PB87-234522
Prevention Reference Manual: Chemical
Specific. Volume 7. Control of Accidental
Releases of Chloropicrin (SCAQMD) (South
Coast Air Quality Management District)
Radian Corp., Austin, TX
Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC
Aug 87


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CB87-234522
EPA/600/8-87/034g
August 1987
PREVENTION REFERENCE MANUAL:
CHEMICAL SPECIFIC
VOLUME 7: CONTROL OF ACCIDENTAL
RELEASES OF CHLOROPICRIN (SCAQMD)
By:
D.S. Davis
G.B. DeWolf
J.D. Quass
Radian Corporation
Austin, Texas 78720-1088
Contract No. 68-02-3889
Ta6k No. 98
EPA Project Officer
T. Kelly Janes
Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
AIR AND ENERGY ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NC 27711

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_ TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Keate read icjo-jttium -on iht reriru befcst tosipttrtng}
1 SEPOHTWO. J.
E PA/6C 0/8-87/034 q
*W-a§T4T2 27S
4 TiTltANDSUSTITLl
Prevention Reference Manual: Chemical Specific,
Volume 7: Control of Accidental Releases of
Chloropicrin (SCAQMD)
fl. REPCai DATE
August19B7
I. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
D. S. Davis, G. B. DeWolf, and J. D. Quass
3. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
DCN 87-203-024-98-26
» PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Radian Corporation
8501 Mo-Pac Boulevard
Austin, Texas 78766
tO. PROGRAM EkEM^NV N&.
11. CONTRACT/GRAbf Nft.
68-02-3889, Task 98
13. SPONSORI NG AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
IX TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Task Final; 9/86 - 4/87
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600A3
is.supptEMENTARVNOTEs ^eeRL project officer is T. Kelly Janes, Mail Drop 62B. 919/541-
2852.
io. abstract xhe manual summarizes technical information that will assist in identifying
and controlling chloropicrin-associated release hazards specific to the South Coast
Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) of southern California. The SCAQMD
has been considering a strategy for reducing the risk of a major accidental air re-
lease of toxic chemicals. The strategy includes monitoring the storage, handling,
and use of certain chemicals and providing guidance to industry and communities.
Chloropicrin has an immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) concentra-
tion of 1 ppm, making it a substantial acute toxic hazard.'To reduce the risks asso-
ciated with an accidental release of chloropicrin, some of the potential causes of
accidental releases that apply to processes that use chloropicrin in the SCAQMD
must be identified. Examples of potential causes are identified, as are measures
that may be taken to reduce the accidental release risk. Such measures include re-
commendations on: plant design practices; prevention, protection, and mitigation
technologies; and operation and maintenance practices. Conceptual costs of possible
prevention, protection, and mitigation measures are estimated.
IT. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
L DESCRIPTORS
b.lOENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. cos ATI Fold/Croup
Pollution
Chlorohydrocarbons
Emission Design
Accidents Maintenance
Toxicity
Storage
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Chloropicrin
Accidental Releases
13 B
07 C
14G
13 L
06T
15E
1 8 DISTRIBUTION 5TAT£M£*T
Release to Public
IB SECURITY CLA5S fPuiReportJ
Unclassified
21 NO. Of PAGES
84
20 SECURITY CLASS (T*M paftf
Unclassified
M PRICE
CPA Form JJSfr-1 (*7J)
t

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NOTICE
This document has been reviewed in accordance with
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and
approved for publication. Mention of trade names
or commercial products does not constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use.
ii

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ABSTRACT
A strategy for reducing the risk of a major accidental air release of
toxic chemicals has developed a strategy tor reducing the risk of a major
accidental air release of toxic chemicals. The strategy includes monitoring
the storage, handling, and use of certain chemicals and providing guidance to
industry and communities. This manual summarizes technical information that
will assist in identifying and controlling release hazards associated with
chloropicrin specific to the SCAQMD.
Chloropicrin £.as has an IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health)
concentration of 1 ppts, which makes it a substantial acute toxic hazard. To
reduce the risks associated with an accidental release of chloropicrin, seme
of the potential causes of accidental releases that apply to processes that
use chloropicrin in the SCAQMD must be identified. Examples of potential
causes are identified, as are specific measures that may be taken to reduce
the accidental release risk. Such measures include recommendations on plant
design practices, prevention, protection and mitigation technologies, and
operation and maintenance practices. Conceptual cost estimates of possible
prevention, protection, and mitigation measures are provided.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This manual was prepared under the overall guidance and direction of
T. Kelly Janes, Project Officer, with the active participation of Robert P.
Hangebrauck, William J. Rhodes, and Jane M. Crum, all of U.S. EPA. In addi-
tion, other EPA personnel served as reviewers. Sponsorship and technical
support was also provided by Robert Antonopolis of the South Coast Air quality
Management District of Southern California, and Michael Stenberg of the U.S.
EPA, Region 9. Radian Corporation principal contributors involved in prepar-
ing the manual were Graham E. Harris (Program Manager). Glenn B. DeWolf
(Project Director), Daniel S. Davis, Nancy S. Gates, Jeffrey D. Quass, Miriam
Stohs, and Sharon L. Wevill. Contributions were also provided by other staff
members. Secretarial support was provided by Robert J. Brouwer and others,
special thanks are given to the matay other people, both in government and
industry, who served on the Technical Advisory Group and as peer reviewers.
iv

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section	page
ABSTRACT		1 i 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 		1y
FIGURES		Vi
TABLES		VH
Section	Page
1	INTRODUCTION 		1
1.1	Background		1
1.2	Purpose of This Manual		1
1.3	Use of Chloropicrin		2
1.4	Organization of the Manual		2
2	CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS		4
2.1	Physical Properties 		4
2.2	Chemical Properties and Reactivity 		6
2.3	Toxicological and Health Effects 		6
3	FACILITY DESCRIPTIONS AND PROCESS HAZARDS 		9
3.1	Processing		9
3.2	Storage and Transfer		11
3.3	Potential Causes of Releases 		11
3.3.1	Process Causes		11
3.3.2	Equipment Causes 		12
3.3.3	Operational Causes 		12
4	HAZARD PREVENTION AND CONTROL 		14
4.1	General Considerations 		14
4.2	Process Design		IS
4.3	Physical Plant Design 		15
4.3.1	Equipment		17
4.3.2	Plant Siting and Layout		21
4.3.3	Transfer and Transport Facilities 		22
4.4	Protection Technologies 		23
4.4.1	Enclosures		23
4.4.2	Scrubbers ..... 		24
4.5	Mitigation Technologies 		26
4.5.1	Secondary Containment System 		26
4.5.2	Flotation Devices and Foams 		30
4.5.3	Mitigation Techniques for Chloropicrin Vapor . .	31
4.6	Operation and Maintenance Practices 		33
4.7	Control Effectiveness 		34
V

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Section	Page
4.8 Illustrative Cost Estimates for Controls 		34
4.8.1	Prevention and Protection Measures 			36
4.8.2	Levels of Control		36
4.8.3	Cost Summaries .................	38
4.8.4	Equipment Specifications and Detailed Costs - . .	44
4.8.5	Methodology		44
5 REFERENCES		69
APPENDIX A . GLOSSARY		71
APPENDIX B . METRIC (SI) CONVERSION FACTORS		75
FIGURES
Number	Page
3-1 Conceptual process diagram of a typical batch chloropicrin
manufacturing process 		10
vi

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TABLES
Number	Pase
2-1 Physical Properties of Chloropicrin 		5
2-2 Exposure Limits for Chloropicrin 		7
2-3 Predicted Human Health Effects of Exposure to Various
Concentrations of Chloropicrin 	 8
4-1 Key Process Design Considerations and Processes Involving
Chloropicrin 	 16
4—2 Examples of Major Prevention and Protection 'feasures for
Chloropicrin Releases 	 35
4—3 Estimated Typical Costs of Some Prevention and Protection
Measures for Chloropicrin Releases 	 37
4-4 Summary Cost Estimates of Potential Levels of Controls for
Chloropicrin Storage Tank and Batch Reactor 	 39
4-5 Example of Levels of Controls for Chloropicrin Storage Tank ... 40
4-6 Example of Levels of Controls for Chloropicrin Manufacture ... 42
4-7 Estimated Typical Capital and Annual Costs Associated with
Baseline Chloropicrin Storage System 	 45
4-8 Estimated Typical Capital and Annual Costs Associated with
Level 1 Chloropicrin Storage System 	 46
4-9 Estimated Typical Capital and Annual Costs Associated with
Level 2 Chloropicrin Storage System	 47
4-10 Estimated Typical Capital and Annual Costs Associated with
Baseline Continuous Chloropicrin Production 	 48
4-11 Estimated Typical Capital and Annual Costs Associated with Level
1	Continuous Chloropicrin Production 	 49
4-12 Estimated Typical Capital and Annual Costs Associated with Level
2	Continuous Chloropicrin Manufacture 	 50
4-13 Equipment Specifications Associated with Chloropicrin Storage
System	 51
vii

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TABLES (Continued)
Number	Page
4-14 Material and Labor Coats Associated with Baseline Chloropicrin
Storage SyGttts	53
4-15 Material and Labor Costs Associated with Level 1 Chloropicrin
Storage System . . . . 	 .......... 	 54
4-16 Material and Labor Costs Associated with Level 2 Chloropicrin
Storage System . . . 				 55
4-17 Equipment Specifications Associated with Chloropicrin Manufacture 56
4-18 Material and Labor Costs Associated with Baseline Continuous
Chloropicrin Production 	 5fl
4-19 Material and Labor Coats Associated with Level 1 Continuous
Chloropicrin Production 	 .............. 59
4-20 Material and Labor Costs Associated with Level 2 Continuous
Chloropicrin Production .......... 	 ...... 60
4-21 Format for Total Fixed Capital Cost	 61
4-22 Format for Total Annual Cost 		 63
4-23 Format for Installation Costs 	 ....... 68
viii

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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1	BACKGROUND
Recognizing the potential risk associated with accidental releases of air
toxics in southern California, the South Coast Air quality Management District
(SCAQMD). conducted a study in 1985 to determine the presence, quantities, and
uses of hazardous chemicals in the SCAQMD, which includes Los Angeles, Orange,
San Bemadino, and Riverside Counties. The SCAQMD study resulted in a report,
"South Coast Air Basin Accidental Toxic Air Emissions Study," that outlined an
overall strategy for reducing the potential for a major toxic chemical
release.
The strategy includes monitoring industry activities associated with
storing, handling, and using certain chemicals; using the best technical
information available; and guiding industry and communities in reducing the
potential for accidental releases and the consequences of any releases that
might occur.
Historically, it appears there have been no significant releases of
chloropicrin in the SCAQMD. Major incidents elsewhere involving chloropicrin
have not been common.
1.2	PURPOSE OF THIS MANUAL
This manual compiles technical information on chloropicrin, specifically
on preventing accidental releases of chloropicrin. The manual addresses
technological and procedural issues associated with storing, handling, and
processing chloropicrin as it is used in the SCAQMD.
1

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This manual is not a specification manual, and in fact refers the reader
to technical manuals and other sources for more complete information on the
topics discussed. Other sources include manufacturers and distributors of
chloropicrin, and technical literature on design, operation, and loss preven-
tion in facilities handling toxic chemicals.
1.3	USE OF CHLOROPICRIN
Chloropicrin (CCl^NO^) is manufactured commercially from bleaching powder
and picric acid or by the chlorination of nitromethane in the presence of
caustic. It is used primarily as an insecticide, as a soil fumigant, and as a
warning agent in commercial fumigants. It is also used as a chemical interme-
diate in the organic synthesis of dyes, as a chemical sterilant, and as a
nauseant in chemical warfare. Numerous references in the technical literature
describe the canufacture and uses of chloropicrin. Limited survey date
indicate that in the SCAQMD, chloropicrin is manufactured from nitromethane
and sodium hypochlorite at one site (1). Approximately 10-150 tons of chloro-
picrin are maintained at this site at any time (1). The chloropicrin is used
in the formulation of chloropicrin-methyl bromide mixtures and is shipped to
contract fuaigators or re-formulators for further use (1).
Storage of chloropicrin appears to be limited to small cylinders (e.g.,
150 lb.) and bulk, storage tanks.
1.4	ORGANIZATION OF THE MANUAL
Following the introductory section, the remainder of the manual presents
technical information on specific hazards and categcries of hazards and their
control as they relate to chloropicrin.
Section 2 discusses physical and chemical properties. Section 3 de-
scribes the types of facilities whets chloropicrin is used in the SGAQMD and
process hazards found in those facilities. Hazard prevention and control are
discussed in Section A, as are costs of example storage and process
2

