^£0 sr%
^ A
ISBy
\ PRO^
REPORT TO THE
ALASKA VILLAGE
DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS
Authorized by
Section 113, Public Law 92-500
July 1, 1973
Prepared by
Office of Research and Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
-------
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20460
JUL 1 G l:
OFFICE OF THE
ADMINISTRATOR
Honorable Spiro T. Agnew
President of the Senate
Washington, D. C. 20510
Dear Mr. President:
Pursuant to the "Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of 1972," Section 113, "Alaska Village Demonstration Projects,"
P.L. 92-500 (86 STAT 816), we respectfully submit this report of our
progress toward demonstrating "...methods to provide central community
facilities for safe water and elimination or control of pollution in
those native villages of Alaska without such facilities."
This report discusses the preliminary results from the two
operational central community facilities in the villages of Emmonak
and Wainwright. Specific recommendations concerning the most appro-
priate technology and relating to the establishment of a statewide
program are not included in this report because there has not been
sufficient time or operating experience to develop such recommendations.
The Environmental Protection Agency is committed to actively
pursue the Alaska Village Demonstration Projects program. The pre-
liminary results are encouraging. Public acceptance has been greater
than anticipated. The demonstration projects have shown that the
technology is available to provide the basic utility services to
the villages of Emmonak and Wainwright. Economic considerations
concerning construction costs and annual operation and maintenance
expenditures must be investigated further.
Continued research and development will provide a sound tech-
nical and social-cultural data base upon which an environmentally
acceptable statewide program can be developed. It is anticipated
that additional projects utilizing technology developed in our
program will be implemented by other Federal/State/native village
agencies.
Sincerely yours
Enclosure
Robert W. Frl
Acting Administrator
i
-------
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
JUL 1 0 1973
OFFICE OF THE
ADMINISTRATOR
Honorable Carl Albert
Speaker of the House
of Representatives
Washington, D. C. 20515
Dear Mr. Speaker:
Pursuant to the "Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of 1972," Section 113, "Alaska Village Demonstration Projects,"
P.L. 92-500 (86 STAT 816), we respectfully submit this report of our
progress toward demonstrating "...methods to provide central community
facilities for safe water and elimination or control of pollution in
those native villages of Alaska without such facilities."
This report discusses the preliminary results from the two
operational central community facilities in the villages of Emmonak
and Wainwright. Specific recommendations concerning the most appro-
priate technology and relating to the establishment of a statewide
program are not included in this report because there has not been
sufficient time or operating experience to develop such recommendations.
The Environmental Protection Agency is committed to actively
pursue the Alaska Village Demonstration Projects program. The pre-
liminary results are encouraging. Public acceptance has been greater
than anticipated. The demonstration projects have shown that the
technology is available to provide the basic utility services to
the villages of Emmonak and Wainwright. Economic considerations
concerning construction costs and annual operation and maintenance
expenditures must be investigated further.
Continued research and development will provide a sound tech-
nical and social-cultural data base upon which an environmentally
acceptable statewide program can be developed. It is anticipated
that additional projects utilizing technology developed in our
program will be implemented by other Federal/State/native village
agencies.
Sincerely yours
Enclosure
Robert W. Fri
Acting Administrator
ii
-------
REPORT TO CONGRESS
"Alaska Village Demonstration Projects"
July 1, 1973
Authorized by
Section 113, P,L. 92-500
Prepared by the
Office of Research and Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
iii
-------
ABSTRACT
The "Alaska Village Demonstration Projects" (AVDP) was authorized
by Section 113, P.L. 92-500 (86 STAT 816), for the purpose of
demonstrating methods to improve sanitary conditions in native
villages of Alaska. Central community facilities have been
constructed in the native villages of Emnonak and Wainwright
to provide a safe water supply; toilets, bathing, and laundry
facilities; and sewage and solid waste disposal.
Although there has not been enough time to allow full
operation and evaluation of these facilities, it is apparent
that the technology is available to provide these basic utility
services to the demonstration villages.
A major issue still to be addressed is the lack of clear
responsibility for the operation and maintenance of the facilities
after the Environmental Protection Agency demonstration program
is completed. Adequate local resources to operate the installations
are lacking. In the absence of outside financial assistance or
without improvements of the local economic base, the operating and
maintenance costs of the facilities will increase the villagers'
dependence on welfare and may have other undesirable cultural effects.
Continued experience with the AVDP is needed in order to complete
a full evaluation and develop recommendations relating to the estab-
lishment of a statewide program.
v
-------
CONTENTS
PAGE
TRANSMITTAL LETTERS i
TITLE PAGE iii
ABSTRACT v
FIGURES ix
SECTIONS
I CONCLUSIONS 1
II INTRODUCTION 5
III PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 11
Project Staff 11
Legislative Intent 11
Site Selection 12
Historical Considerations 17
Conceptual Design 19
Contractual Arrangements and
Project Development 25
Operator Training 27
Educational Program 32
Participation of Other Agencies 33
IV DESCRIPTION OF FACILITIES 37
V OPERATION OF FACILITIES 53
VI EVALUATION OF FACILITIES 55
Recipient Appraisal 58
Project Costs 59
Institutional Considerations 61
Environmental Impact 66
VII FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 67
Additional Project Design 67
Integration of Small Utility Systems 67
Future Activities 70
VIII REFERENCES 73
vii
-------
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
FIGURES
Page
Solid Waste Disposal In Emmonak 6
Human Waste Disposal in Wa1nwr1ght 6
Alaska Village Demonstration Project Locations 14
Village of Walnwright 15
Village of Emmonak 15
Central Conmunity Facility, Walnwright 20
Washers and Dryers 1n Errmonak 20
Improvised Water Delivery System 22
Floor Plan for Central Community Facility, Emmonak 24
Central Community Facility Under Construction 26
Plant Operators at Emmonak 29
Emmonak Distribution and Collection Vehicle 31
Wainwrlght Water Supply Storage 33
Building Modules for Walnwright 37
Central Community Facility, Walnwright 39
Central Conmunity Facility, Emmonak 39
Floor Plan fpr Central Conmunity Facility, Walnwright 41
UtHiduct at Errmonak 42
Typical Potable Water Treatment Plant (Schematic) 43
Emmonak Villagers Using Sauna 46
Wastewater Treatment Plant (Schematic) 47
Schematic of Incinerator Process 50
Saunas at Emmonak 57
1x
-------
SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
1. The demonstration central community facility at Wainwright,
Alaska, (population 330) is being operated by two EPA trained village
natives and is providing a safe water supply; toilets, bathing,
and laundry; and sewage and solid waste disposal. Comprehensive per-
formance data will be available in July 1974.
2. The demonstration central community facility at Emmonak,
Alaska, (population 450) is being operated by two EPA trained village
natives and is providing a safe water supply; bathing, and laundry.
Operation of the sewage and solid wastes disposal equipment should
commence in August 1973. Comprehensive performance data will be
available July 1974.
3. The problems associated with the demonstration of this
previously untried approach for meeting the environmental health
needs of native villages have been more complex than initially
envisioned.
4. While the two central community facilities provide the same
basic utility services, the design for each central community facility
incorporates unique processes and equipment selected to meet applicable
water supply, wastewater treatment, and air pollution control standards.
Analysis of data collected during the evaluation period will determine
whether the standards are being fully and consistently met.
5. The villagers' attitude after several months of use of the
central community facility, especially the water supply, bathing,
and laundry, has been highly positive.
1
-------
6. The preliminary design for a third project is being completed
in cooperation with the Department of Housing and Urban Development -
Modular Integrated Utilities System Program. During Fiscal Year 1974,
a native village (population 75-125) will be selected as the location
for installation of this third central community facility. Experience
with the first two facilities clearly indicates the need for careful
scheduling, reliable power supply, comprehensive bid documents, mod-
ularized construction, and active involvement of the villagers.
7. Experience with the two existing projects indicates that native
manpower is available in the villages to be trained for operation of
permanent facilities. Native operators have performed with unusual
dedication and have demonstrated sound technical know-how.
8. Pending final audit, the design and construction costs for
the Emmonak project were $578,054. Similiar costs for the Wainwright
facility were $561,469. The current cost for the design of the Third
Project is $60,233. Costs of "production-type" facilities should be less
than that of the prototypes. However, inflation must be considered in
determining final costs for production facilities.
9. Local financial resources are lacking for support of
continued operation after the EPA demonstration is completed.
Long term success of any rural utility program must be based upon a more
viable support mechanism than the village itself. Clear authority for
State and Federal agencies to pool resources and engage in this type
of support is not presently available. Lacking such an arrangement, the
present installations and any subsequent projects undertaken will pose
2
-------
a financial burden which the villagers simply cannot be expected to
meet with their own resources.
10. Participation by other agencies such as the Public Health
Service and the Bureau of Indian Affairs has been significant. Continued
cooperation and coordination with the State of Alaska and other Federal
agencies as provided by the legislation will assure timely transfer
of the latest technology.
11. EPA plans to continue the Alaska Village Demonstration
Projects program to assure the timely demonstration and evaluation
of both the technology and the economic, political, and cultural
impacts of these projects.
