curtailed the ocean dumping of waste ma- terials, particularly municipal sewage sludges. U.S. legislation requires the phase-out of "harmful" sewage sludge dumping by December, 1981. The legisla- tion also requires testing of other wastes, such as dredged material, to ensure that harmful materials are not being dumped. Deposits of contaminants from the atmosphere is now recognized as a major source of pollution and may be the major contributor of many pollutants to the ocean. Various pollutants are reaching remote oceanic areas far from the point of produc- tion or disposal. This was vividly demon- strated when high levels of DDT were found in Antarctic penguins. Contamina- tion of the marine food chain is another significant contributor to ocean pollution. The explosion in production and use of synthetic chemicals, many of which are toxic or otherwise harmful, has helped increase this type of pollution. Pollution is not the only source of stress to the marine environment. Physical changes also are impacting the oceans. For example, altera- tions of freshwater flow caused by river basin development are changing salinity patterns and other environmental condi- tions in many coastal areas, sometimes with major ecological consequences. A striking example is the construction of the Aswan Dam which, by reducing nutrients and sediments in the Nile, adversely affected Mediterranean fisheries and changed the nature of coastal beach and dune formation. Large engineering works, such as the Suez Canal, can significantly alter the composition of marine ecosystems by permitting transmigration of species. Additional sea level canals may be built in the future. Dredging and filling bays can also alter current patterns and change flushing rates. Extensive loss of coastal wetlands rec- lamation has resulted in loss of habitat for important fish and wildlife species and has altered nutrient exchange. In addition to the importance of wetlands as nursery areas for commercially valuable fish and shellfish, recent evidence suggests that they may play an even more important role in geochemical cycling than had been previously recognized. The effect of the harvest of fish on marine ecosystems should also be men- tioned. Fisheries management has long focused on issues relating to the manage- ment of commercially harvestable stocks. However, in addition to the determination of maximum sustainable yield for various species and populations, broader questions are beginning to emerge. One is whether over-fishing might in some way irreversibly alter basic ecological relationships. In the North Atlantic fishery, for example, will continued harvesting of fish high in the food chain result in permanent displace- ment by species at a lower level? Recent proposals for large-scale krill harvesting in Antarctica would remove many tons of these organisms from the food chain of fish, marine mammals, and birds and raise the possibility of changes in the structure and function of ocean ecosystems. We have long been aware of the poten- tial impacts of development in the coastal zone. Now, however, development is push- ing out into marine areas hitherto consid- ered remote and inaccessible and fre- quently of great biological sensitivity and importance. Until a few years ago, develop- ment of oil and gas in the North Sea was regarded as perhaps the most extreme example of ocean engineering under haz- ardous environmental conditions. New off- shore development under the ice of the Beaufort Sea and in other Arctic areas is being considered. Oil and gas exploration is now scheduled on Georges Bank, an area subject to severe storm hazards. Waste disposal from oil and gas activities, cou- pled with already massive and increased fishing, could hurt the productivity of the world's richest fishing grounds. Deep ocean mining for manganese nodules in the Cen- tral Pacific and proposals for a superport in Palau in the Southwest Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, provide yet other exam- ples of the fact that no ocean area can be regarded as so remote or isolated as to be immune from development. Prospects for large-scale tidal power, and possibly even electric power genera- tion through harnessing ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream suggest that our capacity to alter the marine environment through physical and engineering changes may increase dramatically in the future. Ocean thermal energy conversion facilities currently being studied as a source of power depend on temperature differences between surface and deeper waters. The discharge of the cooler bottom waters and their associated nutrients near the surface and the use of biocides, such as chlorine, to prevent fouling on the condensers could produce adverse environmental impacts. Fortunately, governments at all levels have increasingly recognized the impor- tance of ocean resources and the need to protect marine environmental quality. Envi- ronmental legislation enacted within the last decade in the United States provides for regulation of ocean dumping and dis- charge of wastes, for protection of coastal wetlands, for establishment of marine and estuarine sanctuaries, for cleaning up spills of oil and hazardous materials, for coastal zone management and establishment of environmental safeguards in development of superports, marine minerals, and Outer Continental Shelf oil and gas reserves. The oceans are an international resource, and the protracted Law of the Sea negotia- tions attest to the importance placed on these resources. During the 1970's, inter- national conventions on pollution by ships. on ocean dumping of wastes, and on pro- tection of the Mediterranean Sea from pol- lution, as well as the laws of various nations regulating marine pollution, all demonstrated an awareness and willing- ness to address marine environmental problems. While we may take this aware- ness for granted today, it is a far cry from relatively recent times when the sea was considered a sink with unlimited capacity to assimilate man's wastes. This is illus- trated by the fact that legislation to control ocean dumping in the United States was enacted only eight years ago. long after controls on conventional water pollution discharges had been initiated. In implementing these laws, environ- mental managers have been, and increas- ingly will be, seeking information on the ecological consequences and trade-offs of their actions as a guide to many marine resource management issues they are con- fronting. Many of these questions deal with impacts and management options of a rela- tively limited scope. Others address issues which are global in nature, sometimes rais- ing the spectre of possible "ecocatastro- phies." From time to time there have been dire predictions of catastrophic changes in behavior of the oceans. For example, sev- eral years ago, an individual prominent for his activities in ocean exploration an- nounced that the oceans were dying and could well be dead within 25 years. Most responsible scientists would probably dis- miss such statements as wildly speculative at best. Few, however, would deny that the question of man's impact on the world's oceans merits serious attention and that. MARCH 1981 17 ------- should global impacts occur, the stakes could prove very high indeed. For example, should long-term reductions in photosyn- thetic capability result from man-induced stress, the impacts on food production in the oceans and on atmospheric oxygen con- tent could both have profound impacts. The kinds of questions being asked are: What is the capacity of the oceans to re- ceive and assimilate wastes without threat of serious impact? How can we measure this assimilative capacity? Are there sig- nificant and wide-scale trends in ocean deterioration? Are subtle, long-term altera- tions in marine ecosystems occurring as a result of man-induced stress? What are the consequences of marine waste disposal in relation to terrestrial alternatives? How can we monitor and detect deterioration in marine ecosystems, particularly for early warning purposes? Although advances have been made, the answers to many of these questions have not been forthcoming from the marine science community to date, due to a com- bination of resource constraints and scien- tific limitations. Our current understanding of the response of marine ecosystems to stress falls far short of that which will be required for sound environmental manage- ment over the long run. If we think of marine systems as a continuum—ranging from estuarine and inshore areas at one end of the spectrum, through large en- closed seas or semi-enclosed coastal areas, to open oceans in areas at the other end of the spectrum—we know most about the impacts of man in confined and localized areas and least in the open sea areas. There have been many intensive studies on individual bays, estuaries and nearshore areas, and these have provided useful in- formation concerning environmental im- pacts. Despite this, we are often hard pressed to quantify the impacts of major disturbances on more than a local scale. Enclosed seas such as the Baltic Sea and large coastal regions such as the New York Bight and Southern California Coast have also been studied to assess the impact of pollution and other marine alterations. However, even in the New York Bight, which perhaps has been more intensively studied than any comparable oceanic area in the United States and perhaps the world, many questions concerning more than isolated, localized, or relatively discrete impacts still remain largely unanswered. Thus, while evidence for specific situa- tions has frequently been sufficient to sup- port regulatory judgments, little is known concerning the broader impact of man on the open oceans. It is known that contami- nation is widespread. Plankton tows in the Atlantic have routinely picked up substan- tial quantities of tar and plastic debris. There is a general consensus among many marine scientists that chlorinated hydro- carbons, toxic metals, and petroleum hy- drocarbons are all ocean contaminants of potential global concern. However, while widespread distribution of these contami- nants has been detected in pelagic marine environments, relatively little is known about their significance in terms of eco- system impacts. For example, although increased low level contamination of the oceans by petroleum hydrocarbons has been well demonstrated, the ecological consequences are not understood. This lack of information has clouded interna- tional discussions concerning the levels of control that should be imposed on oil dis- charges from vessel operations. Clearly, there are major difficulties in providing reliable information on trends in marine environmental quality. On the one hand, we are unable to demonstrate clearly far-reaching impacts; on the other hand, we have a haunting concern that damages might later appear, perhaps far from the source and with devastating effect. The problems are perhaps more ambiguous and less tractable than such comparable global environmental issues as desertification and loss of tropical rain forests, which can be inventoried and quantified by remote sensing techniques. Acquiring the neces- sary information may pose some dilemmas which, while not unique to marine systems, are particularly difficult because of the large-scale, open, complex nature of the oceans. Marine ecosystems may exhibit great spatial and temporal variability. At any given time, they may be responding to natural stress, such as the aftereffects of severe storms. Tremendous difficulties have been encountered in attempting to establish baseline and monitoring ap- proaches which can detect departures from a norm, particularly for early warning purposes. So one dilemma marine scientsts face is that of trying to predict and detect incre- ments of man-induced change in a dy- namic, constantly changing natural envi- ronment. This poses a number of basic conceptual problems. A basic problem in detecting change is the so-called "noise- to-signal" ratio. That is, are we actually detecting a uni-directional change, or are we somewhere within the hands of cyclic or other natural variability? For example, is the substantial loss of submerged aquatic vegetation currently being experienced in Chesapeake Bay the result of pesticide run- off. Hurricane Agnes, or a cyclic natural event? Then there are problems determining causal relationships. Once we have de- tected a change, is it in any way related to the stress we are monitoring? This is com- plicated by the fact that a number of stresses, both man-caused and natural, may be simultaneously impacting the sys- tem under study. Failure to identify the correct cause of change could result in either regulation or failure to regulate. There is also the problem of defining the significance of effects. If we have detected a change and find it is man-induced, what is its significance? Is it irreversible? Is it catastrophic? Is it important? An example is the destruction of estuarine or anadro- mous fish populations by electric generating plants. We may be able to estimate that a plant is reducing the numbers of fish eggs and larvae by 50 percent through its water intake system, but how significant is such a loss of eggs and larvae in determining the size of the mature population? We do know that populations may compensate to some extent for such losses through increased survival rates of the remaining eggs and larvae. Another example is found in ques- tions dealing with bioconcentration of pol- lutants in food-chains. We can determine if biomagnification occurs and predict whether this may have an impact on se- lected populations. But impacts on or risks to man are much more difficult to determine. All this, of course, says nothing about the question of how much environmental damage society is willing to accept. This obviously is a public policy, rather than scientific determination. But sound under- standing of "significance" may assist in resolving "acceptability." There are inherent difficulties involved in providing clear-cut answers to many of these questions. In laboratory experiments, scientists can control the variables and obtain clear-cut results, but how do labora- tory findings relate to what actually exists or will exist in nature? Yet, when we try to study the marine ecosystem itself, we have a hard time controlling the variables and distinguishing the impacts. And, if we con- duct microcosm studies such as the EPA- sponsored studies at the University of Rhode Island, which are using large tanks with natural seawater and communities of organisms from nearby Narragansett Bay to provide controlled experimental ecosys- tems, then we still must question whether or not we have really replicated the envi- ronment or whether we are measuring ex- perimentally induced anomalies. In the final analysis, to make progress in this area, we must seek to improve not only our ability to predict the consequences of marine pollution, but also our ability to detect, measure, and understand the sig- nificance of damage after it has occurred. Improved predictive capability will depend upon an integrated approach to the use of such research approaches as laboratory toxicity studies, ecosystem simulation models, and field investigations. Our pre- dictions must then be complemented by improved monitoring capability which can detect actual impacts, and serve as a feed- back mechanism with respect to the accuracy of our original predictions and adequacy of our regulatory actions. 