TEMPERATURE AND
AQUATIC LIFE
LABORATORY
INVESTIGATIONS
SERIES
TECHNICAL ADVISORY AND INVESTIGATIONS BRANCH
FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
5555 Ridge Avenue
Cincinnati, Ohio 45213
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FOREWORD
The Laboratory Investigations series was initiated
by the Technical Advisory and Investigations Branch in
1963. The series was planned to describe laboratory
methods and techniques and to disseminate information that
may be of interest and use to other activities of FWPCA.
The current addition to the series is a literature
review of the effects of thermal pollution on the aquatic
ecosystem. Thermal pollution is a rapidly increasing
problem and this review will aid. in evaluating existing
problems and in the prevention of future problems.
December 196?
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TEMPERATURE AND AQUATIC LIFE
Laboratory Investigations - Number
Technical Advisory and Investigations Branch
Technical Services Program
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
United States Department of the Interior
Cincinnati, Ohio
December 1967
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CHEMICAL REACTIONS JAMES L. HOLD/WAY
Chemist
BACTERIA LOUIS A. RESI
Microbiologist
FRESHWATER FISHES NELSON A. THOMAS
Aquatic Biologist
MARINE, ESTUARINE AND ANADROMOUS FISHES . . . LOYS P. PARRISH
Aquatic Biologist
AQUATIC PLANTS AND BENTHOS R. KEITH STEWART
Aquatic Biologist
EDITOR KENNETH M. MACKENTHUN
Supervisory Aquatic
Biologist
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SUBJECT INDEX
CHEMICAL REACTIONS 1
Ammonia ..... 12
Biochemical oxygen demand 8
Carbon dioxide 10
Dissolved Minerals ik
Henry's law 1
Hydrogen 8
Hydrogen sulfide 9
Methane 7
Nitrogen. . 7
Oxygen 5
Sulfur dioxide 13
Summary l6
References 17
BACTERIA 19
Bacterial indicators 26
Bacterial survival 25
Microbiotic cycles 21
Self-purification 23
Slime gro-wrths « 26
Summary 27
References 29
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Page
FRESHWATER FISHES 30
Acclimation 32
.Benefits of thermal pollution ^6
Effects on toxicities ^5
General temperature effects 30
Maximum temperatures 3^
Preferred temperatures 38
Sudden temperature changes 31
Summary k"f
References i»9
MARINE ESTUARINE AND ANADROMOUS FISHES 52
Acclimation 56
Anadroraous fishes
Eggs 6?
Young TO
Adults T3
Development. 5k
Distribution 55
Ecology 55
General temperature effects 52
Marine and estuarine fishes
Eggs 57
Young 58
Adults 63
Metabolism 53
Physiology 53
Reproduction 5^
ii
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Page
Tolerance 57
Summary 75
References 77
AQUATIC FLAM'S AND BENTHOS 83
Bottom organisms 87
Fresh-water algae and other aquatic plants 85
General 83
Summary 93
References 9^
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 97
INTRODUCTION iv
SUMMARY v
iii
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INTRODUCTION
Temperature, a catalyst, a depressant, an activator, a restrictor,
a stimulator, a controller, a killer, is one of the most important and
most influential water quality characteristics to life in water. Temper-
ature determines those species that may be present; it activates the hatching
of young, regulates their activity and stimulates or suppresses their growth
and development; it attracts, and kills when the water becomes too hot or
becomes chilled too suddenly. Colder water generally suppresses develop-
ment; warmer water generally accelerates activity and may be a primary cause
of aquatic plant nuisances when other environmental factors are suitable.
Because of the importance of this single environmental facet to
aquatic ecology, this report was developed to consider some of the features
of temperature and its interrelationships. It is divided into five segments;
these are:
I. Chemical Reactions
II. Bacteria
III. Freshwater Fishes
IV. Marine, Estuarine and Anadromous Fishes
V. Aquatic Plants and Benthos
An extensive temperature bibliography is appended.
iv
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SUMMARY
1. Chemical reaction rates vary with temperature, generally increasing
as the temperature is increased.
2. The solubility of gases in water varies with temperature. Dissolved
oxygen is decreased by the decay or decomposition of dissolved organic
substances; the decay rate increases as the temperature of the water
increases reaching a maximum at about 30 C (86 F).
3. The temperature of stream water, even during the summer, is below the
optimum for pollution-associated bacteria. Increasing the water tem-
perature increases the bacterial multiplication rate when the environ-
ment is favorable, and the food supply is abundant. Increasing the
water temperature within the growth range of the bacteria causes a more
rapid die-off when the food supply is limiting.
k. Warm water fish can survive temporarily in waters heated artificially
"to 33-9 C (93 F); some fish populations, such as roach, perch, and
carp, are reduced at these high temperatures. In cold weather, stream
temperatures should be substantially below 33-9 C (93 F) "to prevent
mortalities when fish move through excessive temperature gradients.
Cold water non-anadromous fish populations such as trout should not be
subjected to temperatures exceeding 1^.5 C (58 F). In cold weather
stream temperatures should be below lU.5 C (58 F) to prevent mortalities
of cold water fishes.
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5. Sudden changes in temperature can be more harmful to some species of
fish than continued exposure to a higher temperature.
6. Fish can adapt to higher temperatures faster than to lower temperatures.
7. The maximum temperature for a given species of fish varies with the
fish's rate of heating, size, and physiological condition.
8. Fish may starve at elevated temperatures because of their inability to
capture food.
9. Fish seek out a preferred temperature at which they can best survive,
which is several degrees below their lethal temperature.
10. The toxic effects to fish of certain material increase with temperature.
11. Temperature changes are most important to fish in enclosed areas in the
marine environment such as estuaries and bays as opposed to open areas
although tolerance to temperature fluctuations is greater in fresh-water
and estuarine forms than in open water marine species.
12. There are restricted ranges of temperature within which fish can reproduce
successfully; larval development especially requires narrow ranges of
temperature. A fish population may exist in a heated area only by con-
tinued immigration from the outside. Fish may be absent from such areas
during warm summer months and present in cold winter months.
13. Increased temperatures may block the migrations of anadromous fish.
lU. Cold is as important to fish populations as heat because of the inability
of fish to acclimate quickly to rapid decreases in temperature. Thus,
in some areas fish populations may be limited by decreases as well as
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increases in temperature. The growth rate of fishes is reduced in waters
colder than the optimum temperature range for the species.
15. When water temperatures increase, the predominate algal species change
from diatom to green algae and. finally at high -temperatures to blue-green
algae.
16. The number and distribution of bottom organisms decrease as water temper-
atures increase above 90 F, which is close to the tolerance limit for a
"balanced" population. The adult stage of many species is able to tole-
rate higher temperatures than the eggs or young.
17. A benefit of heated effluents is the defouling of intake pipes accomplished
by reversing the flow of water through the pipes.
18. Certain benefits, including open water winter fishing in otherwise ice
covered areas, and a cold water fisheries downstream from deep reservoirs,
can be derived from artificially induced temperature changes. The
benefits of fish being attracted to heated water in the winter months
may be negligible compared to fish mortalities that may result when the
fish return to the cooler water; lethal temperatures may result from
heated discharges in the summer months.
vil
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I. CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Introduction
All the impurities contained in a water result from intimate
contact of the water with such impurities during which a portion are
dissolved or suspended. The process of solution is a chemical re-
action which proceeds as long as the water is in contact, with a solu-
ble substance or until equilibrium is reached (Camp, 19^3)• In general
the solubility of solids and liquids may be considered a function of
temperature, unless extreme pressure conditions are involved.
The solubility of nonreactive gases (gases that do not react
with water to an appreciable extent) at equilibrium with the atmos-
phere is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas in the atmos-
phere and follows Henry's law, Cs=KsP, where Cs is the saturation
concentration of the gas in the water, P is the partial pressure of
the gas phase and Ks is the proportionality constant called the co-
efficient of absorption. Water is saturated with a gas when the pro-
portionality implied in Henry's law is fully established. Rising
temperatures decrease the saturation value as do the salts of hard and
brackish waters (Fair and Geyer, 195*0. The solubility of reactive
gases in water is modified because they ionize in and/or react with the
water.
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The establishment of equilibrium in a given chemical reaction
implies that the reaction is reversible and that a point has been
reached where a balance between the reactants exists. Mathematically,
this relation is expressed by the mass action law
where capital letters refer to types of molecules or ions taking part
in the reaction and lower case letters to the number of them. On the
basis of thermodynamic principles the relation
(C)P(D)q
(A)m(B)n=k
is universally true, the parentheses indicating activities of the en-
closed substances. The equilibrium constant k has a characteristic
value for each reaction that is dependent only on temperature (Fair
and Geyer, 1951!-).
The effects of temperature on equilibria are given by the Van't
Hoff equation d(log^0_ _
dT ~ RT2
where K is the equilibrium constant, T is the Kelvin temperature, R is
the gas constant, AH? is the enthalpy change per gram-molecular weight
for the reaction from left to right. Integration of the above equation
between the limits Tj_ and T2 gives
RT2
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for constant AH? and conversion to common logarithms
" 2 . 303IT T2 " TI 1<-.576V TLT2
(Glasstone and Lewis, 1960).
The rates of most chemical reactions increase as the tempera-
ture is raised. A frequently used very approximate rule, enunciated
by Van't Hoff, is that the rate doubles for each rise in temperature
of 10 °C (18°F).
Mathematically, the change in specific rate constant with tem-
perature for any simple chemical reaction is given by the Arrhenius
d(logek) E
at
where k is the specific reaction rate constant, T is the Kelvin tem-
perature, R is the gas constant (1.99 cal/degree C), E is a constant
characteristic of the reaction and termed the activation energy.
Integration of the above equation between the limits T^ and T2 Sives
RT2 ~
for constant E and conversion to common logarthms
ko -E ( 1 1 % _
L0\^ 2.303R(kO?2"^I;~
(Glasstone and Lewis, 1960).
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Two other methods for expressing the temperature dependence of
a reaction rate are often encountered. They are:
k£_ T2-T1
ki ®
whence
9 = ^2 for T2-Ti and Q10 = ^ for To
Kl Kl
here T2 and T]_ are measured in degrees centigrade (Fair and Geyer,
195^).
Dissolved Gases
1. Non-Reactive Gases
The gases that do not react to an appreciable extent vrith water
but which occur in sufficient quantities to be determined by chemical
analyses are oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and methane.
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Oxygen
Since all living organisms are dependent on oxygen in one
form or another to maintain the metabolic processes that produce
energy for growth and reproduction, it is of great significance in
the aquatic environment. The solubility of atmospheric oxygen (see
Figure l) in fresh waters ranges from lk.6 mg/1 at 0°C (32°F) to
6.6 mg/1 at 1
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a\
FIGURE I SOLUBILITY OF OXYGEN IN WATER
EXPOSED TO WATER-SATURATED AIR AT 760 mm Hg.
o
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
TEMPERATURE °C
26 28 3O 32 34 36
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is also produced by chlorophyll-bearing algae and submerged aquatic
plants through photosynthesis.
In natural waters deficient in dissolved oxygen, accelerated
atmospheric aeration (reaeration) is evident. The rate of reaeration
in each unit of time is proportional to the remaining degree of un-
saturation of dissolved oxygen in the waters (Streeter, 1958). Temp-
erature influences the rate of solution and affects the rate of dif-
fusion of oxygen. As temperature increases the saturation capacity
declines and the rate of diffusion increases (Velz and Gannon, 1960).
Nitrogen
The solubility of atmospheric nitrogen in water is about one-
half that of oxygen. While the principal source of nitrogen is the
air, denitrifying bacteria will release nitrogen to water (Allee
et al., 19^9). In a lake the waters of the hypolimnion become and
remain supersaturated with nitrogen as they get warmer; rapid warming
may cause nitrogen to escape as bubbles (Nordell, 1961).
Methane
Methane is not a permanent constituent of the earth's atmos-
phere (Camp, 1963). The primary source of methane in natural waters
is anaerobic decomposition. Solubility of methane varies from 39•6
mg/1 at 0°C (32°F) to 15.9 mg/1 at kO°C (l(A°P) and 760 mm of mercury
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8
(Nordell, 19^l). Some ground waters may contain sufficient methane to
constitute a fire and explosion hazard. Methane may persist even after
aeration.
Hydrogen
The solubility of hydrogen varies from 1.93 mg/1 at 0°C (32°F)
to 1.48 mg/1 at to°C (104°F) in pure water in contact with the pure
gas at 760 mm of mercury (Nordell, 1961). Hydrogen comprises less
than 0.001$ of the earth's atmosphere (Camp, 1963). It is produced
in the water primarily from anaerobic decomposition of organic matter.
Pi ss olvedOrganic Sub stance s
Organic substances in surface waters decay or decompose chiefly
by bacterial action and exert a demand on the dissolved oxygen of such
waters. This biochemical reaction is similar to an unimolecular chemi-
cal reaction, that is, the rate is approximately proportional to the
remaining concentration of unoxidized organic matter. Thus the bio-
chemical oxygen demand of a surface water is a measure of the concen-
tration of decomposable organic matter (Camp, 1963). The reaction
rate ordinarily expressed as k rises as the temperature of the water
increases reaching a maximum at about 30°C (86°F), (Hoak, 1961). This
increased rate results in a greater demand on the'dissolved oxygen in
the surface water. Theriault (1927) has shown that at 20°C (68°F) the
biological oxidizability of polluted water increases by about 2$ for
each degree centigrade increase.
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2. Reactive Gases
Gases that react with water are hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide, sulfur dioxide and ammonia. These either ionize in water
or react with the water to produce ions.
Hydrogen Sulfide
The principal sources of hydrogen sulfide in natural waters
are anaerobic decomposition of organic matter and the discharge of
industrial wastes from oil refineries, leather tanneries, chemical
plants and paper mills (Camp, 1963); the solubility of hydrogen sul-
•fide ranges from 7,070 mg/1 at 0°C (32°F) to 2, 360 mg/1 at ifO°C
(10^°F) and 760 mm of mercury (Nordell, 1961) . It ionizes in water
in two steps --
2. HS"^— > H++S=
An equilibrium relation is established for each step as follows
i. [H+UHS-]
2. [H+][S=]
[HS-]
<-r
vith equilibrium constants of l.lxlO~' at 25°C (T7°F) for step 1 and
1x10 at 25°C (77°F) for step 2. Equilibrium constants vary with
o
temperature and corresponding values at l8°C (64.4°F) are 5.7x10"
and 1.2x10" (Lange, 1961). As indicated by the comparative magni-
tude of the equilibrium constants for hydrogen sulfide at 25°C (77°F)
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10
the equilibrium in step 1 lies to the side of the product, i.e. H*
and HS~, while the equilibrium in step 2 lies to the side of the
reactant, i.e. HS~. Because the equilibrium constants for steps 1
and 2 at l8°C (64.4°F) are less than the corresponding values at 25°C
(77°F) it follows that reactions 1 and 2 decrease with a decrease in
temperature (Prutton, 1951).
Sludge deposits in streams and estuaries produce hydrogen
sulfide as they undergo anaerobic decomposition in which sulfates
are reduced. Wheatland (195^) has indicated that the rate of forma-
tion of sulfide increases with temperature, doubling approximately
for each 10°C (l8°F) rise, and that reduction of sulfate to sulfide
will occur at temperatures as low as 5°C (ifl°F); but even at 25°C
(77°F) is inhibited by traces of dissolved oxygen. Hydrogen sulfide
is oxidized in the presence of dissolved oxygen to water and free
sulfur or to sulfate.
