METHOD AUOWINa 10 IDENTIJy ULTIMATE
PEVEUDPMENT THRESHOLDS FROM THE VIEW
POINT OF THE PROJECTION
ENVIRONMENT /INOVWNft SWEWMENTM.
TESTING OF THE METHOPON WEARER
OF THE PREVAILING TOURIST ACTIVITY/
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RESEARCH INSTITUTE ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL
DEVELOPMENT - CRACOW BRANCH
POUND -
METHOD ALLOWING TO IDENTITY ULTIMATE DEVELOPMENT
THRESHOLDS FROM THE VIEW POINT OF THE PROTECTION
OF THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT /INCLUDING EXPERIMENTAL
TESTING OF THE METHOD ON THE AREA OF THE PREVAILING
TOURIST ACTIVITY/
APPENDICES
Research project submitted to the Maria Curie-
Sklodowska fund through the US Environmental Pro-
tection Agency
No JB-5-532-20
OCTOBER 1981
PRINCIPIAL INVESTIGATORS:
MARIA BARANOWSKA-JANOTA M.Sc./Geography/ PH.D./Krak6w
research fellow
JERZY KOZtQWSKI M.Arch. Krak<5w Dip.Urb. /Paris/ Ph.D./
Edlnburg Assistant Professor
Cracov 1981
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DISCLAIMER
This Report has been reviewed by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Region VIII, (herein insert name of
your division) Denver, Colorado and is approved for
publication. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use.
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
This report is available to the public through the
National Technical Information Service, US Department
of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 22161
-------
Contents
Appendices
A« Application of Threshold Analysis to Fauna 175
B. Application of Threshold Analysis to Relief 203
C. Application of Threshold Analysis to Flora 226
D# Summary of study tours undertaken within the
scope of this project un 1977/79 to United
States, Austria, Switzerland and Italy 2^9
Glossary 257
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Al> PUN DIX A
APPLICATION OF TIIIUJSIIOLD ANALYSIS TO FAUNA
IImTUODUCTION
Considering the pressures that modern day oivilization pla-
ces on tho environment and the subsequent changes introduced
into it by man, consqrvation ancl preservation of animal popula-
tions and their habitat has become a generally accepted mandate.
Various Iovms of human activity can influence particular compo-
nents of tlie natural environment, including wildlife, in various
ways . Increasing visitation to National Paries, refuses, and wil-
derness areas is Resulting in greatly increased preo3ure on wild-
life habitat. It i3 there fore necessary to distinguish and define
t.ijo types oC stress to which wildlife are exposed froiu increased
visitor activity as well as tlie reactions of wildlife to these
pressures« To achieve tiii3 aim one should first define appropriate
U"xiulm>lo,';y <"»d next, dellnul.c and cLaasify the natural phenomena
ocourinj; in Mio life eyci<'3 of wildlife exposed to visitor pro-
nsures •
.\n attempt will be made to define and classify the various
visitor acljvitLes as well as the stresses on, and reactions of
175
-------
wildlife, Several specios of birtis and jafuiunals of Polish wo-
odlands, classified in Poland as legally protected game, have
been clioseu as a study group. An example of the practical
application of the evaluation criteria, i.e., types of visi-
tor activities, types of wildlife stress, will bo presented
in reference to Uabiogora National Park,
DEFINITION OF VISITOR ACTIVITIES
Tiie sum of nan*s aetivitios influencing the natural en-
vironment during his leisure tine In this environment* Thus,
one can enumerate a set of effects brought about by thoi
presence of visitors in natural areas hiking, can-
ping, skiing, backpacking, horseback riding, etc#
- construction of visitor facilities such as over-
night shelters, ski lifts, camping arnan, etc.
the existence of transportation routes used by vi-
sitors, such as highways, railways and waterways.
Visitor activities in the woodland environment alno in—
oTude mushroom-picking and berry-picking, although thesu ac-
tivities nre sometimes caries aout during regular working
hours /nailer than during leisure time/, '/e should exclude
hunting from the list of visitor activities in the woodland
cmv' i nil! f'nt, as hunting is a function of a planned oconomin
•¦'''tivJty nlthough people may bo Involved in the activity
'i'D'ln , their leisure tine.
Utilisation of a notional park or wilderness area takes
pi nee in various ways by various "groups" or types of visitors:
176
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ilfovemcnt of visitors along narked visitor* trall3. Alone
or in groups, visitors cross woodland complexes on foot
in siiwmor and on 3kts in the wintertime, seldom leaving
marked trails. This kind of movement takes plaoe during
tlio day, seldom in tiie early morning hours and only oc-
casionally after dusk.
Recreation of visitors who cone to the area as part of
c.u organized tour. Gueli Lour groups, having from a few
to several dozen participants, usually arrive ny car.
They arc often associated within mushrom-pieking or pic-
nicking rather than hiking along markod trails. People
ore loud in their behavior, the area surrounding their
corn being thoroughly penetrated by the noise. Peace is
disturued and disquiet introduced in the daytime, often
in the evening, and sometimes at night.
Recreation of visitors entering the area in a nonorgani-
zed nanner. This form of recreation is usually indulged
in by groups of several people entering the area on foot
or by car ht various timc3 of the day and/or night. Tho-
se groups arc usually found in the vicinity of roads rna
traJ.Is but they oloo enter the arou through less acces-
sible sections. This type or recreation is usually asso-
ciated with a few hours stay in one place such as sun-
bathing, picnicking, etc.
mil strolls Ln tlio vicinity of snas and :mi iincr reso-
rt." located ad.1o.cent to naUor.'il narks or wilderness areas.
Itiki'rs usually move along roads and trails, singly or L11
small, scattered groups without going far into the area.
177
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Their viaitatlon of tlie area begins early in tlie day
and may last until late at niglit. This phenomenon i3
observed only during oertain seasons of tlie year,
c, VLoitor shelters and earning sites. A portion of the wil-
dlife habitat is destroyed. Disturbance of tlie natural
environment of the area, such as olfactory and auditory
signs of man, as well G3 littering is evidont.
I*. Sicl Hits and "health" or conditioning trails. Concen-
tration and movement /greater or lesser/ of visitor can
ho observed near these facilities at varying times of
the day and of the year.
Trnnsnortation routes. Visitors travol by various moans
tnat may not only startle or frighten away wildlife, but
injure or lcill it. Uildlifo nay also be startled by pa-
upie leaving their paired ears to observe them *
Y.fiJ CIIaUACTKUISTICS OF TTIJ5 STUI3S31JS 'MAT WILDLIFJi! Alia LKPOS.-JU
TO AS A RESULT OP VARIOUS VISITOR ACTIVITIES IN THi'I CONTil'IT
OF Tlii*'! /seasons of the year/ AI
-------
as stags rutting grounds/ or during migration. Organised visi-
tor activities on marked trails frequently frighten away wild-
life adjacent to or near these trails, for a period of one hour
or longer, through direct contact or olfactory sign of man left
on the trail. Visitor activities off of marlccd trails can
extend over areas of warious 3ise, near rosort complexes, visi-
tor shelters or rest areas or over the entire area /as during
mushroom or berry-picking, or the so called "dzikic wyeimezki"
/unofficial individual excursions/. In short, wildlife may bo
frightened or startled away from anywhere within its habitat
auu the degree to which the wildlife is disturbed depends on
the intensity of the visitor activities in a given area. Vehi-
cle as well as pedestrian traffic is a wildlife-related distur-
bance, but to a much losser degree.
Of the various typc3 of visitor activities considered bore,
vehicle traffic is responsible for the mortality of individual
members of neatly all species of wildlife. Some, for example the
lip.ro or the roe doer, are killed in large numbers. Cosos of ve-
hicle traffic resulting in the mortality of animals as large as
[,iio c] ic or the bear have al30 been reported. A certain number
uf animals axe ulso dcstioyed during visitor activities off of
narucrl trails - accidentally or as a result of deliberate cap-
t.nre of young animals or destruction of nests. It is worth poin-
ting out that sometimes eggs perish after the incubating parent
ii;iH been frLghtened away from Its nest or young animals perish
when f.U>e parent has benn frightened by man. The la(.ter pheno-
Mcnon j.s uboerved among roe-deers and stags /doers, harts/ when
i.ho parent abandons young who have been handled by humans, re-
1T3
-------
tainlng man* 8 scent.
Visitation to an area may result in various wildlife dis-
eases, e.g., contagious and/or parasitic diseasos transmitted
by visitors or tlieir pots. Visitor uae may also result in wild
injuries, or spraining or breaking of liwbs in startled animals.
Also, dogs accompanying vtaitors may carry parasites. Little is
known about the problem of the transmission of animal diseases
by iiian and in most cases one can only rely on supyoui lion. Dise-
ase or illness in wildlife caused by road traffic is unknown as
yet, though it is very likely that pollution oauscd by fumes and
combustion waste gases is not without effect on the wildlife of
a polluted area.
Gtress caused by visitor activities that wildlife is expo-
sed to is much greater during the mating and breeding season,
most frequently spring for birds, and various different seasons
for manuals, e.g. autumn for deer, elk and fallow deer, summer
for the roe-deer and winter for the fo:< and the wolf. Disturban-
ces during mating affect reproductivencss directly, and therefo-
r«' also influence the numerical force of the population. Late
spring pud early summer arc the most sensitive periods, since
most species are raising their young during that time. Y>hen in—
vpflt.igating stress to wildlife caused by visitor activities one
should also take into consideration the sequence of daily ac-
tivities in waiioua species. Considering the behavior of wildli-
fe in a 4-hour pei'iod, we observe that most species are most
active lit Iho early morning pud evening hours /some speoles
nocturnnlly/, and at these times of the probability of direct
180
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encounters between wildlife and man is the greatest#
l'Jcicli specios lias a characteristic feeding territory and
resting habitat. Therefore, anticipated stress should be consi
dcred separately for each species in a given area. For example
wild boars prefer thick, young forests as tlicir refuge area,
deers and roe-deers young forests, thiclcets or oldor stands of
trees with thick, woody brush, whereas the black grouse and
wood grouse choose old stands of trees with rich undcrgrotb.
Feeding territories of deer and roe-deer during the growing
season constitute areas separate fron the day refuge, e.g. cle
arings, Meadows, raspberry patches and fields adjoining fore-
sts. Particular animal species are characterized by varying
degrees of mobolity. Individual spccincns of less mobile spo-
oler? can adjust to smaller habitat areas depending on their
needs and habits, environmental conditions, or population den-
sities. Therefore, we can assume that the species most prone
to stress are those inhabiting snail individual areas.
UUl'ViMlTIl.'NS AND 'HIE CHOICE 01' CJHT^UIA DEFINING UNKitTKNESS
TiiAll^'UkUiTlON AND RU3ISTANC1J OF VTILDLIFL;
Uniqueness
'.¦lie iuiii.ii criteria Tor urxiuli'v the uniquenjjuus of a given
cummjIps 1s the frequency of occurrence and the numerical force
of the j!pecto3 in a given area. Definition oC the degree or
milijiiphprJthus relcis co a specific area unit such as a natlo
;ml pju'l*., reservation, woodland complex, etc. ISaoh such unit
iGi
-------
is characterized by a specific set of animal species, where
several species dominat in number can be distinguished. These
species are not necessarily tlie same in different areas. The
uniqueness of each species should be considered individually
according to Tablo A-l. In Table A-l the frequency of occur-
rence of the species in an area is presented according to
the scale adopted in the systematic zoological quantity stu-
dies, Degrees of uniqueness are defined in the i-to-3 scale
according to tiiese oriteria.
182
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Table A-l. Degrees of uniqueness of particular species of
wildlife depending on the frequency of ocourrence
and tlie numerical force in a given area.
i^icriu^ncy of
Numerical force in
a given area
occurrence
In tlie
country
numerous medium
soaroe
common 112
rare 2 2 3
sporadic 3 3 3
183
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Samples:
a, V/ild boar - Species common in the country. It can be
defined as numerous with tlic 1st degree of uniqueness
in tlie area of rteslcid Slq,sfci, as medium-numerous with
tlio 1st degree of uniquones also in Goroe, but in Da-
biogora national Parte it can be defined as scarce with
the second degree of uniqueness.
b» Mack Grouse - Species rare in tlie oountry. In the area
of tlie Solslci jPriuieval Forest, it is defined as numerous
with the second degree of uniqueness, in the Babiogora
National Parte as Medium-numerous with the 2nd degree
of uniqueness as well, a^u in Lite Dulowa Primeval Forest
as scarce with the 3rd decree of uniqueness,
c. 1Hson - It occurs sporadically in the country. Although
it is numerous in the Bialowie4a Primeval Forest it can
be described as having the 3rd degree of uniqueness
even there.
