CURRENT STATUS
COLD CLIMATE RESEARCH
SUB PROGRAM 1610
FEDERAL WATER QUALITY ADMINISTRATION
NORTHWEST REGION
ALASKA WATER LABORATORY
College, Alaska
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CURRENT STATUS
COLD CLIMATE RESEARCH
SUBPROGRAM 1610
by the
Cold Climate Research Staff
for the
FEDERAL WATER QUALITY ADMINISTRATION
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
ALASKA WATER LABORATORY
COLLEGE, ALASKA
Working Paper No. 11
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A Working Paper presents results of investigations
which are to some extent limited or incomplete.
Therefore, conclusions or recommendations—expressed
or implied—are tentative.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Cold Climate Research Scientific Staff i
Introduction: Concepts for Advancement of Arctic
Water Quality Management Through Research ii
Section I - Synopsis of Program Accomplishments 1
Low Temperature Microbial Activity 2
Fecal Indicator Bacteria in Arctic and Sub-
Arctic Rivers 3
Chena River Water Quality 4
Sagavanirktok River Water Quality 5
Effects of Forest Fires on Water Quality in
Interior Alaska 7
Winter Dissolved Oxygen Levels in Alaskan Rivers 8
Guidelines for Road Construction 9
Application of Advanced Waste Treatment to
Alaska's North Slope 10
Cold Regions Aerated Lagoon Design Criteria 10
Cold Regions Extended Aeration 11
Alaska Facultative Sewage Lagoons 12
Section II - Fiscal 1971 In-House Program 13
Section III - Grants and Contracts for Research
and Development 16
Section IV - Water Quality Management Research Needs 19
Waste Treatment Design Criteria 21
Water Quality Criteria 23
Section V - Reports and Papers 27
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COLD CLIMATE RESEARCH
SCIENTIFIC STAFF
Acting Chief
Project Leader
Project Leader
Project Leader
Sidney E. Clark
Ronald C. Gordon
Harold J. Coutts
Frederick Lotspeich
Project Leader
Project Leader
Chief of Consolidated
Laboratory Services
Conrad Christianson
El dor Schallock
Robert Jackson
Ernst Mueller
Sanitary Engineer
Microbiologi st
Chemical Engineer
Soil Scientist and
Hydrologi st
Mechanical Engineer
Aquatic Biologist
Chemi st
Chemist
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CONCEPTS FOR ADVANCEMENT OF ARCTIC WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
THROUGH RESEARCH
Although Alaska is only one of fifty states, it has 20 percent of the
nation's land resources, 40 percent of the nation's fresh water re-
sources, and approximately two-thirds of the nation's coastline. The
Federal government represents the major landowner in Alaska with over
90 percent of the area under Federal control. The basic need for Fed-
eral involvement in Arctic water pollution control is obvious.
The Federal Water Quality Administration has a major research facility,
the Alaska Water Laboratory, located on the University of Alaska campus
at College, Alaska, less than 170 miles south of the Arctic Circle. The
cold climate research program is presently conducting Arctic research to
provide sound water quality standards and to provide Arctic waste treat-
ment design criteria.
Unlike other parts of the nation, Alaska water quality conditions (base-
line) as they now exist are largely unknown. The tolerances of Arctic
aquatic species to various forms of man-induced pollution are not well
known, and frequently are completely unknown. This makes appropriate
and adequate water quality standards difficult, if not impossible, to
establ i sh.
Federal involvement in Arctic water pollution control research must be
responsive by providing the supporting facts to aid development of equit-
able and appropriate water quality criteria that protect the Arctic
aquatic environment while permitting economic development. Aquatic
systems in the Arctic are highly stressed under natural conditions be-
cause of the severe environment. Therefore, it is mandatory that we
obtain a clear understanding of the additional stress imposed by man's
waste materials and activities. Water quality criteria must be respon-
sive to the needs of particular aquatic systems. This requires sub-
stantial supporting data which will permit reasonable levels of protec-
tion to be established.
The extremely high cost of construction and operation of treatment
facilities in the Arctic makes it necessary to develop new thinking
about waste handling, treatment and final disposal; i.e. new philosophy,
new techniques, new performance criteria, etc., as opposed to conven-
tional thinking. Systems must be developed that require a minimum of
protection from the severe climate. To obtain insight into water quality
requirements, a better understanding of ecosystem dynamics is needed.
At present, sufficient research data is not available to accurately
characterize the various waters of this large state. The size of the
state and remoteness increases the logistic problems and the cost of
obtaining this information (figure 1 illustrates some of the distances
involved). However, until this information is available to design engi-
neers planning waste treatment facilities, we must rely on educated
guesses and hope that treatment is adequate to protect the aquatic envi-
ronment of the state.
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Simply stated, the goals of the Federal Water Quality Administration in
Arctic research are to provide the basis for establishing equitable and
effective water pollution control requirements; and, to provide the tools
to meet these requirements.
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SECTION I
SYNOPSIS OF PROGRAM ACCOMPLISHMENTS
1
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Low Temperature Microbial Activity
It has been well documented that microorganisms capable of growth at low
temperatures (psychrophiles) are widely distributed in nature. However,
the importance of microorganisms in the cycling of nutrients at low
temperatures has not previously been established. Water temperature in
Arctic and sub-Arctic rivers of Alaska rarely exceeds 20°C, is usually
0°C for six months of each year. Therefore, if there is any
significant microbial activity at these low water temperatures, it must
be accomplished by psychrophi1ic organisms.
During the winter when there is total ice cover and the water
temperature is 0°C, the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration in Arctic
and sub-Arctic rivers decreases progressively down stream reaching ex-
tremely low levels in many cases even under natural unpolluted condi-
tions. The overall respiration of the aquatic biota must be a major
contributor to the reduction in DO concentration with the indigenous
(naturally occurring) bacterial population accounting for a significant
portion.
Studies are currently in progress to determine the DO utilizing capa-
bilities of the indigenous bacteria in Arctic and sub-Arctic rivers.
