THE COLSTRIP, MONTANA
CFPPP
orvallis
nvironmental
esearch
aboratory
z tvv g.w. ggm w i nbia i
CORVALLIS, OR. 97330
Workshop - 76
Summary
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OFFICERS OF THE MONTANA
COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT
PROJECT
Robert A. Lewis, Director and
Co-principal Investigator
Eric M. Preston, Supervisory Ecologist
and Co-principal Investigator
Norman R. Glass, Co-principal Investigator
ADVISORY COUNCIL
Jerrold Dodd
Sharon Eversman
C. C. Gordon
Robert A. Lewis
Eric M. Preston
John E. Taylor
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THE MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP '76
Corvallis, Oregon, November 1-4, 1976
CONTENTS
pg. no.
CONTRIBUTORS ii
INVITED PRESENTATION by J. D. LUDWICK 1
WORK GROUP SUMMARIES
The Scientific Framework of the Project 4
Protocol Development 8
Project Management 13
Project Planning 22
Public Information 28
Field Experiments 36
Modeling 40
Ecosystem Structure and Diversity 43
Biological Estimators of Impafct 47
Remote Sensing 50
Abiotic Functions 55
Animals 61
Lichens 71
Productivity and Biomass Sampling 76
Plant Physiology 78
Ponderosa Pine 31
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CONTRIBUTORS TO WORKSHOP '76
Clyde Bogel
W. J. Kerr Library
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331
503-754-2840
Jerry Bromenshenk
Department of Botany
University of Montana
Missoula, MT 59801
406-243-2671
Lee Callahan
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Ecological Effects Research Division
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS-8-420-4671 or 503-757-4671
John Chilgren
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Terrestrial Ecology Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS-8-420-4667 or 503-757-4667
James Clapp
Institute for Environmental Studies
University of Wisconsin
WARF Building, 610 Walnut
Madison, WI 53706
608-263-4789
Eric Crecelius
Battelle Marine Research Laboratory
Route 5 Box 1000
Sequim, WA 98382
206-683-4151
Jerrold Dodd
Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO 80521
303-491-5571
Sharon Eversman
Department of Biology
Montana State University
Bozeman, MT 59715
406-994-3231 or 994-4548
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Donald Farner, Chairman
Department of Zoology
University of Washington
Seattle, WA 98195
James Gillett
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Terrestrial Ecology Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
Norman R. Glass
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Ecological Effects Research Division ,
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS 8-420-4671 or 503-757-4671
C. C. Gordon
Dept. of Botany
University of Montana
Missoula, MT 59801
406-243-2671
Thomas Gullett
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
Don Hernandez
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Criteria and Assessment Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
Susan Jones
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Terrestrial Ecology Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS 8-420-4727 or 503-757-4727
Daniel Krawzyk
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Laboratory Analytical Support Staff
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS 8-420-4639 or 503-757-4639
Frances Kreitzer
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Terrestrial Ecology Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
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William Lauenroth
Natural Resources Ecology Laboratory
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO 80521
303-491-5571
Jeffrey Lee
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Ecosystems Modeling and Analysis Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS 8-420-4758 or 503-757-4758
John W. Leetham
Natural Resources Ecology Laboratory
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO 80521
303-491-5571
John LeHuray
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
Wayne Leininger
Dept. of Animal and Range Sciences
Montana State University
Bozeman, MT 59715
406-994-3271
Robert A. Lewis
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Terrestrial Ecology Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS 8-420-4836 or 503-757-4836
Bruce Lighthart
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Terrestrial Ecology Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS 8-420-4832 or 503-757-4832
J. D. Ludwick v , c i
Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories
Battelle Boulevard
Richland, WA 99352
Craia McFarlane
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Pollutant Pathways Branch,
P.O. Box 15027
Las Vegas, NV 89114
FTS 8-595-2969
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G. T. McNice
Wave Propagation Laboratory
Nat. Oceanographic and Atmospheric Admin.
Boulder, CO 80302
FTS 8-323-6569
James Miller
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Laboratory Analytical Support Staff
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS 8-420-4726 or 503-757-4726
Bruce Murray
University of Wisconsin
WARF Building, 610 Walnut
Madison, WI 53706
608-263-4789
Gordon Orians
Department of Zoology
University of Washington
Seattle, WA 98195
206-543-1658
Ernest Peterson
Department of Atmospheric Sciences
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331
503-757-4557
Eric Preston
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Terrestrial Ecology Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS 8-420-4636 or 503-757-4636
Karen Randolph
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Public Affairs
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS 8-420-4792 or 503-757-4792
James States
Ecology Consultants Inc.
P.O. Box 2105, 1716 Heath Parkway
Fort Collins, CO 80522
303-493-8878
David Swift
Natural Resources Ecology Laboratory
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO 80521
303-491-5571
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John Taylor
Dept. of Animal and Range Sciences
Montana State University
Bozeman, MT 59715
406-994-3721
Robert Terrell
University of Wisconsin
WARF Building, 610 Walnut
Madison, WI 53706
608-263-4789
Theodore Tibbits
University of Wisconsin
WARF Building, 610 Walnut
Madison, WI 53706
608-263-4789
Bruce Tichenor
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Criteria and Assessment Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
David Tingey
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Terrestrial Ecology Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
FTS 8-420-4621 or 503-757-4621
John Van Sickle
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Ecosystems, Modeling and Analysis Branch
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
Charles Van Valen
N.O.A.A.
Environmental Research Laboratories
Boulder, CO 80302
Daniel Willard
Institute for Environmental Studies
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI 53706
FTS 8-262-1234, ask for 3-4787
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THE COLSTRIP, MONTANA COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT PROJECT
SUMMARY OF AN INVITED PRESENTATION ON
THE QUILLAYUTE MONITORING STATION
by
J. D. Ludwick
An air reference station has been established at Quillayute, WA
(Lat: 47°-561, Long: 124°-34'). on the west coast of North America, to
monitor concentrations of gaseous and particulate pollutants in air
that is relatively unaffected by local or regional sources. A preliminary
study determined Quillayute to be the best of a number of possible sites
for the accomplishment of this objective. Air that reached Quillayute
after a trans-Pacific trajectory should be well mixed, with the influence
of specific sources, or source areas, essentially washed out.
The site is located about 5 km from the ocean at an elevation of 62
meters. The fetch to the westward is unobstructed. An air sampling
stack was constructed at the site through which almost all air sampling
and monitoring is accomplished. It is 32 m above the ground with a
15 cm diameter. An in-line filter housing was designed to fit near the
bottom of the stack for particulate measurements. A high volume pump
(2.25 m3/min) established a linear velocity of 760 m/min across the face
of an IPC filter for high efficiency collection. A "Y" joint located
just upstream of this filter diverted air for other monitoring and
sampling purposes. These are summarized in Table I.
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Simultaneous records of 03 and upper atmospheric source radionuclides
are available for comparison from this station. These have been examined
for similarities that might indicate common atmospheric processes involved
in their transport to Quillayute, and thus that a significant portion of
the 03 being measured is also stratospheric in origin. Important correlations
have been observed between many of these materials. There are also
apparent relationships between changing concentrations and meteorological
parameters. Interesting fluctuations in the ozone levels with incoming
clean air masses may help explain some of the high ozone levels observed
by workers elsewhere. Positive correlations between certain known high
altitude source region particulate radionuclides and ozone on a daily
basis point to the upper level origin of the higher ozone concentrations
observed at this site. This view is reinforced by the more usual negative
correlations observed between many of these particulate levels at Quillayute
and ozone concentrations when monitored continuously.
Ozone concentrations in the clean air environment often exceed
40 ppb for extended periods of time and have been documented at 60 ppb
during periods of downwind movement of upper level air.
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TABLE I
SAMPLING AND MONITORING CAPABILITY
CONTINUOUS MONITORING
TOO ft. Stack
Sensitivity
OJ
•Ozone
•N0o, NO
•CO2
•Methane "
•Total Hydrocarbons
•Condensation Nuclei
STABLE ELEMENTS
•Daily 300 m3 Particulate Samples
X-Ray Fluorescence-Neutron Activation
Gamma-Ray Analysis
RADIONUCLIDES
•Weekly 25.000 m3 Particulate Samples
Radioisotope Identification
PARTICULATE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
•Weekly 40 m3 - 7 Stage Impactor
Radionuclide Analysis
•Weekly 40 m3 - 7 Stage Impactor
Neutron Activation Analysis
DEPOSITION STUDIES
•Wet and Dry Fallout Collector
Special Studies Analysis
1 ppb
1 ppb
50 ppb
5 ppb
5 ppb
<100
100 ft. Stack
(80 cfm)
40 ft. Stack
(600 cfm)
Ground Level
(40 cfm)
100 ft. Stack
(1 cfm)
SPECIAL SAMPLING
•S02 Clean-Air Samples Collected
On-Shore Flow Periods
100 ft. Stack
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THE MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP 76
GUIDELINES FOR THE WORK GROUP ON
THE SCIENTIFIC (HYPOTHETICAL) FRAMEWORK OF THE PROJECT
It is not possible to establish or evaluate team objective unless they
share the same hypothesis! Individual task objectives must be tested
not only against the project objectives, but against a project level
working hypothesis as well.
Provisional Objectives
1. To establish a scientific framework and rationale for the investigation.
2. To develop, if possible, a unifying (biological) hypothesis or set
of related hypotheses that will give the project scientific coherance
and validity as an investigation in its own right.
3. Identify the hypotheses that we are now testing (or have been
testing during the preoperational phase of the study).
1) Are these useful hypotheses?
2) Are they moving us toward the achievement of our mission?
3) What constitutes a valid test of each of these hypotheses?
4. In what areas of our program have we failed to follow sound
scientific or conceptual approaches? What are the remedies?
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5. Most of us agree that a broadly mechanistic or functional
approach is desirable (or indeed, required) in this in-
vestigation. Delineate the real advantages (and need) for
such as well as the disadvantages.
6. What changes in perspective and in "scientific method" are
required if we are to satisfy our mission?
Suggested Products
1. A formal rationale and statement of the working hypothesis
(together with corollary hypotheses), and suggested tests
and application of these.
2. Restatements of this hypothesis for each task and conceptual
models for each task based on this hypothesis.
Products
Methods can be developed to predict, prior to actual expression of
damage, the relationship between pollutant concentrations and bio-
environmental effects.
Assumptions:
1. Air pollutants are the major contributors to damage (defined as
negative changes in the system's component processes).
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2. The source terms can be defined in relationship to power plant
outputs, meteorological and climatologic factors, soil chemistry, energy
inputs, and a mathematical model incorporating these factors.
3. A quantitative inventory of the temporal and spatial components,
with particular focus on annual cycle phenomena of key species, will
reveal sensitive or vulnerable components (systems, processes, species)
responsive to pollutants, if such study were conducted on areas subjected
to known levels of insult.
4. Methods, such as remote sensing, indicator species inventories,
etc., can be integrated in terms of relationships to critical processes
and/or components.
5. The relationships can be described by mathematical models of systems
and processes.
6. Results of laboratory studies of single species subjected to controlled
exposures of pollutants can be related through physiological, biochemical,
or physical mechanisms, to effects observed in field studies under known
pollutant challenge.
7. Parameters of mathematical models of field studies can be obtained
under controlled laboratory conditions.
8. Statistical processes are applicable to analysis of changes observed
in controlled exposure of field plots.
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9. Secondary or alternate stressors (disease, physical factors, mutational,
environmental and other agents) can be discerned as definable interactions and
similarly quantified as modifiers of pollutant relationships.
10. The nature of the relationships of pollutant and effect will be a
function of the character of the exposure set.
11. The impact of a pollutant may involve disposition (temporal or
spatial) other than that derived directly from the source term and is
describable in relation to the source term and base line environmental
factors.
12. Indirect effects can be detected and linked to pollutants by
laboratory experiments and/or correlation of such effects with known
pollution gradients.
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THE COLSTRIP, MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP '76
PROTOCOL DEVELOPMENT WORK GROUP
The goal of this work group was to "lay the basis" for the develop-
ment of a Coal-fired power plant siting protocol. Ue felt it inappropriate,
because of time constraints, to attempt to develop the protocol itself.
The work group developed the following concepts and ideas:
Scope: The protocol for the Colstrip project will be a segment of a
"total" energy facility siting protocol.
This segment should be limited to assessment of the biological
effects of CFPP emissions on terrestrial ecosystems (native
and nonnative) of the Northern Great Plains. It should:
1. be generally applicable to all terrestrial ecosystems of the
region, the Colstrip project providing a specific example of
application.
2. when applied, produce biological effects information useful
in the total siting decision making process.
3. be developed in such a manner that it will interface with com-
plementary protocol segments on socioeconomic, land use, en-
gineering, political, and other aspects of the siting problem
to form a total protocol for CFPP sitings.