Tranuf uruation
The term transformation denotes changes in the spatial dis-
tribution and the numerical force of wildlife specic3 in a given
area cruised by visitor activities. They can be positive or nega-
tive, permanent or temporary. Criteria defining the degree of
transformation /spatial distribution ond/or numerical force of
;< {ii vii "jieeif's/ should be hnscd on the principle ol co
-------
It should be emphasized tliat transformation caused by vi-
sitor pressures can be brought about indirectly, through a chan-
ge iii relationships auong species. Figure A-i depicts the
interaction of visitor acticities and wildlife. The possibili-
ties of occurrence of transformation are presented. It is sug-
gested that 3 degrees of transformation should be introduced:
the first will be minimal /insignificant/ transforma-
tion - having no direct effect,
— the second degree — partial or completely transforma-
tion,
the third degree - irreversible transformation - a
complete expulsion of tho species from a given area.
Depending on the chai'cicteriGtics of the environment, a gi-
von species moy reflect various decrees of transformation un-
der tho influenoe of equally strong visitor pressures.
135
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Figure A-l. The scheme for defining the degres of transforma-
tion in particular species of wildlife.
Species of
the animal
Various types of
visitor activity
Yes
Vi'ill tho gpatial
-dlatrinution of the
species change?
L's it possible that the
species will find substitute
ecologico.l niches?
No
The species
\7iIX be
rxpelled
"T,
Yes
JT
It will
diminish
The species
will remain
in the given area
llow will the
Numerical force
change?
T
It will
remain the
same or wilt
change very
slightly
1
It wi
in ere
No
In what way will
the numerical
force change?
It will
increase
It will diminish
It will re rial n
the same or
will change very
slightly
©
11
ase
The degrees of transformation:
/j.rot degree - slight /insignificant/ transformation
.jocond degree — partial or rcversihip transformation
Third degree - irreversible /permanent/ transformation
ISO
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Examples s
a, Vood-grouse - a characteristic feature in the biology or
this species is booming on small territories /form seve-
ral to several dozen hoctares/ situated within largo wo-
odland complexes. These booming territories are permanent,
i.e. tliey are used every year and the spocies shows strong
attachment to them. Introduction of strong disturbances
during the mating ritual causes dislocation of individual
birds which subsequently fail to breed, resulting in even-
tual disappearance of the wood-grouse in the given area.
Tills phenomenon was observed by the authors of the present
study in the early seventios in tiie region of LZD Krynlca
ond also near the "Obary" reservation In the Huta Krseszow-
ska forest inspectorate. This is an example of the third
degree of transformation,
jj. iiaven - Species CjJCufiuterizod by a large ami strictly de-
fined individual territory. In the event that individual
epucinens are disturbod during the brooding season near
their nesting places, there la no possibility of reloca-
ting in neighboring areas because of strong competition
within the species. They are forced to leaven area, con-
sequently diminishing the numerical force of a given popu-
lation, This is an example of a transformation of the
socond degree.
o. On the mountalin "Huzary" in the LZD Krynicn /Forest ibepe-
rinental Institute/ whore four visitor trails Intersect
and visitors utilize only some portions of the woodlnnu
coM^lex, wildlife population densities are approximatrly
187
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one-half of those of wildlife in analogous habitat wit-
nil) the grounds of LZD. V/c can say that this is an exam-
ple of the second degree of transformation,
d# There is the possibility that as a oonsequence of inten-
sive movement of people and substantial visitor activity,
biological capacity of an area may become saturated, with
no changes in the spatial distribution. Such phenomenon
oon be observed in the case of large carnivores /wolf,
lynx/ whioli inhabit largo territories. Transformations of
of this type can be qualified as examples of the second
degree •
11. If the intensity of visitor activities does not produce
a negative effect on a given species, yet it removes or
expels competitive or predator 3peoies from an area, the
species in question remains in the area and its numerical
force increases.
The plienomen can be observed in the case of a roe-deer
encountered in the vicinity of spa resorts or near trauo-
portation Routes, This type of transformation can be
classified as belonging to the second degree,
f. Foxes sometimes scavenge in refuse dumps. They may find
additional feeding grounds near visitor ahelters /picnic
grounds and camping areas/ which alter their distribution,
increasing the numerical forc»». This would be an example
of transformation of the second degree.
,
-------
boar is a typical example here. This typo of transformation
can be classified as an example of the first degree#
h. If a speoios does not relocate in a different territory beca-
use of visitor activity and the numerical force of other
species living in biological interdependence with tliem does
not shift sither, then insignificant changes in the numeri-
cal force of the species in question can talce place. Tills
is transformation of the first degree. The hare and the roe-
deer, and in some cases the deer and the wild boar can serve
as examples here#
Sometimes transformations oaused by other activities can coin-
cide with liansfurinations caused by visitor activities. Therefoie,
particular species and examples should be investigated separately
l'or each given area with due consideration paid to the biology of
the species and their habitat conditions in the given area.
Resistance
Dy resistance to the effects of stimuli following from vario-
us visitor activities wo 3hould understand reactions of a given
pponiea in association with the degreo of its adaptability and
ability to reproduce ond/or replenish population levels.
ilcuct,J.ons of a given species to the influence of a given sti-
nui.iif. enn talce various form3, such aa insufficient use of the fe-
eding area, disturbance in reproduction, increased mortality rate
and mlgro.t.i on ,
Since different species respond to direct contact within nmn
differently than they respond to contact with various sign of ci-
Itf'J
-------
vilization, tiiese factors should bo oxamined separately,
considering the degree of the species'sensitivity to them.
Desides the degree of intensity of tlio stimulus, the
contact time with the stimulus is essential. Sensitivity or
particular species to the stimulus diminishes at the lower
degree of its /the stimulus*/ intensity after a long period
of effectiveness, whereas the resistance of particular spo-
ol cs to a given stimulus increases. On the other hand, when
the Game stimulus is introduced suddenly and its intensity
is great, the threshold can be reached and the species loses
its resistance.
Un order to establish the resistance of the species, it
is necessary to determine whether a givon type of visitor
activity influences tim following parameters in a significant
way:
- decrease in reproduction
diminished possibilities of obtaining food
increase in the mortality rate
i
- increase in migration
Ha.Tcd on the above criteria, 3 degrees of resistance ha-
ve liocn distinguished!
Firat decree - High resistance /when a definite form of
visitor activity nas no or only very minor influence on
tlio above-listed pai'anictors/.
?.. jjpoond de ,':ro c - Low reotw Unico /when a given visitor ac-
tivity exerts significant influence on at least ono of
the enumerated parameters/.
100
-------
3, Third degree - Lack of resistance /wlien a given visitor
activity wxerts significant influence on 2 or more of
the parameters/•
In tlie majority of regions in Poland, wildlife exhibits
great resistance /of the first decree/ to visitor pressure,
which is indicated by the occurence of nearly all species of
wildlife in national paries and othor aroas. The example of
artificial habitats such no zoological pardons also indicates
that if wildlife is not destroyed, has an opportunity to re-
produce, has sufficient amounts of appropriate feed, and if
they do not migrate, they can adjust to the presence of man.
Among wild animals one can observe the phenomenon of low re-
sistance /second degree/ to visitor activities, yet lack of
resistance /third deforce/ is uiicuuntered quite infrequently.
a lack ijf resistance may be observed infrequently in some spc-
cien ufter the sudden introduction of a strong stimulus. More
frequently, lack of resistance and expulsion of species is due
to change in the environment rather than visitor activities.
Samples:
a. Jiiicing in the region of Jaworzyna Krynicica has no influ-
ence on any of tlio enumerated parameters as far as tho
doer 1s concerned. This species can be described as ha-
ving high resistance.
b. Thr roe-deer population in the Ojcow National Park shown
high resistance /first degree/, as visitor activities in
this region /hiking, vehicle traffic/ have not influenced
reproduction or mortality rates, acoes3 to feeding areas,
or migration of the species in any significant, way.
191
-------
Intensive liilcing and the utilization of areas off of mar-
Iced trails on lfIIuzary" mountain Iiavc caused increased mi-
gration of the lynx. Therefore, although the numerical
force of the lynx in the area of LZD ICrynica is high,
lynxes seldom appear on this mountain in spito of the fact
they find a sufficient food supply there, as the roe-deer
is quite numerous in the area. In this onse the lynx has
shown low resistance /second degree/ to the visitor activi-
ty of intensive hiking.
Also, deer populations on llusary mountain show low resis-
tance /second degree/ to intensive hiking occurring on as
well as off of marked trails. Startling /harrassment/ cau-
ses an increase in migration because of lack of adequate
cover.
Numerous excursions to the Swigtorsyska Primeval Forests
organised by various companies in September with mushroom-
pi clcin,3 as their main objective cause the frightening away
/Iiarrassment/ of deer during their mating season which is
expressed in tho stages quint end irregular rutting, even-
tually leading to aberrations in their reproductiveness.
Although the deer is quite miuiui'uus in this circa, we can say
that it shows low resislance /second degree/ to this kind
of pressure.
Tiie lynx formerly inhabited U)p area of tho Krowiarki moun-
tain pass in the JJahiogora national Park. After completion of
the road from /jawoja lo /iubiayca Lnc iynx Uisappeoiou from
fr.uiu ciiiia. Kor some time /approximately two years/ there
were no lynxos at ail in the park. Recently the have rooppea-
l'J2
-------
red in the park, but in an area some distance from the
new road. The road construction caused abberratlons in
the reproductivencss of the species due to harrassment
during breeding and rasisng of the young. The tendenoy
to migration lias also increased in this species •. The
lynx demonstrated a lack of resistance /third degree/ to
this stimulus. At present it shows low resistance /se-
cond degree/ to the vehicle traffic in this area,
g. In the sixties, two to three pairs of eagles /Orzcl przedni/
were reported to nest in tlio Biessczady Mountains, Since
the advent of intensive and regular visitor activity in
this area there have been no reports concerning the nesting
of this species, /In the town of Zawoj on tho W'otlinka
river, one pair of eagles /Orzol przedni/ nostod regularly
froui 1056 until i'J62.
With the construction of a road from the village of Polaii-
czylc, the eagles disappeared. It is conjectured that their nest,
was destroyed and they migrated to unotlier aroa. This is an exam-
ple of a laclc of* resistance /third degree/ to visitor activities,
ribTUJTLJU INT L'iUIilJL A TI ON Sil IF S HiiTi.vim UNIQUE J L'SS, TIMNSFOK-
I. (AT I ON /T/, AND RESISTiu'JCE /Tt/ OP ANIMAL SPtfCIUS AliU Tlli} AD-
MITTANCE OP VAltl'OUS TYPING OF VISITOR ACTIVITIES IN A GIVfcN AUEA,
DcfIning tho degrees of uniqueness, transforation, and
roc-istcnce of particular species inhabiting a given aroa makes
ft possible to define the typos of visitor activities admissible
in thin oroa, First, all foi~M3 of spatial and qualitative o;c-
193
-------
ploitation should be determined, i.e., tlie distribution of
trails, roads, shelters, camping sites and parkins lots, and
decisions concerning the prohibition or restriction of mus-
hroom and berry-piclcnig should be made. In an analogous way
qualitative forms of exploitation sucii as the traffic capa-
city of the trails /maximum number of visitors/day/, intensi-
ty of the road exploitation, or tlio general visitor capacity
of the area can bo defined. A tnorougli appraisal of this
Icind should be preceded by a detailed examination of the spa-
tial structure of wildlife populations and their habitat in
a given area.
Table A-2 oan be used in order to define the stress that
wilulile populations are expos oil to. In this table the index
of visitor pressures on particular species in given as the
degree of uniqueness, transformation, and resistance of these
ypecies.
iJ4
-------
Table A-2. Juxtaposition of indicator numbers character!- '
zing tlje dogree of uniqueness, transformation
and resistance of /pp-rticular/ wildlife species.
species
Degrees
Degrees
Degrees
The total
of
ol" trans-
of re-
of indi-
unique-
formation
sistance
cator de-
ness
grees
A
from
1 to 3
i - 3
1-3
X
D
i - 3
i - 3
i - 3
Y
195
-------
Summing up the values of particular indicator degrees for
a given spocies, we shall receivo some value between 3 and 9,
The" higher the value of the number, tlie more impacted tlie spe-
cies In question, Tlie total of G indicates a real pressure.
This number will be tlie threshold value. If we find, however,
that transformation and resistance of a given species can be
defined as being of the third dogrce, the whole region or part
of the region constituting the habitat area for this species
should be protected from the influence of visitor pressures in
question. Defining admissible forms of visitor activity for a
given area, both the spatio-qualltativo and the quantitative, a
thorough examination of the given area, should be made conside-
ring the specific characteristics of reactions of the same spe-
cies under different conditions,
Praotieal application of the elaborated method - an example.
AW LLwUiTL]'] OF PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF TIIU ELABORATED MJJTIIOD IN
T>IU UAUIOGOllA NATIONAL PARK /WP/.
