DRAFT
     DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT FOR
   EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
  AND STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
        TEXTILE INDUSTRY
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

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                                 NOTICE


     The attached document is a DRAFT REPORT.  It includes techni-
cal information and recommendations prepared by the Effluent Guide-
lines Division of the United States Environmental Protection Agency
("EPA")  regarding the subject industry.  It is being distributed
for review and comment only.  The report is not an official EPA
pulication and it has not been finally reviewed by the Agency.

     The report, including the recommendations, will be undergoing
extensive review by EPA, Federal and State agencies, public interest
organizations and other interested groups and persons during the
coming weeks.  The report and in particular the recommended effluent
limitations guidelines and standards of performance is subject to
change in any and all respects.

     The regulations to be published by EPA under sections 304(b)
and 306 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended,
will be based to a large extent on the report and the comments
received on it.  However, pursuant to Sections 304(b) and 306 of
the Act, EPA will also consider additional pertinent technical
and economic information which is developed in the course of review
of this report by the public and within EPA.  EPA is currently
performing an economic impact analysis regarding the subject industry,
which will be taken into account as part of the review of the report.
Upon completion of the review process, and prior to final promulgation
of regulations, an EPA report will be issued setting forth EPA's
conclusions concerning the subject industry and effluent limitations
guidelines and standards of performance applicable to such industry.
Judgments necessary to promulgation of regulations under Sections
301 (b) and 306 of the Act, of course, remain the responsibility
of EPA.  Subject to these limitations, EPA is making this draft
report available in order to encourage the widest possible parti-
cipation of interested persons in the decision making process at
the earliest possible time.

     The report shall have standing in any EPA proceeding or court
proceeding only to the extent that it represents the views of the
individuals who studied the subject industry and prepared the informa-
tion and recommendations.  It cannot be cited, referenced, or represented
in any respect in any such proceedings as a statement of EPA's views
regarding the subject industry.


                               U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
                               Office of Air and Water Programs
                               Effluent Guidelines Division
                               Washington, D. C.   20460

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DRAFT
                                DRAFT
                      DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT FOR




                   EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES




                    AND STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
                          TEXTILE INDUSTRY
            UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

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DRAFT
                                 ABSTRACT

The 1967 Census of Manufacturers lists approximately 7,000 plants in the
textile industry  (SIC  22)  for which 1972 production was estimated at 1C
billion linear meters  (11  billion linear yards)  of fabric.  The total
process water consumption  of  the industry in 1972 is about 473 billion
liters  (125 billion gallons)  per year.  However, it appears that more
than 95 percent of this water consumption was accounted for by only
some 680 plants.

In 1968, only about 28 percent of the total wastewater received secondary
treatment, with a further  27  percent going to municipal sewage plants.
Installation of new or improved waste treatment plants has proceeded
rapidly over the last  few  years and roughly 15 percent
of the waste effluent presently receives secondary treatment and that
another 35 percent goes to municipal plants.  This treatment removes
about 70 percent of the BOD raw waste load from the effluent.

Many textile plants are 'dry'  in that they have effectively no water use
and the •wet* processing plants are not adequately defined by the sub-
categories of SIC 22.  For waste treatment purposes,
the water using portion of the industry has been divided into seven categories:
(1)  wool scouring;  (2) wool  finishing; (3) greige goods mills; (4) woven
fabric finishing;  (5)  knit fabric finishing; (6) carpet mills; and (7)
stock and yarn dyeing  and  finishing.

Wool processing was kept as a separate category because of the high raw
waste loads associated with the processing of this fiber.  Greige goods
mills are essentially  dry  plants and therefore have minimal waste loads.
Many knitting mills and yarn  and thread mills which do not carry out
dyeing or finishing operations also fall into this category.

Finishing plants  (categories, t, 5, and 7), together with carpet mills
(category 6), constitute the  major portion of the •wet1 processing
industry.

Synthetic fibers used  alone or in blends with other fibers are used in
all sections of the industry.  In fact this tendency to increasing use
of fiber blends blurs  the  distinction between categories, but for the
present there are sufficient  unique differences to maintain the seven
categories.


In all categories there are plants that show greater than
90 percent BOD removal by  conventional secondary biological treatment.
This degree of treatment is the basis for Level I
effluent guidelines to be  achieved by the industry in 1977.

For Level II guidelines, to be achieved by 1983


                                     NOTICE: These arc tentative recommendations based upon information in this
                                     report and are subject lo c':an-e based upon comments rece'vcd v.* furthpr
                                     rev.cw by EPA.

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DRAFT
zero discharge is recommended  as being  technically achievable by present techno
reverse osmosis or evaporation, followed  by incineration of
effluent.  However, it appears to  be  associated with a relatively high
cost.

New source performance standards  (i.e.. Level III)  should be set at
the same Level II guidelines,  although  the technical risk associated
with installing this technology now is  somewhat greater.
                                                         '; >'.:•::.;.' .:' '. imir.c-r

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DRAFT
                                SECTION I

                               Conclusions

1.  The textile industry  has over 7,000 plants, but many of these  carry
out  only dry operations  and many more are connected to municipal  treat-
ment systems.  About  680  wet process plants account for  95  percent   of
the total water used  U73  billion liters per year or (125 billion gallons
per year).  Only about  20 percent of this water is discharged untreated;
the rest undergoes municipal or on-site secondary waste treatment.

2.   After  consideration  of previously proposed categorization schemes
and evaluation of waste effluent characteristics we  conclude  that  the
industry can be conveniently divided into seven categories as follows:

    (1)  Wool Scouring
    (2)  Wool Finishing
    (3)  Greige Goods Mills
    (4)  Woven Fabric Finishing
    (5)  Knit Fabric  Finishing
    (6)  Carpet Mills
    (7)  Stock and Yarn Dyeing and Finishing
    (8)  Specialized  Finishing

Raw  wastes  from  all  categories  show  high treatability by secondary
biological treatment.

3.  The performance of  plants with respect to BOD removal in  all  seven
categories have been  found.  These plants remove substantially more than
90  percent  of  the  BOD.    Implementation  of  the  proposed  Level   I
guidelines will require approximately 95 percent  BOD  removal  for  the
entire  industry  (weighted average)  by July 1, 1977.  With the exception
of wool scouring, which has a very high raw waste load,  all  categories
can  achieve an average BOD of less than 25 mg/1, i.e., equivalent to  or
better than acceptable  municipal treatment.

Of the heavy metals   chromium  is  the  only  one  of  general  concern;
chromium  using  plants  typically  average  1 to 1U mg/1 in their waste
effluent.  The technology for chemically removing chromium is well known
and should be applicable  to this industry.

1.  Wool scouring shows the highest raw-waste  discharge  concentration,
averaging  2,000-3,000  mg/1 BODS, or 100-200 kg BOD/1000 kg of product,
and after biological  waste treatment, effluents have a  relatively high
BOD  5. There are about 22 plants in this category; of the five largest.
                                     NOTICE": These ::c tErts'ivc roro~!~cr:'2Vcns tarsi u?on information in Ihis
                                     report e:'- aie su'.'jccl !o c' a-re L::3l iron comments rccc.'.cd 2-id further

                                     teview b> CI:A.

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DRAFT
three have waste treatment and two discharge to municipal systems.   The
Wool  Finishing  segment  of  the industry consists of approximately 100
plants, of which essentially all the larger ones  have  waste  treatment
plants.  One-third of the remaining plants have some waste treatment and
only about 10 percent have no treatment at present.

5.   Over 75 percent of the larger cotton and synthetic finishing plants
(woven and knits) have waste treatment systems.  Among the smaller ones,
we estimate 60 percent have their waste treated  in  municipal  systems.
Greige  goods mills are essentially dry plants and most are currently on
municipal systems.  Of the fifty largest carpet mills,  practically  all
have  their  own  waste  treatment  or are on a municipal system.  Sixty
percent of the carpet industry is within  one  town  which  handles  the
waste from all of these plants by municipal treatment.

6.   Textile  industry  waste  effluent  shows  such  high treatability.
Treatment plants within the  textile  industry  have  extended  aeration
activated sludge , often followed by a long  (1 to 5 days) residence time
in  a  polishing lagoon.  Plants located in urban areas may find it more
costly to meet guidelines set by the exemplary  mills  than  will  other
plants which have available land.

7.   Further  improvement  in  the  quality of these effluents should be
directed towards the reduction of the dissolved salts.  No discharge  is
established for Level II guidelines and Level III standards.

8,  There is essentially no difference between old and new plants in raw
waste  loads per unit of product.  In contrast to some other industries,
old plants continually modernize and add new equipment.   Although  some
sub-processes  do  show significant differences, for example, the use of
pressure becks versus atmospheric becks in the dyeing of synthetic yarns
-these differences are not sufficient to affect guideline values.

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DRAFT
                      SECTION II - Recommendations
                          Basis For Guidelines


The RFP defines Level I Guidelines  (to be achieved by 1977)  as  the   BEST
PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE as exemplified by the
average of the best plants existing in the industry.  Level  1 guidelines
are  primarily  based  on  removal  of  BOD  by  conventional biological
treatment as typified by activated sludge or aerated lagoons.   Treatment
Technology is also available  (although not always  well  practiced)   for
removal  of COD, suspended solids, heavy metals, color and control of pH
and Level I guidelines are also recommended for these parameters.

The RFP defines Level II Guidelines (to be achieved by 1983) as the  BEST
AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE as exemplified  by  the   best
existing   plant,  or  modified  if  necessary  by  the  application  of
technology from other industries.  This industry as yet has  only a   few
no discharge system or systems that have 100JE recycle.  Therefore, it is
recommended  that  Level  II  guidelines  be based on the application of
desalinization techniques.

New source performance standards  (Level III)  should  be  based on   the
application  of  Level II technology with the maximum possible  reduction
of process water use through the utilization of in-process controls   and
water reuse.

                           LEVEL I GUIDELINES

Guidelines  for  each category of the textile industry are summarized in
Table II-l, which gives the average effluent limits that are not to  be
exceeded on a monthly average and daily composite basis.

The  recommended guidelines for BOD, COD and suspended solids are shown.
For all industry categories, guidelines are  recommended  for   chromium,
phenol, color and pH, recognizing that effluents from some categories do
not contain all of these pollutants.

        LEVEL II GUIDELINES AND LEVEL III PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

As  a first step, reductions  (in most cases by a factor of two)  in stan-
dard water usage is foreseen.

The removal of BOD, COD and suspended solids by physical,  chemical   and
biological   processes   provides   the   pretreatment   necessary    for
                                                     		 -.I i.i ii;is
                                                     u'-on cor.wcr.u tccc-.voj and lurthet
                                   tev.ew by [PA.

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DRAFT
desalinization techniques for removal  of  dissolved  solids  and  water
reuse.
                                                                .; -::j:t!ter

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                                                          TABLE II-1

                                        SUMMARY OF LEVEL I POLLUTANT GUIDELINES  -  (a)
                                                Maximum 20 Working Day Averages,
                                                     kg/1000 kg (lb/1000 Ib)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Category
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Greige Goods
Woven Fabric Finishing
Knit Fabric Finishing
Carpets
Stock and Yarn Dyeing
BOD
2.85
5.1
0.15
3.3
3.6
2.1
4.0
COD Suspended Solids PH^u;
28
51
1.17
45
45
21
52
2.0
7.6
0.22
5.0
6.1
2.4
6.1
6-3.5
6-8.5
6-S.5
6-8.5
6-3.5
6-8.5
6-8.5
                 (a)   In addition to the guidelines shown, the following apply to all categories
                      Coliform organisms 200/ml MPN,
                      Total  chromium-not to exceed 0.25 mg/1
                      Phenols-not to exceed 0.25 mg/1
                      Col or-not exceed 200 ADMI units
                 (b)   Values are the maximum permitted range.

                 Note:   Daily maximum may not exceed twice the maximum 20 working day average.
O

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DRAFT
                              SECTION III
                              Introduction


                         Purpose and Authority

Section  301(b)  of  the Act requires the achievement, by not later than
July 1, 1977, of effluent limitations  for  point  sources,  other  than
publicly  owned  treatment  works, which are based on the application of
the best practicable control technology currently available  as  defined
by  the  Administrator  pusuant  to  Section 30H(b) of the Act.  Section
301 (b)  also requires the achievement, by not later than July 1, 1983, of
effluent limitations  for  point  sources,  other  than  publicly  owned
treatment  works,  which  are  based  on  the  application  of  the best
available  technology  economically  achievable  which  will  result  in
reasonable  further progress toward the national goal of eliminating the
discharge  of  all  pollutants,  as  determined   in   accordance   with
regulations  issued  by  the Administrator pursuant to Section 305(b) to
the Act.  Section 306 of the Act requires the achievement by new sources
of a Federal standard of performance providing for the  control  of  the
discharge  of  pollutants which reflects the greatest degree of effluent
reduction which the Administrator determines to  be  achievable  through
the  application  of the best available demonstrated control technology,
processes, operating methods, or other  alternatives,  including,  where
practicable, a standard permitting no discharge of pollutants.

Section  30U(b)  of the Act requires the Administrator to publish within
one year of enactment of the Act, regulations providing  guidelines  for
effluent  limitations  setting  forth  the  degree of effluent reduction
attainable through the  application  of  the  best  practicable  control
technology  currently  available  and  the  degree of effluent reduction
attainable through the application of  the  best  control  measures  and
practices  achievable including treatment techniques, process and proce-
dure innovations, operation methods and other alternatives.   The  regu-
lations  proposed  herein  set  forth  effluent  limitations  guidelines
pursuant to Section 30*»(b) of the  Act  for  the  textile  manufacturing
source category.

Section 306 of the Act requires the Administrator, within one year after
a  category  of sources is included in a list published pursuant to Sec-
tion 306 (b) (1)  (A) of the  Act,  to  propose  regulations  establishing
Federal   standards   of   performances  for  new  sources  within  such
categories.  The Administrator published  in  the  Federal  Register  of
January  16,  1973  (38  F.R.  162U),  a  list  of 27 source categories.
Publication of the list constituted announcement of the  Administrator's

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DRAFT
intention  of  establishing, under Section 306, standards of performance
applicable to  new  sources  within  the  textile  manufacturing  source
category, which was included within the list published January 16, 1973.

                              Methodology
The  effluent  limitations  guidelines and standards of performance pro-
posed herein were  developed  in  the  following  manner.   The  textile
industry  was  first  categorized for the purpose of determining whether
separate limitations and standards are  appropriate  for  its  different
segments.    Considerations   in  the  industry  categorization  process
included raw materials, the products,  manufacturing  process,  and  raw
waste characteristics.

The  raw waste characteristics for each category were identified through
analyses of: (1)  the sources and volumes of water and waste  waters  and
(2)  the  constituents (including thermal) of all waste waters including
toxic or hazardous constituents and other constituents which  result  in
taste,  odor,  color,  or  aquatic organisms.  The constituents of waste
waters that should be subject to  effluent  limitations  guidelines  and
standards of performance were identified.

The  full  range  of  control and treatment technologies existing within
each category was identified.  This included an identification  of  each
distinct  control  and treatment technology, including both in-plant and
end-of-process technologies, which are  existent  or  capable  of  being
designed  for  each subcategory.  It also included an identification, in
terms  of  the  amount  of  constituents  (including  thermal)  and  the
chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of pollutants, of the
effluent  level  resulting from the application of each of the treatment
and control technologies.  The problems, limitations, and reliability of
each treatment and control technology and  the  required  implementation
time  were  also identified.  The non-water quality environmental impact
were also identified, e.g., the  effects  of  the  application  of  such
technologies  upon other pollution problems, including air, solid waste,
noise, and radiation.  The energy requirements of each  of  the  control
and  treatment  technologies  were identified as well as the cost of the
application of such technologies.

The information, as outlined above, was then evaluated to determine what
levels of technology constituted the "best practicable control technolo-
gy  currently  available,11  "best  available   technology   economically
achievable"   and   "best  available  demonstrated  control  technology,
processes, operating methods, or other  alternatives."   In  identifying
such  technologies, various factors were considered.  These included the
total cost of application of technology  in  relation  to  the  effluent

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DRAFT
reduction  benefits  to  be  achieved  from such application, the age of
equipment and facilities involved, the process employed, the engineering
aspects of the  application  of  various  types  of  control  techniques
process  changes,  non-water  quality  environmental  impact  (including
energy requirements), the treatability of  the  wastes,  and  water  use
practices.
The  data for the identification and analyses were derived from a number
of sources.  These sources included EPA research information,  published
literature,  previous  EPA  technical  guidance for textile manufacture,
various industry associations, qualified technical consultation, and on-
site visits and interviews at exemplary textile manufacturing plants  in
the United States.  All references used in developing the guidelines for
effluent  limitations  and  standards  of  performance  for  new sources
reported herein are listed in chapter XIV.

General Description of the Industry

Since 1638, when the first  commercial  mill  was  erected  at  Raleigh,
Massachusetts,  the U.S. textile industry has burgeoned to a point where
there are nearly 7100 plants in 47 states, employing about  one  million
people,  and  in  1972  selling  goods valued at just under $28 billion.
These plants range from highly integrated manufacturing  complexes  that
process  basic  raw  materials  into  finished  products,  to small non-
integrated contract plants that process goods owned by other producers.

According to the 1967 Census of Manufacturers, the textile industry, SIC
Code 22, contains ten major SIC classifications.  In recent decades, the
industry  has  been  concentrating  in  the  Southeast--notably  in  the
Carolinas,  Georgia and Alabama—and this trend is continuing.  Today 38
percent of the textile plants are in the Southeast and 92 percent are on
the eastern seaboard.  The rest, as shown by Table III-l and
                                   8

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DRAFT
III-2 are scattered thinly throughout the country.  Knitting mills, with
almost 2,700 plants listed, constitute the largest group but  there  are
also  about  1,000  weaving mills of various types and over 1,000 plants
which process miscellaneous textile goods.  Most of the textile industry
is contained within EPA Regions 1, 2, 3 and 4, with Region 4  accounting
for a major proportion of the industry.

                            Table III-1


   Region                          Number of Mills    ft .Tof.ri Total

   South                                2656             38

   Mid-Atlantic                         2821             40

   New England                           978             14

   North Central                         321              4

   West                                  304             _4

                                        7080            100

   Source:  1967 census of Manufacturers

The  industry's  basic  raw  materials  are  wool,  cotton, and man-made
fibers.  Of the roughly 5.0 billion kilograms  (11 billion pounds) of raw
materials consumed by the industry in 1972,  wool  accounted  for  about
0.09  billion  kilograms   (0.2  billion  pounds), cotton for 4.0 billion
kilograms (4  billion  pounds)  and  man-made  fibers  for  3.2  billion
kilograms (7 billion pounds).

Among the man-made fibers, the most important are rayon, acetate, nylon,
acrylic, polyester, polypropylene, and glass fiber.

The  natural  fibers  are  supplied  in staple form,  (staple being short
fibers).   The  man-made  fibers  are  supplied  as  either  staple   or
continuous  filament.  In either case the fiber is spun into yarn, which
is simply a number of filaments twisted together.  The yarn is woven  of
knit  into a fabric, and the fabric then dyed and treated to impart such
characteristics as  shrink  resistance,  crease  resistance,  etc.   The
finished  fabric  is delivered—directly or through convertors, jobbers,
and wholesalers-to the manufacturer of textile products.

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                                                                                                            o
                                           Table III-2
                         Number of Textile Plants by Geographic Areas:
1967
NORTHEAST REGION

New England Div.
  Maine
  New Hampshire
  Vermont
  Massachusetts
  Rhode Island
  Connecticut

Mid. Atlantic Div.
  New York
  New Jersey
  Pennsylvania

NO. CENTRAL REGION

E. No. Central Div.
  Ohio
  Indiana
  Illinois
  Michigan
  Wisconsin

W. No. Central Div.
  Minnesota
  Iowa
  Missouri
Textile
Mills
Products
22
7,080
3,799
978
56
79
14
400
293
136
, 2,821
1,521
558
742
>,' 321
/. 251
74
13
76
30
58
/. 70
24
7
34
Weaving
Mills
Cotton
221
393
78
21
4
1
-
_
4
4
57
17
25
15
-
_
-
-
-
-
-
_
-
-
-
Weaving
Mills
Synthetic
222
396
196
64
7
9
-
19
23
6
132
33
37
62
7
_
-
-
-
-
-
3
-
-
2
Weaving &
Finishing
Mills-Wool
223
310
216
127
18
16
7
41
36
9
89
39
10
40
22
12
5
-
3
-
2
10
6
-
3
Narrow
Fabric
Mills
224
384
258
121
-
15
-
37
51
15
137
50
31
56
14
9
3
-
3
-
-
5
-
-
-

Knitting
Mills
225
2,698
1,616
113
3
15
-
49
15
28
1,503
964
192
347
76
61
19
i
14
2
25
15
8
-
5
Textile
Finishing
Exc. Wool
226
641
423
98
-
4
-
45
31
18
325
144
131
50
29
24
7
-
13
1
3
_
-
-
-
Floor
Covering
Mills
227
385
83
35
3
-
-
19
10
1
48
16
3
29
13
12
-
2
-
-
3
_
-
-
-
Yarn &
Thread
Mills
228
768
304
128
11
11
-
53
34
16
176
70
28
78
15
15
5
-
4
-
5
_
-
-
-
Misc.
Textile
Goods
229
1,105
625
271
7
6
-
129
89
39
354
138
101
05
141
111
28
10
35
21
17
3D
8
—
IB
                                                                                                             Tl

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                                                       Table 111-2 (Con't)
                            Textile  Weaving  Weaving  Weaving &  Narrow           Textile   Floor   Yarn &  Misc,
                             Mills    Mills    Mills   Finishing  Fabric Knitting Finishing Covering Thread Textile
                            Products  Cotton Synthetic Mills-Wool Mills   Mills   Exc. Wool  Mills   Mills   Goods
                                       221
22
          SOUTH REGION

          So  Atlantic Div.
           Delaware
           Maryland
           Virginia
           West Virginia
           North Carolina
           South Carolina
           Georgia
           Florida

          L. Sc. Centra]. Div.
           Kentucky
           Tennessee
           Alabama
           Mississippi

          W. So. Central Div
           Arkansas
           Louisiana
           Oklahoma
           Texas

          WEST REGION

          Mountain Division
           Utah

          Pacific Division
           Washington
           Oregon
           California
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
2,656
2,214
13
30
109
5
1,260
359
407
31
34':
27
149
141
27
98
16
10
6
66
304
18
5
286
20
20
245
307
254
_
-
6
-
67
112
67
-
34
-
4
29
1
19
3
-
-
15
-
«
-
	
-
_
_
190
178
-
-
22
-
77
57
21
_
10
-
3
6
-
2
-
-
_
2
-
_
-
_
-
-
-
52
43
-
3
10
1
6
11
11
-
7
-
2
2
-
2
-
-
-
2
20
_
-
18
1
8
^\
101
83
-
6
9
1
40
19
6
-
18
-
6
7
2
_
-
-
_
-
11
_
-
11
-
-
10
910
770
8
5
30
3
630
38
44
12
130
10
76
29
15
10
5
-
-
4
96
5
2
91
6
5
80
170
145
2
5
9
-
77
31
16
-
19
-
11
6
-
6
1
-
1
-
19
-
-
17
-
-
16
231
199
-
-
3
-
35
19
142
-
24
-
13
7
1
8
3
_
1
-
58
-
-
57
-
-
56
443
387
-
5
8
-
262
41
70
1
51
2
13
35
-
_
-
-
_
-
6
-
-
5
-
- -
5
252
155
3
-
12
-
66
31
30
-
^ ~^
A
21
20
6
46
i
9
-
31
87
-
-
81
-
-
6
O

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DRAFT
The many woven  fabrics  are  produced  by  variations  in  -the  weaving
pattern.   Plain,  or  tafeta,  weaves  give such fabrics as broadcloth,
calico, cheesecloth,  muslin,  seersucker,  flannel  and  tweed.   Twill
weaves  are  represented  by  serge, herringbone, jersey, gabardine, and
ticking.  Because of their superior strength, twill fabrics are used for
work clothes and men's suits.  Satin weaves are  smooth  but  weak;  the
best  known  are  crepe  satin,  sateen, and damask.  Dobby and Jacquard
weaves are used to produce patterned fabrics.  Dobby weaves are used  in
men's  shirting  and  women's  dress  fabrics.  Jacquard weaves are used
extensively for upholstery and drapery materials.   Finally,  there  are
the  pile  weaves, which include velvets, plushes, corduroys and turkish
toweling.

In transforming a fiber into one of these woven fabrics,  two  types  of
processes are used: wet and dry.  The SIC code breakdown is not particu-
larly  useful  for evaluating the waste effluent problems of the textile
industry.  These codes are gouped primarily by the  process  used—e.g.,
weaving  or  knitting—whereas the waste effluent problems stem from all
the wet processes which are used to desize, wash,  dye  and  finish  the
textile  fabric.   The  wet processes of interest include: scouring, de-
sizing, mercerizing, bleaching, bonding and laminating.   Dry  processes
include:   spinning,  weaving  and  knitting.   Although  SIC  Code  226
identifies textile finishing, code 221 identifies  weaving  mills  which
may  also  be integrated mills that have a finishing operation or may be
greige goods mills that have only dry processing.  Knitting  mills  fall
into a similar category; many of the mills identified as knitting mills,
in  fact,  process  dyed yarns and, therefore, essentially carry out dry
operations.

There is no exact figure for the number of wet processing plants or  the
total  water  use  by the industry, but the Census of Manufacturers gave
for 1968 under Textile Mill Products a total of  684  wet  plants  which
consume  412  billion  liters (109 billion gallons) of process water per
year.   (This includes sanitary and cooling water, etc.)  A  more  recent
estimate,  by  the  American  Textile  Manufacturers' Institute in 1970,
found 346 plants using 394 billion  liters   (104  billion  gallons)  per
year, estimated to be 83 percent of the total industry use.

Table  III-3  gives  details  of  the  process water used and discharged
divided as far as possible according to the ADL categories.  The largest
water users are undoubtedly the finishing plants, with a  total  of  269
billion  liters   (71  billion  gallons)  per  year, averaging 2800 cubic
meters per day   (0.73  million  gallons  per  day).   The  next  highest
category  is  the  wool  finishing  operations, with 47.3 billion liters
(12.5 billion gallons) per year averaging 27000  cubic  meters  per  day
                                   12

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DRAFT
(0.7  million  gallons per day) but consisting of a much smaller segment
of the textile industry.

A summary of this data is presented in Table III-1, which shows that 110
billion liters (29 billion gallons) per year  or  26.6  percent  of  the
water was discharged to municipal sewers and 73.2 percent or 303 billion
liters (80 billion gallons) per year to surface water.  The 73.2 percent
also  divides  into  2H.2 percent that received no treatment, 21 percent
that received primary treatment and 28.2 percent that received secondary
treatment before discharge.  Since 1968 many more treatment plants  have
been  built  and from a consideration of RAPP data and the recent survey
by the ATMI, we estimate that about 35 percent of the water used is  now
discharged  to  municipal  sewers,  15  percent receives no treatment, 5
percent receives primary treatment and  U5  percent  receives  secondary
treatment.   Undoubtedly,  the  smaller  mills  or those using the least
amounts of  water  have  found  it  more  economical  to  use  municipal
treatment instead of constructing their own facilities.
                                   13

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                                 Table III-3   Water Use by the. Textile Industry
                                                    Average
                  Value of    No.  of    Process      Water     Water    Discharged
                  Shipments   Plants   Water Used  use/plant   Sewer     Surface
Treated Before Discharge
 Total           Ponds
SIC
Code
22

2297

2231
-2233
2211
-2221
-2241
226
225

227

228
-2283)
ADL
Category
Total |
i
1

2

4 1
!


5

j
6

7

(Million 106 cu m/yr
dollars) (BG/yr)
413.
9,235.5 684 (109.0)
2.6
49.5 9 (0.7)
47.3
758. 2 67 (12.5)
I 269.
; 4,787.3 348 (71.1)


32.
1,119.7 100 (8.4)
30.
! 1,067.6 50 (7.8)
21.
660.3 60 (5.6)
cu n/d 106
(MGD)
2100.
(0.56)
1100.
(0.28)
2600
(0.68)
2800
(0.73)


1100.
(0.30)
2100.
(0.56)
1200.
(0.33)
cu m/yr
(BG/yr)
192.
(50.6)
.38
(0.1)
15.
(3.9)
99.5
(26.3)


28.
(7.4)
23.
(6.1)
16.
(4.2)
10° cu ra/yr
(BG/yr)
306.
(80.9)
3.4
(0.9)
42.4
(11.2)
213.
(56.4)


11.
(2.9)
11.
(2.8)
16.
(4.3)
106 cu ra/yr
(BG/yr)
203
(53.7)
2.3
(0.6)
26.
(6.9)
137.
(36.3)


8 . ~
(2.3)
11..
(2.3)
15.
(3.9!
10° cu m/yr
(BG/yr)
117.
(30.8)
_
(-)
15.
(3.9)
74.9
(19.8)


2.3
(0.6)
6.4
(1.7)
14.
U'8>
Source:   Department or  Coimnerce — 1967 Census of Manufacturers

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                                       Table  III-4   Water Discharged by the Textile Industry
                                                                       1968
1972
                To Municipal  Sower


                To Surface Water:

                   1.  No Treatment


                   2.  Primary Treatment


                   3.  Secondary Treatment


                          TOTAL PROCESS WATER
Amount
106 cu m/yr
BG/yr
110.
(29.)
99.5
(26.3)
86.7
(22.9)
116.
(30.8)
413.
(109.)
Percent
of
Total
26.6
24.2
21.0
28.2
100.0
Amount
10° cu m/yr
BG/yr
166.
(44.)
71.
(19.)
24.
(6.)
213.
(56.)
473.
(125.)
Percent
of
Total
35.
15.
5.
45.
100.0
Q
                Sources:  Department of Commerce  1967 Census of Manufacturers
                          Refuse Act Permit Program Data
                          American Textile Manufacturers  Institute
                          Arthur D. Little, Inc. Estimates

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DRAFT
                  SECTION IV - Indus-try Categorization

                          PREVIOUS APPROACHES

In    deriving    this    industry   categorization   system,   existing
categorizations and other previous attempts at categorization have  been
considered.  The principal systems investigated were:

    a.  SIC codes.  These codes do not lend themselves to a classi-
         fication of the industry with respect to characterization
         of the pollution loads generated.  For example.  Category
         3, Greige Goods, includes 10 SIC categories.

    b.  The method advanced by the report, "A Simplification of Textile
         Waste Survey and Treatment" by Masselli, Masselli and Burford.
         This approach consists of synthesizing the raw waste load from
         a textile mill by additive contributions of the chemicals used.
         Tables of BOD values for many chemicals are given in the report.
         This method was judged too difficult to be implemented by persons
         not versed in Textile Chemistry and not knowledgeable about the
         chemicals used.

    c.  The previous Arthur D. Little Report prepared for the EPA.
         This approach employed unit processes to synthesize the raw waste
         loads.  This method was also judged too difficult to implement
         by the EPA.

    d.  The preliminary system developed by the EPA in the "Denver"
         guidelines study.

    e.  The system developed by the Institute of Textile Technology
         and Hydrosciences in the recent study for American Textile
         Manufacturer's Institute, Inc., and carpet and Rug Institute.


Based  on   knowledge of the various pollution problems, loads generated
by the different unit operations in the  textile  industry,  actual  and
potential  waste  treatment  practices  and  current  manufacturing  and
processing  practices,  these  five   approaches   were   combined   and
simplified.

The  last  two  methods  (d  and e) and the present one have in common a
categorization according to the products produced by a mill that in turn
relates to type of wastes; the differences are in matters of judgment as
to the  balance  between  simplicity  and  how  well  a  given  category
                                  16

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DRAFT
accurately  describes  the wastes generated.  The objective is to arrive
at useful, realistic guides to field EPA personnel,

A comparison of the EPA and the ATMI/CBI categorizations with those used
in this study is given in Table IV-1.  The SIC codes, in relation to the
ADL categories, are  shown  in  Table  IV-2.   This  latter  table  also
indicates the number of plants in each category.
                                   17

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                                              TABLE IV-1
                                       INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
                                                                                                                o
                                                                                                                XJ
                                                                                                                ".T
           ADL

1.  Wool Scouring

2.  Wool Finishing

3.  Greige Goods Mill

4.  Woven Fabric Finishing


5.  Knit Fabric Finishing
    Carpet Mill
    Stock & Yarn, Dyeing
      and Finishing
                  EPA

1.  Wool Scour and Finish Mill (Integrated)      1.

2.  Wool Finish Mill                             2.

3.  Greige Goods Mill - Woven and Knitted Goods  3.

4.  Finishing Mill - Woven Products of           4.
      Cotton, Synthetics, and Blends
5.  Finishing Mill - Knitted Products of
      Cotton, Synthetics, and Blends

6.  Integrated Woven Goods Mill (Includes
      Manufacture of Greige Goods)

7.  Carpet Mill - Dyeing and Finishing
      (Excluding Carpet Backing)

8.  Integrated Carpet Mill

9.  Yarn Dyeing Plants - All Yarns
       ATMI

     Wool Scouring

     Wool Finishing

     Greige Mi.ll

     Woven Fabric Finishing
 5.  Knit Fabric Finishing
     Greige Mill + Finishing
       Fabric

     Carpet Backing & Foam
 8.  Integrated Carpet Mill

 9.  Stock & Yarn Dyeing
       & Finishing

10.  Greige Mill -I- Finishing
       & Fabrics

11.  Combined Materials
       Finishing - Stock,  Yarn
       Wovens, Knits

12.  Multiple Operation,
       Commission House
    Specialized Finishing
                                                13.   Specialized Finishing

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DRAFT
         NUMBER OF TEXTILE PLANTS BY SIC CODE - Table IV-2
SIC    No. of                                       ADL
Code   Plants          Description                Category

                     WEAVING MILLS

2211     393    Broad Woven Fabric, Cotton          364
2221     396    Broad Woven Fabric, Synthetic       364
2231     310    Broad Woven Fabric, Wools            2
2241     384    Narrow Fabrics                      364
        1483       Sub Total

                     KNITTING MILLS

2251     355    Womens Hosiery                       5  (3)
2252     448    Hosiery  (except Womans)              5  (3)
2253    1179    Knit Outerwear                       3
2254     113    Knit Underwear                       3
2256     541    Knit Fabric                          5  (3)
2259    	62    Knitting Mills, N.E.C.               3
        2698       Sub Total

                     DYEING 8 FINISHING
                     (except Wool & Knits)

2261     216    Broad Woven Fabrics, Cotton          4
2262     233    Broad Woven Fabrics, Synthetic       4
2269     192    Finishers, N.E.C.                   4&7
         641       Sub Total

                     CARPET MILLS

2271      61    Woven Carpets                       366
2272     244    Tufted Carpets                      366
2279    	80    Carpets, N.E.C.                     366
         385       Sub Total

                     YARN  6 THREAD MILLS

2281     377    Yarn Spinning, Cotton  6 Synthetics   3
2282     181    Yarn Twisting, etc. Cotton 6 Syn.   367
2283     135    Yarn, Wool including Carpet          2
                                   18

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DRAFT
2284    	75    Thread Mills                        367
                   Sub Total
                                  19

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DRAFT
                     MISCELLANEOUS TEXTILES

2291      40    Felt Goods (except wool)              8
2292     1U2    Lace Goods                          3S4
2293     151    Padding and Upholstery               3
229U     1U1    Processed Waste                      3
2295     178    Coated Fabrics (excepty Rubberized)   8
2296      20    Tire Cord                            8
2297      68    Wool Scouring                        1
2298     169    Cordage and Twine
2299     196    Textile Goods, N.E.C.               3SU
        1105       Sub Total
                                   20

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DRAFT
PROPOSED CATEGORIZATION

The  system   derived  efficiently  characterizes  mills  in the textile
industry, according  to  their  waste  effluent  problems.   The  system
provides  eight categories and takes account of different fiber types in
addition to the pollution effects of different types of unit  operation.
Categories  1  and 2 essentially separate the wool processing section of
the textile  industry  because  of  its  particular  effluent  problems.
Categories  3,  H,  5  and  7  cover the various types of processing for
cotton and synthetic fibers.  Category 6 covers the carpet industry  and
Category  8  is  limited  to  specialized  types  of  processing.  These
categories are described in detail in the following section, but will be
summarized here.

Category 1 - Wool Scouring

Wool scouring and topmaking is  conveniently  separated  as  a  category
because a significant number of plants perform this function alone.  The
initial washing and cleaning of wool generates a wide variety of organic
and  inorganic  products  in  the waste effluent.  The raw wool contains
suint, dirt, and grease along with oils such as lanolin  which  are  not
readily  biodegradable.   These  extraneous  materials account for 25-75
percent of the  original  weight.   In  addition,  the  preparation  and
cleaning  of  wool  require a heavy use of detergents.  Recovery of wool
grease has  some  economic  incentive  in  that  it  has  market  value.
However,  even  with  grease  recovery,  wool  scouring wastes present a
difficult waste to treat biologically

Category 2 - Wool Finishing

Wool finishing involves the use of specialized  dyes  peculiar  to  this
fiber  which  often  result  in  the  presence  of chromium in the waste
effluent.  In addition, phenols occur from dyeing polyester blends. Only
a small amount  of  pure  wool  is  now  processed.   The  bulk  of  the
operations involves wool-polyester blends which give high BOD loads from
the  dye  carrier  which  is  used.  The resulting wastes are similar to
those in Category 5, Knit Fabric Finishing.

Several major mills have integrated wool scouring and  top  making  with
wool  finishing.   Such  mills  can  be  accomodated by a combination of
Categories 1 and 2.

Category 3 - Greige Mills
                                  21

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DRAFT
Although there are many greige goods mills, they carry  out  mainly  dry
operations (with the exception of sizing) and hence contribute little to
the  overall waste problems of the textile industry.  In many plants the
sanitary BOD load is comparable to the process BOD load.  This  category
applies equally well to woven or knitted greige goods.

Greige  goods  manufacturing  includes spinning and texturizing of yarns
which require a lubricating oil, similar to mineral oil.   This  oil  is
applied  to the fibers or yarns and stays with them, to be removed prior
to dyeing in the dye house.  However, some oil finds its  way  into  the
drains because of clean-ups and spills.

Prior  to  being  woven,  the yarns are coated with a sizing material to
give the yarn both lubrication and  strength  that  will  permit  it  to
withstand  the  severe mechanical demands of weaving.  Cottons generally
are coated with starch and synthetics with polyvinyl alcohol.  Wool  and
wool  blends  are  seldom sized, unless the yarns are quite fine.  Since
most wool yarns are blends, both  starch  and  PVA  may  be  used.   The
slasher,  where  the sizing is applied, is washed down about once a week
and thus contributes to the liquid wastes.   Generally  the  waste  flow
from the slashing operation represents less than 3% of the total.

Category ft .r- Woven Fabric Finishing

This  category is one of the most important, because such plants consti-
tute much of the waste water effluent  load  in  the  textile  industry.
Integrated  woven  fabric  finishing  mills  are  also  included in this
category rather than in Category 3 because the greige goods  section  of
these  mills  contributes  only  a  small amount to the overall effluent
load.  The size used in preparing woven fabrics is a major  contribution
to the BOD loan from the plant.

Two sizing compounds are commonly employed; starch and polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA).   PVA  tends  to  be less biodegradable than starch and therefore
presents a lower BOD  level  but  contributes  a  high  COD  level.   In
addition  to  high  BOD,  the wastes generally have high total dissolved
solids, color, and a variety of dispersing agents.   They  also  may  be
very alkaline from the use of caustic soda in mercerizing cottons.

The  dyes  and  associated  additives  used  in  woven  fabric finishing
represent the most complicated problem, since the BOD load and color can
vary considerably with the type of dye fabric being  processed  and  the
color  effects  to  be  achieved.   Subcategories  of cotton and cotton-
polyester blends were suggested for this category at the start  of  this
study,  because  of  the  difference  in  size  used  on  cottons and on
                                  22

-------
DRAFT
synrthe-tics as well as the types  of  dyes  and  the  dye  assists  used.
However,  variations in unit operations from mill to mill have a greater
effect on the raw waste load than that  observed  between  the  proposed
subcategories.  Consequently, such subcategory items were dropped.  (The
same  situation  occurred in Categories 5, Knit Fabric Finishing, and 7,
Stock and Yarn, Dyeing and Finishing.  A detailed discussion of this may
be found in Guidelines Section IX under Category 7.)

Processing steps in this category include  cleaning  the  greige  goods,
bleaching,  mercerizing  of  cotton  (treating  with  caustic) ,  dyeing,
washing and rinsing, followed by application of finishes  such  as  soil
repellants, anti-statics, etc.

Category 5 - Knit Fabric Finishing

The  main difference between woven and knit fabric finishing is that the
sizing/desizing and mercerizing operations are not required  for  knits;
therefore, BOD levels are lower.  Otherwise, the problems from finishing
of  the  different  fibers (cotton, polyester, and other synthetics) are
similar to those from woven fabric finishing.  It was first  thought  to
be  necessary to provide three adjustments in this category according to
the type of fiber being processed, i.e., cotton,  polyester,  and  other
synthetics.   As mentioned under Category 4, however, variations in unit
operations obscure the benefits from such subcategorization.

Category 6 - CarpetMills

Carpet mills form  a  distinct  part  of  the  industry  although  their
effluents  are  similar in many ways to those of Category 5, Knit Fabric
Finishing.  Carpets use mostly synthetic  fibers  (nylon,  acrylics  and
polyesters)  but  some  wool is still processed.  As in Category 2, Wool
Finishing, such wool carpet mills produce  synthetics  as  well.   As  a
result, no subcategory for wool carpets is proposed.

Carpet sometimes is backed with latex in a separate plant and represents
a  particular problem for the disposal of suspended solids.  The EPA and
the ATMI categorization systems allow two different categories  to  take
care  of  this  problem.   However,  carpet  is backed in separate mills
mostly in concentrated  industry  areas,  principally  Dalton,  Georgia,
where  shipment  between  mills  is not a problem.  Carpet mills in more
remote areas that have their own treatment plants often do latexing  in-
plant  with the finishing.  Latex is settled in separate basins prior to
release of those segregated streams to treating;  hence  the  additional
JLoad  on  integrated  mills  is negligible.  Mills that perform latexing
only are treatable  by  coagulation  to  a  level  to  meet  recommended
                                  23

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DRAFT
guidelines  for  this  category.   Therefore,  no  separate  category or
subcategory is proposed for latex mills.

Category 7 - Stock and Yarn Dyeing and Finishing

Yarn dyeing and finishing are  different  from  woven  fabric  finishing
because  there  is no sizing and desizing operation.  They are different
from knit fabric finishing because of their mercerizing  operations  and
water  use.   The  combined  differences  are  sufficient  to  justify a
separate category.  The waste loads from this type  of  plant  can  vary
more  than  those  from  other  types  of  integrated  textile  mills or
finishing mills.  Many multiple-operation, commission houses fall  under
this category.

As  in  Categories  H and 5, this category was considered as a candidate
for subcategories for different fibers but as discussed in  Category  4,
variations in unit operations obscure the benefits of such division.

                   Category 8 - Specialized Finishing

In  this  category  various  miscellaneous processes have been examined.
The following are included in SIC 22: Coated Fabrics (except  rubberized
fabrics),  Polypropylene  Carpet Backing, Non-Wovens, Tire Cord Fabrics,
and Felts.

-------
DRAFT
                   CATEGORY AND PROCESS DESCRIPTIONS

                       Category 1 - Wool Scouring

    General Description.  Wool scouring is conveniently  separated  from
other  segments  of the textile industry because of its uniqueness.  Raw
wool (grease wool)  must be wet processed to clean it  before  the  fiber
may  be  dry  processed to produce fiber, yarn or fabric for the further
wet processing steps found in a finishing plant.  Neither cotton nor the
synthetic fibers require this initial wet-cleaning.   Furthermore,  most
wool  scouring  mills  are  geographically  separate  from other textile
operations. Exceptions exist where wool scouring is physically separated
from, but shares the waste treatment plant with, finishing mills.

The grease wool contains 25 to 75 percent non-wool materials, consisting
of wool grease (a recoverable material of some economic value)  and other
excretions and secretions of the sheep such as urine, feces,  sweat  and
blood,  as  well  as  dirt consisting of both soil and vegetable matter.
Additional materils that may be present are  insecticides  (sheep  dip),
and  fugitive  dyes  used for identification.  This variability in yield
and in the composition of impurities and grease causes a correspondingly
large variability in raw waste loads.

The wool grease constitutes a special problem in treatment since it does
not appear to be readily biodegradable unless it is  well-emulsified  so
tha-t  bacteria  can  reach  it.   Therefore, the grease recovery step is
important to reduce pollution.

The 1962 Census indicates that this industry consists of 68 mills in SIC
2297, Scouring and Combing Mills.  Category 1 scour mills include  those
that  scour  or scour and comb, but not those that only comb, which is a
dry process.  We estimate that of these 68 mills, less  than  half  fall
into Category 1.
                                  25

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DRAFT
The geographic distribution given in the 1967 census is as follows:

                                                       Number with Less
                                       Mill            than 20 Employed

Northeast Region: New England Div.       35                    18
                  Middle Atlantic Div.  17                    10

South Region: South Atlantic Div.        6                     6
              West South Central Div.    6                     3

Not Allocated                            6                    _2_

                        Total           68                    39

The  68 mills produced $89.9 million worth of goods in 1967, compared to
a value of $6.6 million for the  scoured  wool  alone,  indicating  that
about  10  percent  of  the wool produced from both scouring and combing
mills is accounted for by Category 1 Mills, wool scouring.  We  estimate
that  21  mills  do  scouring  alone,  with  geographic  distribution as
follows:

                           Massachusetts     -       6

                           Rhode Island      -       3
                           Connecticut       -       1
                           South Carolina    -       3
                           Virginia          -       2
                           Pennsylvania      -       2
                           Illinois          -       1
                           Texas             -       3

                                  Total             IT"

Most small mills are connecting, or are connected, to municipal treating
systems.  The larger mills are  treating  their  own  wastes,  with  the
exception  of  Wellman  in  South  Carolina  which  is  connecting  to a
municipal system.  Two large Burlington mills treat wastes combined from
carpet and woolen broadwoven fabric finishing plants, respectively.

As a guide to municipal/private treating systems, a report  prepared  by
the  Wool  Manufacturers  Council of the Northern Textile Association is
included in the Appendix.  It  includes  both  Category  1  mills.  Wool
Scouring,  and  Category  2  mills.  Wool Finishing.  Excerpts are given
below:
                                  26

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DRAFT
                           Mills Responding         29
                           Municipal Systems        21
                           Private Systems           7
                           Not Sure                  1

RAPP data for Region 1 indicates that 74 percent of the  mills  in  this
category  have no treatment and 26 percent have secondary treatment; and
none is tied to a municipal system.  Since the time the  RAPP  data  was
collected,  many  of  the  "nones" have added treatment systems.   (Mills
discharging wastes to a municipal treatment system would not normally be
included in the RAPP data.)

    Process  Description.   A  generalized  flow  diagram  of  the  wool
scouring process is shown in Figure IV-1.

Scouring consists of sorting the fleece and feeding it to a hopper.  The
fleece  is  wet  with  fresh water in the first bowls.  The wool then is
carried through a series of scouring  bowls  where  scour  liquor  flows
countercurrent  to  it.  Detergent is added in the third or fourth bowls
to emulsify the greases and oils.  The scoured wool is then  dried.   In
mills  where  the  cleaned  wool is converted into top wool, the wool is
combed and drawn and sometimes air washed to  remove  the  short  fibers
(used for wool yarn) from the long fibers (used for worsted yarn).

In  the  scouring  bowls, the heavier dirt and grit settles to the cone-
shaped bottoms where it is blown down once an hour or so, and carried to
the treatment plant by scour liquor.