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Several assumptions (stated and unstated) are inherent in the above
constraints and should be considered in the development of the "final"
biological effects protocol:
1. Implementation of the protocol should be predictive (i.e., useful
in forecasting future impacts).
2. The data provided by the protocol should be in a form that is use-
ful to the decision makers. Data such as:
-bushels of alfalfa destroyed
-board feet of timber lost
-number of trees damaged
-acres of habitat lost
would provide immediately useful information. Data such as:
species diversity, biomass affected, number of insects per hectare,
distribution of rodents, etc. do not convey information useful to
the non-scientist. The protocol must include a mechanism for
"translating" information into non-technical language.
3. The output of the protocol should be available to decision makers
at all levels (local, regional, state, Federal) in the socio/political
spectrum.
4. The protocol segment should be developed tn cooperation with other re-
»
search groups to provide effective interfaces with other segments
(i.e., socioeconomic, land use, engineering, water use, etc.).
Communication with these "other groups" is important at the forma-
tive stages of the protocol development process.
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5. The protocol should provide for the evaluation of alternatives.
Alternative site locations, facility sites and pollution control
technologies all need to be evaluated.
6. The protocol should be amenable to "step wise" application. The
following temporal pattern should be followed in the decision making
process:
a. Background assessments should be conducted on numerous
sites with limited field data supplemented by existing
1iterature.
b. For a few sites with favorable characteristics, a Selec-
tion Assessment should be conducted, involving a more
rigorous field investigation.
c. For the site selected, a Pre-Construction Assessment should
be conducted, including a complete and comprehensive field
survey.
d. Finally, a long term Operation Assessment should be conducted
to verify impact predictions and determine multi-year ecolo-
gical effects.
7. The bio-effects protocol segment developed for the CFPP (Colstrip)
project whould consist of three "sub-segments" or modules:
a. Experimental Protocol - define data collection requirements
and procedures.
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b. Analytical Protocol - define data handling and synthesis re-
quirements and procedures; recommend physical and biological
modeling activities.
c. Output Protocol - define how bio-effects information should
be presented to the decision makers (i.e., put it in terms
he/she can understand); define how "values" can be placed
on ecosystem effects.
8. The protocol must provide feedback mechanisms, both internally and
externally. Internally, project personnel should be able to assess
outputs and require further information. Externally, decision makers
should be able to acquire additional data or clarification of exist-
ing information; other protocol segments may also need new or im-
proved bio-effects data.
The assumptions, ideas, and concepts are expressed schematically in the
following sketch:
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Biological Effects Segment of CFPP Protocol
Total Siting
Protocol
Bio-Effects
Information
Decision Makers
Synthesis
and
Analysis
Inputs from other
segments of protocol
Background (Historical)
Field
Experimental
Data
Experimental
"Protocol"
Analytical
"Protocol
Output
"Protocol
Decision on Siting
Conceptual model of biological effects segment of CFPP protocol
and its relationship to total siting protocol and the decision
making process.
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THE COLSTRIP, MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP 76
PROJECT MANAGEMENT WORK GROUP
Introduction
Members of this group were not managers on this project so we began with
few project-related preconceptions about how it is being or should be
managed. At the outset, Bob Lewis was asked to provide a basic explanation
of current project organization and an overview of the functions served
by key people in that orginization. In the early rounds the ensuing
discussion, general agreement was reached that by virtue of distances
between project participants, travel restrictions, and the history of
the project there seemed to be an overriding need for forcing the information
exchange and project integration which is critical to achieving the
project mission. With this as a starting point the work group went on
to identify a new organization structure by which these important interactions
could be made to happen. Finally, specific suggestions were given as to
how each structural element in the organization might function so as to
facilitate (drive, manage) the necessary interactions and to resolve
specified problems.
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A. Suggested Project Organization
The following diagram illustrates the organization structure and relationships
between its elements which is perceived by the. work group as providing the
necessary project management framework:
Project
Management
Function
Periodic
Advisory
Review
Function
(Participative
Management
Day to day inte-
gration of all
work into cohesive
whole that meets
overall project
goals
Where the work
gets done-respons-
ible for technical
excellence of pro-
duct
Principal Investigators
Interagency Agreements
Laboratory Support
Project
Integration
Policy Advisory
Group
Representative
of Decision-
Making User Group
Project Technical
Coordinator
Protocol Development
Group
Project Director
Ancillary Administra-
tive Services - such
as bookkeeping, re-
report production
group etc
EPA Management Review
Policy Guidelines
Note: Solid lines represent chain-of-command one way
lines of responsibility; dotted lines represent
coordinative, integrative and information flow
responsibilities. 2-way possible arrowheads
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B. Organization Characteristics
Once the above structural framework had been agreed upon, the
remainder of work group time was spent in elaborating the characteristics
of each structural element, especially with regard to "forcing functions"
and strategies by which the critical flow of information (which makes
the essential difference between separate units doing their own things,
and a cohesion of units meeting the overall goals of the project) can be
made to happen. In essence the function of good project management is
to see that manpower is distributed among the separate tasks in a way
that meets these overall goals. The following is a summary of work
group thinking about characteristics of each structural element and
related functions which could help to bring this about.
1. Project Director - This is where the day to day decision
making must occur. Although the effectiveness of his decisions
may be reviewed by upper management, he must have the authority
to make and act upon his decisions prior to that review.
Thus, the buck stops on the Project Director's desk and this is
perceived by all others involved in the project. It will be
critical to his function that he participate in the two advisory
groups in their periodic meetings and that he be involved in
day to day functions to maximum extent possible through daily
contacts with his technical coordinator and project integration
group.
2. Project Technical Coordinator - This could be one or more individuals
having clearly defined (delegated) responsibilities for field
activities and project administration. This "box" and the project
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Director should work with the other groups, especially the
integration group and the investigation team, in such a way
they can provide administrative "backup" for each other. A
problem noted by several grantees is that on a number of
occasions they have been unable to contact either for extended
periods of time, discouraging future attempts. It is recommended
that a clear understanding be established as to who in the
Corvallis office is available to answer questions or to
initiate the question answering process at all times. The
perception must be created on the part of investigators that
any and every call by them to the Corvallis office will initiate
the feedback they need in a timely fashion. (Make sure this
is fully understood by the people answering telephone!)
Project Integration - This is the most critical and urgently
needed "box" identified by the work group. There was strong
feelings that it should be separate from management but highly
interactive with management. The "box" should be manned by
system analysts or modelers who are familiar with information
processing and exactly what it takes to identify and effectuate
the necessary interactions. At the same time there was concurrence
in the group that a special type of modeler was needed, one
who would see his fundamental role as integration by explicit
mathematical and conceptual simulation models which weave the
tapestry of hypotheses to be tested and interactions to be
performed in meeting project goals. He should see his function
as one of "facilitation" of the work of technical and management
teams toward these goals rather than one of creating a grandiose
mathematical model which would serve to "direct" the whole project.
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It was pointed out that current hiring ceilings and travel
restrictions may prevent the most straight forward solution to
this "lack of integration" problem—that of hiring into EPA.
The work group respectively suggests a single solution to both
problems. Contract the work out to a highly competent individual or
group (essentially providing a full-time project integration
function) with a liberal allowance made for travel. This
would enable the person to perform part of his integration
function as a "circuit rider" visiting all grantees and checking
to see that necessary interactions are occuring. If not, he
takes steps to initiate them, under authority (and by whatever
process) delegated from project management.
Certain other critical integration functions are suggested for
the integration group. It should most effectively take
charge of project data received from all groups, seeing to it
that the data are ultimately compiled in a single format that
is compatible with the needs of all potential users of their
data. Similarly this group could take responsibility for the
literature-derived data base, periodically seeing that it is
updated and that the updates are communicated to other project
participants. Particularly, this group should take responsibility
to see that if one investigator identifies a new reference
potentially of use to another investigator, it is brougtit to
the other investigators' attention.
4. Policy Advisory Group - Another consensus of the project
management work group was that the grantees, as the "experts"
on the project should have considerable involvement in the
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periodic overall technical review and revision necessary to
the success of this kind of basic research project. Thus it
is recommended that at least quarterly, and more frequently as
needed, some of the Principal Investigators should meet with
project managers in a policy review forum. This is necessary
to establish and maintain the technical cohesion of the project
in a "participative management" framework.
5. Protocol Development Group - Just as it was deemed necessary
to establish a periodic internal review, it is also recommended
that periodically a designated group look outward - toward the
ultimate application of the impact assessment protocol being
developed. A major concern expressed by all members of the
work group is that the project is not adequately provided with
input from the potential users of the protocol and the political
decision-making framework within which the protocol must be
applied. Unless steps are taken to ensure that these external
entities are aware of and prepared to use the scientific
protocol being developed by the project, the entire effort
could come to essentially nothing. Therefore it is recommended
that the protocol development group interact with and even
include (1) representatives from appropriate state and federal
regulatory agencies, (2) industry (and their consultants)
which would be the eventual users of the protocol, (3) the
general public and (4) environmentalists (who will find far
less to object to in the protocol if they have been involved
in its development).
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C. Forcing Functions
The above discussion deals mostly with a structural framework for
project organization and characteristics of important structural components.
The motive forces which will cause that structure to function effectively
in bringing about project goals is equally important. The following is
a brief discussion of some "forcing functions" which were considered.
1. Project Management - Certainly project management is one of
the driving forces which needs to be considered. One critical
problem identified by the group is an apparent current lack of
scheduled information exchanges. It is assumed that a number
of investigatory tasks are best performed only with input from
separate investigation teams. It is important then, that
project management initiate and monitor procedures whereby the
necessary information exchanges are identified and will occur
on a timely basis. For the above-defined organization structure
the scenario might be something like:
a. Management and integration group undertakes a total
project overview, identifying important information
exchanges,
b. Management generates a matrix of information needs and
interactions which must occur (to whom?, from whom?),
c. Matrix is communicated to grantees.who are asked, "Given
that you need to include information from these groups to
complete your part of the project, specifically what
information do you need, in what format, and in what time
frame?" (There may be several iterations of this step),
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d. Management puts together a final critical path schedule
for required information exchanges to be sent to principal
investigators (could call this an interaction user's
document or IUD - for the prevention of failures to
communicate). Somewhere in this process, agreement needs
to be established on the data format for communication,
to facilitate the use of the data by others as well as to
insure that they get what they need,
e. Management establishes feedback mechanisms by which any
change in schedule is communicated to management, which
in turn evaluates how it will affect the schedules of
others and communicates this to them. Although this is a
management function, much of it can be delegated to the
"interaction group."
Another identified problem is that annual reports are too
outdated if they are to serve the function of communicating
"where we are now" to project participants and other interested
parties. It is suggested that some group, possibly under
supervision of the Technical Coordinator, undertake to streamline
this process. For example, formats should be established and
given to investigators before they write their portions of
the report. Guidelines should include ways to save space
better organizing tables, etc.
2. Integration group - Considerable motive force toward project
objectives will result from a project overview and the creation
of simulation models by the integration group. It is through
this group that the necessary feedback loops between management
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and investigators are assumed to function. This need is
critical and must be instituted before next field season.
3. Grant Proposals - One of the most effective ways of "arranging
for" necessary information exchanges will be to ask for their
inclusion in the new proposals which, if approved, will become
the new contractual agreements. Thus, all parties agree to
such interactions at the outset and make specific arrangements
to see that they occur.
4. Policy Advisory Group - A side benefit to participative management,
in addition to obvious benefits to the technical quality of
the work, will be a kind of group commitment (and if need be -
peer pressure) to see that all parties hold up their end of
the project so that the overall outcome is of maximum benefit
to all.
5. United we stand, divided ... It is critical that all project
participants understand and believe that their own self-
interest is best served, not by attainment of their goals
alone, but by achievement of the overall project goals. A
common sense of mission is a critical element in achieving
this.
21
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THE MONTANA COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT PROJECT
/ WORKSHOP 76
PROJECT PLANNING WORK GROUP
Most of the initial discussion centered around the overall project
mission, the development of the protocol and its implications for proposed
users. It was felt essential that the relative importance of siting
criteria and monitoring criteria must be pegged down and understood.
It was suggested that socio-economic impacts may overpower biological
concerns. Thus we, as biologists, have to develop a position that not
only relates to human needs and perceptions but also is ecologically
sound. Decisions'about energy development must optimize the balance
between these two points of view.
The best approach for us to take is to see that our research is
absolutely sound (i.e., high quality research) and that it relates to
the concerns of the people who are involved with energy development.