11)c teiTitory of the UUP has never been investigated solely
¦from the point of view of the prcpont considerations and mate-
rials included in this study, rather tlioso data have been collec-
ted during previous investigations. They are also taken form
studies by various authors. Therefore, this study cannot, be trea-
ted as an errpert* 3 report on the JVWP since not all of the input
data were recognised to a sufficient degree and some of the indi-
"M,orr! could have been established imprecisely. This is only an
oxvMipio of the previously discussed methods,
196
-------
Characteristics of the region.
Tiie 1)NP extends across the upper portion of tlie Da'ula
Goia massif occupying a total area of 1,728 hectares, 1,476
hectares of which constitutes woodland or forest area, Wit-
hin the territory of tlie Parle, strict reservations cover
1,050 hectares and partial reservations, 624 hectares. Ciia-
ractexistic oX the Pailc are large variations in altitude in
a small area which in effect, gives 4 "levels" of vegetationi
lower subalpine forests, upper subalpine forests, dwarf no-
unt.iin pines and alpine forests. The following plant communi-
ties arc distinguished! 1/ woodland complexes, 2/ thicket,
gcrub or brush wood communities, 3/ "herbage", 4/ marshes,
bogs and swamps in the forests, 5/ plant communities on the
x-oclc aid, G/ alpine tuiulra.
The first 2 constitute 90 percent of tho Parleys acreage. Out
nf tlie seven foro3t aggregations distinguished in jjHP, 99 per-
cent. of the acreage is covered by the following: Pagoturn cur-
PieeetCun excelaao ccii-pat icuiiu Uurdic turn can) aticum
aiul /ibtoti - Piece turn nontnnum. on the forest area the follo-
wing four types of habitat can be distinguished: mixed moun-
tain woodland 21,2^, Mountain forest 7,7^. The spruoe domina-
tes /an1,;, of area/ in the natural upper subalpine forest and
in the planted parts of the lower subalpine forest,
tn tlie natural lower subalpine forost a mixture of fir and
hooch is most comnon. In the brushwood dominate sorb, Silosiou
willow, rocky current and arytree.
197
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Various vegetation levels and diversity of habitat types
/of forests and vegetation associations/ create a mosaic of bio-
topes • and habitats convicnicnt for tho variety of wildlife spe-
cies. However, the significant amount of spruce /particularly in
the lower subalpine mid-age forest/ doe3 not provide sufficient
shelter and food for phyto-phagou3•
Tourist pressure.
There are seven tourist trails going through tho area of DNP.
Tho most frequently used is the red Carpathion trail which cuts
the rnrk along east- west line. Very popular is also tho trail from
tho shelter to the Diablalc peak. There are also two ski routes.
On tho north slope in the central area of the Park operates
a tourist hostel. The road passing through the east corner of
tlie area is quite busy in summer and Autumn. A second class, sol-
Oom used, side-road /tho so-called upper "plaj"/ connects the
highway and the shelter, mushroom and berry-picking arc forbidden
in the Park and visitor use of designated trails is also infrequent.
Jti'osses to particular* species as a result of visitor activities.
Considering particular species found in DNP from the point ol'
• ¦ ¦ n i* (i(;/,vces of uniqueness, transformation and resistance, it
i i is possible to establish the degree of stress caused by visitor
pressures they are exposed to /Toble A-3/.
198
-------
Table A-3 • Tlie degre of uniquenoss, transformation and resis-
tance as v/nll as tbeir total as an indicator of
stress, for particular speoies from tlie set of se-
lected species in I3N1'.
Degree of Degree of Degree of Total of
Species unique- transfor- resis- indicator
nesa nation tance degrees
Wood-grouse
3
3
2
8
Lynx
3
2
2
7
Ulacic grouse
2
2
2
6
IJeor
3
i
1
5
lintel grouse
O
C4
1
2
5
Waaler
3
1
1
!i
Otter
3
i
1
5
J)efir
1
1
4
Wild Uo.nr
2
1
1
4
i 10.1 0
2
i
1
4
Squirrel
2
1
i
4
Missel-tlirusli
2
1
i
4
Uoe-cleer
i
1
1
3
Fox
l
1
i
3
i'.civtcn
1
1
i
3
it'ood-cocic
1
i
i
3
1<>9
-------
It follows from the above table that tho apeclos most Im-
pacted by visitor activities In BNP are: wood-grouse, lynx and
bJ.ac grouse, Tho territory of the wood grouse is restricted by
the movement of visitors along marked trails and slci trails
adjacent to their booming grounds and feeding territories* The
case of the black grouse is siiailar, trails run close to its
booming grounds. A comparatively couple:* network of visitor
trails in D1JP oan have a negative effect on the existence and
numerical foroe of the lynx which is characterized by a large
territory and great mobility.
In reference to tho bear, badger, otter and hazel grouse,
jk> significant negative effects of visitor activity have yet
been observed in UN P. Yet because of the degree of uniqueness
of those species and avoidanco of man by the hazel grouse
/oco Table A-3/, these species must be considered when new
Projects involving-the distribution and intensity of visitor
acttvites arc being developed. The bear, which has recontly mi-
grated lo UNP, requires particular care and protection which may
be provided by limiting or restricting visitor activities in the
habitat area.
The situation is specific as far as the deer is concerned.
The density of the deer population is greater than the feeding
capacity nf the environment which brings about destruction of
some plant coiimunities. This iiinh density results from the expul-
sion of the door from the areas surrounding the Taric where inten-
fp ve visitor activities can be observed, and where huting occurs.
Vuere are no wolves in the Parle and the lynx is sparse. Visitor
activity concentrated along traxls docs not frighten away the
20U
-------
deer, which accounts, esspocially in the summer, for the densi-
ty ratio por unit of area being several times higher than in
the forests surrounding the Park.
The wild boar, hare squirrel and missel-thrush are not nu-
merous in the Park, but being common in the country and showing
greater resistance to visitor activity, they are not stressed.
No impaot has been observed as far as more numerous and
fairly resistant species such a3 the roe-deer, fox, wood marten
and the woodcock.
Indications concornlim restrictions of visitor activity.
In the L5NP no species have been characterized by a total
lank of resistance so thoro is no need to introduce immediate
and radical prohibitions. Certain restrictions should be intro-
duced, however, considering the stress species such as the wood
grouse, lynx and black grouse are being exposed to. From the
point of view of their protection, the green trail near Sokolica
•should be closed, and the black trail as well as the "black nki
trail" should be closed to visitor use in late winter and early
spring, i .c mating sea,son of the wood and black grouse. To pro-
tect the lynx, strict enforcement of regulations requiring vi-
sitors to remain 011 marked trails should be maintained. Visitor
activity In the early morn Lug and late evening hours along the
yellow and green t.rail3 within tno lower subalpine forest sho-
uld be restricted. In order to bettor facilitate the protection
of these species, vehicle use 011 the side road from Krowiarki
pas3 to the visitor shelter on Larkowe Szczawiny is not recom-
201
-------
mended.
Tlic means undertaken to change the spatial structure of
the population of tlio deer In the arU, in order to lower the
density, should be continued and expanded*
202
-------
ArPKNDIX B
APPLICATION OP TIIHI3SIIOLD ANALYSIS TO RELIEF
INTRODUCTION
Making correct planning decisions relating to visitor uti-
• lization of park areas depends largoly on performance of analy-
ses and classifications of particular elements of the environ-
ment and on the rolevent designation on this basis of extreme na-
tural thresholds pertaining to various types of land use in a gi-
ven area.
This chapter presents some problems of the analynis of qua-
lity, transformations and determination of ultimate environmental
thresholds regarding the relief of a mountainous environment as
viewed from the standpoint of visitor use.
For the satce of conciseness of the otherwise witlo ratine of
pioblcms, reference was made lu specific problems of a given mo-
untainous area i.e., tho Polish Fly sell Carpathians. Thoy consti-
tute a fragment of tho outer zona of tho Carpathian arch /within
Poland*s boundaries/, formed during the Alpine orogeny. That area
«jompos
-------
namely the Boskidy Mountains and the Carpathian Foothills. The
formor represents a typical relief of /medium mountains/ / omit
iiabia Gora/, their maximum elevation reaching 1,725 m above aea
level, with altitude differences amounting to 1,000 m.
The Carpathian Foothills are characterized by an upland-
-type relief with small differences of altitude /and leGser
absolute altitudes/ as well us by the presence of loudforms re-
vealing considerable advancement in their developmental cycle#
The widespread occurrence in the Polish Plyscb Carpathians
of mature slopes and of comparatively gentle inclinations does
not In reality exhaust the abundance and differentiation of the
landforms, A seeming monotony of relief often exhibits, on fur-
ther Investigation, landforms and features both frequent, typi-
cal and less Interesting, as well as numerous rare or even uni-
que elements of relief, in the context of the morphology of that
extensive area.
In turn, the comparatively less resistant bedrock /and the
resultant vulnerability to denudation processes/ and the simulta-
neous intense visitor utilization of the environment in some re-
gions constitutes a specific impact to the relief form visitor
activity.
The territory of the Polish Flysch Carpathians is an area
whose features provide a basis for consideration of the problems
that are the subject of this paper,
ANALYSES AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF RELIEF QUALITY
An analysis and classification of a monn'taln relief from the
viewpoint, of Its unique character
204
-------
evaluation of tlie relief of a niountain territory in terms
of uniqueness of morphological elements lias hitherto not been
dealt with by specialists. It is to be admitted that some eva-
luations of relief were being carried out from the standpoint
of aesthetic or utiliza'ule values because of general aesthctio
and utilizable requirements for rocreational purposes /e#g.
Staricel, /26/, for skiing visitation, Daranowska-Janota, /i/«
Their range, however, did not include the classification of
relief as an clement of the environment needing conservation
as a result of its uncominouness, or relevant scientific arid edu-
cational values.
Hie basis criterion of evaluation for applying the given
opproach should be, in the author*s opinion, the frequency of
a given clement of relief in relation to a given area. In under-
talcing evaluation of a given element of the environment, in our
case relief, the following points should be Icept in mined:
- hoes that element occur commonly? /from the view po-
int of its genetic, development and morphological
features,/. Combination of rare landforms indicates at
the same time which morphological elements are of ma-
jor interest for research and education.
•hat is the spatial differentiation and location in
the field of relief elements with the previously asscs-
eu degree of uniqueness?
A general principal, probably devoid of objections, of cros-
sing the degree of uniqueness, is the analysis of the frequency of
1-uniforms encountered in the extensive mountainous area under
c::ai.ii nation .
205
-------
An ideal approach to the problem would be to treat the de-
gree or landform uniqueness in a quantitative way as a ratio of
the area of a given landform to the size of the whole area
/availubility of numerical indices is linked, however, with
great technical and methodological difficulties / Obstacles to
such a treatment of the problem are serious deficiencies of ava-
ilable geomorphological maps and literature, as well as the con-
siderable technical requirements of such an approach, e.g. the
ability to use a planimeter and other cartometrio measurement
tools. A very Important impediment is the dissimiliarity of in-
dividual landforms and the relevont disputable character of
universal criteria. The seemingly precise /due to its expression
by means of figures/ index of uniqueness will always Be the re-
sult of subjective and controversial premises. Another subjecti-
ve orea would involve the boundaries of numerical intervals
established for different values of the index of uniqueness and
qualifying inclusion in a determined class of uniqueness.
It seems, therefore, that a descriptive analysis of the
degree of uniqueness would bo appropriate. At the same time, it
4
is important to fix evaluation intorvals so that they determi-
ne with considerable accuracy the degree of uniqueness/frequen-
cy of a given landform.
Jiy way of example, a general evaluation of relief will be
presented for the Flysch Carpathians. Another uethodological
pi obien mioses in relation to the example. Even relatively mo-
notonous areas of the Flysch Carpathians display individual fe-
atures of relief, llence, for example, ridges of early-mature
veliof, marked by comparatively great relative heights, steep
200
-------
slopes and narrow crest lines, are a coranon element of relief
in tlie area of tlie Beskidy Mountains and high portions of the
Carpathian Foothills, their occurrence being very limited wit-
llin the medium and low altitude portions of the Carpathian Fo-
othills, where as a rule they depend on specific features of
the geological structure /Kliuaszcwski, Starlcel /26/, Starlcel
/25/, et al/.
It may therefore be said that in order to provirlo a com—
won denominator of the criteria applied, it is necessary to
analyze the relict of extensive territorial units, and in case
of need, to break down the geographical region into areas of
homogeneous relief. The above procedure was applied while car-
rying out a qualitative evaluation of the relief of tlie Flyscl)
Corpathiaus, using a separate treatment both with regard to
the clement of the LJeslcidy Mountains relief, and to the typi-
cal features of the Carpathian Foothills.
