JUNE T&2.797
Washington, D.C

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The Third National Conference
On The Interagency
Energy/Environment R&D Program
June 1 and 2, 1978
Sponsored by EPA in participation with:
Department of Energy (DOE)
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW)
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Science and Education Administration, Federal Research (SEA/FR)
Science and Education Administration, Cooperative Research (SEA/CR)
Economics, Statistics and Cooperatives Service (ESCS)
Forest Service (FS)
Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
U.S. Department of Commerce (USDC)
National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Office of Environmental Affairs (OEA)
U.S. Department of Interior (USDI)
Bureau of Mines (BOM)
Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)
United States Geological Survey (USGS)

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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION	1V
CHAPTER I: HEALTH EFFECTS
Status of Bioscreening of Emissions and Effluents from Energy Technologies
Michael D. Waters, Ph.D., EPA, and James L. Epler, Ph.D., Oak Ridge
National Laboratory	 1
The Effects of H2SO4 on Men and H2SO4 and O3 on Laboratory Animals
John H. Knelson, M.D., Donald E. Gardner, Ph.D.,
Milan Hazucha, M.D., and Frederick Miller, Ph.D., EPA	 2
CHAPTER II: TRANSPORT PROCESSES AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Report on the International Symposium on Sulfur in the Atmosphere
William E. Wilson, Ph.D., EPA, Rudolf B. Husar, Ph.D., Washington University,
Micahel C. MacCracken, Ph.D., DOE, and Ralph M. Perhac, Ph.D., Electric
Power Research Institute	3
Monitoring of Air & Water Quality in the Western Region
David N. McNelis, Ph.D., EPA, Hugh H. Hudson, USGS, and
Rudolf F. Pueschel, Ph.D., NOAA	 6
Ecological Effects of Atmospheric Deposition
Norman R. Glass, Ph.D., EPA, Gene E. Likens, Ph.D., Cornell University,
and Leon S. Dochinger, Ph.D., USDA	7
Ecological Effects of Coal-Fired Power Plants
Gary E. Glass, Ph.D., EPA		 8
CHAPTER III. MINING METHODS AND RECLAMATION
Methods for the Control of Environmental Damage Caused by Mining Energy
Producing Materials
Ronald D. Hill, Eugene F. Harris, and S. Jackson Hubbard, EPA	 9
Mined Land Reclamation
Willie R. Curtis, USDA	10
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CHAPTER IV: CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
Interagency Coal Cleaning Technology Developments
James D. Kilgroe, EPA, and Richard E. Hucko, DOE	11
Flue Gas Desulfurization of Combustion Exhaust Gases
Norman Kaplan and Michael A. Maxwell, EPA	12
Disposal of Power Plant Wastes
Julian W. Jones, EPA	13
Control of Nitorgen Oxides from Combustion
George Blair Martin, EPA	14
U.S. Department of Energy Program Plan for Atmospheric
Fluidized Bed Combustion
E. Karl Bastress, Ph.D., John A. Belding, Ph.D., and Steven I. Freedman, Ph.D., DOE,
and John T. Stone, Mitre Corp	16
Control of Particulates from Combustion
James H. Abbott and Dennis C. Drehmel, Ph.D., EPA	17
CHAPTER V: INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
An Integrated Technology Assessment of Electric Utility Energy Systems
Peter M. Cukor, Ph.D., David B. Large, Brand L. Niemann, and
Andrew J. VanHorn, Teknekron, Inc., and Lowell Smith, EPA	18
The Technology Assessment of Western Energy Resource Development
Irvin L. White, Ph.D., EPA	19
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INTRODUCTION
The abstracts included in this publication were written by the participating authors for the
Third National Conference on the Interagency Energy/Environment R&D Program. The
Conference is hosted by the Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry within the Environmental
Protection Agency's Office of Research and Development. The abstracts have been provided to
assist Conference participants and guests in following the context of material presented by each
senior researcher.
The complete text of each paper, as well as speeches, panel discussions, and question and
answer sessions will appear in the conference proceedings, Energy/Environment III, a copy of
which will automatically be forwarded to each attendee and participant. The abstracts are
organized by chapters which correspond to the Conference sessions.
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CHAPTER I:
HEALTH EFFECTS

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STATUS OF BIOSCREENING OF EMISSIONS AND
EFFLUENTS FROM ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
Michael D. Waters
EPA/Health Effects Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC
James L. Epler
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, TN
Short-term bioassays are being applied effectively in the detection and evaluation of
potentially hazardous emissions and effluents from conventional and developmental energy
technologies.