12. Specific recommendations "relating to the establishment of
a statewide program" are not included in this Report to Congress because
there has been insufficient time to firmly determine the most economical,
acceptable technology to be applied; and to establish fully the
social and economic impact of such facilities on the native
communities and on the State of Alaska. The potential environmental
impact of implementing a statewide program must also be identified.
Sufficient information should be available by July 1975 to fully
evaluate the impacts of the demonstration projects, to estimate the
capital and operating costs for a statewide program, to consider
alternative ways of financing such systems, and to recommend any
necessary legislation to Congress.
3
-------
SECTION II
INTRODUCTION
The "Alaska Village Demonstration Projects (AVDP)" serve to demon-
strate methods of improving environmental health conditions in rural
Alaska. The need for such improvements is great. Seventy percent of
Alaska's natives live in small villages where safe water is seldom obtain-
able and where adequate waste disposal is often impossible without
facilities for special treatment. The average age at death among
Alaska natives is half that of other Americans.(1)
Typical sources of drinking water are streams, ponds, or rain dur-
ing the summer. Many of these ponds and streams are stagnant and con-
taminated. In areas underlain by permafrost, wells are generally
unproductive. During the winter, villagers cut ice and melt it in
discarded fuel drums at home.
Simple methods of waste disposal are often not possible because of
unfavorable terrain and soil conditions (Fig. 1). Many villages are
subject to annual flooding. Wastes from latrines and dumps re-emerges
during flood periods and is spread throughout the town. Communities along
the Arctic Ocean store wastes from "honey buckets" in empty drums some
distance from the home (Fig. 2). In early spring, the frozen drums are
hauled out onto the ocean ice for disposal. During the short summer
the stench can be annoying and pervasive. The health hazard associated
with this practice is serious.
The difficulties of arriving at satisfactory, practical solutions
to water supply and waste disposal problems in such locations are
5
-------
FIG-1 Solid Wastes Disposal in Emmonak - Attempts at disposal by
burial in pits have been frustrated by the high ground water
level and instability of the silty soil.
FIG-2 Human waste disposal in Wainwright - Discarded fuel drums are
used to store human wastes from chamber pots and "honey
buckets". In mid-winter, the frozen drums are hauled out
into the ocean ice for final disposal.
6
-------
as great as the need. Successful application of many conventional
approaches is ruled out by high costs or the severe climate. Water
is in the frozen state most of the year. The processes by which wastes
naturally tend to decompose are interrupted and seriously retarded by
the long winters. The cold also tends to preserve pathogens for
longer periods than under normal weather conditions. These consider-
ations substantially increase associated health hazards. Basic health
and environmental standards can be achieved only through new service
concepts such as reuse of water and through application of unconventional
technology.
Resources to provide this technology do not exist in the villages.
On the average, more than half of the workforce is jobless most of
the year. For them, food gathering activities provide basic subsis-
tence. Only one-fourth of the workforce has continuing employment.(2)
These, then, are some of the pressing problems which stimulated
legislation in 1970 which called upon the Secretary of the Interior
(now the Administrator of EPA) to conceive, construct, and install
prototype facilities which demonstrate methods of providing basic
utility services in Alaska native villages. The text of Section 113
of P.L. 92-500 follows:
"ALASKA VILLAGE DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS"
"Sec. 113. (a) The Administrator is authorized
to enter into agreements with the State of Alaska
to carry out one or more projects to demonstrate
methods to provide for central community facilities
for safe water and control of pollution in those
7
-------
native villages of Alaska without such facilities.
Such projects shall include provisions for community
safe water supply systems, toilets, bathing and
laundry facilities, sewage disposal facilities, and
other similar facilities, and educational and infor-
mational facilities and programs relating to health
and hygiene. Such demonstration projects shall be
for the further purpose of developing preliminary
plans for providing such safe water and such
elimination or control of pollution for all native
villages in such State.
"(b) In carrying out this section the Administrator
shall cooperate with the Secretary of Health, Education,
and Welfare for the purpose of utilizing such of the
personnel and facilities of that Department as may
be appropriate.
"(c) The Administrator shall report to Congress
not later than July 1, 1973, the results of the
demonstration projects authorized by this section
together with his recommendations, including any
necessary legislation, relating to the establish-
ment of a statewide program.
"(d) There is authorized to be appropriated not
to exceed $2,000,000 to carry out this section."
P.L. 92-500 (86STAT. 833)
8
-------
Two such installations are now near completion. A design for
a third facility which incorporates the Modular Integrated Utility
System developed by HUD has been initiated. This report describes
what has been accomplished and enumerates some initial conclusions
and recommendations.
9
-------
SECTION III
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
Project Staff
The EPA elected to begin the AVDP project with a minimal staff,
since there was no fixed idea as to the scope of the demonstration
project. A project head was selected that had years of experience
in public health work and basic sanitation in cold climates. A
project advisor with several years' experience in community
development work in underdeveloped countries was recruited
to help bridge the gap between the government program, its technology
and procedure, and the understanding and participation of the native
village residents. A career sanitary engineer with experience in
research work and willing to work in remote Alaska was assigned to
the staff. A clerk-stenographer was added to the staff to fulfill
the clerical needs. In 1972, a trained and experienced treatment
plant operator joined the staff to provide on-the-job training for
the village facility operators. The duty station of this group is
at the Arctic Environmental Research Laboratory, formerly known as
the Alaska Water Laboratory in College, Alaska.
Legislative Intent
The text of Section 113 P.L. 92-500, the Federal Water Pollution
Act Amendments of 1972, is brief. To obtain further guidance towards
implementation, the staff examined Senate and House hearing records
and visited with authors of the amendments.
11
-------
It should be noted that the legislation intended that no facilities
were to be installed in the homes. Thus, it follows that no distri-
bution or collection system of pipes should be installed to serve
individual homes.
Senator Ted Stevens of Alaska initially expressed hope that
five facilities could be constructed with the initial $1 ,000,000
appropriation, each demonstrating a different approach to pollution
control. After a cursory examination of costs, it was apparent that
minimal service and pollution control standards could not be met in
the typical village with a $200,000 investment. A projected cost
figure of $300,000 per facility was then established.
Other guidelines gained from efforts to ascertain legislative
intent suggested that project locations should be in North and West
Alaska, preferably where health problems were most severe; that facili-
ties should be constructed as soon as possible; and that the installations
should be of somewhat temporary or relocatable nature rather than
permanent public works.
The AVDP program was Intended as an initial effort to demonstrate
technical and economic feasibility for central community facilities.
Successful results would lead to the establishment of a statewide plan
to provide for safe water and control of pollution in these native
villages of Alaska without such facilities.
Site Selection
Early planning required careful consideration of each village's
characteristics, such as location and climate, social and economic
viability, water supply, health problems, etc. The task of
-------
providing safe water and adequate waste disposal is accomplished
more easily in some native villages than in others.
The majority of the native village population lives in those
areas of Alaska where geology and climate combine to make provision
of basic utility services especially difficult and expensive.
It was decided that sites would be selected from each of these three
regions: (Fig. 3).
1. The Kuskokwim Region, with 52 of the 178 predominantly
native communities in Alaska and 31% of the rural native
population.
2. Northwest Alaska, with 28% of the Alaskan rural natives in
35 villages, and
3. Interior Alaska, with 11% of the rural natives distributed
among 28 predominantly native conriunities.(3)
The distribution of Alaska natives by size of place is listed below:
DISTRIBUTION OF ALASKA NATIVES BY SIZE OF PLACE
IN PREDOMINANTLY NATIVE PLACES, 1967
Cumulative Totals
Total Size
No. of
Nati ve
No. of
Native
of Place
Places
Population
Places
Population
25-99
50
2,839
50
2,839
100-199
64
8,813
114
11,652
200-299
26
5,735
140
17,387
300-399
15
4,357
155
21,744
400-499
12
4,807
167
26,551
500-599
2
1,021
169
27,572
600-699
2
1,113
171
28,685
700-799
-
-
171
28,685
800-899
1
825
172
29,510
900-999
•
.
172
29,510
1000-2499
6
7,888
178
37,398
Source: Villages in Alaska and Other Places Having a Native Population
of 25 or more, a report prepared by the Federal Field Committee
for Development Planning in Alaska, Anchorage, Alaska, 1967.
13
-------
WAINWRIGHT
NORTHWEST
ARCTIC
^ VILLAGE
A*cric /
— C-'RCLt
/
/
%
FAIRBANKS
INTERIOR
emmonak
kuskokwim
ON
MILES
FIG-3 Alaska Village Demonstration Project Locations
-------
FIG-4 Village of Wainwright - The winter picture is taken from
the present location of the Central Community Facility.
In the background is the Arctic Ocean.
FIG-5 Village of Emmonak - The Central Community Facility is
the white building near the center of the picture. The
water intake and discharge utiliduct extends to the
Kwiguk Pass of the Yukon River on the left. The large
complex of building between the AVDP plant and the river
is the BIA school. Along the horizon is the Bering Sea.
