4
UJ
CD
% PRO&6
It
FLUORIDE IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK
by
Ibrahim Joseph Hindawi, Ph.D.
NATIONAL ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
An Associate Laboratory of
National Environmental Research Center—Corvallis
-------
FLUORIDE IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK
By
Ibrahim Joseph Hindawi, Ph.D.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
National Ecological Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
Presented at the
Helena, Montana Conference
September 10, 1974
-------
VEGETATION STUDIES
Phytotoxicity of airborne gaseous fluoride is well documented in the
literature.^' ^ an<^ Fluoride is an accumulative toxicant,
and development of plant injury is usually associated with fluoride
buildup in the leaf over a relatively long period in contrast to
short-time exposure than normally causes injury with most atmospheric
photo-toxicants.^7' ^ Also, the fluoride ion is relatively stable in
contrast to many pollutants that break down or change chemically
(3 9)
within the leaf. ' Leaves on the same plant can differ considerably
in fluoride content because leaves differ in age or exposure time. '
Since deciduous plants lose their leaves annually, there is no
opportunity for buildup of fluorides in the trees from one year to the
next. Conifers, however, retain their needles and can accumulate
fluorides over a longer period of time.
A wide variation in sensitivity is recognized; some species may
accumulate in excess of 100 parts per million (ppm) on a dry weight
basis without displaying any symptoms of injury, whereas other species
may develop extensive areas of dead tissue when much less fluoride has
been accumulated.^ It is generally accepted that fluoride concentrations
in plants up to 10 ppm may be considered normal occurrence and that
some plants, particularly those closely related to tea and camelia,
may accumulate a much larger amount in the absence of atmospheric
contaminants.^^ In a plant community such as that found in Glacier
National Park, concentration exceeding 10 ppm in grasses and pine are
probably associated with atmospheric contamination.
During 1970 and 1974, I have conducted a survey of pine trees and other
indigenous vegetation in Columbia Falls and Glacier Park. The survey
1
-------
was made to investigate possible damage to the trees by air pollutants.
As part of the survey, two separate studies were conducted.
First, investigation of the condition of indigenous vegetation and pine
trees on a various location in 1970 and 1974.
Second, exposure of experimental vegetation under controlled conditions
in plant shelter at three locations in the area in 1970.
V i_sua 1 Observations
In 1970, vegetation in Glacier National Park and surrounding areas was
examined for evidence of fluoride-type markings.
Columbia Falls and vicinity - Severe needle tip necrosis was observed
on ponderosa pine at two locations within Columbia Falls. Ponderosa
pine in ttie Yard of Dr. Kruck residence (Figure 1) at the Columbia
Tails, and at Columbia Falls Park, were severely damaged with necrosis
lesion on the tip of 1968 and 1969 needles. The needles of 1967 were
entirely defoliated. The needle tip necrosis (Figure 2) ranged from
red-brown to light brown with numerous dark brown bands and a sharp
line of demarcation between healthy and necrotic tissue. Young lodge-
pole pine tree (Figure 3) in the ornamental planting at the entrance to
the Columbia Falls Forest Ranger Station showed considerable injury of
t.hi> 1968 needles, less injury of the 1969 needles. The oldest 1970
loaves of a young birch tree (Figure 4) growing in the same area were
severely injured. Necrosis at the margin of these leaves extended
between the principal veins almost to the mid-rib. Ponderosa pine at
the Site #4 location, which is about five miles northeast of the
aluminum plant, showed injury of the 1969 needles (Figure 5). A large
commercial planting of the conifers about 20 miles south from Columbia
Falls appeared to be free of injury.
2
-------
Teakettle Mountain - (Figure 6). Ponderosa, lodgepole, douglas fir,
on top of Teakettle Mountain (Figure 7, 8) were severely damaged with
necrotic lesion on the tip of the 1968 and 1969 needles. Many of the
young douglas fir trees (Figure 9) were heavily marked with fleck-like
chlorotic lesions and a general golden-brown discoloration.