Both a closed stationary system (samples incubated in BOD bottles) and a
dynamic system (mechanically stirred carboy) are being used to develop
data for predicting DO depletion. The dynamic model more nearly simu-
lates actual river conditions under ice cover. The results obtained at
5°C, with samples from a polluted sub-Arctic river, indicate that motion
significantly decreases the time required to reduce the DO concentration
to 0 mg/1 relative to a parallel stationary system (dynamic system:
stationary system ratio of 0.6:1.0). River water for both systems
receives identical preparation in the laboratory. The initial plate
count is 3-4 x 10^ per ml and pH is 7.8 while the final conditions show
plate counts of 7-9 x 10^ and pH of 7.0 with the only apparent differ-
ences between stationary and dynamic systems being rate of depletion
and total elapsed time to reach 0 mg/1 DO. The rate of motion in the
dynamic system (current velocities of 0.2 and 1.0 mph) appears to be
insignificant because there is essentially nq difference in the rate of
DO depletion or total time to reach 0 mg/1.
Since the rivers are dynamic systems, these data suggest that the bac-
teria may be more significant in DO depletion than was previously sus-
pected if similar time ratios (dynamic system: stationary system) are
found for other incubation temperatures and water sources. Extensive
studies have been conducted with the stationary system. The data
showed that the total elapsed time to reduce the DO concentration to
0 mg/1 varied with the source of water as well as with the incubation
temperature; polluted sub-Arctic river water ranged from 16 hours at
20°C to 195 hours at 0°C, unpolluted sub-Arctic river water from 30
hours at 20°C to 300 hours at 0°C, and unpolluted Arctic river water
from 65 hours to 710 hours.
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Other observations during the stationary system study indicate:
1. Sewage effluents add a very diverse bacterial population capa-
ble of rapid metabolic activity at all incubation temperatures,
and a diversified substrate which includes many growth factors.
2. Growth factors, such as vitamins present in yeast extract and
sewage effluents, enhance the metabolic activity of the indigenous
population.
3. Glucose is poorly utilized as a substrate in unpolluted sub-
Arctic river water unless phosphorus and nitrogen are added.
Fecal Indicator Bacteria in Arctic and Sub-Arctic Rivers
Until recently, basic data to define baseline conditions with regard to
the distribution of fecal indicator bacteria present in Arctic and sub-
Arctic rivers in Alaska were difficult to find or not available.
There has been a continuing effort to collect baseline data whenever
possible to establish the existing bacteriological quality of Alaskan
rivers which has resulted in total coliform data being obtained from
rivers throughout a large portion of the state. These data have been
collected as part of larger studies or water quality surveys with the
samples from each station being analyzed for total coliforms using the
membrane filter method. As would be expected, the total coliforms present
in rivers without any effect of man were low, and ranged from 0-20 per
100 ml of sample. There have been two or three occasions where 200-300
total coliforms per 100 ml have been found and no source was established
other than heavy rain or spring runoff.
Light, compact, modular field laboratory units have been developed to
compensate for the necessity to travel by aircraft, snow vehicles and
boats and operate from field units. The total coliform analysis lends
itself readily to field determination under adverse conditions and during
the past year, adequate equipment for field incubation of fecal coliforms
has been developed; however, 120 volt AC power is required.
Several factors have been established as having an effect on survival of
fecal indicator bacteria. Among these, low water temperature was found
to enhance survival in laboratory studies. Investigators in the contig-
uous United States have reported higher survival rates during field
studies at winter low temperatures.
Normal winter conditions in Alaska rivers are marked by 0°C water
temperature and total ice cover for about six months per year. Prelimin-
ary winter data suggested that fecal indicator bacteria survival is en-
hanced more than previously suspected. An intensive winter field study
to determine survival rates was conducted on the Tanana River near Fair-
banks with bacteriological and chemical samples obtained eight times per
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station in February and March, 1970. U.S. Geological Survey personnel
measured discharge and a time-of-travel dye study to estimate the flow
time during the same period. The actual survival study was conducted
in a 200 mile reach of the Tanana River (from Fairbanks to the Yukon)
which had an approximate flow time of seven days. The greatest de-
crease in numbers of total and fecal coliforms occurred during the
first 1.2 days of flow time with 36% and 27%, respectively, remaining.
After this initial rapid decrease, the numbers decreased more slowly
until 4.3% of the total coliforms and 2.7% of the fecal coliforms
remained after the seven day period. In contrast, investigators in the
contiguous United States (Ballentine and Kittrell) showed that 0.8% of
the fecal coliforms remained after six days. The fecal streptococci
in the Tanana River decreased at a more uniform rate than the coliforms,
and after seven days of flow time 24% still remained viable.
The actual indicator bacteria remaining after seven days of flow time
were 378 total coliforms, 88 fecal coliforms and 15 fecal streptococci
per 100 ml of river water. These numbers are significant because the
water would require complete treatment to meet State-standards for
potable water. However, many villages and individuals along Alaska
rivers such as the Tanana obtain their water directly from the river
and use it without benefit of any treatment, a practice that will con-
tinue for many years.
Chena River Water Quality
A multidiscipline investigation was conducted on the Chena River at
Fairbanks, Alaska, near 65°N latitude. The Chena flows through Fair-
banks and is affected by domestic and industrial wastes from the greater
Fairbanks area. In addition to pollution aspects, the Chena River has
been studied to provide guidance for flood control. The topography
and geology of the river and basin are described and the dominant vege-
tation of different environmental habitat is listed. Climatic condi-
tions affecting the area are stated. Various land uses have been
examined for importance, both past and present.
Several characteristics of the Chena River and its basin are described.