This puts a great deal of importance on the OVERALL CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK of the project (q.v.). It is essential that we identify the
interrelationships of contributing processes, especially cause-and-
effect and threshold indicators. It also is essential that we follow
through to subsequent economically important impacts. Obviously important
(to laymen) factors must be stressed throughout. For example, lichen
damage, although very interesting from a scientific viewpoint, is not
likely to greatly disturb a country planning committee. But, if lichen
damage is a reliable precursor of decreased grassland productivity, then
it is a relevant input to decision-making.
22
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One of the project goals should be a mix of basic ecological and
physiological studies to explain wh^ things are happening, with related
practical, demonstrative studies showing what is happening, and why it
is significant to local biological and ecological systems. The optimum
mix will be developed only by concentrating on project goals in terms of
the overall conceptual framework. It is critical that we put bounds on
the system and identify critical elements, including those we have not
yet addressed. A system of assigning priorities to research is crucial.
Decisions must take into account things which have worked and things
which have not. Also, there should be a balance between administrative
criteria and scientific criteria in project direction with scientific
predominating.
We feel strongly that the protocol development should be under way
immediately. This should be growing as fast as the supporting data base
will allow. We recognize that it will take much input from many people
to do this properly. We recommend that a new subproject be considered
which is specifically directed at protocol development. Further, there
should be "strike teams" or miniconferences among certain principal
investigators as the need arises. This should be programmed into future
project budgets. Also, we need to meet with representatives of state
and local governments, industry, and environmental groups to find out
what questions they are asking or will ask as future energy developments
are proposed.
We recognize that there will be three main products of the Montana
CFPP project: The siting protocol, the ZAPS technique, and a set of
baseline data for the Colstrip development. Each of these is important,
but in some ways they will have to be considered separately.
23
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The protocol is the most sophisticated, and ostensibly the most
broadly applicable of the products. It will require validation on a
fairly broad scale before its allowable degree of extrapolation will be
known. To expand its utility it should include forest and cropland
ecosystems; hence these should be added to the CFPP data base.
The ZAPS may become a standard approach to pilot studies of air
pollution in natural systems. Thus, it must be very carefully documented
throughout. Details of its construction and operation probably will be
ready for the technical literature before those of any other program
element. This should be a high priority activity.
The baseline data for the Col strip development will be generated by
this project as a fringe benefit of the protocol development. There are
other data gathering activities in the area, and it is important that
the CFPP data be compatible with them. Further, CFPP data must be
available to interested planning personnel. Perhaps the most important
aspect of this information is how well it is communicated to potential
asers.
The remainder of our discussion was devoted to outlining the elements
of the biological components of the project which might enter the simulation
model. We attempted to identify important system components, and then
make some comments about the status of each.
The framework We proposed, while not complete, is shown below. It
is a structure of system elements rather than experimental approaches,
and includes both existing and proposed areas of study.
24
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I. The Abiota
temperature, air and soil
humidity
wind
sulfur dioxide concentration
NOx
HCO
pUrt iculates
nuclei
solar radiation
precipitation
soil moisture
These data are being gathered by several groups, including a num-
ber outside of the project. There is no overall coordination, and there
are some overlaps and some gaps. We must use vegetation indicators as
much as possible, recognizing that independent variables become filtered
in becoming response variables. In particular, we need to know; (a) what
is ambient, (b) what is taken up by the system, (c) what are the effects.
II. A. Autotrophs Biota
I
1. Structure
Population dynamics
interseasonal changes at individual and organismic levels
Diversity
Phenology
Live vs. dead roots
2. Function
Productivity
Pathology
Phenology
Physiology
respiration
metabolic status
chemical analyses
photosynthesis
uptake and translocation of sulfur
We need some more work in these areas, especially in the physiology
of pollution. Research topics which would probably be fruitful include
photosynthesis, respiration, water relations, carbon budgets, nutrient
uptake, changes in protein pools and consequent changes in resistance
to stresses (drought, S02» winter) and production.
25
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III. Heterotrophs
Small mammals
population studies
diversity
dispersion
density
age structure
physiology
endocrinology
reproductive biology
anatomy
histology
pathology
diets
Birds
same as above
Livestock
diets
digestibility of nutrients
forage availability and utilization
forage palatability and preference
Native ruminants
histology and pathology
We need more emphasis on large herbivores, especially livestock,
since these are the important economic organisms of the area.
Arthropods
Above-ground
bees
population dynamics
distribution
physiology
pathology
other "beneficial" and "detrimental" forms
difficult to study, but of lay interest
ground beetles
numbers, kinds, changes, physiology
Below-ground (soil) macro- and microarthropods
It would be Interesting to study microflora and mlcrofauna in re
latlon to decomposition cycles.
26
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Nematodes
characterization of roles; changes due to pollution.
Summary
In reviewing our proposals for additional research it is clear
that physiological studies are of high priority. Insect investigations
probably should be beefed up, but there are problems in doing so (population
diversities, taxonomic difficulties, sampling procedures, etc.). Perhaps
caged insects for feeding and pathology studies would work out. Another
serious problem is the selection of the species to be studied. It may
be difficult to interpret data from artificially maintained, non-mobile
animals. One or two species are about all that could be handled. Also,
tissue banks should be maintained.
27
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THE MONTANA COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP '76
PUBLIC EDUCATION AND INFORMATION WORK GROUP
OBJECTIVE
To define the public education and information philosophy, identify
tasks, and recommend procedures for implementing a public information
component of CERL's Montana Coal-Fired Power Plant Project (CFPP). That
component will reflect the need for a two-way information flow and will
be consistent with the present information policies of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agnecy and the Coryallis Environmental Research Laboratory.
Goals
To inform and prepare state and local governments, utilities, other
identified groups, and the general public of the need to develop a
siting protocol for coal-fired power plants on western grasslands,
and
To ensure that the protocol development proceeds fully cognizant of
the perceived needs of the above noted groups.
PURPOSE OF TASK GROUP
To prepare an information plan for the CFPP that meets the needs of the
project team on several desired levels. Although prepared specifically
for the CFPP, the plan should provide a protocol which, with appropriate
modifications, would have application in similar situations where coal-
fired power plant siting decisions must be made.
28
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The plan should reflect the reality that the flow of information must be
a two-way process, i.e., not just from the prganization or agency to the
various publics, but also from the public back to the organization. To
achieve this, it is necessary to build an adequate confidence level on
the part of the public. They must feel confident that their concerns
are being given adequate consideration in the siting process. In any
siting protocol, this confidence building and information providing
process must begin early enough to ensure that the various publics
understand the process and the issues involved.
All members of the CFPP team need to understand and be able to communicate
the overall project "message" (objectives, components, procedures for
reaching the objective) and the interrelationships among the various
components. Also, it must be recognized that there are "personal messages"
which relate to the individual's goals and needs. These valid personal
messages should be complementary to the project message and not in
conflict with the project goals.
PHILOSOPHY
An effective public education and information program for the CFPP must
be based on the need to communicate accurate, timely information about
the project to various clearly identified groups and individuals who
have an interest or concern about the purpose and the progress of the
project.
The communication goals must be well defined by determining answers to
the questions: Who are we trying to reach? Why are we trying to reach
\
them? What is our message. What are the obstacles or constraints
29
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we must deal with in trying to reach the audience? What specific outcomes
or products do we need to reach the desired audience?
The success of the information component is dependent upon the effective
performance of all principals. Professional standards must be of the
highest quality. A detrimental effect will result if faulty or inadequate
data are communicated.
IDENTIFIED GROUPS WHO MAY HAVE A NEED FOR CFPP INFORMATION
(list not intended to be all-inclusive)
Universities (selected departments)
Regulatory agencies, state and federal--especially in the western energy
development areas
Consulting firms and agencies
Environmental groups
Power industries
Science teachers
Country Commissioners, land use planning committees
Special interest groups—League of Women Voters, Cattleman's associations,
etc.
General public
There is a need to build a mailing list of individuals and groups who
wish to be informed of events and progress of the CFPP. A suggested
mechanism to establish this list would be to send out a general information
announcement summarizing the present status of the CFPP and provide a
return card so interested recipients could be included on a standard
mailing list.
When providing information to a specific group, it should be tailored to
meet the needs and interests of that group. The information must contain
adequate details and be high quality. In the case of some specialists
and consultants the information must be the best technical, most current
information available. Frequently these individuals are making recommedations
or giving advice related to energy development projects and their information
base may be limited.
30
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The CFPP is expanding that data base and project leadership needs to
make sure the findings are disseminated to those who need it.
IDENTIFIED INFORMATION NEEDS
There is a need to:
- nurture/stimulate the scientist to scientist exchange. It is
important to interpret the data and get the information out
to others in the project.
- gain understanding that action and implementation does not happen
at the state or federal level. The local scene is where decisions are
implemented. Project personnel need to understand the decision-making
process at the local level and try to use the mechanism of working
from the grass roots up through state agencies.
- ensure that the study objectives, progress and findings are communicated
to state agencies on a regular basis in a manner that is clearly
understood. Personal contact is effective but should be backed up with
well-written progress (or other typei) reports. It's a tough interface
between state, federal, and local levels on a project such as the CFPP;
however, it must not be neglected.
- consider the -fact that quarterly reports required from team personnel
do not coincide with the working situation. Reports must be current
to be useful. Several work group members recommended semi-annual
reports due in January and June. They felt these reports would be more
meaningful since there would be more time to prepare them. The January
report would indicate results of data analysis from the past season and
plans for the coming season of field work.
31
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- find out specific data needs of special groups and fill the communi-
cation gap where possible. Find out what studies have been done
and relate the studies to each other.
- be prepared to follow up public demands for more information. When
information is disseminated to various groups and/or the general
public, additional questions and requests for specifics will result.
Project leadership must be prepared to meet these demands.
SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS
(no priority has been established for the following items)
- Work group members felt the need for a formal communication network
among team members, not too structured but one that functions ef-
ficiently and holds official status. A newsletter is suggested as
one possible method; others should be developed.
Newsletter suggestions
Some newsletter should have a single theme; others could cover
several topics. These newsletters should be prepared in a lan-
guage that can be easily understood by persons of all disciplines.
Include notes of personnel (human interest—who's doing what,
personalize newsletter.)
- Regular distribution of abstracts of each investigator's work
separate from the newsletter. These must be current and distri-
buted rapidly.
32
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- More meetings that include all project personnel.
- Prepare a looseleaf notebook for each team member that can be up-
dated easily. Inserts can be sent out to keep project personnel
current—schedule of events, dates, status of various projects,
series of fact sheets. All pertinent information provided to pro-
ject leaders should be synthesized and made available to other
team members. All project personnel should have the same level
of understanding of the CFPP that the leaders have.
- A clipping file should be maintained and circulated among team members.
- Project investigators and team members need to develop a working
relationship with organizations that have an established communi-
cation network with specific groups, i.e., county extension ser-
vices, soil and water conservation boards, regional planning
agencies, etc.
- An important contribution would be for EPA, in cooperation with pro-
ject personnel, to compile a list of related projects under way in
the CFPP area, with names of contact persons, project goals, etc.
- Divise some way to explain the overall picture of the related
activities in the area and relate the CFPP to the total picture.
Develop attractive maps, pverlays, juxtapose data so it can be
interpreted within a meaningful framework. Show resources, trends,
interrelationships. Provide hard data to people who need it.
33
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- Prepare a short, attractive lay level publication that explains
the CFPP and shows the interrelationships of what is going on in
the area (in terms of energy-related activities).
- Develop a media and information sharing exchange. Team members
could provide a list (perhaps samples) of information tools they
have available to share, loan, copy, etc.
- Prepare news releases on research activities and/or events of "key
actors". Project personnel need to be alert to "news" in their
fields and let the project leadership know so appropriate infor-
mation can be developed and released. Also, sometimes it is
appropriate to filter news through existing organizations. This
can help legitimize the project in the eyes of local people and
develop cooperation where needed.
- Project personnel should prepare lists of newspapers, key persons,
organizations, etc. to whom CFPP information should be made available.
- Update a slide set for use of principal investigators and team
members. Individuals should contribute slides and narrative from
their specific areas to be combined into a concise presentation
which can be used as the core of specialized presentations.
- There was no consensus on the value of exhibits. Work group mem-
bers expressed concern on the maintenance, distribution, schedul-
ing, etc., of managing exhibits. However, existing signs should
be examined to make sure they communicate the desired message
effectively. Also, further study should be given to the need for
34
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small, portable, low-maintenance displays.
Preparation of the "road show" was recommended. This would be a
presentation on the CFPP which could tie in with meetings or
workshops of, existing groups. For example, a program with ex-
hibits and handouts could be developed to use for county and regional
extension meetings, Montana Energy Advisory Council meetings, etc.
It would be important to identify contact persons and present
balanced, objective information. Use these opportunities to
"humanize" the project and let local people become acquainted
with workers operating in the area.
