United States Office of Emergency and
Environmental Protection Remedial Response
Agency Hazardous Response Support Division
Personnel Protection
and Safety
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27S46
PERSONNEL PROTECTION AND SAFETY
(165.2)
This basic course is designed to acquaint attendees with:
Concepts, principles, and equipment for protecting
the human body from exposure to toxic substances.
Guides and procedures for reducing potential
dangers to response personnel.
Field instruments for monitoring releases of
hazardous materials.
After successfully completing the course, students should
be more knowledgeable about safety and protection of
personnel at uncontrolled waste sites or other incidents
involving hazardous substances.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Hazardous Response Support Division
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OFFICt OF EMERGENCY AND REMEDIAL RESPONSE
ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE BRANCH
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS INCIDENT RESPONSE TRAINING PROGRAM
PROGRAM MANAGERS
Thomas C. Sell
Kllery D. Savage
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Response Team
26 West St. Clair St.
Cincinnati, OH 45268
513/684-7537
FTS/684-7537
Martin Mathamel*
Michael Erbaugh
Cynthia Ditzel
Anton Fackelmann
Paul Kefauver
John Orr
Steve Frost*
Theodore Ellwood
Anthony Eicher
John Sattler
Peter Bolig
Mark Fenner*
John Bojanek
Charles Atwood
INSTRUCTORS
Roy F. Weston, Inc.
Spill Prevention & Emergency
Response Division (in association
with Tetratech, Inc.)
IT Corporation
IT Corporation
3333 Vine Street
Suite 400
Cincinnati, OH 45220
513/751-7100
3333 Vine Street
Suite 204
Cincinnati, OH 45220
513/961-8255
GSA Raritan Depot
Woodbridge Avenue
Edison, NJ 08837
201/548-9660
SUPPORT STAFF
Suzette Schweickart
Jennifer Belperio
LaDonna Altman
Sharon Conley
Bryan Davison
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Roy F. Weston, Inc.
IT Corporation
IT Corporation
Cincinnati, OH
Cincinnati, OH
Cincinnati, OH
Edison, NJ
*Xeam Leader
U185D
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CONTENTS
Section Unit Page
Red Hazard Recognition and Evaluation
Part 1: Hazard Recognition, Evaluation and Control 1-1
Part 2: Incident Evaluation 2-1
Part 3: Hazardous Substances 3-1
Part 4: Introduction to Toxicology 4-1
Part 5: Threshold Limit Values and Other Guidelines 5-1
Part 6: Behavior of Chemicals in the Environment 6-1
Part 7: Sources of Information and Response Assistance 7-1
Part 8: Use of the Hazardous Substance Data Sheet 8-1
Part 9: Hazardous Substance Identification Systems 9-1
Part 10: References and Resources 10-1
Clear Personnel Protection
Part 1: Introduction to Respiratory Protection 1-1
Appendix I 29 CFR Section 1910.134 1-15
Appendix II NI0SH/0SHA Respirator Decision Logic 1-21
Appendix III Respirator Protection Factors 1-31
Appendix IV 30 CFR Part 11 (Table of Contents) 1-33
Appendix V NIOSH Certified Equipment List (pp. 10,66) 1-37
Part 2: Air Purifying Respirators 2-1
Appendix I References for Respirator Cartridge Efficiencies
Studies 2-13
Appendix II Care and Cleaning of Respirators 2-15
Appendix III Respirator Fit Testing 2-19
Part 3: Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus 3-1
Appendix I DOT Specification Cylinders 3-9
Appendix II SCBA Checkout Procedures 3-15
Part 4: Protective Clothing 4-1
Appendix I Permeation References 4-15
Appendix II Sources of 0SHA Standards 4-17
Part 5: Donning and Doffing of Fully Encapsulating Suits
and Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus 5-1
Part 6: Manufacturers and Suppliers of Personnel
Protective Gear 6-1
Blue Standard Operating Safety Guides
Part 1: Environmental Incidents 1-1
Part 2: Standard Procedures 2-1
Part 3: Site Entry - General Measures and Requirements 3-1
Part 4: Site Entry - Survey and Reconnaissance 4-1
Part 5: Site Entry - Levels of Protection 5-1
Part 6: Site Control - Work Zones 6-1
Part 7: Site Control - Decontamination 7-1
Annex 1 Level A Decontamination Al-1
Annex 2 Level B Decontamination A2-1
Annex 3 Level C Decontamination A3-1
Annex 4 Level A Decontamination, Minimum Layout A4-1
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CONTENTS (Cont'd)
Secti on
Blue
Orange
Yel1ow
Green
Unit Page
Standard Operating Safety Guides
Part 8: Air Surveillance at Hazardous Materials Incidents
Appendix I Characteristics of the HNU Photoionizer
and the Organic Vapor Analyzer
Appendix II Rationale for Relating Total Vapor
Concentrations to the Selection of Level
of Protection to Personnel
Appendix III Dermal Toxicity Data
Appendix IV Site Safety Plan
Response Operations
Part
1:
Response Organization
1-1
Part
2:
Cleanup Techniques and Resources
2-1
Part
3:
Incident Mitigation
3-1
Part
4:
Treatment Methods
4-1
Part
5:
Disposal of Hazardous Wastes
5-1
Part
6:
National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Contingency Plan (July 16, 1982)
6-1
Field
Monitoring and Sampling
Part
1:
Air Monitoring Instruments
1-1
Part
2:
Atmospheric Sampling Instruments
2-1
Part
3:
Radiation Monitoring
3-1
Part
4:
Manufacturers and Suppliers of Field Monitoring
Instruments
4-1
8-1
1-1
II-l
III-1
IV-1
Sampling of Hazardous Materials
Part 1: Hazardous Materials Sampling 1-1
Part 2: Sampling Equipment and Methods 2-1
Part 3: Documentation and Chain-of-Custody Procedures 3-1
Part 4: Case History: Sample Plan Development 4-1
Part 5: Packaging, Marking, Labeling, and Shipping 5-1
of Hazardous Materials Sampling
Appendix I Guide for Hazardous Materials Shipping Papers ~ 1-1
Appendix II Guide for Markings 11-2
Part 6: References 6-1
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PART 1
HAZARD RECOGNITION, EVALUATION, AND CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
PREFACE
All operational activities that are required when responding to
environmental episodes (or incidents) involving hazardous substances can be
divided into three broad, interacting categories or elements.
Recognition: identification of the substance(s) involved and the
characteristics which determine its degree of hazard.
Evaluation: the impact or risk the substance(s) poses to public
health, response personnel, and the environment.
Control: methods to eliminate or reduce the impact of the episode.
To effectively manage a hazardous substance incident and to ensure
personnel and public safety, response personnel must understand the
processes comprising each element.
RECOGNITION
A. Identification
Determining the type and severity of hazard present is one of the first
steps in responding to an environmental episode. The substance(s)
involved must be identified to ascertain its physical, chemical,
toxicological, and other properties which make it hazardous - that is,
capable of causing harm. These inherent properties establish, on a
preliminary basis, the behavior and anticipated problems associated
with a material.
An environmental incident, however, involves more than just the
presence of a hazardous material. It is a situation in which the
normal safeguards associated with the production, use, transportation,
storage, and disposal of the materials are compromised, raising the
possibility of undesirable effects.
For example, gasoline can do harm because it can ignite and explode.
Until the safe procedures for handling gasoline are broached,
however, the probability of an explosion 1s very low. The problems
created by the release of gasoline into the environment can be
anticipated from knowing its physical/chemical properties. But until
gasoline is identified as the substance involved in an incident, and
incident-specific conditions determined, effective countermeasures to
prevent gasoline's effects are difficult to implement.
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B. Degree of Hazard
Many substances exhibit one or more characteristics of flammability,
radioactivity, corrosiveness, toxicity, carcinogenicity, or other
qualities which classify them as a hazard. For any particular
characteristic, the severity or degree of hazard varies dependent on
the substance. The degree of hazard may be defined as a relative
measure of how much damage a substance can do. For instance, the
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) concentration of butyl
acetate in air is 10,000 parts per million (ppm); the IDLH for bromine
is 10 ppm. Bromine is therefore much more toxic (a higher degree of
hazard) when inhaled than butyl acetate. At a very low concentration
(0.001 ppm), bromine may cause only minor irritation to those exposed,
while at a higher concentration (10 ppm), it may kill.
C. Process
Identification provides initial data on the substance(s) involved and
why it is hazardous. Identification may be easy, for example, a
burning railroad tank car marked "Vinyl Chloride". At an abandoned
hazardous waste site, complete identification is more complex. The
entire process of recognition involves using all available resources
(sampling, historical data, visual observation, package labels,
shipping manifests, existing documentation, etc.) to identify the
substance(s) involved.
Once the substance(s) has been identified, its degree of hazard can
be determined using various reference books and menuals. Although
reference information about the substance's physical/chemical
properties may give some indication of its environmental behavior,
additional data are generally obtained through monitoring and sampling
to confirm postulated dispersion patterns, determine concentrations,
and verify the presence of materials.
III. EVALUATION
A. Impact
Recognition provides basic Information concerning the substance(s)
involved. The next step, evaluation, is the process of determining
the effects or impacts on public health, the environment, or response
personnel. A hazardous substance poses a threat due to its Inherent
characteristics. Its actual impact however, depends on where the
episode occurs and on weather, geography, population, and other
site-specific conditions which Influence Its behavior 1n the
environment. One measure of Impact 1s the actual deleterious effects
that have occurred. Another 1s the potential risk to the population
and environment 1f the substance is released.
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B. Ri sk
Risk is the probability of harm being done. Risk and the degree of
hazard, considered with site-specific conditions, indicate the
possibility of harm that may be done. Chlorine gas, for instance, is
highly toxic and so respresents a risk if people are exposed to it.
If chlorine gas is released in a densely populated area, the risk of
people being harmed is very high, while the risk associated with a
release of chlorine gas in an unpopulated area is very low. In both
cases, if the substance were carbon dioxide rather than chlorine, the
relative risk to people would be substantially less, since carbon
dioxide is much less toxic than chlorine.
Evaluating risk in these two examples is relatively simple. Much more
complex are those episodes where more compounds are involved and a
higher degree of uncertainty exists regarding their behavior in the
environment and their effects on people. For instance: what is the
risk if a few thousand people drink water containing a few parts per
billion of styrene?
C. Process
Evaluation includes determining if any additional sampling and/or
monitoring of air, water, and soil is necessary to provide more
comprehensive information on how the material moves through the
environment. Because response personnel and the public may be
affected, it is necessary to determine the transport and behavior of
the material, its concentrations in various media, and its effects.
To completely evaluate the effects of a hazardous materials incident,
all substances must be identified and the dispersion pathways
associated with each substance established. The degree of hazard and
the risk are then determined considering the exposure of the public
and the environment to the substances.
CONTROL
Control 1s preventing or reducing risk of the released materials' real or
potential hazards on the environment, public health, and the health and
safety of response personnel. Preliminary control actions should be
instituted as rapidly as possible, consistent with a prudent judgment of
the situation. As additional information is developed through the
recognition and evaluation processes, control actions are modified or
replaced as the situation requires.
RELATIONSHIP OF ELEMENTS
Recognition, evaluation, and control describe the three major operational
components of response to an incident, but they are not necessarily
sequential steps for conducting activities. In some situations,
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preliminary control measures may be instituted before the substances are
completely identified and their potential impact determined. In others, a
more thorough evaluation of media dispersion is needed before control
actions are initiated. The activities or operations that occur in each
component are interrelated and affect one another.
For example, control may require more positive identification of the
substances involved, which in turn, could modify the initial evaluation of
the risk. More information regarding how the environment is being affected
may alter control actions already taken. Managing an environmental episode
to a successful conclusion requires understanding the elements involved,
their relationships, and how they affect response activities.
1-4
TCS/EPA/10-82
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PART 2
INCIDENT EVALUATION
INTRODUCTION
The primary objective in responding to incidents involving hazardous
substances is to prevent or reduce any actual or potential damage to public
health or the environment. To accomplish this objective, it is necessary
to:
- Identify the substance(s) involved.
- Evaluate its behavior in the environment and effects on public health and
the environment.
- Initiate actions to ameliorate its effects.
Throughout a hazardous material incident, from inception to final
disposition, a high priority activity is obtaining the necessary information
to assess its impact. This process of identifying the actual or potential
impact of the material (s) on public health, environment, and response
personnel, and determining the most effective methods for preventing or
reducing the associated hazards, is known as incident evaluation.
In those incidents where the substance(s) involved is known or easily
identified, the media affected clearly ascertained, and the environmental
effects recognized, the characterization of the incident is relatively
straightforward. For example, the effects of a discharge of toluene in a
small stream are relatively easy to evaluate. More complex are incidents
such as an abandoned waste site where there is not enough initial
information to identify the hazards and evaluate their impact.
Evaluating a hazardous substance incident is generally a two-phase process,
Phase I, an initial evaluation, and Phase II, a comprehensive evaluation.
. PHASE I: INITIAL EVALUATION
The first phase is an initial or preliminary evaluation based on
information that is readily available - or can be collected fairly rapidly
- to determine if emergency protective measures are necessary. During this
initial phase, a number of key decisions must be made regarding:
- Imminent or potential hazard and risk to public health and/or the
environment.
- Immediate need for protective actions to prevent or reduce the Impact on
public health and/or the environment.
- Health and safety of response personnel.
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After emergency measures have been taken, other measures to restore the
situation to environmentally acceptable conditions start. If there is no
emergency, more time is available for acquiring data to evaluate hazards
and design plans for cleanup and consideration for the health and safety of
response personnel. Information for characterizing the hazards can be
obtained in a variety of ways, depending on the nature of the event and the
amount of time available. The following outlines an approach for
collecting the information needed to evaluate the impact of a hazardous
materials incident. Not every incident requires following all steps. The
information below provides a relatively detailed guide which could be
adapted to meet a specific situation.
A. Data Gathering and Review/Preliminary Assessment
Upon notification, discovery, or investigation of an environmental
episode, obtain as much of the following information as possible:
Brief description.
Exact location.
Date and time of occurrence.
Current weather and forecast.
Terrain - include topographic map.
Geology and hydrology - include appropriate maps.
Aerial photographs.
Habitation - population centers, proximity of people, population at
ri sk.
Communications.
Accessibility by air and roads.
Waterways.
Detailed description of incident and circumstances.
Pathways of dispersion.
Hazardous materials Involved and their physical/chemical
properties.
Any other related background Information.
Present status of Incident and who has responded.
Environmentally sensitive areas - endangered species, delicate
ecosytems.
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- Economically sensitive areas - industrial, agricultural.
Information about an incident, especially abandoned waste sites, nicty also
be available from:
- Other Federal agencies.
- State and local health or environmental agencies.
- Company records.
- Court records.
- Water departments, sewage districts.
- State and local authorities.
B. Off-Site Reconnaissance
At responses In which the hazards are largely unknown or there is no need
to go on-site immediately, make visual observations and monitor
atmospheric hazards near the site. Also collect various types of
off-site samples that may Indicate on-site conditions. As an additional
precaution, approach from upwind direction.
In addition to collecting information not Inlcuded in the preliminary
survey or needed to verify or supplement available Information, off-site
reconnaissance would include:
- General layout and map of the site.
- Monitoring ambient air for:
-- organic vapors, gases, and particulates.
~ oxygen deficiency.
— specific materials, 1f known.
— combustible gases.
— Inorganic vapors, gases, and particulates.
— radiation.
- Placards, labels, markings on containers, or transportation vehicles.
- Types and numbers of containers, buildings, and Impoundments.
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- Leachate or run-off.
- Biological indicators - dead vegetation, animals, insects, and fish.
- Unusual odors or conditions.
- Visual observation of vapors, clouds, or suspicious substances.
- Off-site samples.
-- surface water
~ drinking water
-- site run-off
— ground water (wells)
- Interviews with inhabitants and indications of medical problems.
C. On-Site Survey
A more thorough evaluation of the hazards leading to remedial operations
generally necessitates personnel entering the defined site. Prior to
going on-site, develop an entry plan addressing what will be initially
accomplished and prescribing the procedures to protect the health and
safety of response personnel. Upon entering the site, collect the
following Information and observations:
- Monitoring ambient air for:
— organic vapors, gases, and particulates.
-- oxygen deficiency.
— specific materials, if known.
— combustible gases.
— Inorganic vapors, gases, and particulates.
— radiation.
- Types of containers, Impoundment, or other storage systems.
— numbers, types, and quantities of material
— condition of storage systems, state of repair, or deterioration
- Physical condition of material.
~ solIds, liquids, gases
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-- color
-- behavior - foaming, vaporizing, corroding
- Leaks or discharges from containers, tanks, ponds, vehicles, etc.
- Potential pathways of dispersion.
-- ai r
-- surface water
~ ground water
-- land surface
~ biological routes
— Labels, markings, identification tags, or other indicators of
material.
- Samples.
— standing water
-- soil
-- wells
— storage containers
— drainage ditches
-- streams and ponds
III. PHASE II: COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION
The second phase, comprehensive evaluation, which may not be needed in all
responses, is a more methodical program designed to collect data to
enhance, refine, and enlarge the initial data base. This phase would
provide more comprehensive information for characterizing the
environmental hazards associated with Incident response operations and for
making decisions. As a continuosly operating program, the second phase
also reflects environmental changes resulting from response activities.
Available information and/or Information obtained through initial site
entries may be sufficient to thoroughly Identify and assess the human and
environmental effects of an Incident. If not, additional monitoring and
sampling are required. Phase II, an environmental surveillance program,
will need to be designed and implemented to allow a complete evaluation of
all the effects of the Incident on all media. Also, since mitigation and
remedial measures taken at the site mey cause changes In the original
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conditions, a surveillance program must be maintained to identify any
changes at the site. Phase II (which may not be required on all
responses) is to refine, supplement, or complement information obtained
through initial investigations and to maintain the surveillance program
throughout the lifetime of the incident.
SUMMARY
Evaluating the hazards associated with an incident involves various
degrees of complexities. The release of a single, known chemical compound
may represent a relatively simple problem. It becomes progressively more
difficult to determine harmful effects as the number of compounds
increase. Evaluation of the hazards associated with an abandoned waste
site, storage tanks, or lagoons holding vast amounts of known or unknown
chemical substances is far more complex than a single release of an
identifiable substance.
Effectively accomplishing the major responsibility of response personnel,
i.e., protecting public health and the environment, requires a thorough
characterization of the chemical compounds involved, their dispersion
pathways, concentrations in the environment, and deleterious effects. A
base of information is developed over the lifetime of the incident to
assess the harmful effects and ensure that effective actions are taken to
mitigate the release.
2-6
TCS/EPA/7-83
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Figure 2-1
GUIDE TO INCIDENT RESPONSE ACTIVITIES
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
NOTIFICATION OR DISCOVERY
PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT
| POTENTIAL FOR HAZARO
CLOSE OUT INCIDENT
YES
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION!
1 OFF-SITE RECON }-
•1 ON-SITE RECON
REASSESSMENT OF HAZARD
CLOSE OUT INCIDENT
YES
SITE
SAFETY
LEGAL
ACTIVITIES
QATA
COLLECTION
DEVELOP I IMPLEMENT
RESPONSE OPERATION PLAN
DATA GATHERING
RESTORATION ACTIVITIES
IMMEDIATE COUNTERMEASURES
EMERGENCY ACTIONS
IMMEDIATE COUNTERMEASURES
EMERGENCY ACTIONS
CLEANUP t TECHNICAL REMEDIES
FURTHER ASSESSMENT
2-7
NEIC/TCS/EPA/8-82
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PART 3
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
INTRODUCTION
At an incident, response personnel may be exposed to a number of
substances that are hazardous because of their biological,
radiological, or chemical characteristics.
Biological agents are living organisms (or their products) that
can cause sickness or death to exposed individuals.
Radiological hazards present a problem for response personnel.
Radioactive materials can emit alpha or beta particles or gamma
waves, all of which can have a harmful effect on health if workers are
exposed to excessive amounts.
Chemical hazards are classified into several groups, including
fire, toxic, corrosive, and reactive hazards. A material may
elicit more than one chemical hazard during an incident. For
example, toxic vapors can be released during chemical fires. The
hazards can be a result of the physical/chemical properties of a
material or of its chemical reactivity with other materials or the
environment to which it is exposed.
Many hazards may be present at any one incident. It is important to
understand the fundamentals of each and their relationships so that
effective safety practices may be employed to reduce the risk to
the public and response personnel.
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Biological hazards can cause infection or disease to persons who are
exposed. Biological hazards may involve plants or animals including
microorganisms. They are divided into five categories: viral,
rickettslal/chlarnydial, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic.
Biological agents may be present at a hazardous waste site or
involved in a spill. Like chemical hazards, they may be dispersed
throughout the environment via wind and water.
Many biological agents require a carrier to inoculate a host. Hence,
controlling the agent may require controlling the carrier. For
instance, rabid rodents at a landfill may be a biological hazard. Rocky
Mountain Spotted Fever, which 1s carried by ticks, is also in this
category.
The same personnel protective requirements of a response to a chemical
hazard apply to biological hazards. Body coverings and respiratory
protective equipment should be utilized. Personal cleanliness 1s
especially Important. Showering after removing protective clothing
and thoroughly washing exposed body parts, including hands and face,
should help remove any residual contamination.
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III. RADIATION HAZARDS
Radioactive materials that may be encountered at a site can emit
three types of harmful radiation: alpha particles, beta particles,
and gamma waves. All three forms harm living organisms by imparting
energy which ionizes molecules in the cells. Hence, the three are
referred to as ionizing radiation. Ionization may upset the normal
cellular function causing cell dysfunction or death.
An alpha particle is positively charged. The beta is an electron
possessing a negative charge. Both particles have mass and energy.
Both are emitted from the nucleus. They travel short distances in
material before interactions with the material causes them to lose
their energy. The outer layers of the skin and clothing generally
protect against these particles. Therefore, they are considered
hazardous primarily when they enter the body through inhalation or
ingestion.
Gamma radiation is pure electromagnetic energy and is wave-like
rather than particulate. Gamma waves pass through all materials to
some degree. Clothing, including protective gear, will not prevent
gamma radiation from interacting with body tissue.
Unlike many hazards that possess certain properties to alert response
personnel (odor, irritation, or taste), radiation does not warn.
Hence, preventing the radioactive material from entering the body or
protecting against external radiation is the best protection. As with
biological and chemical hazards, the use of respiratory and personnel
protective equipment, coupled with scrupulous personal hygiene, will
afford good protection against radioactive particulates
IV. CHEMICAL HAZARDS
A. Fire Hazards
1. Combustibility
Combustibility is the ability of a material to act as a fuel.
Materials that can be readily ignited and sustain a fire are
considered combustible, while those that do not are called non-
combustible. Three elements are required for combustion to
occur: fuel, oxygen, and heat. The concentration of the fuel
and the o*ygen must be high enough to allow Ignition and
maintain the burning process. Combustion is a chemical
reaction that requires heat to proceeed:
heat
fuel + oxygen — > products
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Heat is either supplied by the ignition source and is
maintained by the combustion, or supplied from an external
source. The relationship of these three components of fire is
illustrated as a triangle in Figure 3-1. Most fires can be
extinguished by removing one of these components. For
example, water applied to a fire removes the heat, thereby
extinguishing the fire. When a material by itself generates
enough heat to self-ignite and combust, spontaneous combustion
occurs, either as a fire or explosion.
2. Flammability
Flammability is the ability of a material (liquid or gas) to
generate a sufficient concentration of combustible vapors
under normal conditions to be ignited and produce a flame. It
is necessary to have a proper fuel-to-air ratio (expressed as
the percentage of fuel in air) to allow combustion. There is
a range of fuel concentrations in air for each material that
is optimal for the ignition and the sustenence of combustion.
This is called the Flammable Range. The lowest concentration
of fuel in this range is the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL).
Concentrations less than the LFL are not flammable because
there is too little fuel- that is, the mixture is too "lean".
The highest ratio that is flammable is the Upper Flammable
Limit (UFL). Concentrations greater than the UFL are not
flammable because there is too much fuel displacing the oxygen
(resulting in too little oxygen). This mixture is too "rich".
Fuel concentrations between the LFL and UFL are optimal for
starting and sustaining fire. Example: The LFL for benzene
is 1.3% (13,000 ppm), the UFL is 7.1% (71,000 ppm), thus the
flammable range is 1.3% to 7.1%.
A flammable material is considered highly combustible if it
can burn at ambient temperatures (Table 3-1). But a
combustible material is not necessarily flammable, because it
may not be easily Ignited or the Ignition maintained.
Pyrophoric materials will ignite at room temperature in the
presence of a gas or vapor or when a slight friction or shock
is applied.
Note: The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (0SHA),
the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NI0SH), and the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) have established strict definitions
for flammability based on the flash point of a
material.
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HEAT
FUEL
OXYGEN
Each side of the triangle represents one of the necessary
elements of a fire. The optimum situation, position
number 1, Is the best fuel-to-oxygen ratio, with
sufficient heat to Ignite the fuel and support Its
combustion. Each corner Illustrates the removal of one
component: 1n number 2 there 1s insufficient fuel
(concentrations below the Lower Flammable Limit), 1n
number 3 there is not enough oxygen (concentrations above
the Upper Flammable Limit), and 1n number 4 the heat
source 1s not adequate. A fire can be defined as a
self-sustaining, flaming combustion.
FIGURE 3-1
THE FIRE TRIANGLE
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TABLE 3-1
FLAMMABLE COMPOUNDS AND ELEMENTS
Flammable Liquids
Aldehydes
Ketones
Ami nes
Ethers
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Alcohols
Nitroaliphatics
Magnesium dust
Zirconium dust
Titanium dust
Aluminum dust
Zinc dust
Flammable Solids
Phosphorus
Mater-Reactive Flammable Solids
Potassium
Sodium
Lithium
Pyrophoric Liquids
Organometallic compounds
Dimethyl zinc
Tributyl aluminum
3. Gas or Vapor Explosions
A gas or vapor explosion is a very rapid, violent release of energy.
If combustion is extremely rapid large amounts of kinetic energy, heat,
and gaseous products are released. The major factor contributing to the
explosion Is the confinement of a flammable material. When vapors or
gases cannot freely dissipate, they enter the combustion reaction more
rapidly. Confinement also Increases the energy associated with these
molecules, which enhances the explosive process. Poorly ventilated
buildings, sewers, drums, and bulk liquid containers are examples of
places where potentially explosive atmospheres may exist.
Explosive gases/vapors exhibit art explosive range, which is the same as
the flammable range. The upper explosive limit (UEL) and lower
explosive limit (LEL) are ttie UFL and LFL but in confined areas. Most
reference books list either explosive limits or flammable limits which
are identical.
4. Summary: Practical Considerations
Fires and explosions require fuel, air (oxygen), and an ignition source
(heat). At a hazardous materials incident, the first two are not easily
controlled. Consequently, while working on-site where a fire hazard may
be present, the concentration of combustible gases in air must be
monitored, and any potential ignition source must be kept out of the
area.
3-5
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Most dangerous flammable substances:
-are easily ignited (e.g., pyrophorics).
-require little oxygen to support combustion.
-have low LFL/LEL and a wide Flammable/Explosive
range.
Hazards related to fires and explosions:
-physical destruction due to shock waves, heat, and
flying objects.
-initiation of secondary fires or creation of flammable
conditions.
-release of toxic and corrosive compounds into the
surrounding environment.
B. Explosive Hazard
1. Explosives
An explosive is a substance which undergoes a very rapid
chemical transformation producing large amounts of gases and
heat. The gases produced, for example, nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and steam, due to the heat
produced, rapidly expand at velocities exceeding the speed
of sound. This creates both a Shockwave (high pressure wave
front) and noise (brisance).
2. Types of explosive hazards
- High or detonating: Chemical transformation occurs very
rapidly with detonation rates as high as 4 miles per
second. The rapidly expanding gas produces a shock wave
which may be followed by combustion.
— Primary high explosive: detonating wave produced in
an extremely short period of time. May be detonated
by shock, heat, or friction. Examples are lead azide,
mercury fulminate, and lead styphnate.
-- Secondary high explosive: generally needs a booster
to cause them to detonate. Relatively insensitive to
shock, heat, or friction. Examples are tetryl,
cyclonite, dynamite, and TNT.
- Low or deflagrating: Rate of deflagration up to 1000 feet
per second. Generally combustion followed by a shock wave.
Examples are smokeless powder, magnesium, and molotov
cocktail.
3-6
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3. Practical considerations
High or low does not indicate the explosion hazard (or power)
but only the rate of chemical transformation.
Explosions can occur as a result of reactions between many
chemicals not ordinarily considered as explosives. Ammonium
nitrate, a fertilizer, c&n explode under the right conditions.
Alkali metals and water explode; as will water and peroxide
salts. Picric acid and certain ether compounds become highly
explosive with age. Gases, vapors, and finely divided
particulates, when confined, can also explode if an ignition
source is present.
C. Toxic Hazards
1. Toxicity
Toxic materials cause local or systemic detrimental effects in
an organise. Exposure to such materials does not always
result in death, although that is often the most immediate
concern. Types of toxic hazards can be categorized by the
physiological effect they have on the organism. A material
may induce more than one physiological response.
2. Types of toxic hazards
a. Systemic poisons
Systemic poisons are chemical agents which act on specific
target organs or organ systems (Table 3-2). A subgroup
includes anesthetics and narcotics, which may not be toxic
in the classical sense because they do not necessarily
cause irreversible harm. However, for response personnel,
these agents can be extremely hazardous because they can
impair judgment and the thought processes. Anesthetics
and narcotics depress the central nervous system,
resulting in loss of sensation or stupor. If
concentrations are great enough, coma and death can
occur.
b. Asphyxiants
Asphyxiants are agents which deprive the tissues of oxygen
a condition called anoxia. This group Is divided into
simple and chemical asphyxiants (Table 3-3). The simple
asphyxiants act by diluting or displacing atmospheric
oxygen, which lowers the concentration of oxygen in air.
3-7
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Breathing air with low oxygen concentration causes
insufficient oxygen in blood and tissues. This can cause
headache, unconsciousness, and eventually death. Inert-
gases can be simple asphyxiants.
Chemical asphyxiants act in one of two ways. Some prevent
the uptake of oxygen in the blood. Carbon monoxide, for
example, interferes with the transport of oxygen to the
tissues by strongly binding with hemoglobin to form
carboxyhemoglobin, which leaves inadequate hemoglobin
available for oxygen transport.
A second type of chemical asphyxiant does not permit
normal oxygen transfer either from the blood to the
tissues or within the cell itself. Hydrogen cyanide
is an example of this type.
A common example of an extremely toxic compound that is
both a chemical and simple asphyxiant is hydrogen sulfide.
Neurotoxic systemic action stops oxidation of the
respiratory tissues, paralyzing the lungs. The result is
that no air enters the lungs, which causes" simple
asphyxiation. Oxygen concentrations in the lungs drop,
causing death.
TABLE 3-2
SYSTEMIC POISONS
Anestheti cs/Narcoti cs
Olefins
Ethyl ether
Isopropy1 ether
Paraffinic hydrocarbons
Aliphatic ketones
Aliphatic alcohols
Esters
Compounds Damaging
Kidney Function
Halogenated hydrocarbons
Compounds Damaging
the Nervous System
Methanol
Carbon disulfide
Metals
Organometallies
Compounds Damaging
Liver Function
Carbon tetrachloride
Tetrachloroethane
Compounds Damaging
Blood-Circulatory System
Aniline
Toluldine
Nitrobenzene
Benzene
Phenols
3-8
-------
TABLE 3-3
ASPHYXIANTS
Simple Asphyxiants
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Helium
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Nitrous oxide
Carbon dioxide
Chemical Asphyxiants
Ani1i ne
Methyl aniline
Cyanogen
Hydrogen cyanide
Toluidine
Carbon monoxide
Methane
c. Irritants
Irritants are materials that cause inflammation of
membranes. The mechanism of irritation is either by
corrosive or drying action, and may affect the eyes,
skin, respiratory membranes, or gastrointestinal
tract. The irritant must come in direct contact with
tissue to cause an inflammation reaction.
Consequently, skin, eye and respiratory irritants are
the greatest concern for response personnel (Table 3-4).
Skin exposure to irritating materials, in high enough
concentrations, may result in contact dermatitis,
characterized by redness, itching, and drying
of the skin. These dermatitis-causing materials are
called primary irritants. Organic solvents are
examp1es of pri mary 1rr1tants, etici 11ng a response 1n
hours. Strong (or absolute) irritants are the acids
and alkalies, producing observable effects within
minutes. Extremely corrosive agents can cause skin
ulceration and destroy tissues.
TABLE 3-4
IRRITANTS
Skin Irritants
Acids
Alkalies
Solvents
Metallic salts
Detergents
Respiratory Irritants
Aldehydes
Ammonia
Hydrogen chloride
Ozone
Nitrogen dioxide
3-9
-------
If respiratory tissues are insulted by irritant gases or
fumes, they constrict in a reflex fashion, accompanied by
involuntary coughing. Tracheitis and bronchitis are
inflammations of the major air passages. Examples of
irritant gases are chlorine, ammonia, ozone, and sulfur
dioxide. More insidious irritating agents can reach the
terminal respiratory passages (alveoli) deep in the lungs
and may result in pulmonary edema, pneumonia, and
eventually death.
It is important to note that many particulates such as
dusts, although not chemically active hazards, can be
severely irritating.
d. Allergic Sensitizers
A sensitization to a chemical involves immune mechanisms.
When a foreign substance called an antigen enters body
tissue, it triggers production of antibodies, which react
with the antigen to make it innocuous. Upon first exposure
to a specific chemical, there are no antibodies in the
body. After subsequent exposures, the concentration of
antibodies increases until a threshold is reached. At this
point, the antibody level is high enough that upon exposure
to the chemical the antigen-antibody reaction, also called
an allergic reaction, is severe enough to manifest itself
as one or more symptoms. The body has become "sensitized"
to that chemical.
Skin and respiratory sensitizers may show the same symptoms
as irritants (for example, dermatitis, bronchitis, and
conjunctivitis) and can range from discomfort from poison
ivy to a fatal reaction from isocyanates (Table 3-5).
TABLE 3-5
ALLERGIC SENSITIZERS
Skin Sensitizers
Poison ivy
Poison oak
Epoxy monomers
Respiratory Sensitizers
Sulfur dioxide
Isocyanates
Nickel
Formaldehyde
Toluene dlisocyanate
3-10
-------
e. Mutagens, Teratogens, and Carcinogens
An agent that can cause cancer in an organism is called a
carcinogen. This differs from a mutagen, which changes a gene in a
sperm or egg cell of the parent. The parent is not affected, but
the offspring suffer the consequences. Teratogenesis is also
manifested in offspring but differs from mutagenesis in that it
results from exposure of the embryo or fetus to the agent itself.
While some teratogens and carcinogens have been identified, it is
not possible to accurately "pinpoint" mutagens because of the
difficulty in observing mutagenic action in cells. Table 3-6 lists
some teratogens and classes of carcinogens.
Aromatic amines
3. Routes of Exposure
There are only three pathways for substances to enter the body:
-Through contact with skin, eyes, and hair.
-Inhalation.
-Ingestion.
The primary function of the skin is to act as a barrier against entry
of foreign materials into the body. If this protective barrier 1s
overcome, toxic chemicals enter. The barrier 1s greatly diminished
by lacerations and abrasions. Also, many organic solvents greatly
increase the permeability of the skin to materials that would
otherwise not pass through it. Another factor 1s that the skin
provides a large surface area for contact with toxic agents.
Inhalation 1s the most rapid route, Immediately introducing toxic
chemicals to respiratory tissues and the bloodstream. Once admitted to
the blood through the lungs, these chemicals are quickly transported
throughout the body to contact all organs.
Health hazards to personnel from Ingestion of materials are a lesser
concern than skin and respiratory hazards. The number of substances
that can be Ingested are limited- that Is* It Is difficult to
swallow vapors and gases. Also, ingestible materials only get to the
TABLE 3-6
CARCINOGENS AND TERATOGENS
Carcinogens
Halogenated hydrocarbons
Polynuclear aromatics
Teratogens
Diethylstilbestrol (DES)
Thalidomide
3-11
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mouth through hand-to-mouth contact. Even then, toxicity by
mouth is of a lower order because of the acids, alkalies, and
enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract. However, these same
conditions may enhance the toxic nature of a compound. While
ingestion of toxic chemicals is not a great concern on-site,
studies have shown that gum and tobacco chewers can absorb
significant amounts of gaseous substances during an 8-hour
day.
4. Measurement of Toxicity
Generally, a given amount of a toxic agent will elicit a given
type and intensity of response. This dose-response
relationship is the basis for measurement of the relative
harmfulness of a chemical. Because humans cannot be used as
test organisms, almost all toxicological data are derived from
other mammalian species, and results are extrapolated to
humans. The test organism is chosen for its ability to
simulate human response. For example, most skin tests are
performed on rabbits because their skin response most closely
resembles that of humans.
In much toxicological testing, the response measured is death.
The dose is the amount of chemical administered to the animal.
A typical dose, for example, would be expressed in milligrams
(mg) of test agent per kilogram (kg) of body weight. The test
data are plotted on a dose-response curve. From this curve
the dose that killed a certain percentage of test organisms
can be calculated. This dose is called the lethal dose. Most
often, experiments are designed to measure the dose that kills
50% of the test organisms. This is the lethal dose 50, or
LD^q, and is a relative measurement of toxicity. If
compound A has an LDgg = 1000 mg/kg and compound B has an
ld50 = 500 ra9/kg compound B is more toxic than compound A
at that dose (Figure 3-2). A value similar to the LD^q
used for inhalation exposures is the lethal concentration 50,
or LC5Q, and is measured as parts per million of toxic
agent per exposure time (ppm/hr). Table 3-7 illustrates the
use of LD5Q values as a relative index of toxicity.
Another important factor to consider when determining the
toxicity of a material 1s the relationship between
concentration and exposure time. Generally, an acute exposure
refers to a large single dose received over a short period of
time. A chronic exposure Is several small doses over a longer
period of time. The difference (in tern® of deleterious
effects) 1s that a small acute exposure m^y result in no
effect on an organism, while a chronic exposure to the same
dose may show an additive effect-that 1s, the cumulative dose
may be harmful. On the other hand, a large single dose 1n a
short period of time might be much more hazardous than the
same dose administered over a longer time.
3-12
-------
DOSE (mg/kg)
This illustration indicates that compound A is more toxic
than B- that is, A gives the same response (50% deaths)
as B at a lower dose.
100
to
JCZ
¦p
«5
CO •>-
U4
CC 10
a
50
20
DOSE (mg/kg)
From this illustration, compound C could be assumed to
more toxic than compound D, based on LDgn. This could
be misleading because at lower doses the situation is
reversed: at LDgQ, :-D is more toxic than C.
be
FIGURE 3-2
DOSE - RESPONSE CURVES
3-13
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5. Practical Considerations
The most immediate concern for response personnel is the
protection of site workers and the public. The following
factors must be considered:
- What toxic agent is present?
- How much of the agent is present?
- How will it enter the body?
- How will it affect the body?
Answers to these and related questions will dictate how the
public is protected (e.g., a warning or evacuation of an
area), how personnel are protected (types of respiratory and
protective gear employed), and what monitoring (e.g.,
continuous or intermittent) is required.
D. Corrosive Hazards
1. Corrosion
Corrosion is a process of material degradation. Upon contact,
a corrosive material may destroy boc|y tissues, metals,
plastics, and other materials. Technically, corrosivity is
the ability of material to increase the hydrogen ion or
hydronium ion concentration of another material; it may have
the potential to transfer electron pairs to or from itself or
another substance. A corrosive agent is a reactive compound
or element that produces a destructive chemical change in the
material upon which it is acting. Common corrosives are the
halogens, acids, and bases (Table 3-8). Skin irritation and
burns are typical results when the body contacts an acidic or
basic material.
The corrosiveness of acids and bases can be compared on the
basis of their ability to dissociate (form ions) 1n solution.
Those that form the greatest number of hydrogen 1ons (H )
are the strongest acids, while those that form the most
hydroxide ions (OH") are the strongest bases. The H ion
concentration in solution is called pH. Strong acids have a
low pH (many H in solution), while strong bases have a high
pH (few H+ in solution; many OH" In solution). The pH
scale ranges from 0 to 14 as follows:
<— increasing acidity neutral increasing basic1ty-*->
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Measurements of pH are valuable because they can be quickly
done on-site, providing Immediate information on the corrosive
hazard.
3-14
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TABLE 3-7
RELATIVE INDEX OF TOXICITY
Probable Oral Lethal Dose for Humans
Toxicity Rating or Class
1. Practically nontoxic
2. Slightly toxic
3. Moderately toxic
4. Very toxic
5. Extremely toxic
6. Super toxic
Dose
For Average Adult
>15 g/kg
5-15 g/kg
0.5-5 g/kg
50-500 mg/kg
5-50 mg/kg
<5 mg/kg
More than 1 quart
Between pint and quart
Between ounce and pint
Between teaspoonful and ounce
Between 7 drops and teaspoonful
A taste (less than 7 drops)
Source: Toxicology: The Basic Science Of Poisons, 2nd ed.
Casarret and Doull (eds.), 1975.
TABLE 3-8
CORROSIVES
Halogens
Acids
Bromine
Acetic acid
Chlorine
Hydrochloric acid
Fluorine
Hydrofluoric acid
Iodine
Nitric acid
Oxygen (ozone)
Sulfuric acid
Bases (Caustics).
Potassium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide
3-15
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2. Practical Considerations
When dealing with corrosive materials in the field, it is
imperative to determine:
- How toxic is the corrosive material? Is it an irritant or
does it cause severe burns?
- What kind of structural damage does it do, and what other
hazards can it lead to? For example, will it destroy
containers holding other hazardous materials, releasing
them into the environment?
E. Hazards Due to Chemical Reactivity
1. Reactivity Hazards
A reactive material is one that can undergo a chemical
reaction under certain specified conditions. Generally,
the term "reactive hazard" is used to refer to a substance that
undergoes a violent or abnormal reaction in the presence of
water or under normal ambient atmospheric conditions. Among
this type of hazard are the pyrophoric liquids which will ignite
in air at or below normal room temperature in the absence of
added heat, shock, or friction, and the water-reactive flammable
solids which will spontaneously combust upon contact with
water (Table 3-1).
2. Chemical Reactions
A chemical reaction is the interaction of two or more
substances, resulting in chemical changes. Exothermic
chemical reactions, which give off heat, can be the most
dangerous. A separate source of heat is required to
maintain endothermic chemical reactions. Removing the heat
source stops the reaction.
Chemical reactions usually occur in one of the following ways:
- Combination
- Decomposition
- Single replacement
- Double replacement
A + B —> AB
AB —> A + B
A + BC — > B + AC
AB + CD —> AD + CB
3-16
-------
The rate at which a chemical reaction occurs depends on the
following factors:
- Surface area of reactants available at the reaction
site — for example, a large chunk of coal is
combustible, but coal dust is explosive.
- Physical state of reactant - solid, liquid, or gas
- Concentration of reactants
- Temperature
- Pressure
- Presence of a catalyst
3. Compatibility
If two or more hazardous materials remain in contact
indefinitely without reaction, they are compatible.
Incompatibility, however, does not necessarily indicate a
hazard. For example, acids and bases (both corrosive) react
to form salts and water, which may not be corrosive.
Many operations on waste or accident sites involve mixing or
unavoidable contact between different hazardous materials. It
is important to know ahead of time if such materials are
compatible. If they are not, then any number of chemical
reactions could occur. The results could range from the
formation of an innocuous gas to a violent explosion.
Table 3-9 illustrates what happens when some incompatible
materials are combined.
The identity of unknown reactants must be determined by
chemical analysis to establish compatibility. On the basis of
their properties, a chemist then should be able to determine
any chemical reactions resulting from mixing the reactants.
Judging the compatibility of more than two reactants is very
difficult; analysis should be performed on a one-to-one
basis.
Response personnel who must determine compatibilities should
refer to "A Method for Determining the Compatibility of
Hazardous Wastes" (EPA 600/2-80-076), published by EPA's
Office of Research and Development.
Sometimes the identity of a waste 1s Impossible to ascertain
due to money and time constraints. In this eventj simpTe
tests must be performed to determine the nature of the
material or mixture. Tests such as pH, oxidation-reduction
potential, and flashpoint are useful» in addition, very snail
amounts of the reactants rosy be carefully combined to
determine compatibility.
3-17
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4. Practical Considerations
If materials are compatible they may be stored together in
bulk tanks or transferred to tank trucks for ultimate
disposal. It is necessary, then, to establish the
compatibility of the materials through analyses prior to
bulking them.
Compatibility information is also very important in evaluating
an accident involving several different hazardous materials.
The ultimate handling and treatment of the materials may be
partially based on such information.
TABLE 3-9
HAZARDS DUE TO CHEMICAL REACTIONS (INCOMPATIBILITIES)
- Generation heat - e.g., acid and water
- Fire - e.g., hydrogen sulfide and calcium hypochlorite
- Explosion - e.g., picric acid and sodium hydroxide
- Toxic gas or vapor production - e.g., sulfuric acid and
plastic
- Flammable gas or vapor production - e.g.* acid and metal
- Formation of a substance with a greater toxicity than the
reactants - e.g., chlorine and ammonia
- Formation of shock- or friction- sensitive compounds
- Pressurization of closed vessels - fire extinguisher
- Solubilization of toxic substances - e.g., hydrochloric
acid and chromium
- Dispersal of toxic dusts and mists
- Violent polymerization - e.g., ammonia and acrylonitrile
3-18
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F. Physical Properties of Chemicals
Chemical compounds possess inherent properties which determine the
type and degree of the hazard they represent. Evaluating risks of
an incident depends on understanding these properties and their
relationship to the environment.
1. Solubility
The ability of a solid, liquid, gas or vapor to dissolve in a
solvent is solubility. An insoluble substance can be physically
mixed or blended in a solvent for a short time but is unchanged
when it finally separates. The solubility of a substance is
independent of its density or specific gravity.
The solubility of a material is important when determining its
reactivity, dispersion, mitigation, and treatment. Solubility
is generally given in parts per million (ppm).
2. Density/Specific Gravity
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume, commonly
expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc). The density of
water is 1 g/cc since 1 cc has a mass of 1 g.
Specific qr?vity (SpG) is the ratio of the density of a
substance (at a given temperature) to the density of water at
the temperature of its maximum density (4°C).
Numerically, SpG is equal to the density in g/cc, but is
expressed as a pure number without units. If the SpG of a
substance is greater than 1 (the SpG of water), it will sink in
water. The substance will float on water if its SpG is less
than 1. This is important when considering mitigation and
treatment methods.
3. Vapor Density
The density of a gas or vapor can be compared to the density of
the ambient atmosphere. If the density of a vapor or gas is
greater than that of the ambient air, then it will tend to
settle to the lowest point. If vapor density is close to air
density or lower, the vapor will tend to disperse in the
atmosphere. Vapor density is given in relative terms similar to
specific gravity.
In settling, dense vapor creates two hazards. First, if the
vapor displaces enough air to reduce the atmospheric
concentration of oxygen below 16%, asphyxia may result. Second,
if the vapor is toxic, then inha1 at1on problems predominate even
if the atmosphere is not oxygen deficient. If a substance is
explosive and very dense, the explosive hazard may be close to
the ground rather than at the breathing zone (normal samp11ng
he1ghts).
3-19
-------
4. Vapor Pressure
The pressure exerted by a vapor against the sides of a closed
container is called vapor pressure. It is temperature
dependent. As temperature increases, so does the vapor
pressure. Thus, more liquid evaporates or vaporizes. The lower
the boiling point of the liquid, the greater the vapor pressure
it will exert at a given temperature. Values for vapor pressure
are most often given as millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) at a
specific temperature.
5. Boiling Point
The boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid changes
to a vapor - that is, it is the temperature where the pressure
of the liquid equals atmospheric pressure. The opposite change
in phases is the condensation point. Handbooks usually list
temperatures as degrees Celsius (°C) or Fahrenheit (°F).
A major consideration with toxic substances is how they enter
the body. With high-boiling-point liquids, the most common
entry is by body contact. With low-boiling-point liquids, the
inhalation route is the most common and serious.
6. Melting Point
The temperature at which a solid changes phase to a liquid is
the melting point. This temperature is also the freezing point,
since a liquid can change phase to a solid. The proper
terminology depends on the direction of the phase change.
If a substance has been transported at a temperature that
maintains a solid phase, then a change in temperature may cause
the solid to melt. The particular substance may exhibit totally
different properties depending on phase. One phase could be
inert while the other highly reactive. Thus, it is imperative
to recognize the possibility of a substance changing phase due
to changes in the ambient temperture.
7. Flashpoint
If the ambient temperature in relation to the material of
concern is right, then it may give off enough vapor at its
surface to allow ignition by an open flame or spark.
The minimum temperature at which a substance produces sufficient
flammable vapors to ignite is its flashpoint. If the vapor does
ignite, combustion can continue as long as the temperature
remains at or above the flashpoint.
The relative flammabillty of a.substance is based on its
flashpoint. An accepted relation between the two is:
Highly flammable: Flashpoint less than 100°F
Moderately flammable: Flashpoint greater than 100°F
but less than 200°F
Relatively Inflammable: Flashpoint greater than 200°F
3-20
TAT/9-83
-------
PART 4
INTRODUCTION TO TOXICOLOGY
I. PRINCIPLES
Toxicology is defined as the study of chemical or physical agents which
interact with biologic systems to produce a response in the organisms.
Toxicity is the relative ability of a substance to cause injury to
biologic tissue. Given the broad range of toxicities any substance might
eventually invoke in an organism, it is easy to understand the wisdom of
Paracelsus (1493-1541) when he said, "All substances are poisons; there
is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison
and a remedy."
The dose determines if the effects of any substance are toxic, non-toxic,
or beneficial. Dose is the quantity of a substance to which an organism
is exposed. In toxicological studies, the dose given to test animals is
expressed in terms of quantity administered:
- Per unit weight, usually expressed as milligrams of substance per
kilogram of body mass (mg/kg).
- Per area of skin surface, expressed as mg/cm*.
- Per unit volume of air inhaled, usually expressed as parts of vapor or gas
per million parts (ppm) of air by volume. Solids would be expressed as
milligrams of materia! per cubic meter of air (mg/m^). Inhaled doses can
also be expressed by time.
A dose can also be expressed with the duration of exposure. For example,
5 mg/kg/3 D is 5 milligrams of chemical per kilogram of animal mass when
administered over a 3 day period.
A. Toxicity Tests
The design of any toxicity test incorporates selection of:
A test organism, which can range from cellular material and selected
strains of bacteria through higher order plants and animals.
The response or biological endpoint, which can range from subtle
changes in physiology and behavior to death.
An exposure or test period.
Dose or series of doses.
The objective is to select a test species that is a good model of humans, a
response that is not subjective and can be consistently determined, and a
test period that is relatively short. Often tests must be selected that
yield indirect measurements or responses that supposedly correlate well with
the response of interest - for example, determining carcinogenic potential
by measuring mutagenic potential.
B. Dose-Response Relationship
A particular toxicity test exhibits a dose-response relationship when there
is a consistent mathematical relationship between the proportion of
individuals responding and a given dose for a given exposure period. For
example, the number of mortalities Increases as the dose of a chemical given
to a group of organisms increases.