Three classes of uniqueness were adapted, both to the
Flysch Mountains as well as to the Carpathian Foothills to di-
stinguish relief olcnents:
"unique" - single landforms, on a scale of the whole
orca,
- "rare" - of sporadic occurrence,
- "common" - frequent and widespread elements of relief.
Wot all the elements of relief may be, however, classified
into one ciuss uf uniqueness. For instance, river gorges may be
included in different, classes, depending on morphological fontu-
iru, (.heir origin and development. Also, in order to classify
IcindslJ rloo properly, a fuller knowledge is required of landslide
207
-------
forms to be enoountered In a given area. To carry out a quali-
tative evaluation of the relief of a particular mountainous
area, it is necessary to be in possession of sufficiently deta-
iled studies pertaining to tlie given area, and in tlie case of
a laclc of suoh information, to go into the field.
A general evaluation of the degree of uniqueness of the
relief of the Polish Flyscli Carpathians is shown in the table
below, Tho separation of the uniqueness classes presented may
be shown with reference to a given area, thus characterizing tho
spatial distribution of relief elements with an ascribed degree
of uniqueness.
208
-------
General outline of the degree of uniqueness of landforms in
the Polish Flyscl) Carpathians
degree of uniqueness
Landforr.is ®,e ¦yes,ci(iy Carpathian Foot-
„«, _ hills
of the area
examined unre- rare corwnQn unre- rare common
pea- pea-
ted ted
.Areas of ridges of +
subalpino relief
Ridges of early- + +
-Mature relief
Ridges of late- + +
mature relief
Larger V-shaped + +
river valleys
Larger flat-bottouied + +
river valleys
Larger basin-shaped + +
river valleys
River gorges*'' + + + + + +
2/
Larger landslides + + + + +
Larger notiadnoclcs and + +
monartnooks of
resistance
1/ Differentiation of the degree oj.' uniqueness depends on the
r>rigin find morpho geograph Loal/uniphonetrie features of a gor
2/ Differentiation of the degree of uniqueness depends on the
I ¦' •! j u j i ¦ jihologi ^al features of a given landslide in
LU'sifJdy fountains. There is a lack of landslides in the
Carpathian Foothills whose features would qualify them to be
considered as unrcpeatcd.
209
-------
A» analysis and classification of a mountain relief from the
viewpoint of Its transformations.
In order to determine the transformation of any element
of tlio geographical environment it is necessary to become ac-
quainted witli a reference point or, to be more cxaot, with a
reference situation# \mat is meant here is the designation of
an ideal model state to pinpoint the size of the transformations
stated.
Destruction of uplifted mountain areas, this expressed by
an overage thickness of tlie annual layer of reduction, is a re-
latively inconsequential value. According to Ksiq,£kiewicz /18/
the reduction rate of high mountains is 1 iu per 2,000 yoars
i.e., 0,5 nm a year, and that of meaiuni mountains, i m per
5,000 - 20,000 years /0,2 - 0,05 mm a yeai*/. These figures re-
veal the presence of areas concetvating destruction processoss
where, as a result of erosion and denudation, landforms are
subjoct. to much more rapid transfornations • Figures describing
the rate of denudation are, howevor, unreliable because they do
not take into account uiarTs activities in the mountains# TiJC3e
activities are important agents causing directly or indirectly,
the intensity of natural processes to be increased manyfold#
'Hie intensity and significance of relief-forming processus
in ltiountaLnous areas, both at work in considitions approximate
to the natural ones, a3 well a3 in circumstances brought about
by man*s activities, can be ilusfcrated by a number of papers,
ueoptte the fact that publications on dynamic geomorphology,
210
-------
;> relolively young discipline in Poland, do not yet pernit a
full picture of tlie matters.
Un a less planetary 3cale and in relation to a given area
n the Flysch Carpathions and proscnt-day conditions, the an-
iin.'l rate of tlie destruction of Mountains has been investigated
'i.r a nu:!hcr of researchers.
.'Jti'vfiol /24/ lis3 put tlio size of the mean Ilolocene l'educ-
i • on of t.h o entire area of the Flysch Carpo.tliians at 0,5 m to
a year /on an average./. Indices of denudation rates
/ 'innul'vli nn in tlie broad sense bcin^ treated as the supi of rtc-
f f '"mc11 cm processes/, as caloulated .for tlie catchment hasinr
ti r '5m .e nf the Carpathian rivers throughout, the present century,
, r- hit higher. In the Dcslridy i,iountain3, in the liar In of the
' 'jr'.' /'lov.ii to Uobiiotv/, an rwn-ivje annual soil layer Ions froi.i
i'; 1-1 \;ns 0,370 n, /2?,/. In the riountninous portion of the
¦'T'i* h"Tln the reduction rate fro:i 1)37-1060 amounted to 0,2J3 jhm
¦' /"J1/.
fin'. Increase in denudation - noted contemporarily - is
.• consequence o L' fncroachiiout of intense hueim activities
• ' 'I/'H' ¦ imuitaiiiy .
, nii'outo liave affo linen t.-icon of the present cloy run -
" 'I fhciiccl denuda.t Ion In llio 'mV path tan icarst regions /J"/.
1 "j c i '.pn.-incnus -slopes of the 1 r^-tcrn Tatra are lioinr', reduce'1
' i .'lit".-I rate of 0, :*ii - \<-it or 8U,C> - 237,0 tpifj ivj
'• i' ,;'ii!nn of ocnu'i" ti < > n i^'li'-'T /as the authors 'ph.0;: I.","/
1 / > ."pi^reriii i3 ti on, T'" y '!n p°t roliect. a "e tf,pi>"0M r'1.1—
i >-'<¦ r> r r-n.Migcs i.hi eii ta!:" in Carpathians,
••ti
-------
especially during catastrophic floods . /2a/ . They do
not ofton reflect huge differences in the intensity of destruc-
tion processes to be encountered within even inconsequential
land stretches. These differences indicate significant influ-
ence of land us®s on the current erosion and denudation proce-
sses*
The charaoter and intensity of fluvial erosion in the Car-
pathians has been the subject of studies of some researchers#
Out of essential statements formulated in those papers, a dis-
tinct relationship has been demonstrated between the intensity
and depth of lateral erosion and transportation on the on hand,
and the typo of land utilization on the other, the destruction
being greater in catoh ents devoid of forests as compared with
afforested areas . /45 ,21/.According to Figula /V ,forest
should cover at least 50 percent otf the slope surface in mo-
untainous catchment basins.
On the small scale of a geological epoch, nariely the youn-
gest phase of tho sub-Atlantic period, the impact of man^s acti-
i
vities on the relief of valley floors in the Carpathians was
expressed, among other ways, by the fornation of a level inunda-
tion terrace, this due to the deep erosion of rivern, its rate
Increasing as the felling of forests continued /24/
f.iinor influence on the transformations of relief is exerted
by artificial water bodies; their presence in the mountains
involves the Movement of shallow debris slides, /2b/ and
•in j motion nf older landslips /2/.
Transformations, erosional deepening of fluvial channels
212
-------
dowmtrnan from dams, may take place in tlio case of lack of
cmpcosating reservoirs below tlie main dan /23/. Changes of the
ci ^otai curve upstream from a reservoir /aggradation/ can proceed
ni'ly following a complete filling of a reservoir by roolr dobris.
TI tine, however, for the majority of noun tain rcscvoirs is
til rcnonte; for instance, tlie reservoir of Porr^bka on the
."i i"! river villi be filled with deri3 in 183 year3 /20/, that at
"•.'••,nu'v nn the Dunajec river in 127 years /22/, and one at Pilcho-
i.lc on Hi;' Eobr river in 2,270 yearn /10/ from the tine of their
n'jrI rue Hon . Investigations and vr.vjniiG onterprincs are being
i'u
-------
the Deskidy Mountains /9/ tlie researcher was able to state
tlie value of slopewash as 0,2 kg/ha/year in a forest, some 100
kg/lia/year under cereals and as many a3 130,000 kg/ha/year under
root crops /tlie annual loss of soil layer amounted to 5.2 mm l/.
Similar differences v;orc also found in the Bcskid Wysoki Moun-
tains /5»7t&»/ and in other mountainous areas.
Attention has also been paid to the long underestimated
notion of needle-ice. Datailcd studies by Gerlacli /G,7/ have
shown reduction caused by the effect of ice-brushes leaving slo-
pe portions devoid of turf covcrge by a few millimeters a year.
The recession of road-cut sides due to the action of needle-ice
ilay occur at a rate of a few centimeters a year.
Interesting research by Jonca /11,12/, carried out in moun-
tainous areas concentiates on the morphological action of wildli-
fe. For instance, the action of moles bring about raising within
mountain pastures of up to some 15 cubic meters of material a year.
That material is ,then removed by erosion processes. a result
of this, a reduction of the ground surface, dependent on given
conditions ta!ccs place, its valuo rangjnf from 0,1 to 1,5 nun o. year
/Instead, in the effect of each ycar"s grazing of 150 days duration
;:ivon by Jouca after the Slovak researcher Turcck/a soil layer
30 cm thick, is bciu'- squeezed and completely removed by water and
by land movements over the 33 year period while a soil layer 10 cm
tii i ok over the 10 year period. A relationship has al30 been noted
i
//+f7,8,4/ between the degradation of slope and its length and
profjlo *
:i-Miic it-searchers al3o devote attention to the important role
oj" field roads Ln accelerating the rate of destruction processes
214
-------
14,2d, ,?G/. Itoads of this type in mountainous areas are an
extension of the slope drainage network which, by concontro-
ls n iz rainwaters and snow runoff, bccuric the delineations of
he.wicbl erorion, That concentrated slopewasli is also fre-
n'.i'jptly intensified by poor siting of these roads, fairly
nrtcti perpendicular to tlie contour lines. An expression of
(he intensity of soil erosion alon^ roads is a very connide-
i•'1 1L^ /tenfold/ increase in the suspended solids load in waters
IMu.rinjj nlong a field road as compared wiMi waters in a stream
/'/.
The Intensity of. destruction pvoceuscs in the territory
i'1' liic Flyscli Carpathians is, as nay be seen frou tlie abovo
iiy-ir-w, determined by a wide ran^n of conditions varying In
lyi)". Evaluations with the enphasia on classifications wore so
;.,!v carvj cd out in relation to aei.ua.l intensity of particular
n<>i tic processes and only lor various climatic levels
r r Mi" Oaipatliians /1E5,8/. 'The clausifical.ion^ of a mountain
'' Li'-J i-{ related to to such aspects like land uses was never
" 'V This research /jap ..r.n propahly due to the necor:-
• i'v -v'tii^r of too bi£ simplifications or too "jrecb'sivo cnii-
''liIici'.; involved in developing mei> classification /hence
• ir: i tr, 1 .'jor methodological c'ifxi cullies/.
If, U' ',0 be noted lieie that the intensity of trans!oriin-
• 'M "i' I jie relief of tlie Caip.it h Irn- by present day processes,
!•• ¦ > in nir ca.sr> of their tivc 1 ii :ulati on by i-nuT g active-
' 1 , 'mi a r.eale ol even niu lerciii) generations, incoiu,r,cjne!i-
t. r .T • ivpholo^j cal ti"rjn.j.Co"i«i.'tj e:ir. proceed very slo'/ly, J'ivf»l-
i :i"i: rj"i.x11 changes in the reUof nf Mountainous areas.
nif*
-------
Tlie need for practical cias3J fications of transforma-
tions rloeE\ not seem, liowcver, to croate a major necessity t,o
attenpt to construct licre a classification of tho type tliscu-
soecl ¦
An analyois and claasificatlon of tho resistance of a moun-
tain relief to destruction processes brought about by visitor
activityo
Even the incompletely recognized rolief-forniing processes
at work in the Carpathiann, the state of knowledge about then
being outlined in brief in the preseding chapter, create some
reference points of value for determining the role of morpho-
genet.ic processes brought about by visitor activities.
On the basis of mmber of general regularities and e;£is-.
ting coincidences of circumstances, it is possible tn formu-
late in an indirect, way certain statements or suppositious
on relief transformations relevant to visitor activities in
mountainous ar^as.
- Frcdiopo3ition to the destruction of relief through
visitor pressures in mountainous areas are associa-
ted with a set of morphological/geological conditions
such aa slope angles, slope lengths, slope con I,ours
nnd the cha actor of roe!c-waste, a3 well as, to some
extent, climatic conditions«
Another condition figuring in the size of relief de-
struction is n mechanical tearing away of the protec-
tive vegetation cover as a result of visitor utili-
-------
zation Altf/ , 'i'lie destruction of vege-
tation opens the way t,o intense soil erosion. It
also facilitat s, in the ca3e of fine-grained slo-
pe covers, the action of needle-icc. Tlie ultimate
diriensions of tliat degradation depend on tlie pre-
viously-mentioned natural conditions.