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facilities, reflecting different levels of control through alternative
systems. The examples are for illustration only and do not necessarily
represent a satisfactory alternative control option in all cases. Section 5
conrains references. Appendix A is a glossary of key technical terms that
might not be familiar to all users of the manual, and Appendix B presents
selected conversion factors between metric (SI) and English measurement units.
3

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SECTION 2
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
This section of the manual describes the physical, chemical and toxico-
logical properties of chloropicrin as they relate to accidental release
hazards.
2.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
At rooo temperature and pressure, chloropicrin is a colorless, oily
liquid with a sharp penetrating odor. Some of its common physical properties
are shown in Table 2-1.
Chloropicrin is only slightly soluble in water. It is, however, partial-
ly soluble in ether, and niscible in benzene, carbon disulfide, and amyl
alcohol. In addition, chloropicrin is more dense than water and large spills
in water may settle before being totally dispersed or volatilized.
Because it has a relatively high evaporation rate, spills and leaks of
chloropicrin can result in hazardous air releases. In addition, since the
density of chloropicrin vapor is greater than that of air, it will remain
close to the ground, potentially creating a dangerous situation for workers
and surrounding communities.
Chloropicrin has a moderately large coefficient of expansion, expanding
approximately 5 percent when warmed from 68°F to 1A0°F (2). Consequently,
liquid-full equipment presents a special hazard. A liquid-full vessel is a
vessel that is not vented and has little or no vapor space above the liquid.
A liquid-full line is a section of pipe sealed off at both ends and full of
liquid, with little or no vapor space. In such cases, there is no room for
thermal expansion of the liquid and temperature increases can result in
containment failure.
A

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TABLE 2-1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHLOROPICRIN
Reference
CAS Registry Number
Chemical Formula
Molecular Height
Normal Boiling Point
Melting Point
Liquid Specific Gravity (tUO^)
Vapor Specific Gravity (air=l)
Vapor Pressure
Vapor Pressure Equation:*
log Pv
where:
76-06-2
Ca3N°2
164. 4
233.6 °F 6 I ata
-83.2 °F
1.651 e 68 °F
5.7 0 233.6°F
0.35 psia 8 68°F
B
= A -
Solubility in Uater
Specific Heat at Constant
Pressure
Latent Heat of Vaporization
Liquid Surface Tension
Average Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion, 32 °F - 158 °F
T+C
Pv = vapor pressure, mmHg
T = temperature, °C
A = 7.7911, a constant
B = 1,823.90, a constant
C = 259.44, a constant
0.12 lb/ft3
0.225 Btu/(lb-°F)
99.9 Btu/lb
32.3 dyn/cm © 68°F
0.00116/°F
2
2
3
3
2
4
3
2
2
2
2
~Constants were calculated using formula derived in Reference 4 and vapor
pressure data from Reference 2.
5

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2.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AMD REACTIVITY
The most significant propertieo contributing to a potential accidental
release of chloropicrin are:
•	Chloropicrin decomposes violently when heated above its
normal boiling point of 233.6°F. to severely toxic gases,
including nitric oxide, phosgene, nitrosy1 chloride,
chlorine, and carbon monoxide. The rate of decomposition
is increased by contact with metal6 (2,5).
« Most metals are corroded or tarnished to some degree by
chloropicrin. In particular, since chloropicrin severely
corrodes sluminum. magnesium and their alloys under
certain conditions, they should not be used in chloro-
picrin service (2).
•	Chloropicrin is incompatible with strong oxidizers and
contact can result in the formation of flammable and
explosive gaseous mixtures (6).
During the process and storage of chloropicrin such conditions should be
avoided.
2.3 TOXICOLOGICAL AND HEALTH EFFECTS
The toxicological effects of chloropicrin have been well-documented (7).
Chloropicrin is s severe irritsnt to the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract.
Exposure results in lachrymation. coughing, nausea, vomiting, bronchitis, and
pulmonary edema (6.8.9). An additional toxic effect is that it interferes
with oxygen transport by reacting with SH-groupe in hemoglobin (8). Vomiting
occurs after swallowing saliva in which small amounts of chloropicrin have
dissolved. Table 2-2 summarizes some of the relevant exposure limits for
6

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chloropicrin. Table 2-3 summarizes the predicted human health effects of
exposure to various concentrations of chloropicrin.
TABLE 2-2. EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR CHLOROPICRIN
Exposure
Limit
Concentration
(ppm)
Description
Reference
IDLH
PEL
TCLo
LCLo
4	The concentration defined as posing an
immediate danger to life and health
(i.e., causes irreversible toxic
effects for a 30-minute exposure)
0.1	A time-weighted 8-hour exposure to
this concentration, as set by the
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), should result
in no adverse effects for the average
worker.
0.3	This concentration is the lowest pub-
lished concentration causing toxic
effects (irritation) for a 1-minute
exposure.
119	Thi6 concentration is the lowest pub-
lished lethal concentration for a
human over a 30-ainute exposure.
10
10
7

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TABLE 2-3.
PREDICTED HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE TO VARIOUS
CONCENTRATIONS OF CHLOROPICRIN
ppm
Predicted Effect
0.3 - 0.37
Painful eye irritation results in 3 to 30 seconds
1.1
Odor threshold
4
Temporarily disabling as a result of irritant
effects after a fev seconds
15
Intolerable longer than 1 minute
20
Causes bronchial or pulmonary lesions after 1 to 2
minutes
119
Death resulting from pulmonary edeca after 30
minutes
8

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SECTION 3
FACILITY DESCRIPTIONS AND PROCESS HAZARDS
This section briefly describes the uses of chloropicrin in the SCAQMD and
highlights major process hazards related tc accidental releases. Preventive
measures associated with these hazards are discussed in Section 4.
3.1 PROCESSING
According to the survey data, chloropicrin is manufactured in the SCAQMD
by the chlorination of nitronethane and is used to make chloropicrin-methyl
bromide mixtures. This section summarizes the major technical features of
typical processing and storage facilities that might be found in the SCAQMD
and discusses the associated accidental releace hazards.
Chloropicrin is manufactured by batch chlorination of nitromethane.
Figure 3-1 presents a typical chlorination system.
The process consists of adding over a given period of time a slight
excess of nitromethane to an aqueous solution of sodium hypochlorite in a
stirred, uncooled batch reactor (9,11). To prevent boiling of the reaction
mixture the temperature of the reactor contents is maintained belov 165°F by
controlling the temperature and concentration of the sodium hypochlorite used.
The primary hazard associated with the manufacture of chloropicrin is the
exothermic nature of the chlorination reaction. The potential exists for a
runaway reaction, resulting in overheating and overpressure. Adequate temper-
ature control and agitation are required to prevent a hazardous release of
toxic material.
9

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WATER
-fe
NITROMETHANE
STORAGE
SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE i.
STORAGE	^
n
a&O
BATCH CHL0R1NATI0N
REACTOR

CHLOROPICRIN
STORAGE
3
Figure 3-1. Conceptual process diagram of a typical batch chloropicrin
aanufacturing process.

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3.2 STORAGE AND TRANSFER
Chloropicrin is stored in low-pressure storage vessels to prevent vapor
loss (12,13). Because of the acute toxicity of cfaloropicrin vapor, a sealed
vessel is typically used to prevent breathing loss emissions.
Transfer of chloropicrin involves a closed system (12). Vapor exchange
to a tank truck is commonly used when filling a chloropicrin storage tank.
The system consists of a pipeline between the vapor spaces of the tank truck
and the storage vessel. The vapors can then be displaced from the receiving
tank and transported back to the loading terminal. When emptying a
chloropicrin storage tank, nitrogen replaces the chloropicrin vapors in the
vapor space.
3.3 POTENTIAL CAUSES OF RELEASES
Chloropicrin releases can originate from many sources, including leaks or
ruptures in vessels, piping, valves, instrumentation connections, and process
machinery such as pumps.
Failures leading to accidental releases may be broadly classified as due
to process, equipment, or operational problems. The causes of releases
discussed below are illustrative and do not exhaust all possibilities.
3.3.1 Process Causes
Process causes are related to the fundamentals of process chemistry,
control, and general operation. Possible process causes of a chloropicrin
release include:
• Excess nitroaetbane feed to a batch reactor leading to
excessive exothermic reaction;
Li

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•	Excess feeds in any part of tbe system leading to over-
filling or overpressuring equipment;
•	Overpressure in chloropicrin storage vessels. This
situation may be caused by heat generated by a reaction of
chloropicrin with contaminants, fire exposure, or unre-
lieved overfilling.
3.3.2	Equipment Causes
Equipment causes of accidental releases result from hardware failures.
Possible causes include:
•	Excessive stress due to Improper fabrication, construc-
tions, or installation;
•	Failure of a vessel due to weakening of equipment from
excessive stress, external loadings or corrosion; and
•	Pipe or pump failure due to excessive stress, external
loading, erosion or corrosion.
3.3.3	Operational Causes
Operational causes of accidental releases are a result of incorrect
operating and maintenance procedures or human operating errors. These causes
include:
•	Overfilled storage vessels;
•	Improper process system operation;
•	Errors in chloropicrin transfer procedures;
12

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Inadequate maintenance in general, but especially of
pressure relief systems and other preventive and protec-
tive systems; and
Lack of inspection and non-destructive testing of vessels
and piping to detect corrosion weakening.
13

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SECTION 4
HAZARD PREVENTION AND CONTROL
4.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The prevention of accidental releases relies on a combination of techno-
logical. administrative, and operational practices that apply to the design,
construction, and operation of facilities where chloropicrin is manufactured,
stored and used. Considerations in these areas can be grouped as follows:
•	Process design;
•	Physical plant design;
o Operating and maintenance practices; and
•	Protective systems.
In each of these areas, specific factors must be considered that could
lead to a process upset or failure that could directly cause a release of
chloropicrin to the environment or result in an equipment failure that would
then cause the release. At a minimum, equipment and procedures should be
examined to ensure they are in accordance with applicable codes, standards,
and regulations. In addition, stricter equipment and procedural specifica-
tions should be used if extra protection against a release is considered
appropriate.
The following subsections discuss specific considerations regarding
release prevention; more detailed discussions will be found in the manual on
control technologies.
14

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4.2 PROCESS DESIGN
Process design involves the fundamental characteristics of the process by
which chloropicrin is manufactured. Any discussions of how process design may
be involved in accidental chemical releases must include an evaluation of how
deviations from expected process design conditions could initiate a series of
events resulting in an accidental release. The primary focus is on how the
process is controlled in terms of the basic process chemistry involved, and on
the variables of flow, pressure, temperature, composition, and level. Quan-
tity measuring systems, mixing systems, fire protection, and process control
instrumentation may also be considered. Modifications tc enhance process
integrity would involve changes in quantities of materials, in process pres-
sure and temperature conditions, in unit operations and sequence of opera-
tions, in process control strategies, and in the instrumentation used.
Table 4-1 shows the relationship between key process design considera-
tions and the individual processes described in Section 3 of this manual.
This does not mean that other factors should be ignored, nor that proper
attention to the key consideration ensures a safe system. These considera-
tions must be properly addressed, however, to ensure a safe system.
The primary consideratior in the manufacture of chloropicrin ia pre-
venting overheating and boiling of the batch reactor contents that might lead
to overpressure. Equipment failure without overpressure is also possible if
corrosion has weakened process equipment.
4.3 PHYSICAL PLANT DESIGN
Physical plant design involves equipment, siting and layout, and trans-
fer/transport facilities. Vessels, piping and valve, process machinery,
instrumentation, and factors such as location of systems and equipaent must
all be considered. The following subsections cover various aspects of physi-
cal plant design, beginning with a discussion of materials of construction.
15

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TABLE 4-1. KEY PROCESS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND PROCESSES INVOLVING
CHLOROPICRIN
Process Design Consideration	Process or Unit Operation
Flov control of feed streams
Temperature monitoring
Adequate pressure relief
Mixing
Corrosion monitoring
Level sensing and control
Batch chloropicrin reactor
Batch chloropicrin reactor
Storage tanks and batch
chloropicrin reactor
Batch chloropicrin reactor
Storage tanks and batch
chloropicrin reactor
Storage tanks <»nd batch
chloropicrin reactor
16