18 EPA JOURNAL ------- New and innovative approaches will be required to monitor and detect subtle and long-term changes in ocean ecosystems. One promising approach is biomonitoring. An example of biomonitoring is the Mussel Watch program. This effort utilizes mussels and oysters as sentinel organisms for re- cording relative levels of pollutants, such as heavy metals, petroleum hydrocarbons and haiogenated hydrocarbons, in coastal environments. These organisms have the ability to bioconcentrate these pollutants, which makes analysis much easier, and to integrate pollutant exposure over time. This program has been used to identify pollu- tant "hot spots" around the coast of the United States. Other organisms can also serve as bio- indicators. For example, a conference held several years ago on long-term ecological measurements identified seabird popula- tions as important potential indicators of marine environmental quality. The confer- ence report discussed the fact that many marine birds are long-lived, widely dis- persed during much of the year, but highly concentrated during their nesting seasons. Because of their role high in the food chain, marine birds are potential accumulators of contaminants as well as integrators of ocean ecosystem conditions. It might be feasible to design long-term sampling pro- grams which could combine tissue analysis with the monitoring of nesting areas through aerial photography, thus sampling populations representing a vast coverage of ocean conditions in a very small space and possibly providing a vehicle for detec- tion of widescale oceanic change. This approach still remains to be tested. In addition to the conceptual and scien- tific problems involved, marine pollution studies present major organizational chal- lenges. The very nature of ocean systems calls for investigations which are inte- grated, truly inter-disciplinary, and some- times international in scope. This requires major manpower and financial resource levels and logistical support, as well as organizational skills more characteristic of the space program than of most environ- mental research. In this regard, it is encour- aging to see studies such as the Coordi- nated Mediterranean Pollution Monitoring and Research Program, supported by the United Nations Environment Program, which involves a sustained and integrated attack by scientists of various nations. 1 have described the difficulties involved in providing answers to some of the ques- tions concerning marine pollution facing decision makers. I would like to conclude by stressing the importance of making progress in this area. For the present, con- cern about the future of the oceans, coupled with the technical difficulties of monitoring and detecting harmful effects early enough to assure they will not become irreversible, has been great enough to result in adoption of a cautionary approach to many marine environmental issues. Under current legis- lation, many existing pollutant discharge I Oil-smeared bird is victim of pollution. regulations are technologically based, rather than reflecting ecological cause and effect. That is, they require adoption of waste controls that are feasible from an economic and engineering standpoint, rather than defining what is required to avoid unwanted environmental impacts, based upon analysis at a particular site. However, a concern on the part of some communities that secondary waste treat- ment requirements for waste discharges to the ocean could impose unnecessary costs in relation to environmental results led to enactment of Section 301 (h) of the Clean WaterActof1977.Thissectionofthelaw allows EPA to issue permit modifications which will let municipalities discharge less than secondary treated wastes to the ma- rine environment provided they can demon- strate that significant environmental dam- age will not occur. Reviews of applications for this type of permit modification are currently underway. Conversely, in other cases, technology-based regulatory con- trols may not provide enough protection, and marine environmental problems may result. Perhaps even more significant is the question of whether excessively stringent controls on marine waste discharges may impose unnecessary costs or greater bur- dens on some other sector of the environ- ment. Increasingly, however, we are recog- nizing the need to examine environmental trade-offs; for example, wastes not dis- charged at sea may require land disposal or incineration, causing environmental prob- lems elsewhere. As pressures mount on such issues as ultimate disposal of toxic wastes, protection of groundwater from leachates from land disposal sites, the atmospheric effects of waste incineration, the energy costs of waste disposal, and others, decisions based on a more quanti- fiable relationship between environmental control requirements and environmental response increasingly will be required. The need for better information about the eco- logical consequences of waste disposal in the ocean will be even greater than it is today. Efforts to address questions such as those outlined above provide the basis for EPA's current research activities relating to marine pollution. Although EPA's re- search programs and resources in this area are relatively limited, we are working in close cooperation with other agencies and research institutions. We know that we can never hope to find solutions for all the problems of our impact on the oceans, but we are attempting to provide information which will greatly assist in making more rational and informed management decisions. D Dr. Hirsch is EPA 's Deputy Assistant A dministrator for Environmental Processes find Effects Research. MARCH 1981 ------- ------- EPA and the Marine Environment The need for data on ocean pollution is of growing im- portance to EPA and other agen- cies responsible for marine pro- tection and management. EPA is especially concerned with the need for regulation to curb ocean pollution and for research to furnish the scientific basis for regulatory decisions. EPA's marine and coastal activities are carried out under several laws: Clean Water Act; Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act; Toxic Substances Control Act; Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act; Deep Sea Hard Mineral Resources Act, and the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act. (For EPA's role in international marine agreements, see article on page 8.) EPA's research is conducted by the Office of Research and Development at the Agency's laboratories at Gulf Breeze, Fla.; Narragansett, R.I.; Newport, Ore., and Grosse lie, Mich. Other EPA-supported research is done at universities through- out the U.S.anda Marine Center of Excellence at the University of Rhode Island. EPA research and regulatory activities related to marine and coastal areas are listed below. EPA-supported research, which provides the technical basis for regulatory decisions, is focusing on marine waste dis- posal, energy impacts, toxicity studies, wetlands, the Great Lakes and Chesapeake Bay, and monitoring. Research activities include: • determining the impact of municipal wastes disposed of through ocean outfalls. • developing procedures to measure the toxicity of dredged material and to determine levels of pollutants in sediments. • determining the impact of drilling fluid disposal from oil and gas drilling activities. • examining the effects of oil in the marine environment. • developing and testing oil spill prevention, control, and cleanup devices and procedures. • determining the impact of chlorine in discharges to the marine environment. • developing procedures to measure the toxicity and impact of pollutants such as pesticides and toxic substances. • determining the impact of carcinogens on the marine environment. • investigating the fate and effects of pollutants in simu- lated marine ecosystems. • developing procedures to define wetland boundaries for legal purposes. • studying wetlands to deter- mine their function and value in the environment. • conducting studies on toxics, submerged aquatic vegetation, and nutrient enrichment in the Chesapeake Bay. • examining pollutant input, cycling, fate and effects in the Great Lakes. • assessing the use of mussels and oysters as a technique for monitoring pollutant levels in marine coastal areas. • developing methods to monitor pollutant exposure at specific sites in marine environ- ments over relatively short periods of time. In addition to these research efforts, EPA is also involved in regulatory activities affecting the following areas: • ocean dumping of municipal, industrial and radioactive wastes. • disposal of dredged material. • discharge of municipal and industrial effluents from ocean outfalls. • discharge of wastes from oil and gas drilling operations, deep sea mining activities, and offshore thermal conversion facilities to produce energy. • oil and hazardous materials spill prevention, cleanup, and damage assessment. • development of water quality criteria for hazardous materials. • registration or reregistration of pesticides. • premarket testing of toxic substances. Interagency coordination regarding the marine environ- ment is carried out both formally and informally. Formal planning for and dissemination of information on marine research activities for the Federal Government is coordi- nated through the interagency Committee on Ocean Pollution Research, Development and Monitoring. D Heron wading in ocean surf at Padre Island, Tex., with offshore oil well in background. MARCH 1981 21 ------- Underwater Scientists at Gulf Breeze By Betty Jackson Marine biologists at EPA's Environmen- tal Research Laboratory in Gulf Breeze, Fla, are taking a leaf from diving techniques to supplement laboratory re- search on the effects of pollutants on marine life. Divers there have been conducting bio- logical surveys underwater, collecting or- ganisms and samples for use in laboratory tests, and even transferring portions of the sea floor into the laboratory for experiments that attempt to simulate natural conditions. Laboratory Director Henry F. Enos fore- sees an expanded role for the scientific diver in response to increased demands for field validation of laboratory experiments and on-site biological surveys for environ- mental problem-solving. "To fulfill this role, divers at our labora- tory needed intensive advanced training in the use of sophisticated equipment and in the management of diving accidents," Dr. Enos explained. "Therefore we set up a workshop in advanced diving technology that was conducted by instructors of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration." The workshop curriculum was designed to help Gulf Breeze scientists expand their research periphery and extend their work from the laboratory bench to the underwater environment. They were also instructed in diving physiology, uses of underwater equipment, and safety procedures. At the conclusion of the training, labora- tory Diving Officer Jim Patrick was certified as a diving supervisor and dive master. Six laboratory staff members were certified as operational divers: Joel Ivey, Dana Morton, Jim Spain, Patrick Borthwick, Norman Rubinstein, and Wiliam P. Davis. Biological Aide Jeff Wheat qualified as a surface support tender. "Our team is the first within the Environ- mental Protection Agency to meet diving standards of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration," Dr. Enos said. "Certification of our divers will be a continuing exercise and will be subject to periodic review by their instructors." As more and more scientists combine laboratory research with underwater inves- tigations, guidelines for their health and safety has become a concern of the Occupa- tional Safety and Health Administration. Jim Patrick, Gulf Breeze's diving super- visor, hopes that the exercise guidelines and procedures used in the certification and training of his team can be useful in devel- oping safe diving requirements for EPA divers. "We consider ourselves pioneers in the development of a safe diving code for the Agency that will be applicable to scientific divers who monitor pollution or document damage caused by pollutants," Patrick said. In addition to intensive training in life- saving procedures, instructors Ed Clark and Richard Rutkowski, assisted by Marc Kiser, and Michael A. Heeb of EPA, taught Gulf Breeze divers the use of sophisticated dry suits designed for cold or contaminated waters. Divers using the dry suits are sup- plied air from the surface through two types of face masks. Both mask systems are full- face, underwater breathing devices that protect the diver from contaminated water and provide direct two-way communication between the diver and a surface tender. The dive team also was introduced to an underwater television system that can record behavior of marine life and any changes in biota and the physical environ- ment caused by people. Divers learned how underwater video television technology can aid in communication with topside support personnel who monitor divers for safety and assist in the evaluation of results. Divers received training in the latest col- lecting techniques for capturing delicate animals in nets, cages, and devices such as the airlift—a long pipe equipped with an air venturi that transports sediment and organisms to a collecting bag. These techniques will be applied to, or modified for research