Carbon Dioxide
Free carbon dioxide is found in most surface waters and may
range from 0 to 5 mg/1 in rivers. Lake waters may contain from 0 to
2 mg/1 at the surface with significant increases as the depth increases
because of the processes of decay at or near the bottom (Allee, et al.,
19^95• Since the oxidation of organic matter furnishes carbon dioxide,
much higher concentrations may be found in surface waters receiving
organic wastes. Surface waters receiving acid mine drainage may show
a high content of carbon dioxide; ground waters contain appreciable
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11
amounts of free carbon dioxide, ranging from 1 mg/1 to several hundred
(Nordell, 1961).
The solubility of pure carbon dioxide in water ranges from
3,350 mg/1 at 0°C (32°F) to 970 mg/1 at 1*0 °C (lO^°F) and 760 mm of
mercury (Nordell, 19&1) • The average carbon dioxide content of the
air varies from 0.035 percent in the country to 0.06 percent in the
cities and the solubility of atmospheric carbon dioxide in water
ranges from 1.0 mg/1 at OdC (32°F) and 0.03 percent to 2.0 mg/1 at
0°C (32°F) and 0.06 percent. At kO°C (10^°F) the solubility is 0.3
mg/1 and 0.6 mg/1 respectively at 760 mm of mercury (Kordell, 1961).
These values indicate that the carbon dioxide contributed to natural
surface waters and ground waters from the atmosphere is negligible
compared with that from decaying organic matter.
Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form a weakly dissociated
acid-carbonic acid, C02+H^0 _±zz>H2CO~
Carbonic acid is a dibasic acid ionizing in two steps:
2. HC05 <— ^ ffN-CO?
^ jp. ^
An equilibrium relation is established for each step as follows:
1.
2.
[HCO§]
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Equilibrium constant values for steps 1 and 2 respectively, are
4.31^10~7 and 5.6xlO~i:L at 25°C (77°F) (Lange, 196l). At this
point carbon dioxide establishes an equilibrium relation with the
mineral content of the water.
Ammonia
Ammonia is an intermediate product in the bacterial decomposi-
tion of nitrogenous organic matter and may be discharged to natural
waters as a waste product of industry. The presence of free ammonia
in natural waters is indicative of recent organic pollution, since
the atmosphere is substantially free of this substance (Camp, 19&3) •
The gas reacts with water to produce ammonium hydroxide (often
termed aqueous ammonia); the ammonium hydroxide in turn ionizes to
produce ammonium and hydroxal ions.
An equilibrium relation is established as follows:
With ionization constant values of 1.8xlO"5 at 25°C (TT°F) and
2. 0x10 ~5 at lK>°C (104°F) (Lange, 1961). The equilibrium is shifted
toward the product side, i.e-. N%; OH~ at higher temperatures. Because
the hydroxyl ion is a product of the ionization of ammonium hydroxide,
the degree of ionization can be related to the hydrogen ion concentra-
tion or pH. Camp (1963) indicates that 99.99$ of the ammonia in
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13
dilute solutions at 25 °C (77°F) is in the form of ammonixn ion at a
pH of 5 while at pH 11 only 1.78$ is in this form.
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide is formed in one of three ways: (l) as an inter-
mediate product in the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide under aerobic
conditions, (2) in the reduction of sulfate under anaerobic conditions
and (3) in the combination of elemental sulfur and oxygen. This is
part of the sulfur cycle taking place in many natural waters (Sawyer,
1960). Combustion fumes from industrial operations may contribute
to the sulfur dioxide content of natural waters.
Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form sulfurous acid; the
acid then ionizing in two steps --
2. HS03 < — >
and equilibrium relation is established as follows:
1. [ff*"][ HSOJ]
[^863]
2. [H*][SO^]
[HSO^]
With ionization constant values of 1.72xlO~2 and 6.24x10"^ at 25°C
(Y7°P) for steps 1 and 2, respectively (Lange, 1961). In the
presence of dissolved oxygen, sulfurous acid and the hydrogen sul-
fite ion are readily oxidized. The solubility of sulfur dioxide
markedly decreases with increasing temperatures (Camp, 1963).
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Dissolved Minerals
About 99$ of the dissolved mineral matter found in natural
waters embrace only 10 elements, namely; hydrogen, oxygen, sodium,
potassium magnesium, calcium, silicon, sulfur, carbon and chlorine.
These occur as ions, radicals or molecules. At ordinary temperatures
of natural waters some complexing of major dissolved species may occur
but is limited to the formation of ion pairs [e.g., Na(COo)|, NagCOg]
(Garrels and Christ, 1965). Helgeson (1964) in a study of the effects
of elevated temperatures on the dissociation of complex ions in solu-
tion indicated that little or no changes occur unless there is an
appreciable change in the density of the solution; with increasing
temperature and decreasing density complexing is expected to increase.
At present only enough chemica-1 information is available to
permit calculation of the inter-actions that take place among the major
dissolved species at earth surface temperatures in media as concentrated
as sea water. The results of such calculations indicate that more than
30$ of the sulfate and bicarbonate are tied up as ion pairs with cations,
whereas $0% of the total carbonate is complexed. One-hundred percent
of the chloride is present in the ionic form. Changes in temperature,
pressure and composition of the water will modify this distribution;
however, variations in temperature and pressure to which ocean waters
are subjected will produce little change in distribution.
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15
The effects of small -variations in temperature [5°C(iH°F) to
lj-0°C(l04°F)] on equilibria and reaction rates involving minor constit-
uents in natural waters can not be determined at this time because of
a lack of information on equilibrium constants, enthalpy changes and
activation energies (Garrels and Christ, 1965).
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Summary
1. Chemical reaction rates vary with temperature, generally increasing as
the temperature is increased. The change in the specific rate constant is
given by the Arrhenius equation.
2. The solubility of gases in water varies with temperature. Dissolved
oxygen content of a surface water is decreased by the decay or decomposition
of dissolved organic substances; the decay rate increases as the temperature
of the water increases reaching a maximum at about 30 C (86 F).
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17
REFERENCES CITED
Allee, W. C., et al., 19^9- Principles of animal ecology. W. B. Saunders
Co., Philadelphia, 83? pp.
Anon., 1965. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater.
Twelfth Edition, American Publ. Health Assn., Inc., New York, 769 pp.
Camp, T. R., 1963. Water and its impurities. Reinhold Publishing Corp.,
New York, 355 pp.
Dysart, B. C., and P. A. Krenkel, 1965. The effects of heat on water
quality. Proc. 20th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ., pp. 18-39.
Fair, G. M. and J. C. Geyer, 195^. Water supply and wastewater disposal.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 973 pp.
Garrels, R. M. and C. L. Christ, 1965. Solutions, minerals, and equilibria.
Harper & Row, New York, if50 pp.
Glasstone, S. and D. Lewis, 1960. Elements of physical chemistry. D. Van
Nostrand Co., New York, 758 pp.
Helgeson, H. C., 19&f. Complexing and hydrothermal ore deposition. Pergamon,
New York, 128 pp.
Hoak, R. D,, 1961. The thermal pollution problem. Jour. Water Poll. Control
Fed., 33(12): 1267-1276.
Hutchinson, G. .E., 1957. A treatise on limnology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
New York, I: 1015 pp.
Lange, N. A., 1961. Handbook of chemistry, tenth edition. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1969 pp.
Nordell, E., 1961. Water treatment for industrial and other uses. Reinhold
Publishing Corp., New York, 598 pp.
Prutton, C. F. and S. H. Marion, 1951. Fundamental principles of physical
chemistry. The MacMillan Co., New York, 803 pp.
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Sawyer, C. N., I960. Chemistry for sanitary engineers. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York, 36? pp.
Streeter, H. W., 1958. The oxygen sag and dissolved oxygen relationships
in streams. Oxygen Relationships in Streams, U. S. Dept. of Health, Educa-
tion, and Welfare, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati,
25-30.
Theriault, E. J., 1927. The oxygen demand of polluted water. U. S. Public
Health Service Bull. 173.
Velz, C. J. and J. J. Gannon, I960. Forecasting heat loss in ponds and
streams. Jour. Water Poll. Control Fed., 32(U): 392-^17.
Wheatland, A. B., 195^. Factors affecting the formation and oxidation of
sulfides in a polluted estuary. Jour, of Hygiene, Cambridge Univ. Press,
19U-210.
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II. BACTERIA
Introduction
Temperature changes in the aquatic environment affect ecological
relationships among the biota, processes of natural purification, and
growth and survival of microorganisms. There are a wide variety of
microorganisms found in the aquatic environment. The numbers and species
in the population vary depending on whether they are in ground water,
lakes, or streams. Unpolluted water bodies have low concentrations of
microorganisms. The microbial content of natural waters is approximately
proportional to the amoxmt of organic matter present. Unpolluted waters
usually have a greater number of species in proportion to their total
population; conversely polluted waters usually have a greater- total
population in proportion to the number of bacterial species in their
environment.
Many stream bacteria come from the air and soil. Bacteria in the
air are aersols or suspended on dust particles that settle or fall with
precipitation. Soil flora in water are due to precipitation and seeping
ground water that becomes surface run-off when entering or forming a
stream. Many of the microorganisms that are native to natural waters
are especially adapted to the stream environment, and some are difficult
or now impossible to grow on culture media.
Interest in the microbiology of water centers on the transmission
of disease via the water route. Polluted waters have high concentrations
of microorganisms from municipal or industrial waste waters. When a
stream is polluted with the excreta of warm blooded animals, it is most
likely to contain enteric pathogens. Indicator organisms (coliforms) are
19
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20
used to measure bacterial concentrations and indicate the potential
presence of pathogens from sewage.
Industrial wastes add organic and .inorganic materials to water and
in some cases large numbers of bacteria, but, in general, they do not
contain pathogenic organisms. Industrial wastes may "be growth stimulating
or toxic to bacteria (Heukelekian, 1953).
Water, an essential for all forms of life, can serve as a medium
for growth and reproduction for many microorganisms. Environmental factors
affecting the growth of microorganisms are chemical, physical, and
nutritional. Although these factors are interdependent, the physical
factor of temperature is one of the most important.
The relations of temperature to the growth of microorganisms are
complex. Some hardy bacteria grow in a wide temperature range; other
fragile bacteria grow in a narrow temperature range. For each organism
there is a minimum, the lowest temperature at which growth can occur; an
optimum, the temperature most favorable for growth; and a^maximum, the
highest temperature at which growth and multiplication can occur.
Bacteria may be classified according to their temperature require-
ments for growth. Organisms having optimum growth temperatures under
80°C (68 F) are grouped as psychrophilejs or cold-loving; these occur in
the soil and cold waters of the north. Thermophiles, heat-loving
organisms having optimum temperatures of 55° to 65° c (131 to lU9°F) are
found in soil, decaying organic matter, hot spring water and near the
discharge points of hot water effluents. They are of little importance
in stream ecology. The majority of bacteria are called mespphiles; they
are the intermediate group, having optimum temperatures in the range
between the extremes. Many of the organisms found in natural waters and
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21
soils are saprophytes (organisms that live on decaying organic matter);
they have optimum temperatures of 22° to 28° C (70 to 82°F) and "belong
to the mesophilic group.
The parasitic bacteria have optimum temperatures of 37°C (98.6°F)
and include those microorganisms pathogenic to man. Temperature changes
greatly affect the rate of activity of these organisms.
The effect of temperature on the species of organisms cannot
always be considered separately from the other environmental factors.
Some species can be more abundant in the winter, others in the summer,
when their environmental conditions are varied (Burrows, 1959)•
Microbiotic^Cycles
The interrelationships among aquatic biota are of primary importance
to the aquatic environment (ingrara, Mackenthun. and Bartsch. 1966). In
unpolluted waters, autotrophic algae and chlorophyll bearing bacteria
initiate microbioti-c cycles (Silvey and Roach, 196*0- The metabolites
and decomposition products of the organisms provide nutrients for use
by gram-negative heterotrophic bacteria. The principal gram-negative
organisms are Alcaligenes, Aerobacter, and Pseudomonas. In waters
polluted with sewage, the Escherichia also increase, as do associated
types. The new algal growth following the gram-negative bacilli may
be either diatoms or blue-green algae. In cool waters the diatoms will
generally prevail and be followed in turn by the gram-positive heterotophic
bacilli. In warmer waters, the gram-negative bacilli remain and grow
in coexistence with blue-green algae; then the actinomycetes grow and
develop an antibiotic effect, reducing the gram-negative population. The
gram-positive spore-forming bacilli follow the actinomycetes (Figure 2).
-------
22
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
I
r-2XlO»
-2X10'
-2x10'
-2X10*
-2x10*
-2x10'
-2x10*
-2X101
-2X10°
-2X10-1
-2XJO"1
i
-250
-225
-200
- 175
- 150
- 125
- ICO
- 75
- 50
h- 25
I- 0
Jan. Feb. Mir. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct Nov. Dec
Tig. 2. Annual Cycles of Gram-Positive and 'Gram-Negative Heterotrophic Bacilli and
Their Relationship to Blue-Green Algae and Aquatic Actinomycctes
The dotted curve w for blue-green algae, indicated i:t Wffs of areal standard units on
Scale 1 at the left; tite solid curve is for gram-positive heterotrophs; the dashed curve,
gram-negative heterotrophs; and the dot-and-dash curve, actinomycetes. Colony
counts of heterotrophs are indicated in IjOOO's by Scale 1; absolute numbers of bacilli
by Scale 2; a;\d actinojiiyceie plate counts in 1,000" s by Scale 3. Actinomycetes were
isolated on M^Bt agar. Cram-positive hcterolropl'S were grown on vitamin-enriched
Emerson's agar, and gram-negative heictqlroplis on. epsin mrthylene blue agar.
(From Silvey and Roach. 19o'K p. o4;
-------
23
These various cycles may impinge upon each other when the stream or
reservoir is highly polluted.
Self-Purification
When organic wastes are discharged into a receiving water a complex
chain of physical, chemical, biochemical and biological activities are
started which result in decomposition and degradation of the wastes. This
complex process is self-purification, the details of which are still unknown
(Heukelekian, 1953).
The most significant function in natural purification is the
decomposition of organic matter by the microbial flora. The saprophytic
organisms are the most active in this biochemical process; they have
optimum temperatures that are near the ambient temperature of many streams
during the summer months. In a stream polluted with sewage, the pathogenic
and indicator organisms are also present and perform a minor role in the
self-purification process. The temperature of the stream water even during
the summer is below the optimum for pollution associated bacteria. Increas-
ing the water temperature increases the bacterial multiplication rate when
the environment is favorable and the food supply is abundant. Increasing
the water temperature within the growth range of the bacteria causes a more
rapid die-off when the food supply is limited. The decrease of bacterial
numbers is higher during the summer than during the winter (Figure 3)•
Unpolluted streams contain dissolved oxygen near saturation levels.
When organic wastes are discharged into the stream, the biochemical pro-
cess is aerobic - reducing the dissolved oxygen by oxidation and dilution.
When the reaeration rate of the stream is low, the oxygen may be
depleted by the bacterial metabolism of the increasing population.
-------
12
Figure 3. From Huekelekian,
1953, p. 27
-------
25
As the available oxygen diminishes, the aerobic organisms die-off
rapidly, sharply decreasing the natural purification process of
assimilating the organic waste load. When this occurs there is a shift
in the flora in the stream to the facultative anaerobic organisms. The
ultimate result of anaerobic decomposition may be the same as that of
the aerobic, but it is very slow and less -desirable (Fair, Geyer, and
Morris, 1958).
As the temperature increases, the dissolved oxygen solubility
decreases. When a warm water discharge is near a sewage treatment plant
outfall, self-purification can be very effective if the organic waste
load is not excessive.