FOLLOW-UP
Members of the Public Education and Information Work Group recommended
that project leadership review the needs and recommendations presented
in this summary and determine priorities and specific actions to be
taken in terms of the available resources and expertise.
35
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THE COLSTRIP, MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP '76
FIELD EXPERIMENTS WORK GROUP
This group was requested to review the field experimental system with
respect to performance of the physical system and design and conduct of
the field experiments.
*
The single most important problem identified by the work group is
the turn-around time for ZAPS SO2 data. This should be reduced to about
a week, and a data summary should be disseminated to all Pi's and other
interested persons. A proposed format includes:
Daily: Maximum 1 hr and 3 hr peaks and times of day; geometric
and arithmetic means.
Weekly: G.M. Vs. time of day; cumulative G.M. and S.G.D. for 8
min, 1 hr, and 3 hr averages.
Biweekly: same as weekly
Monthly: G.M. and S.G.D. for 8 min, 1 hr, and 3 hr averages.
One suggested solution to the turn-around time problem is to use
data loggers which might be made available to the project. If two data
loggers are available, and if they can be operated reliably under field
conditions, this would provide the shortest turn-around time. A second
36
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suggestion is to have the SO2 data manually reduced and recorded on a
daily basis. It is also recommended that the met-data be summarized and
disseminated on a weekly basis.
Additional mapping of SO^ concentrations was recommended, especially
near the delivery lines and outside the plots. It is recommended strongly
that a S02 analyzer and time-share unit be dedicated to this task next
season. This analyzer would also serve as a back-up instrument. Inclusion
of ZAPS in the quality assurance round-robin is necessary.
The group generally agreed that the SC^ concentrations on the plots
should be kept at the present levels and that no modifications ought to
be made because 1) up to two years data has been taken with the present
configuration; 2) some biological effects have already been noted, such
as color differences between plots, differences in respiration, damage
to lichens, and shifts in mammal, insect and nematode populations; 3)
the existing browned-out areas under the pipes are not extensive enough
to invalidate existing experiments. In fact the SO2 gradients implied
by these areas offer valuable research opportunities; 4) information on
the responses of vegetation to somewhat higher concentrations could be
obtained by other means, such as chamber studies.
Lack of grazing on the ZAPS plots was not considered a serious
problem, at least on the time scale of this experiment, since the area
had not been overgrazed. It was suggested, however, that comparisons be
made with areas outside the exclosure.
37
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Determination of the cause of the observed differences in plot
colors and in color-infrared signatures was identified as an important
experimental objective. Suggested hypotheses and research approaches
include:
1. Changes in chlorophyll content—chlorophyll extractions,
optical measurements on leaves.
2. Differences in water stress, perhaps caused by S02 - stomate
interactions - plant water potential measurements; leaf respiration and
transpiration measurements.
3. Differences in litter quality or quantity—chemical analysis
of litter; optical measurements on litter; continuation of measurement
of litter standing crop.
4. Merging of browned-out areas—considered unlikely by most, but
determinable by microdensitometric measurements on photographs, and other
techniques.
5. Differences in SOg reflectivity—considered unlikely since
effects were observed when no SO2 was present.
6. Sulfur fertilization by S02 - considered unlikely since the
soil contains large amounts of gypsum.
38
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Expansion or initiation of studies of various inter-specific interactions
was recommended. These included (1) characterization of phytophagous
insect populations; (2) initiation of Peromyscus and Microtus feeding
trials; (3) expansion of nematode studies to study more closely the
relation between changes in root exudate and observed changes in phytophagous
nematode populations; (4) initiation of research on the important topics
of mychorrizal interactions and symbiotic N-fixation, especially as
affected by changes in root exudate.
It was suggested that more use could be made of areas outside the
ZAPS plots but inside the exclosures, especially areas which are frequently
exposed to SC^. This might include small area exposures, irrigation of
small areas between plots, and extension of a line (i.e., teflon tubing)
to the vicinity of the beehives.
It was generally agreed that ZAPS III would be a very valuable
addition if the site or exposures are not like those of ZAPS I or II.
Suggested differences included (1) a different type of grassland community;
(2) a different climatic regime (i.e., moisture, temperature); (3) an
additional pollutant, such as NC^; (4) different exposures of Sf^.
These differences would increase the generality of the ZAPS data. For
example, the current sites are relatively low in warm weather grasses,
even though these are important over a large areas of the Northern Great
Plains. The question of SO2 - NOg synergisms is quite important, as
these might greatly alter the pattern of stress response. The addition
of NO2 would require some redevelopment of thersystem, and would require
the longest lead time.
39
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THE COLSTRIP, MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP 76
MODELING WORK GROUP
The modeling work group was asked to produce:
a. a statement of the values and role of modeling activities
within the CFPP project.
b. a list of questions that should be answered by project
output.
c. recommendations for numbers, kind and gross structure of
model to address questions and the subsets of questions
that which each is to address.
d. plans for implementing effective modeling with the
project.
Five of the six participants in this work group had no formal
association with the CFPP project. While this precluded project related
preconceptions of the role modeling should play in the project, it
hindered progress in identifying specific project needs. The material
presented here is limited to an overview of the role modeling could play
as seen by individuals with substantial experience either as modelers or
from association with other large research projects.
Two important roles for modeling were identified and discussed.
First, it may be used to organize hypotheses into a coherent conceptual
framework that will serve to focus research activities and establish
research priorities. Secondly, predictive models will probably be
important to the power plant siting protocol to be produced by this
project.
40
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No list of specific questions to be addressed by project output was
produced. We agreed that such a list would have to be produced through
the interaction of modelers and potential model users—presumably environ-
mental policy makers. Though models likely to come from present research
efforts will provide output in terms of ecological impact (effects on
primary and secondary production, temporal dynamics of system's functions,
etc.), these outputs must ultimately be expressed in socioeconomic
terms (esthetics economic impact, cultural impact, etc.) in order to be
useful to policy makers. In order to gain wide use assumptions incorpo-
rated in models should be readily apparent, their consequences clearly
understandable, and predictions should have clearly stated confidence
limits.
Statistically based models are likely to gain wide usage because
they often satisfy the above criteria. However, such models are likely
to be site specific because no rigorous understanding of underlying
mechanisms is incorporated. Mechanistic models would be more transferable
from site to site, but would be more complex, would usually require
large data inputs to generate prediction, would be difficult to validate,
and would probably require a lengthy period to elaborate.
It was recommended that an individual or core of individuals be
given the specific responsibility for providing modeling support to the
CFPP project and to project components. This (these) individual(s)
should be given sufficient funding for travel to permit regular direct
interaction with principal investigators and would be responsible for
maintaining an integrated modeling effort.
41
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It was suggested that a mini-workshop be convened in the near
future for principal investigators and modelers to define specific needs
of the CFPP project and of project components. Activities at the work-
shop might include:
a. identification of specific sets of questions that lend
themselves to analysis and solution through modeling.
b. discussion of alternative forms that models addressing
these questions might take (Box and arrow conceptualiza-
tions).
c. development of a conceptual model of the sulfur cycle in
the grassland ecosystem.
42
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THE COLSTRIP, MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP 76
ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE & DIVERSITY
This group was requested to:
1. define relationships between grassland diversity measures
biomass and/or productivity (gross and net) at primary
and higher trophic levels.
2. define relationships between diversity within other taxa
and/or within other trophic units and productivity of the
range resource.
a. how is range productivity related to that of primary
consumer diversity?
b. how is range productivity in the Colstrip area related
to avian diveristy?
3. resolve the 3 grassland phenology codes now in use into
one code acceptable to all. If this is not possible, justify
maintenance of more than one code and suggest ways to inte-
grate the phenology data in these different codes.
4. discuss the effects of S02 fumigation on the relationships
defined in 1 & 2 above.
5. discuss the effects of S0? fumigation on plant phenological
development and its relationship to measures employed in 1,
2, 3 above.
6. discuss links in ecosystem energy flow, nutrient cycles, and
carbon cycle that are likely to be particularly sensitive to
air pollution.
Initial efforts were directed to describing functional attributes
of ecological systems, both intra- and inter-trophic level. This was
necessary because of the confusion with which structural and functional
aspects of ecosystems have been discussed by project participants in
43
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the past. We identified the following as the most obvious structural
attributes:
1. Trophic pyramids of both numbers of organisms and biomass
(including heiqht and depth stratification)
\ ^Secondary
\ /er/iarcj consumers
\ fti/narij consumers
\ " Pro
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We next addressed ourselves to the specific problems relating to
the project . An idea that was expressed early was that it was impor-
tant now to pull together all of the information currently available
from the project into a picture of ecosystem structure. This was
generally agreed upon by the group members and will be discussed later
with respect to a data analysis workshop to be held at Colorado State
University.
A discussion of the relationship between diversity (H') and
productivity (ANP) yielded no conclusive results. The following
general relation was extracted from the biomass data from ZAPS I in
1975.
A similar relationship was found with the biomass diversity data
for both ZAPS I and II in 1976 but the productivity data are not yet
available. Relationships between diversity based upon density and
canopy coverage and biomass and productivity were discussed and al-
though most members felt they were definitely related, no theoretical
relationship was proposed.
AN P
SOz -»¦
45
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Provisional objective three was resolved by proposing that the
three investigators consult and decide upon a general phenological
classification: this was acceptable to the three groups involved and
will be agreed upon and reported to the project director before 1 April,
1977 field session.
Committee Recommendations
Committee members were in agreement that a major effort should
be stated immediately to assemble all of the current information on
the structure of our grassland ecosystem. A data analysis workshop
was proposed to be held at Colorado State University in December to
begin work on the primary producer data. The expected output of this
workshop in addition to defining the structure of primary producers
includes detailed examination of the utility of various diversity
measurements as indicators of changes in ecosystem function. A new
diversity measurement that was dicusssed involves assessing color
diversity from infra-red aerial photographs with a densitometer. The
remote sensing group indicated that those data would be available for
the workshop.
46
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THE COLSTRIP, MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP 76
BIOLOGICAL ESTIMATORS OF IMPACT WORK GROUP
Provisional Objectives
1. Identify methods for qualitative evaluation of pollution effects.
2. Identify suitable criteria for damage to the environment.
3. Propose criteria necessary for the establishment of a biological
effects monitoring system. Identify problems and propose an operational
scheme for establishing such a network.
4. On the basis of field and experimental evidence, including what is
known regarding the responses of grasslands to stress, what are the
specific (direct) effects of AP which might be expected in SE Montana.
5. If it is possible at this time, specify the (grassland) ecosystem
components which have differing risks of pollution susceptibility? What
kinds of further information are needed?
6. Identify appropriate methods and systems for detecting low levels
of pollution from CFPP in SE Montana.
7. Define an approach to obtaining quantitative relationships between
SO
2 exposure and lichen condition.
47
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Product
1. Methods for qualitative evaluation of pollution effects.
a. Visual effects would include chlorosis and necrosis on plant
tissues, and internal structure changes.
b. On a larger scale, aerial photography may be able to document changes
community species composition.
2. Suitable criteria for damage to environment.
a. Long-range criteria include productivity changes and diversity
changes (in percentage cover or species richness) because of
chronic, low-level, non-lethal, accumulative effects of S02
stress.
b. Shorter-term damage effects may be best observed in physiological,
anatomical, and histological studies of individual species, e.g.,
lichens and Ponderosa pine needles.
c. The effect on accumulators, e.g., honeybees, is not yet known.
3. Criteria necessary for biological effects monitoring system.
a. Susceptibility and sensitivity to S02 must be identified,
apparently on a process level, since population and community
changes are more suitable.
b. The effects must be identifiable: e.g., material change (protein
to cellulose change that reduces value to consumer), or leaf
damage tht would lower resistance to pathogenic insects, or tissue
and cellular changes (leaking of nutrients).
c. The effects must be transferable; if a process is reduced measurably
and dramatically in key species at low stress level in a short period
of time, will it occur eventually in economically important species
in the area.
48
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Effects of pollution in southeast Montana
a. One of the purposes of the ZAPS experiments is to discover
which processes need intensive study.
b. Chronic sulfur stress on individuals may lead to less resistance
to water stress, grazing, trampling, and pathogens.
The ZAPS results indicate that lichens are susceptible organisms and
1976 observations indicate that Ponderosa pine needles are sensitive.
Perhaps more organisms are susceptible, but this has not yet shown up
on an organismal, population, or community level. Native grasses appear
to be fairly resistant, but more information is needed at the sub-organismal
level.
Further information is needed concerning soil microbes, water relations,
and micrometeorological conditions.
It is important to collect baseline population and community information,
but the anatomy, histology, and physiological processes of the organisms
must be examined also. Short-range effects are more likely to be dis-
covered at low organizational levels.