A very important element is the intensity and cha-
racter of visitor activity itself, both as cata-
lyst to tho effects of natural processes /slope-
wash, needle-ice/, and also as a direot relief-
forming agent, /kechanical tearing and slipping of
waste-mantle whose important role r.iay be confirmed
by the previously cited investigation results of
Turcelc/ •
The intensity of destruction processes resulting
from intense visitor activity may result in valu-
es approximate to the rate of the denudation of
slopes under conditions of farming, thu3 involving
an increase in negative relief features at a rate
of a few millimeters a year and, in the case of
concentrated slopcvraijh and intense needle-ice
action, at a rate of a i'ow centimeters a year.
Transformation of a mountainous relief caused by
visitor activity leads to the formation of micro
forms and sometimes to activation of development
of forms of higher /IV/ order. These may consti-
tute viciblo negative landscape elements, distor-
ting at the 3ame time, details of tho i.hole mor-
phology of a given terrain. Nevertheless, trans-
217
-------
formations brought, about by visitor activity, even i J corrpara-
tlvoiy large, are of minor, practically nonexistent impact on
tin- relief of a mountain massif. For example, in the case of
the Polish Flysch Carpathians, although the relief of that area
in less stable as compared with the relief of the Tatra /i3/,
l.vt'UH rnrnu.itIons of a mountain relief by visitor activity proce-
ed a relatively slower rate and l°od to much smaller trans-
formations than the visit.or-incJ itc^d Impact on other oleniontnof
fie environment, especially water, vegetation, wildlife or
T"1"1 lr.. Processes destroying & mountain relief, resulting from
visitor activity, have not hitherto been the subject of systena
lit- ;-n(l detailed studies by specialists. More detailed investi-
' ¦i.ionr. ciined at establishing numerical. data on the mechanism
;-nii n I'lectj vrncss of these processes have not been carried out
jet. 'Ji'ch investigations arc foreseen in research plans of
Hi'' Polish Academy of Sciences m the near future /14/. Hence,
«'¦(¦ i' f.civ'uio on these subject areas is very general. This «s
f)M! v to i.i^ k the phenomena discussed ns well as their conso-
le uuuplly in the contact of v. wi der range of goonorrhnlo
I . r.1 nro ''! fU!IS •
i's of dfotruction of a i led invent if, • ti on dealt" sith the influ^nnn of vl -j
-------
tor activity on the destruction of a mountain relief.
It would bo useful for all actions aiming at the conser-
vation of a mountain relief, especially by way of establishing
extreme natural thresholds, to be classified showing the re-
sistance of that relief to destruction.
Determination of detailed criteria and separation of rolicf
resistance classes, as well.as the introduction of tho required
number of classes, will be possible after detailed studies and
field surveys have been carried out.
As a result of ouch investigations it would be possible to
separate, in the relief-foriuin^ processes under examination,
the hierarchy and role oft
- slope angle find length,
the degree of destruction of landfornis examined, if
they exist, and their location in relation to other
landforins,
the type ond properties of rock-waste, i,e., mobili-
ty associated with grain-size composition and pet.ro-
graphic properties, liability to washing etc.,
- the character of vcgetational cover, especially resis-
tance to mechanical destruction and regeneration capa-
bility,
- possible pavement or other installations in areas of
visitor utilisation e.g., stone plates, gravel, wooden
stali*3 on visitor trails,
- the type, characteristics and intensity of visitor
utilization of terrain.
219
-------
It seems possible to distinguish, at least preliminarily,
tliroe classes of resistance Of mountainous areas to visitor
utilization:
Class I - Iligb resistance - in areas wlinrc changes of relief
elomcnts will not occur on a major scale, even in
tlie case of intonse visitor activity.
Class II - Low resistance - in areas where visitor activity of
major intensity would cause considerable effect on
morphology, difficult to cope with at later stages
of the development of destruction features.
Class III - Lo.clc of resistance in areas in which the effects
specified in Class II May bo brought about by
relatively litt.lc intense visitor utilization.
Already the preliminary stimation of the number and cri-
teria of the above classes of resistance suggc3t3 the need
i'or the introduction of threshold numerical values rather then
descriptive explanations determined a3 a result of studies.
It seems, however, that at the first stage of field surveys
and investigations, veiification should be carried out for sim-
ple and general classification of pressures, which may lead to
rapid practical application in enterprises aimed at the conser-
vation of a mountain environment.
GUr^L'nt'V
determination of restrictions on visitor movement resulting
from the need to protect mountainous relief should be baa^d
2:20
-------
chiefly on a classification of its uniqueness and resistance
to destruction processes.
The restrictions proposed to be introduced sliould general-
ly be greater the lower the degree of relief resistance, and
more urgent the higher the degree of relief uniqueness. They
should also result frou previously documented transformations
of a relief. Hie ultimate result of 3uch analyses should be a
separation between areas excluded from visitor use and those
where U3e is permitted, at a determined visitor capacity.
Geographic relief belongs, apart from geological structu-
re, to the most stable elements of the geographical environ-
ment. The rate of the course of inorplio genetic processes and their
relief-forming effects resultin from visitor use, bearing in mind
the comylosity of factors and a relative differentiation of in-
tensity, create only local impact to the relief of Mountainous
aveas quite minor from the general point of viow, with transfor-
ations occurring very 3lowly on a planning time-scale. Frequently
more rapid and more oxtensive is the destruction caused by other
forms of visitor utilization of mountainous areas which do not
normally produce more prominent changes in the rcliof of ridge
or valley features. It 3001:13, there Core, that the problem oT
visitor pressures on the relief of ...ountainous areas should bo
considered only in areas where all elements of the natural
environment, should be given special care, such as nature reserves.
T>«f> problenys presented here of evaluating the degree of
uniqueness, especially of relief resistance, provide an outline
rnid arc based chiefly 011 more or less hypothetical premises. The
iKiin aim of the paper is primarily to illustrate the gonerul con-
221
-------
ccpt of a Method to find extreme natural thresholds as exen-
plified by relief as one of the elements of the geographical
environment. Extension of these problems to a degree enabling
practical application requres broartor and more detailed stu-
dios in tlio field, still awaiting to be undertaken.
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turystyki zlmowej. /Evaluation of the geographical envi-
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Lalcc/." ICwartalnik Geologically t.2.1958.
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irry.y zwietrzelinowej w 'J'atracb. /The role of ice ill the
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7. Gerlach T. "T/spdlczosny rozwoj stoUow w dorzeczu gdrnego
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ny IG PAN No 52, i960.
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No 122, 197G•
<). Gil li. "Proba okrcslenia r.lelkosci splukiwania w zlevmi
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of washing out in the catchment area of Hyt,trzanka/."
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rciinch poclgorskich i gdrskieh przy roznym ich pokiyciu,
/Preliminary research on the size of washed out soils in
no mi tain areas of various covers/," vYiadonio^ci Instytutn
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t,3op1964 ¦
12, Jonca E, "Y/plyw zwicrzqt. ua rzewug powierzciinl zieiui, /In-
fluence of fauna on surfrce relief/," PU'N W-wa-Wrnolaw 1975,
13, Kasnowsk! L,( Kotarba A.,Sroka J, "Charakcterystyka wspnl-
czcsnych proceadw geoiiiorfologicsnych w Tatrzanskiiu Parka
Ilarodowym, /Contcr.ipoi'ary geonorphological processes in the
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14, Kaazowski L.,Sroka J« "Przegirtd badau geomorfologicznyoh
w Tatrzaiiskim Parku Narodowym. /iteviow of gcomorphologl cal
research in the Tatra 1-ational Park/." Maszynopls IK?J
Kruxuw, iP7rie
j.r>. i:iii-.aanewski 1,1., Starkel L. "Knrpat.y Polnkie w: Gcouiorfo-
lr>L,la Polski t,i, Praca :*,biorowa pod red, II. ICliniaszcwnlcic-
go. /Polish Carpathians/." Pi.H" \.'-wa 1972,
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16, Kostrowicki A,S. "Zastosowanie mctod geobotanicznych
w oconie przydatnosci terenu tlla potrzeb rclcreacji
i wypoczynlcu ./Application of gcobotanic methods to the
evaluation of land suitability for recreation and lei-
sure/." Przeglqd Geograficruiy t.42, 1970.
17. Ilotarba A. "Powierzchniowa dcimdacja cljci.iiczna v; wapien-
no dolonitowych Tatracli Zaclioilnicli» /Surface cliehiical
denudation in the West Tatra/o" Prze£lq.d Geograficzny IG
rAW Nn 90, 1970 .
J8. Ksiry.blciewicz II, "Georiorf oloc;ia dynamiczna. /dynamic gco-
liiorpboloGy/." wyd.Geolog. »'-wa 10G8.
19. L'ikuclci Z., ChoniLak T. "Aleuuulacja rui'iowislc:'. rzeczne^o
w 7ibiornilcu rilehmvi clcin. /Analy3io of the river rubble
in Pilchowice/»" GoapodarUo. wodua No 12, 19G3.
20. H1'cue lei Z., .slsnicwglct N. "15 a dan ie. nad zamulanieni zbj or-
nika w Porr\bco. //dialysis of artificial lafre in Porr\bl\n/."
Gospodarlca Wodna Wo 12, 19G0.
21. Hieui rows lei *i. "Erozja rzeenna w potokaeli Jaszeze i Janno,
/Ilivor erosion in the streams Jaszcze and Jnune/." Folia
Geo^r. Series: Googr ,-Piiys. Vol .4, 1970.
22. Onoszko J, "/laisulanie sblorntlca roznonslci ego. /Sediwcn f.n-
tton in tlie Tioznow artificlaJ lake/. Itospr. Ilydrotcclni.
z.12, 13G2'.
23. Pietruazewslci V. "Uadanin. zapor na potokaeh Gorsklch, /Con-
struction of daiu.'j dd mountain streams/." Hudov/nictX'O i
Ai',:b L tektura. »'-v;a 1QHG.
24. Starkol L."Uozv/oj rzc/.hy Karpat fliszowych \\ holoccnjc.
/Development of Carpathian roll el'/."Pracc r$eo>,raf iczne
J'U pan W-wu, 1'HiO.
213, Utarkel L. "Odbicic utvuiiUuy t.eolo^icznoj w rzc;';ble pol-
rjltj on Karpat fliyzuvycii. /jtel'lection of ;j;eo logical 3ti"iic-
oi'.vc In the relief of the Polish Carpathians/." Studia
Moc-torphplo&ica Carpatlio-Halcanica Vol.3, 10GD.
224
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Starlcel L. "Charalcterystyka rsoiby polslcicli ICarpat i je'j
znaczenic dla ^oapodarlci ludalcioj, /llelief of tlie Toliah
Carpathians and its significance for economic activities/*
Problemy Zacospodarowania Ziem Gorslcicli, Z.10, 1972.
V/tGiiiewBlcl D, "Datlania nad odlcSadanieiu si? rurnoniska
u zbiornitcacli v?odnych • /Analysis of gravel sedimentation
in artificial lakos/Iluterialy BadaTrcze Instytutu Gos-
podarkl Wodnej • t.2, z.l, 1900.
Zl$tara T„ "Ilola ooiwislc w uodclowoiiiu Pogoraa Ito&nowslcie-
l-,o /^acliodnio Kavpaty flissoue/. /Tiie role of subsidence
in the forming of t,]je Pogorzc Ilossnowslcie/." Studia Geonior-
phologica Carp.-Dale. Vol.8, 1074.
-------
APPENDIX C
APPLICATION OF THRESHOLD ANALYSIS TO FLOliA
INTRODUCTION
Vc£Ctational cover i3 an important clement of the natural
environment in terns of the suitability of a given area for re-
crrntionnl development• At the sanr> time, the development of
recreation substantially affects vegetation and may even thre-
aten its suivival. That is why territorial, quantitative and
temporal restrictions have to bo Imposed on recreational develop-
ment within a given area. These reatiotions should be determined
based on the quality of tho vegetation, which diotates the extent
of required protetion. The following characteristics have to be
token into consideration: decree of uniqueness, t.r?uisformation,
iind resistance of vccotational cover to the stresses posed by
3 neveattonal development.
i'liALYSVS AND CLASSIFICATION S OF *ME DUALITY OF Vi'i CI STATION
i.'lalyrjes and classifications ol vo;,etat.ion based on r,radc oi'
i'\i Iqucncss .
