MANAGING THE
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
IMPACTS OF
ENERGY DEVELOPMENTS
JULY 1976
UNITED STATES
ENERGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20545
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This report has been reviewed by the Energy
Research and Development Administration.
Approval does not signify that the contents'
necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the Energy Research and Development
Administration, nor does mention of trade
names or commercial products constitute en-
dorsement or recommendation.
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MANAGING THE
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
IMPACTS OF
ENERGY DEVELOPMENTS
JULY 1976
UNITEO STATES
ENERGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
WASHINGTON, O.C. 20545
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PREFACE
The social and economic impacts of energy developments are of increasing
concern to the Energy Research and Development Administration. The pro-
ject which culminated in this handbook set out to define the planning
and decision-making needs of Federal, state, and local governments. In
response to these needs, this handbook sets forth the types of energy
developments and the assessment of their impacts as well as the institu-
tional settings and organizational designs to manage the impacts.
This handbook was prepared under Contract Number E(49-1)-3854 by Isabel S.
Reiff of Centaur Management Consultants, Inc. Other Centaur staff members
assisting Ms. Reiff were Marilyn Schule, Suthirat Nokkeo, Paul Kolp, and
Kenneth Regelson. Consultant David Williams played a major role in the
sections covering capital programs and the organization of local govern-
ments. This project is also indebted to the many Federal, state and local
government officials as well as industry officials that were interviewed
for their personnel experiences in energy developments. This project
received very useful direction and guidance from Mr. Ellison Burton,
Assistant Director for Environmental Analysis, Office of Planning &
Analysis, and Mr. Edward Pechan, the Project Officer.
Michael L. Frankel
CENTAUR MANAGEMENT CONSULTANTS, INC.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Preface
1. Introduction 1
2. Energy Development 9
3. Institutional Factors Affecting Energy
Development Impacts 25
4. Managing Rapid Growth 35
5. Social, Economic, and Environmental Impact Areas 55
Economic and Demographic Impacts 60
Housing 77
Transportation 82
Solid Waste 86
Water Supply 91
Wastewater Treatment 99
Recreation 1°7
Education 112
Health Care 117
Community Safety 122
6. Capital Programming 133
7. Public Costs and Revenues 151
Summary 159
State Agencies for Planning 167
Acknowledgments 169
Glossary 171
iii
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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this handbook is to provide local (as well as regional,
state, and Federal) officials with guidance regarding how they most
effectively may assess, plan and manage the social and economic impacts
of energy developments. A decision for energy development is a com-
plex one and will require the cooperation Of all levels of government
as well as the general public and the private sector in order to be
effectively managed. In this section the philosophy, scope, and organi-
zation of the handbook is described, and its purpose, explained.
Highlights
m This handbook is directed at social and economic or
"public service" assessments which result primarily
from a change in the demographic or economic charac-
teristics of an area. These impact areas include:
employment, personal income, transportation, housing,
solid waste collection and disposal, water supply,
waste water treatment, education, recreation, safety
(police, fire, occupation) and health care.
Although environmental quality is undoubtedly of con-
cern in most areas faced with such development,
environmental assessment has been discussed in con-
siderable detail in other documents.
cont'd.
1
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Highlights (cont'd.)
The handbook describes, for the manager (at the
local, regional, state or Federal level), the
scope of concern, the parameters to be measured,
the information required, the relevant methodolo-
gies, standards and techniques, and references
which are available.
FORMAT OF THE HANDBOOK
The way in which an energy development will impact a community is a
function of:
The process by which it is developed (phases, degree of
development certainty, etc.);
The increased and changed population and economic
activity associated with it;
The required services and facilities to meet the needs
of the energy system as well as the increased/changed
population;
The characteristics of the local community which will
bear the major responsibility for planning and managing
services and facilities.
This handbook is organized to reflect these different factors.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of issues which characterize energy develop-
ments and which shape the kinds of impacts associated with it. Although
development of a large energy facility is often compared to industrial
development, there are some elements of energy which distinguish it. These
elements include:
The potential for depletion of the resource;
The involvement of a multitude of agencies at all levels of
government;
The phased and site-specific nature creating a certain
inevitability regarding its development;
The uncertainty associated with any particular project.
Chapter 3 is primarily directed at describing those characteristics of
local areas which will influence the kinds of impacts the areas will
experience and their ability to respond. These characteristics include:
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Population;
Proximity to urban areas;
County/city financial relationships;
Administrative capabilities;
Local land use authority, etc.
In addition, because the success which a community will have in coping
with development will depend upon the information and assistance
available to it from other levels of government as well as from the
private sector, this section will also delineate the roles and
responsibilities characteristically assumed by these different groups.
Chapter 4 provides guidance on how to develop the necessary administra-
tive structure to regulate, monitor and permit development whether it is
publicly or privately developed. Without such an administrative structure
with which to manage development, communities will not be able to utilize
the information developed in Chapter 5.
Chapter 5 provide^ detailed discussion of each of the "impact areas" and
is divided into four parts. The first part is demographic and economic
assessment. It included the direct, indirect and induced economic effects
associated with a facility. Economic and demographic projections are
essential inputs to each subsequent assessment. The second part includes
housing and transportation. These two areas are critical not only because
they will require planning by the community but because the adequacy of the
housing market and transportation system will influence the distribution
of new population within a region. The third part includes those environ-
mental services which can often be limiting factors in the location,
sizing and form of new development: water supply, waste water treatment,
and solid waste collection and disposal. Part four concerns those
social services commonly provided locally, either by a municipality,
county, special district, or private organization: education, health
care, recreation and safety (police, fire and occupational).
In any particular community there will be a wide range of social service
concerns (e.g., foster care, drug and alcohol abuse) which will require
specific expertise to handle. However, these specific concerns are not
directly addressed in this handbook.
For each of these impact areas there is:
a discussion of how it will potentially be impacted
by energy development, including both the need to
expand a service because of increased population, as
well as those specialized needs generated by particular
aspects of energy development.
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a list of questions to be asked by local
planners in order to get organized to assess, plan
and manage each impact area.
a compilation of the data requirements useful for
performing the assessments.
methodologies, standards, and/or techniques for
actually performing the assessments.
references to potential sources of information for
the data.and for other related studies
Argonne National Laboratory, under contract to the Energy Research and
Development Administration, is currently preparing a set of planning
factors which can be used to forecast, by county, the changes in employ-
ment and population associated with the development of the following
specific energy activities: coal extraction, nuclear power plants,
coal fired electric generating plants, gasification plants, liquefaction
plants and geothermal facilities.
The Argonne study represents one approach which may be utilized by
communities in dealing with this issue. The published literature
contains additional approaches which have been found to be of use else-
where and are documented in this handbook.
Chapter 6 provides guidance on how to organize a capital improvements
program what are its outputs and limitations, necessary resources
and expertise, as well as the relative responsibilities at the local
level.
Because energy developments frequently create needs for expanded public
facilities as well as serving as a source of increased revenues (although
not always early enough to finance expansion) many communities will
experience an impact in their administrative capabilities to develop and
administer a capital improvements program.
Chapter 7 discusses the way changes in public costs and revenues can be
assessed and provides some guidance as to the mechanisms available with
which to increase revenues.
HOW TO USE THE HANDBOOK
This handbook is not a step-by-step cookbook for the practitioner.
Rather it develops a framework for the manager who is faced with develop-
ment and a need to determine priorities. Such an official may be looking
at certain issues for the first time. Often there will not be a highly
developed administrative organization which can absorb these additional
assessment responsibilities. By understanding something of the way energy
development can affect a public service sector, the manager can look at
the particular development being faced and determined whether it will
present a problem. By systematically asking questions the manager can
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identify those aspects of the system where they may experience a problem
(capacity, type, quality, timing, and/or finance). By becoming familiar
with the data requirements for analysis, the manager can identify gaps and
either seek to fill them locally, or at a minimum, influence state and/or
Federal decision-making and review processes so that their data collection
reflects local assessment and planning needs. And finally, by becoming
familiar with the assessment techniques, the manager can decide whether
the work can be performed inhouse or whether outside (other governmental
or private) assistance is necessary.
This "local" official may be located in any of several sub-state juris-
dictions. Often the county is the government which will have much of the
responsibility for providing the services necessitated by the energy
development. In some cases this responsibility is divided among the
county, any incorporated areas within it, special districts (e. g., edu-
cation) and even private companies (e. g., water supply). In other areas
regional organizations or governments will play a role. Throughout this
handbook, the term "local" refers to that official who is ultimately
responsible for providing the service or facility, or, the appropriate
regulations, ordinances and incentives to facilitate service delivery,
where such services and facilities are provided privately.
This handbook also provides guidance to the state and Federal managers
who have assessment responsibilities either through the National Environ-
mental Policy Act, or through one of the state environmental impact review
or energy development/siting programs. Often the documents prepared under
these programs are important resources for the local level. It is necessary
for the people responsible for their preparation to appreciate the level
of detail required to make an adequate plan. In addition, environmental
factors often present constraints on the public service solutions available
to a local community (waste disposal, water recreation, etc.). It is
therefore important for this information to be collected and displayed
so as to facilitate these decisions.
Although much of the assistance cited is in this handbook is available
from the Federal government, communities should not overlook the
significant contributions which can be made by state governments and
local universities. Federal procedures are often long and complicated
presenting problems to communities which need assistance to meet
immediate problems. In addition it is difficult to work with agencies
from a distance, particularly where there are complicated rules and
regulations to interpret.
State universities often have the capability to undertake many of the
technical (economic and environmental) studies. These studies are most
appropriately done locally by individuals familiar with issues unique
to a particular area. In addition, most states are good sources of
technical assistance (economic and population projections, environmental
monitoring), as well as information regarding Federal funding and
assistance opportunities. At the end of this handbook is a list of
state offices which may be contacted for assistance.
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Federal Assistance Programs and Energy Development Impacted Municipalities
prepared for the Federal Energy Administration by Wendell Associates lists
and describes the range of assistance programs available to local com-
munities from the Federal government. Rather than duplicate this effort,
the reader is directed to the FEA study for greater detail. It will be
available from the Publications Office, FEA, Washington, D.C. 20461, in
Summer 1976. Also, David Williams, Rapid Growth from Energy Projects,
Ideas for State and Local Action, A Program Guide prepared for the Depart-
ment of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Community Planning and
Development, 701 Comprehensive Planning Program, Washington, D.C. 20410,
in cooperation with the Federal Energy Administration summarizes applicable
programs.
It is probably unrealistic to expect a small community to develop a
capability to independently evaluate a highly technical development which
may be the only such development it will experience. Therefore it is
essential for local officials to be aware of resources at other levels
of government (including their Congressional delegation), as well as in the
private sector which they can tap for information and assistance. Rather
than developing a capability to do everything for themselves, this handbook
advises local officials as to how they should get organized: to most
effectively participate in assessment, planning and management and; to guarantee
that information is collected and analyzed to reflect local priorities and
future planning needs.
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REFERENCES
Unless otherwise noted, references are available directly from the author.
In the case of government publications, they are available from the
sponsoring agency, the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402, or the National Technical
Information Services, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
Land Development and the Natural Environment: Estimating Impacts, Dale
Keyes, Washington, D.C., The Urban Institute, 1976. Available
in the near future from the Urban Institute.
Measuring Impacts of Land Development; An Initial Approach, Philip S.
Schaenman and Thomas Muller. Washington, D.C.: The Urban
Institute, 1974.
The Environmental Impact Handbook, Robert W. Burchell and David Listokin,
New Brunswick, New Jersey: Center for Urban Policy Research,
Rutgers - The State University, 1975.
A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact, Geological Survey Circular
645, Luna B. Leopold, Frank E. Clarke, Bruce B. Hanshaw, and James
R. Balsey, United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. 22092,
1971.
Preparation of Environmental Impact Statements: Guidelines. Council on
Environmental Quality, 40 CFR Part 1500. Federal Register, Volume
38, Number 147, Part II, August 1, 1973. Council on Environmental
Quality, Washington, D.C. 20016.
A Handbook for Environmental Assessments of Water Quality Management Plans,
Draft, prepared by Centaur Management Consultants, Inc. for the
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460, June 1976.
STATE ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT REVIEW REQUIREMENTS
Environmental Impact Requirements in the States: NEPA's Offspring.
Thaddeus C. Trzyna, Office of Research and Development,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460,
April 1974. Separate edition issued by the Center for
California Public Affairs.
Energy Facility Siting in Coastal Areas - National Ocean Policy Study for
the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, December 1975.
The Environmental Impact Handbook, Robert W. Burchell and David Listokin,
New Brunswick, New Jersey: Center for Urban Policy Research,
Rutgers - The State University, 1975.
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ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
In this section, many of the development characteristics of energy
facilities which will be important in assessing and planning for their
impacts are discussed. The different energy systems are introduced,
their development phases are delineated, the significance of phased
development in terms of impact assessment and regulation is discussed.
Finally, three of the key characteristics of energy development which
make it a complex local problem are introduced: long-term resource
depletion, site specific requirements and uncertainty.
Development of an energy resource or facility will affect a community
much like industrial development in many ways. There will be changes in
tax base, employment, need for infrastructure
(transportation, waste disposal),
demand for goods and services resulting from
both the development and any growth (economic
and population) associated with it.
In addition, higher levels of government (state, Federal) will become
involved because of areawide implications (e.g., air and water quality)
of development.
To the extent that the development of an energy facility can be describ-
ed in the above terms (employment, induced population growth, demand
for goods, services and facilities, and tax revenues), local govern-
ments can plan for expansion of services and facilities to meet these
needs. However numbers are not often sufficient to adequately plan for
these developments. The local officials will also have to gain some
insight into the way the development will proceed:
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lead time,
permit process,
degree of certainty,
Federal and state involvement,
phases,
size of the resource, etc.
For the purpose of this handbook the following energy systems were
reviewed because of their potential as near or mid-term technologies:
coal extraction (surface and underground),
coal conversion,
direct coal fired electric generation,
off-shore oil and gas,
geothermal,
oil shale,
nuclear (fission) power generation.
Not all of the impact areas discussed later are relevant to all of the
technologies. However by having reviewed them it was possible to
determine that the potential range of concerns are reflected.
For a community to adequately plan for these developments it is impor-
tant to realize that energy development can often form the nucleus for
subsequent industrial development. This development is easy to predict
but it may be required in some cases to service the energy facility.
In other instances, local communities may use available energy sources
as an incentive to attract industries which find it advantageous to be
near the power source. In these cases, to determine possible indus-
trial activity which may be associated with energy development, it will
be necessary to review not only the development itself but the rate
structures of local utility companies, tax policies and land and water
availability as well.
Finally, energy sources can be depleted and facilities become obsolete.
Therefore, communities should attempt to determine the extent of a
resource as well as the "planned" life of facilities.
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What kinds of changes may occur?
Will power plants shift from providing base load
capacity to peak load?
Is there potential for modification or expansion
(to a certain extent land and water availability
will be a good indication of the latter)?
What will the long-term reclamation possibilities
be?
How will current development affect future options?
¦' ¦¦ ¦ Highlights ¦ ¦¦ n
In addition to the quantifiable data describing
energy development (e.g., employment, induced popu-
lation growth, tax revenues), local officials will
also have to develop an understanding of how devel-
opment will proceed and the special service needs
associated both with the energy facility as well as
with the new population.
Although energy development is characterized by
phased development, not all projects proceed through
completion. Determination of the size of the re-
source during the exploratory phases may limit sub-
sequent development.
The developer will influence the range of impacts
experienced locally. Large national developers
often coordinate their projects and transfer person-
nel between sites. Some developers play a large role
in providing services (housing, on-site fire protec-
tion) to the community to mitigate impacts.
The local regulatory process will have to reflect
the fact that development is phased and the full
scale of development is often not determined until
completion of early exploratory phases.
Energy resources (e.g., coal, oil) are depletable and
communities should begin to plan for the long-term
implications of depletion of the resource.
m Energy development is beset by uncertainty derived
from such factors as international conditions, the
economy, environmental regulations, technological
innovation, and estimates of resource size.
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ENERGY DEVELOPMENT PHASING
One of the key characteristics of an energy development is that it
is phased. Not every community will experience all phases of the
development of a system: power generation does not always occur at the
resource extraction site; the exploration phase may indicate that
there is not a sufficient resource to justify commercial facilities;
some of the phases are concurrent (transportation and residuals dis-
posal) . Although certain technologies may be characterized by a
single identifiable output (e.g., nuclear power plant), other systems
are characterized by a more incremental pattern of development (e.g.,
geothermal). In an incremental pattern there will be several smaller
projects, each at different stages, at any particular point in time.
Although the particular phases any one system will go through can be
described in terms which are specific to it (see Exhibit 2-1), the
general steps are as follows:
exploration
site preparation/drilling/construction
extraction/development/mining
preparation/processing/conversion
transportation
reclamation
residuals disposal
power generation
transmission
distribution
Exhibit 2-1 is just one way of describing the phases of energy
developments. These phases may happen in different places, and, in
some instances, concurrently.
The different phases of energy development are significant for
several reasons.
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First, each phase has different labor requirements.
In most cases this means that not only will the
number of employees vary, but the skill mix as well.
This will affect the extent to which local people,
as opposed to an in-migration of skilled workers,
will be employed. Communities need to determine the
employment implications of the development by phases
because numbers, which reflect total employment over
the life of the project often do not provide suffi-
cient detail for population and facility planning
purposes.
Second, the length of each of the phases is useful
in assessing whether outside workers are likely to
bring their families to the site, move by themselves
for the duration of the project, or commute. (See
example on following pages).
Third, the phasing of energy developments has impli-
cations for the regulatory process. In the case of
power plants it is generally possible to treat them
as a unit for the reasons previously discussed. How-
ever for some of the other technologies where fuel
development depends upon the extent of the resource
as determined during exploration, there are often a
series of permits - one for exploration, one for
drilling, and one for power generation. Although in
the exploratory stages it may not be feasible to
consider the full possibilities, local communities
should be aware of the dangers inherent in a phased
regulatory process where the opportunity never arises
for a comprehensive analysis of the total project.
DEPLETION OF THE ENERGY RESOURCE
Energy resources can be depleted (e.g., coal, oil). The economy can
make certain energy sources or technologies infeasible. Technological
innovation can render facilities and processes obsolete. In some cases
the physical impacts of energy development (e.g., on-shore and off-
shore facilities associated with off-shore oil and gas, surface mining
of coal and oil shale) are perceived as limiting the more obvious long-
term development options (tourism, water based recreation). For all
of these reasons communities must look beyond the "sudden boom" condi-
tions to the potential for a "bust" situation in the long-term.
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EXHIBIT 2-1
PHASING OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
Cgal Off-Shore Oil and GaB Geothermal
Exploration
Drilling
Photographs
Magnetic/Gravimetric
Measurement
Mapping
Regional Surveys
Detailed Surveys
Exploratory Drilling
Cataloging and Mapping
Seismic Measurements
Electric Conductivity Tests
Thermal Gradient Survey
Site Preparation/
Drilling/
Construction
Construction
Utilities
Remove Vegetation
Drilling
Well Construction
Drilling
Well Construction
Surface Underground
Extraction/
Development/
Mining
Fracturing Excavation
Drilling Room and
Blastholes pillar vs.
Blasting Long Wall
Pumping
Improved Recovery
Steam/Hot Water Extraction
from well
Water Insection
Preparation/
Processing/
Conversion
Benefication1
Crushing and Screening
Cleaning
Drying
Processing out of the well
to remove natural gas,
salt water, sand and other
oil impurities.
Refining
Remove Water Droplets and
Solids
Transportation
Producing Field to Refinery
Refinery to Market
Tank Trucks
Railroad Tank Cars
Tankers/Barges
Pipelines
Pipeline
Reclamation
Reclamation of the land
Residual Disposal
Solid Waste Disposal
Power Generation
Electric power Generator
Transmission
Distribution
1
Cleaning and minimal processing to remove major impurities or otherwise improve properties.
Source: Energy Alternatives: A Comparative Analysis, prepared for Council on Environmental Quality, Energy
Research and Development Administration, Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Energy Administration,
Federal Power Commission, Department of the Interior, and National Science Foundation, prepared by The
Science and Public Policy Program, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma.
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EXHIBIT 2-1(continued)
(see Coal)
Preliminary Investigation
Detailed Geologic Studies
Detailed Physical
Exploration
Site Determination
(see Coal)
Construction
Surface Underground
Preparation (see coal)
Fracturing Room and
Excavation Pillar
Uranium Mining
(see Coal)
Crushing and Cleaning
Gasification (heated to
form oil and gas)
Retorting
Upgrading of Liquid
Enrichment (gaseous
diffusion)
Fuel Fabrication
Chemical Conversion
Mechanical Processing
Mine to Crusher
Crusher to Processor
Truck/Railroad/Pipeline
Mine to Processor
Processor to Reactor
Truck/Railroad
Reclamation of the land
Large Quantities of
Spent Shale
Radioactive Waste
Disposal
Light Water Reactor
Coal/oil-fired plants
Reactor/Hydroelectric/
Geothermal
Electrical Generation Plant
to Main Sub-Stations
Overhead Lines
Underground Cable
Terminal Equipment
Sub-Station to Point of
Utilization
Subtransmission Lines
Transformers
Secondary Lines
Service Lines
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8,000 r-
ADDED POPULATION FROM ENERGY PROJECT
Example of 2250 MW Coal-Fired Electric Generating Plant
Added
Secondary
Employees and
Families
5 4,000
Families
Project Employees
Operating
Construction
3 4 5 6
Year From Start of Construction
SOURCE: RAPID GROWTH FROM ENERGY PROJECTS. Ideas for State and Local Action,
Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Community Planning
and Development. 1976.
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TYPICAL ENERGY PROJECTS
Project
Size
Construction
Time
Peak Force
Construction
Operating Force
Coal Ejqport Mine
9M tons/yr
2-3 years
175-200
325-475
Electric Generating Plant
(including coal mine)
700 K»
2,250 MW
4-6 years
6-8 years
750-950
2,000-3,000
75-100
350-400
Substitute Gasification Plaint
(including coal mine)
250 mcf/day
2-1/2-3 years
3,000-3,500
1,050-1,250
Oil Shale Processing Facility
(includes mining)
50,000 bbl/day
3-4 years
2,400
1,050-1,450
Nuclear Power Plant
1,600 MW
5-9 years
2,500
150
Offshore Oil and Gas Support
Per Rig
3-4 years
175
90
Platform Fabrication Facility
2 platforms/year
5 years
400
1,000-1,500
Deepvater Port
2 mooring spaces
3-4 years
1,250
75-90
Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) Conversion Plant
1,000 mcf/day
2-3 years
300-400
50-100
Oil Refinery
250,000 bbl/day
2-1/3-3 years
3,500-4,500
450-900
Source: Rapid Growth From Energy Projects Ideas for State & Local Action: A Program Guide, Department of Housing
and Urban Development, Office of Community Planning and Development - 701 Comprehensive Planning Program
in cooperation with the Federal Energy Administration, 1976. p.3
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The community may have made significant capital investments in facili-
ties (e.g., wastewater treatment) which it will now have to operate
and maintain, possibly without the necessary revenues. Loss of the
energy resource will also represent a loss of tax revenue as well as
of employment. In some cases depletion of the resource may also result
in abandoned facilities or land which would require reclamation before
being converted to an alternate use. Both abandoned facilities and
land reclamation will place demands upon local governments at the same
time that the receipt of revenue from the energy development will be
terminated. The environmental impact statement does present an oppor-
tunity for the examination of these issues through the consideration of
"the relationship between the local short-term uses of man's environment
and the maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity", and,
"any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources which would
be involved in the proposed action should it be implemented".^" It is
important for the community to plan for these contingencies in the way it
develops and sizes facilities (e.g., modules which can be enlarged in
stages) and by the adoption of any necessary regulations and procedures
to handle the eventual abandonment of facilities or reclamation of land.
Also, communities may seek to develop the resource so that it is as
compatible as possible with existing land uses.
Often communities may seek to anticipate this problem by diversifying
their economy by such means as
tax advantages,
making large land parcels available,
providing necessary infrastructure (roads,
wastewater treatment plant capacity) in
addition to whatever advantages accrue from
the proximity to an energy source.
SITE AND NON-SITE SPECIFIC DEVELOPMENT
In many instances the general location of an energy development is
determined by the resource (coal, oil, uranium, geothermal). Where a
community is knowledgeable about the presence of such a resource, it
does have the opportunity to plan for its development and to adopt
1
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) Public Law 91-190,
Section 102(c).
18
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whatever programs or regulations are appropriate to provide for its
orderly development within the framework of existing state enabling
legislation. Even where the general location of a development is
constrained by the resource there is still an opportunity, in some
cases, for the specific siting of equipment to be accomplished so as
to minimize adverse impacts.1 Examples of this are: the location of
geothermal wells on farms to avoid interfering with cultivation
practices; unitization and slant drilling for oil.
DEVELOPMENT UNCERTAINTY
Energy development is beset by uncertainty. The uncertainty which
faces a community attempting to plan for anticipated development is
derived from a number of factors generated by all levels of government
as well as from the private sector. Even international economic and
energy conditions will affect the demand for, and prices of, domestic
resources. In the case of some technologies there is proposed Federal
legislation (e.g., synthetic fuels) which will alter the economic
feasibility of various developments. Legislation and referenda at the
state level affect the feasibility of developing one kind of facility,
thereby changing the likelihood of development of alternative sources.
Environmental regulations (non-significant deterioration, strip mining)
are in flux. These regulations influence the cost and therefore rela-
tive feasibility of alternative technologies.
Finally, the permitting process is at best complex. For example, the
Department of the Interior (Bureau of Land Management, the U.S.
Geological Survey), the Department of Defense (the Army Corps of Engi-
neers) , the Department of Commerce (Coastal Zone Management, Marine
Protection, Research and Sanctuaries), the Department of Transportation
(Coast Guard) and possibly the Environmental Protection Agency all have
an interest and legislative mandate for regulation of activities over
parts of the Outer Continental Shelf.2 Although each agency would not
necessarily regulate every development, the list serves to illustrate
the range of possible procedures. In addition, the National Environ-
mental Policy Act must be complied with where there is a significant
Federal involvement. Many states have land use control programs for
permitting significant developments, power plant siting programs or
environmental impact review procedures. Many local communities,
1
Energy Facility Siting in Coastal Areas, National Ocean Policy
Study for the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, December, 1975.
2
PCS Oil and Gas, An Environmental Assessment, A Report to the
President by the Council on Environmental Quality, April, 1974,
p. 178.
19
-------
through their zoning procedures, have a permit responsibility (unless
the project is on Federal lands). In some cases the controversy which
often surrounds energy development results in lengthy court suits.
Because of this process communities do not want to begin detailed
planning, nor any significant investments, until they are certain of
the development. Unfortunately many of the impacts may begin to be
felt during the permitting process because of expectations associated
with the development.
Often the private developer is confronted with the same uncertainty
and lack of control over the factors which determine the feasibility
of a project as the local planners find. Even where the developer is
making a serious attempt to inform local planners of the project's
progress, the ultimate project commencement may be dependent upon
legislation or policy at the national level. In other circumstances
uncertainty on the part of the developer about the extent of a resource,
or an unwillingness to release what may be considered proprietary infor-
mation, frustrates a community's efforts at planning. Although the
preparation of contingency plans is probably more appropriate for energy
development than a single plan which tries to anticipate the likely
course of development, it is difficult to get local resources committed
prior to a development commitment and a firm starting date.
20
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REFERENCES
STUDIES WHICH ILLUSTRATE THE IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE DIFFERENT
TECHNOLOGIES INCLUDE:
GENERAL
Energy Alternatives: A Comparative Analysis prepared for CEQ, ERDA,
EPA, FEA, FPC, D. of I., and NSF by The Science and Public
Policy Program, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, May,
1975.
Coal
The Northern Great Plains Resource Program: an inter-agency interstate
effort established to provide information to decision makers
concerning the impact of coal development in the Northern Great
Plains. Participants include: Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Nebraska, the Department of the Interior, and the
Environmental Protection Agency, 1974, Building 67, Room 820B,
Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado, 80225
Western Gasification Company (WESCO) Coal Gasification Project and
Expansion of Navajo Mine by Utah International Inc. New
Mexico, Final Environmental Statement, U.S. Department of the
Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, January 14, 1976.
COAL Development Alternatives, An Assessment of Water Use and Economic
Implications by David D. Freudenthal, Peter Ricciardelli and
Michael York, prepared by the Wyoming Department of Economic
Planning and Development for the Wyoming Legislative Special
Subcommittee on Consumptive Water Use. December, 1974.
Case studies of potential social and economic impacts for energy
related developments prepared for the U.S. Department of the
Interior, Office of Minerals Policy Development, Washington,
D.C. 20250.
Geothermal
Technology Assessment of Geothermal Energy Resource Development, pre-
pared for the National Science Foundation Contract C-836. The
Futures Group, April 15, 1975.
21
-------
Planning for Resource Development; Geothermal Energy in Imperial
County, California: David E. Pierson, Project Director,
National Science Foundation, Grant No. AER 75-08793, June,
1975, in progress.
Imperial Valley Geothermal Survey Project, Biomedical and Environmental
Research Division, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, University of
California, Livermore, California, 94550, in progress.
William G. Kirkham and Susan J. Brown, State and Local Permit Study -
An Analysis of Administrative Factors Affecting Geothermal
Development at the Geysers, Governor's Office of Planning and
Research, Sacramento, California, 1976.
Off-Shore Oil and Gas
State of California, Onshore Impact of Offshore Southern California
PCS Sale 35 prepared for the Governor's Office of Planning and
Research, April, 1976, Robert L. Solomon, OCS Program Manager.
Coastal Management Aspects of PCS Oil and Gas Developments, a technical
information paper by the National Pceanic and Atmospheric
Administration's Pffice of Coastal Zone Management, Rockville,
Maryland, January, 1975.
PCS Pil and Gas - An Environmental Assessment - A Report to the
President by the Council on Environmental Quality, April 1974,
Volumes I-V.
Nuclear
Preliminary Assessment of a Hypothetical Nuclear Energy Center in New
Jersey, Energy Policy Analysis Group, Brookhaven National
Laboratory, Center for Environmental Studies, Princeton
University, College of Engineering, Cornell University, Regional
Science Department, University of Pennsylvania, J. E. Edinger
Associates, prepared for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
and the U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration
under Contract No. E (30-1) -16, November, 1975.
Environmental Statement related to construction of Hartsville Nuclear
Plants of the Tennessee Valley Authority, June, 1975, U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Reactor Regu-
lation.