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THE MONTANA COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP 76
REMOTE SENSING WORK GROUP
The projected role of remote sensing in the project protocol is
essentially threefold: a) Remote sensing can aid in the fast survey of
large areas so that representative samples can be selected for consideration
as study of development sites; b) RS can aid in gathering pre-treatment
data aginst which to measure any changes resulting from energy development
activities; and c) RS can (should) be an integral part of the long-term
monitoring program after power plant construction. Each of these
functions requires a little different approach in terms of photographic
processes, image types, scales, frequency of coverage, and interpretation
of the results. The project protocol arising from the CFPP Project must
recognize these differences, which should be carefully spelled out in
the final report.
In discussions conducted among various groups and individuals at
the workshop it was clear that there is a general recognition among
project workers that remote sensing offers many important advantages in
this research. In some cases this probably is an intuitive feeling
rather than a judgement based on experience. Nevertheless, it seems
that this is a high priority activity and it needs to be made more
available and intelligible to all program elements.
The ability of aerial photography to distinguish ground level
treatment differences, particularly those associated with the levels of
sulfur dioxide fumigation on the ZAPS plots, has been shown repeatedly.
The fact that concurrent ground samples of biomass and diversity have
not shown high correlation with these visual indications suggests that
the organism/population/ community levels of integration are not sufficiently
50
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sensitive to show relatively slight treatment responses. It appears
that the ground studies should be expanded to include studies at the
cellular and tissue levels, since these levels are likely to first
reveal changes in factors affecting plant reflectance. Some of the
studies suggested in this connection are:
plant tissue observations, esp. pathological signs
photosynthetic activity
soils moisture studies related to water potential
of plant tissues
yields over long time periods
diversity over long time periods
The visual indications from remote sensing need to be quantified so
that a reliable combination of aerial and ground monitoring can be
developed. This will require more sophisticated photographic analysis
than has been used previously. Such procedures as density analysis,
color enhancement, and reflectance ratioing should be evaluated. The
project should obtain a color densitometer for first-line photoanalysis.
Further, the contract studies being conducted by Calspan Corporation
must be followed closely. An emissivity meter might also prove useful.
Improved color control on the photographic images must also be
obtained. A density step-wedge should be exposed onto all film before
processing. This will allow calibration of gray-scale and color differences
which may result from factors not associated with pollution stresses.
EPA Las Vegas is working on a plant fluorescence technique which
might be applicable to our work. This is an airborne system that uses
very narrow spectral ranges to detect slight metabolic anomalies. It is
hoped that this system might be used over the ZAPS sites next summer.
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There was some discussion of non-photographic and specialized
photographic systems such as multispectral scanners, thermal scanners,
radar, microwave, etc. With the exception of the fluoresence system
mentioned above it was our consensus that none of these techniques would
offer large advantages over conventional photographic systems, especially
in view of the proposed users of the protocol. Therefore, we will
continue to emphasize photographic approaches.
The remote sensing activities of the project are vested in two
related but separate operations. The first is EPA's Environemtal
Photographic Interpretation Center (EPIC) in Warrenton, Virginia. This
group has acquired and duplicated much existing photography originally
obtained by various federal agencies. EPIC also has contracted with
NASA and other sources for original imagery of the study areas. All of
this photography is in standard 9 x 9-inch format, mostly color infrared,
flown at high elevations and at fairly small scales. EPIC has used this
photography to prepare various secondary products such as land use maps,
display materials, and copies of prints and transparencies for various
program needs. EPIC also has contracted with Calspan Corporation for a
study of that company's patented image reflectance ratio process. In
addition, EPIC has provided film, processing, copying, and photointerpre-
tations assistance to the Montana State University project.
The second part of the remote sensing research is included in Montana
State University's plant community monitoring project. This is relatively
low-level photography, using small aircraft and 6 x 6 cm camera systems.
Photographic scales are larger, but coverages are restricted by the smaller
angles of view and smaller negative sizes. This kind of imagery is used for
more detailed analysis of species and population-level stress responses.
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If EPA Las Vegas becomes involved next summer, there will be three
remote sensing elements in the project. Even with the two current
participants there are some problems in coordination, planning, scheduling,
etc. This should be tightened up. It was proposed that one individual
should be made responsible for the coordination of all remote sensing
activities, including flight planning, processing, distribution of
products, analysis, interpretation, and any other aspects of handling
film exposed as part of the overall project. It is assumed that much of
the routine decision-making would be delegated to the appropriate
group, but overall coordination would be improved by identifying a
responsible individual.
As holdings of photographic imagery proliferates, the problems of
access and reproduction increase. A list of photographs should be
available to interested researchers. Principal investigators should
have access to copies pf photography acquired as normal project coverage,
although costs and accessing procedures need to be worked out. Principal
investigators should be able to obtain "custom" coverage on their areas
of particular interest. This will necessitate a more highly structured
consultation service.
If the remote sensing activity is really to constitute a program
element, and not just be viewed as a supporting service, a feeling of
mutual cooperation and support will have to be developed among the
principal investigators. This exists in a casual sense, but it needs to
be nurtured and reinforced. The remote sensing project work should
receive ground support as well as providing support to ground elements.
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In discussing changes in aerial monitoring for 1977, it was suggested
that it may be important to do some daily sampling and/or diurnal sampling
next year. There is some indication that morning/afternoon periodicity
in plant activity may be important in explaining treatment responses.
This might be shown adequately by ground photography, but aerial coverage,
at least during periods of rapid plant growth, would be desirable.
54
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THE MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP 76
ABIOTIC FUNCTIONS WORK GROUP
This group was:
1. To evaluate and summarize present knowledge of aerosols, air
quality, and meteorology in the Col strip area.
2. To evaluate air quality and micrometeorology needs of CFPP
and suggest a sampling regime to satisfy them.
3. To elucidate quality assurance requirements and develop a
data acquisition and management plan.
Information on climate and surface meteorology is available for the
state of Montana. Data in the Fort Union Basin (Colstrip area) for
climate and meteorological conditions appears to be available. The base
line characterization of aerosols and air quality is proceeding. An
adequate data base for base-line conditions will be provided through the
efforts of Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories, the State of Montana,
EPA, NOAA, and other investigators.
The Pacific Northwest Laboratories of Battelle is collecting and
analyzing particulates in air samples for elemental constituents. The
scientists at Battelle have generated and are actively participating in
55
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round robin quality control program involving exchanges of standard
reference materials and particulate type samples. The round robin
exercise will provide the necessary confidence in the elemental character-
ization of air samples.
The NOAA scientists continue to conduct research on measurement of
aerosols, radiation and meteorological conditions.
The characterization of particulates in air samples seems to be
adequate with good data quality assurance.
The measurement and analysis of gases, sulfur dioxide, (S02),
carbon monoxide, methane and hydrocarbons, nitrogen dioxide, NO , and
X
ozone is being accomplished instrumentally at two sites, (Hay Coulee and
a state of Montana site),. Sulfur dioxide measurements using a bubbler
are being made by BPNWL at a number of sites. Total particulates using
the reference method for determination of suspended particulates in the
atmosphere (high volume) is being done by EPA (Hay Coulee), State of
Montana and Montana Power. There is a need to generate a round robin
program for intercalibration of gases, an audit of particulates (weighing)
and an intercalibration of high volumes. It would be desirable to invite
the Montana Power Co. group into this quality assurance program.
The mechanism for institution and coordination of such a program
will be the responsibility of the principal investigator (R. Lewis) with
assistance from LASS-CERL, and EMSL-RTP.
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The abiotic functions work group has recommended that the instru-
mental trailer now located at Hay Coulee be kept operational. The
consensus of the group indicates that the measurements made by the
instrumental trailer are necessary and that steps should be taken to
assure the project leader that the data are valid from a quality assurance
standpoint. The group further recommended that the methane and total
hydrocarbon analyzer be discontinued but that the equipment be kept on
site in a standby condition. It was the collective opinion of the group
that if a more appropriate or convenient site for the trailer can be
found which will better suit the purposes of the majority of investigators,
then the trailer should be moved. If the trailer is kept at Hay Coulee,
steps should be taken to stabilize power, repair computer, automate
operation through computer control and evaluate data.
The group recommended that all data collected on aerosals, air
quality and meteorology after appropriate quality assurance determination
made by the responsible investigator be placed into a data bank (computer
stored).
With the present state of the art of instruments, the work group
does not see any merit in acquisition of new unmanned instruments and
their siting in new, unattended locations. The group did endorse the
careful siting of systems to collect data. The movement of the trailer
from one location to another would provide more stability in instrumental
conditions than a number of unattended sites. The word came across with
definition and clarity that if an instrument is out there making chemical
measurements an individual has to be standing by.
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In summary, aerosols are being characterized with a good quality
assurance program. Air quality measurements are being made and a quality
assurance program will be carried out. Data acquisition requires inspection
of data by project leader before data inclusion into central data bank.
An integral part of the data collection must be based on quality assurance
principles.
Follow up Summary
Since the November workshop we have drafted an interagency agreement
with ERDA to modify the present air quality monitoring operations at
Colstrip. The plan is designed to meet the specific research needs of
EPA but will also complement the ERDA and State of Montana Programs.
The agreement involves expansion from the present Hay Coulee sites to
include air quality monitoring at EPA research sites Kluver North,
Kluver West, and Kluver East. The three new sites will be provided with
a portable source of power for operating real time analytical and sampling
equipment. There are also micrometeorological facilities at each site which
we will continue to operate cooperatively.
ERDA will be responsible for field operations and maintenance. Overall
management, the quality assurance program, and data processing will be the
responsibility of EPA/Corvallis.
Major emphasis will be placed on assuring the quality of the data, that
all the measurements are defensible, and that errors associated with the
laboratory analyses are within known and acceptable limits.
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EPA/Corvallis is in the process of elaborating the quality assurance
program and ERDA will implement it. Independent audits of performance
of the air monitoring network will be carried out semi-annually by
representatives of EPA/RTP. Any deficiencies found will be reported to
EPA/Corvallis and ERDA who will share the responsibility for undertaking
appropriate corrective action.
The Hay Coulee site is now provided with most of the necessary
equipment as well as a power supply and protected laboratory space. At
the new sites there is no electric power and we intend to provide it as
follows.
At each new site, we will place two small trailers. One will house
a 5 KW natural gas-powered electric generator. The natural gas will
pass through a charcoal filter to remove sulphur compounds that could
cause local pollution. The electric power generated at the power trailer
will be transmitted through a heavy-duty extension cord to the equipment
to maintain reasonably constant temperatures.
The equipment trailer will have the following instruments:
1. A continuous SO2 monitor (Meloy Model 285)
2. Cloud condenser nuclei counter (Model Rich-100)
3. Two-stage aerosol particle size fractionator
The data from the continuous S02 monitor, will be stored on a
magnetic tape cartridge and also on a strip chart recorder. The strip
charts will be kept for possible future reference, while the magnetic
tape cartridges will be used to transfer the data for computer analysis
at the Corvallis computer center.
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At the Hay Coulee site, N0x and 0^ will also be monitored.
Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) are a sensitive indicator of air
pollution. Therefore, we plan to operate a CCN analyzer at the Hay
Coulee site and at each of the three additional sites. These analyses
should give us the first, and by far the most sensitive, indication of
the influence of the Col strip plant power plant plumes at the monitoring
stations. We believe that the next most sensitive indicator may be an
S02 analysis. Plume movement and diffusion is controlled by the local
meteorology such that only low pollutant concentrations are generally
anticipated at the sites and actual fumigating may occur rarely, or not
at all. It is thus essential to operate an S02 bubbler which would
integrate the total S02 bubbler which would integrate the total S02
exposure at each site. This will provide a far more useful indication
of the total exposure than the real-time S02 analysis. Operation of
real-time SO2 analyzers will also be carried out since this permits
transient fumigations to be sensed.
Sulphate reaching the monitoring sites may be of major importance
and we will measure this on the air filters employed for the collection
of particles. We will use a two-stage particle separator that separates
aerosols into size ranges of less than and greater than 2 y. We anticipate
that all of the sulphate will be associated with the smaller size
fraction. Both of these fractions will be analyzed for some 20 to 40
trace elements, including most of those considered to be important in
environmental pollution.
We feel that Implementation of the cooperative agreement between
EPA/ERDA will meet the needs of the CFPPP for defensible Air Quality
data and insure smooth operation of this task in the future.