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A.3.1 Equipment
Materials of Construction—
Practically all netals are corroded or tarnished by chloropicrin, but not
enough to prevent their use as construction materials (2). In addition,
metals tend to catalyze the decomposition of chloropicrin (2).
Chloropicrin can be stored in a mild steel shell at 1A0°F for 15 veeks
with only a minimum amount of decomposition (2). Although chloropicrin
attacks the shell, the degree of corrosion is minimal. It can likewise be
stored at room temperature for at least one year with no pronounced changes
other than slight corrosion of the shell (2).
Other materials more resistant to the corrosiveness of chloropicrin are
the stainless steels, titanium, and nickel-copper and nickel-chromiua-nolyb-
denum alloys. However, stainless steel tends to concentration cell corrode
(1A). This type of corrosion results from a difference in the amount of
oxygen in solution at one point as compared with another (15). Corrosion is
accelerated where the oxygen concentration is least. This occurs in a stuf-
fing box or under gaskets, for example.
Equipment used in chloropicrin service is commonly lined with tetra-
fluoropolyethylene, vinylidene chloride, or pclyvinylidene fluoride to prevent
corrosion (1A). Polypropylene resins and polyvinyl chloride are not recom-
mended (1A).
Aluminum, magnesium and their alloys should not be used in chloropicrin
service since chloropicrin can react violently with these materials (5).
Vessels—
Low pressure storage tanks and batch reactors are used in chloropicrin
service (13). Each type of vessel has certain design and fabrication specifi-
cations under various codes and standards that should be adhered to.
17

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Chloropicrin shipping containers must meet Department of Transportation (DOT)
specifications.
Although exact specifications for batch reactors used in the manufacture
of chloropicrin are unavailable, they should at least conform to applicable
codes for low-pressure vessels.
Specific release prevention considerations for vessels include over-
pressure protection, temperature control, and corrosion prevention. Process
vestels are usually protected by pressure relief valves and/or rupture discs.
The pressure relief valve is set to relieve slightly above the design working
pressure of the vessel, but veil below the maximum allowable working pressure.
Pressure relief valves and rupture discs are designed to prevent explo-
sion by allowing a controlled release of overpressurized contents. These
relief systems are usually sized for flashing liquid caused by (16):
•	Fire exposure:
•	Thermal expansion;
•	Internal reaction/decomposition; and
•	Excess supply rates.
Relief piping must be sized for adequate flow. Preventing a relief discharge
to the environment requires that the discharge be handled through one of the
protection systems discussed in Section 4.4 of this manual.
Piping—
Ab with chloropicrin vessels, chloropicrin pipework design must reflect
the pressure, temperature, and corrosion associated with use of the chemical.
Careful attention must be paid to pipework and associated fittings since
failures of this type of equipment are major contributors to accidental
18

