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PROCEEDINGS
of the
NINTH PACIFIC NORTHWEST SYMPOSIUM
ON
WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH
RESEARCH IN WATER POLLUTION
AND OTHER
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH FIELDS
Assembled by
Edward F. Eldridge
Technical & Research Consultation
Project

cr_. -
L .
!> -•
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE
Public Health Service
Region IX
Portland, Oregon
April, 1960
Library
Pacifr NmthwMt Water Laboratory
200 S-u«! i:>th Street
Ccrvadis, Oregon 97330

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NINTH PACIFIC NORTHWEST RESEARCH SYMPOSIUM
SUBJECT:	RESEARCH IN WATER POLLUTION AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL
HEALTH FIELDS
DATE:	April 18, 1961.	TIME: 9:00 a.m.
PLACE:	Room 104, U. S. Court House Building, S. W. Main &
Broadway, Portland, Oregon.
THEME:	A re-evaluation of research needs, facilities,
personnel and financing in the field of water
pollution and an introduction to other environ-
mental health fields.
AGENDA
9:00 - 9:15 Introductory remarks - E. F. Eldridge.
9:15 - 10:00 Opportunities for research and training for research
in universities and colleges - Dr. Joseph McCarthy,
Dean of Graduate School, University of Washington.
10:00 - 12:00 Water quality problems and required research—a panel.
1.	Water supply - R. L. Culp, Consulting Engineer,
Cornell, Howland, Hayes & Merryfield, Corvallis.
2.	Public health - Wilson Bow and Robert Leavers,
Washington Department of Health, Seattle.
3.	Fisheries - Dr. W. P. Wickett, Fisheries Research
Board of Canada, Nanaimo, B.C.
4.	Agriculture - Dr. Rolf Skrinde, Associate Professor
of Civil Engineering, Washington State University.
5.	Industry - Dr. Herman Amberg, Research Division
Crown Zellerbach Corporation, Camas.
6.	Pollution Control - James Behlke, Washington
Pollution Control Commission, Olympia.
7.	Analytical (Laboratory) - Fred Burgess, Associate
Professor of Civil Engineering, Oregon State
University.
1:00 - 1:45 Problems and needed research in other fields of en-
vironmental health. Dr. P. H. McGauhey, University of
California, Richmond Field Station.
1:45 - 2:30 Need for a system of information retrieval - E. F. Eldridge
Physical Sciences Administrator, Public Health Service,
Portland, Oregon
2:30 - 4:30 Financing of research and training facilities, equipment,
personnel and projects. Ralph H. Holtje, Research Grants,

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINTH PACIFIC NORTHWEST SYMPOSIUM
ON
RESEARCH IN WATER POLLUTION
AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH FIELDS
April 18, 1961
Assembled by
E. F. Eldridge*
Introductory Remarks - E. F. Eldridge
This is the ninth of a series of symposiums held in
this area on subjects related to the field of water pollution.
The first of this series on November 7, 1957 involved a gen-
eral discussion of research with the aim of providing an op-
portunity for those interested in this field to become ac-
quainted with each other and with the problems on which re-
search is needed.
Since considerable time has passed and many changes have
occurred since this first symposium, it seems desirable to
repeat this subject. Our objective today will be again to
look at the research needs in light of new problems, changes
in concepts and an expanding field.
~Physical Sciences Administrator, Department of Health
Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Water Supply
and Water Pollution Control Program, Pacific N0rthwest,
Portland, Oregon.

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A great deal of emphasis is being placed nationally on
an expanded research program in the water resource and related
fields. Such a program is certain to have increased financial
support through Congressional action. This interest of Congress
is indicated by the report of the Select Committee on National
Water Resources commonly known as the Kerr Report. This report
states in its recommendations that "The Federal Government
undertake a coordinated scientific research program on water."
It is certain that much, if not most, of this research will be
done at universities and colleges supported by grants and con-
tracts.
It is appropriate, therefore, that we in this area eval-
uate our research programs, review research needs and become
more acquainted with the mechanism of financing through grants
and contracts. We hope that this symposium will provide the
incentive for such evaluations.

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FOREWORD
The Research and Technical Consultation Project was
initiated in the Pacific Northwest in May of 1957 by the
U. S. Public Health Service as a means of better reaching
and serving those engaged in water pollution research. One
phase of this project has been a series of informal sym-
posia where an opportunity is provided for a free exchange
of knowledge on subjects related to water pollution. To
date, nine symposiums have been held in Portland. The
following subjects have been covered:
1.	Research Relating to Problems of Water Pollution
in the Northwest
2.	Financing Water Pollution Research
3.	The Slime (Sphaerotilus) Problem
4.	Short-term Bio-Assay
5.	Siltation - Its Sources and Effects on the Aquatic
Environment
6.	Oceanography and Related Estuarial Water Problems
of the Northwest
7.	Status of Knowledge of Watershed Problems of the
Northwest
8.	Radioactive Waste Problems in the Pacific Northwest
9.	Research in Water Pollution and Other Environmental
Health Fields
Proceedings are compiled from the prepared papers and
discussions. The following are the proceedings of the Ninth
Pacific Northwest Symposium held in Portland, April 18, 1961.

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RESEARCH AND TRAINING FOR RESEARCH IN THE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
Joseph McCarthy*
Mr. Eldridge, and Gentlemen, I have for many years had a
rather substantial personal commitment to research relating to
water and air pollution problems, and, therefore, it is a partic-
ular pleasure to be invited to speak today on research and train-
ing for research in the colleges and universities. What I have
to say, I will try to make fairly general. However, my experience
is very largely with the University of Washington and so the
examples I give will often reflect University of Washington policies
and procedures. But, I see before me many of my friends from other
universities and I am confident that they will correct or add to
my remarks, if necessary, to set forth information concerning the
policies and procedures of their institutions.
The Role of the Universities
The classical organization of universities in the Middle
Ages was into the four faculties; philosophy, theology, law, and
medicine, and members of these faculties engaged in teaching and
research as do faculties today.
*Dean of the Graduate School, University of Washington,
Seattle, Washington.

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A new element of the role has been added in the United
States during the last century. This is manifest in the passage
of the Morrill Act in 1862. I believe, according to the Morrill
Act, the land-grant colleges specifically and all colleges and
universities to some extent added a third commitment to the
basic tasks of the universities, the commitment of "Service"
to the public. It is, I think, the undertaking to provide Service
which brings representatives of colleges and universities here
today to assist members of business and industry and government
to find a solution to a problem of great public importance.
Special Characteristics of University Research
The universities of the West are now some 700 years old
?nd they have survived as communities of scholars because of
unique contributions m teaching research. To make these con-
tributions in research, the maintenance of at least three con-
ditions seems necessary:
1.	Freedom of discussion. The research activity must
be at all times open to discussion and criticisms. No confiden-
tial or secret research except possibly in relation to the national
defense.
2.	Excellence in quality of research.
3.	Neutrality of position.

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University Resources for Research
Many colleges and universities have extensive resources
and facilities for research and 1 now propose to review these in
categories.
1.	The Faculty. Of course, the greatest resource is the
faculty, those men and women associated with the colleges and
universities who are experts in their respective fields and
dedicated to the teaching - research - service activities that
I have just mentioned. For example, the permanent faculty at
the University of Washington comprises about 1100 persons in
a wide variety of fields.
2.	The Faculty Groups. The existence of strong depart-
mental structures at many universities often leads to some short-
comings in faculty members in different fields or departments.
For example, chemists may not talk enough to the mathematicians
about their problems, although the mathematicians may be able
to make major contributions toward the solution of these problems.
The classical departmental organization may not always be best
arranged to provide for solutions of today's problems.
To assist in finding solutions to problems involving sev-
eral of the classical disciplines, members of the faculty may
form themselves as special communities or groups to facilitate
working together. For example, a Water Quality Research Group

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has recently been formed at the University of Washington and
about six or eight faculty members are in the Group including
Professor Sylvester from Sanitary Engineering, Professor Ordal
from Microbiology, Professor Johanson from Chemical Engineering,
Professor Barnes from Oceanography, and others. I am sure that
representatives from other universities could report similar
things.
3. The Professional Research Personnel. The develop-
ment of research staffs associated with the universities is
almost a Post War II phenomenon. The success of the synthetic
rubber program, of the anti-malarial drug program, and of the
Manhatten Engineering Works program demonstrated the value of
maintaining close relationships between persons devoted full
time to basic or applied research and persons devoted to teaching,
i.e. really the teaching faculty and the graduate students. Some
of the factors relating to the maintenance of research staff
personnel at the universities, and specially the influences of
federal funds, are set forth in a report which was gotten to-
gether by Dr. Glenn Seaborg and some others who comprised a
Science Advisory Committee to President Eisenhower. This report
is entitled something like "Scientific Research--Government and
the Universities" and I think it is a very significant paper.

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What this report says is that our society is now beginning to
realize the full significance of what can be achieved by well
planned and executed research activities. There is always a
continuous spectrum of research programs which range from the
immediate practical programs which must be solved tomorrow
morning—either for profit, or for defense, or for anti-pollution--
on through in a continuous fashion to very generalized problems
which are just unplannable on a programatic or project basis.
Solutions to these general and fundamental problems depend upon
the initiative, the conceptions, and "hunches" of some indi-
vidual scientist.
Now the development of research personnel and research
institutes devoted to rather specific topics may, of course, take
place quite apart from an academic institution. I understand that
within the USSR there are a number of research and development
organizations in Moscow and elsewhere that have no connection
with universities or other educational institutions, although
some of these research organizations seem to be quite high quality
establishments. The point made in the Seaborg Report is the desir-
ability of NOT separating the research institutes from the univer-
sities at least as far as basic research is concerned. Close
relationships are needed. The basic advantage to be derived from
developing research facilities in relation to academic institutions
is because of the continuing emphasis on quality and questioning
in the academic fields.

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4.	The Students: Graduate, Undergraduate, and Post-
doctorate. The fourth resource is the students--graduate
students, and to some extent, under-graduate students who may be
able to function as part-time helpers in carrying out the
research.
By students, I also mean post-doctoral students and
this is another phenomenon that is to some extent new. We
were astonished recently to find th-it some 300 post-doctoral
students are at the University of Washington. These people are
not teaching faculty, but they come and engage themselves in
full time research with some faculty person in order to become
still better familiar with some particular field. They come
usually equipped with funds perhaps from Public Health or
some other agency to provide for their own support.
You are, of course, already familiar with the graduate
students and their research activity as assistants or in relation
to theses.
5.	The Spirit of Research. I submit that the research
Spirit which often flourishes in the university atmosphere is
a very real resource. Unless research people have a clear
conception of quality and helpful criticism the program in
the limit will turn out to be a rather routine kind of thing
which moves not quite as far as you might have hoped. So the

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research Spirit, the esprit' de corps in a group directed toward
the solution of certain problems which are challenging is most
important.
6. The Research Facilities. Now universities do often
have extension facilities of many kinds. Some facilities are
extremely costly and require a lot of know-how for maintenance
and use. When possible, these may be made available by the
university by virtue of their commitment of public service to
assist in finding solutions for significant problems to the com-
munity.
7. The Academic Courses. Finally, I call your atten-
tion to the resource available in the academic courses offered
by the universities day courses, night courses, extension courses
and short courses.
So this is a recounting of some rather obvious resources
which colleges and universities may be able to contribute by
reason of policy and by reason of their basic commitment to
public service.
Use by Business, Industry and Government of University Resources
for Research
To work toward solutions of a problem of major public
interest, how can one proceed to utilize these resources? Here

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I really cannot avoid talking about rather specifically the view-
point that we have at the University of Washington and what we
hive done about it.
Although our University and faculty have been active
really for many years in assisting business, industry, and govern-
ment, about a year ago we took an additional step and established
an Office of University Research as part of the Graduate School
Office. I have here today a number of booklets stating the
nature of this organization and its policies. May I read briefly
from this booklet:
The University of Washington faculty constitutes
a growing community of scholars of highly diver-
sified interests and talents. Many faculty members
have achieved distinction in fields which are of
particular importance to business and industry:
the sciences, engineering, and business adminis-
tration. In many instances, the specialized know-
ledge of these men, the research techniques which
have been developed, and the impetus of research
programs already under way can be brought to bear
upon special problems of business and industry;
indeed the University has a long history of direct
contributions of this kind to the economic welfare
of the state. Less direct but equally essential
services are rendered by the University in train-
ing men for work at the highest levels of profession-
al competence, and--as an integral part of the edu-
cational process--in the conception and development
of new ideas, techniques, and disciplines. The
partial lists of departments and special laboratories
or institutes given on the last pages of this pam-
phlet suggests areas in which the teaching and
research endeavors of the University and the special-
ized problems of business and industry are often
closely related.

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University research cooperation with business
or industry usually takes one or two forms. In
one of these, a faculty member provides advice
or other assistance toward the solution of a
business or industrial problem in accordance
with the terms of a consulting agreement. In
the other, sponsorship of a research project
is assumed by an outside agency through a research
grant or a research contract established between
the agency and the University. The Office of
University Research is prepared to assist in
the initiation of either type of arrangement.
In order to bring university resources to bear on a
certain problem, one of the difficulties is that there may be
a large number of faculty members, and how are you to identify
the specialist for your problem? Thus, one of the reasons for
the establishing the Office of University Research was to pro-
vide a visitor to the University with some one place to go to
locate the faculty man of interest.
Freedom of discussion in the university atmosphere,
and constructive criticism of research that goes on is a vital
part of the life and success of a university program. However,
there are many individuals and industrial groups who may wish
to have the advantage of some assistance from the university and
yet not wish to have the results published immediately or at
all. They may be interested in having the results maintained
secret and confidential with respect to the particular sponsor.
At this point, in view of the general agreement among universities

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that universities should not do secret research, one might say
that nothing could be done. As a matter of fact, there is one
important thing which can be done, i.e. the use of members of the
faculty as consultants and this practice is well established
in the universities throughout the United States. Our policy
is clearly stated in the Faculty Code.
A consultation is ordinarily conducted off the campus.
The professor may go to an industrial office or laboratory for
conversations. It is expected that the amount of time that a
faculty member devotes to consulting activity is modest, since
he must be devoted primarily to his responsibilities centering
around his teaching and research at the university. It is true
that this takes away some of the faculty man's time from the
university but this is balanced against the value of the help
which he may be able to render to business, industry, and govern-
ment, because of his specialized knowledge. Especially for
professors teaching in professional fields, consultation may
greatly stimulate the man. Incidentally, our i-niversity requires
that che professor must seek approval for consultations in
regard to how much time is to be committed and, in general, the
field of the consultation. The fee or honorarium is not stated--
this is a matter which is to be worked out by the consultant with
the particultur people by whom he is engaged. But, it is definitely

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required that his primary commitment stays with the university.
Thus the service of the faculty in consultations is an important
contribution that universities can make and do make to the defin-
ition and solution of problems which must be considered and
solved on a confidential and secret basis.
But, now suppose that the research needed involves
no question of confidential activity. Here one comes into quite
a different region which I want to discuss in the relation to
research grants and contracts. This sort of activity has in-
creased hugely since the end of World War II. For example,
at our university there are at present some nine hundred separate
research accounts, through which passes some $13,000,000 per
year, with several thousand people engaged in the multitude
of different research programs. To illustrate how these are
initiated, suppose that a certain professor has a certain
research interest which he would like to pursue and suppose
this might be the identification and control of certain micro-
organisms in Green Lake in Seattle, which may cause skin afflic-
tions to swimmers. He would then sit down and write a "pro-
posal"--a paper addressed to whomever might be the grantor of
the funds to support the activity, perhaps the Seattle City
Council. In this proposal he would set forth the objective of

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his work, what he expects to do, what results he expects to
obtain, and how much money he believes it will require to
carry out the enterprise. If this professor happens to be in
the Department of Civil Engineering, the proposal would be re-
viewed by the head of that department, by the dean of the College
of Engineering, and by the dean of the Graduate School. In each
case, the reviewers would look at the general nature of the
activity, the matter of space for the activity, relationships
with students, the type of apparatus that might be involved,
if there are any hazards involved and, of course, the financial
aspects. The person, the institution or group which receives
the proposal can then study it, and accept it, and finally return
it to the university for final acceptance by the Board of Regents.
Now I must speak of "indirect costs." This is a
serious problem today at many universities. It is easy for
the professor to write down that in order to do a certain research
he needs say the part-time help of a graduate student, certain
apparatus and supplies and travel to some site to collect in-
formation—these can be specified as "direct costs." But his
laboratory is expensive to maintain and janitorial service,
library service and heat and light must be provided. These are
"indirect costs." Many research grants and contracts provide

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for payments of indirect costs. But some do not and this is
a real problem in the universities today. There are two courses
of action. One is to refuse the research grant although the
activity may be very dear to the heart of some professor. The
other course is to absorb the indirect costs, but with what?
Universities have very limited uncommitted funds so only a few
such grants can be accepted.
In a general way I must emphasize that the colleges and
universities just must receive grants providing for the total
cost of research activities contemplated. The indirect costs,
of course, vaxy, but according to the U. S. Navy auditor, they
run about 407, of salaries and wages as a rule of thumb, or to
15% or 20% of the total direct costs.
Now when the research grant or contract has been es-
tablished, then the faculty person who is principal investigator
moves ahead to do whatever he said he would do and some of the
commitments in grant and contract proposals are very specific,
while some are very general. It is, thus, this grant and contract
research activity which provides a second way of operation of the
Office of University Research.