15
-------
Aside from the above considerations, the degree of regional and
local interest in the project was judged the most important single
criterion for final selection. In the case of the Kuskokwim and
Northwest Areas, the Associated Village Council Presidents and the
Arctic Slope Native Association were consulted. They responded enthusi-
astically to requests for assistance in determining candidate coirmuni-
ties within their regions. The president of the Arctic Slope Native
Association participated as a member of an advisory group to the
project under auspices of the National Academy of Sciences. The
advisory group prepared a report summarizing considerations for
project implementation.(4) In the Kuskokwim Region, the Associated
Village Council Presidents, Inc. met to propose five communities for
consideration.
Wainwright, an Eskimo village of 330, was selected from the
Northwest Region (Fig. 4). It is situated on treeless tundra, along
the Arctic Ocean, 80 miles southwest of Point Barrow. Here truly
arctic conditions prevail.
The village of Emmonak, located in the Yukon Delta, was chosen
from the Kuskokwim Region (Fig. 5). Emmonak is a relatively large
community (pop. 450) of Eskimo salmon fishermen among whom water
related intestinal disorders have been especially common. Located
only a few miles from the Bering Sea, on low delta ground, the
village experiences frequent flooding caused by ice jams near the
mouth of the Yukon River during spring breakup. A third site is
being considered in the Interior Region, but has not yet been selected.
-------
The final choice of the first two sites was influenced fay
information on water and sewage related health problems in these
communities; by the degree of locally-expressed need; and by assess-
ments of village leadership, social stability, economic viability;, and
experience of the communities with similar innovative ventures.
Members of the VISTA project, the Rural Comnunity Action Program,
the Community Enterprise Development Corporation and Alaska Legal
Services greatly assisted with information in compiling village profiles.
-Throughout the process of selection, Federal and State agencies
which were concerned, were extensively consulted. An ad hoc working
group was formed to assure compatibility of the demonstration project
with the plans of those agencies who retain primary responsibility for
the development and maintenance of utility services in rural Alaska.
Representatives from the Alaska Area Native Health Service, Department
of Health, Education and Welfare; the Alaska Department of Health and
Welfare (now the Department of Environmental Conservation); the
Department of Health and Social Services; the Governor's Office; the
Economic Development Administration; and the Bureau of Indian Affairs
participated in this group.
Historical Considerations
Over the years, a number of government programs have attempted to
improve basic sanitation in rural Alaska. At best, these have been only
partially successful. In developing a sensible approach to implementing
the AVDP, an attempt was made to determine the reasons for lack of success
of other programs.
17
-------
Administrative constraints, including a lack of financial resources
for operation and maintenance of completed facilities, have generally been
the limiting factors. Some of the most important of these specific
factors are as follows:
1. Administrative policy limitations such as required partici-
pation by recipient; dilution in effort by being included in a
nationwide program; conducting the entire effort without
understanding and responding to local needs and wishes;
and in appropriate design concepts transplanted from temperate
cl i mates.
2. Preconceived notions of the level of funding or limitations
on the cost or size of projects has usually resulted in
program failure.
3. Government budgeting and programming schedules have adversely
affected the performance and goals of many projects.
4. A high turnover of personnel in Alaska has had the effect of
continuing many programs with personnel inexperienced in Arctic
environmental engineering or for working successfully with
Alaska villagers.
5. Lack of viable on-going programs to assure continuity in
operating and maintaining village utilities was perhaps the
most significant reason for many projects failing to live up
to expectations. Villagers do not have fiscal resources to
support such operations, nor have they had appropriate training.
It was apparent that development of new concepts was needed in
implementing AVDP. This was accomplished through discussions which
18
-------
resulted in contributions from villagers themselves. The actual needs
seemed to lie somewhere between the squalor in which many villages
existed and the typical American communities in which running water
and flush toilets have become minimum standards.
Conceptual Design
The AVDP staff surveyed what work had already been done in reference
to village utilities by other Federal and State agencies, compiled village
profiles, and researched the State-of-the-Art in cold regions water treat-
ment and waste disposal. It was established that Federal and State envir-
onmental and health standards would be met. General design concepts and
processes to meet these standards were then selected.
The application of conventional collection, distribution and treat-
ment technology would have required investments of enormous capital in
villages whose future is uncertain. Arctic and subarctic experience has
shown that conventional systems which provide piped water to homes and
rely upon water carried sewage are not only expensive to construct, but
are also highly susceptible to failure. Seldom do such utility networks
reach all homes of the village.
The conceptual design explored previously untried approaches to
meeting environmental health needs of small Alaskan communities.
As an alternative to the conventional design, a central community
facility was considered where people would perform some of the functions
which are normally done at home (Fig. 6). By having residents do their
laundering and bathing at a central location and through use of low-or-
no-water-use toilets at home, total volumes of water required by a com-
munity can be drastically reduced. The amount of water needed 1n the
-------
FIG-6 Central Community Facility, Wainwright.
*
-------
home would be small enough to be individually carried or distribu-
ted by vehicles. Washing machines, dryers, bathtubs, or showers
would not need to be duplicated from home to home where they would
compete for precious space (Fig. 7).
Waste disposal, which conventionally involves an initial process
of separating pollutants from water, would be simplified. Human
wastes would not be diluted with water and could, therefore, be
subjected directly to final disposal.
Incineration was selected as one of the processes of the
system with full knowledge that it is generally considered an extrava-
gant use of energy. Alternatives to incineration were water carried
sewage systems and sewage lagoons or another biological treatment
system. However, these systems also lead to large scale sludge
disposal problems. Even if sludge from the wastewater was easily
disposed of, the problem of household refuse disposal would remain.
By concentrating all utility functions at one location, inciner-
ation could economically be incorporated. Through application of
heat exchangers, the incinerator could serve as main source of heat
for the entire complex. Thus, energy which normally goes to waste
would be conserved.
Conservation of water was also an important objective. Currently,
water used for drinking in the villages may be 30 to 50 times
as expensive as it is in the lower 48 states. Therefore, it was
essential to find ways of minimizing water consumption within
the facilities. Hot air was found to be far cheaper than hot water
and, therefore, saunas were specified for bathing purposes. At
-------
locations where water supplies were finite, such as at Wainwright
for eight months of the year, reuse of treated water was explored.
As previously mentioned, the legislative intent was that no
distribution and collection mains would be installed. On the basis
of previous experience and feedback from the native communities, it
was determined that a vehicular waste collection system would be
essential and that water distribution wagons would enhance the via-
bility of the project (Fig. 8). Without some type of centrally
controlled waste collection and water distribution, the central
community facility concept could not be expected to work.
In accordance with established procedures, the Agency published
a request for proposals for the conceptual design, construction and
installation of the required facilities.
FIG-8 Improvised water delivery system - Most significant, from the
villagers' point of view, are the AVDP facilities as a
source of safe water. During a breakdown of the water
distribution vehicle, here Emmonak villagers are improvising
to get water to their homes.
22
-------
The design guidelines incorporated in the request for qualifications
and proposals were intentionally kept broad to encourage submission
of creative approaches. The guidelines addressed themselves mainly
to the need for reliability of components, high thermal efficiency,
and compliance with health and environmental standards. They also
provided a scope of services to be provided and a general description
of the conditions in the villages.
From over twenty responding firms, three companies were finally
selected for negotiation. Wasteco, Inc., Tualatin, Oregon, was
selected to provide facilities for the Village of Wainwright.
Bionomics, Inc., West Chester, Pa., was selected to provide similar
facilities for the village of Emmonak. Stefano and Associates was
selected to provide a design for a third village project.
Although final designs for the initial two facilities were formu-
lated by the two companies without collaboration, the basic require-
ments for pre-manufacture, transportability by aircraft or barge,
and suitability for relocation at a later time resulted in two
very similar projects. They consisted of an integrated system of
unit processes for water and wastewater treatment, solid waste inciner-
ation, and conventional bath and laundry equipment housed in truck
van sized modules which could be transported to the site as multiple-
use shipping containers (Fig. 9).
23
-------
Drive Through Area
Scwoge Sump.
Gray Water Sump ] | \ \
f
Aux. Oil Heat
System
Incinerator
Si Heat
Exchanger
Raw Water
Storage
Potable water
Storage
Vacuum Pump 6 Chamber
Compressor a Tank*
If
Ot , .uoo LJLJLJUJ
w a.cw,ro' ^
Heater _Pumpe
Rotable
Water
Heater
I Recarbonizator
I Carbon Filter*
Lob Bench
8 Sink
Waste-Water
Treatment
Water Treatment
Cabinet
Treated
Water
Storage
Gray
Water
Storage
Women
Washroom
Laundry
Women
Dress. Rm
8 Shower
Dress. Rm
8 Shower
Sauna
Bench
Bench
i / Emergency
Exit
48 O
Filter
Centrifuge
54'or
SCHEMATIC PLAN
FIG-9 Floor Plan for Central Community Facility-Emmonak
24
-------
Contractual Arrangements & Project Development
The Agency's research and development contract mechanism was
considered appropriate for carrying out the requirements of the Act.
This method of contracting allowed the Agency to review concepts
proposed by any interested party, select those appropriate and then
contract for the work. It also allowed for the facilities to be
designed, developed, and installed without requiring detailed speci-
fications and descriptions as a part of the contract.