projects being conducted by members of the dive team Microbiologist Jim Spain, operational diver, relies on other members of the team to assist him in the collection of sediment and water cores for tests to determine the fate of toxic chemicals in the aquatic environment. The cores are collected carefully to preserve bottom sediment, an area of intensive microbial activity. Divers collect the cores in an apparatus designed to trans- fer sediments intact to the laboratory for experiments with pesticides. The test sys- tem, called the Eco-core, was developed at Gulf Breeze to measure the rate of microbial degradation in contaminated sediments. Results aid in predicting the fate and per- sistence of toxic organic chemicals in the marine or estuarine environment. Cores for the tests are collected from various underwater sites in the Guif of Mexico, Pensacola Bay estuary, and rivers, often under difficult conditions. Spain, like the other scientists at Gulf Breeze Environ- mental Research Laboratory, believes that scientific training and intimate knowledge of the test procedures and objectives are essential to the performance of such diving tasks. This view is shared by other members of the team. Jim Patrick, who is currently involved in studies with the belted sandfish, Serranus subligarius, has found that diving is the only method of collecting the animals unharmed. Each fish, a type of hermaphro- dite, can produce both viable eggs and sperm. Mating pairs are identified by behavioral interaction and by subtle differ- ences in pigmentation. Thus scientific ex- pertise is required to identify and collect the pairs needed for laboratory tests to determine whether the species can be used in reproductive studies. Joel Ivey, a biological technician, and a member of the dive team, aided in the design of community tests that use benthic or bottom-dwelling communities estab- lished in habitats placed underwater and later retrieved by divers. The organisms are lifted to the surface with the aid of air- filled lift bags controlled by the divers. With the assistance of other divers, Ivey can transfer habitats that contain such communities from the seafloor to the lab- oratory for tests designed to determine the toxicity of oil-well drilling fluids to bottom- dwelling organisms. The test species, including annelids, arthropods, molluscs, crustaceans, and nematodes, settle in the habitats that contain sand taken from the sea bottom. After eight weeks, the habitats and the developed communities are trans- ferred to the laboratory for toxicity tests with drilling fluid components. Results of such tests are used to validate tests with benthic communities that have been developed in the laboratory. Research biologist Patrick Borthwick sees diving as a useful tool for locating and collecting new test species for laboratory acute toxicity studies. Under water, the scientific diver can observe and collect live specimens in various stages of develop- EPA JOURNAL ------- ment from specific aquatic habitats. In his search for novel test species, he hopes to develop a battery of sensitive organisms representing several types of marine life for screening pollutants. Diving is important in the study of crabs and other shellfish. These commercially important species are oriented to the ocean bottom and are often difficult to sample with conventional traps. As in recent years, divers from the Gulf Breeze Laboratory this summer collected arrow crabs (Stenorhynchus seticornis), at Stage I, a Navy research platform in the Guif of Mexico 1 2 miles south of Panama City, Fla. The animals will be used for field and laboratory studies of the effects of drilling fluids on the offshore environment. The research effort, supported by grants, contracts, and interagency agreements, focuses on the effects of drilling fluids on animals and plants normally found near offshore oil and gas rigs. It also seeks to determine the impact of drilling near areas of high biological activity, such as coral reefs and the communities they shelter. The divers frequently are consulted by fellow scientists on design and procedures for sub-sea experiments. Their underwater observations are useful in evaluating the effectiveness of sampling devices and deter- mining whether the sampling site is unusual or representative of a larger sampling area. Field validation by divers is important in verifying results of laboratory tests and demonstrating that test conditions reflect those existing in nature. Divers at the Gulf Breeze Laboratory predict that diving technology will be use- ful in future attempts to monitor changes in aquatic ecosystems at dumping sites or at ocean outfalls. The need for basic data about the environmental health of the nation's water resources holds the promise of a bright future for scientific diving. D Betty Jackson is a technical writer for the Gulf Breeze Laboratory. Scientist nt EPA 's Gulf Breeze, Fin., laboratory prepares to dive in marine pollution research project. MARCH 1981 23 ------- The hazardous waste incinerator ship Vulcanus at sea. EPA JOURNAL ------- Burning chemicals at sea may be a key part of the answer in disposing of some kinds of hazardous and toxic wastes. Incineration at sea is environmentally safe, economical, and should be encour- aged, concluded the recent report of an interagency task force. The Interagency Ad Hoc Work Group, composed of members of EPA, the Com- merce Department's Maritime Administra- tion, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the National Bureau of Standards, has been studying expansion of technology in the area and has issued a report on the topic, "Report of the Interagency Ad Hoc Work Group for the Chemical Waste Incinerator Ship Program." The group recommended amending the Merchant Marine Act of 1936 to permit substantial Federal assistance and funding to build and operate privately-owned U.S. flag waste incinerator ships. "This country has an enormous hazard- ous waste problem and Americans have to face up to it," said former EPA Administra- tor Douglas M. Costle. "Everybody wants hazardous wastes picked up, but no one wants^hem put down. Incineration, both on land and at sea, gives us a major option for effectively dealing with hazardous waste. We need to be as supportive of these new technologies as we can." The government has two options, depend- ing on how many private firms apply for Federal assistance to build incinerator vessels over the next year, said Russel Wyer, EPA's co-chairman of the inter- agency task force. One option is to stim- ulate private industry to build ships them- selves through financial incentives includ- ing subsidies and Federally-guaranteed loans. In return, industry would allow EPA to set up research stations on the vessels themselves to advance the state of the art. If few applications for Federal assistance are received, another alternative the gov- ernment will consider is building and operating its own vessel for possible later sale or charter to private industry. Wyer said that the at-sea program would supplement incineration operations on land, with an estimated capability to handle only a fraction of total hazardous and toxic wastes, even at maximum capacity. The report recommends giving top prior- ity to setting up "funding mechanisms which encourage private entrepreneurs to build and operate incinerator ships" in the United States and to "place the cost of con- structing a vessel in the United States on a parity with foreign construction costs" either through proposed subsidies or tax incentives. The Vulcanus, a Dutch incinerator ship used extensively throughout Europe, in 1977 successfully destroyed three ship- loads of Herbicide Orange, a toxic defoliant used by the United States in the Vietnam War. The average destruction efficiency of this process for dioxin, a highly toxic sub- stance in the herbicide, was greater than 99.9 percent. The burn took place about 1,000 miles southwest of Hawaii. Burns take place on the high seas at least 100 miles from shore. Under EPA regula- tions, an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) must be issued for each incineration site to assess in detail what effect the operation could have on the environment. The Vulcanus is the only vessel capable of at-sea incineration now available for commercial use that can travel from con- tinent to continent. It was converted from a cargo ship to incinerator capability. Waste Management, Inc., of Oakbrook, III., has since purchased the Vulcanus from its German owners, Hansa Lines. Ocean Combustion Services, a subsidiary of Waste Management, operates the vessel. EPA has plans for the Vulcanus this year. The Agency wants to destroy one and a half shiploads of Silvex, which has shown the potential to cause miscarriages, birth defects, and have other adverse reproduc- tive effects. EPA also plans to destroy half a shipload of DDT at the same time and is considering use of the Vulcanus for destruction of PCB's. The interagency group has also drawn up a prototype model incinerator ship which, unlike the Vulcanus and other at-sea incinerator vessels, would have the capac- ity to destroy solid as well as liquid wastes. Wyer said equipment now on the vessels is limited to liquid waste and the addition of a rotary kiln incinerator to destroy solid waste needs to be tested. The model ship would have an 8,000 metric ton capacity compared to the Vulcanus' 4,000 metric ton capacity. Wyer says an alternative to building new ships is to convert existing ships to incineration capability, but the vessels would be much smaller than the prototype. A single prototype ship at full capacity could destroy up to 200,000 metric tons of waste a year. Costs for constructing a single vessel are estimated at $75 million in 1980 dollars, plus $25 million for incineration equipment. EPA estimates in 1978 indicated the U.S. generates almost 350 million metric tons of industrial waste a year, and projected at least 57 million metric tons of hazardous waste would be produced nationally in 1980. Wyer said that incineration at sea offers an attractive addition to the range of methods now used to dispose of chemical wastes. The other methods are landfill dis- posal, chemical detoxification, and land- based incineration. An EPA comparative study in 1978 showed at-sea incineration to be the least costly means of disposal. Incineration at sea also is as effective as land-based incin- eration, often destroying 99.99 percent of hazardous materials contained in waste. Wyer said there are a number of other advantages to burning at sea, explaining: "Because the ship destroys wastes away from populated areas, you avoid any risk to nearby communities." He also indicated at-sea incineration has minimal impact on the environment. "Acid emissions from the incinerator ships can be directly dispersed into the ocean without the 'scrubbing' process needed for land- base incinerators. The ocean water neutral- izes most of the acids so the emissions mix harmlessly with the water," he declared. A gap could soon develop in incinerator ship operations around the world when the Vulcanus' certificate of fitness, approving the vessel's condition for use, runs out in 1982, possibly before any other vessel has been constructed or retrofitted with similar capabilities. Wyer said that Waste Management hasn't indicated plans for the Vulcanus in the future, but it is possible to rebuild the existing ship. "It's getting tight," he said. Retrofitting a vessel could take up to a year and half, according to Wyer, and to build a ship from scratch, at least two years. He said that so far, the government hasn't received many applications for assistance. To get things moving, the interagency group held a meeting on the project in December attended by members of the private sector. The purpose of the meeting was to exchange ideas, suggest possible directions for the program, and help the board estimate the potential number of applicants for Federal financial assistance. Wyer said that the government's pre- ferred option is for private industry to con- struct and operate the vessels, because it would keep management of the operation in the private sector and stimulate job opportunities as well. Q Charlotte Garvey is an editorial assistant with EPA Journal. MARCH 1981 25 ------- :'• . •-' : Guarding the Sea By Jean-Michel Cousteau with Paula DiPerna Off the coast of Canada's island of Newfoundland, the ocean waters are clear and cold, some of the most biologi- cally productive waters in the world. To pursue the numerous whales of these great seas, the Basques of the 1 6th centurv traveled in wooden ships many days across the forbidding North Atlantic. To fish the plentiful cod of the Grand Banks, fleets of merchant ships from England and France in the 17th and 18th century followed the Basque tradition. Fortunes were made and lost; colonies were established and warred over. Eventually, exploitation of the re- sources of this ocean helped lead to the settlement of the North American conti- nent. In short, it is not far-fetched to sug- gest that the resources of the global oceans have shaped, in fact propelled, history. Today, we tend to lose sight of how closely our destiny as nations is linked to the vitality of our oceans, even when we are awed by the now legendary NASA photograph of our small planet earth seen from our dry moon, even as we see this fragile blue sphere, 70 percent covered by water, the only known habitable place in our solar system. We think of ourselves as the generation of options. We are sometimes heady over our inventions and our truly impressive technological advances. But where the oceans are concerned, we are quite option- less. We cannot create another one, nor a technological substitute. We are married to the ocean we have, and the problems we have created of the union are by no means simple. Every problem is a web of problems. Take, for example, the tale of the tiny capelin—the fish which is the fulcrum of EPA JOURNAL ------- Fish drying in the sun on the beach in WOK! African fishing village. • _ '•- ' - ^---xr^*2>^ r-s- ^-^ -^ *< :TV- • *r^ ,+* the food chain in the North Atlantic. This summer when we were filming from our vessel Calypso off Newfoundland, we watched thousands of these silvery fish washing up on the beaches to die after spawning, glinting like flakes of mica as the waves turned them over onto shore. It was a festive occasion for the local peo- ple, who came down to the coves in high