22
-------
Review of Socio-Economic Impacts of the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power
Plant on Calvert County, Maryland and Comparison with Kent
County, Maryland, prepared by Howard Needles Tammen and
Bergendorff for the Maryland Power Plant Siting Program,
Department of Natural Resources, January, 1975.
Oil Shale
C-b Shale Oil Project, Socio-Economic Assessment, Volume I Baseline
Description, Volume II, Impact Analysis, C-b Shale Oil Project,
Ashland Oil, Inc., Shell Oil Co. Operator, March, 1976.
Draft Environmental Statement, Department of the Interior, Proposed
Development of Oil Shale Resources by the Colony Development
Operation in Colorado prepared by Bureau of Land Management,
Department of the Interior.
23
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INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IMPACTS
The way in which an energy development will impact a local community depends
upon more than the physical factors which characterize the development
(employment, structure, equipment, residuals generation, etc.). It also
depends upon the physical, social, economic and administrative structure
of the host community.
Chapter 5 describes the substantive requirements for assessing and managing
the social and economic impacts of energy developments. However before com-
munities can collect and utilize data, they will need to have an administra-
tive structure which will allow them to set priorities and make decisions.
In addition, they will need to have some understanding of the analytical
tools available, and the relationships between different services and
facilities so that data is useful and consistent.
In this chapter, the local characteristics, administrative needs and
relative roles of the various government and private organizations will
be discussed. Because local government will have the most direct
responsibility for impact management, its role is discussed first. Chapters
4 and 6 discuss how to get organized to develop an administrative
structure to cope with energy developments and administer the necessary
capital improvements programs.
in ¦ Highlights ¦i¦¦¦
The degree to which a community has an administrative
structure which can:
assimilate new functions;
cont'd.
25
-------
Highlights (cont'd.)
- review and process a surge of development activity;
seek out and receive Federal financial and technical
assistance;
attach conditions to the development to mitigate
potential impacts;
handle a shifting fiscal balance characterized
by needed infrastructure improvements early
enough to meet the needs although revenues
will be delayed until the project is in
operation;
plan for the expenditure of these potentially
increased revenues within the framework of a
rational capital improvements program;
will determine its ability to cope with development.
The reception which communities give to notice of energy
development will vary and, in general, reflect perceptions
the community has of itself, and the degree to which
energy development is consistent with those perceptions.
It is unrealistic to expect communities to gear up to
manage a development which is highly specialized and more
often than not a unique occurrence in the life of the
community. Other government agencies, the private sector,
universities, consultants, and the public all will have
a role to play in assessing, planning, and managing impacts
and activities implemented to handle these impacts.
Energy developments frequently become the nucleus for
new industrial development and there are mechanisms avail-
able to influence this development so that it is consistent
with local goals and objectives.
The National Environmental Policy Act, through the
Environmental Impact Statement, provides an opportunity
for communities to participate in decision-making. In
addition, it serves as a source of data for planning.
In addition, in many cases the development is not even located within the
jurisdiction which will have most of the responsibility for providing the
services and facilities for the increased population. Often the develop-
ment itself may take place in the unincorporated areas of a county while
the added people will live in the incorporated areas. The county will then
receive the tax revenue although not have the responsibility for service
delivery or facilities. Because of this, there are sometimes conflicts
between counties and their constituent cities over the desirability of
development and the necessity for attaching conditions to it.
26
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THE LOCAL LEVEL
The impact of an energy development on a community often varies depending
upon how well that community can absorb the needs and people associated
with it. In a highly urbanized area the existing labor force may be able
to accommodate the employment needs of the project. In such areas, there is
usually sufficient infrastructure and public services present which act
as a resource for the development. However, it is not always sufficient to
look only at aggregate numbers of people to be employed or total unemployment
in a particular community. Location near an urbanized area with a well-
developed transportation system may make it possible for workers to commute
to the energy development rather than relocate. Clearly, this will reduce
potential demand for housing and services. However, much of energy related
labor is highly specialized and the required skills may not be locally
available. Similarly, national firms may bring their own people with them.
The degree to which a community has a land use control and building permit
system, as well as a planning function, will influence the range of impacts
it will experience (for more detailed discussion, see Chapter 4). Much of
the response to the energy development in the way of services and facilities
(e.g., housing) will be accomplished by the private sector. However, the
way in which it is accomplished will have serious implications for the
community. For example, the location and density of housing will affect
transportation patterns, solid waste collection, wastewater treatment
alternatives, etc. Communities, therefore, have a responsibility to
identify the range of tools available to them in order to regulate, review,,
permit, and monitor development. This may include revising housing codes,
perhaps adopting new ordinances to facilitate mobile home development,
attaching conditions through a subdivision ordinance to help in road and
school construction, etc. Although it may appear desirable to develop
a plan for future development, in areas where events are proceeding at a
rapid pace, this may be a luxury. Communities might better spend their
time developing (albeit, interim) procedures to regulate development which
will be occurring before completion of a plan.
Much of the reaction of communities to energy development will depend upon
their perceptions of how it will change the character of their community.
This is particularly true in many of the more rural, remote areas which
may have a recreation, agriculture, ranching, or tourist based economy.
Energy development is often seen as:
a sign of industrialization or urbanization;
a promise of employment opportunities and increased tax
base;
a development to service a national need;
the impetus behind the involvement of regional, state, or
Federal governments as well as large corporations in the
community.
27
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Although the actual physical impacts associated with a particular facility
may be relatively minimal in terms of added population or environmental
degradation (e.g. geothermal), there is concern that energy resource
development may be the nucleus for industrial development or signal the
change in the economic mix of the community. Clearly, some communities
will find this to be more desirable than others. For a local community,
the important thing is to identify its role in this development process
and to make use of the mechanisms available to it to influence the process
so that it will be consistent with local goals and objectives. Communities
can attract industry by:
allowing for the accumulation of large parcels of land;
developing industrial parks;
providing tax credits or low cost financing;
making wastewater treatment capacity available;
developing necessary roads and other transportation
systems, etc.
However, it should be noted that the development of an energy generating
facility within a particular community does not necessarily mean lower
power costs for that community.
Because energy development frequently involves other levels of government
(region, state, Federal) as well as a range of private organizations, it
is necessary for the local government to know what it can expect from
those levels. Local governments cannot be expected to bear the total
assessment, planning and management responsibility. However, since they
will have to ultimately provide many of the services and facilities for the
development, they will have to know how to influence activities undertaken
by other groups so that those activities address local needs.
The Environmental Impact Statement and preceeding developer-sponsored
studies will be prepared for all energy developments with a significant
Federal involvement. Relatively early in the development process, the EIS
presents one opportunity for key issues to be raised regarding the implica-
tions of energy development for a particular community. In those states
with an environmental impact review requirement, it is also desirable for
the local community to involve itself. Private energy developers will
often prepare the data base for the EIS, and it is necessary for the local
community to make contact with the project's representatives. Often these
developers are contacted by such a range of local people that they do
not know who, if anybody, represents the community in an official capacity.
Communities would be well advised to organize themselves by setting up a
committee or by delegating an individual who can officially represent
them with the developer and who can integrate the diverse views of the
community members (commercial interests, environmentalists, different
age groups, etc.).
28
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Through the commenting process, a community will officially participate in
the EIS process. In order to make meaningful comments, they should be
specific in articulating concerns so that mitigating measures, where
appropriate, may be proposed. Rather than discussing, in general terms,
changes in the "character of the community", these changes can be more
specifically addressed as "changes in housing density and the types of
housing units", "change from a volunteer to a professional fire department", and
"change from individual septic systems, with personal responsibility by the
homeowner, to a regional wastewater treatment plant".
In addition to being an opportunity for the community to influence decision-
making, the EIS (state or Federal) is a good source of information which
the community can use in order to make necessary decisions regarding
facilities and services. For example, solid waste disposal, and wastewater
treatment options, depend upon data concerning hydrology, topography,
geology, soils, etc. Recreation opportunities may depend, to a certain
extent, upon water quality. The community should first make use of the
EIS and/or supporting studies (where it exists) before beginning any studies
of its own. However, because the EIS often is not developed early enough
in the process, communities should be cautious about waiting too long.
THE STATE LEVEL
The state is taking an increasingly active role in the regulation of
significant development. In some cases, it has adopted specific legis-
lation to deal with energy resources and facilities. (Exhibit 3-1
summarizes the provisions of state energy facility siting programs.)
Where a state has an environmental impact review procedure, it can
function much like the Federal EIS, providing both a forum for local
input as well as a source of information for local decisionmaking.
Many states have land use authority or other leverage over industrial
location. In many instances, the state will be more successful in dealing
with developers than will lower levels of government. In addition, states
are often the repository for much of the relevant economic and population
data which will be needed to plan for services and facilities.
Finally, several states are developing mechanisms to help localities with
the financing problems they are having in providing necessary infrastructure
in time to accommodate development. There are a variety of mechanisms
through which this is done. These include low interest loans, redirecting
money received through mineral leases, surcharges on electricity, etc.
(Proposed State of Maryland Environmental Trust Fund, Wyoming Community
Development Authority are two examples of such assistance.)
The states, because of the legislative constraints they present, are also
significant in determining options available to local governments in
dealing with development issues. These constraints may involve limitations
on taxing, borrowing, land use controls, environmental management, etc.
29
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EXHIBIT 3-1
STATE ENERGY FACILITY SITING PROGRAMS
!. Planning and research
Forecast and assessment
Powerplant siting laws
Inventory Needs
existing and
facilities demands
Growth,
industrial
expansion,
etc.
Impacts
Time period (yrs)
Environment Economic Social
Other
10
15 20
Utilities
furnish
informa-
tion
Ari
X
X
X
X
(!)
Arkansas X
California X
Connecticut X
Florida
Kentucky
Maryland
Massachusetts
Minnesota
Montana
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey1
New Mexico
New York X X
Ohio X
Oregon
South Carolina X
Washington
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
. X
»x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Ft (.search
required
EIS on
plan
required
Establish
guidelines,
criteria,
etc.. for
suitable
sites
Planning
measures
for
conserva-
tion of
energy
II. Site designation
When made
Consideration]
Prior to
and
separate
from
application
process
At time of
plant
approval
Not
specifically
made
Impacts
Suitability of sites
Environ-
ment
Economic Social
Other
Alternate
sites
X
X
X
X
X
Arizona X
Arkansas... X
California X X X
Connecticut
, Florida
'' Kentucky
Maryland X
v Massachusetts X X
Minnesota X X
Montana X
No.-f.de
New Hampshire X X
Mfiw jtisay *
New Mexico -
New York X
Ohio - X
r Ortjon X
South Carolina X
Washington - X ... 'X
X
X
X
'Chart prepared by Thomas E. Kane, Congressional Research Service.
1 The law only applies In the coastal zone and net where the Wetlands Act Is in effect.
2 Utilities ere primarily responsible for planning and forecasting.
3 Inventory within 2 years; strategies within 3 years; and design within 4 years. .
4 Separate certificate entirely.
5 Sits designation can also be made separately.
Utility can request a site study prior to submitting an application. The cost Is {10,009.
In
accordance
withState
standards,
plans, etc.
Merely
"classified"
.... X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1 X
SOURCE: Energy Facility Siting in Coastal Areas Table II, National Ocean
Policy Study for the Senate Committee on Commerce, December, 1975.
30
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EXHIBIT 3-1 (cont'd.)
If!. Approval process
Application
Considerations
One-stop
Time to grant,
deny or con-
dition (mos.)
Impacts
procedure
Fee
Environment
Economic
Social
Other
sites
Arizona.
X
51,000 to 510,000
g
X
X
X
Arkansas,.
.. 55,000
5
California
X
51,000 to 525,000
13
X
X
Up to 525,000 " "
12
14
X
X
X
Ffortfa.
$1,000 * *
x
X
x
X
Maryland
x
Massachusetts
Up to 5*25,666
6
x
X
X
Minnesota ,
55Q0 per 51,000,000 Investment
O
x
x
X
530,000 plus
x
x
X
16
x
IB
x
X
x
x
525,000
x
x
X
X
X
"Reasonable fee"
x
x
55,000 plus
24
x
x
x
x
Washington
525,000 plus
15
X
7 IE lor site, 6 for corridor.
IV. Miscellaneous matters
Act overrides
Acquisition ol suitable sites
Other State agencies
Total
Partial None
Local government
By utility
Public hearings
Total
Partial None
By State
Sits
With Without Planning designa- Approval Coastal
certificate certificate phase tion phase phase State
Monitor-
Regional ing pro-
co-op cedures
authorized required
Arizona X
A-ii-sav X
California 1 X
Connecticut - X
Florida X
Kentucky.
Maryland X
V3s:?cliuseUs X
Vinneso'.a - X
Montana X
N(»;ds
New Hampshire " X
Ne* Jersey1
New Mexico - X
Ntiv Yoik "X
Oti c X
Oregon X
South Carolina X
Washington X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-X
."X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
- X
. X
X
- X
. X
- X
- X
- X
X
.. X
- X
..'X
. X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
" Except in the coastal zone.
0 Discretionary.
10 Override provisions are unclear.
11 Pollution Inn are not overridden.
LIBRARY
U S Environmental Protection AqwMjT
Corvollis Environmental Research Lab.
200 9 W 35th Street
Corvallt*. Oregon 97330
¦orval
31
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THE FEDERAL LEVEL
As previously discussed, the Federal government plays a significant role
in the assessment process through compliance with NEPA. Not only is
the lead agency an important contact for the locality, but other Federal
agencies also play a role by commenting on the EIS. Social and economic
impacts are taking on greater importance, partially because of their
role in influencing the reaction of a local government to energy develop-
ment.1 The Federal government, often through regional and field offices,
is a source of financial and technical assistance to the community.2
Most of this assistance is not specifically addressed to energy develop-
ment, but it is nevertheless relevant to the problems of communities faced
with rapid development. Although the most obvious form of assistance
is financial, there is also technical assistance which would be useful
to these areas. Examples include the Soil Conservation Service, the
Regional Offices of the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Farmers
Home Administration.
Finally, much of energy development occurs on Federal lands where com-
munities can not exercise a regulatory function. Therefore, the
responsibility for mitigating any of the direct impacts involved will
rest with the Federal government.
THE PRIVATE ENERGY DEVELOPER
The private energy developer is an important source of information regarding
the labor requirements and schedules of the development. In many instances,
they are willing to work with the community, particularly when there is a
clearly identified contact. At times, they are a source of assistance in
providing housing and other on-site services such as fire protection
and occupational safety. Unfortunately, the private developer will have
little stake in the longer term implications for the community, and local
areas will have to deal with this issue on their own. Because energy
development is so often controversial at the local level, developers
may tend to avoid too much local involvement until other permitting and
approval requirements are met. For this reason, it is important for
local governments to develop permitting, or some other form of leverage,
so that they have something to exchange for information which they will
need.
H. Paul Friesema and Paul J. Culhane, Social Impacts, Politics, and the
Environmental Impact Statement Process; Public Lands Project, Center for
Urban Affairs, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, May 1976, DRAFT.
See, Wendell Associates, Federal Assistance Programs and Energy Development
Impacted Municipalities prepared for the Federal Energy Administration,
Washington, D.C., February 1976.
32
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Example
In Sweetwater County, Wyoming a Priorities Board was
established made up of county and city officials,
industry representatives, and school district personnel.
A citizen's advisory board was set up. The Board became
a forum in which the diverse requests of various parts
of the community were prioritized and presented to
industry.
In the case of the nuclear power plants planned for
Hartsville by the Tennessee Valley Authority, through
the EIS prepared as part of the licensing procedure of
the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the need for a con-
tinuing socioeconomic mitigation process was identified.
The recommendation was made for a project area coordinating
council made up of the chief locally elected officials
from the area. TVA will provide a portion of the cost
of the staff.
THE UNIVERSITIES, PRIVATE CONSULTANTS
Universities and private consultants often can help local areas perform
their assessments and develop their plans. In many instances local
universities have models and data bases which could be useful to local
governments.
Example
The Denver Research Institute has conducted
numerous studies of the impact of energy develop-
ment in the Rocky Mountain States.
Similarly, consultants which have worked with other areas facing
similar problems can advise officials on what they might anticipate. In
addition, such consultants can serve as brokers for these governments
in their dealings with other governmental agencies and the private sector.
However, in order to utilize consultants and universities effectively,
the local official needs to be able to define data requirements, priorities
and local goals and objectives.
33
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REFERENCES
INFORMATION ABOUT STATE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT REVIEW REQUIREMENTS
T. Trzyna, Environmental Impact Requirements in the States; NEPA's Offspring.
Office of Research and Development, Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C. 20460 (Socioeconomic Environmental Studies Series
EPA-60015-74-006); April 1974.
Robert W. Burchell and David Listokin, The Environmental Impact Handbook,
Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers, The State University,
New Brunswick, New Jersey 1975.
National Ocean Policy Study, Energy Facility Siting in Coastal Areas, U.S.
Senate Committee on Commerce, December 1975.
COMMUNITY - PRIVATE SECTOR COOPERATION
For further illustration of detailed consideration of social and economic
impacts as part of an EIS for an energy facility, see: Final
Environmental Statement related to construction of Hartsville
Nuclear Plants of the Tennessee Valley Authority, June 1975. Docket
Nos. STN 50-518, STN 50-519, STN 50-520, and STN 50-521, U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Reactor
Regulation; Rockville, Maryland, NUREG-75/039.
For additional discussion of the board and the planning process in
Sweetwater County, see NACO Case Studies on Energy Impacts, No.
2, Controlling Boomtown Development Sweetwater and Uinta Counties,
Wyoming, January 1976, National Association of Counties,
1735 New York Avenue, Washington, D.C. 20006.
Michael H. Wakelin, "The Management of Construction Impact Upon Rural and
Remote Communities in the United States" in the 1975 Proceedings
of the Project Management Institute, Bechtel Power Corporation,
Norwalk, California.
C-b Shale Oil Project, Ashland Oil, Inc., Shell Oil Co. Operator,
Socio-Economic Assessment, Baseline and Impact Analysis, Shell
Oil Company, 1700 Broadway, Denver, Colorado 80202, March 1976.
Howard, Needles, Tammen and Bergendoff for the Maryland Power Plant Siting
Program, Review of Socio-Economic Impacts of the Calvert Cliffs
Nuclear Power Plant on Calvert County, Maryland and Comparison
with Kent County, Maryland, January 1975. HNTB, 130 N. Royal
Street, Box 186, Alexandria, Virginia 22313.
34
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MANAGING RAPID GROWTH
Many of the factors affecting the way in which energy development will
impact a community are beyond the control or influence of the community
itself, (see previous discussions). This Chapter will discuss those
actions which a local government can take in organizing itself for planning
and regulating new development, and for managing and providing public
services. First the local governmental functions (legislation, administra-
tion, budgeting, finance, personnel and public services) are discussed,
followed by a description of some of the resources available. Planning
and regulation of the energy facility as well as of the related develop-
ment is next described along with examples of regulatory mechanisms and
sources of information and assistance.
Highlights
Many of the communities now undergoing or facing
rapid growth from energy developments have been
small and stable.
Local government's control or influence over the
location, timing, or scale of energy facilities
is much more limited than over the subsequent
local development it induces.
Although many services and facilities will be
privately provided, local governments still have
the opportunities to regulate this development
so that it is consistent with local goals and
objectives.
cont'd.
35
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Highlights (cont'd.)
Because of the fiscal impacts of energy
development (particularly the lag between
revenues and infrastructure requirements),
communities must develop effective budgeting
processes.
Local governments in energy impacted areas may have
difficulty retaining present employees against the
competition of the energy companies, recruiting new
employees for expanded services and training all
employees for new and changed public services.
ORGANIZING FOR MANAGEMENT
Most communities now undergoing or facing rapid growth from energy
development have been small and stable. The public services have been
primarily housekeeping, (e.g., police, fire, roads, water and maybe
sewer). Development has often come in individual homes and stores. There
has been no chance to practice on large-scale development projects.
Furthermore, the staffs have been organized for routine, administrative
functions.
_ Example _______
The Denver Federal Regional Council found that of the 131 com-
munities expecting to be impacted within its six-state area,
89 percent have less than 5,000 population, hardly enough to
support professional staff able to deal with rapid growth.
Of the 131 communities, 12 have professional planners, 8 have
full-time city engineers and 6 have city managers or other
administrators.1
The questions facing energy impacted communities include:
What do we do first?
How do we get the staff and money we need to provide services?
How do we plan for and regulate future development?
Socioeconomic Impacts and Federal Assistance in Energy Development
Impacted Communities in Region VIII, by Committee on Socioeconomic
Impacts of Resource Development, Mountain Plains Federal Regional
Council, Region VIII {Denver, Colroado), 1975.
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Before answering these questions, the community must determine what it
hopes to accomplish, and develop and express a philosophy about managing
for rapid growth. This philosophy might include the following:
first determine community goals and objectives;
take the time, however difficult, to organize the local
government for planning and managing rapid growth;
utilize available resources of staff, citizens and money
to the fullest extent possible;
obtain professional help to assist local policy decision-
makers ;
take advantage of outside assistance and the experience
of others to augment local resources;
involve citizens in goal-setting and planning to the
fullest extent possible; and
coordinate fully with all other local governments, and
with the energy development company(s).
This section presents ideas on organizing and staffing the adminis-
trative and support functions of the city (rather than specific public
services), and on the organization for regulating development. Key
initial steps in the planning and regulating process are designed to
take advantage of local resources and to so regulate development that
the community does not lose its options until the time when it can do more
comprehensive, long-range planning.
One objective of local governments is to improve and maintain the quality
of life for its residents. It does this by planning for and regulating
physical development; by providing a variety of public services; and by
constructing public facilities and infrastructure. In the small town or
country, with little change from year-to-year, the emphasis is on providing
services. The requirements for these services are often so limited that
little central direction or support is required. As communities grow
larger, especially when they grow rapidly, the demands on services
increase, and more attention must be given to planning for develop-
ment and constructing public facilities.
A new or expanded framework is needed for:
projecting community needs
planning for programs
setting priorities
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organizing for services
obtaining needed revenues
supervising service programs
keeping adequate records
monitoring effectiveness.
The community has a range of alternative ways of doing these tasks, as
suggested through the remainder of this section, which identifies tasks,
suggests roles of responsibility and sources of information available
on each.
Legislative Body
The elected legislative body in local government (e.g., typically mayor
and city council in cities and board of supervisors in counties) have
ultimate authority for the running of the government. In the smaller
communities, these bodies have often assumed much of the responsibility
for day-to-day administration. Mayors and leaders of county boards have
been especially hard-pressed to preside over legislative body meetings
as well as handle administration. With the coming of energy development,
the pressures and demands of growth may create problems for this "mayor as
administrator" system. There may not be time for the mayor to deal with
existing departments, new citizens, the energy company and a host of other
governmental agencies.
Potential administrative assistance is outlined below. With this aid,
the legislative body can concentrate on what it - and only it - can and
must do: translate the needs and desires of citizens into practical
policies for local government. The legislative body should:
make major policy decisions
appoint people to run the government and provide services
adopt the annual and capital budgets
pass needed ordinances
deal with citizens, other governments (local, state, and
Federal) and energy companies.
The potential role of the mayor or chairperson is discussed below.
Sources of Further Information ¦
State municipal league or association of counties, for advice,
publications and conferences; Handbook for Council Members in
Council-Manager Cities, National Municipal League, 47 E. 68
Street, New York 10021, 1976.
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Administration
Typically, administration has been in the hands of a part-time elected
mayor or board chairperson. With growth and increased demands, there
are several possibilities to strengthen the administrative capability of
local government. A city (or county) manager (or administrator) is a
full-time professional appointed to oversee the administrative affairs
of the local government and to carry out the policy directives of the
governing body. This council-manager form of administration is often
appropriate for small as well as larger communities.
. Example ¦
In the United States, nearly 700 cities of under 5,000
population have administrators and over 500 serve cities
from 5 to 10,000 population. One of the best-known energy
"boom towns" - Gillette, Wyoming - has just hired its
first "chief administrative officer". Other energy develop-
ment cities with administrators include Valdez, Alaska and
Calvert County, Maryland.
The city administrator will supervise department heads prepare and adminis-
ter the annual and capital budgets (see Chapter 6 on Capital Programming),
and direct the finance, personnel and other support services. In the energy
development community, a key role of the administrator will be the seeking
of financial assistance from state and Federal agencies and energy companies.
In some communities, the administrator may (with proper qualifications) be
responsible for the planning function.
Qualifications for a professional administrator typically include a
graduate degree in public administration and/or experience in local govern-
ment. Recruiting may be done through the State Municipal League and/or
the International City Management Association (ICMA), Washington, D.C.
As an alternative, a city or county may appoint someone to provide pro-
fessional administrative assistance. The Town of Green River, Wyoming
has had an "assistant to the mayor" for two years. Another option is
the use of a "project coordinator", such as the one hired by Kitsap
County, Washington to help them deal with the Trident Submarine Base.
The coordinator, appointed by the County Board of Supervisors for the
three-year planning period, serves as a liaison among all affected agencies
and governments, seeks financial assistance, and coordinates research and
planning efforts.
Sources of Further Information »
Council-Manager Government in Small Cities, International City
Management Association, 1400 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.,
Washington, D.C., and Selecting a Professional Municipal
Administrator, ICMA, 1972.
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Budgeting
Fiscal impacts for local governments can be quite severe, especially during
the construction phase of energy development. The property tax revenues
from the energy facility generally will not become available until after
the facility is completed. Even worse are jurisdictional inequities:
revenues may be distributed without regard to need; the facility may be
located within the county, while the people and thus service demands are
in cities; or the facility may be in one county and the people in another.
Under these conditions, it is especially important that local governments
be careful about where and how they spend their money.
For small governments with little annual change, budgeting can be rather
informal. As long as revenues match expenditures, and services are
acceptable to citizens, there is little need for concern. This informal
budget system, however, does not hold up under conditions of rapid
growth. The purpose of the budget is far more than to just project
what will be received and spent, and provide a basis for counting the
money at the end of the year. Its basic function is to rationally
allocate the resources of the local government - to set the priorities
for programs and services - to make the hard decisions about what will
and will not be done by the government to meet citizen needs and demands.
Requests for operating budget expenditures are made by department heads
(or agencies receiving city funds). The basis for such requests should
be accepted projections of population and work load increases, say from
impact studies, with the population numbers the same as those used for
the capital program. The expenditures should be designed to operate
projects being built under the capital program, and to implement the
comprehensive plan. Budget requests from departments, with pertinent
supporting data, should be submitted to the city administrator (or the
mayor/chairperson in governments without professional administration)
for review. The finance officer, if there is one, will assist the mayor
or administrator in preparation and review of the budget.
Equal attention should be given to the revenue side of the budget
(something which is rarely done in local government) for two major
reasons. First, with rapid expansion of expenditures dictated by
population growth, the size of the budget will be set not by the
"unlimited" expenditures but by the severely limited revenues. The
local government will surely be able to spend everything it takes in.
Second, without regular review of revenues, the government may be
missing money to which it is entitled: Are all potential sources of
state aid being used? Do water, sewage disposal, refuse collection
and inspection services pay their way in service charges and fees?
Are licenses keeping up with inflation? Are idle funds earning interest?
The local government may want to also identify areas of the budget in
which support or assistance of the energy companies would be useful
or necessary. Revenue projections may be made by the finance officer
or city administrator.
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The annual operating budget is adopted by the governing body, often
after legally required public hearings. A more useful point for
citizen participation would be prior to departmental requests (to set
objectives for the coming year) through a citizens advisory committee
(see the following section on Planning) or the capital programming
committee (see Chapter 6.0 on Capital Programming). The public hearing
stage is too late for any significant changes. After adoption of the
budget, the governing body will set the necessary property tax rates
to balance the operating budget. It will be the responsibility of the
administrator to control the budget over the course of the year. Also
after adoption, the administrator or finance officer may make long-range
projections of expenditures and revenues (by general categories) for use
by the capital programming committee. Indications of significant gaps
may be used by the local government to start seeking new revenue sources,
including changes in state legislation or allocations.
Sources of Further Information
Operating Budget Manual, by Lennox L. Moak & Kathryn W.
Killian, Municipal Finance Officers Association, 1313 E.
60th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60637, 1975.
Finance
Adopting a budget does not do much good if the local government cannot
keep track of its revenues and expenditures over the course of the year.
A cost accounting system can assign costs to departments or programs, and
let department heads know from month to month where they stand on their
budget. Such an accounting system may be set up by the administrator,
finance officer or accountant hired for the purpose. It would tie together
the budget, payroll, purchasing, capital outlay and capital projects accounts
in order to present the whole picture. The exact format of the accounting
system may well be set by state requirements for reporting by local
governments. While financial records are obviously required for assuring
legal compliance with the budget, the primary purpose of the data is
for management - for evaluating spending and revenues to date and making
decisions to retain, alter or change programs. Accurate and current
records are necessary for this and for preparation of each year's budget.
The finance system will generally be the responsibility of either the
administrator or finance officer (in some states it is the city clerk or
city treasurer). In many small cities the financial records may be main-
tained by an account clerk on a manual system. As the city grows larger,
the records may be transferred to an electronic data processing system.
Routine programs for most local government accounting functions are readily
available at reasonable prices. These can tie together the elements
of the financial system (e.g., budget, payroll, purchasing) and present
reports on a monthly basis, relating the current status to what expendi-
tures and revenues should be at this point.
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Sources of Further Information
Municipal Finance Officers Association (MFOA), 1313 East
60th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60637 - National Committee
on Governmental Accounting, Government Accounting, Auditing,
and Financial Reporting, (MFOA) 1968.
Personnel
Local governments in energy impacted communities have three major person-
nel problems:
retaining present employees against the competition of
the energy companies and the pressures from dealing
with difficult and stressful situations
recruiting new employees for expanded services
training all employees for new and changed public services
Energy projects, particularly during the construction phase, pay wages
significantly higher than those found in the typical small community in
which they locate. The loss of some public employees is inevitable. The
general response of energy impacted governments has been to raise wages
to compensate for project-induced inflation and to retain long-time,
permanent supervisory employees. In many cases, fringe benefits will
have to be expanded or initiated (e.g., vacation, health insurance,
retirement). However, often it is not possible to match the energy
company wages.
Recruiting new employees becomes quite difficult in many categories.
Positions traditionally filled by women present little difficulty, for
wives of construction workers are readily available (and often well
qualified).* The problem is with positions similar to those at the
energy project, (e.g., maintenance, construction, security, i.e., police).
Generally the persons recruited for these positions do not meet minimum
qualifications, requiring intensive in-service training immediately upon
employment. Recruiting outside the conmiunity for qualified people may
be difficult because of the housing shortage.