The scour liquor, after picking up the soluble and less heavy  dirt  and
grit,  is  piped to a separation tank where further settling of dirt and
grit occurs. This material  is  also  blown  down  and  carried  to  the
treatment  plant  once  a  day, or more often if the dirt content of the
wool is high.

From the separation tank the scour liquor  is  processed  to  break  the
emulsion  and recover the wool grease.  Two methods are commonly used to
do this:  centrifuging and acid-cracking.

In centrifuging  (as shown in Figure IV-1)  the  top  low-density  stream
contains  concentrated  grease, which is further dewatered in additional
Centrifuges to yield the recovered, unrefined wool grease.  The  medium-
density  stream  is  combined with the relatively clean bottoms from the
auxiliary centrifuges and recycled to the wool scouring train  as  fresh
scour  liquor.   The high-density-bottoms stream consists mainly of dirt
and grit, and is sent to the treatment plant.
                                  27

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UL.
Source:  "ChemicarPhysical and Biological Treatment ot Wool Processing Wastes," by Hatch, et a!. 28th Annual Purdue Industrial
        W;:!>;e Conference, West Lafay(;tte, Indiana, 1 May 1973.
                                                                 FIGURE IV--1   CATEGORY 1: WOOL SCOURING
D

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DRAFT
An alternative means to  break  the  grease  emulsion  for  wool  grease
recovery  is  the  acid-cracking  grease  recovery system, also shown in
Figure IV-1.  Sulfuric acid is added to the scour liquor and the mixture
is heated to break the grease/water emulsion.  The grease  is  separated
from  the  liquor  in a settling tank and recovered.  The liquor is then
treated with lime to neutralize the acid and subsequently passes through
the waste treatment plant.  Refer to Figure IV-2 for a typical  material
balance on grease.

In  the centrifugal method, about 60 percent of the grease is recovered:
the remaining 10 percent is attached to the dirt and grit.  Centrifuging
recovers over 90 percent of the grease from the scour  liquor.   In  the
acid-cracking  method,  pilot  plant  performance indicates a 98 percent
recovery of grease from the degritted liquor.  No data is  available  to
indicate the initial split of grease between the grit and the raw liquor
from the grit settling tank.

Grease yield, in total, is 8 to 15 percent by weight of the greasy wool,
and  this  constitutes  50  to  65  percent of the wool grease initially
present.  (Ref. 141).  Note that 1-3 percent of the wool grease  present
in the grease wool is allowed to remain on the wool as a conditioner.


Also,  alkaline scouring has been used in which soda ash is added to the
wash water.  The soda ash combines with some of the wool grease to  form
a  natural  soap,  thereby  requiring  less  detergent but also lowering
recovered wool grease yield.

Objections to recycling the scour liquor have been  voiced  by  industry
but appear to present no significant problem.

Some  "raw" wools, mostly the Australian and New Zealand wools, are pre-
scoured at the source.  However, this fact does  not  appear  to  signi-
ficantly affect this analysis of U.S. raw wool scouring mills.

Note  that scoured wool is often converted into "tops" at the same mill.
In this operation, the short fibers are separated mechanically from  the
long ones; the long fiber "tops" are used for worsted yarn and the short
fibers  are used to blend into woolen yarns.  No added pollution occurs,
but the water load is increased slightly by water  washing  to  the  air
from  an  air washing step.  The guidelines developed for Category 1 are
based on the total product fiber and include both short fibers and tops.

                      Category 2 - Wool Finishing
                                  29

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u
RAFT
1 00 lb. Grease
On Grease Wool
>_
•
Scour

>>_
»•
3 lb. Grease On
Scoured Woof
                                      97 lb. Grease In
                                      Scour Liquor
Grit
Settling
>»
*



^ 58.2 lb. Grease
Recovered
                               33.8 lb. Grease To
                               Waste With Grit
               FIGURE IV-2  TYPICAL MATERIAL BALANCE: WOOL GREASE

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DRAFT
    General_Descript.ion. This industry consists of many small  mills  —
most  of  them  in  the North (New England, New York and New Jersey) and
most acting like commission houses — and about 25 larger mills,  mostly
in the South (Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia).

The  industry  contains  about 310 mills in Sic 2231 according to census
figures.  Of these about 100 are involved in wool dyeing and  finishing,
with the remainder being greige goods mills.

Most  small  mills  do commission dyeing, and even the larger mills that
are part of the larger corporations commonly perform commission  dyeing.
Commission  dyeing operations imply a wide range of fabrics and finishes
as well as fiber types.

Probably not more than five mills still do more than 50 percent wool and
wool belnds:  the rest process primarily other fabrics.

The 1967 Census figures for SIC 223, wool manufacturing  and  finishing,
indicate  310  mills  total.   These  were distributed geographically as
follows:
              Northeast Region:
              North Central Region:
              Southern Region:
              Western Region:
                              Total
The geographic distribution of finishing mills
follows:
           70S
            7%
           n%
          _6S
          100%

      alone  is  estimated  as
        California           2
        Connecticut          1
        Georgia              H
        Illinois             2
        Maine                3
        Mas sachu se tts       11
        New Hampshire        1
        New Jersey           7
        New York            13
        North Carolina       8
Ohio                1
Pennsylvania       12
Rhode Island       19
South Carolina      5
Tennessee           2
Texas               2
Vermont             1
Virginia            U
Wisconsin           1
As  a  guide  to municipal/private waste treatment, a report prepared by
The Wool Manufacturers Council of the Northern  Textile  Association  is
included  in  the  Appendix.   It  includes  both Category 1 mills. Wool
                                  31

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DRAFT
Scouring, and CAtegory 2 mills.  Wool  Finishing.   Excerpts  are  given
below:

                     Municipal treatment        21

                     Private treatment           7

                     Not sure                 	1__

                Total mills responding          29

RAPP data for Region 4 indicates the following:

                      Municipal treatment

                      Private, secondary treatment

                      No treatment

                                                           100%

Since RAPP data is for mills discharging to navagable waters, the figure
given   in   the   "municipal"   category   is  not  necessarily  valid.
Nevertheless,  these   figures   indicate   the   northern   mills   are
predominantly  on  municipal  systems  while  most  southern  mills have
privately-owned treatment plants.

The processes of carding and spinning wool  into  yarn,  and  subsequent
weaving  or  knitting  into  fabric  are  included in Category 3, Greige
Mills.

Yarns made from wool are classified into either woolen yarns or  worsted
yarns.   Woolen  yarns  are characteristically of loose construction and
composed  of  relatively  short  fibers;  worsted  yarns  are  of  tight
construction  with  few  protruding  fiber ends and composed of selected
long fibers  (tops).  As a result, worsted yarns are stronger.

wool finishing has been differentiated from other  finishing  categories
because of its (1) predominant use of chrom-type dyes and (2) high water
usage per pound of product.

As  previously  mentioned,  however, few of today's wool finishing mills
process all wool.  Many of the woolen mills by name handle 20 percent or
less wool with the balance  being  woven  and  knit  synthetics.   Also,
                                  32

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DRAFT
within  the  20  percent  or less portion, woolen/synthetic blends (most
often with polyester) usually constitute the bulk of the fabric.

The high water usage appears to  be  caused  by  the  fulling  operation
(peculiar  to  100  percent wool fabrics) and by the fact that most wool
and wool blend fabrics are more expensive than fabrics of other  fibers,
and  the  higher  quality  necessitates  more washing to reduce crabbing
(rubbing off of color).  In addition, in Greige goods manufacturing, 100
percent woolen yarns sometimes have size applied to the  warp  yarns  to
reduce  loose  ends during weaving, but few 100 percent woolen yarns, no
worsted-woolen blends, and worstedsynthetic blends  have  size  applied.
Because of the low percentage of wool actually processed in mills today,
and  the small amount of sizing used, this category appears in most ways
similar to category 5, Knit Finishing.

Variations occur in processing, similar to other  finishing  categories,
in that some fabrics are woven or knit from yarns that are already dyed,
either  in the fiber or yarn form.  A given mill may dye and finish part
of its production while only finishing the remainder.  This variation is
unpredictable and is assumed to  be  included  in  the  spread  of  data
obtained.

    Process  Description.   The  wool  finishing  process is depicted in
Figure IV-3.  The three distinct finishing processes are shown as stock,
yarn and fabric finishing.   Because  the  pollution  generated  by  the
fabric  finishing  operation  is  similar to that generated by the other
two, fabric finishing is included in this  discussion.   If  the  greige
goods  are  100 percent wool, they are first cleaned of vegetable matter
(and cotton fibers) by carbonizing   (soaked  in  strong  sulfuric  acid,
dried,  crushed and the char separated from the cloth), and then cleaned
of spinning oils and any weaving  sizes  by  a  light  scour  (detergent
wash).   The  100  percent  woolens  are  then dimensionally stabilized,
principally by "fulling," or mechanical working of the wet fabric in the
presence of detergents, to produce a controlled shrinkage or  "felting."
Worsteds  and  most wool-synthetic blends are not fulled.  (Worsteds are
hard,   tightly-woven  and  dimensionally  stable  as  received  at   the
finishing plant; woolens are loosely-woven, soft and often are firmed up
by fulling.)

The  fabric  is  then dyed in batches in vessels called becks, washed in
the same vessels, and taken to dry finishing operations.  The  only  dry
finishing operation of concern to water pollution is mothproofing.

The wet unit processes are described below in more detail.
                                  33

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/

A

i



Bleach and
Rinse



Light
Scour
\




Dye




Wash
\
Ail


                                                                                                               I          Yarn Dyeing            /
                                                                                                               I	:—H.	'
                                                                                                                                         LW    = Liquid Wastes
                                                                                            Mechanical
                                                                                             Finishing
                                                                                          - Shear
                                                                                          - Press
   Special
   Finishing
     e.g.
Mothproofina
                                                                                                                                                = Solid Wastes
'   1
                                                             FIGURE IV-3   CATEGORY 2:  WOOL FINISHING

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DRAFT
    Light  Scour.  When greige goods are to be finished in the finishing
plant, they are usually cleaned as a first step.  This cleaning consists
of washing with fresh water and detergent.  The waste load  consists  of
the  ^detergent  plus  the  oils  and  any  sizes  that were added to the
material for lubrication in spinning, and for strength in weaving.  When
synthetic size i used, the BODS consists entirely of the  spinning  oils
and the detergent.

Although  the  quantity  of size varies somewhat, since it is put on the
warp yarns only and the warp ratio varies, very little size is  used  in
this  category now.  Therefore, the inaccuracy that arises from ignoring
this variation is very small in view of the overall waste  load  of  the
finishing plant.

When  the fabric is knit instead of woven, sizes are not used.  However,
the knitting oils and  detergent  used  for  light  scouring  remain  as
contributors to the waste load.

    Carbonizing.   Carbonizing  consists of soaking the fabric in strong
sulfuric acid, squeezing out the excess, and then heating the wet fabric
in an oven.  The hot acid reacts chemically with  vegetable  matter  and
any  cotton  fiber  contaminant and oxidizes these contaminants to gases
and a solid carbon residue.  The fabric is then passed between  pressure
rolls  where the charred material is crushed so that it may be separated
by mechanical agitation and flowing air.  A solid waste is produced, and
the acid bath is dumped when it becomes  too  contaminated  for  further
use, about once every two days.

    Fulling.   Fulling is usually used on 100 percent woolen fabrics but
not usually on woolen/polyester blends and not on worsteds.  Since  this
operation  stabilizes  the  dimensions  of the wool by "felting" it, the
blends usually do not need it, nor do the worsteds,  since  they  are  a
very  tight  yarn  and  weave to begin with.  Fulling is accomplished by
mechanical work performed on the greige goods while they are in  a  bath
of  detergent  and  water.  Detergent is added as needed but no effluent
occurs until the following washing step.  This is true of both "dry" and
"wet" fulling except that in the "wet" fulling, the water bath is dumped
about once every 2 to 3 days.  In "dry" fulling, just  enough  water  is
picked up by the fabric to lubricate it so the fabric is not standing in
water between its turn in the fulling device.

The  fulling  is  followed by extensive rinsing to prevent rancidity and
wool spoilage.  This step produced over 50 percent of the hydrauli^c load
in  an  all-wool  mill  we  investigated.    The   necessity   for   the
extensiveness of
                                  35

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DRAFT
    Crabbing.  Crabbing is the name given to the operation used to align
the  fabric  rectalinearly.   Since the fabric comes in wet and goes out
wet, no effluent of significance occurs.

    Pre-Scour.  The pre-scour step is a final  cleaning  of  the  greige
goods  prior to dyeing.  Often, if a light scour or fulling is performed
before dyeing, the pre-scour step is not used.   On  sensitive  dyeings,
however,  both light scour and pre-scour are sometimes used.  Detergents
and wetting agents are added.  This and subsequent  dyeing  and  rinsing
steps  are  performed  in  becks, commonly with a 20 to 1 water-to-cloth
weight ratio.

    Dyeing.  In the dyeing process, the fabric is  dyed  in  atmospheric
becks  or  pressure becks.  Pure wool fabric is dyed only in atmospheric
becks, but blends  (mostly with polyester)  are dyed in either atmospheric
or pressure becks.  Knit woolen blend fabrics also are  dyed  in  either
atmospheric  or  pressure  becks,  but  most  often they are dyed in jet
becks, a variation of the pressure  beck  that  is  supposed  to  reduce
physical damage to the knits.

In  conventional  becks  the  fabric  is  sewn  into  a  long  tube that
alternately soaks in a tube and then is  pulled  up  and  over  a  large
diameter  slatted wheel,  in a jet beck, the fabric is pulled up and put
back in the tub by the action of the dye liquor being pumped  through  a
venturi  and  carrying  the  fabric  with  it.  Pressurizing of becks is
desirable for dyeing the polyester portion of the fabric,  since  little
or no carrier need be used.  At atmospheric pressures large quantitities
of carriers are required to swell the polyester fiber and enable the dye
molecules to penetrate.

In  the  dyehouse  becks,  the operation usually consists of filling the
beck with water and  a  detergent  for  scouring  (pre-scour,  described
above).   The  scour water is dumped and the beck is refilled with water
and a wetting agent.  After the fabric is wet-out, and the  temperatures
raised  somewhat,  the  dyestuffs  are  added and the beck brought up to
temperature  (212°F in atmospheric  becks,  higher  in  pressure  becks).
After  2 to H hours, 90 percent or more of the dye is exhausted, and the
dye bath is discharged to the sewer.  This dye step  is  followed  by  a
clear water rinse.  Since the dyes are very expensive, effort is made to
assure as high an exhaustion level as possible.

Blends  are  sometimes  dyed in a single bath, sometimes in two separate
baths.  Therefore, the hydraulic load can increase by 50 percent in  the
case  of  two  baths   (including  a  rinse  step  after  all  dyeing  is
completed).
                                  36

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DRAFT
The more commonly used dyes for wool (or the wool in  wool  blends)  are
metallized  dyes  and  top  and bottom chrome dyes.  Others used include
reactive dyes, mill dyes, and others used for special effects.   Use  of
chrome  dyes  is diminishing since their high fastness is superfluous in
wool blends, given the lower fastness of the  dyes  used  for  synthetic
fibers.   When  wool  and  synthetic fibers are blended, therefore, non-
chrome wool dyes of fastness equivalent ot that of the  synthetic  fiber
dyes can be used in the interest of economy.

Rework  levels  appear  to  be 3 to 4 percent of total production.  When
goods are reworked, they  are  either  redyed  to  a  darker  shade,  or
stripped with reducing chemicals, rinsed and redyed.

After  it  is  dyed,  the  fabric is rinsed with clear water  (up to four
rinses for some dyes).

    Finishing.  After it is dyed and rinsed, the fabric is removed  from
the  beck and, when used, soil repellants and other finishing agents are
padded onto it.  Next, the  fabric  is  dried  and  any  subsequent  dry
finishing  operations — principally shearing (solid waste)  and pressing
(steam condensate) — are performed.

Government fabrics of wool or  wool  blends  must  be  mothproofed  with
Mitten-FF.   Dieldrin  no  longer  is used because of its high toxicity.
Spillage appears to be the only way this material  might  find  its  way
into the waste waters.

Any  of the finishing chemicals can appear in the waste when the padding
equipment is dumped and washed.

                       Category 3 - Greige Mills

    General Description.  Greige mills generally  manufacture  yarn  and
unfinished fabric.  Category 3 applied to woven greige goods, and greige
yarn  production.  However, knit grege goods production is almost always
combined with a finishing operation and therefore may be included in the
knit finishing category.  The 1967 Census  of  Manufactures  lists  1173
weaving  mills   (SIC  2211,  2221  and 2241) excluding wool, but some of
these are  integrated  weaving  and  finishing  mills  which  belong  in
category 4.  Only 384 mills report water usage.

We  estimate that there are 600 to 700 greige woven mills, 80 percent of
which are in  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama  and
Virginia.   Perhaps 20 percent of the 600 have their own waste treatment
plants, with almost all  the  rest  disposing  of  wastes  at  municipal
                                  37

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DRAFT
facilities.   Less than 5 percent is believed to dispose of their wastes
in waterways without treatment.

    Process Description.  Weaving textile yarns into a  fabric  requires
application  of  size  to the warp yarns in order to resist the abrasive
effects of the filling yarns as these  are  positioned  by  the  shuttle
action  of  the  loom.   Greige  mills  apply  the size and complete the
weaving.  A many operate as completely independent  facilities.   Figure
IV-U shows opera
tions generally performed at a greige mill.

A  typical  sizing formulation is composed of a film-forming material, a
fatty or waxy component, and water.   In  some  formulations,  a  water-
soluble  dye may be used to give the grey cloth an identifying color,  A
preservative may be used in some sizing mixtures.

The most common film forming materials are starch, polyvinyl alcohol and
carboxymethyl cellulose.  Other sizes,  such  as  polyacrylic  acid  and
styrene-maleic  anhydride  polymer,  are  used  occasionally  in weaving
special cloths.

Starch is a traditional sizing material, but in the past  several  years
the  volume  of  polyvinyl  alcohol  used  in  the  textile industry has
increased substantially, since  starch  does  not  adhere  well  to  the
synthetic  hydrophobic  fibers.   In  many cases, mixtures of starch and
polyvinyl alcohol are used.

When formulations based on starch are used, the add-on of  size  amounts
to  10 to 15 percent by weight of the fabric,  when polyvinyl alcohol is
used, lower add-on, 3 to 8 percent by weight of the fabric, is  typical.
The  range  of add-on depends on cloth construction factors such as warp
yarn diameter, "tightness" of the fabric, etc.

The size formulation is applied to the warp yarns on a slasher.  In this
machine, the yarns are drawn through the size bath, squeezed to give the
desired add-on, and then dried by passage over a series  of  hot  drying
cans.  The dry yarns are wound on a warp beam and are ready for weaving.

Weaving is a dry operation, but is normally done in buildings maintained
at  high  humidity.   Under these conditions, the size film is flexible,
and yarn breaks on the loom are minimized.  Yarns sized  with  polyvinyl
alcohol  may be woven at a somewhat lower humidity than yarns sized with
starch.  As indicated in Chapter V, cooling and humidifying  water  used
in  a  greige  mill  represents a substantial portion of the total water
usage.
                                  38

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                                                                                                                                          o
Opening and
Picking

1
SW


mm
•>
Carding and
Spinning
1
SW


X
Polyester ^
k. J


Blend

                                                                                                   Cotton
                                                                                                   Polyester
                                                                                                   Woven
                                                                                                   Fabrics
                                                                                                                      To Yarn Dyeing and
                                                                                                                      Finishing (Cat. 7)
                                                                                                                      To Woven Fabric
                                                                                                                      Finishing (Cat. 4)
                                                                                                                      To Knit Fabric
                                                                                                                      Finishing (Cat. 5)
To Woven Fabric
Finishing (Cat. 4)
                                                                                                                      To Yarn Dyeing and
                                                                                                                      Finishing (Cat. 7)
      = Solid Waste
LW 1  = Liquid Waste
                                     FIGURE IV-4   CATEGORY 3: GREIGE GOODS

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DRAFT
                  Category 4 - Woven Fabric Finishing

    General Description.  This category encompasses mills  which  finish
woven good (or integrated greige goods and finishing mills).  Mills that
finish  a  variety  of  textile  materials, including some yarn and knit
goods, and commission houses are included in category 4.  600 mills  may
fall  into  category  4.   About  20 percent treat their own waste, that
waste from about 75 percent enters municipal systems, and that 5 percent
have no waste treatment.

This category predominates in the Southeast (North and  South  Carolina,
Georgia,  Virginia, Alabama), but there are some large operations in New
York and New England.

    Process Description.  Wet processes  which  are  used  in  finishing
woven greige fabric may be divided into two groups: those used to remove
impurities,  clean or modify the cloth; and those in which a chemical is
added to the cloth.

The first  of  these  groups  includes  desizing,  scouring,  bleaching,
mercerizing, carbonizing and fulling.  Only cotton and cotton blends are
mercerized.   The  last two of these processes are used only on wool and
wool blends (See category 2.)

The  second  group  of  processes  includes  dyeing,   printing,   resin
treatment,  water  proofing,  flame  proofing, soil repellency and a few
special finishes whose use represents a very  small  proportion  of  the
total.

Certain  fabrics,  including  denims  and  some drapery goods, are "loom
finished."  In production of these goods, the warp yarns are dyed, woven
to a fabric, and the fabric finished with a permanent size.    For  these
fabrics,  the  first  group  of  processes  listed  above  (cleaning and
preparing the cloth)  is  avoided  entirely.   For  this  reason,  mills
producing  this  group of fabrics may be a subcategory, although we have
not treated it as such.  The degree of finishing  necessary  to  provide
fabric  ready  for  sale  depends  significantly  on  the fiber(s) being
processed.  The natural fibers (cotton  and  wool)  contain  substantial
impurities, even after they have been woven as greige goods, and require
special  treatments  to  convert them to the completely white, uniformly
absorbent form that is  essential  for  dyeing,  resin  treatment,  etc.
Synthetic  fibers  contain only those impurities that were necessary for
manufacture of the fiber and spinning to obtain yarn.

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DRAFT
The different operations listed above have been described in the litera-
ture, and the contribution of each to wastes has  been  discussed.   For
convenience, a flow sheet for woven fabric finishing is given (Figure
IV-5), and details about each process step are given below.

    Desizing.   The  sizes   (see Category 3)  are removed completely from
the greige fabric.  Enzyme or sulfuric acid is commonly used to  aid  in
dissolving  the  starch  in  water.   When enzyme desizing is practiced,
sodium chloride and a surfactant are frequently added to facilitate  the
process.

After the desizing agent has been applied, the goods are placed in a bin
or a steamer to provide the residence time required.  Residence times in
storage  bins  are typically 12 hours or more.  If elevated temperatures
are used (by employment of J-boxes or steamers) the  residence  time  is
reduced to a few minutes at 210 or 212F or 30 minutes at 180F.  Finally,
the  goods  are washed with water to remove the decomposed starches from
the fabric.

For desizing of polyvinyl alcohol and carboxymethyl cellulose, materials
which are directly soluble in water, no decomposition is required.   The
goods  are merely washed with water at 180F or higher on washers without
the use of steamers, J-boxes, or padders.

    Scouring.  Scouring is done to remove much of the natural impurities
of cotton, using 2 to 3 percent sodium hydroxide; phosphates,  chelating
agents  and  wetting  agents  may  be  used as auxiliary chemicals.  The
synthetic fibers require much less vigorous scouring;  sodium  carbonate
and  a  surfactant may suffice.  In the case of cotton/synthetic blends,
Varsol may be used in conjunction with the aqueous scouring liquor.

The operation known as kier boiling is often employed to  scour  desized
cotton and cotton/polyester woven fabrics.  The kier is a large vertical
cylindrical pressure vessel which can hold up to several tons of fabric.
The  goods  (in rope form) are plaited into the kier by the kier plaiter,
the cover is installed, and  the  scouring  chemicals  are  recirculated
through  the  goods  and  an  external  heat  exchanger  for temperature
control.  An aqueous  mixture  of  sodium  hydroxide,  soap  and  sodium
silicate  is employed at temperatures of 220 to 250F and pressures of 10
to 20 psig.  The goods are scoured for 6 to 12 hours.  The kier is  then
cooled  by recirculation of cooling water and the goods are displacement
washed.  In certain instances,  difficult  fabrics  are  double-scoured.
The scouring step is designed to remove fats, waxes and pectins from the
wpven fabric.

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                           Water,
                         Enzymes or
                           H2S04
                                                                 Finishing
                                                                Agent, e.g.
                                                                  Starch,
                                                                   Resin
I'-
LL.
QZ
Q
FIGURE IV-5   CATEGORY 4: WOVEN FABRIC FINISHING

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DRAFT
Certain  heavyweight  fabrics normally are not processed in rope form as
required for kier boiling since creases result in streaks in  subsequent
dyeing  steps.   These  goods  are  therefore processed in an open-width
boil-out machine, also known as the progressive jig.  The jig is  loaded
with  a  scouring solution and the goods are fed through continuously by
the use of 8 or 10 transfer rolls.  The  system  is  heated  with  steam
coils  and  the temperature and residence time are maintained for proper
scouring of the goods.  The goods are wound onto rolls  in  the  machine
and  maintained  in  contact  with  scouring  liquids  for the necessary
period.  Then they are unrolled through wash boxes  and  folded  into  a
cloth truck or onto a roll.

The scoured cotton may be used directly for producing dark shades or may
be   bleached  by  padding  through  hydrogen  peroxide  solutions,  and
subsequently washed, neutralized, and dried before dyeing.

    Mercerizing.  Mercerizing is one of the  more  important  operations
conducted  in  the  preparation  of  woven  cotton  and cotton/polyester
fabrics prior to dyeing, printing, and finishing.

In mercerizing the  woven  goods  are  immersed  in  15  to  25  percent
solutions of sodium hydroxide and a penetrant.  This treatment increases
tensile  strength, increases surface luster, reduces potential shrinkage
and increases the affinity for dyestuffs.

Physically, mercerization swells  the  cellulose  fibers  as  alkali  is
absorbed  into them, with higher concentrations, longer residence times,
and lower temperatures favoring  greater  swelling.   The  mercerization
step  is  conducted with the fabric either under tension or in the slack
condition,  with  tension  mercerizing  favoring  increases  in  tensile
strength   and   slack   mercerizing   favoring  increases  in  abrasion
resistance.

Mercerization may be done on greige goods (after desizing),  on  scoured
goods   (after  kier  boiling  or  caustic  treatment  in  a range) or on
bleached goods.  More complete mercerization results from  treatment  of
bleached  fabrics  (in  terms  of  fiber swelling), but mercerization of
greige goods or scoured goods results in greater tensile strengths.

Mercerization is normally conducted continuously; the operation consists
of the following steps:

    (a)  A scutcher and water mangle are employed to open the goods
               from the rope form, and a mangle is used to dewater the
         goods to a uniform moisture concentration.

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DRAFT
    (b)  A multiple-contact saturating operation is conducted usually
         with three saturating bowls.  The goods are fed through the
         system continuously which provides sufficient residence time
         and contact to completely saturate the fabric with caustic
         soda solution.

    (c)  Timing cans are employed to increase the residence time
         of the fabric in the sodium hydroxide solution.

    (d)  A tenter frame is employed to maintain the fabric under
         tension as the fabric travels through the system and the
         actual mercerization of the cellulose takes place.

    (e)  At the end of the tenter frame is a washing system that
         includes water sprays, vacuum units and wash water heaters
         and re-circulators to wash the fabric and reduce the caustic
         content while the fabric is still under tension in the
         tenter frame.

    (f)  The fabric is given a final wash in the recuperator, which
         removes the remainder of the sodium hydroxide from the
         fabric and reduces the residual pH to an acceptable level
         (i.e., 8.5).

    Bleaching.  Cotton and cotton  blends  normally  are  bleached  with
hydrogen  peroxide.   Other  chemicals generally employed in the process
are sodium silicate, trisodium phosphate, a surfactant, and a  chelating
agent.  In bleaching some synthetics, chlorite may be used.

In   order  to  improve  product  uniformity  and  increase  throughput,
continuous bleaching ranges are employed for the majority of the  cotton
and blended woven goods.  The goods are fed in either rope or open width
form   (or  in  combinations)  and,  in  certain  cases, the desizing and
scouring operations are placed in tandem with the  continuous  bleaching
range.   The  following  process  units constitute a typical, continuous
peroxide bleaching range, using J-boxes for storage:

    Washing.  The goods are washed, using  either  open  width  or  rope
washers to ensure removal of converted starches from the desizing step.

    Caustic  Saturator.  As the goods continuously leave the washer they
are squeezed through rolls to a minimum water content and then saturated
with sodium hydroxide solution in additional squeeze rolls.   The  goods
may  be  in  either  rope  or  open  width  form, but must remain in the

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DRAFT
saturator long enough to permit, them to become completely saturated with
sodium hydroxide solution.
    Caustic J-Box.  The goods are then fed contiuously to the caustic J-
box, whose function is to saturate the cloth for the necessary length of
time at the desired temperature  (205-210F).  The throughput of the J-box
is controlled to provide a residence time ranging from 40 minutes to one
hour, resulting in saponification of natural fats and waxes  carried  in
the cotton.

    Caustic  Washers.   The  caustic  solution  is then removed from the
fabric by countercurrent washing, usually with large quantities  of  hot
water to ensure complete removal.

    Peroxide  Saturator.   The  peroxide  saturator  is  similar  to the
caustic saturator.  It contains a  solution  of  hydrogen  peroxide  and
sodium  silicate  in  sufficient concentrations to retain 1.5 percent of
the hydrogen peroxide and 1.5 to 3 percent of the sodium silicate  based
on the dry weight of goods.

    Peroxide  J-Box.   The design and operation of the peroxide J-box is
the same as for the caustic j-box.  The unit is operated at about  200F,
with  a  residence  time that varies from 40 minutes to 1 hour to bleach
the fabric.

    White Washes.  The bleached goods are now  washed  to  final  purity
before  piling  into  bins or going directly to the dryer.  Hot water is
preferred for washing, but cold water is employed in certain  instances.
Flow  meters  are  employed  to  regulate  the  flow of fresh water, and
countercurrent conditions are maintained.

In certain instances, two stages of bleaching  are  operated,  sometimes
with sodium hypochlorite in the final stage.

    Hypochlorite  Saturator.   The  hypochlorite saturator is similar to
the caustic and peroxide saturators.  Its purpose is to apply a solution
of  sodium  hypochlorite  to  the  fabric  to  complete  the   bleaching
operation.   The  solution  is  maintained  at  room temperature and the
quantities are continuously monitoried in order to control the bleaching
operation.

    Hypochlorite J-Box.  The operation  of  the  hypochlorite  J-box  is
similar to those discussed before, except that it is operated at ambient
temperatures.  Residence times are similar to those employed in peroxide
.bleaching,  and  the  same  unit  may  be  employed for hypochlorite and
peroxide bleaching at different times.

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DRAFT
    Washers.  Two washers are normally required to neutralize  and  wash
the  goods  after  hypochlorite  treatment.   At  least a portion of the
first washer is  used  to  apply  sodium  bisulfite  or  sulfur  dioxide
solutions to neutralize excess bleaching chemicals.
    Steamers.  In open width bleaching ranges, steamer units may be used
instead  of J-boxes to store goods after they have been impregnated with
caustic or  bleaching  solutions.   These  are  particularly  useful  in
processing heavyweight fabrics.

    Small  Open Width J-Boxes.  More recent bleaching technology employs
more concentrated solutions and more drastic  operating  conditions  and
has  resulted  in  the  development  of the small open width J-box which
permits effective bleaching with  residence  times  of  only  10  to  15
minutes.

    Continuous  Pressure  Scouring  and  Bleaching.   The newest type of
steamer for bleaching ranges is an enclosed type with pressure locks and
seals.  This enables the steamer to be operated as a pressure vessel and
the reaction time for the chemicals is reduced from 40 minutes  to  only
one  or  two  minutes.   The treatment of fabrics is a function of time,
temperature and concentration.  The increased temperatures made possible
by pressure steamers  reduce  the  time  needed  for  complete  chemical
reaction.

The problems associated with equipment designed for operation at 25 psig
and  for  continuous  entry  and removal of continuous webs have posed a
substantial design problem.  However, several machines are now available
with satisfactory sealing devices, so they may  perform  well  at  these
pressures.  Some of these units utilize rolls as a sealing mechanism and
others  have developed a system involving a lip seal.  In addition there
are reports of pressure steamers which may be operated at  pressures  up
to  45  psig  and  develop  temperatures of 292F, resulting in residence
times only of one or two minutes.

    Sodium Chlorite Bleaching.  Although sodium chlorite  bleaching  has
had  very  little economic success in the bleaching of pure cotton goods
over the years, its use in kier steamers and becks is now receiving more
attention since many of the man-made fibers are sensitive  to  bleaching
and  can  be bleached successfully with sodium chlorite.  It is now used
to a considerable extent either  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  other
bleaching agents for preparation

    Dyeing.   Dyeing  is  the  most  complex  of  all  textile finishing
processes.  Table IV-3 shows the dyes used in the textile industry,  the
                                  46

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                                                                                     o
                      Table IV-3

Types and Amounts of Dyes Used in the Textile Industry
                                                 /
                                                                        Amount
                                                                             *
                                                Poly-
                                       Poly-    ester           Nylon/   Used'
Acrylic  Cotton  Wool  Acetate  Rayon  ester  PE/cotton  Nylon  Cotton    %
Dye Types              		  	  	  	  	  	  	

Acid                                     /                                       ,/             10

Azoic                             y                    y                                        3

Aniline Black                     x/

Basic (Cationic)

Developed

Dyeblends

Direct                            \/                    y^              ^             *s       17

Disperse                 y                    /               ^-      ^-      ^             15

Fiber-reactive                    v                                                               1
                                  /     V/             v'''              v/       v^
Fluorescent                       ^                                                               1

Indigo                            v/                                                      s/     _

Sulfur                       '     v/                    v/              v/                       10

Vats                             V7                    xX              ^                       26

Natural                          ^

Oxidation Base

Mordant

 Approximate percent of total textile use.  Usage of dyes for which amounts are not shown totals
 approximately 10 percent (not including dye blends).

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DRAFT
fibers  they  are  generally  used to color, and the relative amounts of
each dye used by the industry.

When textiles are dyed, an excess of the dyestuff  is  used,  and  other
chemicals  are  used  to  help deposit the dye, or to develop the color.
Dye loadings vary widely even with a particular dye class, depending  on
the weight of fabrics being treated and the depth of color desired.  The
range  of  chemicals employed in dyeing also varies widely from place to
place and operation to operation, and  depends  substantially  upon  the
dictates of the marketplace.

Table IV-4 presents a summary of chemicals used in application of dyes
to  textiles.   Dyed  goods  are  generally,  but not always, washed and
rinsed to remove excess dye  and  chemicals  from  the  cloth.   Washing
involves use of a detergent, and also may involve the use of soda ash or
a sodium phosphate.

The  chemicals  used  in  dyeing  may depend significantly on the dyeing
procedure which the fabric manufacturers fins appropriate.   Both  batch
and  continuous  dyeing  are  practiced, and both may be employed in the
same finishing plant.

Textile goods are dyed continuously when the demand for a  single  shade
is  sufficiently high to justify the necessary equipment.  Production of
denims, in which the warp yarns are dyed continuously, is  one  example;
no special chemicals are required as a result of dyeing continously.  In
Thermosol  dyeing,  which  is  practiced  on  woven  cotton  (or rayon)/
polyester blends, a dye blend is padded on the  fabric,  which  is  then
dried  and  heated, washed, rinsed and dried.  Thermosol dyeing requires
addition of a gum to the dye  mixture,  so  that  the  formulation  will
deposit uniformly on the cloth.

Piece  dyeing,  on  runs  which are not long enough to justify continous
processing, are normally performed in an open beck, operated at  boiling
temperature,  or  in a sealed pressure beck, operated at about 250F.  In
modern units, the entire dye cycle (including washing  and  rinsing)  is
controlled  automatically.   Pressure becks have been found advantageous
use of less carrier; wastes are decreased correspondingly.

    Printing.  Printing involves application of dyes or pigments in  the
form: of  a  pattern  on to fabric.  Dyes penetrate and color the fiber;
pigments are bonded to the fabric with a resin.

In general, the formulated print paste is applied to  one  side  of  the
fabric only.

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DRAFT
Vat,  direct  and other dyes may be printed; vats appear to predominate.
The same chemicals used for the  regular  dyeing  process  are  used  in
printing,  but in addition, a thickener is used to give the mixture high
viscosity.  Many thickeners such as gum arabic, British gum,  alginates,
methyl cellulose and others have been used.  Urea, diethylene glyool and
glycerol are frequently used in the formulations.

Pigment  print  formulations are more complex.  The pigments are blended
with a resin binder  (frequently  melamine-formaldehyde),  a  latex,  an
aqueous thickener, Varsol and water.

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DRAFT
                              Table IV-4

                Chemicals Use in Application of Dyesl
Direct


Disperse
Sulfur
Acid
Cationic
Reactive
                                    Auxiliary Chemicals Necessary
                                       sodium hydroxide
                                       sodium hydrosulfite
                                         dispersing agent
                                         hydrogen peroxide
                                         acetic acid
                                         sodium perborate
                                         sodium dichromate
                                         acetic acid
                   alternative
                   chemicals
sodium chloride
sequestering agent

orthophenyl phenol
butyl benzoate    alternative
bisphenyl         carriers
chlorobenz ene
acetic acid       alternative
monosodium phosphate
dispersing agent

sodium sulfide
sodium carbonate
sodium dichronate
acetic acid       alternatives
hydrogen peroxide
acetic acid

acetic acid
ammonium sulfate of
ammonium acetate
sodium chloride

acetic acid or
formic acid
sodium sulfate

sodium chloride
urea
sodium carbonate
                                  50

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DRAFT
                                         sodium hydroxide

                        Table IV-U (Continued)

                Chemicals Used in Application of Dyesl


   Dye^Type                          Auxiliary Chemicals Necessary

Developed                                        developer
                                         sodium chloride
                                         sodium nitrite
                                         sulfuric acid
                                         sodium carbonate
   [1ln addition to the chemicals listed, all of the dye types will
    usually use a small amount of surfactant.  After the dyeing has
    been completed, the dyed goods are washed and then rinsed.  Washing
    will involve use of a detergent as well as soda ash and a phosphate. ]
Vat  dye  prints  must  be  oxidized,  with  sodium  dichrornate or other
oxidant, to develop the color.  Steaming and  brief  aging  aid  in  the
process.   Pigment  prints  do not require chemical after treatment, but
must be dried and heated to insolubilize the resin-pigment mixture.

Printing a fabric that contains polyester may require a carrier  in  the
formulation.

Following  complete  application  of  the  print  mixture, the fabric is
washed thoroughly to remove excess color and chemical.

    Special _Finishes {resin treatment, water  proof ing ff  flame  proofing,
soi 1.. m release).  Each of these finishes endows fabric with a particular
property  desired  by consumers.  The property is indicated by the name,
except for resin  treatment,  which  designates  finishes  that  provide
wrinkle  resistance.   Several  of  the treatments may be applied from a
single bath.
                                  51

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DRAFT
As would be expected for processes that provide  such  diverse  effects,
the range of chemicals used is very broad.  For resin treatment, a urea-
formal dehyde-glyoxa 1  compound  ("DMDHEU"),  a  fatty  softener,  and  a
catalyst (zinc nitrate, magnesium chloride) are  used  together.   Water
repellents include silicones, fluorochemicals, and fatty materials, each
generally  applied  with  a  catalyst.   Soil release treatments include
special acrylic polymers and fluorochemicals.

These finishes are generally  applied  by  impregnation  of  the  fabric
followed  by  squeezing  to  the  desired add-on.  The moist material is
dried and then cured by additional heat.  The cured fabric is frequently
packed for shipment  without  rinsing.   Most  resin-treated  goods  are
subsequently cured in a garment factor and must not be rinsed, since the
catalyst would be removed.

Category 5 - Knit Fabric Finishing

    General  Description.   The  knitting industry is characterized by a
large number of plants  and  a  structure  organized  along  specialized
product  segments.   The  major  segments  are  knit fabric piece goods,
hosiery, outerwear, and underwear.   The  geographical  distribution  of
knit mills, SIC code 225, according to 1967 census data is as follows:

                                              No.Plants

    Northeast Region                      1616

    North Central Region                    76

          South Region                           910

          West Region                             96

                         Total                  2698

While  the  industry has shown substantial growth in value of shipments,
we estimate that through consolidation and  other  factors  the  current
number  of  plants  in  this industry is about 2500.  Of this number, we
estimate that about 1100 plants have only  dry  operations.   These  are
plants  such as sweater mills in the outerwear segment, which knit goods
from purchased or commission dyed yarns, or mills  which  have  finished
goods  dyed  on  a  commission  basis and therfore have no process water
requirements.  Most of the sweater mills are located in  the  Northeast.
In those isolated instances where sweater or similar mills dye their own
yarn, these mills should be subject to category 7 guidelines.
                                   52

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DRAFT
Of  the 1400 plants believed to have wet process operations, we estimate
that 85 percent discharge to municipal  treatment  systems.   The  great
bulk  of  these  are hosiery plants (700-800)  located primarily in North
Carolina, Tennessee, an Pennsylvania.   Census data on process water  use
and  discharge  indicates that in 1968, 90 percent of the hosiery plants
discharged to municipal systems.  The small number  of  isolated  plants
which may not be tied to municipal systems should be subject to category
5 guidelines.  Of the remaining wet process plants, we estimate 100 have
private waste treatment facilities and 90 have no waste treatment.

The  knit  fabric  segment  of the industry has about 540 plants.  These
plants are the source of finished knit  piece  or  yard  goods  for  the
apparel,  industrial,  and  household  goods  trades,  and also serve to
augment supplies of fabric to  underwear  and  outerwear  manufacturers.
These  plants are the main subject of category 5.  The large knit fabric
plants are located mainly in North and South Carolina and  Georgia,  but
substantial numbers are also located in New York, and Pennsylvania.

The  production  of knit fabrics for women*s and men's wear has been the
fastest growing sector of the textile industry  over  the  past  decade.
Synthetic fibers are the predominant types used in knit goods except for
cotton  goods produced for underwear and sleepwear.  In the latter case,
however, polyester has been replacing increasing proportions  of  cotton
fiber.   Plants  which previously processed all-cotton are using greater
amounts of polyester and the trend is expected to continue.

    Process Description.  The wet  processing  operations  performed  in
knit fabric finishing are shown schematically in Figure IV-6.  This
is necessarily a generalized flowsheet; the specific operations employed
in  a  given plant will vary from plant to plant.  In general, the yarns
are purchased in the undyed state, with a knitting oil finish to provide
lubrication for the knitting operation.  The amount  of  finish  on  the
yarn ranges from 1 to 7 percent depending on the type of yarn and fiber.
This is a significant difference from weaving yarns which are sized with
starch  or  other  polymeric materials.  After the yarn has been knitted
into fabric, the  fabric  may  be  processed  by  one  or  more  of  the
alternative routes indicated in Figure IV-6.  The wet process operations
employed  in  a plant depend on the nature of the goods involved and the
end product requirements.  Typically, knits are processed in piece goods
form.  The fabric may be washed  on  continuous  countercurrent  washers
prior  to loading the fabric in dye machines to remove knitting oils and
other contaminents, or washing may be the first step in the dye  machine
cycle.   Harm  water with a small amount of added detergent is used.  In
contrast, woven goods require more extensive treatment to remove  starch
or polymeric sizes.
                                  53

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                                                       = Liquid Wastes
Q
                                               FIGURE IV-6   CATEGORY 5: KNIT FABRIC FINISHING

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DRAFT
The  types  of dyeing equipment generally employed include:  atmospheric
becks, pressure becks, jet (atmospheric or pressure)  becks,  atmospheric
or pressure beam dyeing machines, and paddle type machines.  Some plants
may also package dye a portion of their yarns.

The  types of dyestuffs, auxiliaries, and conditions employed for dyeing
knit goods are essentially the same as for  woven  goods  of  comparable
fiber  composition.   See the discussion under category 4 for details of
the dyeing operation.

Some of the fabrics which are beam dyed are first wet batched.   In  the
wet  batching  operation,  the fabric is passed through a dilute aqueous
surfactant bath at  controlled  temperature  before  being  wound  on  a
perforated  beam.   Batching  helps  control  shrink and yield, and also
enhances uniform penetration of  dye  liquors  in  the  dyeing  process.
There  is some waste generation from the wet batching operation; a small
quantity of the dilute bath is dumped occasionally for cleanup and there
is a continual slow drain of water from the wetted fabric which contains
knitting and yarn lubricants.

In knit plant, finishing  cotton  fabric  —  e.g.,  for  underwear  and
sleepwear  — wet process operations also include scouring and bleaching
in kiers or comparable equipment.  Plants that process either cotton  or
synthetic goods may also have fabric printing operations.(See discussion
under category H for details of these operations.)

Most knit fabrics are treated with softeners, and resin finishes, and in
some  cases,  with water and oil repellents.  These finishes are applied
from a pad bath just prior to final drying and dry finishing operations.
These baths are discharged periodically as required for  fabric  lot  or
formulation  changes,  but  the total daily volume of discharges is very
small.

Category 6 - Carpets

    General Description.   Tufted  carpets  account  for  well  over  65
percent  of  the  plants  and  86  percent  of  the  dollar  volume, and
constitute 71 percent of the employment in  this  industry.   Therefore,
the  guidelines are generated principally around this segment.  About 70
percent of the industry is located in Dalton, Georgia  and  these  mills
are   connected  into  the  municipal  treating  system.   However,  the
remaining carpet mills are of sufficient quantity  to  warrant  effluent
guidelines.
                                  55

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DRAFT
Tufted  carpets  consist of face yarn that is looped through a woven mat
backing (mostly polypropylene, some jute), dyed  or  printed^  and  then
backed  with  either  latex  foam or coated with latex and a burlap-type
woven fabric backing put over the latex.

The dominant face yarn is nylon, followed by acrylic and modacrylic, and
polyester; the latter two groups in total  are  about  equal  to  nylon.
Since  dyeing  of  these  fibers  in  carpets differs little from dyeing
fabric,  the  dyeing  descriptions  for  these  fibers  given  in  other
categories  applies  here.  Beck, continuous dyeing, and screen printing
are practiced.

The latex operational  load  on  the  waste  treatment  facility  of  an
integrated   mill,   after  adequate  pretreatment  by  coagulation,  is
insignificant.  Moreover, latex wastes are treatable by coagulation to a
level to meet recommended guidelines for this category.  Therefore,  all
wet  processing  carpet  mills  are  covered in this category, including
latexing only, finishing only, and integrated mills.

Census data for 1967 indicates 385 carpet mills  in  total,  and  50  of
these are wet processing.  We estimate there now are 70 wet processing.

The distribution of the 385 mills is as follows:

    Northeast Region             83          22%
    North Central Region         13           3%
          Southern Region        231          60%
    Western Region               58         ^15ft
                         Total   385         100%

In 1970, the industry product mix looked like the following:

   SIC                                        Emp.       Value of
Category.      Descript..      No. Plants      (thou)    Ship,  (mil)

  2271          Woven            60            8.6         203
  2272          Tufted          270           39.1        1914
  2279          Other            85            5.3          98
   227          All             415           53.0        2215


Since  1970,  a  significant  number  of  woven carpet mills have either
closed or changed over to tufted production.
                                  56

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DRAFT
In 1970,  the  face  ,y§rri  consumption  was  dominated  by  nylon,  with
polyester,  acrylic/modacrylic,  and polypropylene of significance.  The
use of wool and cotton, rayon or acetate has been shrinking rapidly with
the first mentioned group gaining.  The following figures represent  the
relative share of each fiber:

                   Material                       J

               Nylon                             44
               Polyester                         17
               Acrylic/Modacrylic                16    Growing
               Polypropylene                      7
               Wool                               8
               Cotton, Rayon                           Shrinking
               Acetate, other                     8

tSource:  chase Report, op. cit.1

Since  1970,  nylon has held its position.  Acrylic/modacrylic has grown
but polyester, because of flammability problems, has declined.