The enabling legislation allowed about two and one-half years to
complete the project. By the time money had been appropriated and
allotted to the project in the field in late 1970, over six months
had passed. Determining and arranging for appropriate advertising,
negotiating, and in-house contracting procedures consumed approximately
four months. Design proposals and statements of qualifications were
received by February 1, 1971. After a conference with prospective
bidders, at which additional design criteria were discussed, technical
and business proposals for facility design and estimated costs for
construction were received by mid-March. Design contracts were
awarded in May and June 1971.
Designs and initial business proposals for construction and
installation were available by mid-summer 1971. These initial
business proposals, however, far exceeded target costs. The
designs, therefore, were carefully reviewed for possible reduc-
tions. It was found that by cutting down on floor space and by
rearranging equipment, especially in the public area but also
In the mechanical sections, estimated costs were reduced to
target levels.
25
-------
Administrative procedures and program changes delayed
contract renegotiations until December 1971. The scope of work
and costs for final design, manufacture and installation of both
facilities was agreed upon in January 1972. Contracting proced-
ures delayed the actual awarding of contracts until late March
and April of 1972.
As a result of these renegotiations and the late awarding
of contracts, contractors were hard-pressed to meet annual
departure deadlines for boats and barges to Alaska. In addition,
there was insufficient time for the facilities to be factory
completed and tested to the extent initially envisioned.
Both facilities had to be completed after shipment in
sub-zero weather under extremely adverse circumstances (Fig. 10).
FI6-10 Central Community Facility under Construction.
26
-------
These circumstances resulted in significant increases in costs
due to penalties accruing from emergency purchases, shipments,
overtime labor, etc.
A valuable lesson has been learned from the construction and
initial operation of the two demonstration projects. Any full-scale
program to provide si mi liar facilities in other native villages
must recognize the importance of (1) careful scheduling to take full
advantage of the short annual construction season, (2) careful
preparation of comprehensive statements of work and bid documents,
(3) modularized construction techniques to reduce field labor and
construction costs, and (4) complete involvement of the village
natives in the design, construction, and operation to assure
village acceptance.
A proposed time schedule for additional projects must consider
a year for design and a year to manufacture, test, and install.
In that way, a first class project can be assured and full use
be made of the short two to three month construction period in
Northern Alaska.
Operator Training
Thorough preparation of local personnel to operate and main-
tain project facilities was recognized as an essential ingredient
of the project from the outset. Because of the small scale and
the sophisticated nature of the prototype installations, various
standard courses offered for water and sewage works operators
were considered inappropriate. Special efforts were made to design
a training program of sequence and content which would take into
27
-------
account the unique background of the Eskimo participants and the
unique requirements of the installation. In the process, the
basis has been laid for training of additional personnel for
similar facilities in the future.
The result of the training effort has been gratifying. Current
operating experience has shown that the men selected as operators
have performed with unusual dedication and demonstrated sound
technical "know-how." They have met a number of serious emer-
gencies, analyzed and corrected the problems, and started up
the operation again with only minimal assistance.
Early in 1971, under the guidance of the project advisor,
the City Councils each selected and appointed two men for train-
ing. In both villages, the team turned out to consist of a manager
who was older and had some experience with engines and machinery,
and a younger less-experienced assistant. Selection criteria did not
call for any specific level of formal education. It did stress
evidence of efforts towards self-education, reliability, stability
in the management of personal and family affairs, and willingness to
stick with the job.
The four men, Donald Redfox and Ambrose Shorty from Enmonak
and Charles Nayakik and Larry Bodfish from Wainwright, were made
temporary EPA employees with pay received only during periods of
training. After one year at WG-1, they were promoted to WG-5.
Manpower Development Training Funds under the Public Service
Career Plan in the amount of $17,600 were made available to pay
for travel, training supplies, and occasional services of other
28
-------
than EPA instructors.
To date, training has consisted of an intermittent in-house
program of formal instruction, laboratory practice, participation
in all aspects of facility construction, and on-the-job training,
as follows:
Phase I - Initial Orientation: Two weeks at the Arctic
Environmental Research Laboratory in Fairbanks (August 1971).
An intensive course in physical-chemical treatment of water
and waste including a review of basic physics, chemistry,
arithmetic, and stressing an understanding of sanitation theory
(Fig. 11). Laboratory sessions in which water treatment was
demonstrated, water quality analyzed, and where trainees practiced
process monitoring tests constituted the core of the course. Also,
FIG-11 Plant Operators at Emmonak - Donald Redfox and Ambrose
Shorty, Plant Operators Trainees from Emmonak are
learning how to perform coliform monitoring tests under
the guidance of Dr. Ronald Gordon at the Arctic Environ-
mental Research Laboratory in Fairbanks.
29
-------
the trainees received instruction and practice in maintenance
and repair of machinery and equipment such as washing machines,
dryers, pumps, valves, and small engines.
Phase II - Construction and Installation: (April - September
1972).
A two-week review of topics and skills covered during Phase I
was followed by full participation of the trainees in the installation
of machinery equipment, plumbing, and wiring in the facility modules
before they were shipped to the village sites. Depending on
construction schedules, these factory visits were of five to ten
weeks duration. Spare time was occupied by visits to water and waste
treatment plants in the vicinity of the factory; by disassembly and
reassembly of machinery components; and review of blueprints,
schematics, and operating manuals.
Phase III - On-the-job-Training: (October 1972 - Present).
Systems checkout, trial operation, and on-the-job training was
conducted over a six-month period (Fig. 12). Operating instructions
were reviewed in detail. Service and maintenance schedules were
worked out. Assisted by the project advisor and the village councils,
the operators conducted orientation meetings for village residents
and provided tours of the plant to encourage appropriate use of
the facility. EPA personnel visited each site on a scheduled basis
to work with operators on the day-to-day problems they encountered.
Final evaluation of the training program can only come with
long-term operation of the plants; however, at this point, all
30
-------
FIG-12 Emmonak distribution and collection vehicle - Messrs
Redfox and Shorty are repairing a Ranger tracked
vehicle which is used for water distribution and waste
pickup.
indicators are good. The limited formal education of the operators
(third grade, in one case) has been of minor consequence. Good
image memory skill and an unusual aptitude for improvising appear
to have more than compensated for lack of formal education. So
far, the men have demonstrated initiative, imagination, and dedi-
cation in running the two plants during this initial period of
shakedown and winter operation.
Additional training is required and intended. Electric control
circuits need more coverage, water treatment chemistry must be
better understood, and each operator should eventually be able
to pass both the water supply and wastewater treatment plant
operator certification examinations.
31
-------
On the basis of the training experience gained, assistance
in village operator training has been requested by the Alaska
Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC). The ADEC is
designing a number of facilities similar to the AVDP installations
in conjunction with the construction of new village schools.
Well-trained men to operate these facilities will be essential.
Villagers are more effectively trained in a village than in
an urban setting. Errmonak and Wainwright could well acconmodate
groups of operator apprentices, with the demonstration plants
serving as training cores.
Educational Programs
The legislative Act suggests that educational and informational
programs related to health and hygiene be established. Observa-
tions made in the course of working with villagers on site
selection, design formulation, and in training facility operators
indicates that natives are quite health conscious and that they
will readily adopt more hygienic ways of doing things when the
opportunity is there. Young people have become used to modern
standards while away at school or in the service. Older folks
have had similar exposure while at hospitals or on visits to
Anchorage and Fairbanks. It is apparent that they do understand
the need for the kinds of services which the AVDP facilities
provide and appreciate them. Working mainly through the plant
operators, the Project Advisor and the USPHS Sanitarians will
continue to provide pertinent information on health and environ-
mental practices. A more complete program of health education in
-------
relationship to the AVDP facilities will be developed to further
enhance the villagers' understanding of the reasons for their
application.
Participation of Other Agencies
In previous paragraphs, the cooperation of other agencies has
been mentioned. The basic legislation for AVDP provided for
cooperation and coordination, by agreement, with the State of Alaska
and the U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. These
agreements were made, and in the case of HEW, resulted in substantial
contribution to the facility at Wainwright by the U. S. Public
Health Service, Alaska Area Native Health Service. The Alaska
Area Native Health Service offered to participate in the project
at Wainwright by constructing a 1,000,000 gallon raw water storage
tank at an approximate cost of $300,000 (Fig. 13). The same office
FIG-13 Wainwright Water Supply Storage - 1,000,000 gal. tank
provided by the Public Health Service.
33
-------
1s also providing tracked vehicles and necessary equipment for
water delivery and waste collection in the village.
By agreement with the Bureau of Indian Affairs, utiliducts will
be constructed in Enmonak and Wainwright to provide water and sanita-
tion service to the BIA schools. For the Wainwright plant, BIA
has made available a standby 50KW generator.
In order to have some formal planning input from other pertinent
state and Federal Government agencies, an ad hoc working committee
as previously outlined, was organized. Members of the committee were
knowledgeable about village conditions, needs, and regulatory
functions. They were also involved in the actual provision of
facilities and services in the villages. The participating agencies
offered data and expertise in addition to reviewing the AVDP staff
work and recommendations. They also reviewed preliminary plans
from contractors and provided informal concurrence in the concepts
finally selected.