4-1
-------
C. Measurement of Response
Different species of test organisms differ in how they respond to a
specific chemical. In addition, there are variations in response to
a given dose within a group of test organisms of the same species.
Typically, this intraspecies variation follows a normal (Gaussian)
distribution when the number of organisms responding is plotted
against the degree of response for a given dose (Figure 4-1).
*o
cc
CT
i-
o
No Reaction
Extreme Reaction
FIGURE 4-1
HYPOTHETICAL RESPONSE OF A GIVEN SPECIES TO A GIVEN DOSE
Statistical techniques exist for describing normal distribution:
- Two-thirds of the test population will exhibit a response
which is within one standard deviation of the mean response.
- 95% He within two standard deviations of the mean.
- 99% lie within three standard deviations of the mean.
Thus, a relatively small number of experimental groups can be
tested, and statistical techniques can be used to define the
probable response of the average organism to a given dose.
Graphically, this average response is depicted as a point, with
bars used to exhibit one standard deviation above and below the
average. Typically, frequency-response curves are not used.
Instead, cumulative dose response curves are utilized, which depict
the summation of the frequency response curves over the range of
doses. A further refinement 1s made by plotting the cumulative
response versus the logarithm of the dose, which yields plots that
are generally linear. Several basic relationships can be readily
Identified from the plots (Figure 4-2). A dose is often described
as either a lethal dose (L.D) in a test where the response 1s
mortality, or effective dose (ED) in a test where the response is
some other observable effect.
4-2
-------
Constructing an ultimate dose-response curve enables the identification
of doses which affect a given percent of the exposed population,
e.g., the LD50 is that dose which is lethal to 50 percent of the
test organisms.
100 I
o>
tz
-M -r-
to -0
0) C
h- O
Q.
M- CO
O «/>
<0 E
4-» V)
C -r-
-------
- Lethal concentration fifty (LC50): A calculated
concentration of a substance in air, exposure to which for a
specified length of time is expected to cause the death of 50
percent of an entire defined experimental animal population.
TABLE 4-1
DOSE RESPONSE TEST
Category
Exposure
Time
Route of
Exposure
Toxic Effects
Human Animal
TDLo
Acute or
chronic
All except
i nhalation
Any non-
lethal
Carcinogenic,
neoplastlgenie,
tumorigenie,
teratogenic
TCLo
Acute or
chronic
Inhalation
Any non-
lethal
Carcinogenic,
neoplasti genie,
tumorigenie,
teratogenic
ldLo
Acute or
chronic
All except
i nhalation
Death
Death
LD50
Acute
All except
inhalation
Not Death
applicable (statistically
determlned)
L^Lo
Acute or
chronic
Inhalation
Death
Death
IC50
Acute
Inhalation
Not Death
applicable (statistically
determlned)
E. Use of Dose-Response Relationship
Comparing the LD50 of chemicals 1n animals gives a relative ranking
of potency or toxicity of each. For example, DDT (LD50 for rats ¦
113 mg/kg) would be considered more toxic than ethyl alcohol (LD50
for rats - 1400 mg/kg). Using this LDgg (mg/kg) and multiplying by
70 kg (average mass of man) give a rough extrapolation to humans,
assuming they are as sensitive to the substance as the species tested.
4-4
-------
LD50 serves only as a rough estimate of the toxic potential
of a substance, but it is easy to compute the approximate potency
and hence the approximate risk associated with a substance
(Table 4-2).
TABLE 2
TOXICITY RATING CHART
Toxicity Rating
Oral Acute LD50
or Class
for Rats
Extremely toxic
1 mg/kg or less (dioxin, botulinus toxin)
Highly toxic
1 to 50 mg/kg (strychnine)
Moderately toxic
50 to 500 mg/kg (DDT)
Slightly toxic
0.5 to 15 g/kg (morphine)
Practically nontoxic
5 to 15 g/kg (ethyl alcohol)
Dose-response curves are useful when the response is mild, such
as odor or tearing, rather than severe, such as coma. The
difference between the curves provides the margin of safety
(Figure 4-3), which is usually defined as equal to
Toxic dose50
Nontoxic doseso
Another ratio sometimes used is Toxic dosei
Nontoxic dosegg
This gives a smaller margin of safety than the previous ratio, but
is more realistic, since it accounts for the extreme cases in the
population.
100%
O
Dose
FIGURE 4-3
COMPARISON OF EFFECTIVE DOSE (ED), AND LETHAL DOSE (LD) RESPONSE
CURVES. (ED * dose response for smell; LD ¦ dose response for
mortality.)
4-5
-------
An exposure limit is a concentration of a substance in the workplace to
which workers can presumably be exposed to without undesirable effects.
Using the lower end of the dose response curve (LD, TD, or no effect) and a
1/10 or 1/100 protection factor permits assigning an exposure limit
(Figure 4-4).
O)
C -r-
o +j
ex «o
tn r~
OJ 3
cc E
3
o
No effect
TLV
Dose
FIGURE 4-4
CALCULATION OF A TLV BASED ON DOSE-RESPONSE CURVE
F. Limitations of Dose-Response Data
Several limitations must be recognized when using dose-response data.
First, an ED50 or LD50 is a single value and does not indicate
the shape of the curve. The dose-response interval is as important as
the numerical LD50 value. Thus, comparing these values can give the
wrong impression (Figure 4-5).
Dose
Chemical A is assumed to be more toxic than Chemical B based on
LD50, but at lower doses the situation is reversed. At LD20
Chemical B is more toxic than Chemical A.
FIGURE 4-5
DOSE-RESPONSE CURVES OF TWO SUBSTANCES
4-6
-------
Second, most LD50 data are for an acute (single dose, short-term)
exposure rather than a chronic (continuous, long-term) exposure. Data
cannot be extrapolated if the disposition of the chemical (that is,
bioaccumulation, metabolism, excretion) or the target organ is not known.
For example, carcinogens are usually more toxic if the dose is administered
over several exposures instead of one single exposure.
A third shortcoming is that usually there is little information to guide
the choice of the animal data that mimic human exposure. Are humans less
or more sensitive than the test species? For example, in human studies
arsenic is a carcinogen, while in animal studies it is not.
For chronic human exposure, the best guide is to extrapolate chronic animal
data that give a no effect dose. Usually this dose is not found in the
literature, and, thus, the dose-response curve is needed.
G. Factors Influencing Toxicity
Many factors affect the normal dose-response relationship and should be
considered when extrapolating toxicity data to a specific situation
(Table 4-2).
1. Route of Exposure
The route by which a substance enters the body determines how much is
absorbed and which organs are exposed to the largest concentration,
while both of these determine metabolism and excretion. Thus, the
amount of chemical that is toxic orally maty not be as toxic when
applied to the skin.
2. Sex
Some substances may be more toxic to one sex than the other. For
example, women have a larger percent of fat in their total body
weight, which means they can accumulate more fat-soluble substances
than men. Women also have different susceptibilities to teratogenic
chemicals. There is evidence that some cancers and other diseases
are sex-linked as well.
3. Age
Older people have different blood systems, musculature, metabolism,
and excretory patterns than younger people, which change the
disposition and toxic effects of chemicals. Also, children are not
small adults. For example, they have higher respiration rates and
different susceptibilities (less sensitive to stimulants of the
central nervous system but more sensitive to depressants),
metabolism, and excretory patterns.
4. Synergism, Antagonism, and Potentiation
Some combinations of chemicals produce different effects from those
attributed to each Individually:
4-7
-------
- Synergists: chemicals that, when combined, cause a greater than
additive effect.
- Potentiation: is a type of synergism where the potentiator is
not usually toxic in itself, but has the ability to increase the
toxicity of other chemicals.
- Antagonists: chemicals, that when combined, lessen the predicted
effect. There are four types of antagonists.
— functional: Produces opposite effects on the same physiologic
function. For example, phosphate reduces lead absorption in the
gastrointestinal tract by forming insoluble lead phosphate.
— chemical: Reacts with the toxic compound to form a less toxic
product. For example, chelating agents bind up metals such as
lead, arsenic, and mercury.
-- dispositional: Alters absorption, metabolism, distribution, or
excretion. For example, some alcohols use the same enzymes in
their metabolism:
ethanol > acetaldehyde > acetic acid
methanol > formaldehyde > formic acid
The aldehydes cause toxic effects (hangover, blindness). Ethanol
is more readily metabolized than methanol, so when both are
present, methanol is not metabolized and can be excreted before
forming formaldehyde. Another dispositional antagonist is
Antabuse which, when administered to alcoholics, inhibits the
metabolism of acetaldehyde, giving the patient a more severe,
prolonged hangover.
-- receptor: Occurs when a relatively nontoxic chemical binds to the
same tissue receptor as a toxic chemical and thereby reduces the
toxic effect.
5. Genetic
People are not born genetically equal. Some lack genes which
produce enzymes that can alter the toxicities of some chemicals.
For example, when people with 66PD enzyme deficiency are given
aspirin or certain antibiotics, they are likelier than normal
people to suffer damage to their red blood cells.
6. Species Variation
The big physiologic differences among various animal species lead to
the "Catch 22" of toxicology. Animals are used as models to study
the mechanisms of toxicity of chemicals; therefore, the proper
selection of test animals requires knowing which one most closely
resembles humans with respect to the chemical of interest. The goal
of animal studies 1s to predict chemical effects on humans.
However, selecting the right animal requires knowledge of the fate
of the chemical in humans (the goal), as well as its fate in various
animals.
4-8
-------
TABLE 4-2
CLASSIFICATION OF FACTORS INFLUENCING TOXICITY
Factors related to the chemical
Factors related to exposure
Factors related to person exposed
Factors related to environment
Examples
Composition (salt, free base, etc.);
physical characteristics (particle
size, liquid, solid, etc); physical
properties (volatility, solubility,
etc.); presence of impurities;
breakdown products; carrier.
Dose; concentration; route of ex-
posure (ingestion, skin absorption,
injection, inhalation); duration.
Heredity; immunology; nutrition;
hormones; age; sex; diseases.
Carrier (air, water, food, soil);
additional chemicals present
(synergism, antagonism); temperature;
air pressure.
II. BODY RESPONSE TO TOXIC CHEMICALS
Various organ systems of the body respond to chemical exposure in
different ways.
A. Respiratory Tract
The respiratory tract is the only organ system with vital functional
elements in constant, direct contact with the environment. The lung
also has the largest exposed surface area of any organ - a surface
area of 70 to 100 square meters versus 2 for the skin and 10 for the
digestive system. The lung 1s exposed by inhalation and by
exhalation-of chemicals absorbed through other routes (ingestion,
skin).
1. Structure
The respiratory tract 1s divided Into three regions:
- Nasopharyngeal: Extends from nose to larynx. These passages
are lined with ciliated epithelium and mucous glands. They
filter out large Inhaled particles, Increase the relative
humidity of Inhaled air, and moderate its temperature.
- Tracheobronchial: Consists of trachea, bronchi, and
bronchioles and serves as conducting airway between the
nasopharyngeal region and alveoli.
4-9
-------
- These passage ways are lined with ciliated epithelium coated
by mucous, which serves as an escalator to move particles
from deep in the lungs back up to the oral cavity so they can
be swallowed. These ciliated cells can be temporarily
paralyzed by smoking or using cough suppressants.
- Pulmonary acinus: is the basic functional unit in the lung
and the primary location of gas exchange. It consists of
small bronchioles which connect to the alveoli. The alveoli,
of which there are 100 million in humans, contact the
pulmonary capillaries.
Particle deposition
Inhaled particles settle in the respiratory tract according to
their diameters:
- 5-30 micron settle in the nasopharyngeal region.
- 1-5 micron settle and collect in the tracheobronchial
region.
- less than 1 micron settle in the alveolar region by diffusion
and Brownian motion.
In general, most particles are 5-10 microns and are removed.
But certain small Inorganic particles, particularly forms of
silica, settle into smaller regions of the lung and kill the
cells which attempt to remove them. The result is damaging
fibrous lesions of the lung.
Types of inhaled toxicants
Many chemicals used or produced in industry can produce acute or
chronic diseases of the respiratory tract when they are inhaled
(Table 4-3). The toxicants can be classified according to how
they affect the respiratory tract.
- Asphyxiants: gases that deprive the body tissues of oxygen
— simple asphyxiants are physiologically inert gases that at
high concentrations displace air leading to suffocation.
Examples: nitrogen, helium, methane, neon, argon.
— chemical asphyxiants are gases that prevent the tissues
from getting enough oxygen. Examples: carbon monoxide
and cyanide. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin 200
times more readily than o*ygen and cyanide prevents the
transfer of oxygen from blood to tissues by inhibiting the
necessary transfer enzymes.
- Irritants: chemicals that Irritate the air passages, causing
Constriction of the airways and possibly leading to edema
(liquid in the lungs) and infection. Examples: hydrogen
floride, chlorine* hydrogen chloride, and ammonia.
4-10
-------
TABLE 4-3
INDUSTRIAL TOXICANTS THAT PRODUCE
DISEASE OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT2.3'5
Toxicant
Aluminum
Ammonia
Arsenic
Asbestos
Beryllium
Boron oxide
Carbides of
tungsten,
titanium,
tantalum
Chlori
ne
Chromium (VI)
Cobalt
Hydrogen
Iron oxides
*socyanates
Manganese
Site of Action
Upper airways
Upper airways
Upper airways
Lung parenchyma
A1veoli
Alveoli
Cadmium oxide Alveoli
Upper, lower
airways
Upper airways
Nasopharnyx,
upper airways •
Lower airways,
alveoli
Upper airways
Alveoli, bronchi
Lower airways,
alveoli
Lower airways
alveoli
Acute Effect
Cough, shortness
of breath,
i rritation
Irritation,
edema
Bronchitis,
i rritation,
pharyngitis
Edema,
pneumonia
Edema,
hemorrhage
Cough, Pneumonia
Hyperplasia,
metaplasia of
bronchial cells
Chronic Effect
Fibrosis, emphysema
Bronchitis
Cancer, bronchitis,
laryngitis
Fibrosis, cancer
Fibrosis,
ulceration
Emphysema
Fibrosis
Cough, irrita- - - - .
tion, asphyxiant
(by muscle cramps
in larynx)
Nasal irritation, Cancer
bronchitis
Asthma
Irritation,
edema
Cough
Fibrosis, inter-
stitial pneumonitis
Benign pneumo-
coniosis
Bronchitis, - - - -
pulmonary edema,
asthma
Pneumonia, often Recurrent
fatal pneumonia
4-11
-------
TABLE 4-3 (CONTINUED)
Toxicants
Site of Action
Acute Effect
Chronic Effect
Nickel
Nasal mucosa,
bronchi
Nickel Carbonyl Alveoli
Nitrogen
oxides
Osmium
tetraoxide
Ozone
Phosgene
Phthalic
anhydride
Sulfur
dioxide
Tin
Toluene
Vanadium
Bronchi,
alveoli
Upper ai rways
Bronchi
alveoli
Alveoli
Lower airways
alveoli
Upper airways
Bronchioles,
pleura
Upper airways
Upper, lower
ai rways
Irritation
Edema (delayed
symptoms)
Edema
Bronchitis,
bronchospasm
Irritation,
edema, hemor-
rhage
Edema
Bronchitis,
asthma
Bronchoconstric-
tion, cough,
tightness in
chest
Cancer
Emphysema
Broncho-
pneumonia
Emphysema,
bronchitis
Bronchitis,
fibrosis,
pneumonia
Emphysema
Bronchitis,
nasopharyngitis
Widespread
mottling of
x-ray without
clinical signs
(benign pneumo-
coniosis)
Bronahitis,
edema, broncho-
spasm
Irritation,
nasal inflam-
mation, edema
Bronchitis
Xylene
Lower airways
Edema, hemorrhage -
4-12
-------
- Necrosis producers: Chemicals that result in cell death and
edema. Examples: ozone and nitrogen dioxide.
- Fibrosis producers: Chemicals that produce fibrotic tissue
which, if massive, blocks airways and decreases lung
capacity. Examples: silicates, asbestos, and beryllium.
- Allergens: Chemicals that induce an allergic response
characterized by bronchoconstriction and pulmonary disease.
Examples: isocyanates and sulfur dioxide.
- Carcinogens: Chemicals that are associated with lung cancer.
Examples: cigarette smoke, coke emissions, asbestos, and
arsenic.
Not only can various chemicals affect the respiratory tract, but the
tract is also a route for chemicals to reach other organs. Solvents,
such as benzene and tetrachloroethane, anesthetic gases, and other
compounds containing lead or mercury can be absorbed through the
respiratory tract and affect other organs.
B. Skin
The skin is, in terms of weight, the largest single organ of the body.
It provides a barrier between the environment and other organs (except
the lungs and eyes) and therefore is a defense against many chemicals.
1. Structure
The skin consists of the epidermis and the dermis. In the dermis
are sweat glands and ducts, sebaceous glands, connective tissue,
fat, and blood vessels. Hair follicles penetrate both the
epidermis and dermis. Chemicals can penetrate the epidermis, sweat
glands, sebaceous glands, or hair follicles.
Although the follicles and glands may permit a small amount of
chemicals to enter almost immediately, most pass through the
epidermis, which constitutes the major surface area. The top layer
is the stratum corneum, a thin cohesive membrane of dead surface
skin. This layer turns over every 2 weeks by a complex process of
cell dehydration and polymerization of intracellular material. The
epidermis plays the critical role 1n skin permeability, and
abrasion can lower the skin's defenses dramatically. Below the
epidermis lies the dermis, a collection of cells providing a
porous, watery, nonselective diffusion medium.
2. Natural Defenses
Intact skin has a number of natural defenses:
- Epidermis: Prevents absorption of chemicals and is a physical
barrier to bacteria.
- Sebaceous glands: Secrete fatty acids which are bacteriostatic and
fungistatic.
4-13
-------
INJURED BY:
'"Stratum fDisjunctum
Comeum j
l^Conjunctum
Stratum Granulosum
Stratum Spinsoum
v.Stratum Gcrmantivum-^s
f Sweat duct
Sebaceous
gland
%
Sweat gland
Blood vessel
Connective tissue
Muscle
m
m
i
tvy/m
Hair follicle
^Capillary
FIGURE 4-6
CROSS-SECTION OF HUMAN SKIN1
Soap, solvents, alkalies, and
hot water.
Alkalies, detergents, solvents,
keratolytic chemicals, trauma,
and certain internal diseases.
Trauma (physical, mechanical,
chemical) and internal diseases,
^-Modified from reference 2.
-------
- Melanocytes (skin pigment): Prevent damage from ultraviolet
radiation in sunlight.
- Sweat glands: Regulate heat.
- Connective tissue: Provides elasticity against trauma.
- Lymph-blood system: Provide immunologic responses to
infection.
3. Absorption Characteristics
The ability of skin to absorb foreign substances depends on:
- Properties and health of skin.
- Chemical properties of the substances.
- Environment (vehicle).
Absorption is enhanced by:
- Breaking top layer of skin by abrasions or cuts.
- Increasing hydration of skin.
- Increasing temperature of skin which causes:
Sweat cells to open up and secrete sweat, which can dissolve
solids;
- Increase blood flow to skin.
- Increasing concentrations of the substance.
- Altering skin's normal pH of 5.
- Decreasing particle size of substance.
- Adding surface-active agents or organic chemicals. DMSO, for
example, can act as a carrier of the substance.
- Inducing ion movement by an electrical charge.
Absorption of a toxic chemical through the skin can lead to:
- Local effects such as Irritation and necrosis, through direct
contact.
- Systemic effects.
Many chemicals can cause a reaction with the skin resulting in
Inflammation called dermatitis. These chemicals can be divided Into
three categories:
- Primary Irritants: Act directly on normal skin at the site of
contact 1f chemical 1s 1n sufficient quantity for a sufficient
length of time. Skin Irritants Include: acetone, benzyl
chloride, carbon disulfide, chloroform, chromic acid.
4-15
-------
and other soluble chromium compounds, ethylene oxide, hydrogen
chloride, iodine, methyl ethyl ketone, mercury, phenol, phosgene,
styrene, sulfur dioxide, picric acid, toluene, xylene.
- Photosensitizers: Increase sensitivity to light, which results in
irritation and redness. Photosensitizers include:
tetracyclines, acridine, creosote, pyridine, furfural, naphtha.
- Allergic sensitizers: May produce allergic-type reaction after repeated
contact. They include: formaldehyde, phthalic anhydride, ammonia,
mercury, nitrobenzene, toluene diisocyanate, chromic acid and chromates,
cobalt, benzoyl peroxide.
C. Eyes
The eyes are affected by some of the same chemicals that affect
skin, but the eyes are more sensitive. Several types of materials can damage
the eyes by direct contact:
- Acids: Damage to the eye by acids depends on pH and the
protein-combining capacity of the acid. Unlike alkali burns, the
acid burns that are apparent during the first few hours are a
good indicator of the long-term damage to be expected. Some
acids and their properties are:
-- sulfuric acid: In addition to its acid properties, it simultaneously
removes water from the skin and generates heat.
-- picric acid and tannic acid: No difference in damage they
produce in entire range of acidic pH's.
-- hydrochloric acid: Severe damage at pH 1, but no effect at pH
3 or greater.
- Alkalies: Damage that appears mild initially but can lead later
to ulceration, perforation, and clouding of the cornea or lens.
The pH and length of exposure have more bearing on the amount of
damage than the type of alkali. Some problem alkalies are:
— sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), potassium hydroxide.
-- ammonia penetrates eye tissues more readily than any
other alkali; calcium oxide (lime) forms clumps when it contacts the eye
and is very hard to remove.
- Organic solvents: Organic solvents (for example, ethanol,
toluene, and acetone) dissolve fats, cause pain, and dull the
cornea. Damage is usually slight unless the solvent 1s
hot.
- Lacrimators: Lacrimators cause instant tearing at low
concentrations. They are distinguished from other eye
Irritants {hydrogen chloride and ammonia) because they
Induce an Instant reaction without damaging tissues. At
very high concentrations lacrimators can cause chemical
burns and destroy corneal material. Examples are
chloroacetophenone (tear gas) and MACE.
4-16
-------
In addition, some compounds act on eye tissue to form
cataracts, damage the optic nerve, or damage the retina.
These compounds usually reach the eye through the blood system.
Therefore, the route of exposure would be inhalation,
ingestion or absorption rather than direct contact. Examples
of compounds that can provide systemic effects
damaging to the eyes are:
- Napthalene: Cataracts and retina damage.
- Phenothiazine (insecticide): Retina damage
- Thallium: cataracts and optic nerve damage.
- Methanol: Optic nerve damage.
D. Central Nervous System
1. Anoxia as a Basic Toxicity
Neurons (nerve cells) have a high metabolic rate but
little capacity for anaerobic metabolism.
Subsequently, inadequate oxygen flow (anoxia) to the
brain kills cells within minutes. Some maty die before
oxygen or glucose transport stops completely.
Because of their need for oxygen, nerve cells are
readily affected by both simple asphyxiants and chemical
asphyxiants. Also, their ability to receive adequate
oxygen is affected by compounds that reduce respiration
and thus reduce oxygen content of the blood
(barbiturates, narcotics). Other examples include
compounds that reduce blood pressure or flow due to
cardiac arrest, extreme hypotension, hemorrhaging, or
thrombosis - for example, arsine, nickel, ethylene
chlorohydrin, tetraethyl lead, aniline, and benzene.
2. Direct Action on Neurons
Some compounds damage neurons or inhibit their function
through specific action on parts of the cell. The major
symptoms from such damage include: dullness,
restlessness, muscle tremor, convulsions, loss of memory,
epilepsy, idiocy, loss of muscle coordination, and
abnormal sensations. Examples are:
- Fluoroacetate: Rodenticlde.
- Tri ethyl tin: Ingredient of insecticides and
fungicides.
- Hexachlorophene: Antibacterial agent.
- Lead: Gasoline additive and paint ingredient.
4-17
-------
- Thallium: Sulfate used as a pesticide and oxide or carbonate
used in manufacture of optical glass and artificial gems.
- Tellurium: Pigment in glass and porcelain.
- Organomercury compounds: Methyl mercury used as a
fungicide; is also a product of microbial action on
mercury ions. Organomercury compounds are especially
hazardous because of their volatility and their ability
to permeate tissue barriers.
Some compounds are noted for producing weakness of the
lower extremities and abnormal sensations (along with
previously mentioned symptoms):
- Acrylamide: Soil stabilizer, waterproofer.
- Carbon disulfide: Solvent in rayon and rubber
industries.
- n-Hexane: Used as a cleaning fluid and solvent. Its
metabolic product, hexanedione, causes the effects.
- Methyl butyl ketone: Same as for hexane.
- Organophosphorus compounds: Often used as flame retardants
(triorthocresyl phosphate) and pesticides (Leptofor and
Mipafox).
Agents that prevent the nerves from producing proper
muscle contraction and may result in death from respiratory
paralysis are DDT, lead, botulinus toxin, and allethrin (a
synthetic insecticide). DDT, mercury, manganese, and monosodium
glutamate also produce personality disorders and madness.
E. Liver
Liver injury induced by chemicals has been recognized as a
toxicologic problem for 100 years. It was recognized early
that liver injury is not a simple entity, but that the type
of lesion depends on the chemical and duration of exposure.
Three types of response to hepatotoxlns can be identified:
- Acute:
Cell death from:
-- carbon tetrachloride: Solvent, degreaser.
- chloroform: Used in refrigerant manufacture solvent.
- trichloroethylene: Solvent, dry cleaning fluid,
degreaser.
- tetrachloroethane: Paint and varnish remover, dry
cleaning fluid.
4-18
-------
-- bromobenzene: Solvent, motor oil additive.
-- tannic acid: Ink manufacture, beer and wine clarifier.
-- kepone: pesticide.
- Chronic:
~ cirrhosis: a progressive fibrotic disease of the liver
associated with liver dysfunction and jaundice. Among
agents implicated in cirrhosis cases are carbon
tetrachloride, alcohol, and aflatoxin.
-- carcinomas: malignant, growing tissue. For example,
vinyl chloride (used in polyvinyl chloride production) and
arsenic (used in pesticides and paints) are associated
with cancers.
- Biotransformation of toxicants: the liver is the principal
organ that chemically alters all compounds entering the body.
For example:
ethanol --> acetaldehyde --> acetic acid --> water + carbon
dioxide
This metabolic action by the liver can be affected by diet,
hormone activity, and alcohol consumption. Biotransformation
in the liver can also lead to toxic metabolities. For
example:
carbon tetrachloride —> chloroform
Kidneys
The kidney is susceptible to toxic agents for several reasons:
- The kidneys constitute 1 percent of the body's weight, but
receive 20-25 percent of the blood flow (during rest). Thus,
large amounts of circulating toxicants reach the kidneys
quickly.
- The kidneys have high oxygen and nutrient requirements
because of their work load. They filter 1/3 of the plasma
reaching them and reabsorb 98-99% of the salt and water. As
they are reabsorbed, salt concentrates 1n the kidneys.
- Changes in kidney pH may Increase passive diffusion and thus
cellular concentrations of toxicants.
- Active secretion processes may concentrate toxicants.
- Biotransformation 1s high.
4-19
-------
A number of materials are toxic to the kidneys:
- Heavy metals, may denature proteins as well as produce cell
toxicity. Heavy metals (including mercury, chromium,
arsenic, gold, cadmium, lead, and silver) are readily
concentrated in the kidneys, making this organ particularly
sensiti ve.
- Halogenated organic compounds, which contain chlorine,
fluorine, bromine, or iodine. Metabolism of these compounds,
like that occuring in the liver, generates toxic
metabolites. Among compounds toxic to the kidneys are
carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, 2,4,5-T (a herbicide), and
ethylene dibromide (a fumigant).
- Miscellaneous, including carbon disulfide (solvent for waxes
and resins) and ethylene glycol (automobile antifreeze).
G. Blood
The blood system can be damaged by agents that affect blood cell
production (bone marrow), the components of blood (platelets,
red blood cells, and white blood cells), or the oxygen-carrying
capacity of red blood cells.
1. Bone marrow
Bone marrow is the source of most components in blood.
Agents that suppress the function of bone marrow include:
- Arsenic, used in pesticides and paints.
- Bromine, used to manufacture gasoline antiknock
compounds, ethylene dibromide, and organic 4yes.
- Methyl chloride, used as a solvent, refrigerant, and
aerosol propellant.
- Ionizing radiation, produced by radioactive materials and
x-rays is associated with leukemia.
- Benzene, a chemical intermediate associated with leukemia.
2. Blood components
Among platelets (thrombocytes) are blood components that
help prevent blood loss by forming blood clots. Among
chemicals that affect this action are:
- Aspirin, which inhibits clotting.
- Benzene, which decreases the number of platelets.
- Tetrachloroethane, which increases the number of
platelets.
Leukocytes (white blood cells) are primarily responsible for
4-20
-------
defending the body against foreign organisms or materials
by engulfing and destroying the material or by producing
antibodies. Chemicals that increase the number of
leukocytes include naphthalene, magnesium oxide, boron
hydrides, and tetrachloroethane. Agents that decrease the
number of leukocytes include benzene and phosphorus.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) transport oxygen in the
blood. Chemicals that destroy (hemolyze) red blood cells
include arsine (a gaseous arsenic compound and contaminant
in acetylene), napthalene (used to make dyes), and warfarin
(a rodenticide).
3. Oxygen Transport
Some compounds affect the oxygen carrying capabilities of
red blood cells. A notable example is carbon monoxide which
combines with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin.
Hemoglobin has an affinity for carbon monoxide 200 times
greater than that for oxygen.
While carbon monoxide combines reversibly with hemoglobin,
some chemicals cause the hemoglobin to change such that it
cannot combine reversibly with oxygen. This condition is
called methemoglobinemia. Some chemicals that can cause
this are:
- Sodium nitrite, used in meat curing and photography.
- Aniline, used in manufacture of rubber accelerators and
antioxidants, resins, and varnishes.
- Nitrobenzene and dinitrobenzene, used in manufacture of
dyestuffs and explosives.
- Trinitrotoluene (TNT), used in explosives.
- Mercaptans, used in manufacture of pesticides and as
odorizers for hazardous odorless gases.
- 2-nitropropane, used as a solvent.
4. Spleen
The spleen filters bacteria and particulate matter
(especially deteriorated red blood cells) from the blood.
Iron 1s recovered from the hemoglobin for recycling. In the
embryo, the spleen forms all types of blood cells. In the
adult, however, 1t produces only certain kinds of
leukocytes. Examples of chemicals that damage the spleen
are:
- Chloroprene, used in production of synthetic rubber.
- Nitrobenzene, used as chemical Intermediate.
4-21
-------
H. Reproductive System
Certain agents interfere with the reproductive capabilities
of both sexes, causing sterility, infertility, abnormal
sperm, low sperm count, and/or affect hormone activity:
- Male: Anesthetic gases (halothane, methoxyfluorane)
cadmium, mercury, lead, boron, methyl mercury, vinyl
chloride, DDT, kepone, chlordane, PCB's, dioxin, 2,4-D,
2,4,5-T, carbaryl, paraquat, dibromochloropropane,
ethylene dibromide, benzene, toluene, xylene, ethanol,
radiation, heat.
- Female: DDT, parathion, carbaryl, diethylstiIbestrol
(DES), PCB's, cadmium, methyl mercury, hexafluoroacetone,
anesthetic gases.
TYPE OF TOXIC EFFECTS
A. Teratogenic
The term "teratology" is derived from its Latin root and means
"the study of monsters". In a modern context, teratology is the
study of congenital malformations. Teratology is a relatively new
discipline that started in 1941 with the correlation of German
measles to birth defects. In the 1960's, the first industrial
link to teratogens was discovered. The chemical involved was
methyl mercury.
1. Causes of congenital malformations
The following conditions have been associated with congenital
malformations:
- Heredity.
- Maternal diseases such as German measles and viral
infections during pregnancy.
- Maternal malnutrition.
- Physical injury.
- Radiation.
- Exposure to chemicals.
2. Gestation period
Most major structural abnormalities occur during the embryonic
period, 5-7 weeks, while physiologic and minor defects occur
during the fetal period, 8-36 weeks. Studies using lab
animals show the need to evaluate exposure of chemicals for
each day of pregnancy. Thalidomide, for example, caused birth
defects 1n rats only when administered during the 12th day of
gestation.
4-22
-------
A number of chemicals are reactive or can be activated in the
body during the gestation period. The degree and nature of the
fetal effects then depend upon:
- Developmental state of embryo or fetus when chemical is
administered.
- Dose of chemical, route, and exposure interval.
- Transplacental absorption of chemical and levels in tissues
of embryo/fetus.
- Ability of maternal liver and placenta to metabolize or
detoxify chemical.
- Biologic half-life of chemical or metabolites.
- State of cell cycle when chemical is at toxic concentrations.
- Capacity of embryonic/fetal tissues to detoxify or
bioactivate chemicals.
- Ability of damaged cells to repair or recover.
3. Animal Studies
Teratogenic potential has been implied by animal studies under
various conditions:
- Dietary deficiency: Vitamins A, D, E, C, riboflavin,
thiamine, nicotinamide, folic acid, zinc, manganese,
magnesium, cobalt.
- Hormonal deficiency: Pituitary, thyroxin, insulin.
- Hormonal excess: Cortisone, thyroxin, Insulin androgens,
estrogens, epinephrine.
- Hormone and vitamin antagonists: 3-acetylpyridine,
6-ami nonicoti nam1de, thiouraci1s.
- Vitamin excess: Vitamin A, nicotinic acid.
- Antibiotics: Penicillin, tetracyclines, streptomycin.
- Heavy metals: Methyl mercury, mercury salts, lead,
thallium, selenium, chelating agents.
- Azo dyes: Trypan blue, Evans blue, Niagara sky blue 6B.
- Producers of anoxia: Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide.
- Chemicals: Quinine, tMadlazole, salicylate, 2,3,7,8-TCDD,
caffeine, nltrosamlnes, hydroxyurea, boric acid, insecticides,
pesticides, DMSO, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, benzene,
xylene, cyclohexanone,
4-23
-------
propylene glycol, acetamides, formamides, sulfonamides.
- Physical conditions: hypothermia, hyperthermia, radiation,
anoxia.
- Infections: Ten viruses (including German measles and
cytomegalovirus), syphillis, gonorrhea.
4. Teratogens Known to Affect Humans
Far fewer agents have been shown to be teratogenic in humans:
- Anesthetic gases.
- Organic mercury compounds.
- Ionizing radiation.
- German measles.
- Thalidomide.
B. Mutagenic
Mutagens are agents that cause changes (mutations) in the genetic
code, altering DNA. The changes can be chromosomal breaks,
re-arrangement of chromosome pieces, gain or loss of entire
chromosomes, or a change within a gene.
Among agents shown to be mutagenic in humans are:
- Ethylene oxide, used in hospitals as a sterilant.
- Ethyleneimine, an alkylating agent.
- Ionizing radiation.
- Hydrogen peroxide, a bleaching agent.
- Benzene, a chemical intermediate.
- Hydrazine, used in rocket fuel.
The concern over mutagenic agents covers more than the effect that
could be passed Into the human gene pool (germinal or reproductive
cell mutations). There 1s also interest in the possibility that
somatic cell mutations may produce carcinogenic or teratogenic
responses.
C. Carcinogenic
Two types of carcinogenic mechanisms have been identified.
4-24
-------
- Genotoxic: Electrophi1ic carcinogens that alter genes
through interaction with DNA. There are two types:
—direct or primary carcinogens: Chemicals that act without
any bioactivation - for example, bis (chloromethyl) ether,
ethylene dibromide, and dimethyl sulfate.
--procarcinogens: Chemicals that require biotransformation
to activate them to a carcinogen - for example, vinyl
chloride and 2-naphthylamine.
- Epigenetic: Carcinogens that do not act directly with
genetic material. Several types are possible:
--cocarcinogen: Increases the overall response of a
carcinogen when they are administered together - for
example, sulfur dioxide, ethanol, and catechol.
--promoter: Increases response of a carcinogen when applied
after the carcinogen but will not induce cancer by itself-
for example, phenol, dithranol.
--solid-state: Works by unknown mechanism, but physical
form vital to effect (asbestos, metal foils).
--hormone: Usually is not genotoxic, but alters endocrine
balance; often acts as promoter (DES, estrogens).
--immunosuppressor: Mainly stimulates virally Induced,
transplanted, or metastatic neoplasms by weakening host's
immune system (antilymphocytic serum, used in organ
transplants).
--inorganic carcinogen: Leads to altered genetic expression
by selective alteration 1n fidelity of DNA replication
(chromium, nickel, arsenic).
Genotoxic carcinogens are sometimes effective after a single
exposure, can act in a cumulative manner, and act with other
genotoxic carcinogens which affect the same organs. Some
epigenetic carcinogens, however, only cause cancers when
concentrations are high and exposure long. The Implication 1s
that while there may be a "safe" threshold level of exposure
for some carcinogens, others may have "zero" threshold - that
is, one molecule of the chemical can Induce a cancer.
2. Role of DNA
Various considerations Indicate that DNA 1s a critical target
for carcinogens:
- Many carcinogens are or can be metabolized so that they react
with DNA. In these cases, the reaction can usually be
detected by repairing DNA.
- Carcinogens add to DNA.
4-25
-------
- Many carcinogens are also mutagens.
- Inhibitors and inducers of carcinogens affect mutagenic
acti vity.
- Chemicals often are tested for mutagenic and carcinogenic
activity in the same cell systems.
- Defects in DNA repair predispose to cancer development.
- Several inheritable or chromosomal abnormalities predispose
to cancer development.
- Initiated dormant tumor cells persist, which is consistent
with a change in DNA.
- Cancer is inheritable at the cellular level and, therefore,
may result from an alteration of DNA.
-Most, if not all, cancers display chromosomal abnormalities.
3. Cancer Death Rate
Although cancer ranks as the second most common cause of death
in the United States, the process of carcinogenesis is not yet
clearly defined. As a result, there are several problems
encountered when evaluating the carcinogenic potential of
various agents in the environment. First, human health can be
affected by a wide range of factors including the environment,
occupation, genetic predisposition and lifestyle (i.e.
cigarette smoking, diet). Therefore, it is often difficult to
determine the relationship between any one exposure and the
onset of cancer. Second, many cancers are latent
responses—that is, the disease may not be manifested until
many years after the initial exposure. Third, the mechanisms
for carcinogenesis may differ according to the type and the
site of cancer. Finally, the following questions should be
considered when assessing cancer risk:
- Are there no-effect exposure levels 1n humans?
- Are extrapolations from animal tests to human exposures
relevant?
- How should negative experimental results be evaluated?
- How should problems of "Interacting" (I.e. synergistic,
potentiating, antagonistic) effects be addressed?
- To what extent does and should "lifestyle" play?
- Can "potential" and "real" risks be defined?
- To what extent can we identify and protect susceptible
individuals?
4-26
-------
REFERENCES
1. Ariens, Everhard, A.M. Simonis, and J. Offermeir. Introduction to
General Toxicology. Academic Press, New York, NY. (1976).
2. Doull, John, Curtis D. Klaassen, Mary 0. Amdur. Casarett and
Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons. Macmillan
Publishing Co., Inc., New York, NY. (1980).
3. Loomis, Ted A., Essentials of Toxicology. Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, PA. (1970).
4. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Occupational
Diseases: A Guide to Their Recognititon. U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC. (1977).
5. Proctor, Nick H., and James P. Hughes. Chemical Hazards of the
Workplace, J.B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, PA. (1978).
6. U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Toxicology
Training Course 100-124-9, December 8-16, 1981, Chicago, IL.
4-27
-------
PART 5
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES AND OTHER GUIDELINES
INTRODUCTION
In responding to an incident involving hazardous materials the
health of the responder must be protected. In order to achieve
•this purpose, one must assimilate large amounts of information
regarding the chemical and toxicological properties of a
substance. Health guidelines are then compared to ambient air
concentrations of substances in the evaluation of exposure. From
the interpretation of this information, the appropriate protection
in the form of respiratory protection and protective clothing can
be determined.
Guidelines for exposure to chemicals in air were first suggested
by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH). In 1941, ACGIH suggested Maximum Allowable
Concentrations (MACs) for use by industry. A list of MACs was
compiled by ACGIH and published in 1946. In the early 1960's,
ACGIH revised those recommendations and renamed them Threshold
Limit Values (TLVs). A revised TLV booklet is published annually
by ACGIH.
!n 1971, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
promulgated Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs). These limits were
extracted from the 1968 TLVs and other Federal and industry
standards. The PEL values are found in 29 CFR 1910.1000.
Additional guidelines frequently used in the decision-making
process are concentrations of substances in air known as
"immediately dangerous to life and health" or IDLH atmospheres.
The IDLH concentration represents a maximum concentration from
which one could escape within 30 minutes without any escape
impairing symptom or irreversible health effects. This includes
any severe eye or respiratory irritation which would prevent
escape without injury. The IDLH values can be found 1n
"NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards".
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES
A. Definition
An exposure guideline for a substance which is useful as a
reference level against which to compare exposure is the
Threshold Limit Value (TLV). Threshold Limit Values have been
developed for use In the workplace and "refer to alrborn
concentrations of substances and represent conditions under
which 1t is belelved that nearly all workers may be repeatedly
exposed day after day without adverse effect". Since TLVs
5-1
-------
were formulated for use in the normal industrial workplace,
they can be used in the decision-making process at spill or
waste sites only with great discretion. The TLVs can be found
in "Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and
Physical Agents in the Work Environment with Intended Changes
for 1983-84", adopted by the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
B. Basis for Determination
The TLVs cannot be used as a relative index of hazard due to the
fact that the limits for each substance are determined on the
basis that individual substance characteristics. The limit for
one substance may be set based on its effect as an irritant
while the limit for another substance may be set on the basis of
carcinogenicity. In the evaluation of the effects of exposure
in the normal industrial workplace, the physical condition of
the worker is taken into account and the TLVs are formulated as
a result. The phrase "...nearly all workers may be repeatedly
exposed" used in the definition of TLVs, limits the application
of these limits to individuals of working age who are in good
health. They are therefore not intended to relect a limit which
would protect the general population including the young, the
elderly, and physically ill individuals from adverse effects of
exposure. Although it is not stated in the definintion of
TLVs, it is implied that if an adverse symptom of over exposure
did occur, discontinuation of exposure to a substance would
result in reversal of any damage and/or disease caused by that
substance.
Threshold Limit Values are formulated on the basis of 1)
information from historical experience, 2) experimental human
studies, 3) experimental animal studies, and 4) a combination of
the above. In order to facilitate a better understanding of
these limits and to utilize them in a more efficacious manner,
one should consult the reference "Documentation of Threshold
Limit Values" by ACGIH.
C. Differentiation of TLVs
Threshold limit values for a substance are differentiated based
on time of exposure and concentration. The TLV-T1me Weighted
Average (TLV-TWA) is a time-weighted average concentration for a
normal 8-hour work day and a 40-hour work week. A Threshold
Limit Value-Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL) is defined as a
15-minute time-weighted average exposure which should not be
exceeded at any time during a work day. A third type of TLV is
the TLV-Ceiling (TLV-C) which is a concentration that should not
be exceeded, even instantaneously.
1. TLV-TWA
The TLV-TWA 1s the average concentration of a chemical most
workers can be exposed to during a 40-hour week and a normal
5-2
-------
8-hour work day without showing any toxic effects. The
time-weighted average permits exposure to concentrations
above the limit, provided they are compensated by equal
exposure below the TLV-TWA. The value can be calculated for
exposure to a given chemical as follows:
TWA = ZC(C<) X (T-j)]
Where:
"T7
i = 1, 2, 3...n
C = concentration
T = time of exposure
For the following example the TLV-TWA can be calculated.
Concentration (ppm) Exposure Time (hours)
Ci =15 Tx = 3.0
C2 = 21 T2 = 2.5
C3 =18 T3 = 2.5
TLV-TWA = 19 ppm
TWA = (15 X 3.0) + (21 X 2.5) + (18 X 2.5)
3.0 +2.5 + 2.5
= 17.8 ppm
Therefore, the TLV-TWA for this substance has not been
exceeded.
2. TLV-STEL
A Threshold Limit Value-Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL)
is a 15 minute time-weighted average exposure. Excursions
to the TLV-STEL should be 60 minutes apart, no longer than
15 minutes in duration and should not be repeated more than
4 times per day. Because the excursions are calculated into
the 8 hour time weighted average, the individual must limit
the normal exposure to avoid exceeding the TLV-TWA.
The Short Term Exposure Limit supplements the TLV-TWA and
reflects an exposure limit protecting against acute effects
from a substance which primarily exhibits chronic toxic
effects. This concentration 1s set at a level to protect
workers against Irritation, narcosis, and irreversible
tissue damage.
3. TLV-C
Threshold Limit Value-Celling values exist for substances
which exposure results 1n a rapid and particular type of
5-3
-------
response. The ceiling value should not be exceeded even
instantaneously. Ceiling values are denoted by a "C"
preceding the adopted TLV in "Threshold Limit Values for
Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the Work
Environment" (TLV booklet).
D. Additional Notations
Some additional qualifications or considerations are employed in
the TLV booklet. A brief explanaton of these terms will
facilitate a more accurate utilization of the TLVs.
Seme listed substances are followed by a "skin" notation. This
refers to the potential contribution by skin, mucous membranes,
and eye exposure to the overall exposure. The "skin"
designation is meant as a recommendation for protection against
direct cutaneous contact with a chemical or contact with
airborne aerosols.
The appendices to the TLV booklet contain additional information
useful in the interpretation of TLVs. The Appendices are listed
below.
TLV Appendices
Ala.
Human Carcinogens With a TLV
Alb.
Human Carcinogens Without a TLV
A2.
Suspected Human Carcinogens
B.
Substances of Variable Composition
C.
Mixtures
D.
Some Nuisance Particulates
E.
Simple Asphixiants
F.
Conversion of Particle Count to Mass
G.
Chemical Substances Under Study
H.
Registered Trade Names
E. Limitations
As stated In the AC6IH TLV booklet, Threshold Limit Values..."
are not intended for use, or modification for use,
1. as a relative index of hazard or toxicity,
2. in the evaluation or control of community air pollution
nuisances,
5-4
-------
3. in estimating the toxic potential of continuous,
uninterrupted exposures or other entended work periods,
4. as proof or disproof of an existing disease or physical
condition, nor
5. for adoption by countries whose working conditions differ
from those in the United States of America and where
substances and processes differ".
III. CONCLUSION
Threshold Limit Values are of use at the hazardous chemical waste or
spill site in that they provide some basic information or guidelines
for use in the decision-making process. In order to facilitate a
more thorough evaluation of a situation, it may be necessary to
obtain additional information regarding toxicity. Knowledge of
health guidelines, chemical characteristics, and toxic interactions
between chemicals and the body are used in determination of
appropriate means of protection.
5-5
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Natiqtul Instilurf for Occupational
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Su^fMrt Z—Toxic and Hanrdsw
SubslaiKOt
8011 «cr: 1» FR ZK03. June 71. 1*14. unlesa
olherwiae noted. Redesignated at 40 FR
33073. May 2S. 1975
I UII.IIW Air contaminanta.
An employee's exposure to any ma-
terial listed in table Z-l. Z-2. or Z-3 of
this section shall be limited in accord-
ance with the requirements of the fol-
lowing paragraphs of this section.
(a) Table Z-l:
(1) Materialt with names preceded
by "C"— Ceiling Valuet. An employee's
exposure to any material in table Z-l.
the name of which is preceded by a
"C" (e.g.. C Boron trifluoride). shall at
no time exceed the ceiling value given
for that material in the table.
<2> Other materials—8-hour time
weighted averages. An employee's ex-
posure to any material in table Z-l.
the name of which is not preceded by
"C". in any 8-hour work shift of a 40-
hour work week, shall not exceed the
8-hour time weighted average given
for that material in the table.
Table Z-2: (1) 8-hour time
weighted averages. An employee's ex-
posure to any material listed in table
Z-2. In any 8-hour work shift of a 40-
hour work week, shall not exceed the
8-hour time weighted average limit
given for that material in the table.
(2) Acceptable ceiling concentra-
tions. An employee's exposure to a
material listed in table Z-2 shall not
exceed at any time during an 8-hour
shift the acceptable ceiling concentra-
tion limit given for the material in the
table, except for a lime period, and up
to a concentration not exceeding the
maximum duration and concentration
allowed in Ihe column under "accept-
able maximum peak above the accept-
able celling concentration for an 8-
hour shift".
(1) Ciample. During an 8-hour work
shift, an employee may be exposed to
a concentration of Benzene above 25
p.p.m. (but never above $0 p.p.m.i only
for a maximum period of 10 minutes.
Such exposure must be compensated
by exposures to concentrations less
than 10 p/m so that the cumulative
exposure for the entire 8-hour work
ahift does not exceed a weighted aver-
age of 10 p/m
(c> Table Z-3: An employee's expo-
sure to any material listed In table Z-
3. in any 8-hour work shift of a 40-
hour work week, shall not exceed the
8-hour time weighted average limit
given for that material in the table
(d) Computation formulae:
(1) (1) The cumulative exposure for
an 8-hour work shift shall be comput-
ed as follows:
If - C.T.I C.T. ,
r-r-i
Where:
£ la the equivalent exposure for the work
ins shift.
C la the concentration durina any period
of time T where the concentration remains
constant
T la the duration in hours of the exposure
at the concentration C
The value of E shall not exceed tlie 8
hour time weighted average limit in
table Z-l, Z-2. or Z-3 for the malerial
involved.
(ii) To Illustrate the formula pre-
scribed in paragraph (dxlMi) of this
section, note that isoamyl acetate has
an 8-hour time weighted average limit
of 100 p.p.m. (table Z-l). Assume that
an employee is subject to the follow
ing exposure:
Two hours exposure at 150 vm
Two hours exposure at 75 p/ m
Four hours exposure at 90 p m
Substituting this information in the
formula, we have
C2'« 150-« 2 • 75 • 4 - 50) S 81.25 p m
Since 81.25 p.p.m. is less than 100
p.p.m.. the 8-hour time weighted aver
age limit, the exposure is acceptable.
'2) (I) In case of a mixture of air con-
taminants an employer shall compute
the equivalent exposure ss follows:
"O
m
7SO
CO
IS)
00
m
x
o
to
c=
za
—i
CO
ro
o
~n
yo
1—'
O
o
o
o
631
-------
f 1*1011000 TM» :
at
i
Cm to the equivalent exposure for the
Mixture.
C to the comum atlim of t psrtlnilsr con-
EZ-I
L to the fipoiyii Unit for that eonlami-
mnt. from table Z-l. Z-2. or Z-J.
The value of Em shall not exceed
unity (1).
<111 To lUwtnte the formula pre-
scribed in paragraph of this
section, consider the following expo-
Ouhetlfutlng in the formula, we have:
8ftnce Em la leas than unity (1). the ex-
posure combination is within accept-
too
*2S
(el To achieve compliance with para-
graph through of this section.
administrative or engineering controls
first be determined and bnpie-
! whenever feasible. When such
controls are not feasible to achieve full
compliance, protective equipment or
any other protective measures shaL' be
used to keep the exposure of employ-
ees to air contaminants within the
Umtts prescribed in this section. Any
equipment and/or technical measures
used for this purpoee must be ap-
proved for each particular use by a
competent industrial hygienist or £*?—***. l(W
other technically qualified person. £££^*7' *°£
Whenever respirators are used, their
me shall comply with 11910.1)4.