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THE COLSTRIP, MONTANA COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT PROJECT
ANIMAL WORK GROUP
Animals, like plants, respond to unusual or abnormal changes within
their environment. Changes mediated by a variety of toxic gaseous
emissions from coal-fired power plants may affect animals directly
resulting in detectable behavioral changes or perhaps even death, or
indirectly such as gradual decimation of a food supply with consequent
withdrawal of an affected species from the area, or contamination of a
food resource with consequent bioaccumulation of potentially toxic trace
elements or compounds. It is a fundamental objective of the CFPP project
to determine which animals common to a grassland ecosystem can serve as
bioindicators of pollution stress or damage. Selected species of arthro-
pods, passerine birds, and small mammals have received the greatest
attention. Both qualitative and quantitative information regarding
their behavior, seasonal cycles, and population dynamics relative to
natural variation in other biotic and abiotic components of their respec-
tive habitats must be obtained to evaluate the effects of chronic pollu-
tion.
The study of chronic pollution effects on animals (or plants, for
that matter) is not a coherent, well-defined discipline. Nor is it
rooted in a general theory that helps in organizing the work or identifying
disciplines that can in fact, contribute most importantly to assessment,
predict in control. Nevertheless, we are trying to improve this process
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of definition by the elaboration of hypothetical framework and by recognizing
that an assemblage of disciplines perspectives and foci may be required
to successfully address the mission. We must include not only generalists
(e.g., wildlife ecologists) who are concerned with the interdisciplinary
approach, but we also require disciplined, quantitative specialists, if
we are to idenfity the subtle but pervasive effects (probably often
indirect) of chronic pollution stress. Interactions among vertebrate/
invertebrate biologists and among ecologists, physiologists, behaviorists,
histologists, etc. are crucial. Clearly this is only possible through
effective cooperation among grantees and EPA scientists and managers.
The current status of major aspects of the animal program are
summarized here and suggestions for future efforts are presented. This
is a consensus report.
I. INVERTEBRATES.
Both ZAP sites have been intensively sampled for relative changes
in arthropod numbers. Preliminary 1976 data from below-ground microar-
thropod sampling at ZAPS 1 show decreases in numbers of nematodes corre-
lated with increases SO2 concentrations. At ZAPS 2, however, the
converse was found, perhaps reflecting a stimulatory effect of SO2 on
the productivity of a previously unfumigated area. Such increases in
arthropod numbers are correlated with increased oxygen consumption of
Prairie Junegrass and Western Wheatgrass on all plots in August. Data
analyzed from 1975 also suggest that some mite populations or groups
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respond to SC^. This work should be intensified employing more taxon-
specific sampling procedures. Samples should also be taken at other
sites, to provide additional "control" data.
The 1976 data for above-ground sampling of macroarthropods are not
yet available. The inadequate and highly variable numbers as well as
high diversity of macroarthropods within study plots on ZAPS 1 in 1975
suggest that little new information may be gained by continuing above-
ground sampling. In the future, we intend to focus on two or more
abundant "key species" whose susceptibility to SO^ is suspected from
previous work. This is essential if process or mechanism-oriented
experiments are to be conducted. For example, the distribution changes
in beetle populations across ZAPS plots may result from a behavioral
avoidance of SO^, a direct toxic effect upon beetle function, indirect
effects such as alterations in nutrient availability or rate of decom-
position, or perhaps some combination of these. Experiments that were
suggested included feeding and nutrient tests within ZAPS plots, either
by retaining caged insects on a given plot or by feeding fumigated
vegetation to caged insects not on the plots. Also suggested was a
study of decomposition cycles to include macroinvertebrates, microflora,
and microfauna. Ongoing analyses of total soil respiration would
support these kinds of experimental approaches. We all acknowledged
that a study of soil structure and chemistry should be initiated.
Honeybees exhibit considerable potential as bioindicators of air
pollution. A beehive was placed on ZAPS 1 in 1976, but no change in bee
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foraging behavior was noted. However, since no certainty exists that
the bees were subjected to S02, an extension of one S02 carrying pipe to
the colony was recommended to insure fumigation of the hive. Behavioral
observations will then be continued in 1977.
Fluoride analyses of bees have been productive and should continue
as in the past. A few samples of bees collected from sites near Col strip
in 1976 show about a 60% increase in fluoride compared with levels found
before the operation of Colstrip Unit #1. Bees near Rosebud, MT, show a
fluoride level about 10 times greater than that found elsewhere. The
contaminated source appeared to be the water supply near the beeyard.
Other work that should be continued includes the extent of Ponderosa
Pine needle damage owing to scale insects. This work is closely allied
to our research on the effect of air pollution on Ponderosa Pine needle
damage. Because of the heavy workload during the field season, another
full-time assistant or graduate student is needed to assist in the
collection and analysis of large arthropods, especially bees and beetles.
Owing to a number of technical and biological constraints the
vertebrate program has not and will not address the original objective
pertaining to the examination of those functions that contribute to
population regulation of birds or mammals. All other aspects of the
avian program will continue though collections will be temporarily
curtailed, and this work will be replaced by needed innovations as
described below.
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Current extramural research operations for the vertebrate animal
program include detailed histological analyses of avian and mammalian
organs deemed most likely to be affected, directly or indirectly, by
pollution stress, lipid extraction from several hundred avian carcasses
necessary for component analysis of body structure (water, fat, lean-dry
mass, and ash), and enzymatic assay of a blood enzyme (acetylcholinesterase)
of small mammals that may be altered by exposure of the animal to sulfur
dioxide.
In-house (EPA) staff and facilities do not exist and therefore
analyses of these critical aspects of animal function must be performed
by qualified specialists in their respective laboratories. Each piece
of research is essential to any statements regarding the effects of
Col strip-originating air pollution upon animal systems and their functions.
Current, in-house research involves both execution and coordination.
Coordination involves overall project design, and management. Including
longer range planning and task integration. Personnel restrictions and
the scope of work in relation to the complexities of the research
necessary to support the mission, have made it impossible for the senior
EPA animal scientists to accomplish these tasks without the help of
appropriate basic scientists and laboratories not available in-house. A
two-year population study of grassland birds (to be extended for at
least 1 year) will produce pre- and post-operational data on dispersion
and changes in relative abundance of resident and non-resident species
relative to proximity to a pollution source. A two-year study of small
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mammal populations near Col strip has been completed, and the first of at
least a 2-year study of small mammal population structure and subsequent
dispersion as a function of sulfur dioxide is being conducted at the
ZAPS site in Southeast Montana. On a limited scale, the breeding phenology
of the Western Meadowlark was initiated in 1976 and will be extended
another season. This study will provide baseline information related to
clutch size, hatching success, fledging mortaility, and predation, all
of which must be quantified if changes in any of them are observed in
future serial studies. Related to this study is a proposed, sensitive
experimental method designed to assess the presence and extent of stress
in grassland birds by measuring quantitatively the adrenal hormone
corticosterone. Because hormonal imbalances in stressed birds can
interfere with normal reproductive activities, one successful outcome
of this projected work would be to correlate changes in a readily-
detectable hormone with persistant environmental insult to air quality
and food quality and availability. Performance of this task is external
to current EPA capabilities. The technique itself can be performed by
only one laboratory in the Western United States, and thus the need to
enlist the research skills of appropriate basic scientists outside EPA
is readily apparent.
Beyond 1977, these studies will be further integrated by studying
the distribution of birds along environmental gradients established by a
pollution point-source. This will require cooperative efforts between
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the EPA team and the appropriate grantees. Gradient analysis as now
conceived will involve population assessments of grasslands birds along
the gradient followed by successive and alternating collection and
population analysis until the end of the season nears, at which time
birds will be collected for further intensive component and physiological
analysis and evaluation.
Completion of these tasks will require maintenance of adequate
laboratory staff (1 programmer, 2 full-time technicians) and facilities
until the completion of the program as well as close interaction with
the appropriate grantees.
B. Mammals. The reduction of population studies of rodents in
the Col strip area from 5 plots to 1 plot (Hay Coulee retained) permitted
extensive monthly capture, mark, and release operations at ZAPS 1 and 2.
Over a 6-month period, 112 and 142 mice and voles were trapped at ZAPS 1
and 2, respectively, providing data comparable to that obtained from
rodents trapped near Col strip as well as establishing an experimental
base from which SO^ effect on population dynamics could be observed.
Preliminiary data analyzed for prairie voles indicate that the non-
uniform distribution of voles within study plots and their erratic
appearance during live-trapping suggests that voles are either unaffected
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by S02 levels occurring where they are trapped or are riot suitable
indicators where they are found in low numbers. The highly erratic
*
distribution and trappability of voles in the Col strip area supports
this conjecture. Deer mice, on the other hand, are widespread and
normally trappable year-round. Although a few marked mice could be
retrapped 3 to 5 months later at both ZAPS sites, most mice trapped (52-
60%) were those that made a brief appearance on the sites during a
single monthly trapping period. Furthermore, a few mice that were residents
within gassed plots appeared to move out, even in those areas of high S02
concentration. However, population turnover in gased areas has not been
determined. A fuller understanding of rodent dispersion requires co-
ordination with teams preparing vegetation maps as well as additional
trapping areas outside the fumigated zones. Additional behavioral and
biochemical experiments to determine direct or indirect effects of SC^
on small mammals are feasible. For example, acetylcholinesterase assays
of blood from mice and voles trapped at Hay Coulee and ZAPS during 1976
will be performed within the ensuing quarter and may provide clues of
pollution stress. Studies of specific enzymes (e.g., mixed-function
oxidases) in liver of mice subjected to fumigation offer another potential
signal of small mammal biochemical responses to air pollution.
Extensive data on the cycles of body weight, body length, sex and
age structure in deer mice and to a lesser extent in voles and pocket
mice will permit the population studies at Hay Coulee to cease, at least
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for 1977. Weekly or biweekly trapline work will continue as traplines
are a means by which to monitor natural variation and cyclic processes,
such as reproduction and body weight, in commonly trapped species. Much
of the histological work will be reduced, pending the completion and
fulfillment of existing contracts.
III. REVIEW OF OBJECTIVES AND COORDINATION EFFORTS
In view of altered objectives of the vertebrate program, the follow-
ing revised objectives are proposed as realistic and attainable within
the time course of the CFPP project.
Revised Provisional Objectives for the Vertebrate Program.
1. Measure and predict changes in population structure and/or dynamics
of grassland birds and small mammals as a function of annual,
seasonal and life cycles as well as other environmental information
including biotic interactions and physical factors that influence
such structural or dynamic processes under study.
2. Assess the specific effects of air pollution, if possible, upon
avian and mammalian population structure and dynamics as well as
upon specific organ systems.
3. Evaluate certain physiological, biochemical, and behavioral functions
that may have potential for sensitive assay of pollution challenge.
We hope to identify low levels of pollution stress before serious
or irreversible effects occur.
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A greater degree of coordination among the various teams involved
in animal research will be exerted by CERL to facilitate the flow of
ideas and information where they serve the best interest of principal
investigators. By virtue of the trophic structure within grassland
ecosystems, the results of any one team may likely supplement those of
another. Hence, greater information exchange is highly desirable.
IV. SUMMARY
Several kinds of evidence now exist that indicate changes in popula-
tion density and composition in vertebrates and invertebrates as a
function of air pollution stress. Problems are complicated and require
interdiciplinary and cooperative/collaborative studies. All members
of the group agree that increased communication, cooperation and
collaboration are essential to success. Although studies so far have not
indicated alterations in physiological state, they do suggest that
chronic low level exposure to S02 or other gaseous effluents modifies the
original biotic organization or results in bioaccumulation of toxic
compounds. Hence new and refined approaches and disciplines mentioned
above seek to elucidate current results in fulfillment of project goals
or refining pollution-caused or related environmental changes that affect,
modify or eliminate some or portions of animal populations that are
either critical in maintaining the integrity of a grassland ecosystem or
are economically invaluable to man's growing agricultural demands and
needs.
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THE MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP 76
LICHEN WORK GROUP
Provisional Objectives
1. To evaluate progress if lichen work toward stated objectives:
a. To establish baseline information on 2 species of lichens
so that effects of chronic SOg challenge may be determined.
b. To compare relative sensitivities of lichens, native grasses,
and ponderosa pine.
c. To assess population level changes in lichens that result
from power plant emissions.
2. To define the role that the lichen work is likely to play in our
impact assessment protocol.
3. To evaluate present objectives in the light of 2 above, and sug-
gest modifications likely to increase the effectiveness of this
task.
4. To develop mechanisms of interaction with other project compon-
ents that will facilitate realization of revised objectives from
3.
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1. Progress of lichen work was evaluated in relation to stated objectives.
a. Baseline information on Usnea hirta and Parmelia chlorochroa
include: respiration rates, anatomical condition, total
sulfur and nitrogen contents—from 20 Ponderosa pine and
grassland sites in the Col strip-Fort Howes areas, and for two
summers from the ZAP sites. However, the total sulfur content
percentages have been questioned by Larry Gough, USGS, Denver,
who feels that my results, obtained from the MSU Soils Testing
Lab, are much too high. I am now corresponding with him
concerning the possibility of having their laboratory replicate
the sulfur tests.
b. According to respiration rate determinations, Usnea hirta is
affected by SC^ stress more than Western Wheatgrass (Agropyron
smithi) and Prairie junegrass (Koeleria cristata); i.e., there
is a definite decrease in gross respiration rate within 34
days in Usnea samples from ZAP sites B, C, and D. whereas the
two grasses show a possible effect, and increase in respiration
rate after more than 100 days of fumigation on plots C and D.