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releases of chemicals (16). Ac for all toxic chemicals, there are general
guidelines for chloropicrin piping systems (16). The first is simplicity of
design; the number of joints and connections should be minimized. In addition
to being securely supported, pipes should be sloped, with drainage at the low
points. Piping should be constructed to allow room for thermal expansion of
the pipe and should be protected froas exposure to fire and high temperatures.
Placement of valves should ensure isolation of leaking pipes and equipment.
The correct design and use of pipe supports is essential to reducing
overstress and vibration that could lead to piping failure. The supports
should be designed to handle the load associated with the pipe, operating and
testing medium, insulation, and other equipment. Thermal expansion and
contraction, vibrations caused by pumping and fluid flow, bending movements
resulting from overpressure in the pipe, and external loads 6uch as winds or
ice accumulation must all be considered.
All piping should be situated away from fire and fire hazards since
chloropicrin can explode violently above its boiling point (2).. If possible,
piping carrying chloropicrin should not be routed near other processes or
piping networks that might present an external threat (e.g., piping carrying
highly corrosive materials, high pressure processes). Pipe flanges should be
situated to minimize potential hazards from drips and small leaks-. In addi-
tion, the piping network should be protected from possible impact and other
structural damage.
Valves in chloropicrin service include gate, globe, ball, relief, and
check configurations; they must be constructed of materials suitable for
chloropicrin service.
Check valves, which are a primary means of preventing uodesired back or
reverse flows, can prevent undesired materials from entering
chloropicrin-containing equipment and possible explosive reactions resulting
from backups into tanks. Check valves are also used widely on the puap
discharges to prevent backflow that could render a pump inoperable and even-
tually result in a hazardous release.
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Process Machinery—
Process machinery is rotating or reciprocating equipment that may be used
for transferring or processing chloropicrin.
Pumps—Centrifugal, rotary, positive displacement, and sealless pumps are
used to puap chloropicrin. To ensure that a given pump is suitable for
chloropicrin service, the system designer should obtain information from the
pump manufacturer certifying that the pump will perform properly in this
application.
Pumps should be constructed of materials resistant to chloropicrin at
operating temperatures and pressures. They should be installed dry and
oil-free. The pump's supply tank should have high and low level alarms; the
pump should be interlccked to shut off at low supply level or low discharge
pressure. External pumps should be situated inside a diked area, and they
should be accessible in the event of a tank leak.
In some situations, the potential for seal leakage rules out the use of
rotating shaft seals. Pump types that either isolate the seals from the
process stream, or eliminate them altogether include canned-motor pumps,
vertical extended-spindle submersible pumps, magnetically coupled pumps and
diaphragm pumps (15,16).
Canned motor pumps are centrifugal units in which the motor housing is
interconnected with the punp casing. Here, the process liquid actually serves
as the bearing lubricant. An alternative concept is the vertical pump often
used on storage tanks. These pumps consist of a submerged impeller housing
connected by an extended drive shaft to the motor. The advantages are that
the shaft seal is above the maximum liquid level (and is therefore not wetted
by the pumped liquid) and the pump is 6elf priming because the liquid level is
above the impeller.
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Hagnetically-coupled pumps replace the drive shaft with a rotating
magnetic field as the pump-motor coupling device.
Diaphragm pumps are positive displacement units in which a reciprocating
flexible diaphragm drives the fluid. This arrangement eliminates exposure of
packing and aeals to the pumped liquid; however, at some point, the diaphragm
will probably fail and such a failure could lead to a release. These pumps
usually have a pressure relief valve on the outlet, bypassing to the suction.
Improper operation of pumps, i.e., running dry and deadheading, can
damage and cause failure of puaps. Running a pump dry because of loss of head
in a feed tank, for -example, can seriously damage a pump. Pumping against a
closed valve can also have serious ramifications, causing a temperature rise
of the liquid within the pump. This heating could result in therual decomposi-
tion of the chloropicrin within the pump, which could lead to an accidental
release. Such an occurrence may be avoided with a pump bypass or kick-back
loop. Failure of a pump, for whatever reason, can eventually lead to a
hazardous release.
6.3.2 Plant Siting and Layout
The siting and layout of a chloropicrin facility requires careful consid-
eration of numerous factors, including: other processes in the area, the
proximity of population centers, prevailing winds, local terrain, and poten-
tial natural external effects such aa flooding.
The siting of facilities or individual equipment items should reduce
personnel exposure, both plant and public, in the event of a release. Since
other siting considerations are also important, there may be trade-offs
between this requirement and other safety-related requirements in a process.
Siting should allow ready ingress or egress in the event of an emergency and
yet also take advantage of barriers, either man-made or natural, that could
reduce the consequences of a release.
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Various techniques available for formally assessing a plant layout should
be considered when planning high haiard facilities (16).
General layout considerations include:
•	Large inventories of chloropicrin Bhould be kept away frou
sources of fire or explosion hazard;
•	Vehicular traffic should not go too near chloropicrin
manufacture or storage areas if it can be avoided;
•	Where such traffic is necessary, precautions should bs
taken to reduce the chances of vehicular collisions with
equipment, especially pipe racks carrying chloropicrin
across or next to roadways; and
•	Storage- facilities should be segregated from the main
process unless the hazards of pipe transport are felt to
outweigh the hazard of the storage tank for site-specific
cases.
In the event of an emergency, there should be multiple means of access to
the facility for emergency vehicles and crews. Storage vessel shut-off valves
should be readily accessible. Containment for liquid storage tanks can be
provided by diking. Dikes reduce evaporation while containing the liquid. It
is also possible to design the drainage of a diked area to an underground
containment sump.
A.3.3 Transfer and Transport Facilities
Transfer and transport facilities where both road and rail tankers are
loaded or unloaded are likely accident areas because of vehicle movement and
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the intermittent nature of the operations. Special attention should be given
to the design of these facilities.
Tank car and tank truck facilities should be located away fron sources of
baat, fire, and explosion. Equipment in these areas should also be protected
from impact by vehicles and other moving equipment. Tank vehicles should be
securely moored during transfer operations; an interlocked barrier system is
commonly used. Sufficient space should be available to avoid congestion of
vehicles or personnel during loading and unloading operations. Vehicles,
especially truckst should be able to move into and out of the area without
reversing. High curbs around transfer areas and barriers around equipment
should be provided to protect equipment from vehicle collisions.
4.A PROTECTION TECHNOLOGIES
This section describes two types of protection technologies for contain-
ment and neutralization:
© Enclosures, and
• Scrubbers.
4.4.1 Enclosures
Enclosures refer to containment structures that capture any chloropicrin
spilled or vented from storage or process equipment, thereby preventing
immediate discharge of the chemical to the environment. The enclosures
contain the spilled liquid or vapor until it can be transferred to other
containment, discharged at a controlled rate that would not be injurious to
people or to the environment, or transferred at a controlled rate to scrubbers
for neutralization.
The location of toxic operations in the open air has been favorably
mentioned in the literature (16), but so has the opposing idea that sometimes
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enclosure may be appropriate. The practicability of using an enclosure
depends partly on how often personnel must be involved with the equipment. A
common design rationale for not having an enclosure where toxic materials are
used is to prevent the accumulation of toxic concentrations within enclosed
areas. However, if the issue is protecting the community from accidental
releases, then total enclosure may be appropriate. Enclosures should be
equipped with continuous monitoring equipment and alarms. Alarms should sound
whenever lethal or flammable concentrations are detected.
Care oust be taken when a enclosure is built around pressurized equip-
ment. It would not be practical to design an enclosure to withstand the
pressures associated with the sudden release of a pressurized vessel. An
enclosure would probably fail from the pressure created from such a release,
creating an additional hazard. In these situations, an enclosure may not be
appropriate. If an enclosure is built around pressurized equipment, it should
be equipped with 6ome type of explosion protection, such as rupture plates
designed to fail before the entire structure fails.
The type of structures that appear to be suitable for chloropicrin are
concrete blocks, or concrete sheet buildings or bunkers. An enclosure would
have a ventilation system designed to draw in air when the building is vented
to a scrubber. The bottom section of the building used for stationary storage
containers should be liquid tight to retain any chloropicrin that might be
spilled.
A.A.2 Scrubbers
Scrubbers, which are a traditional method for absorbing toxic gases from
process streams, can be used for controlling chloropicrin releases from vents
and pressure relief discharges, from process equipment, or from secondary
containment enclosures.
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Chloropicrin discharges could be contacted vith an aqueous scrubbing
medium in any of several types of scrubbing devices. An alkaline solution is
needed to achieve effective absorption because absorption rates with water
alone would require unreasonably hign liquid-to-gas ratios. A typical alka-
line solution for an emergency scrubber is calcium hydroxide derived from
slaked lime.
Types of scrubbers that might be appropriate include spray towers, pecked
bed scrubbers, and Venturis. Other special designs might be suitable, but
complex internals subject to corrosion do not seem appropriate.
Whatever type of scrubber is selected, a complete system would include
the scrubber itself, a liquid feed system, and reagent makeup equipment. If
such a system is used as protection against emergency relesses. one oust
consider how it would be activated in time to respond to an emergency load.
In some process facilities, a continuous circulation of scrubbing liquor is
maintained through the system. For many facilities this would not be practi-
cal. and the scrubber system might be tied into a trip system that turns it on
when needed.
Venturi scrubbers have an advantage when the scrubbing system is acti-
vated by a trip system. A venturi scrubber can create its own draw of vapor
by the flow of the scrubbing medium, so that the trip system need only turn on
the flow of liquid to the scrubber, rather than turn on the flow of liquid and
start up a blower, as would be required by alternate types of scrubbing
systems.
Another approach is the drowning tcwer where the chloropicrin vent is
routed to the bottom of a large tank of uncirculating caustic. The drowning
tower does not have the high contact efficiency of the other types, but can
provide substantial capacity on demand as long as the back pressure of the
hydrostatic head does not create a secondary hazard, by impeding an over-
pressure relief discharge, for example.
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4.5 MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES
If. in spite of all precautions, a large release of chloropicrin occurs,
the first priority is to rescue workers in the immediate vicinity of the
accident and evacuate persons from downwind areas. The source of the release
should be determined, and the leak should be plugged to stop the flow, if this
is possible. The next primary concern is to reduce the effects of the re-
leased chemical on the plant and the surrounding community. Reducing the
consequences of an accidental release of a hazardous chemical is referred to
as mitigation. Mitigation technologies include such measures as physical
barriers, water sprays and fogs, and foams, where applicable. The purpose of
a mitigation technique is to divert, limit, or disperse a chemical that has
been spilled or released to the atmosphere to reduce the atmospheric concen-
tration and the affected area. In addition, secondary containment systems
such as impounding basins, dikes, and flotation devices and/or foams are used
to reduce the rate of evaporation from a spilled liquid. The mitigation
technology chosen for a particular chemical depends on the specific properties
of the chemical: its flammability, toxicity, reactivity, and those properties
that determine its dispersion characteristics in the atmosphere.
A post-release mitigation effort requires that the source of the release
be accessible to trained plant personnel. Therefore, the availability of
adequate personnel protection is essential. Personnel protection typically
includes such items as portable breathing air and chemically resistant protec-
tive clothing.
A.5.1 Secondary Containment Systems
Specific types of secondary containment systems include excavated basins,
natural basins, earth, steel, or concrete dikes and high impounding walls.
The type of containment system best suited for a particular storage tank or
process unit will depend on the risk associated with an accidental release
from that location. The inventory of chloropicrin and its proximity to other
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portions of the plant and to the community should be considered when selecting
a secondary containment system. The secondary containment system should have
the ability to contain spills with a minimum of damage to the facility and its
surroundings and with minimun potential for escalation of the event.
Secondary containment systems for chloropicrin storage facilities common-
ly consist of one of the following:
o An adequate drainage system underlying the storage vessels
that terminates in an impounding basin whose capacity is
as large as that of the largest rank served;
o A diked area whose capacity is as large as that of the
largest tank served.
These measures are designed to prevent the accidental discharge of chloro-
picrin from spreading to uncontrolled areas.
The most common type of containment system is a low wall dike surrounding
one or more storage tanks. Generally, no more than three tanks are enclosed
within one area because of increased risk. Dike heights usually range from
three to twelve feet. The dike walls should be liquid tight and able to
withstand the hydrostatic pressure and temperature of a spill. Low-wall dikes
may be constructed of steel, concrete, or earth. Dike walls must be
constructed and maintained to prevent leakage through the dike. Piping should
be routed over dike walls, and penetrations through the walls should be
avoided if possible. Vapor fences may be situated on top of the dikes to
provide adequate vapor storage capacity. If there is more than one tank in
the diked area, the tanks should be situated on berms above the maximum liquid
level attainable in the impoundment.
A low-wall dike can effectively contain the liquid portion of an acciden-
tal release and keep the liquid frcsi entering uncontrolled areas. By
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preventing the liquid from spreading, the low-wall dike can also reduce tbe
surface area of the spill; reducing the surface area reduces tbe rate of
evaporation. The lew-wall dike will partially protect the spill frcn wind,
which can also reduce the rate of evaporation. A dike with a vapor fence will
provide extra protection from wind and will be even more effective at reducing
the rate of evaporation.
A remote impounding basin is well-suited to storage systems serving more
than one tank where a relatively large site is available. The flow frem a
chloropicrin spill is directed to the basin by dikes and channels under tbe
storage tanks; the channels are designed to minimize exposure of tbe liquid to
other tanks and surrounding facilities. Because chloropicrin evaporates at a
relatively rapid rate, the trenches that lead to the remote impounding basin
as well as the basin itself should be covered to reduce tbe rate of evapora-
tion. Also, the impounding basin should be located near the tank to minimize
the amount of chloropicrin that evaporates as it travels to the basin.
This type of system has several advantages. Tbe spilled liquid is
removed from the immediate tank area, allowing access to the tank during the
spill and reducing the probability that the spilled liquid will damage the
tank, piping, electrical equipment, pumps or other equipment.
High- wall impoundments tay be the best secondary containment choice for
selected systems. Circumstances that may warrant their use include limited
storage site area, the need to minimize vapor generation rates, and/or the
need for the tank to be protected from external hazards. Kaximum vapor
generation rates will generally be lower for a high-wall impoundment than for
low-wall dikes or remote impoundments because of the reduced surface contact
ares. These rates can be further reduced by using insulation on the wall and
floor in the annular space. High impounding walls may be constructed of low-
temperature steel, reinforced concrete, or prestressed concrete. A weather
shield may be provided between the tank and wall with the annular space
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remaining open to the atmosphere. The available area surrounding the storage
tank will dictate the minimum height of the wall. For high-wall impoundments,
the walls may be designed with a volumetric capacity greater than that of the
tank for containing vapors. Increasing the height of the wall also raises the
elevation of any released vapor.
One disadvantage of these dikes is that the high walls around a tank may
hinder routine external observation. Furthermore, the closer the wall is to
the tank, the more difficult it becomes to reach the tank for inspections and
maintenance. As with low vail dikes, piping should be routed over the wall if
possible. The closeness of the wall to the tank may require that the pump be
pieced outside the wall, in which case the outlet (suction) line will have to
pass through the wall. In such a situation, a low dike encompassing the pipe
penetration and pump may be provided, or a low dike may be placed around the
entire wall.
A further type of secondary containment system is structurally integrated
with the primary system to form a vapor-tight enclosure around the primary
container. Many arrangements are possible. A double-walled tank is an
example of 6uch an enclosure. These systems may be cons-'dered when protecting
the primary container and containing vapor for events not involving foundation
or wall penetration failure are of greatest concern. The drawbacks of an
integrated system are the greater complexity of the structure, the difficulty
of access to certain components, and the fact that complete vapor containment
cannot be guaranteed.
The ground within an enclosure should be graded so that the spilled
liquid can accumulate at one side or in one corner. This will help minimize
the area of ground to which the liquid is exposed and from which it may gain
heat. In areas where it is critical to minimize vapor generation, surface
inculation may be used in the diked area or impoundment to further reduce heat
transfer from the environment to the spilled liquid. The floor of an
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impoundment may be sealed with a clay blanket to prevent the chloropicrin from
seeping into the ground.
A.5.2 Flotation Devices and Foams
A common technique for reducing the hazards associated with a chloro-
picrin spill is to spread soda ash on the spill, dilute with water,-and allow
the mixture to stand for several hour6 (5) . The chloropicrin slowly reacts
with the soda ash to form products that can be neutralized with a dilute
acidic solution and disposed of.
Other possible ways of reducing the surface area of spilled chemicals
include placing impermeable flotation devices on the surface and applying
foacs.
Placing an impermeable flotation device over a spilled chemical is a
direct and efficient way of containing toxic vapors. However, being able to
use such devices requires acquisition in advance of a spill and storage until
needed, and in all but small spills deployment may be difficult. In addition,
material end dispersal equipment costs, are a major deterrent to their use
(17).
The use of foams in vapor hazard control has been demonstrated for a
broad range of volatile chemicals. Unfortunately, it ie difficult to accu-
rately quantify the benefits of foam systems, because the effects will vary as
a function of the chemical spilled, foam type, spill size, and atmospheric
conditions. With some materials, foams have a net positive effect, but with
others foams may exaggerate the hazard (17).
Little or no information is available concerning the success of foam
systems in controlling hazardous chloropicrin releases. However, based on
research on chemicals similar in nature to chloropicrin, a net positive effect
would be expected (17). The extent of the reduction in concentration for
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chloropicrin will ' r :nd on the type of foam used. Research in this area has
indicated that foai /ith a mediiB to high expansion ratio (300 to 350:1) give
significantly bett results than do foams with low expansion ratios (6 to
8:1) (17). The expansion ratio is the ratio of the volume of foam produced to
the volume of solution fed to the foam-generating device.
Regardless of the type of foam used, the slower the foam drainage rate,
the better its performance will be. A slow draining foam will spread more
evenly, show more resistance to temperature and pH effects, and collapse more
slowly. The initial cost of a slow-draining foam may be higher than for other
foams, but a cost-effective system will be realized in superior performance.
4.5.3 Mitigation Techniques for Chloropicrin Vapor
The extent to which the escaped chloropicrin vapor can be quickly removed
or dispersed will be a function of the quantity of vapor released, the ambient
conditions, and the physical characteristics of the vapor cloud. The behavior
and characteristics of the chloropicrin cloud will depend on a number of
factors, including the physical state of the chloropicrin before its release,
the location of the release, and the atmospheric and environmental conditions.
Many possibilities exist concerning the shape and motion of the vapor cloud,
and a number of predictive models of dispersion have been developed. Because
of the higher specific gravity of pure chloropicrin, large accidental releases
of this chemical will often lead to the formation of chloropicrin-air mixtures
that are more dense than the surrounding atmosphere. This type of vapor cloud
is especially hazardous, because it will spread laterally and remain close to
the ground.
One means of dispersing and removing toxic vapor from the air is with
water sprays or fogs. However, to be effective, an unpractically large volume
of water would have to be used since chloropicrin has a low solubility in
water. An alternative is to use a mild aqueous alkaline spray system such as
an ammonia-injected water spray system that would neutralize the acid.
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The dispersing medium is commonly applied to the vepor cloud with
hand-held hoses and/or stationary spray barriers. For effective absorption,
it is important to direct foe or spray nozzles from a downwind direction to
avoid driving the vapors downwind more quickly. Other important factors
relating to the effectiveness of alkaline sprays are the distance of the
nozzles from the point of release, the fog pattern, nozzle flow rate, pres-
sure, and nozzle rotation. If the right strategy is followed, a "capture
zone" can be created downwind of the release into which the chloropicrin vapor
will drift and be absorbed. In low-wind conditions, two fog nozzles should be
placed upwind of the release to ensure that the chloropicrin cloud keeps
moving downwind against the fog nozzle pressures.
Spray barriers consist of a series of spray nozzles that can be directed
either up or dcwn. The&e barriers can be placed downwind of the source to
absorb some of the chloropicrin vapors passing through without major distor-
tion of the chloropicrin cloud (17). Several fog nozzles may be situated
farther downwind to absorb additional vapors getting through.
Another way of dispersing a vapor cloud is to use large fans or blowers
that direct the vapor away irom populated or other sensitive areas (13).
However, this method would only be feasible in very calm weather and in
sheltered areas; it would not be effective in any wind and would be difficult
to control if the release occupied a large open area. A large, mechanical
blower would also be required, which decreases the reliability of this mitiga-
tion technique.
In general, techniques used to disperse or control vapor emissions should
be simple and reliable. In addition to the mitigation techniques discussed
above, physical barriers such as buildings and rows of trees can help contain
the vapor cloud and control its movement. Hence, reducing the consequences of
a hazardous vapor cloud can actually begin with a carefully planned la>jut of
facilities.
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4.6 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Accidental release of toxic materials result not only from deficiencies
of design but also from deficiencies of operation. Thus safe operation of
plants using chloropicrin requires competent and experienced managers and
staff, in addition to a well considered and fully understood system of work.
Employees should be trained about the important aspects of handling
chloropicrin, including: the proper way to handle and store the chemical,
hazards resulting from improper use and handling, prevention of 6pills,
cleanup procedures, maintenance procedures and emergency procedures. Well-
defined practices and procedures can decrease the possibility of a hazardous
release and can also reduce the magnitude of an accidental release.
Proper maintenance and modification programs should be incorporated into
plant design and operation to prevent possible hazardous releases of chloro-
picrin. Maintenance practices for chloropicrin should include special atten-
tion to those equipment items previously identified as especially important to
chloropicrin manufacture end storage. Preventing equipment failures that
could lead to overheating (temperatures above 233.6°F) is crucial to prevent-
ing potentially explosive decomposition since this is a special characteristic
of chloropicrin. Ensuring the use of proper construction materials in all
repairs or replacements of equipment is important. Maintenance practices
should also ensure that contact of chloropicrin with strong oxidizers is
prevented. Other aspects of a sound maintenance program include special care
for corrosion monitoring, relief valve testing, and general maintenance of
those areas of the facility with the largest inventories of chloropicrin. All
modifications should be forcally approved to ensure that modifications do not
create a new potential release hazard in the modified system.
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4.7	CONTROL EFFECTIVENESS
It is difficult to quantify the control effectiveness of preventive and
protective measures in reducing the probability and magnitude of accidental
releases. Preventive measures, vhich may involve numerous combinations of
process design, equipment design, and operational measures, are especially
difficult to quantify because they reduce a probability rather than a physical
quantity of a chemical release. Protective neasures are more analogous to
traditional pollution control technologies. Thus, it may be easier to quan-
tify their efficiency in reducing a quantity of chemical that could be re-
leased.
Preventive measures reduce the probability of an accidental release by
increasing the reliability of process systems operations and equipment.
Control effectiveness can thus be expressed for both qualitative end quanti-
tative improvements by probabilities. Table 4-2 summarizes some of the major
design, equipment, and operational measures for the hazards identified for
chloropicrin applications in the SCAQMD. The items listed in Table 4-2 are
for illustration only and do not necessarily represent a satisfactory control
option in all cases. When viewed from a broad perspective, these control
options Geem to reduce the risk associated with on accidental release, how-
ever, there are undoubtedly specific cases where these control options will
not be appropriate. Each case must be evaluated individually.
4.8	ILLUSTRATIVE COST ESTIMATES FOR CONTROLS
This section presents cost estimates for different levels of controls and
for specific release prevention and protection measure that might be found in
the SCAQMD for chloropicrin process facilities.
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TABLE 4-2. EXAMPLES OF MAJOR PREVENTION AND PROTECTION MEASURES
FOR CKLOROPICRIN RELEASES
Hazard Area	Prevention/Protection
Reactor feed streams
Line, pipe, and valve failure
Human error
Container failure
Vehicular collusions
Corrosion
Overheated reactor
Overpressure
Overfilling
Atmosphere releases from relief
discharges
Storage tank or line rupture
Redundant flow control loops;
minimal overdesign of feed systems
More frequent inspections and
maintenance
Increased training and supervision;
use of checklists; use of automatic
systems
Adequate pressure relief;
inspection and maintenance;
corrosion monitoring; siting away
from fire and mechanical damage
Location; physical barriers warning
signs; training
Inspections, maintenance, and
corrosion monitoring
Redundant temperature sensing and
alarms; interlocked nitromethane
feed shut off
Enhanced pressure relief; not
isolatable; adequate size;
discharge not restricted
Redundant level sensing, alarms and
interlocks, training of operators
Emergency vent scrubber system
Enclosure vented to eoergency
scrubber system; diking; foams;
neutralization; inspection and
non-destructive testing
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4.6.1 Prevention and Protection Measures
Preventive measures reduce the probability of an accidental release fron
a process or storage facility by increasing the reliability of both process
systems operations and equipment. Along with an increase in the reliability
of a system is an increase in the capital and annual costs associated with
incorporating prevention and protection measures into a system. Table 4-3
presents costs of some of the major design, equipment, and operational mea-
sures applicable to the primary hazards identified in Table 4-2 for chloro-
picrin facilities in the SCAQMD.
4.8.2 Levels of Control
The prevention of accidental releases relies on a combination of techno-
logical) administrative, and operational practices as they apply to the
design, construction, and operation of facilities where hazardous chemicals
are used and stored. At minimum, equipment and procedures should be in
accordance with applicable codes, standards, and regulations; however, addi-
tional measures can provide extra insurance against sn accidental release.
The levels of control concept is a way of assigning costs to increased
levels of prevention and protection. The minimum level is referred to as the
"Baseline" system, which consists of the elements required for normal safe
operation and basic prevention of an accidental release of hazardous material.
The second level of control is "Level 1," which includes the baseline
system with added modifications, such as improved materials of construction,
additional controls, and generally more extensive release prevention measures.
The cocts associated with this level are higher than the baseline system
costs.
The third level of control ia "Level 2." This system incorporates both
the "Baseline" and "Level 1" systems with additional modifications designed
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TABLE 4-3, ESTIMATED TYPICAL COSTS OF SOME PREVENTION AND PROTECTION
MEASURES FOR CHLOROPICRIN RELEASES3
Prevention/Protection Measure
Capital Cost
(1986 $)
Annual Cost
(1986 S/yr)
Pressure relief
-	relief valve	1000-2000
-	rupture disk	1000-1200
Physical barriers
-	curbing	750-1000
-	3 ft retaining wall	1500-2000
Flow control loop	4000-6000
Temperature sensor	250-400
Interlock system for feed shut-off	1500-2000
Alarm system	250-500
Diking
-	3 ft high	1200-1500
-	top of tank height	7000-7500
Corrosion monitoring^
Increased inspections and maintenance
120-250
120-150
90-120
175-250
500-750
30-50
175-250
30-75
150-175
850-900
200-400
250-500
^ased on a 10.000 gallon fixed chloropicrin storage system and a 2,000
gallon batch chlorination reactor system.
Based on 10-20 hr 3 $20/hr.
°Based on 12.5-25 hr 6 $20/hr.
37