In 1968 the Tufted Textile Manufacturers Association showed that  about
45  percent  of  its  members  had  their mills in Dalton, Georgia, with
another 37 percent in Georgia.  The remaining 18  percent  is  scattered
through 11 states including Massachusetts, Texas, and California.

Many  of  the  new  mills  are  going  into  other  states,  principally
California and other far western states.  The bulk of these newer  mills
appear to be connecting into municipal systems.

    Process^Description.   carpets  are  yarn  dyed,  piece  dyed,  and
printed.  When yarn dyed carpets are made, the yarn  is  often  dyed  in
another  mill and brought to the carpet mill.  (Yarn dyeing is covered in
category 7.)  The relative quantities  of  yarn,  beck,  and  continuous
dyeing*  and  printing and latexing may vary widely.  (For instance, one
exemplary mill dyes or prints only 30 percent of its production.

The yarn is tufted onto a polypropylene or jute woven backing in  a  dry
operation   (Figure  IV-7).   Following  this,  the  tufted carpet can be
either
printed  or  dyed.   If  printed,  a  semi-continuous  screen   printing
operation  is  performed,  followed by a wash and rinse step in the same
machine.  If dyed, the most common method is beck dyeing,  in  a  manner
quite  similar  to that described in previous categories for yard goods.
The industry claims a higher liquor-to-fabric ratio, however, because of
                                   57

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                                                          Predyed Yarn
                                 = Solid Waste
EJL.
ot:
Q
                                                      FIGURE IV-7  CATEGORY 6: CARPET MILLS

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DRAFT
the difficulty in making the carpet sink and become  thoroughly
Many small air bubbles become entrapped in the tufts.
                                           wetted.
The  continuous dyeing appears very similar to the continuous pad-stream
process used for cotton/synthetic blends broad-woven  finishing.   After
it  is  dyed  the carpet is dried in a tunnel drier.  The carpet is then
ready for application of either a single or a double backing.

For the single backing, a continuous applicator applies a  foamed  latex
layer  to  the  carpet's underside.  In double-backed carpet, a layer of
unfoamed latex is applied in the same manner, and a final fabric backing
is pressed on, being cemented in place by the latex.  In either case,  a
liquid latex waste is generated.  Some of the latex becomes hardened, so
a  mixture  of solid and liquid latex results.  Some of this material is
collected by shovelling it into a barrel for  land-fill  disposal.   The
rest  is  washed  off  by hosing and is usually conducted via a separate
conduit to a latex coagulation facility before the relatively  clarified
liquor is sent to join the dye wastes for treatment.

Category 7^.- Stock and Yarn Dyeing and Finishing

    General  Description.   Category  7 includes plants which clean, dye
and finish fiber stock or yarn.  The plants may or  may  not  have  yarn
spinning facilities.
products.
Sewing thread,  textile and carpet yarn are typical
We  estimate  that  750  plants  in the country fall into this category.
Most   (probably  80  percent)  dispose  of  their  wastes  at  municipal
facilities.   We  believe that 5 to 10 percent treat their own waste and
the rest have no waste treatment facilities.

About  60 percent of yarn dyeing and finishing is performed in  Virginia,
North  Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama, with the remainder
distributed across the eastern U.S. and the Far West.

    Process Description.  The raw material for the plants considered  in
this category is crude yarn obtained from a spinning facility.  The yarn
may    be  natural,  synthetic,  or  blended.   The  differences  between
processing the natural and synthetic fibers have  been  discussed  under
category  U  and  are equally applicable to category 7, yarn processing.
Wet  processes  used  by  yarn  mills   include   scouring,   bleaching,
mercerizing  and  dyeing   (Figure IV-8).  The remarks made about each of
these  processes
wnder  category 4 apply to yarn processing.
                                  59

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 Cotton or
Cotton-Blend
  Yarn o
   Stock
                   = Liquid Wastes
                 FIGURE IV-8   CATEGORY?:  STOCK AND YARN DYEING AND FINISHING

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Several techniques are  available  for  processing  raw  yarn  into  the
finished  product.   The most common process is probably package dyeing,
but other processes, such as space dyeing,  are  widely  used.   In  the
former  process,  yarn  wound  on  perforated tubes is placed in a large
vessel,  which  is  sealed.   The  dye  solution,  at   an   appropriate
temperature,  is  circulated through the yarn.  The dyed yarn is washed,
rinsed and dried.  In space dyeing, yarn i knit and the fabric is  piece
dyed,  washed,  rinsed and dried.  The fabric is then unravelled and the
yarn is wound on cones.

Category 8 - Special Products

    Coated _Fabrics..  Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)  coated  fabrics  dominate
coated  fabric  production  included  under SIC code 22.  Rubberized, or
rubber coated, fabrics are specifically excluded from this code and  are
assigned to SIC code 3069.  WE estimate that PVC coatings account for 70
percent  or  more of total coated fabric production.  These coatings are
applied as 100 percent "active  solids"  systems  either  as  plastisols
(dispersion  of  polymer  particles  in  liquid plasticizer) or as melts
(flexible grade polymer plus plasticizer).  The plastisols are generally
coated by  knife  over  roll  coaters  and  the  melts  are  applied  by
calenders.   A minor portion, estimated at 10 percent or less, or coated
fabrics is coated with polymer latices (PVC or acrylic).  In  this  case
some  dilute  aqueous waste is generated from equipment wash-ups.  These
dilute aqueous latex wastes should be subjected to the treatment control
described under category 6 to remove latex  solids.   Plastisol  coating
and  calendering  of  PVC  coatings  do  not  involve process water use.
Therefore, these plants are dry operations.

    Polypropylene  Carpet  Backing.   Polypropylene  carpet  backing  is
produced  by one of three basic methods: extruded film is slit and woven
into a web; polypropylene staple fiber is formed into a nonwoven web and
needled to provide mechanical strength; or continuous filament  is  melt
spun,  directly  deposited  into  a  nonwoven  web, and bonded with heat
(spunbonded process).  None of  these  processes  generates  significant
process  waste  water.   The  woven  slit  film  and theneedled nonwoven
processes are dry  operations.  The  spunbonded  process  is  a  special
modification  of  conventional  synthetic fiber production and should be
considered part of the synthetic fiber industry.

    Tire Cord Fabric.  Tire cord fabric plants prepare the cord  fabrics
used  in the production of tires.  These plants purchase yarns and twist
and weave the yarns into a loose fabric structure.  The fabric  is  then
dipped  in  a  latex based bath and dried in what is referred to as a Z-
calendering operation.  This treatment serves to  prime  the  fabric  to
                                  61

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provide  adhesion  to  the rubber during vulcanization of the tire.  The
only process waste generated in these plants originates from occassional
wash-ups of equipment.  Our assessment of RAPP data  from  a  number  of
these  plants indicates that waste loads are extremely small.  Since the
wastes are dilute lates, threatment technology of the  type  recommended
in category 6 should be employed to remove latex solids.

Dry	Prpeess  Nonwovens.   Nonwoven webs made by so-called dry processes
(carded webs, air-laid webs, etc.) comprise the largest segment  of  the
nonwoven  industry.  While the webs are formed by a dry process, binders
are usually applied in the form of latex by dip, gravure roll, or  spray
application.   Acrylic polymer type latices account for about 80 percent
of total binders used.  The binder formulations are conserved for use on
a day-to-day basis.  However, some dilute aqueous waste are generated by
equipment wash-ups.

Based on our contacts with the three major producers in  this  industry,
the  practice is to discharge pretreated waste to municipal systems.  Of
the  nine  plants  operated  by  these  producers,  seven  discharge  to
municipal  systems.  Pretreatment consists of settling (alum coagulation
employed in one instance) .  Where required, pH control is also employed.
One of the plants discharges into a waste  treatment  plant  which  also
serves a large woven goods plant.  No data is available on this nonwoven
plant.   The  one  nonwoven  plant  identified  as  having its own waste
treatment facility, does not now have adequate provision for removal  of
latex  solids.   In  view of the limited data, and the similarity in the
nature of the dilute latex wastes to those generated in  carpet  backing
operations,  we  recommend  that  pretreatment  and treatment technology
employed for removal of latex solids from carpet plant wastes be applied
to latex wastes from nonwoven plants.

Felts.  Pelts are composed of fur, hair, wool and  synthetic  fibers  in
various combinations.  Synthetics are vastly predominant today.  Felt is
a  nonwoven  material  formed  by  physically  interlocking  fibers by a
combination of mechanical work, chemical  action,  moisture,  and  heat.
After  felting,  the felt is rinsed.  If dyeing is performed, it is done
in the fiber form before felting.  Oten the felts are  finished  with  a
resin  of  the  resorcinol/formaldehyde  or  acrylic type.  All six felt
manufacturers who belong to the Northern Textile  Association  are  dis-
charging  waste  into  municipal  sewers.  Therefore, guidelines are not
proposed for  this  segment.   Adequate  pretreatment  is  performed  by
neutralization and fiber removal.

                   SECTION V - WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
                                  62

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                     Category 1 - Raw Wool Scouring


The  raw  waste  from raw wool scouring is different from the waste from
all other  categories  used  in  this  study:  it  contains  significant
quantities  of oil and grease, even after in-process recovery.  The wool
grease is not readily biodegradable nor easily  precipitated  chemically
(Ref.  *1«*3).   In addition, sulfur is brought in with the wool, as well
as phenolic and other organic materials derived from  the  sheep  urine,
feces, blood, tars, branding fluids and sheep-dips used as insecticides.
These items appear randomly in the effluent.

The  detergent  used to emulsify the grease constitutes about 10 percent
of the total waste load to the treatment plant; i.e., on  the  order  of
under 10 pounds of BOD5/1000 pounds source wool (Ref. #141).

One analysis of raw wool contaminants is as follows:

           Clean, dry wool     -    62.5% (by weight)
           Regain moisture     -    10.OX
           Suint & associated
             moisture          -    10.0%
           Grease              -     6.OX
           Dirt                -    11.5%

Suint  is  described as potassium salts of organic acids, and is derived
principally from urine and dried sweat.

Analyses vary widely depending  on  the  source  of  the  wool,  and  as
mentioned  in  chapter  IV, the total non-wool materials may be 25 to 75
percent of the grease wool by weight.

Category 2 - Wool Finishing


As mentioned, the metallized dyes used for wool are very fast (i.e.,  do
not  fade  or  rub off readily).  Hence on 100 percent wool cloth, these
dyes are often  used.   In  the  blends,  however,  the  dyes  used  for
polyester  and  other synthetic fibers have poorer fastness, so in these
blends many woolen mills  have  converted  to  non-chrome  dyes.   As  a
•result,  an  all-wool mill may be expected to have significant chrome in
its effluent, but in a wool-blend mill, the chrome will be  considerably
less or even nonexistent.
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Since the wool mills investigated appear to be working mostly on blends,
principally  polyester,  carriers such as orthophenol, phenol, diphenyl,
or benzoic acid derivatives will be present  at  significant  levels  in
their  raw wastes.  Phenolics appear to be losing favor because of their
odor, but current practice includes them and they  will  be  present  in
most woolblend mill wastes.

As a result of the above, the principal component that distinguishes the
wool  mill  Category  2 from Category 5, Knit Finishing, is the chromium
used to dye the wool.  However, since we are recommending a  generalized
guidelines on chrome, this difference is of no consequence.

The Category 2 mills (see Process description) have a higher water usage
rate  than  any  other  finishing  category.   The  heaviest contributor
appears to be the rinsing after fulling.  In addition, the wool and wool
blends are more expensive fabrics and their higher quality  necessitates
more washing to reduce crocking, or rubbing off of color.

Category 3 - Greige Mills


Wastes at greige mills constitute residues in size boxes at the end of a
day  or  a  week,  and  water used for clean-up.  The volumes of textile
wastes in a greige mill are small.  Significant amounts of water used in
a greige mill (e.g., cooling water) may not enter  the  waste  treatment
plant.

The  total  waste  load  at  a  greige mill is typically greater than 90
percent sanitary and the remainder is industrial.

Treatability of greige mill wastes is related to the size used.   Starch
is  very  readily  degraded biologically, and may be given a preliminary
enzyme treatment to improve biodegradability.  On the other hand,  poly-
vinyl  alcohol is consumed by organisms relatively slowly, though recent
studies show  that  organisms  acclimate  to  polyvinyl  alcohol.   (See
Category 4 below.)

Category U - Woven Fabric Finishing


Wastes  associated  with  finishing  woven  goods  are  indicated by the
technology summarized for this  category  in  Chapter  IV.   The  wastes
result  from  removal  of  foreign  material  during  the  cleaning  and
bleaching of cotton  (and its blends) and from the various chemicals used
in finishing the fabric.  In the description which  follows,  individual

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processes  are  discussed  in the same order as will be found in chapter
IV, Category 4.
Enzymatic removal of starch size generates starch solids,  fat  or  wax,
enzyme,  sodium  chloride and wetting agent in the effluent stream.  The
waste contains dissolved solids (both organic and inorganic),  suspended
solids,  and  some  fat or wax; it has a pH of 6 to 8, is light colored,
and contains no toxic materials.

Sulfuric acid removal of starch size generates waste  containing  starch
solids, fat or wax and sulfuric acid.  It contains organic and inorganic
dissolved  solids,  suspended solids, and some oil and grease.  It has a
pH of 1 to 2 and is relatively light colored.

Polyvinyl alcohol and carboxymethyl cellulose are  both  removable  with
water  alone,   Desizing  these materials will thus contribute suspended
solids, dissolved solids and oil and grease.  Since these sizes are used
at  about  one-half  the  concentration  of  starch,  the  total  solids
generated in the waste stream are about one-half the level corresponding
to  starch use.  When mixtures of starch and polyvinyl alcohol are used,
desizing may involve the use of enzyme (to solubilize  the  starch)  and
water;  total  wastes generated would be intermediate between that deve-
loped by either size used alone.

Desizing may contribute 50 percent or more of the total waste solids  in
a woven goods finishing mill.

The  contribution  of starch to BOD of waste streams has been documented
many times.  On the other hand, polyvinyl alcohol  has  been  considered
very  slowly  biodegradable, and as such, a major source of COD.  Recent
studies performed by producers of polyvinyl alcohol in cooperation  with
textile  mills,  indicate  that  biological  waste  systems will develop
organisms acclimated to polyvinyl alcohol, and when  this  has  occured,
biodegradation is relatively rapid and complete.

Scouring

The major chemical used in scouring cotton, crustic soda, appears in the
waste stream.  A surfactant and a small amount of sodium phosphate are

frequently  used, and these also appear in the waste stream.  The wastes
will also contain cotton waxes, which amount to 3 to 4  percent  of  the
cotton used.
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Scouring  liquors  are  strongly alkaline (pH greater than 12) , and dark
colored due to cotton impurities.  They contain  significant  levels  of
dissolved solids and oil and grease.  A modest level of suspended solids
results from the presence of cotton impurities.

The  natural  cotton  impurities  removed from greige fabric by scouring
contribute BOD and are biodegraded rapidly.

Scouring of cotton/polyester greige blends generates the same  waste  in
proportion to the amount of cotton.

Scouring  of  synthetic  woven  goods generates a low level of dissolved
solids from surfactant, soda ash, or sodium phosphate.

Mercerization

Mercerization wastes are predominantly the alkali used in  the  process.
The waste stream contains high dissolved solids, and may have a pH of 12
to  13.   BOD level is low, and is due to penetrant used as an auxiliary
with the caustic.  Small amounts of foreign material and wax may be  re-
moved  from  the  fiber, and will appear as suspended solids, and wax in
the wastes; these materials will contribute a small BOD load.

In large mills, caustic soda is recovered and concentrated  for  re-use,
thus saving chemical and avoiding a sizeable waste load.  Estimates have
indicated  that  recovery  of  mercerizing caustic is justified when the
caustic  use  is  more  than  5  million  pounds  per  year  (dry) ,  and
concentration of the alkali is not permitted to fall below 2%.

Bleaching

Bleaching  with  hydrogen  peroxide  contributes very small waste loads,
most of which is dissolved solids.  The dissolved solids  are  both  in-
organic  (sodium  silicate,  sodium  hydroxide and sodium phosphate) and
organic  (a surfactant and chelating agent).  The waste stream contains a
low level of suspended solids when goods containing cotton are bleached.

Dyeing

Dyeing processes contribute substantially to textile wastes.   Color  is
an  obvious waste.  Examination of Table IV-4 shows that a high level of
dissolved  solids  is  expected.   Suspended  solids  should   be   low.
Carriers, which are essential for dyeing polyester and acetic acid, have
high  BOD.   Sodium  hydrosulfite  has  a  high immediate oxygen demand.
Plants using
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sulfur dyes will contain sulfides in the raw waste, and dichromates  may
be a waste when vat dyeing is practiced.

Some  of  the wastes from dyeing textile fabrics are related to the pro-
duction equipment and to the size of the  mill.   The  use  of  pressure
becks  to  replace atmospheric becks, and thereby decrease the amount of
carriers employed, has already been  mentioned.   On  long  runs,  where
continuous  Thermosol  dyeing  of  synthetics or synthetic blends can be
justified, carriers may be  avoided;  a  gum  will  be  used,  and  will
contribute a low BOD.

Table  IV-# also shows alternative chemicals that may be used as substi-
tutes for soium dichromate.  Controls are available for the reduction of
vat dyes and their re-oxidation;  use  of  the  controls  will  minimize
wastes.

Printing

Printing  wastes  are  comparable  in  many  respects to dye wastes.  As
stated in  chapter  IV,  printing  requires  use  of  gums,  which  will
contribute  BOD.   Solvents  (Varsol)  and  glycerine  are  also  common
constituents in printing, but pose no special waste treating problem.

Printing pigments will introduce some suspended solids into the waste.

Much of the wastes from printing comes from cleaning  of  make-up  tanks
and process equipment.  These relatively concentrated wastes may justify
segregated treatment, perhaps by incineration.

Other Treatment Wastes

Wastes  from  resin  treatment,  water-proofing, flame-proofing and soil
release are small, since the chemicals are applied by padding,  followed
by  drying and curing.  The chemicals used are diverse and small amounts
of them will enter the wastes.

Category 5 - Knit Fabric Finishing


The unit operations of knit fabric finishing are  diagrammed  in  Figure
IV-6.   The  unit  operations  that  produce  liquid  wastes  have  been
described in the preceding section. Category 4, Woven Fabric Finishing.

The main differences  between  knit  and  woven  fabric  wet  processing
operations  are  that knit yarns are treated with lubricants rather than
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with the starch or polymeric sizes used for woven goods yarns, and  that
mercerizing operations are not employed with knit goods.  Otherwise, the
character  of  the  wastes  generated  from  comparable  unit operations
performed on  different  fibers—cottons,  synthetics,  and  blends—are
similar to those found in woven fabric finishing.

Lubricating  finishes  applied  to knitting yarns generally are based on
mineral oils, vegetable oils, synthetic ester type oils, or  waxes,  and
may  also  contain  antistatic  agents, antioxidants, bacteriostats, and
corrosion inhibitors.  Specific formulations are  proprietary  with  the
yarn  supplier  or throwster who applies the finish.  The amount applied
varies with the type of yarn; general levels of add-on by weight percent
on yarn are: untexturized synthetic yarns, 1 to  2  percent;  texturized
synthetic  yarns,  4  to  7 percent; and cotton yarns 3 percent or less.
These knitting oils are readily emulsified or soluble in water, and  are
removed by washing prior to the dyeing operation.

Category 6 - Carpet Mills


The  carpet  industry  wastes  are  very similar in nature to those from
Category 5, Knit Goods.  When polyester is dyed,  the  carriers  present
the  same  problems as in other categories, but very little polyester is
being used or will be used until a satisfactory answer  to  fireproofing
is  found.   Therefore,  the  nylon, acrylic and modacrylic dyeings pre-
dominate.  This means very little  phenolics  from  carriers,  and  very
little chrome from wool dyeing.  Spin oils from the yarns are present.


A special waste, peculiar to this industry, exists because of the use of
foamed  and  unfoamed  latex backing.  The latex is not soluble in water
but is used in a highly dispersed form; hence suspended solids  and  COD
could  be  a  problem  unless  they  are  coagulated.  This stream  (from
equipment washdown once a day to once a  week)  is  usually  segregated,
acidified  to  hasten  coagulation, and settled before it joins dyehouse
wastes.

Municipal treating plants require pretreatment of the carpet mill wastes
to remove fiber and latex.  Any latex that enters the sewer lines  tends
to form strings and can cause appreciable deposits.

The pH of carpet wastes is usually close to neutral.

With  the  lack  of  other wet processing steps in the mill, the hot dye
wastes sometimes present a problem to biological treatment systems.
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The color problem is similar to that of other finishing categories.

Where carpets are printed, the thickeners present a high BOD load, as in
fabric printing.

Category 7 - Yarn Dyeing and Finishing


Wastes generated in yarn processing plants will depend substantially  on
whether natural fibers, blends, or synthetics alone are processed.

when  synthetics alone are handled, only light scouring and bleaching is
required, and wastes would be low levels of detergent, soda ash,  sodium
phosphate,  and  perhaps a low bleach level.  Wastes for this step would
have low BOD, and dissolved solids.  Dyeing would contribute a  stronger
waste,  primarily  due  to carrier in the case of polyester, and to some
acetic acid; wastes, of course, would contain some color.

Scouring, bleaching, and mercerizing of cotton generate  BOD  and  color
because  of  the  fiber impurities, and a high level of dissolved solids
because of the mercerizing.   Because  of  the  relatively  low  amounts
involved, it does not appear reasonable to recover caustic soda.
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                               SECTION VI

                   SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS

                          Selected Parameters
Selection  of  pollutant  parameters  was  based  on the EPA study which
recommended effluent levels, tentative (Denver Guidelines); the American
Textile Manufacturers Institute study which followed publication of  the
EPA   document;  on  discussions  with  state  water  pollution  control
officials, concerned industry personnel, and internal  ADL  consultants;
and  on  literature  data.  The following list of chemical, physical and
biological pollutants was developed:

     BODS                                       pH
     COD                                        color
     Suspended Solids                           Alkalinity
     Phenols                                    Temperature
     Oils and Grease                            Sulfides
     Ammonia and Nitrate Nitrogen               Chromium
     Phosphates                                 Other Heavy Metals
     Dissolved solids                           Coliform Bacteria
     Toxic Organic Chemicals

These pollutant  parameters  have  been  identified  in  the  industry's
wastewaters;  however,  no category of the industry is known to have all
of these pollutants present in  its  wastewaters.   Pollutants  used  in
cooling  systems  for algae and corrosion inhibition are not included in
the above list although these might be encompassed  in  several  of  the
parameters.   It  was  assumed that effluent limitation guidelines deve-
loped for steam-electric power generation would be applicable to cooling
towers.  Similarly, in the case of backwash water from  water  treatment
plants,  it  was  assumed  that guidelines developed for water treatment
would be applicable.

Specific Pollutants


BOD 5

The organic chemicals used in the industry uses are known to have a wide
range of biological oxygen demand, varying from completely biodegradable
compounds such as starch to highly refractory compounds  such  as  dyes-
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Concentrations of BODS in the raw wastes may vary from about 50 mg/liter
to  3000  mg/liter.   The  values  depend  on  the fibers processed, the
chemicals used, and on processing methods.

Oxygen demanding portion of the wastes are treatable biologically,  with
only  a  few exceptions.  The ease and degree of removal in a given time
are quite variable.

COD

The  chemical  oxygen  demand  test  is  one  method   for   determining
carbonaceous  substances;  the  COD  concentration of wastewater streams
from an industry with a significant amount of organic  wastes  would  be
expected  to be high.  Although the data base for evaluation is limited,
the variability of COD appears to be  high.   The  removal  of  chemical
oxygen  demand to the same efficiencies as BOD in a biological system is
not at present attained.  The efficiency of COD removal is  specific  to
individual  chemicals  and  processes  and cannot be generalized for the
industry,

Suspended Solids

Suspended solids are present in textile wastewaters as a  process  waste
generated  from  the  fibrous  substrate,  the  chemicals  used, and the
biological treatment.  Most of the solids may be removed in  clarifiers,
in settling basins, by filtration, or by other techniques.

Chromium

Selection  of chromium as a pollutant parameter is based on its wide use
as an oxidant in the form of sodium dichromate for vat and  sulfur  dyes
and as a component of wool dyes.  Substitutes are available, and several
mills are abandoning its use, but it is still widely used.

Other Heayy Metals

Copper  salts  are  still  used in some dyeing operations of the textile
industry.  Since it is toxic in biological systems, it  should  be  con-
sidered  as  a pollutant.  Zinc nitrate is widely used as a catalyst for
durable press  goods,  and  small  amounts  will  enter  waste  systems.
Magnesium chloride may be used in the same process.  Mercury was con

sidered  because of its known occurrence in raw materials such as sodium
hydroxide which is used in large amounts by the  textile  industry.   In
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normal  operation,  we  would  not  expect  the  concentration  of these
materials in the wastewater to exceed the toxic limits.

Phenols

Phenols are widely used as carriers  in  dyeing  polyester  and  blends.
Some dye compositions (naphthols) will probably analyze as phenols also.
In  addition, some natural materials, such as lignin residues removed in
scouring cotton, probably analyze as phenols,

gulfides

Since sodium sulfide is used in one type of  dyeing,  and  other  sulfur
containing  chemicals  are used, it was presumed that sulfides should be
considered among the parameters.   Small  amounts  of  sulfides  may  be
generated in processing wool.

BS

The  variations  in pH cannot be characterized across the industry since
some  processes  require  highly  acid  conditions  and  others   highly
alkaline.   Neutralization is practiced where pH control is necessary to
prevent adverse effects in biological waste treatment systems.

Color

color is a major pollutant in the textile industry.  Some color is water
soluble and some is not (dispersed dyes).   Biodegradability  is  highly
variable.   Many  hues are used in dyeing, and all may appear in wastes;
their combination in waste streatms frequently generates a gray or black
color.  As a pollutant parameter, color is an aesthetic  rather  than  a
toxicity  problem,  and  there  is  no  universally  accepted monitoring
method, although several techniques are being tried.

Alkalinity

Although many mills will continue to use alkalinity to follow  treatment
plant  operation,  we  do  not  believe this parameter is warranted as a
guideline.

Dissolved Solids

Dissolved solids, essentially inorganic salts, are an integral  part  of
several textile processes. (See Chapter IV.)   Some organic salts, such
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as sodium acetate, are also present.  Concentrations of dissolved solids
can vary from only slightly greater than the level in the incoming water
to  perhaps  as great as 5,000 ppm in wastewaters in certain segments of
the industry.

Phosphates

Phosphates are widely used, particularly in scouring processes, and  may
also  be added as nutrients to biological treatment systems.  Phosphates
form part of  the  total  dissolved  solids,  but  their  importance  in
organism growth warrants special attention as a pollutant.

         Grease
Grease  is  a  substantial  pollutant in wool scouring; in other textile
categories, it is much less troublesome but may still be significant.


Ammonia & Nitrate Nitrogen

Nitrogen from textile processes as well as from the aerobic digestion of
waste biological sludges may appear in wastewater as ammonia or  nitrate
nitrogen  because  of  the  many  chemical  forms it may enter into  (the
result of biological activity) .  Additions  of  ammonia  or  urea  as  a
nutrient  to  nitrogen  deficient  waste  is  a  common  practice in the
industry.

Cgliform_Bacteria

Sanitary sewage is a component of many textile waste  treatment  plants,
and  is  often  desired  for its nutrient value.  Consequently, coliform
bacteria may be present in large numbers in raw wastes  and  in  treated
wastes.  Some states require chlorination to destroy coliform bacteria.

Since  fecal coliform organisms are not a true textile waste, we suggest
that the guideline should be the  same  as  for  sanitary  systems  with
secondary treatment (Federal Register, 38, 82, April 30, 1973).

Toxic Organic chemicals

Dieldrin,  a  moth  proofing agent used for carpets would fall into this
grouping,  but   this  chemical  is  no  longer  used.   Some  carriers,
particularly chlorinated benzenes, are toxic and should not be used.

Temperature
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Raw  waste  from  many  textile  mills is hot, but temperature reduction
occurs naturally in  waste  treatment,  and  temperature  of  the  final
effluent  should  be  very  close to ambient.  Therefore, effluent water
temperature does not represent a problem.

Condensed Parameter List

Many but not all of the above pollutant parameters can  be  observed  in
wastewaters  from the different segments of the industry.  The extent of
industry data was highly variable.

BOD, COD, suspended  solids  and  pH  levels  are  minimum  requirements
applicable  to  the  entire  textile industry.  COD is important but the
significance of the  test  and  its  limitations  are  not  sufficiently
understood  at  present.   Other  parameters  among the list given above
should be measured in the  industry  categories  where  they  have  been
identified in the waste effluent as indicated in Table VI-1.

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                              TABLE VI-1


      Pollutant Parameters to be Measured in the Textile Industry
                          	Industry Category
Parameter

BODS
COD

Total suspended solids
Chromium

Phenol
Oil & Grease

PH

Sulfides

Color
I
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
II
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
III
X
X
X
X


X
X
X
IY
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
V
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
VI
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
VI
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
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             SECTION VII - CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY

                    Wastewater Treatment Technology


 The technology for control and treatment of waterborne pollutants in
the textile industry can be divided into two broad categories: in-process
 and end-of-pipe.  In-process control of waterborne pollutants in turn
depends upon two major conditions: (1)  altering the process requirements
that generate water pollutants, and (2) controlling water usage in non-
process as well as process areas.  For example, pollutants can often be
   kept from entering water streams through the institution of better
housekeeping procedures, containment of leaks and spills, good mainten-
ance practices, and the segregation and treatment of selected concentrated
                          wastewater streams.

 At present, the textile industry is concerned principally with end-of-
pipe treatment of its wastewaters.  However, the application of wastewater
treatment technology has often been instituted without detailed investi-
gation of the alternatives to water and wastewater management within the
process operations.  This approach, of course, is a natural one to follow
 since institution of in-process changes for an operating plant is fre-
quently time consuming and expensive.   Furthermore, the incorporation of
in-process control of waterborne pollutants demands attention to specific
 operations which are often proprietary whereas end-of-pipe wastewater
treatment technology is based on generally similar principles which are
available from consultants, equipment manufacturers and the company's own
                              competitors.

The textile industry relies principally upon biological treatment of its
 wastewaters at the end-of-pipe.  A large number of plants, especially
 small ones, send wastewaters into municipal sewage systems where they
may be a minor portion of the total flow; however, in some instances the
 wastewater flow to a municipal plant is predominantly wastewater from
                            textile plants.

Evaluation of data obtained from the plants surveyed indicate that the operatic
 biological systems is extended aeration, since no plant had an average
 residence time in the aeration basin of less that 17 hours.  The con-
sequent operating conditions are reflected in the relatively low levels
of BOD5 per 28.32 Cu m  (1000 Cu ft) of aerated basin as well as the low
  power inputs per kg (Ib) BOD removed.  This results in low rates of
BODS removal per unit energy input to the aerators and relatively small
amounts of excess sludge because of the high degree of oxidation of the
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                    biologically active substances.
Where data on correlation of mixed liquid suspended solids were available,
these were found to be within the usual range for extended aeration.  The
 plants ranged in size from a 3.785 Cu m/d (1000 gpd) pilot plant to a
43,906 Cu m/d (11.6 mgd) plant.  Although there is little necessity for
equalization basins to ameliorate the effects of flow variability, some
operational problems are unique to the textile industry as discussed in
                       the following paragraphs.

Removal of fibers from the wastewater prior to their entering the aeration
 basin is often necessary to prevent floating scum from building on the
surface of the basin or to prevent the aeration equipment from malfunctioning
 and reducing oxidation efficiency.  Usually, these fibers are removed
           satisfactorily through the use of bars or screens.

The wool scouring portion of the textile industry must cope with the most
severe wastewater treatment problems within the textile industry.  This
results from the high concentration of greases, salts, and other substances
that are removed from the wool during scouring.  The wool scouring wastes
must be pretreated prior to putting them through the biological system.  The
high concentration of greases that are strongly resistant to biological
                              degradation
           requires physical-chemical treatment ahead of the
biological system.  The greases are usually emulsified during the scouring
with soap and detergents and consequently, present a severe removal pro-
                                 blem.

Many treatment methods have been proposed and investigated at laboratory
 levels.  Those which are used most frequently are based on the use of
acids  (to help break the emulsion) or centrifuges.  Heating, filtration,
sedimentation, etc., are employed to separate the greases; however, the
reduction of greases to very low levels was not observed in any plants.
Furthermore, discussions with industry personnel indicated that a broad
  spectrum of removal methods had been tried, but with no outstanding
                          commercial success.

  Suspended solids are removed from biologically-treated wastewater by
   gravity sedimentation.  The concentrated slurries are recycled to
 aeration basins while the overflow from the clarifier goes to lagoons
  for further polishing or discharge to the receiving stream.  Because
of colloidal particulates from certain operations, chemical coagulation
 is required prior to biological treatment.  This operation is usually
 carried out by the addition of coagulating chemicals and/or the use of
   coagulant aids to improve gravity sedimentation.  In general* the
clarifiers used in the textile industry are designed for overflow rates
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   considerably less than those usually found in biological treatment
   systems today.  .The average for 16 wastewater treatment plants was
 15.a Cu m/sq. m-d (378 gpd/sq. ft.)  which is approximately 60 percent
of the design values usually found acceptable.  Excluding one extremely
high value of suspended solids concentration, the average concentration
 of suspended solids from 25 plants was 57 mg/1.  This concentration in
conjunction with the aforementioned low clarifier overflow rates, indicates
that the removal of suspended solids by gravity sedimentation is difficult.

  The principal parameter for measuring the performance of the textile
 industry's wastewater treatment plants is the reduction in biological
oxygen demand across the system as measured by the BODS test (7.1, 7.2).
           Excluding the high BODS values for wool scouring—
 category 1, the average BODS concentration of the remaining plants was
 21 mg/1, running from a low of 2 to a high of 83.  Of this group only
 approximately 20 percent exceeded a 30 mg/1 standard being recommended
              for municipal sewage treatment plants (7.3).

These data show that exemplary wastewater treatment plants for six of the
seven categories are being operated to give values of BODS in the treated
effluent comparable to or better than those generally accepted for treat-
ment of municipal sewage.  Of course, this performance is being achieved
under operating conditions that differ from those for sewage.  In effect,
many of the wastewater treatment plants are being operated as a two-stage
  biological system since polishing lagoons of various residence times
                       follow the aerated basin.

The long residence time in the aeration basins and polishing lagoons of
   the plants surveyed implies that land availability was of no great
                                concern.

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is measured less frequently than BODS since
the later is the parameter of major concern to present regulatory agencies.
 As in the case of BODS, the COD of wool scouring waste is greater than
that of wastewaters from other categories, both on a concentration basis
and as units/unit of production.  Exclusive of the wool scouring waste,
the industry's average COD for the plants surveyed is 222 mg/1 with a low
   value of 68 mg/1 and a high of U27 mg/1.  The ratio of COD to BODS
    increases significantly across the wastewater treatment plants,
          which indicates the refractory nature of some of the
components of the wastewaters.  Although COD is probably a better measure
 of the pollutant level of wastewaters, other parameters such as total
  organic carbon (TOC) or total oxygen demand (TOD)  might be even more
   indicative (7.1-7.7).   No data on the latter two were obtained.
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                       Although the ratio of COD
   to BOD is generally recognized as an indicator of the biologically
  refractory nature of wastewater pollutants, the variability in this
ratio is affected by many factors, and one of the most important is the
  capabilities of a specific biological system to degrade carbonaceous
  substances.  For example, PVA, one of the biggest sizes used in the
 textile industry, is considered to be essentially refractory in terms

of its loading on an activated sludge plant, 1 percent BOD, whereas the
theoretical oxygen demand is 36 percent.  This would indicate that only
  3 percent of the PVA is normally attacked in a five-day BOD test, or
  loosely speaking, 97 percent of it would pass unaffected through an
 activated sludge plant (7.8) .  Recent data shows that this is not the
 case; in some activated sludge plants where the organisms have become
  acclimated to the PVA, substantial PVA reduction is achieved.  For
 example, Blair Mills, Belton, South Carolina, consistently shows over
90 percent reduction of PVA in its extended aeration (5 days) activated
                          sludge plant  (7.9).

 Other waste treatment plants report varying amounts of PVA removal and
some unpublished laboratory work indicates that up to 20 days residence
time in an activated sludge is required for effective removal.  Obviously,
one of the big differences between waste treatment plants, with respect
to effective removal of PVA is the different types and relative propor-
  tions of each microorganism that eventually evolve in the individual
  activated sludge plants, because of the different types of raw waste
                                loads.

From the above discussion, it can be seen that the biological refractivity
 of certain carbonaceous substances may be uniquely a function of the
biological system acclimated to a specific wastewater composition.  Never-
theless, an indication of the COD concentration that might remain in a
biologically-treated wastewater can be obtained by assuming that the COD
  test is composed of the sum of two components: (1) the biologically
degradable carbonaceous substances in the wastewaters, and (2) the non-
     biodegradables.  This is tantamount to the following equation:

                  CODmeasure = CODnon-degradable + b(BOD5)

where b is the conversion factor for BODS to COD.  From this relationship
where both influent and effluent analyses for COD and BODS were available,
 the values of COD non-degradable and b were calculated as well as the
         estimated COD at 15 and 30 mg/1 of BODS (Table VII-1) .

This approach indicates that if all of the BODS contributors were removed
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from the wastewaters only three of the plants would achieve COD concen-
tration levels less than 100 mg/1.  Whether this would indeed occur in a
biologically active system with sufficient residence times to lower the
 BOD concentration to near zero is problematical since only truly non-
  biodegradable substances would report as CODND.  Nevertheless, this
approach is believed to indicate the carbonaceous substances that might
be expected in the effluents from wastewater treatment facilities operating
       with the best practicable technology currently available.

The wastewaters from the textile industry usually contain ample phosphates
which are available as nutrients for the microorganisms of the biological
system.  Indeed, there is more apt to be an excess of phosphates, due to
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                              Table VII-1

                CalculatedValues of COD Non-degradable

                                              COD at         COD at
Category   Plant   Slope b   CODND (mg/1)  15 mg BOD5/1   30 mg BOD5/1
I A
B
II C
D
E
IV M
L
0
S
V W
Y
VI BB
CC
VII GG
3.41
4.26
2.13
1.87
4.87
1.62
1.48
2.56
3.27
2.85
1.75
4.59
0.75
0.96
1,700
'137
82
142
19
174
182
172
70
270
398
203
439
60
1,750
500
113
169
92
198
203
210
119
312
424
271
450
74
1,800
565
145
197
165
222
226
247
168
355
450
341
461
88
the high usage of detergents, and a deficiency of the nitrogen necessary
for maintaining a viable biomass in the system,  consequently, nitrogen,
in  the form of nitrates or ammonia, usually must be added to the waste-
waters to maintain high removal efficiencies in the treatment plant.

Textile  process  operations  often  require   high-temperature   water,
however,  heat  reclamation  is  also  widely  practiced  as a matter of
economics so the wastewaters sent to the treatment plants usually do not
present any significant thermal shock problems.  Furthermore,  the  long
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residence  time  generally  found  in  the  wastewater treatment systems
serves effectively to prevent rapid changes in  temperature.   The  most
important  temperature  effect  is not expected to be high temperatures,
but  low  temperatures.   In  northern   areas,   the   low   wintertime
temperatures  in biological treatment systems will materially reduce the
biological activity and thus the efficiency of BODS removal.

Color in the wastewaters of the textile  industry  is  inherent  in  the
nature  of  the  operations.   Since  color  chemicals  are specifically
formulated for resistance to degradation under the oxidizing  conditions
of  the  world,  it  is  not surprising that removal of color in aerobic
biological systems is erratic.  Although color concentration normally is
reduced somewhat in the biological systems surveyed, data obtained  were
in   arbitrary  units,  most  often  APHA(Y)   standard.   Color  removal
efficiency is known to be highly specific to the  individual  plant  and
the  particular  processes  being  operated at a given time.  Although a
number of research and development projects have been carried out, there
is  no  one  generally  accepted  method  for  color  removal.   Use  of
adsorptive  technology—such  as flocculation and activated carbons—and
anaerobic treatment appear to offer the  best  possiblity  for  removing
color; as noted earlier, however, the effective application depends upon
specific   knowledge  about  individual  wastewater  streams.   Chemical
oxidation by chlorine, ozone, etc., has  been  tried,  as  well  as  ion
exchange,  electrodialysis, ultrafiltration,  and reverse osmosis.  These
treatment techniques are discussed in detail in Section VII-6.

Chromium is the most significant heavy metal of concern in  the  textile
industry  although  others  are  employed  selectively.   There  is good
evidence that at low levels of chromium in the raw waste (less  than  15
ppm)  an activated sludge treatment plant removes a substantial portion.
Reference 7.12 states that 50 ppm of Cr+6 fed  continuously  lowers  the
BOD removal efficiency of a waste treatment plant by only 3 percent.

Pollution  experts  within  the  textile industry have noted that chrome
removal across a waste treatment plant is proportional to the amount  of
BOD  removed   (more  specifically  the  excess  sludge  removed)  and is
inversely proportional to the amount of suspended solids carried over in
the final effluent from the secondary clarifier.

The removal of chromium ions by chemical treatment methods is well known
although it was not  found  in  the  textile  plants  surveyed.   It  is
apparent  that  such  systems  will  have  to be applied at plants using
chromium.  One of the simplest chemical  system  involves  reducing  the
Cr+6 using SO2, and precipitating the resulting Cr+3 with NaOH, which is
sent  to  a settling lagoon.  Good practice is to carry out the chemical
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precipitation of the chrome on the segregated streams that have  chrome,
and feed the effluent from this system to the activated sludge plant for
treatment for BOD.

Wastewaters  from  ancillary  operations  such  as cooling towers, steam
generating facilities and water  treatment  plants  may  be  significant
factors in the wastewater volumes emitted from the textile industry.  In
those instances where one must handle cooling tower and boiler blowdowns
that  contain corrosion inhibiting chemicals, algacide and biocides, the
technology for selective removal is usually available.  Of  course,  the
best  practicable  control  technology  currently  available for process
wastewaters will not remove soluble inorganic salts which predominate in
these blowdowns.  Toxic and hazardous substances in these systems can be
controlled either by eliminating them, replacing them  with  less  toxic
and  hazardous  substances  or treating isolated streams to remove them.
Selection of a course  of  action  to  cope  with  toxic  and  hazardous
materials  in  these  blowdowns  is  more a question of economics than a
question of technology.

Reliability, operability and consistency of operation of the  wastewater
treatment  processes  found  to  be  most frequently used in the textile
industry can be high if appropriate designs and  operational  techniques
are  employed.   The  end-of-pipe  treatment utilizing extended aeration
biological systems  is  a  well  established  technology  that  requires
attention  to  a  limited number of variables to insure a high degree of
reliability.  Although many variables can affect the  operability  of  a
biological  system,  in general the best overall performance is achieved
when the highest consistency of flow and wastewater composition occurs.

Since the  textile  industry  is  predominantly  a  batch  type  process
operation rather than continuous, such as the petroleum or petrochemical
industry,  it  follows  that  both flow rates and wastewater composition
will vary significantly.  That the industry recognizes this  variability
is  apparent  from the nature of the wastewater treatment systems, i.e.,
long residence time systems which hold sufficient volumes so  that  high
instantaneous flow rates or high concentrations can be rapidly equalized
to  prevent  "sharp  loading"  of  the  biological  system.   Removal of
greases, oils and fibers, and in certain instances control of pH,  prior
to  aeration  preconditions the wastewaters for most effective operation
of the biological system.

The most  important  operational  aspects  of  these  extended  aeration
systems  are equipment reliability and attention to operating detail and
maintenance.   Spare  aeration  equipment  (usually   floating   surface
aerators) improves the possiblity of consistent operation; however, many
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treatment  systems  have  an  adequate overcapacity already installed as
insurance  against  the  results  of  equipment  failure.   In  general,
auxiliary  power  for operation of the wastewater treatment system would
not be required unless the plant was equipped with a source of auxiliary
power and could,  therefore,  keep  operating  despite  failure  of  the
primary  power source.  Operability and consistency of performance could
be improved if parallel treatment systems existed,  each  of  which  was
capable of handling the total load.  However, this is rarely justifiable
on  either  an  economic  or  practical  basis;  it is more desirable to
install spare equipment at critical points, for example,  sludge  return
pumps.   Perhaps  of equal importance is a design that permits rapid and
easy maintenance of malfunctioning equipment.

Therefore, control of the biological treatment plant and the consistency
of the results obtained are largely a matter of conscientious  adherence
to well-known operational and maintenance procedures.  Automatic control
of  biological treatment plants is far from a practical point.  Although
in-line  instrumentation  for  measurement  of  pH,  dissolved   oxygen,
temperature,  turbidity  and  so  on,  can  improve the effectiveness of
operation, its  use  is  minimal  in  the  textile  industry's  existing
wastewater   treatment   plants.   Nevertheless,  no  practical  in-line
instrumentation can  replace  the  judicious  attention  to  operational
details of a conscientious crew of operators.

In Process Control

Ancillary  Process  Control  Technology.   A  big portion of the textile
waste loads is  inherent  in  the  methods  of  textile  processing  and
independent  of  the  efficiency of the processing plants.  For example,
size is applied to warp yarns to give them mechanical  strength  in  the
weaving operations; all of this size must be taken off before subsequent
bleaching  and  dyeing.   A  finishing plant can use variable amounts of
water in removing this size, but the raw  waste  load  due  to  size  is
unchanged.   The  same applies to spinning finishes on synthetic fibers,
which are put on the yarn as a lubricant and to  reduce  static  in  the
high-speed  spinning  and  textile operations.  All of these "temporary"
finishes must be removed before dyeing of the yarn,  so  again  the  raw
waste load is almost independent of scouring efficiency.

Although  these  "base" raw waste loads are constant, a plant can reduce
the other raw waste loads—such as spills, reworks, etc.—in many  ways.
These are considered below.

The  principal  axiom in reducing the waterborne pollutant loads through
control external to the process is to prevent pollutants  from  entering

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the water streams.  Although this seems obvious, its successful applica-
tion  requires  continual attention by operating personnel.  In fact, it
is synonomous with creation of an effective work safety program.  In the
textile industry, with its large number of batch operations, one of  the
most important aspects of reducing waterborne pollutants is to institute
an effective water management program—including expanded use of liquid-
level-controls, flow  indicators  and  flow meters, adequate capacity for
generating hot water for wash operations, etc.—in  conjunction  with  a
good  maintenance  program  which  will  insure  that leaks from valves,
pipes, pumps, etc., are promptly  repaired  so  as  to  prevent  process
fluids  from  entering  floor  drains,  etc.   Except for category 1 the
concentration levels of  pollutants  at  the  inlet  to  the  wastewater
treatment plants are not excessively high for industrial wastewaters (an
average  BODS  of  347  for  25  plants).   Consequently,  a significant
reduction in hydraulic capacity should normally  effectively  lower  the
total emitted pollutants from a given wastewater treatment plant even if
the  concentration level in the effluent rose moderately.  Obviously, if
process operations can be changed to reduce the pollutant  load  to  the
waste water treatment plant simultaneously with a reduction in hydraulic
flow the emitted pollutants will be reduced even more.