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Training for Research
Essentially the training for research is provided
to graduate students as well as to others who may take certain
specialized courses. It is, of course, desirable that the
graduate students be worked into the research activities conducted
by the universities as much as possible. But the question of
the research topic arises. In nearly all universities graduate
students are not assigned to topics. It is expected that a
graduate student will have enough intelligence and initiative
himself to select a research topic and work out a plan and
program.
This means that if graduate students are to participate
in grant- and contract research, then the field must be one of
interest to graduate students. This is a delicate problem.
Certain types of problems interest the mathematicians on an
absolute basis; then you have a total spectrum of different
kinds of problems that may come down to some very immediate
practical ones. There is scope in today's universities for
a very wide variety of research, but the feeling in different
faculty fields varies about the conceptions of fundamental
versus applied research.
In one department at my institution, at the beginning
of the year each new graduate student is given a booklet setting

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forth in summary form several research topics suggested by
each member of the faculty in that department. There are about
20 to 30 topics listed. The student is asked to propose his
own topics also. The student discusses the topics of interest
to him with faculty members and he reads the literature. He
then proposes in order of his choice the topics of maximum
interest to him. So long as faculty time and laboratory facil-
ities permit, the student is given his first choice. He may
or may not choose something that has anything to do with a
research grant or contract^ so the subject matter of the research
to be supported by a grant or contract is of much importance to
universities in relation to their graduate student relationships.
For the research program, I have been designated
as the principal investigator and, at present, there are two
associate investigators, i, e. Professor L. N. Johanssen in
chemical engineering and Professor Loren Donelson in fisheries.
One full time co-worker is Dr. B. Hrutfiord whose field is organic
chemistry and, in addition, a number of graduate students are
conducting research sponsored through the NWPPA funds.
Several activities are now being prosecuted. Work
is being done to develop at this time a generally acceptable
standardized method for determination of concentration of spent

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sulfite liquor. Spent sulfite liquor processing to provide for
disposal by evaporation and burning, or in manufacture of useful
products is being studied. Kraft pulp mill effluents, both gas
and liquid, are being investigated,including both analytical and
processing aspects. Fundamental research is being conducted and
directed toward securing increased knowledge, particularly of
lignin, because if we knew more about this substance and how to
use it profitably, it would certainly provide a powerful impetus
to move very rapidly toward the collection and profitable use of
spent sulfite liquors. Work is beginning in the fields of aquatic
biology. Over the life of this research program, funds amounting
to more than $600,000 have been provided by the Northwest pulp and
paper industry and expended moving toward the solution of a major
problem in water and air pollution.
These, then, are some general comments concerning the
use of university resources in working toward the solution of a
problem of great public importance.
Example of Use of University Resources
Finally, I wish to speak very briefly about one specific
use of university resources to move toward solution of some of
our pollution problems. This is the Pulp Mills Research Program

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at the University of Washington with which I have been associated
personally for a long time. This program was initiated some 17
years ago and it still continues today. When the program was
started, there were three objectives, and these were:
1.	the development of sanitary engineering type of
processing for the disposal of spent sulfite
liquor effluents and other effluents,
2.	the development of useful and salable products
made from effluents of pulp and paper mills,
and
3.	the securing of new fundamental data in the
fields of chemistry and chemical engineering of
wood and its components and conversion products.
This same pattern exists today except that one additional
objective has been added, i. e.
4.	the securing of additional information about
the characteristics of waters in relation to
biological systems — the capacity of waters
for multiple use, etc.
The funds provided to support these research activities
at present amount to $35,000 per year. This sum is provided
through the Northwest Pulp and Paper Association which is

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made up of approximately twenty separate companies in the
Northwest who contribute to the research in relation to the
amount of wood pulp produced.
The graduate students at our institution serving as
assistants and teaching assistants receive a stipend of $225.
per month. These people are expected to work at least twenty
hours per week. Out of the $225. per month, they pay tuition
which amounts to some $213 per nine months for residents of
the State of Washington. The student is, of course, expected
to come forth with a thesis or dissertation in due time.
Insofar as student relationships with research grants or con-
tracts are concerned, it is expected that the thesis research
activity will go ahead steadily without being held back in
any way by the existence of the research grant or contract.
There is no question of the student withholding his thesis
for a year or two. When ready, the research results are to
be submitted immediately to provide for freedom of discussion
and criticism. The same applies to publication.
The achievements of the research program have been
recorded in a large number of reports and papers published in
the scientific and technical literature. This new knowledge--
which is what one should expect from universities--assists in-
dustry to move as feasible arrangements are established.

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The decision-making mechanisms are outside the university
and, of course, should be so.
This Pulp Mills Research program has stimulated
the development of related activities. For example, several
Fellowships are maintained at the University of Washington to
provide support for graduate students interested in wood
chemistry and related fields. Such Fellowships have been
granted by the Rayonier Company, The Weyerhaeuser Company,
the Hooker Electrochemical Company, and others. This type of
support provides for the production from the universities of
highly capable research men as well as of the research results
themselves.
The Future
Finally, a word about the future. If you look at
the graphs that exist today reflecting the scale of the research
activities that are being conducted at universities, and the
rate of change in these activities, there is no question but that
these research activities will continue and expand. Around the
United States, the universities do recognize obligations to work
with the communities, the governmental agencies and industries in
moving toward the solution of problems that are of public interest
even if they are ..ot directly part of the classical teaching

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and research activities of the universities. The universities
have, in a sense, taken on a new role and this is the role of
research in the public interest as well as research as a part
of the educational process and to provide new fundamental
knowledge.
The water and air pollution problems which are before
us today will be mitigated in the future by the contributions
from many persons and organizations, and, along with other
organizations, the universities will make major contributions
"pro bono publico."

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DISCUSSION FOLLOWING DR. MCCARTHY'S REMARKS.
STATEMENT: There is one additional degree of freedom and one
additional restraint. The restraint is that we largely undertake
only those projects in which an individual faculty member is
particularly interested. The other degree of freedom in the
case of research is in the development and use of university
faculties, as well as graduate students. At the University
of California, and several others, research is undertaken and
graduate students employed as professional workers, even though
it may never lead to their own particular dissertation. This
may be poor education, but where possible, the graduate student
is allowed to work on a project.
This service function that Dr. McCarthy pointed to intro-
duces more and more of the type of research that may not be
suitable for doctoral dissertations but is admirably suitable
for work of graduate students. As a final remark, the university
should insist that the work shall contribute to the educational
effort and keep away from conflict with the professional research
organization that does service only.
STATEMENT: There is one other point that should be mentioned.
It is related to indirect costs, but it is not the same. This
is the question of allotting the cost of the space in buildings.
The educational institutions represented in this room all have

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some common problems and one of these is the question of space,
square footage of laboratory space. It is difficult to allot
this cost to individual projects because it comes in million
dollar increments. The matter of construction costs--capital
outlays to provide laboratory facilities—must be taken into
account when financing research at educational institutions.
STATEMENT: As one who operates a small but interesting business
in this field of research, I would like to proffer the opinion
of a private consultant. I have worked on a Committee of the
American Institute of Private Laboratories for a number of years
and refer you to an article in the literature dealing with
the research policies as related to private consultants, "Chemical
Engineering News," April, 1946. This policy was the result of
discussion of people on both sides. I think it is a good policy
statement since it establishes a line between the type of research
which should be done by public Institutions and that which should
be carried out by private concerns. There need be no unfair com-
petition. It is my opinion that public agency facilities should
be used for the benefit of the public, not for individuals or
private business.
It has been very difficult for universities, sometimes, in
drawing up policy to recognize this point and to delineate it in
their policy statements.

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A second point is that the results of research should be
available to all Interested persons during and after the work
is completed.
DR. MCCARTHY'S ANSWER: Our institution is very mindful of the
significant role of the private laboratory and the private
consultant. We do maintain effectively the policies that you
mentioned. We think that the taxpayers' money that goes to
buy the buildings and pay the faculty salaries should surely pro-
vide the product that would be in the general public interest
and not be competitive with any particular profession.
With respect to consultation I would have to say that the
people particularly engaged in professional schools may go to
"seed" to some extent if not allowed to do a reasonable amount
of consulting. I mean that they need some continuing relation-
ship with the practice. So, we think some modest consulting
is good, is stimulating, is helpful to the educational program.
Basically we hope to maintain a policy that is really non-
competitive. We do not undertake that kind of research where
there already exists private facilities capable of doing it.
This is our policy and is really nearly the policy of all
universities around the country.
Let me say just one more thing about the security question.
We were concerned about this proprietary research aspect and

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so we did an informal poll around the country. We contacted
some thirty-nine members of the Association of American
Universities in the United States, including an array of leading
institutions. We have a reply from everyone of them. These
replies indicated that there were only two which would in fact
do as part of the university structure what is confidential
private research for particular individuals. The others would
not.

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PANEL DISCUSSION - WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND REQUIRED RESEARCH
WATER SUPPLY
Russell L. Culp*
Any consideration of practical water supply problems ulti-
mately involves the question of economics. Water is a renewable
resource, and is subject to reuse. Water can be made available
for use anywhere on the globe for a price. The price is deter-
mined by the cost of processing and delivery. The charges for
production and transportation often determine the purposes for
which water may be used. If there is a choice among several
sources of supply of nearly equal quality, the water consumer
will normally select the source which is cheapest. These are a
few of the reasons for the contention that economics is basic
to any discussion of water availability.
In the time available it is not possible to consider in-
dividually all of the water supply problems which deserve mention.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to generalize or summarize, or
to select a few of the most important items for detailed examin-
ation. One approach to this situation is to talk about the
"national water problem." This is a very difficult and hazardous
~Project Engineer, Cornell, Howland, Hayes & Merryfield,
Corvalli8, Oregon.

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undertaking for the reason that there is no national water problem
per se. Actually the national water problem is an exceedingly
complex composite or total of a great number and wide variety of
local or individual problems. Many of these problems arise as
the result of increasing use from a limited supply, or from in-
creasing pollution of a source of supply. The best solution for
a particular water problem almost always requires the tailoring
of general principles and methods to suit the special set of
circumstances at hand. The number of variables involved is usually
so great as to defy the successful application of blanket solutions
or "cook-book" answers.
The newspapers carry many stories of dramatic attempts to
solve the "national water problem" at one fell swoop by the de-
salting of sea water, or by "criss-crossing the country with
giant pipelines." These stores point to the almost universal
availability of brine or brackish waters, and to the existing
system of pipe lines carrying petroleum products to all parts of
the country. The inferences here are that the perfection of
demineralization processes or the construction of cross-country
water pipe lines offer potential solutions to all water problems.
Surprisingly, these proposals have great public appeal, despite
the fact that their limitations are obvious to scientists and
engineers. Even the most cursory economic evaluation will show

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that the demineralization of salt wateT will probably never
solve more than five per cent of the nation's water problems,
and that the country will not be served by a nation-wide system
of water pipe lines unless the price of water approaches that
of oil. This is not to indicate that development of demineral-
ization processes should not be continued, since this research
is certainly very worthwhile, and more funds could be used
advantageously in this area. Rather, it is intended to emphasize
the need for vastly expanded research in other aspects of water
supply which offer promise of more widespread application and
greater returns in providing more and better water for use at
a lower cost.
Research is presently a magic word in industry. Large
sums of money are spent each year in developing new products and
better methods for making old ones. This investment is returned
many times over to industry in the form of additional income or
greater profits. Comparatively, the funds spent annually for
water research are extremely small. Because most water research
is, and probably will continue to be, sponsored by public funds,
it is doubtful that the per cent of total revenue from water
sales spent for research will ever equal that invested by industry.
But certainly some expansion of water research beyond the present
low level must be accomplished in order to assure reasonable
progress.

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Research in water works engineering surely Is destined to
become a more important factor in the future than it has been
in the past. Historically, progress has depended upon accumulation
of experience and experimentation, or empiricism. This approach
will continue to contribute much to advancement, but the art of
water treatment must be broadened to utilize scientific research
methods to increasing advantage. Future research should give a
better understanding of the fundamental processes and methods
now in use, so that they can be applied more economically.
Research should also reveal entirely new techniques which will
provide fresh approaches to water problems. In the past, the most
important water-related research has been concerned with health.
This will continue to be important as more is learned about
viruses, the effects of trace substances in water, and similar
subjects. But the greatest future challenge lies in the concept
of conservation and reclamation. The fresh water resource must be
more fully and efficiently developed for use, and better procedures
must be devised for the reclamation and reuse of water.
Presently, only a part of the nation's total fresh water
supply is put to beneficial use. In seasons of heavy precipitation
and runoff, vast quantities of water flow to the oceans virtually
unused. Storage of these seasonal excesses in locations where
the water can be used conveniently and economically during sub-
31	Library
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory
200 Soutn 15th Street

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subsequent dry seasons will effect a substantial increase in
the available water supply. This is, of course, an old concept,
but one which must find ever-increasing application in the future.
The accumulation of more basic data to accurately define the
seasonal variations in the quantity and quality of surface water
flows is essential to the sound planning of reservoir storage
projects.
In some climates the water loss by evaporation from the
surface of storage reservoirs is important, and further research
to find means of suppressing evaporation losses will increase
the net yield of reservoirs.
In many places the water in rivers is used several times
during its travel from source to mouth. Each user diverts flow
for use and returns a substantial part of it to the stream for
subsequent reuse downstream. This is accomplished by proper
treatment of wastes, utilization of natural stream purification
capacities, and adequate water treatment. In a few instances,
the total diversions from a stream may exceed by a factor of
five or ten the total minimum stream flow. Undoubtedly, methods
for the reclamation and reuse of water will be extended and
improved upon in the future, and this is a fertile field for
research.

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There is an urgent need for more rapid, preferably instant-
aneous mechanical methods for the chemical and biological testing
of water and wastes, and for the development of other automatic
instruments for plant control. The limited market for new instru-
ments designed specifically for water supply purposes is not
attractive to manufacturers. The potential benefits to water
users is great, but individual water purveyors are not in a good
position to undertake instrument development on their own. It
appears that most of the automatic instruments of the future for
water plants will continue to be adaptations of industrial equip-
ment, unless the water works industry as a group, or federal
agencies find means of supporting research in instrumentation.
If substantial savings in water production and distribution
are to be realized in the future, radically different methods
must be devised. This means a departure from tradition. Since
public health is involved, acceptable departures must be based
upon adequate scientific evidence and sound engineering principles.
The water works industry is now on the threshold of major break-
throughs in rapid coagulation, high-rate filtration, and other
processes, and in the development of new and Improved materials
and products. Promising leads in these areas should be pursued
with adequate research programs.

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These are but a few suggestions for problem-solving research.
Additional ideas are listed at random below:
1.	Effects of irrigation return water.
2.	Better protective coatings for pipe lines.
3.	Detection and removal of pesticides, herbicides, and
other organic chemicals.
4.	Methods for automatic predetermination of coagulant
dosages.
5.	Recovery of alum and other treatment chemicals from sludge.
6.	Electronic reporting of customer water meter readings
to a central station.
7.	Corrosion control.
8.	Physical properties of plastic pipe.
9.	Iron and manganese removal, particularly the basic
physical chemical reactions involved.
10.	Changes in water quality in distribution systems.
11.	Rapid bacteriological testing by use of radioactive
carbon or other tracers.
12.	Further studies of the biological uptake of chlorides
for possible application to desalting.
13.	Studies of water hammer.
14.	Algae removal.

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15.	Improved taste and odor control.
16.	Relationship of filter properties to filter performance.
17.	Study of adsorption phenomena.
18.	Methods for more complete removal of synthetic detergents.
19.	Improved leak detection devices.
20.	Water resources management.
21.	Toxicity of trace elements and compounds in water.
Many additions could be made to this list.
A searching and comprehensive analysis of water problems
followed by research oriented to their solution can contribute
greatly to the understanding which is needed for maximum beneficial
use of water supplies. In addition, new developments in other
fields should be continuously reviewed for possible application
to water works practice.
The nation's fresh water resources are more than adequate
for all future requirements if they are developed more fully,
managed more wisely, better conserved, further protected from
pollution, and more efficiently reused.

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PUBLIC HEALTH
ROBERT E. LEAVER*
Harry Jordan said in the Conference on "Man versus Environ-
ment": "That if we ran with the solution of the unknown chemical
compounds in water twice as fast as we now are, we could at least
stand still."
In outlining the water quality problems in public health,
we can break them down into five categories: Source, Treatment,
Distribution, Evaluation, and Legal.
Source
1. What effect will the storing of water over organic swamp
material have on the water quality?
Tacoma and Seattle are faced with this problem because of
new dams and because the areas involved are small, Seattle
is planning to remove the organic material. In Tacoma the
final answer is not decided. Research at the University of
Washington financed by the Corps of Engineers is underway
but not far enough along to be evaluated. The drainage
from ditching of the swamp on the Tacoma watershed caused
a taste and odor problem during construction. More work and
evaluation may be necessary in this field.
~Senior Public Health Engineer, Washington Department of Health,
Seattle, Washington.