Biological screening tests such as the Ames Salmonella/microsome assay have demonstrated
their utility: a) as indicators of potential long-term health effects such as mutagenesis and
carcinogenesis; b) as a means to direct the fractionation and identification of a hazardous
biological agent in a complex mixture; c) as a measure of relative biological activity to be
correlated with changes in process conditions; and d) to establish priorities for further
confirmatory short-term bioassays, testing in whole animals, and more definitive chemical analysis
and monitoring.
The reliability of screening tests can be improved when they are combined with other
short-term bioassays and employed in concert as a test battery. This is so because environmental
agents may be endowed with specific kinds of biological activity such that they are detected in
some systems but not in others.
Current information suggests that the short-term test batteries for genotoxic effects should
include, as a minimum, tests for: point mutations, chromosomal aberrations, primary damage to
DNA, oncogenic transformation in vitro and toxicity related to each of these effects. Toxicity
tests continue to rely heavily on conventional methodology.
A major achievement of the Interagency Energy/Environment R&D Program has been the
development and implementation of short-term bioassays which are capable of detecting multiple
biological activities. The attributes of several of these systems will be discussed in relation to
their function within the test matrix. Biochemical techniques which have advanced the
state-of-the-art in short-term testing will be discussed.
Preliminary chemical fractionation and analysis is critical in the effective utilization of most
bioassay techniques for complex sample evaluation, especially when toxicity is found to interfere
with tests for genotoxic effects. The biological direction of chemical fractionation and analysis
of environmental effluents and crude products from the synthetic fuels technology will be
described as an example of the combined use of chemical and biological methodology. Details of
the fractionation scheme and the results of microbial screening tests and comparative mutagenesis
bioassays will be presented to emphasize the utility of the combined approach in energy related
research.
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THE EFFECTS OF H2S04 ON MEN AND H2S04 AND 03 ON LABORATORY ANIMALS
Donald E. Gardner, Milan Hazucha, Frederick Miller and John Knelson
Health Effects Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC
A total of 18 young, healthy men have been consecutively exposed for 2 hours to filtered
air on day 1, to H2S04 aerosol, 0.075 jum particle size on day 2 and to filtered air on day 3.
During each exposure, subjects exercised once each hour for 15 minutes at 600 watt load on a
bicycle ergometer. No statistically significant changes in any of the lung function parameters
were observed in group III (4 subjects exposed to 195 ± 35 jug/m3 of H2S04). For group II
(10 subjects exposed to 100 ± 14 fxg/m3) and for group I (4 subjects exposed to 66 ± 5
Hg/m3), only three out of ten spirometric measurements showed statistically significant changes
after the exposure. The FEV2 (Forced Expiratory Volume at 2 seconds) decreased by 30-190 ml
on the average, which amounted to a 0.5-3.0% change. The TGV (total gas volume) decreased
by 1.8% and RAW (airway resistance) increased 2.6-3.5% on the average from the control values.
Although these statistically significant (p < 0.05) changes are in the direction of impaired
function, the clinical significance of these findings is at best obscure. To enhance the resolution
between air and H2S04 data, more sensitive tests and a greater number of subjects are needed.
The effects of the combined action of ozone (O3) and H2S04 aerosol on the susceptibility
of mice to viable microorganisms and on the ciliary activity of Syrian hamsters were studied.
Exposure to 03 (196 jug/m3) was for 3 hours, while exposure to H2S04 (900 jug/m3 ± 90 SD)
lasted 2 hours. Neither pollution alone caused a significant increase in mortality, as compared to
clean air controls, but a significant reduction of 300 beats/min was observed with exposure to
H2S04. In those studies involving sequential exposure to the two pollutants, there was a
statistically significant increase in mortality of 10.8% in the treated group over controls only
when the exposure of the oxidant immediately preceded that of the acid. This exposure regimen
also resulted in a significant decrease in ciliary activity. Simultaneous exposures for 3 hours to
477 fj.g/m.3 ± 115 SD of H2S04 and 196 ng	resulted in a significant enhancement in
mortality of 7.5%. With exposure to only H2S04, increasing the duration of exposure to 4
hours showed no effect at a concentration of 330 /xg/m3 ± 27 SD. The additive effect observed
with exposure to levels of O3 and H2S04, which alone did not produce effects, clearly
demonstrates the importance of combination studies in environmental toxicology.
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CHAPTER II:	TRANSPORT PROCESSES AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS

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REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM
ON SULFUR IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Rudolf B. Husar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Washington University
St. Louis, MO
William E. Wilson, Jr.