Other organizations and agencies who were consulted and
contributed in project planning were the Alaska Federation of
Natives, the Associated Village Council Presidents, the State Local
Affairs Agency (now the Department of Community and Regional Affairs),
the Alaska State Housing Authority, the University of Alaska, the
Naval Arctic Research Laboratory at Barrow, the Arctic Health
Research Center, the North Slope Native Association, VISTA,
RURALCAP, Alaska Legal Services, and the Conrnunity Enterprise
Development Corporation.
34
-------
This exercise in interagency consultation led to a fuller
recognition of the complexity of coordinating the many programs
and projects concerned with Alaska native village. Each project
and program affects the other. Jurisdictions, authorities, and
mandates are always partial and sometimes these programs overlap.
Theoretically, complementary projects often do not meet and leave
embarrassing gaps. Administrators and project staffs may have the
best intentions of cooperating and they usually do. However, annual
appropriation cycles preclude entering into the kind of firm
commitments which would be essential to real coordination.
In the final analysis, despite sincere intentions, cooperation
usually happens by chance. This stumbling block must be resolved
before a successful statewide program can be implemented. In the
hope of alleviating these problems, new State/Federal legislation
will be investigated during the development of recommendations
"relating to the establishment of a statewide program."
35
-------
SECTION IV
DESCRIPTION OF FACILITIES
Facilities provided at both Emmonak and Wainwright are quite
similar. A general description is given here while a more complete
description will be available upon submission and approval of the
individual contract final report from each contractor.
Modular units, which can be transported by C-130 "Hercules"
aircraft, form the structure of the facilities and were placed on
foundations appropriate for the location (Fig. 14). The buildings,
when completely assembled, provide about 2000 gross square feet of
space. About half of this area is used by the public; the rest is
utilized for process equipment and tankage. In addition, each
facility has an attached drive-through section where vehicles used
FIG-14 Building modules for Wainwright - The twelve building
modules which comprise the Wainwright facility during
assembly at Lacey, Washington.
37
-------
for home delivery of water and pickup of waste materials are loaded,
unloaded, and maintained. Fuel storage tanks are located some
distance from the structure for safety. Dikes and appropriate
liners surround fuel tanks to prevent environmental damage in
the event of tank rupture.
The modular units housing the Emmonak plant have dimensions of
iJ'xQ'xSS1. They were provided by Porta Kamp in Houston, Texas.
The modules comprising the Wainwright installation measure 9'x9'xl91.
They were built by Mobile Modules Northwest, Inc. at Lacey,
Washington. Exterior walls, the roof, and the floor are appropriately
insulated, and the structures are designed for seismic zone 1.
Interfacing between modules is sealed so that with final assembly
on site the facility appears to be a single integral structure.
At Wainwright, prebuilt trusses were used to provide a single
roof over the entire assembly which also furnished additional
unheated storage space (Fig. 15). The foundation for the Wainwright
facility consists of drilled-in piling which was placed and
"frozen back" into the permafrost prior to arrival of the modules
on site.(5) This foundation is fully exposed to atmospheric
temperatures to maintain the integrity of the permafrost.
At Emrionak, no additional roof over the assembled modules
was provided (Fig. 16). Storage space was made available by on-
site construction of a small, un-insulated shed. No permafrost
was found to exist at Ermonak and bearing capacity of the soil
was determined to be very low. Consequently, the foundation for
this structure is composed of a timber mat upon which rests steel
-------
FIG-15 Central Community Facility, Wainwright - Note vertical
fuel tanks in the background.
FIG-16 Central Community Facility, Emmonak - Note drainage problems
in the village during Spring.
39
-------
framework to support the building. Skirting was provided to shield
the soil beneath the building from the extreme winter cold and
thereby reduce movement of the structure by frost heaving.(6)
The processes housed by the structures are water supply treat-
ment, wastewater treatment, human waste disposal, household waste
disposal, and heating. Personal sanitation facilities are toilets,
lavatories, drinking fountains, laundry, showers and sauna bath
(Fig. 17).
In order to reduce the operating costs, these several functions
are integrated to recover reusable byproducts wherever possible,
usually in the form of waste heat.
Utiliducts are used to provide water delivery and waste
collection for the BIA school in each village. These are corrugated
metal pipes with urethane foam insulation and plastic pipe
liners to house the actual supply and return pipes and to protect
them from the weather (Fig. 18). Heat traces are provided to
permit wanning of the utili duct, if necessary, during severe
cold conditions. Under normal conditions, pipes within the
utiliduct are kept dry by vacuum or by air purging and are thereby
protected from rupture by freezing. Sumps and tanks located in
the BIA facility are used to hold the water or wastewater between
periods of operation of the utiliduct.
Utiliducts are also used to house the intake and outfall lines
for the central utility. Where possible, services to and from BIA
are mutually contained.
40
-------
I5'0'
S6V
36*0'
Qvfrtteod poor
Treatment Ar*o
Wastewater Tr«atm#n» Ar«a
Souno
Tot*
Tub
Looting
Dock
Hot Wator
Tank
Grey
Row
Orivo Thru Aroo
Tank
Mark
Extra
Combustion & M*eboAieol Arto
t*r
Future
Future Incinerator
Air - Air Hoot
Tank
Cwd
FIG-17 Floor Plan for Central Community Facility at Wainwright
-------
FIG-18 Utiliduct at Emmonak - The BIA School will tie into the
Central Community Facility via the duct in summer 1973.
Water for the Emnonak project is taken from Kwiguk Pass, one
of many sloughs forming the Yukon River Delta. This water is of
fair sanitary quality during winter, but carries a heavy silt load
during spring and summer runoff periods.
A water treatment plant manufactured by Keystone Engineering
in Seattle, Washington, purifies the river water for use (Fig. 19).
After tempering the water to a temperature of between 50° and 60°F,
it is pumped through the treatment process which adds chemicals
for coagulation of suspended matter which is then removed by
sedimentation and sand filtration. Chlorine is added as a disin-
fectant. This equipment is sized to produce about 12,000 gallons
per day of potable water for use in the facility, for delivery to
homes, or for use at the school.
42
-------
Chemical
Addition &
Mixing
Distribution
Sand
Filtration
Flocculation & <
Sedimentation -5
Clearwell
(Storage)
Raw
Water
Water Heater &
Storage Tanks
Home
Delivery
Showers
V \
Drinking
Fountains
~
School
Sludge to Wastewater
Treatment Unit
FIG-19 Typical Potable Water Treatment Plant (Schematic)
-------
No river water is accessible at Wainwright so water is
pumped from a small tundra lake about 9,000 feet from the village.
An insulated storage tank of 1,000,000 gallon capacity was
provided by the U. S. Public Health Service to contain the water
throughout the cold season (September through June). A year-
round supply was not feasible since the lakes in the area are
all shallow and freeze up to full depth during the winter.
Treatment applied at Wainwright is virtually identical to that
described earlier for Enmonak.
Performance specifications for the water supply process were
based upon population, per capita requirements, and available
supply. In consultation with the communities, it was decided
that five gallons per capita per day is an adequate supply in the
homes if bathing and laundry are done at the village facility and
if water is not used for toilet flushing. It was decided that
five to ten gallons will provide an adequate shower and that
individuals would probably shower twice weekly. The BIA school
1s expected to use large quantities of water. Allotment of
1000 gallons per day for the school at Wainwright and 1500 gallons
per day for the Enmonak school can be summarized as 250 gallons
per teacher per day. This amount includes the water used by all
school facilities and not the teachers alone. Laundering equipment
was provided on the basis of an estimated three loads per family
per week.
44
-------
Daily Water Requirements (gal./day)
APPLICATION
EMMONAK
(500 Pop.)
(Gallons)
WAINWRIGHT
(375 Pop.)
(Gal Ions)
Personal home use @ 5 gpcd*
Showers (2 showers/person @ 3 gpcd
2500
1875
per week)
Laundry (2 loads laundry @ 1.5 gpcd
per family/week)
School (gal./day)
TOTAL
6250
1500
1500
750
4565
1000
1125
565**
*gpcd - gallons per capita daily.
**565 gal./day is recycled shower and laundry water.
Potable water treatment specifications required that the product
meet Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards.
To minimize water use and in keeping with the concept that it
is simpler to treat wastes only than to treat wastes and water in
mixture, low water use plumbing was specified throughout the
projects. Showers employ flow-limiting devices and toilets reuse
the flushing fluids up to one-hundred times. Human wastes collected
from toilets in the facilities and the contents of "honey buckets"
from the homes are incinerated.
Another water saving device is the sauna bath. Normally,
people tend to use showers as a place to soak and to warm up. The
sauna does not have this high water requirement and yet fulfills
the same need (Fig. 20). Residents of Emmonak have been bathing in
the kashim (an Eskimo equivalent of the sauna) for many years and
recognize its value. At Wainwright, where this has not been the
45
-------
FIG-20 Emmonak Villagers using sauna - Resting in the dressing room
after a hot sauna. Entrance to the sauna is in the rear.
custom, people will be given instruction and encouragement in the
use of the saunas in order to conserve water.