Glacier Park - (Figure 9). White pine trees (Figure 10, 11) at Glacier
National Park Headquarters showed necrotic tip burn on 1968, and some
burn on 1969 needles. Bear grass (Figure 12) grown beside park
headquarters developed tip damage. Lodgepole pine (Figure 13) about
4.5 miles west of park headquarters showed considerable damage on the
1968 needles. Ponderosa pine and douglas fir (Figure 14) showed
severe damage on 1960 and 1969 needles. On Lake McDonald (Figure 15),
tip burn was observed on white pine (Figure 16) growing on a ledge
approximately 500 feet above the highway on the east side of the stream
(Figure 17). Necrosis was found only on the tips of 1968 needles
(Figure 18).
In general, of the field observation, necrotic tip burn on ponderosa
pint; and necrotic of some leaves on broad leaf plant were observed in
Columbia Falls. These symptoms appeared to be identical with symptoms
characterized as fluoride type. Similar symptoms on the needles were
observed several miles northeast of the plant, and heaviest injury
appeared on the north slope of Teakettle Mountain. Needle burn of
sensitive pine species in Glacier National Park indicates that
excessive fumigation with fluorides probably occurred in 1968; tissue
analysis confirmed this observation. Observation from the top of
Teakettle Mountain confirms that fluoride-type symptoms are prevalent
to the top of the mountain. Wind movement from the south-southwest
would carry any pollutants reaching the top of the mountain up the
middle fork of Flathead River into the Lake McDonald area.
3
-------
Chemical Analysis
The needles were divided into two nearly equal parts--the tip (top
half) and the base (bottom half). Unwashed needles were identified,
sorted, oven-dried, and ground for semi-automated wet-chemical analysis
with an autoanalyzer (as outlined by Health Laboratory Science (1969)
was used for determination of total fluoride). Results of the analysis
appear in Table 1 and 2.
The normal expected fluoride content of who!e conifer needles is less
than 10 ppm (based on control data of the Forest Service and University
of Montana). The fluoride content of many of the samples reported in
Table 1 and 2 is much higher than this background level of 10 ppm.
Accumulation on the tip portion of the needles ran as high as 141 ppm,
and only two of the samples showed fluoride levels as low as background
when the tip and base measurements were combined. The data further
confirm that fluoride has accumulated in the tissue of vegetation
growing in and near the park in sufficient quantities to produce the
observed top necrosis.
Generally, the fluoride accumulation in 1968 needles was greater than
in 1969 needles, and in 1969 needles than in the current 1970 needles.
The high fluoride content of 1968 and 1969 needle growth may reflect
exposure to higher ambient fluoride levels during these years as well
as cumulative effects of the longer exposure period.
The high fluoride content (43 ppm) of bear grass collected at park
headquarters exceeds the state standard of 35 ppm for forage,
considered to be the maximum safe concentration for animal ingestion.
Histological Examination
Histological changes are associated with presence of injured tissue,
Solberg and Adamsreported that cellular changes caused by fluoride
4
-------
in broad leaves were characterized by collapse of the mesophyll and
distortion and collapsed of epidermal cells.13' ^ and ^
Cellular collapsed was noted in pine needles, but considerable
variation existed within a needle. Perhaps the most interesting
effect was hypertrophy of epithelial cells of the resin canal and
enlargement of some paranchyma tissue.
Injured needles from the park trees showing burn symptoms were
examined microscopically. By means of a hand sectioning technique,
tissue sections were obtained without the distortion induced by
killing or dehydration of the tissue. Clear and workable sections
were obtained by softening the hard tissue in a solution composed of
20 percent glycerin, 10 percent alcohol, and 70 percent distilled
water. Thianine stain gave clarity and resolution to the initial
stages of injury. Sections were taken from the green, uninjured
portion of the needles imediately preceding the demarcation line
between injured and uninjured tissue.
Examination of the specimens revealed that part of the mesophyll cells
granulated and the chloroplasts had lost their integrity (Figure 19).