T««u2-i
632
Chapter XVM—Occupational Safety end Health Administration § 1910.1000
TAOif Z-1—Contnutd Taolc Z~1—Contnuad
Nlg/M*
CD^ctV«*W>y< mm
S
2
SO
300
SO
so
300
rs
7S
1.000
300
4S0
4.9S0
ikW0>O«»V phocptwlt. (OOfomi
-StHI
1.1-Qww—Ulygruw—Stun
O
£•*»
Ethyl tteehd (•Owncf)
EMijIWW - . .
E*y vtc-mmH fcMon* (5 m*«ty43
>)
e»yb
Z9*t*VOm*»
butyt wiem (3- hhumm)
r.ooo
02S
C EtV mwcapun
E»»»n« ww-Stm
Etoyfen* oad*
EfiyUM &*&&&. tm 1
1.000
400
too
'0
5
no
20
'~0
uo
1.400
<00
1.900
ix>
435
•90
no
2.600
V200
300
-------
f 1910.1000
TMU Z-i—CanMuK
rm« V>—labw
Tmu 2-1—ConlniMf
634
Chapter XVII—Occupational Safety and Hioffh Administration § 1910.1000
Tabu Z-l-Confcnuod *-J--Con*nudd
SuMane*
Q/rtf
~i .1 -.-i
Phanyl (ftody« aihar (PGEl
to
60
Phanjdiydfaana—Sfa*
27
Q 1
ft«oo«ana *y itoonda.
5
20
Syttai, «aa OowpCona
2.4.5T
'0
>
TEDP-Stun
0?
tflWlffl
0 t
fadurwm haaaduonda
00?
02
TEPP-Skn
OOS
C Tarphe#ty*S
»
9
f.i.l.?T«r«eNo*d-2.2.
MaoMim
500
4.1 TO
l.«JJ- TatraeMoro-1 .?•
Mtefoadun*
500
4 170
l.l^i-TdraCMwoMltnf^Stn
S
35
m-Sfun
load (m
T«irohfdroltf«i
Pb|- Smi
T«toamM«V tuttmornMa - Skm
T«Vy) (?.4.«*vi*Qpftany<<
fMKiyMtMnt]—Stan
TJmMww (aoUrie compounds;—
Skn«T1
Ttwam
Tw cmpdo. tiup) »*«»•*
Tm K*gwc ciwpoi)
C Tekiana 2 4-*ucyan«e
o-TotwJm—SlMft
Ta*aph«na. IM Chtormalad
TnCiufy* photphftte
\.1.MKNo(•«
eNeroton*
1.1.2'TncMo»oadiana—Shan
TncNoromadtan*. «aa CMoroto"n
TflcNoron«pMh*iana-»Slun
\2.3- T Kf*o«oprnpaiw
t.t.2-T«CNQ(0 t.?J-«*WOiOOW<»ftO
Tnadtyfamma
TiiWuo»Qmonob»OmoiW»T^x
2,4,0-TnnrtrapfiaAOl. aaa Picnc aod
7.4>T«n»opha*Vw»my«
wpprnwa. »¦*
rnra*otofcM*a— Stun
Tnortncmyi photpruM
Tnphanyt pftoapftaia
C Vanodwm
vAdust
VA<«m
0 0*5
S90
00/S
300
' 600
MO
0 05
0?5
rtny*cyai*da. tmm Acry*ontff4e
Vny4 toluene
Wariam
Xftana (aytoO
Xyhpne— Stun
vnnum
Zmc tf**onde M*
/mcpntafama
Z»coflwn compounds <% tc*tm**Q
"Pads Of vapor 0i gas pe< tntMiori pari* of conUnwtaM a«
by •Cuff* *l ti C and 760 mm Hg pressure
'Appttunite m*grams « trtan 002
fipnt. o» p*»onai proiccho" "**r tx to *-
-------
f 1910.1000
TIN* 29—Ub«f
ton tor an t hou «Mt
• (23?40-t000t* »Oppm
Knrnnw
¦•mr»>nni • i m»/m»
dMfi237s-io»oi ©2 «¦*/«•
' *<2373-toaoi 20pp»
• {237 17- 10pp*»
{237 7-t071|
Mm* (237 J1
WD
(237 20-
1077-1
»»»"
03«f/M*
OlMlW1
30p#«>
2S»P«
1«f /10M'
SOppm
100 p.p»
s»»«
2Dp»«
sop#*
*»»»•
900 ppm
10ppi»
Rm» IPI M M {237 20-1000}
uwMvtza?*. io7ii.
1 «f./10M'
UM* CNMi 1237 10-10001
loop#*
200pp*»
300p»«
imub
Itfi«np3
mourn i utoitmn-
M0p#»
IjOOOpp*
JjOOOp#*
Smmp
• « any 2
100H
nam
OffpnPltfMA «p*cwv
001 m+rn*
OOmgH'
f237J0-1000|
S*WPt237l$-10eei
100 p9m
100PP*
000 0pm
S —Mli
• « pny 3
dp.
•ft
300 PPM
S nmto
i««r)
ioon
hem
Tpmpwp OTTH-10071
Mm*
300 ppM
900 p*m.
10 mm*
M
Tip^iH>|b» {237 10-
100 09-m
200p»«t
300 ppw
Swmmpi
I« 2
f | tito 1000 «cep« m »ic*ci«) wmpua tor
I •** f <0101000
Tame Z-3—Mwehai Ousts—Cof*w«d
upper U9/M -
own 1% enw—mi
20
20
f 1010
fry «1010 tOZOMKZI
1OW9/M'
SSOi • 2
VM9/M'
ISMft/M'
636
Choptor XVII—Occupational Seftty and HooHh Adwlnttliation § 1910.1001
Notc Cenwwsw iecie»»—
mppcf • 3S3 - mfean p»w> pm cube mmm
pmtiw pocc
'HKw* oi pwdw pw cube toot et m. (who «a mi
pnMf wwpln counted by hght hM toctmc*
'The parc»m»p« of ayvtiktm «*ca « P» tomMa « *w
«maurt Pbuiiwwii fee* «»-oorfl« mwplw. >kip» eMw maPiods h*v« bmn show* lob* *0-
-BePt cone—*—on and p*rc«ni quirti tor tip appiKlMw
of l« Im miebi mirnwnia hom m kacMA pmwiq •
•m-MMctor mpi n« Mown dwKMnna
•CantoMtg »-1% qutrtx: if 1% QU&rtx. me quartz
TUP wtmoiwwn iMSar p« not* rafer l»MiM«lin
AEC MMramwN Trip mpriM Mcta* oi cotf dud • «M«r
nrad «•> • MRC. •«• tagu* cewppppnttno to *w* «¦ 2 4
Ug/M> in the lablr for rati dust te 4 5 Mp/M '
(Secretary of Labor's Order No. 8-76 (41
CPR Part 25059K 29 CFR Part t911>
(39 PR 23502. June 27. 1974. Redesignated
and amended at 40 PR 23073. May 28. 1975:
42 PR 22525. May 3. 1977: 43 PR 2600. Jan.
17. 1978; 43 PR 5983. Peb. 10. 1978: 43 PR
13563. Mar. 31. 1978: 43 PR 19824. May 5.
1978: 43 PR 27394. June 23. 1978: 43 PR
45809. Oct. 3. 1978: 43 PR 53007. Nov. 14.
1978: 43 PR 57602. Dec. 8. 1978)
81910.100! A»be«UM.
(&) Definitions. For the purpose of
this section. (1) "Asbestos" includes
chrysotile. amosite, crocidolite. tremo-
lite. anthophyllite. and actinolite.
(2) "Asbestos fibers" means asbestos
fibers longer than 5 micrometers.
(b) Permissible exposure to airborne
concentrations of asbestos fibers—(1)
Standard effective July 7, 1972. The 8-
hour time-weighted average airborne
concentrations of asbestos fibers to
which any employee may be exposed
shall not exceed five fibers, longer
than 5 micrometers, per cubic centi-
meter of air, as determined by the
method prescribed in paragraph (e) of
this section.
(2) Standard effective July J, 1976.
The 8-hour time-weighted average air-
borne concentrations of asbestos fibers
to which any employee may be ex-
posed shall not exceed two fibers,
longer than 5 micrometers, per cubic
centimeter of air. as determined by
the method prescribed in paragraph
Ceiling concentration. No em-
ployee shall be exposed at any time to
airborne concentrations of asbestos
fibers in excess of 10 fibers, longer
than 5 micrometers, per cubic centi-
meter of air. as determined by the
method prescribed in paragraph of
this section.
Local exhaust ventilation, ia)
Local exhaust ventilation and dust col-
lection systems shall be designed, con-
structed. installed, and maintained in
accordance with the American Nation-
al Standard Fundamentals Governing
the Design and Operation of Local Ex-
haust Systems. ANSI Z9.2-197I. which
is incorporated by reference herein.
(6) See 11910.6 concerning the avail-
ability of ANSI Z9.2-1971. and the
maintenance of a historic file in con-
nection therewith. The address of the
American National Standards Insti-
tute is given in f 1910.100.
(iii) Particular tools. All hand-oper-
ated and power-operated tools which
may produce or release asbestos fibers
in excess of the exposure limits pre-
scribed in paragraph
-------
PART 6
BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
I. INTRODUCTION
Whether a chemical is accidentally spilled or is slowly leaking
from an old rusty drum, it is important to determine how it might
disperse and its ultimate fate in the environment. In some cases,
it may not be able to escape the setting into which it was
released. Hence, it may not present a problem.
In general, the pathways for dispersion are air, surface water,
ground water, and to a lesser extent soil. If the specific
pathways of various materials can be identified from their
chemical/physical characteristics, potential threats to human
health and the environment can be anticipated and appropriate
response actions taken. The interaction of the natural setting of
an incident and the specific compounds involved will ultimately
determine dispersion and dictate the response actions needed.
11 • INFORMATION NEEDED TO DETERMINE DISPERSION PATHWAYS
A. Characterization of Chemicals Involved
The more important dispersion pathways can generally be
determined, at least tentatively, if the identity of the
chemical(s) is known. Then its physical/chemical properties -
for example, reactivity, physical state, phase-change
temperatures, vapor pressure, density, specific gravity, and
viscosity - will determine how a chemical behaves when
released into a specific environment.
The amount of material released and the rate of release are
important factors for determining potential pathways. Either
may Increase or decrease the degree of dispersion.
With the physical/chemical properties and the quantity/release
rate known, the potential pathways can be anticipated. To
determine specific pathways requires a further evaluation of
factors such as land use, physical setting, biological
setting, and climate. All are interrelated, however, and
should be evaluated as a whole.
B. Land Use
The way nearby land 1s used can affect dispersion of the
material from the site. If the site 1s located near a town or
large metropolitan area, the number of potential pathways of
dispersion may be greater than 1n an agricultural or natural
setting. Urbanized areas may contain natural as well as man
made (e.g. storm or sanitary sewers) pathways of dispersion.
6-1
-------
A spill in or adjacent to an irrigated field could result in
spreading the spill across the whole field. Without
irrigation it would tend to converge due to natural drainage
patterns.
C. Physical Setting
The physical setting of the site controls what pathways a
chemical may follow. There are four major aspects to consider:
topography, geology, surface hydrology, and ground water
hydrology.
A topographic map of the area is very useful, not only in the
study of the topography, but also in the determination of
surface water patterns and general land conditions. The
topography of an area affects how fast a material disperses and
the direction it may take.
The geology of the area, including soil and underlying rock,
may dictate the speed and direction of dispersion of a
material released to the ground. Sandy soil permits faster
penetration than does a tightly packed clay soil. Underlying
rock and soil may divert the material in a direction not
normally predicted.
A hydrological map of the area provides information needed to
determine the depth of the water table and therefore the
direction of ground water flow.
D. Biological Setting
The habitat or ecosystem where an incident occurs has a
significant effect on dispersion pathways. The food chain is
one path a contaminant may take. Vegetation which has absorbed
a contaminant could be consumed by a rodent. That rodent may be
eaten by a predator and so on. At each step, the concentration
of the contaminant is magnified (bi©accumulation).
Habitat also affects the rate of dispersion. A sparsely
vegetated area will not contain a spill as well as a densely
vegetated area.
E. Climate
The local climatology and meteorological conditions influence
dispersion of a contaminant 1n the environment. Temperature has
a direct effect on a chemicals physical/chemical behavior. For
example, a volatile chemical volatilizes faster at higher
temperatures, and reactions aiming chemicals increase. Surface
runoff and soil absorption resulting from precipitation also
affect dispersion, as do wind direction, wind speed, and
atmospheric conditions.
When studying a local weather forecast, the general climate of
the area should also be considered. For example, a different
6-2
-------
evaluation of the situation is needed when 2 days of rain are
forecast in a season when rain is expected every day, as
compared to 2 days of rain in a relatively dry season.
Considering climate in general, a hot, arid climate could
result in different pathways than a temperate, wet climate
would.
basic dispersion pathways
A. Atmosphere
In order for a material to become airborne, it must be either
gaseous or particulate. Particulates are microscopic (less
than 100 u in size) solid or liquid particles dispersed in
gaseous media (air). When a material is emitted to the
atmosphere, dispersion of the material is influenced by local
atmospheric phenomena (e.g. effects of air currents around
buildings) as well as larger scale wind circulation such as
land/sea breezes and terrain effects.
A volatile liquid (high vapor pressure) will vaporize more
rapidly as the ambient temperature approaches its boiling
point. If the vapor density of contaminant 1s greater than
that of air, it will tend to follow the terrain, flowing
downhill and collecting in valleys. A substance with a vapor
density less than air will tend to rise and disperse readily.
The dispersion of a substance in the atmosphere is dependent
on many factors, including the change 1n temperature of the
atmosphere with increasing altitude.
When a substance becomes airborne, it may behave 1n many
different ways. It may react with other contaminants in the
air, forming a third substance (e.g. photochemical smog). It
may react or dissolve in water droplets, which 1n turn
ultimately fall to earth (one theory on acid rain formation).
If it is a large particle or forms a large particle in the
atmosphere (agglomeration), 1t may result in fallout, or dry
deposition. Finally, It may be very unstable and its presence
in the atmosphere may be localized and short-lived (carbon
monoxide).
Therefore, the fate of substance omitted to the atmosphere Is
dependent on Its characteristics and the characteristics of
the surrounding area.
B. Surface Water
A chemical, either solid or liquid, can enter surface water
directly or by intrusion of contaminated ground water or
soil. Climate affects the size and number of streams, rivers,
lakes, and marshes 1n a region. An area with a lot of rt1n
will have many, while a more arid area will usually have just
one large river, originating 1n the mountains, carrying runoff
and snow melt.
6-3
-------
The transport of a material in water is based on its
solubility and specific gravity. A highly soluble solid or
liquid will readily dissolve and disperse in the water. A
insoluble material will probably remain intact and travel
downstream as a concentrated slug. The material will float if
its specific gravity is less than one, and sink if its
specific gravity is greater than one. A material having a
specific gravity of one, will be suspended in the body of
water. This property is very important when determining how
to contain or remove a material from a body of water.
To help characterize the dispersion of a material in surface
water, the volume and flow rate should be known. That
information, along with the amount released, permits the
determination of a good prediction of its dispersion pattern.
C. Soil and Underlying Rock
A material spilled or released into the environment may enter
the soil and be dispersed vertically and horizontally. A
solid must first be dissolved into a liquid so it can
disperse. An insoluble solid must be broken into smaller
pieces and particulates, which can be dispersed by wind.
Eventually, particles may find their way into the soil.
A liquid spilled onto the ground may penetrate the soil
quickly and disperse if it has low viscosity. A liquid with a
high viscosity such as mercury or motor oil may take many
years to disperse a few feet in the ground. The solubility of
the liquid also affects the rate of dispersion. Other
substances may have an affinity for soil particles (e.g.
dioxln).
The type of soil directly controls the rate and degree of
penetration of a chemical. Solid rock prevents penetration
and changes the direction of dispersion, but a gravel
substrate allows quick penetration. As the chemical flows
deeper, changes in composition of the underlying rock change
the direction of velocity and flow.
Dk Ground Water
Eventually, as a chemical penetrates the soil, it Bay reach
ground water. How that chemical disperses in ground water is
based on its solubility and specific gravity, as well as the
hydrology of the area. Its behavior in ground water is the
same as in surface water, except that the rate of dispersion
may be much less.
The hydrology of the area 1s dependent upon subsurface strata,
topography, and source of water. The depth to ground water is
variable and fs influenced by local geology and local rate of
ground water recharge. The proximity to bodies of water also
Influences location, velocity, and direction of ground water
6-4
-------
flow. In actuality, ground water and bodies of surface water
meet. Streams are fed by ground water discharge in addition
to runoff from precipitation.
IV. FATE OF CHEMICALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Knowing how a chemical disperses is essential. Even more
important is knowledge of where the chemical ends up and how it
affects the environment and ultimately humans. Being aware of the
ultimate fate of chemicals in the environment helps prevent
adverse effects by facilitating effective management of the
problem.
A. Nonpersistent Chemicals
Once a chemical enters the environment and disperses as a
result of interaction between its surroundings and inherent
properties, it is subject to pysical and chemical change - for
example, dilution or degradation - so that it mc
-------
consuming that animal also receives a large dose. The effects
of the large dose may be immediate and severe unless the
chemical is excreted or inactivated.
Chemicals released at a hazardous waste site or spill may lead
to both human and environmental damage. Prevention of such
damage requires immediate action. All potential pathways of
dispersion must be identified. Overlooking just one can have
severe repercussions. Pathways can be properly evaluated only
if the behavior of the chemical is known and a thorough
description of the setting is available.
V. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT: PATHWAY CONSIDERATIONS
Assessing the total impact of a release of hazardous substance in
the environment may be a complex task. The hazards and risks vary
widely. To accurately assess the effect of an incident, all
possible environmental pathways must be investigated.
Many factors should be addressed in order to comprehensively
determine the impact of a hazardous substance incident. Because
of the diversity among incidents, not all factors are critical to
each particular situation. Those that are not critical should be
eliminated.
The final assessment of an incident may require considerable time
and consultation with experts from a spectrum of technical
disciplines. As part of the site plan, a program to determine
real or potential effects, both short- and long-term, of the
incident must be developed and implemented.
On the following page is a matrix of questions designed to help in
the complex task of assessing the total impact of a hazardous
substance release. Answer, as best you can, the first three
questions. The fourth question involves an initial and not
necessarily complete assessment of the potential pathways of
dispersion. For each pathway, five areas are considered: route
characteristics, containment, hazard characteristics, quantity,
and targets. A list of questions is associated with each area of
concern. Questions pertinent to each pathway are marked with an
x. The actual questions are given on the pages following the
matrix.
6-6
-------
HAZARD EVALUATION - ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
FOR RELEASES OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
!• Is there evidence of and/or a potential for a release?
2. What material (s) is (are) involved?
3. How much has been released and at what rate is it being released?
4. What apparent or potential environmental pathway(s) is (are) involved?
Question
1
2
3
,4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Ground Wat.Pr
Route characteristics
Containment
Hazard characteristics
Quantity
Targets
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Surface Wat.Pr
Route characteristics
Containment
Hazard characteristics
Quantity
Targets
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Aj r
Route characteristics
Containment
Hazard characteristics
Quantity
Targets
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
£iLe/Explosion
Route characteristics
Jjontainment
Hazard characteristics
Quantity
Targets
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
£kect Contar.t.
Route characteristics
[-ontal nment
Hazard characteristics
Quantity
Targets
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1C
11
12
13
14
6-7
-------
ROUTE CHARACTERISTICS
1. What is the depth of the aquifer of concern?
2. What is the permeability of the unsaturated zone?
3. What is the rate of ground water recharge?
4. Is the aquifer contained?
5. What is the average yearly precipitation in that region?
6. What is the l-year/24-hour precipitation?
7. What is the distance to the nearest surface water and what type is
it?
8. What is the potential of the area being flooded?
9. What is the dilution rate in the surface water?
10. What is the ground cover and land use around the site?
11. What are the terrain and slope of the site?
12. What are the minimum and maximum temperatures expected during the
time of site operations?
13. What is the probability that animals or humans intentionally or
unintentionally will contact the hazardous material?
14. What are the direction and velocity of the prevailing wind? What
local influences on wind direction exist?
CONTAINMENT
1. Is (are) the hazardous material(s) contained?
2. What type(s) of containment is (are) used? For example, surface
Impoundments, containers, waste sites, landfills, or tank cars?
3. What is (are) the condition(s) of the containment?
4. Are Incompatible materials stored together or close together?
5. What measures have been taken to limit access to the exclusion area?
HAZARD CHARACTERISTICS
1. What are the physical and chemical properties and of the
material (s)?
6-8
-------
2. What information was obtained from the oxygen meter, combustible gas
indicator, HNU, OVA, or detector tubes?
3. Are sources of ignition present?
4. Is (are) the material(s) toxic or corrosive? What is the related
degree of hazard?
5. Is (are) the material (s) infectious?
6. Is (are) the material (s) radioactive?
7. How volatile is (are) the material (s)?
8. Is (are) the material (s) reactive with other chemicals or water?
9. Is (are) the material (s) persistent in the environment?
QUANTITY
How much of the material (volume, weight, number of containers,
etc.) is present in the environment?
TARGETS
1. Is the surface or ground water that has been contaminated being used
for any of the following purposes?
drinking
commercial or industrial application
i rri gation
recreation
2. What is the land use pattern in the area?
3. What is the distance to the nearest human population?
4. What is the distance to the nearest building?
5. What is the distance to the nearest well, and what size population
does 1t serve?
6. What is the size of the population living within a 1/2, 1, 2, and 5
ml les of the site?
7. What is the distance to the nearest surface water Intake(s), and
what size population does it serve?
8. Is a critical habitat or endangered species present on or near the
site?
9. Are there any subsurface systems such as sewers or utility tunnels
which the material(s) can enter?
6-9 TAT/WESTON/9-83
-------
PART 7
SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND RESPONSE ASSISTANCE
I. INTRODUCTION
Many reference texts and organizations can provide response personnel with
technical data and physical assistance regarding both the hazards
associated with an incident and methods to deal with them. It is necessary
to be aware of these resources and know how to use them.
The information, which may include data on sites, topography, meteorology,
physical/chemical properties of the material, applicable treatment methods,
and available cleanup resources, can be provided by various agencies, maps,
reference books, and manuals. It is advisable to get data from at least
two sources and use the latest addition of any reference, especially when
searching for hygienic standards or toxicological data.
Access to on-line computer files may be possible at the site if a
telephone, portable terminal, and 120-volt outlet are available. Aerial
photographs can also provide useful information when properly interpreted.
BASIC REFERENCES
A. OHMTADS: Oil and Hazardous Materials Technical Assistance Data System,
developed by the EPA. Access through EPA Regional Offices.
OHMTADS is a computerized data retrieval system available 1n the form
of a computer print-out, manuals, or microfiche. For each of more than
1,000 oil and hazardous substances, there are 126 possible Information
segments on, for example, toxicity and associated hazards, personnel
safety precautions, cleanup ancf disposal methods, materials handling,
and fire fighting. However, not all information Is available for all
materials.
B. CHRIS: Chemical Hazard Response Information System, developed by the
U.S. Coast Guard. Access through the National Response Center,
telephone 800/424-8802
CHRIS consists of four manuals, a regional contingency plan, a Hazard
Assessment Computer System (HACS), arid an organizational entity at
Coast Guard Headquarters. Volume 1 (CG-446-1) 1s designed to be used
by the first responders at an incident. Volumes 2, 3, and 4 (CG-446-2,
CG-446-3, and CG-446-4, respectively) are Intended for use by the
On-Scene Coordinator's <0SC) office along with the Reflonal and
National Response Centers. Main Coast Guard stations usually have
these manuals.
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1.
Volume 1:
"Condensed Guide to Chemical Hazards"
Volume 1 is intended for use by the first responders on the scene
of an incident. The chemicals involved must be known, however,
before the appropriate information can be obtained from the manual.
This volume also contains a list of questions needed to access
Volume 3. All information in this volume can be found in
Volume 2.
2. Volume 2: "Hazardous Substance Data Manual", (also available from
the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, GPO
stock number 050-012-00147-2)
Volume 2 is probably the most useful in responding to spills/waste
sites. It contains information on hazardous chemicals shipped in
large volume by water and is intended to be used by port security
personnel and others who may be first to arrive at the scene. The
easily understood information regarding chemical, physical, and
toxicological properties can help quickly determine the actions to
be taken immediately to safeguard life, property, and the
envi ronment.
3. Volume 3: "Hazard Assessment Handbook"
Volume 3 describes methods of estimating the quantity of chemicals
which may be released during an incident, their rate of dispersion,
and the methods for predicting any potential toxicity, fire, and
explosive hazards.
Volumes 2 and 3 are designed to be used together. The hazard
assessment code in Volume 2 for each chemical is used in Volume 3
to select the appropriate procedures for estimating degree of
hazard.
4. Volume 4: "Response Methods Handbook"
Volume 4 contains information on existing methods for handling
spills of hazardous materials. The appendix lists manufacturers of
equipment which may be useful. It also describes methods of spill
containment (primarily oil). This volume is intended for use by
Coast Guard OSC's with some training or experience in hazard
response.
C. "Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values (TLV)", fourth edition
(1980), ACGIH Publications Office, 6500 Glenway Ave., Building D-5,
Cincinnati, OH 45211
This reference includes pertinent scientific information, regarding
each substance with references to literature sources used to determine
each TLV. Each documentation also defines the type of toxic response
for which the limit is used. This book should be consulted for a
better understanding of TLV's.
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(See Part 5, "Threshold Limit Values and Other Guidelines.")
D. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health/Occupational
Safety and Health Administration Resources
1. "NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards," U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402
Information in this pocket guide comes from the NIOSH/OSHA
Occupational Health Guidelines. Presented in a tabular format, it
is a reference for industrial hygiene and medical surveillance
practices. Included are chemical names and synonyms, permissible
exposure limits, chemical and physical properties, signs and
symptoms of overexposure, environmental and medical monitoring
procedures, recommended respiratory and personal protective
equipment, and procedures for treatment.
2. "NIOSH/OSHA Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazard's,"
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402
This three-volume document provides technical data for most of the
substances listed in the "NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide." The
information is much more detailed and is designed primarily for use
by Industrial hygienists and medical surveillance personnel. In
addition to the information found in the "Pocket Guide,"
"Occupational Health Guidelines" Includes recommended medical
surveillance practices, air monitoring and measurement procedures,
personnel sanitation, and spill and disposal techniques.
E* "F1re Prevention Guide on Hazardous Materials," National F1re
Protection Association (NFPA), Quincy, MA 02269
The NFPA has combined five manuals into one comprehensive guide on
hazardous materials. These five present Information on:
1. Flashpoint of oils, together with more than 8,800 trade-name
chemicals, their flashpoints, manufacturers, and principal uses.
The flammablHty hazard can be determined from this Information.
2. F1re hazards of 1,300 flammable liquids, gases, and solids are
listed In alphabetical order with appropriate fire-fighting
Information. Various properties listed Include flashpoint,
specific gravity, water solubility, hazard identification, and
boiling point.
3. Toxicity data on 416 chemicals.
4. Hazardous reactions of over 3,550 chemicals. Reactions may Involve
two or more chemicals and cause fires, explosions, or other
problems. A chemical 1s listed, followed by those chemicals which
can cause a hazardous reaction.
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5. Recommended system for identification of fire hazards of materials.
The NFPA labeling system is described in detail, with a careful
explanation of the ratings.
This manual presents a large amount of information, but deals with
pure chemicals, not mixtures. Some experience is required to
interpret the manual properly.
F. "The Merck Index," ninth edition (1976), Merck and Co., Inc.,
Rahway, NJ 07065
"The Merck Index" is a comprehensive, interdisciplinary encyclopedia of
chemicals, drugs, and biological substances. It describes 9,856
chemicals in a structured format. An extensive index and cross-index
make the manual easy to use. It is designed to serve a variety of
purposes. For response personnel, it provides information on
physical/chemical properties of chemicals and their toxicity.
G. "Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials," fourth edition (1975),
edited by N. Irving Sax, Van Nostrand Reinhold, Co., 135 W. 50th St.,
New York, NY 10020
This book provides a single source of concise information on the
hazards of nearly 13,000 common industrial and laboratory materials.
Descriptive information and technical data are given in the three
sections of the book. The main section "General Information" is
designed to expedite retrieval of hazard information. The three
sections are:
1. "General Information": synonyms, description, formula, physical
constants.
2. "Hazard Analysis": toxicity, fire hazard, explosive hazard.
3. "Countermeasures": handling, storage, shipping, first aid,
fire-fighting, personnel protection.
This book is not intended for use on site. It can be useful later,
however, to verify hazards associated with the emergency.
H. "Condensed Chemical Dictionary," Gessner G. Hawley, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., 135 W. 50th St., New York, NY 10020
This book, a compendium of technical data and descriptive information
covering many thousands of chemicals and reactions, is designed for
very quick use and can be helpful in assessing a hazardous waste site
or spill. Three distinct types of information are presented:
1. Technical descriptions of compounds, raw materials, and processes.
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2. Expanded definitions of chemical entities, phenomena, and
terminology.
3. Description or identification of a wide range of trade-name
products used in the chemical industry.
111• ON-LINE COMUPTER SYSTEMS
1. OHMTADS: Access through EPA Regional Offices
OHMTADS, EPA's computerized information retrieval system, can help
identify material from observations (smell, color, etc.) made at each
site. The information in the 126 segments covers a variety of
physical, chemical, biological, toxicological, and commercial data,
with the emphasis on the effects on water quality.
OHMTADS has a random access provision which enables the user to solve
problems involving unidentified pollutants by inputting physical/
chemical characteristics or other factors observed on-site. The system
automatically takes each word and processes it into an inverted index
file, making each word a search component of the data base. The search
is made using Boolean logic, and the system responds with a 11st of the
compounds meeting the input characteristics. The output is displayed
on the user's terminal. The user can then refine the search 1f
necessary to narrow the list of possible materials.
2* HACS: Hazard Assessment Computer System. Access through the National
Response Center, telephone 800/424-8802
HACS, the computerized counterpart of Volume 3 of the CHRIS manuals,
makes it possible to obtain very detailed hazard evaluations through
the computer at Coast Guard Headquarters. The system is Intended
primarily for use by the OSC.
3* SKIM: Spill Clean-Up Inventory System, developed by the U.S. Coast
Guard.
The U.S. Coast Guard's Office of Marine Environment and Systems,
Pollution Response Branch, developed SKIM, a computer-based inventory
of equipment available for pollution response in the United States
(Including Puerto Rico and Guam). The Inventory Includes public
equipment, such as that owned by the Coast Guard, U.S. Navy, and other
agencies, as well as equipment maintained by contractors, cooperatives,
and private companies.
The information 1s readily available to interested parties through a
network of computer terminals with access to the system. SKIM was
designed with a variety of potential uses 1n mind. It can:
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Provide up-to-date Information to OSC's. When a spill occurs and
the predesignated OSC in that area is notified of the specific
details, he is responsible for bringing the best combination of
response resources to bear on the problem. SKIM helps make such
decisions.
Provide updates to equipment listings in local contingency plans.
While many of these plans now are out of date, SKIM enables local
and Regional Response Teams to obtain up-to-date listings.
Serves as an Informational aid for Coast Guard Marine Safety
Offices, captains of the ports, and district and headquarters
managers. This enhances the decision-making capability of those
concerned with budgeting, resources allocation, and planning for
pollution response.
Be used by all Federal agencies involved with the National or
Regional Response Teams.
Private Firms Offering Access to Data Banks
SDC: System Development Corp., telephone 800/352-6689 (California),
800/421-7229 (Continental U.S., except California)
The SDC Search service is one of the most comprehensive on-line
retrieval services in the world. It provides easy, convenient access
to one of the largest families of on-line literature and reference
data bases obtainable anywhere - most of them available only through
SDC. Its services include: ENVIROLINE, which contains citations on
all areas of environmental studies and covers such subjects as air
pollution, chemical and biological contamination, energy,
environmental education, environmental design and urban ecology,
population planning, and geographical changes. The use of modem
telecommunications, SDC's computers, and ORBIT, its advanced,
field-tested retrieval system, permits retrieving the necessary
information quickly, precisely, and efficiently. Because of ORBIT's
quick response characteristics, an effective search from start to
finish can often be completed In as little as 5-10 minutes.
Sigma Data Computing Corp., 926 Wayne Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20910,
telephone 301/589-6101.
This company provides computer services and products to governmental
and commercial clients.
Sigma Data Services, Corp., same address as above, telephone
301/565-3773.
This company operates computer facilities and provides analysis and
programing services for government agencies.
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Iv- REMOTE SENSING AND MAP INTERPRETATION
A. Aerial Photography
1. Environmental Photograph Interpretation Center, Warrenton, VA 22186,
telephone 703/557-3110 (EPA Regions I-IV)
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV 89114,
telephone 702/798-2237 (EPA Regions V-X)
Aerial photography can be useful in a spill response in that a plane
can fly over the area at the time of the spill recording its extent.
Subsequent flights can show dispersion in the environment. Also,
many different types of photography, including infrared, can help
describe waste sites and plume dispersion. Historical photos can
trace a facility from its inception to the present, pin-pointing past
activities that may mark trouble spots.
Aerial photography has another use, monitoring facilities that
produce or store chemicals. Spill and spill-threat conditions that
exist in many such facilities may also be photographically
documented. Aerial photographers can assist with the monitoring of
chemical facilities for compliance with the spill prevention
regulations issued under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
as amended in 1977. Aerial reconnaissance missions effectively and
economically augment compliance monitoring efforts of EPA Regions or
other regulatory agencies. An airplane can fly over a large number
of areas and facilities in a brief period of time. Once the
photographs have been interpreted, spill prevention personnel can use
the results to inspect areas or facilities in a minimum amount of
time because they can concentrate on those areas with the spill
problem.
2. EROS Data Center, User Services, Sioux Falls, SD 57198, telephone
504/594-6511, ext. 151
The EROS system, run by the U.S. Geological Survey, uses remote-
sensing techniques to inventory, monitor, and manage natural
resources. EROS includes research and training in the interpretation
and application of remotely sensed data and provides these data at
nominal cost.
At the heart of the EROS Data Center is a central computer complex
which controls a data base of over 6 million images and photographs
of the earth's surface features, searches for geographic data on
areas of interest, and serves as a management tool for the entire
data reproduction process. The computerized data storage and
retrieval system is based on latitude and longitude, supplemented by
information about image quality, cloud cover, and type of data.
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Information received from the EROS Data Center can be used in much
the same way as information received from the Environmental
Monitoring and Support Laboratory. EROS data provide a chronological
overview of an area, thereby establishing the extent of damage over
time.
B. U.S. Geological Survey Maps
1. Topographic quandrangle maps
Topographic maps are useful in that they show the contours of the
land, the network of water features, and elevations. They also show
cities and urban areas and can be used to determine the proximity of
a spill or waste site to a lake, river, stream, or population
centers.
2. Hydrologic maps
Hydrologic maps show water in or beneath the land surface. They are
very useful when evaluating water supply and water-related hazards
such as flooding. They also show drainage areas, depth to ground
water, and the thickness of water-bearing formations. In the case of
a spill or waste site, a hydrologic map can indicate any possible
contamination of the ground water and/or drainage area.
3. Land use and land cover maps
Land use and land cover maps have been prepared by using the standard
topographic quadrangle maps or larger-scale low-altitude aerial
photographs as a base. These maps provide detailed information about
the use of land or about the vegetation cover. This information
could be useful at a spill or waste site. For example, if chemicals
enter an area being used for crops, authorities should be advised of
the chemical(s) involved and their possible effects.
4. Sources of maps
Maps are available in areas east of the Mississippi River, including
Minnesota, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Island, from:
Branch of Distribution
U.S. Geological Survey
1200 South Eads St.
Arlington, VA 22202
Telephone: 703/557-2751
Maps of areas west of the Mississippi River, including Alaska,
Hawaii, Louisiana, Guam, and American Somoa, are available from:
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Branch of Distribution
U.S. Geological Survey
Box 25286, Federal Center
Denver, CO 80225
Telephone: 303/234-3832
V- TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ORGANIZATIONS
A. Federal
1. IRAP: Interagency Radiological Assistance Plan. Access through
CHEMTREC (see section B), telephone 800/424-8306 (24 hours), or
202/483-7616 in Washington, DC. Also through Regional Offices of
EPA and Department of Energy (DOE).
IRAP is designed to assist in coping with radiation emergencies. It
operates through DOE, but works closely with other Federal, State,
military, and regional groups. Upon receiving an emergency call,
the regional coordinator of IRAP investigates the situation, getting
as much Information as possible as to the type of material. If the
spill or leak appears serious, a technical response team 1s
dispatched and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission is notified. The
main functions of the response team are to assess the hazard, inform
the public, and recommend emergency actions to minimize the hazard.
The responsibility for cleanup rests with the shipper or carrier of
the material at the time of the spill.
2. Coast Guard National Strike Force. Access through the National
Response Center, telephone 800/424-8801.
The National Strike Force (NSF) 1s a part of the National Response
Team established under the authority of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act as amended 1n 1977. It consists of high seas oil
cleanup equipment and trained personnel available to assist the OSC
upon request during Phase III (Containment and Countermeasures),
Phase IV (Cleanup, Mitigation, and Disposal), and Phase V
(Documentation and Cost Recovery), as defined 1n the National
Contingency Plan. A Coast Guard Strike Team 1s located on the East,
West, and Gulf Coasts. Each 1s capable of responding to a pollution
Incident in Its area with four or more men within 2 hours and be at
full strength 1n 12 hours. The teams can provide communication
support, assistance, and advice on ship salvage, diving, and removal
techniques.
3. U.S. Army Technical (Escort Center). Chemical Emergency Response
Team. Access through the Department of the Army, Operations Center,
telephone 703-521-2185
This center maintains, on standby, a 14-man alert team at Aberdeen
Proving Ground, MD, trained and experienced 1n handling chemical
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emergencies. It has readily available equipment such as
decontamination trucks, air monitoring equipment, and protective
clothing. This team can respond in 2 hours to a chemical emergency
when directed to do so by the Army. Although it responds mainly to
emergencies involving Department of the Army chemicals, it assists
the other agencies such as the Coast Guard and EPA.
4. Environmental Response Team (ERT)
The National Contingency Plan directed EPA to establish the ERT to
advise OSC's and Regional Response Teams on environmental issues
related to spill containment, cleanup, and damage assessment. The
team, established in October 1978, provides expertise in biology,
chemistry, and engineering for environmental emergencies, as well as
special equipment to control and clean up chemical discharges.
The ERT makes it possible for EPA to provide around-the-clock
support to the Regional Offices through personnel whose sole
responsibility is to respond to environmental emergencies. The Team
is EPA's focal point for technical assistance to the Regions and
Program Offices during emergency episodes involving toxic and
hazardous wastes. The Team has two locations: Edison, NJ,
and Cincinnati, OH. Usually, requests for help from the Team comes
from each Region's Emergency Coordinator, once the conclusion has
been reached that technical assistance is needed. The Team consists
of 11 individuals with long experience in dealing with various types
of environmental emergencies and in responding to requests for
assistance at uncontrolled hazardous waste sites.
The Team is responsible for coordinating the Environmental Emergency
Response Unit (EERU), a cooperative effort between the Team, the
Office of Research and Development's Oil and Hazardous Materials
Spills Branch, and contractor personnel. Services available through
the Response Unit Include prototype spill control equipment such as
the mobile physical/chemical treatment system, a mobile
flocculatlon/sedimentation system, contract laboratory analytical
services, and pilot plant treatment studies;
B. Private
1. CHEMTREC: Chemical Transportation Emergency Center. Access via
telephone, 800/424-9300 or 202/483-7616 in Washington, DC.
CHEMTREC 1s a clearinghouse providing a 24-hour telephone number for
chemical transportation emergencies. It covers over 3,600 chemicals
which have been submitted by manufactuers as the primary materials
they ship. CHEMTREC 1s sponsored by the Chemical Manufacturers
Association, although nonmembers are also served. The emergency
telephone number 1s widely distributed to emergency service
personnel, carriers, and the chemical industry. The number 1s
usually given on the bill of lading.
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When an emergency call is received by CHEMTREC, the person on duty
writes down the essential information. As much information as
possible is obtained by phone. The person on duty gives the caller
information on hazards of spills, fire, or exposure that the
manufacturers of the chemicals involved had furnished. The person
on duty then notifies the shipper of the chemical by phone of the
situation. At this point, responsiblity for further guidance passes
to the shipper.
CHEMTREC's function is basically to serve as the liaison between the
person with the problem and the chemical shipper and/or the
manufacturer, the people who know the most about the product and its
properties.
2. CHLOREP: Chlorine Emergency Plan. Accesss through CHEMTREC.
CHLOREP was established by the Chlorine Institute to handle chlorine
emergencies in the U.S. and Canada. The system operates through
CHEMTREC. Upon receiving an emergency call, CHEMTREC notifies the
nearest manufacturer in accordance with a mutual aid plan. This
manufacturer then contacts the emergency scene to determine if a
technical team should be sent to assist. Each participating
manufacturer has trained personnel and equipment available for
emergencies.
National Agricultural Chemicals Association, Pesticide Safety Team
Network. Access through CHEMTREC.
The National Agricultural Chemicals Association operates a national
pesticide information and response network providing advice and
on-site assistance when a spill warrants it. The network operates
through CHEMTREC. Upon receiving notification of an emergency
involving a pesticide, CHEMTREC contacts the manufacturer, who
provides specific advice on handling the spill. If necessary, spill
response teams are available on a geographical basis.
TEAP: Transportation Emergency Assistance Plan, Canadian Chemical
Producers Association. Access 24 hours a day through three regional
control centers:
- British Columbia, 604/929-3341
- Prairie Provinces, 403/477-8339
- Northern Ontario, 705/682-2881
TEAP functions 1n Canada 1n a similar fashion to CHEMTREC 1n the
U.S. it provides emergency advice, gets knowledgeable personnel
(usually the manufacturer) 1n touch with responsible people at the
scene of the emergency, and sees that on-the-scene assistance 1s
provided 1f needed. When the regional control center receives a
call, the attendant records basic Information, obtains a call-back
number, and perhaps gives preliminary Information from standard
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references if the name of the product is known. The attendant then
calls one of the center's technical advisors, who calls the scene of
the accident to get as much detail as possible and perhaps provides
additional advice on coping with the emergency. The advisor then
tries to contact the producer. If the producer cannot be reached,
or if distances are great, the regional control center contacts a
company familiar with the product. The center is also prepared to
send personnel and equipment to the scence if necessary. Once
contact has been established between producer and local authorities
on the scene, the technical advisor assumes a follow-up role and
notifies the Canadian Chemical Producers Association of the
accident.
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PART 8
USE OF THE HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE DATA SHEET
I. INTRODUCTION
A hazardous substance data sheet is an effective means of
presenting data on a particular compound and the related incident.
It is much easier for response personnel to have the necessary
information in one place than to continually consult different
references which may or may not have the desired data. Condensing
the information on physical, chemical, and toxicological
properties of the compound and incident onto two pages also speeds
the briefing of any personnel arriving on site when time is
important. As many reference sources as possible should be used
to fill out the sheets as some information on the same property
may vary from one reference to another.
Section II outlines how to fill out a sheet. Section III displays
the documentation needed to prepare a sheet, using benzene as an
example. Section IV is a completed sheet for benzene. Section V
is a blank Hazardous Substance Data Sheet, which can be copied for
future use.
II. FILLING OUT THE HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE DATA SHEET
Under "Name of Substance," list both the common name and the name
approved by the International Union for Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC). Both should be entered, since it may be
necessary to look up information under different names. If a
compound uses more than one common name, list all synonyms. Write
in the formula after the chemical name, as some references index
chemicals by their formulas.
Part I lists the physical/chemical properties of the compound. In
the far right column labeled "Source," enter the reference from
which the information was obtained. If the information is found
later to be incorrect or conflicting, it may be corrected. This
also makes it easier to refer back to a particular source if
additional information is needed. The properties included in the
data sheet are:
Normal Physical State: Check the appropriate space for the
physical state of the chemical at normal ambient temperatures
(20°C-25°C).
Molecular Weight: Usually expressed in grams per gram-mole.
This information is essential because neutralization or any
other chemical treatment would require the number of moles of
chemical present.
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Density and Specific Gravity: Only one is required. Density
is usually expressed in grams per milliliter. Specific
gravity is dimensionless. Indicate the temperature at which
specific gravity,is measured and circle the appropriate letter
corresponding to degrees Fahrenheit(°F) or Celsius(°C).
Solubility: Water: Usually expressed in parts per million or
milligrams per liter, which are equivalent (that is, 1 ppm =
1 mg/L). Solubility is temperature dependent.
Solubility: Enter any other material for which solubility
data are needed. For instance, recovering a spilled material
by solvent extraction may require solubility data for any one
of a number of organic compounds.
Boiling Point: Expressed 1n degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.
It is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the
compound equals atmospheric pressure (760 mm mercury at sea
level). The boiling point 1s raised if any Impurities are
present.
Melting Point: Same as freezing point. Melting point 1s
lowered if any impurities are present.
Vapor Pressure: Usually expressed in millimeters of mercury
or atmospheres at a given temperature. Strongly temperature
dependent.
Vapor Density: Dimensionless quantity. Expressed relative to
air.
Flash Point: Expressed in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.
Indicate whether the figure 1s based on an open cup or closed
cup test.
Other: Enter any miscellaneous data, for example biochemical
oxygen demand, autolgnltlon temperature, or odor threshold
concentrations.
Part II is a compilation of five types of hazardous
characteristics. In the far right column labeled "Source", enter
the reference from which the Information was obtained.
Section A lists toxlcologlcal hazards:
Inhalation: Under "Concentrations," enter the current TLV
IThreshold Limit Value) concentration. This 1s Important for
selecting levels of protection for workers who will be 1n the
area.
Ingestion: Enter the toxicity level 1n milligrams per
kilogram (mg/kg) of body weight.
Skin/Eye Absorption - Contact: Determine from the references
whether these hazards exist.
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Carcinogenic, Teratogenic, Mutagenic: It is difficult to
obtain concentration data on these hazards, since very little
is known about the mechanisms which cause these effects.
Aquatic: Usually expressed in parts per million (ppm) for a
particular species.
Other; Enter an IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or
Health) concentration, or any other pertinent miscellaneous
informaion.
Section B contains fire hazard data:
Combustibility: Applies to any compound which can be oxidized
In air. Almost every organic compound is combustible.
Toxic Byproducts: If the compound is combustible, enter yes,
because all combustion processes yield some carbon monoxide.
List the particular toxic byproducts 1n the spaces below.
F1ammabi11ty/Explosiveness Limits: Expressed as a percentage
by volume in air. Usually flammable limits and explosive
limits are synonymous.
Section C contains reactivity data:
Reactivity Hazard: If the material Is reactive, Indicate the
substances which are Incompatible with the material.
Section D contains corroslvlty data:
pH: Some references give the pH of an aqueous solution at a
gTven concentration. For Instance, the pH of 0.5% solution
of sodium hydroxide 1s 13. There is also space for listing
the types of materials known to be corroded by the compound In
question.
Neutralizing Agent: Some references 11st neutralizing
materials which may help at an Incident by bringing the pH of
the affected area to neutral (pH of 7).
Section E contains radioactivity data:
Background; List a background level. Background 1s usually
on the order of 0.01 mHHroentgens per hour (mR/hour). See
Part 2, "Field Monitoring".
Alpha, Beta, Gamma: Exposure rates on some elements may be
touna in the "Radiological Health Handbook," published by the
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
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Parts III, IV, and V of the sheet describe the specific incident
and recommend safety measures. Sometimes, parts of the following
sections will be left blank, simply because of a lack of accurate
information. Enter available incident information as promptly as
possible, however, so that mitigation measures can start.
Part III describes the incident:
Quantity Involved: Usually express in gallons, barrels, or
liters for a liquid, and pounds or kilograms for a solid.
Release Information: Indicate if the container(s) is (are)
still leaking, and if possible, the rate of discharge.
Monitoring/Sampling Recommended: Indicate what type(s) of
monitoring should be initiated to completely characterize an
incident and if on-site samples are necessary. See sections
on Sampling and Field Monitoring.
Part IV, Recommended Protection, covers:
Public: Based on the data obtained in the first three parts
and the proximity of the incident to populated areas, make an
initial public hazard evaluation. The OHMTADS reference
segment Number 111, "Degree of Hazard to Public Health," is
helpful in recommending action to protect public health.
Environment: Depending on the type of release and potential
pathways of dispersion, propose potential activities such as
booming, skimming, or chemical/physical treatment. OHMTADS
segments 113, "Action Levels," and 114 , "In Situ
Amelioration," can help determine initial response
activities.
Worker: Decide on levels of protection for response
personnel, once again based on the physical, chemical, and
toxlcological properties of the materials in question.
OHMTADS segment 108, "Personal Safety Precautions," aids 1n
this decision. See also "Standard Operating Safety
Guides," Part 5.
Part V, Recommended Site Control, covers:
If enough Information 1s available, establish three work
zones (See Standard Operating Procedures, Part 6):
- Exclusion Zone (contaminated)
- Contamination Reduction Zone
- Support Zone (noncontamlnated)
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Hot 1ine: Establish site boundary.
Any person who crosses the Hotline (the outer boundary of the
Exclusion Zone) must be in the proper level of protection
predesignated by the site safety officer.
Decontamination Line: Based upon the toxicity of the
compound(s) involved, establish a decontamination system in
the Contamination Reduction zone. " See Standard Operating
Safety Guides," Part 7.
Command Post Location: Locate the command post. This
decision is usually constrained by wind direction,
accessibility, and logistical considerations. It should also
be a safe distance from the Hotline.
EXAMPLE OF DOCUMENTATION NEEDED TO COMPLETE A HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE
DATA SHEET (PARTS I AND II)
Benzene has been chosen as an example. For purposes of
illustration, seven sources of information were utilized:
- "Condensed Chemical Dictionary" Gessner G. Hawley
- "The Merck Index"
' "Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials", N. Irving Sax
- "NIQSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards"
- "Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values (TLV)"
- CHRIS, Volume 2
- OHMTADS
For complete description of these references, see Part 7 of this
section. The information on benzene is summarized in Table 8-1.
8-5
TAT/WESTON/9-83
-------
IV. HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE DATA SHEET
NAME OF SUBSTANCE: ^
COMMON; BEANS', B£M^OU ; CicU)HgX/VTR\gNc CHEMICAL: • C^Wt
PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
y SOURCE
Normal Physical State: Gas v liquid Solid cwfl\ts "E.
Molecular Height
I.
II.
Densi ty
Specific gravity
Solubility: Mater (ppm)
Solubility:
Boiling Point
Melting Point
Vapor Pressure (mmHg)
Vapor Density
Flash Point 0Cj(6O
Other:
gw
I
cm$ te
cm* %
f^PtX
ftftX
HAZARDOUS CHARACTERISTICS
B.