-------
specifically for the prevention of an accidental release, such as alarm and
interlock systems. The extra accidental release prevention measures incoroo-
rated into "Level 2" are reflected in its cost, which is much higher than that
of the baseline aysten.
When comparing the costs of the various levels of control, it is impor-
tant to realize that higher costs do not necessarily imply improved safety.
The measures applied must be applied correctly. Inappropriate modifications
or add-ons may not make a system safer. Each added control option increases
the complexity of a system. In some cases the hazards associated with the
increased complexity may outweigh the benefits derived from the particular
control option. Proper design and construction along with proper operational
practices are needed to assure safe operation.
These estimates are for illustrative purposes only. It is doubtful that
any specific installation would find all of the control options listed in
these tables appropriate for their purposes. An actual systen is likely to
incorporate some items from each level of control and also some control
options not listed here. The purpose of these estimates is to illustrate the
relationship between cost and control, not to provide an equipment check list.
Levels of control cost estimates were prepared for a 69-ton fixed
chloropicrin storage tank with 10,000 gal capacity and a chloropicrin reactor
system. These systems are representative of storage and process facilities
that might be found in the SCAQMD.
A.8.3 Cost Summaries
Table 4-4 summarizes the total capital and annual costs for each of the
three levels of control for a chloropicrin storage system and a chloropicrin
reactor system. The costs presented correspond to the systems described in
Table 4-5 and Table 4-6. Each of the level costs include the cost of the
basic system plus any controls. Specific cost information and breakdown for
38

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TABLE 4-4. SUMMARY COST ESTIMATES OF POTENTIAL LEVELS OF CONTROLS
FOR CHLOROPICRIN STORAGE TANK AND BATCH REACTOR
System
Level of
Control
Total
Capital Cost
(1986 $)
Total
Annual Cost
(1986 $/yr)
Chloropicrin Storage Tank;
69 ton Fixed Storage
Tank. With 10.000 gallon
Capacity
Chloropicrin Reactor System
With 2,000 gallon Batch
Chlorination Reactor
Baseline
Level No. 1
Level No. 2
Baseline
Level No. 1
Level No. 2
40,000
363.000
532,000
62.000
368.000
445.000
5,600
43,000
63.000
9,000
46,000
53,000
39

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TABLE 4-5: EXAMPLE OF LEVELS OF CONTROLS FOR CHLOROPICRIN STORAGE TANK
Process: 69 ton fixed chloropicrin storage tank
10.000 gal
Controls
Baseline
Level Ho. 1
Level No. 2
Process:	None
Flow:	Single check-
valve on tank-
process feed line.
Temperature: None
Pressure:
Quantity:
Single pressure
relief valve,
vent to atmos-
phere.
Local level
indicator.
None
Add second check
valve.
None
Add second relief
valve, secure
non-isolatable.
Vent to limited
scrubber. Provide
local pressure
indicator.
Add remote level
indicator.
None
Add a reduced-pressure
device with internal
air gap and relief
vent to containment
tank or scrubber.
Add temperature
indicator.
Add rupture disks
under relief valves.
Provide local pressure
indication on space
between disk and
valves.
Add level alarm. Add
high-low level inter-
lock shut-off for both
inlet and outlet
lines.
Location:
Materials of
Construction:
Away from traffic. Away from traffic
and flammables.
Carbon steel
Carbon steel with
added corrosion
allowance.
Away from traffic,
flammables, and other
hazardous processes.
Kynar®-lired carbon
steel.
Vessel:
Piping:
Tank pressure
rating:
15 psig
Sch. 40 carbon
steel.
Tank pressure
rating:
25 psig
Sch. 80 carbon
steel.¦
Tank pressure
rating:
50 psi%
Sch 80 Kynar®-lined
carbon steel.
(Continued)
A reduced pressure device is a modified double check valve.
40

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TABLE 4-5 (Continued)

Process:
69 ton fixed
10.000 gal
chloropicrin storage tank

Controls
Baseline
Level No. 1
Level No. 2
Process
Machinery:
Centrifugal pump. Centrifugal pump,
carbon steel, Kynar®-lined
stuffing box construction,
seal. double capacity
mechanical seal.
Magnetically-coupled
centrifugal pump,
Kynar®-lined
construction.
Enclosures:
None
Steel building.
Concrete building.
Diking:
None
3 ft high dike.
Top of tank height,
10 ft.
Scrubbers:
None
Alkaline scrubber.
Same
Mitigation:
None
Alkaline sprays.
Foam system.

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TABLE 4-6. EXAMPLE OF LEVELS OF CONTROLS FOR CHLOROPICRIN MANUFACTURE
Process: Batch chlorination reactor system
Controls
Baseline
Level No. 1
Level No. 2
Process:
Temperature:
Pressure:
Flow:
Quantity:
Mixing:
Composition:
Corrosion:
Materials of
Construction:
None
Local temperature
indicator.
Single pressure
relief valve. Vent
to atmosphere.
Local flow indicator
on feed lines.
None
Provide adequate
mixing.
None
Visual inspections.
Carbon steel
Add reactor cooling
system.
Add redundant
sensing and alarm.
Add remote
indicator.
Add loca1 pressure
indicator on tank.
Vent relief valve
to scrubber.
Add remote
indicators.
None
Add alarm on loss
of agitation.
None
Increased
monitoring and
inspections.
Carbon steel with
added corrosion
allowance.
Use of
interlock
systems.
Add temperature
switch to shut
off
nitromethane
feed when
temperature
rises above a
set point.
Add rupture
disk and
provide local
pressure
indication on
space between
disk and valve.
Add flow switch
to shut off
nitrouethane
feed.
Level alarm.
Interlock
nitromethane
feed on loss of
mixing.
None
Same
Type
Kynar°-lined
carbon steel.
42
(Continued)

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TABLE 4-6 (Continued)
Process: Batch chlorination reactor system
Controls
Baseline
Level No. 1
Level No. 2
Vessel:
Piping:
Process
Machinery:
Protective
Barrier:
Tank pressure
rating: 25 psig
Sch. 40 carbon
steel.
Centrifugal pump,
carbon steel
construction,
stuffing box.
None
Tank pressure
rating: 25 psig
Sch. 80 carbon
steel.
Centrifugal pump
Kynar®-lined
construction,
double mechanical
seal.
Curiiig around
reactor.
Tank pressure
rating: 25 psig
Sch. 80
Kynar®-lined
carbon steel.
Magnetically-
couple
centrifugal
pump,
Kynar*-lined
construction.
3 ft. high
retaining wall.
Enclosures:
Scrubbers:
Mitigation:
None
None
None
Steel building.
Alkaline scrubbers.
Alkaline sprays.
Concrete
building.
Same
Foam system.
43

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each level of control for both the storage and process facilities are pre-
sented in Tables 4-7 through 4-12.
4.8.4	Equipment Specifications and Detailed Costs
Equipment specifications and details of the capital cost estimates for
the chloropicrin storage and the chloropicrin reactor systems are presented in
Tables 4-13 through 4-20.
4.8.5	Methodology
Format for Presenting Cost Estimates—
Tables are provided for control schemes associated with storage ard
process facilities for chloropicrin showing capital, operating, and total
annual costs. The tables are broken down into subsections comprising vessels,
piping and valves, process machinery, instrumentation, and. procedures and
practice. Presenting the costs in this manner allows for easy comparison of
specific items, different levels, and different systems.
Capital Cost—All capital costs presented in this report are shown as
total fixed capital costs. Table 4-21 defines the cost elements comprising
total fixed capital as it is used here.
The computation of total fixed capital, as shown in Table 4-21, begins
with the total direct cost for the system under consideration. This tof>l
direct cost is the total direct installed cost of all capital equipment
comprising the system. Depending on the specific equipment item involved, the
direct capital cost was available or was derived from uninstalled costs by
computing costs of installation separately. To obtain the total fixed capital
cost, other costs obtained by using factors are added to the total fixed
direct costs.
44

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TABLE 4-7. ESTIMATED TYPICAL CAPITAL AND ANNUAL COSTS ASSOCIATED
WITH BASELINE CHLOROPICRIN STORAGE SYSTEM
Capital Cost	Annual Cost
(1986 $)	(1986 $/Yr)
VESSELS:
Storage Tank	26,000 3,000
PIPING AND VALVES:
Pipework	3,000 350
Check Valves	290 30
Ball Valves (5)	1,700 200
Relief Valve	1,000 120
PROCESS MACHINERY:
Centrifugal Pump	5,400 620
INSTRUMENTATION:
Pressure Gauges CO	1.5C0 170
Liquid Level Gauge	1,500 170
PROCEDURES AND PRACTICES:
Visual Tank Inspection (external)	15
Visual Tank Inspection (internal)	60
Relief Valve Inspection	15
Piping Inspection	300
Piping Maintenance	120
Valve Inspection	30
Valve Maintenance	350
TOTAL COSTS	40,000	5,600
45