Most small energy impacted communities lack a position classification
plan at the beginning of the growth period. Such a plan is desirable
to establish an equitable and partially competitive salary scale.
Positions can be classified by the administrator, administrative
assistant or outside consultant.
Sources of Further Information
Local Government Personnel Administration, edited
Winston W. Crouch, ICMA, 1976.
*It should be noted, however, that women are increasingly finding
opportunities in construction at these sites.
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Meeting the challenges of growth means more than just providing increased
service. A doubling of population results not only in at least a doubling
of need, but also in a change in the character of the need. A good example
(see Chapter 5) is families living in disorienting or transient conditions
may result in an increase in alcoholism, juvenile delinquency, divorce
and other problems. In many states, mental health problems are the
responsibility of the county, often a county health department which has
previously worked primarily on "public health" problems. Training programs
for employees to meet expanded and new demands may be provided by the
administrator, by community colleges, the state university system, and/or
the state league of cities.
Sources of Further Information
National Training and Development Service for State and
Local Government (NTDS), formed by National League of
Cities, National Association of Counties, ICMA, Council
of State Governments, and National Governors' Conference,
conducts and provides information on training and develop-
ment programs. The address is 5028 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20016.
As important as training for public employees is the development of
local government's management staff. Department heads need to learn
how to plan for and cope with pressing new demands, how to train their
own employees, and how to work together as a team. The traditional
independence of individual departments often cannot continue under
conditions of rapid growth with ever more limited resources. Management
development courses may be provided by NTDS, universities or ICMA.
¦¦ Sources of Further Information «
The ICMA "Small Cities Management Training Program", self-
administered program for managers and department heads with
training guide and resource guide for ten specific areas
of public service, (e.g., "planning in the small city",
and for group training in communications skills and team-
work) . Contact: Institute for Training in Municipal
Administration, ICMA, 1120 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.
Public Services
Specific public services are covered in individual sections of this hand-
book. In considering each of these, several points should be made.
There are alternate ways of providing services to the public - not every
service has to be provided by one jurisdiction. Services can be
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contracted out, to other public agencies in which the county provides
certain services to a number of cities in the county at a fee designed
to return county costs. This system is especially appropriate for services
which both the city and county provide, such as police. On the other
hand, a city may provide certain services under contract to the county,
especially to urban areas around city lines, (e.g., fire and library).
In some areas, such as refuse collection, contracts might be let to
private firms.
Another method of providing public services without duplication and at
a cost savings is to let one jurisdiction, typically the county, take
over services within cities and provide a uniform service throughout
the county. Campbell County, Wyoming has taken over fire and recrea-
tion services within Gillettee, paying for them out of the county bud-
get, which has the energy facilities in its tax base.
Finally, there are some areas which may be handled quite well by the
energy companies or private enterprise, with some direction, support
or security from local government. The provision of medical care,
especially doctors and dentists in private practice, falls in that
category. The energy company may aid financially in recruiting and
obtaining facilities. This should be done, though, in cooperation
with local governments which have some ultimate responsibility for
their citizens.
General Resources/Sources of Information
Not only do small cities, towns and counties have limited resources
themselves, but also resources from outside are somewhat limited.
iExample
One of the most interesting new concepts for providing
technical assistance to smaller communities is the "circuit
rider". A resource person, or consultant, serves a number
of jurisdictions, providing technical assistance and
advice on management, finance, personnel and specific public
services. The circuit rider system is generally established
by a state league of cities, university or areawide
district. Costs are paid by the using jurisdiction. About
80 such circuit rider systems have been established in
nearly 20 different states. In three of these systems,
the circuit rider is actually appointed "city administrator"
of the using jurisdictions, but this is not appropriate
for most energy-impacted communities which need full-time
direction.
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The academic research, books and publications, programs of Federal agencies
and public interest groups are generally oriented to larger units of
government located in urban areas. Several resources are available to
assist energy-impacted communities in organizing for management, including:
State municipal leagues and associations of counties,
generally located in the state capital - may provide
information about state legislation and financial
assistance, training programs for employees and
elected officials, and the experience of other
jurisdictions can provide access to National League
of Cities or National Associations of Counties.
State agency for local affairs (or community development),
located in the state capital - designed to coordinate state
services to local governments. Generally services provided
include technical assistance and advisory services, assist-
ance on State and Federal aid, planning services, and
community development.
Universities within the state often have a department or
research organization able to provide technical assist-
ance to local governments. This may be part of or con-
tacted through the schools of public or business adminis-
tration.
National organizations often prepare documents which
may be of use locally. The International City
Management Association, in addition to providing member-
ship services to administrators, provides direct
services to local governments. The Management Information
Service presents, by subscription, the Municipal Year
Book, Public Management magazine, an inquiry service and
monthly MIS reports on management, support and direct
services, such as "Law Enforcement in Small Cities"
and "A Guide to Human Resource Development in Small
Cities". Contact: ICMA, 1120 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20036. The National Association of
Counties has prepared a series of case studies on
counties that have been, or will be, impacted by energy
development. Their purpose is to alert county officials
to potential problems, in planning, management and specific
public services. Studies have been done for Kane County,
Utah; Sweetwater County, Wyoming; Greene County, Pennsyl-
vania; and (underway) Salem County, New Jersey. Contact:
Energy Project, NACO, 1735 New York Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20006.
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PLANNING AND REGULATING DEVELOPMENT
One of the toughest problems facing energy-impacted communities is plan-
ning for and regulating development related to new energy projects. The
build up of population may be very fast accompanied with uncertain timing
and scale. Projecting needs is therefore difficult if not impossible.
Generally the order of development begins with that directly related
to the energy facility, then housing for the workers in the form of
mobile homes, a faster pace of commercial activities and finally
permanent housing.
1 ' " 1 111 1 Example
On the community side, there is usually a common lack of
long-range planning resources. Of the 131 communities to
be impacted within the Denver Federal Region (covering
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah and
Wyoming), only 32% have comprehensive plans; 10% of these
were over six years old and obsolete (Denver Regional
Council, op.cit.). Fewer than half the communities have
any kind of land use or building controls; only 9% have
professional planners. Few of them have any mobile home
regulations or experience in dealing with them.
The philosophy outlined earlier applies to planning as well as management.
Most of all, it is a recognition that the community cannot do everything,
and must set priorities in planning and regulating development. Small,
rural communities impacted by energy are not the urban, metropolitan
communities for which most plans, standards and textbooks are prepared.
Energy impacted communities will have to set their own objectives and
standards; they will have to rely more on the experience of similar
communities than on national urban experience. Although many of the
facilities and services will be provided privately, (e.g., housing)
local governments, nevertheless, have a significant responsibility to
regulate this development so that housing location is coordinated with
transportation, corridorsr development proceeds at a pace which is
consistent with water, sewer, and road development and finally, so
that adverse environmental impacts are avoided.
Coordinating Planning and Regulation
Before developing plans and adopting regulations, the jurisdiction or
coordinated planning organization will need to determine what it hopes
to accomplish. No matter what the objectives or policies, they will
not be accepted without intensive and recognized citizen involvement
in their preparation and adoption.
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Planning cannot be done for just one jurisdiction. The impacts of an
energy project, almost without exception, cross city, county and even
state boundaries. As stated previously, the facility is often in
county territory while the impacts are usually felt in cities, or in
that belt of new development on the fringe of cities, partly in the
municipality and partly in the county. This presents a clear need for
joint planning between the city(s) and the county(s). There are draw-
backs to the two major vehicles for joint planning most likely to be
available - joint city/county planning commissions, and areawide
districts. The joint commission may be too limited in geographic
area and too oriented to zoning regulations, while the areawide dis-
trict often covers too large an area, so that a majority of the member
jurisdictions do not care about energy impacts.
The most successful coordination efforts to date have come through new
organizations created for the purpose of dealing explicitly with energy
impacts. Primary examples are the Priorities Board in Sweetwater County,
Wyoming? and the Kitsap County Trident Coordinating Committee in Washington.
For these and other organizations, the key elements have included the
following:
Control of the organization by locally elected officials,
(e.g., mayors, councilpersons, supervisors, and
commissioners);
Participation of all potentially affected jurisdictions,
including counties, cities, school districts (and sometimes
special districts)t
Representation (if not a vote) from the multi-county area-
wide district (or council of governments), and affected
state and Federal agencies,.
Active participation of the energy company(s) or major
employer(s),
Citizen participation, formalized in advisory committees,
task forces or commission representation; and
Professional staffing by staff hired directly for the
organization, staff provided from an areawide district or
from an agreed-on member agency (e.g., county).
Regulating Energy Resource Development
Local government's control or influence over the location, timing, or
scale of energy facilities is much more limited than over the subsequent
local development it induces. A significant portion of energy develop-
ment occurs on Federal land, subject only to Federal control. Facilities
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such as nuclear power plants, are regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission or other Federal agencies. In about 40 percent of our states,
responsibility for the decisions on power plants rests with the state
energy facility siting agency or commission. In those cases where the
local government has some controls, consideration of the proposed
facility must be on an ad hoc basis.
It is almost impossible to draft local energy facility laws in advance;
the best start most jurisdictions can hope for is that these projects
usually require industrial zoning.
Local governments usually have, however, at least two development control
concerns regarding energy facilities, even if they can not regulate the
facility itself. These concerns are:
Placing conditions on the development approval so that social
and economic impacts are mitigated to the extent possible.
Such conditions may include construction of access roads,
provisions of employee housing, prepayment of taxes, and
others depending upon state law and practice. Local govern-
ments may do this by reviewing and commenting on applications
and environmental impact statements submitted by the energy
company to state and/or Federal agencies. The best time
to work out compromises is in the earliest possible stages
of facility planning.
Controlling uses around the proposed energy facility,
which will impair the operation of the facility, or
conversely be injured by it, should be prohibited from
a buffer zone around the facility. Furthermore, induced
uses, such as suppliers, and users of facility products,
should be controlled as to location, probably concentrating
them as close to the facility as possible.
Regulating Community Development
Cities and counties have powers to regulate the use of land and the
construction of buildings within their jurisdictions. The likely in-
flux of mobile homes and the construction of commercial facilities and
permanent conventional housing will begin immediately upon start of
the construction of the energy facility (if not slightly before in
anticipation). An up-to-date comprehensive plan, taking the energy
development into account, is desirable for allocating land uses,
supporting regulations and developing a capital program. However, if
the comprehensive plan is not already prepared or up-to-date (as is
likely to be the case) the community cannot wait around for its pre-
paration (or amendment) and adoption. Regulations must be available as
soon as possible to guide and control new development, assure main-
tenance of local standards and to retain options for the long-range
planning that will follow as time allows.
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Mobile Homes
A critical regulation in energy impacted communities is for the location
and standards of mobile homes and mobile home parks. The typical housing
pattern in the energy impacted community is that all available housing
is immediately taken up by a few early arrivals; the majority of the
construction workers then live in mobile homes. Without regulation,
they scatter over the landscape. The problem is not with the mobile home
itself but with its uncontrolled setting. Attention should be directed
to the improvement of the mobile home and mobile home park standards.
The elements of the mobile home ordinance should include the following
(largely contained in the new mobile home park ordinance of Rio Blanco
County, Colorado):
Restriction of mobile homes to mobile home parks, with no
single lot development (except for mobile homes allowed as
a temporary project on an unbuilt subdivision)?
Maximum density of mobile homes per acre (e.g., 5.5);
Requirement for open space, paving, laundry and recreation
facilities, and room for parking; and
Mobile home parks allowed only within a certain range
(e.g., three miles) of existing cities or urban centers.
Standards for the construction of mobile homes have now been set nation-
wide by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.
i. Sources of Further Information ¦
"Suggested Model Ordinance Creating Residential Mobile
Home Districts", Manufactured Housing Institute, P. 0.
Box 201, Chantilly, Virginia 22021.
Zoning Ordinance
The zoning ordinance is the basic legal method by which cities and counties
control the use of private and some public land. Several purposes of
zoning in the energy impacted community are to:
Prevent haphazard development placing incompatible uses
together;
Reduce unplanned development and thereby cut initial costs
of roads, water, sewer and utility lines, and provide
compact, economical service areas for police and fire
protection;
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Prevent dispersal of temporary housing and commercial
activities of which only remnants will remain after the
construction boom;
m Retain large areas uncommitted until after the compre-
hensive plan can be prepared, studied, and adopted; and
Protect the area around the energy facility or resource
development from conflicting uses.
Normally the zoning ordinance is prepared as an outgrowth of the compre-
hensive planning process. This, however, may require an expenditure of
time that the community cannot afford. Reasonable zoning must be
adopted rather quickly, on the assumption that it will be revised and
improved as the plan and experience dictate. The quick and brief
initial zoning ordinance (or amendments to the existing ordinance to
accommodate new growth) should be based heavily on existing maps of
land use, topography and roads. Aerial photos may be used to speed
up the process. Preparation of this initial ordinance may be by the
government's planner or engineer, or by a larger jurisdiction such as
the county. In many cases, the areawide district can help with this
zoning ordinance; Universities or consultants may also be used to
provide technical assistance. It will be very difficult to obtain
Federal financial aid, but assistance might be obtained from the state and/or
the energy company. However, zoning administrative costs are likely to
come out of the local operating budget.
In addition to these zones which are assigned to various geographic locations,
the jurisdiction will probably want to include at least two sections
providing themselves with more flexibility and more control. The condi-
tional use permit may allow the governing body to attach conditions to any
approved development requiring it to meet certain standards, such as for
parking, landscaping, design, noise and light pollution (all uses obviously
have to meet local, state and Federal environmental standards). For
residential uses, the planned unit development concept provides flexibility
to the developer by allowing an assortment of housing types and individual
densities, as long as the overall zoning density is maintained.
Zoning is the most traditional form of land use control. Communities may
also want to consider the use of performance controls or other innovative
mechanisms to regulate development.
The importance of enforcement cannot be stressed too strongly. Without
adequate staff to develop the ordinance, review applications and enforce
its provisions, development will be haphazard and uncontrolled, with
substantial costs to both the local government and all its citizens.
Permits and fee schedules should be set as to return most, if not all,
of the cost of zoning applications and enforcement to the local govern-
ment.
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Sources of Further Information
Zoning for Small Towns and Rural Counties, Economic Development
Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1970. $1.00 from
U.S. Government Printing Office. Performance Controls for
Sensitive Lands, prepared by the American Society of Planning
Officials for the Office of Research & Development, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460, 1975.
Promoting Environmental Quality Through Urban Planning and
Controls, prepared by the Center for Urban and Regional
Studies, the University of North Carolina, for the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460, 1973.
Comprehensive Plan
Normally the plan is considered the first step. In energy-impacted
communities, however, there may not be time to first prepare the plan.
By the time it is ready, too many developments will have occurred, setting
the pattern of future growth without control.
Major elements of the comprehensive plan include the following:
topographical mapping of the physical environment, and exist-
ing land use;
projections of future population growth (especially critical
in the energy impacted community);
determination of land capabilities for urban development,
energy resource development, agriculture and open space;
setting of goals and policies for the community and region;
alternative growth and development strategies;
allocation of appropriate land uses, and supporting elements
for transportation, utilities, parks and open space;
programs for housing and redevelopment; and
implementation methods and processes, including crucial
ties to capital programming, zoning ordinances and other
controls.
The comprehensive plan will, almost invariably, be beyond the capability
of the local staff to prepare. If professional help is available, the
local staff must work closely with it; citizens will still need to be
involved in the goal-setting and review process. The plan may be
successfully prepared by the areawide district, university staff, the state
or a private consultant.
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Example
In Green River, Wyoming (whose population grew from 4,300
in 1970 to 10,000 in 1975), a consultant prepared a com-
prehensive plan in 1974-75. This plan required 15 months
for consultant work, and over 6 months for adoption by
the planning commission and city council. Total cost was
in the range of $40,000, with over one-half the cost met
by energy companies and the remainder coming from the
city's operating budget.
Financing Planning and Regulation
A primary source of funds for local planning in recent years has been the
HUD Section 701 Comprehensive Planning Assistance Program, which has
supported plans in Big Horn County, Montana and Calvert County, Maryland.
Recent cutbacks in the program, however, have led to an emphasis on the
planning efforts of areawide districts rather than local governments.
The great difficulty of this source is that allocations for areawide
districts in energy-impacted states are based largely on state population,
and many of them are lightly populated. Still, with HUD 701 funds as a
base, areawide districts may be of assistance to local communities in
preparing zoning ordinances and comprehensive plans; they may also prepare
plans under contract to local governments.
Other sources of Federal funds include the Coastal Zone Management program
whose funds are used by state agencies to inventory the coastal zone, prepare
guidelines for its development and preservation, and procedures for develop-
ment controls. Allocation of funds to the local level is limited, but CZM
plans can form the basis for local planning efforts. Some of the multi-
state regional commissions, such as the Old West Regional Commission, have
made funds available for areawide districts to do energy impact planning.
The most likely sources of funds for local governments, given current
flanding programs and policies, are local operating budgets and the energy
companies. In Green River and many other communities, this has been done as
a joint financing effort. .
General Resources and Sources of Information
The state agencies for local affairs, discussed above for management, are
also primary sources of information for planning and regulating development.
Multi-county areawide districts, usually coordinated by these state agencies,
are sources closer to the local scene.
Specifically oriented to planning and regulation is the American Society
of Planning Officials (ASPO), whose members are planners, planning
commissioners, elected officials, developers and consultants. ASPO is
currently doing research on state and Federal programs which provide
52
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technical or financial assistance to local governments facing growth
problems due to energy development. They have focused on the experiences
of communities in five Western States which have been through explosive
population booms. From this research, ASPO is able to provide information
and technical assistance to its member local governments.
Planning documents and texts, to date, have not generally been oriented
to rural areas and small towns. Under contract to the Old West Regional
Commission, ASPO is preparing a comprehensive text on rural planning.
It covers all types of rural planning problems, including rapid growth
from energy projects, depressed areas, preservation of agriculture,
problems in delivering public services and building local support for
planning. The text will focus on planning process, planning techniques,
development standards (especially for public facilities) and sources
of technical assistance. The book is scheduled for publication in
late 1977.
The ASPO Planning Advisory Service is a practical source of technical
information and assistance for local planning agencies. Monthly reports
on various aspects of planning have covered such topics as planned unit
development ordinances, subdivision improvement guarantees, intensity
zoning, and performance controls for sensitive lands. Additional
services include an inquiry-answering service and subscription to Planning
magazine. Contact: Planning Advisory Service, ASPO, 1313 East 60th
Street, Chicago, Illinois 60637.
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development has prepared Rapid
Growth from Energy Projects; Ideas for State and Local Action, Office of
Community Planning and Development, 1976, which contains sections on
managing growth, land use and housing, sources of assistance and case studies
of four energy-impacted communities or regions. Copies are available free
from regional offices of HUD.
The National Association of Counties, produced Case Studies on Energy
Impacts, under contract with Federal Energy Administration, NACO, 1735
New York Avenue, Washington, D.C., 20036.
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SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AREAS
For each of ten impact areas, this chapter describes the issues,
questions, data and analytical requirements, management concerns, as
well as available assistance and references which should be understood
in order to assess, plan for and manage the local social and economic
impacts of energy developments.
Energy resource and facility development will create a demand for in-
creased or changed public and private facilities and services. This
demand will result both from a need to service the energy development
directly and also from demographic and economic changes which have
resulted from development. Communities faced with such development
must first be able to assess these DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC impacts
because this information will be a vital input to subsequent analyses
they will undertake for public services. Second, communities will
have to evaluate their HOUSING and TRANSPORTATION systems. Not only
will housing and transportation need to be expanded, upgraded or alter-
ed to meet increasing and changing needs, but the condition and distri-
bution of the current housing stock and transportation network will
influence how the increased population and economic activity will be
allocated among communities in the region.
Environmental quality and services will often be a constraint on the
amount and patterns of development. Communities will have to assess
the level of environmental services they will need (WATER SUPPLY, WASTE
WATER TREATMENT, and SOLID WASTE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL), as well as
current levels of environmental quality. Environmental services will
have to be provided so that Federal standards for water quality and
wastewater treatment will be met. Other Federal standards (e.g.,
national ambient air quality) may influence options available locally
(e.g., incineration) and state or local environmental regulations (e.g.
sensitive environmental areas or noise ordinances) will constrain
housing and other local development.
55
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Environmental regulation generally rests with Federal and state agen-
cies, although under Federal law local governments are never precluded
from adopting stricter standards. Water pollution is controlled by
the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (for permitted
facilities) and managed by either the Environmental Protection Agency
or the state. Treatment levels for industrial discharges are national
and uniform. Water quality standards are set by the states. (Federal
Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, PL 92-500.) There are
federal New Source Performance Standards for air as well as other Station-
ary Source controls for existing facilities. (e.g., power plants.)
All states have developed Implementation Plans to meet the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, PL 98-64).
The Safe Drinking Water Act (1974, PL 93-523) and its implementing re-
gulations set standards for public water supplies. Even the range of
environmental concerns which must be assessed for projects with Federal
involvement are delineated through the National Environmental Policy Act
and its implementing regulations (PL 91-190, 1969).
However, this does not mean that communities have no interest in environ-
mental assessment, or that they are precluded from taking any action
there. Noise, for example, is typically a local concern. Although
EPA is developing standards for major sources of noise, (Noise Control
Act of 1974, PL 92-574) it is ultimately the community which will have
to regulate development so as to prevent residents from being exposed to
what may be considered unreasonable noise levels. Similarly aesthetic
concerns (odors, unsightliness, etc.) will be a local function, regulated
through zoning, building codes, development standards and nuisance ordi-
nances.
Knowledge of Federal "programs and standards will be important to communities
because it will often shape the options available to them. Incineration
of wastes may be precluded by air quality standards. Land disposal of
effluent may be unwise because of potential contamination of drinking
water supplies. Finally, through regional environmental quality programs
(e.g. Water Quality Management Planning) communities may be called
upon to implement measures for control of pollution from non-point sources.
In this section those environmental concerns which often require local
management (water supply, wastewater treatment, solid waste management)
are discussed. Although at times they are privately operated, these issues
are so critical to a community's development, the local government will
have a strong involvement.
Finally, the multitude of social services available at the local level
(RECREATION, HEALTH, EDUCATION, POLICE, FIRE, OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY) will
have to be assessed. These are services which, to be effective, must
reflect the character and particular needs of the community. In these
areas it will be important for local officials to be cognizant of both
the quantitative indicators of adequate service as well as changes in the
range, quality and delivery of services.
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There is a large range of social services which a community may pro-
vide to the people who live and/or work in it. As a minimum, health
care, education, public safety and recreation are available locally,
if not always publicly provided. In addition, communities generally
have social services and facilities (e.g., meeting rooms, clubs,
service organizations, etc.) which tend to fill some of the gaps (e.g.,
day care) not handled by the more organized services.
Although each of these service areas require different expertise,
equipment and approaches to planning, they all are related. The
effectiveness of their delivery depends, to a certain extent, upon
how well the services reflect the particular needs of the local popula-
tion. Often those needs are perceived differently by residents than
they might be by an outside observer. Social services therefore have a
particularly difficult objective to meet not only must they comply
with publicly accepted standards of adequacy (e.g., educational levels,
range of hospital services, open space), but they must also meet the
expectations of the potential user so that they are used.
In this section, public safety, health care, education and recreation
are discussed. However, communities planning additional services will
face similar concerns: range of services, capacity, quality of de-
livery, accessibility to all groups, etc.
Although each of the impact areas can be assessed separately there
are overlapping data and analytical requirements. Two obvious areas
are the classification of land uses and the social and economic charac-
teristics of the added population. The local official who has over-
all responsibility for assessment and planning should review the
general scope of all the assessments and establish ground rules for
consistency in population estimates, land use classification, data
presentation, etc., so that the sections are compatible and the con-
clusions reflect a consistent set of assumptions.
ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY
Argonne National Laboratory has prepared:
a set of planning factors which can be used to
forecast, by individual counties, the changes
in employment and population associated with
the construction and operation of a variety of
specific energy activities.
a set of analytical procedures and informational
requirements which can be used, at the county and
municipal levels, to estimate the future demand
for publicly provided services.
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The number of employees required to construct and operate installa-
tions of standard scale for each of the listed technologies was com-
piled from a survey of institutional studies, industry estimates, and
environmental statements and reports. The number of secondary or
support positions generated within a particular county as an indirect
or induced consequence of energy development was estimated with the
aid of economic-base employment multipliers. Demographic characteris-
tics on the average household size and labor force participation rates
of new employees is provided by surveys of migrant construction and
operating personnel and used to estimate total population changes
within the county.
A model of weighted consumer preferences for housing types and commut-
ing is provided. By supplying data on the types and availability of
housing within the municipal jurisdictions of the county, local offi-
cials will be able to compute either the expected spatial allocation
of the new population or the appropriate mix and number of housing
units required.
Generic estimates of the average per capita unit requirements of a
variety of locally provided county and municipal services are generated
from an analysis of specific jurisdictions having widely different
economic, demographic, and geographical characteristics. Combining
these estimates with their own data on service costs, local officials
can compute both the additional units of local services required and
their total additional cost.
The energy technologies included are those which are either in comnon
use today or are expected to be commonly used by the mid-1980's, and
include:
coal extraction
oil-shale extraction and conversion
off-shore oil and gas extraction
nuclear power plants
coal-fired electric generating plants
gasification plants
liquefaction plants
geothermal facilities
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There are a variety of approaches which communities can utilize to
project population, economic and public service impacts. The Argonne
study is one such approach and does not represent "official" numbers.
This handbook describes additional issues, methods and references.
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ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC IMPACTS
Estimating public facility and service requirements associated with
the development of energy technologies (as well as related public
costs and revenues) requires an understanding of the expected econo-
mic and demographic impacts of these technologies. This economic
and demographic information will be used to assess the demands
resulting from the development of particular energy systems for
additional schools, water, sewer systems, private business and
public building space, and other community facilities and services.
Not only will economic and population growth create a demand for
public services, but the presence and adequacy of the services will
influence the location of population.
The local public managers need to plan for such facilities and
services. At the same time the local budget must be balanced.
In the short-run public costs are likely to be especially high
since rapid additions to public facilities may be needed to accom-
modate the sudden population and economic impacts generated by
construction of these systems.
Questions Facing the Local Planner ¦
What is the expected direct employment impact of
the energy development?
How is this direct employment distributed between
construction and operational phases of the develop-
ment, and how do these phases affect the local
economy and labor markets?
What other employment is generated as a result of
the direct employment impact?
How is production expected to change among major
industrial sectors (e.g., manufacturing, utilities,
mining) requiring substantial public support facil-
ities (e.g., transport, water, sewer)?
What personal income (primarily wages and salaries)
is expected from the total employment impact?
cont'd.
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Questions Facing the Local Planner (cont'd.)
« What population changes are expected to occur as a
result of this increased employment?
What are the resulting demographic characteristics
of this population age (e.g., 5-year-age inter-
vals), sex ratios, fertility rates and death rates?
How will these demographic characteristics change
the longer term population trends of the area?
How is the increased employment, personal income
and population likely to be distributed geographi-
cally in the impacted area?
Determining The Scope Of The Analysis
Analyses of the expected economic and demographic impacts are often
done at the county or multi-county level largely because the needed
data for these analyses are aggregated on the basis of county units of
area. Where there are a number of communities or cities (as opposed
to a single jurisdiction) which may be impacted by the development, an
attempt must be made to allocate these expected county-wide employment
and demographic effects among the constituent communities or cities.
Economic and demographic projections should be presented on an annual
basis, and would be related to the phases associated with energy devel-
opment discussed in Chapter 2. The most important phases for the
economic/demographic analyses would be first, exploration, site prepa-
ration and construction; and second, operation of the energy system,
from start-up to full-scale operation. The former phase provides full-
time, but temporary employment opportunities frequently to an itiner-
ant group of skilled workers. The latter phase provides full-time,
permanent employment opportunities. The economic impacts and the
characteristics of worker families residing in the project area are
usually quite different in each phase. Consequently, public facility
and service demands will differ.
Local (e.g., at the county, city, urban or other appropriate area at
the county level or below) projections of the expected impacts should
generally be made for the period from exploration/construction to
steady state conditions. The time period involved would depend upon
the particular technology. Consideration should also be given to the
project phase-out period. If this is expected to be longer than 40
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or 50 years into the future, though, this would have little influence
on public facility decisions since this approaches the expected life
of such public investments. However, it would have implications in
terms of planning for the future economy of the area. The following
discussion of the various economic and demographic analyses takes into
account both the baseline projections (e.g., without the expected
energy impacts) and the expected effects of a particular energy tech-
nology. However, only a brief description of baseline projections of
economic and demographic characteristics is provided since a major
concern of this study is the marginal impact of energy technologies.
The economic and demographic characteristics which generally need to
be projected (for both the baseline case and with the energy develop-
ment) in order to plan for public facilities and services, and to
ultimately estimate future public costs and revenues for a local area,
include the following:1
Employment. Usually, measured in terms of annual person-years
of employment in the area. This measure compensates for
part-time and short-term jobs. Sometimes, though, historical
employment estimates are only available at a particular time
or on a specific date during the year. In some cases it will
be necessary to distinguish between full-time temporary (e.g.,
construction jobs) and permanent employment.
Income. Generally measured in terms of local annual personal
income (defined as wages and salaries, other labor income,
proprietors' income, rental income, dividends, interest and
government and business transfer payments). Annual earnings
(defined as wages and salaries, other labor income plus pro-
prietors' income) may also be used as an indicator of area
income, especially since there is usually a stable relation-
ship between earnings and personal income.
Economic activity by sector. Measured in terms of annual output
(e« g. i production value¦or value added), earnings or employment
by appropriate sector (e. g., agriculture, mining, manufacturing,
services). These measures are useful in understanding water
consumption or other demands and impacts associated with major
industrial users. These measures may be obtained by applying
historical water use or other demand or use ratios to output,
employment or income data.
1
Similar types of analysis are discussed in Handbook for Environmental
Assessments of Water Quality Management Plans (Draft), prepared for
the Environmental Protection Agency by Centaur Management Consultants,
Inc., 1976.
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Population. Numbers of persons residing in an area in
a particular year. Again, these estimates may only be
available on a specific date during the year.
Population characteristics. The age-sex distribution
for the population, and fertility and death rates are
needed to make estimates of the school age population,
labor force supply, and total future population.
Other economic impact categories may be annual consumer expenditures,
retail sales, or average bank deposits in the area. These provide an
indication of local commercial activity and viability. Frequently
local revenues are also raised via taxes on retail sales. But the
primary indicators of impact are generally those listed above. Al-
though economic and demographic projections will precede public serv-
ice analyses, an understanding of the population and economic data
needs of these subsequent analyses should help determine the level of
detail in these earlier projections. In preparing projections of
these economic and demographic characteristics, it is assumed that
stability of trends over time exists among many of these factors; for
example, relationships between employment and population; or employment
and earnings, or earnings per job by industrial sector.