The slope of the river averages 23 feet per mile in the upper reaches,
drops to 6.2 feet per mile in the intermediate stretch, and finally
flows over a gradient of 1.5 feet per mile at the mouth. Average annual
stream discharge through the lower section ranged from a low of 708
cubic feet per second (CFS) to a high of 3160 CFS with an average monthly
low of 120 CFS recorded in February, 1953. Sediment loads are heaviest
during spring breakup with the load for May, 1966 estimated at 2850 tons
per day. Water temperatures decrease to 0.0°C in October and begin to
rise slowly in March or April and reach a yearly high of 15° to 20°C,
usually in July, in terms of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The pollution
problems of the Chena River are clearly pointed out by the extremely high
winter coliform bacteria counts (500,000/100 ml).
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Techniques for analysis and the resulting chemical data are presented in
a report currently in press. Nutrients from nine stations were collected
several times during the year. Ranges are listed below in tabular) form.
Ranges of Values from Chena River Water
Parameter
Low Range
High Range
Parameter
Low Range
High Range
Ammonia
0.02 mg/1
1.92 mg/1
Carbon
16.4 mg/1
34.3 mg/1
Ni trite
0.001
II
0.52
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Carbohydrate
0.004 "
3.372 "
f,'i trate
0.01
II
0.39
II
Protein
0.025 "
3.994 "
Phosphate,
Dissolved
ortho
0.00
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0.63
II
Oxygen
1 .8 "
14.8 "
Phosphate,
Conductivity
60.0 *
256.0 *
total
0.00
II
0.68
II
pH
6.5
8.4
Si 1ica
2.9
II
16.0
M
Alkalinity
15 mg/1
96 mg/1
Chemical Oxygen
Demand
7.80
II
47.20
II
* umhos/cm
Discussion of individual parameters accompanied the listings. Aquatic
flora and fauna of the Chena River were examined and discussed in the
report. The greatest density of organisms was found upstream from Fair-
banks above the polluted zone. A separate section interrelates meteoro-
logical conditions, chemical parameters and biological organisms.
Sagavanirktok River Water Quality
Industrial activity on the Arctic slope of the Brooks Range in Alaska is
focusing attention on potential and future pollution and public health
problems in this remote, cold climate. This need provided impetus for the
Sagavanirktok River study with the objectives of documenting the existing
water quality levels prior to extensive industrialization. Three seg-
ments of water quality were examined. These included nineteen parameters
of water chemistry; microbiology, with emphasized total coliforms;
aquatic biology, with quantitative and qualitative sampling of plankton,
macrobenthic organisms and piscifauna (fish).
Three field trips, in June and late August of 1969, and in May 1970,
were necessary to obtain the field data.
Significant difficulties were encountered including transportation, time,
money limitation, and long distances. All transportation was provided by
fixed wing aircraft or helicopter. Winter sampling problems were caused
by intense cold air temperatures and accompanying thick river ice (as
thick as 11 feet), which required an ice auger with multiple flights.
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The range in values of physical and chemical parameters are listed below.
Ranges of Values from Sagavanirktok River Water
Parameter
Low Range
Hiqh Range
Water temperature
0.0°C
12.0°C
pH
7.60
8.55
Conductivity
85 umhos/cm
1700 umhos/cm
Total alkalinity
36.2 mg/1
875.2 mg/1
Total hardness
40.0 11
952.0 "
Calcium
11.4 "
295
Chloride
0.30 "
2.33 "
Magnesium
2.9 "
48.0 "
Iron
<0.1 "
0.94 "
Sodium
0.37 "
90.0 "
Potassium
0.18 "
1.97 "
Nitrogen-ammonia
0.01 "
0.18 "
Nitrate
0.02 "
0.76 "
Nitrite
<0.01 "
Total phosphate
0.01 11
0.05 "
Ortho phosphate
0.003"
0.02 "
Silica - Si02
0.07 "
12.5 "
Turbidity
4.3 JTU
120 JTU
Dissolved Oxygen
1.2 mg/1
15.0 mg/1
Microbiological samples from each station were examined for total con-
forms using the membrane filter method. These results indicated that
the total coliform count was generally less than 2 per 100 ml of sample,
but one contained 227.
Aquatic biological sampling included a quantitative five minute col-
lection of plankton, using a Wisconsin plankton tow, a series of three
quantitative Surber samples and a qualitative composite sample of benthic
organisms. All organisms were preserved in the field, with sorting,
identification and autopsies conducted at the Alaska Water Laboratory.
A total of six species of fish were collected and examined. The inver-
tebrate collection included three families of Plecoptera, four families
of Ephemeroptera, six families of Diptera, three families of Trichoptera,
as well as miscellaneous Amphipoda, Coleoptera, Annelida and other
groups. Although the number of samples is too small to allow conclusive
statements, species diversity apparently diminishes as the river pro-
ceeds north toward its mouth and Prudhoe Bay. Particular note should
be taken of the above fact for this Arctic slope reach is essentially
uninfluenced by man's activities at the present time. Work on the
specimens has been virtually completed and a manuscript is being
prepared for publication.
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Effects of Forest Fires on Water Quality in Interior Alaska
During 1967 and 1968 study was conducted to document changes in water
quality arising from a one-quarter million acre fire that burned in
August and September of 1966. Samples of soils from burned and unburned
areas, water of streams draining burned and unburned areas, and samples
of the benthic community of these streams were analyzed to assess changes
caused by the fire. A report was published in February, 1970.
Results of field observations and laboratory analysis generally indicated
that changes in water quality from such a fire were not significant,
although any similar study should be designed differently. We strongly
feel that field work should be done immediately after a fire and not be
delayed several months as we ware forced to do. One conclusion, based
on field and lab work, was that more damage to water quality was caused
by fire fighting equipment and procedures than that resulting from the
burning itself. Damage was chiefly silt entering streams and coloring of
water by soluble organics released by burning.
No significant changes in soil chemistry were measured except for soluble
organics in the organic horizon and small increases in potassium content.
A similar trend was noted for stream chemistry. Future soil sampling for
such a study should be confined to the organic horizon and analytical work
to saturation extracts of these samples by running total soluble organics
and bases from these extracts. Water chemical analysis need not be
changed except to sample immediately after the fire. The same can be
said for biological sampling.