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TABLE 4-8. ESTIMATED TYPICAL CAPITAL AND ANNUAL COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH
LEVEL 1 CHLOROPICRIN STORAGE SYSTEM
Capital Cose	Annual Cose
(1986 $)	(1986 $/yr)
VESSELS:
Storage Tank	53.000 6,200
PIPING AND VALVES:
Pipework	4.000 520
Check Valves	560 70
Ball Valves (5)	1.700 200
Relief Valve	2,000 240
PROCESS MACHINERY:
Centrifugal Pump	13.000 1.500
INSTRUMENTATION:
Pressure Gauges (4)	1,500 170
Flow Indicator	3.700 430
Liquid Level Gauge	1,500 170
Remote Level Indicator	1.900 220
ENCLOSURES:
Steel Building	10.000 1.200
SCRUBBER:
Alkaline Scrubber	269,000 31.000
DIKING:
3 ft. High Concrete Diking	1.300 160
PROCEDURES AND PRACTICES:
Visual Tank Inspection (external)	15
Visual Tank Inspection (internal)	60
Relief Valve Inspection	30
Piping Inspection	300
Piping Maintenance	120
Valve Inspection	35
Valve Maintenance	400
TOTAL COSTS	363.000	43.000
46

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TABLE 4-9. ESTIMATED TYPICAL CAPITAL AND ANNUAL COSTS ASSOCIATED
WITH LEVEL 2 CHLOROPICRIN STORAGE SYSTEM
Capital Cost	Annual Co6t
(1986 $)	(1986 $/yr)
VESSELS:
Storage Tank	173.000 20,000
PIPING AND VALVES:
Pipework	10,000 1,100
Reduced Pressure Device	1,500 170
Ball Valves (5)	1,700 190
Relief Valves (2)	2,000 250
Rupture Disks (2)	1,100 1,130
PROCESS MACHINERY:
Centrifugal Pump	19,000 2,200
INSTRUMENTATION:
Temperature Indicator	2,200 260
Pressure Gauges (6)	2,200 260
Flow Indicator	3,700 430
Load Cell	16,000 1,800
Remote Level Indicator	1,900 220
Level Alarm	380 45
High-Low Level Shutoff	1,900 220
ENCLOSURES:
Concrete Building	19,000 2,200
SCRUBBERS:
Alkaline Scrubber	269,000 31,000
DIKING:
10 ft. High Concrete Dike	7,600 880
PROCEDURES AND PRACTICES:
Visual Tank Inspection (external)	15
Visual Tank Inspection (internal)	60
Relief Valve Inspection	50
Piping Inspection	300
Piping Maintenance	120
Valve Inspection	35
Valve Maintenance	400
TOTAL 00STS	5J2.000	63,000
47

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TABLE 4-10. ESTIMATED TYPICAL CAPITAL AND ANNUAL COSTS ASSOCIATED
WITH BASELINE CONTINUOUS CHLOROPICRIN PRODUCTION
Capital Cost	Annual Cost
(1986 $)	(1986 $/yr)
VESSELS:
Batch Reactor	34,000 4,000
PIPING AND VALVES:
Pipework	6,900 830
Ball and Globe Valves (4)	2,200 260
Relief Valve	1,000 120
PROCESS MACHINERY:
Centrifugal Pump	5,200 620
INSTRUMENTATION:
Pressure Gauges (3)	1,100 130
Flew Control Loops (2)	11,000 1,300
PROCEDURES AND PRACTICES:
Visual Tank Inspection (external)	15
Visual Tank Inspection (internal)	60
Relief Valve Inspection	15
Piping Inspection	600
Piping Maintenance	250
Valve Inspection	40
Valve Maintenance	400
TOTAL 00STS	62,000	9,000
48

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TABLE 4-11. ESTIMATED TYPICAL CAPITAL AND ANNUAL COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH
LEVEL 1 CONTINUOUS CHLOROPICRIN PRODUCTION
Capital Cost	Annual Cost
(1986 $)	(1986 $/yr)
VESSELS:
Batch Reactor	52.000 6,300
PIPING AND VALVES:
Pipework	13,000 1,600
Ball and Globe Valves (A)	2,200 260
Relief Valve	1,000 120
PROCESS MACHINERY:
Centrifugal Pump	12,000 1,500
INSTRUMENTATION:
Pressure Gauges (3)	1,100 130
Flow Indicator	3,600 430
Flow Control Loops (2)	11,000 1,300
Temperature Indicator	2,200 260
Temperature Alarm	360 45
Temperature Sensor	360 45
DIKING:
Curbing Around Reactor	910 110
ENCLOSURE:
Steel Building	8,300 1,000
SCRUBBER:
Alkaline Scrubber	260,000 31,000
PROCEDURES AND PRACTICES:
Visual Tank Inspection (external)	15
Visual Tank Inspection (internal)	60
Relief Valve Inspection	15
Piping Inspection	600
Piping Maintenance	250
Valve Inspection	40
Valve Maintenance	400
TOTAL COSTS 368,000	46,000
49

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TABLE 4-12. ESTIMATED TYPICAL CAPITAL AND ANNUAL COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH
LEVEL 2 CONTINUOUS CHLOROPICRIN MANUFACTURE
Capital Cost	Annual Cost
(1986 $)	(1986 $/yr)
VESSELS:
Storage Tank	105,000 13,000
PIPING AND VALVES:
Pipework	29,000 3.500
Ball and Globe Valves (A}	1.700 260
Relief Valve	2,000 120
PROCESS MACHINERY:
Centrifugal Pump	19.000 2.200
INSTRUMENTATION:
Pressure Gauges (A)	1,500 170
Flow Indicator	3.600 430
Flow Interlock System	1.800 220
Liquid Level Gauge	1,500 170
Remote Level Indicator	1,800 220
Level Alarm	360 45
Temperature Sensor	360 45
Temperature Switch	S40 65
Temperature Alara	360 45
Temperature Indicator	1,800 220
Mixing Interlock System	1,800 220
ENCLOSURES:
Concrete Building	11,000 1,300
SCRUBBER:
Alkaline Scrubber	260,000 31,000
DIKING:
3 ft. Retaining Wall	1,600 200
PROCEDURES AND PRACTICES:
Visual Tank Inspection (external)	15
Visual Tank Inspection (internal)	60
Relief Valve Inspection	30
Piping Inspection	300
Piping Maintenance	120
Valve Inspection	35
Valve Maintenance	400
TOTAL COSTS	445,000	33,000
50

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TABLE 4-13. EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH CHLOROPICRIN
STORAGE SYSTEM
Equipment Item	Equipment Specification	Reference
VESSELS:
Storage Tank
PIPING AND VALVES:
Pipework
Check Valve
Ball Valve
Relief Valve
Reduced Pressure Device
Rupture Disk
PROCESS MACHINERY:
Centrifugal Pump
Baseline: 10,000 gallon carbon	18,19.20.
steel storage tank, 15 psig rating IS
Level #1: 10,000 gallon carbon
steel with 1/8 inch corrosion
protection, 25 psig
Level 02s 10,000 gallon Kynar®-lined
carbon steel, 50 p6ig
Baseline: 100 ft. of 2 in. Schedule 22
40 carbon steel
Level 01: 2 in. schedule 80
carbon steel
Level 02: 2 in. schedule 80
Kynar®-lined carbon steel
2 in. vertical lift check	19,23
valve, carbon steel construction
2 in. Class 300, carbon steel	18,19,23
body
1 in. z 2 in.. Class 300 inlet and	19
outlet flange, angle body, closed
bonnet with screwed cap, carbon
steel body
Double check valve type device with	18
internal air gap and relief valve
1 in. Monel® disk and carbon	18,20,24
steel holder
Baseline: Single stage, carbon steel 19,25
construction, stuffing box, 100 gpm
capacity.
Level 01: Single stage, Kynar®-lined
carbon steel construction, double
mechanical seal
Level 02: Kynar®-lined carbon steel, 19,25
mechanically-coupled
51
(Continued)

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TABLE 4-13 (Continued)
Equipment Item
Equipment Specification
Reference
INSTRUMENTATION:
Temperature Indicator
Pressure Gauge
Flov Indicator
Level Indicator
Load Cell
Level Alarm
High-Low Level Shutoff
ENCLOSURES:
Building
SCRUBBERS:
DIKING:
Thermocouple, thermowell, electronic	18,19,26
indicator
Diaphragm sealed. Haetelloy C	18,19,26
diaphragm, 0-1,000 psi
Differential pressure cell and
transmitter, associated meter
Differential pressure type indicator	18,26
Electronic load cell	18,26,27
Indicating and audible alarm	19.28,29
Solenoid valve, switch, and relay	18,19,26
system	28
Level #1: 26-gauge steel walls and	28
roof, door, ventilation system
Level #2: 10 in. concrete
walls, 26-gauge steel roof
Level 01 & 2: Spray tower, Monel*	30
construction, alkaline sprays,
A ft. x 12 ft.
Level #1: 6 in. concrete walls	28
3 ft. high
Level 02: 10 in. concrete walls,
top of tank height
52

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TABLE 4-14. MATERIAL AND LABOR COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH BASELINE
CHLOROPICRIN STORAGE SYSTEM

Materials
Cost
Labor
Cost
Direct
Costs
Indirect
Costs
Capital
Costs



(1986 $)


VESSELS:





Storage Tank
12.000
5,400
17,400
6,100
26,000
PIPING AND VALVES:





Pipework
600
1.400
2,000
700
3000
Check Valves
160
30
190
70
290
Ball Valves (5)
1.000
150
1,150
400
1.700
Relief Valve
650
50
700
250
1.000
PROCESS MACHINERY:





Centrifugal Pump
1.500
1,100
3,600
1,300
5.400
INSTRUMENTATION:





Pressure Gauges (4)
800
200
1,000
350
1.500
Liquid Level Gauge
800
200
1,000
350
1.500
TOTAL COSTS
18.000
9,000
27,000
9,500
40,000
53

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TABLE 4-15. MATERIAL AND LABOR COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH LEVEL 1
CHLOROPICRIN STORAGE SYSTEM
Materials Labor Direct Indirect Capital
Cost	Cost Costs Costs Costs
(1986 $)
VESSELS:
Storage Tank
25.000
11,000
36.000
13.000
53.000
PIPING AND VALVES:





Pipework
1.000
2.000
3.000
1.000
4,000
Check Valves
320
60
380
130
560
Ball Valves (5)
1.000
150
1.150
400
1.700
Relief Valves (2)
1.300
100
1.400
500
2.000
PROCESS MACHINERY:





Centrifugal Pump
6.000
2.600
8.600
3.000
13.000
INSTRUMENTATION:





Pressure Gauges (4)
800
200
1.000
350
1.500
Flow Indicator
2.000
500
2.500
880
3.700
Liquid Level Gauge
800
200
1.000
350
1,500
Remote Level Indicator
1.000
250
1.250
440
1.900
ENCLOSURES





Steel Building
4.600
2.300
6.900
2.400
10,000
SCRUBBER:





Alkaline Scrubber
125.000
56.000
181.000
63.000
269.000
DIKING:





3 ft. High Concrete
390
510
900
32C
1.300
Diking





TOTAL COSTS
170.000
76.000
245.000
86.000
363.000
54

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TABLE 4-16. MATERIAL AND LABOR COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH LEVEL 2
CHLOROPICRIN STORAGE SYSTEM
Materials Labor Direct Indirect Capital
Coat	Cost Costs Costs Costs
(1986 $)
VESSELS:
Storage Tank	80,000
PIPING AND VALVES:
Pipework	4,000
Reduced Pressure Device	800
Ball Valves (5)	1,000
Relief Valves (2)	1,300
Rupture Disks (2)	650
PROCESS MACHINERY:
Centrifugal Pump	9,000
INSTRUMENTATION:
Temperature Indicator	1,200
Pressure Gauges (6)	1,200
Flow Indicator	2.0C0
Load Cell	8,400
Remote Level Indicator	1,000
Level Alarm	200
High-Low L*?vel Sbutoff	1,000
ENCLOSURES
Concrete Building	6,100
SCRUBBERS:
Alkaline Scrubber	125,000
DIKING:
10 ft. High Concrete	2,200
Dike
36,000 116,000 41,000 173,000
2,600
6,600
2,300
10,000
200
1,000
350
1,500
150
1,150
400
1,700
100
1,400
500
2,000
75
725
260
1,100
3,900
12,900
4,500
19,000
300
1,500
530
2,200
300
1,500
530
2,200
500
2,500
880
3.700
2,100
10,500
.3,700
16.000
250
1,250
440
1,900
50
250
90
380
250
1,250
440
1,900
6,600
12.700
4.400
19.000
>6.000
181,000
63.000
269,000
2,900
5,100
1,800
7,600
TOTAL COSTS	245,000 112.000 357.000 125.000 532.000
55