boots. They stepped into the shallow water and hurled out circular nets. One throw yielded pounds of capelin. As we watched these people following a centuries' old custom, standing literally shin deep in flickering fish, it was hard to believe there could ever be a capelin shortage. But there seems to be, and sharing the coves with us was the leviathan evidence— graceful mighty humpback whales, an en- dangered species, swimming closer than usual to shore. In the past several years, the capelin stock appears to have dropped —perhaps for natural reasons, but probably as a result of overfishing by foreign fleets in Canadian waters—and these whales which depend on capelin for food have audacious- ly followed what remains of the capelin stock inshore. But the story does not end with hungry whales, it ends with trapped whales because by coming close to shore, the whales risk becoming entangled in the leader nets of cod traps set in the sea by fishermen who must also draw their liveli- hood from the coves. The whales swim unexpectedly into the nets, becoming roped into them, often ripping them apart in a frantic attempt to become free. The fisher- men are understandably furious at the loss of their equipment—$3 million in damages and lost fishing time in 1 979—and the world perhaps loses yet another member of this endangered species, as trapped whales drown. We have witnessed the underwater scenes of this tragedy. One of our divers, Bernard Delemotte, approached a trapped young humpback whale, trying to avoid being struck by her flailing fluke. Even- tually, he was able to calm her by stroking her body and her snout. Finally he suc- ceeded in freeing her from the ropes which were cutting into her mouth and in grati- tude, we might conjecture, the whale al- lowed Bernard to ride on her back for about one mile! An extraordinary climax to events that had begun with the depletion of a small fish six to eight inches in length. Take also, for example, the case of the coastal zone. Here most of the life of the seas congregates, but here too our rivers discharge, our plumbing systems exit, discharging inland pollution. Each year, we dump from the United States alone hun- dreds of thousands of tons of sewage sludge and untreated sewage. We add mil- lions of tons of river sediment—much of it transporting dangerous chemicals and heavy metals discharged by industries or carried by soil run-off. We fill in our marsh- lands, destroying vital ocean nurseries. We "develop" virtually everything that is not protected by zoning or legislation. In the open oceans, the inventory of insults includes oil—leaked and dumped —approximately 6 million metric tons a year according to the generally accepted 1 975 estimate of the National Academy of Sciences, a figure currently being updated. Whether the ocean can process such amounts of oil is highly debatable. Certain- ly a coating of oil on the ocean surface can interfere with photosynthesis, and even more certainly, migrating seabirds or ma- rine mammals trapped in an oilspill cannot survive being coated by petroleum once the oil has interfered with their natural body insulation systems. And tourists who pay premium vacation rates will not return continued on page 39 Calypso Finds A New Home The 142-foot oceanographic vessel, Calypso, is now using Norfolk, Va. as her new operations base following a decision by Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau to establish a new center in that city. The Cousteau Society, a non-profit organization with some 1 70,000 members, will use the center to house its future activities. The facility is temporarily located in quarters for merly occupied by the Tidewater Community College but plans are underway to construct a "Cousteau Oceans Center" for an estimated S20 million on the Norfolk waterfront. Visualized as a combination educa- tional and recreational attraction, the center is being backed by city officials as th<; centerpiece of downtown renewal efforts. In addition to housing submer- sibles, underwater cameras and oihi'i equipment previously located in Mar seille, Los Angeles, and Hilton Head, S.C., the center will provide expedi tion and administrative support for the Calypso. The converted mine- sweeper is scheduled to make expedi- tions this year to the Caribbean and later to the Amazon River. Cousteau said the presence in the Norfolk area of several universities and Federal agencies involved in marine research influenced his decision to locate there. Q MARCH 1981 27 ------- Around the Nation Conference Set The third annual New England Environmental Conference will be held at Tufts University in Med- ford, Mass., on Saturday, March 28, and Sunday, March 29, 1981. The con- ference will be spon- sored by the Lincoln Filene Center for Citizen- ship and Public Affairs. The conference will bring together business leaders, labor, environ- mental organizations, gov- ernment, advocacy groups, and other inter- ested citizens who have an active concern for the future of New England. Thirty to forty work- shops will explore such problems as groundwater supply, aquifer protection, energy conservation, environmental leadership training, Georges Bank exploration, renewable energy, historic preserva- tion, coastal resources, and endangered species. Vermont Approved Vermont has become the first New England State to receive interim authoriza- tion from the EPA to con- duct its own hazardous waste management pro- gram. The Vermont pro- gram will be administered by Richard A. Valentinetti, Chief, Air and Solid Waste Programs, Vermont Agency of Environmental Conservation. The Phase I interim authorization was granted to the State under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. EPA determined that Ver- mont's program, including statutes, regulations and enforcement authority, is substantially equivalent to the Federal hazardous waste program. Ocean Site EPA is seeking comments on its proposal to desig- nate a site in the North Atlantic Ocean for the high temperature incinera- tion of hazardous wastes. An ocean-going incinera- tor vessel would serve in- dustry throughout the Northeastern United States. The Agency has pre- pared a draft environ- mental impact statement for the proposed site, which is beyond the Con- tinental Shelf, and approx- imately 140 nautical miles from Delaware Bay. According to the draft statement, there is a grow- ing need for acceptable incineration locations to serve the Northeastern U.S. when land-based dis- posal methods are envi- ronmentally unacceptable because of the toxicity of the wastes or potential health risks. EPA estimates that, by 1989, nearly 271,000 metric tons of toxic or- ganic wastes will be gen- erated on the East Coast annually. Firms Cited Region 2 cited two firms in New York and one in New Jersey for violations under new air pollution regulations which make payment of penalties man- datory if the source is still out of compliance with emission control require- ments after January 1, 1981. Notices of Noncom- pliance were issued to the Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation in Oswego, and Boise Cascade, Inc. of Beaver Falls, both in New York. The Anchor Hocking Corporation in Salem, New Jersey, was also cited. Region 2 officials said that under this regulatory program companies in violation of environmental rules will pay penalties based on what they have saved by not complying with the law. The penalty formula is designed to deprive companies of any financial benefit gained from avoiding the cost of compliance. comments made at a public hearing in Harrisonburg. Proposed Brewery Region 3 has proposed ap- proval of a permit applica- tion for the planned Coors Brewery near Harrison- burg, Va. Based on infor- mation provided by the Adolph Coors Company, the Agency made a preli- minary determination that the construction and oper- ation of the proposed plant would meet the four con- ditions required under EPA's Prevention of Sig- nificant Deterioration per- mit regulations. These conditions specify that: • All pollutants must be controlled by the best available technology. • Any increase in pollu- tants must not exceed na- tional air quality standards • Sulfur dioxide and par- ticulate emissions must not cause violations of air quality class increments in the area to be impacted. • Emissions must not adversely impact soil, vegetation or visibility in the vicinity of the source. To satisfy these condi- tions, Coors provided twelve months of air mon- itoring data, meteorologi- cal reports, visibility stu- dies, and other technical data and modeling studies that show how its pro- posed control technology will control pollution. EPA will decide wheth- erto issuean actual permit to Coors after reviewing Asbestos Removal The School Asbestos Re- moval Program is continu- ing to gain momentum in the Southeast. Several State programs are setting the pace. In Tennessee, a recent survey resulted in the closing of a school gymnasium while highly friable (soft and crumbly) asbestos-containing mate- rial was removed. A num- ber of bags holding the same material was found in a school district ware- house in the same com- munity. Parts of other school facilities in Ten- nessee have had to be closed temporarily because of the asbestos problem. Damaged or deteriorat- ing asbestos materials release asbestos fibers into the air where they may be inhaled into the lungs creating potentially serious health risks. Information on the school asbestos program in Region 4 may be ob- tained by calling (404) 881-3864. Ohio Edison Company in Stratton, Ohio. Ohio Edi- son's nine other plants will reduce paniculate emissions by an addition- al 41,000 tons per year as part of an agreement between EPA Region 5 and the electric utility which calls for installa- tion by the company of some $500 million worth of air pollution controls in its power plants. The agreement was formalized in a consent decree signed recently by EPA and Ohio Edison and lodged with the Federal District Court at Columbus, Ohio. The company has also agreed to pay a civil penalty of $1.5 million for past violations of the Act, and EPA has agreed that the decree will settle all outstanding legal actions against the company for paniculate emissions violations. Cleanup Pact The largest single air pol- lution control retrofit ever undertaken in the United States, thus far, will result in a reduction of 75,000 tons in particulate matter emissions a year at the W. H. Sammis plant of the University Cited The Regional office issued a complaint against Bray- ton Fire Training School, Texas A&M University, for violations of the Toxic Substances Control Act. The complaint alleges that the school unlawfully failed to mark a polychlor- inated biphenyls (PCB's) transformer, failed to pro- vide proper storage for the transformer, and failed to maintain PCB records. The complaint pro- posed a civil penalty of $26,000 for failure to mark ($10,000), improper storage ($10,000), and no records maintained ($6,000). Negotiations toward settlement of the complaint are in progress. Hazardous Waste Authorities Delegated With the exception of New Mexico, all States in Re- gion 6 have received ap- 28 EPAJOURNAL ------- provai from EPA for man- agement of hazardous waste programs by State agencies. The State of New Mexico and Region 6 worked out an agreement to share the responsibility. Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas were three of the first six States in the Nation getting approval. Oklahoma was approved at the end of 1980. PCB's EPA and the Kansas City Power and Light Company have entered into a con- sent agreement and order regarding alleged viola- tions of Federal regula- tions governing the han- dling, disposal, and record-keeping of poly- chlorinated biphenyls, known as PCB's. This toxic substance, believed to cause cancer, came under Federal regulations in May 1979. In an administrative complaint issued in Feb- ruary 1980, EPA charged the electric utility with marking and storage vio- lations at various com- pany facilities as well as an improper disposal vio- lation and two record- keeping violations. The violations were first ob- served by the Agency on September 4 and October 30, 1979, during inspec- tions of a repair shop and two power plants in Kan- sas City, and the utility's LaCygne power plant in Kansas. Under the agreement, the company agreed to undertake extensive reme- dial actions in an effort to comply with the regula- tions, as well as several measures beyond those called for by law. These other measures include the conversion of an exist- ing boiler at one of its facilities into an high effi- ciency boiler capable of burning and destroying low levels of PCB-con- taminated oils in concen- trations less than 500 parts per million, and allowing EPA use of a PCB storage space facility in emergency situations. The original proposed penalty of 555,000 was reduced to a fine of $2,750, partly because of the remedial actions to achieve compliance with Federal PCB rules and because of the measures and actions the company has agreed to under the consent agreement. Toxics Burn EPA has given ponditional approval to the Depart- ment of Energy's plan to burn one gallon of poly- chorinated biphenyls, known as PCB's, at Rocky Flats, located 1 5 miles northwest of Denver, Colo., as a trial disposal procedure. According to Region 8 officials, EPA made this decision after carefully evaluating the potential risks and considering in- put from State and local health officials as well as from citizens at two public meetings. The citizens' major concern. Agency officials said, was not the trial burn, but rather that PCB's might be inciner- ated there in the future. Region 8 officials stressed that the approval was only for the trial burn and this action in no way provides or endorses future inciner- ation of PCB's at Rocky Flats. According to the Agen- cy, the burn, expected to destroy 99.9999 percent of the PCB's, would release no detectable amount of PCB's into the urban air. Disposal Standards Ultimate control of 26 million tons of radioactive uranium mill tailings in the West came one step closer recently with EPA publication of proposed standards covering dis- posal of the wastes. This is an important step, and will help in the eventual disposal of the tailings at Durango and Grand Junc- tion, Colo., Region 8 officials said. Tailings from aban- doned uranium mills cov- er 1,000 acres of land in 10 States: Arizona, Colo- rado, Idaho, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah and Wyoming. While Congress charged the Department of Energy with cleaning up the sandy radioactive wastes at abandoned ura- nium mills, it gave EPA the task of setting the standards for health and environmental protection that Energy Department remedial measures would have to meet. Buy Quiet Several cities in Region 9 recently participated in a "Buy Quiet" program jointly sponsored by the National Institute of Gov- ernmental Purchasing, the National League of Cities and EPA. The "Buy Quiet" program is a non- regulatory, market-based program designed to en- courage the promotion and purchasing of quieter products. The cities included Tucson, Ariz., and in Cali- fornia, Monterey Park, Ventura, Oakland, and National City. The prod- ucts involved were quieter lawnmowers which were loaned to State and local agencies for demonstra- tion purposes during the grass cutting season. Many of the cities report- ed excellent results with the quieter lawnmowers. It is anticipated that other quieter products, such as garbage trucks, vacuum cleaners, chain saws, and typewriters will be in- involved in similar demonstrations. Purchase descriptions for quieter models of various products are avail- able to State and local governments upon request through the National Insti- tute of Governmental Purchasings Data Bank for quieter purchasing. Call (703) 920-4020 for more information. Results Region 10's successful litigation against the Georgia-Pacific Corpora- tion's pulp and paper mill in BeUingham, Wash., is producing results. The prosecution in U.S. Dis- trict Court of Georgia- Pacific for the mill's de- layed compliance with its wastewater discharge permit produced a civil penalty of $25,000. In addition, the installation of the required pollution control equipment is al- ready paying dividends in terms of improved water quality. In a before-and- after study conducted by the Washington State Department of Ecology, dissolved oxygen in the BeUingham Bay area in- creased from a range of 0 to 5 parts per million in early 1979 to a range of 8 to 10 parts per million in 1980. Corresponding improvements were also noted in acidity and water discoloration. As recently as 1979, anaerobic condi- tions in the water pre- vailed and many pilings were devoid of any form of marine life. A year later, the same pilings were showing signs of rapid recolonization by invertebrate species. Q States Served by EPA Regions Region 1 IBoston) Connecticut, Ma Massachusetts, f>. Hampshire. Rhode Island. Vern- 617-223 7210 Region 2 (New York City) NewJ Puerto Rico. Virgin Islands 212264-2525 Region 3 (Philadelphia) Maryland, Pennsylvania Virginia. West Virginia. District of Columbia 215-5979814 Region 4 (Atlanta) Alabama. Georgia Florida. Mississippi, North Carolina. Sooth Carolina. Tonnes'. Kentucky 404 881-4727 Region 5 (Chicago) Illinois. Indiana. Ohio Michigan. Wiscona.n. Minnesota 312 353-20OO Region 6 (Dallas) Arkansas. Louisiana. Oklahoma. Texas, New Mexico 21.4767 2600 Region 7 (Kansas City) Iowa. Kansas. Missouri. Nebraska 816-374-5493 Region 8 (Denver) Colorado. Utah. Wyoming, Montana. North Dakota. South Dakota 3038373895 Region 9 (San Francisco) Ari/ona. California Nevada. Hawaii 415-556 2320 Region 10 (Seattle) Alaska. Idaho, Oregon, Washington 206-442-1220 MARCH 1981 29 ------- Update A review of recent major EPA activities and devel- opments in the pollution control program areas. AIR Fly Ash EPA has proposed guidelines encouraging the Federal Government to buy cement and con- crete mixed with fly ash, which would help the electric utility industry save disposal costs for nearly one-third of the fly ash waste produced each year as a by-product of coal combustion. Fly ash has been pro- duced in large quantities since utilities began using pollution controls on coal- burning boilers to capture the ash rather than allow- ing it to be dispersed through the air. Fly ash has been substituted for a portion—typically, 20 percent—of the cement contained in the concrete used in many buildings. Diesel Diesel soot from trucks, buses, and other heavy- duty diesel vehicles could be reduced as much as two-thirds per vehicle by 1995 under a new par- ticulate emissions stand- ard recently proposed by the EPA. The proposed standard would apply to 1986 and later model year diesel vehicles over 8,500 pounds gross vehicle weight. Standards tor par- ticulates from diesel cars were promulgated in 1980. A public hearing will be held on the pro- posal for trucks and other heavy duty vehicles. Chemicals The EPA has proposed three air pollution regula- tions that would reduce smog-forming emissions from the synthetic or- ganic chemical manufac- turing industry and from metal coil surface coating operations. The rules would also cut benzene emissions from petroleum refineries and chemical manufacturing plants. The proposed rules would affect only new sources. ENFORCEMENT Automakers EPA has granted waivers under the Clean Air Act to six automakers, allowing additional time for certain engines to meet auto emission standards. EPA has given General Motors, Ford, Chrysler, and American Motors un- til 1983 for seven of their engine lines to meet the 1981 standard for carbon monoxide (CO) of 3.4 grams per mile (gpm). Meanwhile, cars using these engines will be allowed to meet a stand- ard of 7.0 gpm. The vehicles affected by this action include some now in production as well as some that will be introduced for the first time in 1982. These cars include GM 's J-cars, Ford's Escort/Lynx, most Chrysler models, and AMC's Spirit/Concord. EPA granted the waiv- ers to give the financially troubled companies flex- ibility to improve the com- petiveness of these cars. Agency officials said that no significant adverse effect on air quality will result from the action. EPA also granted waiv- ers to General Motors, and to two Japanese auto companies—Nissan (Dat- sun) Motor Company, Ltd. and Isuzu Motors Ltd. —until 1983 for two diesel engine families to meet the 1981 nitrogen oxides standard of 1.0 gpm. In the meantime, these engines will have to comply with a nitrogen oxide standard of 1.5 gpm. Gasoline An investigation was conducted in the Detroit area late last year in which six EPA investiga- tors inspected 90 branded and unbranded retail gas- oline stations and took fuel samples from un- leaded pumps. The inves- tigation resulted from a complaint that leaded gasoline was being sold as unleaded at many retail stations in the area. EPA said that labora- tory tests of the gasoline samples showed lead con- tent higher than permitted by Federal regulations at 12 service stations. The Federal standard for un- leaded gasoline restricts lead content to not more than 0.05 grams of lead per gallon. Generally, leaded gasoline contains from 1 to 2 grams of lead per gallon. The investigators also found nozzles in violation of Federal requirements for leaded gasoline pumps at three stations. The EPA also an- nounced that it has filed an administrative com- plaint against Southwest Wholesale Cooperative of Phoenix, Arizona, charg- ing that the firm used leaded gasoline in com- pany vehicles which are required under the Fed- eral Clean Air Act to use unleaded fuel, and im- properly equipped a leaded pump with an undersized nozzle. The complaint, which seeks a penalty of $65,300, also charges Southwest Cooperative with not properly labeling leaded gasoline pumps and failing to display warning signs in the pump stand areas. Recall General Motors Corp. will voluntarily recall approxi- mately 120,000 of its 1978 passenger cars be- cause they may be failing to meet Federal tailpipe air pollution standards for nitrogen oxides (NOx). Vehicles recalled are 1978 GM models with 151 cubic inch displace- ment (CID) engines in- cluding the Chevrolet Monza, Monza Wagon, Pontiac Sunbird, Sunbird Safari Wagon, Phoenix, and Oidsmobile Starfire. Vehicles built for sale in California are not in- cluded in this recall. Ve- hicles in the above model lines with other than 1 51 CID engines are not sub- ject to the recall. Hearing Request Volkswagen of America has requested a public hearing to contest EPA's October 24, 1980, recall of approximately 140,000 1977 Volkswagen ve- hicles. This is only the second time a manufac- turer has challenged an EPA-ordered recall. The recall, which in- cludes 1977 Rabbitand Scirocco models, is based upon EPA's determination that these vehicles fail to meet the Federal exhaust emission standards for hydrocarbons (HC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Under the Clean Air Act, a vehicle manufac- turer may request a hear- ing if it disagrees with EPA's determination that the vehicles are not in compliance with emission standards. At least 30 days prior to the hearing, EPA will publish a notice in the Federal Register in- dicating its scheduled time and location. HAZARDOUS WASTE Actions From November 19 to December 19, EPA conducted 383 inspec- tions of hazardous waste generation and disposal facilities, sent out 26 notices of violations, 18 compliance orders, and levied $7,500 in fines for violators of new regula- tions which ensure that hazardous waste is han- 30 EPA JOURNAL ------- died in a way which pro- tects the public and the environment. The regula- tions were effective Nov. 19,1980. The new EPA regula- tions require hazardous waste producers to as- sume responsibility for the ultimate disposal of the waste they generate, transporting it according to EPA/ Department of Transportation standards to a pre-determined facil- ity designed to handle the waste safely. A newly- instituted tracking system is designed to ensure that the waste actually arrives at that facility. NOISE Initiative Regulatory officials from more than sixteen coun- tries have agreed upon a new initiative to coordi- nate and align interna- tional noise measurement and test procedures. Proposed and hosted by the United States, the international meeting of regulatory officials Dec. 9-12 was designed as a working session of those officials with policy re- sponsibility for the adop- tion of noise measurement procedures in their re- spective countries. The meeting was coordinated by the EPA Office of Noise Abatement and Control. The country representa- tives agreed at the con- ference to complete the listing of present or forth- coming regulations where measurement procedures may offer potential tech- nical barriers to trade and to indicate each country's recommendations for pri- orities in dealing with these problems. Motorcycles EPA has proposed to amend the testing require- ments of the final motor- cycle and motorcycle exhaust systems noise regulations which were recently announced. The proposed amend- ments would require man- ufacturers to take one additional step in their testing program over and above what is required of them as a result of the final regulations. Specifi- cally, under the proposed amendment, manufac- turers would be required to remove all easily re- movable components from their exhaust sys- tems before conducting the tests necessary to show compliance with applicable standards. These amendments are expected to encourage manufacturers to design exhaust systems in ways which will reduce the in- cidence of tampering by motorcycle owners and mechanics. TOXICS Export A final rule designed to help foreign governments become aware of possible hazards associated with certain chemicals they import from the United States has been issued by EPA. Under the rule, each year exporters must notify EPA the first time they ex- port or intend to export from the U.S. certain chemicals on which the Agency has taken action to avert potential health or environmental prob- lems. EPA would then notify affected foreign gov- ernments. WATER Iron and Steel EPA has proposed new water pollution con- trols for existing and future iron and steel pro- duction plants, including both carbon and specialty steel mills. The proposed rules, called "effluent guide- lines," include a variety of limits on different water pollutants caused by the manufacture of these metals. The rules would require an initial clean-up level called "best practi- cable technology" (BPT). These standards would take effect as soon as possible after the pro- posals are issued in final form later this year. After 1984 the proposals would require tougher clean-up levels for toxic pollutants to be achieved by using the "best avail- able technology." Tougher clean-up require- ments also would be applied to discharges of oil and grease and sus- pended pollutants through the use of "best conven- tional technology." In addition, "pretreat- ment" standards would be applied to harmful wastes released from the mills to sewage treatment plants, and new iron and steel plants built after the EPA proposals would have to meet certain "new source performance standards." Coal New controls on dis- charges of acidic water and other wastewater from existing and future coal mines and coal cleaning plants have been proposed. EPA's proposals would apply to all underground and surface coal mines and coal cleaning plants in the country. Cleaning or preparation plants, usually built near the mines, remove sulfur and other undesirable elements from coal to make it more acceptable for burning in the boilers of electric power plants and other industries. Pulp and Paper EPA has proposed new water pollution controls for present and future pulp and paper mills. The proposals, known as effluent guidelines, are required by 1977 amendments to the Clean Water Act and by a legal agreement between EPA and several environmental groups. The Agency pro- posals are expected to be issued in final form some- time in 1981, after public comment. The EPA rules would require that pulp and paper mills use the "best available technology" to control the discharge of toxic pollutants from their operations. The new proposals also would tighten current controls on oxygen-de- manding materials and suspended particles that result from the manufac- ture of paper products. AGENCYWIDE Plain English EPA recently honored several employees with "Plain English" cash awards for producing documents meeting high standards of clarity and organization. The Office of Planning and Management's Henry Beal, director of the Standards and Regula- tions Division and the Steering Committee, re- viewed 35 documents authored by EPA em- ployees, judging them on sentence structure, logi- cal organization, and the ease with which non- experts can understand them. David