Regional Field Studies Office
Environmental Science Research Laboratory
Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC
Michael C. MacCracken
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory
University of California
Department of Energy
Livermore, CA
Ralph M. Perhac
Physical Factors Program
Electric Power Research Institute
Palo Alto, CA
The Symposium, held in Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, September 7-14, 1977, under the co-
sponsorship of United Nations Environment Programme, Electric Power Research Institute, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Energy Research and Development Administration, was devoted
to scientific problems associated with atmospheric sulfur compounds. Sources, transport, spatial-
temporal distributions, physico-chemical characteristics, transformation-removal rates and overall
source-receptor relationships were considered in some detail. The main emphasis of the Sym-
posium was on regional scale transport. The reason for the great interest in these problems is
evidently the known and suspected adverse effects which man-made sulfur emissions may give
rise to: acidification of precipitation, reduced visibility, effects on health, climate, etc. However,
the nature of such effects were not treated in detail. Some 165 participants from 22 countries
took part in the 7-day Symposium.
During the first days invited plenary papers were presented and discussed. After the
presentation of the contributed papers, the participants were divided into five working groups.
The conclusions from the working groups are published in the Nrs. 1, 2 and 3/1978 issue
of Atmospheric Environment together with the presented papers. A summary of the conference
material is being prepared for publication as a booklet to address a wider audience.
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Following is a brief summary of the Symposium material:
1.	Global sulfur budget. It is the current thinking that man contributes about 60-70% of
the global S emissions, most of it over NW Europe and industrialized part of North
America (<_ 5% of the Earth surface).
2.	Regional budgets, a) Recent data show that the concentration of natural H2S over
Europe is low compared to man-made S; b) there is a close resemblance of the
airborne sulfur concentration and the man-made S emission field over NW Europe; c)
high sulfur concentrations in rain over "remote" European stations are now largely
attributed to long-range transport of man-made S rather than to natural sources. It
follows that the natural source strength is small (< 10%) compared to man-made
emissions over NW Europe. By inference, this should also hold for NE U.S. and SE
Canada.
3.	Removal. For total sulfur dry and wet removal rates seem to be of comparable
magnitude. The dry removal rate is controlled by both stomatal resistance of the
vegetation and by the atmospheric resistance to mixing. The overall average dry
removal rate of SO2 is about 2-3% h~l. Wet deposition is the main removal mecha-
nism for SO4, its rate being 0.5 — 2% h~ 1 on the average in mid-latitudes. The
importance of wet removal of SO2 is not quite clear.
4.	Transformations. The average oxidation rate over the lifetime of SO2 is about 1-2%
hr~ 1 as obtained by fitting the rate constants in regional-scale models to European
monitoring data. In plumes of a midwestern U.S. power plant, the daytime conversion
rate was measured to be 1 to 4% hr~ 1 and < 0.5% hr~ 1 at night. Laboratory
simulations of gas-phase controlled SO2 conversion in the presence of oxidizing radicals
come "embarrassingly close" to the 1-2% hr~ 1 daily average conversion rate. The
contribution of liquid phase oxidation is not well established, but it is thought to be
significant.
5.	Aerosol. About 20-50% of the SO2 converts in the atmosphere to aerosol the product
has been positively identified to SO4" ion. The main cations are NH4+ or H+ depend-
ing on the air mass history. The sulfate (except in marine aerosol) is in the submicron
size range. For gas-phase-controlled conversion, the aerosol growth kinetics is qualita-
tively understood.
6.	Transport. Man-made sulfur compounds are generally confined within the first 1-2 km
of the atmosphere. Most of the sulfur transport occurs within the planetary boundary
layer, and it is influenced by mesoscale phenomena (diurnal, vertical mixing) as well as
the synoptic scale phenomena (e.g., long range transport).
7.	Residence times. The turnover (average residence) times in midlatitude climates are
about 1 day for SO2; 3-5 days for SO4" ; and about 2-3 days for sulfur. The
corresponding transport distances may be estimated taking a speed of about 500
km/day.
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8. Large scale monitoring networks. OECD-Long Range Transport of Air Pollutants;
Sulfate Regional Experiment, (SURE); Multistate Atmospheric Power Production Pollu-
tion Study (MAP3S), in conjunction with long range transport models are useful tools
for the estimation of regional scale (order of 1000 km) distribution and budgets.
However, the fit between model values and data is satisfactory only for yearly averages
and not for synoptic or daily events. Mesoscale or plume studies Midwest Interstate
Sulfur Transformation and Transport (MISTT) and Sulfur Transport and Transforma-
tion in the Environment (STATE) elucidate the diurnal pattern and other details of
transport, transformation and removal processes. Whereas in NW Europe and Canada,
these studies have responded to the impetus of ecological problems resulting from acid
precipitation, in the USA the emphasis has been placed more on health effects due to
sulfur concentrations in the air. There is, however, no reason to believe that the
atmospheric part of the sulfur cycle is substantially different in these two regions.