TOXICOLOGICAL HAZARD
HAZARD
Inhalation
<28
No
Ingestion
qeV
No
Skin/Eye Absorption
ffey
No
Sk1n/Eye Contact
qeti
No
Carcinogenic
ags)
No
Teratogenic
Yes
No
Mutagenic
Yes
No
Aquatic
Yes
No
Other: rDLU
MmI
No
FIRE HAZARD
HAZARD
Combustibility
No
Toxic Byproducts:
ftes)
No
Other:
Yes
No
Yes
No
F1ammable/Explos1ve
No
LFL/LEL
H° tlv
SOURCE
U
£f\X
No aooo
IQSHft (aUV&S
SOURCE
C.
UFL/UEL
REACTIVITY HAZARD
1.3 °\t>
HAZARD CONCENTRATIONS
Water
Other:
ok\ PvzeftS
Yes
-------
D. CORROSIVE HAZARD
Acid
Base
Neutralizing agent:
HAZARD
PH
SOURCE
E. RADIOACTIVE HAZARD
HAZARD EXPOSURE RATE
SOURCE
Background
Alpha Particles
Beta Particles
Gamma Radiation
CWfcvS
¦ft
CM
It
INCIDENT RELATED:
Quantity Involved
Release Information
Monitoring/Sampling Recommended
RECOMMENDED PROTECTION:
Public
Envi ronment
Worker
RECOMMENDED SITE CONTROL:
Exclusion Zone
Contamination Reduction Zone
Support Zone
8-8
-------
V. HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE DATA SHEET
NAME OF SUBSTANCE:
COMMON: CHEMICAL:
PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
SOURCE
Normal Physical State: Gas Liquid Solid
Molecular Weight
Density gm/ml
Specific gravity @ °F/°C
Solubility: Water (ppm) i? °F/°C
Solubility: 5 °F/°C
Boiling Point °F/°C
Melting Point °F/°C
Vapor Pressure (ramHg) @ °F/°C
Vapor Density ® °F/°C
Flash Point OC/CC °F/°C ZZHHI
Other:
11• HAZARDOUS CHARACTERISTICS
TOXICOLOGICAL HAZARD
HAZARD
Inhalation
Yes
No
Ingestion
Yes
No
Skin/Eye Absorption
Yes
No
Skin/Eye Contact
Yes
No
Carcinogenic
Yes
No
Teratogenic
Yes
No
Mutagenic
Yes
No
Aquatic
Yes
No
Other:
Yes
No
FIRE HAZARD
HAZARD
Combustibility
Yes
No
Toxic Byproducts:
Yes
No
Other:
Yes
No
Yes
No
Flammable/Explosive
Yes
No
LFL/LEL
UFL/UEL
C. REACTIVITY HAZARD HAZARD
Water Yes No
Other: Yes No
CONCENTRATIONS SOURCE
CONCENTRATIONS SOURCE
CONCENTRATIONS SOURCE
8-9
-------
D. CORROSIVE HAZARD
HAZARD
SOURCE
Acid
Base
Neutralizing agent:
RADIOACTIVE HAZARD
Background
Alpha Particles
Beta Particles
Gamma Radiation
Yes
Yes
No
No
HAZARD
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
EXPOSURE RATE
SOURCE
III,
INCIDENT RELATED:
Quantity Involved_
Release Information
Monitoring/Sampling Recommended
IV. RECOMMENDED PROTECTION:
Public
Envi ronment
Worker
V. RECOMMENDED SITE CONTROL:
Exclusion Zone
Contamination Reduction Zone
Support Zone
8-10
-------
TABLE 8-1
INFORMATION GIVEN ON BENZENE BY DIFFERENT SOURCES:
Physical/Chemical
Property
Condensed The
Chemical Merck
Dictionary Index
Dangerous Properties
of Industrial
Materials
NIOSH/OSHA
Pocket Guide to
Chemical Hazards
CHRIS
Volume 2
OHM-TADS
CO
Corroslveness
F1 airmabl 11 ty
Flammable Limits
Exploslveness
Explosive Limits
Autoignition
Temperature
Flash Point
Open Cup
Closed Cup
Melting Point
Boiling Point
Vapor Pressure
Vapor Density
Toxicity
Reactivity
Specific Gravity
Solubility
Flammable
1.5 - 8%
Explosive
1.5 - 8%
10448F
12°F
5.5°C
80.1°C
Tolerance
25 ppm
0.8790
Slight in
water
Highly
Flammable
10-12°F
5.5°C
80.1°C
Flammable
1.3 - 7.1%
Explosive
1.3 - 7.1%
10448F
12°F
5.51eC
80.093-80.094°C
100 mm 9 26.1°C
2.77
Vigorously with
oxidizing
materials
0.8794 9 20°C
Flammable
1.3 - 7.1%
Explosive
1.3 - 7.1%
12°F
42°F
176°F
75 mm @ 20°C
PEL=
5 ppm Ceiling
Flammable
1.3 - 7.9%
Explosive
1.3 - 7.9%
1097°F
12°F
Freezing Pt.
42°F = 5.5°C
176°F = 80.1°C
2.7
TLV = 25 ppm
Inhalation
Non-corrosive
Flairmable
1.3 - 7.1%
Explosive
1.3 - 7.1%
580°C
-11°C
5.56°C
80.1°C
95.2 mm » 25°C
2.77
TLV = 25 ppm
Inhalation
With strong oxi- No reaction with
dizers, chlorine, water or common
Soluble in
1430 parts water
bromine , iron
0.18%
materials
0.879 @ 20°C
0.879
820 ppm (a 25 °C
-------
benzene OH*. Thirteenth in order of high-volume
chemicals produced in U.S. (1975).
I II
III IV
Structure: I. Complete ring showing all elements.
II. Standard ring showing double bonds only.
III. Simple ring without double bonds, with nu-
merals indicating position of carbon atoms to
which substituent atoms or groups may be at-
tached (2 = ortho, 3 r meta, 4 = para).
IV. Generalized structure, with enclosed circle sug-
gesting the resonance of this compound.
These structures are also referred to as the benzene
nucleus.
Properties: Colorless to light-yellow, mobile, nonpolar
liquid of highly refractive nature; aromatic odor;
vapors burn with smoky flame; b.p. 80.I°C; m.p.
5.5°C; sp. gr. 0.8790 (20/4°C); wt/gal 7.32 lb; re-
fractive index (n 20/D) 1.50110; flash point (closed
cup) 12°F; surface tension 29 dynes/cm. Autoignition
temp. 1044® F. Miscible with alcohol, ether, acetone,
carbon tetrachloride, carbon disulfide, acetic acid;
slightly soluble in water.
Derivation: (a) Hydrodealkylation of toluene or of
pyrolysis gasoline (q.v.); (b) transalkylation of tolu-
ene by disproportionation reaction; (c) catalytic re-
forming of petroleum; (d) fractional distillation of
coal tar.
Grades: Crude; straw color; motor; industrial pure
(2°C); nitration (l°C); thiophene-free; 99 mole %;
99.94 mole %; nanograde.
Containers: Drums; tank cars; barges.
Hazard: Flammable, dangerous fire risk. Explosive
limits in air, 1.5 to 8% by volume. Toxic by inges-
tion, inhalation, and skin absorption. Tolerance, 25
ppm in air. Safety data sheet available from Manu-
facturing Chemists Assn., Washington, D.C.
Uses: Ethylbenzene (for styrene monomer); dodecyl-
benzene (for detergents); cyclohexane (for nylon);
phenol; nitrobenzene (for aniline); maleic anhydride;
dodecylbenzene; chlorobenzene; diphenyl; benzene
hexachloride; benzene-sulfonic acid; solvent; anti-
knock gasoline.
Shipping regulations: (Rail) Red label. (Air) Flam-
mable Liquid label.
See also aromatic.
Selected from The Condensed Chemical Dictionary, by Gessner Hawl
copyrighted 1977 bv Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.> reprinted with
permission of Publisher.
3-12
-------
Chemical
Nama and
formula
Synonyms
Pafmissibta
E*po»u*« Limit
IDlH
Ltv«l
Btnzmt
CjH,
Benzol. Cyclohaxatnane,
Coal Tar Naphtha, Phenyl
Hydride
1 ppm
5 ppm cail
(as of 2/11/
78)
2000
ppm
Physical Description
Colorless liquid with
an aromatic odor
Chemical and Physical
Properties
Incompatibilities
Measurement
Method and
Set (See
Table 1)
MW. 70 VP: 75 mm Strong oxidizers. Char,
BP 176 F MP. 42 P chlorine, bromine with CS«,
Sol: 0.18% UEl 7.1* ran SC.
FI.P: 12 F LEL: 1.3% U
Personal Protection and Sanitation
(See Tabte 2)
Clothing Repeat prolong
Goggles Reason prob
Wash Soap wash promptly
Change N.A
Remove Any wet imroed (flamm)
Health Haiards
Respirator Selection
Upper Umrt Devices Permitted (See
Table 3)
Symptoms (See
fable 4)
10 ppm SA/SCBA
50 ppm SAF/SCBAF
1000 ppm SA PD.PP.CF
2000 ppm SAF P0.PP.Cf
Escape GMS/SCBA
First Aid (See Table 5)
Inh Irrit eyes, nose, resp sys;
Abs giddy, head, nau,
Ing staggered gait, ftg. anor.
Con lass. derm, bone marrow
depres; abdom pain
Eye:
Skm
Irr immed
Soap wash
promptly
Breath: Art resp
Swallow NO VOMIT
Target Organs
Blood, CNS, skin,
bone marrow,
eyes, resp sys
NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide To Chemical Hazards
1069. Benzene. Benzol; cyclohexatriene. C,Ht, mol wt
7*. II. C 92,25%. H 7.75%. Discovered by Faraday in
compressed oil gas in 1825 Obtained in the coking or coal
and in the production ot illuminating gas from coal. Puri-
fication by washing with water: Brit. pat. 863,711 (1961 to
Schloven-Cheinie and H. Koppers GmbH), C.A. 55, 16971 f
(1961). Lab prepn by diazolization or aniline, followed by
reduction of the diazonium salt in NaOH soln using stan-
nous chloride: Gattermann-Wieland. Praxis des orjganischen
Chemikers (de Gruyter. Berlin, 40th ed., 1961) p 247. Pro-
duction of pure benzene: French. Ind. Chemist 39, 9-12
(1963). Toxicity: E. Browning. Toxicity and Metabolism of
Industrial Solvents (Elsevier, New York. 1965) pp 3-65.
0
Clear, colorless, highly flammable liquid; characteristic
odor, dj* 0.8787. bp 801*. Solidif +5.5\ njf 1.50108:
Thome et alt Ind Eng. Chem. Anal Ed. 17, 481 (1945).
Flash pt 10-12*. Sol in 1430 parts water; miscible with alco-
hol, chloroform, ether, cairbon disulfide, carbon tetrachlo-
ride. glacial acetic acid, acetone, oils. Keep in well-closed
containers in a coo/ place and away from fire. LD^ orally in
rats (young adults): 3.8 ml/kg. Kimura et al. Toxical Appl
Pharmacol 19, 699 (1971).
Sodium deriv, CjHjNa. phenyl sodium. Prcpn: Schlosser.
Angew. Chem. 76, 267 (1964). Solid mass* dec by watery
acids, alkalies. Sol in liquid ammonia, tetrahydrofuran.
Human Toxicity; Acute (from ingestion or inhalation):
irritJtion of mucous membranes* restlessness, convulsions,
excitement* depression. Death may follow from respiratory
failure. Chronic: bone marrow depression and aplasia; rare-
ly, leukemia. Harmful amts may be absorbed through akin.
USE: Manuf of medicinal chemicals* dyes and many other
organic compounds, artificial leather, linoleum, oil cloth,
airplane dopes, varnishes, lacquers; as solvent for waxes,
resins, oils, etc.
THERAP CAT (vet): Destroys screwworm larvae in wounds.
Selection from The Merck Index , Martha VJindholz, Editor, copyrighted
1976 by Merck and Co., Inc., reprinted with permission of Publisher.
8-13
-------
BENZENE. Syns: benzol, phenyl hydride, coal naph-
tha. Clear colorless liquid. C«H6, mw: 78.11, mp:
5.51°, bp: 80.093°-80.094°, flash p: 12°F (CQ, d:
0.8794 @ 20°, autoign. temp.: 1044°F, lei: 1.3%, uel:
7.1%, vap. press: 100 mm @ 26.1°, vap. d: 2.77, ulc:
95-100.
THR = Poisoning occurs most commonly through
inhal of the vapor, though benzene can penetrate
the skin, and poison in that way. Locally, benzene
has a comparatively strong irr effect, producing
erythema and burning, and, in more severe cases,
edema and even blistering. Exposure to high cone
of the vapor (3000 ppm or higher) may result from
failure of equipment or spillage. Such exposure,
while rare in industry, may result in acute poison-
ing, characterized by the narcotic action of benzene
on the CNS. The anesthetic action of benzene is
similar to that of other anesthetic gases, consisting
of a preliminary stage of excitation followed by de-
pression and, if exposure is continued, death
through respiratory failure. The chronic, rather
than the acute form, of benzene poisoning is im-
portant in industry. It is a recog leukemogen. [14,
3, /, 102] There is no specific blood picture occur-
ring in cases of chronic benzol poisoning. The bone
marrow may be hypoplastic, normal, or hyper-
plastic, the changes reflected in the peripheral
blood. Anemia, leucopenia, macrocytosis, reticulo-
cytosis, thromocytopenia, high color index, and
prolonged bleeding time may be present. Cases of
myeloid leukemia have been reported. For the
supervision of the worker, repeated blood examina-
tions are necessary, including hemoglobin determi-
nations, white and red cell counts and differential
smears. Where a worker shows a progressive drop
in either red or white cells, or where the white count
remains below 5,000 per cu mm or the red count
below 4.0 million per cu mm, on two successive
monthly examinations, he should be immediately
removed from exposure. Following absorption of
benzene, elimination is chiefly through the lungs,
when fresh air is breathed. The portion that is ab-
sorbed is oxidized, and the oxidation products are
combined with sulfuric and glycuronic acids and
eliminated in the urine. This may be used as a diag-
nostic sign. Benzene has a definite cumulative ac-
tion, and exposure to relatively high cone is not
serious from the point of view of causing damage
to the blood-forming system, provided the expo-
sure is not repeated. On the other hand, daily ex-
posure to cone of 100 ppm or less will usualiy cause
damage if continued over a protracted period of
time. In acute poisoning, the worker becomes con-
fused and dizzy, complainsof tightening of the leg
muscles and of pressure over the forehead, then
passes into a stage of excitement. If allowed to re-
main in exposure, he quickly becomes stupefied and
lapses into coma. In non-fatal cases, recovery is
usually complete and no permanent disability oc-
curs. In chronic poisoning the onset is slow, with
the symptoms vague; fatigue, headache, dizziness,
nausea and loss of appetite, loss of weight and weak-
ness are common complaints in early cases. Later,
pallor, nosebleeds, bleeding gums, menorrhagia,
petechiae and purpura may develop. There is great
individual variation in the signs and symptoms of •
chronic benzene poisoning. Benzene is a common
air contaminant.
Fire Hazard: Dangerous, when exposed to heat or
flame; can react vigorously with oxidizing mate-
rials, such as BrFj, CI2, C1O3, O2NCIO4, Oj, Oj,
perchlorates, (AlClj + FCIO4), (H2SO4 + perman-
ganates), K:Oj, (AgClCX + acetic acid), Na202,
[19]
Spont Heating: No.
Explosion Hazard: Mod, when its vapors are exposed
to flame. Use with adequate ventilation.
Disaster Hazard:NDangerous, highly flam.
To Fight Fire: Foam, CO2, dry chemical.
Selection from Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, by
N. Irving Sax, copyrighted 1979 by Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., reprinted
with permission of Publisher.
8-14
-------
BENZENE - Skin
C6H6
25 ppm (Approximately 80 mg/m^)
Benzene as an acute posion produces narcotic effects comparable to those of toluene. Chronic
intoxication by benzene is by far the most serious disease caused by the common hydrocarbon
solvents. Its action is primarily on the bone marrow resulting in numerous blood changes and, in
serious cases, aplastic anemia, with a frequently fatal outcome. It is unique among the hydrocar-
bons as a myelotoxicant, according to Gerarde(l), Elkins(2) stated that more than 140 fatal
cases of benzene poisoning had been recorded prior to 1959. Vigliani and Saita(3) listed 26
deaths from chronic benzene poisoning in two provinces in Italy between 1960 and 1963. Eleven
of these cases were diagnosed as leukemia, which frequently develops several years after ces-
sation of exposure to benzene.
Many of the deaths from benzene have resulted from exposures of the order of 200 ppm or
more. Bowditch and Elkins(4) estimated that of eleven fatal cases, three resulted from concen-
trations in excess of 200 ppm, four from concentrations between 100 and 200 ppm, and three
from concentrations judged to be below 100 ppm (but not measured). Greenburg et al.(5) de-
scribed nine cases, with one death, in the rotogravure printing industry. Of 48 air analyses, 20
showed less than 100 ppm, and 15 more than 200 ppm. Savilahti(6) found that 107 of 147 workers
in a shoe factory revealed blood abnormalities. The source of the benzene was cement, and con-
centrations were reported to have ranged from 318 to 470 ppm (these seem high for shoe cement-
ing operations). One death occurred.
Winslow(7), however, reported blood changes in workers where concentrations of benzene
vapor below 100 ppm were found. Heimann and Ford(8) found one death and three cases with blood
changes where air analysis for benzene showed a concentration of 105 ppm. Wilson(9) reported
three fatal cases in a plant where the average concentration of benzene vapor was 100 ppm. Hardy
and Elkins(lO) recorded one death and several cases of blood changes in a plant where repeated
air analyses indicated benzene vapor concentrations of about 60 ppm.
Blaney(ll) found little evidence of benzene intoxication in a group of 90 workers regularly
exposed to benzene for about 13 years. Concentrations were generally low, but urinary phenol
measurements indicated some exposures of the order of 25 ppm(12). Pagnotto et al.(13) found
rubber spreaders exposed to benzene vapor concentrations ranging for the most part between 6
and 25 ppm. A limited number of blood studies showed some abnormalities but no apparent cor-
relation with exposure. So far as is known, none of this group developed serious blood dyscrasias.
A TLV of 25 ppm is believed low enough to prevent serious blood changes, but this limit should
be considered a ceiling and exposure to higher concentrations not permitted.
Other recommendations: Cook (1945) 50 ppm; Smyth (1956) 35 ppm; Elkins (1959) 25 ppm;
ANSI (1969) 10 ppm; U.S.S.R. (1967) 6 ppm; Czechoslovakia (1969) 16 ppm.
References:
1. Gerarde, H.W.: Toxicology and Biochemistry of Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Elsevier Publish-
ing Co., New York (1960).
2. Elkins, H.B.: Chemistry of Industrial Toxicology, p. 103, Wiley & Sons, New York (1959).
3. Vigliani, E.C., Saita, G.: New Eng. J. of Med. 271, 872 (1964).
4. Bowditch, M., Elkins, H.B.: J. Ind. Hyg. & Tox. 21, 321 (1939).
5. Greenburg, L., Mayers, M.R., Goldwater, L., Smith, A.R.: J. Ind. Hyg. & Tox. 21^, 395 (1939).
6. Savilahti, M.: Arch. Gewerbepath. u. Gewerbehyg. 15, 147 (1956).
7. Winslow, C.E.A.: J. Ind. Hyg. 9, 69 (1927).
8. Heimann, H., Ford, C.B.: N.Y. Ind. Hyg. Bull. p. 224 (Nov. 1940).
9. Wilson, R.H.: J. Lab. Clin. Med. 27, 1517 (1942).
lo! Hardy, H.L., Elkins, H.B.: J. Ind. Hyg. & Tox. 30, 196 (1948).
11. Blaney, L.: Ind. Med. & Surg. 19, 227 (1950).
12. Walkley, J.E., Pagnotto, L.D., Elkins, H.B.: Am. Ind. Hyg. Assn. J. 22, 362 (1961)
13.' Pagnotto, L.D., Elkins, H.B., Brugsch, H.G., Walkley, J.E.: Am. Ind. Hyg. Assn. J. 22, 417
(1961).
Selection from Documentation of TLV's, by American Council of Governmental
Industrial Hygenists Inc., copyrighted 1971 by American Council of
Governmental Industrial Hygenists Inc., reprinted with permission of Publisher.
8-15
-------
CHRIS, Volume 2 - Hazardous Chemical"Data
BENZENE
BNZ
Fir*
Exposure
Water
Pollution
FLAMMABLE.
a* »**Pf «M> "*7 ¦
Vapof mmr aipio* if
w» taiataa ¦*<»
jsjats
«|M Mr If* iwfllHM «¦ ft".
C—<«»»¦¦< nol—i »t* ***•
f ft* | FOR MEJMCAt AO.
VAFOC
ImtatwH* tym, mmm wi i*n
V ww >intirfc».
SC2*« taTWi.
UQUW
tesiisssfc-.—
nmt w •>»»»¦<» •'•Sf- „
iriwtrts.t»M.i.iifc
IT SWAIXOWtO fc CONKIOUS.
HARMFUL TO AQUATIC UFI Bl VBt LOW CONCENTRATIONS
ISJZtSSZt '"
n«*r wfmtm *r M*kr
t IBFONSI TO DISOMMC
j Ill I nil 'IT
tun wafRMf k (UnmaMtfy
It au net mhh
1 CHCUiCAl OeSKNATlOKS
11 liwufir fco/ol
It Cooo* C»H C«iif*»»"y ClooalliMii SKIN l««* »i*k aMfrfaNu**! by myiM««>»; rnn«t(MH«iwMtW
**4*i«a tY fl«t* ».-u« If n Mrapofatr *f *»•«*•£ «*•«
{cmt*cii*uoo. oi'f**
34 T«iWI|i bf MmMm (ItmdiM UMI VriM|i IS ppm
1.1 tl—rl-TamitaharfHow UawWt Mow.
I.I Toatstty tor t*«%oottoaB
1.7 UltfMMf! Inlwtw
SJ hrtfwT CHOroclartaltgw |f prr«*i V4fwr\ «u> uiH-aimiaiH* a<
ttffai k inamwy.
|t« iA+Mm MMInttiMlChoroclorioMmi UMMkui'd IfHMttoloo
m*» «M«fi«ap Jmi»
L WfcUl fOUUTKW
1.1 A^woWe ToaleWyt
S ppw/fc1if/mwee/liikalfdii*itle**i
20 ppfK iU kr !v*(mMn\4*H%9 *ai«v
1.2 Walorte^TutaNf: t>*ia m a«a«UMa
• 3 ¦UIIN| Pyrtwj TfMopwt SiaMa
1L HiUMO USOSMUT CO*
a-t-u-v-w
I. mfCTED yMUflCTUKIftS
Comiooo««alib 0«< Inc.
Com«oo«»calih FalrodwioicaKCi.
Noodaa. Ncnt I«*ttn4
PMbpi Fairolaow Co.
fMlipa fwno R ieo C«c lac.
la mo PtyalM Camar
Halo Ray- F * oj amifoTo
iPJ
10.4 VoaHnp Frauarwac
11 rmtui AND CNCMICH ftOFCRTia
13 1 pnyiaal ttota M 1I*C aM 1 o«m Ln*w^
13 J HliiMlarWHII nil
13.3 BoMnf FvMal 1 tfw
i7ft*F«ao.4*c ¦m.r«
u.4 fioaaim Fatwfc
4ifl-f-js-c-mfR
114
tttrr « w.rc •
1M ftMi»l Pi mmm
WFM* 4k.) auo • »»M)«/ia'
1J.7 IpuKi Or^ttyt Q»nat JTC(k«w«)
1)4 U«wM turfooa Taawkaiv
?l.tM»/cK • 0 0J5 N/« gi xrc
13.10 Vofor < *M i tal/f - J«4 H l(l»|/4t
1313 Ho0»0MlWe
- - -40»OK r0*4/k|
13.14 Woo>o*B niimFuWan' ' n mm —
13.15 WaOflliMliir Nmpomotaa
13.10 How*¦<»*lfwwitoaWowi Hmfmmm
NOTES
8-16
REVISED
1«T»
-------
OHMTADS
C1) Accession Number 7216601
(2) CAS Registry Number: 71-43-2
( 3 ) SIC Code: 282 1; 2879 ; 2841; 2818; 2815
(4) Material Name: BENZENE $$$
(5) Synonyms: BENZOL; CYCLOHEXATRIENE ; COAL NAPHTHA; PHENE; PHENYL
HYDRIDE; POLYSTREAM; PYROBENZOL
(7) Chemical Formula: C6H6
(9) Common Uses: SOLVENT AND INTERMEDIATE FOR SYNTHESIS IN THE
CHEMICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRIES. APPROXIMATELY 56% OF
BENZENE PRODUCTION IS USED IN THE MANUFACTURING OF STYRENES,
PHENOLS, CYCLOHEXANES, AND OTHER ORGANIC CHEMICALS. THE REMAINDER
IS USED PRIMARILY IN THE MANUFACTURE OF DETERGENTS, PESTICIDES,
SOLVENTS, AND PAINT REMOVERS. BENZENE OCCURS AS A COMPONENT OF
GASOLINE AT LESS THAN 2%.
(10) Transport, Rail (%) : 18.0
(11) Transport, BargeCJO: 68.0
(12) Transport, Truck (X): 14.0
(14) Containers: SMALL GLASS BOTTLES, 1 GALLON CANS, 5-55 GALLON
METAL DRUMS, TANK CARS, TRUCKS, BARGES, AND PLASTIC OR EARTHENWARE
BOTTLES AND RECEPTACLES.
(15) General Storage Procedure: OUTSIDE OR DETACHED
PREFERABLE. PROTECT AGAINST PHYSICAL DAMAGE. WELL-CLOSED
CONTAINERS, COOL AREA. SHOULD NOT USE GLASS CONTAINERS.
(16) General Handling Procedure: AVOID ALL POTENTIAL SOURCES OF
IGNITION.
(17) Production Sites: (USITC 1977-1979) AMERADA HESS CORP.,
WOODRIDGE, NJ;
ATLANTIC RICHFIELD CO., ARCO CHEMICAL CO., LOS ANGELES, CA;
CHAMPLIN PETROLEUM CO., CORPUS CHRISTI, TX;
CHARTER INTERNATIONAL OIL CO., HOUSTON, TX;: CITIES SERVICE CO.,
PETROLEUM PRODUCTS GROUP
COMMONWEALTH PETROCHEMICALS, INC., PONCE, PR;
COSDEN OIL AND CHEMICAL CO., BIG SPRING, TX,*
CROWN CENTRAL PETROLEUM CORP., BALTIMORE, MD;
EASTMAN KODAK CO., TX. EASTMAN CO. DIV., KINGSPORT, TN;
EXXON CHEMICAL CO., USA, HOUSTON, TX;
GETTY REFINING AND MARKETING CO., DELAWARE REFINERY, DELAWARE CITY,
DE;
GULF OIL CORP., GULF OIL CHEMICAL CO., HOUSTON, TX;
MARATHON OIL CO., TEXAS REFINING DIV., TEXAS CITY, TX;
MOBIL OIL CORP., GAS LIQUIDS DEPT., DALLAS, TX;
MOBIL CHEMICAL CO., BEAUMONT, TX;
MONSANTO CO., ST. LOUIS, MO;
PHILLIPS PARAXYLENE, INC., SAN JUAN, PR;
PHILLIPS PETROLEUM CO., BARTLESVILLE , OK;
SHELL OIL CO, SHELL CHEMICAL CO. DIV., HOUSTON, TX;
SOUTHWESTERN REFINING CO., CORPUS CHRISTI, TX;
STANDARD OIL CO., IN; CHICAGO, IL;
SUN COMPANY, INC., RADNOR, PA;
TENNECO OIL CO., HOUSTON, TX;
TEXACO, INC., BELLAIRE, TX;
UNION CARBIDE CORP., S. CHARLESTON, WV;
UNION OIL CO. OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES, CA ,*
(TSCA 1 980) ASHLAND CHEMICAL CO., DUBLIN, OH;
ATLAS PROCESSING CO., SHREVEPORT, LA;
BUCHER PETROCHEMICAL CO., HOUSTON, TX;
CHEVRON U.S.A., INC., EL SEGUNDO, CA;
CHEVRON U.S.A., INC., RICHMOND, CA;
8-17
-------
COASTAL STATES PETROCHEMICAL, CORPUS CHRISTI, TX;
DOW CHEMICAL CO. U.S.A., FREEPORT, TX;
DOW CHEMICAL CO. U.S.A., MIDLAND, MI;
EMPIRE DETROIT STEEL CORP.-OHIO, PORTSMOUTH, OH;
ESSELEN ASSOCIATES, INC., STANFORD, CT
ESSOCHEM, INC., FLORHAM PARK, NJ;
KOPPERS COMPANY, INC., FALLANSBEE, WV;
MIDDLETOWN WORKS, MIDDLETOWN, OH;
NISSHO-IWAI AMERICAN CORP., NY;, NY;
OLIN CORPORATION, BRANDENBURG, KY;
QUINTANA-HOWEIL JOINT VENTURE, CORPUS CHRISTI, TX; (USPUDA
1001,79/USITC) (PRDTN* 80/TSCA)
(20) Binary Reactants : CHLORINE, OXYGEN, OZONE, PERMANGANATES AND
SULFURIC ACID, PEROXIDES, PARCH LORATES, NITRATING ACID, NITRIC
ACID, CHROMIC ACID ANHYDRIDE, AND CHROMIUM TRIOXIDE
(21) Corrosiveness: NONCORROSIVE
(24) Detection Limit (Field; Techniques»Ref) (ppm): 10, AROMATICS,
(BNW 450135)
(25) Detection Limit (Lab» Techniques,Ref) (ppm)t .001, GAS
CHROMATOGRAPHY, (BNW 2801); EPA HAS PROPOSED A GAS CHROMATOGRAPHIC
METHOD WITH A FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR (FID) FOR DETERMINATION
OF BENZENE IN INTEGRATED BAG SAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL STACK
GASES. (45FR26660, 4-18-80)
(26) Standard Codes: UN NO. 1114; NFPA - 2,3,0; ICC - FLAMMABLE
LIQUID, RED LABEL, 10 GALLON IN AN OUTSIDE CONTAINER; USCG - GRADE
C FLAMMABLE LIQUID; IATA - FLAMMABLE LIQUID, RED LABEL, 1 LITER
PASSENGER, 40 LITER CARGO. IMCO- CLASS 3.2; NONFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS.
NONFLAMMABLE LIQUID LABEL, PACKAGING GROUP IK85EZA0 IMDG , 77/1MCO )
CFR-ID NO. UN1114, CLASS FLAMMABLE LIQUID, FLAMMABLE LIQUID LABEL,
CFR PACKAGING CODE 173.119, EXCEPTION 173.118, 1QT MAXIMUM NET
CAPACITY PACKAGE LIMIT IN PASSENGER AIRCRAFT AND RAILCAR, 10
GALLON MAXIMUM NET CAPACITY PACKAGE LIMIT IN CARGO AIRCRAFT. STOW
ON DECK ON PASSENGER SHIPS, ON OR UNDER DECK ON CARGO SHIPS.
(45FR34560, 5-22-80) SUPERFUND DESIGNATED (HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES)
LIST.
(27) Flammability: QUITE. COMBUSTION IMMINENT. VERY FLAMMABLE.
(28) F1ammabiIity Limit(S£), Lower: 1.3
(29) F1ammabiIity Limit(X), Upper: 7.1
(30) Toxic Combustion Prod.* HAZARDOUS, EMPLOY SELF-CONTAINED
BREATHING APPARATUS.
(31) Extinguishing Methods WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE - (USE WATER
SPRAY), CARBON DIOXIDE, DRY CHEMICAL OR FOAM.
(32) Flash Point (C.): 10-12
(33) Auto Ignition Point(C.)s 580
(34) Explosiveness: VAPOR FORMS EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR. HIGHLY
REACTIVE. VAPOR IS HEAVIER THAN AIR - MAY TRAVEL CONSIDERABLE
DISTANCE TO IGNITION SOURCE AND FLASH BACK.
(35) Explosive limit(?4>, Lowers 1.5
(36) Explosive LimitOS), Uppert
(37) Melting Point (C.): 5.56
(39) Boiling Point (C.): 80.1
(41) Solubility (ppm 3 25C): 820
(42) Solubility Characteristics! SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE
(43) Specific Gravity? .879
(44) Vapor Pressure (mm Hg)i 95.2
(45) Vapor Pressure Texts MM HG AT 25 DEGREES CELSIUS, 40 AT 7.6
DEGREES CELSIUS.
(46) Vapor Density! 2.77
8-18
-------
( 49 )
B
oc hem
c a 1
Oxygen Demand Text:
(Lb/Lb )
•/.Theo
Days
I Seed
I Me t hod
I Reference
1
. 2
1 0
I SEWAGE SEED
1 E85
0
5
I SEWAGE SEED
1 E 8 5
<
1
1 . 9%
5
ISEWAGE SEED
I QUIESCENT
1 CI 0
<
1
3 . 5%
25
I TREATMENT PLANT
I ACT IVATED SLUDGE
IWARBUG
I C1 0
I
<
1
1 3%
8
I ANILINE
I ACCLIMATED
I ACTIVATED SLUDGE
I TREATMENT PLANT
I C1 0
I
I
<
1
> 1%
. 1 25
I PHENOL ACCLIMATED
IPURE BACTERIAL
I CULTURE
I C1 0
I
I
<
1
3 3%
.5
I PHENOL ACCLIMATED
lACTIVATED SLUDGE
I E74
I
•
82
I CHEMICAL
1 COD
I Q1 7
<
1
24%
5
ISEWAGE SEED
1 BOD
I R 1 1 S
<
1
2 7'/.
1 0
I SEWAGE SEED
I BOD
I R1 1 8
<
1
24%
1 5
ISEWAGE SEED
1 BOD
1 R1 18
<
1
2 9%
20
ISEWAGE SEED
I BOD
1 R1 1 8
>
1
58%
5
(ACCLIMATED SEWAGE
I SEED
1 BOD
I r 11 a»
1
>
1
67%
10
I ACCLIMATED SEWAGE
I SEED
I BOD
I R 1 13
I
>
1
76%
1 5
1 ACC LIMATED SEWAGE
1 SEED
I BOD
I R1 18
I
>
1
80%
20
1 ACCLIMATED SEWAGE
I SEED
1 BOD
IR118.
I
(50) Persistency: LOW BOD VALUES INDICATED THE BENZENE WILL REMAIN A
PROBLEM IF NOT CLEANED UP OR SUBJECTED TO NATURAL DILUTION AND
DISPERSION. HALF-LIFE OF LESS THAN SATURATED SOLUTIONS IS ESTIMTED
AS 37.3 MINN DUE TO EVAPORATION. 62% EVAPORATES WITH THE FIRST
. 01 y. OF WATER ( R87) .
(51) Potential for Accumulation: CAN ACT AS ACCUMULATIVE
POISON. POTENTIAL. BREATH CONCENTRATIONS OF BENZENE IN HUMAN
SUBJECTS REPEATEDLY EXPOSED TO BENZENE VAPORS APPROACHED A MAXIMUM
AFTER 3D, WHICH INDICATED THAT TISSUE CONCENTRATIONS WERE
APPROACHING SATURATIONS. ELIMINATION WAS BIPHASIC WITH HALF-LIVES
OF 2.6 AND 24 H. (SWEHDO 6(2)104,80/BER )
(52) Food Chain Contamination Potential: NEGATIVE
(54) Carcinogenicity: M0U3E- +/21 - TWICE WEEKLY (SKIN) +/36 - 25 UL
TWICE/24 WEEKS (SKIN) + /40 - PAINTED TWICE/40 WEEKS (SKIN) NEGATIVE
- ONCE A WEEK/4 MONTHS, THRICE WEEKLY THEREAFTER FOR 108
APPLICATIONS IN 12 MONTHS (TOTAL DOSE t 8.9 GM) (SKIN) POSITIVE.
ANIMAL EXPERIMENTS HAVE NOT CLEARLY DEMONSTRATED THAT BENZENE IS A
CARCINOGEN, BUT AN INTERNATIONAL AD HOC WORKING GROUP OF EXPERTS
IN CANCER RESEARCH CONCLUDED FROM EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA IN JANUARY
1979 THAT BENZENE IS "CARCINOGENIC FOR HUMANS." THE EXTENSIVE
LITERATURE RELATING TO THE CARCINOGENICITY OF BENZENE HAS BEEN
REVIEWED IN (C6H6** 80/EPA)
(55) Mutagenicity: CHROMOSOME ABERRATIONS HAVE BEEN DETECTED IN
ANIJ1ALS AND HUMANS. THE SPECIFIC LITERATURE HAS BEEN REVIEWED IN
(C6H5** 80/EPA)
(56) Teratogenicity: FEMALE RATS AND MICE EXPOSED TO UP TO 209.7 PP,M
BENZENE IN THE AIR OR TO SUBCUTANEOUS INJUNCTIONS OF BENZENE
SHOWED STERILITY, RESORPTION OF EMBRYOS, AND/OR SKELETHAL
DEFORMITIES IN THEIR OFFSPRING. IN ONE STUDY, HOWEVER, NO INCREASE
8-19
-------
IN FETAL RESORPTIONS WAS SEEN WHEN EXPOSURE WAS TO 100-2000 PPM.
THESE EXPERIMENTS ARE REVIEWED IN (C6H6** 80/EPA).
(58) Fresh Water Toxicity Text"-
Cone. IExposI Specie IEffeetITest Environment | Reference
I (Hr)| I I I
51
6 | MINNOW
I LETHALIDISTILLED 18
IC1
1
I
I
I DEGREES
I
6 I
6 IMINNOW
I LETHAL I HARD 16 DEGREES
IC1
20 |
1
24|SUNFISH
I
I TLM
I
I PHI LADELPHIA TAP
I WATER
1 C1
I
20 I
1
48 I SUNFISH
I
1 TLM
1
I PHILADELPHIA TAP
I WATER
let
I
60 I
2 I SUNFISH
1 1 00%
I
I C 1
1
I
IKIL LED I
1
34 |
24 | SUNFISH
I 1 00%
Dl
IC1
1 0 |
I TROUT
I LETHAL I
I C 1
395 I
I
24 I MOSQUI TO
I
FISH
I TLM
I
I 20-22 DEGREES
I TURBID
I c 1
I
395 I
I
48 I MOSQUITO
I
FISH
I TLM
I
I 20-22 DEGREES
I TURBID
I C1
I
386 I
I
96 I MOSQUI TO
I
FISH
I TLM
I
120-22 DEGREES
I TURBID
1 c 1
I
31-32 I
96 I BLUE6ILL,
I TLM
(TEMPERATURE COM
I E 3
I IGOLDFISH I | I
(59) Chronic Aquatic Toxicity Limit (ppm): 5.3; 5.1
(60) Chronic Aquatic Toxicity Limit (Reference)! THERE ARE
INSUFFICIENT DATA TO DEVELOP CRITERIA FOR BENZENE. TESTS DO SHOW
THAT EXPOSURE TO 700 PPB FOR 168 DAYS HAD ADVERSE EFFECTS IN
SALTWATER. ACUTE TESTS SHOW BENZENE IS STILL TOXIC AT 5.3 PPM IN
FRESHWATER AND 5.1 PPM IN SALTWATER. (45FR79318, 11-28-80)
(62) Salt Water Toxicity Texts
Cone.I Expos I Specie |Effect|Test Environment iReference
I (Hr) | I I I
66| 241 BR INE SHRIMP ITLM ISTATIC IR11S
211 48|BRINE SHRIMP |TLM ISTATIC |R118.
(64) Animal Toxicity Texts
Value) TimelSpecies I Par am. |Route iRef.
5600 |
I RAT
I LD50
lORL
I C1
3000 |
|RAT
ILD50
IORL
I E1 66
210 I
I HMN
I TCLO
I INH
I R1
PPM I
I
I
I
1
3400 I
I RAT
I LD50
IORL
1 R1
481
I MUS
I TDLO
ISKN
|R1
5.7|
I RAT
I LD50
IORL
I APD
2133 I
IRAT
I LC50
I IMH
I APD
MG/M3I
I
I
I
I
3333 1
I RBT
I LD50
I INH
I APD
MG/M31
I
I
I
I
10.001
14
I RAT
I LD50
IORL
I R1 1 9
01.
DAY |
I
I
1
SAT 15
MINI RAT
I LETHAL|INH
1 R11 9
VAP|
I
I
I
1
16,00 |
4
IRAT
I LD50
I INH
I R 1 1 9 .
0 PPM j HOUR | I | |
(73) Aquatic Plants (ppm): 10
8-20
-------
(74) Aquatic Plants (Reference): 96 HOUR GIANT KELP NO EFFECT (CI).
(79) Major Species Threatened: GANEFISH AND ANY ANIMAL EXPOSED TO
FUMES IN AIR. WATERFOWL.
(82) Inhalation Limit (Value): 10 (TIME-WEIGHTED AVERAGE); 25
(SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT)
(83) Inhalation Limit (Text): PPM (ACGIH* TLV 80/ACGIH)
(36) Direct Contact: ACUTE DERMAL EXPOSURE WILL CAUSE ERYTHEMIA,
SCALING, BURNING, AND CRACKING OF THE SKIN, WITH EDEMA AND
BLISTERING IN SEVERE CASES. (SAX)
(87) General Sensation: AROMATIC ODOR. 4.68 PPM RECOGNITION ODOR IN
AIR (R99); INHALATION OF HIGH CONCENTRATIONS MAY CAUSE ACUTE
POISONING, DEATH. SKIN IRRITATION GRADE 3 - CAPILLARY INJECTION
FROM UNDILUTED; REPEATED INHALATION OF LOW CONCENTRATIONS CAN
RESULT IN SEVERE OR FATAL ANEMIA. EYE IRRITATION GRADE 3 : SMALL
BURNS FROM .5 ML (R119); ACUTE POISONING IS ACCOMPANIED BY
DIZZINESS , DRUNKENESS, UNCONSCIOUSNESS AND FINALLY DEATH. FULL
LIST OF SYMPTOMS OF EXPOSURE AS FOLLOWS: ANEMIA, ANOREXIA, CNS
DEPRESSANT, COMA, CONVULSIONS, DIZZINESS , EPISTAXIS, EUPHORIA,
HEADACHE, MENSTRUAL DISTURBANCE, MENTAL CONFUSION, MYDRIASIS,
NAUSEA AMD VOMITING, PULMONARY EDEMA, PURPURA, RAPID RESPIRATION,
SPEECH PROBLEMS, TIGHTNESS IN CHEST , TREMORS, URINE COLOR CHANGE,
VISUAL BLURRING, WEAKNESS, WEIGHT LOSS CC6H6** 80/EPA)
(88) Odor Threshold, Lower (ppm): .84
(89) Odor Threshold, lower (Reference): (E63)
(90) Odor Threshold, Medium (ppm): 31.3
(91) Odor Threshold, Medium (Referemce): (E63)
(92) Odor Threshold, Upper (ppm): 53
(93) Odor Threshold, Upper (Reference): (E63)
(94) Taste Threshold, Lower (ppm): .5
(95) Taste Threshold, Lower (Reference): (C1)
(100) Direct Human Ingestion (Mg./KGut.): .174
(101) Direct Human Ingestion (Reference): SUGGESTED MAXIMUM (E186)
(102) Recommended Drinking Water Limits (ppm): 6.6; .66; .066
(103) Recommended Drinking Water Limits (Reference): DUE TO THE
POTENTIAL CARCINOGENIC EFFECT, THE CONCENTRATION COFO BENZENE
SHOULD BE ZERO BASED ON THE NON-THRESHOLD ASSUMPTION. SINCE THIS
LEVEL MAY NOT BE ATTAINABLE, LEVET.S WHICH RAISE THE HUMAN LIFETIME
CANCER RISK 1E-5, 1E-6, AND 1E-7 ARE GIVEN. THESE LEVELS ARE 6.6
PPB, .66 PPB, AND .066 PPB, RESPECTIVELY (45FR79318, 11-28-80)
(106) Prolonged Human Contact (ppm):
(107) Prolonged Human Contact (Reference): (C11)
(108) Personal Safety Precautions: NEOPRENE IS NOT RECOMMENDED, PVC
AND RUBBER ARE POOR FOR GLOVES. WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING
APPARATUS. (R121); APPROACH FROM UPWIND SIDE. REMOVE ANY IGNITION
SOURCE. EYE PROTECTION, HARD HAT, GLOVES AND PLASTIC COATED
CLOTHING. PERMEABILITY COEFFICIENTS FOR BENZENE VAPOR IN AIR HAVE
BEEN CALCULATED FOR NATURAL RUBBER, NITRILE RUBBER, NEOPRENE,
NATURAL RUBBER PLUS NEOPRENE, BUTYL RUBBER, POLY(VINYL CHLORIDE)
(PVC), AND POLYETHYLENE. AT 10 PPM BENZENE, THE PERMEABILITY
COEFFICIENT FOR NATURAL RUBBER AT APPROXIMATE. 23 DEGREES CELSIUS
WAS 4.2E-10 SQ. CM/S. SKIN EXPOSURE WHILE TOTALLY CLOTHED IN A
NATURAL RUBBER SUIT FOR 8H WAS ESTIMATED TO BE NEGLIGIBLE COMPARED
TO -THE AMOUNT INHALED WHILE WEARING A RESPIRATOR WITH A PROTECTION
FACTOR FO 100 (.3 .MU.G VS. 1600 .MU. G). HE RATES AT WHICH LIQUID
BENZENE PERMEATES PROTECTIVE GARMENT MATERIALS WAS REPORTED BY
R.W. WEEKS, JR. ET AL., (1979) IN (CHABA3 94.7182K 81/WEE). VALUES
WERE DETERMINED FOR THE FOLLOWING MATERIALS: BUTYL, NATURAL,
NEOPRENE, NITRILE, SURGICAL, TYVEK VINYL, AND VITON RUBBERS AND
B-Zl
-------
ELASTOMERS AND BUTYL RUBDER-CO^TED NYLON, VINYL
ACETATE/POLYETHYLENE-COATED POLYESTER, POLYETHYLENE-COATED TYVEK,
AND POLY(VI NY LI ALCOHOL). (A i 11A A P 4 1 (3)170,80/SAN)c
(109) Acute Hazard Level: EXTREME DUE TO INHALATION PROBLEMS. WATER
POLLUTION PROBLEMS ARE RELATED MOSTLY TO YOUNG FISH. SINGLE
EXPOSURES TO 20,000 PPM BENZENE IN AIR HAVE PROVED TO BE FATAL
WITHIN 5 TO 10 MIN. DEATH IS USUALLY THE RESULT OF RESPIRATORY OR
CARDIAC FAILURE. (C6H6** 80/EPA)
(110) Chronic Hazard Level: CHRONIC HAZARD IS RELATED MOSTLY TO
INHALATION AND STATIC WATERS WHERE GAME FISH MAY BE EXPOSED TO
SLOWLY DIMINISHING CONCENTRATIONS. NUMEROUS HEMATOLOGICAL
DISORDERS HAVE BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH BENZENE EXPOSURE, BUT ONLY
PANCYTOPENIA AND ITS VARIANTS (SUCH AS ANEMIA, LEUKOPENIA,
THROMBOCYTOPENIA, AND APLASTIC ANEMIA) AND ACUTE MYELOGENOUS
LEUKEMIA AND ITS VARIANTS ARE CLEARLY RELATED TO BENZENE
EXPOSURE. CONCLUSIONS CANNOT BE DRAWN ON THE DOSE-RESPONSE
RELATION BETWEEN BENZENE AND THESE DISORDERS, HOWEVER THE
NO-EFFECT LEVEL FOR BLOOD CHANGES IN RATS, GUINEA PIGS, AND RABBITS
WAS <88 PPM WHEN THE ANIMALS WERE EXPOSED FOR 7H/D FOR
-------
(122) Probable Location and State of Material: COLORLESS LIQUID HILL
INITIALLY FLOAT AS SLICK ON SURFACE OF WATER. HILL SLOWLY
DISSOLVE. SOME MAY VAPORIZE IN WAR 11 WEATHER.
(12 4) Water Chemistry: BENZENE SOLUTIONS AND SLICKS UNDERGO RAPID
EVAPORATIVE LOSSES. DISSOLVED FPACTION IS SLOWLY BIODEGRADABLE, BUT
WILL DISSIPATE FROM EVAPORATION BEFORE BACTERIAL ACTION
ISS IGNIFI CANT.
(125) Color in Water: COLORLESS
(126) Adequacy of Data: GOOD
8-23
-------
PART 9
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS
I. INTRODUCTION
Hazardous materials are stored and transported in large
quantities. Frequently, some stored or transported material is
released, presenting a potential hazard to the public and
environment. Such an incident can be managed more expeditiously
when the hazardous material is specifically identified and
characterized. Unfortunately, the contents of storage tanks or
trucks may not be specifically or properly identified. Records or
shipping papers may be inaccessible. Even with such information,
an experienced person is needed to define the hazards and their
seriousness.
Because of the immediate need for information concerning a
hazardous material, two systems for hazard identification have
been developed. Both help responders to deal with a hazardous
material incident quickly and safely, and both were devised for
persons untrained in chemistry.
The first is the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 704 M
System, which is used mostly on storage tanks and smaller
containers. The second system is used exclusively on containers
and tanks transported in interstate commerce. The U.S. Department
of Transportation (DOT) is responsible for this system. Its use,
by way of placards and labels, is required under DOT regulations
found in the Code of Federal Regulations 49 (49 CFR).
II. NFPA 704 M HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
A. Description
The NFPA is a standardized system which uses numbers and
colors on a sign to define the basic hazards of a specific
material. The three, Health, Flammability, and Reactivity,
are identified and rated on a scale of 0 to 4 depending on the
degree of hazard presented (Figure 9-1).
The ratings for individual chemicals can be found in the NFPA
"Guide to Hazardous Materials". Other references such as the
U.S. Coast Guard manual, CHRIS Volume 2 and the National
Safety Council's "Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene" contain
the NFPA ratings for specific chemicals. Such Information can
be useful not only in emergencies but also during long-term
remedial activities when extensive evaluation 1s required.
9-1
-------
Flammability
Hazard
(YELLOW)
Health
Hazard
Reactivity
Hazard
(WHITE)
Special
Information
FIGURE 9-1
NFPA 704 M HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
Summary of Hazard Ranking System
1. Health Hazard (BLUE)
Rank Number Description
4 Materials that on very short
exposure could cause death or
major residual injury even
though prompt medical treatment
was given.
3 Materials that on short exposure
could cause serious temporary or
residual injury even though
prompt medical treatment was
given.
2 Materials that on intense or
continued exposure could cause
temporary incapacitation or
possible residual injury unless
prompt medical treatment was
given.
1 Materials that on exposure would
cause Irritation but only minor
residual injury even if no treat-
ment was given.
0 Materials that on exposure under
fire conditions would offer no
hazard beyond that of ordinary
combustible material.
Examples
Acrylonitrlle
Bromine
Parathion
Aniline
Sodium hydroxide
Sulfuric acid
Bromobenzene
Pyr1 d1 ne
Styrene
Acetone
Methanol
9-2
-------
2. Flammability Hazard (RED)
Rank Number
Description
Examples
Materials that (1) rapidly or
completely vaporize at atmos-
pheric pressure and normal
ambient temperatures and burn
readily or (2) are readily
dispersed in air and burn
readily.