Based on the findings from this study, Bureau of Land Management (BLM)
specialists have revised their instructions to fire fighting supervisors
so that extreme care will be taken in planning and building fire trails
with heavy equipment. Probably the overriding factor in causing fire
trail erosion is the removal of the insulation that protects permafrost,
which allows extensive melting. The new instruction issued by BLM should
eliminate most of this erosion by proper siting of fire lines and termin-
ating ends of trails at some distance from streams. A detailed study
should be conducted, including advanced planning and mobilization, to
determine the immediate effects of fires on the Taiga of Alaska. Such a
study could take advantage of our experience and be ready to move into
the field immediately following a fire on a suitable study area, with
emphasis on timeliness in commencing field work.
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Winter Dissolved Oxygen Levels in Alaska Rivers
Recent studies have disclosed that winter dissolved oxygen (DO) concen-
tration in Alaskan rivers may reach extremely low levels. This phenom-
enon is opposite to that found in rivers in temperate climates which
commonly experience increased DO concentrations during the cold months.
The reason for the low DO levels is undoubtedly a combination of factors
such as reduced light intensity, reduced air temperatures with resultant
ice and snow cover on the rivers, chemical oxygen demand and biological
oxygen demand which is th? result of biological respiratory activity by
aquatic organisms such as bacteria, benthic organisms and piscifauna.
DO concentrations in the Chena, Salcha, Chatanika, and Sagavanirktok
rivers have been found to approach 1 part per million in the winter.
Other Alaskan rivers such as Shaw Creek, Copper River and the Colville
River also exhibit low DO concentrations. Observations have shown that
the percent of DO saturation decreases from the head waters to the mouth
and that low DO concentrations may be widespread. Extent and magnitude
of the low winter DO phenomenon is currently being studied at the Alaska
Water Laboratory.
Problems of dissolved oxygen sample collection, handling and analysis
are presently being examined. Initially, extremely cold air temperatures
(-30 F to -60°F) have handicapped the investigators through physical
discomfort, potential danger of frostbite, and because of the need to
cut through several feet of ice to reach water. Problems then appear
Tn sampling techniques such as collecting a sample without entrainment
of air bubbles because tubes, valves and all surfaces are covered with
a coating of tee immediately after removing the sampling device from the
Water. Properly collected samples often contain ice crystals seconds
after exposure to air. At times the sample container may burst because
of tee formation and resultant expansion. Present techniques include
a gas driven ice auger with extension auger flights to drill through ice
that can be 10 or more feet thick. Once the hole has been cut, an
extension rod is used to hold the stoppered sample container until the
container is in position to collect water that has not been disturbed
by the cutting action of the ice auger, then the stopper is removed.
Currently, efforts are being made to develop an accurate and reliable
technique for sampling DO in cold climates. Several concepts such as
siphoning, gas displacement, and water displacement bottles, are being
tested to determine the most accurate .techniques. Sample collection
is extremely critical because of environmental stresses "and potential
for false readings at DO levels near zero. Once a sample is collected,
handling becomes a problem because of severe climatic stresses that
allow ice formation seconds after collection. At present, internally
heated and insulated boxes are being developed to provide reliable means
for reagent addition and sample transport to a location where the
analysis may be completed.
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Guidelines for Road Construction
Guidelines aimed at water quality protection during road building activ-
ities are being prepared in anticipation of increased road construction
activities in Alaska resulting from continuing oil exploration throughout
the state, especially production and transportation of oil from the
Prudhoe Bay field. During construction of the proposed pipeline, at
least 400 miles of new, permanent road must be built to service the line
and many miles of spur roads will be needed to connect existing roads
with the pipeline route. Recently, a public announcement was made by the
State Highway Department outlining a twenty-year road building program
that calls for several hundred miles of new roads, mostly through wilder-
ness. Such construction activities may release large quantities of sedi-
ments to drainage systems unless efforts to prevent this waste from becom-
ing a pollutant are implemented. The objective of these guides is to
provide assistance by suggesting procedures to prevent pollution, by
summarizing some of the new legislation dealing with the environment, and
by including some instructional memorandums from the Bureau of Public
Roads,
The format of this guide follows that published by the F.W.Q.A., Northwest Region,
dealing with logging practices. The organization of this road guide
follows the sequence of events as a road becomes a reality: route selec-
tion, design, construction, and maintenance. Many suggestions in this
guide are taken from the set of stipulations developed by State and
Federal agencies to protect the environment during construction of the
Trans Alaska pipeline and service routes. A final section consists of
photos illustrating many activities of road building, some problems en-
countered, and results of good and bad construction procedures.
An early draft of this guide was completed in June and sent to key re-
viewers. The Alaska State Highway Department district engineering office
conducted a thorough review. A meeting was held late in October with
these reviewers to discuss the contents of the guide. The reception by
the highway engineers was favorable and the manuscript is presently being
revised to incorporate their suggestions. An abbreviated version of the
guide was presented at the Alaska Science conference in August and will
appear in the proceedings of the conference. A final draft of the guide
is nearing completion and it is hoped that printing will be accomplished
by January 1, 1971.
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Application of Advanced Waste Treatment to Alaska's North Slope
The feasibility of providing domestic waste treatment with small, auto-
mated, modular physical-chemical treatment plants is being demonstrated
on Alaska's North Slope. Two package plants, each capable of handling
300 man camps, are in operation in the Arctic and their performance
appears to be superior to biological plants operating under similar
conditions. The delay in issuing the pipeline construction permit has
caused a low level of industrial activity during the past six months,
hence, the plants have been loaded at 3-5% of raoacity. Thus, repre-
s-^trtivc ope'^iicnei c:tc ior tho systems ere net available. However,
the same type of plant was tested at the Robert A. Taft Water Research
Center and was found to provide the equivalent of tertiary treatment
with an effluent quality exoeodinn rcimpvm U.S. PHS drinking water
standards most of the time. The effluent color was less than 15 units
in 90% of the runs and turbidity was less than 5 units in 85^ of the
runs. Suggested toilet flushing values for color and turbidity were
met in all of the Cincinnati runs. The effluents did not have an odor,
therefore,the USPHS threshold odor number of 3 was apparently not
exceeded.