The epithelial cells of the resin canal showed swelling and expansion
{Figure 20). Paranchyma cells near the vascular bundle had enlarged
and swelled (Figure 21).
The extensive changes in the injured needle tissue indicated that the
causative agent of the needle necrosis was chemical.
Controlled Exposures of Selected Vegetation
Cylinder-shaped, fiberglass greenhouses were located at three of the
sites where volumetric ambient fluoride measurements were conducted
(Figure 22, 23). Stations 1,2, and 3 (shown in Figure 1) were
selected for the exposure tests because of the availability of electric
power and the proximity to the park.
5
-------
At sites 1 and 2, shelters of the same type as those used for ambient
exposures were equipped with filters to remove particulate and gaseous
fluorides (Figure 24). In these control shelters, ambient air was
blown through a series of filters before entering the shelter and then
was pulled from the shelter by an exhaust blower. In the regular test
shelters, unfiltered ambient air was drawn by the air movement induced
by an exhaust blower. In all shelters, fans circulated air at a rate
of about 1 air-volume-change-per-minute.
Plants exposed included ponderosa, Scotch and white pines, alfalfa,
Chinese apricot, and Snow Princess gladiolus. Trees were obtained
from these sources: white pine--Coeur d'Alene, Idaho; ponderosa pine--
Potamac Valley, Missoula, Montana; Scotch pine—St. Regis, Montana; and
Chinese apricot—Denver, Colorado.
The pines were 3 to 4 years old and were placed at the sites 1 to 2
weeks after bud break. The apricot trees were 5 to 6 years old. All
trees remained during this exposure period in the soil in which they
were delivered by the nursery.
r.ladiolus and alfalfa were grown hydroponically in a vermiculite support
medium. Plastic pots containing the plants were placed in shallow
plastic trays to which a deionized water nutrient solution was added
twice a week. On a weekly schedule, all plants were flushed with
distilled water, and the trays were cleaned to rid them of algae. In
the latter stages of the study heaters were placed inside the shelters
to prevent freezing.
The selected plant varieties were also grown in garden plots near the
shelters at sites 1, 2, and 3. A garden plot was also established at
the nir sampling station near Mud Lake (site 4). Gladiolus and alfalfa
were planted in native soil at each of the garden plots, but the trees
6
-------
were left in their containers with the original soil. The garden plots
were watered about every other day with deionized water and once a week
with nutrient solution.
On the apricot tree, the leaf (Figure 25) shows injury at the tip and
margin, and a demarcation line developed clearly between injured and
intact tissue. Spots of injured tissue surrounded by healthy tissue
also appeared on the leaf.
Moderate tip burn was observed on Gladiolus (Figure 26). Gladiolus
wore harvested for analysis on September 14 as buds were opening after
about 11 weeks of growth. Alfalfa and part of the apricot leaves were
also harvested at this time. At the end of the 16-week study, the rest
of the apricot leaves and the new growth of alfalfa was harvested. Pine
needles were also collected from the test trees at this time and were
classified as 1969 and 1970 needle growth for analyses.
Samples from plants grown in the exposure shelters and the garden
plots were analyzed at the EPA laboratory 1n Durham, North Carolina.
Unwashed plant samples were identified, sorted, oven-dried, and ground
for automated wet-chemical analysis with an autoanalyzer. Results
are reported in ug F/g dry weight in Tables III through VI.
Results of the controlled exposure of selected vegetation indicate
that nearly all samples exposed to this ambient air accumulated more
fluoride than did those grown in the purified air of the control
chambers. This accumulation appears to be of marginal significance,
however, it must be remembered that the vegetation encountered low
concentrations of fluoride as demonstrated by the air quality
measurements made at these same exposure sites.
7
-------
Summary and Conclusion
Data and information provided by the vegetation studies and field
observation made during 1970 and 1974 growing seasons revealed that
visible injury to conifers and other vegetation growing in and around
the Glacier National Park was detected. The oldest needles of
ponderosa pine growing in an exposed location on the Teakettle Mountain
showed considerable tip burn. Other coniferous species in the area
showed severe foliar necrotic lesions on the 1968 and 1969 needles.