Liquids and solids that can be
ignited under almost all ambient
temperature conditions.
Materials that must be
moderately heated or exposed to
relatively high ambient temper-
atures before ignition can occur
Materials that must be preheated
before ignition can occur.
Materials that will not burn.
1, 3-Butadiene
Propane
Ethylene oxide
Phosphorus
Acrylonitrile
2-Butanone
Kerosene
Sodium
Red phosphorus
3. Reactivity Hazard (YELLOW)
Rank Number Description
Materials that 1n themselves are
readily capable of detonation or
of explosive decomposition or
reaction at normal temperatures
and pressures.
Materials that (1) 1n themselves
are capable of detonation or
explosive reaction but require
a strong Initiating source or
(2) must be heated under confine-
ment before Initiation or (3)
react explosively with water.
Materials that (1) in themselves
are normally unstable and
readily undergo violent chemical
change but do not detonate or (2)
may react violently with water or
or (3) may form potentially
explosive mixtures with water.
Materials that In themselves are
normally stable but which can
(1) become unstable at elevated
temperatures or (2) react with
water with some release of
energy but not violently.
Examples
Benzoyl peroxide
Picric acid
TNT
D1borane
Ethylene oxide
2-N1tropropane
Acetaldehyde
Potassium
Ethyl ether
Sulfuric acid
9-3
-------
0
Materials that in themselves are
normally stable, even when
exposed to fi re, and that do not
react with water.
4. Special Information (WHITE)
The white block is designated for special information about
the chemical. For example, it indicate that the material
is radioactive by displaying the standard radioactive symbol
or unusually water-reactive by displaying a large W with a
slash through it (y(). For a more complete discussion of
these various hazards, consult the NFPA Standard 704 M.
III. DOT HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
The DOT's Hazardous Materials Transportation Administation
regulates over 1,400 hazardous materials. The regulations require
labels on small containers and placards on tanks and trailers.
These placards and labels indicate the nature of the hazard
presented by the cargo. The classification used for the placards
and labels is based on the United Nations Hazard Classes (Table
9-1). The UN hazard class number is found in the bottom corner of
a DOT placard or label.
The various hazards are defined in Table 9-2 at the end of this
part. Also shown is a color chart of the current DOT placards and
labels.
TABLE 9-1
UN HAZARD CLASS SYSTEM
United Nations
Hazard
Class Number
Description
7
8
6
9
1
2
3
4
5
Class A, B, and C Explosives
Nonflammable and flammable compressed gases
Flammable liquids
Flammable solids, spontaneously combustible
substances, and water-reactive substances
Oxidizing materials, including organic
peroxi des
Class A and B poisons, Irritants, and etiologlc
(disease-causing) materials
Radioactive materials
Corrosive materials (acids, alkaline liquids,
and certain corrosive liquids and solids)
Miscellaneous hazardous materials not covered
by any of the other classes
9-4
-------
To facilitate handling a hazardous material incident some placards
are being altered to accept a 4-digit identification number
(Figure 9-2). This number comes from the Hazardous Material Table
in the DOT regulations, 49 CFR 172.101. (For an example of the
Hazardous Materials Table, see Table 9-3). This ID number also
must be written on the shipping papers or manifest. In the event
of an incident, the ID number on the placard will be much easier
to obtain than the shipping papers. Once the number is obtained,
the DOT's "Emergency Response Guide Book" can be consulted. This
book describes the proper methods and precautions for responding
to a release of each hazardous material with an ID number. The
DOT system goes one step further in aiding response personnel than
the NFPA system. However, using both systems when responding to
hazardous material incidents will help to properly identify and
characterize the materials involved.
UN Hazard Class Number
FIGURE 9-2
MODIFICATION OF DOT HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
9-5
TAT/E&E/9-82
-------
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TABLE
Table 9-2
4-/
tt
kf
SAW
B
CAW
t
Hudim MUri*k
thiffUC
FU—wri—< LijM|if A Hq*id
Plinlilr tm*A*.SmCam
Flii— >i>r Bqaid. cono#w, ¦
•obd. <
FUemsbk solid. BOJk
fbtteFirrMi^coaMi
/Vn. mirfiMm*. Sw Pimworti, epeciel
/UMTPi^SirFiR«wta,Bp«U«
Low CiplWVM
/leak owekw. Sm RiwwU cammm ar
jNFImnib>««UrLsv
wpwh'M
FteoNe t
Flowmofwifcr. SwSalhr
Plwtv wsid Hy^roClwMk aoU
Fhiorapfctapfeorie acid, nhydrMt Sm
Maaofrtoropfaoipfaonc aod, aabydraa
fo^w >ytaha i?li/
/air
Piw—ltli>>rtnnwf wwr
*«¦
ja£ba «r ia*) UtQ-JOOQ/dJ*
fui wrtdilii wHirfwiB (jlmk r** mm 0*
+m 14 J 4n*.• to nmimmnmm JH>
jrim* (AQ-I0CD/4UI
n«—fctolmti >ril 11 Ikt (flaift fT^r ~r —
«ba W ^ it MiaiMn ^M
jwtfa*mJaor) CKQ>J00a/4#l
Tm^hy
Forwfe. Sm Fmldckydc dMNi
¦ad<*0.JOM/72K*
Por^e «ad tobtm <*0.5000/22**
Mdi
FnI afl, DmemL &* Ftol aft
FMlod.No. 4, s«r«
fb fn 1111 ¦» tfmmmy <4rfj
Pttmmmjtfwr
ffrftiirfdh irttf
Pnik aad (Ag-lOV/WOI
»
CUaaO
Htfww
Pwa»B
r«
OUM
Caiwi'i
ORM'C
HA1780
imim
UNlttl
ONlSSft
0N79M
NA2911
cmim
UN 10*5
UN J 777
DRS909
UXU98
UK] 1*0
uimot
UKin*
NAint
cmms
uyiM
KAim
xxirn
KAtlM few
*«•
« MA
ucaputi
Uqiu4 tad
EiflarivtO
(»)
PkUcmc
KlCtffiw
171.11*
Iffcllt
ni.ns
17S.1SS
I73 1M
17J.JM
msu
171.144
*«•
171JH*
171.118a
171.144
171.344
11MIS
mn*»
i7t.ua*
171.111a
to
Spmfe
17tJtl
I7S.11*
173.111
I71IM
171.164
1711
171.3
171.14ft
m.j»
I71.14A
171. Mi
171.11*
Matt
Km
H hi— m quuutj
to)
Fmnftf
mnjmt
16 pou»4»
24
tl
10
«0;
10(*Amm
lOplM
l«Mrt
CkT|»
1 1
10,
lOfkJW
«
100 pM*
*»e 1 ii»
MfiDn*
*«
® 1
10,
17IJ10 Ha baft feliail U U
m
Wuir akiyaMli
U»
Cuf*
u
II
01
Pl»
1J
*»•• ta val vaatflaiad a^M* awqy |
E*t*y
«»rWy« b fcifw m»
daA
9-6
-------
DOT Hazardous Materials Warning Labels
XPLOSIVE
EXPLOSIVE B
explosiveC
BLASTING AGENT
Poison A
: CHLORINE
NSv OXYGEN
Export
: For use in
addition to other
required labels.
&
\0R6AHIC PEROXIDE/?'
\\6
Poison B S
W Export
Export
" Domestic
INFECTIOUS SUBSTANCE
Domestic
Export
QNETIZt
ATERIAL
AIR TRANSPORT
Cargo Aircraft
Only
General Guidelines on Use of Labels
1 The Hazardous Materials Tables,
1' Sec. 172.101 and 172.102, identify
the proper label(s) for the hazard-
ous materials listed.
O Any person who offers a hazardous
material for shipment must label
the package, if required. [Sec.
172.400(a)]
O Labels may be affixed to packages
°* (even though not required by the
regulations) provided each label
represents a hazard of the material
in the package. [Sec. 172.401]
A Label(s), when required, must be
printed on or affixed to the surface
of the package near the proper
shipping name. [Sec. 172.406(a)]
c When two or more different labels
°* are required, display them next to
each other. [Sec. 172.406(c)]
e When two or more packages
containing compatible hazardous
materials are packaged within the
same overpack, the outside con-
tainer must be labeled as required
for each class of material con-
tained therein. [Sec. 172.404(b)]
7 Material classed as an Explosive A,
' * Poison A, or Radioactive Material
also meeting the definition of
another hazard class must be la-
beled for each class. [Sec.
172.402(a))
Q Material classed as an Oxidizer,
Corrosive, Flammable Solid, or
Flammable Liquid that also meets
the definition of a Poison B must
be labeled POISON, in addition to
the hazard class label. [Sec.
172.402(a)(3) and (5)]
Q Material classed as a Flammable
' Solid that also meets the definition
of a water-reactive material must
be labeled with FLAMMABLE
SOLID and DANGEROUS WHEN
WET labels. [Sec. 172.402(a)(4)]
1Q Material classed as a Poison B,
" Flammable Liquid, Flammable
Solid, or Oxidizer that also meets
the definition of a Corrosive mate-
rial must be labeled CORROSIVE In
addition to the class label. [Sec.
172.402(a)(6) through (9)]
Hazardous Materials
Class Numbers
Hazardous materials class numbers asso-
ciated with the hazard classes.
Class 1- Explosives
Class 2- Gases (Compressed, liquefied or
dissolved under pressure)
Class 3- Flammable liquids
Class 4- Flammable solids or Substances
Class 5- Oxidizing Substances
Class 6- Poisonous and Infectious
Substances
Class 7- Radioactive Substances
Class 8- Corrosives
Class 9- Miscellaneous dangerous
Substances
NOTE: For requirements, see Sec.
172.102(h), 172.332(c)(3) and 172.407(g).
This chart is designed as a reference. For
more complete details, refer to the Code
of Federal Regulations, Title 49, Parts
100-177
O
U.S. Deportment of Transportation
Research and Special Programs
Administration
Materials Transportation Bureau
Washington, D.C. 20590
Chart 7 September 1982
Revised
-------
DOT Hazardous Materials Warning Placards
XPLOSIVE
XPLOSIVE
OXYGEN
BLASTING
AGENTS
FLAMMABLE)
\> ¦ cm in my
* Numbers in each square (illustration numbers) refer to TABLES 1 and 2.
HIGHWAY TRANSPORT
Cargo and
Portable Tanks
Use a square background
on "large quantity"
shipments requiring
special routing.
May be substituted for Flammable and/or
Combustible placard. See Sec. 172.542 and 172.544
RAIL TRANSPORT
XPLOSIVE
Use a square background for the above placards.
TABLE 1
Hazard Classes
~ No.
Class A explosives 1
Class B explosives 2
Poison A 4
Flammable solid (DANGEROUS
WHEN WET label only) 12
Radioactive material (YELLOW III
label) 16
Radioactive material:
Uranium hexafluoride, fissile (con-
taining more than 0.7%
U235 16 & 17
Uranium hexafluoride, low-specific
activity (containing 0.7% or
less U235 16 & 17
Guidelines
Placard motor vehicles, freight con-
tainers, and rail cars containing any
quantity of hazardous materials listed
in TABLE 1
Placard motor vehicles and freight
containers containing 1,000 pounds or
more gross weight of hazardous mate-
rials classes listed in TABLE 2.
Placard freight containers 640 cubic
feet or more containing any quantity of
hazardous materials classes listed in
TABLES 1 and/or 2 when offered for
transportation by air or water. Under
640 cubic feet, see Sec. 172.512(b).
Placard rail cars containing any quan-
tity of hazardous materials classes
listed in TABLE 2 except when less
than 1,000 pounds gross weight of haz-
ardous materials are transported in
TOFC (Trailer on Flat Car) or COFC
(Container on Flat Car) service.
TABLE 2
Hazard Classes
Class C explosives
Blasting agent
Nonflammable gas
Nonflammable gas (Chlorine) .
Nonflammable gas (Fluorine) .
Nonflammable gas
(Oxygen, pressurized liquid)
Flammable gas
Combustible liquid
Flammable liquid
Flammable solid
Oxidizer
Organic peroxide
Poison B
Corrosive material
Irritating material
* No.
18
' 3
6
7
; 15
8
5
10
9
11
13
14
15
17
18
UN and NA Identification Numbers
1. UN (United Nations) or NA (North
American) numbers are found in Sec.
172.101, 172.102 and the Emergency
Response Guidebook.
2. The four-digit UN or NA numbers are
used to identify the hazardous materi-
als involved.
3. NA numbers are used only in the USA
and Canada.
4. UN or NA numbers must be displayed
on Tank Cars, Cargo Tanks and
Portable Tanks.
When ID numbers are
displayed on placards,
ORANGE PANELS are
not required.
When ID numbers are
displayed on ORANGE
PANELS, appropriate
placards are also re-
quired.
1541
&
EUROPEAN NUMBERING SYSTEM-
Top numbers represent the Hazard In-
dex. The bottom numbers are the re-
quired UN identification numbers.
33
1088
For more compete details on Identifica-
tion Numbers see Sec. 172.300 through
172.338
-------
HAZARDOIS MATERIALS TRANSPORTATION
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS DEFINITIONS
The following definitions have been abstracted from the Code of Federal Regulations, Title
49-Transportation, Parts 100-177. Refer to the referenced sections for complete details.
NOTE: The plus (+) in Column (1), Sec. 172.101, Hazardous Materials Table) fixes the proper
shlppinR name and hazard class for that entry without regard to whether the material meets
the definition of that class. [Sec. 172.101(a)(1)1
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL - A substance or material which has been determined by the Secretary of
Transportation to be capable of posing an unreasonable risk to health, safety and property
when transported in commerce, and which has been so designated. (Sec. 171.8).
MULTIPLE HAZARDS - A material meeting the definition of more than one hazard class is classed
according to the provisions set forth in Sec. 173.2(a) and (b).
HAZARD CLASS
UN No
DEFINITIONS
An Explosive - Any chemical compound, mixture, or device, the primary
or common purpose of which Is to function by explosion, i.e., with
substantially instantaneous release of gas and heat, unless such com-
pound, mixture, or device is otherwise specifically classified in
Parts 171-179. (Sec. 173.50)
CLASS A
EXPLOSIVE
1
Detonating or otherwise of maximum hazard. The nine types of Class A
explosives are defined In Sec. 173.53.
CUSS B
explosive
1
In general, function by rapid combustion rather than detonation and
Include some explosive devices such as special fireworks, flash
powders, etc. (Sec. 173.88)
CLASS C
explosive
1
Certain types of manufactured articles containing Class A or Class B
explosives, or both, as components but In restricted quantities, and
certain types of fireworks. (Sec. 173.100)
blasting
AGENT
1
A material designed for blasting which has been tested In accordance
with Sec. 173.114a(b) and found to be so Insensitive that there Is
very little probability of accidental initiation to explosion or of
transition from deflagration to detonation. [Sec. 173.114a(b)l
Compressed Gas - Anv material or mixture having in the container a
pressure EXCEEDING 40 psia at 70°F., or a pressure exceeding 104 psia
at 130*F.; or any liquid flammable material having a vapor pressure
exceeding 40 psia at 100"F. [Sec. 173.300(a)]
Non-liquefied compressed gas Is a gas. other than gas in solution,
which under the charged pressure is entirely gaseous at a tempera-
ture of 70°F.
Liauefied compressed gas is a gas which, under the charged pressure.
Is partially liquid at a temperature of 70°F.
Compressed gas In solution is a nonliquefied compressed gas which
is dissolved in a solvent.
PlAMMABLE GAS
2
Any compressed gas meeting the requirements for lower flammabllity
limit, flammabllity limit range, flame projection, or flame propaga-
tion criteria as specified In Sec. 173.300(b).
"INFLAMMABLE
CAS
2
Any compressed gas other than a flammable compressed gas.
US. Department
of Transportation
Research and
Special Programs
Administration
9-7
-------
HAZARD CLASS
UN No
DEFINITIONS
COMBUSTIBLE
LIQUID
Any liquid having a flash point at or above 100°F. and below 200°F.
as determined by tests listed in Sec. 173.115(d). Exceptions are
found in See. 173.115(b).
FLAMMABLE
LIQUID
Any liquid having a flash point below 100°F. as determined by tests
listed in Sec. 173.115(d). For exceptions, see Sec. 173.115(a).
Pyroforic Liquid - Any liquid that ianltes spontaneously In dry nr
moist air at or below 130°F. [Sec. 173.115(c)]
FLAMMABLE
SOLID
ORGANIC
PEROXIDE
Any solid material, other than an explosive, which is liable to cause
fires through friction, retained heat from manufacturing or processing,
or which can be ignited readily and when ignited, burns so vigorously
and persistently as to create a serious transportation hazard.
Included in this class are spontaneously combustible and water-reactive
materials. (Sec. 173.150)
Spontaneously Combustible Material (S;Md) - A solid substance
(including sludges and pastes) which may undergo spontaneous heating or
self-ignition under conditions normally incident to transportation or
which may, upon contact with the atmosphere, undergo an increase in
temperature and ignite. (Sec. 171.8)
Water Reactive Material (Solid) - Any solid substance (including
sludges and pastes) which, by interaction with water, is likely to
become spontaneously flammable or to give off flammable or toxic
gases in dangerous quantities. (Sec. 171.8)
An organic compound containing the bivalent -0-0 structure and which
may be considered a derivative of hydrogen peroxide where one or
more of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by organic radicals
must be classed as an organic peroxide unless...[See Sec. 173.151(a)
for details].
OXIDIZER
A substance such as chlorate, permanganate, inorganic peroxide, or
a nitrate, that yields oxygen readily to stimulate the combustion
of organic matter. (See Sec. 173.151)
POISON A
POISON B
Extremely Dangerous Polsona - Poisonous gases or liquids of such
nature that a very small amount of the gas, or vapor of the liquid,
mixed with air is dangerous to life. (Sec. 173.326)
Less Dangerous Poisons - Substances, liquids or solids (including
pastes and semi-solids), other than Class A or Irritating materials,
which are known to be so toxic to man as to afford a hazard to health
during transportation; or which, in the absence of adequate data on
human toxicity, are presumed to be toxic to man. (Sec. 173.343)
IRRITATING
MATERIAL
ETIOLOGIC
AGENT
A liquid or solid substance which, upon contact with fire or when
exposed to air, gives off dangerous or intensely irritating fumes,
but not Including any poisonous material, Class A. (Sec. 173.381)
An "etlologic agent" means a viable micro-organism, or its toxin,
which causes, or may cause, human disease. (Sec. 173.386)
RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL
Any material, 6r combination of materials, that spontaneously emits
ionizing radiation, and having a specific activity greater than
0.002 inlcrocurles per gram. (Sec. 173.389) [See Sec. 173.389(a)
through (1) for details]
- 2 -
9-8
-------
HAZARD CLASS
UN No.
DEFINITIONS
CORROSIVE
MATERIAL
8
Any liquid or solid that causes visible destruction or irreversible
alterations in human skin tissue or a liquid that has a severe corro-
sion rate on steel. [See Sec. 173.240(a) and (b) for details]
ORM - OTHER
REGULATED
MATERIALS
(1) Any material that may pose an unreasonable risk to health and
safety or property when transported in commerce; and (2) Does not
meet any of the definitions of the other hazard classes specified
in this subpart; or (3) Has been reclassed an ORM (specifically or
permissively) according to this subchapter. [Sec. 173.500(a)]
NOTE: A material with a flashpoint of 100°F. to 200°F. must be
classed as a combustible rather than as an ORM if it is a hazardous
waste or is offered in a packaging having a rated capacity of more
than 110 gallons.
ORM-A
9
A material which has an anesthetic, irritating, noxious, toxic, or
other similar property and which can cause extreme annoyance or
discomfort to passengers and crew in the event of leakage during
transportation. [Sec. 173.500(b)(1)]
ORM-B
9
A material (including a solid when wet with water) capable of causing
significant damage to a transport vehicle from leakage during trans-
portation. Materials meeting one or both of the following criteria
are ORM-B materials: (1) A liquid substance that has a corrosion rate
exceeding 0.250 inch per year (IPY) on aluminum (nonclad 7075-T6)
at a test temperature of 130°F. An acceptable test is described in
NACE Standard TM-01-69; and/or (2) Specifically designated by name
in Sec. 172.101. [Sec. 173.500(b)(2)]
ORM-C
9
A material which has other inherent characteristics not described as
an ORM-A or ORM-B but which makes it unsuitable for shipment, unless
properly identified and prepared for transportation. Each ORM-C
material is specifically named in Sfec. 172.101. [Sec.173. 500(b)(3)]
ORM-D
9
A material such as a consumer commodity which, though otherwise sub-
ject to the regulations of this subchapter, presents a limited hazard
during transportation due to its form, quantity and packaging. They
must be materials for which exceptions are provided in Sec. 172.101. A
shipping description applicable to each ORM-D material or category of
ORM-D materials is found in Sec. 172,101. (Sec. 173.500(b)(4)]
ORM-E
9
A material that is not included in any other hazard class, but is
subject to the requirements of this subchapter. Materials in this
class include (1) hazardous waste and (2) hazardous substance, as
defined in Sec. 171.8. [Sec. 173.500(b)(5)]
THE FOLLOWING ARE OFFERED TO EXPLAIN SOME OF THE ADDITIONAL TERMS USED IN PREPARATION
OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS FOR SHIPMENT. (Sec. 171.8)
CONSUMER
COMMODITY
(See ORM-D
above)
A material that is packaged or distributed in a form intended and
suitable for sale through retail sales agencies or instrumentalities
for consumption by individuals for purposes of personal care of house-
hold use. This term also includes drugs and medicines. (Sec. 171.8)
FLASH POINT
The minimum temperature at which a substance gives off flammable vapors
which, in contact with a spark or flame, will ignite. For liquids,
see Sec. 173.115; for solids, see Sec. 173.150.
9-9
-------
TERM
DEFINITION
FORBIDDEN
Material is prohibited from being offered or accepted for transportation.
This prohibition does not apply if these materials are diluted, stabilized
or incorporated in devices and they are classed in accordance with the
definitions of hazardous materials. [Sec. 172.101(d)(1)]
hazardous
SUBSTANCE
For transportation purposes, a material and its mixtures or solutions,
that is identified by the letter "E" in Column (1) of the Hazardous
Materials Table, Sec. 172.101, when offered for transportation in one
package, or in one transport vehicle if not packaged, and when the
quantity of the material therein equals or exceeds the reportable
quantity (RQ). For details, refer to Sec. 171.8 and Sec. 172.101
(Hazardous Materials Table).
HAZARDOUS
WASTE
Any material that is subject to the hazardous waste manifest requirements
of the Environmental Protection Agency specified In the CFR, Title 40,
Part 262 or would be subject to these requirements in the absence of
an interim authorization to a State under Title 40, CFR, Part 123,
Subpart F. (Sec. 171.8). Questions regarding EPA hazardous waste regula-
tions, call Toll Free: (800) 424-9065 or in Washington: 554-1404.
LIMITED
QUANTITY
The maximum amount of a hazardous material as specified in those sections
applicable to the particular hazard class for which there is a specific
labeling and packaging exception from the requirements. See Sec. 173.118,
173.118(a), 173.153, 173.244, 173.306, 173.345, 173.364 and 173. 391.
REPORTABLE
QUANTITY
The quantity of hazardous substance specified in the Hazardous Materials
Table (Sec. 172.101) and identified by the letter "E" in Column (1).
(Sec. 171.8)
THIS HANDOUT IS DESIGNED AS A TRAINING AID FOR ALL INTERESTED PARTIES WHO
MAY BECOME INVOLVED WITH HAZARDOUS MATERIALS. IT DOES NOT RELIEVE PERSONS
FROM COMPLYING WITH THE DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION'S HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
REGULATIONS. SPECIFIC CRITERIA FOR HAZARD CLASSES AND RELATED DEFINITIONS
ARE FOUND IN THE CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS (CFR), TITLE 49, PARTS
100-177.
Information Services Division, DMT-11
Office of Operations and Enforcement
Materials Transportation Bureau
Department of Transportation
Washington, D.C. 20S90
- 4 - REVISED January 1983
9-10
-------
PART 10
REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
I. INTRODUCTION
This list provides the titles of references and organizations which may be
of value to those responding to hazardous material incidents. Other
resources are available which are not named here. This list can be expanded
based on personal preferences and requirements.
The references are categorized by subject. The title, author, publisher,
and place of publication are given for each. The year of publication is not
always given because many are revised annually. The user should attempt to
obtain the most recent edition.
The last section lists sources of these references as well as other
information that might be useful. Usually, these agencies or associations
will provide a catalogue on request. Where available, phone numbers are
also listed.
II. REFERENCES
A. Industrial Hygiene (Air Sampling and Monitoring, Respiratory Protection,
Toxi cology)
1. Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric Contaminants,
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
Cincinnati, OH.
2. Basic Industrial Hygiene, Richard Brief, American Industrial Hygiene
Association, Akron, OH.
3. Direct Reading Colorimetric Indicator Tubes Manual, American
Industrial Hygiene Association, Akron, OH.
4. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values (TLV), American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH.
5. Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, National Safety Council,
Chicago, IL.
6. The Industrial Environment - Its Evaluation and Control, National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Rockville, MD.
7. Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Frank A. Patty, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York, NY.
8. Manual of Recommended Practice for Combustible Gas Indicators and
Portable, Direct Reading Hydrocarbon Detectors, Amercian Industrial
Hygiene Association, Akron, OH.
9. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods, Volumes 1-7, NIOSH, Department
of Health and Human Services, Cincinnati, OH.
10-1
-------
10. NI0SH/0SHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, DHHS No. 78-210, NIOSH,
Department of Health and Human Services, Cincinnati, OH.
11. Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards, DHHS No. 81-123,
Niosh, Department of Health and Human Services, Cincinnati, OH.
12. Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, Rockville, MD.
13. Respiratory Protective Devices Manual, American Industrial Hygiene
Association, Akron, OH.
14. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
in the Workroom Environment, American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH.
15. Toxicology-The Basic Science of Poisions, 2nd Edition, John Doull,
Curtis D. Klaasen and Mary 0. Amdur, Macmillan Publishing Co., New
York, N.Y. (1980)
B. Chemical Data
1. Chemical Hazard Response Information System, Volume 2: Chemical
Data, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, DC.
2. Chemistry of Hazardous Materials, Eugene Meyer, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood CIiffs, NJ.
3. The Condensed Chemical Dictionary, G. Hawley, Van Nostrand Reinhold
Co., New York, NY.
4. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
5. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, N. Irving Sax, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, NY.
6. Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, National Fire
Protection Association, Boston, MA.
7. Hygienic Guides, American Industrial Hygiene Association, Akron.
OH.
8. The Merck Index, Merck and Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ.
9. Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual, The
International Technical Information Institute, Tokyo, Japan.
C. EPA Methods Manuals for Sampling and Analysis
1. Biological Field and Laboratory Methods for Measuring the Quality of
Surface Water and Effluents, EPA-670/4-73-001 (July 1973). "
2. (Draft) Emergency Drum Handling at Abandoned Dump Sites, EPA
Contract No. 68-03-3113.
10-2
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3. EPA Solid Waste Manual, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste,
"Physical/Chemical Methods, SW-846 (May 1980).
4. Handbook for Analytical Quality Control in Water and Wastewater
Laboratories, EPA-600/4-79-019 (March 1979).
5. Methods of Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes, EPA-600/4-79-020
(March 1979).
6. Microbiological Methods for Monitoring the Environment, Water and
Wastes, EPA-600/8-78-017~rUecember 1978).
7. Procedures Manual for Groundwater Monitoring at Solid Wastes
Disposal Facilities, EPA-530/SW-611 (August 1977).
Safety and Personnel Protection
1. Best's Safety Directory, A.M. Best Co., Oldwick, NJ.
2. CftC Handbook of Laboratory Safety, Norman V. Steere, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL.
3. Fire Protection Handbook, National Fire Protection Association,
Quincy, MA.
4. Flammable Hazardous Substances Emergency Response Handbook: Control
and Safety Procedures, EPA Contract No. 68-03-3014.
5. FM Approval List, Factory Mutual, Norwood, MA.
6. Guidelines for the Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing, Volume 1:
Field Guide, A.D. Schwope, P.P. Costas, J.O. Jackson, D.J. Weitzman,
Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, MA. (March 1983).
7. Guidelines for the Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing, Volume 2:
Technical and Reference Manual, A.D. Schwope, P.P. Costas, J.O.
Jackson, D.J. Weitzman, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Ma. (March 1983)
8. Hazardous Materials Injuries, A Handbook for Pre-Hospital Care, Douglas R.
Stutz, Robert C. Ricks, Michael F. Olsen, Bradford Communications
Corp., Greenbelt, MD.
9. National Safety Council Safety Sheets, National Safety Council,
Chicago, 1L.
10. Underwriters Laboratories Testing for Public Safety, Annual
Directory, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Northbrook, IL.
. Planning Guides
1. Handbook for Remedial Action at Waste Disposal Sites, EPA-625/6-82-006
"(June 1982).
2. Hazardous Materials Spills Hanbook, Gary F. Bennett, Frank S.
Feates, Ira Wilder, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY, (1982)
10-3
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3. Planning Guide and Checklist for Hazardous Material Continqencv
Plans, FEMA-10 (July 1981): J~
4. State Decision-Makers Guide for Hazardous Waste Management.
SW-612, U.S.EPA (1977)
AGENCIES AND ASSOCIATIONS
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
6500 Gleriway Ave. - Building D-5
Cincinnati, OH 45211
513/661-7881
American Industrial Hygiene Association
475 Wolf Ledges Parkway
Akron, OH 44311-1087
216/762-7294
American National Standards Institute, Inc.
1430 Broadway
New York, NY 10018
212/354-3300
Compressed Gas Association
1235 Jefferson Davis Highway
Arlington, VA 22202
703/979-0900
CRC Press, Inc.
2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W.
Boca Raton, FL 33431
305/994-0555, Ext. 330
EPA Office of Research & Development
Publications - CERI
Cincinnati, OH 45268
513/684-7562
EPA Office of Solid Waste (WH-562)
401 M. St., S.W.
Washington, DC 20460
800/424-9346
Materials Transportation Bureau
Department of Transportation
Research and Special Programs Administration
Washington, DC 20590
202/426-2301
10-4
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Mine Safety and Health Administration
Department of Labor
4015 Wilson Blvd, Room 600
Arlington, VA 22203
703/235-1452
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Hazardous Materials Response Branch
N/0MS34
7600 Sand Point Way NE
Seattle, WA 98115
206/527-6317
National Fire Protection Association
Batterymarch Park
Quincy, MA 02269
617/328-9290
National Safety Council
444 North Michigan Ave.
Chicago, II 60611
312-527-4800
NIOSH Publications Dissemination
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45226
513/684-4287
Occupational Safety & Health Administration
Department of Labor
200 Constitution Ave., N.W.
Washington, DC 20210
202/523-6138
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
333 Pfongsten Rd.
Northbrook, IL 60062
312/272-8800
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Office, Chief of Engineers
U.S. Army
Washington, D.C. 20314
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, DC 20402
202/783-3238
10-5
TAT/7-83
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PART 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION
The respiratory system has defenses but they are not 100%
effective against toxic gases, vapors, or particulates. Some
chemicals can impair or destroy portions of the respiratory tract,
or they may be absorbed directly into the bloodstream from the
lungs. Chemicals that enter the blood may eventually affect the
function of other organs and tissues. The respiratory system can
be protected by avoiding or minimizing exposure to harmful
substances. Engineering controls such as ventilation help
decrease exposure, when they are not feasible, respirators can
provide protection.
Certain respirators can filter gases, vapors, and particulates in
the ambient atmosphere. When concentrations are too high to be
filtered, other respirators are available which can supply clean
air to the wearer.
The use of respirators is regulated by the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA). Regulations stipulate the use of
approved respirators, proper selection, and individual fitting of
respirator users. This unit discusses the topics necessary to
ensure quality respiratory protection.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Pharynx
tjrynx
Bronchi
Bronchiole
Oi* phr»g*n
Alvtoli
FIGURE 1-1
STRUCTURE OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1-1
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A. Inhalation
When air is inhaled, the chest muscles and diaphragm contract,
lifting the rib cage and dropping the diaphragm. These
actions enlarge the chest cavity. As a result, the lungs
expand and fill with air. (Figure 1-1).
Normally, air is pulled through the nose, but it also can be
inhaled through the mouth. The nasal passages are very narrow
and divided which forces the air to travel a turbulent path.
Particulate matter is impacted, and soluble particulates, and
gases are absorbed on the walls of the passages. Still, some
contaminants escape this initial deposition and penetrate
farther into the respiratory system.
The inhaled air then passes through the pharynx and enters the
trachea at the larnyx. The pharynx is the common port for the
passage of air and food. The trachea, commonly called the
windpipe, divides into two bronchi, one leading to each lung.
Further divisions of the bronchus are named bronchioles.
Collectively the passages are called conducting tubes because
they carry air to the sites where oxygen and carbon dioxide
are exchanged. Lining the conducting tubes are mucous and
cilia. Contaminants are caught in the mucous, swept up to the
esophagus by the cilia, and swallowed. In this way, the
respiratory system rids itself of some contaminants in
inhaled air.
At the end of the bronchioles are alveoli, sacs with very thin
walls, filled with bundles of capillaries (minute blood
vessels that connect arteries and veins). Here oxygen in the
inhaled air is diffused into the bloodstream and carbon
dioxide is diffused out to be exhaled.
B. Exhalation
When air is exhaled, the chest muscles and diaphragm are
expanded, decreasing the size of the chest cavity. This
forces air out of the lungs back along the same route.
A relaxed person breathes about 10 liters of air per minute.
During brisk activity, the volume can increase to over 75
liters per minute. In such a situation, the respiratory
system must handle a very large volume of air.
RESPIRATORY HAZARDS
The normal atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9%
inert gases and 0.04% carbon dioxide. An atmosphere containing
toxic contaminants, even at very low concentrations, could be a
hazard to the lungs and body. A concentration large enough to
decrease the percentage of oxygen in the air can lead to
asphyxiation, even if the contaminant is an inert gas.
1-2
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A. Oxygen Deficiency
The body requires oxygen to live, if the oxygen concentration
decreases, the body reacts in various ways (Table 1-1). Death
occurs rapidly when the concentration decreases to 6%.
TABLE 1-1
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF OXYGEN DEFICIENCY
% Oxygen (by volume)
At Sea Level Effects
21 Nothing abnormal.
16-12 Loss of peripheral vision,
increased breathing volume,
accelerated heartbeat, impaired
attention and thinking, impaired
coordi nati on.
12-10 Very faulty judgment, very poor
muscular coordination, muscular
exertion causes fatigue that may
cause permanent heart damage,
intermittant respiration
10-6 Nausea, vomiting, inability to
perform vigorous movement, or loss
of all movement, unconsciousness,
followed by death.
<6 Spasmatic breathing, convulsive
movements, death in minutes.
Physiological effects of oxygen deficiency are not apparent
until the concentration decreases to 16%. The various
regulations and standards dealing with respirator use
recommend that percentages ranging from 16-19.5% be considered
indicative of an oxygen deficiency. Such numbers take into
account individual physiological responses, errors in
measurement, and other safety considerations. In hazardous
response operations, 19.5% oxygen in air is the figure that
decides between air-purifying and atmosphere-supplying
respi rators.
B. Aerosols
Aerosol is a term used to describe fine particulates (solid or
liquid) suspended in air. Particulates ranging in diameter
from 5 to 30 microns are deposited in the nasal and pharnygeal
passages. The trachea and smaller conducting tubes collect
particulates 1-5 microns in diameter. For particulates to
diffuse from the bronchioles into alveoli they must be less
than 0.5 microns in diameter. Larger particles do reach the
alveoli due to gravity. The smallest particulates may never
be deposited in the alveoli and so may diffuse back into the
conducting tubes to be exhaled.
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Aerosols can be classified in two ways, by their physical form
and origin and by the physiological effect on the body:
1. Physical Classification
- Mechanical dispersoid: liquid or solid particle
mechanically produced.
- Condensation dispersoid: liquid or solid particle
produced by combustion.
- Spray: visible liquid mechanical dispersoid.
- Fume: extremely small solid condensation dispersoid.
- Mist: liquid condensation dispersoid.
- Fog: mist dense enough to obscure vision.
- Smoke: liquid or solid organic particles resulting
from incomplete combustion.
- Smog - mixture of smoke and fog.
2. Physiological Classification
- Nuisance: no lung injury but proper lung functioning
inhibited.
- Inert pulmonary reaction causing: non-specific
reaction.
- Pulmonary fibrosis causing: effects ranging from
nodule production in lungs to serious diseases such as
asbestosis.
- Chemical irritation: irritation, inflammation, or
ulceration of lung tissue.
- Systemic poison: diseases in other parts of the body.
-Allergy-producing: causes allergic hypersensitivity
reactions such as itching or sneezing.
C. Gaseous Contaminants
Gases and vapors are filtered to some degree on their trip
through the respiratory tract. Soluble gases and vapors are
absorbed by the conducting tubes in route to the alveoli. Not
all will be absorbed and so along with insoluble gases, finally
diffuse into the alveoli, where they can be directly absorbed
into the bloodstream.
1-4
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Gaseous contaminants can be classified chemically and
physi ologi cally.
1. Chemical Classification
- Acidic: acids or react with water to form acids.
- Alkaline: bases or react with water to form bases.
- Organic: compounds which may range from methane to
chlorinated organic solvents.
- Organometallic: organic compounds containing metals.
- Hydrides: compound in which hydrogen is bonded to
another metal.
- Inert: no chemical reactivity.
2. Physiological Classification
- Irritants: corrosive substances which injure and
i nflame tissue.
- Asphyxiants: substances which displace oxygen or
prevent the use of oxygen in the body.
- Anesthetics: substances which depress the central
nervous system, causing a loss of sensation or
intoxication.
- Systemic poisons: substances which can cause disease
in various organ systems.
0. Measures of Respiratory Hazards
Two values are used to describe respiratory hazards. The
first, the Threshold Limit Value (TLV), is a time-weighted
average concentration for a particular substance. Almost all
workers can be exposed to this level 40 hours a week without
suffering adverse health effects. The TLV is recommended by
the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH).
The second value is a concentration that is Immediately Dangerous to
Life or Health (IDLH). In IDLH atmospheres, an unprotected individual
exposed for 30 minutes or more suffers irreversible damage or
dies. IDLH values are found in the literature and also in the
"NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards.
1-5
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RESPIRATOR USE AND SELECTION
A. Use
The health, if not the life, of the wearer of a respirator is
based on how it is used. The American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) has prepared the "American National Standard
Practices for Respiratory Protection," and updates it
periodically. The latest version Z88.2-1980, was issued in
1980 as a voluntary standard. It addresses all phases of
respirator use and is highly recommended as a guide to
respiratory protection.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) cites
Z88.2-1969 as the source of respiratory protection regulations
(29 CFR Part 1910.134), issued in 1975 which it must enforce
(Appendix I). Regulations of the Mine Safety and Health
Administration also cite Z88.2 in 30 CFR Part 11 Section 11.2-1,
stating that "in order to insure the maximum amount of
respiratory protection, approved respirators will be selected,
fitted, used, and maintained in accordance with the provisions of
the American National Standard Practices for Respiratory
Protection, Z88.2."
Section b 1-11 of 29 CFR 1910.134, as well as Z88.2-1980,
requires a "Minimal Acceptable Program" to ensure sound
respiratory protection practices. The balance of the
regulations discusses specific requirements for respiratory
use. The Minimal Acceptable Program is quoted from 29 CFR
1910.134 as follows:
1. Written standard operating procedures governing the
selection and use of respirators shall be established.
2. Respirators shall be selected on the basis of hazards to
which the worker is exposed.
3. The user shall be instructed and trained in the proper use
of respirators and their limitations.
4. Where practicable, the respirators should be assigned to
individual workers for their exclusive use.
5. Respirators shall be regularly cleaned and disinfected.
Those issued for the exclusive use of one worker should be
cleaned after each day's use, or more often if necessary.
Those used by more than one worker shall be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected after each use.
6. Respirators shall be stored in a convenient, clean, and
sanitary location.
1-6
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7. Respirators used routinely shall be inspected during
cleaning. Worn or deteriorated parts shall be replaced.
Respirators for emergency use such as self-contained
devices shall be thoroughly inspected at least once a
month and after each use.
8. Appropriate surveillance of work area conditions and
degree of employee exposure or stress shall be
mai ntai ned.
9. There shall be regular inspection and evaluation to
determine the continued effectiveness of the program.
10. Persons should not be assigned to tasks requiring use of
respirators unless it has been determined that they are
physically able to perform the work and use the equipment.
The local physician shall determine what health and
physical conditions are pertinent. The respirator user's
medical status should be reviewed periodically (for
instance annually).
11. Approved or accepted respirators shall be used when they are
available. The respirator furnished shall provide adequate
respiratory protection against the particular hazard for which it
is designed in accordance with standards established by competent
authorities. The U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines,
and the U.S. Department of Agriculture are recognized as such
authorities. Although respirators listed by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture continue to be acceptable for protection against
specified pesticides, the U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of
Mines, is the agency now responsible for testing and approving
pesticide respirators.
The complete text of 29 CFR 1910.134 can be found in Appendix I.
B. Selection
In general ANSI Z88.2-1980 states that the selection of the
proper approved respirator depends upon:
- The nature of the hazard.
- The characteristics of the hazardous operation or
process.
- The location of the hazardous area with respect to a
safe area having respirable air.
- The period of time for which respiratory protection
may be provided.
- The activity of workers in the hazardous area.
1-7
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- The physical characteristics, functional capabilities,
and limitations of respirators of various types.
- The respirator-protection factors and respirator fit.
All these criteria must be considered in the selection of a
repirator. The Joint NIOSH/OSHA Standards Completion
Respirator Committee devised a "Respirator Decision Logic"
based on the above criteria (Appendix II).
Appendix III, excerpted from ANSI Z88.2-1980, indicates if a
particular respiratory protective device is suitable for
oxygen-deficient or IDLH atmospheres. This information
supplies only a portion of the information required to select
the appropriate respirator.
V. RESPIRATOR APPROVAL
Both regulations, 29 CFR 1910.134 and 30 CFR Part 11, require the
use of approved respirators. Respirators are tested at the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
Testing Laboratory in Morgantown, West Virginia and are jointly
approved by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) and
NIOSH if they pass the requirements of 30 CFR Part 11.
Appendix IV, shows the table of contents of 30 CFR Part 11, with
approval schedules for specific types of respirators indicated in
the margins. The schedule number came from the original Bureau of
Mines' respirator approval requirements. The Bureau of Mines
preceded the Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration (MESA),
which eventually became MSHA.
All of these agencies were responsible for respirator
certification at one time. Thus respirators in use today may bear
approval numbers issued to the manufacturers by the Bureau of
Mines, MESA, and MSHA. The approval number must be displayed on
the respirator or its container. It consists of the prefix TC
(Testing and Certification), the schedule number, followed by the
approval number. For example in TC-13F-69, 13 is the schedule for
self-contained breathing apparatus, F indicates the number of
revisions to the schedule, and 69 is the consecutive approval
number. Also, the approval label includes the certifying
agencies.
An MSHA/NIOSH approval indicates that the respirator in use is
identical to the one submitted for the original approval. If a
manufacturer changes any part of the respirator without
resubmitting it to the NIOSH Testing Lab, the approval is invalid
and will be rescinded. This is intended to protect the respirator
user. Also, any unauthorized changes or hybridization of a
respirator by the user invalidates the respirator approval and all
the guarantees understood with the approval.
1-8
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Periodically, NIOSH publishes a list of all approved respirators
and respirator components. The current edition, issued in 1980,
is entitled the NIOSH Certified Equipment List 1980 (Publication
No. 80-144). A supplement to the NIOSH Certified Equipment List
was published in October, 1981 (Publication No. 82-106). Two
respresentative pages are shown in Appendix V. The first page
lists approved respirators by schedule and consecutive approval
number. Approval number TC 13F-30 is for an MSA 401, part number
463831. Also given is a description of the device: open-circuit,
pressure-demand, full face (FF) mask unit with a 30-minute source
of breathing air. The second page of Appendix V, lists 1-8
consecutively the major components by part number approved under
that approval number, which helps the user to determine if a
respirator's components are indeed approved. Thus, it can be
determined that facepieces 96057, 89107, and 461614 are all
approved for use with the MSA respirator under approval TC-13F-30.
The certified equipment list is especially useful when only
unknown or uncertain respirators are available for use.
VI. RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Respiratory apparatus can be divided into two general types:
air-purifying and atmosphere-supplying. These two categories can
be further subdivided based on their construction and operation.
All respirators are composed of two main components, the facepiece
and the device which supplies or purifies air. The facepiece
comes in three configurations which relate to the amount of
protection the respirator affords:
- Quarter Mask (Type B - Half Mask) fits from nose to top of
chin and utilizes two- or four-point suspension.
- Half Mask (Type A - Half Mask) fits under chin and over
the nose and must have four-point suspension.
- Full Facepiece - covers all of the face from under the
chin to the forehead. It provides the best protection
because it is more easily fitted on the face.
A. Respirator Fit-testing
One of the most important requirements of respiratory
protection is proper fit-testing of respirators. Not all
respirators fit everyone, so each individual must find out
which facepiece fits best. To be approved, a respirator must
be fit-tested utilizing accepted fit-test media and
procedures. Many respirators cannot be approved because of
this requirement. They still are being sold because there is
no law restricting or preventing the sale of unapproved
respirators. There are only laws regulating their use.
1-9
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There are two types of fit-tests, quantitative and qualitative.
The quantitative test is an analytical test which measures the
concentrations outside and inside the facepiece. The relative
difference between concentrations, termed the Protection Factor
(PF), is used in conjunction with the accepted Threshold Limit
Value (TLV) to determine the maximum concentration the user may
be exposed to while wearing the tested respirator.
A qualitative fit-test is not analytical. It is a subjective
test where an irritant or aroma is used to test the integrity
of the facepiece-to-face seal. If an individual passes a
qualitative fit-test, the PF assigned to that type of mask is
used for exposure limit decisions.
No fit-test is required with a positive-pressure SCBA because
of the safety afforded by the positive pressure built in the
facepiece.
Appendix III, lists several types of respirators and the PF's.
For example, a full-face mask, twin-organic cartridge
respirator is to be used in an atmosphere containing a known
organic vapor. If the TLV of the organic vapor is 5 ppm, then
the respirator will give protection in atmospheres 100 times
the TLV or 500 ppm. This figure holds only as long as the
IDLH is greater than 500 ppm, the organic vapor has adequate
warning properties, and the service concentration limit of the
cartridge is not exceeded.
B. Air-Purifying Respirators
An air-purifying respirator can be used only if the atmosphere
in which it is to be used has 19.5% oxygen, and if the
contaminant is not at IDLH levels.
Mechanical filters are used for particulates and chemical
sorbents for gases and vapors. Respirators are approved for
use up to predesignated concentrations. The respirator is
also limited by its length of service, which is based on the
contaminant concentration.
Another important requirement is that the contaminant in
question has warning properties which will alert the user that
filter or the sorbent is about to be exhausted.
1. Disposable dust respirators
Many disposable cloth and paper respirators are approved,
and even more are not. Those with approval provide
protection against nuisance dusts and sometimes asbestos.
With this type of respirator it is very difficult to
fit-test and obtain and maintain a good facepiece-to-face
seal.
1-10
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2. Mouthbit respirators
Mouthbit respirators are approved for escape only. The
mouth piece is held by the teeth and a clamp is used to
close the nostrils. A cartridge-type filter removes the
contaminant from the atmosphere. This type of respirator
can only be used when the hazard is identified and the
respirator is approved for that hazard.
3. Quarter-mask respirators (Type B Half-Mask)
The quarter-mask is used with cartridges or cloth filtecs
for toxic and nontoxic dusts with TLV's above 0.05 mg/m
Below 0.05 mg/m , a more efficient respirator must be
used.
The mask fits from the top of the nose to top of the chin.
The breathing resistance is high in comparison to larger
masks.
4. Half-mask respirators (Type A Half-Mask)
A half-mask respirator fits from under the chin to above
the nose. One or two cartridges are used to filter the
air and discarded once the use limits are reached.
Whereas the quarter-mask is approved for only dusts, the
half-mask has approved cartridges for pesticides, organic
vapors, dusts, mists, fumes, acid gases, ammonia, and
several combinations.
5. Full-face mask respirators
The whole face, including the eyes, is protected by the
full-face mask. It gives 10 times the protection of a
half-mask (full-face mask PF = 100, half-mask PF = 10).
Full-face masks are more expensive, but the added
protection is certainly advantageous, no matter how
small the risk in a given situation.
The full-face mask may be used with twin cartridges,
chin-mounted canisters, or chest or back-mounted
canisters. Filters are available for the same materials
as for the half-mask, plus several more.
6. Powered respirators
Powered respirators give no breathing resistance. They
are used with half-mask, full-face masks, and also special
helmets.
1-U
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C. Atmosphere-Supplying Respirators
Atmosphere-supplying respirators provide from 5 minutes to
several hours of breathing air. The amount of protection
provided is based on two factors: the type of facepiece and
its mode of operation. The full-face mask provides the best
protection. Of the three modes of operation, continuous,
demand, and pressure-demand, the pressure-demand mode provides
the best protection.
On the basis of construction, there are four types of
atmosphere-supplying respirators: oxygen-generating, hose
mask, airline, and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
There are also respirators available which combine the airline
and SCBA.
1. Modes of operation
a. Continuous
In the continuous mode, air is constantly flowing to
the respirator user, usually from an air compressor or
compressed air tank. The flow must be regulated so
that the user gets as much air as he needs.
b. Demand
In the demand mode, a negative pressure is required
inside the facepiece to open a valve and permit air to
enter the respirator. The negative pressure may draw
contaminated air through any gaps in the
facepiece-to-face seal. This mode uses less air than
the continuous mode.
c. Pressure-demand
The pressure-demand mode allows a positive pressure to
build up inside the facepiece. Thus, any leaks in the
pressure inside the facepiece allows air to enter. It
continues to flow until the positive pressure is built
up by exhaling to the initial level. This mode also
conserves air because with a proper seal only the air
that is exhaled is replaced.
2. Types of devices
a. Oxygen-generating
One of the oldest respirators is the oxygen-generating
respirator, which utilizes a canister of potassium
superoxide. The chemical reacts with exhaled CO2
and water vapor to produce o^gen. Oxygen-generating
respirators have been used in the military and for
escape purposes in mines.
1-12
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Hose mask
The hose mask uses a maximum 75-foot long,
large-diameter hose to transport clean air from a
remote area. The user breathes the air in, or it is
forced in by a blower.
Airline respirators
The airline respirator is similar to the hose mask,
except that the air is compressed. The mode of
operation may be any one of three previously
described. The air source must not be depletable. No
more than 300 feet of airline is allowed.
Self-contained breathing apparatus
The self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) allows
the wearer to carry a cylinder of compressed air or
oxygen without the confinement of a hose or airline.
Depending upon the source of air, the SCBA can be
either open or closed-circuit. Closed-circuit devices
mix pure oxygen from a small cylinder and exhaled
breath (CO2 removed) to provide breathing air. This
type of device, also referred to as a rebreather, is
approved only as a demand-type respirator.