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Pressure by recreational and sports groups for the opening
of closed watersheds to obtain more recreational area has made
it more and more important to properly evaluate the effect of
recreation on public health and water quality.
a.	Will a community's water supply be kept free from the hazard
of virus and bacteriological contamination if the public is
allowed on the watershed? When treatment is simple chlori-
nation? Filtration? Complete treatment?
b.	Does a fire on the watershed endanger the water quality?
Is the fire hazard affected by public access?
c.	How much is it worth in recreational value to open a
watershed?
Certain island areas in the Pacific Northwest are in need of
better methods of obtaining fresh water from the ocean or
atmosphere, e.g. desalting, atmospheric extraction. The
proper development of large areas is partially held up pending
the availability of reasonably cheap fresh water.
The increased use of detergents, insecticides, fertilizers
and agricultural poisons is already creating a potential
problem in the Pacific Northwest and particularly so in the
eastern part of Washington (3), yet the techniques are not
now complete enough to identify all of these compounds as
they may occur in a water supply. Preliminary work at the

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University of Washington on the natural breakdown of
some of the organic compounds indicate that they change
little in their passing through natural purification
processes. Research will have to be done to establish
limits of dangers and uses, such that we don't create
more problems than we solve with these organics.
5.	Water from more and more wells in the Pacific Northwest
is becoming unacceptable for industrial and domestic
use. The cause and correction of well failures is in
need of study. The Public Health evaluation of recharging
of wells is not complete.
6.	Per capita water use is going up. A study of water needs
in this area 10 - 20 - 30 - 50 - 100 years hence is
needed to protect future public health interests.
Treatment
1.	Better and more effective iron removal systems are needed.
Proper iron removal is becoming more necessary as water
needs increase. Large areas now have poor quality ground
water that will have to be developed and treated.
2.	There is need for simple small automatic filter plants at
a reasonable price to treat surface water. For example,
one of the manufacturers has developed a portable 5 gallon
per minute, complete settling, open sand filter plant with

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chemical feeders that will backwash automatically, which
looks promising. Further evaluation and development is
needed in this field.
There is need for more evaluation of the effect of chlorin-
ation on virus, particularly Hepatitis. Recent experiences
have raised many questions which must now be studied. Our
whole public health concept of safe water could be changed
if chlorination is not as effective as we have previously
assumed. The validity of using MPN to include "virus"
safety should be re-evaluated and if it is lacking or question-
able, a new "virus" yardstick should be developed. Explore
the life expectancy of virus outside the human host, and the
paths the virus may follow and what treatment hurdles it
may evade in a presumed path to a human being who may be
adversely affected by it.
Recognizing that the human factor is vital to safe water,
there is need for more in-service training of water works
personnel. A correspondence course for sewage plant operators
has been helpful and could be started for water works per-
sonnel. Water works personnel certification could be extended
to all states in this area to help raise standards of operation.
Better means of evaluating treatment are needed. For example,

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simple accurate color and turbidity equipment. Simple
screening tests for organics, radioactivity, trace minerals,
etc.
6.	Research on Nematodes to completely evaluate any problem is
needed.
7.	Evaluation of high rate filtration and control methods as
practiced at Richland and Pasco is desirable.
Distribution
1.	The proper cooperation of fire interests and Public Health,
in many cases, is not coordinated enough at all levels of
government. Well informed public health review of water
works plans could improve fire flows and Rating Bureaus
could help locate and eliminate public health problems.
Coordination and more common standards as to main sizes,
cross connections, etc. is needed.
2.	More research on paint and primer toxicity to water is
needed and better distribution of present information to
manufacturers and users.
3.	Proper evaluation of water quality deterioration in dis-
tribution systems is needed.
4.	Better and cheaper methods of covering water reservoirs
to exclude dirt and light.

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Temporary methods of preventing bird contamination as an
interim measure.
In the Pacific Northwest area, the covering of all finished
water reservoirs is long overdue, and the problem of bird
contamination often underestimated. Two cities in Washington
have not met current bacteriological standards during 1960
because of birds.
5.	Civil Defense public health emergency water supply operation
is still in need of practical planning at all levels.
6.	A basic model law for state adoption to eliminate dangers
of cross-connections is needed.
7.	Better and cheaper methods of building and operating water
systems in perma-frost areas is needed.
Evaluation
1.	Simple radio-activity evaluation equipment and techniques
to use as a tool for local water departments is needed.
Special industries served by public water systems have had
problems, and communities have become unnecessarily concerned
because of the lack of proper local evaluation.
2.	More specific laboratory tests than MPN are needed to eval-
uate health hazards, especially so in the virus field. (2)
3.	For more use of machine records in the water works record an
evaluation field is needed. Techniques of use should be worked

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4. Screening and evaluation tests for trace elements as
partially outlined in (2).
Legal
1. A model law on the public health aspects of a state health
department's water program.
To summarize: "We have not succeeded in listing all of the
problems. Indeed, I feel we have not completely listed any
of them. The problems and needs we have found only serve to
raise a whole set of new questions. In some ways I feel we are
as confused as ever, but I believe we are confused on a higher
plane above more important things." - Anonymous.
References
1.	Proceedings Conference on "Man versus Environment," USPHS
Research Grant RGG 425, California Institute of Technology,
July, 1958.
2.	Report of the Advisory Committee on Revision of Public Health
Service, 1946 Drinking Water Standards.
3.	Introductory Report - The Columbia Basin Project for Water
Supply and Water Quality Management.

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FISHERIES
W. P. Wickett*
The first symposium in this series, held in 1957, called
for more knowledge of the biology of the organisms and of the
environment. The same need is present today; for as more knowledge
has been gained so we realize the urgent need for detailed infor-
mation in many fields. Administrators must decide how much we will
pay now for knowledge or how much will be left for following
generations to pay for unwise resource use and the handling of
coastal waters and streams as though they were non-renewable.
Let us look at some general concepts that have become
available to us. Pollution takes place when the environment
is changed beyond the range of adaptability of the species of
aquatic animals under consideration. The range of adaptability
to any one factor varies with the past history, the age, the
state of the animal, and the level of environmental factors,
such as salinity, oxygen, temperature, turbidity, space, etc.
Knowledge of the ranges of environmental factors that permit the
continuity of the species is necessary, and these ranges may
differ from laboratory determinations. A combination of data
~Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Nanaimo, B.C.

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from both the laboratory and from natural state is required.
Studies in the past ten years have shown that both
metabolism and activities are affected by the environment.
Lethal levels differ from levels that allow activity. Behaviour
itself differs from one set of conditions to another. This
has led to a new concept of defining optimal levels of
interacting factors. The mathematical treatment of Box of
Great Britain provides the guidance needed. No longer can
a factor, such as a poison or industrial waste, be studied
as in the past. The interactions (toxic concentrations x
temperature x salinity x oxygen concentrations, etc.) must be
considered together.
Alderdice has found that coho salmon smolts show their
greatest resistance to oxidized pulp mill black liquor at
one concentration, temperature, and salinity. Resistance
could be lowered by a factor of 100 by either raising the
temperature, lowering the salinity or reducing the oxygen
concentration, indicating the inherent fallacy of setting
arbitrary single-level standards for the survival of a species.
Gunter and McKee have shown the complexities Involved
in a study of just one group of animals and one pollutant—
oysters and sulphite liquor. Similar complex relations exist

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between silt on stream beds and salmonld fish. Times does
not permit me to do more than point out the further complexities
of a situation where pulp and paper wastes exist to which will
be added sawmill, shipping and domestic wastes.
Certain technical programs can be suggested.
1.	Find the standard conditions before the deleterious
material is introduced, both of the environment and of the animal
population.
2.	Monitor sea, stream and indicator species. A small
continuing study of sessile organisms such as barnacles and
invertebrate collections from trawlers.
3.	Understand the engineering requirements of industry
so that the planning of Industrial and civic projects are least
likely to result in unsatisfactory conditions. For example,
the length of waste lines should receive the same financial
and engineering consideration as the length of water mains.
4.	The solution of problems is most likely in the design
of sewage and waste disposal works, and in the formulation and
application of insecticides or in the methods of road construction—
not in the setting of levels of contamination.
5.	The determination of the active pollutants in wastes
is essential.

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Fundamental studies must let us know the effects on the
animals as completely as possible. They are much less tough
than man. Standards for man are not good enough. There is no
way around knowing all the answers about the animals if we would
have the complete picture.
This material presented was based on the work of Alderdice,
Brett, Quayle and Waldichuk. Thank you.

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AGRICULTURE
Rolf T. Skrinde*
Water which is applied to agricultural land is subjected
not only to a considerable loss in quantity due to evaporation
and transpiration, but the return flow is also changed significantly
in quality due to leaching and other effects. Ground and surface
waters are thus greatly altered in chemical and physical character-
istics as they are influenced by irrigation return flows in
agricultural areas. It is the purpose of this presentation to
discuss some of the effects which agricultural utilization may
have upon ground and surface supplies of water, and the research
which is needed to reduce pollution to a minimum so as to maintain
the water in a satisfactory condition for re-use.
Agriculture is a major water use, whether the application
be by natural rainfall or by irrigation. It is estimated that
there are nearly 45,000,000 acres of land under irrigation in
the United States, 90 per cent of which are in the 17 western
states. At an average application rate of more than 3 acre—feet
per year, the daily flow of water utilized for irrigation is in
the range of 350,000,000,000 gallons. The U. S. Geological Survey
^Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, Washington State
University, Pullman, Washington.

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evaluated (1) the consumptive use of water for evaporation and
transpiration in the Columbia Basin and found an average of 1.75
acre-feet of such loss per acre. Thus, approximately one-third
of the water applied for agricultural purposes flows through the
soil or runs off to ground or surface supplies, and is designated
as return flow.
Significant changes have been observed in the chemical and
physical characteristics of irrigation return flows. In fact,
it is highly desirable from the standpoint of agricultural users
that some changes do occur. If one-third of the water applied is
returned to ground water or streams, it is necessary that this
return flow contain three times the salt concentration of the
original water in order to prevent undesirable salt build-up
in the soil. Maintaining a proper "salt balance" is one of the
important aspects of successful Irrigation (2). Leaching of
natural salts as well as fertilizers and other chemicals applied
may result in as much as a five to ten fold increase in concen-
tration of chemicals in return flows.
In addition to concentration and leaching, return water
may be greatly altered by physiarchemical reactions occurring
in the soil. Ion exchange is one of the most Important of such
reactions. Fixation or solution of salts in soils due to conditions
of dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, and other effects also may
influence the chemical characteristics of return flow.

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Although numerous studies have been made of the quality
of return irrigation waters, they have been made in almost all
cases by those interested in the use of the water for additional
irrigation. The quality of water favorable for irrigation is
distinctly differently from the quality desirable for domestic
and industrial supplies, fisheries, recreation, and other uses.
Irrigation water should be relatively high in calcium and magnesium
while a soft water low in these elements is preferable for domestic
use. Silica, nitrates, and fluorides, likewise, are detrimental
in domestic supplies, but they present few problems in irrigation
waters. Boron, on the other hand, is of little importance at low
concentrations in domestic water supplies, but it is undesirable
in irrigation water. An excellent review of present day knowledge
concerning quality of irrigation return flows and research needed
has been compiled by Eldridge (3) in a publication entitled,
"Return Irrigation Water - Characteristics and Effects."
Salinity and Hardness
In order to maintain a desirable salt balance, the total
salt output must equal or be greater than the input. Increase in
salinity is, therefore, a condition which cannot be avoided in
agricultural return flows. Not only is the return flow water
from irrigated land usually higher in salt concentration than
the water applied, but also a shift in the proportion of the

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the various ions present is brought about by the ion exchange
capacity of the soil. Hater hardness of 300 to 500 mg/1 as
CaC03 which is usually considered to necessitate water softening
in the home, is not uncommon in irrigation return flows.
Continued studies on salinity and hardness of return flows
are needed to provide information regarding ion exchange and
leaching characteristics of soils. This will enable the pre-
diction of future quality of return irrigation water and its
effect on water re-use. Although soils are known to be cation
exchanges, little is knowiof the effects of soils on the anion
content of waters.
Temperature
Several valuable studies have been made on the effect of
agricultural water use on temperature of return flows. Therm-
ograph readings proceeding downstream on the Yakima River have
shown increases of from 5° to 10°C in temperature, which have
been attributed to irrigation return flows (4).
Higher temperatures emphasize tastes and odors in water,
inhibit various types of fish while stimulating others, and
accelerate the growth of biological life, such as that producing
nitrification in soils. The relationship of agricultural utili-
zation of water to temperature changes, and particularly the
significance of such changes on the entire chain of biota

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inhabiting water is an area requiring considerable study. In-
creasing attention is being given to the relatively new problem
known as thermal pollution.
Turbidity and Color
Silt pollution is nearly always detrimental to the bene-
ficical use of water for such purposes as domestic consumption,
fish and wildlife propagation, and recreation. Turbidity
renders the water undesirable for domestic use at a concen-
tration of 10 units. Some studies, such as that on the Potomac
River Basin (5), have shown silt to be one of the major pollutants
6f a river.
Turbidity is caused by sheet and gulley erosion of farm
land, coupled with rapid surface run-off. The quality of such
surface run-off is usually seasonal in nature, and streams may
be adversely affected for only a few months of the year. Studies
are needed to determine more satisfactory methods of applying water
in some areas in order to reduce surface run-off. Improved methods
of lining ditches and canals should also be sought, as well as
general soil conservation methods. Inauguration of proper con-
servation methods have reduced erosion by 30 to 75% in areas of
high silt pollution (6).
Increased color in return flows from irrigated areas have
been attributed primarily to irrigation. Studies are required

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to determine with greater accuracy the cause and significance
of color in such flows.
Nutrients
Agricultural return flows often contain significant amounts
of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. Potassium is usually
present in natural waters and nitrogen may be fixed in the soil
by plants such as the legumes. Phosphorous is retained to a
substantial degree in the soil, however, and is therefore at
times not found in return flows.
Sawyer (7) indicates that 0.01 PPM in inorganic phosphorous
may cause excessive plant growths in water. The presence or
absence of phosphorous, therefore, often determines the extent
of algae and weed growths in surface waters.
There are differences of opinion among investigators re-
garding the contribution of irrigation return flows to the nitro-
gen and phosphorous content of ground and surface water supplies.
Some studies indicate that a considerable portion of the fertilizers
added to soil are being leached out by the drainage water. There
can be little doubt that fertilizers used on agricultural lands
provide some of the nutrients found in return flows. Certain
results have indicated, however, that at least a portion of the
nutrients have originated in deeper soil strata and are not related
to fertilizer application. Studies are needed in which the nutrients

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supplied by fertilizers can be distinguished from those
Indigenous to the soil. Studies are required in addition to
determine the concentrations of chemicals such as nitrates
present in rainwater. Trace quantititle s of nitrates, chlorides,
and possibly other such contaminants of rainwater could, over
years of concentration by evaporation in soil, provide a con-
siderable build-up of these chemicals.
Conditions affecting the formation and movement through
soil of nitrates and phosphates require careful study. Effects
of oxygen tension, temperature, pH alkalinity and other factors
on nitrification are not completely known. Nitrates as high
as 100 Mg/1 have been found in a few wells in Eastern Washing-
ton while 10 Mg/1 may cause fatal methemoglobinemia in children.
The entire picture of phosphate movement through soil, and the
effects of such factors as pH and dissolved salts is little
known and requires study.
Tastes and Odors
Decomposition of organic materials in soil often causes
tastes and odors in return flows, which are difficult and costly
to remove. Isolation of the taste and odor producing compounds
is a much needed area of research in agricultural water utilization.
If these compounds were known, their parent organic products

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could be identified and steps could be taken to prevent their
growth. Such studies would also have great application to other
areas of water pollution.
Sanitary Quality
Bacterial contamination in streams carrying return irri-
gation water is caused by discharge of sewer outfalls, rural
septic tanks and cesspools, and flushing of animal manure.
Extensive studies have been carried out of bacterial travel
through soil, with the greatest amount of work performed at the
University of California (8). From these studies it was demon-
strated that coliform organisms decreased rapidly with soil
depth, and at the 4 to 7 foot level the coliform count dropped
below 1 per 100 ml. The most distant point of lateral movement
of coliforms was 100 ft. Data indicate that under most con-
ditions return irrigation water does not cause the public health
problem of bacterial contamination of ground water supplies.
Flushing of animal manure, garbage, and other debris into
surface water sources through drainage ditches constitutes a
potential contamination problem, however, and should be further
intestigated. Studies made in the Yakima Valley (9) indicated
that natural die-away reduced coliforms by more than 80% over
a 20 mile canal system.

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Pesticides
The question of whether insecticides, herbicides, fungi-
cides, and other related economic poisons used for agricultural
purposes ultimately enter water supplies to constitute health
hazards and otherwise cause damage has not been fully evaluated.
There is considerable evidence that these chemicals applied to
plants and soil have entered streams and caused extensive fish
kills (10). Although pesticides are utilized in nearly all
homes in small amounts, their use in agriculture for routine
control of weeds and insects results in such large scale appli-
cations that water pollution is a definite possibility.
The total production of pesticides in the United States
is approaching one billion pounds or pure compounds per year,
which is consumed in the form of approximately l.S million tons
of commercial preparation. Prior to 1940, most pesticides were
inorganic in nrture, but over the past ten years the ratio of
organic to inorganic toxicants has increased annually. The
present United States production of pesticides is expected to
double by 1970, at which time synthetic organic compounds may
make up as much as 90 per cent of the market.
There are presently some 200 pesticide compounds being
formulated into more than 7,000 commercial products as listed in the
Pesticides Handbook (11). New compounds are being produced at

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a rapid rate, and new uses are being found for products already
in existence. Little is known of the ultimate fate of pesticides
which have been used for several years, and the development of
new chemicals serves to increase the problem. The chlorinated
hydrocarbons are especially resistant to degradation to non-
toxic end products, and may persist for months or years following
application.
There is no direct evidence that pesticides enter water-
ways by way of return irrigation flows. The problem as it
relates to irrigation has not been investigated, however, although
it would appear probable that many of the applied chemicals may
be washed into drainage ditches by surface flooding or may enter
ground water by percolation through the soil. At Washington
State University a number of carbon filters are being installed
to extract pesticide residues from irrigation return flows in
surface and ground waters in the Columbia Basin. Identification
of the residues will be accomplished by infra-red and chromato-
graphic techniques. It is believed that the information obtained
will aid in determination of the extent of degradation of pest-
icides in soil, their degree of retention by soil, and the public
health significance, if any,of the residues in Irrigation return
flow.
One of the major needs in the field of pesticide chemistry
is a simple method of identification of trace quantities of these

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toxic compounds in water supplies. Bio-assay techniques have
been advocated by some investigators. Studies are being con-
ducted at Washington State University on the detection of syn-
thetic organic pesticides, and methods of removing and concen-
trating pesticides from water are being evaluated. Paper
chromatography is being used to detect and quantitatively es-
timate residues extracted from water samples. This method will
be field tested in 1961, and studies will be carried out to
improve gas chromatographic technique.
Although chlorinated hydrocarbons are generally more
stable than organic phosphorous compounds, little is known about
the biochemical or chemical degradation of many of the prepar-
ations in soil and water. Studies are being carried out at the
University of Washington on the biochemical degradation of
these chemicals. A great deal of research work is needed in this
area.
The effects of DDT and some of the other more popular
synthetic organic pesticides on man have been studied quite
extensively. Much more research is needed on the long term
effects of small quantitites of these compounds, however, before
their complete acceptance for extensive use without ill effects
on the public health.