Baseline Projections
The local energy plan should generally attempt to assess the impacts of
expected development (in fiveyear increments less if cyclical
changes are expected) on employment, population, earnings and/or person-
al income, industrial activity, retail sales (or other selected charac-
teristics) over at least a 10 to 20-year period. In performing these
analyses it is necessary, as indicated earlier, to analyze the ejected
impacts both "with" and "without" the energy development. This type of
baseline assessment ("without" the energy development) is essential to
estimating the marginal impacts associated with a particular energy
development and the total economy and population for an area taking into
account these developments. Consequently, it is important at the outset
to establish "baseline" projections of the primary economic and demo-
graphic characteristics which establish the "without" case; that is,
what is expected to occur in the economy assuming a continuation of cur-
rent trends and conditions, excluding (e.g., without) implementation of
potential energy developments. Often such baseline projections may
already be locally available. At minimum (because of time and financial
resource constraints), baseline projections should be made of total
employment, personal income, employment (or earnings) by major indus-
trial sector, population and the several population characteristics.
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Preparation of the baseline projections should start by making use of
any existing employment and population data. In general, population
projections are linked to employment projections, which are a function
of the local industrial structure and activity. Of particular import-
ance are those projections already being used by other local planners
in the area (e.g., HUD 701, transportation, Areawide Water Quality
Management Plans, Air Quality Maintenance, etc.). Frequently a state
planning agency can provide the needed local area employment and popu-
lation projections, and/or there may be local disaggregations of state-
wide projections based on independent analyses or on assessments per-
formed by other sources or agencies.
Some states take a very active role in coordinating projections to be
used by local agencies, thus minimizing potential disagreements. In
other states, the agencies may have flexibility in selecting the projections.
In some cases, the county or local planning agency may disagree with employ-
ment and population projections provided by the state or other sources, or
in use by other local planning agencies. When the county or local planning
agency has some flexibility, it should select projections which have the
support of its advisory committees and local political units; which are
reasonable and can be defended on technical grounds; and which, to the
extent feasible, are compatible with other projections used or prepared
locally.
The county or local planning agency should use caution in extrapolating
historical employment and population trends to make population projections.
Some parts of the country are experiencing relatively abrupt changes in
population growth and distribution. Recent economic and social factors,
for example the declining birth rate and the high unemployment rate,
should be considered in projections of local activity. Such data for
counties and other local areas are kept relatively current by appropriate
state agencies (e.g., employment service and health departments).
Consequently, obtaining recent annual data on such factors is relatively
easy and changes in long-term trends can be assessed and population
projections can take into account these changing rates (fertility, death,
etc.). Projected fertility and death rates will also allow review and
analysis of expected future changes in age-sex ratios, which are in turn
determinants of the future natural population increase, needs for school
classrooms, and other age-sex determined conditions. State agencies
frequently are able to take into account these various factors and pro-
vide up-to-date projections of county or local populations and their
characteristics. If the needed population projections are unavailable,
consideration should be given to developing a simple model which projects
tctal population from estimates of the natural population increase plus
migration (in or out). These procedures and data sources are more fully
discussed in the next section of this chapter.
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If personal income projections for an area do not exist (from the state
or other sources) these can be estimated directly from the employment
projections. Historical county data are available from the Regional
Economic Measurement Division, Bureau of Economic Analysis of the U.S.
Department of Commerce on total earnings and earnings per job, and on
the ratio of personal income to earnings. Also projections of these
data have been made by OBERS and the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA)
for the nation, each state, and many local areas. Consequently, his-
torical data for an area can be compared with other similar areas (or
in some cases, as in Metropolitan Areas, these projections will already
exist) and projected approximations can be made of total personal income
for an area (e.g., personal income equals employment times earnings per
job times the ratio of personal income to earnings) assuming continued
similarity between earnings per worker and the ratio of personal income
to earnings.
Likewise, BEA and OBERS provide historical data and projections of earnings
by industrial sector for a variety of areas. These industrial sectors
include the following nine major categories: agriculture, forestry and
fisheries; mining; contract construction; manufacturing; transportation,
communications and utilities; trade; finance, insurance and real estate;
services and government. In addition, these nine major categories are
divided into a number of subcategories. Also, state employment service
agencies generally have historical employment data by major industrial sec-
tor. Where appropriate, these might be used directly as measures of sector
activity (e.g., variations over time of employment and/or earnings by indus-
trial sector), or various procedures would (e.g., applying ratios such as
earning or output per job to time-series employment data for individual
sectors) be applied similar to those discussed for estimating and projecting
earnings or personal income in an area.
If the baseline projections of economic and demographic data are provided
at the multi-county or county level, in many cases it would probably be
necessary to disaggregate these data to local areas (e.g., City #1, City
#2, rural areas or remaining part of community) based on historical
trends. This can be accomplished using Census data, and other state and
local data sources.
The resources necessary to accomplish the baseline projections will depend
upon the availability and type of any existing projections for a particular
area, the availability of technical assistance from the state or other
local agencies to work with the county or local planning agency to modify
(as needed) any existing projections, or the availability of other pertinent
studies (government, university, or private) which may be useful in pre-
paring the needed projections. If no projections exist for a particular
area, and only historical data and statewide projections are available
from OBERS or a state planning agency, it should still be possible for a
single experienced economist with the assistance of another person to
prepare the needed projections within a period of one to three months.
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Projections might be prepared by planning agency staff members, a local
university, a state agency, consultants, or the Bureau of Economic
Analysis in the Department of Commerce. However, some of these groups
may require substantial lead time to develop the projections. BEA, for
example, may be overwhelmed with requests for this type of assistance.
General sources of data, other than those already noted, would include
various publications of the U.S. Bureau of the Census (U.S. Department
of Commerce) such as County Business Patterns which provides mid-March
estimates of "covered" employment and related first quarter payroll by
industrial sector (i.e., for those "covered" by this reporting system)
for each county in the U.S. The Census of Population provides detailed
population, employment and income data for a variety of areas, but these
are available only in 10-year intervals. In addition, there are various
industrial censuses (agriculture, manufactures, trade, services, etc.)
which are performed in about 5 to 10-year intervals, depending on the
sector. Data on births and deaths are available from Vital Statistics
of the United States, Volume I "Nativity" and Volume II "Mortality"
(U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare).
Energy Impact Projections
This section reviews, in sequential order, the types of analyses and
data needed to assess the employment income, industrial sector activity,
and demographic impacts of expected energy-related development. When an
estimate of these impacts is added to the baseline projections a compre-
hensive picture should emerge of expected future economic and demo-
graphic conditions in the area.
Given the baseline projections for a county, or other local areas, of
at least total employment, population and population characteristics,
personal income, and industrial sector activity, it is the manipulation
of this baseline data which is needed to assess the economic and demo-
graphic impacts of expected energy development and overall expected
future conditions including economic activities.
It would be possible, of course, to analyze only the expected impacts
of the energy developments. However, this would presume relatively
steady-state conditions in the local economy. The economy may be ex-
panding or declining without energy developments, and for planning
purposes it is necessary to estimate future local economic and demo-
graphic levels assuming all expected conditions (i.e., including
energy and all other activities).
Since rapid growth associated with energy could occur, the energy im-
pact projections should be performed in one-year increments and over-
laid upon the five-year baseline projections. Also, these projections
of energy impacts assume a specific type and size of energy development,
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when, in fact, a range of alternative types and sizes of development
are possible. Several growth paths may be possible in the future. All
of these potential paths may have to be explored, or at least the upper
and lower limits of this range of possibilities should be explored.
Employment
The initial task would be to determine the expected employment in the area
due to the planned energy development. The direct employment impacts
associated with the energy projects would first be assessed. This requires
an understanding of the numbers and types of jobs expected to be stimulated
by the system.
Annualized direct energy employment would be separated into construction
and operational job categories. This information could often be pro-
vided by the expected developers and operators of the energy system.
Other data sources would be the general energy literature which includes
estimates of employment for various types of energy systems. This data
can also provide a check on information provided by industry sources. The
example on the following page provides a graphical view of this kind of
data. In this case employment is projected for an electric power generating
facility and associated coal mining facilities.
Consideration must also be given to any job losses that may result from
the energy development. This may include losses in agriculture or other
sectors. However, what may be missing in this analysis is a potential
"big bang" effect which could occur. It is possible that other "export"
or "basic" industries could be attracted to an energy surplus area.
These industries could be major power users who find their regional
power markets constrained within the foreseeable future, and who also
discover other amenities in the energy surplus area. Other possibilities
are the attraction of refineries and/or other petro-chemical complexes
to an oil rich (e.g., off-shore or on-shore) area. It is almost impossi-
ble at this stage to predict these "big bang" effects. Discussions with
energy developers and operators should probe possible linked manufactur-
ing or other industrial growth as a result of energy development. It may
be reasonable, therefore, to have several employment projections ("high"
and "low"; or "optimistic", "pessimistic", and "expected") and related
income, population and other economic and demographic conditions.
The expected changes in direct employment may have both indirect (i.e.,
resulting from the purchase of products and services from other indus-
trial sectors) and induced (i.e., resulting from the purchase of goods
and services by those directly and indirectly receiving income from this
work) employment impacts on the area economy. These multiplier effects
must be taken into account. Such effects may be assessed using such
approaches as economic base type multipliers, input-output or other ad
hoc analyses which attempt to derive area multipliers for assessing the
total impact of changes in direct employment or earnings.
Economic base multipliers derive from the postulate that external eco-
nomic forces constitute the cause of local (or regional) change, and
the internal portion of the local economy (i.e., local consumption of
local goods and services) is considered to have a relatively stable
derivative relationship to total economic activity. While economic base
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imm
EMPLOYMENT PROJECTIONS
(Direct Employment)
Steam Plant Construction
2,000
Mine Operation
t
1,500
1,000
500
Steam Plant Operation
'Mine Construction
* ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Steam Plant Construction
0
140
625
1310
1860
1940
1625
940
310
0
0
0
0
Mine Construction
0
140
400
290
90
30
30
10
0
0
0
0
0
Steam Plant Operation
0
0
0
0
0
0
105
300
390
430
430
430
430
Mine Operation
10
30
0
240
470
810
1190
M50
1640 1660
1660 1660
1660
Total
10
310
1085
1040
2420
2780
2950
2700
2340 2090 2090
2090
2090
Source: Adapted from WISTISEN, NELSON. Based on information provided by energy developer.
Kaiparowits Socio-Economic Study, prepared by the Center for Business and Economic
Research, Brigham Young University, for Bechtel Power Corporation, Provo, Utah, 1973.
68
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type multipliers generally rely upon a comparatively crude estimating
(see below) procedure, they offer an inexpensive means for estimating
indirect and induced impacts. Data for employment (or income) multi-
pliers for an area may generally be obtained from the area baseline data
on industrial sector activities or from the Bureau of Economic Analysis,
Census of Population, County Business Patterns, or State Employment
Security offices.
In determining economic base multipliers, the usual procedure is to
separate the industrial sectors of the local economy generally as to
whether they provide products of export (e.g., these generally include
manufacturing, mining, agriculture, Federal Government) or of local
service (e.g., these generally include trade; finance, insurance and
real estate; transportation, communication and utilities; local govern-
ment; services; and contract construction). There may also be some
specialized services in an area that could be termed export. Examples
include tourism, power generation for export (i.e., export utilities),
contract construction related to a major export serving project (e.g.,
energy, reclamation or other projects), financial or insurance centers
serving a larger region or the nation, or similar national or regional
educational or health centers. The proportion of employment (or income)
which is allocated to the "basic" activity is assumed to be associated
with export activity, and the remaining portion (i.e., "non-basic") is
assumed to be generated by the basic or export activity. Where changes
in employment are expected to result in an area from energy develop-
ments, the economic base approach allows calculation (by using the
historical relationship developed between basic and non-basic employ-
ment) of the concomitant gains that can be expected in the non-basic
or local service sectors of an area.
The multiplier resulting from this analysis is equivalent to the basic
plus the non-basic employment divided by the basic employment. The
resulting multiplier (which is always greater than 1,0) tends to increase
with the size and diversity of a local economy and with time (due to the
general increased demand of citizens for local service).1 The employ-
ment multipliers may also be lower for the construction phase of a project
in comparison with the operational phase. This can be due to the purchase
of major construction items in the outside national economy, and the
transfer of wages and salaries outside the area to permanent households
by specialized itinerant skilled workers who hold full-time temporary
construction jobs. An example of the total employment effects of an
energy project are graphically displayed in the example on the following
page.
1 ~
For example, see Wistisen and Nelson, op.cit., Appendix B.
69
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simple
EMPLOYMENT PROJECTIONS
(Expected)
Source: Center for Business and Economic Research estimates.
8,000
7,000
oyment
6,000
5,000
ttulti
pliej
Effects
Employment
4,000
3,000
tions
ymerrt
Open
Empl<
2,000
1,000
UCtlOf
yir.cn t
Construction
Operations
Indirect
Total Employment
^ ^i1 ^ ^ ^ «&>¦ ^ ^ ^
0 280 1,025 1,600 1,950 1,970 1,655 950 310 0 0 0 0
10 30 60 240 470 810 1,295 1,750 2,030 2,090 2,090 2,090 2,090
3 93 428 920 1,499 2,108 2,418 2,750 3,200 3,553 3,971 4,180 4,180
13 403 1,513 2,760 3,919 4,888 5,368 5,450 5,540 5,643 6,061 6,270 6,270
Source: Adapted from WISTISEN, NELSON, op.cit.
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An input-output (1-0) analysis is a means of relating inter-industry
purchases in a single model, showing the consequences to all other
industrial sectors of a specified change in one. However, unless such
a model (of relatively recent vintage) already exists for a particular
area, the input-output approach has severe practical limitations. The
most crucial limitation for a planning agency is the time and expense
involved in collecting the enormous amount of data for such a model.
Such a model would also require updating every few years since the co-
efficients are not generally stable over time.
Such a model can be designed for most any geographical area where
satisfactory data can be collected. Analyses performed with I-O models
are of great value in quantifying changes in an area's industrialization
patterns resulting from some specific proposed change in industrial
inputs and/or outputs. These could occur as a result of implementing a
particular energy system. The input-output approach can be an excellent
analytical tool because of the thoroughness and detail involved in the
model. There are some basic cautions to be observed in using 1-0 analy-
ses. Data for 1-0 tables are usually fairly old. For example, the 1974
update of the national inter-industry table contains 1967 data and it is
not uncommon to have an eight year lag in data on industry flow and
technology.
Earnings and Personal Income
A determination of the expected local personal income generated by the
energy development is needed primarily to assess the change in expected
future local public revenues. Revenues from any local income and sales
taxes (e.g., from retail expenditures) would be dependent on personal
income levels*. The determination would concentrate almost wholly on
the wages and salary component of personal income. These income esti-
mates can be made in constant dollars (e.g., assuming 1976 prices) and
then converted to current dollars (e.g., 1980 prices) as needed assum-
ing an inflator (or a range of hypothesized or potential inflators as
desired see page 152). However, it should be noted that an inflator
estimate is subject to potentially large error. This could result in
serious errors in the revenue and cost projections, especially since
cost and price inflators may not follow a similar change pattern.
Wages and salary estimates for the direct employment of energy construc-
tion workers and operators can be obtained from developers and operators
These can be checked with the experience of similar developments in the area,
or other parts of the nation. The income multiplier effects could then be
estimated similar to the procedure used in determining total employment. How-
ever , a simpler approach is to determine a weighted-average of the per worker
earnings in those industrial sectors associated with the "non-basic"
portion (e.g., trade; services; financial, insurance and real estate) of
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total employment. The employment in the "non-basic" portion is known
from the prior analysis, and earnings for these sectors are available
from Census of Population, County Business Patterns, or State Employ-
ment Security offices. An estimated per worker earnings times the
non-basic employment (as determined in the multiplier analysis in the
foregoing section) provides an estimate of the remaining income effects.
Based on historical relationships between earnings and personal income
(available from Bureau of Economic Analysis and OBERS data), estimates
could then be made of expected energy-related personal income effects.
When added to the baseline projection this provides a projection of the
expected cumulative personal income level for the area.
Economic Activity by Industrial Sector
If major changes are expected in production or output of those indus-
trial sectors having great demands for public infrastructure, this
should be determined early in the planning stage. Of primary concern
would be those developments having substantial demand for transportation
or water and sewer facilities. For the energy technologies, expected
production levels, water, sewer, transport and other needs can be esti-
mated based on information from developers and operators. This can be
checked against data in the literature. In a number of cases energy
developers and operators may supply their own water or other facilities.
This possibility needs to be determined, and the impact on the community
(e.g., use of multiple systems, possibly sharing of the energy develop-
er's systems, impact on local pollution) of providing such privately
owned facilities should be assessed.
Another segment of concern may be the provision of public land and
facilities to serve trade and business service centers. These needs can
be determined from the projections of earnings and personal income (con-
verted into changes in local consumer expenditures) and employment in
the "non-basic" sectors. This will provide estimates of expected growth
in commercial sales for the area.
Demographic Characteristics
From estimates of the expected impacts of the energy systems on employ-
ment, a determination would be made of the related population impacts.
The baseline projections of employment and population would reflect the
local historical relationship between employment levels and the working
age population (i.e., those in approximately the 20-64 year-old age
group). The resulting population would also be a function of local
fertility and death rates, and there may not be in-migration or out-
migration depending on the natural population change in relation to
72
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employment levels. The assumption is that employment opportunities
drive population. This is true generally, except in cases such as
where retirement centers have developed. Even in these places, though,
a trend can be determined for estimating the relationship between
employment and population.
The population and employment changes over time should reflect a dis-
cernible trend. This trend would likely be relatively stable over
time. Consequently, it is assumed that the expected added energy-
related employment would result in migration into the area. While em-
ployment participation ratios in the area may rise somewhat (e.g.,
greater female participation in the work force, or males working soon-
er and later in life) or substantially more people seeking jobs them
expected might migrate to an area, it is assumed that historical trends
will be followed and provide reasonable estimates of the expected popu-
lation increases due to energy development. However, local indicators
(e.g., bank deposits, retail sales, meter hookups, licenses granted)
should be continuously reviewed to be sure that the projected employment,
income, and population estimates are following generally expected trends.
Also, local area labor market size and skills should be reviewed in ad-
vance in relation to the expected numbers and types of jobs to result
from energy development. Information should also be obtained from
developers and operators, on who will actually be doing the worker-hiring
and on expected hiring practices. This will provide additional knowledge
for projecting the possibilities for absorbing energy^related employment
opportunities within the local labor market area,
For the total energy-related employment impacts, it will be necessary to
determine the total population, and the population by age and sex (in 5-
year age intervals) generated by this employment. These expected impacts
would then be added to the baseline population (total and by age-sex)
projections.
Employment impacts are to be determined for the energy construction and
operation phases. The employment multiplier effects are also to be
determined for these phases. The construction phase (because it fre-
quently attracts a special type of itinerant worker) is generally unique
and requires information on the expected sizes and age distribution of
worker families. This can frequently be provided by the energy develop-
er, and information of this type is also available in the literature.
The energy developer or operator may also be able to provide similar
information on the operation phase. Otherwise, the operation phase and
the employment multipliers should be treated as a similar category; that
is, the age distribution and size of families among these workers should
be similar and follow historical trends.
In determining the population associated with this employment several
approaches might be followed:
73
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Actual population impacts might be reviewed in
other similar areas and circumstances.
Use might be made of similar projections (see
references at end of chapter).
Census data on in-migration and the age-sex
distribution of migrants might be used,^ assum-
ing no one 65 years or more migrates for employ-
ment and assuming a historical relationship
between employment and population (total, or age
2CH64) among migrants.
The employment to population ratios in the base-
line projection might be assumed to hold (after
compensating for those over 65 years old not
expected to be employed on the project).
These population impacts (by year, age and sex) would then be aggre-
gated, and birth and death rate trends applied to the resulting popula-
tion. Local historical fertility rate trends could be estimated among
women of the childbearing age (e.g., 15 to 44 as opposed to age-specific
fertility rates). Regional (or even national) survival rate trends
could be applied to 5-year age intervals.
As the population "ages" in any long-term projection, a continuing bal-
ancing is required between employment and population. Balancing is
obtained between younger persons entering and older persons leaving the
labor force plus net (i.e., in- or out-) migration and available employ-
ment opportunities. The foregoing types of analyses are used in per-
forming such longer-term projections.
Geographical Allocation of Impacts
When projecting economic and demographic data for a multi-county or
county area, it will usually be necessary to allocate a number of the
projections to specific cities, urban areas, or other districts respon-
sible for provision of particular public services or facilities. Employ-
ment and population changes in these local districts will impact public
costs and revenues, and district allocations of the projections (i.e.,
1
Data on the historic characteristics of migrants are available from
various U.S. Census publications. For example, see U.S. Bureau of
the Census, Mobility for the States and the Nation, 1970, Subject
Report P6(2)-2B.
74
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baseline plus energy impacts) can generally be expected. The baseline
projections are not considered here. It is assumed that these alloca-
tions can be made based on historical trends (e.g., "Shift Share"
ratios or similar type of analysis).
The direct employment impacts associated with the energy developments can
be allocated to various geographical areas based upon information obtained
from energy developers and operators. General project site locations are
known well in advance of actual development. Employment multiplier effects
can be distributed geographically based partially upon where any linked
industries (selling to or buying from the energy developments and estimated
from developer and operator information) are located and partially upon
where employees reside. The latter can be the most important component
since where employees reside largely determines where family expenditures
of wages and salaries are made for goods and services.
The location of workers' residences is usually directly related to the size
of the community, and inversely related to the distance between the job
and the residence. Consequently, models (such as "gravity models," which
have been termed this because of their similarity to the procedures used in
calculating the gravity forces between two or more masses) have been
developed which take into account these factors and are used to allocate
population associated with employment.However, other factors to consider
are the potential to expand residences and public services and facilities
in particular communities, the availability (i.e., unused supply) and
quality of existing services, facilities and residences in particular com-
munities, and other amenities or attracting qualities (e.g., open space,
densities, shopping and other business activities, cultural activities,
taxes) of a particular community.
After allocating the population associated with energy impacts to various
districts, taking into account these factors, all or most of the "non-
basic" employment associated with the direct energy impacts would be
allocated generally in proportion to the population allocations. Also,
from these analyses, income levels by place of work could be determined.
However, for public revenue purposes, income by place of residence is an
important factor. Income levels by place of residence for various local
districts could be estimated by allocating the total estimated energy
income impact in proportion to the above population allocations.
1
For example, see Mountain West Research, Inc., Construction Worker
Profile, prepared for the Old West Regional Commission, Denver, Colo.
December, 1975. This study derives a gravity type model for explain-
ing worker residence patterns in relation to energy developments in
the West.
75
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Generally, age-sex characteristics, expected fertility and death rates,
and per capita or family income levels can be assumed to be equivalent
among the component communities or districts. In some cases, however,
differences between communities (e.g., one community supporting trailer
park development, whereas another allows only 2-acre residential devel-
opments) may have to be taken into account which change these assump-
tions .
Again, the resources necessary to perform the energy impact analyses
will depend upon the number and complexity of each plan alternative
evaluated, the need for local data collection, and the availability of
state or local technical assistance. To competently analyze impacts,
it might be expected that it would require 2 to 4 professional econo-
mists (staff members, university members, or consultants) from 2 to 4
months to complete this task. It should be emphasized, though, that
this merely represents a general estimate, and in some instances re-
source requirements may be much greater.
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HOUSING
An increase in population due to the in-migration of a construction and
operating force for an energy development will create a larger demand
for adequate housing in a community. The increase in demand will have
varied effects on the housing market. Even for the relatively short
term of a construction project, it will cause the price structure of
apartments, houses, and lots to rise. The subsequent result of the
rise in the price of housing may be an increase in the number of com-
munity residents unable to afford adequate housing. An influx of
skilled workers, who are able to compete for housing at a higher price
level than current community residents, will also alter the types of
structures available for occupancy.
The number of vacancies required for normal household movement will not
be available and the filtering process of older, poorer condition homes
and apartment becoming available at a lower price will cease. The
expected result may be that the allocation of residents within the
region will change. Community residents may be forced to relocate in
order to occupy the type of housing that they prefer or can afford.
Housing problems often are the first sign of the impact of rapid popu-
lation growth. Workers entering an area will occupy the available units
on the market. In addition, many workers (particularly construction
workers who move from job to job) own and travel with mobile homes.
The potential for scattering of mobile home settlements may be viewed
as undesirable by the community.
Questions Facing the Local Planner
What is the current supply of housing in the area?
Is the housing supply adequate to meet existing
demand?
What is the housing gap?
How many existing residents occupy
overcrowded or substandard housing?
How will increased demand alter the existing market
structure?
How many additional units will be
required?
cont'd.
77
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Questions Facing the Local Planner (cont'd.)
For what time period will the units be
required?
What size of unit and what price ranges
will be in demand?
Will incoming employees vary signifi-
cantly in the type of housing that they
require?
Will the housing and lot price impacts
be long term?
Will impacts cause out-migration of
existing residents?
Will any type of additional public hous-
ing or welfare services be required due
to scarcity or price impacts of housing?
Are existing housing regulations (e.g., housing codes,
permits) adequate to regulate new housing or mobile
home development?
What kinds of social problems (e.g., drug
and child abuse) may result from poor housing
conditions?
Scope of the Analysis
Energy developments that will require an in-migration of workers will
cause an increase in the demand for housing. It is important for the
local planner to assess how much of the demand can be satisfied by the
local market.
Since people generally desire to live within a reasonable commuting
distance of their jobs, it is correct to assume that the development
of a new energy facility will affect the housing market demand in a
fairly well defined area. It is important to define where workers
may desire to live so that analyses can be made of area characteristics
and impacts can be quantified. A housing market analysis is one
methodology with which the need for housing, the effectiveness of
demand and the characteristics of needed housing can be quantified for
a given period. Such an analysis is a valuable decisionmaking tool
which enables a planner to determine what the housing needs are in a
community. These needs are defined by the number of units that will
be needed and the size, price, and tenure (renter or owner occupied) of
units in demand. This information allows the planner to predict both
long-term as well as short-term housing needs.
78
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Several factors will affect the ability of a housing market to absorb
new demand. These include:
historic growth trends of an area,
number of housing starts,
demolitions and displacements,
number of vacant units,
condition of existing units,
ability of prospective in-migrants and existing
residents to pay.
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development publication,
Urban Housing Market Analysis (1969) provides a step-by-step methodology
for determining and analyzing these factors. Although some of the infor-
mation applies exclusively to urban settings, the principals of the
market analysis are applicable to communities of all sizes.
Ttie methodology described in the HUD publication initially defines the
existing housing market: the number and type of vacancies; what size
and income households occupy what size unit in what condition, tenure
and price range. This description will answer the first two major
questions of concern. The third major questions will be addressed with
the projection of employment, population, households, and income esti-
mates. Information on projected baseline community demographic charac-
teristics will be used in conjunction with the estimates given for
worker in-migration due to the development of the energy facility. In-
formation on the number and characteristics of the in-migrants may be
available from the energy developer, the Environmental Impact Statement
or from studies undertaken by the local community in conjunction with
the economic and demographic studies discussed earlier.
The results of the analysis will describe housing market after in-
migration. It will be possible to draw certain conclusions from the
description. In areas where there will be a demand for higher priced
units (as experience has illustrated), the cost of the housing avail-
able will increase. The extent of the increase may be estimated by
studying housing values in other communities with comparable demo-
graphic characteristics to those to be exhibited after development of
the energy facility. Assistance available to lower income persons who
will, in the long term, be impacted the most by the increase in demand
varies greatly. Since the filtering process is altered in a tight
housing market, lower income households will have less opportunities
for adequate housing. If any housing assistance services are available
in a community or county, they will experience increased demand.
79
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The effects on out-migration of area residents will be apparent from
the final projected results of the housing market analysis. A per-
centage of area residents who can no longer compete in the market (those
whose ability to pay will only correlate with housing of inadequate
size or condition) may look elsewhere for housing. However, many of
the residents may merely move to less favorable locations in the
marjcet area. Favorable locations may be considered to be those with
good access to employment, pleasant amenities and a high level of
public services.
An obvious result of the tightened housing market will be a marked
increase in the use of mobile home units. As previously mentioned,
many construction workers will arrive at the site with mobile homes.
Additionally, mobile homes may become the only housing option available
to residents who can not compete in the housing market. In order to
determine the impact of the growth in mobile homes the planner will
need to review local ordinances that may impact development and
location of mobile home units. Decisions may need to be made in
light of wh^t public services can be offered most easily in what
locations. These areas may be the locations where mobile homes can
most easily be accommodated. The data on the projected housing
shortage will enable the planner to estimate the number of mobile
homes which will result from energy development. However, some of the
information may be available from the Environmental Impact Statement,
the developer, or reviews of other similar projects.
Data Requirements
Data required to perform the housing market analysis includes a large
cross-section of demographic and economic information. This informa-
tion will be required for the incoming worker force, and the existing
population.
Information on the nature of the energy facility will provide necessary
data on the inflow rate of workers. It will be necessary to determine
when workers will come to the area, how long they will remain, and
what their household size and income level will be. This data is some-
times available through local or county data sources. A major source
is the U.S. Census. When the U.S. Census data is out of date, additional
data sources should be contacted. For instance, housing information may
be available from Savings and Loan Associations, local realtors, housing
codes or postal surveys. The HUD publication, Urban Housing Market
Analysis, lists further data sources.
The final data element includes a data profile of the existing housing
market. This includes the number of households, size, income level,
tenure and amount of rent paid or value of the unit. This information
is generally available from the U.S. Census publications or local surveys.
80
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Management Considerations
Once the housing market analysis has been completed, the local planner
may need to present the question of housing needs and market change to
the local political sector; Management decisions will need to be made
as to the location and type of housing development to be permitted. A
review of existing ordinances which relate to housing will, in many cases,
indicate a need for further action. Localities will need to decide how
to regulate the private sector's response to the market demand.
Decisions will need to be made to the best locations for new housing
development. Means of regulating mobile home locations and types may
be considered.
In general, strategies to coordinate housing development and community
service provisions will need to be discussed. The information available
from the housing market analysis will provide the means to project
additional demand for community services. For instance, school popu-
lations can be estimated on the basis of numbers and types of housing
units to be developed.