Open-circuit SCBA's are approved as either demand or
pressure demand. Demand SCBA's are being phased out
of production because of the greater protection
afforded by pressure-demand apparatus.
An escape SCBA must have at least 5 minutes of
breathing air stored in a small cylinder or coiled
stainless steel tube. Some devices on the market have
15 minute air supplies.
Under no circumstances are escape devices to be used
for entry into hazardous atmospheres.
TAT/7/83
1-13
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APPENDIX I
J 1910.13*
29 CFR SECTION 1910.134
Title 29—Labor
piritory
:vices
! ' ilation
employer
Subpart I—Personal Protective
Equipment
§1910.132 General requirements.
(a) Application. Protective equipment.
Including persona] protective equipment
Tor eyes, face, head, and extremities, pro-
tective clothing, respiratory devices, and
protective shields and barriers, shall be
provided, used, and maintained In a sani-
tary and reliable condition wherever It
Is necessary by reason of hazards of
processes or environment, chemical haz-
ards. radiological hazards, or mechanical
Irritants encountered In a manner capa-
ble of causing Injury or Impairment in
the function of any part of the body
through absorption. Inhalation or phys-
ical contact.
(b) Employee-owned equipment.
Where employees provide their own pro-
tective equipment, the employer shall be
lasponsibility responsible to assure Its adequacy, in-
cluding proper maintenance, and sanita-
tion ot such equipment.
(c) Design. All personal protective
equipment shall be of safe design and
construction for the work to be per-
formed.
§ 1910.133y Eye »nd faee iwolertion. /
(a) General. (1) Protective eye and
face equipment shall bfe required where
there 16 & reasonable/probability jsl ln-
Jury >nat can be presented by such/equip-
ment. In such cases, employers shall
(ice convenient available / type of
frotector suitable for the Vork to be
performed, ancr employees sWall use sue
protectors. Np unprotected' person shAll
knowingly be subjected to a hazardous
environmental condition. Suitable' eye
protectory shall be provided wheifc ma-
chines of operations .present thy hazard
of nyiOT objects, glafe. llquldsyfnjurious
Ion, or a conjfiinatlon ofythese haz-
ard*
2) Protector^ shall mej( the folios-
minimum requirement
(I) They snail provid/adequate Pro-
tection agamst the particular hazards
for which JChey are designed.
(II) Tttey shall bt/feasonably /omfort-
able wWen worn /fnder the jfeslgnated
conditions.
(11n They shall fit snugly/6nd shall 1 It
undfuly Interfyre with theytnovemenU )f
tire wearer.
(iv) The/ shall be durable.
fv> Thfy shall be/capable Thev shall be esrslly eleanahle.
(vll) Pyitectors sh/uld be kep/clean
and In RoCd repair.
<3) BCrfons whoife vision reotitres the
use of/correctlve lenses in spectacles, and
whoAre required^y this staiyiard to i
eyor>rotection./inall wear goggles or s
titles of one pi the following types:
H) Spectacles whose Protective 1/hses
provide orweal correction.
til) Goggles that iran be worh over
corrective spectacles/without c)/£turblng
the adjustment of/he
<111/ Goggles that Incorporate correc-
tlve/enses mourned behind tfie protective
ler
'(4) Every ofotector shAl1 be distinctly
larked to f&cllltate I^Cntlficatlon/only
of the manufacturer.
(5) When limitations or precautions
are indioaied by th/ manufacturer, they
shall t>ftransmittal to the usaf ind care
takeiyto see that such limi/ations and
precautions ary strictly ob/erved.
5) Design^onstructlOTl, testing, aAd
: of device/for eye andrface protection
lall be liy accordance with Amencan
National Standard for/OccupatlopBl and
Educational Eye aj>4 Pace Protection.
Z87.1-1J
p 1910.134 Respiratory protection.
(a) Permissible practice. (1) In the
control of those occupational diseases
caused oy breathing air contaminated
with harmful dusts, fogs, fumes, mists,
gases, smokes sprays, or vapors, the pri-
mary obtectlve shall be to prevent at-
mospheric contamination. This shall be
accnnpllshed as far as feasible by ac-
cepted engineering control measures (for
example, enclosure or confinement of the
operation general and local ventilation,
and substitution of less toxic materials).
When effective engineering controls are
not feasible, or while they are being in-
stituted. appropriate respirators shall be
used pursuant to the following require-
ments.
(2) Respirators shall be provided by
the employer when such equipment is
necessary to protect the health of the
emnlovee The emplover shall provide
the respirators which arc applicable and
suitable for the purpose Intended. The
employer shall be responsible for the
establishment and maintenance of a res-
piratory protective program which shall
Include the requirements outlined In
paragraph The employee shall use the pro-
vided respiratory protection In accord-
Engineering
controls
Respirator
protection
allowed
Respirators
provided
Use procedure
Prepared by: Cart H. Moline, Industrial Hygienist,
Division of Training and Manpower Development,
NI0SH, 8/78.
1-15
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Chapter XVII—Occupational Safety and Health Admin.
5 1910.134
Standard
operating
procedures
Selection
Instruction and
training
Exclusive use
Cleaning of and
disinfection
Storage
Inspection
Emergency use*
Work area
surveillance
Program
evaluation
Physical
ability
Adequati
respirator
ance with Instructions and training
received.
(b) Requirements for a minimal ac-
ceptable program. (1) Written standard
operating procedures governing the se-
lection and use ot respirators shall be
established.
(2) Respirators shall be selected on
the basis ol hazards to which the worker
Is exposed.
(3) The user shall be Instructed and
trained in the proper use of respirators
and their limitations.
(4) Where practicable, the respirators
should be assigned to Individual workers
for their exclusive use.
(5) Respirators shall be regularly
cleaned and disinfected. Those Issued for
the exclusive use of one worker should be
cleaned after each day's use, or more
often If necessary. Those used by more
than one worker shall be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected after each use.
(6) Respirators shall be stored In a
convenient, clean, and sanitary location.
(7) Respirators used routinely shall
be Inspected during cleaning. Worn or
deteriorated parts shall be replaced. Res-
pirators for emergency use such as self-
contained devices shall be thoroughly
Inspected at least once a month and after
each use.
(8) Appropriate surveillance of work
area conditions and degree of employee
exposure or stress shall be maintained.
(9) There shall be regular Inspection
and evaluation to determine the con-
tinued effectiveness ol the program.
(10) Persons should not be assigned
to tasks requiring use of respirators un-
less it has been determined that they are
physically able to perform the work and
use the equipment. The local physician
shall determine what health and physical
conditions are pertinent. The respirator
user's medical status should be reviewed
periodically (for Instance, annually).
(11) Approved or accepted respirators
shall be used when they are available.
The respirator furnished shall provide
adequate respiratory protection against
the particular hazard for which It Is
designed In accordance with standards
established by competent authorities. The
U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of
Mines, and the U.S. Department of Agri-
culture are recognized as such authori-
ties. Although respirators listed, by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture continue
to be acceptable for protection against
specified pesticides, the U.S. Department
of the Interior. Bureau of Mines, is the
agency now responsible for testing and
approving pesticide respirators.
(c) Selection o/ respirators. Proper
selection of respirators shall be made ac-
cording to the guidance of American
National Standard Practices for Respira-
tory Protection Z88.2-1969.
(d) Air Quality. (1) Compressed air,
compressed oxygen, liquid air, and liquid
oxygen used for respiration shall be of
high purity. Oxygen shall meet the re-
quirements of the United States Pharma-
copoeia for medical or breathing oxygen.
Breathing air shall meet at least the re-
quirements of the specification for Grade
D breathing air as described In Com-
pressed Gas Association Commodity
Specification G-7.1-1966. Compressed
oxygen shall not be used In supplied-alr
respirators or In open circuit self-
contained breathing apparatus that have
previously usod compressed air. Oxygen
must never be used with air line
respirators.
(2) Breathing air may be supplied to
respirators from cylinders or air
compressors.
(I) Cylinders shall be tested and main-
tained as prescribed in the Shipping
Container Specification Regulations of
the Department or Transportation (49
CFR Part 178).
(II) The compressor for supplying air
shall be equipped with necessary safety
and standby devices. A breathing air-
type compressor shall be used. Compres-
sors shall be constructed and situated
so as to avoid entry of contaminated air
Into the system and suitable in-line air
purifying sorbent beds and filters In-
stalled to further assure breathing air
quality. A receiver of sufficient capacity
to enable the respirator wearer to escape
from a contaminated atmosphere in
event of compressor failure, and alarms
to indicate compressor failure and over-
heating shall be Installed In the system.
If an oil-lubricated compressor Is used,
it shall have a high-temperature or car-
bon monoxide alarm, or both. If only a
high-temperature alarm Is used, the air
from the compressor shall be frequently
tested for carbon monoxide to Insure
that It meets the specifications in sub-
paragraph (1) of this paragraph.
(3) Air line couplings shall be incom-
patible with outlets for other gas sys-
tems to prevent inadvertent servicing of
air line respirators with nonrespirable
gases or oxygen.
(4) Breathing gas containers shall be
marked in accordance with American
Selection
Breathing
atmosphere
quality
Caution -
OXYGEiy
Breathing
atmosphere
sources
Cylinder testing
Compressor
safety and
standby devices
Compressor inlat
Filters
Receiver capacity
Alarms
Coupling
incompatibility
Cylinder
markings
'Records required for Emergency Respirators.
"U.S. Department of Agriculture never did
respirators.
1-16
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} 1910.134
Title 29—labor
Standard
procedures
and selection
Correct
respirator to
be issued
Permanent
assignment
marking
Written
procedures
Stand-by person
Communication
Rescue
equipment
Stand-by person
Rescue
equipment
National Standard Method of Marking
Portable Compressed Gas Containers to
Identify the Material Contained. Z48.1-
1954; Federal Specificatlcfti BB-A-1034a,
June 21. 1968. Air, Compressed (or
Breathing Purposes; or Interim Federal
Specification GG-B-00675b. April 27
1965, Breathing Apparatus. Sell-Con-
tained.
(e> Use of respirators, tit Standard
procedures 6hall be developed for respi-
rator use. These should include ail infor-
mation and guidance necessary for their
proper selection, use, and care. Possible
emergency and routine uses of respira-
tors should be anticipated and planned
for.
<2) The correct respirator shall be
specified for each Job. The respirator
type is usually specified in the work pro-
cedures by a qualified Individual super
vising the respiratory protective program.
The Individual issuing them shall be
adequately Instructed to Insure that the
correct respirator is issued. Each respira-
tor permanently assigned to an indi-
vidual should be durably marked to In-
dicate to whom It was assigned. This
mark shall not affect the respirator per-
formance In any way. The date of issu-
ance should be recorded.
(3) Written procedures shall be pre-
pared covering safe use of respirators In
dangerous atmospheres that might be
encountered in normal operations or in
emergencies. Personnel shall be familiar
with these procedures and the available
respirators.
(I) In areas where the wearer, with
failure of the respirator, could be over-
come by a toxic or oxygen-deflcient
atmosphere, at least one additional man
shall be present. Communications (visual,
voice, or signal line) shall be maintained
between both or all individuals present.
Planning shall be such that one individ-
ual will be unaffected by any likely Inci-
dent and have the proper rescue equip-
ment to be able to assist the other(s) in
case of emergency.
(II) When self-contained breathing
apparatus or hose masks with blowers
are used in atmospheres Immediately
dangerous to life or health, standby men
must be present with suitable rescue
equipment.
(ill) Persons using air line respirators
in atmospheres Immediately hazardous
to life or health shall be equipped with
safety harnesses and safety lines for lift-
ing or removing persons from hazardous
atmospheres or other and equivalent
provisions for the rescue of persons from
hazardous atmospheres shall be used. A
sLandby man or men with suitable self-
contained breathing apparatus shall be
at the nearest fresh air base for emer-
gency rescue.
(4) Respiratory protection Is no bet-
ter than the respirator in use, even
though it is worn conscientiously. Fre-
quent random Inspections shall be con-
ducted by a qualified Individual to as-
sure that respirators are properly se-
lected. used, cleaned, and maintained.
(5) For safe use of any respirator, it
Is essential that the user be properly in-
structed In Its selection, use, and main-
tenance. Both supervisors and workers
shall be so Instructed by competent per-
sons. Training shall provide the men an
opportunity to handle the respirator,
have it fitted properly, test Its facc-piecc-
to-face seal, wear It In normal air for
a long familiarity period, and. finally,
to wear It In a test atmosphere.
(1) Every respirator wearer shall re-
ceive fitting Instructions Including dem-
onstrations and practice In how the res-
pirator should be worn, how to adjust It,
and how to determine if it fits properly.
Respirators shall not be wom when con-
ditions prevent a good face seal. Such
conditions may be a growth of beard,
sideburns, a skull cap that projects under
the faceplece. or temple pieces on glasses.
Also, the absence of one or both dentures
can seriously affect the flt of a faceplece.
The worker's diligence in observing these
factors shall be evaluated by periodic
check. To assure proper protection, the
faceplece flt shall be checked by the
wearer each time he puts cn the respira-
tor. This may be done by following the
manufacturer's faceplece fitting Instruc-
tions.
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Chapter XVI!—Occupational Safety and Health Admin.
& 1910.134
Maintenance
program
Inspection
routine,
monthly
Inspection
SCBA
Cylinder charge
Inspection of
components
Inspection
records -
emergency
respirators
Clean, disinfect
Maintenance
persons
qualified
(111) If corrective spectacles or cocgles
are required, they shall be worn so as
not to affect the fit of the faceplece.
Proper selection of equipment will mint-
mlze or avoid this problem.
(f> Maintenance and core of respira-
tors. (1)A program for maintenance and
care of respirators shall be adjusted to
the type of plant, working conditions,
and hazards Involved, and shall include
the following basic services;
(1) Inspection for defects (Including
a leak check),
(II) Cleaning and disinfecting,
(III) Repair,
(lv) Storage
Equipment shall be properly maintained
to retain its original effectiveness.
(2) (1) All respirators shall be in-
spected routinely before and after each
use. A respirator that is not routinely
used but Is kept ready for emergency
use shall be inspected after each use
and at least monthly to assure that It la
'j» satisfactory working condition.
(II) Self-contained breathing appara-
tus shall be Inspected monthly. Air and
oxygen cylinders shall be fully charged
according to the manufacturer's Instruc-
tions. It shall be determined that the
regulator and warning devices function
properly.
(III) Respirator Inspection shall In-
clude a check of the tightness of con-
nections and the condition of the face-
piece, headbands, valves, connecting
tube, and canisters. Rubber or elastomer
parts shall be inspected for pliability
and signs of deterioration. Stretching
and manipulating rubber or elastomer
parts with a massaging action will keep
them pliable and flexible and prevent
them from taking a set during storage.
(lv) A record shall be kept of-inspec-
tion dates and findings for respirators
maintained for emergency use.
(3) Routinely used respirators shall
be collected, cleaned, and disinfected as
frequently as necessary to insure that
proper protection is provided for the
wearer. Each worker should be briefed
on the cleaning procedure and be assured
that he will always receive a clean and
disinfected respirator. Such assurances
are of greatest significance when respira-
tors are not individually assigned to
workers. Respirators maintained for
emergency use shall be cleaned and dis-
infected after each use.
(4) Replacement or repairs shall be
done only by experienced persons with
parts designed for the respirator. No
attempt shall be made to replace com-
ponents or to make adjustment or re-
pairs beyond the manufacturer's recom-
mendations. Reducing or admission
valves or regulators shall be returned
to the manufacturer or to a trained
technician for adjustment or repair.
(5) (1) After Inspection, cleaning,
and necessary repair, respirators shall
be stored to protect against dust, sun-
light, heat, extreme cold, excessive
moisture, or damaging chemicals. Res-
pirators placed at stations and work
areas for emergency use should be
quickly accessible at all times and
should be stored in compartments built
for the purpose. The compartments
should be clearly marked. Routinely
used respirators, such as dust respira-
tors, may be placed in plastic bags. Res-
pirators should not be stored in such
places as lockers or tool boxes unless
they are in carrying cases or cartons.
(11) Respirators should be packed or
stored so that the faceplece and exhala-
tion valv will rest in a normal position
and function will not be impaired by
the elastomer setting in an abnormal
position.
(ill) Instructions for proper storage
of emergency respirators, such as gas
masks and self-contained breathing
apparatus, are-found in "use and care"
instructions usually mounted inside the
carrying case lid.
(g) Identification of gas mask canis~
ters. (1) The primary means of identify-
ing a gas mask canister shall be by means
of properly worded labels. The secondary
means of Identifying r» gat mask canister
shall be by a color code.
(2) All who issue or use gas masks fall-
ing within the scope of this section shall
see that all gas mask canisters purchased
or used by them are properly labeled and
colored in accordance with these require-
ments before they are placed in service
and that the labels and colors are prop-
erly maintained at all times thereafter
until the canisters have completely
served their purpose.
(3) On each canister shall appear In
bold letters the following:
(D—
Canister for
(Name for atmospheric contaminant)
or
Type N On Mask Canister
(ii) In addition, essentially the fol-
lowing wording shall appear beneath the
appropriate phrase on the canister
Manufacturer's
recommendations
Regulator
maintenance
Storage
Storage, facepiece,
exhalation valve
Instructions,
storage
Identification:'
gas mask canisttr
Purchase, labels
and color
Wording
39-104—75
-20
1-18
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5 1910.135
Title 29—labor
Canister
markings,
placa
Canisters,
high-
efficiency
Label location
Protection
label: "For respiratory protection In at-
mospheres containing not more than
percent by volume of
M
(Name of atmospheric contaminant)
(ill) All of the markings specified above
should be placed on the most conspicuous
surface or surfaces of the canister.
(4) Canisters having a special high-
efficiency Alter for protection against
radionuclides and other hlphly toxic par-
ticulates shall be labeled with a state-
ment of the type and degree of protec-
tion afforded by the filter. The label
shall be affixed to the neck end of, or to
the gray stripe which Is around and near
the top of. the canister. The degree of
protection shall be marked as the per-
cent of penetration of the canister by
a 0.3-micron-diameter dioctyl phthalate
(DOP) smoke at a flow rate of 85 liters
per minute.
(5) Each canister shall have a label
warning that gas masks should be used
only in atmospheres containing suffi-
cient oxygen to support life (at least 16
percent by volume), since gas mask
canisters are only designed tc neutralize
or remove contaminants from the air.
(6) Each gas mask canister shall be
painted a distinctive color or combina-
tion of colors Indicated in Table 1-1. Ail
colors used shall be such that they are
clearly Identifiable by the user and
clearly distinguishable from one another.
The color coating used shall offer a high
degree of resistance to chipping, scaling,
peeling, blistering, fading, and the effects
of the ordinary atmospheres to which
they may be exposed under normal con-
ditions of storage and use. Appropri-
ately colored pressure sensitive tape
may be used for the stripes.
Table 1-1
Atmospheric contaminant! to be protected Colors assigned*
against
Add gases White.
Hydrocyanic add gas White with '/j-lnch green stripe completely
around the canister near the bottom.
Chlorine gas White with '/,-Inch yellow stripe completely
around the canister near the bottom.
Organic vapors.. ... Black.
Ammonia gas Green.
Acid gases and ammonia gas Green with V4-lnch white stripe completely
around the canister near the bottom.
Carbon monoxide Blue.
Acid gases and organic vapors Yellow.
Hydrocyanic add gas and chloroplcrln vapor. Yellow with '/j-tnch blue stripe completely
around the canister near the bottom.
Acid gases, organic vapors, and ammonia Brown,
gases.
Radioactive materials, excepting tritium'and Purple (Magenta),
noble gases.
Particulates (dusts, fumes, mists, fogs, or Canister color for contaminant, as designated
smokes) In combination with any of the above, with '/2-Inch gray stripe completely
above gases or vapors. around the canister near the top,
All of the above atmospheric contaminants.. Red with Vi-Inch gray stripe completely
around the canister near the top.
•Gray shall not be assigned as the main color for a canister designed to remove adds or
vapors.
Nor*: Orange shall be used as a complete body, or stripe color to represent gases not
Included tn this table. The user will need to refer to the canister:label to determine the
degree of protection the canister will afford.
g 1910.135 Occupational head protec-
tion.
Helmets for the protection of heads of
occupational workers from impact and
penetration from falling and flying ob-
jects and from limited electric shock and
burn shall meet the requirements and
specifications established In American
National Standard Safety Requirements
for Industrial Head Protection, Z89.1-
1969.
§ 1910.136 Occupational foot protec-
tion.
Safety-toe footwear for employees
shall meet the requirements and speci-
fications In American National Stand-
Warning, oxygen
content
Canister colors
Color durability
1-19
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APPENDIX II
JOINT NIOSH/OSHA STANDARDS COMPLETION PROGRAM
RESPIRATOR DECISION LOGIC
Nelson A. Leidel and SCP Respirator Committee
I. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the Respirator Decision Logic is to assure technical
accuracy and uniformity between substances in the selection of
respirators and to provide necessary criteria to support this selection.
The decision logic is a step-by-step elimination of inappropriate
respirators until only those which are acceptable remain. Judgment
by persons knowledgeable of inhalation hazards and respiratory pro-
tection equipment is essential to ensure appropriate selection of
respirators.
The primary technical criteria for what constitutes a permissible
respirator is based on the technical requirements of 30 CFR Part II
(Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Respiratory Protective
Devices and Tests for Permissibility). The proposed health standards
will allow only respirators approved by the Safety Administration
(MESA) and NIOSH under 30 CFR 11. Classes of respirators are only
included when at least one device has been approved.
Protection factors are criteria used in determining what limiting
concentrations are to be permitted for each respirator type that will
afford adequate protection to the wearer. The referenced Subparts of 30
CFR 11 give technical descriptions concerning each type or class of
respirators referenced 1n the Decision Logic, 30 CFR 11 should be used
with the Decision Logic in order to properly understand the criteria
for the specification of allowable respirators.
II. GENERAL DECISION LOGIC FLOWCHART
Step 1 - Assemble Information on Substance
Assemble necessary toxicological, safety, and research information for
the particular contaminant. Typically the following are required:
1. Permissible exposure limits specified 1n 29 CFR 1910,1000 (Tables
Z-l, Z-2, and Z-3). These are the former 29 CFR 1910.93 tables.
2. Warning properties if the substance is a gas or a vapor. Refer to
Part IV (B) of this Logic.
3. Eye Irritatiorr potential of the substance. Refer to Part IV(D)
of this Logic.
4. LFL (Lower Flammable Limit) for the substance. Refer to Part IV
(F) of this Logic.
5. IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) concentration for
the substance. Refer to Part IV(E) of this Logic.
6. Any possibility of poor sorbent efficiency at IDLH concentration
and below. Refer to Part IV (C) of this Logic.
1-21
-------
7. Any possibility of systemic injury or death resulting from
absorbance of the substance (as a gas or vapor) through the skin.
Refer to Part IV (A) of this Logic.
8. Any possibility of severe skin irritation resulting from contact
of the skin with corrosive gases, vapors or particulates (Refer
to Part IV(A) of this Logic).
9. The vapor pressure of the substance (and equivalent ppm).
10. Any possibility of high heat of reaction with sorbent material in
cartridge or canister.
11. Any possibility of shock sensitivity of substance sorbed on sorbent
of cartridge or canister.
Step 2 - Determine Physical State of Substance
Determine the physical state(s) of the substance as it is likely to be
encountered in the occupational environment. It will be either: a) gas
or vapor; b) particulate (dust, fume or mist), or c) combination of (a)
and (b).
Step 3 - Assemble a Table of Permissible Respiratory Protection for
Substance.
This is done using the material from Step 1 and the appropriate Specific
Decision Logic Chart from Part III of this Logic and Respirator Protection
Factors in Appendix 1.
Classes of respirators are only included where at least one device has
been approved.
III. SPECIFIC DECISION LOGIC CHARTS
A. Specific Decision Logic Chart for Respiratory Protection Against
Gases or Vapors.
Condition
Routine Use a)
b)
c)
d)
Selection Sequence
Consider skin irritation and sorption of the
material through the skin - (See IV A).
Poor warning properties - Eliminate all air
purifying respirators (See IV B).
Eye Irritation - Eliminate or restrict use
of half mask respirators (See IV D).
IDLH or LFL - Above this concentration eli-
minate all but positive pressure self-contained
breathing apparatus and combination positive
pressure suppl1ed-air respirator with auxiliary
positive pressure self-contained breathing
1-22
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Condition
Routine Use (Con't)
Entry and Escape
from unknown con-
centrations
e)
Selection Sequence
apparatus (See IV E and F).
List all allowed respirators by condition
and use and type.
Firefighting
Escape
Use positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus or combination positive pressure
supplied air respirator with auxiliary positive
pressure self-contained breathing apparatus.
Use positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus.
Gas mask or escape self-contained breathing
apparatus (See IV C).
B. Specific Decision Logic Chart for Respiratory Protection Against
Particulates.
Condition
Routine Use
Entry and Escape
from unknown
concentrations
Selection Sequence
a) Consider skin irritation or sorption of the
material through the skin (See IV A).
b) Eye irritation - Eliminate or restrict use of
half mask respirators (See IV D).
c) Systemic poison - Eliminate single - use
respirators.
d) For permissible exposures less than 0.05 mg/
cu.m. - Eliminate DFM respirators except
with high efficiency particulate filter.
e) IDLH or LFL - Above this concentration elimi-
nate all but positive pressure self-contained
breathing apparatus and combination positive
pressure supplied-air respirator with auxiliary
positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus (See IV E).
f) List all allowed respirators by condition of
use and type.
Use positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus or combination positive pressure supplied
-air respirator with positive pressure self-con-
tained breathing apparatus.
1-23
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Condition
Selection Sequence
Firefighting
Use positive pressure self,contained breathino
apparatus {See IV F).
Escape
Gas mask or escape self-contained breathing
apparatus (See IV C).
IV. DECISION LOGIC CRITERIA
A. Skin Absorption and Irritation
Personal protection requirements for protection against exposure to
substances which may cause injury by absorption through the skin from
materials splashed or spilled on the skin are covered in Section (f)
of each substance standard. Respirator selection criteria are based
primarily on the inhalation hazard of the substance, A supplied-air
suit may provide skin protection for extremely toxic substances which
may be absorbed through the skin, or for substances which may cause
severe skin irritation or injury.
Supplied-air suits are not covered in 30 CFR 11. Data are not avail-
able upon which to make recommendations for supplied-air suits for all
types of exposures.
Where Information is available indicating systemic injury or death
resulting from absorbance of a gas or vapor through the skin or where
severe skin irritation or injury may occur from exposure to a gas
corrosive vapor, or particulate, the following statement is included
as a footnote to the respirator tables and both the employee and em-
ployer are cautioned in the appendices concerning their use:
"Use of supplied-air suit may be necessary to prevent skin
contact and respiratory exposure from airborne concentrations
of {specific substance). Supplied-air suits should be selected,
used, and maintained under the immediate supervision of persons*
knowledgeable in the limitations and potential life endangering
characteristics of supplied-air suits. Where supplied-air suits
are used above a concentration which may be immediately dangerous
to life and health, (concentration) an auxiliary positive-pressure
self-contained breathing apparatus must also be worn".
The suppTfed-air suit statement Is an advisory footnote. The decision
whether or not to include the footnote is made by the NIOSH/OSHA
Review Committees based on available Information. Since most informa-
tion concerning skin Irritation is not quantative, but rather presented
in commonly used descriptive terms, such as "a strong skin irritartt
highly irritating to the skin,."corrosive to the skin," etc., the *
decision made by the committees concerning skin irritation is a judg-
mental decision often based on non-quantitative information. As a
guideline for inclusion of the supplied-air suit statement for sub-
stances which are sorbed through the skin, a single skin penetration
LD50 of 2 grams/kilogram for any species is used.
1-24
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The footnote is advisory in nature and its inclusion does not make the
use of supplied-air suits mandatory. Further, employers may use
supplied-air suits in any situation where they provide adequate pro-
tection, whether there is an advisory footnote in the respirator table
or not. To assure the health and safety of persons using supplied-air
suits, it is imperative that they be used under the immediate supervision
of persons knowledgeable in the limitations and potential life endangering
character!'si tics of supplied-air suits.
B. Poor Warning Properties
It is important to realize that 30 CFR 11 NIOSH/MESA approvals for
air-purifying (organic vapor) devices prohibit use against organic
vapors with poor warning properties. Specifically, 30 CFR 11.90 (b)
(note 4) covers gas masks (canister respirators) and 30 CFR 11.150
(Note 7) covers chemical cartridge respirators. Thus these approvals
are only for those organic vapors with adequate warning properties
and not all organic vapors.
Warning properties include odor, eye irritation, and respiratory
irritation. Warning properties relying upon human senses are not
foolproof. However, they provide some indication to the employee
of possible sorbent exhaustion or of poor facepiece fit or other
respirator malfunction.
Adequate warning properties can be assumed when the substance odor,
taste, or irritation effects are detectable and persistent at con-
centrations "at" or "below" the permissible exposure limit.
It is expected that environmental concentrations will vary consider-
ably and, therefore, warning of a respirator failure would soon be
somewhat above the permissible exposure limit.
If the odor or irritation threshold of a substance is more than
three times greater than the permissible exposure limit, this sub-
stance should be considered to have poor warning properties. If the
substance odor or irritation threshold is somewhat above the per-
missible exposure limit (not in excess of three times the limit) and
there is no ceiling limit, consideration is given as to whether or
not undetected exposure in this concentration range could cause
serious or irreversible health effects. If not, the substance is
considered to have adequate warning properties. Some substances have
extremely low thresholds of odor and irritation in relation to the
permissible exposure limit. Because of this, these substances can
be detected by a worker within the facepiece of the respirator even
when the respirator is functioning properly. These substances are,
therefore, considered to have poor warning properties.
Though 30 CFR 11 does not specify eliminating air purifying respira-
tors for pesticides with poor warning properties, the SCP Respirator
Review Committee believes the Standards Completion Program should not
allow pesticide respirators for gases and vapors with poor warning
properties..
1-25
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C. Sorberits
Where supporting evidence exists of immediate (less than three
minutes) breakthrough time at the IDLH concentration and below
for a cartridge or canister sorbent, air-purifying devices shall
not be allowed for any use, escape or otherwise.
Where there is reason to suspect that commonly used sorbents (e.g.
activated charcoal) do not provide adequate sorption efficiency'
against a specific contaminant, use of such sorbents shall not be
allowed. However, where another sorbent material has been demon-
strated to be effective against a specific contaminant, approved
respirators utilizing the effective sorbent material shall be allowed.
The statement in the respirator table shall read, "Any chemical
cartridge respirator providing protection against (specific substance),"
and "Any gas mask providing protection against (specific substance)."
Where there is reason to suspect that a sorbent has a high heat of
reaction with a substance, use of that sorbent is not allowed. In
such cases, only sorbents providing safe protection against (Specific
Substance) may be used. For such substances, a footnote is added to
the respirator table which reads as follows: "(Specific Substance)
is a strong oxidizer and should be kept away from oxidizable material.
Some cartridges and canisters may contain activated charcoal and
shall not be used to provide protection against (specific substance).
Only non-oxidizable sorbents are allowed." Where the oxidizable
material may be a oxidizable filter, the footnote reads: "(Specific
Substance) is a strong oxidizer and should be kept away from
oxidizable substances. Only air purifying respirators with non-
oxidizable filters are allowed.
Where there is reason to suspect that a substance sorbed on a sorbent
of a cartridge or canister is shock sensitive, use of air purifying
respirators is disallowed.
D. Eye Irritation
For routine work operations, and perceptible eye irritations is con-
sidered unacceptable. Therefore, only full face-piece respirators
are permissible in contaminant concentrations which produce eye
irritation. Note that 30 CFR 11.90(b) (Note 6) specifies that eye
protection may be required in certain concentrations of gases and
vapors. For escape, some eye irritation is permissible if it is
determined that such irritation would not inhibit escape and such
Irritation 1s reversible.
Where quantitative eye Irritation data cannot be found in literature
references, and theoretical considerations indicate th^t substance
should not be an eye irritant, half facepiece respirators are
allowed.
Where a review of the literature indicates a substance causes eye
irritation but no eye irritation threshold is specified, the data
will be evaluated to determine whether quarter or half-facepiece
respirators are to be included in the respirator tables. When a
table is developed for such substances, the respirators with quarter
1-26
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or half-facepiece shall be footnoted as follows: Vhen an employee
Informs his employer that he is experiencing eye irritation from **
Name ** while wearing a respirator allowed in Table 2, the employer
shall provide and ensure that the employee use an equivalent respira-
tor with a full facepiece, helmet or hood.
E. IDLH
The definition of IDLH provided in 30 CFR 11.3(t) is as follows:
"Immediately dangerous to life or health" means con-
ditions that pose an immediate threat to life or health
or conditions that pose an immediate threat of severe
exposure to contaminants, such as radioactive materials,
which are likely to have adverse cumulative or delayed
effects on health."
The purpose of establishing an IDLH exposure concentration is to in-
sure that the worker can escape without injury or irreversible health
effects from an IDLH concentration in the event of failure of the
respiratory protective equipment. The IDLH is considered a maximum
concentration above which only highly reliable breathing apparatus
providing maximum worker protection is permitted. Since IDLH values
are conservatively set, any approved respirator may be used up to its
maximum use concentration below the IDLH.
In establishing the IDLH concentration the following factors are
considered:
1. Escape without loss of life or irreversible health effects.
Thirty minutes is considered the maximum permissible exposure
time for escape.
2. Severe eye or respiratory irritation or other reactions which would
prevent escape without injury.
IDLH should be determined from the following sources:
1. Specific IDLH provided in the literature such as the AIHA
Hygienic Guides,
2. Human exposure data,
3. Acute animal exposure data,
4. Where such data are lacking acute toxicological data from analogous
substances may be considered.
The following guidelines should be used to interpret toxicological
data reported in the literature for animal species:
1-27
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1. Where acute exposure animal data are available (30 minutes
to 4-hour exposures), the lowest exposure concentration causing
death or irreversible health effects in any species is deter-
mined to be the IDLH concentration.
2. Chronic exposure data may have no relevance to the acute effects
and should be used in determining the IDLH concentration only
upon competent toxicologic judgment.
3. Where there is no toxicologic evidence of an IDLH concentration,
500 times the permissible exposure limit shall determine the upper
limit above which only highly reliable breathing apparatus
providing maximum worker protection is used.
E. Lower Flammable Limit and Firefighting
Contaminant concentrations in excess of the LFL are considered to be
immediately dangerous to life or health. At or above the LFL, the
use of respirators is limited to those devices which provide the
maximum protection, i.e., positive-pressure SCBA, and the combination
positive-pressure supplied-air respirators with auxiliary positive
pressure SCBA.
Firefighting is defined by ANSI Z88.5-1971 as being immediately
dangerous to life. For firefighting, the only device providing
adequate protection is the positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus.
G. Protection Factors
Protection factors are a measure of the overall effectiveness of a
respirator. Filtering efficiency is a part of the protection factor
and becomes a significant consideration for less efficient air
purifying respirators.
The protection factors used in the preparation of the Standards are
based on quantitative fit tests performed at Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory (Reference 43) and elsewhere, and in some instances on
professional judgment. In Appendix 1, the protection factors for
each class of respirators listed in the checklists are shown. The
entries In each list are for an entire class of respirators.
H. Variations With 30 CFR 11
I. The Type A supplied-air respirator is allowed in 30 CFR 11 for
use in immediately dangerous to life or health atmospheres.
However, the air flow requirement of 50 L/min. is insufficient
to maintain a positive pressure in the fa'cepiece under all working
conditions. Therefore, this device should have the same protection
factor as applied to other air-purify1ng and atmosphere supplying
1-28
-------
respirators having a negative pressure in the facepiece (See
Appendix I). 30 CFR 11 will require a revision to eliminate
approval of Type A supplied-air respirators for IDLH atmospheres.
2. 30 CFR 11 does not contain protection factor requirements. Pro-
tection factors are used in the decision logic. An amendment
to 30 CFR 11 is planned to include protection factor requirements
for DFM respirators. Future amendments are contemplated for
other types of respirators.
3. 30 CFR 11 does not permit the use of an escape gas mask against
acid gases or organic vapors with poor warning properties. A
change to 30 CFR 11 is necessary to permit the use of an escape
gas mask against substances with poor warning properties.
I. Escape
Where escape respirators are provided they shall be selected from the
escape category in Table 2. The employer shall provide and ensure
employees carry an escape respirator where exposure may occur to
extremely toxic substances. (An extremely toxic substance is defined
as a gas or vapor having a rat LC5q of less than 10 ppm).
The following statement is added to the introduction to the respirator
table for these substances:
Employers shall provide each employee working in areas
where ** NAME** may be released into the workplace air
with an approved escape respirator as specified in Table
2. The employer shall ensure that each employee carry the
escape respirator in the area where **NAME** may be re-
leased into the workplace.
J. "Entry into Tanks or Closed Vessels; or ..."
Item (d)(4)(iv) is a variable provision in the introductory statements
to the respirator tables which lists the specific operations where
a respirator is considered to be an acceptable means of control.
Examples of where this may occur are for operations which require
occasional entry into tanks or other closed vessels.
1-29
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APPENDIX III
SELECTED RESPIRATOR PROTECTION FACTORS*
Type of Respirator
PF (Qualitative Test)
Air-purifying
quarter-mask
half-mask
Air-1 ine
quarter-mask
half-mask
Hose mask
full facepiece
SCBA, demand
quarter-mask
half-mask
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Air-puri fying
full facepiece
Air-1ine, demand
full facepiece
SCBA, demand
full facepiece
100
100
100
Air-line, pressure-demand,
with escape provision
full facepiece (no test required) 10,000+
SCBA, pressure-demand or
positive pressure
full facepiece (no test required) 10,000+
* For more detailed information consult Table 5,
"Respirator Protection Factors" in ANSI Z88.2-1980.
1-31
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APPENDIX IV
Chapter I—Minn Safety and Health Adm.
Part 11
SUBCHAPTER B—RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE APPARATUS;
TESTS FOR PERMISSIBILITY; FEES
$Jse of ANSI
Z88.2
PART 11—RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE
DEVICES; TESTS FOR PERMISSIBIL-
ITY; FEES
Subpart A—Gantral Provision!
See.
11.1 Purpose.
11.2 Approved respirators and gas masks.
11.2-1 Selection, fit. use, and maintenance
of approved respirators.
11.3 Definitions.
11.4 Incorporation by reference.
Subpart B—Application for Approval
11.10 Application procedures.
11.11 Contents of application.
11.12 Delivery of respirators and compo-
nents by applicant; requirements.
Subpart C—F*«(
11.20 Examination, Inspection, and testing
of complete respirator assemblies: fees.
11.21 Examination, Inspection, and testing
of respirator components or subassemb-
lies; fees.
11.22 Unlisted fees; additional fees; pay-
ment by applicant prior to approval.
Subpart D—Approval and Disapproval
11.30 Certificates of Approval; scope of ap-
proval.
11.31 Certificates of approval; contents.
11.32 Notice of disapproval.
11.33 Approval labels and markings; ap-
proval of contents; use.
11.34 Revocation of certificates of approv-
al.
11.35 Changes or modifications of ap-
proved respirators; Issuance of modifica-
tion of certificate of approval.
11.36 Delivery of changed or modified ap-
proved respirator.
Subpart E—Quality Control
11.40 Quality control plans; filing require-
ments.
11.41 Quality control plans; contents.
11.42 Proposed quality control plans; ap-
proval by MSHA and the Institute.
11.43 Quality control records; review by
MSHA and the Institute; revocation of
approval.
Subpart f—Claisltlcaflon of Approved R»ipl-
ratori; Scop* of Approval; Almoiph«rlc Max-
ardi; Sarvlca Tim*
Sec.
11.50 Types of respirators to be approved;
scope of approval.
11.51 Entry and escape, or escape only;
classification.
11.52 Respiratory hazards; classification.
11.53 Service time; classification.
Subpart C—Central Construction and
Porformanc* R»quirtm«nti
11.60 Construction and performance re-
quirements; general.
11.61 General construction requirements.
11.62 Component parts; minimum require-
ments.
11.8.1 Test requirements: general.
11.6-1 Pretesting by applicant; approval of
test methods.
11.63 Conduct of examinations. Inspec-
tions, and tests by MSHA and the Insti-
tute: assistance by applicant; observers;
recorded data; public demonstrations.
11.6i} Withdrawal of applications; refund
of fees.
Subpart H—Silf-Contalntd Brtathlng
Apparatus
11.70 Self-contained breathing apparatus:
description.
11.71 Self-contained breathing apparatus;
required components.
11.72 Breathing tubes; minimum require-
ments.
11.7:) Harnesses: installation and construc-
tion; minimum requirements.
11.7-1 Apparatus containers: minimum re-
quirements.
11.75 Half-mask facepleces, full facepieces.
mouthpieces; fit: minimum require-
ments.
11.7i) Facepleces; eyepieces: minimum re-
quirements.
11.77 Inhalation and exhalation valves:
minimum requirements.
11.7H Head harnesses; minimum require-
ments.
11.79 Breathing gas: minimum require-
ments.
11.79-1 Interchangeablllty of oxygen and
air prohibited.
11.80 Compressed breathing gas and lique-
fied breathing gas containers: minimum
requirements.
Schedule 13F
Reference to
DOT Regulations
1-33
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P«rt 11
Title 30—Mineral Retourees
Schedule 14G
Sac.
11.81 Gas pressure gages; minimum re-
quirement*.
11.82 Timers; elapsed time Indicators; re-
maining service life Indicators; minimum
requirements.
11.83 Hand-operated valves; minimum re-
quirements.
11.84 Breathing bags; minimum require-
ments.
11.85 Self-contained breathing apparatus;
performance requirements; general.
11.85-1 Component parts exposed to
oxygen pressures: minimum require-
ments.
11.85-2 Compressed gas filters; minimum
requirements.
11.85-3 Breathing bag test.
11.85-4 Weight requirement.
11.85-5 Breathing resistance test; Inhala-
tion.
11.85-0 Breathing resistance test; exhala-
tion.
11.85-7 Exhalation valve leakage test.
11.85-8 Oas flow test; open-circuit appara-
tus.
11.85-0 Oas flow test; closed-circuit appa-
ratus.
11.85-10 Service time test; open-circuit ap-
paratus.
11.85-11 Service time test; closed-circuit
apparatus.
11.85-13 Test for carbon dioxide In In-
spired gas; open- and closed-circuit appa-
ratus; maximum allowable limits.
11.85-13 Tests during low temperature op-
eration.
11.85-14 Man tests; testing conditions; gen-
eral requirement*.
11.85-15 Man tests 1, 2, 3. and 4; require-
ments.
11.85-16 Man test 5; requirements.
11.85-17 Man test 6; requirements.
11.85-18 Man tests; performance require-
ments.
11.85-19 Orj tightness test; minimum re-
quirements.
Subpart I—Gat Mask*
11.00 Oas masks; description.
11.01 Oas masks; required components.
11.92 Canisters and cartridges In parallel;
resistance requirements.
11.93 Canisters and cartridges; color and
markings; requirements.
11.94 Filters used with canisters and car-
tridges; location; replacement.
11.95 Breathing tubes; minimum require-
ments.
11.96 Harnesses; Installation and construc-
tion; minimum requirements.
11.91 Oas mask containers; minimum re-
quirements.
11.98 Hall-mask facepleces, full facepleces,
and mouthpieces; fit; minimum require-
ments.
Sec.
11.99 Facepleces; eyepieces: minimum re-
quirements.
11.100 Inhalation and exhalation valves;
minimum requirements.
11.101 Head harnesses; minimum require-
ments.
11.102 Oas masks; performance require-
ments: general.
11.102-1 Breathing resistance test; mini-
mum requirements.
11.102-2 Exhalation valve leakage test.
11.102-3 Faceplece tests; minimum require-
ments.
11.102-4 Dust, fume, mist, and smoke tests;
canisters containing filters; minimum re-
quirements.
11.102-5 Canister bench tests; minimum re-
quirements.
Subpart J—Suppll*d-Alr R*iplratort
11.110 Supplled-alr respirators; description.
11.111 Supplled-alr respirators: required
components.
11.112 Breathing tubes; minimum require-
ments.
11.113 Harnesses; Installation and con-
struction; minimum requirements.
11.114 Respirator containers; minimum re-
quirements.
11.115 Half-mask facepleces, full face-
pieces, hoods, and helmets; fit: minimum
requirements.
11.118 Facepleces, hoods, and helmets; eye-
pieces; minimum requirements.
11.117 Inhalation and exhalation valves;
check valves; minimum requirements.
11.118 Head harnesses; minimum require-
ments.
11.119 Head and neck protection; supplied-
iilr respirators: minimum requirements.
11.120 Alt'velocity and noise levels; hoods
and helmets: minimum requirements.
"11.121 Breathlqg gas; minimum require-
ments.
11.122 Air supply source; hand-operated or
motor driven air blowers; Type A sup-
plled-alr respirators; minimum require-
ments.
11.123 Terminal fittings or chambers; Type
B supplled-alr respirators; minimum re-
quirements.
11.124 Supplled-alr respirators; perform-
ance requirements; general.
11.124-1 Hand-operated blower test; mini-
mum requirements.
11.124-2 Motor-operated blower test; mini-
mum requirements.
11.124-3 Method of measuring the power
and torque required to operate blowers.
11.124-4 Type B supplled-alr respirator;
minimum requirements.
11.124-8 Type C supplled-alr respirator,
continuous flow class: minimum require-
ments.
Schedule $
8
1-34
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Chapter I—Mine Safely and Horlth Admin.
Part 11
Schedule 21C
Sec.
11.124-6 Type C supplled-air respirator,
demand and pressure demand class;
minimum requirements.
11.124-7 Air-supply line tests; minimum re-
quirements.
11.124-8 Harness test; minimum require-
ments.
11.124-0 Breathing tube test; mlnlnvtm re-
quirements.
11.124-10 Airflow resistance test, Type A
and Type AE 6upplled-alr respirators;
minimum requirements.
11.124-11 Airflow resistance test; Type B
and Type BE supplled-alr respirators;
minimum requirements.
11.124-12 Airflow resistance test; Type C
supplied-air respirator, continuous flow
class and Type CE supplled-alr rnplra-
tor; minimum requirements.
11.124-13 Airflow resistance test; T; pe C
supplled-alr respirator, demand class;
minimum requirements.
11.124-14 Airflow resistance test; Type C
supplled-alr respirator, pressure-demand
class; minimum requirements.
11.124-15 Exhalation valve leakage test.
11.124-16 Man tests for gases and vapors:
supplled-alr respirators; general per-
formance requirements.
11.124-17 Man tests for gases and vapors;
Type A and Type AE respirators; test re-
quirements.
11.124-18 Man tests for gases and vapors;
Type B and Type BE respirators; test re-
quirements.
11.124-19 Man test for gases and vapors;
Type C respirators, continuous-flow
class and Type CE suppllpd-air respira-
tors; test requirements.
11.124-20 Man test for gases and vapors;
Type C supplled-alr respirators, demand
and pressure-demand classes; test re-
quirements.
11.124-21 Tests for protection during abra-
sive blasting; Type AE. Type BE, and
Type CE supplled-air respirators; gener-
al performance requirements.
11.124-22 Test for protection during abra-
sive blasting; Type AE supplied-alr respi-
rator; test requirements.
11.124-23 Test for protection during abra-
sive blasting; Type BE supplled-alr respi-
rator; test requirements.
11.124-24 Test for protection during abra-
sive blasting; Type CE supplled-air respi-
rator; test requirements.
Subpart K—Duif, funit, and Mill Rttplralor*
11.130 Dust, fume, and mist respirators; de-
scription.
11.131 Dust, fume and mist respirators; re-
quired components.
11.132 Breathing tubes; minimum require-
ments.
Sec.
11.133 Harnesses; installation and con-
struction; minimum requirements.
11.134 Respirator containers; minimum re-
quirements.
11.135 Half-mask facepleces. full face-
pieces, hoods, helmets, and mouthpieces;
fit; minimum requirements.
11.136 Facepleces, hoods, and helmets; eye-
pieces; minimum requirements.
11.137 Inhalation and exhalation valves;
minimum requirements.
11.138 Head harnesses; minimum require-
ments.
11.139 Air velocity and noise levels; hoods
md helmets; minimum requirements.
11.140 Dust, fume, and mist respirators:
performance requirements; general.
11.140-1 Isoamyl acetate tightness test;
dust, fume, and mist respirators de-
signed for respiratory protection against
fumes of various metals having an air
contamination level not less than 0.05
milligram per cubic meter; minimum re-
quirements.
11.1(0-2 Isoamyl acetate tightness test;
respirators designed for respiratory pro-
tection against dusts, fumes, and mists
having an air contamination level less
than 0.05 milligram per cubic meter, or
against radionuclides: minimum require-
ments.
11.140-3 Alr-purlfying filter tests; perform-
ance requirements; general.
11.140-4 Silica dust test; single-use or reus-
able filters; minimum requirements.
11.140-5 Silica dust test; single-use dust
respirators; minimum requirements.
11.140-6 Lead fume test; minimum require-
ments.
11.140-7 Silica mist test; minimum require-
ments.
11.140-8 Tests for respirators designed for
respiratory protection against more
than one type of dispersoid; minimum
requirements.
11.140-0 Airflow resistance tests; all dust,
fume, and mist respirators: minimum re-
quirements.
11.140-10 Exhalation valve leakage test:
minimum requirements.
11.140-11 DOP filter test; respirators de-
signed as respiratory protection against
dusts, fumes, and mists having an air
contamination level less than 0.05 milli-
gram per cubic meter and against ra-
dionuclides; minimum requirements.
11.140-12 Silica dust loading test; respira-
tors designed as protection against
dusts, fumes, and mists having an air
contamination level less than 0.05 milli-
gram per cubic meter and against ra-
dionuclides; minimum requirements.
9
1-35
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Schedule 23C
New
Schedule
Part 11
Subpart I—Ch*mlcai Cartridge Reiplrotarl
Sec.
11.150 Chemical cartridge respirators; de-
scription.
11.151 Chemical cartridge respirators; re-
quired components.
11.152 Cartridges In parallel; resistance re-
quirements.
11.153 Cartridges: color and markings; re-
quirements.
11.154 Filters used with chemical car-
tridges; location; replacement.
11.155 Breathing tubes; minimum require-
ments.
11.156 Harnesses; Installation and con-
struction; minimum requirements.
11.151 Respirator containers; minimum re-
quirements.
11.158 Half-mask facepleces, full face-
pieces. mouthpieces, hoods, and helmets;
fit; minimum requirements.
11.158-1 Facepleces, hoods, and helmets;
eyepieces; minimum requirements.
11.159 Inhalation and exhalation valves;
minimum requirements.
11.160 Head harnesses; minimum require-
ments.
11.161 Air velocity and noise levels: hoods
and helmets; minimum requirements.
11.162 Chemical cartridge respirators; per-
formance requirements; general.
11.162-1 Breathing resistance test; mini-
mum requirements.
11.162-2 Exhalation valve leakage test;
minimum requirements.
11.162-3 Facepiece test: minimum require-
ments.
11.162-4 Lacquer and enamel mist tests;
respirators with filters; minimum re-
quirements; general.
11.162-5 Lacquer mist test; minimum re-
quirements.
11.162-6 Enamel mist test; minimum re-
quirements.