M. Feldman of the Office of Assistant Administrator for Enforce- ment won the $500 first prize. A $250 prize went for a paper prepared by Glenn Passavant and John Anderson of the Motor Vehicles Emissions Test Laboratory in Ann Arbor, Mich. Richard Johnson, Joseph Panetta, Lynn Brown, Cathy Kessler and Jeffrey Kempter, Office of Toxic Substances, won $250 for their draft. Richard McAllister and David Mayer of the Office of Toxic Substances won a $75 honorable mention for their work. Laura Campbell of the Office of Assistant Administrator for Enforcement also won a $75 honorable mention. The Agency plans to offer plain English awards quarterly. [ i MARCH 1981 31 ------- Making Pollution Prevention Pay By Michael G. Royston In November 1979, the ministers of the environment from the European countries and representatives from the United States and Canada met in Geneva under the auspices of the Economic Commission for Europe on the Protection of the Environ- ment. Their purpose was to decrease pollu- tion from industrial wastes. Long-range transboundary air pollution, or "acid rain," from the world's metallurgy and power plants was thought to be damaging north- ern lakes and forests and had grown into a major international issue. The ministers and representatives signed a resolution to "limit, gradually reduce, and prevent" this form of pollution. They also adopted a declaration stating that "economic devel- opment and technological progress must be compatible with the protection of the envi- ronment" and advocating the use of no- waste technologies in their countries' industries. In this article, an authority on business and the environment augments the discussion begun at this important international meeting. He offers consider- able evidence that alert companies can turn pollution prevention into profit and make their growth and survival congruent with environmental protection. Copyright * 1980 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved. Reprinted by permission of the Harvard Business Review. Making Pol- lution Pay by Michael G. Royston, Nov. Dec. issue. Some businesses have long understood that environmental protection and economic progress can go hand in hand. Consider the following examples: • Ciba-Geigy, the chemical complex in Basel, Switzerland has, with little capital investment, been able to eliminate up to 50 percent of the pollution from its opera- tions and save an estimated $400,000 a year. By changing its manufacturing proc- esses and recycling its water and solvents, it has saved not only money but also energy. • A plant producing atactic polypropylene waste in Japan has a waste recovery and utilization plant with capital charges and operating costs amounting to $100 a ton. The value of recovery energy at $ 140 a ton yields an annual profit of $500,000. • In the Federal Republic of Germany, Reffelmann Metallverarbeitung KG has re- covered its electroplating liquors and made a 40 percent profit on them. ENKA-Glanz- stoff is increasing its marginal profit by 30 percent in recovering zinc from its rayon plant effluents. • In France, 22 factories have been con- verting their production wastes into useful, salable products. The Elf Oil Refinery at Feyzin, for example, has turned its hydro- carbon pollution into an annual profit of $1,320,000. The Societe Alimentaire Equilibree at Commentry has turned a methionine mother-liquor pollution prob- lem into an annual saving of $600,000. The Sacilor steel works in Gandrange has re- covered its iron dust residues and saved $200,000 a year. The Societe Lacto-Centre in Bas-en-Basset has recovered its whey residue that was previously polluting local rivers and made a gross profit of $ 1 80,000 a year on it. • In the United Kingdom, North British Dis- tilleries, near Edinburgh, has turned its highly polluting still bottoms into nutritious animal feed and has had an annual return on investment of over 100 percent. Toma- EPA JOURNAL ------- tim, another distillery in Scotland, is raising $6 million worth of eels in its hot water effluent. An ICI plant is saving $600,000 a year in fuel bills by segregating and burning its wastes.- • Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, the multinational based in the United States and known as 3M, has since 1 976 expanded production by 40 percent and significantiy reduced its annual pollu- tant load. Its liquid effluent has gone from 47 tons to 2.6 tons, its gaseous effluent from 3,000 tons to 2,400 tons, and its solid waste from 6,000 tons to 1,800 tons. This cleanup has resulted in a cost saving of $2,400,000 a year. By 1976, this company had realized that the cost of meeting increasing demands for pollution control was threatening its profit- ability. It decided to attack the problem at its root by applying the philosophy that pollutants plus know-how equal potential resources and new profits. The company initiated this approach under the slogan "Pollution Prevention Pays" (3P). In the first nine months of operation in 1 5 countries, 3P programs eliminated 70,000 tons of air pollutants and 500 million gallons of waste water. Instead of expending money, 3M saved $11 million. By viewing pollution as an indicator of waste and an opportunity for profit rather than as a costly threat, the company had, by 1979, saved over $20 million.' New No-Waste Technologies The savings possible from such no-waste approaches vary widely from industry to industry and from plant to plant. Most of the old technologies and processes in use were selected when the costs of energy, water, and raw materials were much lower than they are now and when the costs of waste disposal were either very low or could be ignored. Designs were selected to maximize the discounted cash flow, so long-term running costs tended to be sac- rificed in favor of reducing initial capital costs. Thus, many existing plants and proc- esses in all industries tend to have a good margin for improving efficiency, reducing costs, and minimizing waste and pollution. Even the best managed and most effi- cient businesses are finding opportunities to improve their efficiency, to the benefit of both the economy and the environment. Many of these examples are to be found in Europe because it has a history of high energy and raw material costs as well as long-standing environmental concern. There, for example, the cogeneration of process steam and electric power, much discussed recently in the United States, has been routine practice for many years- Many industrial and municipal installations in Europe convert wastes into energy in specially designed incinerators and use waste heat from power plants for district heating. It was there, in Finland, that the metal- lurgical industry developed the Outokumpu process, which since 1947 has been turning 98 percent of the damaging sulfur dioxide fumes arising from copper smelting into salable sulfuric acid. It was there that the "systems approach" of integrating one type of processing plant with another to take care of wastes resulted in combined treat- ments that are clean, productive, profitable, and capable of generating 50 percent of their own energy needs. Exhibit I on page 35 shows how integrating various processes in a system can produce useful products and at the same time reduce waste. It is in Europe, again, that a new tech- nology known as fluidized-bed combustion has eased the acid rain problem. Scotland has been using this technique on a large scale to burn coal at 97 percent combustion efficiency and retain 90 percent of the sul- fur in a bed during the burning of coal con- taining 3.5 percent sulfur. In the extraction and building industries, English Clays has been using its china clay wastes to make prefabricated houses. Germany's steel industry has recycled 99 percent of the water it uses and con- verted over 90 percent of its solid wastes into other useful materials. It is in Germany where coke ovens are being moved to en- closed quenching zones to recover gas and steam as energy sources and to eliminate air pollution, where the aluminum industry is using a closed fluoride cycle, and where the rubber and plastics industries have a large number of schemes to recover, resyn- thesize, and reuse waste materials as fuels by a variety of specalized pyrolysis and incineration techniques. In the chemical industry, the Soviet Union has been using energy conversion and water recycling to cut the costs in an MARCH 1981 33 ------- ammonia plant to $40 or $50 a ton. In the food industry, France has been getting a 30 percent return on investment from the recovery of protein from slaughterhouse wastes. The process industries in general are able to turn half their gross pollution load to profit before having to pay for the hard task of cleanup, and many of them are in North America. Hylsa, the steel company in Mexico, is using the sponge iron process to implement direct reduction technology and prevent the massive pollution of coke ovens, which cost U.S. Steel over $600 million to clean up recently at its Clairton works. Shell Oil in Canada has been disposing of its refinery sludge by ploughing it into the prairie and increasing barley yields from 18 percent to 31 percent. In a pulp mill at Thunder Bay on Lake Ontario, the Great Lakes Paper Co. Ltd. has for the past three years been using the Rapson-Reeve process, which is neither as dirty as a con- ventional mill nor as uneconomic as one retrofitted with expensive pollution control equipment.5 It is based on closed cycle operation and produces pulp more cheaply than a conventional plant does. In the United States, the paper compa- nies have begun to look at their industrial wastes as ways of making money.6 Union Camp, for instance, which used to sell its mill wastes for eight cents a pound, now turns them into flavors and fragrances worth more than a dollar a pound. It has boosted its chemical sales to $100 million a year. As a by-product of processing at its Bellingham, Wash, plant, Georgia Pacific is producing 190-proof alcohol "so pure and potent" that the Treasury Department has stationed men in the plant full-time to make sure that none of it is converted to drinking liquor before its sale to industrial users. Westvaco has found the conversion of mill wastes into other products so profit- able that it has created a chemical subsidi- ary with four processing plants and a re- search center staffed with 80 scientists. In the past five years, Westvaco's chemical sales have doubled to $45 million, all from materials that the company used to dump. Other U.S. industries are now doing similar rethinking. Dow Corning has found that recovering chlorine and hydrogen previously lost to the atmosphere in making silicon can re- duce operating costs by $900,000 a year. A $2.7 million capital investment in equip- ment is producing a 33 percent annual return on investment. Hercules Powder spent $750,000 to reduce solids discharged into the Missis- sippi River and is now saving $250,000 a year in materials and water costs. Process improvements in a Goldkist poultry plant have cut water use by 32 per- cent, reduced wastes by 66 percent, and produced a net annual gain of $2.33 for every $1.00 expended. The chairman of the Hanes Dye and Finishing Company has testified that "cleaning up our stacks and neutralizing our liquids was expensive, but in the bal- ance we have actually made money on our pollution control effort. EPA has helped our bottom line." All these examples confirm the impres- sion that in many industries a good deal of pollution stems simply from inefficiency and waste—waste that could be turned into profit. Organizing for Profit How can companies best exploit their own pollution prevention opportunities? The key to 3M's success has been giving corpo- ratewide recognition to the importance of technological innovation in making the company efficient and profitable, delegating responsibility and initiative to the shop floor, and rewarding all company personnel who get involved in 3P programs. Joseph T. Ling, as vice president of en- vironmental engineering and pollution con- trol, heads up the corporate effort at St. Paul, Minn, and works directly with the corresponding managers of the over- seas companies. In the United Kingdom, for example, Ling works with the manager of engineering services and a central energy and environment committee. The manager serves as chairman, and an ac- countant, the central engineering manager, the manufacturing manager, the mainte- nance engineer, and the public relations manager serve as the five other members of the central committee. Each 3M factory has its own plant energy and environment committee comprising the plant engineer as chairman, the manufac- turing supervisor, the process engineer, the maintenance supervisor, the control engi- neer, the division engineer, and an indus- trial engineer. Their job is to set targets for waste avoidance, establish programs with shop floor personnel, report progress to management, audit savings, and report to the central committee. At 3M all corporate personnel from the shop floor upward are mobilized to con- tribute their knowledge and observations to the pollution abatement programs adopted. To qualify as a 3P program, a proposal has to eliminate or reduce a pollutant; bring about reduced energy use or more efficient use of raw materials like water; include some innovative feature; and bring mone- tary benefit through reduced or deferred controls or manufacturing costs, increased sales of existing or new products, or reduced capital or running costs. Pollution has been efficiently lessened, not by install- ing pollution control plants but by reformu- lating products, redesigning equipment, modifying processes, or recovering materials for reuse. Good housekeeping has been the basis for successful pollution prevention at most of the companies I have mentioned. Often, however, they feel they have arrived at the best programs possible through computer optimization. They have looked at their intuitive proposals singly and in combina- tion through sophisticated computer pro- grams and have reached rank orderings of returns on investment for each degree of pollution abatement. They have found that the economic way to abate pollution is not to call in equipment suppliers but to detect waste in their oper- ating conditions; establish material, energy, 34 EPA JOURNAL ------- Exhibit I Examples of no-waste technologies and water balances; take note of legislative trends; and predict future waste