Housing ordinances can provide the locality with the opportunity to
locate in areas where community service response is most feasible. New
ordinances and other local regulations require municipal action. This
action can be precipitated by the information derived from the housing
market study.
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TRANSPORTATION
The quality, cost and range of transportation will be of great concern
to local communities faced with energy development. The new develop-
ment will place demands on the existing system. These demands will
come from: people who will be commuting to the facility; from special
trips, such as equipment and materials delivery and waste removal;
from transportation needs resulting simply from a general increase in
population. The number of trips as well as their routing will be sig-
nificant because of the potential for increased truck traffic through
residential neighborhoods. The distribution of trips throughout the
day (and week) will be important in order to assess congestion. In
addition the adequacy of the transportation system is significant be-
cause it can serve to make other services more accessible (e.g.,
regional recreation or health facilities).
Not only will local areas need to meet energy-related transportation
impacts, but the transportation system, and accessibility to the
development from more urbanized areas will influence the likelihood of
the relocation of workers and their commuting patterns. Communities
will have to seek out flexible solutions which allow them to meet
short-term needs without making unnecessarily large investments.
¦. Example ¦
Workers at the National Reactor Testing Station, west
of Idaho Falls, Idaho, can commute to work on buses
owned and operated as an Energy Research and Develop-
ment Administration Contractor.
Described in: David Williams, Rapid Growth from
Energy Projects, Department of Housing and Urban
Development, Office of Community Planning and Develop-
ment, 1976.
Finally, it will be important to study the effect of the development on
the performance of the system: on safety, comfort, cleanliness, etc.
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Questions Facing Local Planners
What are the elements of the current transportation
system: local, county and interstate roads, any
public mass transportation, any public individual
transportation, (e.g., taxi), access into and out
of the community by rail, plane; parking, etc.?
What is the current level of service: traffic
flow, congestion, comfort, cost, travel times,
parking availability, accident rates, crime, etc.?
What tools are currently available for traffic
management: lights, police officers, one way
streets, fare structures on buses, etc.?
What is the current automobile ownership rate for
the population? What, if any, provisions exist for
non-drivers (e.g., the young, elderly, poor, handi-
capped) ?
How will new workers and residents vary from current
characteristics: residential location, fate of auto-
mobile ownership, commuting patterns, economic levels?
What specific transportation needs will the energy
development itself create: material and equipment
delivery, waste removal; distance from supply centers;
varied work hours (e.g., night shifts).
Scope of the Analysis
A community faced with energy development should undertake jointly with
the county (or region) to determine how the existing transportation and
housing will affect the distribution of new residents within the area
and the likelihood of in-migration (see previous sections). In addi-
tion, the condition of the existing system will have to be assessed.
This will entail looking at the range of transportation options (e.g.,
automobile, bus, taxi, train, plane, bicycle, walking) available and
assessing the level of their performance. There are a number of stan-
dards in the literature which can provide the local planner with a
guide against which to measure a service. However, it should be remem-
bered that the adequacy of a transportation system depends somewhat on
the expectations a community has for it. Reasonable waiting times in
some areas may be totally unreasonable elsewhere. Standards describe
waiting times for buses, travel times, traffic flow conditions, dis-
tances between stops, etc. In addition there is a range of measures
which can be used to evaluate the quality or effectiveness of the
83
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transportation system. These measures include: accessibility, con-
venience, travel time, comfort, safety, cost, environmental quality,
general public satisfaction.
It is particularly important to determine which population groups
and which neighborhoods will be affected by changes in transportation
patterns. Certain groups have no transit alternatives and should be
given special consideration. In addition the delivery of other public
services will depend upon the transportation network. Police, fire and
ambulance service must have a quick response time in order to meet their
needs. Traffic congestion and awkward routing will interfere with their
ability to quickly respond. The adequacy of parking and the costs
associated with transportation (e.g., gasoline, insurance, tolls) will
affect the selection of transit alternatives and the perceptions of the
population regarding the accessibility of services (e.g., shopping) and
facilities (e.g., parks). Finally, transit will have an impact on the
environmental quality of the community. Truck traffic on unpaved roads
will be a source of dust and automobile congestion may create a hazard-
ous carbon monoxide exposure as well as be a source of noise. Although
many of these impacts will be difficult to eliminate, routing and traf-
fic flow techniques may serve to mitigate them.
Data Requirements
In order to assess the current transportation system it will be neces-
sary to inventory its component parts. The road system: its physical
condition, traffic flow, average daily traffic, major and minor roads,
points of congestion, intersection capability, times of peak usage,
all will have to be determined. Much of this information will be
available from local traffic departments or state highway departments.
When this information is not available it will be necessary to develop
it through test runs. All tests should be conducted to reflect normal
daily variations (a.m. and p.m. peaks).
To assess the transportation demands of the increased population, the
change in the number of automobile trips will have to be evaluated
based on information concerning the social and economic characteristics
of the residents (previous), the location of new housing and the avail-
ability of transit alternatives. Information regarding work habits of
new residents, and automobile ownership will be used to determine com-
muting patterns and transit mode. Data should be collected concerning
changes in travel times between residences and place of employment and
key local facilities (e.g., supermarkets). Often this will be done by
trial runs. In addition, the developer will be able to provide informa-
tion about work shifts. Adjustments will have to be made for weather,
accidents, vacation periods, etc. The demand for parking can be esti-
mated from automobile ownership and data describing the distribution of
trips between the different forms (modes) of transportation (i.e.,
modal split). Information on current parking may be available from
84
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building permits, zoning codes, or by survey. Finally, it will be
necessary to assess the potential for accidents, both related to
hazards directly associated with the energy development construction
(e.g., congestion, trucks) as well as those resulting from an increase
in daily traffic. Past accident rates can be ascertained from police
and health records.
Managing Transportation
The local planner will often be faced with the decision of expanding
the system (e.g., road widening, new roads, operating new buses, longer
hours, new routes) or intensifying use of the existing system. There
is a range of traffic management techniques which are available, includ-
ing traffic signals, striping, safety lighting, extension of shoulders,
periods of one way traffic, and increased patrol.1 Before making long-
term, irreversible capital investments communities should consider the
operation and maintenance requirements and the likelihood of these im-
provements becoming incentives to increased automobile transportation.
The community should determine the potential for special travel arrange-
ments (e.g., commuter buses) which may be provided by the developer.
Also, staggered shifts, and scheduled truck delivery and pickup may
reduce the potential for overloading the system. It will be important
to determine the location of major supply centers so that routes can be
mapped and impacts on residential areas may be minimized. Through the
exercise of land use controls (parking requirements, street dedications,
location of new facilities) communities may attempt to shape development
so that innovative solutions (e.g., car pooling, dial-a-ride, jitney
service) may be developed.
1
David Williams, Rapid Growth From Energy Projects, Department of
Housing and Urban Development, 1976, p. 59.
85
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SOLID WASTE
Changes in the amount, generation rate and type of solid waste will
result both from the energy development itself as well as from the
demographic and economic changes associated with it. Altered housing
patterns will affect the amount and kind of yard waste; upgraded waste-
water treatment facilities will change the amount of sludge produced;
new industries will both create a need for waste disposal facilities
and present an opportunity for recycling and reuse. Existing disposal
facilities may become overloaded necessitating additional landfill area.
Increased residential densities with less storage space per unit will
require different (and perhaps expanded) collection services. Many
communities will merely have to expand an existing service to newly
developed areas. Others, however, will have to formalize what may have
been an individual homeowner responsibility, and develop a plan and
administrative structure for the collection, transport and disposal of
solid waste.
_______ Questions Facing the Local Planner m
How does the current solid waste management system
operate?
What storage facilities are available?
What are the collection methods and are they
reliable?
What are the current disposal practices and the
capacity of disposal facilities?
Are there "special" wastes which will require
different handling?
Can these methods/practices accommodate changes in
waste characteristics?
If a land disposal system, is there adequate land,
and suitable conditions?
Will a more centralized system be required? Are
there private firms to perform any of the functions?
What systems are available if there is not currently
a formal system?
cont1d.
86
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Questions Facing the Local Planner (Cont'd.)
What are the significant local variables in selecting
a system?
Type of waste
Quantity of waste
Cost of land
Availability of land
Opportunities for recycling and reuse
Character of the communitylikelihood of
public-private systems?
Environmental Constraints (e.g., air
quality constraints on incineration;
groundwater constraints on dumping).
Scope of the Analysis
There are five major components of a solid waste management system.
They are: storage, collection, transportation, processing and dis-
posal. Although the system will ultimately be evaluated and imple-
mented as an integrated unit, each of the components requires inde-
pendent analysis and consideration of the financing, governmental man-
agement requirements, public health, and environmental implications.
The adequacy of solid waste storage facilities, either at residences,
commercial establishments, or industrial facilities, has implications
not only in terms of aesthetics, but also for public health and safety.
To the extent that collection is irregular (if at all) or, infrequent,
adequate storage becomes even more important. Communities faced with
increased development may need to require building and zoning codes to
incorporate provisions for adequate storage. The actual physical loca-
tion of storage containers should be consistent with the type of col-
lection system which is subsequently developed. There are three pri-
mary alternatives for collection systems. These are: house-to-house
collection, small containerized systems, and transfer systems.^-
Besides the economic implications of these alternatives, population
density and the adequacy of the road system will also influence their
1
Theodore L. Goldberg, Improving Rural Solid Waste Management
Practices, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973, SW-107, p. 13.
87
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feasibility. Although it will be difficult to provide service to
existing low density areas, local communities seeking to institute or
upgrade a solid waste management system should consider collection
implications when they approve development plans. Disposal practices
tend to attract the most attention in planning a solid waste manage-
ment system. In part this is because open dumps are the most visible
indication of inadequate disposal practices. Sanitary landfills repre-
sent the major community disposal alternative for rural areas, although
on-site disposal, incineration, composting and animal feeding are also
possibilities. Burning, composting and animal feeding can occur at
individual residences or larger community facilities. Air quality
regulations have limited the likelihood of burning, and state health
regulations often limit animal feeding. To the extent waste collection
becomes an organized community responsibility creating some predicta-
bility in amounts and rates of generation, the economic feasibility of
sanitary landfills or other community facility as an alternative may be
enhanced.
Data Requirements
Before the system can be developed, there is certain basic data which
will have to be collected. This data will determine the type of solid
waste, the quantity and generation rate, variations in the rate,
special considerations (e.g., toxic substances), and physical con-
straints on storage, collection and waste disposal (climate, transporta-
tion and geology).
Although there is an increasing number of models for predicting solid
waste characteristics, the most common method is still direct sampling
of the solid waste itself. Solid waste can be classified in terms of
the familiar kinds of household refuse, bulky appliances, commercial
and industrial refuse, mining and mineral operations, and agricultural
wastes. Although waste is commonly measured by weight, local officials
should take other factors (such as bulk) into consideration because of
the collection and disposal implications.
The amount and type of solid waste generated is a function of the dif-
ferent land use activities and their specific consumption patterns. For
private residences, type of unit and social and economic characteristics
of the inhabitants are significant. Standard land use classification
systems are often useful because they will provide access to the data
available from the federal government. Two such data sources are the
Office of Management and Budget's Standard Industrial Classification and
88
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the proposed Urban Renewal Administration and Bureau of Public Works.
Not only is the land use information necessary in terms of number of
units, but the development characteristics are necessary. Yard size
will indicate the amount of weed and lawn trash; apartment dwellers
generate different amounts of waste than residents of individual homes.
Land use maps, zoning codes, and surveys are sources of information of
the community land use patterns. Information regarding generation
rates (median rate of solid waste generation was placed at 2.0 pounds/
capita/day), ^ in addition to what may be obtained through a systematic
community survey, is available in the literature. The American Public
Works Association and the Environmental Protection Agency are two
sources of information of average generation rates. These rates should
only be used as guides for a community because the specific rate will
vary by population, economic mix, seasonal characteristics, etc. Local
communities can organize themselves into units for purposes of a survey,
and systematically sample waste quantities and characteristics. The
land use information will not only be necessary for estimating waste
quantities and characteristics, but development densities will also be a
significant determinant of collection feasibility. Information regard-
ing industrial composition, employment groups and retail trade is also
correlated with waste generation rates. This information may be avail-
able from state and local planning agencies, economic development agen-
cies, chambers of commerce, banks, universities and the census.
Demographic characteristics are also important in estimating generation
rates as well as in developing a system. Waste generation is correlated
with family size, age distribution, and standard of living. Local
officials will need information regarding past, current and future trends
as well as seasonal variation in population. Much of this information
will be available through the census. In addition, the Environmental
Impact Statement and the developer should be able to provide some demo-
graphic information for the energy development. If the community has
to develop the information on its own, the methods discussed in
Gail B. Boyd and Myron B. Hawkins, Methods of Predicting Solid Waste
Characteristics, (SW-23c) USR Research Company, San Mateo, California,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1971, p. 4.
David Rimberg, Municipal Solid Waste Management, Noyes Data Corpora-
tion, Park Ridge, N.J., 1975, p. 10.
89
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Energy development may represent a departure from past trends. Local
officials will have to familiarize themselves with solid waste genera-
tion patterns of their community, at the same time as they determine
how energy development will alter those patterns. Disposal of much of
the waste generated by the energy development itself will be the
responsibility of the developer. However, the community still may have
to provide land for disposal as well as roads for waste transport,
officials should consider the impact on adjoining areas of truck or rail
travel associated with waste disposal. Short- and long-term implica-
tions of the energy development may differ significantly and the solid
waste management program should be flexible when large capital invest-
ments are made.
Management Considerations
Solid waste management systems vary according to the amount of central-
ization, voluntary participation, level of service, etc. In developing
or expanding their system, communities should consider the kinds of
equipment required to support it. The trade-offs between capital ex-
penditures and subsequent operation and maintenance costs is important,
particularly for energy impacted areas with uneven revenue patterns.
Frequency of repair and availability of repair services, as well as
operator training requirements, are particularly critical concerns in
rural areas. Communities will also need to consider the extent to
which they will have a mandatory, centralized system as opposed to a
voluntary one as well as the extent of coverage of that system
(residences, commercial establishments, recreation areas, etc.). Manda-
tory systems offer some advantages in terms of centralized, regulated
disposal areas (e.g., ease of enforcement, predictable revenues).
Factors such as weather, transportation availability and vandalism will
make certain systems (home collection) more or less feasible. Local
officials will also have to determine the way the solid waste system
will be supported. Decisions will be made whether to purchase or lease
equipment and land. Operating costs can be handled through taxes or
user charges, which can vary by waste generation, collection require-
ments, type of waste, etc. Decisions will be made regarding the appro-
priate office or department for administering a solid waste program.
Possible options include the Health or Public Works Departments, a
special board, or environmental services agency, if one exists. Finally,
the community will have to comply with state legislation which may place
constraints on financing, collection or disposal practices.
90
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WATER SUPPLY
Population growth will result in an increased demand for water. In
addition, changes in the economic mix of the community may alter pat-
terns of water consumption. Increased development may limit replenish-
ment of the groundwater, often a source of drinking water. Not only
will the actual water supply be of concern, but the quality of that
water should be assessed by local officials. Any potential contaimina-
tion of the drinking water source should be identified. Applicable
Federal (or stricter state and local) standards will have to be met.
¦ Questions Facing the Local Planner
What is the current demand for water?
How will new development alter consumption patterns?
What is the current source(s) of water (rainfall,
groundwater, surface water)?
What are the key characteristics of the water supply
in terms of:
Pressure
Quality
Size
Consistency of flow
Storage capacity
Can the supply meet projected demand?
What additional sources may be available?
Is there a chance of contamination of the source due
to energy development?
Data and Analytical Requirements
In order to plan for expansion of the water supply system it will be
necessary to determine the design period, population, flow, area, and
hydrology of the community.
91
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In addition, the condition of the existing system will have to be
assessed. Is the pressure adequate and the flow consistent? If there
is a public system, what is the life of the structures, ease of expan-
sion, and capacity?
The following exhibit illustrates possible design periods for water
and wastewater structures. However, it is only illustrative and
actual design periods will vary according to current economic condi-
tions, technology and EPA funding guidelines.
The design period will have to reflect both the short- and long-term
projections associated with the energy development. Also the physical
condition of the facilities and their financing arrangements will help
determine the appropriate design period.
The demand for water is a function of the size of the population, its
characteristics, and the consumption patterns of commercial, industrial,
recreation and other activities. Consumption will also vary according
to climate, standard of living, extent of sewerage, cost of water,
availability of private water supplies, quality of water, distribution
of system pressures and metering.
The most basic information required to plan for adequate water supply
is population. Both the number of people, and their social and economic
characteristics are indicators of water consumption. Water consumption
is usually measured in gallons/capita/day. Seasonal variation of
resident population will also be necessary. Sources of this information
are the census, the Environmental Impact Statement, the utility compan-
ies, chambers of commerce, and any analysis undertaken by the locality.
Seasonality of the population projections is relevant because water
consumption will vary according to the time of the year (higher in warm-
er months). Similarly, daily peaks will have to be recorded. The local
official will have to study past trends and assess how they may change
in the future because of shifting demographic characteristics.
The mix (commercial, industrial, residential) of land uses will also be
significant. Land uses should be classified and there are tables which
describe average consumption rates.
Gordon Maskew Fair, John Charles Geyer, Daniel Alexander Okun,
Water and Wastewater Engineering, Vol. 1, Water Supply and Waste-
water Removal, John Wiley & Sons, N.Y. 1956, p. 5-12.
92
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EXHIBIT 5-1
ILLUSTRATIVE DESIGN PERIODS FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER STRUCTURES
Type of Structure
Special Characteristics
~Design Period,
Year
Water Supply:
Large dams and con-
Hard and costly to enlarge
25-50
duits
Wells, distribution
Easy to extend
systems, and fil-
When growth and interest
20-25
ter plants
rates are low **
When growth and interest
10-15
rates are high **
Pipes more than 12
Replacement of smaller pipes
20-25
in. in diameter
is more costly in long run
Laterals and secon-
Requirements may change fast
Full development
dary mains less
in limited areas
than 12 in. in
diameter
Sewerage:
Laterals and sub-
Requirements may change fast
Full development
mains less than 15
in limited areas
in. in diameter
Main sewers, out-
Hard and costly to enlarge
40-50
falls, and mter-
cepters
Treatment works
When growth and interest
20-25
rates are low*
When growth and interest
10-15
rates are high*
*This is illustrative. EPA regulations may differ in their determina-
tion of "design period".
**The dividing line is in the vicinity of 3% per annum.
Source: Water and Wastewater Engineering Volume I, Water Supply and
Wastewater Removal, Gordon Fair, John Geyer and Daniel Okun,
John Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 1966, p. b-3.
93
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______ Example
Average water use on a national scale averaged:
60 gpcd for domestic use
62 gpcd for commercial and industrial use
25 gpcd for public use.
For a table of water consumption/use, see, Wastewater
Engineering; Collection, Treatment and Disposal,
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1972.
The following exhibit illustrates water consumption by use. The den-
sity of development will be significant.
1 Example
Common Population Densities
Activities
1. Residential Areas
(a) Single family dwellings, large lots
(b) Single family dwellings, small lots
(c) Multiple family dwellings, small lots
(d) Apartments
2. Mercantile or Commercial Areas
3. Industrial Areas
4. Total, exclusive of parks, playgrounds
and cemetaries
Source: Fair, Geyer and Okun, op.cit., p. 5-12.
Persons Per Acre
5- 15
15- 35
35- 100
100-1000 or more
15- 30
5- 15
10- 50
Land use information is available from zoning and land use maps, fire
insurance maps, as well as aerial and field surveys. Although it is
possible to refer to tables in the literature to determine consumption
rates, the smaller the district and the lower the population density,
the greater the departure from average values.^ Finally, fire protec-
tion creates a demand for water. Both the supply and pressure of the
water are significant. In energy impacted communities it will first
Fair, Geyer, Okun, op.cit., p. 5-12.
94
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EXHIBIT 5-2
ILLUSTRATION OF COMMERCIAL WATER USE
Unit
Average
Annual
Demand,
gN
Maximum
Hourly
Demand
Rate,
gpd
Hour of
Peak
Occurrence
Ratio
Maximum
Hourly to
Average
Annual
Average Annual
Demand
Per Unit
Ratio
Maximum
Hourly
Demand to
R-40 Demand*
Miscellaneous Residential
Apartment building
22 units
3,430
11,700
5-6 p.m.
3.41
156 gpd/unit
2.2:1
Motel
166 units
11,400
21,600
7-8 a.m.
1.89
69 gpd/unit
4.0.1
Hotels:
Belvedere
275 rooms
112,000
156,000
9-10 a.m.
1.39
407 gpd/room
29 :1
Emerson
410 rooms
126,000
307 gpd/room
Office buildings
Commercial Credit
490.000 sq ft
41,400
206,000
10-11 a.m.
4.89
0.084 gpd/sq ft
38
Internal Revenue
182.000 sq ft
14,900
74,700
11-12 a.m.
5.01
0.082 gpd/sq ft
14 :1
State Office Building
389,000 sq ft
27,000
71,800
10-11 a.m.
2.58
0.070 gpd/sq ftt
13 :1
Shopping Centers
Towson Plaza
240,000 sq ft
35,500
89,900
2-3 p.m.
2.50
0.15 gpd/sq ft
17 :1
Hillendale
145,000 sq ft
26,000
0.14 gpd/sq ft
Miscellaneous Commercial
Laundries
Laundromat
10 8-lb washers
1,840
12,600
11-12 a.m.
6.85
184 gpd/washer
2.3:1
Commercial
Equivalent to 10
2,510
16,200
10-11 a.m.
6.45
251 gpd/washer
3.0:1
8-lb washers
equivalent
Washmobile
Capacity of 24
7,930
75.000
11-12 a.m.
9.46
330 gpd per car
14 :1
cars per hour
per hr of
Service station
capacity
1 lift
472
12,500
6-7 p.m.
26.5
472 gpd/lift
2.3:1
*Loi type R-40 (one acre) peak, hourly demand for single service is 5.400 gpd.
tfcxclusive of air conditioning.
(Couriesv of the Residential Water Use Research Project of The Johns Hopkins University and the Office of Technical Studies of the Architectural Standards
Division of The Federal Housing Administration.)
Source: Water Supply and Pollution Control, Second edition, John W. Clark, Warren
Vessman, Jr. and Mark J. Hammer, International Textbook Co., 1971, p. 113.
-------
be necessary to assess projected fire protection needs, to compare
those needs to standards which have been developed for adequate pro-
tection, and then to feed this data into the water supply analysis.
Finally, data will be required concerning natural environmental factors.
Information about rates of rainfall and runoff, soils, topography, and
geology will be useful in evaluating the adequacy of the supply of water
and the potential for depletion or shortages.
Managing the System
Management of the water supply and distribution system will entail
responsibility for capital investments (if a public system), for
quality control (consistent with Federal standards), for maintenance
of service requirements (flow, pressure, consistency) as well as for
total supply.
The financing of the system, interest rates, bonding availability, etc.
will influence community decisions regarding the design period of the
structures and the level of capital investment at any one time. The
per capita investment in physical plants depends upon many factors:
nature, proximity, and abundance of suitable water sources; need for
water treatment; availability and price of labor and materials; size
and construction conditions of the system; habits of the people; and
characteristics of the areas served. Communities will have to make
investment decisions about purification, transmission and distribution
works.
Local officials will also be responsible for assuring that water supplies
meet the standards set forth in the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA: PL
93-523). The SDWA contains national primary drinking water standards,
siting requirements for public water system facilities, and provisions
for the protection of underground sources. On December 24, 1975, the
EPA announced promulgation of National Interim Primary Drinking Water
Standards which will go into effect in June, 1977, and apply to about
240,000 public water supply systems. Not only do the standards set
maximum contaminant levels for bacteria, turbidity, and some organic
and inorganic chemicals, but they also specify monitoring techniques
that will be required.
1
Fair, Geyer, Okun, op.cit., p. 2-26.
96
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Example
MONITORING REQUIREMENTS FOR COMMUNITY SUPPLIES
Component
System
Type
Deadline lor Initial
Sampling After
Effective Date
Test
Frequency
Coliform
Ground &
Surface
1 Month
Monthly'*'
Inorganic
Chemicals
Surface
1 Year
Annually
Ground
2 Years
Every three
years
Organic
Chemicals
Surface
1 Year
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Finally, consideration of water supply should be integrated with land
use decisions. The types of activities being developed in the community,
their location and the ways in which they are developed (e.g., high rise
apartments, recycling potential) will affect the demand for water. Local
officials should recognize this as they permit new activities, and know
the extent of the resource and level of service which they can provide.
98
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WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Increased population and changes in waste generation and water con-
sumption patterns brought about by new industry will create a demand
for expanded, and perhaps upgraded wastewater treatment facilities.
Increased residential densities may necessitate a change from individual
waste disposal systems to perhaps small community systems, or even
regional wastewater treatment plants. Such facilities would have to
comply with Federal requirements for meeting secondary treatment for
their wastes by July 1977 or 1978 (for plants under construction) and
meet applicable water quality standards where they exist and are more
stringent. New industry may alter the make-up of wastewater discharged
to publicly owned treatment plants thereby requiring a change in treat-
ment technology or pretreatment. Many of the solutions available to
communities are expensive and relatively permanent, and therefore less
than ideal for meeting a need which, although significant, may be short-
lived. Jn addition, the lead time required to develop some systems
may precede their applicability to the more immediate, construction
related impacts. Increased development will alter both the quantity
and composition of storm water runoff, as will the energy development
itself (particularly in the case of mining), affecting both surface
and groundwater patterns. Finally, the size and form of the
treatment option selected will be significant in shaping future
community growth patterns. Communities will have to assess the options
available to them, the financing possibilities, and the long-term
water quality and development implications of each option.
nnoct'""e Facing the Local Planner
What level of treatment is, and will be, provided?
Is the current form of wastewater treatment adequate
in terms of capacity, changes in waste characteris-
tics and present and future water quality standards?
Can the present system be expanded? What are the
financial, environmental and technical constraints
on expansion?
» If additional capacity will be needed, when will
they be required?
What alternative systems are available?
A What are the alternative sizing options?
Cont'd.
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Questions Facina the Local Planner (Cont'd.)
What are the key economic factors which influence
the selection and sizing of a system?
Land costs
Availability of funding
Industry cooperation
Agricultural reuse
Long-term operation and maintenance
implications: user changes
Development density
What will be the implications of the different
systems in terms of shaping the character of the
community?
Location and timing of new development
Average lot size
Flexibility of development patterns
Demand for increased centralized manage-
ment capability.
Data and Analytical Requirements
Regardless of the wastewater system selected by the community, it will
be necessary to collect certain basic data. This data will be utilized
to determine waste flows over time, and treatment needs. First the
condition of the existing system must be assessed. If it is a community
system, this will mean collection as well as treatment facilities and
entails looking at the life of the structures, the ease of expansion,
the excess capacity, and the range of wastes which can be treated. In
addition, the operating levels of the system should be determined, as
well as the amount of infiltration of groundwater, the quality of the
effluent, and the extent to which the system is overloaded. Operations
and maintenance requirements should also be assessed. For individual
or small community systems (generally septic tanks or lagoons) it will
also be necessary to sample their operating efficiency and to determine
whether any problems which exist result from original site limitations,
weather, operation and maintenance, or limitations inherent within the
100
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system. In the case of land disposal (either of wastewater or treated
effluent) the ability of the la.nd to assimilate additional wastes ade-
quately should be assessed as well as the current operation of the
system.
Ultimately the size of the system will depend upon projections of
wastewater flow. Such projections are a function of the design popu-
lation and mix of land use activities. In addition, groundwater infil-
tration will have to be estimated and seasonal and daily flow varia-
tions should also be developed.
In order to determine wastewater flow, communities will have to make
population projections. These projections should reflect both short-
(1-10 years) and long-term (10-50 years) trends. To a certain extent,
wastewater generation is a function of water consumption. The general
rule is that 60-70 percent of total water supplied eventually becomes
wastewater.^ Therefore the analyses done as part of the water supply
section will be necessary input to this assessment. Plumbing standards
(from the National Bureau of Standards) and water use records are addi-
tional sources of information. The standard of living of the resident
population will affect their consumption of water as will climate. The
population information can be attained from census data, the EIS (where
available), or local analysis as described previously. Climate infor-
mation, if not documented locally or in the EIS, can be obtained from
the Weather Bureau.
The mix of land uses must be determined along with their water con-
sumption patterns. Because industries practice conservation they may
discharge effluent at a different rate than expected. Industrial
effluent which is discharged to a publicly owned facility will have to
be assessed for its quantity, rate of flow, and composition. Are the
wastes compatible with the treatment processes in the plant or will
they require pretreatment to prevent malfunctioning of the facility?
If the wastes are compatible, they may still upset the functioning of
the treatment plant if they overload it. Therefore peak flow informa-
tion is necessary. The plans of new industrial and commercial facili-
ties will have to be reviewed to determine whether they will tie into
a public facility or treat their own wastes. In the case of residen-
tial developments, the types of structures and their plumbing will have
to be considered. This information for existing residences should be
available from the Census or from a local housing analysis. For new
1
Gordon Maskew Fair, John Charles Geyer, Daniel Alexander Okun, Water
and Wastewater Engineering, Vol. 1, Water Supply and Wastewater
Removal, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., N.Y., p. 5-21.
101
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residences, the applicable building and plumbing codes should specify
required plumbing. Wastewater generation rates can be determined
from this information and are available in the literature. The follow-
ing exhibit illustrates water usage estimates for residential plumbing
fixtures.
EXHIBIT 5-3
ILLUSTRATIVE WATER USAGE ESTIMATES
Normal water
Unit
consumption
A closet, tank
4-6 gal/use
closet, flush valve, 25 psi
30 gpm
A»sh basin
li gal/use
8»Kitub
30 gal/use
head
25-30 gal/use
G»'den hose, ^ in., 25-ft head
200 gph
Garden hose, J in., i-in. nozzle, 25-ft head
300 gph
f-'p hose, in., {-in. nozzle, 70-ft head
2,400 gph
Continuous flowing drinking fountain
75 gph
I**n sprinkler
120 gph
Automatic home laundry machine
30-50 gal/load
P shwashing machine, home type
6 gal/load
Dishwashing machine,* commercial:
Stationary rack type, at 15 psi
6-9 gpm
Conveyor type, at 15 psi
4-6 gpm
Garbage grinder, home type
1-2 gpd/person
Source: Metcalf-Eddy, Inc.
Wastewater
Engineering: Collection,
Treatment and
Disposal: McGraw Hill, New York, 1972.