Cooperation among these large scale projects was recommended.
It was a general feeling among the participants that the Symposium had contributed to the
clarification of the atmospheric portion of the sulfur cycle. The discussion showed that even if
many scientific problems remain to be solved, the man-made part of the atmospheric sulfur
behavior is now reasonably well understood. It is hoped that the Symposium results will help
both quantifying the source-effect relationships as well as aid the further development of control
strategies for sulfur compounds.
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MONITORING OF AIR AND WATER QUALITY
IN THE WESTERN REGION
David N. McNelis, Ph.D.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Las Vegas, NV
Hugh H. Hudson
U.S. Geological Survey
Lakewood, CO
Rudolf H. Pueschel, Ph.D.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Boulder, CO
Concern over the actual and projected environmental impacts of the energy development
activities underway and under consideration in the western United States is apparent in both the
executive and legislative branches of our Government. Policy statements, legislative proposals and
research mandates are appearing with increasing frequency and most relate either directly or
indirectly to the resources existing in the Western Energy Resource Development Area
(WERDA). Historically, the West has been an area with a relatively low population density and
correspondingly low industrial development. Because of these factors, it contains several so-called
pristine areas generally not impacted by anthropogenic activities. A general deterioration, how-
ever, in the air quality over the whole region, particularly with respect to visibility, over the last
several years is widely acknowledged. Concern over any additional degradation is reflected in the
enactment of the Clean Air Act Ammendments of 1977 particularly in Part C, Title I
(Prevention of Significant Deterioration of Air Quality), and Sec. 169A of Part C (Visibility
Protection for Federal Class I Areas).
Also of concern in the West is the potential impact on water quality and supply. Water is
already in short supply in the semiarid West. The accelerated energy developments in these areas
are in direct competition with other uses for the limited available water resources. The
extraction of raw materials, fuel refinement, transport and utilization, and the accompanying
demographic changes will place additional demands on available water. The water quality stands
to be degraded as both the consumptive and non-consumptive use increases and as major
hydrographic changes are made as a result of diversion of water to use sites.
Long-term measurements of air and water quality parameters are essential to develop the
accurate data base to serve as a foundation for the planning processes. Meso- and macro-scale
data regarding pollutant concentrations and the alterations in concentration, pollutant mix and
related parameters resulting from development activities are critical to the responsible study and
decision process.
This paper describes the initial results of a major interagency program directed at inte-
grating air and water quality monitoring data in the WERDA. Included are discussions regarding
the status of visibility research and monitoring programs, the regional sulfate-nitrate monitoring
network and basic water quality studies and network intensification. Participation with the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the
U.S. Geological Survey are several other agencies of the Federal and State governments.
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THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION
Norman R. Glass
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis, OR
Gene Likens
Cornell University
Ithaca, NY
Leon Dochinger
Forest Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Delaware, OH
During the past two decades there has been an increasing concentration of acidic substances
in naturally occurring rainfall as well as dry materials which are deposited from the atmosphere.
The exact sources of all of these materials are not completely identified. However, it is
commonly felt that 60% of the acidity which is contributed to rainfall comes in the form of
acid sulfates and approximately 40% of the acidity is contributed by acid nitrate compounds.
The preponderance of SOx comes from industrial sources, stationary sources such as power
plants, smelters, coking ovens and other industrial processes. The exact origin of the oxides of
nitrogen which contribute to acid deposition are not clearly identified in many cases but would
include automobiles, stationary source emissions of NOx, possibly agricultural fertilizers, and
other sources of NOx.
Regardless of the sources, since the 1950's there has been a gradual increase in the acidity
of atmospheric deposition in virtually all portions of the United States east of the Mississippi
River. The preponderance of the acidity appears to be concentrated in the northeastern United
States generally in the New England area while the southeastern and southcentral states appear
not to be as heavily affected. There is some evidence that portions of the western United States
are also experiencing a drop in pH of rainfall. Portions of Los Angeles, San Francisco Bay area,
the Seattle-Tacoma area, as well as various point sources generally associated with power plants
and smelters in the southwest and the northcentral plains states may also be affected.