treatment costs in the light of present expenses. Action based on this approach includes reducing energy consumption through heat reuse; coupling heat-producing and heat- consuming processes; integrating heat and power production; reducing heat and cold losses; and modifying temperatures, com- pressor and pump loads, and boil-up rates. The next stage after they have eliminated substantial amounts of their waste has been to sell as much of that waste as possible to someone else and, with the residual pol- lutants, to build extra plants to convert them into useful raw materials or products. Then they have appraised the self-cleansing and dispersing power of their local environ- ments and, with state authorities and local communities, have established appropriate discharge conditions for final residues. Whenever possible, the companies have built treatment facilities jointly, as for ex- ample, Airco Alloy and a pulp mill in Swe- den did and as Bass Charrington's giant brewery and the town of Runcorn in the United Kingdom did to profit from the com- patibility of their mixed wastes. The treat- ment facilities have also usually been built with the companies' own manpower so as to develop the kind of environmental know- how that can be commercialized. Growth Boost If taking such a positive approach to envi- ronmental protection can help companies maintain their profit, it can also help them grow. In the United States this year, envi- ronmental business has been almost a $50 billion affair and has recently been in- creasing 20 percent a year. This new commercial area has brought in its wake a wave of new businesses. In the Federal Republic of Germany, more than 200 new companies have recently set themselves up to provide environmental products and services. In the United States, there are companies like Apollo Chemical Co., which started in the air pollution busi- ness some 15 years ago employing 10 people but which now employs over 400 Integrated systems Copper smelting Garbage disposal Garbage disposal Paper Food preparation Food preparation Steel production Hog production Electric power Domestic water Whiskey production Timber Heat Metallurgy Aluminum Alloy steel tubes Titanium dioxide Steel production Phosphates Mining Electric power China clay Mining Electric power Animal waste Sulfuric acid Fertilizer Power generation Drinking water Fuel production Metal recovery Alcohol Protein Protein Chemicals Municipal waste water Cheese Sulfuric acid Industrial water Pollutant recovery Animal feed Plywood Pulp Power generation Paper Cryolite Pigments Pigments Magnetic tape Ceramics Plasterboard Building materials, (bricks, cement. aggregate) Insulating bricks Prefabricated houses Recreation Heating for homes, fish ponds, fields Gas Wastes avoided Sulfur dioxide, heat, resources Land, heat, resources Land, resources Water pollutants Water pollutants Air pollutants, resources Water pollutants Water pollutants Air pollutants Water pollutants, resources Water pollutants, resources Water pollutants, resources Air pollutants, heat, resources Air pollutants, heat, resources Air pollutants, energy, resources Water pollutants Water pollutants Solid wastes Water pollutants Solid wastes Solid wastes Solid wastes Land Heat Water pollutants and has subsidiaries around the world. Another is Waste Management Inc., a gar- bage-handling business based on a new technology that yields a turnover of S350 million. Even more significant, many large com- panies have added divisions to provide en- vironmental goods and services. In the United States, Boeing, FMC, Exxon, Dow Chemical, 3M, and Caterpillar Tractor all market environmental products and serv- ices. In Europe, Shell, BP, Ciba-Geigy, Krupp, and Philips market specialized en- vironmental services. ICI, in the United Kingdom, has three environmental divi- sions—a general technical and instrument division, a division for deep-shaft waste treatment systems, and another for general biological services and marketing plastic filter medium. In Sweden, the PLM Com- pany, formerly only in the packaging busi- ness, has diversified into the reclamation area and doubled its turnover to $500 million." In such diversification, it is as important as ever to link the new activity to an exist- ing strength. Thus, in pyrolyzing garbage, the Danish firm Destrugas is producing fuel gas. Union Carbide is producing ammonia, and Occidental Petroleum is producing fuel oil. New growth areas tend to stem from technological innovation, and innovation tends to result from external need or pressure. Environmental pressure gen- erates innovation. Environmentally induced economic activity continues to stimulate the econ- omy. It is an estimated 2 percent of the gross national product in countries like the United States. The amount of employment engendered by all aspects of environmental protection in the United States was, at the 1977 Environmental Improvement Council Conference, reported to be 2 million jobs. Direct employment induced by the National Environmental Policy Act runs at about 75,000. A 1978 estimate of the economic impact of environmental policies in the United MARCH 1981 ------- Exhibit II Number of innovations in which environmental concerns have been considered Industry Automobiles Chemicals Computers Consumer electronics Textiles Total France 4 9 5 7 10 35 Federal Republic Germany 12 12 9 8 6 47 Japan of 2 6 7 6 21 Nether- lands 5 3 7 15 United Kingdom 10 12 10 8 6 46 Total 28 44 31 32 29 164 .'.' Support tor Scmnce ilf'tJ Technology. An • .•( Foreign Expenence \C*i'r:bfi(i(n: M.-/-..S . 1976} States indicates that the annual benefits of improvements in air quality since 1970 have been $21.4 billion and that the total annual benefits in 1985 due to improved water quality will be $12.3 billion. It is further estimated that by the end of 1980 U.S. environmental regulations will have added 0.1 percent to the consumer price index, reduced unemployment by 0.4 per- cent, and increased gross national produc- tion by $9.3 billion. Japan, in recession in 1974, used strict pollution control legislation to boost con- struction and engineering and hence restim- ulate the economy; 20 percent of its eco- nomic growth since then can be attributed to its new strict environmental legislation. Japanese companies are world leaders in supplying advanced pollution control equipment such as pyrolysis plants and flue gas desulfurizers. Sweden used similar measures in 1970 when it faced an economic recession. The government introduced strict pollution con- trol and offered industries cash grants of up to 75 percent of the purchase price of pollution control equipment installed be- fore 1975. The result was a major improve- ment in the environment and a massive stimulation of the construction, equipment, and chemical industries. Sweden pulled out of the recession, and, like Japan, developed companies that are now leading suppliers of advanced pollution control equipment, chemicals, and know-how in the world. Survival of the Fittest In determining the direction of their future growth, companies as well as nations will more and more have to take environmental concerns into account. The ultimate objec- tive of the corporation is survival, and reaching that depends very much on the adaptation of the corporation to its environment. Such major companies as Shell and BP are directing their development by fore- casting from scenarios. They describe all the possible environmental conditions that might control their growth and make deci- sions accordingly. AKZO, the Dutch chem- ical multinational, constructs elaborate scenarios based on the social, political, physical, economic, and technological environments that it feels may prevail in the future and then determines which products and services will be most compatible with such conditions. More and more companies are assessing the environmental impact of projects they are about to introduce. Some, such as DSM, the Dutch state coal mining enter- prise that is now a large, successful multi- national chemical company, go to the extent of simulating public hearings of impact reports. Company staff members play the roles of community and environ- mental advocates to identify the dangers and problems early so that remedies can be applied while cost and time penalties are still minimal. Under programs like this, enterprises accept the validity of environ- mental concern and encourage environ- mental awareness in their staffs. They can minimize the negative and maximize the positive impacts of their new projects, They can also prevent their projects from being blocked by the courts or by citizen protest actions. By becoming concerned about environmental impact ahead of time, companies can avoid costly delay, bad press, and heavy financial burden. The Payoff If a company looks at economic questions in an ecological way and at ecological questions in an economic way, it can make pollution prevention pay in relation to three corporate objectives. By focusing attention on waste avoidance and efficient operation, it can increase profit. By investigating new areas in which to develop products and services, it can grow. By avoiding conflict over new projects and winning acceptance for them by looking at them with an eye to the new environmental values, it can improve its chances of surviving. Q Footnotes 1. See Ministere de la Qualite de la Vie, Usines Propres (Paris: La Ministere, 1976). 2. See my book. Pollution Prevention Pays (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1979). 3. See Joseph T. Ling, "Developing Con- servation Oriented Technology for Indus- trial Control," in Non-Waste Technology and Production (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978),p.313. 4. S. Harkki, "The Outokumpu Flash Smelt- ing Method," in Non-Waste Technology and Production (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978). 5. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, "The Rapson-Reeve Process, A Case Study," Compendium of Low-Waste and Non-Waste Technology (Geneva: Palais des Nations, 1980). 6. United Nations, "Money from Wastes," Development Forum, January-February 1977,p.3. 7. I. Flory, "Separation of Paper, Glass and Tinplate from Waste in Residential and Industrial. Areas," ELMIA Conference, Jonkoping, Sweden, October 1976. 8. Eighth Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977), p. 332. 9. Tenth Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980). pp. 655-662. 10. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, "Prevention Less Costly than Cure," OECD Observer, May 1979, p.9. 11. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, "The Environment and Current Economic Problems" and "The State of the Environment," OECD Observer, May 1979, p. 29. Mr. Royston is professor of technology and environment at the Center for Education in International Management in Geneva, Switzerland. 36 EPA JOURNAL ------- Environmental Almanac: March 1981 A Glimpse of the Natural World We Help Protect Swans Winging North With a thunderous slapping of wings and pattering of black-webbed feet on the water surface, flocks of whistling swans soonwill betakingoff from Chesapeake Bay and other eastern waterways for their extraordinary annual migration across the continent to Alaska and Western Canada. After assembling together at various staging points along the East Coast these graceful white birds begin their vast journey often at dusk or by moonlight. They lift off when- ever instinct tells the leaders the time has come to return to the rim of theArctic Circle to breed and raise their young under the midnight sun. As the great spring migration begins the swans will fly at heights ranging from 2,000 to 8,000 feet for as much as eight hours before landing on the first leg of their flight. Sometimes they are caught and buffeted in severe storms and forced to land abruptly in farm fields. Occasionally these weary birds have landed on the Niagara River and have been swept over the mighty falls. When these mishaps occur the survivors have often been shot or clubbed to death by people who regard them as game birds. However, the majority of the whistling swans successfully complete their migration and begin building large, crude nests of grass and other vege- tation on the North Slope of Alaska or in marshy areas of Canada's Northwest Territories. Dr. William J. L. Sladen, who has conducted extensive re- search on whistling swans (Cygnus columbianus), confirm- ed the flight of these birds from Chesapeake Bay to Alaska in 1970whenheandhispilotin a small airplane spotted a color-dyed swan swimming on an Alaskan lake. After the plane landed, Dr. Sladen identified the bird by its numbered band as one of 48 swans marked the previous winter near Galesville, Md. The flight of these birds can sometimes be hazardous to aircraft. In 1962 a United Airlines plane crashed in Mary- land and all passengers were killed after a swan struck its tail. This is one of the reasons why information on the migra- tion of swans and other large birds is of more than academic interest. Although named whistlers, these stately birds actually have a high-pitched "woo-HOW- woo" call that sounds like children playing Indians. During the spring migration season in the Chesapeake re- gion, you can sometimes see and hear masses of several different types of aquatic birds winging their way north on different flight levels at the same time. In addition to the baying of the whistling swans, you can hear the quacking of mallards, the croaking of snow geese, and the honking of Canada geese, an unforgettable medley of sky music. Whistlers wintering in the Chesapeake Bay region feed on aquatic vegetation and, when they can find them, thin-shelled clams. However, in recent years the underwater greenery in the upper Chesapeake Bay has become scarce, forcing the swans to find food on land. When the swans feed on young shoots of winter wheat some farmers start to talk about the possibility of changing the law that now protects whistlers from hunters. Research is being conducted by EPA, Maryland, and Virginia and various agencies on the reasons for the disappearance of the water vegetation. One cause is that increased discharges of sediment from land development and larger flows of wastes into the bay are increasing turbidity. This re- duces the sunlight needed by the aquatic plants for photo- synthesis. There are an estimated 1 00,000 whistling swans in the U.S. They are one of three species of wild swans in this