The impounding of water may improve the water quality by
reducing sediments, color, bacteria and temperature. Ingols (1957) found
also that the pattern of reservoir discharge permitted slime develop-
ment downstream during low flow and scouring of the slime during high
flows. "Out of phase" dilution of the receiving stream could promote
or retard stream self-purification (Berger, 1961). Berger as well as
Renn (1957) agree that the rate of stream reaeration increased at higher
temperatures.
Growth and Survival
Chambers and Clarke (1966) state: "Many bacteria reproduce in
water- among the genera that, will grow in water of unquestioned potable
quality are: (l) Pseudomonas, (2) Xanthomonas, (3) Achromobacter.
(U) Escherichia, (5) Aerobacter, (6) Streptococcus, (7) Desulfovibrio,
and (8) Crenothrix."
Renn (1957) points out that elevating the stream temperature can
be favorable for those bacteria that can multiply in water by inducing
-------
26
the recurring cycles of life and death more rapidly. However, enteric
pathogens have highly selective requirements. They cannot multiply or
survive well in natural water, so they die-off more rapidly.
Because higher temperatures in a stream polluted with sewage
generally result in increased bacterial numbers, low temperatures are
not conducive to rapid growth. Stream temperatures of 1° to 8°C (33-8-
k6.k F) may surpress growth and multiplication, and act as a preservative
as in the storage of samples for bacterial analyses. Freezing of water
can result in reduced microbial populations by killing off a majority
of the microorganisms. Streams that have high organic waste loads and
low temperatures tend to develop slime organisms, generally Sphaerotilus.
A study of the Columbia River in Oregon showed Sphaerotilus
growths to be maximum at water temperatures of 10° to 15 C (50 -59 F).
Growth ceased when temperatures dropped below k°C (39.2°F) and resumed
when temperatures increased above U°c (39.2°F). Infestations of
Sphaerotilus may occur at temperatures below 10°C (50°F) if the growing
period is sufficiently long (Amberg and Cormack, 1960). Beds of
Sphaerotilus slime may extend farther downstream from a waste outfall
in the winter than in the summer when warmer temperatures seem to inhibit
the efficiency of food conversion by the organism (Dondero, 1961).
Clark et al. (19&0 assessed the value of bacterial indicators
of pollutions as indicators of viral pollution by studying the relative
survival of the organisms in water- They observed that the lower the
temperature the longer the survival for both bacteria and viruses. The
enteric bacteria had survival times in proportion to the degree of
pollution, the greater the pollution the longer the survival time. The
-------
27
increased quantity of nutrients present in the more polluted water may
account for the longer survival time of the bacteria. The viruses
studied survived longer in the "clean" Little Miami River water and in
the grossly polluted raw sewage than in the moderately polluted Ohio
River water. They also point out the difficulty in generalizing on
comparative survival times because the different genera of organisms
may have different survival times in the different stream environments
(Table l).
Summary
The temperature of stream water, even during the summer, is
below the optimum for pollution-associated bacteria. Increasing the
water temperature increases the bacterial multiplication rate when the
environment is favorable and the food supply is abundant. Increasing the
water temperature within the growth range of the bacteria causes a more
rapid die-off when the food supply is limited.
-------
?8
TABLE 1
AVERAGE TIME IN DAYS FOR 99-9 PERCENT REDUCTION IN ORIGINAL
TITER OF INDICATED MICROORGANISMS AT THREE TEMPERATURES
(From Clarke, Berg, Kabler and Chang, p. 526, 196U)
Little Miami River Ohio R-foer .Sewage
Microorganisms - 28<>c 2Qoc ^c ^^ 2Q4C ^ g8«c ZQ9(,~ ^OG
Poliovirus I 1? 20 2? 11 13 19 1? 23 110
ECHO 7 12 16 26 $ 7 15 28 1*1 130
ECHO 12 5 12 33 3 5 19 20 32 60
Coxsackie Aj? < 8 < 8 10 5 8 20 6 No Data 12
A. aerogenes 6 8 15 15 18 W* 10 21 56
E. coli 67 10 551112 20 lf8
S. fecalis 6 8 17 9 18 57 ^ 26 U8
-------
Amberg, H. R. and J. F. Cormack, 1960. Factors affecting slime growth
in the lower Columbia River and evaluation of some possible control
measures. Pulp Paper Mag. Can., 6l:T-70 to T-80.
Berger, B. B., 1961. Does production of power pollute our rivers?
Power Engineering, March, p 60-6l.
Burrows, W., 1959- Textbook of microbiology. W. B. Saundefs Co.,
Philadelphia, Pa.
Chambers, C. and N. Clarke, 1966. Control of bacteria in nondomestic
water supplies. Advances in Applied Microbiology. Academic Press Inc.,
N. Y., 8:105-1^3.
Clarke, N., G. Berg, P. Kabler, and S. Chang, 196U. Human enteric
viruses in water: sour.ce, survival and removability. Reprint from
International Conference on Water Pollution Research. London, 1962.
Pergamon Press - Oxford, London, N. Y. and Paris, pp. 523-536.
Bonders, N. C., 1961. Sphaerotilus, its nature and significance.
In: Advances in Applied Microbiology, £• 77 -10?.
Fair, G. M. , J. C. Geyer and J. C. Morris, 1958. Water supply and
waste-water disposal. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Heukelekian, H., 1953- Stream pollution and self -purification. In:
industrial wastes their disposal and treatment. (W. Rudolfs, Ed.)
Reinhold Pub. Corp., New York, pp 8-30.
Ingols, R. S., 195T- Pollutional effects of hydraulic power generation
stream pollution. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 29(3): 292-29?.
Ingram, W. M., K. M. Mackenthun. and A. F. Bartsch, 1966. Biological
field investigative data for water pollution surveys. U. S. Department
of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, WP-13,
139 PP-
Renn, C. E. , 1957- Warm-water effects on municipal supplies. Jour.
American Water Works Assoc., U
Silvey, J. K. G., A. W. Reach, 1964. Studies on microbiotic cycles in
surface waters. Jour. American Water Works Assoc., 56(l):60-?2.
-------
III. FRESHWATER PISHES
Introduction
Changes in fish populations can result from the many types of arti-
ficial cooling and heating of natural water*. These changes result from
the discharge of condensed water from steam-electric generating plants,
distillery effluents, and irrigation waters. Stream temperatures are
raised also by the removal of stream bank trees and other vegetation.
Water temperatures are often elevated in excess of the air temperature by
absorption of heat by the .stream bed. Yet another type of thermal pollu-
tion results from the discharge of cold-water from stratified impoundments;
this water may provide an ideal habitat for trout and other cold-water fish
when sufficient dissolved oxygen is present.
General Effects
The effects of temperature on fish are acute because fish do not
possess an efficient method to compensate their internal temperature against
a temperature change in the water in which they are immersed. If a more
favorable temperature is available, fish do have the ability to seek it out.
Chemical reactions are accelerated within the body cells with ele-
vated temperatures. Prosser (1955) discusses four possible death mechanisms,
although he does not attach specific temperature values to various death
processes. These are: an enzyme inactivity caused by the acceleration of
30
-------
31
the enzyme reaction to such a state that it is no longer effective; coagula-
tion of cell proteins; melting of cell fats; reduction in the permeability
of cell membranes. Cells may also be killed by toxic action of the products
of metabolism and, incomplete metabolism accumulating in the cells (Ellis,
19U7).
According to Brett (i960), temperature acts in a variety of different
ways; it can be lethal, cause a reduction of activity, and limit reproduction.
The slow rate of acclimation appears to result in greater mortalities from
cold despite the ability of fish to withstand lower temperatures.
Sudden Temperature Changes
The effect of thermal shock on fish can be more harmful than continued
exposure to a higher temperature (Cairns, 1956). In studies with rainbow
trout, Threinen (1958) found that death /would result from an instantaneous
or rapid increase (shock) of U.1°C (20°F) above an acclimation temperature
of 12.2°C (5^°F), however, a similar increase of 8.4°C (l5°F) could be
tolerated from a temperature of 10.6 C (51 F). A rise of the acclimation
temperature from 12.2 to l8.lj°C (5U-65°F) during a 2U-hour period permitted
trout to withstand a temperature of 23.^ C (7^ F) with only minor distress
for short periods.
Fish having the ability to adapt to higher temperatures faster and
over a larger gradient often are attracted to artificially heated water with-
out a resultant mortality. However, mortality often results when these fish
-------
32
return to cold water. Agersborg (1930) found fish dying when they attempted
to return from heated water (26.1°C - 79°F) to the colder stream (0°C - 32°F);
death occurred even when fish moved into water that was 5.6°C (10°F) cooler.
Falkner and Houston (1966) found that the mean erythrocytic (red blood cell)
volume underwent a transient decrease while total blood iron (and presumably
haemoglobin and mean erythrocytic iron content) fell slightly after goldfish
which had been acclimated to 20°C (68°F) were subjected to an abrupt increase
of 10°C (l8°F). Heinicke and Houston (1965) concluded that while thermal
shock induces initial deviations in iono- and osmoregulatory ability the
goldfish can compensate for these changes during the acclimation period
through respiratory activities, and restore its original ionic status.
A rise in temperature from 10°C to 20°C (50-68°F) reduced resistance
to a decrease in oxygen in perch, roach, and mirrorcarp. In rainbow trout
the resistance was lowered considerably between a rise in temperature from
10°C to 16°C (50-60.8°F) (Downing and Merkens, 1957).
Acclimation
The importance of acclimation temperatures has long been known to
fish hatchery personnel and physiologists working on lethal temperatures.
Much of the work on lethal temperatures is of little value because holding
temperatures and durations are not given. Springtime mortalities often re-
sult from fish being subjected to warmer water temperature after acclimation
to cold winter temperatures.
-------
33
Doudorof£ in Brown (l951\ discussing the work of Pry, et al.,
and Fry (19^7) concludes that fish could stand brief exposures to considerably
higher temperatures without showing distress when they had been acclimated to
the maximum possible temperature. However, the fish suffered mortality when
they had been acclimated to low temperatures. Similarly, Doudoroff in dis-
cussing the work of Hart (1952) noted considerable geographic, seasonal, and
other variations of the resistance to heat of some species of fish acclimated
to the same temperature.
Doudoroff in discussing the rate of acclimation summarized the work
of many workers and concluded that the increased heat resistance (the ability
to withstand increased water temperatures) is acquired usually at a very fast
rate in the high temperature range from 26°C to 30°C (T8.8-86.0°F) although
there may be a latent period of one or longer days in which virtually no
change takes place in the upper lethal temperatures. Most of the resulting
increase was achieved in a period of one to three days. There was little
or no loss of resistance in the first three days. Thus, if a fish has
acquired a higher heat resistance it will not be lost rapidly on subsequent
exposures to low temperatures.
Jones (196^) in discussing the work of Sumner and Wells noted that the
tolerance to high temperatures once acquired may persist for considerable
periods after return of the fish to the acclimation temperature. The time
-------
of acclimation need not be continuous. An intermittent exposure to a
different temperature for sufficient hours per day can produce the same
acclimation temperature as a continuous exposure.
The acclimation of fish is important in determining the maximum en-
vironmental temperature in which fish can survive. Jones (1964) discusses
how the resistance time shortens with a progressive rise in temperature until
the fish succumbs to an ultimate lethal temperature. As the acclimation
temperature rises the. thermal death point rises, but it rises at a slower
rate. Accordingly, experiments on roach show that for every 3-degrees rise
in acclimation temperature the thermal death point rises only 1-degree C.(l.8 F).
Maximum Temperatures
Maximum temperatures have been determined for numerous species of
fish (Table 2_). Tnese temperatures are important in determining the absolute
temperature at which a fish can survive, but they are often higher than the
maximum temperature at which a population can survive.
Alabaster (1962) found that heated effluents, by virtue of their
high temperatures only, may be lethal to caged trout and coarse fish
acclimated to normal river temperatures during the summer and may also
occasionally kill free-living fish which are near effluent outfalls when
temperatures increase rapidly. Small free-living fish are principally
affected, large fish apparently are able to swim away to safety. He con-
cludes further that where the water temperature of the whole river is above
normal because of mixing with continuous discharge of heated effluent,
-------
35
TABLE 2
TOLERANCE LIMITS FOR CERTAIN FISHES
Values are LD5Q temperature tolerance limits, i.e., water temperatures
survived by 50 percent of the test animals. Counts were made by observing
or estimating the number killed during exposure, or within a reasonable time
thereafter in which it could be safely assumed that all deaths were attributable
to the temperature effects.
(This Table Taken in Part From Anon., 1962)
Lower ijimTCUpper limit
FiSh O,-, /O-ciN Or> f °-C<\ -rr O
C (°F) Hr °C (°F) Hr
Bass , largemouth
(Micropjterus salmoides
f loridanus )
Bluegill (Lepomis
macrochirus macrochirus )
Bluegill (L. macrochirus
purpurescens)
Bullhead (Ameiurus n.
nebulosus, A. n.
narmoratus )
Catfish, channel
(ictalurus lacustris
20.0°C
30.0°C
10.0°C
30.08C
15.0°C
30.0°C
20.0°C
30.0°C
15.0°C
25.0°C
(68
(86
(50
(86
(59
(86
(68
(86
(59
(77
.0°F)
.0°F)
.O°F)
.0°F)
.0°F)
.0°F)
-0°F)
,0°F)
.0°F)
.0°F)
5.0°C
11.0°C
3.0°C
11.0°C
1.0°C
7.0°C
0.0°C
6.o°c
(41
(51
(37
(51
(33
(44
(32
(42
.0°F)
.8°F)
.4°F)
.8°F)
.8°F)
.6°F)
.0°?)
.6 .-')
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
32.0°C
24.0°C
29.0°C
36.0°C
?,1.0°C
34.o°c
32.0°C
35.o°c
30.o'c
34.o°c
(89
(93
(82
(96
(87
(93
(89
(95
(86
(93
.6°F)
.2°F)
.4°F)
.9°F)
.8°F)
.2°F)
.6°F)
.0°F)
.0°F)
.2°F)
72
72
24
24
60
60
96
96
24
24
lacustris, I.I punctatus)
Chub, creek (Semotilus
a. at romaculatus )
5
25
Dace, blacknose (Rhinich- 5
thys a. atratulus, R.a. 25
meleagris )
Goldfish (Carassius
auratus )
Greenfish (girella
nigricans)
Killifish (Fundulus
heteroclitusl
Minnow, fathead
(Pimephales promelas)
Minnow, blunt-nose
(Hyborhyncnus notatus)
2
24
37
12
18
14
20
20
30
15
25
.0°C
.0°C
.o°c
.o°c
.o°c
.o°c
.o°c
.o°c
.o°c
.o°c
.o°c
.o°c
.o°c
.o°c
,o°c
(41
(77
(41
(77
(35
(62
(75
98
(53
(64
(57
(68
(68
(96
(59
(77
.0°F)
.0°F)
.0°F)
.0°F)
.6°F)
.6°F)
.2°F)
.6°F)
.68F)
.4°F)
.2°F)
.0°F)
.0°F)
.0°F)
.0°F)
.0°F)
5.0°C
0.0°C
5.0°C
15.0°C
5.0°C
13.0°C
1.0°C
2.0°C
2.0°C
1.0°C
8.0°C
(41
(32
(41
59
(41
(55
(33
(35
(35
(51
(33
(46
.0°F)
.O°F)
.O°F)
.O°F)
.0°F)
.4°F)
.8°F)
.6°F)
.6°F)
.88F)
.8°F)
.4°F)
24
14
14
14
120
72
48
48
24
24
24
24
25.0°C
32.0°C
30.0°C
29.0°C
28.0°C
34.0°C
(77.0°F)
(89.6°F)
(8o.6°F)
(84.2°F)
(82.4°F)
(93.2°F)
36.0°c (96.8°F)
42.o0c(l07.68F)
30.o°c (86.0°F)
31.0°C (87.8°F)
32.0°C
34.o°c
32.0°C
33«0°C
31.0°C
33-0°C
(89.6°F)
(93-2°F)
(89.6°F)
(9l.4°F)
(87.8°F)
(9l.4°F)
96
96
340
340
14
14
14
14
120
120
133
133
133
133
-------
TABLE 2, Continued
36
Fish
Acclimated to
°r" ( °TP\
v \ £ /
Lower Limit
O/i / O-ri \
u \ -T /
Hr
Upper Limit
°C (°F)
Hr
Mosquito fish 15.0°C
(Grambusia affinis 35.0°C
affinis, G.a. holbroki)
Perch (Perca flavescens) 5«0°C
Winter 25.0°C
Summer
Shad, gizzard
(Dprosoma cepedianum)
Shiner, common
(Uptropis cornutus
frontalis)
Shiner, common
(Notropic .cornutus
chrysocephalus)
Shiner, lake
(N. atherinoides)
25.0°C
25.0°C
35.0°C
5-0°C
25.0°C
30.0°C
25.0°C
30.0°C
5.0°C
15.0°c
25.0°C
Shiner, golden 20.0°C
(Notemigonus c. 30.0°C
crysoleucas, N.c, auratus)
Sucker, common 15-0°C
(Catostomus commersoni) 25.0°C
Sunfish
(Lepomis gibbosus)
10.0°C
30.o°c
(59.