Backwash water from the water treatment process, shower water,
and laundry water from the facility is collected in small sumps
and pumped into a holding tank. From the holding tank, the
wastewater is metered at a constant rate through a filtration
device or centrifuge to remove large suspended particles and then
passed into the treatment plant (Fig. 21).
Wastewater treatment at Wainwright was designed by Environ-
mental Conditioners, Inc., of Vancouver, Washington. It consists
of chemical coagulation using lime in an upflow clarifier to
remove fine suspended materials and to coagulate and remove part
of the dissolved waste. In order to neutralize the alkalizing
46
-------
CHEMICAL
ADDITION &
MIXING
RECARBONIZATION
¦f*
iD in
DISTRIBUTION
RE-USE WATER
in in
SOLIDS
INCINERATOR
SLUDGE BACK
TO SCREEN
O u
z ;
x *
ft
SLUDGE FOR RE-TREATMENT
O
oe
«" G
in <
FIG-21 Wastewater Treatment Plant (Schematic)
WASTEWATER FROM:
»- HOMES
SHOWERS
LAUNDRY
_ OTHER PROCESSES
_ B I A
-------
effect of the lime, wastewater then passes through a redwood slat
recarbonization chamber where it is exposed to carbon dioxide gas
and brought to near neutral pH. These two treatment steps are
unique to the Wainwright project.
Further treatment continues with the wastewater being pumped
to another treatment unit similar to the water purification plant
which, by chemical coagulation; sedimentation; and filtration, removes
dissolved and suspended matter. Finally, the water passes
through a bed of activated carbon to remove organic compounds.
At this point, wastewater from the Enmonak facility is
returned to the river. At Wainwright where water in any
form is so scarce, the treated wastewater is stored for reuse in
the laundry. The treated wastewater which cannot be stored because
of limited storage volume is discharged to the ocean beach. A
portion of the wastewater must also be rejected routinely to
keep dissolved organic and inorganic compounds in water for reuse
at acceptable levels.
Wastewater treatment equipment equal in capacity to that for
potable water was required since any discharge must be treated
to State standards.
Solid wastes are of two basic types: human and other patho-
logical wastes and household wastes such as paper, cans, and
garbage. Human wastes within the central community facilities
are collected from the low-water-use toilets and kept separate
from laundry and shower wastewaters. At Wainwright, collection
is done by vacuum. At Emmonak, it is accomplished by gravity.
-------
These wastes are combined with the "honey bucket" wastes collected
in vehicles from the residences and sludges from treatment plants.
This material is then fed into the pathological incinerator for
complete destruction (Fig. 22).
Trash collected from homes in Wainwright is put directly into
the incinerator at the facility. This incineratoi^was built by
Wasteco, Inc. Bottles and cans which are separated from other
trash in the homes and ashes from the facility are transported to
a disposal site.
Specification of solid waste disposal equipment was based upon
anticipated loadings and the requirements to meet State emission
standards. Loadings totaling 3 lb. per capita per day including
human wastes were judged to approximate current conditions.
Incinerators were sized to handle slightly larger loads.
Trash collected from the homes in Emmonak will be compacted
and incinerated utilizing a BURN-ZOL Incinerator with heat recovery
equipment. The human wastes will be mascerated and then dewatered
utilizing a centrifuge. The solids will then be incinerated and
the remaining liquid portion will be given physical/chemical
treatment as described previously.
Energy conservation is the key which locks the several processes
into an integrated system for it is energy, fuel, or heat that is
of primary economic concern. The cold climate requires that the
water be heated to prevent freezing.
Fuel is required for both heating and incineration. Heating
is required for water tempering for optimum treatment, water
49
-------
Waste Heat Used In:
Building ^
Ut i I iduct-^
Clothes Dryer-
Saunas
a
w
a o
> 6
Wet" Wastes From
Home "Honey" Buckets'
School Toilets
Process Sludges
Ash to Land
Disposal
Combustion
Gasses & Heat
Dry Refuse & Garbage From:
Central Facilities, School,
Homes
>C02 For
i
Wastewater
Treatment
Secondary Burner
-For Pollution
Control
Fuel Oil &
Electrical
Inputs
FIG-22 Schematic of Incinerator Process
-------
heating for showers and laundry, clothes dryers, sauna baths, and
space heat.
In order to reduce the apparent extravagance of incineration,
heat exchangers were designed into the equipment. The heat exchangers
were integrated in such a way that the incinerator can normally
provide heating requirements. Only at times of extreme cold or
no waste load is the auxiliary heating equipment needed.
The recarbonation chamber of the Wainwright wastewater treat-
ment plant draws flue gas from the incinerator as a source of
carbon dioxide and thus provides further integration. "Waste"
heat from the incinerator is used in the clothes dryers and saunas.
A special-purpose oil, circulated through heat exchangers, is the
heat transfer medium in the facility.
51
-------
SECTION V
OPERATION OF FACILITIES
The Emnonak plant became partially operational in November
1972. It is providing potable water, laundering and bathing
service, and treatment of wastewaters. The facility is receiving
heavy use, especially the saunas. The human waste and treatment
sludge disposal component of the Emmonak facility remains to be
installed.
In December 1972, it was discovered that the hot water storage
tank was defective. This resulted in rusty water output. An interim
solution was provided by installing a rust filter in the hot water
line. During the 1973 construction season, all tanks will be glass
lined to prevent further occurrence of this type of problem. On
two occasions, power failures caused the river intake and part of
the utiliduct to freeze up. The system was made operational again
within a few days of each power failure.
Delay associated with transportation of the modular components
and equipment to Wainwright resulted in a later opening of that
facility to the public. Official opening of the facility occurred
in February 1973.
Except for distribution of water and collection and disposal of
wastes produced in homes, the Wainwright facility performs all
planned functions. The USPHS expects to make the tracked vehicles
available for use in waste collection and water distribution during
the summer of 1973. Also, arrangements have been made whereby the
53
-------
Alaska State Housing Authority will install circulating toilets
and waste and water-holding tanks in 25 recently completed village
homes.
Within the Wainwright facility, the wastewater treatment/
recycle components are clearly the most complex and vulnerable
sub-system of the facility. It was quickly learned that under
hard use certain components such as pumps and solids removal
equipment have certain idiosyncrasies that must be respected.
Automatic controls also proved to require regular attention in
order to avoid temporary malfunction.
The lack of reliable power systems in both villages can be
singled out as the one factor having an adverse effect on continuity
of operation. At Wainwright, where the city power system is rather
makeshift, AVDP has provided an alternative source at considerable
cost. In the interest of economy and reliability, future projects
of this nature should consider self-contained power supplies.
Another very important consideration in both of these projects
has been the absence of a satisfactory communication system.
Radio and telephone contact with the villages under the existing
systems is dominated by atmospheric and climatologic phenomena
which frequently interrupt communication for extended periods of
time. Although the operators are fairly well prepared for routine
operation of their facilities, there have been numerous occasions
on which communication with other project personnel has been
imperative but impossible.
54
-------
SECTION VI
EVALUATION OF FACILITIES
The two partially completed installations are in the process
of final systems shakedown and startup operations. The project
staff, at this time, has only an intuitive understanding of the
strengths and weaknesses of the installations and the component
systems. A discussion of these, at this time, would be too specu-
lative to be included in this report.
Process monitoring has begun. Data is being accumulated on
facility use, energy input, efficiencies, etc. EPA will present a
full analysis of such information and a comprehensive evaluation
of the suitability of the demonstration facilities in serving
their intended purpose after one year of full operation. The
following list of items to be monitored is typical of the type of
data which will be collected and analyzed for the AVDP facilities:
I. Fuel Consumption
A. Auxiliary Boiler
B. Incinerator
1. Secondary
2. Waste Primary
3. Sludge Primary
C. Electric Generators
1. 50-KW
2. 12-KW
II. Water (Potable)
A. Monthly Quality Analysis
B. Volumes Used
1. Home Delivery
2. Showers (in plant)
3. BIA
C. Materials Used
III. Water (Recycle)
A. Monthly Quality Analysis
B. Volumes
55
-------
1. Laundry
2. To Beach
C. Materials Used
IV. Electric Consumption
A. Heating - Aux. Boiler & Circulation Pump
B. Incineration
C. Water Treatment
D. Wastewater Treatment
E. Total Output of Generators
V. Graywater In
A. Homes (from Vehicles)
B. Laundry
C. BIA
VI. Human Waste Processed
A. BIA
B. Faci 1 i ty
C. Homes
D. Total
VII. Temperature Records
A. Outside - continuous
B. In Large Water Tank - continuous
C. In utiliduct
1. At "Y" Branch
2. At BIA
3. At AVDP
4. At Outfall
VIII. Operator Time
A. Maintenance
B. Operati on
C. Vehicles
IX. Vehicle Records
A. Fuel - each vehicle or trailer
B. Hours of operation - each unit
C. Maintenance
1. Time
2. Cost
X. Income
A. Laundry
B. Showers
C. Saunas
D. Home
1. Water
2. Wastewater
56
-------
3. Solid Waste
4. Human Waste
E. BIA
1. Water
2. Wastewater
3. Human Waste
4. Solid Waste
F. Subsidy
1. EPA
2. PHS
3. BIA
4. Other
XI. Expenses
A. Salaries, wages, etc.
B. Fuel
1. Vehicles
2. Project
C. Supplies and Materials
XII. Fire System
A. Record of incidents
B. Materials Used
FIG-23 Saunas at Emmonak - At Emmonak, saunas are in higher demand
than showers. The village council charges $1.00 per bath.