220
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Tlig grade of uniqueness of vegetation in Poland was esti-
mated by Szafer /8/ and Pawlowski /7/, who provided a descrip-
tion of the characteristic features of vegetation in specific
biotopes. The characteristics of plant communities in each par-
ticular area were underlined, a3 well as their relations and
similarities with ,he vegetation in other botanic units. Thus
far the grade of uniqueness has not benn analyzed as a factor
determining the possibilities of land use. The only exception
here is the acceptance of the decree of uniqueness as one of
the criteria for placing particular areas under legal protec-
tion ,
The criterion for estimating the degree of uniqueness ac-
cepted in this study is the frequency of occurrence of a given
eleuont over the area of the country as a whole, the variabili-
ty of its distribution, and its location within a given area.
Thus, the analyses carried out raise two basis questions:
1. What in the frequency of occurence in the scale of the who-
le country?
2> I.hat Is the frequency of occurence within a £ivcn nrea?
On c. national or broad regional scale, estimates are cari'lad
1/
out l.it.h regard to plant continuities , talcing as the basic unit
2/
a plant association ' or subansociation characteristic of a gJ-
vn area. In some cases habitats ebaractooistic of particular
associations are taken Into consideration even if the plant coiu-
nunl ties are damaged or destroyed /e.g. sites of dwarf mountain
pine brushwood/. The occurrence of oriterestln^ specLcs, for in-
stance endeiric species or concentrations of snecies, /ocotypes/
;
-------
deration. The occurrence within a given area of elements
rare or unique in the scale of the world /for e;cpjuplc, ende-
mic associations or species/ must be particularly underlined*
In the present study, a quantitative estimate of the frequency
of occurrence expressed by the ratio of the area occupied by
a given association to the area of the whole country was con-
sidered useloss* The qualitative estimate of the frequency of
occurrence was accepted, based on the division into there gra-
des f unique, rare, conn ion:
- unique associations, habitats, species and phenome-
na which occur only /that iB with reference to l'o-
lond/ within the area under investigation. Of ape-
cJal importance hero nre endemic associations or
speciest i.e., those r.'hicli do not occur anywhere
else in the world,
- rare plant associations are those which arc not of-
ten found in Poland and which occur in environ',ion Is
of the 3ome typo /e.£. mountain associations in Po-
land/,
common plant U3yociat,1 nno occur all over Tolnud In
different environments.
i.it.hln a given region or locality, the principles of plant
pretention require that the vegetation cliarcteristto of the
nica nhnuld be preserved in all its variety, TP a ;<;iven spe-
cies r><:eurs uitiiin a particular nrca only in one or in o few
1 iipfij.'t. i.es, the destruction ol those localities innans the end
of the r;:istance of that specieu in this area. If, moreover,
thin species is unique in the rjcalc of the country or even
220
-------
endemic, it means the impoverishment of the country^s flora
or annihilation of the species. T?icrofore, the frequency of
occurrence is the feature determining the degree of necessary
protection 0
Tho units used in tho study arc species and associations.
Analyses- were carried out by delineating localities of raro
plants. It was agreed that depending on the size of the arcn,
the plant species that existed at les3 tlian five sites within
a given area were to be regarded as rare0 Special attention
wan also paid to tho plant associations oocurring in 3tiiall pat
chcs in less than five 3itns.
/Jl? 0 nd classification ol' vegetation in te rr;p of tra hp for
mat Ion .
Vcgi'tational cover in urtiy areas all over tho world has
been greatly affected by man^s various activities. Those acti-
vities include:
exploitation of plant, resources, i.e., timber harve-
sting <
- deliberate and purposeful transformation of vegcta-
tlnnal cover, for example, clearing trees to create
fields o\ clearings
- destruction of vegetation, i.e., collection of Medi-
cinal plants by visi torn
- intvodueI,ion of exotic plant species, either delibe-
rately loi cultivation or accidentally
- changes in site conditions, e.g. drainage.
-------
Iii Polish studies on the subject one, can ind both quan-
titative and auantitativc estimates of the degree of vegetative
transformation. Falinslci /l/ introduced the concept of degenera-
tion phases based on the following pssumptions:
1. The characteristic combination of species which distingui-
shes a particular plant association is approximately rea-
lized in each of its phytnccrioRis,
3/
2. The ecological amplitude of groups of species forming o
characteristic combination of species successively increases
fron association to class,
3. Under the influence of degeneration factirs, the more spc
rialized the species, the nore susceptible it to changes in
its environment, Species clinraterized by a wider rtoversity
survive longer.
Defeneration as a plienoricnon which occurs in time can be
characterized, according to Falinslci, by the following stages:
1* decrease in quantity and number of species of plants cha-
racteristic' of an association or group.
,'i. Disappearance of species characteristic of an as3ocia1ion
ov group rs well ra the decrease in the (juantity and num-
ber of species chrracteriatic of an order.
3. Disappearance of species characteristic of nn order, drcrc-
;
-------
6. Change of formation.
FalinskiVsuggested that there is a need to define: the
direction of the processes, degeneration and regeneration as
the plinao in which the community finds itself at a given mo-
vement •
Kostroniclci /2/ suggested that the estimates of the de-
gree of transformation should he based on a quantitative des-
cription of plant density and species diversity, and a quali-
tative description of the direction of ecosystem change.
Claezelc /5/ defined 1,Jie degree of transformation by deter-
mining the participation of exotic species in relation to the
species proper to a given plant association. To indicate the
qualitative changes in the process of degeneration, lie intro-
duced the term "form of degeneration" denoting the temporal
form of the association possessing specific features of struc-
ture, species composition and species vitality, reflecting the
reaction of the natural community to particular degenerative
factors, Ulcczek listed the following forms of degeneration oC
forest ecosystems:
- uniformity as far as species and age of tree-stand,
simplification of growth structure
abnoimally strong development of understory groutjj
strong development of grass undergrowth in the forest
combined \?ith limiting m" other undergrowth species
- preservation of the association in a younger phase
of development
exotic plant resistance to artificial introduction of
species
2'M
-------
After a olose analysis of the above—mentioned methods
indicating the course of the degeneration process, and its
phases and typo of transformation, the following classifica-
tion ol" vegctational transformation has been suggested:
- minimal transformation
- partial transformation
total transformation
This general classification combines the estimate of the
degree nf transformation and its quality. It is comparatively
simple in view of its application to physical planning.
In the present study the concept of potential vegetation
is used to indicate the state in relation to which transforma-
tion is defined. The term succession is U3cd to denote the type
nf vegetation that would prolmbly develop in a given location,
according to site conditions prevaling there, if man's influ-
ence no longer operated . It is necessary
to underline the difference between primary and natural vegetn-
Hon 'n view of certain irreversible changes in plant cover an
well nr? continuous changes in site condition. These change'3 are
dnc hoMi to natural factors, o.~., coll formation processes,
•'1! 1'' to men s activities, '"'lierefore primary vegetation, posyesoin
all the tjuolities and elements duo to natural formative processc
occupies a particnJar position among natural vegetation.
It. must, also bf realized that In an analysis nf trans forma-
tions it is impossible to determine all the divergences from
the original state, i .e „ genetic differentiation or disnppeavnu-
cfl of certain Bpecies. As regards forest associations, it is
not nlwnyn possible to determine the origin of a tree stand.
no o
CsO c*
-------
Of great help here arc the phonological differences: vitality,
resistance to natural disasters /winds/, biotic peats and mor-
phological variability of ccotypes.
In analyzing transformations it is also necessary to take
into consideration tlie dynnmic3 of plant communities, e.g. fo-
rest succession. In the present st.ndy, tlie following phenomena
have been regarded as tra»3forri«ittons from the ariginal, natural
stntcj changes in the speciea coriposi Linn of forc3t aasociationa,
orcpulsion- of indigenous 3pocics and ocotypos, and changes in
the structure of forest communities.
The following typos and decrees of transfovulation have boon
assigned to particular classes of transformation:
a. [Minimal transformation
- slight periodic changes in the quantity of individuals
belonging to a particular species while the species
composition remains unchnngcd
b. Partial transformation
quantitative changes within a given opccie3 combine with
changes in the number oT species, while the overall clin—
raoter of the association remains unchanged,
fovuation of semi-natural communities as a combination
of indigenous species developed under tho influence of
external factors
occurrence of c::otJc rjpccif'n in natural comrounit.im
- decrco.sc In 1.I1 c number oC locations or patches of <13 so-
cial,i 0113 in a given teriTiin
changes in tli^ vortical structure of forests
0. Toto1 transformation
-------
- ocurrence of secondly communities, not indigenous
or native to the site
- occurronoe of foreign ecotypes in place of indige-
nous ones
- disappearance of species and relocations of asso-
ciations in a givon terrain
denudation of a givon area
.Analyses and classifications of vegetation in tonus of resis-
tance .
Stress to vegetation due to use of a given terrain for recrea-
tional purposes .Stress due to hiking.
In the basis of investigations nnd observations concerning
the impact of visitor activities on vogotational cover, it can
bo stated that the destructive inPlucnce of visitor activities
nay consist of;
1. Lionaor! in surface area occupied toy plant communities.
2. Median Leal damage to vegetation.
3. Changes in site conditions.
4. Introduction of exotic plo.nt species.
Logs of surface occupied by plant communities occui's as
.'i vfyul i, of land being developed for construction, roadn and
visitor facilities. Trampling eonctitutcs the greatest stress
to vegetation, a3 it, leads to the loss of plant bi.onass and
clu'ii ^es i.n pheuology of plant communities / <1 /. Hore In-
tensive trampling may lead to tlie disappearance of species fron
a p'.irtJ cular association, tilo formation of substitute communl-
234
-------
tics and eventually to tlie complete destruction of vegetatloiml
covev,
Tills in turn results in dramatic intensification of the
processes soil erosion. On steep slopes trampling may take tlie
form of tearing off turf and tufts of plants. Seedlings of
trees and shrubs are al30 threatened by trampling, This leads
to disturbance in tlie processes of forest regeneration as well
as tree growth and development,
Frequont damage associated with visitor activities is the
los>3 of vegetation through being picked and torn out. This may
be deliberate, as in the case of attractive plants, for instance
decorative or medicinal ones, or accidental, c«g«, occurring on
a steep climb. Accidental damage may also be done by breaking
herbaceous plants or branches of trees and shrubs, or injuring
tree bark, which often leads to fungal infoction3, Tlie damage
described here is often the result of the visitors attitude
towards nature,
Clirngon in site conditions frocjucntly occur In a:i indirect
v.ay owing to vegetation damage. Deprived of the protective ve-
getattonal cover, the soil is exposed to trampling and consequen-
tly its structure is destroyed. Tills in turn leads to a decrease
in its capacity for water retention. This causes on the one hand
< 51o decrease in the amount of water retained, pdci on the other
Ijnmi, an increase in surface ruuuff and an intensification oC
erosion. All these factors bring about 30il degradation.
[11 a direct way, changes in r.ttc relations occur owing to
ebanges In water relation and soil fertility. Changes in 00J]
moisture may be causod by the diaining of the slope owing to
;:.3r>
-------
trails ami paths running across it. The changes in nutrient
balance of the soil occur due to sewage and organic waste,
Moreover, oven paving materials can change the nutrient balan-
ce in the soil as well a3 aoil reaction. Evory change in site
conditions is reflected in the 3tate of vegetation.
The introduction of exotic plant species constitutes a
threat, especially when it is combined with the destruction of
indigenous flora and changes in site condition. Conditions of
competition are then changed and this leads to the establish-
ment of foreign species. The possibilities of development arc
limited on very dry, very humid, or alpinn sites.
For example, skiing brings about two basic Icind3 of pres-
nurc:
mechanical damage
changes in site conditions.
]\:ccht
-------
Ilesistnnce of vegetation to pressures caused by recreational
tic vclopricnt •
Visitor activities have a destructive impact on plant
comi.iunitios • Plant associations and particular species arc
endowed wJ tli a capacity for resisting the impact of destruc-
tive factors, and for regeneration. mis capacity is referred
to os resistance. Its measure is the amount of the destructi-
ve factor /as regards visitor activities this means the in-
tensity of visitor traffic/which results in destructive chan-
ges and disturbances in the capacity for regeneration. Thus
two factors constituto resistance: susceptibility to damage
and capacity for regeration. Capacity for rogoneration ahould
he ostimntod in relation to the cyclical character of life pro-
cesses of the vegotation as well as the seasonal character of
visitation, In Poland it is em annuel cycle, the critical period
being the end of the spring, a period of enhanced vegetation
and the beginning of increased visitor activities in the sunnier
season.
Discussion of cover rc3i3tcuico is useful only with regard
to certain specific pressures. In the evont. of construction or
denudation one can only talk about the importance and consequen-
ces of the daniago. The quality of uniqueness is used for thesn
pstlnntco. Uesl stance can be estimated Mainly in relation to
tri.i'ipling, /which constitutes the main stress/, and introduction
of i'oiclgn elements.
Tiip present state of investigations does not allow for a
peeioe fletei'LiJ nat i. on of resistance expressed quantitatively.
One e;m only define the iactorn affecting resistance and point
207
-------
to the most endengered elements.