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References
1.	Geological Survey
"Irrigation and Stream Flow Depletion in the Columbia
River Basin above The Dalles, Oregon." Water Supply Paper
1220 (1953).
2.	Wilcox, L. V. "Water Quality from the Standpoint of
Irrigation"
J.A.W.W.A., 50, 650 (1958).
3.	Eldridge, E. F. "Return Irrigation Water - Characteristics
and Effects"
Public Health Service, Portland, Oregon, May 1960.
4.	Sylvester, R. 0. "Water Quality Studies in the Columbia
Basin" Bureau of Contmerical Fisheries, Special Scientific
Report - Fisheries No. 239, May 1958.
5.	Wohlman, A., Geyor, J. C. and Pyatt, E.E. "A Clean Potomac
River in the Washington Metropolitan Area" Interstate Com.
on Potomac River Basin, Washington, D.C. 1957.
6.	Brown, C. B. "Effects of Land Use and Treatment on Pollution"
Proceedings, The National Conference on Water Pollution,
Washington, D.C. 1960.
7.	Sawyer, C. N. "Some Aspects of Phosphate in Relation to Lake
Fertilization", Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 24, 768, 1952.
8.	Orlob, G. T. and Krone, R. B. "Movement of Coliform Bacteria
Through Porous Media: Sanitary Engineering Research Lab.,
University of California 1956.
9.	Washington Pollution Control Commission, "An Investigation
of Pollution in the Yakima River Basin" Technical Bulletin
No. 9, 1951.
10.	Cottam, C. "Pesticides and Water Pollution" Proceedings,
the National Conference on Water Pollution, Washington,D.C.
1960.
11.	Frear, D.E.H, "Pesticides Handbook:, 12th Edition College
Science Publishers, Pennsylvania, 1960.

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INDUSTRY
Herman Amberg*
The problems involved in industrial water quality are
many and quite diversified. Different industries produce
different wastes and the characteristics of the receiving waters
vary substantially depending upon hydrology, waste load, assim-
ilative capacity, usage and regulatory control. Even if we
narrow the field to one industry, i.e. , pulp and paper, these
same problems will in general be applicable.
The accomplishments of industry and specifically the pulp
and paper industry's pollution abatement activities can be
measured by several criteria: reduction in total waste load;
reduction in pollution load per ton of product; conservation of
fiber or other new materials; and conservation of water.
We are constantly being exposed to statistics and statis-
tical projections. These are the projected water usage figures
and pollution loads of 15 years ago into the future, i.e. 1970
to 1990. These figures naturally are alarming and in many cases
misleading since they do not take into consideration improvements
which are constantly underway. For example, in reducing pollution
and water usage, most industry has made notable, in fact, phenomenal,
progress during the last 15 to 20 years. I would like to cite the
pulp and paper industry again as an example.
~Research Division, Crown Zellerbach Corporation, Camas,
Washington.

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In the years between 1943 and 1959, annual production
of pulp and paperboard increased from 17 to 34 million tons,
an increase of 100%. The total waste load, on the other hand,
was reduced by approximately 2%. To put it another way, the
waste load from the average ton of paper and paperboard has been
reduced by 51% since 1943. During this same period, the in-
dustry reduced its average fiber loss from 5% to less than 27»,
a saving of over a million ton9 of fiber and a vast reduction
in the waste load. This saving represents over one and a half
million cords of pulpwood.
The reduction in the pollutional effect of industrial
wastes has been accomplished by a number of different ways and
most of the methods now in use are based upon research accomplish-
ments over the last twenty years. These include effluent treat-
ment, new and novel waste disposal procedures, reduction of
solids losses by recirculation of process waters and use of
solids removal equipment, retention of increased percentages of
wood substance in the finished product, more efficient recovery
of chemicals and heat from spent pulping liquors, new recovery
systems applicable to certain pulping liquors and recovery of
valuable by-products.
Vast economy in water use has also been accomplished
during this period. Today when great concern is being expressed

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in connection with future water resources, the pulp and paper
industry can look back with satisfaction on an average reduction
in water use of over 50% per ton of production during the past
16 years.
The pulp and paper industry has spent tremendous sums of
money on research aimed specifically at pollution abatement.
Methods presently being used as I have stated, are based upon the
findings of industry-sponsored research conducted over the past
twenty years. Research is presently being intensified to solve
some of the more pressing and persistent problems.
One of the problems that has plagued our industry for
many years is the sulfite waste liquor problem. Here we are not
dealing with a waste treatment problem but what we should refer to
as a waste utilization problem. The industry is not particularly
pleased with the fact that about 50% of the tree is being wasted
and primary emphasis is being placed on finding uses for this
material. The sulfite waste liquor problem has also been plagued
by economic difficulties. Although many uses have been found, the
market potential of many of these products has been limited or
the product cannot be economically produced on the West Coast to
compete with the East Coast markets. However, the market
potential for many of these by-products on the West Coast is
changing and we may expect that the economics of by-product

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recovery will improve as the marketing potential of this area
increases. Large scale uses are being found for the wood sugars
and lignin, and there are a number of possible break throughs
on the scientific frontier which could eliminate this problem
within the next five to ten years. In the interim period stop-
gap solutions must be used to full advantage. I might add that
this type of industry-oriented research can best be done by the
industry and we feel that we have done a good job in this phase
of our industrial research.
One important phase of research and development is cost
reduction whether it be on the main line of products or indus-
trial waste treatment. Often this is overlooked in dealing with
the industrial waste problems; particularly if there appears to
be some urgency. The tendency often has been to lift processes
from the sanitary field and attempt to apply them to industrial
wastes with the hope of by-passing expensive and time-consuming
research. These attempts may be justified in some cases but they
cannot help but be extremely costly and may even be utter failures.
With the competitive nature of industry in the future, some research
effort should be channeled into treatment cost reduction.studies.
In this respect, by-products will be important in the future in
defraying at least a portion of the waste treatment costs.

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Fundamental work on receiving waters and industrial
wastes is one phase of research which is starting to receive
some attention. I recently had the privilege to visit the
Oregon State College Laboratories of the Fish and Game Depart-
ment and USPHS to view some of the work underway. I was im-
pressed by the caliber and scope of the research projects and to
to my knowledge these are the first fundamental long range
studies ever conducted on some of our more pressing stream
problems. Of particular interest to industry and regulatory
agencies are the dissolved oxygen and the natural stream studies.
The experiments have been so designed to study the effects of
pollution upon the ecological balance and also to study the
effect of natural variables upon the stream ecology.
This type of research is not too popular with many
because of the time involved. However, thi9 is the only way
to obtain some of the fundamental information required for a
rational approach to the solution of some of our water quality
problems. The Oregon State College and USPHS researchers are
to be commended on tackling some very difficult and long range
problems. I might add that this type of long range fundamental
research can best be conducted at our Colleges and Universities
where a wide variety of disciplines can be brought to bear on

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problems. If we are to keep pace with our expanding economy,
our fundamental research efforts must be increased accordingly.
I feel rather confident that the industrial research
presently underway supplemented by fundamental studies such as
those being conducted at Oregon State College, University of
Washington, Washington State College and other institutions
will be able to solve the variety of waste problems that will
confront industry in the next decade.

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POLLUTION CONTROL
James Behlke*
Research needs of a Pollution Control Agency are ex-
tremely wide In scope and touch In part or totally encompass
many disciplines. It Is quite obvious that in this short
presentation only a few subjects can be mentioned. Therefore,
I will endeavor to present some ideas on the broad areas of
research needed and a limited number of specific research
items.
During the National Conference on Water Pollution held
in Washington D.C. in December areas of research needs were
indicated by numerous workers in the field. I would like to
indicate in part some of their thoughts. Hollis (1) indicated
that a substantial program of research is needed:
1.	To develop practical methods for measuring and for
removing dissolved pollutants--for application where wastes
have serious toxic potentials.
2.	To develop practical supplemental treatment methods
to stabilize further the effluents from conventional treatment.
This is for application in those areas where stream use justifies
almost completely stabilized organic discharges.
* Engineer, Washington Pollution Control Commission, Olympla,
Washington.

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Pearson (2) stated that of the numerous critical research
needs, the following appear to be of major importance:
1.	Development of adequate methodology for quantitative,
physical, chemical, and biological effects of waste discharge
upon receiving waters and sediments.
2.	Definition of the toxic agent concentration, time of
exposure functions for common and significant organisms and agents
to permit more realistic estimates of the so-called "safe con-
centrations" of wastes in the environment.
Boruff (3) indicated that needed research projects awaiting
attention, include:
1.	Definition of the toxicity and persistence in streams
of certain new chemicals.
2.	Determination of the dangers from widespread use of
the newer agricultural chemicals.
3.	Development of more efficient waste treatment methods
so as to reduce construction and operating costs.
Ellassen (4) recommended that:
1.	Research be performed on the behavior and fate of
modern organic contaminants in the water environment.
2.	Research be initiated to develop more effective means
of removing pollutants from water in municipal and industrial
water treatment plants.

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3.	More effective process controls of Industrial waste
discharges be developed.
4.	The recovery or utilization of industrial process wastes
be given greater consideration as a means of preservation of water
resources.
5.	More sophisticated Indus trial waste treatment processes
be developed through research in order to prevent excessive stream
contamination from complex organic substances and inorganic salts
which can neither be recovered nor utilized.
Hazen (5) indicated that research In the treatment of
municipal wastes should be directed along the following lines:
1.	To search for catalysts--chemical, physical and biolog-
ical, that will speed up the natural processes now used and per-
mit construction of much smaller tanks and equipment.
2,	To explore thoroughly the possibilities of chemical
treatment, or chemical and biological treatment using new chemicals
and new strains of bacteria.
Fair (6) in summarizing the subcommittee report for panel
IV of the conference Indicated the flow of research findings on
the water environment must be increased and intensified in depth
as well as breadth.
Fundamental research is needed in many aspects of water
pollution control including determination of the limits to which

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receiving bodies of water and biological as well as other treat-
ment units can be safely loaded for the disposal of increasingly
complex waste materials and studies of long-range chronic effects
of trace contaminants in water.
Fair further indicates the need to increase research effort
on the behavior and fate of newly introduced organic contaminants;
to develop more effective means of removing pollutants from water
in municipal and industrial water treatment plants; more effective
process controls of industrial waste discharges; better recovery
or utilization of industrial process wastes; and more sophisticated
industrial waste treatment processes.
Water supply and pollution trends show that one of the most
pressing problems in water quality management is the development
of new treatment processes that will remove more of the contamin-
ation from municipal waste waters than present methods are able to
do.
These presentations have indicated three broad areas of
research. The first being the ever Increasing need for information
regarding the environment. The environmental problem should be
approached by determining the existing biological, chemical, and
physical characteristics of fresh, marine, estuarine and ground
waters. It may appear that such information can be logically

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obtained by the regulatory agencies through the developing of
a massive basic data program. But there exists many pitfalls
to this approach such as the development of basic sampling net-
works, the development and further refinement of analytical pro-
cedures particularly in marine and estuarial areas, more effect-
ive methods of determining mass movements of bodies of marine
and ground waters, development of indices and parameters for
biological studies. With such a program considerable data
would be accumulated, necessitating some type of machine program-
ming and processing so that the information can be evaluated.
It is evident that many specific research projects can be
developed from the broad area of determining the existing chemical,
biological and physical characteristics of the total environment.
An example of the work that could be done in Washington
is an evaluation of Puget Sound as to the present status of the
environment. Is the Sound chemically, biologically and physically
fairly well in balance? If not, what is the rate of decay?
Should we be seriously concerned with the mass quality of this
body of water now? Are there subtle changes taking place in
the water quality that are not apparent? Can we expect to have
a similar problem in the Sound that exists in Lake Washington
and in some marine areas of the Scandinavian Countries?

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The second area of research appears to be the need
for complete evaluation of the effect on water quality of the
wide range of chemicals and chemical wastes, with particular
emphasis placed on the newer organic chemicals, chemical
sprays such as insecticides and weedicides and some of the
complex chemicals that have been with us many years. Much
work needs to be done in determining improved analytical pro-
cedures, rates of decomposition, toxicities—acute and chronic,
and resistance to treatment. These are a few of the obvious
areas of study.
Specific examples of research needed is further work
on a relatively new chemical. A.B.S. (alkyl benzene sulfonates)
and an old standby, sulfite waste liquor. In regard to A.B.S.
better analytical procedures need to be developed for determin-
ation of minute concentrations, also, further work on toxicities
and the degrading by conventional treatment and in nature.
Gunter & McKee (7) indicated in their recommendation to the
Pollution Control Commission additional research efforts on
sulfite waste liquor.
1. To measure quantitatively the effects of sulfite waste
liquor on the estuarine environment and especially on the nanno-
plankton on which oysters and their larvae feed.

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2.	To determine Che toxicity of specific components
of hot-blown SWL, especially the low-molecular-weight organics
that decompose on stabilization, and
3.	To investigate the biochemical degradation of sulfite
waste liquor and its various components.
Sulfite waste liquor is mentioned to point out one chemical
waste that has received much attention for years by researchers
but yet much additional work, is needed.
The third area of broad research needed is expansion of
work on water and waste treatment processes, Industrial waste
recovery and re-utilization of waste waters. In this area
there are many research projects that can be pursued such as
determining if biotas can be acclimated for treatment of organics
electrolitic removal of nutrients, high frequency oxidation, and
application of the petro-chemical industries technology to
waste treatment.
An example of a specific problem in this area is: Can
formaldehyde and menthanol be aerobically decomposed in a sewage
stabilization pond? What is the acclimation period? Will odors
prevail during the acclimation period? What percent reduction
can be anticipated? Will climatic changes appreciably affect
removals? What is the maximum loading per acre that can be applied?

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It can be seen that this one problem can cause many questions
that can be logically answered through research.
Ip conclusion I would like to point out that before work
in these three broad areas of environment, chemical and treatment
is further advanced, there is a tremendous need for complete
documentation, accumulation, evaluation and summarization of the
existing research and data in a readily available form so that
we may truly know our present status. Mr. Eldridge's recent
efforts to activate a program of complete cataloging of pollution
control references is the first positive step toward this end.

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References
1.	Hollis, Hark D. "The Water Pollution Image". Proceedings of
the National Conference on Water Pollution, pp. 30-40, (December,
1960).
2.	Pearson, Erman A. "Critical Research Needs—Environmental
Aspects". Proceedings of the National Conference on Water
Pollution, pp. 407-418, (December, 1960).
3.	Boruff, Clair S. Discussion - Proceedings of the National
Conference on Water Pollution, pp. 419-423.
4.	Eliassen, Rolf. "Research and Treatment Technology". Proceedings
of the National Conference on Water Pollution, pp. 454-458,
(December, 1960).
5.	Hazen, Richard. Discussion - Proceedings of the National
Conference on Water Pollution, pp. 458-461, (December, 1960).
6.	Fair, Gordon M. Panel IV - Report and Discussion. Proceedings
of the National Conference on Water Pollution, pp. 218-231.
7.	Gunter, Gordon; McKee, Jack Edward. "A Report to the Pollution
Control Commission of the State of Washington on Oysters and
Sulfite Waste Liquors", pp. 1-93, (February, 1960).

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LABORATORY
Fred J. Burgess*
The population explosion, increased industrialization
and dwindling water supply have emphasized the necessity of
controlling pollution and eliminating it where possible. This
problem has gained national recognition and has stimulated much
research, development and survey-evaluation work. It is,
therefore, appropriate to ask if our "tools" are good enough and
"sharp enough" to do the job ahead. Certainly the engineer
and scientist engaged in water pollution control work will be
the first to admit that the "BOD" bottle, the burette with its
1/40 normal ^2820^ and his "bible" of standard methods are
venerable old fighting weapons but woefully inadequate for
the highly complex problems we face.
What then are the necessary additions we must make to
our arsenal for the pollution control fight. Flexibility,
imagination, intelligent and considered judgment and a generous
supply of "pep" pills are generally considered as first-line
weapons.
The list of analytical methods needed is long and varied.
In all cases simplicity of making highly complex micro-chemical
and biological measurements and interpreting them is needed.
~Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, Oregon State
University, Corvallis, Oregon.

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The BOD test is a good example of needed improvement. Without
complete evaluation of reaction constants, long term BOD,
immediate BOD, and a standardized bacterial population, the test
is of small value. Yet, because of its simplicity of under-
standing and elegance of mathematical derivation, it has become
near and dear to every engineer's heart. The five day-20°C
BOD, are taken as "gospel truths," even though for samples con-
taining the same total decomposible organic material reaction
constants may vary as much as three to four fold. Chemical
oxygen demand and other oxidation tests to determine the "oxygen
depletion" characteristics of waste also have shortcomings. An
accurate, simple and accepted test to measure this type of pol-
lution potential is badly needed.
The test for tannins and lignins which actually measures
many hydroxylated aromatic compounds also needs careful consider-
ation. Certainly the biological half-life of wood sugars, toxic
elements, and other compounds associated with the waste from
the wood products industry is different from the ha If-life of
lignin and tannin-like matter. Accepting their presence as being
indicative of the concentration of total plant effluent is question-
able. It is always easy to shoot holes in the other fellow's
target and certainly al,l analytical tests have their shortcomings.
With the prospect of considerable reuse of water and the
need to develop tertiary treatment methods, identification of

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waste residuals of biologically hard compounds is extremely
important. The carbon-filter technique is a promising develop-
ment in this field. Hydro-carbon recovery by this unit is
good, but carbohydrate-like compound recovery is relatively
inefficient. The methods of extraction and exact identification
of material by chromatographic and spectrometric methods are
complex and expensive and beyond the scope of most laboratories.
Perfection and simplification of these tools are necessary.
Efficient and economical methods of continuous sampling are
a major need in the pollution control field. The cost of analysis
and the consequences of enforcement based on improper interpre-
tation make good sampling a primary necessity. Yet, how many
reports have been based on the analysis of two grab samples
and a straight line plot of data?
Excellent analytical tools for evaluation of data are
becoming available in electronic computers. It remains for
engineers and scientists to program the collection of data to
obtain the needed answers.
Development of micro-biological methods is another area
of need. Interpretation of coliform densities in terms of health
hazards and the evaluation of disinfection needs, when the prob-
lems of coliforms of non-fecal origin or bacterial re-growth
are considered, is difficult using present methods. Methods

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for using fecal streptococci or the entrococcus groups as
positive indicators of contamination are being developed
by the United States Public Health Service at the Robert A.
Taft Sanitary Engineering Center. These methods appear very
promising.
In the field of fisheries, analytical methods for
measuring long-term, low-level, chronic toxicity problems are
not available. Acute bioassays and bio-indices have been used
to advantage but these tell little of the chronic toxicity
problem.
Engineering tools are also needed for evaluation of
treatment processes. Rule of thumb approaches to many treat-
ment processes are the result of being unable to measure
process variability. The biological contact processes are
a prime example of this problem.
The cost of analysis of the rather complicated tools
available has been a deterent to much research and development.
An engineering failure that should mark high in this decade
has been the unwillingness to recognize and adequately provide
for analytical procedures.
Support for specific research and development of analytical
methods is available from federal and industrial sources. The
development of these methods must proceed largely at universities

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and colleges. Here is located the largest reservoir of com-
petent scientists.