Proceeds from saunas, showers, washers, dryers, and water
sales are used to pay attendants and to meet incidental
operating expenses.
57
-------
Recipient Appraisal
Villagers' attitude towards the community utilities center
concept, especially to the water supply; bathing; and laundering
aspects, has been highly positive (Fig. 23). Local appraisal of
the recently completed installations, however, is in understandably
tentative terms. Service has been partial and intermittent thus
far. Local attitude, therefore, remains largely one of positive
anti cipation.
At both locations, the need for safe water is more strongly
felt than the requirement for safe methods of human waste disposal.
At Emmonak, the saunas and dryers are in high demand. In
January, a power failure resulted in the freeze-up of the water
intake. The City Council mustered 160 hours of volunteer labor to
make the plant operational again. This kind of involvement reflects
the villagers' attitude and commitment.
At Wainwright, reservations have been raised about the practi-
cality of a vehicular water distribution and waste collection system
on bare tundra. Until village streets are further improved, vehicular
service there may have to be suspended during the short summer.
Village leaders have expressed concern that the operating and
maintenance (0&M) costs for the plants will substantially exceed
local resources. Investigations of this problem by EPA staff
indicate that this concern is justified and requires major decis-
ions on ownership and responsibility for covering 0&M costs for the
foreseeable future.
58
-------
Project Costs
Under Section 113(d) of P.L. 92-500, "There is authorized to
be appropriated not to exceed $2,000,000 to carry out this section."
The original legislation (Section 20, P.L. 91-224} "authorized to
be appropriated not to exceed $1,000,000."
Of the original $1,000,000, $600,000 was appropriated in
Fiscal Year 1971 and the remaining $400,000 was appropriated in
Fiscal Year 1972. These funds were utilized for the facility design
and construction contracts. It is anticipated that about $250,000
will be utilized for the design and construction of the third project
during Fiscal Year 1974.
Project costs escalated during development and construction
due to delays, inflated material and equipment costs, increased
labor costs, etc. Each increase was examined carefully and was
determined necessary. It is now felt that project concept and
costs are compatible.
Final costs must await EPA acceptance and the final audit.
Current contract costs as of May 1, 1973 are as follows:
Wainwright
Initial Design
Final Design and Construction
52,919
508,550
TOTAL $561,469
Emmonak
Initial Design
Final Design and Construction
63,722
514 ^2
TOTAL $678*054
Third Design
Initial Design
60,223
TOTAL AVDP $1 ,199,756
59
-------
It Is very important to recognize that the demonstration
projects are totally EPA facilities and as such must be supported
100% by EPA and not by the villages. Operation and evaluation of
these demonstration projects is an enormous job. Without the
full-scale demonstration, new or improved technology would never
have advanced to the point where the villages themselves and other
government agencies can implement an operational program.
Congress should recognize that the cost of the demonstration
program is necessarily greater than an actual "product!on-type"
program because of the planning, design, and evaluation costs
associated with experimental facilities. It is also to be
recognized that inflation of materials, labor, and services
could offset the development costs resulting in the "production-
type" projects to cost approximately the same as the demonstration
projects.
The "Third Design" project should also give a better overall
estimate of the economic impact, since its design village size of
75-125 population represents the size of approximately one-half of
the native villages.
At this time, the facilities have not been fully "shaken-down"
nor has there been time to evaluate the technical operation or
operating costs. A discussion of these aspects will be included
in a progress report available by July 1, 1974.
60
-------
Institutional Considerations
An appropriate institutional framework for the planning,
construction, operation, and maintenance of small utility systems
in rural Alaska does not exist. Whereas communities are generally
expected to be self-sufficient in this regard, Alaskan villages
are too small; too isolated from centers of supply; and too devoid
of economic base to be able to manage any but the most makeshift
utilities on their own.(7) The long-term viability of bonafide
utility systems in Alaska villages, therefore, will depend on the
establishment of mechanisms at the state-wide or regional level to
provide support services.(8)
The precedents for this exist. An REA supported Alaska
Village Electric Cooperative attempts to meet the need for operat-
ing support in reference to power systems. The Bureau of Indian
Affairs and the Alaska State Operated School System share fiscal
responsibility for village schools. The Indian Health Service
provides medical care. In relation to water supply and waste
disposal, neither the legal authority nor the financial resources
for an.operation support mechanism appear to exist.
Enactment of the Village Safe Water Act (AS46.07.010-080) by
the Alaska State Legislature in 1970 and passage of a three million
dollar bond issue for the construction of village water and waste
processing facilities constitute initial efforts on the part of the
State in reference to village utilities. Implementation of the
Act has been delayed because of the lack of resources for its
administration.
-------
In March 1972 partly as a result of close liaison between
Alaska Village Demonstration Project staff and the Alaska Department
of Environmental Conservation, an amended version of the Village Safe
Water Act was introduced in the State legislature as HB.719. It
was not enacted in 1972, nor was it reintroduced in 1973. It would
have authorized the Alaska Commissioner of Environmental Conser-
vation to play a direct role in all phases of rural water and waste
utility service administration. It would have constituted a
significant first step towards the creation of the necessary
supportive mechanisms.
Concern at the State agency level over the problem of how to
provide appropriate service and to meet increasingly strict environ-
mental protection standards is currently high. In late 1972, the
Governor's Environmental Advisory Board recommended that the State
Commissioner of Environmental Conservation prepare a staff paper
to define the specific problems in water supply and sewage disposal
systems in Alaska and then recommend a series of actions to solve
these problems. At the invitation of the Commissioner, a group
of 23 key representatives of Federal and State agencies,
including AVDP staff, addressed themselves to these issues in a
two-day seminar. The participants easily identified the problems.
A wide range of opinions emerged on how they should be solved.
The findings of the conferees are being summarized in a Department
of Environmental Conservation Research Report and will be presented
to the Governor's Environmental Advisory Board in the near future.
62
-------
The potential for the formation of regional inter-village
support organizations also exists. One alternative is through the
formation of additional boroughs roughly equivalent to a county in
the lower 48 states, and subsequent transfer of powers related
to utilities from all member municipalities to the borough.
With the exception of the communities on the North Slope, this does
not appear to be an immediate prospect. Aspirants to boroughship
must demonstrate financial responsibility and then face strong, legal
challenges from groups representing the potential tax base.
Wainwright is one of five member cities of the recently-
created North Slope Borough. At the time of reporting, the formation
of this borough is still being contested by oil interests. If the
borough can manage to establish itself firmly and if it succeeds
in collecting taxes at proposed rates, then the fiscal resources
may be available to support operation and maintenance of the
Wainwright Central Community Facility and of plants similar to it
in all five member villages. The oil discoveries on the North
Slope, however, make the situation there unique. There is little
foreseeable prospect that such boroughs can be formed in other
predominantly rural areas.
A second alternative is for the Alaska State Legislature to
exercise its discretionary power, under the State Constitution,(9)
of establishing service areas within the unorganized borough to
provide the institutional framework required. Within such a service
area, transfer of powers to the legislature from villages which are
-------
already incorporated would seem no more of a problem than in the
case of such a transfer to the borough assembly in the organized
boroughs.
The unorganized borough is essentially an instrumentality of
the State over which the State legislature has the powers of
government which the borough assemblies exercise in the organized
boroughs. To date, the State legislature has chosen not to act in
reference to the unorganized borough. In effect, the areas in
respect to "local powers" have not been governed.
A third alternative is to authorize and encourage regional
native Corporations (required by the Alaska Native Land Claims
Settlement Act) to assume responsibility for utility services by
utilizing proceeds from the Claims Act to subsidize utilities
operation. Potential adverse affects of this alternative should
be carefully considered.
Since the native regional corporations are responsible to
their native stockholders only, their control over rural utilities
could lead to further polarization of natives and non-natives in
the bush. Encouragement leading to dispersal of proceeds from the
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act to provide services, instead of
their investment in interest or profit-earning enterprise, is
considered by many to be fiscally unsound counsel.
Settlement benefits could be dissipated rapidly if they
were applied toward meeting substantial service needs. Assuming
a final Alaska Native enrollment of 75,000 persons, a total benefit
64
-------
consumption policy would result in an average annual per capita
Income of $640 for a period of 20 years. A constant pay out invest-
ment model could be expected to yield $560 per person each year in
perpetuity. (10)
In consideration of the very low level of economic development
in the bush, competing demands for this or some intermediate yield
will be tremendous. Skillful fiscal management and management of
the lands which are part of the settlement may increase the total
resources available to some regional corporations. These resources
could serve as "seed", leading towards development of a firmer
economic base.