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TABLE 4-17. EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH CHLOROPICRIN
MANUFACTURE
Equipment Item	Equipment Specification	Reference
VESSELS:
Reactor
PIPING AND VALVES:
Pipework
Ball valves
Globe valves
Relief valve
Rupture disk
PROCESS MACHINERY:
Centrifugal pump
INSTRUMENTATION:
Level alarm
Interlock system
Pressure gauge
Flow control loop
Temperature indicator
Temperature sensor
2,000 gallon batch reactor	18.19
Baseline: Schedule AO CPVC for bleach 22
solution. Schedule 40 carbon steel
for chloropicrin
Level tit Schedule 80 carbon steel
Level 02: Schedule 80 Kynar®-lined
carbon steel
2 in. Class 300. carbon steel body
2 in. Class 300, cast steel
1 in. x 2 in.. Class 300 inlet end
outlet flange, angle body, closed
bonnet with screwed cap, carbon steel
body
1 in. Monel® disk and carbon steel
flteel holder
18.19,23
18,19,23
19
18,20,24
Baseline: Single stage, carbon steel
construction, stuffing box, 100 gpm
capacity
Level #1: Single stage, Kynar®-lined 19,25
construction, double mechanical seal
Level 02: Kynar®-lined, magnetically- 19,25
coupled
Indicating and audible alarm	19,28,29
Solenoid valve, switch, and relay	18,19,26
system	28
Diaphragm sealed, Hastelloy C	18,19,26
diaphragm, 0-1,000 psi
2 in. Globe control valve,	18,26
flowmeter and PID controller
Thermocouple, thennowell. and	18,19,26
electronic indicator
Thermocouple and associated thennowell 18,19.26
(Continued)
56

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TABLE 4-17 (Continued)
Equipment Iteo
Equipment Specification
Reference
DIKING:
Level #1: 6 in. high concrete
curing
Level 82: 3 ft. high concrete
retaining wall
28
ENCLOSURE:
Level 01: 26 gauge steel wall6 and
roof, door, ventilation system
Level 62: 10 in. concrete walls,
26 gauge 6teel roof, door
28
SCRUBBER:
Level 016 2: Spray tower, Monel®
construction, alkaline sprays,
A ft. x 12 ft.
30
57

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TABLE 4-18. MATERIAL AND LABOR COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH BASELINE
CONTINUOUS CHLOROPICRIN PRODUCTION
Materials Labor Direct Indirect Capital
Cost	Cost Cost s Costs Costs
(1986 $)
VESSELS:
Batch Reactor	16.000	7,400	23.400	5.900	34.000
PIPING ATO VALVES:
Pipework	1.800	3.000	4.800	1.200	6.900
Ball and Globe Valves (4)	1,000	500	1.500	380	2.200
Relief Valve	650	50	700	180	1.000
PROCESS MACHINERY:
Centrifugal Pump	2,500	1,100	3,600	900	5,200
INSTRUMENTATION:
Pressure Gauges (3)	600	150	750	190	1.100
Flow Control Loops (2)	6.000	1.500	7.500	1.900	11.000
TOTAL COSTS	29.000	14.000	43.000	11.000	62.000
58

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TABLE 4-19. MATERIAL AND LABOR COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH LEVEL 1
CONTINUOUS CHLOROPICRIN PRODUCTION
Materiels Labor Direct Indirect Capital
Cost	Cost Costs Costs Costs
(1986 $)
VFSSELS:
Batch Reactor	25.000
PIPING AND VALVES:
Pipework	3,000
Ball and Globe Valves (4)	1.000
Relief Valve	650
PROCESS MACHINERY:
Centrifugal Pump	6,000
INSTRUMENTATION:
Pressure Gauges (3)	600
Flow Indicator	2,000
Flow Control Loops (2)	6,000
Temperature Indicator	1.200
Temperature Alarm	200
Temperature Sensor	200
DIKING:
Curbing Around Reactor	500
ENCLOSURE:
Steel Building	4,600
SCRUBBER:
Alkaline Scrubber	125,000
TOTAL COSTS
LI,000
36.000
9,000
52,000
6,000
9,000
2,300
13,000
500
1.500
380
2.200
50
700
180
1,000
2,600
8,600
2,200
12,000
150
750
190
1,100
500
2,500
630
3.600
1,500
7,500
1,900
11,000
300
1.500
380
2.200
50
250
60
360
50
250
60
360
130
630
160
910
1,200
5,800
1,500
8.300
56.000 181.000 45,000 260.000
176,000 80.000 256,000 64,000 368,000
59

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TABLE 4-20. MATERIAL AMD LABOR COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH LEVEL 2
CONTINUOUS CHLOROPICRIN PRODUCTION
Materials Labor Direct Indirect Capital
Cost	Cost	Costs	CostB	Costs
(1986 $)
VESSELS:
Storage Tank
50,000
23,000
73.000
18.000
105.000
PIPING AND VALVES:





Pipework
12.000
8.000
20.000
5.000
29.000
Bail and Globe Valves (4)
1.000
150
1,150
290
1.700
Relief Valve
1.300
100
1.400
350
2.000
PROCESS MACHINERY:





Centrifugal Pump
9.000
3.900
12.900
3.200
19.000
INSTRUMENTATION:





Pressure Gauges (4)
800
200
1,000
250
1.500
Flow Indicator
2.000
500
2.500
880
3.600
Flow Interlock System
1.000
250
1,250
310
1,800
Liquid Level Gauge
800
200
1,000
250
1,500
Remote Level Indicator
1.000
250
1,250
310
1,800
Level Alarm
200
50
250
60
360
Temperature Sensor
200
50
250
60
360
Temperature Switch
300
75
375
95
540
Temperature Alarm
200
50
250
60
360
Temperature Indicator
1.000
250
1,250
310
1.800
Mixing Interlock System
1.000
250
1,250
310
1.800
ENCLOSURES:





Concrete Building
6,100
1.500
7,600
1.900
11.000
SCRUBBER:





Alkaline Scrubber
125,000
56,000
181,000
45.000
260.000
DIKING:





3 ft. Retaining Wall
900
230
1,130
290
1,600
TOTAL COSTS
214.000
95.000
309,000
77.000
445.000
60

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TABLE A-21. FORMAT FOR TOTAL FIXED CAPITAL COST
Item No.
Iteir
Cost
1
Total Material Cost
-
2
Total Labor Cost
-
3
Total Direct Cost
Items 1+2
4
Indirect Cost Iteos (Engineering
& Construction Expenses)
0.35 x Item 3B
5
Total Bare Module Cost
Itens (3 + A)
6
Contingency
«
(0.05 x Irew 5)b
7
Contractor's Fee
0.05 x Iter: 5
8
Total Fixed Capital Cost
Iteos (5+6+7)
°For storage facilities, toe indirect cost factor is 0.35. For process
facilities, the indirect cost factor is 0.25.
^For itorage facilities, the contingency cost factor is 0.05. For process
facilities, the contingency cost factor is 0.10.
61

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The first group of other cost elements is direct costs. These include
engineering and supervisicn, construction expenses, and various other ex-
penses, such as administration expenses. These costs are computed by multi-
plying total direct costs by a factor shown in Table 4-21. The factor is
approximate, is obtained from the cost literature, and is based on previous
experience with capital projects of a similar nature. Factors can have a
range of values and vary according to technology area and individual tech-
nologies vithin an area. Appropriate factors based on judgement and exper-
ience were selected for this report.
When the indirect costs are added to the total direct cost6, total bare
module cost is obtained. Some additional cost elements, such as contractor's
fee and contingency, are calculated by applying and adding appropriate factors
to the total bare module cost, as shown in Table 4-21, to obtain the total
fixed capital cost.
Annual Cost—Annual costs are obtained for each equipment item by apply-
ing a factor for both capital recovery and for maintenance expenses to the
direct cost of each equipment item. Table 4-22 defines the cost elements and
the appropriate factors comprising these costs. Additional annual costs are
incurred for procedural items such as valve and vessel inspections, for
example. The sum of these individual costs equals the total annual cost.
Source of Information—
Costs presented in this report are derived from cost information in
existing published sources and also from recent vendor information. The
objective of this effort was to present cost levels for ch?.oropicrin process
and storage facilities using the best costs for available sources. The
primary sources of cost information are Peters and Timmerhaus (18), Chemical
Engineering (31), and Valle-Riestra (32), supplemented by other sources and
references where necessary. Adjustments were made to update all costs to a
June 1986 dollar basis. For some equipment items, well-documented costs were
not available and they had to be developed from component costs.
62

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TABLE 1-22. FORMAT FOR TOTAL ANNUAL COST
Item No.	Item	Cost
1
Total Direct Cost
-
2
Capital Recovery on Equipment
Items
0.163 x Iteo 1
3
Maintenance Expense on Equipment
Items
0.01 x Item 1
4
Total Procedural Items
-
5
Total Annual Cost
Items (2+3 + 4)
63

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Costs in this document reflect the "typical" or "average" representation
for specific equipment items. This restricts the use of data in this report
to:
•	Preliminary estimates used for policy planning;
•	Comparison of relative costs of different levels or
systems: and
•	Approximations of costs that might be incurred for a
specific application.
The costs in this report are considered to be "order of magnitude" with a
^+50 percent margin because costs are based on preliminary estimates and many
are updated from literature sources. Large departures from the design basis
of a particular system presented in this manual or the advent of a different
technology might cause the system cost to vary more than this. If used as
intended, however, this document will provide a reasonable source of prelimi-
nary cost information for the facilities covered.
When comparing costs in this manual to those from other references, the
user should be sure the design bases are comparable and that the capital and
annual costs aB defined here are the same.
Cost Updating—
All costs in this report are expressed in June 1986 dollars. Cost3
reported in the literature were updated using cost indices for materials and
labor.
Costs expressed in base-year dollars may be adjusted to dollars for
another year by applying cost indices as shown in the following equation:
new base-year cost = old base-year cost x nf*f base year index
old base year index
64

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The chemical Engineering (CE) Plant Cost Index was used in updating cost for
this report. For June 1986. the index is 316.3.
Equipment Costs—
Host of the equipment costs presented in this manual were obtained
directly from literature sources of vendor information and correspond to a
specific design standard. Special cost estimating techniques, however, were
used in determining the costs associated with vessels, piping systems, scrub-
bers. diking, and enclosures. The techniques used are presented in the
following subsections of this manual.
Vessels—The total purchased cost for a vessel, as dollars per pound of
weight of fabricated unit free on board (f.o.b.) with carbon steel ac the
ba sis (January 1979 dollars) were determined using the following equation from
Peters and Timmerhaus (18):
Cost = [50(Weight of Vessel in Pounds)[Weight of Vessel in Pounds]
The vessel weight is determined using appropriate deGign equations as given by
Peters and Timmerhaus (18) that allow for wall thickness adjustments for
corrosion allowances, for example. The vessel weight is increased by a factor
of 0.15 for horizontal vessels and 0.20 for vertical vessels to account for
the added weight of nozzles, manholes, and skirts or saddles. Appropriate
factors are applied for different construction materials, as given in Peters
and Timmerhaus (18). Vessel costs are updated using cost factors. Finally, a
shipping cost amounting to 10 percent of the purchased cost is added to obtain
the delivered equipment cost.
?ipinp.—Piping costs were obtained using cost information and data
presented by Yamartino (22). A simplified approach is used in which it is
assumed that a certain length of piping containing a given number of valves,
flanges, and fittings is contained in the storage or process facility. The
data presented by Yamartino (22) permit cost determinations for various
65