(95.
0°F) 2.0°C (35.6°F) 2lf 35.0°C (95.0°F) -66
0°F) I5.o°c (59.0°F) 2k 37.0°c (98.6°F) ,66
(Ul.O°F) 21.0°C (69.8°F) 96
(77.0°F) k.O°C (39.2°F) 2k 30.0°C (86.0°F) 96
(77.0'F) 9.0°c (U8.2°F) 2k 32.o°c (89.6°F) 96
(77.0°F) 11.0°C (51-8°F)
(95.0°F) 20.0°c (68.0°F) 2k 37.o°c (98.6°F) kQ
2k 3k.O°C (93.2°F)
(Ul.O°F)
(77.0°F)
(86.0°F) 8.0°c (U6.
(77.0°F)
(86.o°F)
27-0°C (80.6°F) 133
k.o°c (39-2°F) 2k 31.0°C (87.8°F) 133
!•) 2k 3l.O°C (87.8°F) 133
32.0°C (89.6°F) 133
3U.O°C (93.2°F) 133
(ifl.O°F)
).0°P)
23.0°C (73.U°F) 133
(59.0°F) 2.0°C (35.6°F) 2k 29.0°C (84.2°F) 133
(77.0°F) 8.0°c (U6J
Trout, brook 3.0°C (37.J
(Salvelinus fontinalis) 20.0°C (68.0°F)
25.0°C (77.0°F)
2k 3i.o°c (87.8°F) 133
(68.0°F) 8.o°c (k6.k*F] 2k 32.o°c (89.6°F) 66
(86.0°F) 11.0°C (51.8°F) 2k 35.0°C (95.0°F) 66
(59-0°F)
(77.0°F) 5.o°c fUl.O°p) 2k 29.o°c (84.2°F) 133
(50.0°F) 28.0°C (82.U°F) 2k
(86.0°F) 2k.O°C (75.2°F) 2k
23.0°C (73.U°F) 133
25.0°C (77»0°F) 133
25.0°C f77.0°F) 133
-------
37
coarse fish populations may "be reduced locally when the mean daily tem-
perature reaches 30°C (86°F) and increased when the water is not warmed
to more than 26°C (T8.8°F).
Wells (191^) concluded that the resistance of fish to temperature
varies with species and size of fish. There is no definite maximum tem-
perature for a given species of fish; it varies with the fish's rate of
heating, size, and physiological condition.
A temperature need not kill the fish directly for it to be lethal.
Brook trout were found to be comparatively slow in catching minnows at
1?.2°C (63°F) and virtually incapable of catching minnows at 21°C (TO°F).
This resulted in the trout virtually starving to death (Anon., 1962).
As a maximum temperature for cold water fishes the Pennsylvania
Department of Health recommends*: that no wastes or waters shall be added
from any source having temperatures in excess of that of the receiving
waters except that during the period October through May, when stream
temperatures are below 1^.5°C (58°F) the temperature of wastes discharged
to the streams shall not exceed lk.5°C (58°F). To allow for the normal
production of aquatic life in warm water lakes and streams it is recommended
that water temperatures resulting from thermal discharge shall not exceed
* Anon., 1962. Heated discharges . . . their effect on streams. Rep. by
the Advisory Committee for the control of stream temperatures to the
Pa. Sanitary Water Board. Pa. Dept. Health, Harrisburg, Publ. No. 3,
108 pp.
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38
30 C (93 F) exclusive of the required mixing zone and in no case shall this
peak temperature prevail for more than eight hours in any 2U-hour period.
Preferred Temperature
It is generally acknowledged that fish can live for short periods
of time in higher than normal temperatures, but at these temperatures fish
cannot perpetuate their populations. Pish are extremely sensitive to tem-
perature and seek out the temperature that is best for their survival.
The temperature that fish seek out is termed "preferred temperature;" these
are listed for several species of fish in Tables 3 and h and Figures U and 5.
Windermere char eggs hatched in U5 days at 10°C (50°F), and in 95
days at k°C (39.2°F) (Swift, 1965). Mortality to some extent occurred at
8°C (U6.U°F), with total mortality occurring at 12°C (53.6°F).
Ferguson (1958) concluded that the level of thermal acclimation in-
fluences the range of temperature preferred. In general, the preferred
temperature is considerably higher than the acclimation temperature at
lower thermal acclimations, but this difference decreases up to the final
preferred temperature where both coincide. A final preferred temperature
and the relation between acclimation and preferred temperature is charac-
teristic for the species.
Tarzwell (1957) concluded that while temperatures higher than the
optimum, and high temperatures of short duration, 23.9 to 2?.8°C (75 to 82°F),
-------
39
TABLE 3
THE FINAL TEMPF.RATUKE PKEFERENDA FOR VARIOUS SPECIES OF FISH
AS DETERMINED BY LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
Young of the Year or Yearling Fish Were Used, Except as Noted.
(This Table Taken in Part From Ferguson, 1958)
Species
Final
Preferendum
Authority
Bluegill
(Lepomis macrochirus)
Bass, Largemouth
(Micropterus salmoides)
Carp
(Cyprinus carpio)
Pumpkinseed
(Lepomis gibbosus)
Goldfish
(Carasjius auratus)
Bass, Smallmouth
(Micropterus dolomieu)
Grass Pickeral
(ESOX vermiculatus)
Yellow Perch
(Perca flavescens)
Muskellange
(ESOX masquinongy)
Burbot
(Lota lota lacustris)
Yellow Perch
(Perca flavescens)
Brown Trout
(Salmo trutta)
Brook Trout
(Salvelinus fontinalis)
Rainbow Trout
(Salmo gairdnerii)
Lake Whitefish
(Coregonus clupeaformis)
32.3°C
(90.1°F)
30.0-32.0°C
(86-89. 6°F)
32.0°C
(89.6°F)
31.5°C
(88.7°F)
28.l°c
(78.8°F)
28.o°c
(82.1f°F)
26.6°c
(78.8°F)
(75.6°F)
(75.2°F)
21.2°C
(70.2°F)
21.0°C
(69.8°F)
(57.2~60.8°F)
13.6°C
(56.5°F)
Fry and Pearson
(MS, 1952)
Fry
(MS, 1950)
Pitt, Garside and Hepburn
(1956)
Anderson
(MS, 1951)
Fry
Fry
(MS, 1950)
Berst and Lapworth
(MS, 1950)
Ferguson
(1958)
Jackson and Price
(MS,
Grossman, Ireyawa and Pecicock
(MS, 1953)
McCracken and Starkma
(MS,
Tait
(MS, 1958)
Graham
12.7°C
Garside and Tait
(MS, 1958)
Tompkins and Fraser
(MS, 1950)
Lake Trout
(Salvelinus namaycuch)
12.0°C
(53-6°F)
McCauley and Tait
(MS, 1956)
-------
TABLE k
FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON VARIOUS SPECIES OF FISH
AND ASSOCIATED TEMPERATURES
Some temperatures are estimates derived from Ferguson's tabled or figured
data. August distributions and temperatures were used wherever possible. These
figures represent the temperature of the w ater strata in which the fish seemed
to concentrate. It is judged these represent preferred natural temperature.
(This Table Taken in Part from Ferguson, 1958)
Species Temperature
Bass, Largemouth 26. 6-27. 7 °C
(Micropterus .s^Jnoides) (80.0-8l.9°F)
Bass, Spotted 23.5-2l*.l*°C
(Microjpterus punctulatus) (7l*.l-75.9°F)
Walleye 20.6°C
(Stizostedion v. vitreum) (69.1°F)
Walleye 22. 7-23. 2 °C
(Stizostedion v. vitreum) (72.9-73-8°?)
Gizzard Shad 22.5-23.0°C
(Dorosoma cepedianum) (72,5-73.1*°F)
Freshwater Drum 21. 6-22. 2 °C
fAplodinotus grunniens ) (70 . 9-72 . 0 °F )
Rock Bass ll*.7-21.3°C
(Ambloplites rupestris) ( 58 . 5-70 . 3 °F )
Rock Bass 20.7°C
(Ambloplites rupestris) (69.3°F)
Yellow Perch 21.2°C
(Perca flavescens) (70.2°F)
Yellow Perch 2l.O°C
(Perca flavescens) (69.8°F)
Yellow Perch 12.2°C
(Perca flavescens, small) (5l*.0°F)
Yellow Perch 20.2°C
(Perca flavescens, larger) (68.1*°F)
Water
Norris
Reservoir
Norris
Reservoir
Trout
Lake
Norris
Reservoir
Norris
Reservoir
Norris
Reservoir
Lakes
Streams
Lake
Opeongo
Costello
Lake
Muskellunge
Lake
Muskellunge
Lake
Location
Tennessee
Tennessee
Wi scons in
Tennessee
Tennessee
Tennessee
Wisconsin
S. Ontario
Ontario
Ontario
Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Author
Dendy
19^8
Dendy
Hile and
Juday, 1<
Dendy
191*8
Dendy
Dendy
Hile and
Juday, 1<
Hallara
1958
Present
Work
Present
Work
Hile and
Juday, IS
Hile and
Juday, 1£
-------
TABLE k, continued
Species Temperature
V7ater
Location
Author
Yellow Perch 20. 2° C
(Perca flavescens, larger) (68;^°F)
21.0°C
(69.8°F)
20.8°C
(69.5°F)
19.7 °c
(67.5°F)
Bass, Smallmouth 20.3-21.3°C
(Micropterus dolomieui) (68.5-70.3°F)
21. VC
(70.5°F)
Sauger l8.6-19.2°C
(Stizostedion canadense ) (65.1-66.6°F)
Brook Trout llf.2-20.3°C
(Salvelinus fontinalis) (57.6-68.5°F)
15.7°C
(60.3°F)
" " 12.0-20.0°C
(53.6-68.0°F)
Mottled Sculpin l6.5°C
(Cottus bairdii) (6l.7°F)
Brook Trout x Lake Trout 13.1°C
(Salvelinus hybrid) (55.6°F)
White Sucker 11.8-20.6°C
(Catostomus commer sonnii ) (53.3-69.1°F)
White Sucker
(Catostomus c. lU.l-l8.3°C
commersonnii) (57.1f_64.9°F)
Round Whitefish 13. 9- 17. 5 °C
(Prosopium cylindraceum) (57.0-63.5°F)
Alewife h.h- 8.8°C
(Pomolobus pseudoharengus) (39. 9-1*7 .8°F)
Silver
Lake
Nebish
Lake
Trout
Lake
Lake
Nipissing
Nebish
Lake
Streams
Norris
Reservoir
Moosehead
Lake
Streams
Redrock
Lake
Streams
Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Ontario
Wisconsin
R. Ontario
Tennessee
Maine
S. Ontario
Ontario
S . Ontario
Jack L. Ontario
Sproule Lake
Musk, Trout
Silver
Moosehead
Lake
Moosehead
Lake
Cayuga
Lake
Wisconsin
Maine
Maine
New York
Hile and
Juday, 19^1
Hile and
Juday, 19^1
Hile and
Juday, 19^1
Present
Work
Hile and
Juday, 19^1
Hallam
1958
Bendy
19U8
Cooper and
Fuller
Hallam
1958
Baldwin
19*48
Hallam
1958
Martin and
Baldwin, 1958
Hile and
Juday, 19Ul
Cooper and
Fuller, 19^5
Cooper and
Fuller, 19^5
Galligan
1951
-------
TABLE U , continued
1*2
Species
Lake Trout
(Salvelinus naraaycush)
tt ii
it ti
it it
American Smelt
(Osmerus mordax)
it it
Temperature
10. 0-15. 5 °C
(50.0-59.0°F)
lk.O°C
(57.2°F)
n.o-ii.5°c
(51.8-52 .?°F)
8.0-10.0°C
(46.1f-50.0°F)
12.8°C
(55.0°F)
6.6- 8.3°C
(^3.9-47.9^)
Lake Whitefish 11.4-11.9°C
(Coregonus clupeaf ormis ) (52. 5-53. 5 °P)
Longnose Sucker
(Catostoimis catostomus)
Burbot
(Lota lota maculqsa)
Coregonys
(Leucichthys artedi)
ii ti
(Cisco or Lake Herring)
ll.o-ll.6°c
(51.8-53-0°F)
io.8-ii.U°c
(51.4-52. 5°F)
8.0-10.0°C
(46.4-50.0°F)
5.5- 7.2°C
(4l.9-44.8°F)
Water
Cayuga
Lake
White
Lake
Moosehead
Lake
Louisa
Redrock
Lake
Charaplain
Cayuga
Lake
Moosehead
Lake
Moosehead
Lake
Moosehead
Lake
Lake
Nipissing
Cayuga
Lake
Location
New York
Ontario
Maine
Ontario
New York
New York
Maine
Maine
Maine
Ontario
New York
Author
Galligan
1951
Kennedy
19^1
Cooper and
Fuller, 19^5
Martin
1952
Greene
1930
Galligan
1951
Cooper and
Fuller, 19^5
Cooper and
Fuller, 19^5
Cooper and
Fuller, 19^5
Fry
1937
Galligan
1951
-------
U_
o
82.4
78.8
75.2
71.6
68.0
iu 64.4
cc
5 60'8
QL
S 57.2
S
LU
h- 53.6
50.0
46.4
42.8
FIGURE 4
o
o
I
LU
ID
H
Cd
LU
a.
2
LU
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
8
APLODINOTUS GRUNN1ENS
(FRESHWATER DRUM)
tMOTTLED SCULPIN)
COTTUS BAIRDIJ
•(WHITE LAKE ONTARIO)-
SALVELINUS NAMAYCUSH
(LAKE TROUT)
(CAYUGA LAKE)
(MOOSEHEAD LAKE)
LOUISA
REDROCK LAKES
MICROPTERUS SALMOIDES
BASS)
MICROPTERUS PUNCTULATUS
(SPOTTED BASS) j
(SMALLMOUTH BASS)
-C M. DOLOMIEU ~
-C AMBLOPTTTETS SP.