country. The other two are the trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccina- tor), a bird primarily of the West and which can be distinguished from the whistler mainly by its larger size, and the mute swan (Cygnus olor), the royal bird of England now sometimes found in the wild in this country, but which was introduced into the U.S. many years ago as an ornamental bird for parks. The eggs of whistling swans hatch in June and by fall, thd young, known as cygnets, are ready for their maiden flight to the wintering grounds. An older male, called a cob, leads each wedge of the migra- tory flight. The ash-grey cygnets fly between their elders and are buoyed by the air turbulence generated by the leading birds on the way to Chesapeake Bay and other water bodies between Maryland and North Carolina, where they are still protected by law against hunters. S. Dillon Ripley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and a noted ornithologist, has com mented on the value of whistling swans: "To me the far-ranging whistler has always seemed a perfect symbol of the wilder- ness. The birds come and go on their own. without let or hindrance. They can be killed legally in three states and to what purpose? Swans are for- tunately unpopular as table fare, and the trade in swanskins and swansdown has passed into history. I feel that only a fool would kill a swan, for to do so istoimpingeon your birthright, to sully your natural surround- ings, to scar your soul a little." —C.D.P. MARCH 1981 37 ------- People Edward A. Kurent He has been named Director, Enforcement Division, Office of Water Enforcement for EPA. In his new position, he will be responsible for directing na- tional water pollution enforce- ment and compliance monitor- ing programs, primarily those under the Clean Water and Safe Drinking Water Acts. He was most recently the legal director of EPA's Hazard- ous Waste Enforcement Task Force. He previously served as special assistant to the Admin- istrator for Enforcement, and as a staff attorney in the Office of Water Enforcement at head- quarters. Prior to coming to EPA, he served in the U.S. Navy Judge Advocate General's Corps where he was first a prosecution and defense attorney, and then a Special Court Martial Judge in the Republic of the Philippines. Before that, he worked in the federal Office of Economic Opportunity for two years be- fore it was dissolved in 1 973. He received his bachelor's degree from Ohio Wesleyan University in 1968 and his law degree from the University of Cincinnati Law School in 1971. Lewis Crampton He has been named Director of the Management and Planning Division for Region 5. Crampton is in charge of the Region's planning processes, including budgeting. Among the areas un- der his direction are personnel management, general services, and the analytic center. Prior to joining EPA, Crampton was a senior consultant for Arthur Little Co. in Cambridge, Mass., where he led a team which pre- pared a major report for 300 clients in the private sector on the regulatory outlook for haz- ardous substances through 1985. From 1974 to 1977 Crampton served as Commis- sioner of the Massachusetts Department of Community Affairs. Crampton said that he hopes to make services pro- vided by the Planning and Management Division oriented toward helping EPA program people to do their jobs better. His goal is to manage staff and budgetary resources more effi- ciently and to contribute to a more effective planning process. A native of Boston, Crampton received an honors degree in public administration from the Woodrow Wilson School of Public Affairs at Princeton Uni- versity, a master's degree in East Asian studies from Har- vard, and a doctorate in urban and regional planning from MIT. Irwin P. Baumel He has been named as Director, Health and Environmental Re- view Division in the Office of Toxic Substances. The Health and Environmental Review Division is responsible for the detailed assessment of harmful effects of chemicals on human health and the environment in support of Office of Toxic Sub- stances regulatory program activities. Prior to his appointment, Dr. Baumel was Acting Director of the Division of Criteria Docu- mentation and Standards De- velopment for the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. He held several other administrative positions with that agency beginning in 1975. He received his bachelor's degree in Pharmacy from Co- lumbia University in 1963; a master's degree in Pharmacol- ogy from Northeastern Univer- sity in 1967; and his doctorate in pharmacology from the Uni- versity of Rhode Island in 1970. Prior to entering government, service, Baumel pursued an active research and teaching career at Yale School of Medi- cine and at Georgetown Uni- versity School of Medicine, where he held an Assistant Professorship. Edward A. Klein He has been named Director, Chemical Control Division, Office of Toxic Substances. He was most recently the Special Assistant to the Asso- ciate Solicitor for the Occupa- tional Safety and Health Admin- istration, beginning in 1974. Prior to that, he was a trial attorney for the National Labor Relations Board. He received his bachelor's degree in political science from the Pennsylvania State Univer- sity in 1965, and his law degree from New York Law School in 1969. He is a member of the New York Bar. He is the author of the article "Caution: The Workplace may be Hazardous to your Health," which has ap- peared in several publications including the book Toxic Torts (1976). -•:•• EPA JOURNAL ------- Thomas R. Hauser He has been named Senior Research Official at EPA's Environmental Research Center located in Research Triangle Park, N.C. Since 1977 Hauser has been Director of EPA's Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory at that loca- tion, and will continue in that post. In his new role, he will be ihe principal spokesman for the complex of four major labora- tories and two offices that make up the Center. Since last May, Hauser has also served as Field Director and Coordinator for all EPA environmental monitoring stud- ies at Love Canal in upstate New York. He received an officer's commission in the U.S. Public Health Service in 1955, and he joined the National Air Pollution Control Administration at Cincinnati in 1 958 as a research chemist. In 1970 he transferred to Research Triangle Park as a supervisory research chemist in the National Air Pollution Control Administration's Health Effects Research Program. After this agency became part of EPA, Hauser was named Deputy Director of the Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory at Research Triangle Park. He received his bachelor's and master's degrees in chemis try from Xavier University in 1953 and 1 955 respectively, and his doctorate in environ- mental engineering from the University of Cincinnati in 1971. Donald H. Horstman He has been named Chief of the Clinical Research Branch of EPA's Health Effects Research Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, N.C. In his new role he will supervisee staff of ap- proximately 25 physicians, physiologists, bioengineers, biochemists and immunoiogists in studies on the relationships between human health problems and air pollution. Their research focuses primarily on the levels of air pollutants commonly found in metropolitan areas, and subsequent effects on the human body. Horstman will also assist in development of EPA's environ- mental health research programs. Priorto joining EPA, he was a research physiologist for eight years at the U.S. Army Research Institute of Environ- mental Medicine in Natick, Mass., where he studied the effects of altitude, temperature and exercise on human physiology. He received his doctorate in physiology from Pennsylvania State University at University Park. And he performed post- doctoral research as a fellow at the Institute of Environmental Stress at the University of California at Santa Barbara. G Guarding the Sea continued from page 27 to a resort where they have walked in sand laced with tarballs, a phenomenon now noticeable on beaches from Micronesia to Cape Cod Bay, from Brittany to the south coast of Crete. Where the oceans have been concerned, we who think of ourselves as master man- agers have been masterly at mismanage- ment. In 40 years, we have threatened the health of the seas more dramatically than any people in the preceding 4000 years, but we have only recently recognized the hidden costs of our errors, the long-term penalties to be paid. And, our folly is not confined to salt water. Our fresh water management is in some ways worse because these water resources quench our thirst and bathe our bodies. What could be closer, more impor- tant to us?And yet rampant unplanned "development" gobbles up hundreds of acres of land a day, making increasing demands on our freshwater supply. And our urban planning does not always take fresh water needs into account. Environmental protection does not mean we must sacrifice a quality standard of living. On the contrary, preserving our natural resources infuses our living stand- ard with higher quality, a higher quality that is based not just on the exhilaration of the wilderness, or just on the beauty of a blue- green sea as the sun illuminates it; nor on just the pleasure of watching dolphins glide MARCH 1981 iridescent alongside the prow of a ship. It is the higher quality of life that accom- panies knowing we have truly tried our best to husband the gifts we have. Nowhere will the environmental chal- lenge of the next years be more obvious than in the oceans which are so vast and so far from the view of most of us. These waters are truly our last earthly frontier. Most of them remain unexplored, and we have much to learn every day from them. Scientists have found new forms of life in the dark abyss, reaches of the sea which Sea gull in flight at Assateague Island in Maryland. other scientists had long ago given up for dead. For nearly seven years, nations have squabbled over minerals and fishing rights of the oceans, battles which have at least culminated in a Law of the Sea, albeit in- complete. Eventually, ocean thermal con- version, tidal power, and salinity gradients —all energy sources from the ocean—will help ease our energy crisis. We will grow, in many respects, increasingly more dependent on the oceans. Just as healthy vibrant seas once helped open whole continents to human activity and ingenuity, so human activity and in- genuity must be marshalled now to protect the seas. There are many encouraging signs, but just as many discouraging ones, and the next twenty years will sway the balance. The choice is rather clear. We can either face out to the sea and guard it wisely and well, or we can lower our eyes to the responsibility and turn the oceans into mere recipients of the pollution and other prob- lems we have on land. Finally, the chal- lenge will be whether we can properly manage our ocean asset, this unique capital which has fueled a very rich part of our history, and on which so much of our future well-being will depend, [j Jean-Michel Cousteau is the son of ocean explorer and environmentalist Jacques-Yves Cousteau. He is Vice Presi- dent, Communications for The Cousteau Society, a group which is dedicated to the protect/on and improvement of life. Paula DiPerna is a writer for the Coustenu Society. .;., ------- News Briefs Barber Named Acting EPA Admini strator Walter C. Barber, 39, a career EPA Deputy Assistant Administrator and former examiner with the Office of Management and Budget, has been designated as EPA's Acting Administrator. Barber is an air pollution expert who has been recognized for his work with government and industry in dealing with national and international pollution problems. Ernst Minor, a member of the Reagan Transition Team assigned to EPA, has been named as executive assistant to Barber. Minor worked for seven years at EPA's research laboratory complex in Cincinnati, Ohio, before joining the Reagan-Bush campaign. New Approaches to the Environment continued from inside front cover away to San Francisco just to get a permit to burn small piles of pear tree prunings. "This is ridiculous," he said. He added that he also has difficulty understanding air pollution rules which restrict burning to certain winter days. He said that it seems to him that if farmers could burn when they needed to there might be less concentrated smoke pollution. "While I'm no scientific ex- pert on this, I don't believe smoke from agricultural burn- ing is all that bad anyway." Livermore said that when his ranch foreman, a conscientious man, asked for information on the exact rules about burning, he called the California Air Resources Board and asked for a copy of the rules. "I got 1 50 pages of rules," Livermore noted. On another aspect of clean air, Livermore said that he has difficulty understanding "why if the Japanese over the past several years have been produc- ing cars that meet clean air standards, our Detroit auto manufacturers have so much trouble complying." Livermore said that he favors extensive use of economic incentives to help encourage business to curb pollution. He said that in his opinion sub- stantial savings can be realized by granting business greater flexibility in the methods used to reduce pollution. On the subject of economy, Livermore also said that he believes that some small towns have been forced to build very expensive waste treatment plants which they couldn't afford. "There appears to be little question but that there have been excesses in that area," he added. Livermore. a graduate of Stanford University, is currently serving as a member of the California Fish and Game Commission by appointment of Governor Edmund Brown. Cl Back cover: The incinerator ship Vulcanus burning hazardous wastes at sea. (Article on p. 24) Opposite: A diver from EPA 's Gulf Breeze laboratory in Florida collects bottom sediment and water for research into the impact of toxic chemicals on the aquatic environment. (Article on p. 22) EPA Journal Subscriptions Name First. Last Please Print i I i Company Name or Additional Address Line i_iJJ_LU_ JL J_LLJ_ Street Address i i I..J 1.1 l.i City _l.l 1 LI.LlJ State Zip Code i I Payment enclosed Charge to my Deposit Account No. Do you know someone in industry or in a civic group who wants to keep up with national environmental developments involving EPA? Let them know about EPA Journal. 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