Plans are being formulated to develop advanced waste treatment modular
units more directly suited to the highly mobile camps on Alaska's North
Slope, and for modules that can be specifically tailored to the particu-
lar needs of other camps.
Cold Regions Aerated Lagoon Design Criteria
Aerated lagoon studies have been conducted utilizing a six-cell pilot
plant in cooperation with the Alaska Air Command, U.S. Air Force, at
the Eielson Air Force Base, 22 miles southeast of Fairbanks. These
studies have shown that aerated lagoons are one of several probable
solutions to pollution control problems for small communities and
sites. Particularly with small facilities, system simplicity and
operation reliability must override all other considerations, Although
additional investigation is necessary, tentative design criteria for
cold climate aerated lagoons can be established with available informa-
tion. Design considerations must concentrate on reliability. Sub-
merged diffused air systems utilizing open non-restrictive devices are
preferable to systems having small openings which cause high pressure
drops. Restrictive devices have a strong tendency to clog and are not
easily unclogged, especially under a thick ice cover. When gross
bubble air diffuser systems are utilized, BOD removals of 80 percent
to greater than 90 percent are feasible during the winter. This level
of removal depends on the number of cells in series, individual cell
detention time, and total system detention time. BOD removals greater
10
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tiian 86 to 88 percent are not feasible during the summer because of the
algae load. Bottom sludge accumulation rates of approximately 9 cu ft
p-sr 1000 people per day should be expected. For normal domestic sewage
and small communities or military sites, a two-cell system with total
system detention of 10 to 20 days is reasonable. A primary cell of 2 to
5 day detention followed by a secondary cell that makes up the difference
Is preferred.
Compressors, pumps, etc., require housing for protection and maintenance,
although the rest of the system needs no weather protection. With large
exposed areas, ice will form to depths of greater than four feet on aer-
sred lagoons, and sorinn thermal expansion of thQ icp 1 avers may create
Uiisiderable sLrain on C'liiL-ankniefus, especially those wiili vertical walls.
Therefore, systems with an absolute minimum depth of 8 feet are preferred
to reduce heat loss and active ice volume.
Cold Regions Extended Aeration
Pilot scale biological waste treatment (extended aeration) research has
been conducted jointly with the U.S. Air Force, Alaska Air Command, at a
stb-Arctic facility on the Eielson Air Force Base (22 miles southeast of
Fairbanks). Simultaneously, in support of the outdoor experimental program,
constant temperature studies, utilizing 5 to 65 liter bench scale reac-
tors, have been conducted within the temperature range of 0°C to 12°C.
Although not funded by the 1610 program, an active extramural research
project to demonstrate the feasibility of oxidation ditches has been
conducted at College, Alaska.
Considerable additional investigation is necessary prior to the develop-
nsnt of "state-of-the-art" design criteria for Arctic and sub-Arctic
extended aeration application. However, current research findings do
point the way to more realistic application of extended aeration in cold
regions.
Once acclimatized to low liquid temperatures, the capabilities of biolog-
ical systems to provide secondary treatment are unaffected at-the sub-
strate loading rates characteristic of extended aeration [detention times,
12 to 48 hours; loading rates, 0.01 to 0.20 lbs applied Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (B0D)/day/lb Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS)j. But, low
liquid temperatures do require drastic changes in design thinking.
In most cases, total weather protection is unnecessary and should be
considered overdesign causing excessive costs. Although open basins have
operated at temperatures of -40°F to -70°F, a direct relationship does
exist between required minimum energy input, exposed surface, volume and
site climatic conditions. Significant surface ice cannot be allowed in
extended aeration systems because the MLSS will enter the ice phase. Up-
flow clarifiers have shown great promise for low temperature systems (0°C
to 7°C). However, their performance is questionable above 7°C. Low
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temperature extended aeration systems may produce a bulking sludge,
especially when operated at 4000 to 5000 mg/1 MLSS, but with upflow
clarification (tubesettlers) a consistently high quality effluent can
be produced (effluent BOD's and suspended solids of less than 15 mg/1).
Grease and scum are difficult to handle in upflow clarifiers. Particu-
lar attention must be given to basic clarifier design as well as weather
protection. If systems are required to operate within the range of 0°C
to 7°C, the surface loading rates must be adjusted to accomodate the
changed characteristics of the activated sludge. Preliminary finds
indicate that overflow rates of 400 to 500 gal/day/ft^ for horizontal
flow clarifiers and 0.5 gal/min/ft? for upflow clarifiers are reason-
able.
Alaska Facultative Sewage Lagoons
A non-aerated facultative lagoon serving a school just north of the
Arctic Circle at Fort Yukon has been in operation for approximately
fourteen years. The system, which is basically a single cell storage
lagoon, has served its intended purpose satisfactorily. Because of
seepage, evaporation and minimal summer use, there is no effluent;
therefore, effluent quality has been of little concern. Reasonable
records of contributing population are available at Fort Yukon. An
accumulation rate of 19 cu ft per 1000 equivalent population per day
can be calculated with a total average bottom sludge accumulation of
approximately 4.33 inches, with a pond surface BOD range of 40 to 200
mg/1, depending on sample site and time of year. These figures were
arrived at by combining school waste concentration data from temperate
climates with common sense.
The Canadians have had considerable success with cold climate lagoons
utilizing several cells in series, but no experience exists in Alaska
at the present time. Therefore, a two cell system to acquire design
information has been placed in operation at the Eielson Air Force Base
pilot facility. The system consists of a short detention primary cell
(3 days) followed by a long detention (total winter storage, 200 plus
days) secondary eel 1.
12
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SECTION II
FISCAL 1971 IN-HOUSE PROOFAM
13
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APPROVED PROJECTS
Title/FWQA No.