(ROCK BASS)
PROSOPIUM CYLINDRACEUM
QUADRILATER1.E
ROUND WHITEFISH
SALVELINUS HYBRID
CORE60NUS CLUPEAFORMIS
(LAKE WHITEFISH)
COREGONUS (WHITEFISH)
(LAKE NIPISSING)
COREGONUS (WHITEFISH)
(CAYUGA LAKE)
FIELD OBSERVATIONS OF FISH AND ASSOCIATED TEMPERATURES
DURING MIDSUMMER (AUGUST MOSTLY). THE DEPTH OF EACH
RECTANGLE CORRESPONDS TO THE TEMPERATURE RANGE. POINTERS
ON LATERALLY ROUNDED FIGURES REPRESENT A DERIVED AVERAGE.
VERTICAL RELATIONS ONLY ARE IMPORTANT (FERGUSON, 1958),
-------
lAJ
82.4 28
78.8 26
75 2 24
16 22
fiR O PO
\J O . \y . . c. w
fid. 4 i IP
O t .T- | 1 0
6O.8 £ 16
-^
_/
C -» /> ^f t jt
57.2
-------
1*5
may not kill trout they produce environmental conditions favorable for the
production of coarse fish.
One unusual set of data collected on preferred temperatures of rainbow
trout by Garside and Tait (1958) showed that the preferred temperatures were
inversely related to the acclimation temperature. They state, "Fish cannot
lose heat because they must pass considerable quantities of water through
their respiratory system in order to compensate for the low quantities of
dissolved oxygen contained in waters possessing a higher temperature. With
the animal passing higher quantities of heated water across their gills the
body temperature of the animal must rise."
Effect ofTemperature on Toxicity
Effects of artificially induced temperature changes can result in
fish mortalities; as temperature increases the toxiclty of certain
materials increases.
The Prevention Subcommittee of the Central Water Committee, Ministry
of Health, England, (Anon., 19^9) states, "...increase in temperature also
increases the lethal effect of toxic substances to fish." For example a
rise in temperature from 8°C (1*-6°F) to l8°C (6V"F) approximately doubled the
toxicity of a low concentration of potassium cyanide.
The toxicity of chloride concentrations has been shown to be dependent
on temperature. The temperature has a significant effect on the time of
both initial and final mortalities, the rate of mortality, and the duration
-------
of the mortality for rainbow trout. It has been postulated that the metabolic
rate of the fish, which affects the rate to which fluoride is toxic to rainbow
trout, is affected by the increased temperature of the fish, Angelovic (1961).
Benefits
Trembley (i960) concluded that most fish species are attracted to and
invade heated water areas from late September until early June. Attraction
to heated water has been observed in England, and has been reported frequently
in America. This adds to the recreational value of localized areas, because
angling can be continued throughout the winter when there may be little or no
fishing in other areas. Trembley found that one of the disadvantages to
providing winter fishing is that fish leave the heated-water zone in the
hot summer months.
Another benefit of artificially induced temperature changes is the
production of trout and other cold water fish in the reach downstream from
reservoirs. Low level penstock discharges from stratified reservoirs often
lowers the temperature in the receiving stream to 12.8°C (55°F) and it may
not exceed 20°C (68°F) even in summer (Mackenthun et al.,
-------
Summary
1. Warm water fish can survive temporarily in waters heated artificially
to 33-9°C (93°F)j even at. 30°C (86°F) coarse fish populations, such
as roach, perch, gudgeon, tench and carp, are reduced. In cold weather,
stream temperature should be substantially below 33-9°C (93 F) to
prevent mortalities when fish move through excessive stream gradients.
2. Streams supporting cold water non-anadromous fish populations should
not receive heated effluents that will raise receiving stream tempera-
tures above 1^.5 C (58 F). In cold weather, stream temperature should
be below l4.5°C (58°F) to prevent mortalities.
3. Sudden changes in temperature can be more harmful to some species o^
fish than continued exposure to a higher temperature.
k. Fish can adapt to higher temperatures faster than to lower temperatures.
5. The maximum temperature for a given species of fish varies with the fish's
rate of heating, size, and physiological condition.
6. Fish may starve at elevated temperatures because of their inability to
capture food.
T. Fish seek out a preferred temperature at which they can best survive
which is several degrees below their lethal temperature.
8. The toxic effects to fish of certain materials increase with tempera-
ture.
9. Certain benefits, including open water winter fishing in otherwise
ice covered areas and a cold water fisheries downstream from reservoirs,
can be derived from artificially induced temperature changes. The
-------
benefits of fish being attracted to heated water in the winter
months may be negligible compared to fish mortalities that may
result when the fish return to the cooler water; lethal tempera-
tures may result from heated discharges in"the summer months.
-------
REFERENCES CITED
Agersborg, H. P. K. , 1930. The influence of temperature on fish. Ecology,
11(1) : 136-1M4-.
Alabaster, J. S., 1962. The effect of heated effluents on fish.
Internat. Conf. on Water Poll. Resrch., London, 1962. Air and Water
Poll. 7(6/7): 5^1-563, 1963. Bio. Abstr. , 14.5(13), Abstr. No. 5^305,
Angelovic, J. W. , W. F. Sigler, and J. M. Neuhold. Temperature and fluorosis
in rainbow trout. Jour. Water Poll. Control Fed., 33: 371-381, Apr.
Anon., 19^9. Discharge of heated liquids into streams. Rep. of Rivers Poll.
Prevention Sub -Commit tee of the Central Water Committee, Minist. of Health,
England, pp. 69-76.
Anon, 1962. Heated discharges . . . their effect on streams. Rep. by the
Advisory Committee for the control of stream temperatures to the Pa. Sanitary
Water Board. Pa. Dept. Health, Harrisburg, Publ. No. 3, 108 pp.
Brett, J. R. , I960. Thermal requirements of fish - three decades of study,
191*0-1970. Bio. Problems in Water Poll. , Trans. 1959 Seminar, Robert A.
Taft Sanitary Engng. Center Tech. Rep. W60-3, Cincinnati, pp. 110-117.
Brown, M. E. , 1957. The physiology of fishes. Vol. I. Metabolism. Vol. II.
Behavior. Academic Press.
Cairns, 3., Jr., 1956. Effect of heat on fish. Indus. Wastes, 1(5):
180-183.
Downing, K. M. , and C. J. Merkens, 1957. The influence of temperatures on
the survival of several species of fish in low tensions of dissolved oxygen.
Ann. Appl. Bio., ^5(2): 261-267.
Ellis, M. M. , 1914-7. Temperature and fishes. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv, ,
Fish Leaflet 221.
Falkner, N. W. , and A. H. Houston, 1966. Some haematological responses to
sublethal thermal shock in the goldfish, Carassius auritus L. Jour. Fish.
Resch. Bd. Can., 23(8): 1109-1120.
-------
50
Ferguson, R. G. , 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their mid-
summer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. Jour. Fish Resch.
Bd. Can., 15: 607-62k. Spo. Fish. Abstr., Ml), Abstr. No. 2275, 1959-
Fry, F. E. J. , 19^7. Effects of the environment on animal activity.
Univ. of Toronto Study Bio. Ser. 55: Publ. Ont. Fish. Resch. Lab.,
68: 1-62.
Fry, F. E. J. , J. S. Hart, and K. F» Walker, 19^6. Lethal temperature
relations for a sample of young speckled trout, Salvelinus fontinalis,
Univ. Toronto Stud. Bio. Ser. 5^, Publ. Ont. .Fish Resch. Lab., 66: 1-35.
Garside, E. T., and J. S. Tait, 1958. Preferred temperature of rainbow
trout (Sjalmo gairdrieri Richardson) and its unusual relationship to acclima-
tion temperature. Can. Jour. Zool., 36: 563. Spo. Fish. Abstr., 3(3) }
Abstr. No. 1676, 1958.
Heinicke, E. A., and A. H. Houston, 1965. Effect of thermal acclimation
and sublethal heat shock upon ionic regulation in the goldfish Carassius
auratus L. , Jour. Fish Resch. Bd. Can., 22(6): 1^55-1476.
Jones, J. R. E., 1964. Thermal pollution: the effect of heated effluents.
Fish and River Pollution, Chap. 13: 153-168, Butterworth and Co., Ltd.,
Washington, D. C.
Mackenthun, K. M. , W. M. Ingraza, and R. Porges, 196U. Limnological aspects
of recreational lakes. U. S. Dept. of Health, Educ. and Welfare, GPO
176 pp.
Prosser, C. L., 1955* Physiological variations in animals. Bio. Rev.,
30(3)i 229-262.
Swift, D. R., 1965. Effect of temperature on mortality and rate of
development of the eggs of the Windermere Char (Salvelinus alpinus ) .
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada,
Tarzwell, C. M. , 1957. Water quality criteria for aquatic life. In:
Biological Problems in Water Pollution. Robert A. Taft Sanit. Engng.
Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 2U6-272.
Threinen, C. W. , 1958. Cause of mortality of a midsummer plant of rainbow
trout in a southern Wisconsin lake, with notes on acclimation and lethal
temperatures. Prog. Fish. Cult., 20: 27. Spo. Fish. Abstr., 3(2), Abstr.
No. 15^3, 1958.
-------
5L
Trembley, F. J,, I960. Research project on effects of condenser dis-
charge water on aquatic life, progress report, 1956 to 1959. Inst.
of Resch., Lehigh Univ., 15^ pp. Water Poll. Abstr., 3^(ll), Abstr.
No. 2157, 1961.
Wells, M. M., 191k. Resistance and reactions of fishes to temperature,
Trans. Illinois Acad. Sci., J: ^8-59.
-------
IV. MARINE, ESTUARIHE AND ANADROMOUS FISHES
Introduction
Because a growing demand for electricity supplied by steam or nuclear
generators has increased the need for ample water, both for cooling and
thermal waste assimilation, larger areas of fresh and marine waters will
receive significant temperature elevations (Mihursky and Kennedy, 1967).
Future emphasis will be away from the use of inland waters, toward the uti-
lization of estuarine and marine resources (Naylor, 1965). The protection
of fishes in the estuarine and marine areas, as well as anadromous fishes that
must move through areas of heated water is becoming an increasing problem.
General Temperature Effects
Researchers,, studying the effects of fluctuating temperatures on
fishes, have taken two approaches: one method of study is to observe the
reactions of fishes in their natural habitat; the other method is to remove
representative samples of fish from the natural habitat to the laboratory
and observe them under selected test conditions. Both methods of study have
been used equally well.
Physiology
The physiology of fishes is directly affected by temperature. Fishes
are classed as poikilothermus or animals whose body temperature follows
-------
53
changes in environmental temperatures rapidly and precisely. In such animals
the factors favoring heat loss tend to equal the factors producing body heat
and the "body temperature approaches environmental temperature (Prosser, et al.,
1950; Kinne, 1963). In a majority of fishes the body temperature differs from
that of the surrounding water by only 0.5-1.0°C (0.9-1.8°F) (Nikolsky, 1963).
Therefore, one of the fundamental requirements of fishes is that the external
temperature must "be best suited to internal tissues (Brett, 1956). Cells
exposed to heat undergo an increase in the viscosity of protoplasm. This
increase is reversible to a point beyond which heat death occurs (Gunter, 1957).
Various functions of an organism, such as reproduction, locomotion and growth
may have different temperature ranges and these ranges should be known in
order to evaluate the effects of temperature on that organism (Kinne, 1963).
For example, according to Kinne (1963) and Naylor (1965), marine and brackish
water organisms may increase or decrease osmotic regulation as a function of
temperature.
Temperature fluctuations act on an organism in a variety of ways:
a) metabolic rates are changed, b) reproduction is affected, c) distribution
may be increased or decreased and d) tolerance limits are widened or narrowed.
Metabolism
Rates of metabolism and activity increase with increasing temperatures
over most of the tolerated temperature range and then often cease suddenly
near the upper lethal temperature. Such rates vary with different species,
-------
processes and levels or ranges of temperature and may be modified "by salinity
and oxygen factors (Kinne, 1963). Changes in metabolic rates, because of
temperature fluctuations, may be signaling factors for spawning or migra-
tion (Nikolsky, 1963).
Reproduction
The effects of temperature on reproduction in many animals are con-
fined to narrower ranges than the majority of functions (Kinne, 1963 and
Gunter, 1957). Most marine animals have restricted temperatures for breeding.
Rising temperatures in the spring induce development of the gonads and actual
spawning takes place when a certain temperature level is reached, which varies
for different species. Some fish spawn on a drop in temperature while others
respond to a rise in temperature (Gunter, 1957). Because of narrow breeding
requirements the survival of a species in heated waters does not preclude
the possibility that the species may be prevented from breeding and may exist
in an area by continued recruitment from outside (Naylor, 1965).
Development
Temperature changes affect fish development in several ways. Meristic
characters and shape may be changed as well as embryonic development. Low
temperatures slow down development and in some cases many marine and brackish
water animals attain a larger final size because of their slow, long continued
growth rather than rapid growth (Kinne, 1963).
-------
55
Distribution and Ecology
Since temperature is the most important single factor governing the
occurrence and behavior of life, it not only affects the distribution of a
single species, it may also modify the species composition of a community
or an ecosystem (Gunter, 1957 and KLnne, 1963). Tropical and subtropical
fishes are more stenothermal (tolerate a narrow range of temperatures) than
those of boreal and higher latitudes and marine forms are more stenothermal
than fresh water ones (Nikolsky, 1963). In his publication on temperature
effects on marine organisms Naylor (1965) noted that estuarine foims were
more tolerant of heated effluents than marine forms and littoral species,
and concluded that some coldwater stenothermal forms may be eliminated by
heated discharges and some eurythermal (tolerate a wide range of temperatures)
species may be increased. He also noted that temperature effects seem to
be more pronounced in enclosed areas of estuaries and bays, while heat
effects in open estuaries are least striking. In tropical areas, species
live close to their thermal limits and effects of heated effluents are more
pronounced, while in northern (Arctic) areas species may be 13 to 16 C
(23.^ to 28.8 F) below their death temperatures and may not be as severely
affected.
By testing species in the laboratory Brett (1956) noted that a slow
rate of decrease in environmental temperature is of greater importance for
-------
56
maintaining life than a slow rate of increase. Lethal cold can be more
important than lethal heat as a factor limiting the distribution of marine
fish and as a hazard to some in their native habitats (Doudoroff, 1957).
Acclimation
The capacity to acclimate depends on the genetic background, en-
vironmental history and present physiological condition and age of the
organism involved (Kinne, 1963). For example, the resistance of animals
to cold is much more variable than resistance to heat and resistance to cold
varies with size, smaller fish resisting best (Gunter, 1957).
Acclimation to different temperatures may involve changes in orienta-
tion, migration, and other behavioral aspects such as territorialism as
well as biological rhythms (Kinne, 1963). In his experiments with marine
fishes, Doudoroff (1957) noted that acclimatization to heat may be acquired
very rapidly, the speed varying with heat. Also, brief or intermittent
exposure to high temperatures can result in markedly increased resistance
to heat which is not readily lost on subsequent exposure to low temperatures.
However, it is the rapidity of the onset of low temperatures that probably
causes death, outstripping the ability of fish to acclimate and resulting
in greater mortalities that are due to cold in nature (Brett, I960). Deaths
resulting from the inability of fish to rapidly acclimate to lowering temp-
eratures have been reported by Gunter and Hildebrand (1951) and Galloway (1951).
-------
57
According to Kinne (1963) acclimation to low temperature usually tends to
shift the lower thermal limits downward and acclimation to high temperatures
tends to shift the upper limits upward. As a result the ability to acclimate
affects the temperature ranges that a fish can tolerate.