While some of the data which relate possible causes of acid rain or acid deposition effects
on ecological processes are ambiguous, there are some data which are relatively conclusive in
identifying specific effects which result from acidic atmospheric deposition. Some of the less
controversial effects include the loss of fish life at pH's generally below pH 5.0, the depletion of
nutrients from many oligotrophic lakes because of the growth of a sphagnum moss layer on the
bottom of the lake which in turn depletes the water column of nutrient materials, a general
lowering of primary production in lakes and a lowering of secondary production in oliogotrophic
lakes, and the impact of increasing acidity in lowering the rate of decomposition processes in
the soil. Many of these phenomena are documented in the European literature and are being
presently examined and verified in the United States. Other areas of concern for which the data
are not quite as conclusive are areas of crop and forest production loss which may result from
increasing acidity in atmospheric deposition. It is the purpose of the present paper to discuss the
increase in the distribution of acid deposition geographically and attempt to review some of the
highlights of the current literature relating atmospheric deposition to possible ecological impact.
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THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS
Gary E. Glass
Environmental Research Laboratory
Environmental Protection Agency
Duluth, MN
Researchers from the University of Wisconsin have been conducting a seven-year research
program to document the impacts from construction and operation of a 1,000 MW coal-fired
steam-electric generating station located in a Wisconsin River wetland-rural agricultural area. The
broad study goals are to:
1)	document the environmental, economic and social changes caused by the construction
and operation of the coal-fired power generating station;
2)	evaluate data and information to help improve decisions by environmental and
protection regulatory agencies on further location, construction and operation of
coal-fired power generating stations;
3)	aid in the design and testing of cost-effective techniques for accurate impact assessment
and;
4)	assess the effectiveness of environmental protection regulations and practices.
The research program was begun with the participation and support of the utilities involved
and the Wisconsin Public Service Commission and the Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources. The program was expanded three years ago with funding from the U.S. EPA
laboratories in Duluth and Corvallis to the broad goals given above.
A cursory summary of the major findings to date will be presented in the following broad
areas: surface and groundwater quality impacts; air pollution impacts; water, air and bioresponse
modeling, and impacts on aquatic invertebrates, fish, and birds; hazardous chemical sources,
transport and effects; land-use, citizen concern, and visual impacts; energy alternatives—wind and
solar; and siting criteria protocol for coal-fired power plants.
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CHAPTER III:	MINING METHODS AND RECLAMATION

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METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE
CAUSED BY MINING ENERGY PRODUCING MATERIALS
Ronald D. Hill, Eugene F. Harris and S. Jackson Hubbard
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio
The extraction of fuel (coal, uranium, oil shale and tar sands) by its very nature is a
destructive process. Environmental degradation is bound to occur. These environmental insults
can be divided into several major categories: solid waste handling and disposal, water discharges,
air discharges, noise, and aesthetics. Techniques that can be utilized to minimize environmental
damage created by the mining of energy-producing materials are available. Specific topics
discussed are sediment control, acid mine drainage, subsidence, western coal mining, and various
methods used for mining oil shale and uranium. Some of the significant regulations that directly
impact the mining of energy-producing materials are discussed. Potential environmental problems
of the future for the coal, oil-shale, and uranium industries are presented. Existing research and
development projects are described.
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MINED LAND RECLAMATION
Willie R. Curtis
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
Berea, KY
Reclamation technology has made significant advances during the past thirty years. By
utilizing chemical, physical, and biological data it is possible to move and place overburden
materials in a manner that will enhance vegetation establishment and growth.
Vegetation can be successfully established on most surface mine spoil if proper mining and
planting techniques are employed. A suitable seedbed is essential. Amendments must be used to
provide nutrients, to alleviate acidity, and to improve moisture conditions. Mulches often mean
the difference between a good vegetative cover and a poor cover. The proper time of seeding
and planting is often just as important as species selection.
Legislation generally determines the level of reclamation that is sought; however, technology
is not always available to allow achievement of regulatory requirements. Sometimes legislative
action tends to create new problems which then must be solved before successful reclamation
can be done.
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CHAPTER IV
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

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INTERAGENCY COAL CLEANING TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTS
James D. Kilgroe
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Richard E. Hucko
Coal Preparation and Analysis Laboratory
U. S. Department of Energy
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
The objectives of the interagency coal cleaning program are to 1) assess and develop
technology for removing contaminants from coal, 2) evaluate the environmental impacts of coal
cleaning processes and 3) develop improved methods to control pollution from coal preparation
processes. Organizations participating in the program include the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Department of Interior, the Tennessee Valley
Authority and the Electric Power Research Institute.
Progress during the past year included the continued assessment of the costs and
performance of physical coal-cleaning equipment in removing sulfur from coal. In addition,
development work was conducted to evaluate coal desulfurization by: chemical leaching,
microwave energy, hydrothermal treatment, two-stage froth flotation, oil agglomeration and
high-gradient magnetic separation. Studies comparing chemical coal-cleaning processes now being
developed were completed.