DESCRIPTION
FY 1971
Man-Years
Alaska Village Safe
Water Demonstration
16100 GGR
Low Temperature Dis-
infection
16100 GKG
Application of Advanced
Waste Treatment to
North Slope Total
Utility System
16100 GGS
Dissolved Oxygen De-
pletion and Alaska
Water Resources
16100 FHE
Development of Cold
Regions Extended
Aeration Process
Design Criteria
16100 FHC
Design Criteria for
Alaska Sewage Lagoons
16100 FHD
To demonstrate feasibility of
providing central facilities
with safe water supplies; to
provide central services in-
cluding water supply source,
laundry, bathroom facilities,
and community waste disposal. 3.0
Development of design criteria
for disinfection of low temper-
ature sewage treatment
system effluents. 0.2
Investigation of the feasibil-
ity of providing tertiary
treatment with a package plant
on a reliable basis with an ef-
fluent suitable for water re-
use for toilet flushing. 1.5
Establish baseline conditions
for the waters of the major
drainages of Alaska to deter-
mine the range and frequency
of low dissolved oxygen phenom-
enon. Establish the role of
microorganisms in DO depletion
at low temperatures. 2.0
Development of design criteria
for extended aeration systems
operating in the Arctic with
minimal environmental protec-
tion of clarifier loadings,
etc., applicable to low temper-
ature operation. 2.6
Develop design criteria for
aerated and facultative lagoon
applications in Alaska, includ-
ing investigation of construction
approaches, aeration devices,
short detention and long deten-
tion facultative systems utiliz-
ing winter storage concept. 1.2
14
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vAppROVED PROJECTS
Tttle/FWQA No.
DESCRIPTION
FY 1961
Man-Years
Baseline Conditions of
Arctic North Slope
Streams
16100 GHG
pate and Effect of
Hydrocarbon Spills
to Alaska Rivers
16100 GGT
Bacterial Conta-
nation Levels of
Alaska Waters
16100 FHB
Effects of Gravel
Removal on Arctic
Rivers and Water
Quality Changes
From Road Building
16100 GDI
Develop understanding of base-
line conditions of Arctic rivers,
particularly the biological as-
pects and the natural stresses
imposed on the ecological system. 0.4
Develop an understanding of the
mechanisms and routes taken by
hydrocarbons spilled in river
basins, particularly during the
winter season. Determine effect
of hydrocarbons on the aquatic
environment. 0.3
Establish existing levels of
contamination. Determine sur-
vival rates of enteric organ-
isms in Alaska rivers during
winter months. 0.2
Determination of impact of
indiscriminate gravel removal,
determine extent of changes by
networks of tundra roads that
are essentially dikes, and
development of operating
guidelines. 0.6
15
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SECTION III
GRANTS AND CONTRACTS FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
16
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PPBS 1610 Series
grantee
Project Title
Work Area
Project Director
Institute of Marine
Science
University of Alaska
College, Alaska
Baseline Water Quality
Study of Alaskan Arctic
Estuarine Environment
Institute of Water
Resources
University of Alaska
College, Alaska
Water Pollution
Control in Cold
Climates - A
Symposium
A baseline conditions study involving
detailed work in the Colvilie River
area and comparative work all along the
Alaskan Arctic coast. The detailed
work will involve the physical circu-
lation and flushing in the shallow
Arctic estuaries. The nature and
movements of sediments, the ice
movements in the estuaries and rivers
with an eye to the effect of ice on
the transport of pollutants, the
fresh and marine aquatic environ-
ments of the Alaskan Arctic.
The primary objective of the grant
was the International Symposium on
Cold Climate Water Pollution Con-
trol (7/22-24/70). Some aspects
of the-harsh northern environment
are similar, while others are not
comparable, or even extrapolatable,
to the better understood parameters
in temperate climates. Many aspects
are the subject of controversy. Be-
cause many other countries (USSR,
Scandinavia and Canada) have devoted
more effort to the development of
Arctic and sub-Arctic regions than
has the United States, the experiences
of others was drawn upon for the con-
ference.
Patrick J. Kinney
8/31/72
R. Sage Murphy
12/31/70
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PPBS 1610 Series Continued
Grantee
Project Title
Work Area
Project Director
CO
Wagley, Inc.
430 7th Avenue
Anchorage, Alaska
99501
Department of Bio-
logical Sciences
University of Alaska
College, Alaska
Institute of Marine
Sciences
University of Alaska
College, Alaska
North Slope Application
of Advanced Waste Treat-
ment and Partial Water
Reuse
Investigations on
Possible Effects of
Crude Oil on Aquatic
Organi sms
Biological Effects of
Heavy-Metal Pollution
The project is for demonstration of
feasibility of physical-chemical treat-
ment application to the North Slope of
Alaska. A package plant to provide
tertiary treatment of the wastes gener-
ated in a 100 to 300 man camp will be
installed. Water use patterns and
waste characteristics will be defined.
The feasibility of water reuse for
toilet flushing will be defined.
The effects of oil as a slick and in
various concentrations will be investi-
gated utilizing salmon, halibut, and
various invertebrates to determine the
physical and physiological changes at
various doses. The experiments will
be conducted utilizing salt water and
at water temperatures that may be ex-
pected in Alaska estuaries. Approxi-
mately 1500 salmon will be utilized in
the first phase.
The objective of this project is the
examination of heavy metal poisoning
of microorganisms, especially as it
occurs in Alaska mining areas.
Donald Holland
6/1/71
James Morrow
5/1/72
D.
K. Button
10/31/70
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SECTION IV
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT RESEARCH NEEDS
19
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Arctic Regions Water Quality Management Research Needs
prom the initial program development in 1965 to date, periodic compre-
hensive reviews have been conducted to determine the water pollution
control research, development, and demonstration requirements necessary
to enable management in both industry and government to execute an
effective prevention program. The results of an extensive review
recently completed are presented in the following section to provide
assistance in planning and budgeting.