The variability of visible damage to vegetation within the park
suggests that location, topography, and metrology, in addition to the
quantity of fluoride emitted by the aluminum reduction plant, are key
factors in exposure of vegetation to fluorides. For example,
vegetation in some areas near the west boundary of the park, presumably
protected by topography from exposure to air borne fluorides, appeared
free of foliar injury, but tip necrosis was clearly visible on older
needles of sensitive white pine growing in areas situated deep within
the interior of the park along the presumed frequent path of the
effluent plume from the aluminum plants.
Histological examination of injured needles from conifers exhibiting
tip burn symptoms showed extensive pathological changes in the needle
tissue that indicate chemical etiotogy of needle necrosis. These
changes were not caused by insect infestation, natural disease, or
winter damage.
Chemical analysis of necrotic needles of pine in Glacier National
Park indicated significant fluoride content, which substantiates our
finding that the needle tip necrosis observed on growth of pines in
Glacier National Park and surrounding areas was produced by ambient
levels of fluorides.
8
-------
Plants especially sensitive to fluorides were grown for several months
in enclosed exposure chambers at three sites. Chambers equipped with
devices to remove particulate and gaseous fluorides were operated as
control. In other chambers, plants were exposed to unfiltered ambient
air. The plants included alfalfa, apricot trees, gladiolus, and several
pine species. Although test procedure difficulties and short exposure
time hampered the interpretation of results, it is evident that a greater
ambient of fluorides accumulated in the vegetation exposed to ambient
air than in plants exposed to filtered air.
9
-------
Table I. FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION SAMPLES
COLLECTED IN COLUMBIA FALLS, 1970
(Fluoride in ppm)
Location
Plant Varieties
Date Collected
Dr. Kruck Residence
(Columbia Falls)
Ponderosa
1968 needles end 312
July 6, 1970
Columbia Falls Park
Ponderosa
1968 needles end 119
July 16, 1970
Ranker Station
(Columbia Falls)
Bi rch
1970 whole leaf 94
July 16, 1970
Monitoring Site #4
Ponderosa
1969 needles
tip 122 base 9
October 20, 1970
Monitoring Site #4
Ponderosa
1970 needles
tip 39 base 11
October 20, 1970
10
-------
Table II. FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION SAMPLES
COLLECTED ON TEAKETTLE MOUNTAIN, 1970
(Fluoride in ppm)
Location Plant Varieties Date Collected
Teakettle Mountain
Ponderosa
1968 needles
tip 295 base 101
July 16,
1970
Teakettle Mountain
Ponderosa
1969 needles
tip 213 base 56
July 16,
1970
Teakettle Mountain
Ponderosa
1970 whole needle 34
July 16,
1970
Teakettle Mountain
Lodgepole Pine
1968 needles
tip 328 base 37
July 16,
1970
Teakettle Mountain
Lodgepole Pine
1969 needles
tip 260 base 46
July 16,
1970
11
-------
Table III. FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION SAMPLES
COLLECTED IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, 1970
(Fluoride in ppm)
Date of
1967 IJeedles
1968 Needles
1969 Needles
1970 Needles
Collection
Location
Plant Varieties
Tip Base
Tip Base
Tip
Base
Tip Base
7/16
Park Headquarters
White Pine
29.5 12.5
36.5 13.0
28.5
8.2
8.0 + 5.4
7/16
4-5 miles west of
Park Headquarters
Lodgepole
63.0
15.0
10/22
Beside Park
Headquarters
Bear Grass
43.2 Whole
Leaves of 1970
7/16
Road to Middle
Fork Ranger
Station (about 4
miles southwest of
Headquarters)
Ponderosa
83.0 8.0
68.5 4.9
50.0
9.0
10.2 + 3.7
10/22
Middle Fork
Ranger Station
Douglas Fir
140.7 32.1
73.9
15.8
20.0 5.2
7/16
6 miles north of
Lake McDonald
White Pine
19.0 7.7
54.0
17.8
12
-------
Table IV. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN 1969 AND 1970
NEEDLES OF WHITE, PONDEROSA, ANO SCOTCH PINES
EXPOSED FROM JUNE 25 TO OCTOBER 21, 1970
(ug F/g)
Exposure/location
White pine
Scotch
pine
Ponderosa pine
1569
1970
1969
1970
1969
1970
Plant shelters
Site 1
16.5
10.6
34.5
12.6
36.1
9.8
Site 2
8.3
16.7
12.4
39.6
10.7
Si te 3
18.3
25.3
23.5
8.7
46.1
10.5
Garden plots
Si te 1
7.3
•
00
10.0
5.5
19.1
7.1
Si te 2
11.4
9.1
7.1
14.3
6.9
Site 3
12.7
6.2
6,3
5.0
16.6
6.8
Si te 4
18.5
14.2
14.3
8.2
19.0
9.4
Control shelters3
6.1
5.1
9.2
4.2
15.5
5.6
aFluoride content of the plants in both control shelters.