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PROBLEMS AND RESEARCH IN THE FIELD OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
P. H. McGauhey*
There is ample evidence that the problems of water quality
pre-date man's records of his contests with his perverse gods.
Certainly by 330 B.C., when Rome finally sent its engineers
afield to bring in a supply of pure water, the quest for quality
was already an ancient hydrologic pastime. We can, therefore,
but marvel at the persistent streak in man's nature that enables
him after more than 2000 years to continue his attack on pre-
historic problems with the vigor evident in this morning's pro-
gram, Perhaps it is because almost overnight"water quality"
has become a glamour phrase. Perhaps not. In any event, com-
petition for a relatively fixed water supply by various elements
of our growing urban-industrial-agricultural society is now a
matter of concern of such magnitude that water quality legis-
lation is being pressed by the Congress of the United States,
and even petrified public agencies are beginning to stir with
dreams of empire in water quality research and management.
Out of a seemingly endless concern for water there emerged,
some thirty years ago, the profession of sanitary engineering,
dedicated at first primarily to problems of water quality control.
~Richmond Field Station, University of California, Berkeley.

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Yet the profession was scarcely in its teens when relentless
nature added a new train of environmental health problems.
And what is worse, these added problems tended to undo much
of the gain the sanitary engineer had made in the fieldoof
water utilization, rendering inadequate those solutions which
for a season showed prospect of being satisfactory. My dis-
cussion today concerns the scope of this newer complex of en-
vironmental problems--air resources, radiological health, in-
dustrial hygiene, environmental sanitation, and resources
management. And if time permits, I may dwell briefly upon some
of the new micro-factors in water quality, the prospect of
ground water contamination, the need for tertiary treatment
of wastes, the problem of urban and agricultural refuse dis-
posal, and the problems of water reclamation.
In each of these several areas, research is being dir-
ected to special technical problems so diverse as to suggest
an intellectual Tower of Babel. And so it might become were
it not for simultaneous efforts to conceive systems for relating
and managing all elements of environmental health--integrated
systems of land-water-air resources planning and use, of soil-
water-crop management, and of economic apportionment of water
among competing beneficial uses.
On the theorum made famous by James Thurber that "It
is better to ask some questions than to know all the

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answers," I shall begin this afternoon's discussion by Identify-
ing some of the problems In environmental health concerning which
research is, to my knowledge, in progress, noting as time permits
some of the interesting details of this research. Unfortunately,
it will not represent a balanced picture of the research effort
throughout the country for of necessity I shall deal primarily
with the work of my own group at the University of California.
Water Resources
You have already heard, or read in the reports of the Senate
Select Committee, of a widespread recognition that a minimum
stream flow of important magnitude will be required merely to
transport our waterbome wastes to the ocean. At the same time,
those representing recreation and wild life culture envision a
minimum flow of "pure" water to support their interests. Obviously
the two do not speak of the same "minimum" flow. In another case,
the Bureau of Reclamation is going ahead with plans to irrigate
a western state in support of an agrarian economy which would
require a reduction of the state's present population by some
20,000 persons. At the same time, the State Chamber of Commerce
is busily planning for an urban-Industrial economy involving twice
the present population of the state. Again, political consider-
ations favor the constructing of an aqueduct to deliver publicly

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subsidized water to an agricultural area which is giving way
to subdivisions so rapidly that none will occupy more than a
50* x 120' lot by the time the aqueduct is completed. Every-
where, owners of water rights are suddenly finding that "acre-
feet" no longer describes water; quality has become its fourth
dimension. More than 2000 new industrial products produce
wastes of unknown significance, urban dwellers increase their
water usage, and agricultural drainage waters in the west add
an increasing burden of salinity.
Here is an array of problems that thus far have defied
IBM, confounded outmoded political and economic assumptions,
and challenged the ability of engineers and others to devise
comprehensible systems, both of analysis and synthesis. Here
is an area in which many disciplines seek a future empire
through research; an area in which political scientists,
economists, social scientists, engineers, planners, and pol-
iticians vie to pre-empt; a sea of trouble on which the broadly
educated humanists float like scum and in which the deeply
indoctrinated engineers and scientists sink like sludge to the
bottom—both equally unable to pervade the entire mass. This
is the area of resources management, systems analysis, inter-
disciplinary team research, operations research, or what you

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will: the offspring of earlier problems of water quality which
survived all our considerable advances from disinfection to
activated sludge. I purposely leave fittingly obscure the nature
of the research directed in this area both because the problems are
complex, the approach obscure, and the subject already considered
in some detail in the preceding session. Furthermore, it is
my main purpose to deal with some other aspects of environmental
health, concerning which I will try to be more specific.
Atmospheric Pollution Control
From the days of alchemy almost until the space age, we
got along with quite gross analyses of the atmosphere around us.
Oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide were observed and their
relative percentages duly noted. Refined observations yielded
evidence of the presence of crypton, xenon, argon, helium,
ozone, and the like--largely matters of curiosity. Fog, dust,
and haze were recognized as natural nuisances at times, and
eventually smoke from burning soft coal all but made cities like
Pittsburg, St. Louis, and Detroit unbearably dirty. Only in
indoor industrial environments were other particulates and gases
given serious attention by public health organizations. Then,
as population densitites increased, we began to hear of smog—
a big national joke because it was unique to Los Angeles. But

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our laughter was short-lived--disasters from polluted air
such as occurred in London, Donara, and the Meuse Valley were
in the making. The upshot was that some 10 years ago we found
ourselves with a full-blown problem of environmental health
arising from the micro-pollutants of air about which we knew
next to nothing, and from physical and chemical Interactions of
which we were equally unaware.
Thus the problems of air pollution caught us in a state
of almost primitive ignorance which could not be overcome by
the mere enactment of legislation authorizing the setting of
standards and the establishment of Boards, however prominent
their legal teeth. The list of specific problems included:
1.	Development of methods for detecting and isolating
micro-constituents of polluted atmosphere.
2.	Applying new methods to the identification and
monitoring of individual air pollutants.
3.	Development of methods for reducing or preventing
production of various air pollutants at the source.
A. Determining the effect of various pollutants on the
public health and establishing permissible limits
of human exposure to Individual pollutants and to
combinations of pollutants.

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5.	Determining the tolerance limit of vegetation and crops
for various air pollutants.
6.	Establishing realistic standards for air pollution
control purposes.
Research in each of these several problem areas is in progress
and in varying stages of completion. At the Sanitary Engineering
Research Laboratory of the University of California, projects
supported by the Public Health Service have been directed primar-
ily to the first two problem areas. Using such techniques as
chromatography, spectroscopy, fractional distillation, and fluor-
escence, more than 60 synthesized aromatic unsaturated hydro-
carbons have been isolated from the products of inefficient com-
bustion of gaseous and liquid fuels. Three of these are known
to be carcinogenic to animals, and are presumed to be so to humans
as well. Some 35 oxidized compounds--the real tear-jerkers--
have likewise been isolated and are currently being studied for
molecular structure and identification. The growth of giant
bacterial cells in the presence of carcinogenic hydrocarbons
has been observed and research is well under way to determine
the nature of the resulting cell changes and to explore the
possibility of using the phenomenon in the bio-assay of atmos-
pheres for the presence of carcinogenic fractions.

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Investigative work on the detection and measurement o£
sulfur oxides in industrial stack discharges and on the nature
of their observed damage to vegetation has likewise been under-
taken and reported.
Radiological Health
As an environmental health problem, radioisotopes present
a unique situation in at least two major aspects. First, is the
very real necessity for a method of radioactive waste disposal
before the wastes are created. Unlike industrial and domestic
wastes with which we have contended for water quality for 150
years in a slowly losing battle, radioisotopes cannot simply
be discharged to the environment and ignored while sanitary
engineers and others seek ways of re-establishing the damaged
environment. The second difference is that the control of
nuclear fission technology rests within the Federal Government
where national necessity dictates that production of radioactive
wastes must not await the answers to problems of waste disposal.
Hence, wastes of necessity have artifically and uneconomically
been stored or dumped in the ocean, creating the false impression
in outsiders that peaceful use of the atom may proceed without
answers to environmental health problems.

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Problems of radioactivity in the human environment are
too numerous to catalog here. An Incomplete list of those of
particular interest to sanitary engineers include:
1.	Educating people concerning the true nature of the
hazards of radioactivity in the human environment.
2.	Off-setting realistically the clamor of peoples with
underpowered economies for the genie of nuclear power; as well
as the engineers and entrepreneurs who seek immediate installation
of plants with the same blind unconcern for waste disposal that
has characterized the fossil fuel era of industrial-urban
economic development.
3.	Developing economical and practical methods of disposal
of radioactive wastes which may find their way into the general
environment through medical, Industrial and research uses of
isotopes.
4.	Devising methods of applying radioisotopes to the
solution of problems throughout the whole gamut of environmental
health.
5.	Perfecting methods of decontaminating the environment
especially man's air, water, and food contacts, following an
accident or hostile release of radioactivity.
6.	Determining the effects of irridatlon on men, animals,
and plants, and the establishing of realistic limits of permissible
exposure.

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Research on the environmental health aspects of radio-
isotopes conducted by the Sanitary Engineering Research Labor-
atory of the University of California is concerned principally
with the problem areas 3, 4, and 5. Projects in progress or
reported within the past ten years have been concerned with the
uptake of radioisotopes by activated sludge and by various dis-
solved solids in natural waters; with ground disposal of radio-
active wastes; with the removal of radioisotopes from contamin-
ated water or waste effluents by natural soils or synthetic ion
exchange resins; with the disposal of wastes from large test
animals fed with isotopes of strontium; with the development
of methods for detecting tritium; and with the application of
tritium and other radioisotopes to the tracing of ground water
movement. In addition, detergents are being traced through
sewage treatment processes and in surface and ground waters by
radioactive sulfur; sediments in San Francisco Bay have been
followed with radioactive gold; an evaluation of fall-out problems
in the human environment has been completed; and practical
methods of decontaminating water supplies are under investigation.
Septic Tank Percolation Fields
Since World War II, the use of septic tanks has ill-advisedly
been permitted in vast urban housing developments where their

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behavior eventually came to the attention of a single agency,
the Federal Housing Administration, through its mortgage insurance
program. Thus an extremely serious problem of failure of septic
tank percolation fields within 1 to 5 years was brought to light.
An FHA-sponsored survey conducted by the Public Health
Service soon revealed that surprisingly little is knovnabout the
design and behavior of sewage-loaded soils.
Under FHA sponsorship, the Sanitary Engineering Research
Laboratory has made considerable progress in determining the con-
ditions under which soils will clog and the mechanism of that
clogging. Current research is therefore directed toward the develop-
ment of design principles which will minimize the observed clogging
phenomena and thus aid in establishing realistic design criteria.
Detergents
The rise of the household use of synthetic detergents since
1930 has created a somewhat unique environmental problem—unique
in that detergents do not in themselves constitute a demonstrated
health hazard, but may interfere with the functioning of systems
created in the interest of the public health or delay environmental
health proposals by the mere presumption that detergents may be
a factor. The first problem of detergents in the environment, then
has been "What is the problem of detergents?"

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A considerable body of research has been directed to this
question and it is agreed for the present that in the United
States we cannot presently condemn the use of synthetic detergents
on the grounds of public health menace or danger of destruction of
the effectiveness of waste treatment processes. This does not
mean that they do not present problems. In fact, there is a
growing uneasiness that when the micro-constituents of water
present a hazard analogous to that experienced in air pollution,
detergents may in some way be among the offenders.
Recent research by the Sanitary Engineering Research Labor-
atory and others under the sponsorship of the Association of Amer-
ican Soap and Glycerin Producers has pretty well established the
extent to which ABS is destroyed during sewage treatment, and has
suggested methods for its partial removal. However, investigation
is warranted into matters as:
1.	Prevention of frothing of surface waters receiving
sewage treatment plant effluents, and the conditions
under which such frothing occurs.
2.	The significance of any given concentration of deter-
gent in a surface water in relation to any or all of
a number of beneficial uses of the water.
3.	A rationale on which to base a standard for detergents
in stream pollution control.

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4.	The behavior of detergents underground and the possibility
of long-term injury to ground waters recharged with
detergent-bearing effluents.
5.	Methods for economical detergent removal from waste waters
should such removal become an objective of waste treatment.
Current research at the University of California, sponsored
by the Public Health Service, is directed to the last of these
two problems. Detergent removal has been shown to be feasible
down to 1 ppm. Whether this or a greater degree of removal is
either feasible or necessary in the interests of environmental
health or control is a part of the unsolved aspects of the deter-
gent problem.
Underground Travel of Pollution
The possibility of water reclamation by ground water re-
charge through surface spreading or direct injection of flood
or waste treatment plant effluents has long intrigued engineers
and lay citizens interested in water conservation. The current
research on tracing of ground water movement previously men-
tioned provides a new tool for checking the environmental safety
of present and proposed recharge projects. Extensive research by
the Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory reported in previous
years attested to the public health safety of recharge as far

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as bacterial travel is concerned. Current Sanitary Engineering
Research Laboratory projects on septic tank percolation fields
and on the behavior of detergents underground may further clarify
the problem of ground water reclamation. The same is true of
numerous other studies throughout the United States. Unanswered
questions to which research is presently being directed or is in
prospect include:
1.	The significance of insecticides, herbicides, and
other heavy organic molecules in irrigation drainage
waters and in reclaimed water.
2.	Methods of detecting small quantities of toxic sub-
stances, as well as processes for removing them from
waste waters.
3.	The underground behavior of many individual inorganic
and organic wastes from the production and use of
newer industrial processes.
Biological Control of Human Environment
A wide range of problems of environmental control seem
susceptible to solution in many geographic latitudes by an approach
which I may designate generally as "Biological Engineering." In
one of its aspects most pertinent to sanitary engineering, it
involves the reclamation of both water and organic matter in

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human sewage and other organic wastes by the conversion of
the organic fraction of wastes into high-protein algal cells
suitable for an animal feed supplement or, in some areas, as
a human foodstuff. During current and past experiments ex-
tending back to 1950, the Sanitary Engineering Research Lab-
oratory of the University of California has:
1.	Established the conditions under which sewage-
grown algae flourish.
2.	Investigated the techniques and economics of algal
harvesting from waste treatment ponds.
3.	Demonstrated the water reclamation and organic reclam-
ation potential of algal culture in sewage and organic
industrial wastes.
4.	Initiated experiments on the application of the process
to the disposal of animal manures.
5.	Developed a closed ecological system for biological
control of enclosed environments such as might per-
tain in long-time space travel.
6.	Supported experiments in the nutritional value of
sewage-grown algae.
7.	Isolated algal strains particularly suited to high
temperatures and to certain organic wastes.