Parmelia chlorochroa exhibits pronounced respiration rate
decreases when placed on the fenceposts with Usnea hirta, but
shows no respiration rate differences when left on the soil,
its natural habitat, on ZAP plots B, C, and D. Ponderosa
pines, not really testable on the ZAP sites, seem to be showing
leaf tip burn when collected from sites close to Col strip,
according to C.C. Gordon, but I cannot yet detect any visible
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anatomical damage in Usnea hirta collected from the same or
similar sites. The respiration rate of lichen samples from
these areas is not significantly changed from baseline rates,
and total sulfur content assays for 1976 are not yet completed.
c. Mo population level changes in lichens, either on the Ponderosa
pines or on the soil, have been observed. No changes were
expected at this point.
2. Lichens are considered to be an indicator organism; an indicator
organism should be sensitive at very low levels of stress -- an
"early warning system." It should exhibit effects from stress that
are expected to be found in other organisms, but in less time and
at lower levels of stress. If the pathological effects of SO2
are identified in the indicator organism, then other ecosystem
components can be observed for signs of similar chronic insidious
reactions, and warning can be sounded before acute damage is economically
and ecologically more important organisms occurs.
My goal is to get a documented graph from the ZAP site results that
would look something like this:
lichen
thai 11
Effects
on
associated
bacterial
/ growth
S accumulation
S02 stress, ppm (less than .10 ppm)
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3. Increased effectiveness of the lichen work will result from
quantifying the intensity of reactions to the SC^ stress
on the ZAP sites and observing specific structural and physiological
processes that occur in other plants so information can be
transferred to and effects can be anticipated in other vegetation.
4. Although lichen work is the primary raison d'etre of this project
component, comparable data on plants associated with the
lichens is also being gathered, the importance of lichen
indicator properties can be assessed in context. We hope to
scale susceptibilities and sensitivities of ecosystem components.
Revised Objectives
Gross observations of respiration rates, plasmolysis, bleaching,
loss of thallus integrity, conductivity of water around soaked thai 1i,
and increased bacterial growth on Parmelia from the ZAP sites have led
me to "think small." My objectives remain similar, but methods are
somewhat revised, and refined.
1) To document changes in lichen communities. I see this as a
long-range sampling problem; this should result in a good
survey of a Ponderosa pine epiphyte community.
2) To determine relative sensitivities of lichens, grasses, and
Ponderosa pines.
3) To document some subcellular changes in Usnea hirta and Parmelia
chlorochroa when exposed to SO2 stresses.
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Research Plan
Usnea hirta thalli were soaked in distilled deionized water for up
to 4 hours, then the water was tested for conductivity. It increased
when it had contained SC^—stressed Usnea. This indicated membrane
damage and electrolytes leaking out of the cells into the water; therefore,
I am attempting electron microscope studies of the Usnea cells hoping to
photograph subcellular changes. It is taking a great deal of time to
determine the infiltrating and embedding procedures for the damaged
thalli, but I feel this effort will accomplish good things. It would
also be interesting to examine grass leaves and pine needles for comparative
studies.
Parmelia chlorochroa samples collected from ZAP sites B, C and D have
consistently showed increased bacterial populations clustered around the
fungal hyphae. This indicates exudates, probably nutritional, are
leaking out of the cells. A project to identify nutritional groups of
these bacteria is about to be undertaken with the help of a MSU soil
microbiologist. The implications of this are exciting, and the procedure
can be extended to examining roots from the ZAP sites and perhaps also
to stressed pine needles.
I am continually collecting data on several organizational levels:
tree and ground lichen communities; and gross organismal conditions such
as thallus color and integrity, respiration rate, and sulfur accumulation.
My next steps must include: 1) subcellular effects, e.g., electron
micrographs; 2) interactions with other organisms (the bacterial communities);
and 3) comparisons on these suborganismal levels with grass roots and
leaves and Ponderosa pine needles.
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THE COLSTRIP, MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP 76
PRODUCTIVITY AND BIOMASS SAMPLING WORK GROUP
This group was asked to:
1. evaluate this work to determine how it might more effectively
to satisfy overall project goals.
2. identify other tasks with which this task might interact
more effectively.
3. define relationships between the biomass sampling techniques
of CSU and the Daubenmire technique of MSU.
4. consider developing a non-destructive method of biomass
estimation. Explore the use of a double or multiple sampling
program which might reduce the need for destructive sampling.
The group initially directed itself to the question of the utility
of the presently available biomass data. There was general agreement
that the sensitivity of the currently used technique was not sufficient
to answer all of the potential questions about the effects of S02
fumigation on primary production but that the most Important questions
from an economic point of view were being satisfactorily addressed.
Given the precision of assessment of livestock carrying capacity and
livestock production, primary production estimates with standard errors
of 15 percent are sufficient. Since large scale changes in net primary
production calculated from harvest data have not occurred, the committee
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felt it was important now to place a large effort into assessment of the
quality of the plant material and various physiological measurements of
plant performance. Many of the discussions of a wide variety of potential
effects of SO2 fumigation on primary producers converged upon the subjects
of the quality of plant material for herbivores (both ruminants and non-
ruminants) and plant physiological alterations. A considerable amount
of time was spent speculating upon explorations for the lack of differences
in net primary productivity among treatments in the field experiments. An
hypothesis that emerged from those discussions was that carbon fixation
and herbivory were both depressed by S02 fumigation. Initial (but
scanty) support of this hypothesis is found in some of the invertebrate
data and the initial dry-matter digestibility .data.
In discussion of the future needs for biomass data, there was
general agreement that while it represented a basic resource for many
projects, several other aspects of primary producer functions were more
important at this point in the project. Indirect measurements of plant
biomass were discussed and the general recommendation was that harvesting
be limited to perhaps one date per year and indirect methods be utilized
to their maximum benefit. Many techniques are presently available for
indirect assessment of aboveground biomass and while all have shortcomings,
a suitable one can probably be found to meet our needs.
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THE MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
WORKSHOP 76
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY WORK GROUP
This group was asked:
1. To review the present role of the plant physiology task of the CFPP
project.
2. To define the role this work is likely to play in the development
of an impact assessment protocol.
3. To revise the present role of the plant physiology task if necessary,
in the light of 1. To increase the effectiveness of this project
component.
4. To develop new mechanisms of interaction with other project compon-
ents that will facilitate the realization of revised objectives
from 2-
The following tasks are ongoing or completed:
a) The determination of acute injury thresholds of Western Wheatgrass
Bluegrass, Prairie Junegrass, Needle & Thread Grass, and Fringed
Sagewort to either; SO^. NOg, 0^, SO^ + NO2, or SO2 + O3. This study
is completed.
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b). Determination of the metabolic status of plants subjected to
various SC^ levels on the ZAP site. The levels of organic N, total
available carbohydrates, P, K, Mg and are determined in various plant
parts at several times during the summer.
c). Measurements of deposition rates of SC^ into plant canopies, and
the movement of S within the plant.
The following new projects are suggested:
These proposed studies, generally relate to the field-experimental
study.
a). Plant water relations. Determine the effect of the SO2 treatments
on plant water use. There is a need to measure both the soil water
content and plant water status.
b). Effect of plant water status on plant responses to various SC^
levels. Determine if and to what extent plant water potential may alter
the plant response to S02-
c). Effect of SC>2 on plant carbon exchange. Measure the effects of SO2
on photosynthesis, photorespiration and respiration. Determine if the S
content of the air or the leaf is the factor that controls photosynthesis.
d). Plant pigments. Study the pigment types and levels in vegetation
to see if the pigments changes can explain color differences seen on
film (remote sensing).
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3). Plant sensitivity. Extend the species sensitivity list to new
species. Also include the effects of night fumigations on injury thresholds.
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THE COLSTRIP, MONTANA COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT PROJECT
PONDEROSA PINE STUDY GROUP
This group was requested to produce:
I. Revised Objectives for the Ponderosa Pine Plant Disease Work
II. Research Plan Addressing Revised Objectives
III. Plan for Interaction with Other Project Components
Introduction
Currently there are fifteen growth/health functions being investigated
for ponderosa pines growing at permanent sites located 5 to 83 kilometers
from Col strip, Montana. Based on two years of study on these parameters,
thirteen of the growth functions appear to be excellent indices of air
pollution impact upon ponderosa pine, while two parameters are clearly
poor indices. These latter two are (1) chlorophyll a and b concentrations
in pine foliage and (2) internodal lengths of ponderosa pine stems from
the upper or lower crowns.
The two baseline chemical assays of ponderosa pine foliage are
total sulfur and fluoride concentration of whole needles exposed for
five years to three months to the atmosphere of the Col strip study
sites. Both of these elements already appear to be excellent measures
of potential air pollution damage to ponderosa pines.
I. Revised Objectives
We propose to conduct two new studies of the growth/health parameters
of ponderosa pine this coming year. These two studies are:
1. Pollen viability
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2. Tannin concentrations in ponderosa pine foliage growing on
abiotic stressed and non-stressed trees.
The objectives of these studies are:
1. To ascertain the potential damage of SO2 and HF to ponderosa
pine pollen viability and pollen tube elongation.
2. To assess reduction of tannin concentrations, if any, in
ponderosa pine foliage that is stressed by chronic or acute
concentrations of phytotoxic emissions of coal-fired power
plants or by other environmental stressors.
II. Research Plan
Pollen viability
The techniques to be utilized have been adapted from those of
O'Kelley (AIB, March, 1955) and Facteau (Amer. Soc. for Hort. Sci.,
1973).
Pollen collections will be made at (or near the vicinity of) our
sites on Kluver's and McRae's properties as well as the Morning Star
site located on the Northern Cheyenne Reservation. Collection of ponderosa
pine pollen from a polluted area will be carried out either at Billings,
Montana (800 meters from the 180 MW Corette plant) or at Sydney, Montana,
where a 140 MW coal-fired power plant is located.
Since pollen production of individual ponderosa pine trees is
intermittent and of irregular occurrence, we will not necessarily sample
from our ten permanently marked trees on the Kluver and McRae properties,
but will select those closest in proximity to these sites as possible.
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The importance of this objective lies in the fact that the perpetuation
of ponderosa pine forests depends upon successful sexual reproduction.
Tannin Studies
Tannin studies will be carried out on ponderosa pine foliage and
selected destructive insects feeding upon this important timber species.
The methods employed will be a modification of those perfected by Feeny
(1968) for his oak studies and again modified by Dr. Gordon Orians
(1976) from the University of Washington as discussed with him at the
workshop at Corvallis in November.
This study has real potential for answering the questions that
arise in areas where trees experience chronic air pollution. Numerous
investigators (Evenden, Carlson, and Gorden) have noted that a high
incidence of insect infestation occurs in a pattern around stationary
sources of of air pollution which corresponds to the pattern of air
pollution damage to the trees.
Feeny and Prians have shown in their studies that when vegetation
comes under stress from abiotic causal agents (i.e., drought), tannin
concentrations are reduced in the foliage. The foliage thus becomes
more palatable to chewing insects (spruce budworm, tent caterpillar).
These studies have demonstrated that due to tannin reduction of stressed
foliage, the protein of the foliage is more digestable to insect larvae
and thus the reason for the beginning of the epizootic infestation.
Justification: As the ponderosa pine trees of the Colstrip area
are stressed by chronic levels of SC^, N0X, and HF, it is more than
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likely that they will be predisposed to insect infestations, as was found
by Evenden for stressed ponderosa pine in a 35-mile area south of the
Trial, B.C., lead smelter in the 1930's. While this phenomenon of epizootic
infestation has been observed and repeated in other air pollution areas
since that time (i.e., Kittimat, B.C., 1960; The Dalles, Oregon, 1963-
75; Columbia Falls, 1970-74), no one working in these areas has applied
the studies of Feeny and Orians to the study of the etiology of insect
infestation associated with air pollution stress.
Col strip is an excellent area to incorporate the findings of Feeny
and Orians into our past two years of baseline insect and chemical
studies on ponderosa pine. We propose to start slowly on this project
during the coming year and have been offered guidance and help from Dr.
Gordon Orians (University of Washington) and Dr. Fred Shafizadeh (a tree
and wood biochemist here at the University of Montana Chemistry Department).