It should be noted that the Canadian Territorial Governments
are providing community water and sanitation services in the Yukon
and Northwest Territories. A review of Canadian reports indicates
that the Territorial Governments are assuming primary responsibility
for provision of such services In both tax-based and unorganized
coninunltles. The Government of the Northwest Territories has gone
much further in defining service standards than the Federal or
State governments have in the United States. With anti-pollution
requirements less stringent in Canada, provision of waste treatment
facilities has been given less emphasis there.
A recent document of the Department of Local Government,
Government of the Northwest Territories, reviews the history of
water and sanitation policy for small communities 1n the Canadian
North and proposes broad revisions.(11)
65
-------
In the final analysis, it is not overly important who actually
owns the facilities. The real question centers on the locus of
responsibility for providing operating and maintenance resources.
Unfavorable native reaction to the externally owned and controlled
institutions such as the BIA schools, State-operated schools, and
Native Service Hospitals suggests that the owner should be the village.
This conclusion is only valid in conjunction with a reliable
financial plan for operation. The long-term goal, therefore, will
be to implement a viable program of O&M and to transfer ownership
to the municipalities.
Environmental Impact
The AVDP program includes demonstration of the acceptable tech-
nology and the development of recommendations for a statewide plan.
Therefore, both aspects of the AVDP program on environmental quality
will be delineated during the remainder of the program.
66
-------
SECTION VII
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
Additional Project Design
Interest for this program has been high throughout the
planning and construction phases. As a result of discussions
with members of Congress, the need for projects demonstrating
facilities for much smaller villages became apparent. Consequently,
a third design contract was negotiated with Stefano & Associates
of Anchorage, Alaska, from among the six originally qualified proposers.
This project will utilize many of the developments and
features from the first two; and, in addition, would take full
advantage of system integration for energy savings. This project
will be coordinated with the Department of Housing and Urban
Development Modular Sized Integrated Utility System Program. The
project will use waste energy from electrical power generation to
heat the entire facility. In addition, potable water and wastewater
will be treated by a unique evaporative process with some reuse of
water in non-potable functions. Further efficiencies in pre-
fabricated module use are expected.
Integration of Small Utility Systems
Literature of public health and environmental engineering
fields relating to the Arctic and sub-Arctic contains numerous
arguments for providing adequate central power, communication,
water supply, waste disposal, improved housing, and the like, as
67
-------
prerequisites to improving health among residents of remote
northern communities. Attempts to provide these requirements
have typically been based upon direct application of conventional
temperate climate technology to the arctic with the reinforcement
of large sums of money. In spite of numerous attempts to provide
these services, successful projects are far outnumbered by
failures or partial failures even in relatively wealthy communi-
ties such as Fairbanks and Anchorage.
Abandonment of obviously inadequate technology is indicated
as a first step in accelerating progress in far northern communities.
Non-conventional processes are available for application which
have previously been used in isolated and unusual cases. Indica-
tions are that the non-conventional approach stands a better
chance of success in Northern Alaska.
The Department of Housing and Urban Development has initiated
a study of Modular Integrated Utility Systems (MIUS) which would
have broad application. Long range implications are that such
systems can be applicable nationwide.
Unit processes have inherent limitations or efficiencies
which dominate their acceptability and applicability. Skillful
Integration of unit processes into a single system has the effect
of increasing the efficiency of each sub-system. For example,
when electricity 1s generated for a remote community 1n Alaska by
dlesel generators (efficiency about 40X) power costs are about 15tf
to ZOt per KWHr. Home heating plants range in efficiency between
68
-------
70% and 85%. If power generation and home heating are integrated,
system efficiency may approach 95%. This could be done by salvaging
the heat by-product of electric generation for use in home heating.
This 1s an oversimplification of the MIUS concept, but the example
is valid, as the Integrated system is more efficient than both
of the sub-systems.
When the MIUS approach is used on a total utility scale for
any given community, services are possible which otherwise would
be unobtainable. It is simpler and more efficient to control
pollution from a single source than it is from a number of smaller
sources.
By employing non-conventional sub-systems 1n the MIUS approach,
other advantages may be realized. For example, conventional waste
treatment is based upon water carried sewage which can be effective-
ly treated for removal of pollutants, but at very high cost.
Non-conventional sub-systems such as demonstrated in AVDP not
only use very little water, but wastes are treated 1n such a way
as to totally prevent water pollution and simultaneously recover
some of the thermal energy released 1n their destruction. Moreover,
the expense of conduits for transmission of large quantities of
water and wastewater 1s greatly reduced by lowering water usages.
MIUS should be developed to take maximum advantage of local
resources while simultaneously conserving natural resources. An
example of this would be the use of coal as the primary energy
source where it is locally available (e.g. Wa1nwr1ght). In some
69
-------
locations this would have the additional beneficial result of
strengthening the local economy.
MIUS has great potential for application, but nowhere does it
seem more applicable than in the far north. The economies it
promises may be the single most important factor in providing
needed environmental health and environmental protection services
which have previously failed.
Future Activities
The goal of AVDP is to develop and demonstrate the technology
necessary for providing central community utility facilities for
the native villages. The "systems" approach will be extensively
employed in optimizing energy investment in facility operation.
Based upon demonstrated technology, recommendations for a
statewide program shall be submitted to Congress. Close coordination
with the State of Alaska will be required before any recommendations
are made.
Evaluation including operation and maintenance of the
facilities at Wainwright and Emmonak will continue for approxi-
mately one year with the goal of turning the facility over to the
villages. Hopefully, the facilities can be maintained by EPA
until they can be turned over to a responsible governmental body.
Prior to construction of a facility based on the third design,
a village will be selected and residents will be asked to partici-
pate 1n review and finalIzation. A construction contract will be
awarded for the third central community facility. Native operators
70
-------
will be trained. This facility will be built and a one year
evaluation will be conducted. Implementation of this third
design facility is very important to successful compliance with
the Act requirements.
The only alternate strategy which has been suggested would
transfer the entire program to either the State of Alaska or to
the HEW-PHS-Indian Health Service (IHS) for implementation. This
alternate is not considered feasible since EPA has the legislative
mandate to conduct this program. Further, neither the State of
Alaska nor IHS is equipped to conduct evaluation studies as
presently envisioned. Continued and expanded cooperation through
Interagency Agreements will be utilized by EPA to successfully
complete this program.
EPA will continue work on alternative approaches to develop
a statewide program 1n conjunction with State and other Federal
agencies while completing the optimization of the central comnunity
fac11 i ti es.
This work will require the development of the costs and benefits
associated with a statewide program including consideration of
alternative means of financing the capital and operating costs of
these facilities.
No special technical problems need resolution at this time.
It should be emphasized that these are demonstration projects;
and, as such, technical problems are to be expected and
must be solved. Integration of the existing technology, under
extreme climatic conditions, 1s the principal challenge of this
program.
71
-------
EPA will continue to coordinate this program with the State
of Alaska, the Indian Health Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs,
and the local native villages and regional corporations.
Discussions with Congress will be needed to formulate the future
direction of the program.
This program will be coordinated with the Department of
Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy and Research.
It is anticipated that our AVDP program can provide spinoff of
technology into the HUD Modular Integrated Utilities Systems (MIUS)
program. The mechanism for conducting additional work related
to the EPA/HUD Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for MIUS is the
preparation of individual supplements to the basic MOU. Speci-
fically, Supplement Number Two has been consummated to obtain
financial and technical assistance for consideration of MIUS
concepts in the third project.
72
-------
SECTION VIII
REFERENCES
1. Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska;
Alaska Natives and the Land; Anchoraqe, Alaska; October 1968,
2. ibid. p. 12.
3. All population data is derived from Federal Field Committee for
Development Planning in Alaska, Villages in Alaska and Other
Places having a Native Population of 25 or More, Estimates, 1967,
Anchorage, 1967.
4. Report of the National Academy of Sciences on the AVDP.
5. Permafrost is defined as any perennially frozen material.
Composition ranges from nearly pure ice to bedrock. At
Wainwright, permafrost is the earth layer from a depth of 18"
below the surface downward to a distance estimated at about
1000 feet. Making up this permafrost is a combination of
uncompacted silt with a small amount of sand, gravel, and
ice.
6. Frost heaving is a phenomenon which occurs when soil of high
moisture content freezes. When the water in the void spaces
expands, it causes the surface of the ground to be thrust
upward. Conversely, contraction cracks are sometimes formed^
7. An Investigation of Social and Economic Implications of
The Alaska Village Demonstration Projects, Arctic Environmental
Research Laboratory, EPA, March 1973.
8. A recent comprehensive study commissioned by the Alaska Governor's
Office of Planning and Research and funded by the Farmers
Home Administration arrives at a similar conclusion. See:
Initial Plan and Program: Water Supply and Waste Disposal,
Planning Area V -- State of Alaska, Office of the Governor,
Dec. 1972, pp. 7-8.
9. Alaska State Constitution, Article X, Section 6. See also
Alaska Statutes, Sec. 29.03.020.
10. Computed from models developed by Robert R. Nathan Associates,
Inc., in Implementing the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act,
Washington, D. C., April 1972.
11. Proposed Water Sanitation Policy for Communities in the
Northwest Territories, Department of Local Government,
Government of the Northwest Territories, March 1973.
73
------- |