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The range of problems to which biological systems may
be applied in environmental health is by no means yet defined.
Research in this direction is proving to be one of the most
fruitful approaches to problems of environmental sanitation,
from which a whole host of side benefits may accrue.
Solid Refuse
The ancient Roman signpost which warned "Take your refuse
further or you will be fined," gave recognition to an environ-
mental problem, but at the same time suggested a solution.
After 1500 years of progress we now have the problem minus
the solution. As Frank Stead of the California State Health
Department said a few years ago, "Burn it, and the air pollution
people get after you. Bury it, and the water pollution control
board is fearful of ground water pollution. Feed garbage to
hogs, and people revolt against the hog farm." Thus we may
recognize that the problems of solid refuse disposal are as yet
imperfectly solved. In fact, they have worsened through recog-
nition of air pollution problems and through the activities of
control agencies prepared to ask more questions than they are
prepared to answer. In areas subject to smog control, for
instance, we are accused of all but outlawing fire. Household
rubbish burners are banned; municipal incinerators are suspect;

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freeway right-of-way clearing or urban renewal projects are
forbidden to burn debris; and in some cases, farmers are being
urged to run all organic debris through shredders or choppers
and mulch it into the soil. So is created a round-robin of
problems. The city incinerator creates an air pollution problem,
the air pollution authorities toss the problem back considerably
magnified. The orchardist creates an air pollution problem.
He is urged to take measures which will establish an incubator
of disease and insects under each tree. He must then use more and
stronger insecticides, which creates problems of removal for the
canner, who if successful in his efforts, transfers the problem
to the water quality control people in the form of the micro-
quality factors which they, in turn, struggle to overcome.
Research directed to this complex of problems has, at the
University of California, been concerned with sanitary landfill,
incineration, and composting as economical methods of refuse
disposal and reclamation. In addition, other work has been done
on the control of flies and the fate of bacteria during municipal
refuse disposal as well as on the nature of leachings from land-
fills and dumps.
Current research on solid refuse disposal is widely dis-
persed throughout problems which result in related areas from

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refuse disposal practice. Direct studies, however, are in
progress on the suburban and rural wastes from animals—a
subject worthy of special discussion.
Disposal of Animal Manures
Of all environmental problems confronting our urban-
industrial society, the least understood and appreciated is
that of animal manures and the attendant fly problem. To the
average pseudo-sophisticated city dweller, cows and chickens
are the handmaidens of slightly laughable yokels, or the
source of wealth of the minority of Texans who do not own oil
wells. Consequently, when they purchase a cardboard house
from some subdivider bent on turning a quick profit by bull-
dozing the flood plain next to a dairy, a beef fattening
installation, or a chicken ranch, they bleat piteously to the
health authorities when fly season rolls around. In cases
where the animal feeder has been in business for 20 years and
has invested several millions of dollars in his installation
there develops an understandable inclination to "stand in the
way of progress."
Few recognize the magnitude of the animal manure disposal
problem. In California, for example, there is some 80 million
cubic yards of animal manure produced each year in stock

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feeding pens and egg production establishments. High protein
foods poorly dlsgested by steers is a natural source of flies,
a single dropping being capable of harboring perhaps 100,000
fly larvae. Yet pen fences make economical pickup of manure
all but impossible and, once collected, the market for steer
manure is but a relatively constant fraction of production,
while dumping within an economical haul distance is also a
problem. Poultry raisers are in a similar situation—opposed
by newly established neighbors and at the same time plagued
by a problem of manure disposal that is well nigh insurmountable
in suburban environments.
Specific problems concern (1) the development of economical
procedures for pickup of manures, and (2) the development of
modem methods of disposal. Neither is near a satisfactory
solution.
Research currently directed to this problem by the University
of California at Davis and at Berkeley is concerned with:
1.	The development of special machinery for pickup
of droppings in the commercial chicken and egg
production plants.
2.	The possibility of anaerobic digestion of animal
manures.
3.	The production of algae in ponds fed with animal

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manures, followed by harvesting of algae for animal
feed or by pumping of the algal slurry onto arable
lands through an irrigation technique.
As yet the economic feasibility of none of the three solutions
has been demonstrated, although acceptable solutions are urgently
needed.
Conelusion
The early scope of sanitary engineering has in recent years
been expanded beyond water supply and sewage into other broad areas
of environmental health such as air resources, radiological health,
environmental sanitation, industrial and agricultural wastes, and
water resources development. In many of these areas, just as in
the case of water quality control, problems have multiplied faster
than research can supply even temporarily satisfactory answers.
Answers in one problem area often create new problems in another—
i.e., the problems are shifted from water to air, from air to
refuse, and from refuse back to water again, in a spiral of in-
creasingly complex nature requiring investigative techniques of
increasingly great resolving power. The over-all effect is a
slowly losing battle which makes more urgent each year the search
for answers in environmental health problems; or offers the
alternate prospect of an increasingly aesthetic society living in
an increasingly unaesthetic mantle of its own debris.

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INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
E. F. Eldridge*
We are here today to discuss research as applied to
water pollution and certain other of the environmental sciences.
The objective of research is to provide knowledge. Hence, the
objective of research in the water pollution field is to pro-
vide the technical knowledge necessary to adequately protect
the quality of the Nation's water resources.
A great deal of research has and is being done in this
field by competent researchers. There is a widely accepted
feeling, however, that in spite of the research accomplished
in this and related fields, knowledge is not keeping pace with
the incipient problem. If this is true, and I am sure it is,
then we must step up our research. There is every indication
that the research activity in this field will be significantly
expanded in the future.
One overlooked fact, however, is that we are not using
the knowledge we do have to accomplish the objectives of
research. This information is stored away in innumerable
~Physical Sciences Administrator, U. S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Water
Supply and Water Pollution Control Program, Pacific Northwest,
Portland, Oregon.

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journals, pamphlets, bulletins, unpublished reports and raw
data files. When I say "we" are not using it, I mean the
regulatory agencies who have the responsibility of enforcing
pollution control, the consulting engineers, the management
of industry with waste problems, land and water resource
management agencies and, most surprising of all, the researcher.
The main reason for this lack of use is that the informa-
tion is not available in a form which is readily obtainable and
usable. I believe you will agree that it is a major, and time
consuming job, just to get a complete list of references on
a subject. It is an impossible job to read even those articles
and reports published in the major current magazines. This
job will become Insurmountable as the research is expanded
in this field.
The following is an example quoted from the General
Information Manual of the International Business Machines
Corporation, 1960: "There are now being published each year
some 100,000 reports, 55,000 scientific journals and more than
6,000 books in the scientific and technical areas. A chemist
trying to keep abreast of the literature in his field would
fall behind by an estimated 850,000 pages every year even if
he devoted his full time to reading."
As much as we need a greatly expanded program of research
in this field, of equal, if not more importance, is a mechanism

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by which the results of research, as well as other types of
Information relating to this field, can be made available and
usable. It seems to me that these are companion requirements.
There are two missing links between the acquisition of
knowledge by research and its use. The first is a mechanism
by which complete bibliographies of reference material may be
readily obtained on specific subjects. This does not involve
a new idea. Such mechanisms are in use in many industries
and government offices for retrieval of information. In this
case I envision a single central location where literature from
all pertinent sources is codified and from which anyone desir-
ing a list of references on a particular subject can obtain
such a list rapidly and with reasonable assurance that it is
complete. It should be understood that this will not be a
search for one article, but rather a list of references on
a subject. It will not be a library service, nor an abstract
service. Therefore, it is only one step, but an important
one, in the retrieval process. In many cases, it will be all
that is required since the individual or agency making the
request now has a select group of publications for reading.
The conventional library service can supply the articles.
However, even with this reference list, the recipient
may still be stymied by an Inability to read, sift and analyse
the vast amount of literature which is published on some sub-
jects. This is especially true in the case of regulatory

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agencies, consulting engineers, industrial and numerous
governmental agencies.
The second missing link in this chain, therefore, is
a compilation and analysis of the total information available
in the literature on each of a number of specific subjects.
Thus, if you are working on a problem and wish to know the
best of the information available on this subject, you can
obtain this from one source.
This again can be done through a central agency estab-
lished for this purpose and equipped to keep the compilation
current. These compilations should not be merely a series
of abstracts. To be of the most value the information con-
tained in the compilation must be analyzed as to reliability
and completeness. This most certainly does not involve a
value judgment on each article.
There are certain recognizable hazards in such an
analysis since it does involve decisions and opinions on the
part of those preparing the compilations.
Last year I prepared a compilation and analysis of
Information on Characteristics and Effects of Return Irrigation
Water as an example of this type of activity.
Proposals have been made to supply the missing links
above and to bridge the gap between the acquiring and use of
of knowledge in the fields related to water pollution. These
proposals have been recommended to the Public Health Service

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as one of the areas where the Service can be of the most
value to those working In these fields. These projects
of information retrieval in conjunction with an expanded
research program will assure the best use of the research
funds.
I cannot say at this time if or how rapidly these
projects will be initiated. I do know that there is a definite
interest in information retrieval and hope it will not be
too long before a decision will be made and positive action
will be taken.

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FINANCING OF RESEARCH AND TRAINING FACILITIES,
EQUIPMENT, PERSONNEL AND PROJECTS
U. S. Public Health Service
R. H. Holtje*
The Public Health Service offers several types of re-
search grants-in-aid to institutions of learning, state and local
governments, private and corporate firms and individuals having
interest in health sciences. Of primary interest are the follow-
ing five types:
1.	Health research facilities construction grants,
intended to assist in providing adequate research
"buildings" and equipment.
2.	Project training grants, intended to assist schools
of public health and sanitary engineering in expand-
ing and improving curricula and staff,
3.	Research training grants, intended to assist schools
of public health and engineering by giving aid to
post baccalaureate students possessing or having
potential research talents,
4.	Research fellowship grants intended to assist individ-
uals at the pre-and post-doctoral level who have demon-
strated outstanding research talents, and
~Assistant Chief, Research and Training Grants Branch,
Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control, PHS, Washington,D.C.

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5. Research grants which support specific projects.
Each of the grant types are described in greater detail on
separate sheets that are included following this paper.
I will enlarge upon the description of research grants,
since I believe you may be more interested In this type than
any other. In addition, research grants appear to have the
greatest potential for assisting in filling in knowledge that
now interferes with solving the many serious problems we face
in restoring and controlling water quality.
A recent statement of Surgeon General Luther L. Terry
concerning future needs in water supply and pollution control
has this to say:
As demands increase, there will not be sufficient
water for each consumer to use as he sees fit.
1.	The use of our rivers and streams to carry
away our wastes is incompatible with all other
water uses and consequently must take lowest
priority. This will mean an accelerated program
for the construction of water pollution abatement
works by both municipalities and industries, which
can be brought about by increased enforcement and
incentive grants.
2.	The highest order of use to be protected is the
drinking water of more than 100 million persons
living in urban areas. This will mean more atten-
tion to health aspects of water pollution.
3.	The uses of water for industry, agriculture,
and our growing recreational needs are taking on
increasing significance. These conflicting

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interests in water use together with pollution which
we do not have means to control make necessary a care-
ful surveillance program over our watercourses to
protect the public health and these other vital water
interests.
4.	Federal, State, local and industrial cooperation
in shaping comprehensive programs to control pollution
of entire river basins are a "must" if we are to provide
water for the developments which demographers and econ-
omists predict.
5.	An intensified research effort will be necessary to
meet the already clear needs of the future. For example:
(a) we must be able to identify and predict the health
and other adverse effects of many new pollutants reaching
our watercourses and removed neither by waste treatment
nor modern day water purification; (b) feasible means
must be developed to remove toxic contaminants such as
the economic agricultural poisons; (c) new scientific
disciplines not heretofore employed in water pollution
control must be attracted to this field of research.
Perhaps I could serve you best by briefly outlining the
current research grant program.
Almost everyone in the field of water supply and pollution
control is aware of the intramura1 research program carried on
by the Public Health Service at the Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center. Perhaps not as well known is the Public
Health Service's extramural research program in water supply
and pollution control conducted quite independently of "SEC."
I refer to the extramural program of basic and applied research
developed by the National Institutes of Health. NIH has awarded

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grants In this field for the past 14 years and a total of
666 grants amounting to $6,592,926 have been awarded.
The Surgeon General in his report on Environmental Health
to the House Committee on Appropriations, submitted in January,
1960, recommended that research grants and research training
grants be made available to the environmental health programs
of the Public Health Service. The 1961 House report (D/HEW
Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations) suggested that
the 1962 budget be presented with all identified environmental
health aspects transferred to the appropriations of the environ-
mental health programs, including the grants now administered
by the National Institutes of Health. The "Report of the Study
Group on Mission and Organization of the Public Health Service,"
proposed a Bureau of Environmental Health and included provision
for administration of research grants and research training grants.
The 1962 House Appropriations Committee has considered
the proposed changes. In anticipation of favorable Congressional
action, the Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control has
been formulating procedures and policies necessary to operate
the proposed expanded extramural research program. A Research
and Training Grants Branch, headed by Mr. Harry A. Faber, has
been organized within the Division.

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Since several of those attending the Symposium have
currently active research grants or have applications in
process at NIH, it will be of interest to them to know that
the Division plans to conduct its extramural research program
in a manner quite like NIH. In fact, plans now call for:
(1) use of the same application forms, (2) submission of
applications through NIH channels and (3) use of the NIH dual
review and approval organization. The current NIH rules,
regulations and policies will be retained, at least, for the
present.
NIH supported research grants now in force have already
been identified as appropriate for transfer to the Division
of Water Supply and Pollution Control. Actual transfer will
take place when funds are made available to the Division --
hopefully early in FY 1962. The 1962 budget request submitted
is $2,064,000 for research grants in water supply and pollution
control. This amount will be sufficient to meet continuation
obligations connected with the transferred grants.
Scientific freedom is considered to be the keystone
of the research grant program. The investigator is expected
to conceive his own project. It is expected that the investigator
will use his own best judgment concerning its relevance to national
regional or local water quality needs.

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The ability of the research investigator is an important
factor In the review of an application for a grant. The appli-
cant should clearly define the project and aims in specific
terms, and precisely describe the approach and methods, the
starting day and the length of project in months or years.
The investigator should show that he knows what has been
done on the subject by others, relate his own publications, if
any, to the proposal and indicate the significance of the pro-
posed research. He is expected to show, by his professional
background, that he is able to carry out the proposal expertly.
He should recognize his own weaknesses and include in the appli-
cation co-investigators or provision for consultants, if warranted.
The site of the proposed research is important. Are the
facilities adequate? Is the proper equipment available?
Lastly, the budget for the proposal must be reasonable
and appropriate for the project, the site and the institution.
The investigator has freedom to judge and act. If in
his judgment^changes in the proposed project are necessary after
it is started, he is permitted to make them to achieve his stated
aims. If more funds should be spent on needed extra equipment
instead of on supplies, travel or other budgeted items, he is
free to do so. All grant funds are, of course, subject to
fiscal audit and it is prudent to report major changes.

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Perhaps it would be helpful to briefly describe the appli-
cation review and approval process.
Upon receipt st the Division of Research Grants, at NIH, each
application is assigned for review to one of forty study sections
and an Institute -- or hopefully in FY '62 to one of the environ-
mental health divisions. At the study section level the appli-
cation is reviewed with primary emphasis on the scientific merit
of the investigator, his plans, aims, site and other factors.
Recommendation is made for approval, disapproval, or deferral and
those applications approved are given a priority rating by each
study section member.
Study section recommendations are then transmitted to the
assigned Institute -- or environmental health division -- for
review by one of six National Advisory Councils. The Council may
concur with the study section recommendations or may reverse or
alter them. If the Council's recommendation is for approval, a
recommendation is made to the Surgeon General of the Public Health
Service that payment be made on a priority basis.
Practically, all applications in the water supply and pol-
lution control field are assigned to the Environmental Sciences
and Engineering Study Section. A few may be assigned to other
study sections concerned with toxicology, bacteriology, and mycology,
radiation, dentistry (fluorides), tropical medicine and parasitology.

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The Environmental Sciences and Engineering Study Section
presently has 18 members representing several professional dis-
ciplines. The members are non-federal scientists who serve as
consultants. Most are university people who are outstanding experts
in their fields.
Each application is reviewed very carefully by at least
two of the study section members before a scheduled meeting.
Written critiques are required. At the meeting, the discussion
leaders make their oral presentations. A vote for approval is
followed by assignment of priority.
The second review is accomplished by the Council follow-
ing the same general pattern but emphasis here is more strongly
oriented to broad PHS program policy. Practically all of the
applications involving water supply and pollution control are
reviewed and passed upon by the National Advisory Health Council,
members of which are again mostly University oriented. They are
appointed as consultants to the Surgeon General on the basis of
their proven scientific management and executive skills.
Since experience shows that 41 percent of the applications
submitted are disapproved, it would be well to examine reasons
why they are disapproved. Considerable time and thought is in
volved in preparing an application and disappointment to the
applicant who is turned down is undoubtedly keen. Dr. Ernest Allen,

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who is associate director for research grants at NIH, outlined
the disapproval reasons in Science (11/25/60) as follows:
Class I: Problem (58 percent)*
1.	The problem is of insufficient importance or is
unlikely to produce any new or useful information.
2.	The proposed research is based on a hypothesis
that rests on insufficient evidence, is doubtful
or is unsound.
3.	The problem is more complex than the investigator
appears to realize.
4.	The problem has only local significance, or is one
of production or control, or otherwise fails to fall
sufficiently clearly within the general field of
health-related research.
5.	The problem is scientifically premature and warrants,
at most, only a pilot study.
6.	The research as proposed is overly involved, with too
many elements under simultaneous investigation.
7.	The description of the nature of the research and of
its significance leaves the proposal nebulous and
diffuse and without clear research aim.
Class II: Approach (73 percent)
8.	The proposed tests, methods, or scientific procedures
are unsuited to the stated objectives.
9.	The description of the approach is too nebulous,
diffuse, and lacking in clarity to permit adequate
evaluation.
Shortcomings found in study-section review of 605 dis-
approved research grant applications, April-May 1959. All per-
centages are to the base 605.

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10.	The over-all design of the study has not been
carefully thought out.
11.	The statistical aspects of the approach have not
been given sufficient consideration.
12.	The approach lacks scientific imagination.
13.	Controls are either inadequately conceived or
inadequately described.
14.	The material the investigator proposes to use is
unsuited to the objectives of the study or is
difficult to obtain.
15.	The number of observations is unsuitable.
16.	The equipment contemplated is outmoded or otherwise
unsuitable.
Class III: Man (55 percent)
17.	The investigator does not have adequate experience
or training, or both, for this research.
18.	The investigator's previous published work in this
field does not inspire confidence.
19.	The investigator's previous published work in this
field does not inspire confidence.
20.	The investigator proposes to rely too heavily on
insufficiently experienced associates,
21.	The investigator is spreading himself too thin;
he will be more productive if he concentrates on
fewer projects.
22.	The investigator needs more liaison with colleagues
in this field or in collateral fields.

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Class IV: Other (16 percent)
23.	The requirements for equipment or personnel, or both,
are unrealistic.
24.	It appears that other responsibilities would pre-
vent devotion of sufficient time and attention to
this research.
25.	The institutional setting is unfavorable.
26.	Research grants to the investigator, now in force,
are adequate in scope and amount to cover the proposed
research.
The question is often asked, "What type of research project
should be submitted for support?" Both basic and applied research
projects are desired. Demonstrations (field surveys) are also
in order. The scope is water in the environment.
Since the purpose of the research grants program is to
support research in neglected areas, it appears chat the field
is wide open for investigation. Sufficient basic knowledge to
adequately manage the quality of water resources is not presently
available.
The water supply and pollution control program in research
and training grants is interested in seeking qualified scientists
of all disciplines who want, need and request, support to help
reach our broad goal. That goal is a better understanding and
utilization of natural and induced phenomena in areas such as water
resources and supply, sewage, industrial and other wastes, limnology,
potamology, oceanography and their relation to health, comfort
and welfare.