Tolerance
The temperature tolerance of fish varies with their development,
area of distribution and physiology. As noted earlier, estuarine forms are
more tolerant of heated effluents than marine forms and littoral species
(Naylor, 1965). However, Kinne (1963) reports that in general, the total
range of temperature tolerated in the state of active life is smallest in
marine forms and largest in brackish and fresh-water forms. Gradual changes
are tolerated much better than sharp changes. Some species can stand a
gradual change up to 30 or 35°C (86 or 95°F), but at the upper extreme,
many organisms are killed by temperatures not far above those to which they
are accustomed.
MARINE FISHES*
Marine fishes that inhabit the shore line areas, estuaries or bays
are most often affected by temperature changes. The problem of thermal
shock to pelagic (living or occurring in the open ocean) life histories
is extremely critical in marine environments (Mihursky and Kennedy, 196?).
The effects of salinity and temperature on the eggs of Pacific Cod
(Gadus macrocephalus) were studied by Forrester (196*0 and, Forrester and
* In this report the term marine includes estuarine species.
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Alderdice (1966). In the study by Forrester, eggs were held to completion
of hatching in various combinations of salinity and temperature. Maximum
hatching success was in the vicinity of 19 parts per thousand (ppt) salinity
and 5 C (Ul.O F). Forrester and Alderdice observed that the relationship
between rate of development of cod eggs and water temperature was linear at
temperatures of 5-ll°C (^1-51.8°F). Time to 50 percent hatching ranged from
8.5 days at 11°C (51.8°F) to 1? days at 5°C (Ul°F). Most successful hatching
occurred at the lower temperature. One of the most noted variables in the
study on eggs of the American smelt (Osmerus mordax) in Maine was the large
increases in mortality during extreme fluctuations in daily water temperature
of as much as 7°C (12.6°F) as observed by Rothschild (1961). Striped bass
e£&s (ROCCUS saxatilis) were found to survive in constant fluctuations of
water temperatures ranging from 12.8-23.9°C (55-75°F) Albrecht (196^). The
tolerance of eggs of four marine fishes was studied by Hubbs (1965).
California killifish (Fundulus parvipinnis), topsmelt (Atherinops affinis),
California grunion (Leuresthes tenuis) and mussel blenny (Hjvpsoblennius sp.)
were incubated at a variety of temperatures. Larvae successfully hatched
at temperatures between l6.6°C and 28.5°C (6l.9-83.1°F), 12.8 (-)°C and 26.8°C
(55-80.1°F), 1U.8° C and 26.8°C (58.6-80.1°F) and 12.0 (-) and 26.8 (-f)°C
(53.6(-)-80.l(+)°F) respectively (Table _5_).
Young
Larvae of some marine fish are pelagic in the early part of their life
history, and temperature of the surrounding water determines the rate of
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59
Table 5 - Temperature ranges reported for the hatching of
eggs from various species of marine and anadromous
fish.
Species
Roccus
saxatilis
Fundulus
paryipinnis
Atherinops
af finis
Leuresthes
tenuis
Hypsoblennius
sp.
Petromyzon
marinus
n
Oncorhynchus
nerka
0. tshawytscha
ti ti
n n
All Salmon
Lower
Temp, (c)
12.8
16.6
12.8
1^.8
12.0(-)
15.0
15.6
U.lf-5.8
5.8
9.H
5.6
5.8
Upper
Temp. (C)
23-9
28.5
26.8
26.8
26.8(+)
25.0
21.1
12.8-11*. 2
lU.2
llf.U
Ik.k
12.8
Remarks Source
Survived Constant Albrecht, ~L
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60
development from a pelagic form to an actively swimming form. The rate of
development of the lemon sole (parophrys vetulus) determines the number of
young that reach the nursery grounds in Hecate Strait, British Columbia
(Ketchen, 1956). Small annual differences in the temperature of sea water
produce marked differences in the duration of the pelagic stage. Below
average temperatures result in the larvae being carried by the currents
for a longer period of time and more larvae are deposited on the nursery
ground. Thus, temperature may govern the strength of a year class. A
temperature of 6.2°C (43.1°F) seems to produce the best deposition of
larvae. Increases in temperature increase the rate and shorten the time
of development of herring (Clupea pallasi). A temperature increase from
^.4-10.7°C (ifO-51.1°F) shortened development time from Uo to 11 days
(Blaxter, 1963).
In the estuarine environment, fishes are more susceptible to heat
changes. However, as noted in the general discussion, fish in estuarine
waters seem to tolerate a wider range of temperatures. Striped bass
fingerlings (Roccus saxatilis) were able to tolerate 35°C (95°F) in lab-
oratory tests (Talbot, 1966). According to Talbot (1966), Merriman (191*!)
studied the striped bass of the Atlantic coast and found the maximum
temperature in the New England area to be 25°C to 27°C (77.0 to 80.6°F)
with fish kills occurring at these temperatures. Juvenile striped bass
have survived transfer between salt and fresh-water at temperatures in the
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61
range of 12.8-21.1°C (55-70°F) "but they are not tolerant to changes from
fresh-water to saltwater at ?.2°C (U5°P) (Tagatz, 196l). Striped "bass
acclimated at h.k°C (UO°F) and tested for eight hours with increases in
temperature of 2.3°C (3.5°F) at one hour intervals, had a median lethal
dose (LD ) of 23.9°C (75°F), (Trembley, I960).
The larvae of Atlantic Menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) were able to
survive longer when acclimated at cooler temperatures, than when acclimated
to warmer temperatures. Acclimation temperature was more important to larval
survival at test temperatures below 5.0°C (ifl°F) than at 5.0°C (Ul°F) and
above. Larvae acclimated at 7 and 10°C (hk.6 and 50°F) survived over twice
as long at ^.5°C (1*0.1°F) as those acclimated at 12.5 or 15°C (5^.5 or 59°F)»
(Lewis, 1965). The effects of salinity on temperature tolerances were checked
by Lewis (1966), who found a temperature of 6°C (42.8°F) and below with zero
ppt salinity lowered larval survival time to only a few hours. At a salinity
of 5-30 ppt and a temperature of U°C (39.2°F) larval survival was good. Lower
and upper limits of salinity tolerance were increased with increasing tem-
perature .
The relation of menhaden (jB. tyrannus) to estuaries was studied by
Reintjes and Pacheco (1966). A water temperature of 3°C (37.^OF) may be
critical to larval survival. Larval menhaden can suffer mass mortalities
when water temperatures fall below 3°C (37.^°F) for several days or chill
rapidly. The matter of chill seems to be very important to estuarine fishes.
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62
Doudoroff (19^2) studied the resistance and acclimation of marine fishes
to temperature changes. Young greenfish (Girella nigricans) were used in
his tests. Heat resistance was gained rapidly and lost slowly. Resistance
to chilling was lost slowly on warming and acquired no more rapidly on
cooling. The changes of resistance to heat and to cold were found to be
more or less independent and distinct phenomena. Acclimation to cold is
slow, to heat, fairly fast. For these reasons injury by chilling is no
less important as a possible limiting factor in the distribution of marine
fishes than heat injury.
More active fishes are able to avoid harmful temperatures and to exercise
selection in experimental gradient (Doudoroff, 1938). In the case of pelagic
marine larvae, circumstances may dictate their survival. A mortality of
marine fish larvae was noted in an area off Georges Bank. Currents carried the
larvae from cold 7.8°C (U6°F) water into warm layers of 20°C (68°F) water and
large mortalities resulted (Colton, 1959).
A study of the effect of extreme temperatures on herring larvae (C.
harengus) revealed an upper lethal temperature 22.0 to 2U.O°C (?1.6-75.2°F)
and a lower lethal temperature of -0.75 to -1.8°C (30.6-29.1°F). Larvae
were 6-8 millimeters long and acclimated to temperatures between 7.5 and
15.5°C (58.2-72.9°F) (Blaxter, I960). Young topsmelt (Atherinops affinis)
acclimated to temperatures of 20 C (68 j?) had an upper hQ hour median tolerance
limit (TLm) of 31.8°C (89.1°F) and a lower U8 hour TLm of 10.1°C (50.1°F),
(Doudoroff, 19^5). Young greenfish (Girella nigricans) acclimated to
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63
temperatures of 12-28 C (53.6-82.U F) exhibited a lower U8 hour TL of U.I
m
ft
to 13°C (39.lt-55.lft) and a upper TL of 28.7 to 31.5°C (8l.<9-88.8°F),
m
(Doudoroff, 19^2). Temperature ranges reported for young fish are listed
in Table 6 .
Adults
Mult fish are usually able to select their preferred temperatures,
unless they are trapped in shallow waters or forced to migrate through
heated or chilled areas. Fish kills have been reported in areas of shallow
water. Atlantic round herring (Etrumeus sadina) and chum mackerel (Scomber
colias) were observed dead and dying after several days of cold weather had
dropped water temperatures in Pamlico Sound, North Carolina, to 5.2 C (Ul.U F),
(Wells, Wells and Gray, 196l). The effects of winter water conditions were
also observed by Schwartz (196U). He noted that most fish sank when killed
by lowered temperatures and would probably not be observed. In the area of
high temperatures, alewives (Alosa pseudoharengus) died of heat shock after
being herded into water of 26.7 - 32.2°C (80-90°F). The same species showed
no effects when they entered a lagoon with 22.8°C (73°F) water (Trembley, I960)
Herring, in nature, have been found in almost all temperature ranges permitted
by their resistance to temperature extremes. Herring at the appropriate
season have an upper lethal temperature of 19.5 to 21.2°C (67.1 to 70.1 F)
depending upon size and can survive short exposure 'to temperatures below
-1.0°C (30.2°F), (Brawn, 1960).
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Table 6 - Temperature ranges reported for young
marine and anadromous fish.
Species
0. tshawytscha
0. kisutch
0. nerka
0. gorbuscha
0. keta
Clupea
harengus
Atherinops
af finis
Girella
Acclimation Lower Lethal Upper Lethal
Temp.(c) Temp.(C) Temp.(c) Remarks Source
23 7-k
20 25.1
23 6.k
20 25.0
23 6.7
20 2k.k
23-9
23 7.3
20 23.8
7.5-15.5 -0.75to-1.8 22.0-2*f.O
20 10.1 31.8
Approx.
Approx.
Approx.
Approx.
n
Approx.
Approx.
Approx.
k days Brett,
1952
7 days "
14- days "
7 "
k days "
7 days "
7 days
k days "
7 days "
Blaxter,
I960
U8 hr TL Doudorof
m 19U2b
nigricans
12-28
U.l-13
28.7-31.5
U8 hr TL
m
Doudoroff,
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65
Adult white perch (Roccus americana) acclimated to k.k°C (UO°F) and
tested for 8 hours with increases of 2.0°C (3.5°F) every hour exhibited a
median lethal dose (LD ) of 27.8°C (82.0°F), (Trembley, I960). In a flow-
ing water test with heat increases of 1.1°C (2°F) per hour saltwater killifish
(Fundulus heteroclitus) acclimated at 7«2°C (U5°F) had a LD Q of 37°C (99°?)
(Trembley, 196l). Adult California killifish (P. parvipinnis) were tested
by Doudoroff (19^5). At acclimation temperatures of lU-28°C (57.2-82.^°F)
the upper TL fs, for k8 hour tests, were 32.3 to 36.5°C (90.1-97.7°F). The
lower U8 hour TL was 30°C (86°F) for fish acclimated at 20°C (68°F). Striped
m
bass occur in wide ranges of temperatures in the estuary (Talbot, 1966). They
will spawn between lU.U°C (58°F) and 21.1°C (70°F). Ranges of temperature
tolerated are 6.0-7.5°C (U2.8-U5.5°F) to 25-27°C (77-80°F). Temperature
tolerances of three- marine fishes have been determined by Hoff and Westman
(1966). The common silverside (Menidia menidia) acclimated at temperatures
ranging from 7-28°C (M*.6-82.U°F) had an upper kQ hour TL range of 22.5 to 32.5°C
(72.3-90.3°F) and a lower range of 1.5 to 8.7°C (3U.8-U7.8°F). Winter flounder
(Pseudo pleuronectes) acclimated at temperatures of 21-28 C (69.8-82.U- F)
had a lower U8 hour TL range of 1.0-5.^°C (33.8-^1.6°F). Flounder acclimated
m
at temperatures from 7-28°C (kk.6-d2.k°F) had an upper range of 22-29°C
(71.6-8U.2°F). Northern swellfish (Spheroides maculatus) were acclimated at
temperatures of 1^-28°C (57.2-82.^°F) and had a lower 1*8 hour TL of 8.^-13°C
m
(J±7.1-55.1|0F). Fish acclimated at temperatures of 10-28°C (50-82.k°F) had
TL 's of 28.2-33.0°C (82.9-90.k°Y). Temperature ranges for adults are listed
in Table 7 .
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Table 7 - Temperature ranges reported for adult
marine and anadromous fish.
Species
Clupea harengus
Pundulus
parvlpinnis
it
Roccus saxatilis
Menidia menidia
Pseudo pleuronectes
Spheroides
maculatus
Mult Salmon
Acclimation
Temp.(C)
1U-28
20
7-28
21-28
7-28
1H-28
10-28
Lower Lethal
Temp.(C)
- 1.0
30
6.0-7.5
1.5-8.7
1.0-5.k
8.U-13
0.0
Upper Lethal
Temp.(c)
19.5-21.2
32.3-36.5
25-27
22.5-32.5
22-29
28.2-33.0
26.7
Remarks
U8 hr TL
m
ii it it
Tolerated in
Estuary
U8 hr TL
m
1*8 hr TL
m
it it n
it it ii
it ii ii
Survival Temp.
Source
Brawn, I960
Doudoroff, 19U2b
it ti
Talbot, 1966
Hoff & Westman,
1966
it
it
it
it
Anon. , 1966
CTN
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67
In a statement about the observed presence or absence of fish in
heated areas, Trembley (1960) reported that fish may be eliminated from
heated zones during warm months, but may congregate in heated areas during
winter months.
ANADROMOUS FISHES
Anadromous fish are unique in their life histories. Eggs incubate
in fresh water and the resulting young spend a period of a few months to
several years in fresh water, then migrate to saltwater, where they grow
into adults. As adults the fish mature in salt water and return to fresh
water to spawn. During their life cycle, anadromous fish are subjected to
various stresses such as salinity (osmotic) change, physical change, predators,
and temperature (Brett, 1957)*
Eggs
Investigations have shown that thermal requirements in the very early
stages are more exacting than in the adult (Brett, 1956). Eggs of the sea
lamprey (petromyzon marimis) require the most exacting thermal levels
(McCauley, 1963). The range of constant temperatures necessary for successful
hatching is narrow, being 15-25°C (59-77°F). The range could be extended to
12-26°C (53.6-78.8°F) if the eggs were able to develop to the head stage
before they were subjected to increased temperatures. Similar results were
noted by Piavis (1961) who reared sea lamprey eggs at low constant temperatures and
was unable to grow viable burrowing larvae at any temperature below 15.6 C
(60r) or above 21.1 C (70°F). Constant temperatures were used in the
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68
incubation of chinook and sockeye salmon eggs (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha and
0. nerka) (Combs, 1965). Chinook salmon eggs which had developed to the 128
cell stage could tolerate 1.7°C (35°F) water for the remainder of the incuba-
tion period. Sockeye salmon eggs were less resistant to high temperatures
and more resistant to cold temperatures. Their lower threshold temperatures
for normal development were k.k-5.8°C (kQ-k2.5°F) and upper threshold tem-
peratures were 12.8-lU.2°C (55-57.5°F). A lower threshold for chinook eggs
was established at 5,8°C (U2.5°F) and an upper threshold at 1*1.2°C (57.5°F),
(Combs and Burrows, 1957). Mortalities occurred when eggs were incubated
above or below these temperatures.