13
-------
Table V. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN ALFALFA LEAVES
AND STEMS EXPOSED IN 1970 STUDY
Exposure/location
Fluoride content yg F/g
July 24 through September 14 through
September 14 October 21
Plant shelters
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Garden plots
Si te 1
Site 2
Si te 3
Site 4
Control plant shelters
13.9
12.5
11.1
21.3
19.3
24.7
32.1
4.4
13.6
11.5
15.1
5.0
14
-------
Table VI. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN CHINESE
APRICOT LEAVES EXPOSED IN 1970 STUDY
Exposure/location
Fluoride content, yg F/g
July 14 through September 14 through
September 14 October 21
Plant shelters
Site 1
Si te 2
Si te 3
Garden plots
Si te 1
Site Z
Si te 3
Si te 4
Control plant shelters
6.7
8.4
10.7
10.2
9.9
9.6
12.8
2.6
15.9
24.3
19.7
14.6£
2.0
Date of exposure was July 14 to September 26,
15
-------
Table VII. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN GLADIOLUS LEAF
TISSUE EXPOSED FROM JUNE 25 THROUGH SEPTEMBER 14, 1970
Fluoride content, pg F/q
(xposure/location 0 to 2 inches 2 to 4 inches 4 to 6 inches
from tip from tip from tip
Plant shelters
Site 1 20.6 6.7 8.1
Site 2 24.0 12.4 9.3
Site 3 23.9 9.9 10.2
Garden plots
Si to 1 26.8 10.1 7.5
Site 2 43.6 9.1 8.9
Site 3 28.2 10.9 9.0
Control plant shelters 12.0 8.9 5.2
16
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Roholm K. 1973. Fluorine intoxication. Hyt. Nordisk Forlay
Arnold Busck Copen, Germany. 364 pp.
2. Thomas, M. D. and E. W. Alther. 1966. The effect of fluoride
on plants, pp. 231-306. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology,
New York. Vol, 20(1).
3. Thomas, M. D. and R. H. Hendricks. 1956. Effects of air
pollution on plants, pp. 9-1 - 9-44. In: P. L. Magi 11,
F. R. Holden, and C. Ackley (eds.). Air Pollution Handbook.
New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
4. Zimmerman, P. W. and A. E. Hitchcock, 1956. Susceptibility of
plants to hydrofluoric acid and sulfur dixoide gases. Contrib.
Boyce Thompson Inst. 18:263-279.
5. Benedict, H. M., J. M. Ross and R. W. Wade. 1964. The disposition
of fluorides by vegetation. Int. J. Air Wat. Poll. 8:279-289.
6. Hindawi, Ibrahim J. 1970. Air pollution injury to vegetation.
U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health
Service. National Air Pollution Control Association, Raleigh,
North Carolina.
7. Leone, Ida A., Eileen Brennan and R. H. Daines. 1956.
Atmospheric fluoride: Its uptake and distribution in tomato
and corn plants. Plant Physol. 31:329-333.