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Finally, with respect to what type of research is needed,
I refer you to Mr. Eldrldge and his Research and Technical Con-
sultation Project. He has prepared lists of projects related to
problems in the Northwest.
Each investigator should examine the areas he knows best
and attempt to fill the gaps he sees. The packs containing
applications for grants may be obtained by writing to The Research
and Training Grants Branch, Division of Water Supply and Pollution
Control, Public Health Service, Washington 25, D.C. or E. F. Eldridge.

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DISCUSSION FOLLOWING HOLTJE PAPER
Q. Is there anything new that research people should know
with respect to how applications are completed and submitted?
A. Yes, the most recent application forms now have a pink
colored draft copy that may be removed and used by the appli-
cant as a work sheet to complete the form in detail. If
the scientist so desires, this copy may be submitted informally
to Mr. Eldridge who will endeavor to help in the preparation
of the application.
Q. What is the status of the project when a grantee investigator
moves from one school to another?
A. Research grants may not be transferred directly from one in-
stitution to another when the investigator moves, but the new
institution may submit an application in his behalf. Ordin-
arily, the grant at the original institution is terminated.
However, the original institution may request approval
to transfer responsibility to a new investigator, if justified.
The situation is subject to PHS review and approval.
Q. How is the work in connection with PHS supported projects
evaluated:
A. There is no formal technical evaluation made of the research.
However, annual progress reports are required to be submitted
with requests for grant continuation. A terminal report is

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required. If the work has been published, reprints are
accepted in lieu of reports. The investigator is encouraged
to publish his results and in almost all cases he does sub-
mit them for publication in a national scientific journal.
While there is no PHS evaluation, we feel that the
careful original review of the applicant and application is
sufficient to assure reasonably high quality research. In
reality, evaluation is made by practicing fellow scientists
who are expert in the area of the research undertaken.
Finally, regardless of the research outcome, a promising
idea has been explored.
We do not attempt to indicate whether the work was good
or bad.
Q. After a project has been conducted over the first year of
a grant, who evaluates it for the next year?
A. The study section evaluates past performance in considering
requests for continuation years. An investigator who does
not produce Is unlikely to confince a study section he is
worth a risk of grant money on a continuation request --
or perhaps a new project.
It was volunteered from the floor that most university
people realize and adhere to the "publish or perish" routine.
The individual who grows professionally has to show by his

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published material that he is capable of doing research.
If he does not, the university may be unwilling to sponsor
new requests for grants.
We are having difficulty in getting competent scientific
people. Are you experiencing any difficulty along this line?
If the question relates to the difficulty in inducing a suf-
ficient number of competent investigators to undertake re-
search by the extramural grant mechanism, the answer is
a qualified no. Each year there are more high quality
approved applications for funds than there are funds avail-
able.
If the question relates to the ability to attract a suf-
ficient number of scientific people to the PHS, the answer
is yes. There is a definite lack of trained people in this
field.
You mentioned that an industrial firm is eligible? Please
explain.
Yes, industrial firms are eligible, but we have not had many
applications from this source. I guess too, that industrialists
suspect that while they are eligible, the review gi"en an in-
dustrial application may not be as sympathetic as that given an
application submitted by a non-profit organization. However,
we generally have supported one or two of this type of grant
each year.

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Q. What records are available to the study section In their
review? Do they have any records of what has been done
before on which to judge other research applications?
A. The principal assigned reviewers make their review at
their "home base" and study section members have their own
sources of information. Study section members best qualified
to review specific applications are generally expert in the
area of the proposed project. The application contains
Information concerning earlier grants on the general subject
by the applicant.
At the meeting, the executive secretary has appropriate
information at hand gathered from his files on each grant
and the applicants grant history. The secretary's informa-
tion is also supplemented by the NIH data collection, storage
and retrieval system Involving data on over 10,000 grant
awards. Most questions can be answered by study section members
based on their expert knowledge, and personal acquaintance with
the somewhat limited number of people working in this field.
Incidentally, salaries must conform to accepted salary
scales current at the sponsoring institution. There is a
double check made too, concerning the ability of the applicant
to spend the amount of time indicated in the application.

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Q. What are the other sources of Federal funds available for
researchers?
A. Information regarding sources of federal research grants
other than PHS is contained in the last item of these
Proceedings.
Q. Are these grants available to agencies within the Federal
government?
A. No. Federally employed persons or Federal agencies are not
eligible. State agencies are, of course, eligible.
Q. May a state agency undertake to develop a project application
using university based people as their researchers?
A. Yes, but in any case the named principal Investigator is
expected to carry out the project, whether he is university
based or state agency based.
We encourage State Health Agencies to undertake research
in water supply and pollution control using the research grant
mechanism.
Q. What provision is made for an individual who is perhaps a member
of a State Health Department who has an idea in mind and who
wishes to investigate it?
A. He should submit an application with the approval of his em-
ployer who is entitled to decide whether or not the research
would interfere with the man's Job, if accomplished outside

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working hours. It is best to seek the sponsorship and
endorsement of the State agency.
I had in mind a man who is leaving association with any
institution--who wants to carry on the research by himself.
He can go it alone, if he wishes to attempt it, but he must
be fully qualified and demonstrate that the project can be
accomplished. I suspect there would be a site visit made
by two study section members to ascertain the full facts
before a favorable recommendation is made of such an appli-
cation.
Most of the universities are unwilling to go into research
as an end in itself. They insist that the investigator
must be a member of their teaching faculty. A man who has
an idea has a pretty hard time ualng university facilities
unless he gets a member of the faculty to put his name on
the research application. If he wants to go through a uni-
versity, the university must have seen this application,
reviewed it and put its sponsorship on it.
If he doesn't have the facilities but has the capabilities
he can include equipment in his application. If there 13 a
doubt, members of the study section will be assigned to make
a site visit.

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Q. This program is aimed at stimulating high quality research.
How might it come about that the immediate research problems
of the operating agencies may be solved?
A. There is provision for all types of research, but we are
thinking of asking for a separate fund to support demonstra-
tions. This type of grant would involve investigations,
studies and research but would be available for those field
projects that would reduce the time lag between discovery
of new useful knowledge and its application. We would guard
against these funds being used for survey type field studies
normally accomplished by State agencies.
Q. What do you mean by "operations research?"
A. This is a more specialized type of study and may be accomplished
by the research contract mechanism. The Sanitary Engineering
Center is engaged in this direction.
The contract is particularly valuable when an organization
has an extraordinary talent or specialized equipment to do a
specific job.
This contract type of research is different than the un-
directed type of research in that the objective and to some
extent the methods are specified.
Q. I think that everybody knows that this two million dollar a
year program is inspiring more development in sanitary engineering

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than would normally be possible. Some schools need this
support to survive in sanitary engineering. What do you
think of the future of the research grants program if the
proposed regional laboratories of the PHS are built?
A. I think the Job is so big that we could profitably have
a dozen labs around the country and still only scratch the
surface. These laboratories would stimulate research in
the various institutions. This was the case when the Nat-
ional Institutes of Health increased in magnitude. The
research grants program also Increased by several hundred
per cent. These expansions have gone along together. Neither
one of them has suffered as a result of growth.
Q. The National Institutes of Health started with a little
intramural group. Later they requested and obtained from
Congress money for extramural research. Before long you
could hardly find the intramural people. But if you visit
Bethesda you will see the huge clinical center that enjoys
world fame. This is the intramural phase of these research
programs. Actually it has been literally pulled along with
the growth of the extramural program which has grown at a
much faster rate. I am sure that this will be the case of the
regional laboratories. They will stimulate more research
on the extramural and local level.

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Q. V/hat is the present 9tatua of the haalth research facilities
grant program? I understand that It has run out.
A. Originally, it was a three year program starting in 1956.
It was renewed again by Congress for three years to July 30, 1962.
I assume that it will be continued. It is a good program and
has done a lot of good. It has helped several sanitary en-
gineering schools. In my opinion we need the regional lab-
oratories and we need the extramural approach too. These
laboraties can be an aid to increasing the scientific man-
power in this field.
This is important. There are 67 institutions that have
aspirations to give degrees in sanitary engineering. There
are a few who have no real facilities and hope that they can
get both the facilities and the manpower to teach, using
Public Health Service funds. The student demand for this
kind of thing has not kept pace with the potential for
facilities. If thi3 continues, I think we would be in a
situation where we might finance needed research without it
being related to the education program. This doesn't mean
it is a bad thing, but it would mean that the institutions
would have to change their research emphasis some, rather than
as an adjunct to producing graduates in sanitary engineering.

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Q. What is the relationship between your intramural and
extramural expenditures?
A. Extramural money is presently $2,064,000 plus five per
cent for administration. It is very small. But the old
and the new Federal administrations have urged increases
over present research funds. The chances are that Congress
will look favorably on this request. Also, it is felt
that the contract device would be a useful tool in gaining
information in terms of program requirements. I think
that Congress itself has not appropriated much money
on contracts. We hope that we are getting close to the
point where we can use this device.
Q. How many men make up the study section and how many men
make up the Council?
A. There are 18 men on the study section. They represent
several professional disciplines. The study section is
a composite group of sanitary engineers, bacteriologists,
and other professional disciplines. There is no limit
to the number of study section members permitted. We have
one of the largest study sections because we have the most
diverse type of applications.

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The Council has twelve members. This is fixed
by law. Incidentally, the study section meets three times
a year and spends three days at each meeting reviewing
applications. The same goes for the Council.
However, three days is not all the work that goes
into this review. The reviews are made by study section
members before they arrive in Washington and further,
some are reviewed at SEC by the specialists.
There is one exception to the statement made about
non-federal reviewers. One Public Health Service man is
on the study section. The exception was made because of
the unusual range of competencies at Cincinnati at the
Sanitary Engineering Center.
The Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control
as I have said earlier, depends upon NIH operations for
review and approval of applications. The Division has no
guarantee that NIH will continue to furnish review and
approval beyond one or two years. We are expected some time
in the future to furnish our own study section and establish
our own National Council. The new Council will probably be
built around the proposed Environmental Health Bureau which
encompasses water pollution, air pollution, occupational

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health, accident prevention, food and other groups, but
we will probably create our own study sections.

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FURTHER INFORMATION REGARDING PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
(National Institutes of Health) GRANTS
At the present time specific information regarding Public
Health Service grants is contained in two pamphlets which are
available by request to the National Institutes of Health,
Bethesda 14, Maryland. Volume I describes grants for (1)
research projects (2) construction and equipping of research
facilities, (3) field investigations, and (4) special projects.
Volume II describes (1) research fellowship grants, (2) direct
traineeship grants and (3) training grants.
Mr. Holtje in his statements to this symposium covered
in some detail the research grants program. Essential features
of other of these grant programs are presented in the following
pages.
Health Research Facilities Construction Grants
Background and Purpose.
Purpose: Grants for large-scale construction of health
research facilities were not made prior to 1948. In that year,
Congress appropriated $2,303,000 for grants for construction of
research facilities to be made through the National Cancer Institute.
Additional grants for such construction were made by the National
Heart Institute in fiscal years 1950 through 1952 under general
authority conferred by Section 433 of the PHS Act as amended

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by the Act of August 15, 1950, (42 USC 289c). The total from
the National Cancer Institute thus amounted to $16,303,000 and
from the National Heart Institute $6,059,000. Support of this
program was not continued by Congress with the outbreak of the
Korean conflict.
In 1956, In the Health Research Facilities Act (Public
Law 835), the 84th Congress authorized establishment of the
National Advisory Council on Health Research Facilities and
appropriated $30,000,000 for the first of three years, for
grants for construction, on a matching basis, of facilities
for research in the sciences related to health, Including the
fundamental sciences. In 1958 the three-year program was ex-
tended an additional three years by the 85th Congress.
The general purpose of Congress to promote research toward
the prevention and cure of the physical and mental diseases and
impairments of man has been served by all grants made for con-
struction of health research facilities in that such construction
makes available increased laboratory and accessory space and
related scientific equipment in public and private non-profit
institutions.
The regulations recommended by the National Advisory
Council on Health Research Facilities and approved by the Surgeon

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General and the Secretary (42 CRF, Part 57) require particular
consideration be given in the use of the available funds to
(1) research facilities contributing to research in disciplines
or diseases which have the most urgent need, (2) institutions
or localities with broad research programs and potentials, and
(3) various geographical areas of the Nationa having at present
relatively few such research facilities.
Financial Aspects
The fiscal data on grants for construction of health
research facilities are as follows:
Health Research Facilities Grants
Fiscal Data
Year	Appropriation
1957	$30,000,000
1958	30,000,000
1959	30,000,000
1960	30,000,000
1961	30,000,000
Method of Distributing Funds
Funds for construction of health research facilities are
distributed in response to grant applications from universities
or other public or non-profit institutions recommended by the
National Advisory Council on Health Research Facilities and approved
by the Surgeon General. Evidence that the purposes and intent of the
Health Research Facilities Act will be served is provided in each
case. The steps in processing an application are as follows:

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1.	Universities and other institutions make applications
to the National Institutes of Health for a Health Research Facil-
ities Grant. In the application the need is detailed and the pros-
pective cost stated. The application is received in the Division
of Research Grants and presented to the National Advisory Council
on Health Research Facilities.
2.	The Council evaluates each application with respect to
its potential value in expanding health research in the Nation and
subsequently makes recommendation to the Surgeon General that a
grant in a specified amount be made, or that it not be made.
3.	The Surgeon General, at his discretion, awards support
to an applicant institution in the amount recommended by the Council,
or in a lesser amount. In no case is the amount to exceed 50 percent
of the total necessary construction costs of the research portion
of the facility; the remaining sum is provided by the institution
through funds available to it from non-federal sources.
The sum awarded to the grantee institution is paid in install-
ments consistent with construction progress.
Matching Requirements
The Federal grant may not exceed 50 percent of the necessary
cost of the research facilities for which grant is made.
Source of Data
The principal sources of information are the grant applications
submitted by universities or other public or non-profit institutions.

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Legal Basis
Title VII of the Public Health Service Act as amended by
the Health Research Facilities Act of 1956, 70 Stat. 717; P. L. 835,
84th Congress; Title VII extended through June 30, 1962; P. L. 777,
85th Congress (42 USC 292).
Additional information may be secured from the Chief,
Division of Research Grants, National Institutes of Health,
Bethesda 14, Maryland.
TRAINING GRANTS AND TRAINEESHIPS
Background and Purpose
Purpose. Training programs sponsored by the National Institutes
of Health originated in 1937 with the passage of the National Cancer
Act. The early beginning was modest and involved only the provision
of part-time support of a few trainees by the National Cancer Institute.
Since that time, the training grants and traineeships programs of
the National Institutes of Health have steadily increased in the total
amount of support available as well as in the number of scientific
areas involved. Training grants and/or traineeships falling within
their particular fields of interest now are awarded by the National
Cancer Institute, National Heart Institute, National Institute of
Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and
Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Mental Health, National

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Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness, National Institute
of Dental Research, and the Division of General Medical Sciences.
The general purpose of these awards is to support training
either as programs within an institution or as stipends to an indiv-
idual in research and teaching in all fundamental sciences relating
to medicine and health. Many of these programs are directly related
to research in the prevention, alleviation, and cure of the physical
and mental diseases and impairments of man. Training grants and
traineeships are two types of awards that supplement each other and
make possible a broad, integrated program of training. The first
type of award provides funds to an institution to support a particular
training program, while the second type of award provides stipends
to individual trainees to enable them to undertake special training at
at the institution of their choice.
Grants for training of undergraduates are awarded to medical,
dental, and osteopathic schools as well as schools of nursing and
public health to enable them to establish, expand, or improve under-
graduate instruction relating to prevention, diagnosis, and treatment
of cancer, cardiovascular disease, mental diseases, and related geron-
tological conditions. Under-graduate training grants are awarded
for the following amounts:

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Institute
Medical Schools
4-Year 2-Year
$25,000 $ 5,000
25,000 15,000
25,000b 15,000b
Dental Public Health Schools of Schools of
Schools	Schools	Nursing Osteopathy
Cancer
Heart
Mental Health
$5,000
a
a
a
$25,000
25,000
15,000
a
a
$15,000
a
$25,000c
a.Not made
b Present general limit on teaching funds. In addition, medical
schools and schools of osteophathy may request up to 12 $600 units
(plus indirect costs) for student stipends for extracurricular
clinical or research training in psychiatry.
c This maximum, to be used in a limited number of instances, has
been recommended for undergraduate collegiate schools.
Graduate training grants are awarded mainly for the purpose of assist-
ing institutions to establish, expand or improve their research and
academic training programs and to increase the number and caliber
of trained personnel in fields constituting the primary interest of
the various Institutes. In addition to providing sums for the support
of the institutions' programs, these grants also provide funds for
stipends awarded by the institution to personnel who are undergoing
training.
Traineeship8 are provided as Individual stipend awards directly by
the National Institutes of Health to qualified physicians and other
scientists in order that they may undergo advanced, specialized
training in one of the fields of the health sciences.

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Financial Aspects. Funds that have been made available for
this program are tabulated below:
1938
1,395a
1953
8,194,000
1939
41,832a
1954
10,813,000
1945
29,000
1955
11,051,000
1946
25,000
1956
14,502,000
1947
250,000
1957
28,075,000
1948
2,809,000
1958
32,932,000
1949
3,930,000
1959
50,102,000
1950
6,415,000
1960
75,037,000
1951
6,920,000
1961
110,000,000
1952
$7,392,000


a Represents Obligations.
Method of Distributing Funds
Training grant funds may be awarded to an institution in the
name of a specific program director, provided the application sub-
mitted has been recommended by a National Advisory Council and
approved by the Surgeon General, after application is given
favorable technical review by a training grant committee composed
of outstanding non-federal scientists and educators.
The major criteria used in evaluation are as follows:
1. An assessment of the academic and professional background
of the training program director, particularly concerning
his previous success and reputation in the training of
scientists and educators in the specific field or area
indicated in the application.