The  textile  industry is not a large volume handler of liquid chemicals
that would be water pollutants if storage tanks failed  catastrophically
or  if spills or leaks occurred during loading and unloading operations.
Consequently, the need for  curbing  and  diking  to  prevent  entry  of
spilled  or leaked liquids into waterstreams is not as great as in other
industries.  However, where significant quantities of  liquid  chemicals
are stored and handled, provisions should be made for containment in the
case of accidents.  Alternatively, provisions could be made for draining
to  catch  basins or, if appropriate, to the wastewater treatment plant.
Procedures and methods for preventing spills and  leaks  should  be  the
pramount  consideration,  but  passive  systems  for containment or pre-
venting their entry into water courses should be  part  of  any  control
plan.   Only through assessment of the potential for pollutants to enter
water streams from accidential occurences and the development of  action
plans  is it possible to develop a high degree of assurance that spilled
liquids will be prevented from polluting water courses.

In summary, strict attention  to  housekeeping  procedures  and  process
operation, can minimize abnormal waste loads.

Conventional Processing With Better Water Economy The greatest potential
for improved water economy in the textile industry stems from the use of
better  washing  methods.   About  80  percent  of all the water used in
textile wet processing is used  for  removing  foreign  material—either
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that  carried  on  the  raw  fiber, or materials resulting from treating
operations such as sizing, scouring, dyeing and finishing.  Furthermore,
most applications of treating materials are already carried out  at  low
liquor ratio for the sake of material and time economy.  It follows that
important water economies in conventional processing can be made only by
reducing the amount of wash water.

It  is clear that in some segments the opportunities for water economies
in washing should  be  considerable.   For  example,  a  typical  cotton
bleaching  sequence  calls  for  washing the fabric six times (following
desize, scour, bleach,  mercerize,  dye  and  finish  steps).   Although
washing  requirements  differ from step to step, we shall assume that at
each of these steps the fabric must be washed 99 percent free  from  the
last  treating  solution.  At one extreme, simple dilution would require
45. 4 kg (100 pounds) of water for each .454 kg (pound)  of contaminant to
be removed or 272 kg (600 pounds) of water per .454 kg  (pound) of fabric
through the 6-step process.  This amounts to some 265 1 (70 gallons)  of
water  per  .454  kg  (pound)  of fabric.  On the other hand, a 20-stage
extraction could reduce contaminants by 99 percent by the  use  of  only
about  .91  kg  (2 pounds) of water per state of 5.4 kg (12 pounds), say
5.7 1  (1.5 gallons), per .454 kg  (pound) of fabric through  six  stages.
It  is  to  be  emphasized  that  no  washing  machine  in actual use or
conceptualized in mechanical design at this time can  approach  20-stage
performance.   Existing  methods frequently use about 9.1 kg  (20 pounds)
of water or more per stage, or about 54.5 kg  (120  pounds) ,  57  1  (15
gallons), per .454 kg (pound) of fabric through six stages.

It is relatively easy to conceive of fabric washing devices that achieve
some  of the theoretical water savings.  The problem is to make machines
that are reasonable in cost; not  damaging  to  the  relatively  fragile
fabric  surface;  easy to thread up, capable of accommodating a range of
fabric widths, weights and types; and durable enough for continuous high
speed operation.  In the past generation a good  deal  of  progress  was
made in washer design.  The Tensitrol machine and the Williams-type high
turbulence  open-width  machine  are  examples.  Driving force for these
improvements in performance was, in general, need for  improved  washing
effectiveness  per  machine  (with  resulting  saving in floor space and
capital expense) and need for machines which minimized  adverse  effects
on the fabric, especially effects due to excessive tension and abrasion.
Water economy was not a high priority in the design, since textile mills
were usually located near abundant water supplies.

Water usage can be improved substantially as design engineers take water
economy  into more active consideration.  For example, so-called "double
laced11 box washers have recently been introduced, with  claimed  savings
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of  up  to  40  percent in number of machines (7.14).  Significant water
savings are claimed, but detailed quantitative data are  not  available.
More  complex  open-width  washing  machines  designed to induce greater
turbulence, have been offered without great success.  Since the physical
aim to be accomplished is clear, i.e., breaking down an effective  thick
diffusion  film  in  the  fabric  interstices,   it  is likely that more
efficient open-width machines can  be  developed.   The  problem  is  to
provide suitable incentives for the development, testing and use of such
machines.

Rope  washers  generally are more effective than open-width washers, but
may  be  suspectible  to  further  improvement  if  back-mixing  can  be
controlled in a practical manner.

In  addition  to better washer design, there are opportunities for water
economy in  more  counter-current  flow.   A  finishing  plant  operator
prefers  to  use  fresh  water at every machine, for ease of control and
adjustment,  and  for  freedom  from  danger   of   cross-contamination.
However,   some   opportunities  for  counter-flow  are  neither  unduly
difficult nor hazardous to quality.  For example, it  is  almost  always
acceptable (but not always practiced) to counter-flow water from machine
to  machine  where several machines are used in series at the same point
in the process.  For example, it is common to use 5 or 6 or  more  open-
width box washers in series after scouring or mercerizing operations, or
two  Tensitrol-type  rope washers after scouring operations.  It is best
for water economy to counter-flow the water through the series.  This is
frequently but not universally  practiced  today.   Furthermore,  it  is
almost  certainly practical to counter-flow water from some later stages
to some earlier stages.  For example, white washer effluent  can  almost
certainly  be  used  as  feed  water  for  caustic  washers.  Additional
opportunities for backflow of water  also  exist.   However,  there  are
limitations;  wash  water  from  dyeing  operations, for example, always
contains color, and is generally unsuitable for re-use without  cleanup.
Caustic  scour and desizing walsh waters are heavily laden with dissolved
and suspended solids and unsuitable for re-use.

In principle, water cleanup could be used around particular machines  or
groups  of  machines,  thus extending water economy still further.  Pre-
liminary consideration of investment and operating costs indicates  that
this  is  generally less conomical than pooling effluents and operations
of one large treating plant.  Closing of water cycles around  individual
operations  or  groups  of  operations  will probably be limited to very
special circumstances.
                                  87

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DRAFT
In summary, it is reasonable to suppose that further water economies can
be achieved by machine improvements and by wider use of counter-flow.

New Process Technology

Solvent Processing

Serious study of textile processing in organic solvents  dates  back  at
least  15  years, although batch applications of special finishing, such
as water repellants has been practiced for more than a  generation.   In
the late 1950's, Imperial Chemical Industries pioneered a solvent system
for  continuous  scouring of cotton piece goods.  Several large machines
of this type have been operated in the United States  at  various  times
since  1960.  During the 1960»s, a number of continuous solvent scouring
and finishing ranges were devised and tested  in  Europe.   In  most  of
these  cases  the  development  work  has  been  carried  out by solvent
suppliers or equipment manufacturers.

In the course of this work it has become clear that chlorinated solvents
such  as  perchloroethylene   and   trichloroethylene   are   the   most
advantageous  materials  now  available.   It has also become clear that
suitable machines can be manufactured and operated so as to control  air
pollutions in the work space.  Solvent loss remains an economic problem.
Extremely  tight  control  is  needed to keep solvent loss per operation
below  5  percent  of  fabric  weight.   To  date,  there  has  been  no
appreciable  commercial  use  of  solvent  finishing  for  woven  goods.
However, solvent  processing  has  established  a  firm  if  specialized
position  in  knit  fabric  finishing,  especially  in  the finishing of
synthetic knits.

Solvent processing has found commercial use only where  superior  fabric
properties  have  been  achieved.   For example, solvent applications of
stain repellent finish to upholstery and drapery  materials  are  widely
practiced.   In  this  case,  aqueous  treatment is not always possible,
because the fabric is sensitive to water.  Similarly,  solvent  scouring
and  finishing  of synthetic knit fabrics is widely practiced because it
is, in these cases, advantageous to quality to avoid wetting with water.
Some finishes, furthermore, are not available in water soluble  or  dis-
persible form and can be used only in solvents.

On  the other hand, very substantial research and development efforts in
the last decade or so have not led to replacement of aqueous  processing
to   any  appreciable  extent.   Some  of  the  important  problems  are
summarized below.
                                  88

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DRAFT
It is obviously an immense task to introduce solvent processing (or  any
other  completely  new  processing  means)  throughout  a whole, complex
textile scouring, bleaching and finishing process.  Aside  from  invest-
ment  considerations,  whole  families  of  solvent-compatible reagents*
dyes, and  finishing  materials  are  needed.   At  present,  these  are
generally not available.

Given   the  above  situation,  it  is  natural  to  consider  piecemeal
introduction of solvent processing, starting with the most  advantageous
or  easiest  uses.   Because  the  useful  solvents are expensive, about
$1500.00 per 3.785 cu m (thousand gallons),  and  toxic,  they  must  be
carefully  contained  during  processing, and recovered as completely as
possible.   Also,  residues  from  scouring  operations  or  from  spent
reagents  must  be  removed  from  the solvent  (usually by distillation)
collected, and dealt with.  These solid or semi-solid  residues  can  be
difficult.   For  example, they usually contain some chlorinated solvent
residue which complicates disposal by either incinerator  or  land  fill
routes.

Adoption  of  a complete solvent processing scheme avoids the problem of
dealing with both aqueous and solvent wastes.  As noted above,  however,
a  complete  line  of  textile  processing and finishing compounds would
first be required.  Some thousands of different dyestuffs and  chemicals
are  now  used  in commercial textile processing.  Only a limited number
can be directly transferred to solvent use.

On the grounds noted above, it is becoming clear that solvent processing
generally will be introduced only as superior results are  demonstrated.
In  general,  this  implies  better  properties  in the finished fabric,
although processing advantages may lead the way in  a  few  cases.   The
prospects  for solvent processing are outlined below for each of several
important finishing steps.

SolventDesizing.  Solvent sizing and desizing are discussed in a  later
section.

Solvent Scouring

Woven  Fabric.   Despite intense effort  (7.15, 7.16) solvent scouring of
woven fabrics has not established  a  firm  place.   The  properties  of
solvent   scoured  fabrics  are  not  generally  superior.   The  wastes
generated are the same with respect to organic content, but, of  course,
free from the alkali generally used for aqueous scouring.
                                  89

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DRAFT
Knit  Fabric.   Solvent  scouring of some synthetic knit fabrics is well
established and growing.  Commercial use is based on  superior  results,
fast drying  (compared with water) and easy extension to specialized sol-
vent  finishing.   Contribution  to  water pollution abatement is modest
because scouring of knits does not contribute very  heavily  to  textile
pollution loads.

Bleaching.  It is possible to bleach from solvent syterns and large scale
demonstrations  have been carried out (7.15).  However, the process used
generates both aqueous and solvent  wastes.   No  advantages  have  been
demonstrated with respect to fabric properties.

Dyeing.   A  very large effort has been devoted to solvent dyeing.  Some
fibers are commercially dyed from solvent systems, notably nylon sports-
wear and carpets by the STX beam dyeing process (7.16).  The  advantages
and limittations of solvent dyeing, both practical and theoretical, were
discussed  at  length  in  a  January  1973  AATCC Symposium.  Collected
papers, available from the American Association of Textile Chemists  and
Colorists  Research  Triangle  Park,  North  Carolina,  27709, should be
consulted for details.  Although many important textile  fibers  can  be
dyed  from  solvent  systems,  practical applications will apparently be
limited to special cases.

There are not grounds for broad reliance on solvent processing to  solve
current liquid effluent problems arising from dyeing operations.

Finishing

WovenGoods.   It  has  been shown that many functional finishes can be
applied from solvents (7.17, 7.18).  Some advantageous  properties  have
been  demonstrated,  but  no  practical  use  has  been achieved.  It is
believed that advantages shown so far have been insufficient to  justify
a  changeover from the familiar aqueous systems.  In any event, chemical
finishing is but a modest contributor to textile  effluents,  since  the
aim is to capture a very high fraction of the active agent on the cloth.

In  special  cases, i.e., water-sensitive fabrics, solvent finishing has
become fairly standard practice.  Application of stain and  soil  resist
finishes to upholstery fabrics is a typical example.

Knit Fabric Finishing.  Synthetic knit fabrics lend themselves admirably
to  combination  scouring  and  finishing  from  solvents.   Some modern
finishes such as silicone polymers for single-knits, can be applied only
from solvent.  Iri other  cases,  solvent  processing  recommends  itself
because  of  ease and speed of drying, or because of superior properties
                                  90

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DRAFT
developed by solvent  finishing.   Although  much  of  this  development
started  with batch operations in dry cleaning machinery, high developed
continuous  processing  machines  are   now   available   from   several
manufacturers,  both  domestic  and  foreign.   It is clear that solvent
processing of knit fabrics is established and growing.

In summary, solvent processing is clearly  finding  a  place  in  modern
textile  processing.   There are, however, no grounds for supposing that
aqueous processing will be totally displaced by solvent processing.

Recovery and Re-use of Warp size

Most woven goods require the use of warp size during  manufacture.   The
sizing,  traditionally  starch, coats the warp yarns and binds the indi-
vidual fibers together.  This action is necessary to preserve the  warps
from  excessive abrasion damage during weaving.  The sizing is generally
removed as the first operation in the fabric finishing  sequence.   Warp
size  constitutes,  on the average, about 5 percent of the weight of the
fabric, and it all ends up in the effluent waters.  Accordingly, it is a
very substantial contributor to the total BOD and COD  in  textile  mill
effluents.   Sizing  waste accounts for about half the total BOD and COD
load from textile operations.

Since the advent of synthetic fibers,  newer  sizing  agents  have  been
developed.   A  solubilized  cellulose derivative, and polyvinyl alcohol
have been widely used.  At this time,  PVA,  alone  or  in  blends  with
starch,  is  the  most  popular  size for the important cotton/polyester
blend fabrics.

Adaption  of  PVA  has  led  to  complications  in  regard  to  effluent
standards.   PVA  reports very low values in the conventional BODS test.
However, it has a higher COD than the starch it replaces.   Recent  work
indicates   (7.19)  that,  despite the BODS test results, PVA is degraded
extensively  in  biological  treatment   plants.    Both   its   alleged
treatability  and  its  alleged  resistance to attack have been cited as
advantages.  These questions will presumably be  resolved  in  the  near
future.

Solvent  methods  offer  one  possible  route to allocation of the heavy
pollution load from warp sizes.  The concept  is  to  apply  a  solvent-
soluble  polymer,  then  remove  it by solvent washing following weaving
and, finally, to recover the polymer for re-use.  There is every  reason
to  suppose that suitable polymers can be found.  At least two companies
(ICI and Dow Chemical) are actively working in  this  direction   (7.20) .
Early  indications  are that solvent-applied warp size can be effective.
                                  91

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DRAFT
The future potential of the process depends upon successful recovery and
re-use of the size.  The most important problem to  be  expected  is  in
clean-up  of the recovered size for re-use.  As a practical matter» most
woven goods contain natural fiber  (principally wool or cotton) and these
fibers contain solvent-extractable material.

Since the size is to be used repeatedly, some means to purge  impurities
is  mandatory.   While this is a difficult problem, the potential advan-
tages of solvent size and  desize  are  substantial.   We  believe  that
solvent  size/desize  will eventually find practical application.  It is
unlikely that such use will be based  primarily  on  pollution  control,
since,  as  noted  above,  conventional  sizing  agents are more or less
readily amenable to conventional biological treatment.  EPA  regulations
will, in all probability, lead to universal adoption of secondary treat-
ment  of  textile wastes and hence more or less complete solution of the
size waste problem before solvent size-desize is ready  for  large-scale
use.   Consequently, it is likely that adoption of new sizing technology
will be based  on  demonstrated  advantages  over  conventional  methods
rather than on pollution control considerations alone.

Specifi c^Prgce s s^Categori es

Category  1-Wool  Scouring.   One of the problems in defining wool scour
wastes and in controlling the process for optimum  performance  is  that
detergent  is  added on a fixed flow basis, and the' demand for it varies
widely with the natural variations in the fleece  as  received.   Future
effort  may  profitably  be  spent in developing a method to measure the
detergent demand and control its addition  accordingly;  less  detergent
will  be  used,  BOD  load  reduced  and perhaps a more easily separated
emulsion will yield higher grease recoveries.

In addition, in the centrifuge recovery system described,  rewashing  of
the  grit for recovery of up to *»0 percent more grease than is presently
being recovered, appears possible with developmental efforts.

Furthermore, the value of centrifuge-recovered  wool  grease  is  higher
than that of acid-cracked grease (20* per pound in 1973).

Anaerobic  treatment  of  wool grease as a substitute degreasing process
has been investigated and found to be promising.   However,  68  percent
digestion  was noted.  The apparent success of aerobic methods operating
at over 90 percent digestion indicates that further  anaerobic  develop-
ment is probably not worth pursuing.
                                  92

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DRAFT
Re-use  of  the  waste  treatment plant effluent as make-up water to the
scouring train may be feasible.  One of the  obvious  problems  is  that
dissolved salts will build up.

With  the resulting more concentrated solutions, incineration and recon-
densing the water may be economically reasonable.   The  grease  problem
precludes   present  forms  of  reverse  osmosis  and  other  separation
techniques.

Solvent scouring has been used to remove the wool grease from the  wool.
Jet  fuel,  benzene, carbon tetrachloride, ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol
and isopropyl alcohol have been tried.  The problems of flammability and
explosive hazards, and of efficiency of solvent recovery have  prevented
its use in the United States.

Solvent  scouring  requires  subsequent  detergent washing to remove the
dirt.  More  efficient  methods  of  grease  recovery  using  the  water
scouring  process  appear  capable  of  achieving grease recovery levels
comparable to that with solvent methods, and hence would probably  offer
the better choice for further reducing pollution load in the future.

Category, 2 _ -  Wool  Finishing.   Further  effort should be extended to
segregating waste streams within the mill.  In particular, many  of  the
rinse  waters  appear satisfactory for reuse both for subsequent initial
rinses and for pre-scouring steps and perhaps for fulling rinses.  These
approaches require careful evaluation because of the tendency  for  wool
fiber  to  "sour" if soaps and other materials are left on them for many
hours.  Substantial investments in repiping and  in  storage  facilities
are needed to accomplish this water reuse.

Solvent  scouring  is  practiced  in  several  mills in place of initial
detergent scouring, to remove spin oils, sizes, and fugitive tints.  The
savings in detergent costs appear to justify these systems resulting  in
a lower BOD load and somewhat lower water use.
         .^  -  Greige  Mills .  Aqueous wastes generated in sizing yarns
amount now to machine clean-up and incidental wastes.  In one  exemplary
plant,  aqueous wastes were less than 0.8 I/kg (0.1 gal/lb) greige cloth
produced.   Reduction  of   wastes   at   these   mills   is   therefore
insignificant.

Category _ ft ^ Woven  Fabric Finishing.  The possibilities for reducing
water consumption in finishing woven fabric were discussed earlier.   In
this section we will emphasize pollutants other than water.
                                  93

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DRAFT
Scouring,  mercerizing and bleaching generate substantial wastes, parti-
cularly in textiles containing  cotton.   Large  textile  users  already
recover spent caustic soda and this should be extended to other users.

Better  control  and  automation  of  dyeing processes could bring about
reductions in dye and chemical usage as well as in water.

There is no simple way to reduce  the  amounts  of  auxiliary  chemicals
essential for dyeing, e.g., salts, sodium hydrosulfite and a few others.
Some  mills  are  abandoning  the  use of chromates, and substitutes are
generally as effective.  The use of pressure becks for  dying  polyester
is  increasing, and reducing carrier usage significantly.  Printing pro-
cesses frequently use solvents (Varsol) which can be recovered  by  flo-
tation and distillation.

Category  5	-	Knits.   The  general  comments  concerning  dyeing  and
finishing made under category U apply.

Category 6 - Carpets.  Continuous dyeing has been stated to use 20 to 25
percent of the amount of water used in beck dyeing.   Stock  dyeing  and
printing  rinse  also are similar lower level uses.  However, a mill can
use a continuous process only if the volume of a given shade  is  suffi-
ciently high.

If  polyester  regains  as  a  major face-yarn material, there will be a
major increase in raw waste per kg (pound), which can be abated to  some
extent  by the use of pressure dye becks, as in categories 4 and 5, that
permit a reduction in the use of carriers and their attendant heavy  BOD
load.

Complete  recycling  of water, since water use is centered on dyeing and
rinsing in this industry, depends on the  same  technology  developments
for removal of dyes and salts that all other finishing categories depend
upon.

Category	7	-Stock  and  Yarn  Dyeing  and  Finishing.  Mills in this
category scour, mercerize, bleach and  dye  cotton,  or  scour  and  dye
synthetic  fibers.   Possible  future  developments  that might apply to
these mills are discussed in this section under category 4.

ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY


In all categories of textile plants, we assume good secondary treatment,
i.e., that activated sludge will be combined with preliminary and possi-

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DRAFT
bly post screening and filtration.  The definition of advanced treatment
systems is therefore confined to tertiary treatment of the secondary ef-
fluents, dewatering and incineration of sludges, and  possibly  to  pre-
conditioning of some specialized waste streams to render them compatible
with the activated sludge process.

The  polluting  species  that such advanced waste treatment systems must
contend with are typified by those commonly experienced in the effluents
of category 4 textile plants using modern secondary treatment:

         flow    a,000 - 30,000 cu m/day (1-8 mgd)
         BODS    4-30 mg/1
         COD     500 mg/1
         TSS     300 mg/1
         Cr      0-4 mg/1
         Phenol  500 mg/1
         color   moderate
         pH      7-11
         alkalinity  800-1300 mg/1 (CaCO3)
         phosphorous 2-4 mg/1

Source:  A. D. Little, Inc., data

The chemical species which make up the BOD, COD,  and  suspended  solids
fractions  are  not  well  characterized;  even less quantified are such
other unacceptable characteristics  of  the  effluent  as  color,  foam,
nutrients, salts, bioactive agents, and other refractory organics.

In some cases, advanced treatment systems have been tried out on textile
wastes  and  their effectiveness in dealing with these various pollutant
parameters has been assessed.  In other cases it is necessary to predict
their usefulness to the textile  industry  from  experience  with  other
similar  waste  streams  or  by an understanding of the physico-chemical
principles involved.  In most cases, pilot plant work must be  done  be-
fore  the  effectiveness  or cost of advanced treatment processes can be
predicted with any confidence for a specific waste stream.

In the past, many advanced processes have been rejected for use  in  the
textile  and  other  industries after some experimentation.  However, as
pressure  increases  to  achieve  maximum  pollution  control  of  waste
streams, some of the criteria previously used to evaluate methods may no
longer apply.

We  have  grouped  the  processes  under  consideration according to the
overall chemical or physical mechanism of their operation:
                                  95

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DRAFT
         1.  phase change
         2.  membrane separations
         3.  sorption
         4.  chemical precipitation

This section describes  their  general  nature,  experience  with  their
application  to  waste  water treatment in general, and to textile waste
water in particular  (if any).  (Cost factors are  discussed  in  Chapter
VIII.)

Figure  VII-1  shows the general schematic for a textile waste treatment
process
utilizing advanced treatment.  Chemical clarifaction  removes  suspended
solids,  much  of  the  residual  COD,  some  residual BOOS, and certain
elements  of  color—particularly  dispersed  dyes.    Sand   filtration
polishes  the  clarifier  supernatant  liquor  prior to activated carbon
absorption which removes more COD, BOD5, other  color  elements  of  the
waste  stream  and  certain refractory organics such as phenol.  At this
stage,  the  waste  stream  should  contain  acceptable  levels  of  all
components   except   dissolved  solids;  ion  exchange  removes  these.
Disinfection with chlorine may be required as a final step.

Other advanced treatment methods may replace one or more of the  process
steps described.  Reverse osmosis removes trace organics—BODS and COD—
, color, and dissolved solids and may replace activated carbon treatment
and  ion  exchange.   Distillation  or freezing may replace all tertiary
treatment steps except possibly for chemical clarification  for  certain
waste streams.  Electrodialysis is a substitute for ion exchange.

         Distillation   Multistage  Flash.  The  multistage  flash  (MSF
process  consists  essentially  of  pumping  hot  salt,   brackish,   or
contaminated  water through suitable nozzles into a chamber in which the
temperature and pressure are lower than that of the water itself.   Part
of  the  water  flashes  off  instantly  as  steam  which passes through
demisters to remove entrained droplets of impurities  and  condenses  on
tubing cooled by entering feed water.  The distilled water drops off the
tubes into a trough and is collected as the product water.

In  order  to  improve the efficiency of the process and recover most of
the heat energy a multi-stage system is preferred in  which  the  latent
heat  from  the  condensation  of  the steam produced in the evaporation
chamber is used to preheat the cooler feed water flowing in the  conden-
ser tubes counter current to the brine in the flash chambers.  Thus, the
chief  thermal energy requirement is that needed to raise the feed water
                                  96

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                                                                                                                                 c-
                                                                                                                                 o-
 PROCESS
 REMOVES:
ALTERNATE


PROCESSES:
PRIMARY TREATMENT



Sludge
Suspended Solids
SECONDARY TREATMENT

TERTIARY TREATMENT
Gaseous
Products
4
Activated f narifipr l_jj Chemical Sand Activated fc Ion _ rhiorinarinn
•* Sludge *[ Clarifier hM Clarification * Filtration * Carbon * Exchange * Chlor.nation
Y
Sludge
1. BODS
2. Some Color
3. Some COD
Sludge Sludge Brine
1. Suspended Solids 1. COD 1. Dissolved 1. Disinfection
2. COD 2. Some BODS Solids
3. Some BOD5 3. Some Color
4. Some Color 4. Organics Such as
Phenol
Reverse
Osmosis

Distillation
or Freezing

_

                                                FIGURE VII-1  TEXTILE WASTE TREATMENT

                                                       USING ADVANCED TREATMENT

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DRAFT
from ambient temperatures to the  temperature  of  the  outgoing  brine.
Figure VII-2 shows a simplified flow diagram of two major types
of  MSF  plants:  once-through  and  recirculation.  In a single-purpose
plant the steam needed to heat the  brine  is  supplied  by  a  separate
boiler  designed  particularly  for  the  water  plant.  In dual purpose
units, the steam for heating the brine is obtained from the  lowpressure
side  of  an  electric  power  plant  steam  turbine  which  operates in
conjunction with the water plant.  This permits certain fuel cost econo-
mies  but  requires   coordinated   operation   of   the   two   plants.
Recirculation  of the brine improves thermal efficiency considerably and
all modern MSF plants are of this design.

In a cross-tube plant, the condenser tubes are placed at right angles to
the flow of brine in the flash chambers;  consequently,  the  individual
tubes  are  shorter  than  in  a  plant  where  the condensing tubes are
installed through the flash stages in the direction of brine  flow.   In
recent  years,  however, the long-tube plant has become more popular and
condenser tubes as long as 105 feet have been employed.   Plant  designs
using  tubes  up  to 360 feet have been proposed but the difficulties in
transportation or fabrication at the site have discouraged their use.

Two types of feed water treatment are generally employed to reduce scale
formation.  Frequently a proprietary  material  is  used,  containing  a
polyphosphate  or  polyelectrolyte as the active ingredient.  These com-
pounds do not prevent scale from forming but rather modify its character
so that it may be easily washed out or dissolved by weak acids  periodi-
cally.   Often acid treatment is used, with sulfuric acid generally pre-
ferred.  The acid is added continuously to the feed water  in  small  a-
mounts  to  reduce  the pH below 7 and decompose the carbonate compounds
that cause hard scaling in the tubes and flash chambers.  In many of the
units using acid, the carbon dioxide released by the acid is removed  in
a  separate  decarbonator  placed  in  the  feed water circuit after the
reject stages.  Otherwise the carbon dioxide is removed with  the  other
dissolved  gases  by the steam jet deaerator.  In modern units steam jet
deaerators are used to dearate the  flash  chambers  and  to  produce  a
vacuum.

         Vertical  tube  distillation.   The  vertical  tube  evaporator
 (VTE), a long-tube vertical distillation type  of  desalting  plant,  is
second  only  to  MSF  type plants in the total volume of water produced
worldwide.  The Desalting Plants Inventory Report No. 2 published by OSW
lists 96 VTE plants with a combined capacity of 206,000 cu  m/day  (54.4
mgd)  as  compared  with  229 MSF plants which produced 554,000 cu m/day
 (146.3 mgd) .

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DRAFT
                Steam
           Brine
           Heater
              Condenute
                               To Atmoiphere
                                          Air Ejector
                                                  Steam
                                                                   Stage
                                                             Cooling
                                                            Seawaicr
                                                             Intake
                                                                   Bfinc
                                                                  Discharge
                               A. Croc Tube — Once Through - Plant
                Steam
            Brine
            Hciter
                        To Atmosphere
                            1    Air Fjoclor

                            I	pT"l—' St
                                                           Coolin
              Compensate
   Out
Acid and/or Sole
Prevention Treatment
                           B. Long Tube • Re«irrul,itioii - Acid Treatment - Plant
                             FIGURE  VII-2   SIMPLIFIED FLOW DIAGRAM
                             OF TOO  TYPES OF SINGLE EFFECT MULTI-
                             STAGE FLASH DISTILLATION PLANTS

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DRAFT
In the climbing-film vertical evaporator, -the most  common  design,  the
brine  is maintained at a predetermined level insidetthe vertical tubes,
which are heated externally by the incoming steam in the first effect or
by the hot product vapors in subsequent effects.   (See  Figure  VII-3.)
This
is  in  direct contrast to a submerged tube type of unit where the steam
is inside and the boiling brine is outside the tubes.  The  vapors  from
the  boiling  brine  rise in the vertical tubes into a vapor chamber and
are led from there into the vertical tube heat  exchanger  in  the  next
effect  where  the  heat  is  given up to the brine circulating in these
tubes.

The resulting fresh water condensed on the outside of the tubes  is  re-
moved  and  combined with product from the subsequent effects.  The com-
bined product is cooled in a final condenser with feed water.   The  in-
coming  feed  water  is  fed  into the first effect and the concentrated
brine flows in the same direction as the  vapors.   The  brine  in  each
effect circulates either by natural temperature differences or by forced
circulation.

In  another modification, known as the thermal recompression evaporator,
part of the vapors from the last effect are entrained and compressed  by
expanded  live steam from the boiler.  The resulting mixture becomes the
heating medium for  the  first  effect.   This  scheme  is  particularly
advantageous  where high-pressure steam is available as a source of heat
and it can be used in conjunction  with  a  single  or  multiple  effect
vertical-tube evaporator.

         Relevance  of distillation^ processed to,textile waste treatment
The wastewaters from the textile industry may  have  a  moderately  high
concentration of organic chemicals in comparison with the concentrations
in  brackish  or  saline  waters.   Because  organic  chemicals may have
appreciable vapor pressures at the temperatures of evaporation, vapor  -
liquid  equilibrium  relationships  will determine whether these organic
pollutants  can  be  removed  successfully  by  evaporation.   The  more
volatile  species  could  easily  appear  in the condensate where only a
small fraction of the total water has  been  evaporated.   In  addition,
wastewater { could  be  distilled to produce a highly concentrated stream
containing the pollutants.  Therefore, removing a large fraction of  the
total  water  will  accentuate  the steam distillation effect and remove
more organic chemicals, since the amount obtained in the vapor phase  is
a  function of the concentration in the liquid phase.  Consequently, the
application of  distillation  (evaporation)   to  wastewaters  demands  a
thorough  knowledge  of  the  physical  chemistry  of these wastewaters,
especially vapor-liquid equilibria, and the subsequent determination  of
                                  100

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DRAFT
    StIMITI 111
                                                                 Coo liny
                                                                 Water In
             Feed In
                                                                   W;itci Out
                                                                  Hrc'.h W.iter
                                                      lit \i\K to W.r.tO
                    FIGURE VII-3   SIMPLIFIED PROCESS FLOW
                       DIAGRAM, CLIMBING  FILM, VERTICAL TUBE
                       EVAPORATOR
                                   101

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DRAFT
the  quality of the condensate acceptable for reuse since the condensate
presumably would not be disposed of to receiving waters.

In  some  instances,  it  might  be  necessary   to   treat   wastewater
biologically  by  activated carbon adsorption to insure adequate removal
of organic species.  Therefore, a thorough consideration of  the  entire
process  chemistry  will  be  required  before one can determine whether
evaporation  can  be  successfully  applied  to  wastewaters  containing
biologically  active carbonaceous substances.  If the wastewater streams
contain very low concentration of organics and  high  concentrations  of
dissolved  inorganic  salts,  the  applicability  of evaporation is more
readily predicted, being essentially an evaluation of economics.

Evaporation  equipment   is   available;   whether   it   will   operate
satisfactorily  on  wastewater  streams  that  contain  high  levels  of
carbonaceous substances is a moot point.  For example, the deposition of
carbonaceous substances on heat transfer surfaces or the  occurrence  of
foaming  could be severe deterrents to the applicability of evaporation.
Carryover of mists,  in  addition  to  the  steam  distillation  effects
discussed  earlier,  could reduce significantly the quality of the water
produced.  In many  instances,  it  would  be  necessary  to  limit  the
fraction of the total wastewater stream evaporated so that concentration
levels in the evaporation system will insure operability.

As  with most tertiary treatment methods, there would remain the problem
of final disposition of the concentrated contaminated waste stream.

Freezing Technigues

         Description.  It has long been recognized that  individual  ice
crystals  formed  in  chilled  impure  water are composed of pure water.
Much effort has therefore  gone  toward  the  development  of  practical
processes  to  take advantage of this phenomenon for the desalination or
purification of water.  Attention is presently centered on two types  of
equipment.  (5.2)

The  vacuum  freeze vapor compression (VFVC) system has the longest his-
tory.  In this type of device, feed water is chilled and  exposed  to  a
slight  vacuum.   Some  of the water vaporizes and the resulting loss of
heat of vaporization causes ice crystals to  form  in  the  system.   In
other words, the feed water boils and freezes simultaneously.

The  ice  crystals are separated mechanically from the brine by means of
sieyes and scrapers and transferred to melting chambers.   At  the  same
time  the  water  vapor formed during the boiling-freezing stage is com-
                                  102

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DRAFT
pressed and introduced also to the melting chamber, where  it  condenses
on  the  ice crystals.  In practice the system is more complicated, with
particular care being required to wash the ice crystals free  from  feed
water and to maintain the correct temperatures and pressures throughout.

The second type of design employs as the vaporizing constituent a secon-
dary  refrigerant  which  is insoluble in water.  Usually, liquid butane
under pressure is bubbled through the feed water, vaporizing,  expanding
and  causing  ice crystals to form.  As in the vacuum freeze system, the
crystals are then separated mechanically and washed  by  liquid  butane.
The  secondary  refrigerant  system has the advantage that the equipment
operates at higher pressures and smaller volumes of  gas  (butane),  re-
sulting in less expensive and more reliable pumps and compressors.

         Experiences  outside  the  textile  industry.  A few small VFVC
plants have been erected in this country and abroad for desalination  of
seawater, but have not had enough service to develop useful histories.

Their  principal  advantage  appears  to  be  that  they  are relatively
insensitive to the nature of  the  chemicals  in  the  feed  water  and,
because  they  operate  at  low  temperatures,  resist  the  scaling and
corrosion problems which plague most other types of  plants.   None  has
been  used  for waste water treatment.  The secondary refrigerant system
is still in the pilot plant stage of development.

         Experiences within  the  textileindustry.   Neither  type  of
freezing  plant  has  been  used in the textile industry for waste water
treatment.

         Applicability.  Waste water  treatment  by  freezing  might  be
attractive  to  the  textile  industry  because of its tolerance of high
levels of salts, organics, suspended solids and other materials  in  the
feed  water.   It  can  be operated at brine-to-product ratios as low as
about 0.02, and brine concentrations as high as 60,000 mg/1 TDS.   This,
of  course,  considerably reduces the cost of ultimate brine evaporation
or disposal.  Unfortunately,  there  is  insufficient  service  data  to
permit firm calculation of maintenance costs and reliability.

         Membrane Processes

         Introduction.   Within  the  past  5  to  10 years, a number of
synthetic semi-permeable membranes with controlled permeation properties
to salts and macromolecules have become available  in  quantity.   These
have  made  possible  a  number of novel waste treatment processes which
were previously laboratory curiosities.  In this section we  discusstthe
                                  103

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DRAFT
application  of  three  membrane  processes  to  waste  treatment and to
textile wastes in particular:   electrodialysis,  reverse  osmosis,  and
ultrafiltration.

Electrodialysis  relies  upon  membranes  which  are permeable to either
cations or anions, and  impermeable  to  the  oppositely  charged  ions.
Salts  are  removed from solution under the action of an electric field.
Reverse osmosis, conversely, relies upon membranes which  are  permeable
only  to  water,  and  impermeable  to salts.  Water travels through the
membrane under the action of a hydraulic  pressure  gradient,  rejecting
salt.   Ultrafiltration  differs  from  these two processes, in that the
membrane is permeable to both salt and water, but not to  macromolecules
or  suspended  solids.   Salt and water pass through the ultrafiltration
membrane under  a  pressure  driving  force,  while  macromolecules  and
colloids are held back.

Despite  the  differences  in the basic principles, these three membrane
processes have one important trait in common:  at the completion of  the
process  the original waste stream is split into two components, a high-
volume purified stream, and a low-volume waste  stream  containing  high
concentrations  of  the original contaminants.  At some point, this con-
centrate must be removed from the membrane process, evaporated and  dis-
posed  of.   The  exact  concentration  factor  at which the concentrate
stream is removed depends upon the balance between the further  cost  of
the  membrane  process  and  the  cost of evaporating this small volume.
This tradeoff must ultimately be considered in the final  evaluation  of
the cost of the membrane processes for treatment of textil  wastes.

The  following  sub-sections discuss each of these membrane processes in
some technical detail, and their applicability to textile plant  wastes.
In most cases, very little direct data on the treatment of such wastes
by  membrane processes is available.  Their applicability must be extra-
polated from their use in related processes.

         General Description.  Reverse osmosis for desalinization of sea
water and brackish water has been under  extensive  investigation  since
the  discovery in the early 1960fs of high flux membranes capable of re-
jecting salts (VII5.3).  Much of the research and development  work  was
funded  by  the  Office  of  Saline Water, with a view toward recovering
potable water from sea water.  Although this  aim  still  has  not  been
fully  attained at prices competitive with other processes such as flash
distillation,  improved  technology  arising  from  these  programs  and
increased   commercial   interest   has   resulted  in  some  successful
utilization of reverse osmosis  for  removal  of  dissolved  salts  from
industrial waste streams.
                                  101

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DRAFT
The process of reverse osmosis (Figure VII-a)  relies upon the ability of
certain  specialized  polymeric  membranes (usually cellulose acetate or
nylon) to pass pure water at fairly high rates and to reject salts  when
saline  feed  streams  are passed at high pressures over the surfaces of
the membranes.  The applied hydraulic pressures must be high  enough  to
overcome  the osmotic pressure of the saline feed stream, and to provide
a pressure driving force for water to flow from the saline  compartment,
through  the  membrane,  into  the fresh water compartment.  The cost of
recovering clean water increases with increasing salinity  of  the  feed
stream.    (This  principle  must  be  explicitly  considered  when  the
economics of salt removal from waste streams  is  calculated:   at  some
point  the  stream  will  become  sufficiently  concentrated  to make it
cheaper to  evaporate  the  residual  brine  than  to  continue  reverse
osmosis.)

Figure VII-5 shows a schematic flow diagram of a typical reverse osmosis
system.   Feedwater  is  pumped through a pretreatment section which re-
moves suspended solids  (by screening  and  cartridge  filters)   and,  if
necessary  ions  such  as  iron and magnesium which may foul the system.
The feedwater is then pressurized and sent through the  reverse  osmosis
modules.   Fresh water permeates through the membrane under the pressure
driving force, emerging at atmospheric pressure.  The  pressure  of  the
concentrated  brine discharge stream is reduced by a power recovery tur-
bine, which helps drive the high pressure pump, and then is discharged.

The design of the modules containing the reverse  osmosis  membranes  is
crucial  to the efficient operation of the process.  As salt is rejected
by the membranes, it concentrates at the membrane surface and results in
a situation known as "concentration polarization," where the salinity at
the membrane surface  is  many  times  higher  than  in  the  bulk  feed
solution.   Since  the  driving force for water transport decreases with
increasing osmotic  pressure  at  the  membrane  surfacs,  concentration
polarization can have a very deleterious effect on water flux.

Concentration  polarization  can be minimized by high fluid shear at the
membrane surface to aid the back-transport of polarized  salt  into  the
bulk  of  the  process stream.  This is accomplished by flowing the feed
stream at high velocities in thin channels (laminar shear)  or  in  wide
channels to produce turbulence (VII 5.7).

Three types of reverse osmosis configurations are currently popular (VII
5.8).   The first, known as the "spiral wound" configuration, uses flat-
sheet cellulose acetate membranes wound in a spiral to produce a  multi-
tude  of  thin  channels  through  which the feed water flows under high
laminar shear.  This configuration is inexpensive, produces  high  water
                                  105

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DRAFT
                      Soutt*. Saiiiloitl f\tvmt\. I
                    FIGURE VI1-4   PRINCIPLE OF REVERSE
                                    OSMOSIS
                             106

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DRAFT
                                  I   L
                             i±=
                                              	_^ Pi ttU-i
                   FIGURE VII-5  SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF
                     THE REVERSE OSMOSIS PROCESS
                              107

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DRAFT
fluxes,  and  consequently  efficient  use  of membrane area.  Its major
difficulty is that the resulting thin channels become easily fouled  and
plugged,  so  a  process  stream must have a very low level of suspended
solids.

The second configuration uses tubular  cellulose  acetate  membranes  to
bring about turbulent flow and overcome concentration polarization.  The
membrane is formed into a tube—with an inside diameter of about 1 inch,
and  the "active"  (salt rejecting) face of the membrane on the inside of
the  tube—through  which  the  feed  stream  is  recirculated  at  high
turbulent  speeds.   Membrane  utilization is not as efficient as in the
spiral  wound  configuration,  but  there  is  less  trouble  with  flow
distribution,  fouling  and  plugging.   This  system  can handle highly
contaminated wastes with high concentrations of suspended solids.

Finally, a reverse osmosis system using  a  multitude  of  hollow  nylon
fibers  has  shown  considerable utility on commercial waste streams.  A
bundle of fibers, with the "active" side of the nylon membranes  on  the
exterior of the fibers, is encased in a module.  Feed water is passed at
high  velocities  between  the fibers, and fresh product water permeates
into the interior lumens of the fibers from where it is collected.  This
configuration results in rather low utilization of  membrane  area,  but
since the cost per unit area of the membranes is considerably lower than
the  cost of the cellulose acetate membranes, the ultimate cost of water
recovery  is  competitive  for  low   salinity   feed   streams.    This
configuration,  like  the  spiral  wound  one,  is highly susceptible to
fouling by suspended solids, and requires thorough pre-treatment of  the
feed stream.

         Application  to  Textile  Wastes.  The major application of re-
verse osmosis to textile wastes would appear to be in  removal  of  salt
from  secondary  sewage plant effluent.  The technology appears adequate
to reduce the effluent salts to potable levels  (less  than  200  mg/1).
The   process  should  also  result  in  excellent  color  removal,  and
substantial removal of residual  BOD  and  COD.   The  major  limitation
appears  to  be  cost:   for  large  plants,  19,000 cu m/day (5 mgd) or
greater, costs are 13 to 190/1000 liters (50 to 75
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DRAFT
Grease and oil in the feed  may  also  retard  fluxes  to  some  degree,
although  this  effect  reportedly  is  not  as  great  in  the  tubular
configurations.    Additional   constraints   are   imposed    by    the
susceptibility  of  the  membranes  to  chemical  attack.  The cellulose
acetate membranes used in the spiral wound  and  tubular  configurations
can be used only between pH 5 and 9.  Thus alkaline streams will need to
be  neutralized.   Nylon hollow fibers have been used on streams with pH
between U and 11, making these membranes more acceptable for non-neutral
wastes.  In addition to treatment of secondary sewage effluent,  reverse
osmosis  has  been  considered  for  a  number  of other applications in
textile wastes.   An  experimental  hollow-fiber  reverse-osmosis  pilot
plant operates on the total waste stream from a textile plant  (VII 5.9).
This  system, which requires extensive prefiltration of the feed stream,
has allowed 80% recovery of the product water, with good color  removal.
Data  on  flux rates, cost, or longevity is inadequate to extrapolate to
the ultimate utility of the process.  It is expected that flux  decline,
because  of  suspended  solids,  may  be  a  problem, and COD may not be
removed adequately.

Another potential application of reverse osmosis is recovery  of  sizing
materials.  Carboxymethylcellulose  (CMC) and polyvinylalcohol  (PVA) will
both  be retained at great efficiency by reverse osmosis, allowing these
sizing materials to be concentrated for reuse.  The savings  from  reuse
of  these  sizing streams may offset the costs of the smaller plants re-
quired to process just the sizing waste streams.

         yitrafiltration.

         General description.  Ultrafiltration  is  similar  to  reverse
osmosis  in  that  it  relies on the permeation of water through a semi-
permeable membrane under a hydraulic driving pressure.  The  distinction
between reverse osmosis and Ultrafiltration lies primarily in the reten-
tion  properties of the membranes:  reverse osmosis membranes retain all
solutes, including salts, while Ultrafiltration  membranes  retain  only
macromolecules  and  suspended  solids.   Thus  salts, solvents, and low
molecular weight organic solutes pass through Ultrafiltration  membranes
with  the permeant water.  Since salts are not retained by the membrane,
the osmotic pressure differences across  Ultrafiltration  membranes  are
negligible.   Flux  rates through the membranes usually are fairly high,
and hence lower pressures can be used  than  are  practical  in  reverse
osmosis.   Typical pressure driving forces for Ultrafiltration are 20 to
100 psi.

nitrafiltration processes face problems  of  concentration  polarization
similar  to  those  encountered in reverse osmosis.  However, instead of
                                  109

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DRAFT
salts concentrating at  the  membranes  surface,  causing  high  osmotic
pressures,  the  concentrating  species  are  usually  macromolecules or
colloidal suspended solids which cause a "filter cake*1 to form atop  the
ultrafiltration  membrane,  with  a  subsequent decline in product water
flux rates.  As with  reverse  osmosis,  concentration  polarization  is
minimized  by high fluid shear rates or turbulent flow.  Membrane module
designs to minimize concentration  polarization  include  thin  channels
tubular  designs  for  turbulent  flow,  and  hollow fiber designs.  The
latter have the "active" side of the  membrane  on  the  inside  of  the
fibers,   with   permeant   water  collected  from  inter-fiber  spaces.
Membranes may be made from cellulose acetate, polyelectrolyte complexes,
nylon, or a variety of inert polymers.  Hence, highly acidic or  caustic
streams  may  be  processed,  and  the process is not usually limited by
chemical attack of the membranes. (VII 5.10)

         Applications of  Ultrafiltration.   Because  of  costs,  ultra-
filtration  has  been  used  only when: (1) product water must be of ex-
tremely high quality, completely sterile and colloid-free;  or  (2)  the
waste  stream  contains a contaminant of value which may be recovered by
ultrafiltration.  Illustrative current uses include:

    (1) Production of colloid7free water forpharmaceutical use.  Ultra-
    filtration is used to remove colloids and suspended matter from  tap
    water.   (The  water  is  also  subjected  to ion exchange to remove
    salts.)  Costs for ultrafiltration  are  estimated  to  be  14*/1000
    liters  for  a  190  cu  m/day plant (54*/1000 gallons for a 50,000-
    gallon/day plant.)

    (2) Recoyery of e1ectrodeposition paint from wa ste str eams.  This is
    one  of  the  two  or  three  major   industrial   applications   of
    ultrafiltration.   Electrodeposition  plants  produce a dilute waste
    that contains a significant quantity of colloidal  electrodeposition
    paints and associated salts.  Ultrafiltration concentrates the paint
    for  reuse,  while  the permeant water can be reused as rinse water.
    Pollution is reduced considerably, and the saving in paints adds  up
    to  30  per cent, allowing the cost of the ultrafiltration system to
    be completely amortized (VII 5.11).