We believe that this proposed study has tremendous potential not only
because of the prevalence of ponderosa pine in the study area but also
because most plant species (especially the shrubs) of the Fort Union
Basin have substantial quantities of tannins which potentially could
also be reduced by air pollution stresses. We intended to present a
much more thorough write-up on this objective and justification in our
upcoming three-year proposal in December of this year.
III. Interaction Plan
From the November Corvallis workshop, it became apparent that much
more interaction between our field and laboratory studies could be
accomplished than in the past. Consequently we gave verbal (now written)
84
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commitments to the following principal investigators:
1. Sharon Eversman: To periodically collect lichens for her
during the winter months at the ponderosa pine sites where
she collected samples last summer for her field-experiments.
2. Jack Taylor: To have photographer (Don Dodge) train under
Taylor in the use of the USFS density slicer so that Don can
spend a month with Taylor's aerial pictures here in Missoula
in an attempt to obtain as much data as possible from these
photographs.
3. Bill Laurenroth and Jerry Dodd: To help their laboratory
technician set up sulfur analysis procedures for vegetation
samples from the ZAP sites.
4. John Leetham: To help design field experiments concerned with
feeding-responses of insects on St^-stressed vegetation.
5. To present all participating principal investigators with our
current field study data rapidly and prior to the next year's
study.
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RESEARCH ON THE PLAINS
By Charles Pierce
Barely visible in the center of the horizon
line in this Montana plains scene are the
tips of the twin stacks of a new power plant
several miles away from where cattle are
grazing in the foreground.
This dragline works through the night
to strip the earth from rich coal seams
near Cols trip, Mont.
Q tanding on a butte in southeast Mon-
^ tana you could see a herd of cattle
grazing on the bronze-colored grasses of
late summer. A whinnying sound floated in
from the distance where the tiny figure of
first one horse and then several could be
seen galloping down a slope toward a ranch
for their evening feed.
All around was a countryside bathed in
shadow and sun under the cloud-streaked
big sky. To the south was the Rosebud
Creek Valley where Custer camped on his
way to doom at the nearby site of Little
Big Horn.
Now, however, even the memory of this
old battle could not disturb the peace of
this scene where the only noise was a
breeze ruffling the branches of the butte-
top ponderosa pines.
Then you noticed on the far horizon tht
electronic aircraft warning lights pulsing
rhythmically every few seconds on the
barely discernable tops of the twin tower;
of a huge power plant seven miles away ai
Colstrip.
And you were reminded of a new anc
often bitter struggle in the plains countrv
over the issue of whether the grassland:
should be stripped for coal to help fue
power plants not only in Montana but foi
energy-hungry cities elsewhere in the Na
tion as well.
Immediately below was another remindei
a fenced-in acre of grassland and a mobih
air quality monitoring trailer, part of .
msyor project being conducted by EPA';
Environmental Research Laboratory head
quartered at Corvallis, Ore.
EPA is attempting to learn how thi
beautiful countryside can be protected fron
coal fumes discharged at the Colstrii
power plant, some 100 miles east of Bill
ings, Mont.
Dr. A. F. Bartsch, Director of the EP/
laboratory at Corvallis, explained that "thi:
project has national significance because
we are attempting to develop informatioi
which can be used to minimize the environ
mental impact of all coal-burning plants.
"Recognizing that the United States i
moving toward the use of coal as thi
primary fossil fuel, EPA is seeking t(
reconcile the Nation's energy needs an(
our obligation to protect the environment
"The study, which is being carried out b
EPA scientists with the aid of researcher
from three State universities, is attemptin
to determine the effect of the power plar
Charles Pierce is Editor of EPA Journal
Reprinted from EPA Journal, November/December, 1976
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fumes on the grassland's animals, insects
and plants. An important objective is to
determine which forms of life are the most
sensitive and reliable measures of air pollu-
tion.
"Once the information is obtained, it can
be developed into a protocol or guidebook
on how to site power plants so that they
will do the least damage to the environ-
ment. Information accumulated in this re-
search project, which is also expected to
prove enormously valuable in developing
improved air quality standards for the fu-
ture. is being analyzed at the Corvallis
laboratory."
The setting for the Colstrip power project
is spectacular.
rT"1 owering draglines work day and night
seven days a week to remove the earth
covering the huge coal seams 30 to 160 feet
below the surface. The coal is then loos-
ened with dynamite and loaded by enor-
mous shovels which can bite off 15 tons of
coal with one sweep of their buckets. After
being loaded onto heavy duty motor car-
riers the coal is taken to conveyor belts.
The belts take the coal either to the nearby
power plant or to a site where it is loaded
into 100-car trains. Autos back up on the
highway at the main rail crossing outside
Colstrip as rail cars roll by carrying the
fuel which will light homes and power
factories in the Middle West. An estimated
11 million tons of low-sulfur coal will be
mined in the Colstrip area this year.
Nearby are enormous earthen furrows
largely barren of vegetation which were left
after strip mining started in this area 50
years ago to provide coal for steam loco-
motives.
The new power plant rises like a giant
battleship riding the prairie sea. At night,
with its hundreds of lights, it sparkles like a
great beacon. From outside voices can be
heard booming over the plant's internal
loudspeaker system.
A short distance away is the company
town of Colstrip with its scattering of
permanent homes, trailer camps and new
recreation building and park still in the
process of being built.
The surrounding silent prairie seems to
stretch forever under the star-drenched
night.
"A raw, vast, lonesome land, too big, too
empty," wrote A. B. Guthrie about Mon-
Coal is stockpiled in front of towering power plant.
Dr. Eric Preston (left) and Dr. Norman Glass , two EPA scientists, review data from
a meteorological station at a "ZAPS" site. In the background are the pipes used to
stress the area with sulfur dioxide fumes.
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In this aerial view the power plant can be seen behind the twin towers. Railroad cars
that carry coal to the Midwest are in the right foreground. Near the tracks are the
scars left by strip mining of an earlier era.
tana in his novel, The Big Sky. "It made
the mind small and the heart tight and the
belly drawn, lying wild and lost under such
a reach of sky as put a man in fear of
heaven."
At night the plains are alive with deer
mice, voles and other nocturnal creatures,
some of which are caught in traps set as
part of the EPA research project. They are
released the next day after being weighed,
measured and thoroughly checked for indi-
cations of pollution injury.
In the daytime as one walks across the
plains, jillions of grasshoppers explode un-
der foot, flying off like so many tiny
firecrackers.
Driving along the bumpy prairie roads
frequently crossed with metal cattle
guards, you pass fields studded with hay
stacks and occasional lofty buttes. Flocks
of mourning doves and meadow larks burst
into the air sporadically as the car goes by.
While the grasslands in this semi-arid
region are fragile, they teem with life. And
all forms of this life are being screened by
the project scientists for possible duty as
early warning sentries of sulfur dioxide
pollution.
One of the humbler forms of life, the
mosslike lichen, promises to be one of the
more effective in detecting the presence of
the pollutant.
The two main research areas are at Hay
Coulee, about nine miles southeast of the
power plant, and at Ft. Howes, a site
S
Giant shovel dumps coal from huge seam
into waiting carrier.
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about 65 miles further southeast in the
Custer National Forest.
At the coulee (a dry gulch or ravine) site,
an air quality monitoring trailer records the
amount of sulfur dioxide and other pollu-
tants as well as wind speed, humidity,
rainfall and solar radiation to collect com-
plete data.
Intensive studies are conducted on such
plants as bluejoint. needle and thread,
crested wheat and blue grama—all grasses
eaten by cattle and sheep on these range-
lands.
As part of the study Dr. Eric Preston,
EPA field project manager, conducts a
periodic bird census in the area. Beginning
a half hour before dawn he stops at stations
every half mile along a 30-mile route
around the plant to record either by sight
or song the number and variety of birds
present.
So far no significant impact on the grasses
or other forms of life has been detected at
the Hay Coulee site. However, the project
scientists report that so far the power plant
has not been in full operation.
Dr. Norman Glass, Director of the Cor-
vallis Laboratory's Ecological Effects Re-
search Division, explains that the study is
"the first major attempt to develop meth-
ods that can predict bioenvironmental ef-
fects of air pollution before damage is
sustained."
The project was started in 1973 to obtain
useful "before" and "after" data on the
impact of fumes from a coal-burning plant.
The first 350-megawatt unit of the Colstrip
power plant began operation spasmodically
in 1975 and the second unit started inter-
mittent operation last summer. The two
500-foot power plant stacks are equipped
with "scrubber" devices, pollution control
mechanisms designed to reduce the amount
of sulfur in the emissions from the plant.
Construction of two additional larger gener-
ating units at Colstrip has been proposed
by Montana Power and four other utilities
from the Pacific Northwest.
In the past air pollution field research has
concentrated on the direct impact of air
pollution on vegetation after the damage
has occurred. Also little information has
been available on the effect of relatively
long-term low-level pollutants.
The Colstrip area was picked for the
study for many reasons, including the fact
that it is representative of a relatively large
portion of the North Central Great Plains.
It is a rangeland where the vegetation and
the non-migratory animals have had to
endure such environmental problems as
drought, freezing temperatures, and scorch-
ing heat but never the added stress of air
pollutants.
At a remote grassland area in the Custer
National Forest, near the Ft. Howes site,
experimental stressing of two four-acre
sites, known as "ZAPS" (zonal air pollu-
tion systems) tracts, is under way.
Each tract is criss-crossed with what
appear to be metal irrigation pipes. How-
ever, instead of water the pipes are releas-
ing the fumes from tanks of sulfur dioxide
Continued on page 14
The large net is dropped from its boom
to collect insects for EPA's study of the
impact of sulfur dioxide fumes. Resting
on the pipes used to distribute the sulfur
dioxide is a "sticky cup," a trap used to
catch flying insects.
Rabbit outside his lair at the base of a
Montana butte.
Power lines stride across the Montana plains.
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at carefully controlled concentrations.
Progressively greater amounts of this pol-
lutant are released on the plots in each
tract.
Dr. Glass remarked on an inspection tour
of the site that the "sulfur dioxide pollution
here is equivalent to that on an average
summer day in Philadelphia. We tried to
get the pollution up to the Chicago level,
but we didn't quite make it."
Dr. Glass explained that EPA is fumi-
gating two four-acre sites and may
start a third one if funding can be found
because "we don't want to put all our eggs
in one or even two baskets."
At the ZAPS sites various types of traps
are used to collect insects and small ani-
mals, and detailed studies are made of all
plant forms.
Dr. Sharon Eversman, a lichenologist and
biology instructor at Montana State Uni-
versity at Bozeman, reports that at the
ZAPS location, as in other areas around
the world, lichens show great sensitivity to
the sulfur dioxide fumes.
"After no more than 30 to 60 days of
exposure to the sulfur dioxide, the lichen
respiration rate goes down and the algal
cells begin to bleach," Dr. Eversman re-
ports. "The whole appearance of the lichen
which is normally a greenish gray becomes
yellowish.
"While the grasses don't appear to show
much difference between the progressively
more polluted ZAPS sites, the lichen cer-
tainly do. I think this is because the lichen
get all their water and nutrients through the
air. They have no roots and so there is no
filtering by the soil before the water and
nutrients are received."
Universities and their team leaders work-
ing on the research project under contract
with EPA are:
Colorado State University, Jerry Dodd:
Montana State University, John Taylor,
and the University of Montana, Clancy
Gordon.
Strip mining of the enormous coal supply
available in seams averaging 25 feet in
thickness was started by the Northern
Pacific Railway at Colstrip in 1924. At that
time the coal was used to fuel steam
locomotive boilers. However, the railroad
discontinued its mining in 1958 when its
steam engines were replaced by diesel
locomotives.
In 1959 the Montana Power Company
acquired the Northern Pacific's large min-
ing machinery, the townsite of Colstrip and
mining leases covering 75 million tons of
coal resources. Western Energy, a coal
Cattle browse on plains grass.
mining subsidiary of Montana Power, later
obtained additional leases in the Colstrip
area to bring the total to about 850 million
tons of coal resources.
Some of this coal is shipped to midwest-
ern utility companies in Illinois, Wisconsin
and Minnesota and much of it is used by
Montana Power Co. plants, including the
two new generating units in the coal mining
area known as Colstrip I and 2.
Dr. Glass estimates that EPA is spending
approximately $900,000 a year on the Col-
strip research project, with about half this
sum being spent by EPA scientists and the
remainder being used to finance work by
State universities and other Federal agen-
cies cooperating on this project.
"We hope to complete the project in
another year to two." said Dr. Glass "and
be in a position then to provide advice on
optional siting of power plants with the
least amount of environmental damage.
"Also, we hope to develop a protocol or
method for determining potential environ-
mental impact of power plant emissions
before the power plant is constructed,
which could be used by public and private
utilities and State and Federal Government
agencies in assessing power plant sites
before energy development occurs." ¦
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