Hayes, in 19^9j subjected salmonid eggs to extreme temperatures and
noted that certain tissues will exhibit cell multiplication without differentia-
tion. Salmon embryos were incubated by Hayes, Pelluet and Gorhan (1953) in
temperatures within the limits for survival. Hatching of the embryos tended
to appear precociously at low temperatures.
According to Johnson and.Brice (1953) reservoir water could be used for
incubation when the daily mean temperatures were below 12.2°C (5U°F). Chinook
eggs incubated over 15.6 C (60 F) suffered excessive mortality. Results from
laboratory tests conducted by Olson and Foster (1957) and Nakatani and Foster
(1966) were slightly higher. They reported that chinook eggs, especially in
cold water, could begin incubation at temperatures as high as 16.1 C (6l F),
without significant loss. Seymour (1956) reported that young chinook eggs
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69
should "be reared at temperatures ranging from 9.^°C to 1U.U°C (1*9 to 58°F)
for best results. Abnormal fry and the hatching period were increased by
higher and lower temperatures. A slightly wider range of temperatures 5.6-
ik.k C (U2-58°F) was suggested by Leitritz (1962). As a general range for
all Pacific salmon eggs LT 's were reported at 2.5°C (36.5°F) and l6.0°C
(60.8 F) but less than normal survival was noted below 5.8°C (U2.5 F) and
above 12.8°C (55°F), (Anon, 1966).
In the natural environment, McNeil (1966) studied the effect of low
temperatures in the spawning beds of pink (£. gorbuscha) and chum (0. keta)
salmon and determined that freezing was important only when the maximum day-
time temperatures remained below 0°C (32°F) for at least two days. Eggs and
larvae of pinks and chum are able to survive at low temperatures and high
salinities (Rockwell, 1956).
In a summary of the significance of temperatures on salmon egg in-
cubation (Anon, 1966) the following points were emphasized; a) the effects
of temperature vary with many things including species and race, b) mortality
attributable to temperature is also a function of duration of exposure,
c) temperature during the initial incubation period is critical and, d) if
the initial incubation temperatures are below 5.6°C (U2°F) or above 12.8°C
(55 F) less than normal survival can be expected. Temperature ranges re-
ported for the hatching of eggs are tabulated in Table _5__.
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70
Young
Young of anadromous fish, especially salmon, spend much of their life
in fresh-water and most research on them pertains to this environment. De-
termination of tolerance limits for different species of fish may be very
difficult and time consuming. Brett (i960) has reported the ultimate upper
lethal levels can differ between species by as much as 17°C (31°F).
Five species of Pacific Coast salmon were tested by Brett (1952) for
their temperature tolerances. The five species of salmon tested were spring
or Chinook (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha), silver (0. kisutch), pink (0.
gorbuscha), sockeye (0. nerka) and chum (0. keta). Fish used in the tests
were less than one year of age with an average length of U05 centimeters
and an average weight of 1 gram. The maximum acclimation temperature was
2k C (75.2°F). Springs were reported to be very active and good feeders at
2k C (75.2 F) but growth was poor. Pinks, sockeyes, chum and cohos were all
intolerant to 2^°C (75.2 F) water. Of the species tested, springs and cohos
were most tolerant to prolonged high temperatures, sockeyes intermediate,
and pink and chum least tolerant. The upper lethal temperatures were as
follows: spring - 25-l°C (77.2°F); coho - 25.0°C (77.0°F); sockeye - 2k.k°C
(76.0°F); pink - 23.9°C (75.0°F); and chum - 23.8°C (jk.B0?). Acclimation
temperatures for all species were 10-20°C (50-68°F). The lower lethal tem-
peratures for the highest acclimation of 23°C (73.U°F) were spring, 7.U°C
°F); coho, 6.kQC (U3.5°F); sockeye, 6.7°C (^.0°F); and chum, 7.3°C
.1°F). For all species the region of greatest preference was 12-l4°C
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71
(53-6-57.2 F), (Table 6 ). In a report on the Columbia River salmon (Anon.,
1956) lethal tolerances for 50 percent of the juveniles tested were listed
as 0.0°C (32.0°F) and 25.1°C (77.2°F). However, poor growth was reported
for temperatures below k.k°C (kO°F) and above l8.3°C (65°F). In contrast
with the above results Kerr (1953) tested young chinook salmon and reported
a maximum temperature of 26.7°C (80°F) tolerated by them. He also reported
them able to tolerate a rise in temperature of 9°C (l6°F) in the cooling
water from a steam generated electric plant.
Burrows (1963) suggests that a range in temperature for maximum pro-
ducitivity in fingerlings should be between 10-15.6 C (50-60°F). His research
indicated that to attain maximum productivity the water temperature must not
only remain within the tolerance level of the fingerling but in species with
more than a minimum stay in fresh-water, the temperature must reach that
necessary for optimum growth level as well.
Tests designed to reveal the effects of temperature on the physiology
of young salmon showed internal temperatures of smolts reached equilibrium
with the external environment in 3-5 minutes (Harvey, 196U). Effects of
temperature on fin ray and vertebrate counts were checked by Seymour (1959)
who noted that the average number of vertebrae per lot of fish was less for
lots reared at temperatures in the middle portion of the 3«9-16.7 C (39 F-
62°F) range than for lots reared at either extreme of the range.
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72
Several researchers have checked the effects of temperature on
swimming speed and metabolism. Optimum cruising speeds occurred at 15 C
(59 F) for young sockeye and 20°C (68°F) for young coho (Brett, Hollands
and Alderdice, 1958). When young sockeye salmon swimming at a speed of 1
foot per second were subjected to a temperature change of 10-15°C (l8°P
to 27 F) their metabolic rate increased by more than 50 percent (Anon.,
1962).
Migration of young fish from fresh-water to saltwater may subject
them to wide ranges of temperature. Effects of temperature on pink salmon
(0. gorbuscha) were studied by Sheridan (I960 and 1961). He reported an
interaction between air temperature and snow that may cause fry to migrate
to sea at unfavorable times. There is presumably one "best" time for fry
to enter saltwater and the normal time of seaward migration may be best for
food supplies and saltwater temperatures or other unknown factors. In addi-
tion to the temperature and stream flow in the river, the temperature and
salinity of the marine environment during early life are also very important
(Vernon, 1958).
During their stay in fresh-water young fish are subjected to diseases
that may or may not be influenced by temperature. Both the literature and
research show the effects of some diseases are increased by temperature in-
creases. There is one disease, however, that may be reduced by increased
temperature (Ordal ani Pacha, 1963). The myxobacterium Cytophaga psychrophila
is a disease of salmon fingerlings in low temperature water. Losses due to
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73
this disease can "be reduced by increasing temperatures above 6.1 C (^3 F)
in the spring. Water temperature remaining relatively stable either above
or below the optimum range for extended periods is conducive to disease
development which may result in reduction of fingerlings produced (Burrows,
1963).
Adults
Mult anadromous fishes spend most of their life cycle in the marine
area and enter fresh-water only to migrate up a stream to spawn. During
their migration salmon do not take in food after reaching the estuary and
heading upstream. High water temperatures increase their metabolic rate
and may result in fuel depletion before the fish can spawn (Anon., 1962).
Temperature was listed as one of the factors affecting timing of spawning
runs of pink salmon (0. gorbuscha) studied by Sheridan (1960). For pinks,
a stream temperature near 10°C (50°F) seemed to be best. Adult salmon
have been reported to survive 0.0°C (32.0°F) to 26.7°C (80°F) but spawning
effectiveness may be reduced below 7.2°C (^5°F) and above 15.6°C (60°F)
(Anon., 1966), (Table _7_).
The migration of fish has been hampered by unfavorable temperatures.
Brett (1957) noticed the curtailment of the migration of sockeye salmon
through lakes in the spring and Major and Mighell (1966) concluded that
rising or stable temperatures above 21.1°C (70°F) tended to block the entry
of migrating fish from the Columbia River to the Okanogan River. A study,
by Massmann (1957), of the relationship of water temperature and shad catches
-------
in the York River for a three year period showed that greatest catches-per-unit
effort were made at water temperatures of 7.2°C (U5°F) to 15°C (59°F). Below
a water temperature of k-.h C (ho jf) the fish stopped migrating and no catches
were made. The death of migrating Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Nova Scotia,
due to low water and high temperatures was recorded "by Huntsman (19^2). Fresh
run grilse died at about 29.5°C (85.1°F) and acclimated grilse at about 30.5°C
(86.8°F).
As noted earlier with juvenile salmon, temperature increases usually
result in an increase in disease which lowers the surviving numbers of spawn-
ing fish.
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75
Summary
Temperature fluctuations affect the metabolism, reproduction, dis-
tribution, ecology and tolerance of fishes. The effect of a fluctuation
depends on the species of fish, the stage in the life history of the fish,
the rate of decrease or increase in temperature and the amount of thermal
fluctuation. In the marine environment temperature changes are most important
in enclosed areas such as the estuaries and bays as opposed to open areas.
Tolerance to temperature fluctuations is least in marine forms and greatest
in estuarine and fresh-water forms.
Pelagic forms are most susceptible to temperature fluctuations since
they are dependent upon water currents for much of their movement. Adult
fish are usually able to select their preferred temperature gradient unless
trapped in shallow or enclosed areas or forced to migrate through heated or
chilled areas. Most fish have restricted ranges of temperature within which
they can reproduce successfully. Larval development also requires narrow
ranges of temperature. For these reasons a fish population may exist in a
heated area only by continued recruitment from the outside. In such areas
fish may be absent during warm summer months and present in cold winter
months. In some areas populations of widely tolerant species may replace
stenothermal species.
Increasing temperatures may block the migrations of anadromous fish
and increase the effects of diseases on those fish. However, there are reports
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76
of temperature increases reducing losses of young salmon from disease and
increasing survival of eggs.
Cold is as important to fish populations as heat because of the
inability of fish to acclimate quickly to rapid decreases in temperature.
Thus, in some areas fish populations may be limited by decreases as well as
increases in temperature.
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77
REFERENCES CITED
Albrecht, A. B., 196^. Some observations on factors associated with survival
of striped bass eggs and larvae. California Fish & Game Jour., 50: 2,
100-113.
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Anon., 1966. Columbia River water temperature conditions and research
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New York, 261-393-
Brawn, V. M., I960. Temperature tolerance of unacclimated herring (Clupea
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Brett, J. R., 1952. Temperature tolerance in young Pacific salmon, genus
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Brett, J. R., 1956. Some principles in the thermal requirements of fishes.
Quarterly Rev. of Bio., 31(2): 75-87.
Brett, J. R., 1957. Salmon research and hydroelectric power development.
Jour. Fish. Resrch. Bd. Can., Bull. No. 114, 26 pp.
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Taft Sanitary Engng. Center Tech. Rep. W60-3, Cincinnati, pp. 110-117.
Brett, J. R., Hollands, M., and Alderdice, D. F., 1958. The effect of
temperature on the cruising speed of young sockeye and coho salmon. Jour.
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78
Burrows, R. E., 1963* Water Temperature requirements for maximum productivity
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Northwest Water Laboratory, U. S. Public Health Service, Corvallis, Oregon,
pp. 29-38.
Colton, J. B., 1959» A field observation of mortality of marine fish larvae
due to warming. Limnol. and Oceanogr., ^(2): 219-222.
Combs, B. D., 1965. Effect of temperature on development of salmon eggs.
Prog. Fish. Cult., 27(3): 13^-137.
Combs, B. D. and R. E. Burrows, 1957. Threshold temperatures for the normal
development of chinook salmon eggs. Prog. Fish. Cult., 19(l): 3-6.
Doudoroff, P., 1938. Reactions of marine fishes to temperature gradients.
Biol. Bull., 75: U9U-509.
Doudoroff, P., 19^2. The resistance and acclimation of marine fishes to
temperature changes. I. Experiments with Girella nigricans (Ayres).
Bio. Bull., 83: 219-2kk.
Doudoroff, P., 19^5. The resistance and acclimatization of marine fishes to
temperature changes. II. Experiments with Fundulus and Atherinops. Bio. Bull.,
88(2): 19^-206.
Doudoroff, P., 1957. Water quality requirements of fishes and effects of
toxic substances. In: The Physiology of Fishes (M. E.Brown, editor), 2:
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Forrester, C. R., 196U. Laboratory observations of embryonic development and
larvae of the pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus Tilesius). Jour. Fish. Resrch.
Bd. Can., 2l(l): 9-16.
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on embryonic development of the pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus). Jour. Fish.
Resrch. Bd. Can., 23(3): 319-3^0.
Galloway, J. C., 1951. Lethal effects of the cold winter of 1939/^0 on marine
fishes at Key West, Florida. Copeia, 2: 118-119.
Gunter, G., 1957. Temperature. Chapter 8. In: Treatise on Marine Ecology
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79
Gunter, G., and H. H. Hildebrand, 1951. Destruction of fishes and other
organisms on the south Texas coast by the cold wave of January 28-February 3>
1951. Ecol., 32(4): 731-735.
Harvey, H. H., 1964. Dissolved nitrogen as a tracer of fish movements. Verh.
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1965.
Hayes, P. R., 1949. The growth, general chemistry, and temperature relations
of salmonid eggs. Quart. Rev. Bio., 24(4): 281-308.
Hayes, F. R., D. Pelluett, and E. Gorham, 1953. Some effects of temperature
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Hoff, J. G. , and J. R. Westman, 1966. The temperature tolerances of three
species of marine fishes. Jour. Marine Res., 24(2): 131-140.
Hubbs, C., 1965. Developmental tempperature tolerance and rates of four
southern California fishes, Fundulus parvipinnis, Atherinops affinis,
Leuresthes tenuis, and Hypsoblennius sp. Calif. Fish and Game7 51(2):
113-122.
Huntsman, A. G., 1942. Death of salmon and trout with high temperature.
Jour. Fish. Resch. Bd. Can., 5(5): 485-501.
Johnson, H. E., and R. F. Brice, 1953. Effects of transportation of green
eggs, and of water temperature during incubation, on the mortality of chinook
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80
Lewis, R. M. , 1965. The effect of minimum temperature on the survival of
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Massmann, W. H. , and A. L. Pacheco, 1957. Shad catches and water temperatures
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McCauley, R. W. , 1963. Lethal temperatures of the developmental stages of the
sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinas L. Jour. Fish. Resch. Bd. Can. , 20,
McNeil, W. J. , 1966. Effect of the spawning bed environment on reproduction
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Merriman, D. , 19^1. Studies on the striped bass (jRoccus saxatilis) of the
Atlantic coast. U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Fish. Bull. 50(35): 77 pp.
Mihursky, J. A., and V. S. Kennedy, 1967. Water temperature criteria to
protect aquatic life. Symposium on water quality criteria to protect
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Nakatani, R. E., and R. F. Foster, 1966. Hanford temperature effects on
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81
Ordal, E. J. , and R. E. Pacha, 1963. The effects of temperature on disease
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TagatZj M. E., 1961. Tolerance of striped bass and American shad to changes
in temperature and salinity. U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Spec. Sci. Rept.-
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water on aquatic life. Institute of Resrch., Lehigh Univ. Progress Report
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water on aquatic life. The Institute of Resrch., Lehigh Univ. Progress Report.
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52 p.
Wells, H. W., M. J. Wells, and I. E.Gray., 196l. Winter fish mortality in
Pamlico sound, North Carolina. Ecol., k2i 217-219.