    (3) Recovery of whey protein and ^lactose.   Whey  from  cheese  fac-
    tories  has  been  a  major pollutant of streams in cheese producing
    areas.  Cheese whey contains an extremely high  level  of  dissolved
    inorganics  (up to 10,000 mg/1 salts) and a very high BOD (U per cent
    lactose  sugar,  0.5  per  cent  protein,  typically.)  With present
    legislation, it is no longer possible to dispose of  untreated  whey
    by dumping into rivers, and the quantity and high BOD of the streams
                                  110

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DRAFT
    place   a   considerable   load   on   municipal   sewage   systems.
    Ultrafiltration has been used to concentrate and remove  the  sugars
    and  salts from the protein in whey streams, resulting in a valuable
    by-product (VII 5.12).  The lactose can then  be  crystallized  out,
    and  reverse  osmosis  used  to  desalt  the  remaining water.  This
    process has now moved from a pilot plant operation  (funded  by  the
    EPA  and USDA) to successful commercial operation in several dairies
    (VII 5.9) .

         Application of Ultrafiltration to Textile Waste Streams.  Since
Ultrafiltration does not remove salts and low molecular  weight  organic
compounds such as dissolved dyes, its utility in textile waste treatment
would appear to be limited.

Concentration  and  recovery  of disperse dyes by Ultrafiltration may be
feasible, but this will by practical only where a single color is in the
waste stream, so that the dye may be reused.  Concentration of polymeric
cotton sizing materials (PVA and CMC) is technically feasible since  the
UF  membranes will retain the polymers and pass the polymerfree water at
reasonable fluxes (VII 5.9).   An  experimental  system  at  the  J,  P.
Stevens plant is being used to test the feasibility of PVA concentration
by  Ultrafiltration,  with  the  ultimate  aim  of  re-using  the sizing
polymer.  The membrane in this system is a new experimental "dynamically
formed" membrane based on deposition of organic  surfactants  on  porous
carbon,  but  the  process  should  be  feasible on more conventional UF
membranes at a cost of 13* to 260 per 1000  liters  (50*  to  $1.00  per
thousand gallons) of water removed.

         El.ectr.Qdialv.sis

         Description.   The  production  of  potable water from brackish
waters by electrodialysis is a mature desalting process.   Economically,
the  process  is  usually  limited to feed waters having total dissolved
solids up to 10,000 mg/1 and more commonly it treats waters with 1000 to
2000 mg/1 solids.  It is not practical to reduce the total solids in the
produce water to a few mg/1 as is done in distillation plants; about 200
mg/1 is the highest purity attainable in a practical plant.

The general principles of electrodialysis are as follows.   The  process
involves  the  separation  of a given flow of water containing dissolved
and ionized solutes into two streams, one more concentrated and one more
dilute than the original, by specially synthesized  semi-permeable  mem-
branes.   Some  ion  exchange  membranes  are permeable only to cations;
thus, only positive ions will migrate through them under  the  influence
                                  111

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DRAFT
of  an electric  field.  Other ion exchange membranes, permeable only to
anions, will permit migration of negative ions only.

In electrodialysis, water is fed, usually in parallel, into the compart-
ments formed by the spaces  between  alternating  cation  permeable  and
anion  permeable membranes held in a stack.  At each end of the stack is
an electrode having the same area as the  membranes.   A  d-c  potential
applied  across  the  stack  causes  the  positive  and negative ions to
migrate in opposite  directions.   Because  of  the  properties  of  the
membranes,  a  given ion will either migrate to the adjacent compartment
or be confined to its original compartment, depending on whether or  not
the first membrane it encounters is permeable to it.  As a result, salts
are  concentrated  or diluted in alternate compartments.  The process is
shown diagrammatically in Figure VII-6 (VII 5.1).
                                  112

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DRAFT
To achieve high throughput, the electrodialysis cells  in  practice  are
made  very  thin and assembled in stacks of cells in series.  Each stack
consists of more than 100 cells.  Feed water is first filtered to remove
suspended particulate matter which could clog the  system  or  foul  the
membrane  and, if required, is given an ion exchange treatment to remove
oxidizing materials such as ferrous or manganous ions which would damage
the membranes.  Very high organic  levels  may  also  lead  to  membrane
fouling.   The  catholyte stream is commonly acidified to offset the in-
crease in pH which would normally occur within the cell,  and  an  anti-
scaling  additive  may  be required as well.  An operating plant usually
contains many recirculation, feedback and control  loops  and  pumps  to
optimize  the  concentrations  and  pH's  at  different  points and thus
maximize the overall efficiency.  A typical electrodialysis  flow  sheet
is shown in Figure VI1-7.

         Experience  Outside  the Textile Industry.  Electrodialysis has
been used successfully for more than a decade to convert brackish (2000-
5000 mg/1 TDS) water to potable water ( 500 mg/1 TDS).  While this  does
not represent a waste water treatment application per se, it can provide
useful  reliability  and  cost  data from the some 150 plants which have
been built.

Electrodialysis has also been used  successfully  to  demineralize  milk
products  (whey)  for  a  number of years and has been employed in a few
cases by the chemical process industry where it is necessary  to  remove
ionized  mineral  constituents  from process streams (VII 5.13).  It has
not been used for treatment of any conventional secondary effluent.

         Experience Within the Textile  Industry.   Electrodialysis  has
not  been  used  to  treat textile plant wastes.  Some efforts have been
made by Ionics, Inc., to investigate its use  in  dye  removal.    Unfor-
tunately,  because  of  their large molecular size, dye materials do not
traverse the membranes readily.  There may be some possibility of  using
electrodialysis  to  remove dissolved salts from dye solutions,  but this
has not yet been demonstrated.

         Applicability.  The mechanism of  the  electrodialysis  process
limits  it  to  the removal of relatively small, mobile, ionized consti-
tuents from the waste stream.  Sodium, potassium, chlorides and sulfates
readily pass through the  membranes.   Larger  ions,  and  those  doubly
charged,  such as phosphate, calcium or barium, have limited mobility in
the membranes and tend to remain in the feed stream.  There may be  some
incidental  transport  of  small  dissolved  organic species through the
membranes but it is not significant.
                                  113

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                  Cathode
Q
              Feed Water
                                                    CP
                  AP
                                                         V

                                                          cr/
                                                         ©
CP
                       V
                                                         V
                                                     Dilute
                                                    Stream
                                                  (Product)
                        Concentrate
                        Stream
                        ("Waste)
FIGURE VII-6   DIAGRAMMATIC
   REPRESENTATION OF ELECTRODIAL YSIS
                                                                                                      Anode
               CP - Cation Permeable Membrane

               AP - Anion Permeable Membrane

               All cations in the feed water show
               the same behavior as sodium (Na+),
               and all anions the same behavior as
               chloride (C1-).

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                                S3IHHS NI S5IDVIS N HUM INVld
                         SISA
           Feed
           Purr.p
                                                          Dilute Bypass
       +v
        Dilute Booster
Brine
booster
                     _>_ _. _

                                X^-^     O ' .- I. e D .

                                 [ Kl_e_--t r-jd'-- ".-!s :
                           Cathode Hi c- Iroivtt-
                                      Krir.-? HC'-i ri ulation
|Anti-Scale
'Additive
      Anti-scale
                                       Dilute
                                       A< id
                                                                                                 o
                                                                                              Produc
                                                                                               PUIDD
Product
U'a t e r
,G
                                                                               Stai-k
                                                                                .'/ n
                                                                                Dep.as-
                                                                                sifier
                                                                                   Sumps
                                                                                                 Tl

-------
DRAFT
Suspended solids in the feed stream are undesirable.  They may erode the
membranes, plug the small  tortuous  pathways  through  which  the  feed
flows, and foul the membrane surfaces.  High levels of organic materials
must be avoided as they may attack the membranes (frequently polystyrene
based)  or lead to surface fouling.  Thus feed water to the plant should
have a low BOD and COD and these will not be  substantially  changed  by
the process.

If  strongly  alkaline,  the feed stream must be neutralized or rendered
slightly acidic to prevent degradation  of  the  anion  membrane,  which
usually  contains quaternary ammonium groups.  Iron and manganese in the
feed water must be removed if their  total  concentration  in  the  feed
water is greater than about 0.3 mg/1.

Calcium  sulfate  scale can also accumulate if the calcium concentration
in the brine goes above about 400  mg/1.   Addition  of  a  sequestering
agent  to  the feed permits operation to a higher concentration, but not
above about 900 mg/1.  For this reason,  the  brine  rarely  constitutes
less than 10 to 15 percent of the feed water volume (VII 5.6).

As   the  purity  of  the  product  water  increases,  its  electrolytic
conductivity decreases.  This higher resistance  makes  it  increasingly
less  efficient to remove the remaining salt.  In addition each stack of
cells in series reduces the salt concentrations by a more or less  fixed
percentage.  Thus the equipment necessary to remove 250 mg/1 salt from a
500  mg/1 stream is comparable to that required to remove 2500 mg/1 from
a 5000 mg/1 stream.  For these reasons, most plants today do not produce
produce water at less than 500 mg/1 and very few operate as low  as  200
mg/1.

         sorption systems

         Introduction.  This group of advanced waste treatment processes
is  concerned  with methods in which the waste water is contacted with a
material which sorbs components of the water.  The material  is  usually
regenerated  and  the  sorbed  material  ejected  into a gaseous or more
concentrated liquid waste stream (Figure VII-8) .  The concentrated
liquid  waste  stream  is  normally  converted  to  a  solid  waste   by
evaporation.   Such processes include adsorption on activated carbon and
ion exchange.

         Treatment by Activated Carbon

         Physical  Principles.   Activated  carbon  is  a   commercially
available  and  particularly  versatile  absorbent  (VII 5.14) primarily
                                  116

-------
Waste
Water
generated
rbent
Make

up
Sorbent
Water Sorbent
Contactor


Sorbent
Regeneration
Regeneration 1 [_Heatfo
Reagent Stream i ' Regener
Purified
Waste
Water
Spent
Sorbent
Gaseous Waste
^ 	 ,-x"^

Concentrated _ .
Waste Stream " Trc°tment D.sposable ^
of Waste Stream Waste Product
(Usually Solid
r
ation
Sorbent
Purge or
Losses
VII-8    SCHEMATIC OF SORPTION PROCESS
   FOR WASTE TREATMENT

-------
DRAFT
because of its relatively low cost (22 to 110*/kg or 10 to  50*/lb)  and
large  surface  area   (about  112 lectares per kilogram or 126 acres per
pound)  which relates directly to its capacity for adsorbed material (0.7
to 0.9 kilograms of adsorbed material per kilogram of carbon).

The most popular form of activated carbon  is  the  granular,  which  is
easily handled, deposits the minimum of fines into the water stream, and
may  be  regenerated by heat (or in specialized applications by chemical
streams)  with less  than  10%  loss  per  cycle  (VII  5.15).   However,
attempts  are  being  made to develop techniques for the use of powdered
carbon (VII 5.16), which is considerably less expensive (about 22*/kg or
100/lb) than granular carbon (66*/kg or 30*/lb)  but which  is  difficult
to separate efficiently from the waste water and regenerate.

Activated  carbon,  while  acting  largely as a general absorbent, shows
some selectivity (VII 5.17) :

         Strongly Absorbed                   Weakly absorbed

         weak electrolytes                   strong electrolytes
         sparingly soluble materials         very soluble materials
         high molecular wt. compounds        low molecular wt. compounds

The amount of a given material absorbed is a function of its chemical
nature, the amount in solution, the pH and the temperature.  To a first
approximation, adsorption follows a characteristic Freundlic  type iso-
therm.

                  x/M = kCl/n

where:  x is the amount of material adsorbed
        M is the weight of adsorbent
        C is the remaining concentration of desorbed material
        k and n are constants that depend on the adsorbent, pH and
            temperature

Typical adsorption capacities of activated carbon at different  residual
COD levels are illustrated in Figure VII-9.

         Process  Design.  Several types of water carbon contactors have
been proposed and  utilized.   These  are  summarized  schematically  in
Figure  VII-10.   Usually  one  or  more fixed bed columns are linked in
parallel Carbon capacity is utilized more efficiently by placing several
fixed bed columns in series, the spent upstream  column  being  replaced
                                  118

-------
DRAFT
with  a  regenerated  column  at  the downstream side as appropriate.  A
recent, more efficient development is the use of moving bed systems.

The carbon is usually regenerated in multiple hearth furnaces;  in  some
cases,  such as in the adsorption of phenol, partial regeneration may be
achieved by chemical treatment (VII 5.18).  A schematic of  a  treatment
process including thermal regeneration is illustrated in Figure VTI-11.

The detailed design of actual plants is discussed in the next section.

         Use  of  Carbon  Absorption  in  General Applications.  The En-
vironmental Protection Agency has undertaken detailed studies of the use
of activated carbon for the tertiary treatment  of  municipal  wastes  -
primarily  at  Pomona,  California  and  Lebanon,  Ohio (VLL 5.19).  The
Pomona plant has been run for over  four  years  and  deserves  detailed
description (VII 5.20).

The plant has a capacity of 1100 cu m/day  (0.3 mgd) and is a four-stage,
fixed-bed,  granular  activated  carbon  plant.   The  general design is
illustrated in Figure VII.12.  The carbon is periodically backwashed  to
remove  entrapped suspended solids (the secondary effluent then need not
be pretreated) and  regenerated  when  necessary   (after  a  steadystate
adsorption capacity of about 0.4 to 0.5 kilograms of COD per kilogram of
carbon  has  been  reached)  in  a  vertical six-hearth furnace.  Carbon
losses averaged 8 1/2 percent per cycle.   One  complete  cycle  of  the
12,200 kilograms (26,800 pounds)  of carbon in the plant is achieved each
year of operation.

The effectiveness of the plant in improving water quality is illustrated
in Table VTI-2.
                                   119

-------
DRAFT
                    1-0
                •Dj
                t)
                •Ol
                " .
                P
                U|E
                dt
                E|
                x-x
                xlZ
                    0-1
                   0-01

                     0-1
   1-0           10-0

(C) Residual COD cone, (ppm)
                                                          100-0
                       FIGURE VII-9   COD  ISOTHERMS USING
                          VIRGIN CARBON AND DIFFERENT SECONDARY
                          SEWAGE EFFLUENTS
                       (after Masse, 1967).

-------
DRAFT
            a) Columns in Parallel
            b) Columns in Series
                        Carbon
                                   Influent
                                 Influent   Effluent
                                                  d)  Gravity Carbon/Sand Filter
                      Carbon
            c) Moving Bed Column
                        FIGURE VII-10   SCHEMATIC  OF ACTIVATED
                           CARBON WATER CONTACTING SYSTEMS
                                        tJ-t

-------
DRAFT
                    Regenerated
                      Carbon
       Influent
•*—3
                                           Carbon
                                          Columns
                                                                         Effluent
5
                                                                  Regenerated
                                                                 Carbon Storage
                                          Regenerated Carbon
                           FIGURE  VII-11   SCHEMATIC OF AN ACTIVATED
                              CARBON SYSTEM INCLUDING THERMAL
                              REGENERATION

-------
DRAFT
                                	 CHLORINATION
                                    (OPTIONAL)
                                 SECONDARY
                                 EFFLUENT
                                 STORAGE
                   TO
                 PlilMARY
                CLARirif.RS
                             ^1=3,, .,

                           f      !  1:
                           ;k      f\
-------
DRAFT
                Table VII-2 Carbon Adsorption Pilot Plant;
                Average Water Quality Characteristics
                  (June 1965 to July 1969)
               Parameter

         Suspended solids mg/1

         COD              mg/1

         Dissolved COD    mg/1

         TOC              mg/1

         Nitrate as N     mg/1

         Turbidity (Jtu)

         Color (Platinum-Cobalt)

         Odor

         CCE              mg/1

         BOD              mg/1


         Source:  Reference VII 5.20.
Influent
9
43
30
12
8.1
8.2
28
12
—
3
Effluent
0.
10
8
3
6.
1.
3
1
0.
1
6



6
2


026

                                  124

-------
DRAFT
About  75%  of the influent COD is removed, and the values of most other
parameters such as suspended solids, turbidity, color, odor, and BOD are
reduced to insignificant levels.  The effluent water had an average dis-
solved COD of 8 mg/1.

Another activated carbon plant  studied  by  the  EPA  is  part  of  the
advanced waste treatment facility at the District of Columbia's advanced
waste  treatment  facility  (VII  5.21).   Following lime precipitation,
filtration and water stabilization, the  secondary  effluent  is  passed
through five pressurized activated carbon columns in series at a rate of
190 cu m/day (50,000 gallons per day).  When the preceding clarification
was  operating  efficiently,  up to 75 percent of the TOC was removed by
the carbon adsorption system.  Problems  developed  because  the  carbon
entrapped  grease and bacterial activity produced stemies on the carbon.
(In other work, this was prevented by addition of biocides).   Anaerobic
conditions   developed  leading  to  hydrogen  sulfide  production.   In
addition, blinding,  plugging,  and  channeling  accompanied  by  severe
pressure  drops  were experienced.  The carbon had to be replaced before
saturation, at a loading of only 0.133 kilograms TOC/kilogram carbon.

Two more specialized applications of activated carbon treatment of waste
waters are worthy  of  mention.   The  first,  moving-bed,  single-stage
carbone  adsorption  unit,  was used to recondition brines used in olive
processing in the central Valley of California (VII 5.22).  The unit had
a capacity of 6.8 to 47.7 cu m/day  (1,800 to 12,600  gallons  per  day).
Its effectiveness is illustrated in Table Vli-3.


                   Table VII-3.  Brine Reconditioning
                          Influent          Effluent

         pH               U.O-U.3           U.2-8.8

         Acidity          0.3               0.02-0.39

         Color            75-100            70/5

         NaCl               5.5              5.2-5.5

         SS               200-286           16U-220

         COD              18,000            5,000-16,500
                                   125

-------
DRAFT
178
280
70
115
-
_
81.1
49. 0
81.7
47.8
99.4
99.5
In  the second exploratory studies (VII 5.18) in Conway, North Carolina,
the feasibility of using activated carbon  treatment  to  reduce  phenol
levels  and  coloration  of  a  waste stream to insignificant levels was
demonstrated.  The influent was dark red and contained 2,500 mg/1 of

                       Table VII-4

                             Dyehouse   Treatment
                            Wastewater    Plant    Reduction
                             Influent   Effluent

COD - mg/1 at 8.5 gpm ft2      945

           at 15.6 gpm/ft2     550

TOC - mg/1 at 8.5 gpm/ft2      378

           at 15.6 gpm/ft2     220

colour -   at 8.5 gpm/ft2

           at 15.6 gpm/ft2

phenol.  The carbon was regenerated by  washing  with  sodium  hydroxide
solution.  Activated carbon treatment was also used successfully at Lake
Tahoe  to produce drinkable water from secondary effluent (VII 5.23).  A
28,000 cu m/day (7.5 million gpd) unit operated at  a  cost  of  6*/1000
liters (230 per 1000 gallons).

         Experience  with the Use of Activated Carbon on Textile Wastes.
The use of activated carbon to treat textile wastes was pioneered at the
Stephen-Leedorn  Carpet  Mill,   Southampton,   Pennsylvania   (formerly
Hollytex  Carpet  Mills)  in  association  with  Calgon Corporation  (VII
5.2ft).  Of the raw waste from the dyeing and rinsing plant,  80  percent
was  treated and reused.  The remaining 20 percent, which contained high
dye concentrations, could  not  be  treated  economically,  however.   A
schematic  of  this  plant  is  given in Figure VII-13.  Capacity of the
system was 1900 cu m/day  (500,000  gallons  per  day)  and  it  utilized
22,700  kilograms  (50,000  pounds)  of Filtrasorb 400 granular activated
carbon.  The carbon was regenerated by heating it in a furnace.

The  Fram  corporation,  supported  in  part  by  the  EPA,   has   done
considerable  work  in  pioneering its unique activated carbon system in
which regeneration is accomplished by backwashing the  absorbed  organic
                                  126

-------
DRAFT
material  into  an aerobic biological treatment unit (vii 5.24-5.28), as
shown schematically in Figure
                                   127

-------
DRAFT
After encouraging results in a laboratory unit  operating  on  synthetic
textile  waste  water, a pilot system was installed at C. H. Masland and
Sons carpet yarn fibre dyeing plant in  Wakefield,  Rhode  Island.   The
flow  diagram  of the pilot system, which has a capacity of 190 cu m/day
(50,000 gpd) , is shown in Figure VII-15.

Three basic problems were encountered:

    1.  The waste was not equalized  so  sugrges  of  dye  concentration
    sometimes overload the carbon beds.

    2.   Batch adsorption required acceptance of the full hydraulic load
    of the dye-house discharge, shortening adsorption times.

    3.  The biological culture was subject to er  atic  feeding.   These
    difficulties forced the systems to be redesigned, as shown in Figure
    VII-16.

Cone  Mills Corporation of Greensboro, N.C., has been conducting a range
of studies on the treatment of dye waste waters (VII 5.26).  The company
encountered only partial success in  the  use  of  carbon  for  effluent
polishing following biological treatment.  Anthracite-based media proved
unreliable  in  removing  all  types  of  color contamination; bone char
proved successful but cost about $2.20 per kilogram  ($1.00  per  pound)
compared  to  660 per kilogram (30t per pound)  for the former materials.
Hecknoth reported a 50 percent reduction  of  organics  in  certain  dye
wastes using activated carbon.

Our field work yielded several further instances of the use of activated
carbon  adsorption  for the treatment of textile wastes, particularly in
regard to color renewal.  Milo Industries, Bloomsbury, Pa.,  operates  a
closed  dye cycle using alum, dicetomaceous earth, and carbon to yield a
color of less than 50 units.  A series of trials carried out to evaluate
activated carbon adsorption for color removal (VII 5.30)  gave  somewhat
erratic  results;  despite  early  hope only a small amount of color was
removed.  This has been confirmed  generally  throughout  the  industry.
The  consensus  (VII 5.32) appears to be that while color can be removed
by activated carbon, some elements (particularly the dispersed dyes) are
not adsorbed.  Chemical coagulation perhaps  supplemented  by  activated
carbon  adsorption remains the best method.for the dispersed dyes, while
carbon adsorption alone may be adequate for dissolved dyes.

To summarize, activated carbon treatment is a common technique in indus-
trial processes, has been evaluated in some detail and has been success-
ful in treating secondary effluent  following  biological  treatment  of

-------
 RECLAIMLC)
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                                            'WATER
                                    /
                              \COOur.'G
                                TO-.VER
                           RECLAIMED
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                                                  REACTIVATED GRANULAff CARSON
  no1, urirx C'inpci MILI
         PLANT
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               PLANT >?ASTf w.ui;
               FROM ovtii.'G c. CASING
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                                          TA^U^
                                                                  OEWATERING
                                                                  SCREW
                                                                 tOUCTOfJ
                                                                            REACTIV'-.TIO.1.'
                                                              QUfNCH
                                                              TANK ~~
                                                         SI'KMT
                                                         ACTIVATf.O CAIMCN
                                                                        r%—
                                                                      EUUCTOa
                                                         FURNACE
                                                                             \VAirj ;
                                       (500,000 GALLON PER DAY)
                                         HOLl.YTCX CAfJJ'CT I/.ILLS
                                                        fi, Po.
                                                                                                             o
                                                                                                             TO
                                    FIGURE VII  - 13

-------
DRAFT
                               —i
               FIGURE VII - 14  SORPTION
                 REGENERATION
                       130

-------
QL.
Q
FIGURE VII-15   SCHEMATIC  FLOW DIAGRAM

-------
                                                              ADSORPTION  COLUMN'S -SYSTEM I

                              FROM
                             DYCKOUt!:
EQUALIZATION
    YANK
                                                             ADSORPTION  COLUM!vS-r>YS~rK 2
Q
                                                FIGURE VII-16   SECOND GENERATION
                                                    SYSTEM

-------
DRAFT
municipal  waste  water.  Some successful experience also has been accu-
mulated in the treatment of textile wastes.  Only the  advanced  process
is suitable for reducing low-level organic contamination, but it affects
the  levels of dissolved ionic solids very little.  Its chief difficulty
concerns the removal of color; some dispersed dyes are not  absorbed  to
any  great  extent.   The  process  needs  to be evaluated for any given
process stream.

         Ion Exchange

         General Description.  Ion exchangers are solid  materials,  in-
soluble in electrolyte solution, which are capable of exchanging soluble
anions or cations with electrolyte solutions.  For example, a cation ex-
changer  in  the  sodium form, when contacted with a solution of calcium
chloride, will scavenge the calcium ions from the solution  and  replace
them  with  sodium ions.  This provides a convenient method for removing
the "hardness" from waters.

Ion exchange can also be used for total salt removal from waste streams,
by employing a series of beds of exchangers followed by anion cation ex-
changers.  The cation exchanger is used in its "acid"  form,  exchanging
hydrogen  ions  for  the  cations in the stream.  The anion- exchanger is
used in its "base" form, exchanging hydroxyl ions for the  waste  stream
anions.   The  hydroxyl  and  hydrogen  ions thus liberated from the ion
exchanger recombine to form water, and thus replace  the  salts  in  the
stream by pure water.

An example is a stream that contains sodium chloride.  The reactions may
be  presented  as follows, where RA is the solid anion exchanger, and RC
is the cation exchanger:
         RA-OH + NaCl
         RC-H + NaOh
RA -Cl
         NaOH
RC-NA + HOH
The exchange of ions on ion exchangers is stoichiometric and usually re-
versible.  Thus, after the ion exchanger becomes saturated with the con-
taminant ion, it can usually be "regenerated" by flushing with a concen-
trated solution of its original ion.  Therefore, in the  example  quoted
above,  the  cation  exchanger  would be regenerated with a concentrated
caustic solution (resulting in a waste regenerate stream of concentrated
Na2SOi|) .  The waste regenerate streams are  usually  quite  concentrated
and can be disposed of economically by simple evaporation.
                                  133

-------
DRAFT
Many  natural  and  synthetic  materials  can act as ion exchangers (VII
5.33).  Various alumosilicate minerals with cation  exchange  properties
are  known.   Clays and glauconites carry exchangeable counter ions, and
certain natural and modified coals have been  used  as  ion  exchangers.
The  most important class of ion exchangers, though, is the organic ion-
exchange resins made from cross-linked polyelectrolytes.  The  exchanger
exchanges  the counter ions to the fixed charges on the polyelectrolyte.
These resins are insoluble but swell to a limited degree, allowing  ions
from  solution  to  penetrate  into the gel matrix formed by the swollen
polyelectrolyte.

They are conventionally used in particulate form in  packed  beds.   The
ion  exchange  behavior of the resins depneds on the nature of the fixed
ionic groups, with the exchanger preferring those  ions  which  strongly
associate with the fixed (bound) ions.

One  of  the major advantages of the synthetic resins is the wide ranges
of ion exchange properties which can be built into them,  allowing  con-
siderable latitude in the designing of processes.  These exchangers have
the additional advantage of being capable of absorbing non-ionic organic
solutes  from  solution (VII 5.33).  This sorption is reversible in that
the  constituent  can  be  removed  by  flushing  with  strong  caustic.
disposal of this organic-laden caustic stream then presents an addition-
al problem which may prohibit its use.

         General  Applicability.  In general, ion exchange processes are
limited by the selectivity of the exchanger for the contaminant ion over
its own counter ion.  Divalent ions such as  calcium  and  magnesium  in
general have high affinities for the ion exchange resins, and can there-
fore be removed with extremely high efficiencies.  In general, also, ion
exchange  is  less efficient than electrodialysis or reverse osmosis for
high concentration streams.  An upper limit frequently given  for  effi-
cient  removal  of  ions by ion exchange is 200-500 ing/1 (VII 5.34), but
others quote efficient cleansing of 2500 mg/1 streams at costs less than
that for electrodialysis or reverse osmosis (VII 5.35).

Recently, a new form of organic ion exchange resin  has  been  developed
which  may  allow economical de-ionization of waste streams at dissolved
salt levels of 1000 to 3000 mg/1.  This "Desal" process  is  based  upon
the  discovery  that  certain weakly basic anion exchange structures can
form the bicarbonate salt with solutions of  carbon  dioxide,  and  also
have  a  favorable  chloride-bicarbonate  selectivity  coefficient  (VII
5.31).  The process relies on a series of three ion exchange beds.

-------
DRAFT
The first, which is the alkalization unit, consists of  a  weakly  basic
exchanger in the bicarbonate form.  When it contacts an electrolyte such
as Nad, the following reaction occurs:

I         (R-NH)HC03 + NaCl           (R-NH) Cl + NaHC03.

The second bed, containing a weak acid cation exchange resin, acts as
the "dealkylization" unit:

II       R-COOH + N3HC03            R-COONa * C02 + H20.

The third unit, which is the carbonate unit, contains a weakly basic
anion exchanger, similar to the exchanger in the first unit, but in
the free base form, and acts as the carbonic acid absorber, resulting
in an effluent free salt:

III      R-N + H20 + C02          (R~NH)HC03.

Upon  completion  of  the  above  cleansing cycle, the alkylization unit
 (Unit I) is regenerated to the free base form with ammonia,  caustic  or
lime.   The  dealkylization  unit (II)  is converted back to the hydrogen
form by regeneration with inexpensive mineral  acids.   Since  the  car-
bonation  unit  is  already in the bicarbonate form, the flow pattern is
reversed for the next cycle, and the process  repeated.   A  flow  sheet
illustrating the process is shown in Figure VII-17.

Typical  experimental data from such a process are shown in Tables VII-5
to VII-8 for a number of different waste streams.  This process has also
been operated successfully at the polot plant scale on brackish water of
100 mg/1; the concentration was reduced to a final effluent of 20 to  30
mg/1,  at  an  operating  cost estimated to be equivalent to a cost of a
3785 cw m/day (1-mgd) plant  of  5.3*/1000  liters   (20£/  1000  gallon)
 (1970)  and a total capital investment for a 3785 cu m/day (1-mgd) plant
of about  $250,000  (again in 1970).  A commercial plant achieving similar
results was operating in the United STates for several years.

The major problem with this  process  appears  to  be  the  irreversible
degradation  of  the  weak  base resins, which may limit their long-term
stability and the ultimate economics of the process.
                                  135

-------
DRAFT
                     H,SO.-

                     NH,	
                     Inhutnt •
                                  -H-
                                  •H-
                               1BA-M
                                o
                                             -M- -H
                                            X	N
                         0
OHmtMc
ttQUMCl     I
                                CHtUlCAl KIACIION IN UNIT NO
                                                            -M-
0
                                                        the chemical Symbols r

                                                        l»l 10 t
                       I     MCO.-.0     H-.N.    011 ...HCO,   1 ' ' V."«,'

                       J     CI-.OH       Nl-. H      MCO,     «occu".na""~
                       3     OH-»HCO,     H-»NJ    MCO,-»CI
                           FIGURE VI1-17    THREE-UNIT DESIGN

-------
DRAFT



           Table VI-5  Composition of Untreated and
            Desal Ion-Exchange Treated Acid Mine Water

Constituent     Concentration  (mg/1 as CaCO3)

                Untreated         Treated

   pH             3.1               8.5

   Ca           961               290

   Mg           480                10

   Fe           895                 0.1

   Al           556                 0.1

   Mn            91                 0.1

   SO4=       3,104               100

   HCO3-      	               200

Source:  Reference VII 5.34.
                                   137

-------
DRAFT
Table VII-6  Modified Desal Process for Renovation
             of Steel Mill Pickle Rinse Wastes
Constituent
Wastewater
  resist., ohm. cm.

Source:  Reference VII 5.34.
Modified DESAL
treated waste
mg/1 as CaCO3
Na
K
ca
Mg
Fe
Al
Mn
Acidity (H2S04)
pH
Electrical
42
4
73
35
122
1
2
1,160
1.6
175
35
4
11
22
0.1
1
0.1
None
8.0
4,000
                                   139

-------
DRAFT
     Table VII-7  Modified Desal Process for
                 Renovation of Tin Plating Rinse Water

                                  Treated Water
                               After              After
Constituent  Wastewater  Amberlite IRA-68  Amberlite IRO84
                           (mg/1 as CaCO3J

   TDS         2,350            875               50

   Na            893            872               50

   K               1              1                0

   Ca              7              2                0

   Mg              3                               0

   Fe             15             <1               <0.1

   Al              6             <1               <0.1

   Mn             <1             <1               <0.1

   Sn          1,180             <1               <0.1

   Cu             <1             <1               <0.1

   HC03            0            875               50

   pH              3              8.5              6.5

Source:  Reference VII 5.3U.
                                   140

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DRAFT
                  Table VI1-8
         Typical Results Achieved with counter
               Current Ion Exchange

     Water analysis, mg/1

     Calcium, mg/1 as CaCC^S           92
     Magnesium mg/1 as CaCOjJ          10
     Sodium, mg/1 as CaCO3           146
     Bicarbonate, mg/1 as CaCO3      191
     Chloride, mg/1 as CaCO3  ~       55
     Sulfate, mg/1 as CaCO3            2
     Si02, mg/1 as SiO2   "           US
Deionization Results
Resin
Regenerant
Regenerant dosage

Service flow rate

Effluent TDS
Effluent SiO2
Operating capacity
                      Cation Exchanger Anion Exchanger
 Duolite C-20
 H2SOU
 36.4~kg/m3
(2.25 Ib/cu ft)
 19  l/sec/m«
(28  gpm/sq ft)
 11.0 kgr/cu ft
(as CaCO3)
 Duolite A-104
 NaOH (amb3  temp.)
 36.a kg/in'
(2.25 Ib/cu  ft)
 19  l/sec/m«
(28  gpm/sq ft)
 0.2 mg/1
 5 mg/1
 11.5 kg/cu  ft
(as  CaCO3)
Source:  Reference VII 5.35.
More  conventional  ion  exchange  resins  have  been   used   for   the
desalination  of  brackish  water.   A  polot plant operation at Pomona,
California has reduced the salinity of tertiary sewage from 1500 to  250
mg/1  with an estimated cost  (based on a 37850 cu m/day or 10-mgd plant)
reported to be 2.6 to  6.10/1000  liters   (10-230/1000  gallons).    (The
former  figure  is  probably  unrealistically  low,  since  the  cost of
regeneration  chemicals  alone,  based  on  100  percent  efficiency of
utilization  of  ammonia  and  sulfuric  acid  is over 4*/1000 liters or
15^/1000 gallons) .

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DRAFT
The National Cannera Association ran another pilot plant study  for  the
EPA  on  reducing  the  salinity  of  food processing waste water by ion
exchange (VII 5.36).  It was found possible to reduce  the  salinity  of
process  streams from 600-6000 mg/1 NaCl to an ultimate salinity of 100-
200 mg/1 for a cost estimated to  be  (260/1000  gallons)   (1970).   The
resins  were  regenerated with calcium hydroxide.  It was estimated that
the waste regenerate solution could be made at  least  1000  times  more
concentrated than the feed solution.

Recently,  countercurrent  ion  exchange (in which regenerate flow is in
the opposite direction from feed water  flow,  see  Figure  VII-18)  has
begun  to make an impact on American ion exchange technology (VII 5.35).
This
process allows more efficient use of regeneration chemicals, and  there-
fore  significantly  reduces  cost  and  pollution by regeneration waste
streams.  Apparently, European manufacturers of ion  exchange  equipment
have recognized the savings for some years and have incorporated the new
technology  into  their  systems.   It  has  been  predicted  that  this
technology  whose  success  relies  upon  novel  methods  of  preventing
fluidization  of the ion exchange resin particles during back flow, will
soon become dominant in U.S. markets also, and will lower  the  cost  of
ion  exchange use.  Typical operating data on such a system are shown in
Table 4.  It is predicted that the cost  of  reducing  the  salinity  of
waste water containing 1000 mg/1 NaCl to 250 mg/1 will be 10 to 120/1000
liters  (UO-U50/1000 gallons), including amortization of equipment, labor
costs, chemicals, etc.

         Applicability  to  Textile Wastes.  Direct data on the applica-
bility of ion exchange to textile wastes is  scarce.   Extrapolation  of
data  from  other waste streams is therefore necessary.  It would appear
that the major application of ion exchange to  textile  waste  treatment
would  be  to reduce the dissolved solids level of the affluent from the
secondary treatment plants or the effluent from other operations such as
electrodialysis or reverse osmosis.   (Synthetic  organic  ion  exchange
resins  have  also  been  used  as absorbers for non-ionic dyes, but the
process is inefficient, and  the  cost  $5/1000  liters  over  ($20/1000
gallons) impractically high).  The dissolved solids levels of the secon-
dary  sewage  effluents (ca. 1000 mg/1)  would appear to be in the proper
range for effective use of  ion  exchange.   Costs  for  a  500  percent
reduction  of  this  salinity, assuming no other complications, would be
expected to be about  120/1000  liters  (150/1000  gallons)  of  product
water, not including the cost of evaporating the concentrated regenerate
waste  stream.   This  latter  is estimated to be of the order of 3 to 5
liters of concentrated waste saline per 1000 liters of feed water.
                                   142

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DRAFT
                       CO-CURRENT      COUNTERCURRENT
                        WATFR         W/VTfR
                                                      V/ATCR
                         SERVICE
                         nEGENERANT
                                            SERVICE
                                                 REGf.NCKANT
                       REGENERATION
ntCLKi RANT

     REGENERATION
                        FIGURE VII-18   CO-CURRENT AND COUNTER-
                         CURRENT OPERATION IMPLIES SERVICE IN
                         ONE DIRECTION AND REGENERATION IN THE
                         OPPOSITE DIRECTION. SERVICE CAN BE
                         DOWNFLOW AS  IN (A) OR UPFLOW AS IN
                         (B).

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DRAFT
One additional  advantage  of  ion  exchange  is  applicable  to  highly
alkaline  textile  waste  streams:   neutralization  combined  with  ion
removal.  For example, if the effluent is sodium  hydroxide  instead  of
the  sodium  chloride  effluent  quoted  in the original example in this
article, the cation exchanger  alone  may  be  used,  resulting  in  the
process:

         RC - H + NaOH           RC - Na + H20

Thus  it may be advantageous, where possible, to leave the alkalinity in
the hydroxide form (rather than carbonating it), and removing it by  ion
exchange.

Several  unknowns  complicate the application of ion exchange to textile
waste streams.  A major limitation is that  ion  exchange  is  effective
only  in  the  removal  of dissolved ions from the solution.  Thus, many
other waste treatment procedures  (such as reverse  osmosis)   may  remove
the  ions  in  the process of removing other materials such as suspended
solids, rendering ion exchange necessary.

The quality of the waste stream necessary to make ion exchange  feasible
is also a major factor in its usefulness.  The level of suspended solids
in  the  waste  stream can have a considerable deleterious effect on the
long-term operation of the ion  exchange  columns.   It  will  therefore
probably  be necessary to pre-filter suspended solids down to a level of
20-50 mg/1 before allowing the water to enter the ion exchange  columns.
Any  oxidizing  agents in the waste stream (e.g., hydrogen sulfide) will
have an adverse effect on the  life  of  the  cation  exchangers,  while
organic constituents may shorten the life of the anion exchange resins.

It  appears,  however, that the projected costs of ion exchange for tex-
tile waste clean-up are sufficiently low  to  justify  a  study  of  the
parameters to determine long-term applicability.

ghemical clarification

Suspended  solids  are  a  significant element of raw textile mill waste
water.  The larger components  such  as  lint  are  readily  removed  by
screens prior to entering a waste water treatment process.  Residence in
a clarifier permits other smaller yet macroscopic particles to settle as
a  sludge.  Following activated sludge treatment and sludge removal in a
further  clarifier,  the  waste  water  still  contains  a  variety   of
microscopic   suspended  solids.   These  may  be  removed  by  chemical
clarification methods, which, in addition, have been found to be  effec-

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DRAFT
tive  for color removal.  Chemical clarification is rarely used prior to
activated sludge treatment.

         Physical  Principles.   Textile  wastes  typically  contain   a
complex mixture of suspended solids, mostly of organic composition, with
particles  ranging  from  0.01  m  up to filterable sizes.  They include
color bodies, proteins soaps, fibers, mineral  fines,  oil  and  grease.
These  suspended  solids  have deleterious effects on the other advanced
waste treatment processes used in tertiary treatment of  waste  streams;
they  load secondary treatment plants, blind sorbent beds and deposit on
membrane  surfaces.   In   themselves,   they   contribute   undesirable
properties  to  the waste water — suspended COD, turbidity, color, etc.
The smaller particles are virtually ulfilterable except by expensive and
complex procedures and cannot be settled.  (A  1-micron  particle  takes
one  hour  to  fall 1 mm in solution; a 0.01-micron particles takes more
than one year.)

In addition to the obvious difficulty of removing small  particles,  the
suspensions  are stabilized by two effects:  hydration and electrostatic
charge.  Most such particles adopt a negative charge and  are  prevented
from  coalescing  to  the larger, more easily removed particles by elec-
trostatic repulsion.  Neutralization of these charges  destabilizes  the
system  and leads -to coagulation and precipitation or easier filtration.
This process is the basis for chemical clarification.

Neutralization and electrostatic charge are  generally  accomplished  by
adding coagulants that contain multivalent cations.  These include:

         aluminum sulfate
         ferric chloride
         copperas (a mixture of ferric chloride and ferric sulfate
                   prepared by chlorinating ferrous sulfate)
         ferrous sulfate
         ferric sulfate
         sodium aluminate

The  multivalent cations A1+++, Fe+++ and Fe++ are strongly hydrated and
hydrolyzed, forming acidic solutions that contain hydroxylated  positive
ionic  pieces.   Sodium  aluminate,  on the other hand, forms a strongly
alkaline solution and is sometimes used  in  combination  with  aluminum
sulfate to improve the resulting floe.

A subsidiary mechanism which operates during flocculation in waste water
may  also  remove certain polluting species:  the formation and settling
of the precipitate may absorb  and  sweep  out  other  water  components
                                  115

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DRAFT
responsible  for  color,  CODr  -turbidity, BOD, etc.  In addition to the
reagents listed abobe, lime has been used for this purpose.

Addition of these coagulants  to  the  suspended  solids  and  colloidal
substances  produces  a  floe  which is allowed to settle in a clarifier
using gentle agitation.  It is  important  to  dissipate  the  coagulant
throughout the waste water as fast as possible; flash mixing at point of
entry to the clarifier is normally used.

The  correct  coagulant dose for a specific waste water and particularly
the  precise  pH  for   maximum   effectiveness   must   be   determined
experimentaly  for  a  given  waste  water.   Unfortunately, the optimum
values of these parameters may not be the same for different  components
of  the  waste  water; thus turbidity removal mayddemand an operating pH
different from that needed for color removal.

A second step in chemical clarification may be needed to  satisfactorily
separate  the  suspended  floe  from the clear supernatant liquor.  This
involves the addition of coagulant aids  which  act  to  create  larger,
tougher  floes  that  are  more amenable to sedimentation or filtration.
Activated silica has been used for  many  years;  more  recently,  water
soluble  polymers, usually polyelectrolytes, have been used successfully
for this purpose.  They are available in anionic, cationic,  or  neutral
form to treat floes of differing electrostatic charac eristics.

         Experience  in  General Waste Water Treatment.  Coagulation and
flocculation is a widely used technique in waste water treatment and  in
the preparation of potable water.  Costs typically range from 1-5*/ 1000
liters (5 to 20^/1000 gallons).

         Experiencerinjthe Textile Industry.  Chemical clarification has
frequently  been  used  in the treatment of textile waste (VII 5.32, VII
5.38-5.42).  Apart from its use to remove suspended solids, it has found
particular promise in the removal of troublesome disperse dye  particles
which  are  generally not absorbed by activated carbon. A description of
some typical experience in the  textile  industry  will  illustrate  the
usefulness of the process.

In  1949,  a  two-stage  flocculation  process using ferric sulfate as a
coagulant was used to treat the combined wastes of a wool  scouring  and
dyeing  plant  in Glasgow, Virginia (VII 5.13).  A total of 950 cu m/day
(250,000 gpd) was treated at a capital cost of $380 (1949  dollars)  per
1000  liters  ($1,450   (1949  dollars)  per 1000 gallons).  No operating
costs are given.  BOD of the combined wastes was reduced by  60  percent
and suspended solids by over 90 percent.
                                  146

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DRAFT
Coagulation was also used successfully in waste water treatment at a Dow
Chemical  Company  acrylic  fiber  plant  in Williamsburg, Virginia (VII
5.44).  The capacity of the plant  was  1840  cw  m/day   (486,000  gpd) .
After  primary  clarification, the waste is treated with copperas coagu-
lant with pH adjustment.  (The wastes contained  zinc,  which  was  pre-
cipitated  as  hydroxide  at  these  high  pH levels.)  Zinc removal was
consistently above 99 percent so effluent levels were below 1 mg/1.
In Israel, experimental results showed  (VII 5.48) that flocculation with
alum and filtration would reduce color by 95% and turbidity by 97% in  a
highly  colored  simulated  waste  water.  Performance was shown to be a
strong function of pH and alum dosage; maximum reduction of color levels
and turbidity did not necessarily occur  at  the  same  pH  value.   The
dependence  of  color removal on pH is shown in Figure VII-19.  Cationic
poly
electrolytes were found to be effective coagulant aids, but only at very
high doses (about 30 mg/1).

The treatment of wool processing effluent using coagulants has been dis-
cussed by Stewart (VTI 5.49).  Calcium chloride coagulation was used  in
a  plant  of  patens and Baldwins Ltd, Darlington, England.  Addition of
2,000 mg/1 of calcium chloride followed by filtration reduced a  BOD  of
15,000 to 30,000 mg/1 to 2,700 to 3,800 mg/1, suspended solids of 20,000
to  32,000 mg/1 to 1,000 mg/1 and grease levels of 17,000 to 20,000 mg/1
to 50 mg/1.  But the cost was over $1.30 per 1000 liters ($5  per  1,000
gallons) in 1964.

The  Wool  Industries  Research Association in Leeds, England, developed
evidence that copperas coagulation could be  used  in  combination  with
lime followed by filtration to achieve almost as good results as calcium
chloride  coagulation.   A  1971  estimate  of  the cost of this process
yields a value of over $1.80 per 1000 liters ($7 per 1000  gallons)  in-
cluding plant, chemical and operating factors.

The  cost  of  ferric chloride used as a coagulant has been estimated as
0.8^/1000 liters  (3*/l,000 gallons) (VII 5.24) to reduce COD  by  70  to
90%  and  to  remove 99.9 percent of bacteria and 70 percent of the tur-
bidity.

In a review of treatment methods for dye waste waters (VII 5.26), it was
reported that  the  most  successful  coagulation  technique  for  color
removal consisted of the use of alum or a combination of alum and a
                                   147

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DRAFT
                     FIGURE VI1-19   REMOVAL OF COLOR FROM
                        AERATED WASTES AS A FUNCTION OF pH
                        AFTER FLOCCULATION

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DRAFT
cationic  polyelectrolyte.  Treatment of wastes before and after activa-
ted sludge treatment was studied; in general, less chemical  requirement
was  found prior to biological treatment.  Mixed liquor treated with 150
to 250 mg/1 alum, 10 mg/1 lime and 20 mg/1 cationic polymer produced  an
effluent  color  g  15  (pt/Co scale) wwith zero suspended solids, but the
chemical cost alone was 2.1 to 2.6^/1000 liters (8 to 10^/1000 gallons).
If chemical clarification must follow biological treatment, 200  to  400
mg/1  alum and no coagulant aid may be used.  Color removals of about 95
percent can be expected.

The use of a polyelectrolyte has been found to be a useful aid  to  alum
dewatering in other work  (VII 5.50).

Milco  Industries of Bloomsbury, Pa., report successful color removal of
a closed dye cycle water using a combination of alum treatment,  diatom-
aceous earth filtration and carbon adsorption.

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DRAFT
                               REFERENCES

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7.13  "Water Quality Criteria," Second Edition by McKee 6 Wolf,
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                                  150

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DRAFT
7.14   Textile Chemist and Colorist, 5, ff pp. 10, 1973.