Criteria to assess the environmental impacts of coal-cleaning process pollutants were
developed, a master environmental test plan was written and baseline environmental tests were
conducted at the construction site of a large coal preparation plant.
Laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the control of preparation plant process
water discharges (blackwater) and the chemical stabilization of coal preparation plant sludges.
Engineering studies were made to determine the status and costs of pollution control technology
applicable to coal cleaning processes.
Near-term research goals will continue to be the development of methods to improve
coal-energy recovery and coal-sulfur removal for physical coal preparation plants. Improved
pollution control technology will be developed in response to new pollution control regulations.
Long term research and development activities will concentrate on the removal of sulfur and
other coal contaminants by chemical techniques.
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FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION OF COMBUSTION EXHAUST GASES
Norman Kaplan, Michael A. Maxwell
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research & Development
Office of Energy, Minerals & Industry
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC
The sulfur oxide-emissions problem is quantified and attributed, proportionally, to the
various significant sources in the U.S.
The regulatory framework applicable to control of sulfur dioxide air pollution is briefly
presented. Projected regulatory changes are mentioned.
Various sulfur oxide control technologies are cited; however, flue gas desulfurization (FGD)
is emphasized. Process descriptions are given for the currently operating full-scale FGD systems.
The FGD systems currently in use are also quantified by system type, and plant capacities
controlled. They are also categorized by product produced-salable product process or throwaway
system.
The federal energy/environment research and development programs are briefly described,
with emphasis on the large-scale demonstration test programs.
The current status of FGD systems applied to utility and industrial boilers is discussed with
emphasis on the utility systems. The number of units and controlled capacity is given for
systems currently operating, under construction, and planned. Major problems incident to the
application of FGD systems are discussed with respect to their impact on system dependability.
Capital and operating costs of FGD systems are tabulated for actual operating systems and
for generalized designs given certain basic conditions. The costs are then compared with the cost
of electric power production.
Projected growth of FGD use is given based on currently planned utility units and for the
case of more stringent regulations. These projected growth rates of utility FGD applications are
then compared to a projected need for FGD.
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DISPOSAL OF POWER PLANT WASTES
Julian W. Jones
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Modern coal-fired, steam-electric generating plants produce large quantities of wastes, the
bulk of which is coal ash (fly ash and bottom ash or boiler slag) and flue gas desulfurization
(FGD) waste. Because most of these wastes are disposed of, rather than utilized, they present a
potentially major source of land degradation and water pollution unless proper disposal
techniques are applied. Since early 1975, the Energy/Environment Program has included major
efforts in better defining potential environmental problems, reducing costs, and investigating a
broad range of alternative disposal options. These efforts are expected to provide a technical
base for the establishment of regulations (under the Clean Water Act and the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act) as well as a source of information for the utility industry.
Results of the power plant waste disposal projects have been significant. The chemical
characteristics of FGD waste have been essentially quantified; however, more study is needed to
control the physical behavior, e.g., particle size, of the FGD waste solids. Chemical treatment
can improve the physical stability, as well as lower the permeability and solubility (of the major
constituents) of FGD wastes. Coal ash needs further study, particularly as related to the
potential toxicity of trace metals contained in the ash. Ponding of FGD wastes does not appear
to be a suitable ultimate disposal method; a well-managed landfill of stabilized waste can avoid
many potential environment problems. Waste disposal costs, a sizeable percentage of FGD system
costs, can be reduced with more efficient and economical dewatering equipment. In addition,
costs can possibly be lowered by disposal of power plant wastes in coal mines, which is
beginning to occur commercially. Ocean disposal of these wastes remains under study.
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CONTROL OF NITROGEN OXIDES FROM COMBUSTION
G. Blair Martin
EPA/Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC
Fuel combustion in mobile and stationary sources produces over 99 percent of the nitrogen
oxides (NOx) emitted into the atmosphere as a result of man's activities. Of the 23 metric tons
of NOx emitted in 1974: 50.4 percent was generated in stationary combustion systems: 46.1
percent from mobile sources; and the balance (3.5 percent) resulted from miscellaneous
combustion and process activities. NOx is formed during combustion by two mechanisms: 1)
high temperature fixation of molecular nitrogen from the atmosphere, and 2) oxidation of
organic nitrogen compounds contained within the structure of most liquid and solid fuels. Once
the fuel combustion reactions are completed, the NOx is thermodynamically stable and is
emitted from the stack. Emitted into the atmosphere, NOx can cause either direct effects on
human health as NO2 or indirect effects as the result of subsequent photochemical reactions.