8. Adams, D. F., J. W. Hendrix and H. G. Applegate. 1957.
Relationship among exposure periods, foliar burn, and fluorine
content of plants exposed to hydrogen fluoride. 0. Agr. Food
Chem. 5:108-116.
9. Prince, A. L., F. E. Bear, E. G. Brennan, I. A. Leone and R. H.
Daines. 1949. Fluorine: Its toxicity to plants and its control
in soils. Soil Sci. 67:269-277.
17
-------
10. Thomas, M. D. and R. H. Hendricks. 1956. Effects of air
pollution on plants, pp. 9-1 - 9-44. In: P. L. Magi 11,
F. R. Holden, and C. Ackley (eds.). Air Pollution Handbook.
New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
11. Solberg, R. A. and D. F. Adams. 1956. Histological responses
of some plant leaves to hydrogen fluoride and sulfur dioxide.
Amer. J. Bot. 43:755-760.
12. Environmental effects of fluoride. Glacier National Park and
vicinity. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region VIII.
Air and Water Program Division. Denver, Colorado 80203.
13. Stewart, D., M. Treshow and F. Harner. 1973. Pathological
anatomy of conifer needle necrosis. Canadian J. of Botany.
Vol. 51. pp. 983-988.
14. Carlson, Clinton E. and J. E. Dewey. 1971. Environmental
pollution by fluorides in Flathead National Forest and
Glacier National Park, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Forest
Service, Northern Region Headquarters. Division of State
and Private Forestry.
15. Hindawi, Ibrahim J. 1973. Differential diagnostic for fluoride
damage to plants. Presented at the Fifth Conference of the
International Society for Fluoride Research in Oxford, England.
18
-------
VISUAL OBSERVATION IN 1974
On July 23 and 24, 1974, I examined vegetation in Glacier National
Park and surrounding areas for evidence of fluoride-type markings.
FINDINGS
The nature and extent of tree and shrub damage is described in Table 1.
The locations that were visited are shown in relation to the aluminum
reduction plant in Figure 1. Pine trees and shrubs showed injury from
hydrogen fluoride and insects. Typical fluoride damage was observed
as necrotic injury of the tissue at the tip of the needle and advancing
downward. On broad-leaf plants, the injury appeared along the margin
and there was often a sharp demarcating line between injured and intact
tissues. Injury on the leaves of birch trees appeared as spots of
injured tissue surrounded by healthy tissue. Injury was identical
to the damage on plant species exposed to fluoride under controlled
condi tions.
Dehlbon Farm Site A. On this farm located about one mile west of the
aluminum plant, pine trees and broad leaf plants showed severe injury;
the damage mostly occurred on the tip of needles and on the tip and
margin of the leaves. Needle tip necrosis was observed on lodgepole
(Figure 2) and Scotch pine (Figure 3), but the damage was more severe
in the 1973 than 1974 needles. Mountain maple and apple trees and
Lily of the Valley plants (Figure 4) were also injured.
Columbia Falls and Vicinity. Severe needle tip necrosis was observed
on Ponderosa pine (Figure 5) at the city park (site B) (Figure 6 and 7)
19
-------
and in the yard at the Dr. Kruck residence in Columbia Falls (site C).
The injury was confined to needles on the growth produced in 1973 while
1974 needles (current season) showed only a trace of tip injury. A
sharp line of demarcation between healthy and necrotic tissue was
clearly shown on the needles. This symptom is characteristic of injury
produced on pine needles by fluorides in a contaminated environment.
Lodgepole pine (Figure 8) in the ornamental plantings at the Forest
Ranger Station (site D), at the entrance to Columbia Falls, showed
considerable injury on the 1973 needles but little injury on 1974
needles. The leaves of river birch tree (Figure 9) growing in the
same area were also injured. The damage appeared as necrosis at the
margin of the leaf, extending between the principal veins.