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2.	The facilities and reputation of the institution, and
of the departments concerned.
3.	The national needs for scientific manpower in a particular
field or area.
4.	The availability of funds in light of the amount requested
for the specific program.
5.	Other pertinent matters, such as geographical distribution
when two or more applications seem to have approximately
equal merit.
Traineeships are reviewed by advisory committees made up of the
staff of the Institute concerned, plus various ad hoc Consultants
The criteria used are similar to those adopted for the research
fellowships program and generally include: (1) an application con-
sisting of personal data and Information, academic and professional
history, record of previous employment, the applicant's statement
as to the manner in which the requested training will fit him for
his proposed career of clinical research, teaching or public service;
and (2) letters of reference. The trainee is free to select any
training institution approved by appropriate professional accrediting
bodies; in all cases, however, he must be accepted in writing by a
faculty sponsor before final completion of the application and trainee-
ship award. Tralneeshlp applications are not reviewed by a National

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Advisory Council, although in some cases the National Advisory
Council is required by law to establish the maximum number of
traineeships which that particular Institute may award. Thestipends
provided regular trainees vary somewhat in the various Institutes
but are commensurate with the maturity, training and objectives
of the candidates selected for traineeship awards. The traineeship
provides a basic stipend, tuition and fees, and in some instances,
travel and dependency allowances. Special trainees are awarded
stipends established on an individual basis with due concern for
their academic and professional backgrounds, their years of previous
training and appropriate related matters.
Matching Requirements
No matching of funds are required.
Source of Data
The sources of information upon which training grants and
traineeships are awarded include the applications filed by institutions
and individuals, data on national manpower needs, and evaluations by
eminent authorities in the respective fields concerned.
Legal Basis.
The legal authority for awarding training grants and trainee-
ships is conferred by Section 433 (a), Public Health Service Act, as
amended (42 USC 289c).

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SOURCES OF FEDERAL RESEARCH GRANTS
(Other than Public Health Service)
A number of Federal agencies are authorized to make
grants to non-profit organizations and educational institutions
for conducting research on subjects which come within their
interests. Some of these interests involve or are related to
water supply, water pollution or environmental health fields.
Every effort has been made on the following pages to
present a very brief, accurate description of the grant programs
of some of these agencies, their areas of interest and other
pertinent information. (This information has been abstracted
from publications of the agencies.) This is not a complete
list of sources, but does contain a list of agencies most likely
to make grants in the above mentioned fields. More detailed
information can be obtained by writing for the brochures mentioned.
Of possible interest is a pamphlet costing one dollar and
printed by the Social Legislation Information Service, called,
"Federal Agencies Financing Research." This may be secured

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Department of the Amy
Army Research Office
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH GRANTS, 1960.
No charge for brochure.
Office of the Chief of Research and Development
Headquarters of the Army
Washington 25, D.C.
Public Law 85-934 authorizes the Department of Defense,
"Where it is deemed to be in furtherance of its objectives, to
make grants for support of basic scientific research to nonprofit
institutions of higher education and to nonprofit organizations
whose primary purpose is the conduct of scientific research..."
The Department of the Army defines research and development
as follows: "Research: The theoretical or experimental search
for fundamental knowledge and control of a particular substance
or physical phenomenon. When this search is conducted without
any specific goal of applying the results to a particular problem
at hand, it is "basic research." While the Army does support
some basic research, its greatest research financial outlay is
in the area of applied research. Development: The practical
application of investigative findings and theories of a scientific
and technical nature. It includes the construction and testing
of prototype models and devices."
Department of the Army grants may be made for periods up
to five years...An informal annual report is required unless the
grant is for a period of one year or less, then only a final
report is required. Fiscal reports are required annually.
The instrument used to provide research monies is usually
a contract. This is worked out following the acceptance of a
proposal.
The actual research and development work of the Army is
carried out by the Technical Services, whose main function is to
support the combat troops. These services, seven in number, viz.,
Corps of Engineers, Ordnance Corps, Quartermaster Corps, Signal
Corps, Transportation Corps, Chemical Corps, and Army Medical
Service.
Certain of the aforementioned Technical Services are of

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and water pollution fields. Among the principal interests of
the Corps of Engineers are port facilities, water supply and
sanitation, waste disposal, water purification equipment,
siltation and other water quality changes due to impoundments
and other water resource problems. Listed under the principal
interests of the Chemical Corps are: biological agents, chemical
agents and certain chemical, biological and radiological problems.
Also of possible interest would be the Army Medical Services,
however the Army Medical Service civilian research is supported
primarily by cost-reimbursable contracts, and where the cost of
services may be predetermined, by fixed-price contracts. Research
grants are not made by the Army Medical Service.
Additional information may be secured from "Contractors
Guide," Research and Development in the U. S. Army, prepared by

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AEC - "Revised Guide for the Submission of Research Proposals"
United States Atomic Energy Commission
Washington 25, D.C.
February 8, 1954
The Atomic Energy Commission is directed under the Atomic
Energy Act of 1946 as follows:
Research Assistance. The Commission is directed to exercise
its powers in such manner as to insure the continued conduct of
research and development activities in the fields specified below
by private or public institutions or persons and to assist in the
acquisition of an ever-expanding fund of theoretical and practical
knowledge in such fields. To this end the Commission is authorized
and directed to make arrangements (including contracts, agreements,
and loans) for the conduct of research and development activities
relating to:
(1)	nuclear processes;
(2)	the theory and production of atomic energy, including
processes, materials, and devices related to such
production;
(3)	utilization of fissionable and radioactive materials
for medical, biological, health, or military purposes;
(4)	utilization of fissionable and radioactive materials
and processes entailed in the production of such
materials for all purposes, Including industrial uses;
and
(5)	the protection of health during research and production
activities. (This item includes waste disposal problems.)
Through its Divisions of Research, Biology and Medicine, and
Reactor Development the AEC contracts with independent institutions
for research in fields related to atomic energy. Under these con-
tracts the universities, colleges, industrial laboratories and
other research institutions contribute to scientific progress in
fields related to the development and use of atomic energy including
waste disposal problems and radiological levels in the environment.
Two types of instruments are used for sponsoring research:
"The Cost-Sharing Lump-Sum Contract" - a type of arrangement which
the Commission has adopted for assisting research in independent
institutions. These contracts can be used when the annual cost
to the AEC is less than $100,000 and can be estimated with reasonable
accuracy in advance.
Cost Contracts. Projacts requiring higher contributions from
the AEC or those of which the costs cannot be estimated with reasonable

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In 1954, through its Division of Biology and Medicine, the
AEC was given the authority to make grants of funds to educational
institutions for the acquisition of equipment to be used in courses
of study of nuclear technology as applied to the life sciences.
"The program is designed specifically to assist colleges and univer-
sities to acquire the various items of equipment which are needed
to present adequate and meaningful laboratory course work. The
funds are intended to provide teaching aids, demonstration apparatus,
and student equipment to be used in educational and training courses
rather than equipment for use in research activities. The addition
of radiation biology in courses already offered, or establishment
of new courses in that area are equally acceptable." The construction
of buildings and other types of housing facilities are not covered
by these grants.
Additional information on these equipment grants related to
the life sciences may be secured by asking for: "Grants for Pur-
chase of Equipment in the Fields of Nuclear Technology as Applied
to the Life Sciences - Division of Biology and Medicine."
October, 1960 (Rev.)
Funds are also available from the AEC through the 1954 Atomic
Energy Act, for the purchase of equipment and loans of nuclear
materials to educational institutions for use in courses of study
in nuclear technology as applied to engineering and physical sciences.
"The general intent of these two programs is to enhance the training
of increased numbers of scientists and engineers well versed in
nuclear phenomena and its applications. Consideration of proposals
for such awards is contingent upon evidence that the equipment and
materials desired will be utilized in study courses so oriented.
Proposals should be directed toward teaching aids, demonstration
apparatus and student laboratory equipment and materials to be used
for instruction purposes rather than research, though research use
may be a peripheral benefit on a "non interference basis."
Additional information on these equipment grants related to
the physical sciences and engineering may be obtained from: "Guide
for Submission of Proposals for Equipment Grants and Loan of Materials
in Physical Sciences and Engineering," Coordinator of Nuclear Education
and Training, Office of the Assistant General Manager for Research
and Industrial Development. United States Atomic Energy Commission,

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AFOSR - Air Force Office of Scientific Research
Air Force Research Division
Air Research and Development Command
United States Air Force
Washington 25, D.C.
August 1960
The Air Force Office of Scientific Research is the major
Air Force activity for sponsoring basic scientific research by
contract or grant. This Research activity maintains a flexible
system of consideration of applications for grants and requires
no set form of application or area of research. The general
disciplines which the Air Force is interested in are: aeronautical
sciences, chemical sciences, life sciences, including biological
sciences, mathematical sciences, physical sciences and solid
state sciences.
In addition to the brochure mentioned above there is
available a "Guide for the Preparation of Contract Proposals,
Headquarters, Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Washington
25, D.C., November 1960. This guide outlines the preliminary
proposal and information regarding the formal proposal.
The principal areas of interest involving subjects related
to the environmental health field are those of "space" travel
and waste disposal problems at installations. The latter includes

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NSF - National Science Foundation
Washington 25, D.C.
January, 1960
"Grants for Scientific Research"
The National Science Foundation Act of 1950, as amended,
authorizes the Foundation to initiate and support basic scientific
research and programs to strengthen scientific research potential.
The Foundation's approach to the administration of grants
for basic research rests on the belief that institutions and
scientists alike wish to share, with the Foundation, responsibility
for the administrative, financial, and scientific integrity of
the program.
The Foundation research grant instrument is a letter signed
by the Director. It contains a minimum of express conditions which
upon acceptance of the grant will be binding upon the grantee.
These conditions relate to the general nature and scope of the
research, revocation of the grant, return of unused funds, and
patent rights. Grants from the Foundation may be made for periods
up to five years.
The National Science Foundation will entertain proposals
for support of basic research in all areas of science. The fields
of science currently supported include but are not limited to:
astronomy; atmospheric sciences, including meteorology and weather
modification; biological and medical sciences, including develop-
mental, environmental, genetic, metabolic, molecular, regulatory,
and systematic biology, and psychobiology; chemistry; earth sciences,
including geochemistry, geology, geophysics, and oceanography;
engineering sciences, including chemical, civil, electrical,
and mechanical engineering, metallurgy, and engineering mechanics;
mathematical sciences; physics; and social sciences, specifically
anthropology, social psychology, sociology, economics, demography,
linguistics, economic and social geography, and the history and
philosophy of science.
It should be noted that the National Science Foundation
programs support other scientific activities, such as establishment
and modernization of major research facilities; sponsorship of
scientific conferences, symposia, and institutes; scientific
education projects; fellowship programs; teacher and course
content improvement projects; dissemination of scientific informa-
tion, including support of scientific publications; and science
policy studies. Inquiries by persons interested in these other

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ONR - Office of Naval Research
Department of the Navy
Washington, D.C.
"Contract Research Program" (Rev. Sept. 1959)
Since its establishment in 1946 under Public Law 588, 79th
Congress, the Office of Naval Research has played a central role
in bringing scientific research to bear on naval problems. Part
of the ONR program is conducted in its own laboratories and part
is sponsored programs in universities, nonprofit institutions, and
industrial laboratories.
One important phase of the work of ONR is its sponsorship of
a broad program of basic research in selected scientific fields
having important bearing on Navy problems. Support in these fields
is given to proposals having the greatest scientific merit, with
careful consideration given to the competence of the investigator
and to the facilities available for the research. ONR recognizes
that basic research should not be impeded by security restrictions.
In unclassified projects, investigators are encouraged to communicate
their ideas to their colleagues, and to publish their results in
recognized scientific journals.
In addition to its basic research program, ONR supports a
major applied research program and constantly looks for new ideas
or principles which may lead to the development of new weapons
or warfare techniques.
The ONR Contract Division has pioneered in adapting standard
Navy contract procedures to the,requirements of a sponsored research
program. Flexibility has been achieved through standard types
of open contract which permit a simplified relationship between the
Navy and the contractor. Contractual and grant procedures are
centralized in the Contract Division, ONR, Washington, with major
aspects of contract administration delegated to ONR Branch Offices,
Resident Representatives, and other Navy field offices.
Under Public Law 85-934 the Office of Naval Research is now
authorized, where it is deemed to be in furtherance of its objectives,
to make grants to nonprofit institutions of higher education and to
nonprofit organizations whose primary purpose is the conduct of
scientific research.
Research sponsored by the Office of Naval Research results
in many inventions of significance in military and scientific affairs.
The Navy's right to use these inventions as expressed in licenses
or assignments is a basic product of the research program. The ONR
Patent Counsel provides consultation and advice to contractors and

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NASA
Office of Research Grants and Contracts
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Washington 25, D.C.
January 1961.
NASA Objectives - Section 102 of the National Aeronautics and
Space Act of 1958 entitled "Declaration of Policy and Purpose,"
defines the long-range objects for NASA as follows:
(1)	The expansion of human knowledge of phenomena in the
atmosphere and space; (This includes environmental
problems of space travel such as food supply and water
utilization.)
(2)	The improvement of the usefulness, performance, speed,
safety, and efficiency of aeronautical and space vehicles;
(3)	The development and operation of vehicles capable of
carrying instruments, equipment, supplies, and living
organisms through space;
(4)	The establishment of long-range studies of the potential
benefits to be gained from, the opportunities for, and
the problems involved in the utilization of aeronautical
and space activities for peaceful and scientific purposes;
(5)	The preservation of the role of the United States as a
leader in aeronautical and space science and technology
and in the application thereof to the conduct of peace-
ful activities within and without the atmosphere.
Pursuant to these objectives the active participation of the scientists
and engineers of universities and other institutions is fostered
and encouraged. NASA sponsored research is classified under three
main headings: Fundamental Research, Space Flight Research, and
Life Sciences Research.
Grants - Research grants for the support of fundamental investigations
are issued to non-profit scientific and educational institutions.
These grantb may be made for up to three years.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ordinarily uses
four instruments for sponsoring research: Research Grants, Fixed-
price Contracts, Cost-type contracts, and Inter-Agency Transfers.
Records are required on each grant or contract and status reports
are periodically required. All accounting records are subject to

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USDA - The U. S. Department of Agriculture
Agricultural Research Service
"Questions and Answers on Agricultural Research"
July 1960
On sale by the Superintendent of Documents,
U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington 25, D.C.
Price 25c
The United States Department of Agriculture and the State
Agricultural Experiment Stations are engaged in many types of
research activities, among them soil and water conservation
research. These activities are carried on largely at the Experi-
mental Stations at land-grant colleges, although contract research
is financed from Federal funds and executed by private and
public institutions and industrial concerns having unique and
singular facilities and skills not otherwise immediately avail-
able to the USDA.
The Soil and Water Conservation Research division directs
a national research program and related functions in the field
of soils, water, fertilizers, hydrology, sedimentation, runoff,
design of hydraulic and conservation structures, effects of land
use and treatments on conservation of soil and water, engineering
design aspects of drainage and irrigation, and the effect on out-
put of alternative systems of conservation farming. It also in-
volves research in soil chemistry, physics, microbiology, and
relation of soils to plant and animal nutrition. The Division
also compiles data on resources, supplies, production, and con-
sumption of fertilizers and plant nutrients.
This Division provides a limited amount of research assistance
to action programs where research data on specific problems are
not available. Much of this is in the nature of field tests of
soil, crop, and water management practices to meet local situations.
It also collects and interprets facts about the influence of land
use patterns on runoff, erosion, sedimentation, and flood damage
as a means of developing information needed for watershed management,
flood prevention, and sediment control in streams and reservoirs

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United States Department
of the Interior
Saline Water Program
GUIDES FOR THE SUBMISSION OF RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT PROPOSALS
PB 161374. Cost of guide 50$. 1952.
U. S. Department of Commerce
Office of Technical Services (Distributes above brochure.)
Washington 25, D.C.
The Secretary of the Interior under authorization provided
by Public Law 448, 82nd Congress, 2nd Session, has established
the Saline Water Program. Public Law 448 is an act to provide
for research into and development of practicable low-cost means
of producing from sea water, or other saline waters, water of
a quality suitable for agricultural, industrial, municipal, and
other beneficial consumptive uses on a scale sufficient to
determine the feasibility of the development of such production
and distribution on a large-scale basis, for the purpose of
conserving and increasing the water resources of the Nation.
Grants will be made primarily to educational institutions
or other non-profit research organizations. Contracts will be
negotiated with such organizations and with qualified individuals,
industrial or engineering firms. It is expected that grants will
be smaller in size and number than contracts, and will be primar-
ily for new and exploratory research with a minimum of fixed
guides. Research and development on specific problems with

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
Washington 25, D.C.
Under the Saltonstall-Kennedy Bill funds have been set
aside for a wide range of research activities. These funds are
administered by the Division of Research Grants of the Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries for period up to five years. The instrument
used for these grants is a contractual arrangement.
Some of the areas of interest of this group are: oceanographic
and climatic influences on the marine environments and changes in
water quality as it affects fish and shellfish productivity.
Additional information on this possible source of funds
can be supplied by writing to the Director at the address listed
above.
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Washington 25, D.C.
The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service program of research
is carried on under funds from the Dlngell-Johnson grant program.
Funds under this Act are granted to State Game Departments and
are not available to other organizations except through those
departments. The Service deals only with the State Departments
who are therefore responsible for planning projects, alloting
funds and making reports.
It is possible for these departments to allot funds for
research in water pollution provided game fish are involved.
In as much as the operations of game departments are affected

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