EPA's program is directed toward development of stationary source NOx control technology
to serve as the basis for establishing New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) as required by
the Clean Air Act of 1970. At present the only stationary combustion sources covered by NSPS
are steam generators with thermal input greater than 73 MW (250 X 10° Btu/hr) fired with
solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels. NSPS are pending for stationary gas turbine and reciprocating
engines. The need for more stringent standards for a wider range of sources is projected based
oi\ three factors: 1) the relaxation of mobile source standards as provided in the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1977; 2) the large increase in coal consumption projected by the National
Energy Plan; and 3) the continued growth of energy use.
EPA's NOx Control Technology Development program is based on two approaches: 1)
combustion modification to reduce or eliminate the formation of NOx; and 2) postcombustion
and flue gas treatment methods for removal of residual NOx. Primary emphasis is on combustion
modification techniques as the most cost-effective and energy-efficient method of NOx control.
The combustion technology is focused on optimum designs for conventional equipment types
and advanced processes capable of very low NOx emission levels. The postcombustion and flue
gas treatment techniques are being developed as supplements to combustion technology where
very low NOx levels are required.
The paper discusses significant accomplishments of the past year. Although emphasis is on
coal use, other fuels are included to cover sources that cannot be coal fired. Some of the
highlights are summarized below:
1) Based on small pilot scale test results, a low NOx pulverized coal burner has been
developed and tested at a scale required for practical application. At a thermal input of 15
MW (90 X 10° Btu/hr), NOx levels well below 85 ng/J (0.2 lb per 10° Btu) have been
achieved on an experimental single burner. Larger scale burner and multiple burner
experiments are in progress. Burner technology will be evaluated under field conditions for
both industrial and utility boilers.
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2)	A program has been initiated to evaluate the effects of low NOx operation on coal-fired
utility-boiler waterwall corrosion and to identify control techniques.
3)	A program has been initiated to develop control technology for commercial and small
industrial coal-fired boilers. This includes both stoker and pulverized-fuel-fired systems in a
range of steam capacities.
4)	Nitrogen-containing heavy liquid fuels continue to present a difficult problem for NO
control; however, significant progress has been made both in fundamental understanding and
in burner design concepts.
5)	Bench scale testing of combustor concepts for dry control of NO from gas turbines
has shown the potential for high levels of control of both fuel and thermal NO . Large
scale testing of the concepts is planned.	x
6)	Six prototype integrated residential oil furnaces, evaluated under field conditions over
the 1977-78 heating season, have shown a 65-percent reduction in NO relative to
conventional furnaces and the potential for a significant decrease in fuel consumption.
7)	Catalytic combustion system concepts for both gas turbines and watertube boilers
burning clean fuels have been tested in the laboratory and show the potential for NO
emissions below 10 ppm.	x
8)	Two contracts for pilot scale evaluation of NOx flue gas treatment processes are nearing
award. One process is for NOx removal only, while the second is for simultaneous SO and
NOx removal. The goal is 90-percent removal efficiency. Technical and economic aspects of
the processes will be evaluated at a pilot plant scale with a flue-gas volume equivalent to
0.5 MW electric.
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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
PROGRAM PLAN FOR ATMOSPHERIC FLUIDIZED BED
COMBUSTION
John A. Belding, E. Karl Bastress, Steven I. Freedman
U. S. Department of Energy
Washington, D.C.
John T. Stone
Mitre Corporation
Metrek Division
McLean, VA
This paper describes the current Research, Development and Demonstration (RD & D)
program plan of the U. S. Department of Energy on atmospheric fluidized bed (AFB)
combustion technology. The plan includes discussions of:
•	rationale for Federal government involvement
•	program goals and objectives
•	current technology status
•	program strategy and content.
The plan represents the current DOE view of AFB technology needs and the DOE role in
providing for these needs. A similar plan has been prepared on pressurized fluidized-bed (PFB)
combustion technology. The AFB plan does not include a discussion of R & D activities
underway on AFB technology. These activities were discussed at the recent International
Conference on Fluidized Bed Combustion and are reported in the proceedings from that
conference.
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CONTROL OF PARTICULATES FROM COMBUSTION
James H. Abbott, Dennis C. Drehmel
Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, N.C.
The Environmental Protection Agency's Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory in
North Carolina (IERL-RTP) has responsibility under the Clean Air Act of 1970 for the
development and demonstration of control technology for air pollutants emitted from stationary
sources. One of the pollutants among the six frequently referred to as criteria pollutants is
particulate matter. It is the responsibility of the Particulate Technology Branch (PATB) of
IERL-RTP to develop and demonstrate, on a pilot scale, control technology that is generally
applicable to particulate and fine particulate matter emitted from all stationary sources, including
combustion sources.