Teakettle Mountain (site E). Located between the aluminum plant and
Glacier Park, within 4^ miles northeast of the aluminum plant. Wind
movement from the south-southwest would carry any pollution reaching
the top of the mountain up to the Glacier Park. Lodgepole pine,
western larch (Figure 10), and white pine were severely damaged.
Necrotic lesion developed on 1973 with a trace on 1974 needles.
Marginal injury, necrotic lesion and growth suppression were also
detected on the broad leaf of maple trees (Figure 11) at the top of
Teakettle Mountain.
Glacier Park. Pine needles and other indigenous vegetation in the park
showed tip and margin injury comparable to that caused by fluoride.
Bear grass (Figure 12) growing near Glacier Park headquarters (site F)
showed tip injury on 1974 growth. Necrotic lesion developed on 1973
and 1974 needles of Douglas fir (Figure 13) growing about 2 miles west
of park headquarters (site G). At the ranger station (site H), 4 miles
west of park headquarters, tip injury developed on 1973 needles of
lodgepole pine (Figure 14).
20
-------
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
The pine needles were divided into nearly equal parts—the tip (top
half) and the base (bottom half). Unwashed needles were identified
and sorted. The tissue was analyzed for fluoride at the National
Environmental Research Center, Corvallis, Oregon. An uncomplicated
method for the determination of organically-bound fluoride was used.*
Results of the analysis appear in Tables II-IV. The tables show that
in Columbia Falls, fluoride as high as 48 and 71 ppm on dry weight
basis has accumulated on the tip of 1973 needles and on 1974 broad
leaves respectively. On Teakettle Mountain, fluoride as high as 58
ppm was found on 1974 leaves of the huckelberry plant and 52 ppm in
19/3 white pine needles. In Glacier Park, fluoride as high as 44 ppm
was found in lodgepole pine needles.
The normal expected fluoride content of whole conifer needles is less
than 10 ppm (based on control data of the Forest Service and University
of Montana). The fluoride content of many of the samples reported in
Tables II-IV is higher than this background level of 10 ppm. Generally,
the fluoride accumulation on 1973 needles was higher than 1974 needles,
and the fluoride accumulation on 1974 broad leaves was high, even though
the plant was exposed only two months in the 1974 growing season.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Tip injury on Ponderosa pine and necrosis on broad leaves were observed
near the aluminum plant and in Columbia Falls.
*B. Z. Lenkowski, E. G. Wollish, and E. G. E. Shafer. Analytical
Research Laboratory, Hoffman-La Roche, Inc., Nutley, NJ.
Analytical Chemistry. 1959.
21
-------
Observations on the top of Teakettle Mountain indicated that fumigation
with fluoride caused more injury than in Glacier Park. Hand section and
microscopical examination of injured needles and broad leaves inside and
outside the park indicated many cells in the damaged area had either
lost integrity, swelled or collapsed.
Chemical analysis of the pine needles and other broad leaves in the
areas by the aluminum plant, in Columbia Falls, on Teakettle Mountain,
and in Glacier National Park, indicated a fluoride content which
substantiates the finding that needle tip necrosis and injury on broad
leaves were produced by ambient levels of fluoride.
1 have observed during my survey that many pine needles were injured
by insects such as pine needle sheath minor, pine needle minor and
scale (sucocus scale). As reported by Mr. Carlson, scale insects are
known to build up on weakened or disturbed trees. Excessive dust
alone can precipitate scale outbreaks. There appears to be a
relationship between scale population and fluoride accumulation in
the vegetation, but more work has to be done to confirm this finding.
Finally, fluoride damage caused reduction in photosynthesis, weakened
plants, and reduced yield and food production. The magnitude of
exposure to fluoride is dependent upon emission rates, location,
stage of plant growth and weather conditions such as stagnation, wind
direction, wind speed, and temperature.