7.15   Suiter, R.N., and shipman, A.J., "Market Update," AATCC
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7.16   Willard, J.J., "Solvent Processing," AATCC Symposium,
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7.18   British Patent: 1,243,462, Bleacher's Association,
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7.20   Jones, W.C., "Solvent Size/Desize^" AATCC Symposium Papers,
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                                   151

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5.8   Channabasappa, K. C., Water - 1970, Chem. Eng. Symposium Series 67
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5.13  Stribley, R. C., "Practical Characteristics of Four Selective Mem-
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5.21  O'Farrell, Thomas P., et al, "Advanced Waste Treatment at Washington,
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         D.C." Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. Series, No. 97, Vol. 65, 1969.
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                                   153

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DRAFT
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5.49  Stewart, R. G., "Pollution and the Wool Industry", Wool RBsearch
                                  154

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DRAFT
         Organization of N.Z.  (Inc.), No. 10, Sept., 1971.

5.50  King, P. H., and Randall, C. W. , "Chemical-Biological Treatment
         of Textile Finishing Wastes," 19th So. Water Res. & Poll.
         Control conf. (Duke), April 1970.
                                   155

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DRAFT
                              SECTION VIII
               Cost, Energy, and Nonwater Quality Aspects


            BEST PRACTICABLE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY (Level I)


This   chapter   summarized  the  costs  (necessarily  generalized)  and
effectiveness of end-of-pipe treatment systems either currently  in  use
or  recommended  for  future use in the textile industry.  More detailed
analyses for industry categories have been presented in Supplement A  of
this report.  In order to reflect the very different treatment economics
between  existing  and new plants or between small and large ones, costs
have been developed in Supplement A for, typically,  two plant  sizes  in
each  industry  category.  The purpose of this discussion is to describe
the basic cost analyses upon which the  product-specific  estimates  are
based.

Supplement  A  also  includes  updated inputs for EPA's Industrial Waste
Treatment Model.  The estimated total volume of  wastewaters  discharged
for  industry  categories  has  been  provided for 1972 and 1977.  Also,
general estimates of the current level of treatment in different  indus-
try segments have been made.

The best practicable treatment technology in this industry is considered
as the end-of-pipe treatment steps shown in Figure VIII-1.

         Primary Treatment;  For removal of suspended solids.  Includes
         equalization, screening and chemical coagulation or precipita-
         tion (to remove heavy metals where required),

         Secondary Treatment:  Primarily for removal of BODS.  Includes
         aerated stabilization basins, sludge recycle and disposal, and
         final clarification with a long-duration polishing lagoon.
         (Land and land-fill requirements are very small.)

Information  on actual treatment cost experience in the textile industry
was available in varying degrees  of  completeness  from  the  exemplary
plants  visited.   To  verify  the  quality  of the data received and to
provide a broader basis for estimation, a costing  model  was  developed
based on standard wastewater treatment practice.  This model covers both
capital and operating costs for the equivalent of what appears to be the
best  technology  currently  practiced  by  the  industry:   essentially
primary and secondary treatment as extended aeration with  stabilization
ponds.   Over a plant size range of 400-12,000 cubic meters per day (0.1
                                  156

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          Raw Wastewater
         Primary Screening
             Aeration
            Stabilization
              Basin
             Clarifier
                                u
                                a>
                               QC
                                o>
                                o>
                               T>
                               J3
                               to
             Three-Day
            No n-Aerated
              Lagoon
           Final Discharge
FIGURE VIII-1    SCHEMATIC  FLOW
   DIAGRAM OF PROCESS STEPS AND  COST
   CENTERS FOR  LEVEL I TREATMENT

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DRAFT
•to 3.0), -the cost experience data from the plants visited came within 30
percent of that predicted by the cost model, as shown by the examples in
Table VIII-1.  The costs  calculated  from  the  model,  therefore,  are
believed  to  be realistic bases for estimating the (replacemfent) value
of existing facilities and the economic impact of further secondary-type
treatment requirements.

Cost curves developed from the cost model are presented in Figures VTII-
2 to VIII-10.  (For very small plants (about  110  cu  m/day  or  30,000
                                   15ft

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DRAFT
                              Table VIII-1
                AccuracY^of Standardized Costing Methodology
Example Plant
Plant A  (0.394 mgd)
 Category 1
  Aeration basin
  Aeration equipment
  Clarifier
  3 day lagoon

    yard work  (15X const)
    engineering
Plant Q (2.5 mm gal/day)
 Category 4
  Aeration
  Aeration equipment
  Clarifier
  3 day lagoon

    yard work (15X const)
    engineering
Plant X (1.7 mm gal/day)
 Category 5
  Aeration basin
  Aeration equipment
  Clarifier
  3 day lagoon

    yard work (15X const)
    engineering
  ADL std
 cost estimate
  Company reported
cost for actual plant
  Ratio
   ADL
 reported
refined
 $ 27,000
  136,900
   35,600
   12,500
$212,000
   31,800
   42,400
 $286,200
 $ 59,000
  123,400
  116,400
    3.200
 $330,800b
   49,600
 	60.000
 $440,400
 $ 57,000
   23,600
   98,800
   27.000
 $206,400
   31,000
   47.000
 $284,400
                                                    $210,000
                          1.36
                                                    $554,000
                          0.79
                                                    $335,400
                          .85
[Land cost left off these estimates in order to compare with plant reported

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DRAFT
cost — maximum land cost, plant Q, is $6000. ]
                                   166

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DRAFT
           1,000,000
          o
          Q
          S 100,000
          8
            10,000
                                                            10.0
                    FIGURE VIII-2  AERATED STABILIZATION BASIN

                               CONSTRUCTION COST

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DRAFT
   10,000
_   1,000
I
UJ
     100
      10
         100
1,000            10,000

 Total Construction Cost, ($000)
100,000
                   FIGURE VI11-3  ENGINEERING COSTS

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DRAFT
 I
 o
 Q



 I
   lOx
105
   1x103
                 I  1 i  i i 11
                                I  I I  I I i
                                          ENR Index--1811.93,


                                               Jan. 1973
                                                 i I  I i 11
         1.0             10.0            100.0


                             Flow, mgd





                 FIGURE VIII-4 CLARIFIER CAPITAL COST

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DRAFT
    10x105
    1.0x10
         1.000
                                      ENR Index = 1811.93, Jan. 1973
                                                   II i
    10,000
BOD removal, Ib/day
100,000
                  FIGURE VI11-5  AERATED STABILIZATION BASIN
                              (Aeration Equipment Only)

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DRAFT
       10,000
o
£
C
n




1 1,000
        100
                 Operation
                 Maintenance
                   i	i   t  i  t i  i i
           1.0
                             10.0

                             Flow, mgd
100.0
              FIGURE VIII-6  AERATED STABILIZATION BASIN

                          ANNUAL OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE LABOR

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DRAFT
     10,000
   o
   o
   8 1,000

   "co
   3
   c
   c
       100
              Chemicals for 'Typical" Plants
            ENR = 1811.93, Jan. 1973
                                                        Material &

                                                        Supply Costs
                                              _i	I
          1.0
  10.0


Flow, mgd
                                                         I	i
                                                                100.0
                 FIGURE VIII-7   AERATED STABILIZATION BASIN

                               1. Material and Supply Com, Annually

                               2. Chemical Cost*

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DRAFT
    100,000
   o
   o
   o  10,000
   D
   c
      1,000
         1,000
                  I	I   I
                                           t    I
                                                     I  I I  I I
    10,000
BOD removal, Ib/day
100,000
                        FIGURE VI11-8  AERATION EQUIPMENT
                                    ANNUAL POWER COSTS
                                    Aerated Stabilization Basin

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DRAFT
   10,000
  D
  o
  ± 1,000
  3
  c
     100
       1.0
Operation
                 Maintenance
                      Jiii
                 10.0

               Flow, mgd
100.0
       FIGURE VIII-9 CLARIFIER, ANNUAL OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE LABOR

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DRAFT
       100.000
      o
      a
      S 10,000
         1,000
                                            Material and Supply Costs
                                       10.0

                                      F low, mgd
100.0
                      FIGURE VIII-10  CLARIFIER

                                    1. Material and Supply Costs, Annually

                                    2. Major Chemical Costs

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DRAFT
an  overall  cost  figure  of $264 for 1 cu m/day or $1.00 for 1 gpd was
assumed.)  Figures VIII-6 to VIII-10 present  the  operating  and  main-
tenance  costs over the ranges of production found.  The initial capital
cost of biological treatment systems depends mainly upon  (and  here  is
related  to)  the  hydraulic  load,  the other factors making only minor
variations in the total cost.  Operating costs, on the other hand,  have
been viewed as dependent on pollutant as well as hydraulic loads.

Costs  for  representative  large  plants  in  industry  categories were
developed using these  curves  and  assuming  an  aerated  stabilization
basin,  which is widely used by the industry when land is readily avail-
able.  The following items were determined for the individual  treatment
steps:

    (1)   Construction  cost  as a function of hydraulic load at a given
         pollutant level;

    (2)  Operating and maintenance labor  as  a  function  of  hydraulic
load;

    (3)   Chemical requirements as a function of hydraulic and pollutant
         load;

    (4)  Power requirements as a function  of  hydraulic  and  pollutant
         load;

    (5)   Additional material and supply cost as a function of hydraulic
         load.

The cost data used were derived from  varied  industrial  and  municipal
applications.   They  are  adjusted  where  possible to reflect specific
changes necessary for the textile industry.  Costs have been adjusted to
a national average cost level of January 1973 using the ENR Construction
Cost Index.  The estimated cost curves have  been  adjusted  to  exclude
unusual  construction or site-specific requirements.  The curves include
all elements of construction cost which a contract bidder would normally
encounter in completing the wastewater treatment.  Included are building
materials, labor, equipment, electrical, heating and ventilation, normal
excavation and other similar items.  Also included are  the  engineering
costs.   The  annual  operating  costs include operation and maintenance
labor, chemicals, power, material and supplies, and depreciation.

         BEST AVAILABLE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY (LEVEL II)

Zero Discharge
                                  170

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DRAFT
From a consideration of the data on advanced treatment technology  given
in  Chapter VII, reverse osmosis or evaporation followed by incineration
appears to show the most promise for achieving zero discharge.  The flow
diagram for a zero discharge system is shown in Figure VIII-11,

We have carried out detailed costing of this technology for two categor-
ies in the textile industry—H, Woven Fabric Finishing, and 5, Knit  Fa-
bric  Finishing—because  these two segments contributed the major waste
loads in the industry.  To compute the  total  costs,  we  have  assumed
water economy and reuse within the process, and for Category 4 show some
of the ways this might be achieved.


The  continuous  wet  processing  of  woven  100 percent cotton cloth is
carried out in a series of baths, saturators,  and/or  holding  devices.
The  unit  operations making up the over-all process vary from plant-to-
plant and line-to-line and depend  on  the  product  and  on  individual
company  preferences.   It  is, therefore, impossible to pick a standard
process that characterizes the industry, and also provides an example of
exemplary operations.

After review of the literature, field interviews and discussions amongst
consultants and industry experts, the process,  as  outlined  in  Figure
VIII-12, was decided on as the most extensive representative that may be
encountered  for  category  U.   This  processing consists of taking 100
kg/1000 kg of PVA sized greige goods  through  water  desizing,  caustic
scouring,  two stages of peroxide bleaching, followed by mercerizing and
dyeing.

At the given production rate, the water balance for this series of  unit
operation  shows  2020 gpm of water going to the sewer or a discharge of
22.3 gallons of water per pound of cloth produced.

The present state of technology, as represented by Figure VIII-12, shows
the complex nature of wet processing being practiced today.  In attempt-
ing to reach a water usage for Level II application, a two-step  recycle
approach is hypotehsized.  The first step is represented by Figure VIII-
13.   To  reduce  the  water  consumption counter-current processing was
imposed on the process as follows.  The wash effluent  from  the  second
stage peroxide bleaching is introduced as wash water to the first stage,
and  effluent  from  this  wash  is  used  one  step further back in the
scouring wash.  Because of the nature of the process, this  is  probably
the   extent  to  which  counter-current  processing  can  be  utilized.
However, there is no apparent reason  why  the  desizing  waste  stream,
which consists of PVA and/or PVA-starch blends cannot be introduced as a
                                  171

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DRAFT
                                       Raw Wastewater
                                      Primary Screening
                                         Aeration
                                        Stabilization
                                          Basin
                    Condensate
            Water Returned
              to Process
                                                        (Or Reverse Osmosis Unit)
                                         Solids to
                                         Land Fill
                             VIII-11   SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF
                                PROCESS STEPS AND COST CENTERS FOR
                                ZERO DISCHARGE TREATMENT
                                           I7Z

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DRAFT
first-stage  scouring  wash,  as  shovm in Figure VIII-13.  The dilution
factor in the wash stream from desizing should minimize the problems  of
starch-caustic   reactions   in   this   processing   step.   Also,  the
concentrations of caustic (20X) used in  mercerizing  should  allow  for
evaporation and reuse.

The second step is shown in Figure VIII-14.  The major difference rep
                                   173

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DRAFT
SCOUR
100 Ib/min
Cotton
Greige goods

BLEACHING
145. 3 Ib/min
Greige goods
<°> 42.9% Moisture


MERCERIZING
144.7 Ib/min
Cotton
<3> 42.8% Moisture

Stream A
\
Desize

I
Stream B
to Sewer
Stream F
I
Peroxide
Bleach
Saturator


Stream 1
t
Mercerize

1
Stream K
to Sewer
Stream C Steam Stream D
i 1 1
Caustic Recuperator
^ S-"!"'"' ,„*. MWH , ». Wash t

\
Stream E
to Sewer
Stream G Stream F Stream G
\ 1 J
1
Peroxide :
J-Box Wash B|en h ^ J-Box Wash fc
Saturator
i
I

Steam ' Steam
Stream H Stream H
to Sewer to Sewer
., „ >, DYEING
H2O Vapor
Stream J
1 J
86.9 Ib/min 90.5 Ib/min
Cotton Cotton @ 6% Moisture
@ 6% Moisture
1
Stream L
to Sewer
                    FIGURE VIII-12   1000% COTTON-ROPE
                      CONTINUOUS WET PROCESSING (present
                      practice)

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DRAFT

SCOUR
100 Ib/min
Greige goods
5% Moisture
Stream A
I
Dasize


Stream C
Scour 1
Caustic
Saturator


Steam
I
Recuperator
(190°F)
Reci
Stre

fc\e
jm
1
^— Stream B /
-•— Stream M
•»— Stream?
Wash


                Stream B
                to Scour Wash
                Recycle
                              Stream N
                              to Sewer
             1st Stage
Stream M
to Scour Wash
Recycle
2nd Stage         Stream H to-J
                                                                  Str
                                                                  1st Stage Bleach
BLEACHING Recycle
Stream F Steam Stream H Stream F Steam Stream G
\ J 1 i , »



Peroxide
Bleach
Saturator




J-Box





Wash




Peroxide

Satuntor




J-Box





Wash









MERCERIZING DYEING








H
in ,

H2<3 Vapor
i Stream J
_t J~

^

20% NaOH
R ecycle

Mercerize

\




i 	 >

90.5 Ib/min

Cotton @ 6% Moisture
» Stream 0 to '
Scour Wash Recycle Stream L
to Sewer

4 | Evaporators | « (Settling W
1
To Process 1
                 —•*• Solids to Landfill
                         FIGURE VIII-13   100% COTTON-ROPE
                            CONTINUOUS WET PROCESSING  (1st pass
                            recycle)

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DRAFT
SCOUR
100 Ib/min
Greige goods
5% Moisture

BLEACHING



MERCERIZING


20%NaOr
Recycle
•^0
	 •{ Evaporators (•*-
> Process
Stream R
I
Deiize

Stream S
Wash Recycle
Stream F
I
Peroxide
Saturator
1st Stage

Mercerize

1 1
1

— | Settling|*-

Recycle f"" StreamS
Stream "• 	 Stream Q
Stream C Steam •« 	 Stream 0
I 1 _g Stream W
i T _:: 	
Caustic Recuperator

t
Stream T
to Sewer
Steam Stream H Stream F Steam Stream G
11 I I \
1
Peroxide
J-Box ^ Wash „,„ u _ J-Box _ Wash _
Saturator
b Stream R to Desize 2"d Sta96 Stream H to "*— '
Stream Q to Scour 1st Stage Bleach
Wash
., _ .. DYEING
H2°Vapor Stream U
t 1
90.5 Ib/min
Cotton 
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DRAFT
                          This page  left intentionally blank.
                                        177

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DRAFT
resented  in this f-.^ure is the use of full counter-flow washing in each
process step.  As a result, water consumption for the  outlined  process
is  projected  at  805  gpm  or 8.9 gallons per pound of cloth produced.
Further  in-process  recycling  of  water  shows  diminishing   returns,
therefore,  the  next  logical  step  is treatment of the wash stream to
provide zero discharge  of  water  pollutants.   Although  it  might  be
possible  to  treat  waste  streams  from  the individual process steps,
because of scale of operations and lack of proven technology,  only  the
cost of treating the final effluent can be realistically estimated.*

Two  processes  were  evaluated as the most applicable for reaching zero
discharge:   (1) multi-stage flash evaporation followed by  incineration;
and   (2)    reverse   osmosis  followed  by  incineration.   Evaporation
represents proven technology and reverse osmosis unproven technology  in
this  industry.  Tables VIII-2 through VIII-5 show the cost calculations
as applied to these to treat the waste streams for the outlined process.

The information as summarized in Table VIII-2 shows  that  the  cost  of
evaporation  varies from $0.77 to $0.9U/1000 liters ($2.90 to $3.56/1000
gallons) and for reverse osmosis from $0.91 to $1.06/1000 liters  ($3.56
to  $1.02/1000  gallons),  as  concentration  increases  and  flow  rate
decreases.  With a credit of 1*/1000 liters (15*/1000 gallons) , assuming
that the water can be recycled to the process,  these  costs  reduce  to
$0.76 to $0.93/1000 liters  ($2.88 to $3.51/1000 gallons) for evaporation
and  $0.93  to  $1.05/  1000  liters  ($3.51  to $1.00/1000 gallons) for
reverse osmosis.  Economic differences between the two processes  appear
to be small and within the error of estimation.


The  wet processing of nylon and/or acetate knit goods normally consists
of dyeing with dispersed systems, followed by treating with  resins  for
shrinkage resistance, usually in a batch system.  A unique feature of
                                  178

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DRAFT
         TABLE VIII-2  "ZERO" DISCHARGE COSTS 100% COTTON - ROPE
                                      .st Pass Reccle
                          2nd Pass Recycle

Solids (TDS) ...
Total Cap. Employed
Annual Oper. Cost
Indirect Oper. Cost
Total costs/Year
$/day
$/1000 gallons
. . (1. 87 MG;
• •
Multi-Flash
Evaporation
$ 4,232,000
1,151,000
825,300
1,976,300
5,414
2
(figure VIII-22) (figure VIII-23)
D, 14.4 gal/lb) (1.16 MGD, 8.9 gal/lb)
N 2000 mg/1 N 4000 mg/1
Reverse
Osmosis
$3,427,000
1,759.900
668,300
2,428,200
.52 6,652.
.90 3.
Multi-Flash
Evaporation
$3,151,000
892,700
614,500
1,507,200
60 4,129.32
56 3.56
Reverse
Osmosis
$2,323,000
1,249,000
453,000
1,702,000
4,663
4




.01
.02
Secondary Treatment Cost
    3 $/1000 gallons

credit for Water Saved
    9 $15/1000 gallons

Net Final Cost

    S/1000 liters
    S/1000 gallons

Net Final Cost

    0/kg of cloth
         of cloth
.13
.15
.13
.15
.13
.15
 .76
2.88
9.1
4.1
  .93
 3.54
11.2
 5.1
 .93
3.54
6.9
3.2
                                           .13


                                           .15
1.05
4.00
7.8
3.6
                                   179

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DRAFT
                  TABLES VIII-3  FLOW AND SOLID CALCULATIONS
1st Pass Recycle (figure VIII-22)

    Water to sewer:
         Flow - 1300.1 gpm or 1.87 MGD
         Solids - 34.45 Ib/min or 49608 Ib/day

          34.45 Ib/min         453.6 mcr/lb        10000 mg/gm =
          1300.1 gpm           3.79 liter/gal

                        3171 ing/liter Total Solids.

         3171 mg/liter X 26.5 Ib/dissolved solids =
                         34.45 Ib/total solids

                        2434 mg/1  dissolved solids.

            Therefore use 2000 mg/1.
2nd Pass Recycle(figure yyiI-23)

Water to Sewer:
         Flow - 805 gpm or 1.16 MGD
         Solids - 34.45 Ib/min
         Concentration is 3834.2 mg/1 Dissolved Solids or
           approx. 4000 mg/1
                                   180

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DRAFT
               TABLE VIII-4  MULTI-STAGE FLASH INCINERATION
                              1st.Pass Recycling      2nd Pass Recycling
                                (1.87 MGD)               (1.16 MGD)
                             2000 Mg/1 TDS           4000 Mg/1 TDS
Capita1Employed
    Multi-stage Evap.         $2,850,000              $1,950,000
    Crystallization              270,000                 270,000
    Land fill                    240,000                 240.000
                              $3,360,000              $2,460,000
    Engineering                  320,000                 280,000
    Contingency (15% of above)   552.000                 411.000
Total Capital Employed         $4,232,000              $3,151,000

Annual Oper. Costs

Labor Oper. $5/hr x 19500 hr       97,500                  97,500
      Main. $5.5/hr x 6400 hr      35,200                  35,200
      Fringe (25X)                 33.200                  33.200
Total Labor                    $  165,900              $  165,900

      Electric Power              143,800                  89,200
      Fuel                        551,500                 403,100
      Solids Disposal              92,500                  92,500
      Maintenance Mat.  (4%)       169,300                 126,000
      Chemical & Oper. Suppl. 	28,000                  16.000
Total Oper. Costs              $1,151,000              $  892,700

Indirect Oper. Costs

  Taxes & Ins. (9 1 1/2% cap)      63,500                  47,300
  Cost of Capital  (9 8%)          338,600                 252,400
  Depreciation (9 10%)            423,300                 315.400
 Total Costs                   $1,976,300              $  614,500
     $/day                          5,414.52                4,129.32
                               $0.77/1000 liters       $0.94/1000 liters
                               ($2.90/1000 gal)         ($3.56/1000 gal)
                                   181

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DRAFT
               TABLE VTII-5
              INCINERATION
REVERSE OSMOSIS, EVAPORATION
                                 Reverse Osmosis Evaporator-Crystallizer
Capital Employes
   Reverse Osmosis
   Crystallizer
   Land Fill

   Engineering
   Contingency (1555 of above)
   Total Capital Employed

AnnualOper._Costs
   Labor: Oper. $5/hr 12,000
          Main. $5.5/hr 5,000
          Fringes 25%
    Total Labor
                                1st Pass Recycle
                                (1.87 MGD)
                                2000 Mg/1 TDS
    $1,900,000
       560,000
     	240.000
    2,700,000
       280,000
       447.000
    $3,427,000
        60,000  7200
        27,500  3100
        21.900
    $  109,400
    Electric Power 1405 kwh/dy/   1,136,400
                            mgd
    Fuel
    Solids Disposal
    Maint, Mat. & Supply (1 1/2X)
    Chemical & Membranes
      Total Oper.

Indirect OPer. Cost
    Taxes 5 Insur.~(l 1/2X)
    Cost of Capital  (8X)
    Deprec. (10%)
     Total Costs
       $/day
       180,200
        92,500
        51,400
       190.000
    $1,759,900
        51,400
       274,200
       342.700
    $2,428,200
         6,652.60

       $0.94/1000 liters
       ($3.56/1000 gal)
                            2nd Pass Recycle
                            (1.10 MGD)
                            4000 Mg/1 TDS
 $1,020,000
    560,000
    240.000
 1,820,000
    200,000
    303.000
 $2,323,000
     36,000
     17,100
     13,300
 $    66,400

    705,000

    220,168
     92,500
     34,900
    130.000
 $1,249,000
     34,900
    185,800
    232.300
 $1,702,000
      4,663.01

 $1.06/1000 liters
($4.02/1000 gal)
                                  182

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DRAFT
dispersed  dye-*  is  thr.t  they  do  not require the use of salts in the
dyeing The high use of soluble salts in dye plants is a principal factor
militating against extensive re-use of  process  water  in  the  textile
industry.  The two knit mills considered here do not utilize salt to any
great  extent  in  their  dyeing and indeed this is a fundamental reason
these are among the first types of  plants  to  consider  recycling  dye
waters.

In  our  examination  of this segment of the knit industry we focused on
two exemplary mills, one making nylon acetate lingerie  and  one  making
nylon  hosiery.  The water usage for dyeing in the lingerie plant is 25-
33 I/kg  (3 to H gal/lb) of cloth and in the panty hose mill (8.1 gal/lb)
68 I/kg of cloth.

Process flow sheets for the two plants are shown in Figures VIII-15 and
                                   183

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DRAFT
VIII-16.  i-nese flc^ sheets show the sources of the waste stream and the
total flow from the dye house to the sewer or treatment plant.

Figure VIII-»7 is based on a water treatment system that is in  start-up
phases  at  Plant  HH.   This  system is designed to treat dispersed dye
wastes and is applicable to  similar  wastes  in  considering  Level  II
guidelines.   The  process,  as described, flocculates, filters, and de-
ionizes the water, removing enough impurities to allow for recycling.

The only  liquid  waste  system  from  the  process  is  the  de-ionizer
regeneration  stream.   This  amounts  to  23  to 32 kilograms  (50 to 70
pounds) of salts  (Mg and Ca) dissolved in 10200 liters  (2700 gallons) of
H20 every two days, which is currently discharged to municipal treatment
plants.  For zero discharge, these salts could be  disposed  of  via  an
evaporative type process.

The  estimated costs of treating the wastes, via the process outlined in
Figure VIII-26 for zero discharge are shown in Table VIII-6.   Treatment
costs  are  approximately $0.42/1000 liters ($1.60/1000 gal) or $0.02/kg
($0.01/lb) of product, including evaporation of de-ionizer  regenerative
waste.  After taking credit for the recycled water the net cost comes to
$0.38/1000 liters  ($1.J»5/1000 gal).

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DRAFT
         Soap
                     Scour
                               36.000 dozen/day  from knitting
                               (21,600lb/day)
                                           \
Water 	 »»
Rinsi


i
I
i
Dispersed
Dyes 	 |»
Surfactant
Water 	 ».
Lanolin 	 ^
Softners
Dye
I
I
r
Rinse
i
i
,
r
Finish
\
ToDr
Paka
»_ Water
Soap
Knitting Oils
^ Water
Dye
Surfactant

Wastage
X
/ing &
ging
175.000ga./day^ JnM^r
8.1 gal/lb Treatment Plant
                   FIGURE VIII-15  WOMENS1 NYLON PANTY
                     HOISERY BATCH

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                                 HjO Surfactant
    50,000
    Ibs/day
                   Batching
           H2O Disperse and
           Acid Dyes
           Surfactant Phosphates
                                                                                                                                                 Urea
                                                                                                                                         Finishing
                                                                                                                                          T
                                                                                                                                     Minor Urea to Sewer
                                    H20
                                    Dye Wastes
                                    Surfactant
                                           Vacuum Extraction
                                           200 gal/hr to atmosphere
                                           H2 O and Wastes to Sewer
                                      \
                                                                                          \/
                                                                                  150 to 200,000 gal/day
                                                                                  (3 to 4 gal/1000 Ib of Cloth)
                                                                                  To Sewer or Treatment
L
C
FIGURE  VIII-16
    GOODS BATCH
NYLON/ACETATE  KNIT

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    Waste From Dye House
   150,000-200,000 gal/day
  (3.5 gal/lb of
  Production)
1,000 ppm Total Solids
 250 ppm Suspended
              Solids
                  Collection
                    Tank
                                                 Caustic
                                                   ._ Alum
                                                      i— Activated Carbon
                                                           i—  Polyelectrolyte
                                                                                       _  Activated Carbon
                                                                                           Diatomaceous Earth
                                                                                           Sulfonic Acid
                                                                       Sludge
                                                               Lines
                                                                           Sludge
                                                                         Thickening
                                                                            T
                                                                                        Water Return Line
                                                                      Sludge To Landspill
                                                                     (50% of Solids Input)
                                                                   (Approx. 725 Ib (Dry)/day)
                                                                        (7975 Ib Wet)
                                                   t
                                                    Recycle to Dye House
                                                  (Approx) 180,000 gal/day
                                                                                                Cfe
                                                                                                _L
       Salt Regeneration
    Avg.90lb/2700galH2O
-i            I Use Cases
 Y            I Two Days
                                                                                                                            Deionizers
J
                                                                                        Return
                                                                                         Tank
                                                                                                             Regeneration Waste To Evaporatk
                                                                                                               50 to 70 Ib of Various Mg + Ca
                                                                                                                  Salts in 2700 gal H,O
                                                                                                                                 Air
LI
                            Add Fresh Water
                      Make-up — Approx 2500 gal/day
 O
                                          FIGURE VIII-17    NYLON/ACETATE KNIT
                                              WATER TREATMENT PLANT  DISPERSED OR
                                              ACID DYES

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DRAFT
                           TABLE VIII-6

                 ESTIMATED COSTS OF WATER TREATMENT  (ZERO
                DISCHARGE) FOR NYLON/ACETATE KNIT GOODS*


    Capital Employed

        Treatment Plant (including Eng., etc)                 $ 120,000
        Evaporator (De-ionizer Regeneration Wash)                25.000
                                                             $145,000

    Annual Oper. Costs,

        Chemical                                      $10,000 - 15,000
        Labor (includingffringe)                                30,000
        Maintenance & Related (5% of capital)                    7,250
        Steam & Power                                            3,300
        Make up Water  ($.20/1000 gal, 25,000 gpd)                1.500
          Total Oper. Costs                                    $57,050

    Indirect Oper. jCosts

        Taxes 5 Insurance  (1 1/2X of Cap.)                       2,180
        Cost of Capital (8 10%)                                  14,500
        Depreciation (3 7%)                                     10.150
          Total Indirect costs                                 $26,830

          Total Costs                                          $83,880

             $/day                                                  293.29
             $/1000 liters                                           0.42
             $/1000 gallons                                          1.60

     Credit for recycled water 9 15*/1000 gal                        0.15
     Net water cost                                                  1.4 5/100 CV
                                                                     0.38/1000 1

*Basis:  Plant described in Figure VIII-26

Ref:  Plant HH and ADL Estimates
                                   188

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DRAFT
                 SECTION  IX  -  Best Practicable Control
                     technology Currently Available

                               INTRODUCTION

The  best  practicable  control  technology currently available has been
found to be  comparable   to  the  primary  and  secondary  treatment  of
municipal sewage.

Level  I  guidelines  are based  essentially on well-operated activated
sludge  plants  or  extended  aeration  lagoons,  along  with   chemical
separation of heavy metals in  some of the industry categories.  The not-
to-exceed  guidelines  that  are  recommended will require 93 percent or
more BOD removal in four  of  the six  categories  that  have  significant
pollution.

This  technology  has  proved   to be applicable regardless of the age or
size of the plant.  It is capable of reducing concentrations  of  oxygen
demanding  substances  in the  effluent  stream  to  reasonable limits,
depending upon the treatability of the wastes.  However, variations  due
to  the  vagaries  of the microorganisms as well as process and climatic
conditions are normal  for   any  well-designed  biological  waste  water
treatment plant.

An  activated  sludge system which is permitted to operate at a constant
F:M ratio all year round  and with minimum operational changes would have
a natural variation as shown by the solid line in Figure IX-1.
A  similar  system  with  careful  operational  control  would  have   a
controlled  monthly  average variation as shown by the points.  Although
the mean  value  is  the  same,  the  amount  of  natural  variation  is
controlled  by  the  operator   through  aeration  rate  control,  sludge
recycling and F:M ratio adjustments.   These  adjustments  can  be  made
daily so that monthly averages can be held within the desired limits.

Although  a well-operated facility (properly designed) can be controlled
within +25 percent of the average  on  a  monthly  operating  basis,  an
allowance  of  SOX  deviation  from the average will be used to calculate
the maximum monthly effluent limitation.

The results of this work  show  that  exemplary  waste  water  treatment
plants  are presently in  operation, that their operations are compatible
with  widely  accepted  and  achievable   operational   guidelines   for
biologically-active substances, and that the most significant factors in
establishing guidelines and  limitations are the pollutants unique to the
manufacturing processes.
                                   189
                                 ,,..,. - •. . .-0 ••;.;;j v;- rrc...:vor..a'. ens '..a.ci u/cn inlcriv.aton in this
                                n°port and are lubjest to efcnc* tzsed upon comments rccc.ved and further

                                review by EPA.

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                                                                                                            *. a
    40



    36


    32
 o

 8  24
 O
 LU
 LU
    20
    12
    4
                                         TYPICAL SEASONAL VARIATION
                                           FOR ACTIVATED SLUDGE
             SEASONAL VARIATION
              WITHOUT CONTROL
                              1 ?
                              £ -4>
                       D
ITROLLED OPERATION -C
IMUM OPERATIONAL CHANGE #
M    A   M    J


        MONTH
N
D
                                             FIGURE IX-1

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DRAFT
EPA  and the  textile industry desire to simplify the  approach to Federal
pollution  abatement guidelines by using simple subcategories within  the
industry.   It  should  be  understood  that  decreasing  the  number of
categories  makes each less homogeneous and therefore  more susceptible to
larger variations in waste effluent.  Moreover, as discussed in  Chapter
IV, no simple means of subcategorizing the industry further to take into
account varying loads have been  found.

These  concerns  are  particularly  valid  for  categories 2 and 7, wool
finishing,  and stock and yarn dyeing respectively, both of which are  on
the  lower end  of  the treatability scale (90 percent BOD removal) and
categories  1  and 4, wool scouring and broad woven finish, both of  which
have high  raw waste loads.
                                    191
                                       I'OTri- Heis ao ;er.;a..vo re:oni~onjal.cns t-.a-oJ upon information in this
                                       report anJ are subject lo clianje based upon comments received and further

                                       review by EPA.

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DRAFT
                           CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

The engineering aspects of applying best practicable technology are well
understood  once  the  treatability  of  waste  water  streams  has been
established.  This treatability can be tested on a laboratory  scale  or
on a pilot plant scale.  Scale-up of the test results by the application
of  techniques widely-used throughout the waste water treatment industry
should be relatively straightforward.  However, it  must  be  recognized
that  appropriate safety factors are required in designs and that short-
circuiting these factors in order to  minimize  capital  investment  may
mean   the   difference  between  a  marginally-performing  waste  water
treatment plant and one performing at achievable efficiencies.

The availability of practicable technology for removal of  biologically-
active  substances  means  that  reduction in the concentration of these
substances, as measured by  BODjj  tests,  should  be  achievable  within
acceptable  limits.   The  cost  of achievement and its impact will be a
function of the specific plant and its location.

Since biologically active substances in the waste waters have been shown
to be removable to degrees  commensurate  with  well-known  waste  water
treatment   technology,  the  development  of  industry  guidelines  and
limitations must focus on the specific conditions  encountered  at  each
operating  plant.   As has been seen, the conditions depend upon a large
number of factors, the most important of which are the following:

    1.   The water usage rates at the  plant.   These  may  vary  for  a
number of reasons, some peculiar to the process, some dependent upon the
type  and  age of equipment, some dependent upon nonprocess practices or
requirements, and some upon the age and configuration of the plant.

    2.   The nature and amounts of  pollutants  generated  per  unit  of
product.   The  pollutant  load  per  unit  of  production  for  similar
processes at different locations or  between  different  equipment  will
vary  because  it  is inherently impossible to control precisely all the
physical and chemical variables required  to  produce  a  highly-uniform
flow of waste water with relatively constant compositions.

    3.   Segregating and preventing pollutants from entering waste water
streams.  The in-plant housekeeping practices and process  designs  that
prevent  pollution  by  preventing or minimizing spills, drips and leaks
from equipment from entering the waste water system can affect both  the
raw and treated waste loads.
                                   192


                                     NCPIC:: 7!:r : ••• '"-.••' • :-r	r;- '""; '• *' -•• :l ::--'r:- •'•"c ' l!


                                     review !)>• tl'A.

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 DRAFT
     H.    The relationship between the pollutant-removal capabilities   of
the   end-of-prpe  trea*v.nent  systems  and  the pollutant levels  applied,
especially as these may be affected by operational  upsets,  changes   in
process  operating conditions, or changes in plant production rates.

The   limitations that these factors set upon establishing guidelines  for
best practicable control technology are discussed below.

                         Biological Oxygen Demand

Using best practicable control technology currently available,   industry
is   capable  of  attaining  and maintaining a BOD5 level in the  effluent
within limits imposed usually by the characteristics of  the  biological
treatment  system  and not by the characteristics of the process.  Since
it   is   necessary  to  consider  concentration  units,  the  effects   of
unusually-high  concentration of BOD5 in the influent to the waste water
treatment plant must be given due consideration.

                          Chemical Oxygen Demand

Measurements of chemical oxygen demand (COD) substituents in  the  waste
water by  COD  test,  or measurement of organic carbon by the TOG test,
vary widely because of differences in organic chemical species   as  well
as the influence of oxygen demand by inorganic species.  The measurement
of COD includes not only substances subject to biological oxidation,  but
many substances  not biologically oxidizable as well.  The measured  COD
content  of the treated waste will be expected to vary more  widely  than
the   BOD  since little or none of the contributing species — which vary
in type  and quantity with time — may be removed.   Whereas,  biological
oxygen   demanding  substances  may  be expected to be removed to similar
concentration levels in the treated effluent  in  spite  of  significant
influent  variations,  that  portion  of  the incoming COD which is non-
degradable by biological means will result in the same concentration   in
the  effluent.
                             Suspended Solids

Gravity    sedimentation  is  the  best  practicable  control  technology
currently available and is typical of biological waste  water  treatment
processes.   The  separation  of  suspended solids by gravity methods is
dependent on a number of important operational variables,  such  as   the
•overflow   rates   in   the  sedimentation  tanks,  the  nature  of   the
microorganisms, the effects of climatic conditions on settling   lagoons,
the   effects  of  temperature  variations  in the waste water flows,  the
•presence of colloidal particulates from the process operations,  and   the
effectiveness   of   such  sedimentation  aids  as  polyelectrolytes   or
                                   193
                                      NOTICE: Thcss c:o 'is-1: v •:•.:.-•.,: cr'.r :.i; ':;i ?. :..;•;.,- >'.,,- :;;;cn ;„ thjs
                                      report and ate subject '.3 ci'crr.c Jaso: u. on csrr.r.cnli icjjvrj a.ij further
                                      review by EPA.

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DRAFT
adsorptivc *locs.  Ccher methods for separation of suspended solids  are
available, such as dissolved air flotation or in-depth media filtration.

In  general  the problem of suspended solids removal in this industry is
analogous to that of municipal sewage  treatment  plants  except  for  a
small   number  of  unique  considerations.   The  limitations  of  best
practicable  control  technology  currently  available  for  removal  of
suspended  solids  are  due  to  the  nature of the colloidal substances
produced in the process or in the waste  water  treatment  system  where
soluble  substances  are converted into insoluble solids.  Consequently,
variability in the  concentration  of  suspended  solids  from  a  well-
designed and operated waste water treatment plant can be attributable to
both  process  and  waste  water  treatment  plant  operations,  and not
predominantly to one or the other, as in the case of BOD and  COD.   The
removal of suspended solids requires conscientious and capable operation
of   well-designed   waste   water  treatment  plants  operating  within
practicable parameters.

                              Heavy Metals

Except for chromium used in dyeing and as a rust  inhibitor  in  cooling
water systems, heavy metals are not a significant problem in the textile
industry.   The  removal  of  chromium from cooling system blowdown is a
well-established technology  that  is  currently  available  from  other
industries, equipment suppliers, or consultants.

                                Phenols

Phenolics   generally   are   present   in   textile   waste  waters  in
concentrations where biological treatment is the best practical  control
technology.   Activated carbon absorption has been used for removal from
both high concentration and low concentration wastes.  The  limits  that
are  proposed  from  this  study  are  based on industry experience with
respect to effluent phenol concentrations achieved by  activated  sludge
plants, rather than on specific processes for removing phenols.

                                 Color

The  technologies  for  color  removal have been studies to great degree
both  by  private  and  EPA  funded  research.   Many  technologies  are
available  for  color  removal.  However, there is some controversy over
analytical measurement techniques proposed for the industry.
                                      f.tnTi'"'- Tl O1 * -
                                      l\u I *«.'*-• i l'u- • *"

                                      K;-prl £". i "'"; ' -

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DRAFT
Since color is an aesthetic  problem and  the technologies  are  available
for   its   removal,   a  relatively lenient requirement will be  established
until sufficient data  and agreement can  be made  on analytical technique.
                                         195
                                          NOTICt: These a-e •.c,:,;a;:v? :c::-:::r.e.i ;::n; In. c,' i^cn iiiferrcat'on in this
                                          report anil arc subject lo c'..«,;ic liased u;on co.-iin:cnt: rcceivad anJ further
                                          review by EPA.

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DRAFT
                       Category I: Wool Scouring

Table IX-1 summarizes the effluent characteristics of three mills
in this industry subcategory that have waste treatment, one of these  is
a  pilot  plant.   Plant  A  is  a  Southern mill with a waste treatment
facility a little over one year old; plant B represents the pilot  plant
project sponsored by EPA at Barre Wool in Massachusetts; and plant B» is
a central Texas mill.


A  number  of wool scouring mills were investigated to determine a range
of water use for this subcategory.  The values ranged from  0.2  to  4.0
gal/lb  of  raw  grease  wool  with a median water use of 1.5 gal/lb.  A
scouring bowl train designed  for  complete  counter  current  operation
which is normal practice in the industry uses 0.5 gal/lb, however, there
are  variations  from  plant  to  plant.   Water  use  value per unit of
material of exemplary plant A is influenced  to  an  unknown  extent  by
cooling  water.   Plant  B  could  reduce  its  water use by about 35-40
percent if it were to employ a complete counter current operation.

Another plant contacted indicated a present water usage of  0.7  to  1.0
gal/lb with intentions of future water reduction to 0.5 gal/lb.

The water use for wool scouring should not exceed 1.5 gal/lb when normal
operating procedures are employed.

Although  Plant A appears to be performing well, it has had a history of
failures.  There is indication based on several  months  data  that  the
plant  can  operate  at a much higher efficiency.  Four monthly averages
for BOD5 from 1972 are 150, 100, 15 and 22 mg/1.   The  last  value,  22
mg/1,  was  the  value  indicated on the permit application as being the
average concentration in the effluent.

Two methods are available for no discharge of pollutants.  One is  total
containment  as  exemplified by exemplary plant B1.  The other is direct
incineration.  The high concentration of BOD5_, COD and grease makes this
an  excellent  candidate  for  incineration.   This  coupled  with   the
difficulty  of waste treatment, either chemically or biologically, makes
it even more attractive.  Looking at the  1985  goal  of  no  discharge;
incineration,  where  land is unavailable, should be of serious interest
for a mill considering substantial treatment  plant  investment  at  the
present.   Nevertheless, a biological treatment plant can reduce BOD5 to
an  effluent  concentration  less  than  150  mg/1.   Other  than  total
containment,  present  treatment  of  wool scouring wastes are uniformly
inadequate.  Therefore, a water use  of  1.5  gal/lb   (normal  practice)
                                  196
                                      icviov; !•» Ci <••.

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                                                                                                                             .£ S
Q
                                                               TABLE IX- 1

                                                   PERFORMANCE OF MILLS WITH TREATMENT
                                                        Category 1:  Wool  Scouring
          Raw BOD
                       Treated BOD
                                                            BOD Removal
_                    _             _
rng/1  kg(1b)/1000 kg(T5T  mg/1  kg(1b)/1000 kg(1b) prod.    Efficiency (%)
2500
2700
B'
135        100-200



 90        200-300



           No Discharge

        (total containment)
                                              8
                                              8.1
                                                                       90-95
                                                                       90
                                                                                       Production
                                                                                       kg(1b)/d
                                                                                                                 Water Use  ;=" -'
                                                                                                                 Vkg(ga1/1b)j I
                                                                                                   19,666*         33. 4-75.4'

                                                                                                 (40,000-65,000)   (4)

                                                                                                  29,510   170     25-29.3

                                                                                                  (65,000) (375)*  (3-3.5)

                                                                                                   45,000             18

                                                                                                  (100,000)         (1.5)
          *  Pilot plant capacity 4920 1  (1300 gallons) H20/day 4920 » 170 kg (1300 = 375 lb^ equivalent
          proc-jction.                                           ?878          V3.46         '

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DRAFT
coupled  wirh  an  refluent  concentration  of  150  mg/1   results in an
effluent limitation  of  1.9  lb/1000 Ibs.

                                   COD

Much of the COD in the  effluent  from  treatment  systems   A  and  B  is
associated  with  the   suspended solids in the effluent.  For biological
systems efficient removal of suspended solids  will  result  in  maximum
removal  of  COD.    The pilot plant at Barre approaches  1500 mg/1 COD in
the effluent.  Although suspended solids removal through the  system  is
not  high and the efficiency could be improved, a value  of  1500 mg/1 COD
in the effluent will be employed.  The effluent guideline for COD is  19
lb/1000 Ibs.

                             Suspended solids

Data  from  the  two treatment  facilities  with effluent  indicate that
suspended solids can be reduced to below 100 mg/1.  The  guideline  based
on this information  is  1.3 lb/1000 Ibs.

                                  Grease

Grease  is  a  serious  problem in the wool scouring subcategory.  It has
been shown to be recoverable and treatable.  Effluent levels observed at
Barre Wool indicate  less than 100  mg/1  in  the  final  effluent.   The
guideline based on this information is 1.3 lb/1000 Ibs.

The  guidelines  for the  wool scouring category are based on pounds of
grease wool as received and weighed at the plant.
                                   198
                                        MmCC: Thcss c-c ^.[=:-.: rearr.n-cvsr.rs ba .c • ,-:ifl •Mi:~^l ,,, lhs

                                        report a-i a* sf.;Kt :«, c'w.-.c !K;: t.-o- co.B:rc.-;:3 ;:;e.v£j mj ,a,,ku
                                        review ty CPA.

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DRAFT
                       Category 2:  Wool Finishing

                              BOD Guidelines

No truely exemplary plants  were  found  from  which  to  draw  data  for
establishing  Level I guidelines.   Water use for normal practice in this
industry subcategory falls  in the range of 10 to 40 gal/lb,  the  latter
figure  being  influenced   to  an  unknown extent by cooling water.  For
processes considered to be  normal for wool finishing, a reasonable water
use is 20 gal/lb.   Waste   water  treatment  facilities  treating  waste
partially  composed  of  wool  finishing  wastes  have  shown consistent
reduction of BOD5 to below  20 mg/1.  Combination of these values results
in an effluent guideline of 3.U lb/1000 Ibs.

                                   COD

Reduction of COD to values  below 200 mg/1 has been  demonstrated.   This
coupled  with  reasonable flow rate results in an effluent limitation of
3* lb/1000 Ibs.

                             Suspended Solids

Plants attaining a high level of BODJij and COD  reduction  will  also  by
necessity   attain   high    reduction  of  suspended  solids.   Effluent
concentration of 30 mg/1 results in an effluent guideline of 5.1 lb/1000
Ibs.

                        Category 3: Greige Mills

As described in Section IV, plants of this type are  essentially  a  dry
operation.   Most  Greige   goods mills discharge their waste to sanitary
systems.  Of the mills that treat their own  waste  most  combine  their
sanitary  and  industrial   waste  loads;  the  respondees  to  the  ATMI
questionnaire indicated that 70 to 90 percent of the load was sanitary.