20
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Waste Treatment Design Criteria in Arctic Regions
The Arctic climate creates difficult working conditions for construction
and operation of waste treatment facilities which must have adequate
housing and related protection. However, the logistics of operations
in Alaska force costs of construction and operation higher (1.5 to 5
times contiguous U.S. costs),so excessive and unnecessary climatic pro-
tection cannot be tolerated. The biological activity necessary for
waste stabilization does not cease at low temperatures but its charac-
teristics change. The effectiveness of disinfectants is greatly reduced
at low temperatures. This points out that waste treatment systems
should be specifically designed for the Arctic climate.
Needs:
1. Development of Arctic design criteria for Extended Aeration biologi-
cal treatment.
2. Development of reliable mixing and aeration systems that do not
require heated enclosures.
3. Determination of solids-liquids separation characteristics at low
temperatures, including development of approaches utilizing other
than horizontal flow clarifiers.
4,. Development of solid separation techniques that require little or
no environmental protection.
5. Determine biokinetic relationships at various temperatures and
develop means to minimize system upset.
6. Development of small automatic physical-chemical treatment systems
for remote site applications.
7. Development of modular systems for application at permanent and semi-
permanent base camps.
8. Development of systems that provide complete treatment at mobile
exploration and geophysical sites, possibly systems that may be
transported to a central location for servicing.
9. Determination of weather protection requirements for major community
physical-chemical plants to operate under Arctic conditions.
10. Development of design criteria for low temperature disinfection.
11. Development of design criteria for single and multi-cell facultative
lagoons.
21
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12. Development of design criteria for open non-restricted aeration equip-
ment for aerated lagoons.
13. Determination of long range bottom sludge accumulation in lagoons both
facultative and aerated.
14. Development of design criteria for aerated lagoon loading rates and
prediction models for removal efficiencies.
15* Development of unique sewage collection and transport systems for
Arctic application.
fa} Investigate feasibility of vacuum systems.
(b) Investigate feasibility of systems that pre-package concentrated
wastes.
(c) Investigate feasibility of pressure systems.
16. Investigation of reliability and suitability of materials and tech-
niques of construction under Arctic conditions.
17. Development of cold regions design criteria for activated sludge.
18. Establish low temperature sludge characteristics for various activated
sludge flow patterns.
19. Establish environmental protection requirements for activated sludge
systems,
20. Determine temperature - sludge characteristics - solids separation
efficiency for various types of activated sludge.
21 * Development of cold regions design criteria for sludge treatment and
disposal.
There have been tremendous oil finds in the Arctic; this oil must be
transported to user markets. Ships will undoubtedly be involved so treat-
ment and disposal of large quantities of ballast water will be necessary.
Shipping routes that will require ballast water handling on the Arctic
coast are being explored, and when the routes, either surface or sub-
marine, are determined to be feasible> tertiary ballast water treatment
will be necessary to protect delicate ecological systems.
1. Development of low temperature tertiary treatment systems for ballast
water cleanup.
2. Investigation and development of design criteria for low temperature
ballast water treatment with physical-chemical unit processes.
Determination of environmental protection requirements.
3. Development of cold regions design criteria for oil refinery waste
treatment.
22
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Water Quality Criteria in Arctic Regions
Oil Pollution
Alaska has tremendous potential for becoming one of the major oil pro-
ducers in the world. With such potential goes a high risk of pollution
if conditions are not carefully managed. Oil spill cleanup technology
is just beginning to develop for temperate climate zones, but is non-
existant for Arctic regions.
Needs:
1» Establish tolerances to and effects of crude oil on Arctic aquatic
organisms.
2. Development of remote sensing pipeline leak detection systems.
3. Development of fail safe pipeline design criteria.
4. Development of cleanup technology for spills to Arctic tundra water-
sheds,
5. Development of cleanup technology for spills on and under fresh
water ice.
6. Establish Arctic estuarine baseline conditions.
7. Establish fate of oil spilled to fresh water (both ice covered and
open).
(a) What happens to oil when a break occurs in a frozen stream?
[p\ What are the results of an extensive oil spill in a frozen lake?
8. Development of remote sensing for oil spills.
9. Develop positive identification or fingerprinting techniques to
establish origin of spilled oil traceable with "black box" ap-
proaches.
Arctic Winter Dissolved Oxygen
During the winter, most Alaskan Rivers have nearly total ice
cover. Because there is no chance for reaeration, the dissolved oxygen
("DO) concentration decreases progressively downstream and at a specific
station throughout the winter in many Alaskan rivers. Since DO concen-
trations may get as low as 1 mg/1 under natural conditions, the causes
of this low DO and the effect on the aquatic ecosystem must be deter-
mined. This will permit assessment of the effect of added wastes on the
dissolved oxygen level.
23
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Needs:
1. Development of Arctic DO sampling methods.
2. Establish winter DO levels in Alaskan rivers.
3. determination of low temperature microbial activity rates on organic
'substances.
4. [Establish threshold DO levels for Arctic aquatic biota.
Ecological Considerations
Simply stated, an ecosystem is a complex interrelationship of organisms
and environment. Understanding this ecosystem is essential to sound
management and regulation of aquatic resources. The first step in under-
standing the relationships is to establish existing conditions of an
ecosystem, prior to disturbance. Once this is achieved, the effects of
disturbances can be documented. Some effects will be observed quickly,
Whereas others may require long term studies to document chronic ecosystem
ailments. The second and, in most cases, simultaneous step is the estab-
lishment of water quality criteria suitable to the resource system requir-
ing protection.
Needs:
K Establish baseline ecological conditions.
(a) Baseline conditions of Arctic North Slope rivers.
[bj Baseline conditions of Arctic lakes and ponds,
fc) Baseline conditions related to total watershed management,
(d^ Long range effects of land use on water quality.
2. Tolerance limits of various organisms under stressed conditions,
(a) Tolerance limits of aquatic organisms to physical and chemical
stresses.
(5) Establishment of existing levels of indicator organisms,
(c) Establish low temperature survival rates for enteric viruses,
tdj Establish low temperature survival rates of enteric and enteric
pathogenic bacteria.