22
-------
Glacier Park and Columbia Falls
Location of areas in which
vegetation injury was found
est Glacier
Lookout
¦
Headqu
*HIP
Aluminum Plant
Hungry Horse
Columbia Falls
Miltt
-------
Table IV. FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION SAMPLES
COLLECTED FROM GLACIER PARK, July 24, 1974
(Fluoride in ppm)
Location
Near the Park
Headquarters
2 Miles West of
Park Headquarters
Ranger Station,
4 Miles West of
Park Headquarters
Plant Varieties
Bear Grass
Douglas Fir
Lodgepole Pine
Tip Base
1974 whole leaves
14
1973 needle
33 30
1973 needle
44 31
24
-------
Table III. FLUORIDE CONTENT OF
SAMPLES COLLECTED FROM
THE TEAKETTLE MOUNTAIN,
July 23, 1974
(Fluoride in ppm)
Plant Varieties Tip Base
Lodgepole Pine
1973 needle
45 33
Western Larch
1974
36
whole needle
White Pine
1973
52
whole needle
1974
35
whole needle
Mountain Maple
1974
45
whole leaves
Saint John Wort
1974
28
whole leaves
Huckelberry
1974
58
whole leaves
25
-------
Table II. FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION SAMPLES
COLLECTED FROM THE COLUMBIA FALLS, July 24, 1974
(Fluoride in ppm)
Location
Plant Varieties
Tip Base
Dr. Kruck Residence
Ponderosa Pine
1973 needle
42 26
Ci ty Park
Ponderosa Pine
1973 needle
48 32
Ranger Station
Lodgepole Pine
1973 needle
34 30
Ranger Station
River Birch
1974 whole leaves
71
26
-------
Table I. (Cont'd)
Si te and Di recti on with
Relation to Anaconda Map
Aluminum Plant Location
Plant
Varieties
Description
of Damage
Ci ty Park in Columbia
Fal Is
Teakettle Mountain
4 Miles NE of Aluminum
PI ant
Glacier Park at the Side
of Park Headquarters
Two Miles West of
Park Headquarters
Hanger Station 4 Miles
West of Park
Headquarters
E
E
F
G
Ponderosa Pine
White Pine
Mountain Maple
Saint John Wort
Western Larch
Lodgepole Pine
Huckelberry
Bear Grass
Douglas Fir
Lodgepole Pine
Tip necrosis on 1971 , 1972
and 1973 needles; trace on
1974 needles
Severe tip necrosis on 1972
and 1973 needles; new injury
started to develop on 1974
needles
Necrosis on the margin of
1974 leaves; also suppression
of growth
Necrosis on the margin of
1974 leaves
About 75% of the 1974 needles
showed tip injury
Tip necrosis on 1972 and
1973 needles
Necrosis on the margin of
leaf; Injured island
surrounded by healthy tissue
Tip necrosis on 1974 leaves
Tip injury on 1972 and 1973
needles; trace on 1974
needles
Tip injury on 1972 and 1973
needles; no injury on 1974
needles
27
-------
Table I. INJURY FOUND IN VARIOUS LOCATIONS ON PINE TREES
AND OTHER BROAD LEAF PLANTS IN COLUMBIA FALLS,
TEAKETTLE MOUNTAIN AND GLACIER PARK
Site and Direction with
Relation to Anaconda Map
Aluminum Plant Location
Plant
Varieties
Description
of Damage
Dehlbon Farm, West
Aluminum Plant
A
Columbia Falls Ranger
Station in Columbia Falls
Dr. Kruck Residence
in Columbia Falls
Lodgepole Pine
Scotch Pine
Lily of the Valley
Saint John Wort
Larch
Mountain Maple
Lodgepole Pine
River Birch
Ponderosa Pine
Tip necrosis 1973 needles
and little on 1974 needles
Tip necrosis on 1974 needles
Margin and tip of 1974 leaves
Tip and margin of 1974 leaves
Necrosis on 1974 needles
Necrosis on the margin of
1974 growth; also,
suppression of growth
Tip necrosis mostly on
1973 needles, little on
1974 needles
Necrosis at the margin c"
1974 leaves extended betwt.ii
principle veins
Tip necrosis on 1971, 1972
and 1973 needles; trace on
1974 needles
28
------- |