11.162-7 Dust. fume, and mist tests: respi-
rators with filters; minimum require-
ments; general.
11.162-8 Bench tests; gas and vapor tests;
minimum requirements; generals
Subpart M—Ptillddi lUtplrafort
11.170 Pesticide respirators; description.
11.171 Pesticide respirators; required com-
ponents. .
11.172 Canisters and cartridges In parallel;
resistance requirements.
11.173 Canisters and cartridges; color and
markings: requirements.
11.174 Filters used with canisters and car-
tridges; location; replacement.
11.175 Breathing tubes; minimum require-
ments.
11.178 Harnesses; installation and -on-
structlon; minimum requirements.
Title 30—Mineral Resources
Sec.
11.177 Respirator containers; minimum re-
quirements.
11.178 Half-mask facepleces. full face-
pieces, hoods and helmets, and mouth-
pieces; fit; minimum requirements.
11.179 Facepleces, hoods and helmets; eye-
pieces; minimum requirements.
11.180 Inhalation and exhalation valves;
minimum requirements.
11.181 Head harnesses; minimum require-
ments.
11.182 Air velocity and noise levels; hoods
and helmets; minimum requirements.
11.183 Pesticide respirators; performance
requirements; general.
11.183-1 Breathing resistance test; mini-
mum requirements.
11.183-2 Exhalation valve leakage test;
minimum requirements.
11.183-3 Facepiece test; minimum require-
ments.
II.1.83-4 Silica dust test; minimum require-
ments.
11.183-5 Lead fume test; minimum require-
ments.
11.183-6 Dloctyl-phthalate test; minimum
requirements.
11.183-7 Bench tests; minimum require-
ments.
Subpart N—Special lit* Raiplratori
11.200 Vinyl chloride respirators; descrip-
tion.
11.201 Required components.
11.202 Gas masks; requirements and tests.
11.203 Chemical-cartridge respirators; re-
quirements and tests.
11.204 .Powered alr-purlfylng respirators;
requirements and tests.
11.205 Requirements for end-of-servlce-llfe
Indicator; .
11.206 Quality control requirements.
11.207 Labeling requirements.
11.208 Fees.
Authority: Sees. 301(a) and 302(a) of the
Federal Mine Safety and Health Amend-
ments Act of 1B77, Pub. L. 05-164, 30 U.S.C.
961 and 951 and 29 U.S.C. 577a, 91 Stat,
1317 and 91 Stat. 1319; sec 508 of the Feder-
al Mine Salety and Health Act of 1977, Pub.
L. 91-173 as amended by Pub. L. 95-164, 30
U.S.C. 957. 80 Stat. 803. Sees. 202(h), and
204, 83 Stat. 763, and 764; 30 U.S.C. 842(h).
and 844; sees. 2, 3, and 5, 36 Stat. 370, as
amended 37 Stat. 6B1; 30 U.S.C. 3, 5. and 7;
sec. 8(g). 84 Stat. 1100; 29 U.S.C. 657(g).
Source: 37 FR 6244. Mar. 25, 1972, unless
otherwise noted.
Note: Nomenclature changes appear at 43
FR 12313. Mar. 24. 1978.
New
Schedule
10
1-36
-------
SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS APPROVED BY H$|U/NIQ5H
Approvtl Hose Pressure
nwwper Approval Model- flroatMng $«rv
27
BIOHaH nt
<15-600
US-)00
0
«5 Hn,
FF
CC
Bm
m m mm
26
Robert****
Control*
9O0-OO2-26B
•Hi -12
Portal 5A00
A
5
H/H
15,CF
Fm
mm mm
2CA
L*«r Sleglar
5500
A
5 «»1«.
(VH
ES,CF
pm
mm mm
2*
H|A
•57152,
#57153, 457154
46J027, 463030
9506b, 9636)
4630)2, 463020
«
30 * 4616)1, 463931
A
30 min.
ff
0PD
B* ¦
mm mm
32
Sitb# Gorwan
01)8)),04
0
3 "rr.
FF
00M
Bin
mm mm
33
SurvtvA< r
9C0I-14
9M1-14
A
5 *m,
FF
E5#00M,s*R
ri
4-250 50-125
34
Survtv4< r
90*1-12
9001-12
A
5 «m.
FF
ES,0DM,SA9
F«
4-250 50-125
35
SurvtvA(r
9165-03,
9*65-03#
*
IS »»tn.
FF
ES#O0H
fn
a* v m m
3*
Survtv*t r
90">9-02
9069-11
9»*9-02
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A
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FF
15,0PM
r*
m m mm
o
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o
m
m 3=»
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~*D
m m
O ^
c: o
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X
3
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to
00
D
5* Orjger HC.17
-------
Table 111*1, 9e1f*cgntejnad breathing apparatus component carta, by
epproval n«»ber.
Approval
nu*ber
TC-1JF-
Approval
teaued to
nodal
nu«oer(t}
27
BloH«r1n«
28
nobartahaw
2«*
29
MS*
CO
CO
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900*002*268
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Laar Slegler SS00
157'52
4571S3
<157151
96363
95066
463«27
4639 30
«63M2
4fr3«2d
Component carta,
nun2375, face »a«k ana exhalation
valve svste*.
96600 or 45440, faceplece.
409267, breathing tube assembly,
94007 or 963)7 or 460320, cylinder end va
assembly,
931*4, h*rne«e.
649911, regulator aasewblv,
(Helow 32 F add 4bbTl or Q9B63 noaacup
assembly to ehove).
10
H3*
95069
96057, 89107, or 061614, facaotece.
9633P
449267, breatnlnu turn assembly.
461704
94007, 96337 or 460320, cylinder and valve
463*31
eaaenblv.
463933
93164, herneaa.
461696
444410, reguletor eese»b1v.
461 946
(Below 32 f aid 455666 nosecup assembly
4619«7
to ebove).
463^14
463"15
32 Slebe Cor««n 013631,04
33 iunlvHr <1081'It,
t##Mi
£
032275.00, faceplece eesc"
-------
PART 2
AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATORS
I. INTRODUCTION
A respirator is used because the concentration of a contaminant is
high enough to cause some type of health effect. This may range
from respiratory irritation to systemic damage to death. The
guidelines used to decide the need for a respirator are the
Threshold Limit Values. A concentration greater than the TLV
requires respiratory protection. If the concentration is within
the concentration use limits of an air-purifying respirator, then
that type may be used. If it is greater, then an atmosphere-
supplying apparatus must be worn.
Air-purifying respirators can be used only under the following
ci rcumstances:
-- The identity and concentration of the contaminant are known.
-- The oxygen content in air is at least 19.5%.
-- The contaminant has adequate warning properties.
-- Approved canisters for the contaminant/concentration are
avai Table.
-- The concentration does not exceed the IDLH.
Individuals who use air-purifying respirators must wear a
respirator which has been successfully fitted to their faces.
Most individual respirators will fit only 60% of the working
population. But with the variety of respirators available, at
least one type should be found to fit an individual. An
improperly fitted respirator delivers little of the protection
promi sed.
II. REQUIREMENTS FOR RESPIRATOR SELECTION
A. Identification/Measurement
Before the appropriate air-purifying device can be selected, the
contaminant must be identified and measured. This requires
sampling and analysis. Selection of a device is based on the
highest possible concentration of the contaminant.
2-1
-------
Once a respirator has been selected and worn in the contaminated
environment, the atmosphere must be monitored periodically.
Otherwise, increased contaminant levels may present a hazard the
respirator is not capable of handling.
B. Oxygen Content
The normal atmosphere contains approximately 21% oxygen. The
physiological effects of reduced oxygen begin to be evident at
16%. Without regard to contaminants, the atmosphere must
contain a minimum of 19.5% oxygen to permit use of an
air-purifying respirator. This is a legal requirement of 30
CFR Part 11 and a recommendation of ANSI Z88.2 - 1980. Below
19.5% oxygen, atmosphere-supplying respirators must be used
i nstead.
C. Warning Properties
A warning property is a sign that a cartridge or canister in
use is beginning to lose its effectiveness. At the first such
signal, the old cartridge or canister must be exchanged for a
fresh one. Without a warning property, respirator efficiency
may drop without the knowledge of the wearer, ultimately
causing a health hazard.
A warning property can be detected as an odor, taste, or
irritation. Most substances have warning properties at some
concentration. A warning property detected only at dangerous
levels -- that is, greater than TLV -- is not considered
adequate. An odor, taste, or irritation detected at extremely
low concentrations is also not adequate because the warning is
being given all the time or long before the filter begins to
lose its effectiveness. In this case, the wearer would never
realize when the filter actually becomes ineffective.
The best concentration for a warning property to be detected
is around the TLV. Table 2-1 lists odor thresholds for a
number of substances and their respective TLV's (shown under
the "adopted values TWA" column). For example, toluene
diisosocyanate has a TLV of 0.005 ppm. The odor threshold,
2.14 ppm, is over 400 times the TLV, obviously not an adequate
warning property. An odor threshold of 4.68 ppm for benzene,
versus a TLV of 10 ppm, is an adequate warning property.
Dimethylformamide has a TLV of 10 ppm and an odor threshold of
100 ppm. An odor threshold 10 times greater than the TLV is
not adequate.
If a substance causes olfactory fatigue (that is, the sense of
smell is no longer effective), its odor is not an adequate
warning property. For example, upon entering an atmosphere
containing hydrogen sulfide, the odor is quite noticeable.
After a short period of time, it is no longer detectable.
2-2
-------
TABLE 2-1
Odor thresholds in air as compared to threshold limit values
Charles E. Billings. Ph.D.
Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore. MD
Linda C. Jonas
Baltimore Gas & Electric Co.
Baltimore. MD
The following Table of Odor Thresholds in Air as Compared to
TLV'S (1979) is of value in field surveys, for recognition of
exposures. We also have found it useful in education of
workers and industrial hygiene students.
Odor thresholds are from the 1967 Arthur D. Little study
for MCA.
Odor Thresholds in Air as Compared to Threshold Limit Values (1979)
Adopted
Values
TWA
Tentative
Values
STEL
Compound
ppm
Odor Description
ppm
mg/m
ppm
mg/m3
Acetaldehyde
0.21
Green. Sweet
100
180
150
270
Acetic acid
1.0
Sour
10
25
15
37
Acetone
100.0
Chemical sweet, pungent
750
1780
1000
2375
Acrolein
0.21
Burnt sweet, pungent
0.1
0.25
0.3
08
Acrylonitrile
21.4
Onion-garlic pungency
(a)
6
Ally! Chloride
0 47
Garlic-onion pungency, green
1
3
2
Amine dimethyl
0 047
Fishy
10
18
—
—
Amine, monomethyl
0.021
Fishy, pungent
—
—
—
—
Amine. Trimethyl
0.00021
Fishy, pungent
—
—
—
—
Ammonia
46.8
Pungent
25
18
35
37
Aniline
1.0
Pungent
2
10
5
20
Benzene
4 68
Solvent
10(b)
—
—
—
Benzyl chloride
0.047
Solvent
1
5
—
—
Benzyl sulfide
0 0021
Sulfidy
—
—
—
—
Bromine
0 047
Bleach, pungent
0.1
0.7
0.3
2
Butyric acid
0.001
Sour
—
—
—
—
Carbon disulfide
0.21
Vegetable sulfide
10
30
—
—
Carbon tetrachloride
(chlorination of CS;(
21.4
Sweet pungent
5(b)
30
20
125
Carbon Tetrachloride
(chlorination of CHi)
100.0
Chloral
0.047
Sweet
—
—
—
—
Chlorine
0.314
Bleach, pungent
1
3
3
9
Dimethylacetamide
46.8
Amine, burnt, oily
10
35
15
50
Dimethylforma mide
100 0
Fishy, pungent
10
30
20
60
Dimethyl sulfide
0001
Vegeable sulfide
—
—
—
—
Diphenylether (perfume grade)
0.1
—
—
—
—
Diphenyl sulfide
0.0047
Burnt rubbery
—
—
—
—
Ethanol (synthetic)
100
Sweet
—
—
—
—
Ethyl acrylate
0 00047
Hot plastic, earthy
5
20
25
100
Ethyl mercaptan
0001
Earthy, sulfidy
0.5
1
2
3
Formaldehyde
10
Hay (straw-like) pungent
2(c)
3
—
—
Hydrochloric acid gas
10.0
pungent
—
—
—
—
Hydrogen sulfide (from Na-S)
0.0047
Eggy sulfide
10
15
15
27
Hydrogen sulfide gas
000047
Sweet
Methanol
100.0
Methyl chloride
(above 10 ppm)
50
105
100
205
Methylene chloride
2140
100
360
500
1700
Methyl ethyl ketone
10.0
Sweet
200
590
300
885
Methyl isobutyl ketone
0.47
Sweet
100
410
125
510
Methyl mercaptan
0 0021
Sulfidy, pungent
0.5
1
—
—
Methyl methacrylate
0.21
Pungent, sulfidy
100
410
125
510
Monochlorobenzene
021
Chlorinated, moth balls
—
—
—
Nitrobenzene
0.0047
Shoe polish, pungent
1
5
2
10
Paracresol
0001
Tar-like, pungent
—
—
—
Paraxylene
0.47
Sweet
—
—
Perc hloroet hy le ne
4.68
Chlorinated solvent
100
670
150
1000
2-3
American Industrial Hygiene Association JOURNAL (42) 6/81
«7»
-------
Odor Thresholds in Air as Compared to Threshold Limit Values (1 979) (con't)
Tentative
Values
STEL
ppm mg/m3
Phenol
0047
Medicinal
5
19
10
38
Phosgene
1.0
Hay-like
0.1
04
—
Phosphine
0 021
Oniony, mustard
03
0.4
1
1
Pyridine
0021
Burnt, pungent, diamine
5
15
10
30
Styrene (inhibited)
0 1
Solventy. rubbery
Styrene (uninhibited)
0.047
Solventy, rubbery, plasticy
SO
215
100
425
Sulfur dichlonde
O.OOI
Sulfidy
—
—
—
Sulfur dioxide
0.47
2
5
5
IS
Toluene (from coke)
4 68
Floral, pungent, solventy
100
375
150
560
Toluene (from petroleum)
2.14
Moth balls, rubbery
—
—
Tolylene diisocyanate
2.14
Medicated bandage, pungent
0 005
0.04
0.02
0.15
Trichloroethylerte
2V4
Solventy
50
270
150
805
(a) Human carcinogen: Substance recognized to have carcinogenic potential without an assigned TLV.
(b) Chemical substance suspected of inducing cancer based on either (1) limited epidemiologic evidence, exclusive of clinical report of single cases,
or (2) demonstration of carcinogenesis in one or more animal species by appropriate methods.
|c) h is expected that this substance will soon be classified in category (b) above.
Adopted
Values
TWA
Compound ppm Odor Description ppm mg/m
2-4
Am tod. Hri Assoc. J (4i) j jgj
-------
D. Limits of Cartridges/Canisters
Cartridges or canisters used to filter breathing air do not
remove the contaminant efficiently forever. Eventually, they
will no longer filter or sorb the contaminants. The higher
the concentration the faster the cartridge is used up. To
avoid quick wearing out and afford longer service, cartridges
are assigned a maximum use concentration above which they
should not be used.
E. IOLH
An air-purifying respirator can be worn in atmospheres up to
the concentration limits placed on its cartridge. This holds
as long as the maximum use concentration is not immediately
dangerous to life or health (IDLH) -- that is, one that causes
irreversible damage to life or health within 30 minutes by
toxic action. An atmosphere which is within the flammable or
explosive limits of the contaminant is also considered IDLH.
If the concentration is at an IDLH level and still within the
use limits approved for the cartridge, that respirator cannot
be worn. Only an approved positive pressure self-contained
breathing apparatus is allowed.
III. TYPES OF AIR-PURIFYING DEVICES
Basically, respiratory hazards can be broken down into two
classes: particulates and vapors/gases. Particulates are
filtered by mechanical means, while vapors and gases are removed
by sorbents that react chemically with them. Respirators using a
combination of mechanical filter and chemical sorbent will
effectively remove both hazards.
A. Particulate-Removing FiIters
Particulates can occur as dusts, fumes, or mists. The
particle size can range from macroscopic to microscopic, and
their toxicological effects can be severe or innocuous. The
hazard posed by a particulate can be determined by its TLV. A
nuisance particulate will have a TLV of 10 mg/m , while a
toxic particulate may have a TLV well below 0.05 mg/m .
Mechanical filters are classified according to the protection
for which they are approved under schedule 21C of 30 CFR
Part 11. Most particulate filters are approved only for dusts
and/or mists with TLV's equal to or greater than 0.05 mg/m .
These dusts are usually considered to produce pneumoconiosis
and fibrosis but are not toxic. Such filters have an
efficiency of 80-90% for 0.6 millimeter (mm) particles.
Respirators approved for fumes are more efficient, removing
90-99% for 0.6 mm particles. This type of respirator is
approved for dusts, fumes and mists with TLV's equal to or
greater than 0.05 mg/m .
2-5
-------
Finally there is a high efficiency filter, which is 99.7%
effective against particles 0.3 microns in diameter. It is
approved for dusts, mists and fumes with a TLV less than
0.05 mg/m .
Mechanical filters load up with particulates as they are
used. As they do they become more efficient, but also become
more difficult to breathe through. When a mechanical filter
becomes difficult to breathe through it should be replaced.
B. Vapor- or Gas-Removing Cartridges
Sorbents are manufactured to remove a specific
chemical or group of chemicals. In contrast, particulate-
removing filters remove particulates regardless of their
composition. Sorbents are available to remove specific organic
vapors, acid gases, and ammonia, among others. Each sorbent
has a maximum concentration use limit for that specific
contaminant. Once a sorbent has been filled up with the
contaminant, it will "breakthrough" -- that is, it will allow
the full ambient concentration of the contaminant to enter the
facepiece. Again, in contrast, particulate removing-fiIters
become more efficient (but harder to breathe through) as they
fill up. There is no breakthrough.
Chemical sorbents also vary in their ability to remove
contaminants (Table 2-2). For example, vinyl chloride takes
only 3.8 minutes to reach a 1% breakthrough -- that is, for
1% of the ambient concentration to enter the facepiece. In
comparison, it takes 107 minutes for chlorobenzene to reach 1%
breakthrough. Thus chlorobenzene is removed much more
efficiently than vinyl chloride. Cartridge efficiencies
(Table 2-2) should also be considered when selecting air-
purifying respirators. Keep in mind that the times given in
Table 2-2 are valid only for test conditions. Studies of
cartridge efficiencies are referenced in Appendix I.
Chemical sorbent cartridges and canisters have an expiration
date. They may be used up to that date as long as they were
not opened previously. No expiration date is given on
cartridges. The date of manufacture can be obtained from the
manufacturer. Once opened, they begin to sorb humidity and air
contaminants whether or not they are in use, and their efficiency
and service life decrease. A cartridge should be discarded after
it is used.
2-6
-------
TABLE 2-2
EFFECT OF SOLVENT VAPOR ON RESPIRATOR CARTRIDGE EFFICIENCY1
Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (10 ppm)
Sol vent Minutes (2)
O
Aromatics
Benzene 73
Toluene 94
Ethyl benzene 84
m-Xylene 99
Cumene 81
Mestiylene 86
Alcohols 3
Methanol 0.2
Ethanol 28
Isopropanol 54
Allyl alcohol 66
n-Propanol 70
sec-Butanol 96
Butanol 115
2-Methoxyethanol 116
Isoamyl alcohol 97
4-Methy1-2-pentanol 75
2-Ethoxyethanol 77
Amyl alcohol 102
2-Ethy1-1-butanol 76.5
Monochlorides ^
Methyl chloride 0.05
Vinyl chloride 3.8
Ethyl chloride 5.6
Allyl chloride 31
1-Chloropropane 25
1-Chlorobutane 72
Chlorocyclopentarte 78
Chiorobenzene 107
1-Chlorohexane 77
0-Chlorotoluene 102
1-Chloroheptane 82
3-(Chloromethyl heptane) 63
2-7
-------
TABLE 2-2 (Cont'd)
Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (10 ppm)
Solvent Minutes
Dichlorides 3
Dichloromethane 10
trans-l,2-Dichloroethylene 33
1.1-Dichloroethane 23
cis-l,2-Dichloroethylene 30
1.2-Dichloroethane 54
1.2-Dichloropropane 65
1,4-Dichlorobutane 108
o-Dichlorobenzene 109
Trichlorides 3
Chloroform 33
Methyl chloroform 40
Trichloroethylene 55
1.1.2-Trichloroethane 72
1.2.3-Trichloropropane 111
Tetra- and Pentachlorides 3
Carbon tetrachloride 77
Perchloroethylene 107
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 104
Pentachloroethane 93
Acetates ^
Methyl acetate 33
Vinyl acetate 55
Ethyl acetate 67
Isopropyl acetate 65
Isopropenyl acetate 83
Propyl acetate 79
Allyl acetate 76
sec-Butyl acetate 83
Butyl acetate 77
Isopentyl acetate 71
2-Methoxyethyl acetate 93
1.3-Dimethyl butyl acetate 61
Amyl acetate 73
2-Ethoxyethyl acetate 80
Hexyl acetate 67
Ketones ^
Acetone 37
2-Butanone 82
2-Pentanone 104
3-Pentanone 94
4-Methyl-2-pentanone 96
Mesityl oxide 122
Cyclopentanone 141
3-Heptanone 91
2-8
-------
TABLE 2-2 (Cont'd)
Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (10 ppm)
Solvent Minutes
Ketones ^
2-Heptanone 101
Cyclohexanone 126
5-Methyl-3-heptanone 86
3-Methylcyclohexanone 101
Diisobutyl ketone 71
4-Methylcyclohexanone 111
Alkanes 4
Pentane 61
Hexane 52
Methylcyclopentane 62
Cyclohexane 69
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane68
Heptane 78
Methylcyclohexane 69
5-Ethylidene-2-norbornene 87
Nonane 76
Decane 71
Amines ^
Methyl amine 12
Ethyl amine 40
Isopropyl amine 66
Propyl amine 90
Diethyl amine 88
Butyl amine 110
Triethyl amine 81
Dipropyl amine 93
Diisopropyl amine 77
Cyclohexyl amine 112
Dibutyl amine 76
Miscellaneous materials ^
Acrylonitrile 49
Pyridine 119
1-Nitropropane 143
Methyl iodide 12
Dibromomethane 82
1,2-Dibromoethane 141
Acetic anhydride 124
Bromobenzene 142
1 Nelson, G.O., and C.A. Harder. Respirator Cartridge Efficiency
Studies, University of California, Livermore. 1976.
2 Cartridge pairs tested at 1000 ppm, 50% relative humidity,
22°C, and 53.3 liters/minute (equivalent to a moderately
heavy work rate). Pair cartridges preconditioned at room
temperature and 50% relative humidity for at least 24
hours prior to testing.
3 Mine Safety Appliances Cartridges.
^ American Optical Cartridges.
2-9
-------
RESPIRATOR CONSTRUCTION
The facepiece is one of two major components of an air-purifying
respirator (the air-purifying device being the other).
Essentially four types of facepieces and devices may be used:
- Half-mask with twin cartridges
- Full-face mask with twin cartridges
- Full-face mask with chin-mounted canister
- Full-face mask with harness-mounted canister
(gas mask)
The facepiece is the means of sealing the respirator to the
wearer. Attached to the facepiece is the lens (in the case of the
full- facepiece) and the suspension for holding the mask to the
face. An adapter is attached to the cartridge or canister . With
the adapter and the mask is an inhalation check valve, which
prevents exhaled breath from coming back through the cartridge or
canister. An exhalation valve permits the exhaled breath to be
exhausted and prevents air from entering it during inhalation.
Some respirators provide an integral speaking diaphragm which is
air-tight. Each respirator has different ways of assembling and
attaching parts. This prevents hybridizing two different makes
into one, which would void its approval.
The recommended facepiece to use with cartridges or canisters is
the full-facepiece. It provides eye protection, is easier to fit,
and has a Protection Factor of 100X. The half-mask has a
Protection Factor of 10X. Cartridges and canisters used in
conjunction with the ful1-facepiece vary mainly in the sorbents
and the concentration of atmospheric contaminant that can be
removed.
Organic vapors can be removed by appropriate cartridges, chin
canisters, or the larger harness-mounted canisters. Cartridges are
approved for use in atmospheres up to 1,000 ppm (0.1%) organic
vapors, chin style canisters up to 5,000 ppm (0.5%), and
harness-mounted canisters up to 20,000 ppm (2.0%). Keep in mind
that no air-purifying device is permitted in IDLH atmospheres.
Using a cartridge or canister at lower concentrations effectively
increases its service life.
The wearer should be familiar with the respirator to be used. The
parts should be easily identified by function, which also is
important in maintenance and cleaning.
2-10
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V. RESPIRATOR CLEANING
Once a respirator has been used it must be cleaned. All
detachable parts such as straps, valves, and gaskets are removed
and cleaned separately. Cartridges cannot be cleaned. They can
be used again if their service life has not been exhausted. The
facepiece and other parts can be washed separately in sanitizer
solution made by the manufacturer of the respirator. The parts
should go through two water rinses and left to air dry. When dry,
the parts are assembled and the respirator is put in a clean plastic
bag and stored where it will be protected from conditions that could
alter the shape of the mask, high temperatures, or very dusty
environments. Additional details are provided in Appendix II.
I. DONNING AND FIT-TESTING
The OSHA regulations, in 29 CFR 1910.134 (e)(5) (i), state: "Every
respirator wearer shall receive fitting instructions including
demonstrations and practice in how the respirator should be worn,
how to adjust it, and how to determine if it fits properly.
Respirators shall not be worn when conditions prevent a good face
seal. Such conditions may be a growth of beard, sideburns, a skull
cap that projects under the facepiece, or temple pieces on glasses.
Also, the absence of one or both dentures can seriously affect the
fit of a facepiece. The worker's diligence in observing these
factors shall be evaluated by periodic check. To assure proper
protection, the facepiece fit shall be checked by the wearer each
time he puts on the respirator. This may be done by fitting
instructions."
A. Fitting
- Place the respirator over the face and draw the straps
securely. The mask should not be so tight as to cause
discomfort or a headache. Secure bottom straps first.
B. Pressure Testing
- Once the respirator is on, make two pressure tests:
- Negative pressure test:
-- close off cartridge inlet with the palm of the hand.
— gently inhale so the facepiece collapses against the face
for about 10 seconds.
-- determine by an inward rushing of air if the negative
pressure within the facepiece is maintained over the 10
seconds.
2-11
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- Positive pressure test:
-- close off exhalation valve with the palm of the hand.
(Valve cover may have to be removed.)
-- gently exhale into the facepiece so a slight positive
pressure builds.
-- note if the positive pressure can be built. If it
cannot, air is leaking out.
C. Qualitative Fit-Test
Individuals who use air-purifying respirators must wear a
respirator which has been successfully fitted to their faces.
Most individual respirators will fit only 60% of the working
population. But with the variety of respirators available, at
least one type should be found to fit an individual. An
improperly fitted respirator delivers little of the protection
promised.
Perform a qualitative fit-test with isoamyl acetate or
irritant smoke before using a respirator under hazardous
conditions. Additional details are provided in Appendix III.
D. Protection Factors (PF)
If a respirator passes the qualitative test, it can be worn in
concentrations determined by the assigned Protection Factor
(PF). The maximum concentration is calculated by multiplying
the TLV of the contaminant by its PF. PF's for cartridge and
canister respirators are:
- Half-face mask, 10X
- Full-face mask, 100X
Example: Protection (ppm) = PF x TLV TLV« = 10
PF =10
= 10 x 10
= 100 ppm
Thus, for substance x with a TLV of 10, the half-mask
respirator provides protection up to concentration of 100 ppm
of the substance.
2-12
TAT/7-83
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APPENDIX I
REFERENCES FOR RESPIRATOR CARTRIDGE EFFICIENCIES STUDIES
Ruch, W.E., G.O. Nelson, C.L. Lindeken, R.E. Johnsen, and D.O. Hodgkins.
"Respirator Cartridge Efficiency Studies: I. Experimental Design."
Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 33, 105 (1972).
Nelson, G.O., and D.H. Hodgkins. "Respirator Cartridge Efficiency Studies:
II. Preparation of Test Atmospheres." Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
33, 110 (1972).
Nelson, G.O., R.E. Johnsen, C.L. Lindeken, and R.D. Taylor. "Respirator
Cartridge Efficiency Studies: III. A Mechanical Breathing Machine to
Simulate Human Respiration." Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 33, 745 (1972).
Nelson, G.O., and C.A. Harder. "Respirator Cartridge Efficiency Studies:
IV. Effects of Steady-State and Pulsating Flow."
Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 33, 797 (1972).
Nelson, G.O., and C.A. Harder. "Respirator Cartridge Efficiency Studies:
V. Effect of Solvent Vapor." Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 35, 391 (1974).
Nelson, G.O., C.A. Harder, and B.E. Bigler. "Respirator Cartridge
Efficiency Studies: VI. Effect of Concentration." Lawrence Livermore
Laboratory, Rept. UCRL-76184 (November, 1974).
Nelson, G.O., A.N. Correia, and C.A. Harder. "Respirator Cartridge
Efficiency Studies: VII. Effect of Relative Humidity and Temperature."
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Rept. UCRL-77390 (August, 1975).
Nelson, G.O., and A.N. Correia. "Respirator Cartridge Efficiency Studies:
VIII. Summary and Conclusions." Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 37,9 (1976).
2-13
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APPENDIX II
CARE AND CLEANING OF RESPIRATORS
I. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Any organization using respirators on a routine basis should have
a program for their care and cleaning. The purpose of a program
is to assure that all respirators are maintained at their original
effectiveness. If they are modified in any way, their Protection
Factors may be voided. Usually one person in an organization is
trained to inspect, clean, repair, and store respirators.
The program should be based on the number and types of
respirators, working conditions, and hazards involved. In
general, the program should include:
-Inspection (including a leak check)
-Cleaning and disinfection
-Repair
-Storage
II. INSPECTION
Inspect respirators after each use. Inspect a respirator that is
kept ready for emergency use monthly to assure it will perform
satisfactorily.
On air-purifying respirators, thoroughly check all connections for
gaskets and "0" rings and for proper tightness. Check the
condition of the facepiece and all its parts, connecting air tube,
and headbands. Inspect rubber or elastomer parts for pliability
and signs of deterioration.
Maintain a record for each respirator inspection, including
date, inspector, and any unusual conditions or findings.
III. CLEANING AND DISINFECTION
Collect respirators at a central location. Brief employees
required to wear respirators on the respirator program and
assure them that they will always receive a clean and sanitized
respirator. Such assurances can boost morale. Clean and
disinfect respirators as follows:
-Remove all cartridges, canisters, and filters, plus gaskets or
seals not affixed to their seats.
-Remove elastic headbands.
2-15
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-Remove exhalation cover.
-Remove speaking diaphragm or speaking diaphragm-exhalation
valve assembly.
-Remove inhalation valves.
-Wash facepiece and breathing tube in cleaner/sanitizer powder
mixed with warm water, preferably at 120° to 140°F. Wash
components separately from the facemask, as necessary.
Remove heavy soil from surfaces with a hand brush.
-Remove all parts from the wash water and rinse twice in clean
warm water.
-Air dry parts in a designated clean area.
-Wipe facepieces, valves, and seats with a damp lint-free cloth
to remove any remaining soap or other foreign materials.
: Most respirator manufacturers market their own cleaners/
sanitizers as dry mixtures of a bactericidal agent and a mild
detergent. One-ounce packets for individual use and bulk
packages for quantity use are usually available.
REPAIRS
Only a trained person with proper tools and replacement parts
should work on respirators. No one should ever attempt to replace
components or to make adjustments or repairs beyond the
manufacturer's recommendations. It may be necessary to send
high-pressure-side components of SCBA's to an authorized facility
for repairs.
Make repairs as follows:
-Disassemble and hand clean the pressure-demand and exhalation
valve assembly (SCBA's only). Exercise care to avoid damage
to the rubber diaphragm.
-Replace all faulty or questionable parts or assemblies. Use
parts only specifically designed for the particular
respirator.
-Reassemble the entire respirator and visually inspect the
completed assembly.
-Insert new filters, cartridges, or canisters, as required.
Make sure that gaskets or seals are 1n place and tightly
sealed.
2-16
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V. STORAGE
Follow manufacturers' storage instructions, which are always
furnished with new respirators or affixed to the lid of the
carrying case. In addition, these general instructions may be
helpful:
- After respirators have been inspected, cleaned, and repaired,
store them so to protect against dust, excessive moisture,
damaging chemicals, extreme temperatures and direct sunlight.
- Do not store respirators in clothes lockers, bench drawers, or
tool boxes. Place them in wall compartments at work stations or
in a work area designated for emergency equipment. Store them in
the original carton or carrying case.
- Draw clean respirators from storage for each use. Each unit can
be sealed in a plastic bag, placed in a separate box, and tagged
for immediate use.
2-17
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APPENDIX III
RESPIRATOR FIT TESTING
I. INTRODUCTION
All users or potential users of demand-type respiratory protection
devices should be fit tested to ensure a proper facepiece-to-face
seal. Either isoamyl acetate or irritant smoke should be used
with one of the four methods described below. A selection of
respirators should be tested, with users allowed to choose the
most comfortable from those that fit satisfactorily.
II. METHODS
A. Method No. 1 - Swab or Brush (Organic Vapors)
-Use only facepieces equipped with organic vapor cartridges.
-Perform the test in area with no noticeable air movement.
-Saturate a tissue, cloth, or brush with isoamyl acetate.
-Prior to testing, expose subject to a very low concentration
of isoamyl acetate to assure that he/she can detect the
odor.
-After subject dons the respirator, tester visually inspects
facepiece-to-face seal. If seal obviously leaks, test ends
and mask is recorded as unsatisfactory. If subject is
uncomfortable, test ends.
-Move saturated material slowly around entire sealing surface
of the respirator at a distance of 3 to 6 inches. Perform
first with test subject sedentary, then with subject moving
head and face (i.e., talking, moving head side to side and up
and down). End test if any leakage occurs.
-If the subject detects the odor during fitting, record that
respirator as unsatisfactory, remove it from the subject, and
visually inspect the facepiece-to-face seal. If any doubt
exists about the respirator or cartridges, test a duplicate
to assure that the leakage was due to facepiece-to-face seal .
2-19
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B. Method No. 2 - Around Seal (Particulates)
-Use respirators equipped with high-efficiency filters.
-Perform test in area with no noticeable air movement.
-Break both ends of an MSA ventilation smoke tube. Insert one
end into the tube connected to the positive-pressure end of a
two-way aspirator bulb and cover the other end with 1- to 2-
inch length of Tygon, surgical, or rubber tubing. Squeeze
the aspirator bulb to generate the test aerosol.
-After subject dons the respirator, tester visually inspects
facepiece-to-face seal. If seal obviously leaks, test ends
and mask is recorded as unsatisfactory. If subject is
uncomfortable, test ends.
-Direct the smoke around entire sealing surface of the
respirator at a distance of 3 to 6 inches. Instruct subject
to breathe shallowly during initial test around surface and
normally thereafter if no leakage is detected. If a
half-mask is being tested, instruct subject to close his/her
eyes for the duration of the test. Perform the test first
with subject sedentary, then with subject moving head and
face (i.e., talking, moving head side to side and up and
down). End test if any leakage occurs.
-If the subject detects the odor during fitting, record that
respirator as unsatisfactory, remove it from the subject, and
visually inspect the sealing surface. If any doubt exists
about the respirator or cartridges, test a duplicate to
assure that the leakage was due to the facepiece-to-face
seal.
C. Method Mo. 3 - Enclosure in Plastic Bag (Organic Vapors)
-Use facepleces equipped with organic vapor cartridges.
-Saturate a tissue or cloth with Isoamyl acetate and suspend
1t inside the top of a plastic garbage bag or harvard hood.
-Prior to testing, expose subject to a very low concentration
of the Isoamyl acetate to assure that he/she can detect the
odor.
-After subject dons the respirator, tester visually Inspects
facepiece-to-face seal. If seal obviously leaks, test ends
and mask 1s recorded as unsatisfactory. If subject 1s
uncomfortable, test ends.
2-20
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-Instruct subject to put his/her head into the bag or hood and
breathe normally during a short (30-60 seconds) sedentary
period. If no leakage is detected, instruct the subject to
perform various exercises simulating, as nearly as possible,
work conditions (i.e., talking, running in place, head
movements, bending over). End test if any leakage occurs.
-If the subject detects the odor during fitting, record that
respirator as unsatisfactory, remove it from the subject, and
visually inspect the sealing surface. If any doubt exists
about the respirator or cartridges, test a duplicate to
assure that leakage was due to the facepiece-to-face seal.
D. Method No. 4 - Enclosure in Plastic Bag (Particulates)
-Use respirators equipped with high-efficiency filters.
-Break both ends of an MSA ventilation smoke tube. Insert one
end into the tube connected to the positive-pressure end of a
two-way aspirator bulb and cover the end with 1- to 2-inch
length of Tygon, surgical, or rubber tubing. Squeeze the
aspirator bulb to generate the test aerosol.
-After subject dons the respirator, tester visually inspects
facepiece-to-face seal. If seal obviously leaks, test ends
and mask is recorded as unsatisfactory. If subject is
uncomfortable, test ends.
-Generate smoke into the input of the harvard hood or a hole
punched in the top of the closed plastic bag until smoke can
be visually detected throughout the bag or hood.
-Instruct subject to put his/her head into the bag or hood and
breathe shallowly during a short (30-60 seconds) sedentary
period. If a half-mask is being tested, instruct subject to
close his/her eyes before entering and keep them closed until
exiting. If no leakage is detected during sedentary period,
instruct subject to perform various exercises simulating, as
nearly as possible, work conditions (i.e., talking, running
in place, head movements, bending over) while breathing
normally. End test if any leakage occurs.
-If the subject detects the odor during fitting, record that
respirator as unsatisfactory, remove it from the subject, and
visually inspect the sealing surface. If any doubt exists
about the respirator or cartridges, test a duplicate to
assure that leakage was due to the facepiece-to-face seal.
2-21
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PART 3
SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
I. INTRODUCTION
Respiratory apparatus must frequently be used during response
to hazardous materials incidents. If the contaminant is unknown
or is known but the concentration is too high to use air-purifying
respirators, then an atmosphere supplying respirator is required.
The self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) is generally used
because it allows the wearer to work without being confined by a hose
or airline.
The wearer of the SCBA depends on it to supply clean breathing
air. If the wearer is not properly trained to wear the SCBA or it
is not properly cared for, then it may fail to provide the
protection expected.
The user should be completely familiar with the SCBA being worn.
Checkout procedures have been developed for inspecting an SCBA
prior to use, allowing the user to recognize potential problems.
An individual who checks out the unit is more comfortable and
confident wearing it.
There are two types of apparatus: closed-circuit, which uses
compressed oxygen, and open-circuit, which uses compressed air.
SCBA's may operate in one of two modes, demand or pressure-demand.
The length of time an SCBA operates is based on the air supply. The
units available operate from 5 minutes to over 4 hours.
Both open- and closed-circuit SCBA's will be discussed and the
modes of operation explained. The bulk of the discussion deals
with open-circuit pressure-demand SCBA's which are most widely used
because they offer more protection.
II. MODES OF OPERATION
A. Demand
In the demand mode, a negative pressure is created inside the
facepiece and breathing tubes when the wearer inhales (Table 3-1).
This negative pressure draws down a diaphragm in the regulator in
an SCBA. The diaphragm depresses and opens the admission valves,
allowing air to be inhaled. As long as the negative pressure
remains, air flows to the facepiece.
The problem with demand operation is that the wearer can
inhale contaminated air through any gaps in the facepiece-to-
face sealing surface. Hence, demand apparatus with a full
facepiece is assigned a Protection Factor of only 100, the same as
for a full-face air-purifying respirator.
3-1
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TABLE 3-1
PRESSURE INSIDE FACEPIECE OF SCBA RELATIVE TO
AMBIENT PRESSURE OUTSIDE
Demand Pressure demand
Inhalation
Exhalation
Static (between breaths)
+
same
+
+
+
B. Pressure-Demand
An SCBA operating in the pressure-demand mode maintains a
positive pressure inside the facepiece at all times. The
system is designed so that the admission valve remains open
until enough pressure is built up to close it. The pressure
builds up because air is prevented from leaving the system
until the wearer exhales. Less pressure is required to close
the admission valve than is required to open the spring-
loaded exhalation valve.
At all times, the pressure in the facepiece is greater than
the ambient pressure outside the facepiece (Table 3-1). if
any leakage occurs, it is outward from the facepiece. Because
of this, the pressure-demand SCBA has been assigned a
Protection Factor of 10,000.
III. TYPES OF APPARATUS
A. Closed-Circuit
The closed-circuit SCBA, commonly called the rebreather, was
developed especially for oxygen-deficient situations (Figure
3-1). Because it recycles exhaled breath and carries only a
small oxygen supply, the service time can be considerably
greater than an open-circuit device, which must carry all of
its breathing air.
The air for breathing is mixed in a flexible breathing bag.
This air is inhaled, deflating the breathing bag. The
deflation depresses the admission valve, allowing the oxygen
to enter the bag. There it mixes with exhaled breath, from
which carbon dioxide has just been removed.
3-2
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Head Harrwtt
r»up^ct
o.
Check Vilvt 1 } [ Check Vjlve
Exhalation lube./ v Inhalation Tube
7 f
Saliva Trip
r<
Breathing Sag
Admlssl&n Valve
Pressure Plate
Compressor-
Oxyyen Tank
and Pressure
Relief V*lvt
Granular Solid Adsorbent (or Carbon Dioxide
i
Coder
Pressure Gauge
Pressure
JJ/L- Reducing Valvt
Main Valve
Bypass Une
Bypass Valve
CLOSED-CIRCUIT SCBA (DEMAND MODE)
FIGURE 3-1
Most rebreathers operate in the demand mode. Several
rebreathers are designed to provide a positive pressure in the
facepiece. The approval schedule 13F under 30 CFR Part 11 for
closed-circuit SCBA makes no provisions for testing "demand"
or "pressure-demand" rebreathers. The approval schedule was
set up to certify only rebreathers that happen to operate in
the demand mode. Thus, rebreathers designed to operate in the
positive pressure mode can be approved strictly as closed-circuit
apparatus. Since regulations make no distinction, and selection is
based on approval criteria, rebreathers designed to maintain a positi
pressure can only be considered as a demand-type apparatus.
Rebreathers use either compressed oxygen or liquid oxygen. To
assure the quality of the air to be breathed, the oxygen must
be at least medical grade breathing air which meets the
requirements set by the "U.S. Pharmacopeia".
Open-Ci rcuit
The open-circuit SCBA requires a supply of 21% oxygen and 78%
nitrogen breathing air. The user simply inhales and exhales. The
exhaled air is exhausted from the system. Because the air is
not recycled, the wearer must carry the full air supply, which
limits a unit to the amount of air that the wearer can easily
carry. Available SCBA's can last from 5 to 60 minutes. Units
which have 5 to 15 minute air supplies are only applicable to
escape situations. The wearer should have at least 30 minutes
of air to enter a hazardous atmosphere.
3-3
-------
The air used in open-circuit apparatus must meet the
requirements in the Compressed Gas Association's Pamphlet
G-7.1, which calls for at least "Grade D". Grade D air must
contain 19.5 to 23.5% oxygen with the balance being
predominantly nitrogen. Condensed hydrocarbons are limited to
5 mg/m , carbon monoxide to 20 parts per million (ppm) and
carbon dioxide to 1,000 ppm. An undersirable odor is also
prohibited. Air quality can be checked using an oxygen meter,
carbon monoxide meter and detector tubes.
IV. COMPONENTS OF A TYPICAL OPEN-CIRCUIT PRESSURE DEMAND SCBA
A. Cylinder
Compressed air is considered a hazardous material. For this
reason, any cylinder used with a SCBA must meet the Department
of Transportations (DOT) "General Requirements for Shipments
and Packaging" (49 CFR Part 173) and "Shipping Container
Specifications" (49 CFR Part 178). (See Appendix I for
excerpts.)
A hydrostatic test must be performed on a cylinder at regular
intervals for steel cylinders, every 5 years; for composite
cylinders (glass fiber/aluminum), every 3 years. Composite
cylinders are relatively new and must have a DOT exemption
because there are no set construction requirements at this
time.
A maximum of 45 cubic feet of Grade D air at a pressure of
2,216 pounds per square inch (psi) is needed for a 30-m1nute
supply. Cylinders are filled using a compressor or a cascade
system of 3 to 5 large cylinders of breathing air. If the
cylinder is overfilled, a relief diaphragm releases the
pressure. The relief diaphragm is located at the cylinder
valve, along with a cylinder pressure gauge to be accurate
within + 5%. Because the gauge is exposed and subject to
abuse, Tt should be used only for judging if the cylinder is
full.
3-4
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B. High-Pressure Hose
The high-pressure hose connects the cylinder and the
regulator. The hose should be connected to the cylinder only
by hand, never with a wrench. An 0-ring inside the connector
assures a good seal.
A low-pressure warning alarm is also located near the
connection to the cylinder. This alarm must sound when 75-80%
of the air supply has been consumed to alert the wearer that
only 20-25% is available for retreat. Entering hazardous
atmospheres should consume no more than 20% of the initial air
supply, to allow enough for retreat.
C. Regulator Assembly
Air travels from the cylinder through the high-pressure hose
to the regulator (Figure 3-2.) There it can travel one of two
paths. If the by-pass valve is opened air travels directly
through the breathing hose into the facepiece at full
pressure. If the mainline valve is opened, air passes through
the regulator and is controlled by that mechanism.
Also at the regulator (before air enters one of the valves) is
another pressure gauge which also must be accurate to + 5%.
Because it is visible and well protected, this gauge sFould be
used to monitor the air supply.
Under normal conditions, the mainline valve opens so air can
enter the regulator. Once in the regulator, the air pressure
is reduced from the actual cylinder pressure to approximately
50-100 psi by a reducing mechanism. A pressure relief valve
is located after the pressure reducer for safety should the
pressure reducer malfunction.
The air can travel no further until the admission valve is
opened. The admission valve is actually held open by a
spring. A back pressure of about 1.25 inches water column
pressure keeps the admission valve closed.
Another pressure relief valve is sometimes placed after the
admission valve. If pressure should accumulate near the
regulator due to blockage or malfunction, this valve releases
the pressure.
3-5
-------
Bypass valve
Pressure gauge
High pressure
Reduced pressure
I
Reducing valve
\/V\A
Mainline valve
Cylinder \
High pressure
relief valve
Admission
valve
To facepiece
Low pressure
relief valve
Pressure
demand
exhalation s£ Spring
valve ^
FIGURE 3-2
MSA PRESSURE DEMAND TYPE
REGULATOR AIR FLOW
Diaphragm
Spring
Levers
Selection from MSA Product literature, by Mine Safety Appliances Co., copyrighted by
Mine Safety Appliances Co., reprinted with permission of Publisher.
-------
D. Breathing Hose and Facepiece
The breathing hose connects the regulator to the facepiece.
Rubber gaskets at both ends provide tight seals. The hose is
usually constructed of neoprene and is corrugated to allow
stretchi ng.
Above the point in the mask where the hose is connected, is a
check valve. This valve allows air to be drawn from the hose
when the wearer inhales but prevents exhaled air from entering
the breathing hose. If the check valve is not in place, the
exhaled air may not be completely exhausted from the
facepi ece.
The facepiece itself is normally constructed of neoprene, but
sometimes of silicone rubber. Five- or six-point suspension
is used to hold the mask to the face. The visor lens is made
of polycarbonate or other clear material. Antifog solution
should be applied to the lens after cleaning.
At the bottom of the facepiece is an exhalation valve. About
2-3 inches water column pressure is required to open this
valve. Inside the facepiece, the static pressure normally is
maintained at about 1.5 inches water column pressure.
Some masks include an air-tight speaking diaphragm, which
facilitates communications while preventing contaminated air
from enteri ng.
E. Back Pack and Harness
A back pack and harness support the cylinder and regulator,
allowing the user to move freely. Weight should be supported
on the hips not the shoulders.
V. INSPECTION AND CHECKOUT
The SCBA must be inspected according to manufacturers as well as
29 CFR recommendations. In addition, the SCBA should be checked
out immediately prior to use. Checkout and inspection procedures
(Appendix II) should be followed closely to assure safe operation
of the unit.
VI. APPLICABLE STANDARDS
1. American National Standard Method of Marking Compressed
Gas Containers to Identify the Material Contained, ANSI
Z48.1-1954 (R1971).
3-7
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2. Air Compressed for Breathing Purposes, Federal
Specification BB-A-1034A, June 21, 1968.
3. Breathing Apparatus, Self-Contained, Interim Federal
Specification GG-B-675d, September 23, 1976.
4. Compressed Air for Human Respiration, Compressed Gas
Association Pamphlet G-7, 1976.
VII. Important Information on Cylinder
A cylinder on an SCBA typically carries the following
information (Figure 3-3):
1. DOT specifications or exemption number for cylinder, if
requi red.
2. DOT rated service pressure.
3. Cylinder serial number.
4. Manufacturer's symbol, month/year of initial hydrostatic
test.
5. Logo assigned to certified hydrostatic test facility.
See Appendix I for details on DOT requirements.
WE 7277^2216
El^ST1C^EXPANSiPN:J6^1p6jn1
**__ : AIR; 45 SCF. AT 2216 PSIG
r*IINE .'SAFETY APPLIANCES COH;
:^.: ~;3»ART N0.*460320 -
FIGURE 3-3
INFORMATION ON TYPICAL SCBA CYLINDER
3-8
TAT/7-83
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APPENDIX I
DOT SPECIFICATION CYLINDERS
SHIPPING CONTAINERS
The following information has been abstracted from the Coav. of Federal
Regulations, Title 49, Parts 100-199 and is intended to serve as an
aid for in-house use when reviewing your hazardous material procedures.
It does not include or refer to all applicable Department of Transporta-
tion (DOT) requirements. The term "cylinder" means a pressure vessel
designed for pressures higher than 40 psia (pounds per square inch
absolute) and having a circular cross section. It does not include a
portable tank, multiunit tank car tank, cargo tank, or tank car.
QUALIFICATION, MAINTENANCE AND USE OF CYLINDERS
(Sec. 17 3.34 and Compressed Gas Association (CGA)
Pamphlets as incorporated by reference in Title 49)
1. GENERAL QUALIFICATION (Sec. 173.34(a)(1) No person may charge
or fill a cylinder unless it is as specified in this section and
Part 178 of Title 49 .
a. A cylinder that leaks, is bulged, has defective valves or
safety devices, bears evidence of physical abuse, fire or
heat damage, or detrimental rusting or corrosion, must not
be used unless it is properly repaired and requalified as
prescribed in this regulations.
b. When cylinders with a marked pressure limit are prescribed,
other cylinders made under the same specification but with
a higher marked service pressure limit are authorized. For
example, cylinders marked DOT-4B500 may be used where DOT-4
B300 is specified.