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lengths. sizes, and types of piping systems. Using these fectors, a represen-
tative estimate can be obtained for each of the storage and process facili-
ties.
Dikinp,—Diking costs were estimated using Mean's Manual (28) for rein-
forced concrete walls. The following assumptions were made to determine the
costs. The dike contains the entire contents of a tank in the event of a leak
or release. Two dike sizes are possible: a three-foot high dike, six-inches
thick and a top-of-tank height dike ten inches thick. The tanks are raised
off the ground and are not volumetricelly included in the volume enclosed by
the diking. These assumptions facilitate cost determination for any size
diking system.
Enclosures—Enclosure costs were estimated using Mean's Manual (28) for
both reinforced concrete and steel-walled buildings. The buildings are
assumed to enclose the same area and volume as the top-of-tank height dikes.
The concrete building i6 ten-inches thick with a 26-gauge steel roof and a
meral door. The steel building has 26 gauge roofing and siding and metal
door. The cost of a ventilation system was determined using a typical 1,000
scfm unit and doubling the cost to account for duct work and requirements for
the safe enclosure of hazardous chemicals.
Scrubbers—Scrubber costs were estimated by the following equation from
the Card (30) manual for spray towers based on the actual cubic feet per
minute of flow at a chamber velocity of 600 feet/minute.
Costs = 0 . 235 x (ACFM + 43,000)
3
A release rate of 1,000 ft /minute was assumed for the storage vessel systems
and an appropriate rate was determined for process system based on the quan-
tity of hazardous chemicals present in the system at any one time. For the
chlorcpicrin reactor system, a release rate of 1,000 ft /minute was assumed.
In addition to the spray tower, the costs also include pumps and a storage
66

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tank for the ccrubbing medium. The costs presented are updated to June 1986
dollars.
Installation Factors—
Installation costs were developed for all equipment items included in
both the process and storage systems. The costs include both the material and
labor costs for installation of a particular piece of equipment. Costs were
obtained directly from literature sources and vendor information or indirectly
by assuming a certain percentage of the purchased equipment cost by using
estimating factors obtained from Peters and Timmerhaus (18) and Valle-Rie6tra
(32). Table 4-23 liet6 the co6t factors used or the reference from which the
cost was obtained directly. Many of the costs obtained frcn the literature
were updated to June 1986 dollars using a 10 percent per year rate of increase
for labor and cost indices for materials associated with installation.
67

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TABLE 4-23. FORMAT FOR INSTALLATION COSTS
Equipment Iten	Factor or Reference
Vessels:
Storage Tank	0.45
Piping and Valves:
Pipework
Reduced Pressure Device
Check Valves
Gates Valves
Ball Valves
Relief Valves
Rupture Disks
Process Machinery:
Centrifugal Pump
Gear Pump
Instrumentation:
All Instrumentation Items	0.25
Enclosures:	Ref. 28
Diking:	Ref. 28
Scrubbers:	0.45
Ref.	22
Ref.	19
Ref.	19
Ref.	19
Ref.	19
Ref.	19
Ref.	19
0.43
0.43
68

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SECTION 5
REFERENCES
1.	South Coast Air Quality Management District. File of Questionnaires from
Toxic Chemical Industry Survey, 1985.
2.	Macy, R. Constants and Physiological Action of Chemical Warfare Agents.
Edgewood Arsenal, U.S. Army, 1941.
3.	Kirk, R.E. and D.F. Othmer. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Third
Edition. John Wiley and Sons. Inc.. 1980.
4.	Dean, J. (ed.). Lange's Handbook of Chemistry. Twelfth Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Comapny, New York. NY, 1979.
5.	Material Safety Data Sheet: Great Lakes Chemical Corporation, West
Lafayette, Indiana, March 1986.
6.	Occupational Health Guideline for Chloropicrin. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health/Occupational Safety and Health Association
(NI0SH/0SHA) Publication, September 1978.
7* Tatken, R. L. and R. J. Lewis (eds.). Registry of Toxic Effects of
Chemical Substances (RTECS). 1981-82 Edition. 3 Volumes. NIOSH Con-
tract No. 210-81-8101. DrtHS (NIOSH) Publ. No. 83-107. June 1983.
8.	Sax, H. I. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials (4th Edition).
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York, NY, 1975.
9.	Warthing, C.R. (ed.). The Pesticide Manual; A World Compendium, Seventh
Edition, Croydon, England, The British Crop Protection Council, 1983.
10.	NI0SH/0SHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication
No. 78-210, September 1985.
11.	Wilhelm, J. M. U.S. Patent 3,106,588. October 8, 1963.
12.	Telephone conversation between D.S. Davis of Radian Corporation and a
representative of Great Lakes Chemical Company, West Lafayette, IN, April
1986.
13.	Hart, F.C. Technology for the Storage of Hazardous Liquids, A
State-of—the-Art Review, The Bureau of Water Resources, Albany, NY,
Revised Edition, March 1985.
14.	DeRenzo, D. J. (ed.). Corrosion Resistant Materials Handbook (4th
Edition). Noyes Data Corp., Park Ridge, NJ, 1985.
15.	Green, D. W. (ed.). Perry's Chemical Engineers* Handbook (6th Edition).
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. NY. 1984.
69

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16.	Lees, F. P. Loss Prevention in the Process Industries - Hazard Identifi-
cation, Assessment and Control, Butterworth & Company Ltd.. London.
England. Volumes 1 & 2. 1980.
17.	Bennett. G. F., F. S. Feates. and I. Wilder. Hazardous Material Spills
Handbook. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York, NY. 1982.
1®* Peters, M. S. and K. D. Timmerhaus. Plant Design and Economics for
Qiemical Engineers. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1980.
19.	Richardson Engineering Services, Inc. The Richardson Rapid Construction
Cost Estimating System, Volume 1-4. San Marcos, CA. 1986.
20.	Pikulic, A. and H. E. Diaz. Cost Estimating for Major Process Equipment.
Chemical Engineering. October 10, 1977.
21.	Hall, R. S. Matley, and K. J. McNaughton. Cost of Process Equipment.
Chemical Engineering. April 5, 1982.
22.	Yarmartino. J. Installed Cost of Corrosion—Resistant Piping — 1978.
Chemical Engineering, November 20, 1978.
23.	Telephone conversation between J.D. Quass of Radian Corporation and a
representative of Mark Controls Corporation. Houston, TX, August 1986.
24.	Telephone conversation between J.D. Quass of Radian Corporation and a
representative of Fike Corporation, Houston. TX, August 1986.
25.	Green. D. W. (ed.). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (Sixth Edi-
tion), Chemical Engineering, September 21, 1970.
26.	Liptak, B. G. Cost of Process Instruments. Chemical Engineering,
September 7, 1970.
27.	Liptak, B. G. Cost of Viscosity, Weight, Analytical Instruments.
Chemical Engineering, September 21, 1970.
28.	R. S. Means Company, Inc. Building Construction Cost Data, 1986 (44th
Edition). Kingston, MA.
29.	Liptak, B. G. Control-Panel Costs. Process Instruments. Chemical
Engineering. October 5, 1970.
30.	Capital and Operating Costs of Selected Air Pollution Control Systems.
EPA-450/5-80-002, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980.
31.	Cost indices obtained from Chemical Engineering. McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company. New York. NY, June 1974, December 1985, and August 1986.
32.	Valle-Riestra, J. F. Project Evaluation in the Chemical Process Indus-
tries. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1983.
70

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APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY
This glossary defines selected terms used in the text of this manual
which might be unfamiliar to seme users or which might be used differently by
different authors.
Accidental release: The unintentional spilling, leaking, pumping, purging,
emitting, emptying, discharging, escaping, dumping, or disposing of a toxic
material into the environment in a manner that is not in compliance with a
plant's federal, state, or local environmental permits and/or results in toxic
concentrations in the air that are a potential health threat to the surround-
ing community.
Assessment: The process whereby the hazards which have been identified are
evaluated in order to provide an estimate for the level of risk.
Cavitation; The formation and collapse of vapor bubbles in a flowing liquid.
Specifically, the formation and collapse of vapor cavities in a pump when
there is sufficient resistance to flow at the inlet side.
Containment/control; A system to which toxic emissions from safety relief
discharges are routed to be controlled. A caustic scrubber and/or flare can
be containment/control devices. These systems may serve the dual function of
destructing continuous process exhaust gas emissions.
Creep failure; Failure of a piece of metal as a result of creep. Creep is
time dependent deformation as a result of stress. Metals will deform when
exposed to stress. High levels of stress can result in rapid deformation and
rapid failure. Lower levels of stress can result in slow deformation and pro-
tracted failure.
71

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Deadheading,: Closing or nearly closing or blocking the discharge outlet or
piping of an operating pump or compressor.
Facility: A location at which a process or set of processes are used to pro-
duce. refine or repackage chemicals, or a location where a large enough inven-
tory of chemicals are scored so that a significant accidental release of a
toxic chemical is possible.
Hazard: A source of danger. The potential for death, injury or other forms
of damage to life and property.
Hygroscopic: Readily absorbing and retaining moisture, usually in reference
to readily absorbing moisture from the air.
Identification: The recognition of a situation, its causes and consequences
relating to a defined potential, e.g.. Hazard Identification.
Mild steel: Carbon steel containing a maximum of about 0.25% carbon. Mild
steel is satisfactory for use where severe corrodants are not encountered or
where protective coatings can be used to prevent or reduce corrosion rates to
a-jceptable levels.
Mitigation: Any measure taken to reduce the severity of the adverse effects
associated with the accidental release of a hazardous chemical.
Passivation film: A layer of oxide or other chemical compound of a metal on
its surface that acts as a protective barrier against corrosion or further
chemical reaction.
Plant: A location at which a process or set of processes are used to produce,
refine or repackage chemicals.
72

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Prevention: Design and operating measures applied to a process to ensure that
primary containment cf toxic chemicals is maintained. Primary containment
means confinement of toxic chemicals within the equipment intended for normal
operating conditions.
Primary Containment: The containment provided by the piping, vessels and ma-
chinery used in a facility for handling chemicals under normal operating con-
ditions.
Probability/potential: A measure, either qualitative or quantitative, that an
event will occur within some unit of rime.
Process: The sequence of physical and chemical operations for the production,
refining, repackaging, or storage of chemicals.
Process machinery: Process equipment, such as pumps, compressors, heaters, or
agitators that would not be categorized as piping or vessels.
Protection: Measures taken to capture or destroy a toxic cheaical that has
breached primary containment, but before an uncontrolled release to the envi-
ronment has occurred.
Qualitative Evaluation: Assessing the risk of an accidental release at a fa-
cility in relative terms: the end result of the assessment being a verbal de-
scription of the risk.
Quantitative Evaluation: Assessing the risk of an accidental release at a
facility in numerical terms; the end result of the assessment being some type
of number reflects risk, such as faults per year or mean time between failure.
Reactivity: The ability of one chemical to undergo u chemical reaction with
another chemical. Reactivity of one chemical is always measured in reference
to the potential for reaction with itself or with another chemical. A
73

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chemical is sometimes said *o be "reactive," or have high "reactivity,n with-
out reference to another chemical. Vsially this means that the chemical has
the ability to react with common materials such as water, or common materials
of construction svch as carbon steel.
Redundancy; For control systems, redundancy is the presence of a second piece
of control equipment where only one would be required. The second piece of
equipment is installed to act as a backup in the event that the primary piece
of equipment fails. Redundant equipment can be installed to backup all or
selected portions of a control system.
Risk? The probability that a hazard may be realized at any specified level in
a given span of time.
Secondary Containment; Process equipment specifically designed to contain
material that has breached primary containment before the material is released
to the environment and becomes an accidental release. A vent duct and scrub-
ber that are attached to the outlet of a pressure relief o'evice are examples
of secondary containment.
Toxicity: A measure of the adverse health effects of exposure to a chemical.
74

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APPENDIX B
TABLE B-l. METRIC (SI) CONVERSION FACTORS
Quantity
To Convert From
To
Multiply By
Length:
Area:
Volume:
Mass (weight):
Pressure:
Temperature:
Caloric Value;
Enthalpy:
Specific-Heat
Capacity:
Density:
Concentration:
Flovrate:
Velocity:
Viscosity:
in
M
in
ft3
f?
gal
lb
short tor. (ton)
short ton (ton)
atm
nun Hg
psia
psig
°F
°C
Btu/lb
Btu/lbnol
kcal/gmol
Btu/lb-°F
lb/ft3
lb/gal
oz/gal
quarts/gal
gal/min
ga^/day
ft /min
ft/min
ft/sec
centipoise (CP)
cm
cm„
cm.
3
o
kg
Mg
metric ton (t)
kPa
kPa
kPa
kPa*
°C*
K*
kJ/kg
kJ/kgmol
kJ/kgmol
kJ/kg-°C
kg/nu
kg/m,
k§'°3
eg /m
m^/min
n^/day
m /min
m/min
m/sec
kg/m-s
2.54
0.3048
6.4516
0.0929
16.39
0.0283
0.0038
0.4536
0.9072
0.9072
101.3
0.133
6.895
(psig +14.696)x(6.895)
(5/9)x(°F-32)
°C+273.15
2.326
2.326
4.184
4.1868
16.02
119.8
25,000
0.0038
0.0038
0.0283
0.3048
0.3048
0.001
*Calculate as indicated
75

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g1*.^ #Wj& *l,Hg
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w
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