The degree of rcsietanco df plant communities to trampling
depends 011:
1. biological properties of plants forming a given community,
including:
- natural resistance to mechanical damage
- the way in which spccies'multiply
2. environmental factors in *-he endangered location, including!
land profile
- 3oil profile
- altitude above sea level
3. Season in which the destructive factor operates.
Uiologtcal resistance to physical impacts /breaking, etc,/
depends on the species matonical and morphological struct-ur ¦>.
The eotimatc3 of thia type of resistance wore carried out by,
among others, ICostrowickiVand Fnlinski\S They conducted investi-
gations involving the trampling of vegetation and observing the
degree of damage. As a result of his investigations, Koatrowtcki
divided vegetation into five..groups of resistance according to
Mie amount of treading they survived. The results of Kostrov/ickt *3
investigntions do not provide enough material to determine resis-
tance of plants belonging to different associations, a3 they
covered only some species, mostly occurring in lowlands.
Falinski noted that different species react in a different
way to I,he saiac degree of trampling. The loss of biomass is par-
ticularly significant in the case of larger vascular plants.
Comparing the losses suffered by the ground cover in two diffc-
238
-------
rent associations he noticed that Tilio coroinetum is more
susceptible to trampling than Pino quorcctum. but tlie changes
brought about by treading are i.iore permanent in the latter.
It can bo noted that, large species with soft delicate
shoots and loaves are most seriously affected by treading. On
tlie other hand, small plants, with lignified and clastio sho-
ots ohov; a higher degree of resistance.
Tho way in which plnnt3 multiply is a decisive factor 03
regards their capacity for regeneration. Plants which can re-
produce vegctatively and species producing a great number of
cosily germinating seeds have a greater capacity for regenera-
tion .
Environmental conditions in a stressed location /ground
coiil I,juration and altitude above sea level/ affect both suscep-
tibility to damage and capacity for regeneration. On steep
slopes any injury to plant cover causes the expansion of damage
owing to subsequent processes of erosion which in turn iua!:c the
process of regeneration more dJfficnlt. The possibility of ero-
sion is also incrpciged by tho direct loss of vegetation through
tearing off of turf, plants and soil. On northern slopes the
slope angle additionally limits the possibilities of plant growth
duo to the decrease in exposure to light and heat which has a
decisive Impact on regeneration capacity. It can be assumed
that slopes greater than 30 percent arc synonymous with a very
low degree of resistance of the vegetational cover.
Compaction of the seed bed /type and depth of the soil/
effects the susceptibility to damage and its consequences as
well as capacity for regeneration. The moot sensitive localions
239
-------
arc those with shallow, I003C soils or sites that are roolcy,
covered with scree, and easily eroded. Capacity for regenera-
tion is Much greater on fertile and very moist soils. In ex-,
trcincly poor habitats it is very limited. Regeneration virtu-
ally does not occur in dry forests /3/,
The altitude in mountain conditions is a factor determi-
ning to a groat extent the capacity for regeneration. Short
growing rseasons, rare years of successful seed production and
genr i 1 luii, and shallow and primitive soil leyers limit the
possib.ilitlcs for regeneration. Forest communities provido the
best, example. Puchalski and PrusinKiewicz ascertained that in
the Tatra Mountains, fir trees produce seeds every four years
at the height of G10 m above sea level, every six years at the
height of 900 in and every 3 years at the height of 1300 m. In
the shallow soil and during a. short vegetative period^ seeds
do not find favorable conditions for germination and growth rnd
development, od young trees,
Plrnt resistance changes with the yearly cycle of develop-
ment.. Spring is t'he time of germination, development of shoots
«ruid leaves and growth of vegetation. In that period trempling
iK'y alow down these processes or even render them impossible.
Young tender parts of herbaceous vegetation growing aboveground
ore very susceptible to mechanical damage. Spring also play3
n dccifive role in the regeneration of damage sustained in the
previous year.
The degree of resistance against introduction of exotic
npeeip<3 oC vegetation depends on:
1. Nature,1 comriunities that ore resistant to the introduction
P, 10
-------
of exotic species*
2. Extreme habitat conditions limit the proportion of exotic
species. For example, communities Jn fertile habitats may
be ensily invaded by weeds, while extremely poor habitats,
too dry or too wet as well us high in altitude, may proteot
against the intrusion of foreign eloiiicnts.
3. Changes in habitat conditions, and in particular the soil
nutrient balance, favors introduction of non-native voge-
tation«
Theoretical exauple of estimates of resistance:
Association: Paric tutu carpatiurn.
Streo3 due to nonwotorized visitors - approximately 100
persons pT day - throughout the year.
24i
-------
Sensitive Period
period of intensified
spring vegetation
the remaining period
of vegetation
wintor
sen- dense tree stand, degree of olopo 35 f brown acid soil
3iti- with a layer of rocky rubble, altitude 1200 in above
ve lo- sea level
cation
type
of
dama-
ge:
tram-
pling
capa-
city
rege-
nera-
tion
total so3truction
of ground vegetation
due to trampling, da-
mage to selfsown trees,
exposure of soil and
its erosion
very suiall
destruction of the
greater part of
ground vegetation,
damage to selfsorn
trees, exposure of
soil and its erosion
very small
resis- none
tcince
none
hihg
sensi- loose
tivc soil,
loca-
tion
tree stand, degree of 3lopq 5 , brown acid
altitude 950 pi above sea level
type total destruction of
of undergrowth vcgcta-
doiiiagc tlon, injury
cnjia- reduced due
city destruction
£ or
regene-
ration
to
of
the
soil
decrease in vitality
of undergrowth plants,
development of foreign
species resistant to
treacling
reduced duo to the
presence of wecda
resis-
tance
none
tain or
high
-------
UUSTUICTI0N3 ON VISITOR ACTIVITY RESULTING F.UOIu TIIR QUALITY
OF VEGETATION
The analyzod features determining tlic quality of vegeta-
tion nalcc it possible to delineate restrictions on the U3e of
a given terrain by visitors ainecl at reducing tlie pressure to
vegetation ancl preseving the most valuable olements of the
flora. These restrictions may be territorial, quantitative and
temporal.
The basic criterion for determining the restrictions of
different types of visitor activity is vegetation"^ resistance
to stresses brought about by visitor activity. Resistance de-
fines the susceptibility to damage, capacity for regeneration,
and it also contains sor.ic elements of evaluation of the conse-
quences of damage to vegetation for the environment.
Uniqueness is the feature which defines the value of vege-
tation of a given terrain. The preservation of the cor-tntry^s
natural and scenic resources in all their variability is one of
the basic requirements of the protection of the environment.
The sane Is true as regards variability of nature in a given
region. Thus, frequency of occurrence within a given area is also
a feature determining restrictions.
Analysis of vegetation transformation is carried out for
\
t.'.-n rcncoufj, First, well prosorved natural vegetation is a reso-
urce which should be under strict protection. Ilere transfor-
mation i3 considered together with uniqueness. On the other hand,
conditions have to be created for regeneration of transformed
urors. TIiat is why visitor activity should be eliminated from
243
-------
areas with transformed vegetation where regeneration is neces-
sary, particularly if the regeneration pi'ocess is made more
difficult by site conditions. Generally 3pealcing, it can be
stated that moat soverc restriction should be imposed within
areas in which unique and low resistance vegetation occurs as
torrain whore regenerative processes take place. The restric-
tions are determined by single features or by their combination•
Territorial restrictions*
i. All forms of nonmotorized visitor activity should be elimi-
nated fromj
- all areas cliarctcrized by very low resistance
- areas in which unique plant communities characterized
by a low degree of resistance occur
- areas in which raro species /a3sooiatlons/ocour
- areas in which the degree of plant transformation is
high and regeneration occurs either spontaneously or
clue to mai/e deliberate activities /e.g. afforestation/*
a, Skiing should be eliminated from areas where rare plant
species occur.
y, A1 typc3 services which cause visitor crowding /picnic arcas-
concessions, etc./ should bo eliminated from all areas cha-
racterized by low f»nd very low degrees of resistance.
4. In cases of considerable visitor influx within a given tor-
rain and in particular with regard to terrains characterised
by low and very low degrees of resistance, it is necessary
to introduce restrictions which will channel the flow of vi-
2-14
-------
altor3 onto marked trails, This limits the damage to the
environment in nearest proximity to the trails and permits
the monitoring of visitor activity to protect tlie most aen-
sitive areas. This restriction also permits the protection
of the locations of rare species.
Quantitative restrictions.
For all plant communities there exist borderlino values
of visitor intensity at which unfavorable changes in vegetation
occur. These values are the measure of resistance of a given
plant community in particular environmental conditions. Deter-
mination of these values on the basis of currently known inve-
stigation results can be approximate, That i3 why additional
criteria of uniqueness and transformation are used to define the-
se restrictions. It i3 assumed that unique vegetation requrcs mo-
re severe restriction and that transformation plant, cocununiaies
aro more susceptible to damage than the natural undar.ieged ones
in which ecological balance is preserved.
Organized excursions aro the visitor activity which prcscritB
particularly serious pressures to vegetation when the number of
participants is very high, as the concentration of a great number
of people in one area and at one time causes the incroase in the
amount of damage, Thu3, restrictions concerning the size of groups
are requrod in order to reduce the pressure,
Temnoral restrictions«
Temporal restrictions result from the changes in resistance
2413
-------
during the annual cycle. In areas where vegetation Is charac-
terised by a high degree of susceptibility to damage, but at
tlie same time by a great capacity for regeneration, it is suf-
ficient to close a given area to visitor uso during tl)e period
of growth and development of vegetation in the spring.
Heferonces
1. A plant community is composed of any conglomeration of
plant species forming a certain spatial unit /*( /
2. In Poland the classification of plant communities bn.3od
on qualitative species composition and worked out by
Draunlllanquet and Fawlowslci /6/ has been accepted. The
basic unit of the systei'i is a plant association, that, is
"a plant community which represents a certain characteri-
stic and corresponding combination of species which di-
stinguish it sufficiently frou all other communities wit-
hin a given area . ..<> Sub association means a p^ant com-
munity which contains in its composition species characte-
ristic of the association to which it clearly belongs,
but at the 3ome time stands apart due to presence of a
t
certain number of distinguishing spcciesx these are the
species which cannot be dound 1n the remaining subeissocin-
tions of a given association, but which occur in other
associations .... Associations with similar species cow-
position aud containing a number of characteristic species
arc combined into groups od associations. Groups of asso-
ciations can be combined iuto orders of associations, the
criterion hero 1.u a^aJn l-he presence of common characteri-
stic species. Orders of association can be combined, aga-
in nn tlie ba,3is of characteristic species, into clases of
associations" /&j
3. Liacli organism requires for its existence spccifio envirou-
24G
-------
mental con ditions, e.g., light and water, situated
within minimum-maximum limits. The ranga of these
conditions is referred to as tlie ecological amplitu-
de of the species.
4* In the Polish mountains the zone of perpetual snow
does not occur.
Bibliography
1. Faliiislei J.D, "Proba okrcslenia znieksst.alcen fito-
conozy. System faz degeneraoyjnych zbiorowislc ros-
linnych. /Attempt at the definition of phytocenosis
transformations/", li'cologia Polslca Gcria 13. 1966.
2. Kostrowiclci A.S. "Zagadnienia tcoretyczne i metodycz-
ne syntropiracji szaty roSlinnoj. /T eoretical and
methodological aspects of synantropization of vege-
tation cover/.1' Phytocenosis No 3. 1972.
3. Marsz A. "Metoda obliczania pojemno^ci relcrencyjnej
osrodkow wypoczynkowych na niau. /Method of calcular.
ting recreational capacity of leisure centres in the
lowland/Poznaii 1972.
4. L'edwecka, ICornas, Pa>vlowslct, Zarzyclci IC. "rrzegl^d
zbiorowisk roslinnych l^dowych i slodlcowodnych. M
• Szata rosllnna Polski, oprncowanie zbiorowc pod red.
U. Szafera i K. Zarzyckiego. /Review of vegetation
associations on land and in fresh waters/." V-wa
1977.
5. Olaczelc R. "Kicrunki degcnoracji fitocenoz lesnycl)
i melody ich badanin. /Trends in degradations of fo-
rest pliytoccnoses and nu'thods of tlicir exruiH nations/."
Phytocenosis No 3. 1974.
6. Paulowski B. "Systeniatyka polslcich zbiorowislc ros-
liiinych w: Gzata roslinna Polski oprac. zbiorowc pod
red. »/. Szafera i K. Zarzyclcicgo. /Polish vegetation
associations system/,11 Vr'-wa 1977.
247
-------
7. Pawlotvslci B. "Szata roslinna gor Polslcich w» Szata
roslinna Polslci, oprac. zbiorowe pod red. W, Szafera
i I£. Zarzyclciego• /Vegetation cover of Polish moun-
tains/". W-wa 1977.