Public facilities (e.g., recreational areas, hospitals) will also
have to be studied, particularly because of the way they may alter
flow rates (e.g., recreation) and because of any special characteristics
of their wastes (e.g., hospitals). Finally, densities will have to
be considered because of their influence on pressure and water use.
Land use information is available from building permits, zoning maps,
and surveys.
102
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Because it is not always possible to predict peak flows from past
records, one way in which it is possible to estimate is from "fixture
units". One fixture unit is approximately equal to 1 cubic foot per
minute of flow. ^ The following exhibit illustrates typical fixture
unit values and discharge as a function of the number of fixture
units. Infiltration of groundwater into the system can be calculated
based on information about groundwater table, precipitation, soils,
and sewer material and construction.
Data describing the natural environment is required in order to assess
alternatives (particularly land treatment and individual septic system).
This data includes:
topography
0 soils
0 groundwater
4 geology
0 climate
0 sensitive environmental areas (flood plains,
wetlands, coastal zones)
* seismically sensitive areas
^ uses of any potential land disposal sites.
In addition, because incineration is one of the ways to dispose of
sludge, a byproduct of many waste treatment plants, air quality
will be of concern. This environmental information should be available
from the EIS, USGS and Weather Bureau.
The long-term management implications of the various wastewater treat-
ment alternatives should be considered early in the decision process.
Population may not consistently increase over time and is dependent on
many factors which are uncertain. The community should consider devel-
oping the system in phases so it can be expanded if the population and
wastewater discharge does increase. Because of the long lead time
required to build a wastewater treatment plant it may not be on line in
time to meet interim construction period needs. Therefore the community
1
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering; Collection, Treatment
and Disposal, McGraw Hill, N.Y., 1972, p. 37.
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EXHIBIT 5-4
ILLUSTRATIVE FIXTURE UNITS PER FIXTURE OR GROUP
Fixture type
Discharge as a function
of the number of fixture
units
t 000 2.000
Number of fixture unils
3,000
1 bathroom group consisting of tank-operated water
closet, lavatory, and bathtub or shower stall
Bathtub* (with or without overhead shower)
Bidet
Combination sink-and-tray
Combination sink-and-tray with food-disposal unit
Dental unit or cuspidor
Dental lavatory
Drinking fountain
Dishwasher, domestic
Floor drains
Kitchen sink, domestic
Kitchen sink, domestic, with food waste grinder
Lavatory
Lavatory
Lavatory, barber, beauty parlor
Lavatory, surgeon's
Laundry tray (1 or 2 compartments)
Shower stall, domestic
Showers (group) per head
Sinks:
Surgeon's
Flushing rim (with valve)
Service (trap standard)
Service (P trap)
Pot, scullery, etc.
Urinal, pedestal, syphon jet, blowout
Urinal, wall lip
Urinal stall, washout
Urinal trough (each 2-ft section)
Wash sink (circular or multiple), each set of faucets,
Water closet, tank-operated
Water closet, valve-operated
Fixture unit value
as load factors
A shower head over a bathtub does not increase the fixture value.
Nole: For a continuous or semicontinuous flow into a drainage system, such
as from a pump, pump ejector, air-conditioning equipment, or similar device,
two fixture units shall be allowed for each gpm of flow.
SOURCE: Metcalf & Eddy: Wastewater Engineering: Collection, Treat-
ment and Disposal, McGraw Hill, N.Y., 1972.
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may find itself in the position of developing two solutions: one for
the more immediate construction.related impacts and another for the
longer term development.
The financial implications of the different alternatives will also
play a large role in selecting a system. Availability of funds from
the Federal government will tend to bias decision-making towards those
systems which qualify. Communities considering land treatment may have
to decide between purchase and lease of the land. Both of these costs
may not be applicable under a Federal grant. The likelihood of indus-
try participation and the revenues associated with that will also tend
to make certain systems more feasible than others. Also the use of
effluent for irrigation or other recycling opportunities should be
considered.
Of great importance are the long-term operation and maintenance require-
ments and the costs associated with those requirements. The efficient
and effective operation of treatment plants and septic systems depends,
to a great extent, upon how well they are operated and maintained.
Communities will have to consider both the availability of trained per-
sonnel to perform these functions as well as the costs associated with
them. Although Federal funds are available for capital costs, they are
seldom, if ever, available for operation and maintenance. Finally, the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 specifically
require that user charges be imposed upon dischargers to publicly owned
treatment works to recover the operation and maintenance expenses.
Often these charges constitute a significant burden on low income rural
residents, particularly those living on a fixed income. Similarly the
impact of a user charge on an industrial discharger may cause that dis-
charger to decide to treat its own waste and discharge directly. The
impact of pretreatment, user charges, and industrial cost recovery* on
the likelihood of an industry discharging to a publicly owned plant must
be determined.
The wastewater treatment option selected will be a significant factor
in shaping a community's future development patterns. A decision to
utilize individual systems will require lots of a certain minimum size,
thereby affecting both densities and probably the cost of housing. Small
community systems, provided by the housing developers, may meet water
quality objectives but not give the community very much control over
development patterns. A large treatment system, with excess capacity,
will influence the amount of new development and its location.
* Capital Cost Recovery requires that the community collect from the
industrial users that portion of the Federally funded capital cost
of construction proportional to the strength, volume and flow
characteristics of the wastes received from the industrial user.
50% of the funds can be retained by the community.
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Land disposal systems will obviously result in a demand for land and
may influence land use activities which will locate nearby. Finally,
the community should consider any planning efforts (e.g., Water
Quality Management Plans) which may affect either the waste load
characteristics or the control of non-point sources.
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RECREATION
Recreation, like most social services, must be assessed not only in
terms of quantitative indicators (e.g., acres of open space), but also
in terms of the quality of the recreation experience (e.g., congestion,
noise, privacy, etc.). Because the range of recreation services which
are required in a community are a function of the size of the popula-
tion and its demographic characteristics, population changes brought
about by energy development will alter the recreation needs of the
community. In addition, people who come to work on the project, and
are transient members of the community, will have different recreation
needs than the average full-time community member. Energy development
can also affect a community's recreation opportunities through its im-
pact on the physical environment. Outdoor recreation depends, to some
extent, on the quality of the air and water, on reasonable noise levels,
and on an absence of congestion. To the degree that energy development
will affect these factors, it will affect the quality of the recreation
experience. Local communities will have to develop flexible definitions
of recreation. It is more than a collection of facilities and services
which have been typically called "recreation." Rather, they will have
to be sensitive to the needs of individuals during their leisure time
hours, and develop services, facilities and programs to meet these needs.
Not all recreation services will be the responsibility of the public
sector. Many (e.g., movies, restaurants, bowling alleys) are tradition-
ally privately developed. However, communities, as part of their
economic assessment, will have to determine whether there will be ade-
quate growth in the commercial sector to handle this need. It may be
necessary for local officials to develop incentives to attract the com-
mercial development.
Questions Facinq Local Planners
0 What is the current range of recreation opportunities,
public and private, available to community residents?
At what level are these services currently performing:
congestion, waiting time, cost, etc.?
9 Is access limited, in terms of membership, cost, tran-
sit dependence, or by time of year?
# How may the energy development itself affect the qual-
ity of existing recreation facilities?
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Scope of the Analysis
The community must assess the range and quality of the current recrea-
tion opportunities available to it. The recreation facilities which
are included need not be limited to those within the physical boundar-
ies of the community. Services and facilities which would be consid-
ered "reasonably accessible" to the local population should be included.
Reasonably accessible would be determined by distance, availability of
public transportation, travel time, etc. Also, the existence of a
facility does not mean that it is necessarily accessible. Private
clubs with membership requirements, activities which are expensive, or
restricted by age or sex, will only serve a limited segment of the
population. It is therefore necessary for the community to tie its as-
sessment of recreation opportunities to the social and economic charac-
teristics of the population. These characteristics may include age,
sex, marital/family status, income, ethnic/racial groups, permanent/
transient residents, etc. The community should attempt to determine
what the expectations of different groups may be regarding recreation.
Will newcomers look to it as an opportunity to
meet people?
9 Will people look for organized activities which
will involve them quickly?
# Will adults want family-oriented activities or a
chance to meet other adults?
This information will be necessary to design and expand activities and
facilities.
The range of facilities may include outdoor open space: parks (large,
small), natural open spaces, playing fields, swimming pools; indoor
commercial facilities: bowling alleys, movies, restaurants; indoor
public facilities: libraries, museums, meeting rooms. There are stan-
dards which attempt to quantitatively relate public recreation facili-
ties to population (see the following exhibit). However, these should
only be used as a rough guide and the particular characteristics of the
target population integrated into planning. Facilities and services
will have to be evaluated according to their effectiveness. Potential
measures to be used in this assessment include: attendance (aggregate
and by group), time and distance from major residential locations,
crowdedness, safety, attractiveness, health, etc.*
1
Harry P. Hatry and Diana R. Dunn, Measuring the Effectiveness of
Local Government Services: Recreation, the Urban Institute, 1971.
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EXHIBIT 5-5
ILLUSTRATIVE RECREATION STANDARDS
l-'.icility
Ages Served
Acres of
Space
Sorvice
Radius
One Acre
Total l\>|uil;
I'lay lot
Pre -school
1/3
1 block
800
Playground
5-14
3
1/2 mile
1,000
Neighborhood Park
All ages
2
1/2 mile
%800
I'layfiold
Teenago and
Adult
12
City
(Community)
800
Community Park
All ages
30
City
(Community)
250
A minimum suggested for separate playground serving small communities:
Population
Children
2.000
3.000
4,000
5.000
450
600
800
1.000
Number of Acres
3.25
4.0
5.00
6.00
per 50,000 persons
25 miles of hiking trails
25 miles of cycling trails
5 miles of bridle trails
Source: Natio-.al Park and Recreation Association
EXAMPLES OF RECREATION DEMAND FOR SPECIFIC TYPES OF FACILITIES
Specific Activity
Average Population Served
Swimming pool
3 percent of population at a given time
with 12 square feet of water per swimmer
Golf (18-hole)
50,000
Recreation building
(1-3 acres)
20,000
Tennis courts
1 court per 2,000
Baseball
1 diamond per 6,000
Softball
1 diamond per 3,000
SOURCE: Voorhees Associates, "Interim Guide for Environment Assessment",
HUD, Washington, D.C., June, 1975.
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Development patterns will have to be considered. A population housed
in single family homes with yards will have different needs than one
in apartments or mobile homes. Similarly, the work shifts of the popu-
lation will have to be assessed. Individuals working at night will
have different needs than those who work from eight until five. Also,
people have different expectations at different times. Local parks may
fulfill certain recreation demands for after work, but not for a weekend.
There will have to be a variety of experiences provided.
Finally, the time phasing of the energy development will have to be
considered. The fluctuation of population over time will change the
feasibility of different options. For a short-lived demand, it may
make more sense to provide transportation to a regional facility rather
than provide it locally.
Data Requirements
In order to develop a baseline of existing recreation, the community
will need to inventory the range of public and private facilities and
services. They will need to measure the size {acres, population served,
etc.); personnel, cost, population serviced by age, sex, socio-economic
status; location, distance (travel time or actual); automobile depend-
ence. In addition, the current quality will have to be assessed by
developing indicators which are meaningful to the population, such as
safety, cleanliness, congestion (e.g., waiting time), public perceptions
of satisfaction, etc.
The social and economic characteristics of the current population will
have to be determined (e.g., automobile ownership, age, sex, income).
The number of new people and the ways in which they will differ from the
current population will need to be known. The way in which recreation
demand will be distributed over time (e.g., day and night, weekend -
weekday, all year - six month construction period, etc.) is important,
as is the housing of the new population, both location and type. Also,
the economic analysis will have to develop some estimate of commercial
development and the community will have to assess the likelihood of
this development serving recreation purposes.
Management Considerations
After the community has determined the demand for recreation and the
potential supply, it will have to decide who will be responsible for
developing and operating the facilities and services. The energy
developer may be providing some facilities for employees. Through zon-
ing and subdivision ordinances, private housing developers can be re-
quired to provide open space. Schools, churches, and clubs can coop-
erate to expand the scope of their activities. Before communities make
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large investments they should consider the longer term population and
revenue projections and include the operation and maintenance expenses
associated with development. The potential for using regional facili-
ties and increasing their accessibility by providing transportation
should be considered.
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EDUCATION
Growth due to energy development can substantially impact the amount of
educational investment in a community and the quality of the education
offered. Educational impacts will vary but in most cases will be deter-
mined by three major factors: the number of school-age children entering
the area, the educational needs of the in-migrants and the school capac-
ity available in the area. Past experience with energy developments has
indicated a range of school system impacts. For instance, impacts have
been significant in areas where coal mines have been developed. In some
cases, the school population has gained one child per each new worker.^-
This growth has resulted in double sessions or overcrowding and a possi-
ble decrease in the quality of education available.
A rapid change in population can have long-term impacts on the needs for
school facilities. Since school expansion or development involves a
large capital investment, population requirements must be determined to
facilitate investment decisions.
The quality of school systems is often related to the student/teacher
ratio. Rapid population growth due to energy development may substan-
tially alter the ratio in an educational system.
School systems today often offer services in addition to the traditional
classroom instruction. Schools provide meeting rooms, recreational
opportunities, guidance and health services, day care services, as well
as special programs for retarded, emotionally, and physically handicapped
children and adults. These programs may all be impacted by the increased
demand of a growing population. Further demands may require increased
funding to maintain a level of service.
The in-migrating workers and their families may require additional serv-
ices not presently offered in area schools. These requirements will need
to be determined and decisions made on the type of actions to be taken.
.Questions Facing the Local Planners
How many school-age children will enter the school
system as a result of development of the energy
facility?
What grade levels will be required?
What will be the special educational needs as
well as day care requirements of the in-
migrants?
Cont'd.
David Williams, Department of Housing and Urban Development, Rapid
Growth from Energy Projects, Washington, D.C., 1976.
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Questions Facing the Local Planners (Cont'd.)
0 Will the existing school facilities be adequate
to provide the required services to the in-
migrants?
What is the current space availability
of the system?
What is the student/teacher ratio?
9 Will school support services such as bus trans-
portation systems be adequate to service the in-
migrants?
^ Will increased funding or personnel be required
to meet increased school demand?
Scope of the Analysis
An analysis of the impact of population growth on a school system must
include several factors. Increased demand for school services can be
defined in three ways: the additional number of students to enter a
system; the grade level of the entering students; and types of schooling
required. The existing system must be assessed for capacity to absorb
additional students. Capacity should be measured not only in terms of
physical space available for classroom and recreational activities but
also by the effect the increased school population may have on the-quality
of education offered.
Determination of the number and grade levels of school-age children moving
into an area can be made on the basis of population estimates as described
earlier in this report. Many methodologies exist for estimating numbers
of school children by assessing the types of housing to be added to the
community.
However, in the case of area growth due to the development of a specific
facility, the increased housing market will be a direct result of the
growth. That is, the number and type of units which may be added to a
community will be determined through an analysis of a defined in-coming
population. Therefore, it is reasonable to predict service demands from
population estimates rather than housing projections.
Information on particular educational demand characteristics of the school-
age population can best be determined by studying case histories of com-
munities which have experienced energy developments. For instance,
particular types of in-migrants may exhibit greater demands for vocational
education or other types of specialized programs.
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In addition to determining what increased school system demand will be,
the local planner will need to clearly define the capacity of the school
system. Since school structures are designed for particular student
enrollment size, the planner can easily determine the current utilization
status of school facilities. By reviewing all schools in the school
district, the planner may potentially be able to locate facilities which
are underutilized. In many areas, underutilization is not uncommon at
this time due to decreasing growth rates of school-age populations.
Altering of school boundaries or extending bus routes to align enrollment
with capacity may be one means to absorb the new students.
If no schools in the district are underutilized or if the number of incoming
children is greater than the system's capacity, quality impacts will have
to be assessed. That is, to what extent will the increase in enrollment
affect the quality of education available? The student/teacher ratio,
along with test scores, is a common measure of school quality. In general,
low student/teacher ratios are considered desirable. An increase in the
number of students in a system will obviously increase this ratio. The
effect of this increase will generally be considered a negative impact
unless existing levels are so low that they can easily absorb students
without changing opportunities for learning. Alterations may also be made
in the type of classes taught, for instance, team teaching of larger
classes to accommodate the ratio change.
In order to accurately assess the impact on the student/teacher ratio,
the planner needs to consider future staff changes proposed in the school
budget. The staffing and budget levels must be reviewed within the time
frame of newly entering students. In areas where student population
growth is significant and few budget increases have been projected
management decisions will be required. Whether in the form of increased
staffing, additional facilities, alteration of programs, curriculum or
teaching techniques, adjustments in the system may need to be made.
A large discrepancy between school design capacity and enrollment may
indicate that additional capital investments are required. State standards
should be reviewed to determine what levels are considered as serious
overcrowding. Since schools are extremely big investments, large increases
in school population will probably have to be projected over time to
justify this expense. In general, increased staff, additional programs,
or curriculum alteration, will maintain educational service levels.
In many areas, the number of new students will be small enough
to be absorbed into existing facilities with little or no impact to the
system. In some cases, additional facilities or expansions will be
necessary to provide adequate educational advantages. Locational factors
will impact both the alternatives, and for this reason should
be reviewed by the planner. The capacity of the school bus
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system to carry a larger school enrollment to classes will need to be
assessed. Whether in transporting students to existing or new facilities,
residential locations need to be related to school locations. Many
localities have standards for the maximum walking or bus riding distance
a student should be from school. Community growth may alter the existing
patterns. The local planner should be aware of the relationship of
school and living locations when determining if school boundaries or
bus routes will need to be changed.
The variety and scope of school functions is the final subject of school
impact assessment. Community involvement in school activities is very
important in some communities. In areas where school buildings are used
for community services and programs, for instance, the school system
provides multiple functions. In these instances, an increase in school
population may have broad impacts. The planner needs to look at the
school system in total to fully assess the impacts of population growth.
In some areas, the increased funding required for a new staff person may
cause the depletion of the school budget to the point where school or
community programs are altered. These potential alterations should be
enumerated to provide the total information necessary to make management
decisions.
Data Requirements
The data required to assess school impacts includes the following:
9 Number and age of incoming population. This informa-
tion can be projected from population estimates.
% Location, capacity and type of existing school facil-
ities. This information is available from the school
administration.
Student/teacher ratios. Generally available from the
school administration.
Standard for overcrowding. Available from state
agencies.
School transportation system. Available from local
maps and school administration.
0 Future school facility and staffing planscapital
improvements program and school system budget.
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Management Considerations
The major management consideration is the level of educational service
to be offered in the community. Factors impacting these considerations
will include the nature of the school impacts, the financial capabili-
ties of the community and community concerns about educational services.
If impacts are significant, the community may need to decide the amounts
of additional funding that is available to the education system.
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HEALTH CARE
Health care service is generally provided by a range of medical profes-
sionals supported by paraprofessionals and social service support per-
sonnel. The demand for and quality of this service depends on the
social and economic characteristics of the resident population, the
availability of medical and dental services, nursing homes, out-patient
clinics, and range of special services. Health care facilities and
services must be of a range and quality to meet the health care needs
of the population and also provide accessible, preventive, maintenance,
mental, and emergency services as well as any special services, which
may increase during the project construction (e.g., construction-related
accidents).
Demand for mental health services may rise because of an influx of new
residents, with no established roots, family members who are unemployed,
and an absence of recreation activities. Special services may include
alcoholism and drug abuse treatment. These services will call for more
specialized personnel and perhaps an out-patient facility. Such a center
would be very useful for treating problems that do not require long-term
treatment, yet can be managed immediately on a local out-patient basis,
iately on a local out-patient basis.
Example ¦¦
Construction workers have accounted for about 15% of the
treatment for alcoholism in Calvert County, Maryland,
during the construction period of Calvert Cliff Nuclear
Power Plant in 1970. Howard Needles Tammen and Bergendoff,
Review of Socio-Economic Impacts of the Calvert Cliffs
Nuclear Power Plant on Calvert County, Maryland, and
Comparison with Kent County, Maryland. Maryland Power
Plant, Siting Programs, Department of Natural Resources.
January, 1975.
It is difficult to recruit medical professionals to small, remote communi-
ties. Many people may have to go outside the community to get care.
Other medical problems that became apparent are the lack of ambulances and
emergency services as well as deteriorated service as evidenced by longer
waiting times, difficulty of getting appointments, etc.
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Questions Pacing Local Planners
0 What is the current status and range of health care in
the community: doctor (other medical professional) /
resident ratio; waiting times; emergency services;
specialized services; mental health services, dental
care, travel times and distances?
What is the capacity of these services and can they be
expanded?
Will there be adequate health personnel to meet new de-
mands? What is the potential for volunteers?
What are the current health conditions (absentee rates,
morbidity, etc.) and are there any particular problems
which may be exacerbated by the development?
Will the energy development create a demand for special
health care services?
Will energy development affect the quality of health
care delivery?
What will be the ability of new residents to afford
health care services (insurance programs, etc.) and how
will this affect the general cost of health care in the
community?
Scope of The Analysis and Data Requirements
The community will first have to assess its current health care system.
This will include documenting the range of services available as well as
their capacity and effectiveness. The range of services should include:
in-patient hospitals and facilities
medical and dental professionals
out-patient facilities
programs for special groups (children and mothers,
the handicapped, the elderly)
mental health services (rehabilitation, community
mental health centers, programs for the retarded)
emergency care
emergency services related to natural disaster relief.
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The effectiveness of the service delivery will have to be determined.
This will include:
the ratio of professionals to population
the waiting time for appointments, hospital admissions,
and ambulance service
0 the travel time for routine and special needs
0 the cost of health services
0 the availability of health care to low income residents
The community will have to develop a "health profile"^ for its current
population and estimate how these characteristics will change over time
because of the influx of new people. The health profile should include:
physical and economic conditions
demographic characteristics (density, age distribution,
income, occupation, education, race, nationality)
housing conditions
0 numbers of public/private voluntary facilities
0 personnel
0 available funds
0 health utilization characteristics - utilization of
health facilities, and personnel by different groups,
occupancy and service ratios of facilities and
personnel by different groups
0 health conditions (mortality and morbidity).
1
Description of health profile adapted from Community Health Services.
Harold Herman and Mary Elisabeth McKay, published for the Institute for
Training in Municipal Administration by the International City Manage-
ment Association, 1968, p. 215.
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Sources of demographic, economic, and housing information are detailed
earlier. In addition, transportation information should be collected
because where it is not possible for a community to provide a service
itself, the availability of other facilities may be, in part, a function
of transportation.
The demographic characteristics of the new population will be the most
significant indicator of health needs. If analysis of energy phases and
employment impacts indicates an influx of men this would have very dif-
ferent implications for health care planning than will an influx of
young families. Similarly, housing conditions are important because of
the health impacts of poor sanitation and the potential for contamination
of the water supply.
There are standards and methods in the literature which are used to meas-
ure health care needs.
¦ Example ¦
The Colorado Department of Health, Division of Nursing
offered the guidelines for rural public health services:
one public health nurse for each 2,000 people in Oil Shale
Tract C-b, Socio-Economic Assessment Vol. II, Impact
Analysis, Shell Oil Co., Ashland Oil Inc., March, 1976.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare - General
Standards of Construction and Equipment for Hospitals and
Medical Facilities, Washington, D.C., U.S. GPO, 1969 Survey.
Communities can use these standards as a guide but should realize that
because health care demand resulting from energy development will fluctu-
ate greatly, they may not find it desirable or feasible to make large in-
vestments to meet short-term needs.
Management Considerations
Communities will first have to identify special health needs (e.g.,
radiation exposure) which are directly related to the energy facility
and determine whether they, or the developer, will take responsibility
for meeting them. Occupation-related accidents and health needs should
be identified and responsibility for on-site care delegated as well as
a plan for responding to any "disaster" situations developed.
Because it may not be possible to actually develop all the necessary
facilities, the community should look to other local services which can
help fill any gaps. Schools and churches can provide space for immuniza-
tion programs and well-baby clinics. A volunteer fire department can
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assist in emergency and rescue aid. Regional facilities can be made
more available through development of transportation options. Finally,
where there is a long-term projected need for more health facilities,
communities can consider developing clinics, hospitals and office space
in an effort to attract medical professionals and the necessary support
personnel to the area.
Example
The U.S. Department of Agriculture recently has found
that, on an average, counties under 25,000 people had
only one doctor for every 1,770 people, in contrast to
counties over 50,000 with one doctor per 768 people in
the National Association of Counties, Case Studies on
Energy Impacts, No. 2, Controlling Boomtown Development
Sweetwater and Uinta Counties, Wyoming. National
Association of Counties, January, 1976. Also see dis-
cussion of Sweetwater County program to attract doctors
in David Williams Rapid Growth from Energy Projects,
HUD, 1976.
Example
The Wyoming Human Services Project trains students to
work in teams in Wyoming communities. This program is
supported by a grant from the National Institute of
Mental Health, Department of Health, Education and
Welfare.
David Williams, Rapid Growth from Energy Projects, HUD,
1976, p. 26.
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COMMUNITY SAFETY
The increase in population due to the development of an energy facility
can impact the level and quality of safety-rela,ted services available to
area residents. Levels of police and fire services are generally based
on population characteristics. Population densities are a common benchmark
for police and fire service in an area. Response time is also a major
criterion of effective service.
Workers migrating into an area may greatly alter population density and
response time by their residential location. For instance, when large
numbers of mobile homes are developed near the site of an energy facility,
police, fire and ambulance services will probably need to be extended to
a previously undeveloped area. Often this area will be located outside
of the perimeter of existing service patterns. Police and fire stations
in most cases will be located in the developed areas of the locality
and may, therefore, require more time to respond to new developments.
The additional response time will impact the entire community. An am-
bulance or police car responding to a call outside of the designed service
area will for a short period of time be ineffective within the service
area.
Other impacts may result from an increase in traffic caused by population
growth, construction activities or facility operation. Additional police
may be required to patrol roadways into and out of the development area.
This impact may particularly occur if the operating or construction force
commutes in from adjacent areas.
Police protection services may be in further demand as well. Although many
energy facilities develop security systems, local police often have to
patrol areas surrounding the facility. Particularly during the construc-
tion period, large material stockpiles may need to be patrolled. The
community should determine whether the developer will be taking the res-
ponsibility for on-site protection.
An alteration in the housing market due to rapidly increasing population
may impact fire services. Because of the lack of adequate housing
available, units may be occupied which are dilapidated. These units,
containing fire hazards, in the long run will result in increased demands
on the fire protection service.
Community planners will need to consider the availability of sufficient
water resources to fulfill additional fire needs. Water system design
will need to be reviewed. Area fire insurance is usually based on a com-
munity's fire response capability. This capability includes the availa-
bility of and pressure at fire hydrant heads. Fire demand is, therefore
an input to an evaluation of water supply.
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In addition to community safety concerns, occupational safety may be a
source of public concern. A major construction activity, such as an
energy development, may create additional occupational safety hazards.
Municipal ambulance services may be called upon to respond to work site
accidents. Additionally, certain types of energy developments (nuclear
power plants for instance) may require that the community have a safety
or civil defense director. This position may need to be created in
order to develop community evacuation contingency plans. Occupational
safety concerns and the adequacy of the response time of emergency
services require coordination between public safety and health care
planning.
Questions Facing Local Planners
How will the existing municipal safety systems,
police, fire, ambulance, respond to the increased
demand?
Will the area have adequate police protection?
Will the area have adequate fire protection?
What safety services will be required by the energy
facility?
What safety service demands will be generated by the
in-migrating population?
Will further capital or operating costs be incurred
for safety services?
Will service areas need to be redefined or personnel
reassigned?
Scope of the Analysis
An assessment of safety impacts requires a determination of the increased
needs which will be generated by the energy facility, a study of the
existing level of service and an analysis of the ability of the present
system to respond to additional needs.
Increased safety services may be generated both by the facility itself
and by the population growth resulting from the development. To analyze
the facility-related safety needs, an understanding of facility func-
tions and a determination of the safety services to be provided in-house
are necessary. Most energy facilities provide fire protection service
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and security systems themselves. The energy developer should be able
to provide this information. Community case studies should also be
reviewed to insure that needs for special safety services have not been
overlooked.
If municipal ambulance or emergency systems will be utilized by the
facility, industry safety records can be checked to determine the type
and number of job accidents related to similar developments. Projected
traffic generation, as previously determined, should be studied to
determine areas of greatest traffic impacts. The need for additional
police patrols can then be determined. Facility security arrnagements
should also be reviewed to identify areas where local police protection
may be required.
At developments where local fire protection will be required, a represen-
tative of the local fire department should review the types of structures
to be protected. Needs for special or particular fire fighting equipment
should be noted. National fire insurance groups can be consulted to
estimate the amount and pressure of available water which will be required
to protect the facility.
Safety demands created by the in-migrating workers are based primarily on
the location and type of housing that they select. Existing housing
occupancy will probably not impact the safety systems since system design
will be based on the level of development of the area. However, new
residential developments or even more importantly, randomly located mobile
homes create new safety system demands. Police, fire and ambulance/
emergency-rescue systems are based on population densities. Stations
are located in relation to the time needed to respond to calls. New
developments or random housing places a burden on safety systems by
increasing response time and possibly by overloading the response capabil-
ity of the system.
Some standards have been developed for population/safety system ratios.
Police/population standards vary, however. A review of communities of
like size and demographic characteristics can be made to assess the
needs for additional personnel.
ii Example
The National Board of Fire Underwriters has a detailed
list of standards for fire service. They recommend that
a town of 5,000 population have a fire flow water capac-
ity of 2,250 gallons per minute with a nine-hour dura-
tion. On the other hand, for a town of 6,000, they
recommend a 2,500 gallon per minute fire flow with a ten-
hour duration.
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Therefore, relatively small population growth may impact safety stan-
dards. Large growth in rural areas may indicate that a volunteer system
is inadequate for good protection. In addition, a change in the type of
structures in an area may necessitate new types of fire equipment. How-
ever, all projected impacts should be assessed for duration. Whether an
impact will necessitate capital expenditures or merely a leasing of
services from state or county governments may depend on how long term
they will be needed. See Chapter 6 for a discussion of capital improve-
ments programming.
Once the projected needs of the facility and the community have been
assessed, the local planner should list the existing safety services
offered by the community. Important factors include:
number of police personnel and cars
0 existing police response time
number of fire stations
types of fire and rescue equipment
9 fire and rescue response time
existing fire flow
0 locations of police stations, fire and rescue
companies should be noted.
The planner can then compare the additional community needs with the
existing services. It may be apparent that equipment should be added
or locations for rescue trucks and other equipment shifted. Further
requirements may include additions to the water system for fire safety
or an increase in state or county police patrols of specified community
areas. A complete enumeration of needs and existing services will
enable local communities to make their decisions.