(e) Establish correlations for indicator and pathogenic bacteria and
viruses under Arctic conditions,
(f) Determination of survival rate of enteric organisms stored in
the bottom sludge of Arctic sewage lagoons.
3, Establish impact of cannery waste discharges.
(a) Characterization of cannery waste materials.
(b) Determine effects of cannery wastes on water quality.
(c) Determine long and short term ecological significance of cannery
waste discharge.
(d) Determine impact on North Slope rivers.
(e) Determine impact on shallow tundra lakes and deep Arctic lakes.
24
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Land Management
All forms of sediment loads, whether as suspended or bed loads, have a
detrimental effect on aquatic life; certain fish need gravel beds in
which to lay eggs but these gravels must be stable or the eggs and young
will not survive. Other organisms in the food web also require stable
stream beds, excessive bed loads disrupt established benthic communities
and high transported loads abrade bottom life and hinder primary produc-
tivity by preventing light penetration.
Along the coast of S.E. and 5.W. Alaska, many streams are glacial in
origin and during the summer carry heavy suspended sediment loads.
However, small streams tributary to these glacial rivers are frequently
clear and are used as spawning and nursery waters for fish indigenous
to Alaska. Most streams of Interior Alaska run clear because they do
not have glacial origins and glacial streams run clear after freezeup
comes and glaciers are no longer active.
All forms of construction in, across, or near water courses are potential
sources of sediment unless steps are taken to prevent these wastes from
entering the waters. Historically, placer mining has been a major
source of sediments in Alaska and, in fact, was protected by a law that
excluded sediment from mining and gravel washing as polluting agents.
However, this law has now been changed and development of protective
procedures to prevent mining debris from entering streams must be imple-
mented.
Needs:
1. Development of guidelines for construction of roads, airstrips, etc.
2. Controlled watershed demonstration studies to determine long range
impact of sediments from various sources.
3. Determination of impact of gravel removal on Arctic streams and
development of guidelines of operation.
4. Development of feasible methods for exclusion of silt produced in
mining operations from streams.
5. Development of guidelines for logging practices, particularly in
interior forest reserves.
Effects of chemical pollutants
It is probable that the effect of metals such as copper, mercury and
iron which enter streams during the extraction process will have differ-
ent effects on the aquatic ecosystem in the Arctic than in more temper-
ate climates. This is also true of additives such as pesticides and
fire retardants which are used extensively in some areas.
25
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Needs:
1, Determination of extent of copper, mercury and iron pollution iVi
Arctic-waters,
2. Effects of fire fighting chemical retardants on water quality.
3. Determination of pesticide concentrations in Alaska waters.
4, Determination of low temperature degradation of pesticides in Arctic
environments.
26
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SECTION V
REPORTS AND PAPERS
ALASKA WATER LABORATORY
27
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"Air and Water Pollution in Alaska," F. B. Lotspeich, Journal of the
American Medical Association (November 2, 1970).
"Alaska Sewage Lagoons," S. E. Clark, H. J. Coutts, and R. L. Jackson,
F.W.Q.A. Working Paper No. 8 (August, 1970).
"Assimilative Capacity of Arctic Rivers," E. W. Schallock, D. W. Mueller,
and R. C. Gordon, F.W.Q.A. Working Paper No. 7 (August, 1970).
Biological Waste Treatment in the Far North, S. E. Clark, C. D.
Christianson, and H. J. Coutts, F.W.Q.A. (June, 1970).
The Chena River: The Study of an Arctic Stream, P. J. Frey and E. W.
Mueller, F.W.Q.A. (November, 1970).
"Cold Regions Aerated Lagoons," H. J. Coutts, S. E. Clark, F.W.Q.A.
(Pre-publication Draft).
"Depletion of Oxygen by Microorganisms in Alaskan Rivers at Low Tempera-
tures," R. C. Gordon, F.W.Q.A. Working Paper No. 4 (July, 1970).
"Design Considerations for Extended Aeration in Alaska," S. E. Clark,
C. D. Christianson, and H. J. Coutts, F.W.Q.A. Working Paper No. 5
(July, 1970).
Ecological Changes in the Chena River, P. J. Frey, F.W.Q.A. (April,
1969).
Effects of Forest Fires on Water Quality in Interior Alaska, F. B.
Lotspeich, F.W.Q.A. (February, 1970).
Industrial Waste Guide for Road Construction and Maintenance in Alaska,
F. B. Lotspeich, F.W.Q.A. (Pre-publication Draft).
"Industry and Environment in Arctic Alaska," F. B. Lotspeich, Marine
Pollution Bulletin (May, 1970).
"Monitoring the Sanitary Bacteriological Quality of Potable Water
Supplies," R. C. Gordon, F.W.Q.A. Working Paper No. 10 (October, 1970).
"Some Chemical and Biological Properties of a Pingo Lake in East Central
Alaska," F. B. Lotspeich, E. W. Mueller, and P. J. Frey, F.W.Q.A. Working
Paper No. 1 (March 1969).
"Water Pollution in Alaska: Present and Future," F. B. Lotspeich,
Science (December, 1969).
"Water Quality Management Research Needs for Alaska," S. E. Clark,
F.W.Q.A. Working Paper No. 6 (August, 1970).
"Winter Survival of Fecal Indicator Bacteria in a Sub-Arctic Alaskan
River1," R. C. Gordon, Alaska Science Conference (August, 1970).
28
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Cooperative Ventures:
"Arctic Waste Management," A. J. Alter, S. E. Clark, D. K. Day, J. F.
Kreissl, and J. M. Cohen, Purdue Industrial Waste Conference (May, 1970).
"Physical-Chemical Treatment and Alaska's North Slope," J. F. Kreissl,
S. E. Clark, J. M. Cohen, and A. J. Alter, 21st Alaska Science Conference,
Cold Regions Engineering Symposium, American Society of Civil Engineers,
Alaska Section (August, 1970).
29
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