The only current compilation of water use figures  for  various  textile
subcategories   is  that  presented  to  EPA  by  the  American  Textile
Manufacturers Institute and the Carpet and Rug Institute.   Although  it
has  not as yet been completely verified, it appears to present the full
range of water uses to be expected  for  each  subcategory.   Water  use
distribution for greige mills as shown in Figure IX-2
illustrate  an  extremely   wide variation.  This can be explained by the
overriding influences of nonprocess water such as boiler water,  cooling
water  and  sanitary wastes which are very significant in some cases and
less significant in others.
                                   199
                                       NOTICE: Tftcsa are '.snb'Va rexr.r.sr. 'ctVn: I-JTC ' y.-i r:.;Crmation in this
                                       icport aaJ sr? sirred ',". IK::'.;.C !.c:c: a. n i:-:~; (.:.'.-, r;:c''v:J ail 'utV.mr
                                       review by CPA.

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    10
LU
CO
D

cc
LU
                                                                 x  x
                                                          x x
                                                 X X
                                            XX
                                 XX
                              ATMI DISTRIBUTION OF WATER USE
                                       FIGURE  IX-2
  10-2
III       III   I    I   I    I      I     I     I
                2    5    10     20   30  40  50  60  70

                                       (PERCENT)
                                          80     90    95     98

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DRAFT
Because of Lhc- extr*-..ie influence of nonprocess  waste  water  on  greige
mill  wastes and the difficulty of relating the true industrial waste to
production  it  is  recommended  that  some  flexibility  be  permitted.
Calculations  for  permit conditions may need to be based on an effluent
concentration  until  such  time  as  the  true  industrial   waste   is
identified.

                                  BOD

It  has  been  demonstrated  that BOD can be removed to a level below 20
mg/1 consistently for  a  greige  mill  waste.   From  the  water  usage
distribution presented, it can be seen that the apparent median value is
extremely  sensitive to the number of samples selected.  That is, if two
additional values had been included with lower than  median  water  use,
the median water usage would drop to 0.60 gal/lb; however, if two values
had  been  included  with higher than median water use, the median would
shift to 1.3 gal/lb.  Based  on  interpolation  between  the  asymptotes
approached  by  the  extremes  the  median  value  for water use is 0.62
gal/lb.  Using a median  water  use  of  0.62  gal/lb  and  an  effluent
concentration of 20 mg/1 the effluent limitation is 0.1 lb/1000 Ibs.

                                  COD

A  long  term  average  ratio of COD/BOD for one greige mill effluent is
7.8.  On this a guideline of 0.78 lb/1000 Ibs. is calculated.

                            Suspended Solids

Suspended solids are  reduced  to  an  average  of  30  mg/1.   Effluent
limitation guidelines for suspended solids is 0.15 lb/1000 Ibs.
                                  201
                                     ;:S;: *«:,' ?* « «. - -- -* - ««
                                     review by EWV.

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DRAFT
                   r_ttegory 4: Woven Fabric Finishing

                              Water Usage

The   water  use  distribution for this subcategory has been compiled by
the American Textile Manufacturers Institute  and  the  Carpet  and  Rug
Institute.   From  the  graphical  distribution  of  Figure  IX-3  it is
observed that 90 percent of this subcategory uses less than  30  gal/lb,
50 percent use 13 gal/lb, and 15 percent use less than 4 gal/lb.

                             BOD Guidelines

Table   IX-2  summarizes  the  BOD  effluent  results  from  8  mills
broadwoven, cotton and cotton blend finishing  considered  as  exemplary
for category U.  As stated earlier, this category represents the biggest
wet  processing  mills  and  the  biggest  water  users  in  the textile
industry, and  accounts  for  almost  half  of  the  pollution  of  this
industry.   These  were the first to be regulated by the states relative
to instituting waste abatement procedures, and as  a  result  there  are
many more good plants to consider as exemplary.

The  mills  all  have above 92 percent BOD efficiency.  Because of their
unique product mixes (varying ratios of cotton to synthetics and varying
weights of goods), and differing  processing  steps  involved,  the  raw
waste  loads  varied from 35 kg (lb)/1000 kg (Ib) to 145 kg (lb)/1000 kg
(Ib) and the water usage is highly varied.  (For  example,  the  highest
water  usage  mill, S, processes all corduroys, velvets, and velveteens.
Even so, because of the high efficiency  of  waste  treatment,  all  the
mills averaged less than 30 ppm concentration of BOD.

With  six major pollution-contributing process steps and the significant
difference in BOD load between cotton and synthetics, literally hundreds
of combinations of plant sequences are possible  and  indeed  do  exist.
(See  Sections IV and V.) It is felt that the plants cited in Table IX-2
cover the extremes in terms of processing conditions, and because of the
high  treatability  of  this  waste,  no  further  subcategorization  is
warranted.

The average of the best gives an effluent limitation of 2.2 lb/1000 Ibs.
Inspection  of the plant with the highest influent concentration reveals
that this plant can meet the requirement.  Inspection of the plant  with
the  highest  water usage (35 gal/lb) indicates that this plant can also
meet the requirement.

                             COD Guidelines
                                  202
                                      ic-pi,:'.

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DRAFT
Table  IX-3 summarizes the correlations between COD and BOD   for  various
plants  in  category  H  using their monthly average results for BOD and
COD.
                                      203
                                                     -   •
                                                  J w" cuXe.t a> S W ~^ «.'«i co:r.r.x:-.!.-. rocc.voJ and further

                                             review by EPA.

-------
O
               40



               30




               20i
           I1
           UJ
           V)


           cc-
           UJ
   ATMI DISTRIBUTION OF WATER USE FOR

     WOVENS AND GREIGE PLUS WOOVENS            x
                                                             x

                                                            x
                                      x x
                               X  X
                                I    I
                   J_ ^L   I  . I
5   10     20  30  40  50 60  70    80    90    95     98


                  PERCENT
                                                FIGURE  IX-3

-------
                                                              TABLE IX-2
BOD PERFORMANCE
Raw BODa
Mill
J

K

M

0

P

Q

R

S

mg/1
776

566

807

444

622

445

356

167

kg(lb)/1000
kg(lb) prod.
88

35

78

37

146

50

37

49

OF EXEMPLARY MILLS
Category 4: Broadwoven, Cotton and Cotton Synthetic Blends
Treated BOD
mg/1 kg(lb)/1000
kg(lb) prod
30

13

23.1

14

19.3

6.4

27

4.2

3.4

0.8

2.2

1.2

4.5

0.71

2.8

1.2

BOD Removal
Efficiency %
96.1

97.7

97.1

96.9

96.9

98.5

92.3

97.5

Production
kg(lb)/d




211,000
(465,000)
60 ,800
(134,000)
197,000
(434,000)
73,000
(161,000)
90,800
(200,000)
25,700
(56,600)
Water Use
Vkg(gaVlb)
113.4
(13.6)
61.7
(7.4)
96.7
(11.6)
69.2
(8.3)
230.1
(26.7)
110.9
(13.3)
104.2
(12.5)
294.3
(35.3)
         (a)   average.
O

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DRAFT
The last c^iumn in  _nis table  is the pooled results  from  five  plants.
Of   the   four   plants   analyzed  individually,  only  two  have  good
correlations of COD to BOD.  The Plant 0 correlation is the best and  for
its mix of chemicals used  in operations,  the  intercept  would  suggest
that only about 10  ppm  (best estimate, 7.8) of its BOD is nondegradable.
Taking  the  overall  average  ratio of 13.7:1 suggested by the composite
data would give a COD guideline of 2.2x13.7=30.1, say 30 kg (lb)/1000 kg
(Ib).

The analysis of the composite  data of five plants  suggest  an  industry
average of 150 ppm  COD as  nonbiodegradable.  The regression equation  for
the composite data  is:

                        COD *  149.5 + 4.02 (BOD)

An  average  plant  water use of 13.5 gal/lb and an average BOD5 effluent
concentration of 20 mg/1 gives the following COD limitations:

                        COD =  149.5 * 4.02 (20)

                             COD =230 ppm

which corresponds to  27 Ibs/1000 Ibs.  This corresponds  favorably  with
the  previous  calculation,  therefore, the effluent guideline for COD is
30 lb/1000 Ibs.

                             Suspended Solids

The best among the  exemplary plants with respect to suspended solids are
summarized in Table IX-3.   It  can readily be seen from Table  IX-4  that
design  overflow  rate should  not exceed 300 gpd/ft2 for this waste.  In
addition, it may be necessary  in some cases to add  polyelectrolytes  to
maintain  the desired effluent concentration.  An effluent concentration
of 30 mg/1 gives an effluent guideline of 3.3 lb/1000 Ibs.
                                   206
                                                      E L. :'.. ; ». s- ;.i •r.-'-ir'-.I'o.i in t!ife
                                      ..0[U: ..'.-„ ,c 4 * '- '^ '^ '.; .^..^ ;tcB«J anJ further
                                      report and arc sul-,ca .0 k..jn0- —•« -,-•<

                                      review by EPA.

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DRAFT
         CATEGORY 4;
                         TABLE IX-3
                SUMMARY OF EFFLUENT COD BOD CORRELATIONS
Months Data

BOD, ppm

COD , ppm
Correlation
COD, BOD

Correlation
coefficient
T
12
162.17
874.75
5.4
fair

Plants
M
6
25.5
214
8.4
very
poor
V
5
18.0
254.2
14.1
good

O
12
13.5
202
14.9
very
poor
Grand Avg.
Excl.K,Incl.U
31
15.48
211.84
13.7
good

           .42
Prob. Correlation
  above 0      92.6%

Slope COD/BOD   1.479

Intercept < * >,
    ppm
        634.9
  .08


56%

  N/A


  N/A
  .89


99.9%

10.9


57.2
  .97


99.99*

14.39


 7.8
   .42


 99%

  4.02


149.5
 (1)
Inferred COD at O BOD.
                                  207

-------
DRAFT
                                 TABLE IX- 4

                      CATEGORY U - SUSPENDED  SOLIDS
Plant  Average
M

O

Q

R
  98

 121

  61.5

  31
<3 mo.
 only)
Std. Dev.
of Mo.Avg

   50

   N/A

    8.0
                                  Range of Monthly  clarifier Overflow
                                  Averages, ppm     Cu m/m*/day  (gal/ftz/day)
39-193

  N/A

49-72

30-33
(3 mo.
 only)
                                                        28.72

                                                        24.50

                                                        12.34

                                                        12.79
                                                                  (705)

                                                                  (600)

                                                                  (303)

                                                                  (314)
                                     208
                                         report ana <•'£ su:.
                                         review by EPA.
                                                                        °" cn l'"s
                                                                        nJ lurthor

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DRAFT
                    category  5:  Knit Fabric Finishing

                               Water Usage

From the water use information  supplied to EPA by ATMI-CRI, Figure   IX-U
was  constructed.   The  range  of water use does not appear to be great,
that is, 75  percent of this  relatively small sample of the industry  use
between 10 gal/lb and 30 gal/lb with a median  use of 20 gal/lb.

                               BOD Guidelines

Five  plants  were originally considered for setting Level I guidelines;
their performance is summarized in Table IX-5.
                                    209
                                      NOTICE: These zrc* «e-.!.i;:"'---T.r ^'.-' :---T. ;:'T-V:"-.' in Shis
                                      l&r.f.l! ;:•'.•....    '    •   . ••  •   iv   ' - '  :•!' f

-------
                           ATMI DISTRIBUTION OF WATER USE FOR KNITS
    40



    30




    20
S  10
UJ
CO
cc
111
               X   X
         X  X
                                                             o

                                                             K
                      I    I
I	I
                            I
I
I
10     20   30  40   50^ 60  70   80


                PERCENT
                                                                 90    95
                              98
                                          FIGURE IX-4

-------
                                                                  TABLE IX-5
BOO PERFORMANCE OF EXEMPLARY MILLS
Category 5: Knits
Mill
W
X
Y
Z
AA
Raw BOD
rnq/1 kq(lb)/1000 kg(1b)
481 51.7
80
568
175
249
17.9
75.6
18.0
40.8
Treated BOD BOD Removal Production
prod mg/1 kg(lb)/1000 kg(lb) prod Efficiency % kg(lb)/d
37.5 3.61
2.0 .45
16.3 2.17
9.7 1.01
30.0 5.01
91.7 14,100
(31,100)
97.4 28,600
(63,000)
97.2 62,060
(136,700)
94.4 17,200
(37,884)
88.0 17,600
(38,800)
Water Use
l/kg(gal/lb)
107.5
(12.9)
224.3
(26.9)
132.6
(15.9)
102.5
(12.3)
193.4
(23.2)
                                                                                                                               ;_• £ s
Q

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DRAFT
Plant AA was origin<-.j.ly considered -to be  included   among  the  exemplary
plants because it carried on a  significant  amount  of  fabric printing and
also  had  begun  to  use  increasing amounts  of flameproofing agent for
childrens1 knitwear and there were some thoughts that  this  may  affect
the  treatability  of  the  waste   (88 percent vs.  92-97 percent for the
other plants under consideration).  However,   further  inquiry  revealed
this  plant  operates  its aerators alternately at 50 percent and at 100
percent of capacity to keep dissolved oxygen from  getting too  high  and
also  does not add nutrient to  the waste  load  on a consistent controlled
basis.  It also has relatively  high overflow   rates  on  the  clarifier.
Among  the  remaining  four  plants  significant differences can be seen
among the raw waste loads, 18 to 75 kg  (lb)/1000 kg (Ib)  of product, but
this is normal for the diversity of operations carried  on  among  knit
mills.   More  specifically, the differences were  not due to the product
mix of raw materials being processed, but rather to the unit  operations
for the specific fibers being processed.

The  average  of  the  best results in a  BOD5  limitation of 2.45 lb/1000
Ibs.   The  plant  with  the  highest  water"  use   easily   meets   this
requirement.   The  plant  with the highest influent concentration also
meets the requirement.

Plant W, having the lowest efficiency  of  removal among  these  plants
(91.7  percent), in conjunction with having the second highest raw load,
52 kg  (lb)/1000 kg (Ib), had the poorest  effluent  of  the  four,  37  ppm
BOD  or 3.6 kg (lb)/1000 kg  (Ib).  This plant, as  described in Chapter V
has  excellent   design   and   operating  characteristics,   including
equalization,   nutrient   addition,   extended   aeration,   with  high
concentration of biomass and one of the highest aeration power inputs in
the industry and primary and secondary clarifiers.  The one  failing  of
this plant is the high suspended solids carryover  from the secondary and
tertiary  clarifier  possibly   because of the  extensive use of dispersed
dyes in dyeing the nylon portion of this  production (25  percent  nylon,
65 percent nylon/acetate) and a relatively  high proportion of goods dyed
to  dark shades.  This carryover is despite the fact  that the clarifiers
are designed at  9.71  Cu  m/d/m2   (239   gal/d/ft2)   overflow  from  the
secondary  clarifier  and  13.0 Cu  m/d/m2  (320   gal/d/ft2)   from  the
tertiary.  The plant recognizes this problem,  and  this spring  installed
a  rapid-mix  basin, flocculation basin,  and metering equipment for alum
and polyelectrolyte addition prior to secondary clarifier.   With  this
added  treatment  it is achieving "50 to  75-80 ppm" suspended solids and
feels that when the system is optimized,  it will achieve 25 to  50  ppm.
(Its  laboratory  settling  tests indicate  this system should average 25
ppm solids in the overflow.)
                                   212
                                                     ..„...•-.- • j •' • ••-. , Icrirs'.'on in
                                     NOTICE: TUsc a;j -.c:':. v: re .^ .. -j • -- ^ ^ - -• ^ ^^_^ ^_

                                     rej:cr! anJ s:o -u••0-' •'• - '"-" "  -.-•••
                                     review by tFA.

-------
DRAFT
A simple reyression  Analysis was made of suspended   solids   on  BOD  for
Plant  W«s effluent.                                            Using that
relationship  (which  indicated 0.2 kg (Ib) BOD associated with  each  kg
(pound)  of  suspended   solids  carryover),  the monthly average BOD was
adjusted downward to account for an average suspended  solids of 25 mg/1.
This had the effect  of  dropping the average BOD from  3.61   to  2.45  kg
(lb)/1000 kg  (Ib) product,  bringing it in line with  the  other plants.

                              COD Guidelines

COD  data  in  this   industry  category are very meager, only two of the
exemplary plants have such.   Plant W has fairly extensive data  with  an
excellent  correlation   between  monthly  average  COD  and BODls in the
effluent;
         COD kg  (lb)/1000 kg (Ib) product = 2.60 + 11.21 (BOD);
This waste treatment plant removed 74 percent  of  the  COD,  the  other
Plant  Y,  with  less  data indicating 69 percent COD  removal.  From the
Plant W data, the effluent limit is calculated to be 30.1  kg  (lb)/1000
kg  (Ib).

                      Suspended solids Guidelines

By  checking  the  available data, high suspended solids in other plant-
treated effluents within the  knit  industry  were   confirmed,  probably
because of the use of dispersed dyes (Table IX-6).

                                TABLE IX-6

                   SUSPENDED SOLIDS DATA, CATEGORY 5

              Average SS        2nd Clarifier Upflow
                mg/1            Cu m/d/mz  (gal/d/ft«)

Plant W          101                9.74     (239)
Plant X          29               12.96     (318)
Plant Y          36               20.70     (508)
Plant Z          48                8.35     (205)
Plant AA         84               24.40     (600)

Based  on the above  discussion of the technology that  Plant W can employ
to  achieve 25 ppm suspended solids, a limit of 25 ppm  seems appropriate.
This calculates to a guideline of 4.1 kg  (lb)/1000 kg  (Ib)  product.
                                   213
                                      NOTICt-. TV.cso a:; 'cr'.r/vo ifo:-:r.-.cr.:.-.: c;;r. '.n H u.\n .i.li'rnv.tlon in Oils

                                      rcpcil .nJ r.:o SJVvl '..i o';-.;.c I'J:-:.: u r;i :;•».•• f' iKf\.:.'. .1.1 SUittn

                                      ILV.O.V !>•; U-.V

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DRAFT
               Category 6: Carpet Mills Including Backing

                              Water Usage

The distribution of water use within the carpet industry is presented in
the Figure IX-5.  Roughly 70 percent of  the  industry  uses  between  3
gal/lb and 12 gal/lb with a median water use of 6.5 gal/lb.

                             BOD Guidelines

Two   mills are summarized in Table IX-7.

The  average  of  the  best  results in an effluent limitation of 1.4 kg
(lb)/1000 kg  (Ibs) .

                             COD Guidelines

A. small amount of data suggests that faculatative or anaerobic ponds  in
conjunction  with  aerobic  ponds  achieve greater COD reduction than do
aerobic ponds  alone.   Using  a  COD/BOD  ratio  of  10:1  an  effluent
limitation of 14 kg  (lb)/1000 kg (Ib) is calculated.

                            Suspended Solids

Data  on  the  suspended solids performance of the two"   plants of Table
IX-7 are very meager and are summarized below:
                                  211

-------
DRAFT
                                Clarifier Dpflow Rate
                 Average      Cu m/m*/day  (gal/ft*/day)


Plant CC           17          8.026     (197)
Plant DD           40         12.13      (305)

Through proper design of a clarifier, it will average 30 mg/1   suspended
solids, therefore, an effluent limitation of 1.6 lb/1000 Ibs.
                                  215

-------
21
CO
cc
Ul
I
      40


       30



       20
       10
ATMI DISTRIBUTION OF WATER USE FOR CARPETS
                                                                    x *
                                  ,* *
                             X*


                            X
                   111      I    I   I   I    I   I    I
                   2     5    10
         20   30  40  50  60  70   80

               (PERCENT)
90   95
98
                                         FIGURE IX-5

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DRAFT
                    Category 7:  Stock and Yarn Dyeing

                               Hater Usage

A  fairly  wide  distribution  of water use is observed  in the stock and
yarn dyeing subcategory.   From the  information  supplied  by  ATMI-CRI,
roughly 85 percent  use less than 30 gal/lb.  A median water use of about
20  gal/lb  is observed.   From Figure IX-6, it is also observed that the
water use falls off rapidly indicating that 30 percent use less than  10
gal/lb.

                              BOD Guidelines

Two  mills  were  considered  exemplary  relative  to  setting  Level  I
guidelines, as shown by their effluent characteristics   in  Table  IX-8.
Two parameters, raw waste load and water usage, immediately suggest that
there  may be basic differences between Plant EE and Plant GG.  Plant EE
processes 100 percent PE  and does piece dyeing to  later  achieve  space
dyeing  effects.    It  processes pure synthetics, and does not bleach or
mercerize.  Plant GG processes PE cotton blends.

The average of the  best results in an effluent  limitation  of  2.75  kg
(lb)/1000  kg   (Ibs).  Exemplary Plant GG approaches the guideline even
though it uses more water than 94% of the stock and yarn category.

                              COD Guidelines

Only one of the exemplary plants had any COD data.  Three  month's  data
averaged  13:1  ratio  of COD/BOD.  From this the COD will average 35 kg
(lb)/1000 kg  (lb),  based  on 13 times the BOD guidelines.

                             Suspended Solids

The average suspended solids concentration may be as high as  1.5  times
the effluent BODS concentration.  This results in an effluent limitation
of 1.1 Ibs/1000 Ibs.
                                   217
                                      NOTICl: U.tre a;c :t»ia; vj ic :;•-:: c:. .:„.:. i; fj c,. n mrori-.I'on in Mils
                                      report a:iJ tic su'jjccl lo c;.c:i.;c l::e; u;c:i t3;:;:rcn:-; rccovoJ anj further
                                      review by EPA.

-------
   100
    90
    80
    70
    60
    50

    40
    30
    20
s
UJ
CO
cc
Ul
I
10
                ATMI DISTRIBUTION OF WATER USE FOR STOCK & YARN;
                                                       •-•&
                                                 J»«*
                                                                                                   11
                                                                                                   t- "u

                                                                                                   rf g
                                                                                                   i t
                                                                                                   «» wt
                                                                                                   O «i
                                                                                                     r
                                           I
                                           I
I
I	I
                           10     20   30   40 50  60  70   80

                                              (PERCENT)

                                              FIGURE IX-6
                                                              90    95    98

-------
                                                     TABLE IX- 7                                                 :

                                         BOD PERFORMANCE OF EXEMPLARY MILLS                                      ;  ;
                                              Category 6:Carpet Mills

               Raw BOD                         Treated BOD             BOD Removal    Production    Water Use      '
Mill     mg/1   kg(lb)/1000 kg (Ib)       mg/1  kg(lb)/1000 (Ib)prod.   Efficiency %   kg(lb)/d      I/kg (gal/lb)  -

 CC     186          16.01               12.9          1.09               93.1                         86.7      ''  *
                                                                                                      (10.4)     »  «

 DD     280           9.6                14.0          0.5                95.2          31,330         54.2      •'  "]
                                                                                       (69,000)        (6.5)     •-.  -J

-------
DRAFT
                 SUMMARY OF EFFLUENT GUIDELINES FOR LEVEL I

Table   IX-9   summarizes  the  guidelines, giving the not-to-exceed limits
based  on 30 working  day average, and  maximum daily average.
                                       220
                                                 . t t  • • r rKOi.iM-.oa.a; ;ns .2 c. u;cn -ntor.Ta; on m ti;li
                                              dte subiecuo change base; u.-on co,,cn-, «^td and «ur,hW

                                         review by EPA.

-------
                                                     TABLE IX- 9
                                           PERFORMANCE OF EXEMPLARY MILLS
                                   CategoryT:   Stock ?> Yarn Dyeing ?< Finishing
Hill

 EE


 GG
       Raw BOD
mg/1   kg(lb)/1000 kg (1b)
                            Treated BOD
                      mg/1   kg(lb)/1000 kg (1b)
333
115
25.6
52.9
22.8
 8.0
1.75
3.73
BOD Removal
Efficiency %

   93.2
   92.9
Production
kg(lb)/d

 19,430
(42,800)

  8,720
(19,160)
Water Use
I/kg (gal/lb)

     76.7
     (9.2)

    461.0
    (55.3)

-------
                                                       TABLE IX-T
LL*



SUMMARY


OF LEVEL I

Maximum 20
~ 13
POLLUTANT GUIDELINES - (a) •* *


j
Working Day Averages,
kg/1000 kg

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

6.

7.
Category
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Greige Goods
Woven Fabric Finishing

Knit Fabric Finishing

Carpets

Stock and Yarn Oyeing
BOD
2.85
5.1
0.15
3.3

3.6

2.1

4.0
COD
28
51
1
45

45

21

52
(lb/1000 Ib)
Suspended Solids
2.0
7.6
.17 0.22
6.1

6.1

2.4

6.1

PH^*3) '.'
6-8.5 ' '•
6-8.5
6-8.5
«j
6-8. 5 , .$
\ \i
"j <
6-3.5 : fc
^ >^
-J w -°
6-8.5 - ; 3 1
H ; -
6-8.5 N
(a)  In addition to the guidelines shown, the following apply to all categories
     Coliform organisms 200/ml '1PN,
     Total  chromium-not to exceed 0.25 mg/1
     Phenols-not to exceed 0.25 mg/1
     Color-not to exceed 200 ADMI units
(b)  Values  are the maximum permitted range.

Note:  Daily maximum may not exceed twice the maximum 20 working day average.
Q

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DRAFT
                               REFERENCES

IX.1          Waste water treatment Technology—Second Edition,  January
              73-state of Illinois, Institute of Environmental Quality.

IX.2          28th Annual Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette,
              Indiana, May, 1973, page 13.

IX.3          Industrial  Wastes  Studies  Program,  Textile   Products,
              Arthur D. Little Draft Report to EPA, May 1971.
                                  222

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DRAFT
                               SECTION X

            BEST AVAILABLE TREATMENT ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE

                              Introduct ion


Congress  has  stated  that*  "not  later  than  July  1, 1983, effluent
limitations for categories in  classes  of  point  sources,  other  than
publicly owned treatment works, which . . . shall require application of
the  best available technology economically achievable for such category
or class, which will result in reasonable further  progress  toward  the
national  goal  of  eliminating  the  discharge of all pollutants".  The
Environmental Protection Agency has interpreted this section of the  law
as  follows:  "Level  II  technology is not based upon an average of the
best performance within an industry category, but is to be determined by
identifying the very best control and treatment technology employed by a
specific source within the industry category, or subcategory,  or  where
it is readily transferable from one industry to another, such technology
may be identified as Level II technology."

In qualifying statements, the EPA has stated, "it is imperative that the
effluent limitation and standards to be promulgated by the Administrator
be  supported  by  adequate  verifiable  data  and that there be a sound
rationale for the judgments made." Further in the same  document  it  is
stated,  "However,  Level II may be characterized by some technical risk
with respect to performance and  with  respect  to  certainty  of  cost.
Therefore,   Level   II   may  necessitate  some  industrially-sponsored
development work prior to its application."

We have been swayed by the words of  Congress:  "which  will  result  in
reasonable  further progress toward the national goal of eliminating the
discharge of all pollutants."
                                  223

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DRAFT
                  Proposed  Guidelines - zero Discharge

In most case.^ a 50% reduction  in  water usage from  the  average  of  the
plants in each category  is  projected.

From  the  rationale  described previously,  it is apparent that Level II
guidelines can be achieved   only   by  the  use  of  technologies  beyond
biological treatment.

Achieving  zero  discharge   is a  primary aim of the law.  In doing this,
careful  consideration   was given  to  all    the   advanced   treatment
alternatives  described  in Section  VIII-5—:  phase  change, membrane
separation and sorption—together with the cost information described in
Section VIII.  Data showing the application   of  these  technologies  to
textile  waste  effluents is scarce, and a wide variety of chemicals may
be used by the industry.  Therefore, the most promising  techniques  are
(a)   secondary  biological   treatment,  followed by (b)  clarification to
reduce suspended solids, and (c)   three  stage  evaporation  or  reverse
osmosis  (see figure X-1).

In making recommendations for  Level II guidelines, it should be recalled
that guidelines may be characterized by some technical risk.
Level II guidelines of  zero discharge are chiefly directed at removal of
dissolved  salts   so  that  the water is fit for recycle.  For removal of
these dissolved salts we  have  considered electrodialysis, ion  exchange,
reverse  osmosis,  distillation, freezing techniques and ultrafiltration.
(The last two were eliminated   from  further  consideration  because  of
their limited applicability and lack of technical data.)

Electrodialysis  and  ion  exchange  are  more  mature  technologies and
similar in that they remove only dissolved, ionized  salts.   With  this
limitation   it  is  less  likely  that  the  treated  effluent  can  be
successfully recycled to  the process, because of the presence  of  color
or  other  residual  organics   or non-ionized salts, such as phosphates.
Reverse osmosis and multiple effect evaporation should have an advantage
over the former two processes  since they  remove  organic  materials  in
addition to dissolved salts.

In  Section  VIII  we   have made  detailed  cost estimates of these two
processes as final  treatment   steps  to  obtain  zero  discharge.   The
examples  chosen   were  from  category  U,  Woven  Fabric Finishing, and
category 5, Knit Fabric Finishing, which represent the major  proportion
                                   22U
                                    • Oil"-: • i-.-j i-c e..;...; rcco;:ii-.:cn;a; ens -c cj u.:cn ,ii!or:ra:.on in this
                                    re,,ort anJ arc sut;ect :o c.^an^c tascj upon com.rents receded and further

                                    review by EPA.

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DRAFT
                                           Raw Wastewater
                                          Primary Screening
                                             Aeration
                                            Stabilization
                                              Basin
                        Condensate
                Water Returned
                  to Process
                                                             (Or Reverse Osmosis Unit)
                                             Solids to
                                             Land Fill
                             FIGURE X-l   SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF
                                PROCESS STEPS ZERO DISCHARGE
                                TREATMENT

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DRAFT
of  the  elfluent from the textile industry.  The data show that the two
techniques are comparable in cost.  Although reverse osmosis may have  a
somewhat higher technical potential it needs more technical development.
The  costs  developed  indicate  $0.92  to  1.06/1000  liters  ($3.50 to
U.00/1000 gallons) for large plants (including credit for water recycled
to the process) .
                                  225

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DRAFT
                                SECTION XI

                    NEW SOURCE  PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
                        & PRETREATMENT STANDARDS

                    New Source  Performance Standards


As stated earlier, it is not clear  how the textile industyr  can  reduce
its  raw waste loads except by:   (a)  substitution of treatment chemicals
and (b)  better process  control  to  minimize  reworks,  poor  dye  bath
exhaustion, and wastage of process  chemicals in general, as discussed in
Section VII.

A  new  plant  should  practice counter current flow and multiple use of
process and wash waters.  These will  reduce hydraulic loads  and  for  a
new  waste  treatment plant will permit reduced size or longer residence
times but will offer few opportunities to recover chemicals (and thereby
reduce waste loads).

However, with Level I guidelines, treated  effluent  BOD  concentrations
will  already be below 30 mg/1  (ppm)  using standard biological treatment
plants.  Functionally, there is little reason to  lower  this  BOD  load
still further.

It  is  recognized  that  in settling standards for Level II, a ten year
period is built in to collect better  data on reliability and cost of the
newer abatement technologies, whereas Level III  guidelines  are  to  be
applicable essentially immediately.  Even so, it is recommended that the
Level II guidelines be applied  as Level ill guidelines as well.


                         Pretreatment Standards

Waste   waters   from  the  textile  industry  have  been  shown  to  be
biologically degradable  under   appropriate  conditions.   Consequently,
treatment  of  these  waste  waters in municipal sewage systems could be
expected to proceed in an analogous manner if  appropriate  pretreatment
and  operating  considerations   are  used.   Although the BOD portion of
these waste waters has been  found  to  be  generally  as  treatable  as
municipal  sewages,  the  normal operating conditions for the municipal
waste water treatment plants may require modification.  Furthermore, the
COD of the effluent from the combined  municipal  and  industrial  waste
water  treatment  plant  can be expected to be higher than that normally
                                   226
                                      NOTICE: T1 fis s:s 'c pr'v. :.r.--—~c- -.; '.-•• 'so! ;: -p T.hrr.a'.'on in this
                                      K;-O:( sin ?;c ;a":c:l s : ; c .vc: i •;•: <:.,•:•'• .— v^j aad further
                                      tc-ACv. b; LI''A.

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DRAFT
associated  with  nr.iiicipal  sewage  because  of  the  more   biological
refractory substances found in the industry waste water.  Obviously, the
proportion  of  the  total  flows  and loads contributed by the industry
source as well as the treatability must be evaluated for each  location.
If  those  conditions  are recognized and appropriately compensated for,
the pretreatment requirements for  the  waste  water  from  the  textile
industry should be as follows.

    1.   suspended solids  that  will  settle  out  in  sewer  lines  or
accumulate on surfaces should be removed by a screening operation before
entering the system.  (Short fibers are the principle contributor here.)

    2.   pH should be adjusted before the waste waters are discharged to
municipal sewers.

    3.   Heavy metals should be removed to levels  established  for  the
industry  category  except  appropriate allowances may be made for those
metals known to be removed in efficiently operating biological  systems.
Approximately  two-thirds of the chromium, the metal of most concern for
textile waste, is removed in the waste treatment plant  so  pretreatment
standards should be set according to the percent of the total waste that
is represented by the textile load with a maximum of, say, 2 mg/1  (ppm).

    H.   Toxic   and   hazardous   substances   should   be   precluded.
Presumably,  their  usage  within  the  industry's  plant will have been
restricted by  the  EPA*s  toxic  and  hazardous  materials,  rules  and
regulations.

    5.   Waste waters should be collected at the plant site,  cooled  if
required,  and  metered  into  the municipal sewage system at a rate and
schedule compatible with the diurnal characteristic of the system.

    6.   Removal of colloidal solids at the industrial plant to a  level
commensurate  with  those  established  for the industry category.   (One
principal item here is latex removal by adjusting pH and coagulating  it
in carpet mills.)

    7.   Floating oils should be removed  prior  to  putting  the  waste
waters into municipal sewer systems.

The  pretreatment guidelines suggested above for textiles are compatible
with the preliminary report "Pretreatment Guidelines for  the  Discharge
of  industrial  Wastes  to  Municipal Treatment Works" by Roy F. Weston,
Inc.  (EPA Contract No. 68-01-03*6); however, the later report should  be
                                   227
                                                                .!  ....' .arlhsr

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DRAFT
consulted  for the Comprehensive background and rationale to be  followed
in  establishing pretreatment standards  for industrial  plants.
                                         228
                                           tlOTiCf.: T'-cc; C"C '<•"•<."»•: re'.:i~r"cri.'r' :r,; V- c.' c;-.n .n::rn:a.:cn in this
                                           r-;.!-. .in-' &:i: 'U-.W .i -' ."• : :^-'-' ""•" ::•••'•'• ""'.' ::?':- .r;J farther
                                           rcvxv: LV Si'A.

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DRAFT
                                  SECTION XIII

                                 ACKNOWLEDGMENT


Field data and much other information contained in this report has been supplied by
A. D. Little, Inc., under EPA Contract No. 68-01-1515.

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DRAFT
                              SECTION XIV

                               REFERENCES

A review of the recent literature for references on Textile wastes and
waste treatment has produced over 200 references.  Brief abstracts of
50 of these references are included as well as the full list of references.
This review covered the following:

SOURCE

   Abstracting and Indexing Services

Applied Science and Technology Index

Chemical Abstracts

Engineering Index

Pollution Abstracts

Textile Information—Sources and References

Water Pollution Abstracts

   Journals

American Dyestuff Reporter

America's Textile Reporter Bulletin


Bulletin Environmental Contamination;
       Toxicology

Environment

Environmental Science & Technology


Industrial Waste

Industrial Water Engineering
COVERAGE THRO



March 1973

April 9, 1973

November 1972

March 1973

June 1972*

 July 1972*



March 1973 (except Aug. 1971)*

January 1973  (except Feb. and
      April 1972)**

June 1972**


November 1972***

March 1973 (except Jan. and
      Feb. 1973)**

March/April 1973***

April/May 1973***
                                  229

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DRAFT
Textile Chemists ana Colorists
       (J. Am. Assoc. TCC)

J. Environmental Sciences
Modern Textiles

Pollution Engineering




Textile Industries


Textile Institute and Ind. Proc.

Textile Month****

Textile Research J.

Textile world

Water and Wastes Eng.



Water and Sewage Works


Water Pollution Control Federation J.



Water Research
April 1973
March/April 1973 (except
   May/June 1972)**

March 1973

July/August 1971, Sept./Oct.
1971; January/February, March/
April, July, August, September
and November 1972***

January 1973 (except June 1971,
June and August 1972)**

October 1972*

March 1973

March 1973

April 1973

July 1972, plus January 1973,
(except November 1971, January
March, August-December 1972)**

February 1973 (except April
and September 1972)**

January 1973 (including Textile
Waste Bibliographies, June
1971 and 1972)

April 1973
*Latest in ADL Library
**Missing from ADL Library
***Only available issues in ADL Library
****Most textile journals covered only industry-related topics, so
    coverage was limited.

Other journals (CIBA Review, Environmental Pollution and control. Water
                                  230

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DRAFT
and Wastes Digest, Lnvironment Report, etc.) , were checked briefly only
to confirm that they did not cover the subject of textile waste treatment.
                                  231

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DRAFT
   Bibliographies

The bibliography contained in: "The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III
Industrial Waste Profile No. U - Textile Mill Products," Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration, September 1967.

The bibliography contained in: "State of the Art of Textile Waste
Treatment," Water Pollution Control Research Series 12090 ECS 02/71.

The bibliography contained in: The Report for "The American Manufacturer's
Institute," by Institute of Textile Technology and Hydroscience, Inc.
January 15, 1973.
Aside from documenting design parameters and operating data for existing
conventional waste treatment plants, the literature review did not produce
a wealth of information of direct use to this case.  Most of the experience
with more advanced waste treatment methods such as reverse osmosis, carbon
adsorption, ozonation, radiolysis, and ion exchange, was confined to
either laboratory or pilot plant operations.  Due to the variation in the
characteristics of the waste to which these methods were applied, meaning-
ful generalizations as to their cost and effectiveness cannot be readily
made.

The review did reinforce some already known facts about textile waste
treatment in general.

1.  Present biological treatment methods, while capable of reducing BOD
    concentrations to low levels show relatively poor performance with
    respect to COD and color.

2.  While much success has been achieved with carbon adsorption on many
    wastes, one cannot make a blanket statement that it will reduce COD
    or color to low levels in all cases.  Very often it is only partially
    effective and/or economically feasible.

3.  Presently employed textile waste treatment methods are largely con-
    fined to conventional biological treatment such as activated sludge
    or aerated lagoons.
                                  232

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DRAFT
(2)    "The BOD of Textile Chemicals, Updated List - 1966"
      American Dyestuff Reporter, (55)  No. 18, 39-42, 1966.

    (self-explanatory)

(15)   "What the Mills are Doing to Control Water Pollution"
    Textile Chemist and Colorist, (1)  No. 6, 25-36, 1969.

    This article gives a brief rundown of waste control activities at:

    1.  American Enka, N.C. facility, where rayon, nylon, and
        polyester are produced

      2.  Burlington Industries  (general)

    3.  Cannon Mills (discussed new design in detail)

    4.  Cone Mills  (general)

    5.  Dan River Mills (Danville plant)

    6.  M. Lowenstein S Sons  (Lyman Printing and Finishing Co.)

(18)      Molvar, A., C. Rodman, and E. Shunney
    "Treating Textile Wastes with Activated Carbon"

    Discusses activated carbon treatment in general, pilot plant
    work, and actual operating data for a full size waste treatment
    system.  The mill's identity is not given (dyeing and finishing).

(21)      Souther, R.H.
    "Waste Treatment Studies at Cluett, Peabody S Company Finishing Plant"
    American Dyestuff Reporter,  (58) No. 15, 13-16, 1969.

    Detailed operating data on the Arrow Co., Division at Waterford, New
    York.  The treatment system consists of an "extended-contact,
    activated sludge step, bio-aeration process."  Also includes caustic
    recovery.

(22)      "Wastewater Treatment Recycles 80 Percent of Industrial Flow"
    American Textile Reporter, (83) No. 51, 14-15, 1969.
                                  233

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DRAFT
    Very brief description and general flow diagram of the waste treat-
    ment system using activated carbon at Hollytex Carpet Mills (near
    Philadelphia).   No real operating data is given.
(25)      Jones, E.L., T.A. Alspaugh, and H.B. Stokes

    "Aerobic Treatment of Textile Mill Waste"
    JWPCF (34)  No.  5, 495-512, 1962.

    Cone Mills, joint treatment of mill and municipal sewage by
    contact stabilization process.   (Pilot plant operating data.)

(47)      Poon, C.P.C.
    "Biodegradability and Treatability of Combined Nylon and
    Municipal Wastes"
    JWPCF (42)  No.  1, 100-105, 1970.

    Treatability study of wastes taken from the fielding Chemical Co.
    in Thomaston,  Connecticut.  Strictly a laboratory study.

(49)      Kwie, W.W.
    "Ozone Treats Wastestreams from Polymer Plant"
    Water and Sewage Works, 116, 74-78, 1969.

    Laboratory study on ozone treatment of wastes from polymer plant
    (including SANS).  The study did not produce very satisfying results.

(52)      Wheatland, A.B.
    "Activated Sludge Treatment of Some Organic Wastes"
    Proc. 22nd Ind. Waste Conf. Purdue Univ.  983-1008, 1967.

    Treatability study on a simulated synthetic fiber production and
    dyeing waste using a bench scale activated sludge unit.

(53)      Carrigue,  C.S., and L.U. Jauregui
    "Sodium Hydroxide Recovery in the Textile Industry"
    Proc. 22nd Ind. Waste conf. Purdue Univ., 1966.

    Castelar Textile Mill, Argentina (cotton goods)
    Description of NaOH recovery from the mercerizing process.  NaOH
    is filtered and then concentrated by evaporating.  Design criteria,
    operating data and capital and operating costs are given.

(56)      Taylor, E.F., G.C. Gross, and R.F. Rocheleau
    "Biochemical Oxidation of Wastes from the New Plant for Manufacturing
    Orion at Waynesboro, Va."
                                  234

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DRAFT
    Proc. Ibth Ind. .vaste Conf. Purdue Univ., 1961.

    Detailed description of Dupont's Waynesboro works.  Waste facilities
    consist or a catalytic oxidation unit which completely oxidizes the
    organics associated with the recovery of dimethylformamide and an
    activated sludge unit for treatment of dilute organic materials such
    as aeryIonitrile, dimethylformamide and formic acid.

(57)     Sadow, R.D.
    "The Treatment of Zefran Fiber Wastes" (acrylic fiber)

    Dow Chemical Company's Williamsburg, Va., plant.  Description of
    waste treatment process which includes primary settling, chemical
    coagulation, a Dowpac oxidation tower, and secondary settling.
    Operating data and design criteria are given.

(61)     Jones, L.L.
    "Textile Waste Treatment at Canton Cotton Mills"
    JWPCF (37) No. 12, 1693-1695, 1965.

    Gives a rather brief description of their activated sludge unit with
    design criteria, operating data (sketchy) and cost information.

(62)  Smith, A.L.
    "Waste Disposal by Textile Plants"
    JWPCF (37) NO. 11, 1607-13, 1965.

    Very general article, gives some synthetic textile waste characteris-
    tics and very brief descriptions of waste characteristics and treat-
    ment methods at:

    1.  Chatham Manufacturing Co., Elkin, N.C. (multi-fiber woolen mill)
    2.  J.P. Stevens Co., Wallace Plant

(63)     Dean, B.T.
    "Nylon Waste Treatment"
    JWPCF (33) NO. 8, 864-70, 1961.

    Operating experience of the Chemstrand Corp. Pensacola plant which
    utilizes an activated sluge unit followed by a post-treatment lagoon.

(76)     Suchecki, S.M.
    "A Dyer's "Operation Cleanup"
    Textile Industries  (130) No. 6, 113, 1966.
                                  235

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DRAFT
    Description of northern Dyeing Co., Washington, N.J. treatment
    facilities.  Very little operating data given.

(86)     Souxher, G.P.
    "Textile Water Pollution Woes Can be Resolved by Solvents11
    American Textile Reporter (54) No. 9, 11, 13, 1970.

    Describes solvent sizing and dyeing processes.  This is an infor-
    mative but not very detailed article.

(95)     Porter, J.J.
    "Concepts for Carbon Adsorption in Waste Treatment"
    Textile Chemists and Colorists (4) No. 2, 29-35, 1972.

    The history of carbon's entry into the waste treatment field is
    presented.  Interpretations of teh fundamental kinetics and
    thermodynamics of carbon adsoption are also given with several
    specific examples cited.

(99)     Rodman, C.A.
    "Removal of Color from Textile Dye Wastes"
    Textile Chemists and Colorists (3) No. 11, 239-47, 1971.

    solutions of four types of dyestuffs were treated by several methods
    that have been used practically or experimentally for color removal.
    Among these were coagulation by lime and by alum; extended aeration,
    activated carbon adsorption, reverse osmosis, and treatment with high
    pressure oxygen and cobalt-60 radiation.

(100)  Rhame, G.A.
    "Aeration Treatment of Textile Finishing Wastes in South Carolina"
    American Dyestuff Reporter  (60) No. 11, 46, 1971.

    Operating data of several unidentified plants is presented along
    with general design criteria.

(103)  Porter, J.J.
    "Treatment of Textile Waste with Activated Carbon"
    American Dyestuff Reporter  (61) No. 8, 24-7, 1972.

    Considerations in evaluating the potential application of carbon
    adsorption to a waste stream are discussed along with procedures
    for conducting laboratory studies.

(106)     Stone, R.
                                  236

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DRAFT
    "Carpet Mill Incastrial Waste System"
    JWPCF (44) No. 3, 1*70-478, 1972.

    A description of the waste treatment system of the Halter Carpet
    Mill, City of Industry, California is presented.

(108)  Little, A.H.
    "Use and Conservation of Water in Textile Processing"
    Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colorists (87) No. 5, 137-15, 1971,

    Investigation of water usages in unit processes under normal pro-
    duction conditions.  The effects of different dyeing and bleaching
    processes have been studied.  Possible methods of conservation of
    water are discussed, including contra-flow washing.  In addition,
    the effects of changes in processing, the size, type and speed of
    machines and the effects of cloth weight and batch size are discussed.

(110)  Masseli, J.W., N.W. Massell, and M.C. Burford
    "Factors Affecting Textile Waste Treatability"
    Textile Industries for October 1971, p. 84-117

    General design parameters of activated sludge waste treatment are
    discussed along with startup and operational considerations.  Waste
    contributions  (in terms of % total BOD) are given for the individual
    process chemicals used in a typical cotton mill, cotton/synthetic
    mill, and woolen mill.

(Ill)  Shunney, E.L., Perratti, A.E., and Rodman, C.A.
    "Decolorization of Carpet Yarn Dye Wastewater"
    American Dyestuff Reporter  (60) No. 6, 32-40, 1971.

    Laboratory and full-scale operation of bio-regenerated activated
    carbon treatment of carpet yarn fiber dyeing are discussed.  The
    facility described is the C. H. Masland S Sons plant in Wakefield,
    Rhode Island.

(113)  Rodman, C.A., and E. L. Shunney
    "A New Concept for the Biological Treatment of Textile Finishing
    Wastes"
    Chem. Eng. Progr. Symp. Ser. 67, 107, 451-457, 1971.

    (Same subject as ref. Ill)

(115)  Rodman, C.A. and E. L. Shunney
    "Novel Approach Removes Color from Textile Dyeing Wastes"
                                   237

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DRAFT
    Water and Waste 2ng. (8)  No. 9, §18-23, 1971.

    (Same subject as ref. Ill)

(118)  "Bio-regenerated Activated Carbon Treatment of Textile Dye Wastewater"
    Water Pollution Control Research Series 1209 OD WW 01/71.

    (Same subject as ref. Ill)

(122)  Powell, s.D.
    "Biodegradation of Authraquinone Disperse Dyes"
    Thesis, Georgia Inst. Tech., 9, 238, 1971.