Sources of Data
Population characteristics and projected housing locations will have to
be determined. Local estimating procedures such as those recommended
in other sections of this report can be reviewed. Additionally, dis-
cussions with the developer, a review of the EIS, and a study of energy
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development case studies might indicate characteristics of the popula-
tion which are relevant to safety impacts.
Population characteristics and projected housing locations will have to
be determined by the planner. Local estimating procedures such as those
recommended in other sections of this report can be reviewed. Addition-
ally, discussions with the developer, a review of the EIS, and a study
of energy development case studies might indicate characteristics of the
population which are relevant to safety impacts.
The planner will need to contact the developer to discuss facility safety
needs. The developer will indicate what services will be provided in-
house and which required by the community. Information on needed fire
protection, security services and emergency services will be required.
A review of development case studies may also indicate overlooked safety
functions required.
Discussions with the local police and fire administrations will provide
data on service facility locations, the number of police and fire
personnel, type of equipment and response rates. Fire officials can
provide information on water flow and areas which may not receive
adequate water service for fire protection.
One source of national safety standards is the National Board of Fire
Underwriters. This fire insurance group has engineers who can assess
the fire fighting capacity of localities. This assessment is based on
equipment, fire flow, location of facilities and density, structures and
value of structures to be protected.
Management Considerations
Once additional safety needs are projected, management decisions will
have to be made to determine local response. Depending on the duration
of needs, the locality has several options; additional personnel can be
"leased" from county or state systems; added protection can be requested
from the county; local staffs can be supplemented with new personnel;
additional equipment purchased; the locality can redesign the existing
safety system to relocate personnel and services to increase projected
response rates. Once impact information is available, the community can
assess its fiscal capabilities and concerns and decide on the course of
action.
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REFERENCES
GENERAL
These references include discussion of one or more of the impact areas
described in Chapter 5.
David Williams, Rapid Growth from Energy Projects, Department of Housing
and Urban Development, 1976. Chapter VI lists Sources of
Assistance¦
Interim Guide for Environmental Assessment, HUD Field Office Edition,
prepared for the Department of Housing and Urban Development,
Office of Policy Development and Research, by Alan M. Voorhees and
Associates, Inc., June 1975.
Measuring the Effectiveness of Basic Municipal Services, Initial Report.
The Urban Institute and the International City Management
Association, February 1974.
Measuring Impacts of Land Development, An Initial Approach, Philip S.
Schaenman and Thomas Muller, the Urban Institute, 1974.
Fiscal Impacts of Land Development, A Critique of Methods and Review of
Issues, Thomas Muller, The Urban Institute, URI-98000.
Federal Assistance Programs and Energy Development Impacted Municipalities,
prepared for the Federal Energy Administration by Wendell
Associates, February 1976.
DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC PROJECTIONS
The U.S. Water Resources Council, 1972 OBERS Projections: Economic Activity
in the U.S. (Based on the Series E Projected National Population),
Vol. I-VII, Washington, D.C., April 1974, provides historical data
and projections to the year 2020 of population, total employment,
total personal income, per capita personal income, total earnings,
and earnings by industrial sector. These data are available for
the nation, each state (and the District of Columbia), 1973 BEA
(Bureau of Economic Analysis of the U.S. Department of Commerce)
economic areas blanketing the nation, the 20 water resources regions
and 205 subareas of the nation delineated by the Water Resources
Council, the 253 SMSA's, the 173 non-SMSA portions or BEA economic
areas, and the 205 non-SMSA portions of water sub-areas. These
historical data are also generally available from BEA for each
county. BEA (Regional Economic Analysis Division) will also contract
with local areas to develop or disaggregate these projections for
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single or multi-county areas. These projections were made in
1970/1971 and care must be used in working with this data. How-
ever, this work provides one of the very few examples of a national
projection with a series of consistent local projections. These
projections are being revised and should be available in 1977
or 1978.
R.A. Luken, Economic and Social Impacts of Coal Development in the 1970's
for Mercer County, North Dakota, prepared by Thomas E. Carroll
Associates for the Old West Regional Commission, Washington, D.C.,
1974
D. Freudenthal, P. Ricciardelli, M. York, Coal Development Alternatives,
prepared by the Wyoming Department of Economic Planning and
Development for the Wyoming Legislative Special Subcommittee
on Consumptive Water Use, December 1974
M.J. Wistisen, G.T. Nelson, Kaiparowits Socio-Economic Study, prepared by
the Center for Business and Economic Research, Brigham Young
University, for Bechtel Power Corporation, Provo, Utah, 1973
Bureau of Reclamation, Western Gasification Company (WESCO) Coal Gasifica-
tion Project and Expansion of Navajo Mine by Utal International,
Inc., San Juan County, New Mexico; Final Environmental Statement,
Department of the Interior, 1976.
Mountain West Research, Inc., Construction Worker Profile, prepared for
the Old West Regional Commission, Denver, December 1975.
Data sources for compiling much of the information needed to perform the
analysis include the following:
State Employment Security Administration Statistics
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: U.S. Census of Population:
Population Estimates and Projections; County Business Patterns;
County and City Data Book; Current Population Reports, Federal-State
Cooperative Program for Population Estimates; United States Census
of Population; Subject Reports, Mobility for States and the Nation.
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Vital Statistics of the
United States: Mortality; Vital Statistics of the United States:
Natality; Vital Statistics of the U.S.
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HOUSING
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Urban Housing Market
Analysis, 1969.
TRANSPORTATION
For a thorough discussion of effectiveness, see Measuring the Effectiveness
of Local Government Services: Transportation, by Richard E. Winnie
and Harry P. Hatry. The Urban Institute URI-16000.
For more detailed information concerning the evaluation of transportation
impacts of development see, Measuring Impacts of Land Development,
Philip S. Schoenman and Thomas Muller, The Urban Institute, 1974.
Traffic flow and transportation standards:
Highway Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual - 1965, Washington, D.C.:
HRB, 1966.
Alan M. Voorhees, A Public Transportation Plan for the Capital Region
(Hartford, Conn.), July 1971.
Arthur D. Little, Inc., Center City Transportation Project, Urban
Transportation Concepts, for the U.S. DOT, September 1970,
(NTIS-PB-198-603).
University of California-School of Engineering, Bikeway Planning Criteria
and Guidelines, Springfield, Virginia 1972, (NTIS-WC-214-611).
As cited in Interim Guide for Environmental Assessment. HUD Field Office
Edition, Office of Policy Development and Research, Department of Housing
and Urban Development, June 1975.
SOLID WASTE
EPA bibliography, Available Information Materials, (SW-58.25) Solid Waste
Management, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, November 1975.
For detailed reference for developing a rural solid waste management
system, see: Improving Rural Solid Waste Management Practices,
Theodore L. Goldberg, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973
SW-107; Guidelines for Local Governments on Solid Waste Management,
(SW-17c) National Association of Counties for the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1971.
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Municipal Solid Waste Management, David Rimberg, Noyes Data Corporation,
Park Ridge, New Jersey, 1975, p. 4.
Charles Vigh, Solid Waste Collection System Requirements, for Division of
Solid Waste Disposal, Kentucky State Department of Health,
October 1971.
How Shall We Collect the Garbage? Dennis Young, the Urban Institute
UI 110-1205-1, Washington, D.C. 1972.
Methods of Predicting Solid Waste Characteristics, (SW-23c), Gail B. Boyd
and Myron B. Hawkins, USR Re'search Company, San Mateo, California,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1971.
For a brief discussion of the EPA general waste classification system,
see: The State's Roles in Solid Waste Management, A Task Force
Report, Project No. S-802179, The Council of State Governments,
Iron Works Pike, Lexington, Kentucky - 1973, for the Environmental
Protection Agency.
For a detailed discussion of a sampling procedure, see: Solid Waste
Collection Practice, 4th edition, Institute for Solid Wastes of
the American Public Works Association, APWA, Chicago, 1975,
p. 140.
Selection of Refuse Disposal Sites in Northeastern Illinois, George M.
Hughes, Environmental Geology Notes, September 1967, Number 17.
Waste Disposal Practices and their Effect on Groundwater, Draft, Report
to Congress, December 1975, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Water Supply and Office of Solid Waste
Management Programs.
References which describe ways to evaluate the effectiveness of solid waste
management practices are:
How Clean is Our City? Louis H. Blair, Alfred I. Schwartz, The Urban
Institute, UI 109-201-4, Washington, D.C. 1972.
Measuring the Effectiveness of Local Government Services: Solid Waste
Collection, 1970.
WATER SUPPLY
Gordon Maskew Fair, John Charles Geyer, Daniel Alexander Okun, Water and
Wastewater Engineering, Vol. 1, Water Supply and Wastewater
Removal, John Wiley and Sons, NY 1966 This is a classic text
book in the field.
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Wastewater Engineering: Collection, Treatment, and Disposal, Metcalf
and Eddy, Inc., McGraw Hill, Inc. 1972.
John W. Clark, Warren Vessman, Jr. and Mark J. Hammer, Water Supply and
Pollution Control, 2nd ed., International Textbook Co. 1971.
Toward a Model State Program for Rural Water-Sewer Development, Stanley
Zimmerman and Mary E. Morgan, Commission on Rural Water, 1975.
A Guide for the Development of Local Water Projects, Stanley Zimmerman
and Edwin L. Cobb, National Commission on Rural Water.
Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations, 12/24/75, Federal Register.
State Program Grant Regulations, 1/20/76, Federal Register.
Advanced Notice of Proposed Rulemaking, 7/14/76, for Organics in
Drinking Water.
Proposed Underground Injection Control Regulations, Federal Register,
(forthcoming).
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
(See references for Water Supply)
Gordon Maskew Fair, John Charles Geyer, Daniel Alexander Okun, Water and
Wastewater Engineering, Vol. 1 Water Supply and Wastewater
Removal, John Wiley £ Sons, Inc., New York, 1966. This is a classic
textbook in the field.
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering: Collection, Treatment and
Disposal, McGraw Hill, New York, 1972, p. 37.
The EPA's total regulations and guidelines are contained in a document
called Municipal Wastewater Treatment Works Construction Grants
Program, References, available from the EPA Regional Offices
or the Municipal Construction Division, Office water Program
Operations, U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C.
Federal Guidelines, Operation and Maintenance of Wastewater Treatment
Facilities, U.S. EPA, Office of Water and Hazardous materials,
Washington, D.C., August 1974.
Land application systems: Evaluation of Land Application Systems, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program
Operations, March 1975.
Environmental review of grants issued under the EPA program: Direct
Environmental Factors at Municipal Wastewater Treatment Works,
January 1976, EPA-430/9-76-003, Office of Water Program
Operations, U.S. EPA. Secondary Impacts of Transportation
and Wastewater Investments, Environmental Impact Center, EPA-600/
5-75-002 and 013.
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Interceptor Sewers and Suburban Sprawl, Urban Systems Research and
Engineering, Inc., prepared for the Council on Environmental
Quality, July 31, 1974.
RECREATION
For a detailed discussion of measures with which to evaluate the
effectiveness of recreation, see Measuring the Effectiveness
of Local Government Services: Recreation, Harry P. Hatry and
Diana R. Dunn, The Urban Institute, 1971.
EDUCATION
Center for Urban Policy Research, Housing Development and Municipal Costs.
Rutgers University, Rutgers, New Jersey, 1973.
HEALTH CARE
For an overall discussion of issues related to comprehensive health planning
and management, see: Community Health Services. Harold Herman
and Mary Elisabeth McKay, published for the Institute for Training
in Municipal Administration by the International City Managers1
Association 1968.
COMMUNITY SAFETY
Standard Schedule for Grading Cities and Towns of the United States with
Reference to Their Fire Defenses and Physical Conditions,
National Board of Fire Underwriters, 1956.
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CAPITAL PROGRAMMING
In energy impacted communities, tremendous demands are placed on the
public agencies to provide infrastructure and facilities. New workers
and their families need schools and streets, water and sewer systems,
hospitals and parks. What does the local government do first? How are
priorities set, especially if it appears that every existing public
facility is overwhelmed and needs immediate attention.
Energy development communities, often small, remote and rural, have
limited financial resources, little experience with capital programming,
and intense time pressures in which to do something. This chapter out-*
lines the elements of a simple capital programming process geared to
these limitations, illustrates the steps involved and points out sources
of information and assistance for local governments.
Rather than jump immediately to the question, "What do we do first?",
communities should ask themselves, "How do we decide what to do first?"
The usual ad hoc approach, reacting to whatever demand appears first or
most noticeably, can overlook high priority or long-term needs, build
facilities too late to meet demands, and waste already limited financial
resources. What is even more dangerous for energy development communities
is to build facilities which are needed for the construction boom, but
which are too large for the following operations phase.
Capital programming has the potential for assisting local governments
in planning for and meeting the demands of rapid energy development by:
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Determining the magnitude of capital needs?
Setting priorities for construction;
Determining available financing?
Demonstrating financial needs to other agencies (e.g., state
and Federal governments, and energy companies);
Coordinating capital planning of all local governments? and
coordinating capital spending with operating budgets.
¦¦¦' ¦ Highlights
A comprehensive Capital Program usually re-
quires centralization of responsibility
in one person or group.
If there is not an administrator or mayor
who can take responsibility, a Capital Pro-
gramming Committee has been found to be a
useful mechanism.
Energy project impact studies and the ex-
perience of the city itself is not a guide for.
future needs.
For a local government with a fiscal year
starting July 1, the capital programming
process should start the preceding October
and be completed in April, before consider-
ation of the annual operating budget.
DEFINITIONS
As used in this chapter, capital expenditures, programs and budgets are
defined as follows:
Capital Expenditure a major, non-recurring project or
facility expected to provide service over a long period
of time (e.g., sewage treatment plants, fire stations,
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street construction, and acquisition of land for parks).
Generally in smaller communities, the purchase of major
equipment, such as fire trucks and furnishing a new fac-
ility, is included,
Capital Program (CP) a plan for capital expenditures
to be incurred each year over a fixed period of time and
the projected resources to finance it. The most accepted
term for a CP is six years, but this might be adjusted to
coincide with the schedule for energy development (from
now until start of the operating phase).
Capital Budget (CB) the first year of the Capital Pro-
gram, a more detailed plan of specific projects and fin-
ancing to be adopted for the current fiscal year; it is
usually adopted in conjunction with the annual operating
budget.
Neither the Capital Program nor the Capital Budget provides approval of
specific projects, only their scheduling. Approval comes for each project
by action of the legislative body or the voters.
ISSUES IN CAPITAL PROGRAMMING
Concern about what to do first do we build sewage treatment plants or
fire stations? is misplaced. The answers to those questions can only
come out of a coordinated and complete look at all the community's needs.
The issues of capital programming, in order of priority, are:
Who puts together and approves the Capital Program?
How is the Capital Program prepared?
What projects are done first?
Organization
The responsibility for preparing the Capital Program will vary by indiv-
idual communities depending upon administrative responsibilities and
availability of staff. A comprehensive CP can be created only with cen-
tralization of responsibility for it in one person or group. Criteria
for this designation includes:
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Public accountability and legitimacyf
Time availability;
Influence relative to other participantsj
Perspective (both long-range and immediate
operational);
Skills in analysis and finance;
The ability to achieve internal operational
ef f ectiveness^
If the community has an administrator, that person can assume responsibility
for preparing the CP and submitting it to the legislative body. A juris-
diction with a strong mayor, or one with sufficient timp and skills, may
assign responsibility to the mayor. Normally, however, in the energy impact-
ed community, the mayor is overwhelmed with day-to-day problems. Where this
is the case a Capital Programming Committee (CPC) may be formed to prepare
the capital plan and budget. Members of this committee might include repre-
sentatives of the planning commission, the legislative body, and citizens at
large appointed by the governing board. This committee could be staffed by
the finance director or planning director.2 As an alternative, the CPC could
be formed entirely of city staff and department heads.
Using either the administrator or the CPC, the roles of other persons
and groups are essentially the same. Department heads will identify and
justify projects for their program areas. The planning commission (if
there is one) will relate proposed projects to the comprehensive plan,
and must approve the CP before submission to the governing body. Citi-
zens can serve on the CPC and comment on the proposed Capital .Program
while it is being considered by the city council or county board. The
legislative body, however, should not be brought into the capital pro-
gramming process until the final CP is submitted to it.
1
Evans, Richard D., "Organizing for Capital Programming in Smaller Muni-
cipalities," Governmental Finance, Vol. 3, November 1974, pp. 44.
2
For further discussion of organization responsibility see Evans, op. cit.,
p. 47.
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With both limited time and staff resources, energy impacted communities
might consider outside assistance in preparing the Capital Program.
Thorough studies of the impact of the energy project and the simplified
format outlined in this chapter may reduce the need for outside aid.
Sources of assistance may include consultants, universities, areawide
districts and even state agencies. These persons and groups could pre-
pare such CP elements, as capacity studies, financial analyses, need and
cost projections, or even the entire CP. The skills needed for each
element of the CP are different: capacity, need and cost projects can
be performed by engineers, and consultants in specific service areas;
financial analyses require a public finance and budgetary background.
No one person can do all of the CP: this requires either a multi-disci-
plinary group, with persons experienced in public administration, budget,
engineering and public services, or a public administrator who could
coordinate the efforts of local officials and staff in putting the CP
together.
The cost of a comprehensive capital program done by an outside consult-
ant might be in the range of $20,000 to $35,000, assuming good background
information on the community and project, but with little previous work
done on financial, capacity, and cost projections. Elements of the CP,
listed above, could cost in the range of $5,000 to $10,000 each, using
private consultants. University groups are often less expensive, but
may not have the pertinent experience. Using other governmental agencies
may be the least expensive course, but demands on their time are often
heavy. The most effective use of outside assistance may be in the form
of consultation on how to organize and prepare the CP, rather than in
doing elements of it.
Setting Priorities
What comes first? When the impact is large and sudden, as occurred in
Rock Springs, Wyoming, there is little difference as to priority; every-
thing seems to present immediate problems, and thus to have the highest
priority. If everything is important and necessary to serve new and
present residents, then the question of whether sewage treatment plans
or fire stations are more important cannot be answered. Rather, the
community has to answer for each program: how important are capital
projects to effective provision of the serviceA sewage treatment
plant may be required immediately because that is the only reasonable
way to meet growth demands and legal standards. Park development may
be delayed not because it is less important than sewage treatment
1
Moak, Lennox L. and Albert M. Hillhouse, Concepts and Practices in Local
Government Finance. (Chicago: Municipal Finance Officers Association,
1976), p. 104-106.
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but because alternatives may ease the problem temporarily. In addition,
if capital projects are undertaken, they should be done fully for any
specific service. If a fire engine is needed, then space for it must
also be provided (and adequate staffing must be provided in the oper-
ating budget). To do otherwise is to waste the money spent on the
engine.
For communities impacted by energy development, the long range capital
program has to consider three major needs (and probably in this priority):
Projects for the energy project construction phase a rapid
and intense need, which will slacken off;
Projects for the energy project operations phase a rela-
tively stable need, oriented to "permanent" residents; and
Projects for upgrading facilities for the present residents
of the community this may be possible with the increased
tax base of the energy project. The problem may be entirely
different after the project is built and a surplus of taxes
are available.
These needs are not separate, and any project built under the capital
program will have to consider all three needs. No matter what the sit-
uation or timing, the CP process is similar to that outlined in this section.
Any new project will have to provide some upgrading if the community was
behind prior to energy development. The most important caution for com-
munities is to make sure that facilities built for the construction phase
are not oversized for the lower demands of the operating phase.
PREPARING THE CAPITAL PROGRAM
With intense pressures to do something, and limited resources of money,
staff and experience, energy-impacted communities must be able to prepare
their capital programs quickly and simply. The procedure outlined in
this section is designed to prepare a capital program with the resources
at hand, in a period of seven months or less. The following example (p. 139)
presents the eight major steps of the capital programming schedule. For
local governments with a fiscal year starting July 1, the capital program-
ming process should start the preceding October and be complete in April,
before consideration of the annual operating budget.
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MM
SCHEDULE FOR CAPITAL PROGRAMMING
STEP July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. War. Apr. May June
1. Assemble Background
2. Inventory Potential Projects
3. Analyze Individual Requests
4. Prepare Financial Analysis
5. Develop Draft Capital Progran
6. Prepare Proposed Capital Program
7. Adopt Capital Program and Budget
8. Pollow-Through
-------
To illustrate the suggested procedure, a sample capital program is created
for a hypothetical community a city of about 5,000 population near
which a power plant is just starting construction. Although the example
is a city government, the procedure works similarly for a county govern-
ment (and could work for a school district). The projects and numbers
used in this section are for illustration of the procedure only, cover
only needs of the additional population (no upgrading), and in no way
suggest scale or priority of projects for any specific community- The
eight steps of the capital programming process are as follows:
Assemble Background Information (1 Month)
The primary determinant of need for capital projects will be the addit-
ional population within the community. The example on page 142 shows
the city's base population and the projected increase from the power plant
construction. The peak population of 9,200 is projected for 1980-81.
Population at the operating phase is projected to decline to 8,200, an
increase of about 3,000 persons from present levels. This projection is
critical, for long-range capital projects should be designed to serve
this permanent population rather than the peak construction number.
Sources of information for the population projections include the environ-
mental impact statement or socioeconomic impact study initially done for
the energy project, and a review of the experience of other communities.
Department heads should provide information about current service levels,
and the condition and capacity of existing facilities in the city.
Special studies which have been done for specific services, such as water
and sewage disposal, may also provide background information. All this
material can be compiled by administrator or Capital Programming Committee
(CPC).
Inventory Potential Projects (1*3 Months)
At the same time background information is being assembled, department
heads (or commissions such as for parks and recreation) can be identifying
potential projects which they think will be needed for all three needs:
the construction phase, the operating phase, and upgrading of existing
facilities for present residents. Two other information sources which
the department heads can use are the energy project impact studies, and
the experience of other communities. This review of what happened in
other energy-impacted communities is necessary, because the rate and
scale of growth are so different that the past experience of the city
itself provides no guide for future needs.
140
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In identifying potential capital projects, limits on what is included
should not be based on money limitations or a specific time frame. If
a capital project might be needed at some time, it should go in the list.
(The cutting back comes later.) Department heads should provide for
each suggested project: description, justification, priority within
the program, estimated costs (broken out for land, buildings, equipment,
etc.) and time required for construction or purcahse. The impact on the
operating budget (how many additional people required, and how much
annually to operate) must be included, plus any ideas the department
head has on available.or likely financing. These projects should be
grouped by some set of priorities, such as: urgent, necessary, or des-
irable. An example of this inventory, as summarized by the administrator
or CPC, is shown in the example on page 143.
Analyze Requests For Individual Projects (1 Month)
The administrator or CPC then goes over each request for capital projects
with the department head or commission to assure full understanding of
the demand for and urgency of each request. This is a chance to make
sure all needed information is available. Additional data may be required
on potential sites and cost estimates. For each project, the administrator
should evaluate whether there are any land use, design or environmental
impact questions that must be resolved. The city attorney should look
for any potential legal problems. To this point, however, no decisions
have been made about priorities or what goes into the final capital
program.
Prepare Financial Analysis (1*1 Months)
While department heads are working on individual requests (Step 2), the
administrator and finance office can analyse the financial picture
of the community, identifying potential revenues to support the CP.
The first part of this is to project operating expenditures and re-
venues for the life of the CP (say six years) , as shown i.n the example
on page 144. The projections should be made for the same categories
found within the annual budget. Preparation of these projections
will be helpful in assessing the impacts of energy development on the
operating budget, and will determine the "net available from operations"
which may be used for capital projects. In this illustration, most
expenditures and revenues aire tied to population increases and per
capita factors. Experience in most energy impacted communities shows
that assessed valuation, however, grows much slower than population.
Finally, debt service is shown to decrease as old bond issues are paid
off.
141
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EIMHE
COMMUNITY PROJECTIONS
1972-73
1974-75
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
1980-81
1981-82
Operating
Phase
Population
5,000
5,100
5,950
7,400
8,4 O
8,900
9,200
9,000
8,200
Assessed Valuation ($000)
5,500
5,600
5,700
6,000
6,300
6,450
6,675
6,750
8,200
Assessed Value Per Capta ($)
1,100
1,100
960
810
740
725
725
750
1,000
General Obligation Bond
Limit 15% of Assessed
Valuation)
825
640
655
900
945
966
1,001
1,012
1,230
Existing Bonds
625
575
525
480
400
365
325
280
N/A
Available Capacity
200
265
330
420
545
603
676
732
N/A
SOURCEI Based on figure 4, Williams, David C., Rapid Growth from Energy Projects. (Washington,
D.C.t Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1976.
-------
MM
EXAMPLES OF PROJECTS
Program Project
Priority/Justification
Costs
Annual
Costs
Operating
Manpower
OJ
SEWAGE DISPOSAL
Land Acquisition 1
Treatment Plant 2
Expansion of Trunk 3
Package Treatment Plant 4
For Treatment Plant
Expansion to Serve 3,000
Added pop. - .925 NGD
Needed from city to plant
To serve 1,000 "extra"
Population at Peak
$ 100,000
1,125,000
100,000
300,000
1 year
3 years
1 year
6 years
21,000
1,000
10,000
l.S
1.0
FIRE
Hew Paper 1 Added population, and 60,000 1 year 9,000 1.0
Upgrade Equipment
Expand Station 2 Boob for New Punper 100,000 2 years
-------
emwle
PROJECTED OPERATING BUDGET
(In Thousands of Dollars)
1976-77
1977-78
1976-79
1979-80
1980-81
1981-82
EXPENDITURES
Police
117
164
202
231
258
270
Fire
18
22
25
27
28
28
Parks £ Recreation
101
119
125
130
135
140
Library
36
37
42
44
46
48
Roads
107
142
168
187
202
207
Sar.i t ation
89
119
143
160
175
180
Water & Sewer
178
237
236
320
350
350
General
232
313
378
418
451
459
Debt. Service
120
120
120
60
60
60
TOTAL
1,000
1,273
1,489
1,577
1,705
1,742
REVENUES
Property Tax
143
ISO
158
161
166
169
Sales Tax
327
444
546
623
690
720
Other Taxes
130
149
186
210
222
230
Service Charges
238
313
370
409
442
450
Revenue Sharing
52
60
74
84
89
92
Other Revenue
119
156
185
205
221
225
TOTAL
1,009
1,272
1,519
1,692
1,830
1,886
AVAILABLE FOR CAPITAL
S
11)
30
115
125
144
-------
The net available for capital projects is minor the first three years
of the capital program; it then increases significantly as debt service
declines. Even though this net figure is small compared to total capital
needs, the money is extremely useful because it is available now, requires
no application to other sources, and has few restrictions on its use.
At the same time, projections should be made of assessed valuation
and these compared to the outstanding bonded indebtedness. In this city,
which has a general obligation bond limit of 15 percent of assessed valu-
ation, the available capacity for new bonds will increase annually, as
assessed valuation grows and bond principal declines.
During this analysis, the city will have to determine what its fiscal
policy will be toward capital projects. Some communities try to maintain
a "pay-as-you-go" policy, avoiding debt, but this is difficult to do in
the typical energy-impacted community. A more logical policy is one of
"pay-as-you-use,11 so that those who will use the facilities will pay for
them.1 For example, the city may assume that 90 percent of capital costs
would come from bonds.
The city will also have to consider economic, political and legal con-
straints to their fiscal, policy. The legal includes the bond limitations
as a percentage of assessed valuation; political includes getting pres-
ent voters to approve a bond issue; and economic involves the ability to
pay back the debt which will be incurred.
Develop Draft Capital Program (2 Months)
With information available on both capital needs and financial resources,
the administrator or CPC can draft a tentative capital program, such as
shown in the example on page 146. The capital projects (totaling $4.6
million) are laid out just as proposed by department heads using their
priorities. As is often the case, projects are bunched into the first
few years of the capital program. Revenues available on em annual basis
are presented, and these as usual are spread over the life of the
program, primarily in the later years. These available revenues of $1.1
million account for only one-fourth of the proposed projects, leaving a
tremendous gap to be filled.
Prepare Proposed Capital Program (2 Months)
The hardest part of the capital programming process is reshaping the
draft CP to create a program meeting urgent and essential needs while
Aronson, J. Richard and Eli Schwartz, Management Policies in Local
Government, (Washington, D.C.: International City Management Asso-
ciation, 1976) See Chapter 16 - Capital Budgeting, p. 321.
145
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EMMS
DRAFT CAPITAL PROGRAM
PROPOSED EXPENDITURES
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
1980-81
1981-82
TOTAL
Police Station/City Hall
l$000's)
36
36
Fire Station Addition
100
100
Fire Pumper
60
60
Parks - Neighborhood
100
100
Recreation Center Addition
25
25
Library Addition
100
100
Library Collection
75
75
Streets - Repaying
50
100
100
SO
300
Widen Mam Street
225
225
450
Collector Streets
150
100
110
360
Traffic Signals
70
35
105
Sanitation Truck
25
25
Water Plant Addition
182
182
Wator Distribution Lines
150
290
160
600
Sewage Treatment Plant
1,275
1,275
Treatment Plant Land
100
100
Sewage Collection Lines
94
181
100
375
Package Treatment Plan
300
300
TOTAL
649
2,274
1,165
350
110
-0-
4,568
AVAILABLE FINANCING
Net fron. Operations
9
<11
30
115
125
144
422
State Gas Tax
42
48
59
67
71
74
361
Cooaaunity Development (HUD)
15
44
64
74
80
76
353
TOTAL
66
91
153
256
276
294
1,136
FINANCING GAP (563) (2,183) (1,032) (94) 166 294 (3,432) (8,000)
-------
balancing expenditures and revenues. The administrator or CPC will
first identify possible additional funding sources, such as state and
Federal grants, local bond issues, State impact aid (given in a few
States), and other local resources. In the example on the following page
the CP first suggested raising service charges on water, sewage dis-
posal and refuse collection to match operating costs. Over six years,
this would raise $365,000, primarily to furnish sewage collection
lines. A Federal grant would be sought for 75 percent of the cost of the
sewage treatment plant. Revenue bonds would then be sold for most of the
money for producing the water system. Community development block grants
would be used for eligible park, recreation and library projects.
A general obligation bond issue of $545,000 would be voted upon in the
third year of the program, for the full amount allowable by state law, to
be used for streets and local share of the sewage treatment plant.
Finally, state impact aid would be sought for projects not covered by
any of these other sources, including fire protection which has an "urgent"
priority.
On the expenditure side, the proposed capital program stretches out most
of the needed projects, to correspond with the availability of funds.