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V. AQUATIC PLANTS AND BENTHOS
General
Temperature regulates molecular movement and thus largely determines
the rate of chemical reactions and consequently the rate of metabolism
and activity of all organisms, both those with a relative constant temper-
ature (homoeothermus) and those with a variable temperature that is identical
with, or close to, their environment (poikilotherraus). Because of its
regulative capacity in determining the rate of metabolism, temperature
presumably is the most important single environmental entity concerning
life and life processes.
Variations in temperature of streams, lakes, estuaries, and oceans
are normal events that result from climatic and geologic phenomena. The
range of temperatures in waters that support some form of aquatic life
other than viruses or bacteria is from -3°C (26.6°F) in super-cooled sea
water to 85°C (l85°F) in fresh-water thermal springs; most aquatic poi-
kilotherms, if not all, tolerate only those temperature changes that occur
within a much narrower range whether it be high, intermediate, or low on
this scale of temperatures.
Within the same species the biological effects of a given temperature
or temperature pattern may be different in different populations, at different
ages, in different life cycle stages, or in the two sexes (Sprague, 1963),
and such effects may depend on the temperature history of the individual
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tested (Prosser, et al., 1952), as well as on present or past effects of
other environmental factors. Many organisms experience temperature changes
in their natural habitat, and these changes can "be an important prerequisite
for their well "being and completion of their life cycles. A constant tem-
perature of 20 C (68 P), temperatures fluctuating rapidly and irregularly
between 15° and 25°C (59 and 77°F) with an average value of 20°C (68°F),
and temperatures fluctuating gradually and periodically between 15° and 25°C
(59 and 77 F) with an average of 20°C (68°F) do not necessarily have the
same biological effects. Thus, even if other prerequisites are satisfactory,
the absolute temperature values of a body of water are only one measure of
its suitability for a normal assemblage of aquatic life; consideration also
must be given to temperature patterns or dynamics. For example, distinctions
must be made between constant and fluctuating temperatures, between gradients,
ranges, averages, frequency and intensity of changes, duration of a given
pattern, and total summation (Kinne, 1963).
The temperature range tolerated by many species of organisms is
narrow during very early development, then increases somewhat and finally
decreases again in the "old adult." Similarly, it often is more restricted
during the sexual phase than during other phases. Upper lethal temperatures
may be lower for animals from cold water than for closely related species
from warm water (Prosser and Brown, 1961). A similar aspect presumably could
be found among closely related algae as well as other plants. Many mobile
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organisms such as fish, some zooplankton, certain algae, and bottom-
associated animals can avoid critical temperatures by vertical and
horizontal migration into more suitable conditions. Other such organisms
may be attracted to areas with critical temperatures and succumb when
these are attained.
Fresh-Water Algae and Other Aquatic Plants
Except for fresh waters in tropical areas, relatively broad tem-
perature ranges naturally occur seasonally and diurnally, but even in
tropical waters there may be some narrow seasonal changes or major changes
resulting from unusual climatic events. Although tropical waters usually
experience only minor temperature changes, significant qualitative and
quantitative modifications occur in their associated flora. Similar changes
have been found during summer in temperate and north-temperate fresh water
apparently with no attendant temperature variation, and such phenomena
have led to the hypothesis that temperature, per se, bears no relationship
to floristic changes in these and other waters (Blum, 1953; Pearsall, 1923;
and Butcher, 1924). Nevertheless, more recent studies employing laboratory
procedures wherein variables other than temperature were static have shown
that temperature, per se, does have a profound influence on aquatic algae
and other plants (Phinney and Mclntyre, 19&5; Owens and Maris, 196U), and
many others provide nonlaboratory data that strongly implicate temperature
as one of the causes of both qualitative and quantitative changes in aquatic
flora (for example: Cairns, 1956; Wallace, 1955; Trembley, I960; Palmer,
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86
Patrick, 19^). Extracellular algal products, nutrients, or other
factors can cause algal population changes (Mackenthun, et al., 196U;
Mackenthun, 1965; Hartman, I960; and Fogg, 1962), and these may have "been
responsible for those population changes mentioned above where there were no
attendant temperature variations.
Algae and other plants, like poikilothermous animals, lack physiological
mechanisms to maintain constant internal temperatures, and have tissue tem-
peratures identical with or very close to that of their environment. Ter-
restrial plants are subjected to much wider temperature ranges than those
living in aquatic environments, but a few species of aquatic algae tolerate
temperatures higher than any terrestrial plants. For example, several
authors have reported that some species of algae can tolerate water tem-
peratures as high as 85°C (l?5°F) as found in thermal springs (Mann and
Schlicting, 1967; and Kinne, 1963), but optimal temperatures for the same
or similar species may range from 51° to 56°C (123.8° to 132°F) according
to Brock and Brock, 1966. Other algae, notably certain diatoms, can tolerate
low temperatures near 0 C (32 F), and some may remain viable after freezing.
Ulothrlx zonata, a filamentous green algae, grows best below 15 C (59 F)J
and can produce reproductive bodies, zoospores, at temperatures near 0 C
(32°F) in ice water (Oltmanns, 1922-23, as cited by Blum, 1953).
Such tolerances to high or low temperature extremes are not universal
among algae and other aquatic plants; similarly, an individual plant may
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not thrive at all temperatures between those extremes mentioned above.
Rather, there appears to be particular temperature ranges that are
tolerated by each species and by closely related species or groups of
species. A similar concept applies to optimum temperatures for aquatic
algae. Thus, Cairns (1956) indicated that in an unpolluted stream diatoms
grow best at 18° to 20°C (6k.k to 6.8°F); green algae at 30°C (86° to 95°F);
and blue-green algae at 35 to ^4-0 C (95 to 10^ F). If environmental tem-
peratures near 10 C (50°F) are increased either naturally or artificially
to about 38 (100.U F), the predominance of groups of species changes
correspondingly from diatoms to green algae and finally at the uppermost
temperatures to blue-green algae (Wallace, 1955). A few of the more high-
temperature-tolerant species belonging to algal groups other than the blue-
green may persist with the predominant blue-green species in such cases,
and several less tolerant species of blue-greens may succumb with the diatoms
and green algae at these higher temperatures.
Bottom Organisms
In a study by Strangenberg and Pawlaczyk (1961) on
the effect of warm-water discharges on
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a river they found that river-bottom plants and animals decreased in
number when the water temperature exceeded 30 C (86 F). The macro-
invertebrate riffle fauna of the Delaware River was adversely affected
by heated water effluents. The macro-invertebrate biomass was reduced
from I.Ok to 0.09 grams per square foot throughout the summer in the
area of maximumly heated water, as compared with a control station. A
35 C (95 F) water temperature at the time of sampling was found to be
causing a detrimental effect on many organisms, especially the caddisfly,
Hydropjsyche sp., many of which were dead, while those alive were extremely
sluggish. The data suggest that there is a tolerance limit close to
32.2°C (90°F) for a variety of different kinds of animals in the popula-
tion structure of benthos with extensive losses in numbers and diversity
of organisms accompanying further temperature increase (Coutant, 1962).
Another classic demonstration on the effects of increasing water
temperatures upon the change in the composition of a macro-invertebrate
population is presented by Walshe (19**8). The thermal index (22-hour
LD_-) of seven species of midge larvae reflect the probable sequence
of preferred temperatures. These seven species and their thermal in-
dices are as follows: Tanytarsus brunnipes, 29 C (81*.2 F); Prodiamesa
olivacea, 30°C (86°F); Anatopynia nebulosa, 30.^°C (95°F); C. long!stylus,
35°C (95.9°F); and Anatopynia varia, 38°C
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89
In studies on the shift of the composition of macro-invertebrate
populations (Wurtz and Henn, 1965)5 it was shown that no immediate kills
resulted from thermal shock of lU C (25 F). However, persistent exposure
to 35 C (95 F) over 2U hours brought about changes in the composition of
the macro-invertebrate population.
Studies of particular species of macro-invertebrates have shown
that lethal temperatures vary considerably with the type of organism.
Noland and Reichel (19^3) in studying the fresh-water snail (tymnaea
stenalis) found that cultures died when the water temperature reached
30.5 C (89.6 F). Fresh-water snails (Vivlparus malleatus) died when
held at a temperature of 37.5°C (99-5°F) (Hutchinson, 19^7).
The highest 2^-hour median tolerance limit lethal temperatures
that could be obtai-ned by raising acclimation temperatures from 10 C
(50°F) to 20°C (68°F) were estimated to be 3^-6°C (9^.2°F) for the sowbugs
Asellus intermedius, Forks, and the scud, Gammarus fasciatus, Say, 33.2 C
(91.8°F) for the scud, Hyallella -azteca (Saussure), and 29.6°C (85.3°F)
for the scud, Gammarus pseudolimnaeus Bousfield (Sprague, 1963).
The fresh-water snail (Physa gyrina) has been found to live and
reproduce in a waste water ditch between 28° and 35°C (82.h° to 95°F)
(Agersborg, 1932).
Many marine bottom-associated organisms have stenothermal or narrow
temperature ranges. In some cases, a particular species may be stenothermal
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90
for one developmental stage, and eurythermal for another. Breeding or
spawning requirements are generally stenothermal. The time of spawning
for molluscs is highly dependent upon temperature. Most molluscs with
specific temperature-breeding relationships are spring and summer spawners,
and many do not spawn until a certain temperature is reached (Allen, 1963).
Spawning of the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) takes place between
15 and 32 to 3^°C (59 and 89.6 to 93.2°F), depending on condition of the oyster,
and the spawning process is usually triggered by a rise in temperature
(Galtsoff, 196U).
A large number of species are able to tolerate higher temperatures
than those at which they can breed. For example, Carcinus maenas thrives,
but does not breed in lU-28°C temperatures (57.2-82.U°F) (Naylor, 1965).
In the case of the European lobster, temperature controls a different part
of reproduction. Larvae require a minimum temperature of 15 C (59 F) even
though the developing eggs, and adults, will tolerate lower temperatures
(Gunter, 1957). For the above two cases, temperature limits the popula-
tions and recruitment of organisms must occur from outside the heated area.
Physiology, metabolism, and development are all affected by
temperature. At a temperature of 6-7°C (42.8-4U.6°F), C. virginica
ceases feeding. Above 32 C (89.6°F) ciliary action, responsible for move-
ment of water, rapidly decreases; and almost all functions of the body
cease, or are reduced to a minimum at U2.0°C (107.6°F). The European
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91
oyster, Ostrea lurida, has a tendency to close it's shell in response to
falling temperatures. At l4-6°C (39.2-U2.8°F) the shells of oysters remain
closed most of the time; at 6-8°C (U2.8-U6.4 F) the shells open for about
6 hours per day; and at 15 C (59 F) the shells remain open for 23 hours
per day (Galtsoff, 1964). Very little is known about prolonged effects
of temperature above 32-3^ C (90-9^ F) on oyster populations. Long, con-
tinued exposure to high temperatures may impede the normal rate of water
transport. When either low or high temperatures cause a closing of shells
or a ceasing of ciliary action, oysters cease to feed and lose weight.
Thus, temperature may produce an effect similar to chronic toxicity.
Acclimation and tolerance of bottom-associated organisms may be
affected by temperature changes. The crab (Hemigrapsus nudus) can regain
tolerance to high temperatures, after a low temperature history, in less
than a week. Shore crabs (Pachygrapsus crassipes) may require a half time
of six days in order to acclimate to a temperature change of 7.5 C (13'5 F)
(Kinne, 196?). The giant scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) acclimates
rapidly to a rise in temperature of 1.7 C (3.IF) per day, but may take
as long as three months to lose this acclimation to high temperatures
(Dickie, 1958)- The opossum shrimp (Neomysis americana) is very intolerant
to temperature increases, and does not appear to survive at temperatures
above 31°C (8?.8°F) in the Chesapeake estuary (Mihursky and Kennedy,
1967).
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92
Distribution of benthic organisms may be controlled by temperature.
Reef-forming corals will not live where temperature falls below 18-19 C
(6U.U-66.2 F). The American oyster (C. virginica) on the Gulf coast is
present in water that may vary from U-3U°C (39.2-93.2°F); while the European
oyster (0. edulis) is restricted to water with temperatures of 0-20 C
(32-68 F) (Gunter, 1957). In a study on the York River, in Virginia, Warinner
and Brehmer, 1966, found that the community composition and abundance of
marine benthic invertebrates in the river were affected by thermal discharge
over a distance of 300-UOO meters from the discharge outfall. They con-
cluded that during the months of high normal river temperatures there was
clear evidence of biological stress.
Cold is as important as heat in its effects on marine organisms.
Cold water may kill directly, or in some cases indirectly when organisms
are "numbed" or rendered inactive and unable to protect themselves from
predators (Gunter, 1957).
One of the benefits derived from heated water is the defouling of
intake pipes. Experiments have shown that fouling by Etytilus edulis and
M. californianus could be controlled by tri-weekly reversals of heated
discharge water either for periods of one hour at 38-Ul°C (100.U-105.8°F)
or for seven hours at 3^.5°C (91.U°F) (Naylor, 1965).
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93
Summary
1. Temperature is one of the most important single environmental entities
concerning life and life processes. The various functions of an or-
ganism may have somewhat different temperature ranges, and if these are
not provided in the habitat the organism will die.
2. When water temperatures are increased, the predominance of groups of
algal species changes correspondingly from diatom to green algae and
finally at higher temperatures to blue-green algae.
3. The number and distribution of bottom organisms decrease as water
temperatures increase with a tolerance limit close to 90°F for a "balanced
population structure. Studies of particular species of macro-invertebrates
have shown that lethal temperatures vary considerably with
the type of organism. In some cases a particular species may be steno-
thermal for one developmental stage, and eurythermal for another. Thus,
a large number of species are able to tolerate higher temperatures than
those at which they can breed.
k. Cold is as important to aquatic plants and benthos as is heat.
5. One of the beneficial uses of heated effluents is the defouling of
intake pipes; accomplished by reversing the flow of water through the
pipes for a specified period of time.
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94
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Blum, J. L. , 1953. The ecology of algae growing in the Saline River, Michigan,
with special reference to water pollution. Doc. Thesis, Univ. Mich., ix +
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Blum, J. L. , 1956. The ecology of river algae. Bot. Rev., 22: 291-341.
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Cairns, J. , Jr., 1956. Effects of increased temperatures on aquatic or-
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TEMPERATURE and AQUATIC LIFE
A Selected Bibliography
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Anon., 1956. Feed heavy on a rise in temperature. Prog. Pish Cult.,
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Ansell, A. D., 1963- The biology of Venus mercenaira in British waters,
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Bardach, J. E., 1955- Certain biological effects of thermocline
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Beeton, A. M. , I960. Environmental changes in Lake Erie. Trans. Am.
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Biever, K. D. , and M. S. Mulla, 1956. Effects of temperature on the
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Blaxter, J. H. S., I960. The effect of extremes of temperature on
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Brett, J. R. , 1952. Temperature tolerance in young pacific salmon,
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LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS SERIES
1. Sargent Polarographic Oxygen Analyzer; Thermo-Fishometer
Water Thermometer; Modified Methods for Turbidity; Modified
Methods for Color; Suspended Solids Determination (June 2kt
1963).*
2. Recovery of Simple Cyanides by the Serfass Distillation
Procedure as Compared with the Williams Cuprous Chloride
Method (April 7, 19614-).
3. Nitrate Determination in Saline and Estuarine Waters
(October 13, 1964).
k. Dissolved Oxygen Determinations by Oxygen Meter (January
31, 1966).
5. Picture-Key to the Genera of Aquatic Midges (November, 196?).
6. Temperature and Aquatic Life (December, 196?).
Out of Print
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LABORATORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
SERIES - NUMBER SIX
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