    Three authraquinone disperse dyes. Disperse Violet 1 (C.I. 61100),
    Disperse Blue 3 (e.I. 61505), and Disperse Blue 7 (C.I. 62500),
    were partially metabolized by bacteria normally present in domestic
    activated sludge.   Disperse Red 15  (C.I. 60710), was left unchanged
    by the sludge.  The nature of the metabolites produced showed that
    the dyes had not actually been degraded, but merely converted to
    derivatives of the original dyes.

(123)  Hood, W.S.
    "Color Evaluation in Effluents from Textile Dyeing and Finishing
    Processes"

    Initial concentration and rates of degradation of dyes and chemicals
    in textile effluents were studied.  Field studies were made to
    observe conditions and to collect samples of water from streams in
    the Coosa River Basin.  The samples were analyzed for content of
    specific dye auxiliaries and color.  Color degradation was achieved
    under simulated stream conditions, both in textile effluents and in
    river samples.

(12U)  Soria, J.R.R.
    "Biodegradability of Some Dye carriers'1
    Thesis, Georgia Inst. Tech., 9, 238, 1971.

    Carriers covered in this study were resistant to degradation in
    conventional activated sludge waste disposal plants.  Where bacteria
    were acclimated to the chemicals and treatment times were extended,
    degradation did occur.

(125)  Arnold, L.G.
    "Forecasting Quantity of Dyestuffs and Auxiliary Chemicals Dis-
    charged into Georgia Streams by the Textile Industry"
                                  238

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DRAFT
    Thesis- Georgia Inst. Tech., 9, 238, 1971.

    The quantity and concentration of the major textile wet-processing
    chemicalb in effluents are reported.

(126)  Pratt, H.D., Jr.
    "A Study of the Degradation of Some Azo Disperse Dyes in Waste
    Disposal Systems"
    Thesis, Georgia Inst. Tech., 9, 238, 1971.

    Two azo disperse dyes. Disperse Orange 5  (C.I. 11100) and Disperse
    Red 5 (C.I. 11215), were degraded by the bacteria in conventional
    waste treatment facilities into aromatic amines.  Biological de-
    gradation produced identical metabolites as those formed by chemi-
    cal reduction.

(127)  Anderson, J.H.
    "Biodegradation of Vinyl Sulfone Reactive Dyes"
    Thesis, Georgia Inst. Tech., 9 238, 1971.

    Biodegradation of three vinyl sulfone reactive dyes. Reactive
    Blue 19, Reactive Violet 5, and Reactive Black 5, were investigated
    under laboratory conditions simulating those employed in conventional
    activated sludge plants.  The study failed to show any evidence of
    degradation.  Reactive Blue 19, and Reactive Violet 5 showed evidence
    of degradation under anaerobic conditions.

(141)  "The Centrifugal Recovery of Wool Grease"
    Wool science Review  t37, p. 23-36, 1969.

    This very detailed article discussed the composition of wool scour
    liquor, general principles of recovery, detailed operating charac-
    teristics of centrifuges, and the economics of wool grease recovery.

(143)  Barker, R.P., and B.M. Rock
    "Water Conservation and Effluent Disposal in the Wool Textile Industry"
    J. Soc. Dyers and colourists (87), No. 12, 181-3, 1971.

    Discusses the wool textile industry in the U.K.  Gives water con-
    sumption for various unit processes in terms of gal/lb product.
    This article also gives typical wool processing effluents and a
    description of the Traflo-W process which entails chemical coagu-
    lation followed by vacuum filtration.  BOD is reduced by 80*.

(149)  Rea, J.E.
                                  239

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    "Treatment of Carpet Wastes for Disposal"
    Proc. Industrial Waste and Pollution Conference and Advanced
    Water Conference, ?2nd and 3rd.  Oklahoma State University,
    Stillwater, Oklahoma, March 21-30, 1971.

    This paper identifies design criteria and operating data for the
    waste treatment facilities at Sequoyah Mills in Anadarko, Okla.
    The waste treatment facilities consist of an aerated lagoon and
    stabilization pond.  Pilot work is included which shows the re-
    lationship of BOD removal to aeration time.

(150)  Paulson, Per
    "Water Purification - An Alternative to Solvent Dyeing"
    International Dyer & Textile Printer - June 4, 1971.

    A brief description of a new waste treatment process employing
    sedimentation followed by ion exchange.  Pilot plant work on
    dyeing liquor showed COD removals greater than 90$.

(161)  Kulkarni, H.R., S.U. Khan, and Deshpande
    "Characterization of Textile Wastes and Recovery of Caustic Soda
    from Kier Wastes"
    Environmental Health  (13) No. 2, 120-127, 1971.

    A case study of "A Typical Cotton Textile Industry" is presented
    in the paper with reference to economical method of treatment of
    the waste waters and recovery of caustic soda during the process
    of treatment.  Ninety-eight percent caustic recovery has been
    accomplished using dialysis.

(162)  "Bi©degradation of "Elvanol" - A Report from Du Pont"

    The report concludes that domestic and textile mill activated
    sludge microorganisms can acclimate to "Elvanol" T-25 under con-
    ditions attainable in conventional waste treatment systems and
    that removals of over 90% can be achieved if the organisms are
    properly acclimated.

(161)  Ryder, L.W.
    "The Design and Construction of the Treatment Plant for Wool
    Scouring and Dyeing Wastes at Manufacturing Plant, Glasgow, Va."
    J. Boston Soc. Civil Engrs., 37, 183-203, April 1950.

    This article gives a very detailed description and design basis
    for the waste treatment system consisting of equalization, acid-
                                  240

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    floccui?.-tion, ana neutralization.  The plant achieves a BOD re-
    moval of 60%, SS removal of 96% and a grease removal of 97%.

(168) Rodman, C.A., and E.L. Shunney
    "Clean Clear Effluent"
    Tex. Manufacturer (99) No. 49, 53-56, 1972.

    A description of the Fram Corporation bio-regenerated carbon
    adsorption process is given along with laboratory and pilot plant
    operating data.  The pilot plant treated waste water from the
    carpet yarn fibre dyeing plant of C.H. Masland 6 Sons, Wakefield,
    Rhode Island.  A COD reduction of 81% and a color reduction of
    99.4% is reported.

(175) Wilroy, R.D.
    "Industrial Wastes from Scouring Rug Wools and the Removal of
    Dieldrin"
    Proc. 18th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ., April 30, May 1-2, 1963,

    The article describes design considerations and operating exper-
    ience of a waste treatment system consisting of fine screens,
    sedimentation basin, and an anaerobic lagoon.  A BOD reduction
    of between 80 and 90% and a Dieldrin reduction of 99X is claimed
    for the system.

(181) Stewart, R.G.
    "Pollution and the Wool Industry"
    Wool Research Organization of New Zealand, Report No. 10, 1971.

    This article is a rather general outline of the sources of wool
    processing wastes and the present waste treatment technology
    available.

(190) Rebhun, M., A. Weinberg, and N. Narkis
    "Treatment of Wastewater from cotton Dyeing and Finishing Works
    for Reuse"
    Eng. Bull. Purdue Univ., Eng. Ext. 137  (pt. 2), 1970.

    This article describes the results of pilot plant work on the
    waste from a cotton dyeing and finishing mill in Israel.  Alum
    flocculation followed by filtration was shown to produce a 95%
    color reduction and a 67% COD reduction.  Activated carbon was
    shown to be a poor sorbent, and greater success was achieved
    using a weak base ion exchange resins.
                                  241

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(202)  Alsps'ugh, T.A.
    "Treating Dye Wastewaters"
    45th Annual Conference of the Water Pollution Control Federation
    Atlanta, Georgia, Oct. 8-13, 1972.

    Alspaugh gives a very thorough evaluation of presently employed
    and promising future waste treatment unit operations.  Experienced
    removal efficiencies and general treatment costs are also given.
    A summary of current waste treatment research is given.

(213)  Corning, V.
    "Pollution Control in Jantzen Dyehouse"
    Knitting Times  (39) No. 35, 44-45, 1970.

    Brief description of Portland, Oregon plant, little detail.

(214)  "Textile Water Pollution Cleanup Picks Op Speed"
    Textile World, 54-66, November 1967.

    Fairly general arcicle but does give some operating data and waste
    treatment descriptions for several plants:

    1.  J.P. Stevens 6 Co., Wallace, N.C. plant

    2.  OPD's Bluefield, Va.r plant

    3.  Burlington's Cooleemee, N.C.

    4.  Lyman Printing and Finishing Co., Lyman, N.C.

    5.  J. P. Stevens & Co., Utica-Mohawk plant

(215)  Sahlie, R.S., and C.E. Steinmetz
    "Pilot Wastewater Study Gives Encouraging Indications"
    Modern Textiles,  (50) No. 11, 20-28, 1969.

    Description of pilot plant work at Fiber Industries, Shelby, N.C.
    plant.  Article is not very detailed.

(216)     "Trade Effluent control in the Carpet Industry"
    Textile Institute and Industry, (3) No. 9, 237-40, 1965.

    General discussion, gives values for typical effluents.
                                  242

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                              BIBLIOGRAPHY

 1.  Masselli, J.W., N.W. Masselli, and M.G. Burford, "A Simplification
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 2. "The BOD of Textile Chemicals Updated List-1966," American Dyestuff
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 3.  Porter, J.J., A.R. Abernathy, J.M. Ford, and D.W. Lyons, "The State
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 U.  "The cost of clean Water—Volume III, Industrial Waste Profile No. U
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 7.  Davis, E.M., "BOD vs COD vs TOC vs TOD," Water and Wastes Engineering
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 8. "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater," 12th
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 9.  Eckenfelder, W.W. Jr., "Industrial Water Pollution Control," McGraw-
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10. Shindala, A., and M.J. callinane, "Pilot Plant studies of Mixtures of
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11. Merrill, W.H. Jr., "How to Determine a Plant's Waste Load,"  Water
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12.  Leatherland, L.C., "Treatment of Textile Wastes," Water and Sewage
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13.  Eckenfelder, W.W. Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing
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                                   243

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DRAFT
1ft.  "Stretch knitter cuts pollution, triples dyehouse production,"
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15. "What The Mills Are Doing to Control Water Pollution," Textile
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16. Biggs, A.I., "Biological Treatment of Textile Effluents,14 Chemistry
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17.  Northup, H.J., "There are Some Answers to Textile Pollution," Journal
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18. Movar, A.E., C.A. Rodman and E.L. Shunney, "Treating Textile Wastes
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19. Porter, J.J., "The Changing Nature of Textile Processing and Waste
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20. "Activated Carbon Reclaims Textile industry's Waste Waters," Environ-
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21. Souther, R.H., "Waste Treatment Studies at Cluett, Peabody and Company
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22. "Waste Water Treatment Recycles 80 Per Cent of Industrial Flow,"
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23. Booman, K.A., J. Dupre and E.S. Lashen, "Biodegradable Surfactants
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2ft. Klein, L., "Stream Pollution and Effluent Treatment, with Special
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25.  Jones, E.L., T.A. Alspaugh, and H.B. Stokes, "Aerobic Treatment of
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26.  Jones, L.L. Jr., "Textile Waste Treatment at Canton Cotton Mills,"
                                  2ftft

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    American Dyestu_£ Reporter, (54) No. 22, 61-62, October 1965.

27. Morton, T.H., "Water for the Dyer," Journal of the society of Dyers
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28. Barnes, W.V., and S. Dobson, "Surface-active Agents in Textile Pro-
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29. Kwie, W.W., "Ozone Treats Wastestreams From Polymer Plant," Water
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30. Michelsen, D.L., "Research on Treatment of Dye Wastes," Textile
    Chemist and Colorist,  (1) No. 7, 179-80, March 1969.

31. Wheatland, A.B., "Activated Sludge Treatment of Some Organic Wastes,"
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32. "Aerated Lagoon Handles 10-million gpd.," Textile World,  (116) No. 2,
    86-87, February 1966.

33. Farrow, J.C., L.J. Hirth and J.F. Judkins Jr., "Estimating construction
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34. Little, A.H., "Treatment of Textile Waste Liquors," Journal of the
    Society of Dyers and Colorists,  (83) No. 7, 268-73, July 1967.

35. "Close-Downs Hit Six More Textile Plants1 Pollution Control A Factor,"
    American Textile Reporter, (54) No. 9, 19, 50, April 1970.

36. "Textiles' Water Pollution Woes Can be Resolved by Solvents,"
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37. "Symposium on Waste-disposal Problems of Southern Mills," American
    Dyestuff Reporter,  (44) 379-400, June 1955.

38. Symposium—The Textile Industry and the Environment," American
    Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, March 31- April 1, 1971.

39. Rahme, G.A., "Treatment of Textile Finishing Wastes by Surface Aeration,"
    26th Annual Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, May 1971.

40. Environmental Protection Agency—Contract 12090 DWM, Masland and Sons—
                                  245

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DRAFT
    "Demonstration .2 a New Process for the Treatment of Textile Dyeing
    and Finishing Wastes."

41  Ibid—COL tract C ±2090 ESG, American Enka "Hydroxide Precipitation
    and Recovery of certain Metallic Ions from Waste Waters.11

42.   Ibid—Contract C 12090 GOX, Fiber Industries, "Reuse of Chemical Fiber
    Plant Wastewater and Cooling Water Slowdown."

43.  Ibid—contract 12090 EGW, Holliston Mills, "Treatment of Cotton Textile
    Wastes by Enzymes and Unique High Rate Trickling Filter System."

44.  Ibid—contract 12090 EQO, "Palisades Industries," Demonstration of a
    New Process for the Treatment of High Concentration Textile Dyeing
    and Finishing Wastes."

45.  Ibid—Contract 12090 FWD, American Association of Textile Chemists
    and Colorists, "The use of oxygen and ionizing radiation to decolorize
    dye wastes."

46.  Ibid—contract 12090 EOE, North Carolina State University, "The
    Feasibility of Precipitation Removal of Synthetic Sizing Materials
    from Textile Wastewaters."

47.  Poon, E.P.C., "Biodegradability and Treatability of Combined Nylon and
    Municipal Wastes," J.  Water Pollution Control Fed., (42), 100-5, 1970.

48.  Shaw, R.E., "Experience with Waste Ordinance and Surcharges at Greens-
    boro, N.C.," J. Water Pollution Fed. (42), 44-50, 1970.

49.  Kwie, W.W., "Ozone treats waste streams from polymer plants," Water
    and Sewage Works,  (116), 74-8, 1969.

50.  Michelsen, D.L., "Treatment of Dye Wastes," Textile Chem. Colorist,
    (1) , 179-81, 1969.

51.  Bode, H.E., "Process for sizing textiles and the disposition of sizing
    wastes therefrom," U.S. Patent 3,093,504.

52.  Wheatland, A.B., "Activated Sludge Treatment of Some Organic Wastes,"
    Proc. 22nd Ind. Waste Conference, Purdue University, Ext. Ser. 129,
    983, 1967.

53.  Carrique, C.S., L.U. Jaurequi, "Sodium hydroxide recovery in textile
    industry," Proc. 22nd Ind. Waste Conference, Purdue University,
                                  246

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DRAFT
    Eng. Extension Oer. 121, pt. 2, 861-8, 1966.

54. Reich, J.S., "Financial Return from Industrial Waste Pretreatment,"
    Proc. 22nd Ind. Waste Conference, Purdue University, Ext. Ser. 129,
    92, 1967.

55. Neas, G., "Treatment of Viscose Rayon Wastes," Proc. 14th Ind. Waste
    Conference, Purdue University, Ext. Ser. 104, 450, 1960.

56. Taylor, E.F., G.C. Gross, C.E. Jones, and R.F. Rocheleau, "Biochemical
    Oxidation of Wastes from the New Plant for Manufacturing Orion at
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57. Sadow, R.D., "The Treatment of Zefran Fiber Wastes," Proc. 15th Ind.
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58. Hann, R.W. Jr., F.D. Callcott, "A comprehensive Survey of industrial
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59. Alspaugh, T.A., "More Progress Needed in Water Pollution Control,"
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60. Chipperfield, P.N.J., "Performances of Plastic Filter Media in
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61. Jones, L.J. Jr., "Textile Waste Treatment at Canton Cotton Mills,"
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62. Smith, A.L., "Waste Disposal by Textile Plants," J. Water Pollutinon
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63. Dean, B.T., "Nylon Waste Treatment," J. Water Pollution Control Fed.,
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64. "Aerated Lagoon Handles Ten Million Gallons per Day," Textile World,
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65. English, W.I., T.A. Alspaugh,  "Research Urgent on Water Purification,
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66. "Water Pollution; Problems and Controls in Industry," Heating, Piping
                                   247

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    S Air ^ond., lr 236, 1967.

67. Huddleston, R.L., "Biodegradable Detergents for the Textile Industry,"
    American Dyestuff Reporter,  (55), 2, 42-4, 1966.

68.  Masselli, J., et al., "Simplifying Pollution Surveys in Textile Mills,"
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69. Suchecki, S.M., "Stream Pollution: Hot Potato," Textile Ind.,  (60)
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70. Steele, W.R., "Economical Utilization of Caustic in Cotton Bleacheries,"
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71. souther, R.H., "Water conservation and Pollution Abatement," American
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72. Ingals, R.S., "Factors Causing Pollution of Rivers by Wastes from the
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73. Wilroy, R.D., "Feasibility of Treating Textile Wastes in Connection
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74. Starling, "Problem of Textile Chemical Wastes," American Dyestuff
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75. Souther, R.H., "Waste Water Control and Water Conservation," American
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76. Suchecki, S.M., "A Dyer's Operation Cleanup," Textile Ind., (130)
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77. Suchecki, S.M., "Water—Industry Challenge—Today," Textile Ind.,
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78. Aston, R.S., "Recovery of Zinc from Viscose Rayon  Effluent,"
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79. Stone, R., C. Schmidt, "A Survey of Industrial Waste Treatment Costs
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80. Farrow, J.C., L.J. Hirth and J.F. Judkins, Jr., "Estimating construc-
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DRAFT
    tion Costs of W-..dte Water Treatment Systems," Textile Chemist and
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81. Souther, ri.H., and T.A. Alspaugh, "Treatment of Mixtures of Textile
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82. Little, A.H., "Treatment of Textile Waste Liquors," J. of the Society
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83. Hertz, G., assignor to Crompton & Knowles Corp., Worcester, Ma.,
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84. Pangle, J.C. Jr., assignor to Dan River Mills, Danville, Va. , "Re-
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85. "Close-Downs Hit six More Textile Plants; Pollution Control a Factor,"
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86. Souther, G.P., "Textiles* Water Pollution woes Can Be Resolved
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87. Lawton, E., "Textile Mill — Effluent Control," Textile Forum,  (83)
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88. Brannock, P., "Water Pollution and Waste Control in the Textile
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89. "An Industrial Waste Guide to the Synthetic Textile Industry,"
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91. Masselli, J.W., N.W. Masselli and M.G. Burford, "A Simplification
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92. Souther, R.H., et al., "Symposium on Waste-Disposal Problems of
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    June 6, 1955.
                                   249

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DRAFT
93. "EffJ'^nt Treatment in Dyeworks,"The International Dyer and Textile
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100.     Rhame, G.A., "Aeration Treatment of Textile Finishing Wastes in  South
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      Part j., 470-8, 1972.

107.     Aurich, C., C.A. Brandon, J.S. Johnson Jr., R.E. Minturn et al.,
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108.     Little, A.H., "Use and Conservation of Water in Textile Processing,"
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112.     Porter, J.J., et al., "Textile Waste Treatment, Today and Tomorrow,"
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114.     Nosek, J., "Complex Alkali Management During Purification of Cotton
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115.     Rodman, C.A., and E.L. Shunney, "Novel approach removes colour  from
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118.     Rodman, C.A., and E.L. Shunney  (Fram Corporation) , "Bio-Regenerated
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    Pollution control Res. Series  12090, DWM 01/71, January 1971.
                                   251

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119.     Riggs, J.L., Adsorption/Filtration: A New Unit Process for the Treatme
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120.     Suchecki, S.M., "Biological Decomposition is Not Enough," Textile
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121.     "Pollution Control: Plant Design is the Payoff," (Staff Interview
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122.     Powell, S.D., "Biodegradation of Anthraquinone Disperse Dyes,"
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123.     Hood, W.S., "Color Evaluation in Effluents from Textile Dyeing and
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124.     Soria, J.R.R., "Biodegradability of Some Dye Carriers," Master's
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125.     Arnold, L.G., "Forecasting Quantity of Dyestuffs and Auxiliary
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    Master's Thesis, Georgia Inst. of Technology, September 1967.

126.     Pratt, H.D. Jr., "A Study of the Degradation of Some Azo Disperse
    Dyes in Waste Disposal Systems," Master's Thesis, Georgia Inst. of
    Technology, September 1968.

127.     Anderson, J.H., Biodegradation of Vinyl sulfone Reactive Dyes,"
    Master's Thesis, Georgia Inst. of Technology, December 1969.

128.     Porter, J.J., "How Should we Treat our Changing Textile Waste Stream?"
    Clemson University, Rev. of Ind. Mgmt. & Textile Science, 10, 61-70,
    1971.

129.     Porter, J.J., "Pilot Studies With Activated Carbon," Paper Presented
    at Joint ASME/EPA Reuse and Treatment of Waste Water General Industry
    and Food Processing Symposium, New Orleans, La., March 28-30, 1972.

130.     Brandon, C.A., J.S. Johnson, R.E. Minturn, and J.J. Porter, "Complete
    Re-Use of Textile Dyeing Wastes Processed with Dynamic Membrane Hyper-
    filtration," Paper Presented at Joint ASME/EPA Reuse and Treatment
    of Wastewater General Industry and Food Processing Symposium, New
                                  252

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    Orleans, La., »-,rch 28-30, 1972.

131.     Ameen, J.S.r "Lint Elimination Enhances Textile Waste Treatment,"
    Paper Presented at Joint ASME/EPA Reuse and Treatment of Waste Water
    General Industry and Food Processing Symposium, New Orleans, La.,
    March 28-30, 1972.

132.     Williamson, R., "Handling Dye Wastes in A Municipal Plant," Pub.
    Works,  (102) No. 1, 58-9, 1971.

133.  Craft, T.F., and G.G. Eichholz, "Synergistic treatment of textile
    dye wastes by irradiation and oxidation," Int. J. Appl. Radiar
    Isotopes,  (22) , No. 9, 543-7, 1971.

134.     Yulish, J., "Textile Industry Tackles its Waste Problems," Chemical
    Engineering, (78), No. 11, 84, May 17, 1971.

135.     Rhame, G.A., "Liberty, S.C., Textile finishing waste," Wat. Wastes
    Engineering, (7) No. 5, C6, 1970.

136.     Phipps, W.H., "Activated carbon reclaims water for carpet mill,"
    Wat. wastes Engineering,  (7) No. 5, C22-C23, 1970.

137.     Driesen, M., "Application of the Thermal Process Technique to
      Effluent Problems," Brit. Chem. Eng.  (15) No. 9, 1154, 1970; Textile
    Tech. Digest, 28, 2887, 1971.

138.     Dixit, M.D., and D.v. Parikh, "Practical considerations in the reuse
    of water in the textile industry," Textile Dyer and Printer  (India),
    4, 45-50, June 1971.

139.     Kulkarni, H.R., S.U. Khan, and W.M. Deshpande, "Characterization of
    Textile Wastes and Recovery Caustic Soda from Kier Wastes," Colourage,
    (18) No. 13, 30-3, July 1, 1971.

140.     Porter, J.J., "The removal and fate of color in the textile waste
    stream," Sources and Resources, 5, 23-4, 1972.

141.     "Centrifugal recovery of wool grease," Wool Science Review, 37,
    23-36, October 1969.

142.     Poon, C.P.C., and E.L. Shunney, "Demonstration of a New Process for
    the Treatment of High Concentration Textile Dyeing and Finishing
    Wastes," AATCC Symposium, March 31 - April 1, 1971.
                                   253

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143.     Kcrker, R... , and B.M. Rock, "Water conservation and Effluent Disposal
    in the Wool Textile Industry," J. Soc. Dyers and Colourists, (87),
    No. 12, 181-3,
144.     "Water Cleanup Costs, Cannon $6-million,» Textile World, (122) No. 1,
    61, 63, 65, 1972.

145.     Lovmdes, M.R., "Ozone for Water and Effluent Treatment," Chemistry
    and Industry, August 21, 1971.

146.     "Bug Husbandry is the Secret of Waste Disposal Plant Success,"
    Process Engineering, 67-8, March 1971.

147.     Schaafhausen, J. , "Measures of Hoechst A.G. Dye Works for the Treatmen
    of Wastewaters," Stadtehygiene , 21» 61-2, 1970.  (German)

148.     Harmsen, H. , "The New Biological Treatment Plant for the Works of
    Hoechst at Kesterbach," Stadtehygiene, 21, 62-4, 1970.

149.     Rea, J.E. Jr., "Treatment of Carpet Wastes for Disposal," Proc.
    Industrial Waste and Pollution Control Conference and Advanced Water
    Conference, 22nd and 3rd., Oklahoma State University, Stillwater,
    Okla., March 24-30, 1971.

150.     Paulson, P., "Water Purification - An Alternative to Solvent Dyeing,"
    International Dyer 6 Textile Printer, June 4, 1971.

151.     Rizzo, J.L., "Granular Carbon for Wastewater Treatment,11 Water &
    Sewage Works, (118) No. 8, 238-40, 1971.

152.     "Textile Mills Perfect Remedy for Dirtiest Problem:  Pollution,"
    America's Textile Reporter, (84) No. 15, 18-19, 24-5, 30, 1970.

153.     "Achieving Pollution Control in Textiles:  A Report," America's Textil
    Reporter,  (84) No. 22, 20-23, 26, 27, 1970.

154.     Work, R.W. , "Research at the School of Textiles, •« North Carolina State
    University, Raleigh, North Carolina, 1971.

155.     Kollar, I., "Recovery of Zinc Ions from Waste Solutions in the
    Processing of Viscose on Ion Exchanger," Czech Patent,  (136) No. 147,
    (Cl. D olc) , April 15, 1970.

156.     Khare, G.K., and C.A. Sastry, "Studies on Characterization and
    Pollutional Effects of Viscose Rayon Wastes," Environmental Health,
                                  254

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    Vol. 12, 99-109, 1970.

157.     Garrison, A.p., "The Effect of High Pressure Radiolysis on Textile
    Wastes, Including Dyes and Dieldrin," Proc. 5th International Conf.
    Water Pollution Research, 1970.

158.     Sinev, O.P., "Decomposition of Cellulose xanthate and Precipitation
    of Hydrocellulose During Purification of Waste Waters from Viscose
    Manufacture, Fibre Chem., No. 2, 180-3, March - April, 1969.

159.     sinev, O.P., "Removal of carbon Disulphide and Sulphur Compounds
    from Viscose Fibre Plant Effluent by Aeration, " Fibre Chem., No. 4,
    436-8, July - August, 1969.

160.     Marinich, V., et al., "Removal of Lubricants from Effluents of
    Caprolectan Production," Fibre Chem., No. 4, 459-61, July - Aug. 1969.

161.     Kulkarni, H.R., s.U. Khan, and W.M. Deshpande, "Characterization of
    Textile Wastes and Recovery of Caustic Soda from Kier Wastes," En-
    vironmental Health,  (13) No. 2, 120-27, 1971.


162.     "Biodegradation of "Elvanol" Polyvinyl Alcohol," Du Pont Company,
    Plastics Department, Wilmington, Delaware.

163.     Brandon, C.A., "Dynamic-Membrane Hyperfiltration— Key to Reuse of
    Textile Dye Waste?" ASME Publication, 71-Tex-4.

164.     Ryder, L.W., "The Design and Construction of the Treatment Plant for
    Wool Scouring and Dyeing Wastes at Manufacturing Plant, Glasgow,
    Virginia," J. Boston Soc. Civil Engrs., 37, 183-203, April 1950.

165.     Bogren, G.G., "A Plant for the Degreasing of Wool Scouring Wastes,"
    J. Boston Soc. Civil Engrs, (13) No. 1, 18-23, 1926.

166.     Masselli, J.W., and M.J. Buford, "Pollution Sources in Wool Scouring
    and Finishing Mills and their Reduction Through Process and Process
    Chemical Changes," Prepared for New England Interstate Water Pollution
    Control Commission.

167.     Laude, L., "Economy and Recycling of Water in the Bleaching and
    Dyeing Industries," Centre Textile Controle Sci. Bulletin, No. 78,
    481-99, June 1971.

168.     Rodman, C.A. , and E.L. Shunney, "Clean Clear Effluent,'1 Textile
                                  255

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    Manufacturer, <'„ *) No. 49, 53-6, A.

169.     Barker, R.P.r "Effluents from the Wool Textile Industry - Problems
    Associated with Treatment and Reuse," Chem. Eng. CE 8-13, Jan./Feb.
    1970. (London)

170.     Little, A.H., "The Treatment and control of Bleaching and Dyeing
    Wastes," Water Pollution Control, London, 68, 178-89, 1969.

171.     Fathmann,  D.H., "Solving the Effluent Problem in Textile Mills. I,"
    Tex. (Neth.), (29) No. 12. 918-20, 1970.

172.     Fathmann,  D.H., "Solving the Effluent Problem in Textile Mills. II,"
    Tex. (Neth.), (30) No. 1, 37-40, 1971.

173.     Laurie, D.T., and C.A. Willis, "Treatment Studies of combined Textile
    and Domestic Wastes."

174.     Buswell, A.M., and H.F. Mueller, "Treatment of Wool Wastes," Proc.
    llth Ind. Waste conference, Purdue University, May 15-17, 1956.

175.     Wilroy, R.D., "Industrial Wastes from Scouring Rug Wools and the
    Removal of Dieldrin," Proc. 18th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue University,
    April 30, May 1-2, 1963.

176.     Snyder, D.W., "Dow Surfpac Pilot Study on Textile Waste," Proc. 18th
    Ind. Waste Conference, Purdue University, April 30, May 1-2, 1963.

177.     Stack, V.T., "Biological Treatment of Textile Wastes," Proc. 16th
    Ind. Waste Conference, Purdue University, May 2-4, 1961.

178.     Williams,  S.W., and G.A. Hutto, "Treatment of Textile Mill Wastes
    in Aerated Lagoons," Proc. 16th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue University,
    May 2-4, 1961.

179.     Gramley, D.L., and M.S. Heath, "A Study of Water Pollution Control
    in the Textile Industry of North Carolina," Water Resources Research
    Institute of University of North Carolina.

180.     Perera, N.A.P., "Textile Effluents and their Safe Disposal," Silk
    and Rayon Industries of India, 12, 555-74, November 1969.

181.     Stewart, R.G., "Pollution and the Wool Industry," Wool Research
    Organization of N.Z., Report No. 10, 1971.
                                  256

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182.     Gcnapat, S. \t., "Some Observations on In-Plant Process Control for
    Abatement of Pollution Load of Textile Wastes," Environmental Health,
    (8)  No. 3. 169-17?, 1966.

183.     Veldsman, D.P., "Pollution Resulting from Textile Wastes," Wool
    Grower, (23)  No. 5, 27, 29, 1970.

184.     Judkins, J.F., R.H. Dinius, et al., "Gamma Radiation of Textile
    Wastewater to Reduce Pollution," Water Resources Research Inst.,
    Auborn, University, Alabama.

185.     Howard,  M., "Textiles:  Special Problems?" Water and Wastes Engineerin
    March, 1973.

186.     Poon, C.P.C., and E.L. Shunney, "Have a Space Problem,11 Water and
    Wastes Engineering, March 1973.

187.     "Pollutants are all burned Up," Water and Wastes Engineering,
    March 1973.

188.     "Clemson has Wastewater Breakthrough," Southern Textile News, 12,
    October 18, 1971.

189.     "Waste Treatment System at Foremost Recycles Hundred Percent of Water,
    Mill Whistle, (29) No. 6, 2-3, 6, September 21, 1970.

190.     Rebhun,  M., A. Weinberg, and N. Narkis, "Treatment of Wastewater from
    cotton Dyeing and Finishing Works for Reuse."

191.     Petru, I.A., "Combined Treatment of Wool Scouring Wastes," J. Inst.
    Sew. Purif.,  Paper No. 3, 497-9, 1964.

192.     Kaukare, V.S., "Water conservation and its Reuse from Treated
    Effluents," Textile Dyer and Printer  (Ind.) (3) No. 1, 171-5, 1969.

193.     "Treatment System Allows 100 Percent Recycling of Wastewater,11
    Industrial Waste,  (19) No. 2, IW/18-19, March/April, 1973.

194.     Ingols,  R.S., R. Roberts Jr., and E. Garper, and P. Vira, "A Study
    Of Sludge Digestion with Sodium Chloride and Sulfate," PB196732,
    Final Report Project No. B 338, under Res. Grant RG 17070, Fed. Water
    Quality Admin., Dept. Interior, by Ga. Inst. Tech. Eng. Expt. Sta.,
    Atlanta, Ga., September 1970.

195.     Rayburn, J.A., "Examine Those Effluents," American Dyestuff Reporter,
                                   257

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    (61) Nc. 9, 103-4, 1972.

196.     Cas°.r F.N., ^.E. Ketchen, and T.A. Alspaugh, MGamma-Induced Low
    Temperature Oxidation of Textile Effluents," JAATCC,  (5) No. 9, 1973.

197.     Roop, N. , "Mothproofing Without Pollution," JAATCC, (5) No. 3, 1973.

198.     Stovall, J., "The 1972 Water Pollution Control Act Amendments Ana-
    lyzed," Modern Textiles, (54) No. 2, 14-16, 19, 23, 1973.

199.     Little, A.H., "Measures Taken Against Water Pollution in the Textile
    Industry of Great Britain," Pure and Applied Chemistry, 29, 1-3,
    355-64, 1972.

200.     Baddy, J.M., "Activated Sludge Treatment of Textile Wastes to Meet
    High Stream Classifications - What standards and How to Meet Them,"
    AATCC National Technical Conference, September 28-30, 1972.

201.     Williams, H.E., "Treatment and Reuse of Screen Printing Dye Waste
    waters," Paper presented at the 45th Annual Conference of the Water
    Pollution Control Federation, October 8-13, 1972.

202.     Alspaugh, T.A., "Treating Dye Wastewaters," Paper presented at the 45t
    Annual Conference of the Water Pollution Control Federation, October
    8-13, 1972.

203.     Rayburn, J.A., "Overall Problems of Tertiary Treatment of Textile
    Waste for the Removal of Color, COD, TOC, Suspended Solids,
    Dissolved Solids, etc.," Paper presented at AATCC National Technical
    Conference, Philadelphia, Pa., September 28-30, 1972.

204.     "Color, Heavy Metal Removed by Adsorption," Chemical Processing, (35)
    No. 9, 13, 1972.

205.     "Water Usage in the Wet Processing of Wool Textiles," Wira Report 79.

206.  Cosgrove, W.J., "Water Pollution and the Textile Industry," Canadian
    Textile J., 63-6, January 1970.

207.     Eguchi, Y., and Y. Uda, "Wastewater Treatment by Granular Activated
    Carbon," J. Textile Machinery Soc. Japan,  (24) No. 8, 555-61, 1971.

208.     Jones, T.R., "Textile Industry Wastes:  Effluent Treatment: Waste
    Reclamation: Man-made Fibers," Effluent 6 Water Treatment Journal,
    London, (12) No. 7, 352-355, July 1972.
                                  258

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209.     Simon-Hartley, "Treatment of Dyeing and Finishing Effluents from a
    Textile Works," Intern. Dyer,  (143) No. 51. 53-4, January 2, 1970.

210.     Button, D.G., "Improved biological wastewater treatment," Du Pont
    Innovation, (3) No. 1, 6-8, 1972.  (Eng.)

211.     Rhame, G.A., "Review of South Carolina Practices in Textile Finishing
    Wastes," Industrial Waste, 18 Iw/49-53, September-October 1972.

212.     "Textile Industry Wastes: Effluent Treatment: Water Reclamation:
    Great Britain," Textile Res. Conference, Final Report, 73 pages.

213.     corning, V., "Pollution Control in Jantzen Dyehouse," Knitting Times
    (39)  No. 35, 44-45, 1970.

214.     "Textile Water Pollution Cleanup Picks Up Speed," Textile World,
    54-66, November 1967.

215.     Sahlie, R.S., and c.E. Steinmetz, "Pilot Wastewater Study Gives
    Encouraging Indications," Modern Textiles,  (50) No. 11, 20-28, 1969.

216.     "Trade Effluent Control in the Carpet Industry," Textile Institute
    and Industry,  (3) No. 9, 237-40, 1965.
                                  259

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                              SECTION XIV

                                GLOSSARY


acetate - A manufactured fiber made from cellulose acetate.

acid dye - A type of dye commonly used to color wool and nylon but may
be used on other fibers.

Acrilan - Trademark of Monsanto for acrylic fiber.

acrylic - A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is
any long chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of
acrylonitrile units.  Made in both filament and staple form.  (See
Acrilan, Orion, Creslan.)

Arnel - Trademark (Celanese Corp.) for cellulose triacetate fiber.

Avicron - Trademark (FMC Corp.) for rayon filament yarn.

Avril - Trademark (FMC Corp.) for staple and filament rayon.

beck - A chamber in which goods may be scoured and dyed.  May be operated
at atmospheric pressure or at elevated temperature and pressure.

biphenyl  (or diphenyl) - A carrier used in dyeing polyester.

biochemical oxygen demand  (BOD) - A method of measuring rate of oxygen
usage due to biological oxidation.  A BOD5 of 1000 mg/liter means that
a sample  (1 liter)  used 1000 mg of oxygen in 5 days.

bleaching - Removal of colored components from a textile.  Common bleaches
are hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite, and sodium chlorite.

blend - the combination of two or more types of fibers and/or colors in
one yarn.

bottom chrome - Term used in application of certain dyes to wool.
Involves use of chromium compounds.

butyl benzoate - A carrier used in dyeing polyester.

carded - Yarn in which fibers are separated and aligned in a thin web,
then condensed into a continuous, untwisted strand called a "sliver."
                                  260

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carrier - An organic material used in dyeing polyester.   (See biphenyl,
orthophenyl phenol, trichlorobenzene, butyl benzoate.)

cationic dye - The colored component of this type of dye bears a
positive charge.

caustic soda - A strong alkali used, for example, in mercerizing.

cellulose - Major component of cotton and rayon.  Also used as the base
for acetate fiber.

chemical oxygen deman  (COD) - The amount of oxygen required to oxidize
materials in a sample by means of a dichromate solution.

combed cotton - Cotton yarn that is cleaned after carding by wire
brushes (combs) and roller cards to remove all short fibers and
impurities.

crease-resistant - Fabrics that have been treated to make them resistant
to wrinkling.  One of the most common methods is to incorporate a resin.

Creslan - Trademark owned by American Cyanamid Co. for acrylic fibers.

cross-dyed - Multicolored effects produced in one dye bath from fabrics
containing fibers with different affinities to the same dye.

Dacron - Trademark owned by Du Pont for polyester filaments and staple
fibers.

denier - Unit of weight indicating size of a fiber filament based on
weight in grams of a standard strand of 9000 meters.

desize - Removal of size.  Several methods may be used.   (See enzyme.)

developed dye - An azo dye whose color is developed by reaction on
cotton.

dichromate - A chemical used widely in applying some dyes.  Also used
in boiler water.  A toxic material.

fieldrin - Chemical applied to wool to eliminate damage due to moths.
Toxic.
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diphenyl - (See bir.jenyl).

direct dyes - Class o^ dyestuffs that colors cellulosic fibers in full
shades.

disperse dye - A type of dye used to color several synthetic fibers.
Applied as a fine dispersion using a carrier.  On cloth, padded dye
may be baked on or "thermofixed."

dissolved solids - Total solids - suspended solids in a sample of
waste water.

dope-dyed - Trade slang for "solution dyed" or "spun dyed" meaning that
color is put into the chemical liquid from which synthetic fibers are
drawn.  Filaments emerge colored.

double knit - Knitted fabric made on a special knitting machine that
combines a double set of needles to produce a fabric.

Durable Press - Goods that require no ironing during the normal use-
life of a garment.  The term applies to apparel and other textile
products such as sheets, draperies, etc.  A a rule, DP is achieved
in two ways:  1.  Pre-curing fabrics with a special resin finish then
pressing made-up garment.  2.  Post-curing fabric with a resin finish
then cooking made-up garments in an oven.  As a rule, polyester-cotton
blends are used, but there are IOCS cottons, and other blends also.

enzyme - An agent used to remove starch size.

felt - A mat of fiber of wool often mixed with cotton or rayon.

flock - Short fibrous particles of fibers or short hairs applied by
various processes to the surface of a fabric.

fly - Waste fibers or particles which fly out into the air during
carding, drawing, spinning, or other fiber processing.

Fortrel - Trademark owned by Fiber Industries, Inc., for polyester
fiber.

greige - Fabrics in unbleached, undyed state before finishing.  In
U.S., "gray goods" or "grey goods."

Herculon - Trademark owned by Hercules, Inc., for polypropylene fibers.
                                  262

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jig-dyed - Dyed in open width on a machine called a "jig."  Cloth moves
from one roll to another through the dye liquor until the desired
shade is obtained.

jute - Coarse, brown fiber from the stalk of a bast plant grown in
India.  Used mainly for burlap, cordage, and as a backing for rugs
and carpets.

kier - A piece of equipment in which cotton is boiled with dilute
caustic soda to remove impurities.  Also used as a verb to describe
the process.

knitting - Process of making fabric by interlocking series of loops
of one or more yarns.  Types are:  jersey (circular knits), tricots
(warp knits)t double knits.

Kodel - Trademark owned by Eastman Chemical Products Inc. for polyester
yarn and fiber.

Lycra - Trademark (Du Pont) for polyurethane multifilament elastic
yarn.  The fused multifilaments in a bundle form a monofilament yarn
that stretches and snaps back.

mercerizing - Finish used on cotton yarns and fabrics to increase
luster, improve stretch and dyeability.  Treatment consists of im-
pregnating fabrics with cold concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.

Mitin - Trademark owned by Geigy Co., Inc. for a moth-repellent finish
for woolens.

modacrylic - Generic name established by the Federal Trade Commission
for a "manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is any
long-chain synthetic polymer composed of less than 85% but at least
35% by weight of acrylonitrile units."

mordant - A metallic salt used for fixing dyes on fibers.

naphthol dye - A azo dye whose color is formed by coupling with a
naphthol.  Used chiefly on cotton.

non-woven - A material made of fibers in a web or mat generally held
together by a bonding agent.

nylon - Generic name for "a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance is any long-chain synthetic polyamide having recurring
                                  263

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amide groups as an _ntegral part of the polymer chain."

Orion - Trademark (Du Pont) for acrylic fiber.

ortho phenyl phenol - A carrier used in dyeing polyester.

package dye - A method for dyeing many cones of yarn at once by
pumping a dye solution through the yarn.

permanent finish - Fabric treatments of various kinds to improve
glaze, hand, or performance of fabrics.  These finishes are durable
to laundering.

pH scale - A method used to describe acidity or alkalinity.  pH 7
is neutral; above 7 - alkaline; below 7 - acid.  The scale extends
from 0 to 14 and a change of 1 unit represents a tenfold change in
acidity or alkalinity.

pigment prints - Made with insoluble pigment mixed with a binder and
thickener to form the printing paste.

pile fabric - Fabric with cut or uncut loops which stand up densely on
the surface.

polyamide - (See nylon.)

polyester - A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance
is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight
of an ester of dihydric alcohol and terephthalic acid.   (See Dacron,
Fortrel, Kodel.)

polypropylene - Basic fiber-forming substance for an olefin fiber.

precured fabric - Technique for imparting durable press by impregnating
fabrics with special resins then curing same.  Does not require oven
after-treatment of apparel.  (See durable press.)

Post-cured - Technique for imparting durable press that requires baking
apparel in ovens to cure fabrics that have been impregnated with special
resins.  Most common technique used with polyester and cotton blends.
(See durable press.)

printing - Process of producing designs of one or more colors on a
fabric.  There are several methods, such as roller, block* screen, etc.,
and several color techniques, such as direct, discharge, and resist.
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print paste - A mixture containing a dye or pigment used in printing.
Generally contain gums  (thickener) and a solvent.  (See also pigment
prints.)


raschel - Warp-knit, similar to tricot, but coarser.  Made in a wide
variety of patterns.

rayon - A generic name for man-made fibers, monofilaments, and con-
tinuous filaments, made from regenerated cellulose.  Fibers produced
by both viscose and cuprammonium process are classified as rayon.

reactive dyes - Dyes that react chemically with the fiber.

resin - A chemical finish used to impart a property desired in a fabric,
such as water repellency or hand, etc.  (See durable press.)

resist dye - Method of treating yarn or cloth so that in dyeing the
treated parts do not absorb the dyestuff.

roller prints - Machine made, using engraved copper rollers, one for
each color in the pattern.

scouring - Removal of foreign components from textiles.  Normal
scouring materials are alkalies  (e.g., soda ash) or trisodium phos-
phate, frequently used in the presence of a surfactant.  Textile
materials are sometimes scoured by use of a solvent.

screen prints - A screen of fine silk, nylon, polyester, or metal mesh
is employed.  Certain areas of the screen are treated to take dye,
others to resist dye.  A paste color is forced through the screen onto
the fabric by a "squeegee" to form the pattern.

sequestrant - A chemical used to bind foreign metal ions.  Frequently
used in dyeing.  A common sequestrant is EDTA.

size - A material applied to warp yarns to minimize abrasion during
weaving.   Common sizes are starch, polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), and
carbonxymethyl cellulose.  Sizes are applied continuously in a slasher.

softener - A chemical used to apply a soft, pleasant hand.  Fat
derivatives and polyethylene are common softeners.

solution-dyed - Synthetic fibers sometimes are dyed by adding color
                                  265

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to the chc-nical polymer before fibers are formed.  Also called dope
dyed.

standard raw waste load (SRWL) - A description of the properties of
waste water before treatment.

starch - Organic polymer material used as a size; highly biodegradeable.

sulfur dye - A class of dyes which dissolve in aqueous sodium sulfide
forming products with a marked affinity for cotton; the dyes are
regenerated by air oxidation.

suspended solids - Amount of solids separated by filtration of a
sample of waste water.

textured - Bulked yarns that have greater volume and surface interest
than conventional yarn of same fiber.

top chrome - Term used in application of certain dyes to wool.  Involves
use of chromium compounds.

top-dyed - Wool which is dyed in the form of a loose rope of parallel
fibers prior to spinning fibers into yarn.

total organic content  (TOC) - The total organic materials present in
a sample of waste water.

total oxygen demand  (TOD)  - The amount of oxygen necessary to completely
oxidize materials present in a sample of waste water.

total solids - Amount of residue obtained on evaporation of a sample
of waste water.

triacetate - Differs from regular cellulose acetate, which is a di-
acetate.  The description implies the extent of acetylation and
degree of solubility in acetone.

tricot - Warp-knitted fabric.  Tricots are flat knitted with fine ribs
on the face (lengthwise) and ribs on the back  (widthwise).

tufted fabric - Fabric decorated with tufts of multiple ply yarns.
Usually hooked by needle into fabric structure.  Used widely for carpets.

vat dye - A type of dye applied from a liquor containing alkali and a
powerful reducing agent, generally hydrosulfite.  The dye is subsequently
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oxidized to the colored form.  Widely used on cellulosic fibers.

warp - Set of lenthwise yarns in a loom through which the crosswise
filling yarns (weft) are interlaced.  Sometimes called "ends."

weaving - The process of manufacturing fabric by interlacing a series
of warp yarns with filling yarns at right angles.

yarn - An assemblage of fibers or filaments, either manufactured or
natural, twisted or laid together so as to form a continuous strand
which can be used in weaving, knitting, or otherwise made into a
textile material.

yarn-dyed - Fabrics in which the yarn is dyed before weaving or
knitting.
VII 5.2H-5.28),;lines from 4000 to 5000
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