For the past five years PATB has been engaged in a program aimed at determining the
limitations of conventional particulate control devices and at defining a research and develop-
ment effort that will eventually produce the needed technology for the control of fine
particulates. In addition IERL-RTP has established a program to develop control technology for
fine particulates.
From the data developed by PATB it can be concluded that adequate control of emitted
submicron particulate matter is presently possible, but not broadly applicable to a wide variety
of sources.
Highly efficient electrostatic precipitators installed on sources whose dust properties are
such that they lend themselves to electrostatic collection can currently be effective in controlling
fine particles. Additional research and development is needed, however, to improve the perform-
ance of precipitators on particulate in the size range of 0.1 to 1 microns. This size range is
quite important since it is the most optically active and causes atmospheric haze and thus
visibility problems. Techniques that either enhance charging or selectively charge fine particles
are currently being developed by Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory.
Conventional scrubbers are not very efficient collectors of fine particles. Current research
and development efforts to improve scrubbers are directed toward more efficient utilization of
the energy applied to a scrubber system, and toward taking increased advantages of condensation
and other physical phenomena that affect, to some degree, the performance of all scrubbers.
Fabric filters, insofar as current test data show, are quite effective collectors of fine
particles. Their use is currently limited by the physical properties of the filter media and by the
large size of the required container. Most mechanically durable, as well as chemical and heat
resistant filters, are needed. In addition, filters must be developed that can be used as
air-to-cloth ratios 10 to 100 times greater than is the current practice. An increase in the
allowable level of this parameter will result in a direct reduction in container size.
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CHAPTER V:	INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT

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AN INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
OF ELECTRIC UTILITY ENERGY SYSTEMS
Peter M. Cukor, David B. Large, Brand L. Niemann, Andrew J. VanHorn
Teknekron, Inc.
Berkeley, CA
Lowell Smith
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
For three years the Energy and Environmental Engineering Division of Teknekron has been
working closely with EPA's Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry to develop and refine
analytical tools for forecasting the economic and environmental implications of investment and
operating decisions made by electric utility firms. The Utility Simulation Model (USM), a model
of electricity supply, is the most important of these tools. By combining this model with
innovative approaches to assessing the impact of power-plant emissions on regional air quality,
Teknekron has established a set of highly powerful techniques for measuring the economic costs
and air quality benefits of alternative EPA policies affecting the utility industry. The approach is
an integrated one in that it successfully combines the results of EPA-sponsored research efforts
in the areas of pollutant generation and control, utility economics and decision criteria, and air
quality modeling. It shows, first, how utility investment and operating decisions vary with EPA's
regulatory initiatives; and, second, how these decisions in turn affect emissions of both regulated
and unregulated pollutants to air, water, and land; and, finally, how regional air quality is
enhanced or degraded.
After a brief description of the USM and its components, we present examples of the
application of these tools to analyses of specific energy and environmental-policy options facing
EPA. The examples include projections of the demand for western coal under present and
proposed New Source Performance Standards for sulfur dioxide and particular matter, measures
of the regional distribution of increased electricity costs brought on by more stringent
air-pollution controls, and measures of the relative contribution of existing and future generating
plants to emissions of criteria pollutants.
The spatial and temporal distribution of pollutant emissions from power plants provided by
the USM is a key element in forecasting regional air quality. Using regional and subregional
disperson climatologies developed in this prqject, we present selected results from a detailed
study of present and projected air quality problems in the Ohio River Basin and Rocky
Mountain West. Included is a discussion of the problems caused by the long-range transport of
SQ2 and sulfates across air quality control regions and state boundaries and towards areas where
visibility is an important aesthetic value. "Hot spot" counties (counties for which power plant
emissions in the 1990's are projected to be very high) are shown and discussed in conjunction
with the meteorological conditions that favor sulfate formation and transport.
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THE TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF WESTERN ENERGY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
Irvin L. White
Project Director, EPA Western
Energy Technology Assessment
Norman, OK
This paper describes a three-year Technology Assessment of Western Energy Resources
sponsored by EPA's Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry, Office of Research and
Development. The assessment, which was initiated in July 1975 and which is being conducted
by the University of Oklahoma's Science and Public Policy Program, focuses on the development
of six energy resources (coal, geothermal, natural gas, oil, oil shale, and uranium) in eight
western states (Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah,
and Wyoming) from the present to the year 2000.
The results of analyses of the likely local and regional impacts of deploying a variety of
energy resource development technologies are summarized in this paper and then related to the
national and regional social and political context within which energy resource development will
take place. Alternative policies and implementing strategies for dealing with significant problems
and issues which arise as a consequence of these impacts are then discussed. Air, water, and
planning and growth management impacts and problems and issues are emphasized.
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