8. Szafer 17. "Szata roslinna Polslci niiowej wt Szata
roslinna Polslci oprac. zbiorowo pod rod. V,'. Szafera
i IC. Zarzyclciego. /Vegetation cover of the Polish
lowland/•" W-wa 1977.
248
-------
APPENDIX D
SUUIARY OF STUDY TOURS /UNDURTAJC1SN WITHIN TTIE SCOPE
OF TIIIS PROJECT IN 1977/70 TO UNITED STATES, AUSTRIA,
SWITZERLAND AND ITALY.
All 13 OD THE STUDY TOURS
'Hic study tours to tlic us xvez& generally oriented towardd
¦.vlOciiing up the experience in t.iie approach to solving complex
i'M'l interrelated problems that c::iot between tourism development
;"d the protection of the natural environment« One of the main
p'.j c olives was also that the authors would be directly pre3cn-
I ;;M v.j.th the problems facing National Park Service, National Fo-
i tv:l oorvicc, variolic Tourist Unnagei lent Offices and the US
[."rui!ie::tal Protection Agency in areas characterized both by
! l-' [',¦ c tourist activities end rigid environmental protection
,'ii i ii.f,,-j • It was hoped that these tours would greatly help
¦ • ^: C/ cud adjust research findings in the light of direct
'' V!1-:' ,j'J Ions and, particularly, in result of talks and (Usetie-
1 Lii a nuxiber of people working and involved in the plon-
m'n' , iUi /0l- management of tourism in the various kinds of prn-
i' rvvr.-j,
"i" Juropcan counties wore selected to provide information
-"I i 1 ]• experience related to the g.'-mc field, therefore, the to-
directed to countries w'th long touristic tradition and
rU9
-------
PUOGjIaIIIEju
Tlie programmes were drafted in sucli a way that tlie effects
of tlJc tours be possibly best and diversified. Therefore, they
Included: visiting of selected tourist areas; talks with mana-
gers of these areas; and visits to institutions /on local, natio-
nal and even international levels/ involved in environmental re-
rj'jtircli and in the management of cnvirpnmentaly protected areas.
To achieve comparative results a list of problems /enclosed at
the end of this summary/ v;as prepared and followed during all talks
carried out during the visits.
The r.iore detail pro grannies for respective study tours inclu-
0 o 'i:
1 '17 lijii led Statos /J.lZozlowski/
- *hite Mountain National Forest
- Adirondack Parle
Iiiagara Frontier State Parks
jMaryland National Capital Paries
70 Auj U'ti, /li.Uaranonalca - Janota/
- ''sterretchischcs Institut fllr ftauuplanung
National Parle Ilohe Tauron
- iiatur Park FtfhrenDorga
1 >7"< tzerlnnd, Italy, Austria /J.irozlowski/
Fm-schungs In3titut. Iflr Froi.:dcnverkcr
'Iran Faradi3o National Parle
I: d.ional Park di SLclvio
International Union for Conservation of Nature f.ik!
liatural Itesourco3
of l |
ill '»»
-------
i'J79 Switzerland /D. Ptasayckc-Jackowska/
- International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources
1D7J United States /ll, Baranow3ka-Janota/
- Environmental Protection Agency - Denver
- Grand Teton National Parle
- Yellowstone National Parle
- lloclcy Mountain National Tark
- National Poro3t Service - Denver
1'JGO United States /J.Xozloivski/
- Environmental Protection Agency — Denver,
"'vjctl;
Tlie following major effects resulting from tlie study tn-
lurj ran be specified:
widening up the experience concerning lioth tlie pos-
sible character of negative influence of tourism on
areas of bigli cnvironncutal values and ways of pro-
tecting the natural environment against sucl) on
influence
- expanding tlie kno'.rlcr'gc on organization .-lid mnjiagc-
unnt of tourjat activities in various kinds of pro-
tected areas /national parks in pai'tieular/
being introduce1 to plonni.ng methodology and tecli-r
niques applied in t:io elaboration of plans for tmi-
rist developj;.M]I on protected areas
collecting c.s'p!c comparative data /in form of papers,
-------
articles, maps, books and photographs/ related to problems
w
of tourism development and environmental protection
CONCLUSIONS
The major conclusion from all study tours was a definite
emu Inlation that the subject of this research project was pro-
perly defined and that there i3 a general laclc of spocific met-
hod::; allowing to define environmental constraints in relation
do development of various forms of tourist activities. General-
ly, thc3P constraints, arc indicated, sofar primarily, by so-
ciological aspects /this was especially striking in the US/
s.bile is only asoummed that such constraints are wide enough
to safeguard the natural environment*'^.
In numerous discussions it v/ns also confirmed that the ap-
pioaeh proposed in this research project should be of practical
- alicH ty rod assistance in planning for tourism and or protected
interest in the research was shown almost every where and
m1* every interlocutor wanted to receive the final report, of
1 n! - juojeet for information and possible application.
It jCoiis of importance to algous here the intercut shown
Commission on Environmental Planning of International
1'11i in for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
. ,i., in Hut'iit anount of th^ce data won] d 'be also used in C"-
, roi other research a.c tiv> M <;s carried out by the Tn-
¦ i i t;i f c ,
."'i' i'li'..!, bp noted t.ha L the novo detail import frr>u
¦¦ ^Pi-7 would require u separate document tl)n ri.:c or rhich
"I'll l LITijn ,-.nd
l¦' i made readily available should any specifi.ee nce'i or
- |"' ;j f. emerge •
-------
Confrontation of wideley differing experience in plan-
ning and management of tourism and environment also helped
a lot to correct, verify and /or develop the proposed appro-
ach. Thia applies, in particular, to the visits in the US in
result of which the whole part of the method concerning
'"iue.ntitative Ultimate Environmental Thresholds" was added
and exemplified by the practical application to the Tatra
National Parle.
Several remarks made by the US specialists were of si-
gnificant assistance in the formulation of the structure
of final report and in reformulating various fragments of
rofjccvcli thus increasing its practical validity
lor the UPA«
-------
LIST OF PHODLISMS
/visits brief/
AII.uj AMD ODJiilCTIViiJS
The visits are to allow for an examination of the main
factors influencing tourist development witl)in the environmen-
tal, artninistrativc, legal and social framework botl) in tlio US
ami in selected free-market economy countries.
Results are to allow for tlic propor adjustment of tlie
approach proposed in tlio project, /and initially develoiied on
the basic of Polish experience/ to the different conditions
and to assist, thereby, increasing tlio validity of the project
to the iJPA.
It is intonded to carry out thi3 examination for a nui.ibcr
of selected tourist oreas, preferably having some form of legal
status /national Paries,, Landscape Parli3, Iligh Amenity Areas
etc./. I.'njor constraints, generators and principles of tourist
'levulopncnt would be identified on the basis of a nified survey
(juortioiniaire and tlio inforiiation provided by the local tourist
i'ii¦ _,i icut offices in the areas involved.
IKil-'l JUiiViiY CONTENT
'JIku .-ictcj" of the areas
o tzc
Legal status
Internal subdivisions
Uize of area to which tourist activities arc adjlifted
/of possible specify in nore detail which forms of
activities to \ihicli areas/
luijor tourist attractions
254
-------
- General administrative framework /local, regional
and national/
Management system
Tourist activities:
- Major forms of tourist activities /indicated by the
purpose, character and way of transport accordingly/
and their generators
- Intensity /total number of tourists per year and daily
pealcs in various seasons - if possible related to par-
ticular forms/ and its origin
Structure /ace groups, interest groups, social groups
etc./, and its origin
listing trcnd3 /increase, decrease or stabilization
if possible related to particular forus/ and their
motives
Management principles /fees, guided tours, foruis of
control, security etc./ and tlteir reasons
Development incentives and impediments /if possible
specify those resulting from management policy and
those being out control/.
Trmvl3t services*
- Types and quantity
finality /conditions, technical equipenent etc/
•Japacity /nunhcr of roons, seats in restaurants, par-
Icing places etc./.
Distribution.
. !>iv I voni u.'ii l.al cianagorient policy and its application:
-------
General principles /in particular for the major
environment components a3 flora, fauna, landscape
water etc./.
Major natural asseta and the way in which tliey are
protected
Natural carrying capacity /methods of identifica-
tion/ in relation to various forms of tourist acti-
vities
Planning activities, their form and results
Possibilities for controlling tourist activities by
applying tcrritirt.nl, quantitative and qualitative
restrictions•
-------
GLOSGAUY
Visitor carrying capacity of a town or village, region or a
larger area is the maximum nuubor of visitors /partici-
pants in a visitor activity/ which can remain in the
sane area simultaneously without causing any devastation
and/or degradation of the natural environment, consequen-
tly malting the conditions for recreation worse Mo/.
Visitor Activity - is a phenomenon which may be considered as
human activity undertaken to satisfy recreational or edu-
cational objectives or individual hobbies /interests/* ,In
order to achieve these objectives man changes the plaoe of
his permanent residence and uses the assets of tlio physi-
cal geographical environment accordingly in his leisure
time, i.e. that time chm Lie is free from profesnional
woik. Thi3 is commonly called visitor activity.
>ououic cctivity - consists of the exploitation and adaption
of tlio coogrnphic?'! "nv.: i ojtii'uito the needs of viallm::,
r .'iia;;eri.?L and service activity - j.s aimed at mana^in^ visitor
,'irMvity and providing viuiloiu with appropriate servincs,
:.o-.'l environment - iri a set of natural and nan-Made
elcnents and phcnoilena Mutually interacting and into?.rela-
ted, Jlfi'ients of tiip geographical environment include nan,
-------
GL0SA11Y /continued/
v;Jio independently of his social status, occupies a spe-
cific position in tlio environment • lie is not a passive*
olenont of tlie geographical environment but is influen-
cing it actively, nodilying it and adapting it to datia-
ify liis individual needs /irJ/«
(t< ( 1 V i .. A 1 f I |,fi ;
f o i > •/; ou '' • (j ''" e j : of
i. ["uner of Lrg i1 :
- pas J 'i:, : i.'j L"u 1 '• i n
hating, lying i:i a dc in-
activity ran ho d into
•f-lio following criteria:
j *' c 11 forns as hi!:ln._,f ;""i~
eliair in open air,
-------
GLOSSARY /continued/
T active, of ton acquiring the features of sports
activity and- expressed in formo such na: hiking,
cycling, canoeing, skiing, touring.
2, length of time spent in one place* Depending 011 this
time span the following types of visitor activity
can be uis tiugui3lied:
- overnight visitation, characterized by making unc
of night accommodations for a period of a few to ne-
ve ral days,
- weekend visits of one or two days duration,
- sightseeing, »tith frequent changes of places
3. Organisation of visitor activity. Depending on the
way in which visitor pctfvity is organized one nan
distinguish:
- organized visitor activity
- individual vj.si Ooi activity
i» The way in l.Mch visitors wove about:
- hiking,
- motor touring,
- water tourian.
^ur visitor f.cMvity* Services to visitors can b" Ml
villi"! .into forns ii-ivli ;:r:
- overnight ."cooi'iiim!.'( '< onj
j estaiuvnts "ik. rrj tablishuento
visit')]- J"uci'J i. j c • trailo, M-fts, etc/.
-------
GLOfJoAIiY /continued/
nate environmental thresholds - sliould from tlic point
of view of environmental protection be understood as
the sti'css 1 imi to beyond which a ^iven ecosystem would
not be capable of rcturiwlns lo its original condi-
tions and balance. Crosuin;- this Unit would at,art a
chrin reaction lording tn perwencn t destruction of tl'c
onvironucnt /or ccooyntcn/ cs a whole or of its basic
eluiontn or valuer1, at Jif leant.
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO. 2.
EPA 908/5-81-004B
3 RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Method Allowing to Identify Ultimate Development
Thresholds from the View Point of the Protection of
the Natural Environment (APPENDICES)
5 REPORT DATE
Issued October 1981
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7 AUTHORIS)
Maria Baranowska-Oanota & Jerzy Kozlowski
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9 PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Research Institute on Environmental Development
Cracow Branch
Cracow, Poland
10 PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
JB-5-532-20
12,SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND AD9RESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
13. TYPE OF REPORT ANO PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The appendices to EPA Report no. 908/5-81-004A (Method Allowing to Identify Ultimate
Development Thresholds from the New Point of the Protection of the Natural Environment)
describe the application of threshold analysis to fauna, relief & flora, and discuss
interviews and field work undertaken by the authors in conjunction with the study.
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a DESCRIPTORS
b IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COS ATI Field/Group
Planning
Environmental analysis
0501 0606
18 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unlimited
19 SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO OF PAGES
91
20 SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev 4-77) previous edition is obsolete
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