High priority needs of fire equipment and a traffic signal are met im-
mediately, but others are delayed. The three-year construction time and
the time required to obtain a Federal grant mean the sewage treatment plant
would not be ready for six years. To bridge the gap, the CP proposes
lease (rather than purchase) of a package treatment plant, which could
be available immediately. The park, recreation and library needs will
be met as community development funds become available annually. The
most significant delay will come in the improvement of streets. Traffic
signals are provided early, for safety reasons, but major reconstruction
will have to wait for funding from the general obligation bond and the
operating budget.
Obviously, the final capital program could be put together in a number of
alternative ways depending upon community priorities, the availability
of funding, legal requirements, and the condition and capacity of existing
facilities. This is an example of the process only, and not a suggestion
of a capital program for any specific community.
Adoption Of The Capital Program And Capital Budget (1 Month)
The administrator or CPC should prepare a concise graphic presentation
of the proposed Capital Program, including simple charts of proposed pro-
jects and revenues to finance them, and perhaps a map of the city locating
the proposed sites of projects. This document is then submitted to the
city council for their review and approval. Copies of the Proposed
Capital Program should be given to newspapers and radio stations, community
147
-------
EIWHE
FINAL CAPITAL PROGRAM
PROPOSED EXPENDITURES
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
1980-81
1981-82
TOTAL
Police Station/City Hall
36
36
Available
Fire Station Addition
100
100 .
State Irrgpact Aid
Fire Fuspar
60
60
State Irrpact Aid
Park-no ighborhood
100
100
Coiroiunity Developinent
Recreation Center Addition
25
25
Conar.unity Development
Library Addition
75
25
100
Comunity Development
Library Collection
8
5
31
31
75
Net frott Operations
Streets - Repaving
20
100
100
80
300
Widen Main Street
225
225
450
From Government Bond
Collector Streets
30
77
173
280
Traffic Signals
35
35
35
105
Gas Tax
Sanitation Truck
25
25
Net frotr. Operations
Water Plant Addition
162
182
[80% Revenue 3ond J
Water Distribution Lines
440
160
600
[20% State Impact Aid]
Sewage Treatment Plant
400
450
400
1,250
Treatment Plant Land
100
100
Sewage Collection Lines
29
43
159
71
83
90
375
From Service Charges
Package Treatment Plant
40
40
40
40
160
From Service Charges
TOTAL
232
603
706
977
1/031
774
4,323
REVENUES
Available from Operations
9
(1)
30
115
125
144
422
Raise Service Charges
29
43
59
71
83
80
365
To Sewage Collection Lines £ Package Plant
State Gas Tax
42
48
59
67
71
74
361
To Traffic Signals & Roads
State Impact Aid
160
236
310
706
Federal Sewage Grant
70
280
315
280
945
To Land & Sewage Treatment Plant
Community Development Grant
15
44
64
74
80
76
353
To Park, Library, Recreation
General Obligation Bond
545
545
Revenue Bond (Water)
626
626
To Water
TOTAL
255
996
827
917
674
654
4,323
18.0G0)
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organizations, the energy companies and other public agencies, such as the
county, school district, special districts. Presentations may be made
by public officials so that citizens understand the proposals and what
they mean in services and taxes. Depending on legal requirements, the
city council may hold a public hearing on the Proposed Capital Program.
After careful review and consideration of the proposals, the city council
should adopt:
The Capital Program for the coming six years; as a general
guide, and
The First Capital Program year as the Capital Budget
for the coming fiscal year (this is generally done in
conjunction with the operating budget).
The Capital Budget is of primary legal concern, for it may be used to set
tax rates and start more detailed planning of specific projects. It must
be emphasized again, however, that approval of either the Capital Program
or Budget does not authorize any one specific project.
Follow-Through (Throughout The Fiscal Year)
As more detailed planning and analysis is done, the administrator or
appropriate department head will submit requests to the city council
for authorization to purchase land or seek bids on construction pro-
jects or equipment purchases. The city council still has full control
over the Capital Budget. Citizens have a voice, for general obligation
bonds typically require voter approval before they can be sold and their
projects constructed.
Under a normal capital programming process, the eight-step cycle would
be repeated each year. The first capital program is by far the hardest,
because substantial background information must be gathered and projects
analyzed for six years in the future. Subsequent capital programs would
drop the first year, which had been adopted as the capital budget, move
each of the following years up, and add a new sixth year. The new first
year of the capital program would be adopted as the capital budget. Each
year there would be a reappraisal of projects for priorities and costs.
Available and potential revenues would also be reassessed,*for example,
seeking additional funds for the street program. In the energy impacted
community, however, waiting one year may be too long. With changing pro-
jections of population and demand, a report on the capital budget and
program should be submitted to the city council in the fall, about six
months after their adoption. Projects may be added to the program, delayed
or adjusted as necessary.
149
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REFERENCES
Aronson, J. Richard and Eli Schwartz, Management Policies in Local
Government, (Washington, D.C.: International City Management
Association, 1976) See Chapter 16 - Capital Budgeting, p. 321.
Evans, Richard D., "Organizing for Capital Programming in Smaller
Municipalities," Governmental Finance, Vol. 3, Novemeber 1974,
Howe, George F., "Developing a Capital Improvement Program," Manage-
ment Information Service, Vol. 1, No. S-3, March 1969.
Lamont, William et al, The Tax Lead Time Study for the Colorado Oil
Shale Region. (Denver, Colorado: The Governor's Committee
on Oil Shale Environmental Problems, 1974).
Moak, Lennox L. and Albert M. Hillhouse, Concepts and Practices in
Local Government Finance. (Chicago: Municipal Finance Officers
Association, 1976). See Chapter 6 - Capital Programming and
Capital Budeting.
Real Estate Research Corporation, Excess Cost Burden, Problems and
Future Development in Three Energy Impacted Communities of
the West, prepared for, the Department of the Interior, 1975,
p. IV-1.
150
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PUBLIC COSTS AND REVENUES
Based on the economic and demographic projections and the separate
analyses (see Chapter 5) of the expected demands for public facilities
and services in relation to the actual supply and quality of these
facilities and services, it should be possible to prepare projected
(i.e., for about the next 10 to 20 years) annual estimates of public
costs and revenues of an energy impacted local area. This section
briefly discusses procedures that could be followed to assess the
extent of future public eaqpenditures and revenues, along with reviews
of potential public financing alternatives and revenue tools.
Highlights mmmmlmmmMmmmmmmmmmmmmmmHo-
rn Communities will need to review public costs and
expenditures and explore a range of financing and
revenue raising alternatives.
Revenue raising fiscal alternatives include sales
tax, income tax, property tax, severance and royalty
tax, and others.
Non-fiscal revenue raising alternatives which provide
local flexibility include bonds, leasing/installment
purchase, special districts, intergovernmental
assistance, and others.
151
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COSTS
For each community or local district historical data on annual public
operating and capital costs by type of service and facility should be
prepared for at least the past 10 years. Most of this data can be
obtained from the local district budget or related audit documents.
Operating expenditures should be separated by function and totaled.
Both function and total should be put on a per capita basis from annual
population estimates for the past 10 years. Historical data should also
be prepared on capital expenditures which have occurred over the past
10 or more years with some estimate of what this amounts to on a per
capita basis.^ In addition, based on historical experience with public
financing alternatives it may be possible to estimate the annual
amortization cost (including interest and debt service) of public
investments and put these on a per capita basis.
Based on the annual population projections (see Chapter 5) of the
particular area, annual public operating (by function and total) costs
can be projected from the historical trend of per capita public
operating costs (total and by function) Variations can be made in these
projections based on the plans for changing public service supplies
that result from the analyses as discussed in Chapter 5. Data on per
capita public operating costs should also be obtained from other localities
in the region of similar size (i.e., the size the particular locality
will become in the future) and other characteristics to provide a check
including correction for inflation on projected future operating costs.
Both the public costs (operating and capital) and revenues projections
, -1^1 -i n+-n arrount inflation. For Bxainpls,
should to the degree possible take into account in j-
recent history suggests a much more rapid rise in caP^
in comparison with revenues or other cost elements. onsequen y, pro
jections should be shown in current dollars (e.g., 1980 or 1985 ollars)
as opposed to constant dollars (e.g., 1976 dollars). Nevertheless,
analytically it is better to convert historical revenue an cos a a
to constant dollars (e.g., 1976 dollars) and then make all projections
in constant dollars. Assumptions (e.g., a range of possibilities)
would then be stated regarding inflation for the various cost and re-
venue items and all cost and revenue projections converted to current
dollars. To assist in performing the historical conversions and
analyzing trends the following sources may be useful. For capital cost
inflators see either the U.S. Department of Commerce Composite Construction
Cost index (from Survey of Current Business), or Engineering News-Record
Building and Construction Cost For operating cost inflators
a good source may be historical data on local government wages and salary
increases. For changes in revenues (related to personal income tax)
trends in average hourly or weekly earnings (taking into account both
inflation and productivity increases) per worker may be used. These can
be found in Survey of Current Business and various Bureau of Labor Statistics
publications.
152
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Separate sections (see Chapter 4) have been written on planning for major
public facility needs. Future capital cost estimates by function and
total should be derived from the resulting plans. These capital cost esti-
mates should take into account trends in inflation and should be shown
in the future years in which they occur. In recent years capital costs
(facilities and equipment) and some operating costs (e.g., some wages and
salaries) have been outstripping rises in public revenues. If possible,
it would be helpful to provide an estimate of these costs annually (by
amortizing the investments, taking into account expected interest and
debt service) and put them on a per capita basis (using the projected
population estimate). The capital cost projections should be compared
with historical data for the local area and with similar data from other
localities in the region of similar size and characteristics.
The projected annual operating costs and capital costs can then be combined
to provide an estimate of total public costs by year.
REVENUES
Revenues to a local area or district could be accrued from a variety of
sources. However, there are several major sources to be discussed: sales,
income, property, severance and royalty taxes. The aggregation of these
revenues provide an estimate of expected local annual public revenues.
Sales Tax
Local sales or excise taxes may be applied to all or selective retail sales.
To estimate future annual revenues from retail sales a simple ratio of
future projected local personal income (or earnings) by year to current
annual local personal income (or earnings) could be applied to current
sales tax revenues. Estimates of these indicators would be determined as
described in Chapter 5. More sophisticated assessments could include:
1) a similar analysis which takes into account a combination of population
and income; or 2) direct measures of expected changes in retail sales to
which the sales tax percentage is applied. The latter could include
preparation of historical annual retail sales estimates for the area. These
could be compared with local area annual personal income or earnings (of
local residents) estimates, and a trend developed of the ratio of annual
retail sales per dollar of personal income (or earnings). (For larger
cities and other areas historical annual retail sales and personal income
data can be obtained from Sales Management, Inc., Survey of Buying Power.)
This ratio could then be applied to future estimated local area personal
income or earnings to estimate future annual retail sales. (This informa-
tion would also be useful in estimating the future demand for commercial
facilities and required space areas, and the need for related public
facilities and services.) The sales tax percentage could then be applied
to expected future sales to estimate revenues.
153
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Income Tax
Taxes on corporations located in the local area and on the income of
resident individuals represents another source of potential local income.
Annual income tax revenues from corporations could be estimated in
future years by taking a ratio of future expected annual employment or
payroll (see the type of determinations described in Chapter 5) to current
annual employment or payroll and applying this ratio to current annual
corporate income tax revenues. More sophisticated analyses may be
required, such as making these determination by major industrial sector,
or especially for the direct energy impacts. (Also it may be desirable
for a local area to evaluate the degree to which the corporate (and
personal) income taxes have actually been collected.) Data for analyzing
the energy sector could be obtained from the energy developers and
operators.
Estimates of future personnel income tax revenues can be made by taking
a ratio of expected future annual local personal income (or earnings) to
current annual local personal income (or earnings) and applying this to
current annual personal income tax revenues.
Property Tax
Another local revenue generating method is to levy an ad valorem tax on
the assessed valuation of property. This tax could be applied to residential
and corporate property. Corporate property revenues could be calculated in
a similar way to that described for income tax. A more sophisticated
approach would be to estimate the future value of corporate properties from
data on production, employment or payroll and then to apply the local
millage rate. Similarly, estimates of future corporate property valuation
for the energy sector could be obtained directly from developers and
operators.
Based on projections of future population and personal income levels,
estimates are to be made of the type and numbers of housing units needed
to accommodate future local populations (see Chapter 5). From this data an
estimate of future local annual property tax revenues can be determined
based on recent trends in property tax revenues and the existing and
expected stock of residential development.
Severance and Royalty Taxes
Some local areas may receive revenues from a severance tax on the extraction
or production of specific minerals. Also, royalties or rents may be
obtained from mineral leases or other contracts. These types of taxes,
if applicable, would generally be associated with the particular energy
development. Revenues could be determined based on the plans of energy
developers and operators. However, these taxes are more likely to be
collected by the state or Federal government and not by local areas.
154
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Other
In addition to a wide variety of miscellaneous taxing mechanisms at the
local level which are frequently of minor concern, there is the major
local government revenue source known as inter-government transfers. These
are income transfer generally from state or Federal sources. Examples
include revenue sharing, special aid for education, distribution of
state and other income taxes, etc. Careful accounting and best estimates
of the future likelihood of these revenues should be assessed. In addition,
it would be helpful to determine what changes might occur in Federal, state,
or other local area revenues as a result of the energy developments. It
may be that revenues will dramatically increase for these other public
entities, whereas the particular local area being analyzed bears a heavy
burden of public costs. In this case, based on careful analysis, it may
be possible to justify and obtain special revenue compensation from these
other public entities.
COMPARISON OF COSTS AND REVENUES
Based on separate aggregations of expected future annual costs and revenues,
it will then be possible to assess the possibilities for both budget surpluses
or shortfalls in particular future years.^ The following example (see
page 156) indicates what such a comparison might look like in graphic
form. This shows a substantial shortfall in annual revenues for the
early years and surpluses in later years. Of primary concern is how to
cover the shortfall years and present a balanced budget for each ensuing year.
LOCAL FISCAL MANAGEMENT: MONETARY & NON-MONETARY REVENUE RAISING ALTERNATIVES
Communities, having assessed their projected costs and revenues may find
themselves in a situation where they will have to raise additional revenues.
There are a variety of mechanisms available to local communities with which
to do this. These mechanisms vary as to their administrative costs,
flexibility, need for state enabling legislation, etc. In addition there
are non-monetary services which give local communities greater flexibility
in their ability to raise revenues. The Tax Lead Time Study prepared for the
Oil Shale Region provides an indepth discussion of these alternatives.
This would be for the year in which they occur. Capital costs would be
for the entire capital expenditure (i.e., not amortized). In the case of
Calvert Cliffs, the community had a surplus of revenue once taxes were
collected from the facility. The community did not use this revenue to
reduce property taxes because that would have increased their housing
and population growth rate more than desired. Instead the community
began a capital improvements program to upgrade existing facilities -
see Review of Socioeconomic Impacts of the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power
Plant on Calvert County, Maryland prepared by Howard Needles Tammen and
Bergendoff, for the Maryland Power Plant Siting Program, Department of
Natural Resources, January, 1975.
155
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LOCAL REVENUE-EXPENDITURE ANALYSIS
140
120
revenues
100
EXPENDITURES
80
60
20
0
0
2 3 4 5
8 9 10 YEAR
SOURCE: Adapted from Department of Natural Resources Tax Lead Time Study:
The Colorado Oil Shale Region, State of Colorado, Denver, 1974,
p. 1-13.
156
-------
REFERENCES
Colorado Geological Survey, Department of Natural Resources, Tax Lead Time
Study: The Colorado Oil Shale Region, the State of California,
Denver, 1974.
157
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SUMMARY
The following questions (summarized from Chapter 5), provide a guide for
assessing social and economic impacts of energy developments.
ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC IMPACTS
What is the expected direct employment impact of
the energy development?
How is this direct employment distributed between
construction and operational phases of the develop-
ment, and how do these phases affect the local
economy and labor markets?
What other employment is generated as a result of
the direct employment impact?
How is production expected to change among major
industrial sectors (e.g., manufacturing, utilities,
mining) requiring substantial public support facil-
ities (e.g., transport, water, sewer)?
What personal income (primarily wages and salaries)
is expected from the total employment impact?
What population changes are expected to occur as a
result of this increased employment?
What are the resulting demographic characteristics
of this population age (e.g., 5-year-age inter-
vals), sex ratios, fertility rates and death rates?
How will these demographic characteristics change
the longer term population trends of the area?
How is the increased employment, personal income
and population likely to be distributed geographi-
cally in the impacted area?
159
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HOUSING
What is the current supply of housing in the area?
Is the housing supply adequate to meet existing
demand?
What is the housing gap?
How many existing residents occupy
overcrowded or substandard housing?
How will increased demand alter the existing market
structure?
How many additional units will be
required?
For what time period will the units be
required?
What size of unit and what price ranges
will be in demand?
Will incoming employees vary signifi-
cantly in the type of housing that they
require?
Will the housing and lot price impacts
be long term?
Will impacts cause out-migration of
existing residents?
Will any type of additional public hous-
ing or welfare services be required due
to scarcity or price impacts of housing?
Are existing housing regulations (e.g., housing codes,
permits) adequate to regulate new housing or mobile
home development?
What kinds of social problems (e.g., drug
and child abuse) may result from poor housing
conditions?
160
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TRANSPORTATION
What are the elements of the current transportation
system: local, county and Interstate roads, any
public mass transportation, any public individual
transportation, (e.g., taxi), access into and out
of the community by rail, plane; parking, etc.?
What is the current level of service: traffic
flow, congestion, comfort, cost, travel times,
parking availability, accident rates, crime, etc.?
What tools are currently available for traffic
management: lights, police officers> one way
streets, fare structures on buses, etc.?
What is the current automobile ownership rate for
the population? What, if any, provisions exist for
non-drivers (e.g., the young, elderly, poor, handi-
capped) ?
How will new workers and residents vary from current
characteristics: residential location, rate of auto-
mobile ownership, commuting patterns, economic levels?
What specific transportation needs will the energy
development itself create: material and equipment
delivery, waste removal; distance from supply centers;
varied work hours (e.g., night shifts).
SOLID WASTE
How does the current solid waste management system
operate?
What storage facilities are available?
What are the collection methods and are they
reliable?
What are the current disposal practices and the
capacity of disposal facilities?
161
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Are there "special" wastes which will require
different handling?
Can these methods/practices accommodate changes in
waste characteristics?
If a land disposal system, is there adequate land,
and suitable conditions?
Will a more centralized system be required? Are
there private firms to perform any of the functions?
What systems are available if there is not currently
a formal system?
What are the significant local variables in selecting
a system?
- Type of waste
Quantity of waste
Cost of land
Availability of land
- Opportunities for recycling and reuse
- Character of the communitylikelihood of
public-private systems?
Environmental Constraints (e.g., air
quality constraints on incineration;
groundwater constraints on dumping).
WATER SUPPLY
What is the current demand for water?
A How will new development alter consumption patterns?
« What is the current source(s) of water (rainfall,
groundwater, surface water)?
162
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« What are the key characteristics of the water supply
in terms of:
Pressure
Quality
Size
Consistency of flow
Storage capacity
4 Can the supply meet projected demand?
« What additional sources may be available?
Is there a chance of contamination of the source due
to energy development?
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
What level of treatment is, and will be, provided?
Is the current form of wastewater treatment adequate
in terms of capacity, changes in waste characteris-
tics and present and future water quality standards?
Can the present system be expanded? What are the
financial, environmental and technical constraints
on expansion?
If additional capacity will be needed, when will
they be required?
What alternative systems are available?
What are the alternative sizing options?
163
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What are the key economic factors which influence
the selection and sizing of a system?
- Land costs
Availability of funding
- Industry cooperation
Agricultural reuse
- Long-term operation and maintenance
implications: user changes
Development density
What will be the implications of the different
systems in terms of shaping the character of the
community?
Location and timing of new development
Average lot size
Flexibility of development patterns
Demand for increased centralized manage-
ment capability.
RECREATION
0 What is the current range of recreation opportunities,
public and private, available to community residents?
At what level are these services currently performing:
congestion, waiting time, cost, etc.?
Is access limited, in terms of membership, cost, tran-
sit dependence, or by time of year?
How may the energy development itself affect the qual-
ity of existing recreation facilities?
164
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EDUCATION
0 How many school-age children will enter the school
system as a result of development of the energy
facility?
What grade levels will be required?
What will be the special educational needs as
well as day care requirements of the in-
migrants?
0 Will the existing school facilities be adequate
to provide the required services to the in-
migrants?
What is the current space availability
of the system?
What is the student/teacher ratio?
^ Will school support services such as bus trans-
portation systems be adequate to service the in-
migrants?
9 Will increased funding or personnel be required
to meet increased school demand?
HEALTH CARE
9 What is the current status and range of health care in
the community: doctor (other medical professional) /
resident ratio; waiting times; emergency services;
specialized services; mental health services, dental
care, travel times and distances?
What is the capacity of these services and can they be
expanded?
9 Will there be adequate health personnel to meet new de-
mands? What is the potential-for volunteers?
What are the current health conditions (absentee rates,
morbidity, etc.) and are there any particular problems
which may be exacerbated by the development?
Will the energy development create a demand for special
health care services?
165
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Will energy development affect the quality of health
care delivery?
What will be the ability of new residents to afford
health care services (insurance programs, etc.) and how
will this affect the general cost of health care in the
community?
COMMUNITY SAFETY
How will the existing municipal safety systems,
police, fire, ambulance, respond to the increased
demand?
Will the area have adequate police protection?
Will the area have adequate fire protection?
What safety services will be required by the energy
facility?
What safety service demands will be generated by the
in-migrating population?
Will further capital or operating costs be incurred
for safety services?
Will service areas need to be redefined or personnel
reassigned?
166
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State Agencies for Planning
Fadwal Raponal _ AM_. SWW Off KM Admininrnint
»"« Ragaon Comnuaion ^ "fancy °* LOC*1 * HUD 701 Grants SUM Off iew fof Coaatal I
Alabama
IV
APP
PT
Alabama Development Office
Same
Same
Alaska
X
Dept. of Community & Regional Affairs
State Planning & Research
Division of Policy Development & Planning (Gov.)
Arizona
IX
FC
PT
Dept. of Economic Planning ft Development
Same
-
Arkansas
VI
oz
All
Dept of Planning
Arkansas Dept. of Planning
-
California
ix
Dept. of Houting & Community Development
Office of Planning ft Research
California Coastal Zone Conservation Comm.
Colorado
VIII
FC
PT
Dept. of Local Affairs
Colorado Division of Planning
-
Connecticut
1
NE
AH
Dept. of Community Affairs
Dept. of Financial Control
Dept. of Environmental Protection
Delaware
III
Dept. of Community Affairs & Econ. Devel.
State Planning Office
State Planning Office
Florida
IV
Dept. of Community Affair*
Same
Coastal Coordinating Council
Georgia
iv
A/CP
PT
Dept of Community Development
Dept. of Community Development
Office of Planning ft Budget
Hawaii
IX
(Dept. of Planning ft Economic Development)
Dept. of Planning ft Economic Development
Same
Idaho
X
PNw
AM
Planning & Community Affairs Agency
Division of Budget Policy Planning & Coord.
-
Illinois
V
Dept. of Local Government Affairs
Same
Dept. of Transportation
Indiana
V
-
Lt. Governor
State Planning Services Agency
Iowa
VII
Office for Planning & Development
State Office of Planning & Programming
-
Kansas
VII
OZ
All
Dept. of Economic Development
Same
-
Kentucky
IV
APP
PT
Office for Local Government
Office of Local Government
-
Louisiana
VI
OZ
All
Commission on Intergovernmental Relations
Same
State Planning Office
Maine
1
NE
All*
Bureau of Community Affairs
Comprehensive Planning Division
State Planning Office
Maryland
III
APP
PT
Dept. of Economic & Community Development
Maryland State Planning Department
Dept. of Natural Resources
Massachusetts
1
NE
All
Dept. of Community Affairs
Executive Office for Administration & Finance
Executive Office of Environmental Affairs
Michigan
V
UGL
PT
Office of Community Affairs
Executive Office of the Governor
Bureau of Water Management
Minnesota
V
UGL
PT
Office of Local & Urban Affairs
State Planning Agency
State Housing Agency
Mississippi
IV
APP
PT
-
Mississippi Research ft Development Center
Economic Resources Council
Missouri
VII
OZ
AH
Dept. of Community Affairs
Consumer Affairs
-
Montana
VIII
OW
All
Dept. of Intergovernmental Relations
Same
-
Nebraska
VII
ow
All
Oiv. of Community Affairs
State Office of Planning ft Program
-
Nevada
IX
Urban Planning Division
State Planning Coordinator
-
New Hampshire
1
NE
All
Office of Comprehensive Planning
Office of Community Planning
Division of State Planning
New Jersey
II
Dept. of Community Affairs
Dept. of Community Affairs
Dept. of Environmental Protection
New Mexico
VI
FC
PT
State Planning Office
Same
-
New York
II
APP
PT
Office for Local Government
Office of Planning Services
Departments of State
North Carolina
IV
A/CP
PT
Department of Community Assistance
Division of Intergovernmental Relations
Dept. of Natural ft Economic Resources
North Dakota
VIII
OW
AH
State Planning Division
Same
-
Ohio
V
APP
PT
Dept. of Economic ft Community Development
Office of Budget ft Management
Dept. of Natural Resources
Oklahoma
VI
OZ
AH
Office of Community Affairs ft Planning
Same
-
Oregon
X
PNw
AH
Local Government Relations Division
Same
Land Conservation ft Development Comm.
Pennsylvania
III
APP
PT
Dept. of Community Affairs
Same
Dept. of Outdoor Recreation
Rhode Island
1
NE
AH
Dept. of Community Affairs
Dept. of Administration
Statewide Planning Program
South Carolina
IV
A/CP
PT
(Division of Local Government)
Division of Administration (Gov.)
WMdelife ft Marina Resources Dept.
South Dakota
VIII
OW
All
State Planning Agency
State Planning Bureau
-
Tennessee
IV
APP
PT
Off ice of Local Government
Tennessee State Planning Office
-
Texas
VI
Dept. of Community Affairs
Office of the (governor
Texas Coastal Resource! Program
Utah
VIII
FC
PT
Dept. of Community Affairs
State Planning Coordinator (Gov.)
Vermont
1
NE
All
(Development ft Community Affairs)
State Planning Office
-
Virginia
HI
APP
PT
Dvv. of State Planning ft Community Affairs
Same
Same
Washington
X
PNw
All
Planning ft Community Affairs Agency
Office of Program Planning ft Fiscal Manage. (Gov.)
Dept. of Ccology
West Virginia
III
APP
AH
-
Federal State Reletions (Gov.)
-
Wisconsin
V
UGL
PT
Dept. of Local Affairs ft Development
Dept. of Administration
State Planning Off ice
Wyoming
VIM
ow
AH
Office of State-Federal relations
State Planning Coordinator (Gov.)
-
Source: Rapid Growth From Energy Projects-Ideas for State and Local Action, Department
of Housing and Urban Development Office of Community Planning and Development.
1976, p. 46.
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following is a list of people and organizations contacted in the
preparation of this handbook. In some locations where several people
were contacted, only one is listed.
Clark Binkley: Urban Systems Research and Engineering, Cambridge,
Massachusetts
Larry Bowlby: Planning Director, Calvert County, Maryland
Ellen Brown: Federal Energy Administration, Washington, D.C.
Susan Brown: State Clearing House, Sacramento, California
George Collins: Region VIII, Environmental Protection Agency
Dennis Ducsik: Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Dr. F. Stanley Echols: Nuclear Regulatory Commission/ Rockville,
Maryland
Russell Fitch: Federal Regional Council, Denver, Colorado
Phillip M. Garrett: Atomic Industrial Forum, Washington, D.C.
Polly Garrett: Region VIII, Federal Energy Administration
Jack Gilmore and Keith Moore: Denver Research Institute, Denver,
Colorado
Deni Greene: Pacific Gas and Electric, San Francisco, California
Sue Guenther: National Association of Counties, Washington, D.C.
John Patrick Halligan: Western Colorado Regional Council, Rifle,
Colorado
Richard Hammond: Office of Planning and Research, Sacramento,
California
Holly Hanson: U.S. General Accounting Office, Denver, Colorado
L. J. Hoover, Tom Wolsko, Eric Stenejhem: Energy and Environmental
Systems Division, Argonne National Lab, Argonne, Illinois
Bill Jackson: State of Maryland, Power Plant Siting Program
Nancy Jones and Natalie Lobe: Energy Research and Development
Administration, Washington, D.C.
William Lamont, Jr.: Briscoe, Maphis, Murray and Lamont, Inc., Boulder,
Colorado
Roy Madgwick: Howard Needles Tammen and Bergendoff, Alexandria,
Virginia
Stanley Miller: Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
Dave Mosena, Devon Schneider: American Society of Planning Officials,
Chicago, Illinois
Elizabeth Peele: Oak Ridge National Lab, Tennessee
Paul Phelps, Ken Haven, Ron Ritchard: Biomedical Division, Lawrence
Livermore Lab, Livermore, California
Don Rapp: Western Governor's Regional Energy Policy Office, Denver,
Colorado
Martin Redding: C-b Shell Oil Project, Shell Oil Company, Denver,
Colorado
169
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (Cont'd.)
Gary Simon and Bob Boyd: California State Senator Warren's Office
Lillian Stone: Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
Jeannette Studer: Old West Regional Conmission, Billings, Montana
Michael Wakelin: Bechtel Power Corporation, Norwalk, California
Hodge Wasson: Energy Research and Development Administration,
Washington, D.C.
Jeff Wiegand, Dave Pierson, Richard Mitchell: Imperial County,
California
Carol and Gene Willeke: National Biocentric, Inc., Bismarck, North
Dakota
Allan Lind: Office of Planning and Research, California Coastal Zone
Conservation Commission, San Francisco, California
170
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GLOSSARY
ASPO American Society of Planning Officials
BEA Bureau of Economic Analysis
CB Capital Budget
CP Capital Program
CPC Capital Programming Committee
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
HEW Department of Health, Education and Welfare
HUD Department of Housing and Urban Development
ICMA International City Management Association
1-0 Input-Output
MFOA Municipal Finance Officers Association
NACO National Association of Counties
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act
NTDS National Training and Development Service
OBERS Stands for a joint effort by Office of Business
Economics (OBE), U. S. Department of Commerce, and
the Economic Research Service (ERS), U. S. Department
of Agriculture with assistance from the Forest Service.
These are now incorporated into the Bureau of
Economic Analysis.
OCS Outer Continental Shelf
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SMSA Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area
171
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