2. CYLINDER MARKINGS (Sec. 173.34(c) Each required marking on a cylinder
must be maintained so that is is legible. Retest markings and original
markings which are becoming illegible may be reproduced by stamping on a
metal plate which must be permanently secured to the cylinder (See Fig-
ures 1 and 2).
a. Additional markings not affecting any of the prescribed markings
may be made in accordance with marking requirements of the speci-
fication.
b. When the space 'originally provided for dates of subsequent
retests becomes filled, the stamping of additional test dates
into the external surface of the footring of a cylinder is
authorized.
c. A cylinder marking may npt be changed except as follows:
(1) Marked service pressure may be changed only upon application
to the Bureau of Explosives and receipt of written instructions
as to the procedure to be followed. Such a change is not author-
ized for a cylinder which has failed to pass the prescribed periodic
hydrostatic retest unless it is reheat treated and requalified in
accordance with the requirements of this section.
3-9
-------
2. Changes may be made in serial numbers and in the identification
symbols by the owners. Identification symbols must be registered
and approved by the Bureau of Explosives. Serial numbers and
identification symbols may be changed only by the owner upon his
receipt of written approval from the Bureau of Explosives. The
request for approval must identify the existing markings (including
serial numbers) that correspond with the proposed new markings.
MARKING REQUIREMENTS
178.36 lo 176.66 Subpart C Specification! (or Cyllndara.
ICC 3AA2015®
A35798641®
PST® _
6 £56®+®
5.61®+® _
5-66®+®*®
-NO STAMPING BELOW THIS LINE
ALL STAMPING AT LEAST '/« INCH HIGH
SEE 49CFRt78.37-2l
MARKING
yCAP
J* „NECK
o\ S RING
CYLINDER
1. DOT or ICC mjrking may appear-new manufacture mutt read
"DOT". 49CFR171.14
"3AA" indicates spec In 49CFR17S.37.
"2015" It the marked itrvice pressure.
2. Serial number- no duplicates permited with any particular
symbol- aerial number combination.
3. Symbol of manulacturer, user, or purchaser.
CAUTION: This is a training aid and does not
4. "6 56" date ot manufacture. Month and year.
disinterested inspector's alDcis) mark.
5. Plus mark (+ ) indicates cylinder may be 10% overcharged
per 49CFR 173.302(C).
6. Retest dates
7. S pointed star indicates Ion yeai ratest interval
See 49 CFR173.34(e)(1S).
Include all provisions of the regulation*.
Figuire 1 Marking Requirements
•» ptppmy pfttff devices (Sec. 173.34(d) Each cylinder charged with a
.—rr—".i... excepted in this paragraph, must be equipped With
compressed gas. rovid, as to type, location, and
one ^r* 8J&tJuJJau of Explosives and must be capable of preventing
explosion of the normally charged cylinder when is is placed in a fire.
_e not be shipped with leaking safety relief devices.
S* Safety relief devices must be tested for leaks before the charged
cylinder is shipped from the cylinder filling plant. Ifc ls e*~
oresslv forbidden to repair leaking fuse plug devices, where leak
is through the fusible metal or between the fusible metal and
the opening in the plug body, except by removal of the device and
replacement of the fusible metal.
2
3-10
-------
b. Except as provided in Notes 1,2,3 below, safety relief devices
are not required on cylinders 12 inches or less in length, ex-
clusive of neck, and 4^ inches or less in outside diameter.
NOTE 1: Safety relief devices are required on specifications 9,40,41,
and 31 cylinders (Sec. 178.65). Metal safety relief valves are
required on specification 39 cylinders used for liquefied flammable
gases. Fusible safety relief devices are not authorized on specifi-
cation 39 cylinders containing liquefied compressed gases.
NOTE 2: Safety relief devices are required on cylinders charged with
a liquefied gas for which this part requires a service pressure of
1,800 psi or-higher.
NOTE 3: Safety relief devices are required on cylinders charged with
nonliquefied gases to a pressure of 1,800 psi or higher at 70 F.
c. Except for specification 39 cylinders and cylinders for Acetylene
in solution, safety relief devices are not required on cylinders
charged with nonliquefied gas under pressure of 300 psi or less
at 70°F.
d. Safety relief devices are prohibited on cylinders charged with
Poison A gas or liquid.
MARKING REQUIREMENTS
BOSS OR SPUO
STAMPING
COLLAR
MARKINGS ON 4B 4BA 4BW
CYLINDERS
STAMPING USUALLY/
ABOVE THIS LINE X
SEE APPLICABLE
SPEC. REQUIREMENT
ALL MARKS AT LEaST '/« INCH
HIGH SEE APPLICABLE SPEC.
DOT SPECIFICATION:
4B
4BA
4BW
MARKING:
SUB-PAR:19&20
SUB-PAR: 1»
SUB-PAR-.20
4SCFR17S.S0
49CFR178.51
4SCFR17S.S1
FOOTRING
ICC 4BA 240w
•lADA 1357864211
ABC®
12 - 42®
12® 54S®
12 — 61E
12 —66
(0 DOT 0f 'CC marking may appear-new manufacture cylinder
mutt rod •'DOT". So 49CFR171.14
• 4BA" indicates OOT spec applying.
"240" is the marked service pressure.
(?) Symbol of manufacturer, user, or purchaser.
(3) Serial numbw - no duplicates permitted with any particular
symbol - serial number combination.
Inspector's official mark.
OPTIONAL MARKS:
1. Owners name & address
2. T W.-XXX - tare weight usually pounds.
3. WC-XXX- water capacity usually pounds.
"2-42" month and year of manufacture.
(5^ Retest dates.
@ "S" denotes modified hydrostatic test method used.
Soo49CFR173.<9).
(5) "E" denotes visual Inspection used.
See 49CFR173.34(e)<10).
CAUTION: This is a training aid and does not
Includo ell provisions of the regulations.
Figure 2 Marking Requirements
3
3-11
-------
e. Safety relief devices are prohibited on cylinders charged with
Fluorine.
f. Safety relief devices are prohibited on cylinders charged with
Methyl mercaptan; with Mono-/ Di-, or Trimethylamine, Anhydrous -
with not over 10 pounds of Nitrosyl Chloride; or with less than*
165 pounds of Anhydrous Ammonia.
g. Safety relief devices, if used, must be in the vapor space
cylinders containing Pyroforic liquids, n.o.s. , covered by
Sec. 173.134.
4- PERIODIC RETESTING AND REINSPECTION OF CYLINDERS (Sec. 173.34(e))
a. Each cylinder becomes due for periodic retest in accordance
with the procedures prescribed in 49 CFR 173.34(e).
b. This periodic retest must include a visual internal and external
examination together with a test by interior hydrostatic pressure
in a water jacket or other apparatus of suitable form for the
determination of the expansion of the cylinder. The test appara—
tus must be approved as to type and operation by the Bureau of
Explosives.
SHIPMENT OF COMPRESSED GASES IN CYLINDERS (Sec. 173.301)
1. GASES CAPABLE OF COMBINING CHEMICALLY - A cylinder charged with
compressed gas must not contain gases of materials that are capable
of combining chemically with each other or with the cylinder material
so as to endanger its serviceability.
2. OWNERSHIP OF CONTAINER - A container charged with a compressed
gas must not be shipped unless it was charged by or with the consent
of the owner of the container.
3. RETEST OF CONTAINER
a. A container for which prescribed periodic retest has become due
must not be charged and shipped until such retest has been pro~
perly made.
b. The procedures for interconnecting such as manifolding of indivi-
dual cylinders are prescribed in 4 9 CFR 173.301.
4. CONTAINER VALVE PROTECTION- Containers charged with flammable,
corrosive, or noxious gases, must have their valves protected by one
of the following methods:
a. By equipping the containers with securely attached metal caps
of sufficient strength to protect the valves from injury during
transit.
b. By boxing or crating the containers so as to give proper pro-
tection to the valves.
4
3-12
-------
c. By so constructing the containers that the valve is recessed into
the container or otherwise protected so that it will not be subjected
to a blow when the container is dropped on a flat surface-
d. By loading the containers compactly in an upright position and
securely bracing the cars or motor vehicles, when loaded by the
consignor and to be unloaded by the consignee.
e. By equipping with valves strong enough to avoid injury during
transit for containers containing nonliquified gas under pressure
not exceeding 300 psi at 70°F.
5. OUTSIDE PACKAGING - Outside packagings, Specifications 2P, 2Q, 3E,
3HT, 4D, 4DA, 4DS, 9, 39, 40, and 41 must be shipped in strong
outside packagings. Outside packagings must provide protection
for the complete cylinder and against accidental functioning of
and damage to valves under conditions normally incident to trans-
portation.
6. HORIZONTALLY MOUNTED - Specifications 3AX, 3AXX, and 3T cylinders
are authorized for transportation only when horizontally mounted
on a motor vehicle and when valves and safety devices are pro-
tected, as follows:
a. Each cylinder must be fixed at one end of the vehicle with pro-
vision for thermal expansion at the opposite end attachment.
b. The valve safety relief device protective structure must be suffient-
ly strong to withstand a force equal to twice the weight involved
with a safety factor of four, based on the ultimate strength of the
material used; and
c. Each discharge for a safety relief device on a cylinder containing
a flammable gas must be upward and unobstructed.
7. COMPRESSED GAS CONTAINERS - Compressed gases must be in metal
containers built in accordance with the DOT specifications, shown
below, in effect at the time of manufacture, and marked as required
by the specification and the regulation for retesting if applicable
(See Part 178, Subpart C).
DOT-2P
DOT-3B
DOT-4A
DOT-4C
D0T-8AL
DOT-20
DOT-3BN
DOT-4AA
DOT-4D
DOT-91.
1CC-31
DOT-3C
D0T-4B
DOT-4DA
ICC-25;
DOT-3A
DOT-3D
DOT-4B240FLW
DOT-4DS
ICC-26|
DOT-3AX
DOT-3E
DOT-4B240X
DOT-4E
ICC-33^
DOT-3A480X
DOT-3HT
DOT-4BA
DOT-4L
ICC-381
DOT-3AA
DOT-3T
DOT-4BW
DOT-5
ICC-39
DOT-3AAX
DOT-4
DOT-4B240ET
DOT-5F
DOT-40^
DOT-8
DOT-41
Use of existing cylinders authorized, but new construction not authorized.
5
3-13
-------
MATTER INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE (See Sec. 171.7) The references
listed below are part of the regulatory requirements of Title 49,
CFR, Parts 100-199 and are listed for convenience.
Order from:
CGAs Compressed Gas Association
500 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10036
1. CGA Pamphlet C-3, is titled. Standards for Welding and Brazing
on Thin Walled Containers" 1975 edition.
2 CGA Pamphlet C-6, is titled, "Standards for Visual Inspection
of Compressed Gas Cylinders." 1975 edition
3. CGA Pamphlet C—7, Appendix A is titled, "A Guide for the Precau-
tory Markings for Compressed Gas Containers," dated May 15, 1971,
Addenda issued January 1976.
4. CGA Pamphlet C-8, is titled, "Sitandards for Regulification of
D0T-3HT Cylinders, " 1972 edition.
5. CGA Pamphlet S-1.2, is titled. Safety Relief Device Standards Part 2-
Cargo and Portable Tanks for Compressed Gases," 1966 edition
NOTE; for additional references, see Sec. 171.7.
The'following references to Title 49, CFR Parts 100-199, are listed
for convenience only.
1. Part 171-General Information
2. Part 172-Hazardous Materials Table
and Hazardous Materials
Communications Regulations
3. Part 172-Subpart B-Table of Hazardous
Materials, Their Description,
Proper Shipping Name, Class
Label, Packaging, and Other
Requirements.
4. Part 172-Subpart C-Shipping Papers
5. Part 172-Subpart D-Marking
6. Part 172-Subpart E-Labeling
7. Part "172-Subpart F-Placarding
8. Part 173-Subpart A-General (Containers general information concerning
preparation of shipments, e.g., shippers responsibility, classification
of material having more than one hazard, standard requirements for all
packages, prohibited packing, reuse of containers etc.)
NOTE; This handout is designed as a training aid for shippers and carriers
of hazardous materials. It does not relieve persons from complying
with the DOT Hazardous Materials Regulations. Final authority for
use of cylinders are found in Title 49, CFR, Parts 100-199.
NOTE; This material may be reproduced without special permission from this
office.
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
MATERIALS TRANSPORTATION BUREAU
INFORMATION SERVICES DIVISION
TRAINING BRANCH (DMT - 432)
WASHINGTON, DC 20590
Revised August 1980
3-14
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APPENDIX II
SCBA CHECKOUT PROCEDURES
I. INTRODUCTION
Before a self-contained breathing apparatus can be used, it must be
properly inspected to help prevent malfunctions during use. The
two checklists that follow can help ensure proper inspection.
The first is for pressure-demand SCBA units with no mode-select
lever such as the MSA 401. The second is for SCBA's with mode-select
levers, such as Scott airpaks and Survivair units. Note that
both checklists indicate that inspection steps marked (M) are
required monthly rather than prior to each use.
II. CHECKLIST: PRESSURE-DEMAND SCBA WITHOUT MODE SELECT LEVER
Prior to starting on checklist, make sure that:
- High-pressure-hose connector is tight on cylinder fitting.
- Bypass valve is closed.
- Mainline valve is closed.
- Regulator outlet is not covered or obstructed.
A. Back Pack and Harness Assembly
1. Straps
a. Visually inspect for complete set.
b. Visually inspect for frayed or damaged straps.
2. Buckles
a. Visually inspect for mating ends.
b. Check locking function.
3. Back plate and cylinder Lock
a. Visually inspect back plate for cracks and missing
rivets or screws.
b. Visually inspect cylinder hold-down strap; physically
check strap tightener and lock to assure that it is
fully engaged.
3-15
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B. Cylinder and Cylinder Valve Assembly
1. Cylinder
a. Physically check to assure that it is tightly fastened
to back plate.
{M) b. Visually inspect for large dents or gouges in metal.
(M) c. Check hydrostatic test date to assure it is current.
2. Head and valve assembly
(M) a. Visually determine cylinder valve lock is present.
(M) b. Visually inspect cylinder gauge for condition of face,
needle, and lens.
c. Open cylinder valve; listen or feel for leakage around
packing. (If leakage is noted, do not use until
repaired.) Note function of valve lock.
C. Regulator and High-Pressure Hose
1. High-pressure hose and connector
Listen or feel for leakage in hose or at hose-to-cylinder
connector. (Bubble in outer hose covering may be caused
by seepage of air through hose when stored under pressure.
This does not necessarily mean a faulty hose.)
2. Regulator and low-pressure alarm
a. Cover regulator outlet with palm of hand. Open
mainline valve and read regulator gauge (must read at
least 1,800 psi and not more than rated cylinder
pressure.)
b. Close cylinder valve and slowly move hand from
regulator outlet to allow air to flow slowly. Gauge
should begin to show immediate loss of pressure as air
flows. Low-pressure alarm should sound between 650
and 550 psi. Remove hand completely from outlet and
close mainline valve.
c. Place mouth onto or over regulator outlet and blow. A
positive pressure should be created and maintained for
5-10 seconds without loss of air. Next, suck to
create a slight negative pressure on regulator; hold
for 5-10 seconds. Vacuum should remain constant.
This tests integrity of the diaphragm. Any loss of
pressure or vacuum during this test indicates a leak
in the apparatus.
3-16
-------
d. Open cylinder valve.
e. Cover regulator outlet with palm of hand and open
mainline valve. Remove hand from outlet and replace
in rapid movement. Repeat twice more. Air should
escape when hand is removed each time, indicating a
positive pressure in chamber. Close mainline valve
and remove hand from outlet.
f. Ascertain that regulator outlet is not covered or
obstructed. Open and close bypass valve momentarily
to assure flow of air through bypass system.
Facepiece and Corrugated Breathing Tube
1. Facepiece
a. Visually inspect head harness for damaged serrations
and deteriorated rubber. Visually inspect rubber
facepiece body for signs of deterioration or extreme
distortion.
b. Visually inspect lens for proper seal in rubber face-
piece, retaining clamp properly in place, and cracks
or large scratches.
c. Visually inspect exhalation valve for visible
deterioration or buildup of foreign materials.
d. Carry out negative pressure test for overall seal and
check of exhalation valve. In monthly inspection,
place mask against face and use following procedure;
in preparing for use, don back pack, then facepiece,
and use following procedure: "With facepiece held
tightly to face [or facepiece properly donned),
stretch breathing tube to open corrugations and place
thumb or hand over end of connector.
Inhale. Negative pressure should be created inside
mask, causing it to pull tightly to face for 5-10
seconds. If negative pressures drops do not wear
facepiece.
2. Breathing tube and connector
a. Stretch breathing tube and visually inspect for
deterioration and holes.
b. Visually inspect connector to assure good condition of
threads and for presence and proper condition of 0-
ring or rubber gasket seal.
3-17
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E. Storage of Units
Certain criteria must be met before an SCBA is stored. Units
not meeting the criteria should be set aside for repair by a
certified technician.
1. Cylinder refilled as necessary and unit cleaned and
inspected.
2. Cylinder valve closed.
3. High-pressure-hose connector tight on cylinder.
4. Pressure bled off of high-pressure hose and regulator.
5. Bypass valve closed.
6. Mainline valve closed.
7. All straps completely loosened and laid straight.
8. Facepiece properly stored to protect against dust, direct
sunlight, extreme temperatures, excessive moisture, and
damaging chemicals.
III. CHECKLIST: PRESSURE-DEMAND, OPEN-CIRCUIT SCBA WITH MODE-SELECT
LEVER.
Prior to starting on checklist, make sure that:
- High-pressure-hose connector is tight on cylinder fitting.
- Bypass valve is closed.
- Mainline valve is open and locked (when lock present).
- Select lever 1s on demand mode.
- Regulator outlet 1s not covered or obstructed.
A. Back Pack and Harness Assembly
1. Straps
a. Visually Inspect for complete set.
b. Visually Inspect for frayed or damaged straps.
2. Buckles
a. Visually inspect for mating ends.
b. Check locking function.
3-18
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3. Back plate and cylinder Lock
a. Visually inspect back plate for cracks and missing
rivets or screws.
b. Visually inspect cylinder hold-down strap; physically
check strap tightener and lock to assure that it is
fully engaged.
B. Cylinder and Cylinder Valve Assembly
1. Cylinder
a. Physically check to assure that it is tightly fastened
to back plate.
(M) b. Visually inspect for large dents or gouges in metal.
(M) c. Check hydrostatic test date to assure they are
current.
2. Head and Valve Assembly
(M) a. Visually determine if cylinder valve lock is present.
(M) b. Visually inspect cylinder gauge for condition of face,
needle, and lens.
c. Open cylinder valve; listen or feel for leakage around
packing. (If leakage is noted, do not use until
repaired.) Note function of valve lock.
C. Regulator and High-Pressure Hose
1. High-pressure hose and connector
Listen or feel for leakage in hose or at hose-to-
cylinder connector (Bubble in outer hose covering may
be caused by seepage of air through hose when stored
under pressure. This does not necessarily mean a
faulty hose.)
2. Regulator and low-pressure Alarm
a. Read pressure on regulator gauge (must read at least
1,800 psi and not more than rated cylinder pressure).
b. Close cylinder valve. Ascertain that regulator outlet
is not covered or obstructed. Position regulator to
observe regulator gauge. Slowly open bypass valve.
Air should flow from outlet, and gauge pressure should
begin to decrease immediately. Alarm should sound at
3-19
-------
pressure reading between 650 and 550 psi. (This
assures function of bypass valve and low-pressure
alarm.) After pressure is completely released, close
bypass valve.
c. Place mouth onto or over regulator outlet and blow. A
positive pressure should be created and maintained for
5-10 seconds without loss of air. Next, suck to
create a slight negative pressure on regulator; hold
for 5-10 seconds. Vacuum should remain constant.
This tests integrity of the diaphragm. Any loss of
pressure or vacuum during this test indicates a leak
in the apparatus.
d. Open cylinder valve.
e. Suck on regulator outlet. Air should be delivered
with very slight effort.
f. On units with select lever, place hand over regulator
outlet. Select pressure-demand mode. Remove and
replace hand over outlet in rapid movement. Repeat
twice more. Air should escape when hand is removed
each time, indicating a positive pressure in chamber.
Select demand mode on select lever and remove hand
from outlet. At this point, there should be no air
leaking from any point on the pressurized unit.
D. Facepiece and Corrugated Breathing Tube
1. Facepiece
a. Visually inspect head harness for damaged serrations
and deteriorated rubber. Visually inspect rubber
facepiece body for signs of deterioration or extreme
distortion.
b. Visually inspect lens for proper seal in rubber
facepiece, retaining clamp properly in place, and
cracks or large scratches.
c. Visually inspect exhalation valve for visible
deterioration or buildup of foreign materials.
d. Carry out a negative pressure test for overall seal
and check of exhalation valve. In monthly inspection,
place mask against face and use following procedure;
in preparing for use, don back pack, then facepiece,
and use following procedure: With facepiece held
tightly to face (or facepiece properly donned),
stretch breathing tube to open corrugations and place
thumb or hand over end of connector. Inhale.
3-20
-------
Negative pressure should be created inside mask,
causing it to pull tightly to face for 5-10 seconds.
If negative pressure drops, do not wear facepiece.
NOTE: On Scott Pressur-Pak II and IIA facepiece units
only, place connector end of the breathing tube
approximately 1/4 - 1/2 inch from palm of hand
and exhale. If any air returns through tube,
do not use the unit.
2. Breathing Tube and connector
a. Stretch breathing tube and visually inspect for
deterioration and holes.
b. Visually inspect connector to assure good condition of
threads and for presence and proper condition of 0-
ri ng or rubber gasket seal.
E. Storage of Units
Certain criteria must be met before an SCBA is stored. Units
not meeting the criteria should be set aside for repair by a
certified technician.
a. Cylinder refilled as necessary and unit cleaned and
inspected.
b. Cylinder valve closed,
c. High-pressure-hose connector tight on cylinder.
d. Pressure bled off of high-pressure hose and
regulator.
e. Bypass valve closed.
f. Mainline valve open. (When mainline valve lock
present, it should be engaged.)
g. Select lever, if present, on demand mode.
h. All straps completely loosened and laid straight.
i. Facepiece properly stored to protect against dust,
direct sunlight, extreme temperatures, excessive
moisture, and damaging chemicals.
3-21
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PART 4
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
I. INTRODUCTION
The deleterious effects chemical substances may have on the human body
necessitate the use of protective clothing. The predominant physical,
chemical , or toxic property of the material dictates the type and degree
of protection required. For example, protection against a corrosive
compound is different than that for a compound which releases a highly
toxic vapor. The work function and the probability of exposure to the
substance must also be considered when specifying protective clothing.
As with the selection of proper respiratory protective apparatus, the
hazards encountered must be thoroughly assessed before deciding on the
protective clothing to be worn.
Once the specific hazard has been identified, appropriate clothing can
be selected. Several factors must be considered, most important being
the safety of the individual. The level of protection assigned must
match the hazard confronted. Other factors include cost, availability,
compatibility with other equipment, suitability, and performance.
Protective clothing ensembles range from safety glasses, hardhats,
and safety shoes to fully encapsulating suits with a supplied source
of breathing air. The variety of clothing includes disposable
coveralls, fire-retardant clothing, and chemical splash suits.
Different materials are used to provide a protective barrier against
the hazard.
II. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
Protective clothing protects primarily because of the material from
which it is made. In selecting the protective material the
following should be considered:
- Chemical resistance, which is the most important. When clothing
contacts a hazardous material, it must maintain its structural
integrity and protective qualities.
- Strength, which is based on resistance to tears, punctures, and
abrasions, as well as tensile strength.
- Flexibility, which helps make it easy to move and work in
protective clothing. Flexibility is especially important In
glove materials.
4-1
-------
- Thermal limits, which affect the ability of clothing to maintain
its protective capacity in temperature extremes. Thermal limits
also affect mobility in cold weather and transfer of heat to the
wearer in hot weather.
- Cleanability, which can be difficult and expensive if protective
clothing is not cleanable. Some materials are nearly impossible
to clean adequately under any circumstances. Hence, disposable
clothing is sometimes used.
- Lifetime, which is ability to resist aging, especially in severe
conditions over time this should be balanced against initial cost
of the garment.
III. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
Protective material must be able to resist degradation, penetration,
and permeation by the contaminant. Any or all of these actions may*
result upon contact, depending on factors such as concentration and
contact time.
Degradation is the result of a chemical reaction between the
contaminant and the protective material. Damage to the material
may be slight or as severe as complete deterioration. The reaction
may cause the material to shrink or swell, become brittle or very
soft, or completely change its chemical and physical structure.
Changes such as these may enhance or restrict permeation or allow
penetration by the contaminant.
A chemical penetrates a protective garment because of its design
and construction imperfections, not because of the inherent
material from which it is made. Stitched seams, button holes,
porous fabric, and zippers can provide an avenue for the
contaminant to penetrate the garment. A well-designed
and constructed protective suit with self-sealing zippers and
lapped seams made of a nonporous degradation-resistant material
prevents penetration. But as soon as the suit is ripped or
punctured it loses its ability to prevent penetration. A material
may also be easily penetrated once degraded.
The ability of a protective material to resist permeation is an
Inherent property. A contaminant in contact with the protective
material establishes a concentration gradient. The concentration
1s high on the contact surface and low inside. Because the
tendency 1s to establish equilibrium, diffusion and other molecular
forces "drive" the contaminant into the material.
4-2
-------
When the contaminant passes through the material to the inside
surface it condenses there. The process of permeation continues as
long as the concentration remains greater at the contact surface.
The permeation rate is based on several factors. Rate is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the material and directly
proportional to the concentration of the contaminant.
The amount or degree of permeation is related to the exposure
conditions, especially contact time, which ultimately dictates how
much of the contaminant permeates the protective material. Thus a
conscious effort should be made to avoid prolonged exposure or
contact with any hazardous contaminant, even when wearing
protective clothing. No material resists permeation by all
agents.
Once a contaminant permeates a protective material, it must be
decontaminated. With many materials, it is impossible to
completely remove all contamination. Materials such as butyl
rubber and Viton, which can be effectively decontaminated and
cleaned, are also expensive. In some situations, disposable
clothing may be advantageous.
IV. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE CHARTS
Tables are available indicating relative effectiveness of various
protective materials against generic classes of chemicals (Table
4-1) or specific chemicals (Table 4-2). Such tables may only
reflect ability to resist degradation. A protective material may
resist degradation by a contaminant, but still be very permeable to
it. Such charts are useful when used with discretion and when the
seriousness of the hazard is properly evaluated. If a chemical is
extremely toxic, then any activity involving it should be
re-evaluated.
Permeability data are available from manufacturers and independent
testing laboratories. If there is a question about permeability of
a material in contact with a specific contaminant, a sample swatch
of the material should be tested by a recognized laboratory for
permeability, to that chemical. For further information on
permeability, consult Appendix I.
4-3
-------
TABLE 4-1
EFFECTIVENESS OF PROTECTIVE MATERIALS AGAINST
CHEMICAL DEGRADATION (BY GENERIC CLASS)1
Butyl Polyvinyl Natural
Generic Class rubber chloride Neoprene rubber
Alcohols EE EE
Aldehydes E-G G-F E-G E-F
Amines E-F G-F E-G G-F
Esters G-F P G F-P
Ethers G-F G E-G G-F
Fuels F-P G-P E-G F-P
Halogenated
hydrocarbons G-P G-P G-F F-P
Hydrocarbons F-P F G-F F-P
Inorganic
acids G-F E E-G F-P
Inorganic bases
and salts E E E E
Ketones E P G-F E-F
Natural fats
and oils G-F G E-G G-F
Organic acids E E E E
1
E - Excellent F - Fair
G - Good P - Poor
Source: Survey of Personal Protective Clothing and Respiratory
Apparatus. DOT, USCG, Office of Research and
Development (September 1974).
4-4
-------
TABLE 4-2
The following chart gives the relative resistance ratings of
various glove materials to solutions commonly used in
industry. When selecting gloves for applications not listed,
write MSA, 600 Penn Center Blvd., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15235, and
give as much detailed information as possible according to
the following points: 1. Chemical composition of the solution.
2. Degree of concentration (strength) of the solution. 3. Tem-
perature conditions. 4. Abrasive effects of materials being
handled. 5. Time cycle of usage.
If glove swells, remove it from service and replace with a new
one; or rinse glove with plain water and allow it to return to
original shape.
Comparative chemical resistance
Key: E-excellent; G—good; F—fair; P—poor;
NFt—not recommended; * —limited service
Natural
C -Cadmium oxide fume
E
E
E
r__
Neo-
latex or
Milled
Calcium hydroxide
E
E
E
I E
Chemical
pren*
rubber
nitrite
Butyl
Carbolic acid
E
E
F
E
Carbon dioxide
g
£
E
£
A * Aeelaldehyde
E
G
G
E
Carbon disulfide
F
F
F
F
Acetate
G
F
P
G
*Carbon leirachlofide
F
P
G
P
Acetic acid
E
E
E
E
Castor oil
F
P
E
F
•Acetone
G
E
P
E
Cetlosolve
F
G
G
G
Acetylene gas
E
E
E
E
Cellosotve acetate
G
F
G
G
Acetylene tetrachloride
F
NR
F
F
Chlordane
G
F
G
F
Acfyioniir He
G
F
F
G
Chlorine
G
F
F
G
Amidol
G
E
F
E
Chlorine gas
G
F
F
G
Amine hardeners
F
F
G
G
"Chlorobenzene
F
P
P
F
Ammonium hydroxide
E
E
E
E
"Chloroacetone
F
F
P
E
•Amyl acetate
F
P
P
F
Chlorobromomethane
F
P
F
P
Amyi alcohol
E
E
E
E
'Chloroform
G
P
E
P
Anhydrous ammonia
G
E
E
E
Chioronaphthalene
F
P
F
F
An»'«ne
G
F
P
F
Chlorophenylene diamine
G
P
F
F
Aniline hydrochloride
F
G
P
F
Chloropicrin
P
P
P
F
Aniline oil
F
G
P
F
'Chlorothene
P
NR
F
NR
Amma) fats
E
P
E
G
Chromic acid
F
P
F
F
Animal oils
E
F
E
G
Chromotex
G
G
G
G
Anodex
G
E
E
Citric acid
E
E
E
E
Anthracene
F
P
F
P
Coal tar pitch volatiles
F
P
F
•Aromatic fuels
P
NR
F
NR
Cottonseed oil
G
G
E
F
Arstne
E
E
E
E
Cotlon dust (raw)
E
E
E
E
Asbestos
E
E
E
E
Creosote
G
G
F
G
Asphalt
G
F
E
F
Cresol
Cupric nitrate
Cyanide
G
G
F
G
B Banana oil
F
P
P
F
G
G
G
G
E
G
E
G
•Benzaidehyde
F
F
G
G
Cyclohexane
G
F
G
F
•Benzene
P
NR
F
NR
Cyclohexanoi
G
F
E
G
Benzol
P
NR
F
NR
'Cyclohexanone
G
E
F
G
•Benzyl alcohol
E
E
E
E
Benzyl benzoate
G
F
G
F
D Decaborane
F
P
F
F
•Benzyl chloride
F
P
F
G
Degreasing fluids
F
P
G
P
Biacosolve
G
P
G
P
Diacetone alcohol
E
E
E
E
Boron Inbrormde
G
P
P
P
Diborane
F
P
F
F
Bromine
G
P
P
P
*Dibeniyl ether
G
G
F
G
Biomoform
G
P
P
P
'Dibulyl phthalate
G
P
G
G
Butane
E
F
E
F
Dichloroethane
P
NR
F
NR
J-Butanone
G
G
F
G
Dichtoropropene
P
P
F
F
Butyl acetate
G
F
P
F
Diesel lot'
G
P
E
P
Butyl alcohol
E
E
E
E
Dielhanolamine
E
G
E
E
•Butylaldehyde
G
G
E
G
Diethylamine
E
G
E
G
Butylene
E
G
E
G
Dielhyttriamine
G
F
E
G
Dusobutyl ketone
Dnsocyanate
D imefhy Norma mide
Oioctyt phthalate
Dioxane
P
G
F
G
E
F
P
F
P
G
P
G
G
E
G
G
E
G
F
G
E Emulsifying agent
G
F
E
E
Emutthogene
G
F
G
E
Epichlorohydrin
G
P
F
G
4-5
-------
Table 4-2
(Continued)
M«l«rel
NaO-
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Selection from MSA Produce Literature, by Mine Safety Appliances Co.,
copyrighted by Mine Safety Appliances Co., reprinted with permission
of Publisher.
4-6
-------
V. PROTECTIVE MATERIALS
Materials such as Tyvek or paper offer little or no protection
against hazardous contaminants. Such materials can, however,
protect against particulate contaminants and other nuisances.
Tyvek is often used as an outer covering over the primary
protective gear such as splash or fully encapsulating suits.
Although Tyvek provides little chemical resistance, it does limit
the amount of direct contamination on the primary protective gear.
The Tyvek can then be discarded.
Elastomers (polymeric materials that, after being stretched, return
to about their original length) provide the best protection against
chemical degradation, permeation, and penetration from toxic and
corrosive liquids or gases. Elastomers are used in boots, gloves,
coveralls, and fully encapsulating suits. They are sometimes
combined with a flame-resistant fabric called Nomex to enhance
durability and protection.
The abilities of elastomers to resist degradation and permeation
range from poor to excellent. The selection of a particular
material should be based on its resistance to chemical degradation,
as well as on its ability to resist permeation and the other
performance characteristics discussed earlier. Other factors to be
considered include:
- Temperature of service: Higher temperatures increase the
effects of all chemicals on elastomers. The increase varies
with the material and chemical. A material quite suitable at
room temperature could fail at elevated temperatures.
- Conditions of service: A material which swells upon contact
with the chemical may function well in a test situation but may
fail in actual use.
- Grade of the elastomer: Elastomers are manufactured in
different grades, each providing different degrees of
protection. Grades vary from lot to lot due to process changes,
curing times, and overall quality control.
Among the materials now used in protective clothing:
Butyl rubber: Resists degradation by many contaminants except
halogenated hydrocarbons and petroleum compounds, a common
deficiency of most protective materials. Especially resistant
to permeation by toxic vapors and gases. Expensive material
used fn boots, gloves, splash suits, aprons, and fully
encapsulating suits.
4-7
-------
Chioropel: Also referred to as CPE or chlorinated polyethylene.
ILC Dover product. Used in splash suits and fully encapsulating
suits. No data on permeability. Considered to be a good all-around
protective material.
Natural rubber: This is also a synthetic latex. Resists
degradation by alcohols and caustics. Used in boots and gloves.
Neoprene: Resists degradation by caustics, acids, and alcohols.
Used in boots, gloves, and respirator facepieces and breathing
hoses. Commonly available and inexpensive.
Nitrile: Also referred to as Buna-N, milled nitrile, nitrile latex,
NBR, acrylonitrile. Resists degradation by petroleum compounds,
alcohols, acids, and caustics. Used in boots and gloves. Commonly
available and inexpensive.
Nomex: Product of Dupont. Aromatic polyamide fiber.
Noncombustible and flame resistant up to 220°C, thus providing good
thermal protection. Very durable and acid resistant. Used in
fire fighters' turnout gear and some fully encapsulating suits as a
base for the rubber.
Polyethylene: Used as a coating on polyolefin material such as
Tyvek, increasing resistance to acids, bases, and salts.
PVA: polyvinyl alcohol. Resists degradation and permeation by
aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons and petroleum compounds.
Major drawback is its solubility in water. Used in gloves.
PVC: polyvinyl chloride. Resists degradation by acids and
caustics. Used in boots, gloves, aprons, splashsuits, and fully
encapsulating suits.
Saranex: Made of Saran, a Dow product. Coated on Tyvek. Very good
general purpose disposable material.
Tyvek: Product of Dupont. Spun-bonded nonwoven polyethylene
fibers. Has reasonable tear, puncture, and abrasion resistance.
Provides excellent protection against particulate contaminants.
Inexpensive and suitable for disposable garments.
Viton: Product of Dupont. Fluoroelastomer similar to Teflon.
Excellent resistence to degradation and permeation by aromatic and
chlorinated hydrocarbons and petroleum compounds. Very resistant to
oxidizers. Extremely expensive material used in gloves and fully
encapsulating suits.
4-8
-------
It is evident that protective materials are available for specific
chemical contaminants, but there is no one material which provides
protection against all types of contaminants. Thus several layers of
protection should be considered when more than one contaminant is
present or the hazards are unknown. Disposable boots, gloves, and
splash suits are another way to provide an extra layer of protection.
VI. TYPES OF PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
The selection of appropriate protective gear is based on the hazards
anticipated or recognized. Complete protection calls for assembling
a set of gear including hardhat, safety glasses or faceshield
(preferably both), body covering (coveralls or pants and jacket),
gloves, and safety shoes (steel toe and shank). Omitting one item
may compromise the individual's safety.
All protective clothing should meet applicable OSHA standards,
which are normally based on industry standards. See Appendix II for
a table of regulatory standards and their sources.
A. Head Protection
The hardhat, a basic piece of safety equipment used in any work
operations, must meet ANSI Z89.1-1969 specifications for
protection. Manufacturers have adapted hardhats so that ear
protection and faceshields may be easily attached. Hardhats are
adjustable so a liner can be worn during cold weather. A chin
strap is advantageous when work involves bending and ducking.
It also helps secure the hardhat to the head when full-face
masks are worn.
Faceshields that attach to hardhats provide added protection. A
combination that leaves no gap between the shield and the brim
of the cap is best because it prevents overhead splashes from
running down inside the faceshield. The faceshield must meet
ANSI Z87.1-1968 specifications.
B. Eye Protection
Safety glasses must also meet ANSI Z87.1-1968. They should be
standard safety gear when the respiratory protection is a
half-face mask with no faceshield. Both safety glasses and a
faceshield are advisable as long as they do not impair
visibility.
C. Ear Protection
Ear plugs or muffs should be issued when noise may be a
problem, such as around heavy machinery and impact tools.
4-9
-------
D. Foot Protection
Footwear worn during site activities (including leather work
boots and rubber boots) must meet the specifications of ANSI
Z41.1-1969. The material used to make the boots is not subject
to any standards.
Protection against liquid hazardous chemicals requires a boot of
neoprene, PVC, butyl rubber, or some other elastomer.
Boots are available in two styles: pullover and shoeboot.
Pullovers may be inexpensive enough to be considered disposable;
otherwise they must be completely decontaminated. With chemical
resistant boots, the pant leg should be outside and over the
boots to prevent liquids from entering.
E. Hand Protection
The hands are as susceptible to contamination as the feet.
Gloves must resist puncturing and tearing as well as provide the
necessary chemical resistance. Most of the materials discussed
earlier can be used in gloves.
Heavy leather gloves may be worn over chemical protective gloves
when doing heavy work. If they become contaminated, they should
be discarded because leather is difficult to decontaminate.
Jacket cuffs should be worn over glove cuffs to prevent any
liquid from spilling Into the gloves. If hands are elevated
above the head during work, the gloves should be sealed with
tape to the coveralls or splashsuit.
When selecting gloves consider thickness and cuff length. The
thicker and longer the glove the greater the protection.
However, the material should not be so thick that it interferes
with the necessary dexterity.
F. Body Protection
Clothing to protect the body against hazardous liquids, gases,
or vapors 1s available In a variety of styles and materials.
If the hazard present is known to be minor or simply a nuisance,
minimal protection 1s warranted. This may be in the form of
garments of Tyvek which is disposable or Nomex which is durable.
Both are available as coveralls suitable for field use.
As the hazards to the body increase, so does the level of
protection needed. A splash suit made of PVC is suitable for a
liquid such as an acid or base when there is minimal chance for
direct contact. Some are inexpensive enough to be disposable.
4-10
-------
If the material is more toxic, then more protection must be
utilized. Splash suits similar in design to the PVC splash
suits are good barriers against toxic hazards. These are made
of neoprene and butyl rubber.
Toxic vapor/gases require the most complete protection, the best
being fully encapsulating suits. The suit must not allow any
penetration or permeation. Zippers must be properly sealed and
seams properly connected and sealed to protect against vapors.
Fully encapsulating suits also require the basic safety items
such as safety boots and hardhat, along with a source of
breathing air.
Wearing protective clothing creates some problems, the main one
being that the body is shielded from normal circulation of air.
Perspiration does not evaporate, thus eliminating the body's
main mechanism for cooling. With that gone, the body is prone
to heat stress, including heat stroke, which can be fatal.
Heat-related problems are very common when temperature rises
above 75 °F. Work schedules for persons wearing fully
encapsulated clothing must be closely and conservatively
regulated lest heat stress become more of a threat than the
chemical hazard itself.
The best way to combat heat stress is to allow the body to cool
normally. The most efficient body-cooling process is by
evaporation. Someone wearing protective clothing that has no
ventilation perspires profusely. If the perspiration remains in
contact with the skin, it has a better chance of evaporating and
cooling the body surface. If the perspiration is allowed to run
off the body quickly, less evaporation occurs. This happens
when shorts are worn under a fully encapsulating suit. Also,
the suit material can become very hot and cause severe burns if
it contacts the wearer's bare skin. Long cotton underwear is
the best choice. It clings to the body when soaked with
perspiration, thus allowing the greatest amount of cooling by
evaporation and also protecting the body from burns from the
suit itself.
During extended periods of work in fully encapsulating suits,
some sort of "cooling" must be provided to the wearer. The best
method is to schedule frequent rest periods. If this is not
adequate, a cooling device should be employed. Effective
cooling units are available for use with suppl1ed-air units. A
vortex tube separates the air Into cool and warn components,
releasing the warn air outside the suit. When self-contained
air is used for breathing, the cooling device must also be
self-contained. For example, vests have been designed to carry
ice packs. There are other commercial devices available to
combat heat generated by fully encapsulating suits.
4-11
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Some pieces of protective clothing such as hardhats and boots
have specification standards for manufacture, and respiratory
apparatus is certified by MSHA/NIQSH. There are no such
requirements for protective clothing. Selections must be based
strictly on judgment.
VII. USE OF FULLY ENCAPSULATING SUITS
Before wearing a fully encapsulting suit in a hazardous
atmosphere, both the SCBA and suit must be properly inspected. The
inspection of the SCBA has already been discussed. The following is
a checklist for visually inspecting all types of fully-encapsulating
suits, both immediately before use and periodically when not in
use:
- Spread suit out on a flat surface.
- Examine the outside for the following:
--fabric and seams for abrasions, cuts, or holes.
—seams for separations.
--zippers and other connecting devices for proper sealing and
operation.
--visor for dirt and any other potential damage around edges.
—exhaust valves (if applicable) for inhibiting debris and
proper functioning.
- If an air source is available, seal the suit and inflate it.
Check for any leaks on surface and seams using a mild soap
solution.
- Record each suit's use, inspection, and repair status.
The manufacturer may recommend returning tine suit to the factory on
a yearly basis for a thorough inspection.
VIII. MONITORING
The use of fully encapsulating suits requires special monitoring of
the wearer. Normally, monitoring is required when any respiratory
apparatus is used. But because fully encapsulating suits are worn
when there is potential exposure to extremely toxic vapors, special
monitoring is required to assure that the wearer is properly
protected. Two methods are in use:
- Biological monitoring, which is useful because it indicates actual
exposure to the wearer. Analysis of urine samples taken before
and after a worker goes on site determines if any hazardous
contaminants have permeated or penetrated the suit.
4-12
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- Personal monitoring, which measures atmospheric contaminants
within the suit and so indicates potential exposure to the
wearer. Personal sampling pumps equipped with charcoal tubes may
be worn underneath the suit to collect organic vapors. If cotton
socks or gloves are worn, they may be directly analyzed, but the
result gives only a qualitative indication of potential exposure.
In contrast, personal sampling pumps give quantitative
i nformation.
All exposure data are valuable when working with hazardous
materials because they confirm or contradict the criteria
initially used in selecting protective clothing.
4-13
TAT/E&E/9-82
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APPENDIX I
PERMEATION REFERENCES
1. Development of Performance Criteria fo~ Protective Clothing Used Against
Carcinogenic Liquids. NIOSH, Technical Report No. 79-106. NTIS.
2. "A Discussion: Resistance of Butyl Rubber Gloves to the Penetration of
Aromatic Nitro and Amino Compounds". Amer. Ind- Hyg. Assoc. J. 39:314-316
(1978).
3. Henry, N. W. Ill and C. N. Schlatter. "The Development of a Standard Method
for Evaluation Chemical Protective Clothing by Hazardous Liquids" (1981).
4. Lynch, A. L. "Protective Clothing", Handbook of Laboratory Safety, 2nd ed.
(1971).
5. Middleton, H. W. Glove Corrosive Liquid Immersion and Permeability Study. No.
GEPP-322, General Electric Co., Neutron Devices Dept., P. 0. Box 11508, St.
Petersburg, FL 33733.
6. Nelson G. 0. and C. M. Wong. "Glove Permeation by Organic Solvents". Amer.
Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 42:217-225 (1981).
7. Permeation of Protective Garment Material by Liquid Halogenated Ethanes and a
Polychlorinated Biphenyl. NIOSH Publication 81-110 (1981).
8. Sansome, E. B. and U. B. Tewari. "The Permeability of Laboratory Gloves to
Selected Solvents". Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 39:164-174 (1978).
9. Weeks, R. W. Jr., and B. J. Dean. "Permeation of Methanolic Aromatic Amine
Solutions through Commercially Available Glove Materials". Amer. Ind. Hyg.
Assoc. J., 38:721-725 (1977).
10. Weeks, R. W. Jr., and M. J. McLeod. "Permeation of Protective Garment
Material by Liquid Benzene and by Tritiated Water". Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc.
J., 43:201-211 (1982).
11. Williams J. R. "Permeation of Glove Materials by Physiologically Harmful
Chemicals". Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 40:877-882 (1979).
4-15
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APPENDIX II
SOURCES OF OSHA STANDARDS 29 CFR 1910
Regulation Title
29 CFR 1910.132 41CFR 50-204.7
General Requirements for
Personal Protective
Equipment
29 CFR 1910.133(a) ANSI Z87.1-1968
Eye and Face Protection
29 CFR 1910.134 ANSI Z88.2-1969
Standard Practice for
Respiratory Protection
29 CFR 1910.135 ANSI Z89.1-1969
Safety Requirements for
Industrial Head Protection
10 CFR 1910.136 ANSI Z41.1-1967
Men's Safety Toe Footwear
ANSI - American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway,
New York, NY 10018.
4-17
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PART 5
DONNING AND DOFFING FULLY ENCAPSULATING SUITS
AND SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
I. INTRODUCTION
In responding to episodes involving hazardous substances, it may be
necessary for response personnel to wear self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA) and fully encapsulating suits to protect against toxic environments.
Donning/doffing of both is a relatively simple task, but a routine must be
established and practiced frequently. Not only do correct procedures help
instill confidence in the wearer of the suit, they reduce the possibility
of damage to the suit. It is especially important to remove the equipment
systematically so as to prevent or minimize the transfer of contaminants
from suit to wearer.
The following procedures for donning/doffing apply to certain types of
suits. They should be modified if a different suit or extra boots and
gloves are worn. These procedures also assume that:
- The wearer has been trained in the SCBA.
- SCBA has been checked out.
- Appropriate decontamination steps have been taken prior to removal of
the suit or other components.
- Sufficient air is available for routine decontamination and doffing of
suit.
Donning/doffing an encapsulating suit is more difficult if the user has to
do it alone because of the physical effort required. Also the possibility
of damaging the suit greatly increases. Therefore, assistance is needed in
donning/doffing the equipment.
II. DONNING
A. Before donning suit, thoroughly inspect for deficiencies that will
decrease its effectiveness as the primary barrier for protecting the
body. Do not use any suit with holes, rips, malfunctioning closures,
cracked masks, etc. If suit contains a hoodpiece, or a hard hat is
worn, adjust it to fit user's head. If suit has a back enclosure for
changing air bottles, open it.
B. Use a moderate amount of talcum powder or cornstarch to prevent chafing
and increase comfort. Both also reduce rubber binding.
5-1
-------
C. Use antifog on suit and mask facepieces.
D. While sitting (preft.,ably), step into legs, place feet properly, and
gather suit around waist.
E. While sitting (preferably), over feet of suit, put on
chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank boots. Properly attach and
affix suit leg over top of boot.
1. For one-piece suits with heavy-soled protective feet, wear leather
or short rubber safety boots inside suit.
2. Wear an additional pair of disposable boot protectors if
necessary.
F. Put on SCBA airtank and harness assembly. Don facepiece and adjust it
to be secure, but comfortable. Do not connect breathing hose. Open
valve to air tank. (The air tank and harness assembly could also be
put on before stepping into legs of suit, but it then becomes more
cumbersome to get into legs.)
G. Depending on type of suit:
1. Put on inner gloves.
2. For suits with detachable gloves, secure gloves to sleeves, if this
has not been done prior to entering the suit. (In some cases,
extra gloves are worn over suit gloves.)
H. Get into sleeves of suit. The helper pulls suit up and over SCBA,
adjusting suit around SCBA backpack and user's shoulders to assure
unrestricted motion. For a tall or stout person, it is easier to put
on the hood of the suit before getting into the sleeve.
I. Begin to secure suit by closing all fasteners until there is only room
to connect the breathing hose. Also, secure all belts and/or
adjustable leg, head, and waist bands. Connect breathing hose while
opening main valve.
J. When breathing properly in SCBA, complete closing suit.
K. Helper should observe for a time to assure that wearer is comfortable
and equipment is functioning properly.
III. DOFFING
Exact procedures must be established and followed to remove the fully
encapsulating suit and SCBA. Adherence to these procedures is necessary
to minimize or prevent contamination (or possible contamination) of the
wearer through contacting the outside surface of the suit.
5-2
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The following procedures assume that before the suit is removed, it has
been properly decontaminated, considering the type and extent of
contamination, and that a suitably attired helper is available.
A. Remove any extraneous or disposable clothing, boot covers, or gloves.
B. Helper loosens and removes chemical-resistant boots.
C. Helper opens front of suit to allow access to SCBA regulator. As long
as there is sufficient air pressure, hose is not disconnected.
D. Helper lifts hood of the suit over wearer's head and rests hood on top
of SCBA air tank. For a tall or stout person it is easier to remove
the arms from the sleeves of the suit prior to removing the hood.
E. Remove external gloves.
F. Remove arms, one at a time, from suit. Helper lifts suit up and away
from SCBA back pack, avoiding any contact between outside surface of
suit and wearer's body. Helper lays suit out flat behind wearer.
G. While sitting (preferably), remove both legs from suit.
H. After suit is completely removed, roll internal gloves off hands,
inside out.
I. Walk to clean area and follow procedure for doffing SCBA.
J. Remove inner clothing, clean body thoroughly.
IV. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
A. If work is at a very dirty site or the potential for contamination is
extremely high, wear disposable Tyvek or PVC coveralls over fully
encapsulating suit. Make a slit in back to fit around bulge of the
SCBA back pack.
B. Wear clothing inside the suit appropriate to outside temperatures.
Even in hot weather, wear long cotton underwear, which absorbs
perspiration and acts as a wick for evaporation, thus aiding body
cooling. Long underwear also protects skin from contact with hot
surfaces of suit, reducing the possibility of burns in hot weather.
C. Monitor wearer for heat stress.
D. If a cooling device is used, modify donning/doffing procedure.
E. If low-pressure warning alarm sounds signifying approximately 5
minutes of air remaining, follow these procedures:
5-3
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1. Quickly hose off suit and scrub especially around entrance/exit
zipper. (Remove any disposable clothing.)
2. Open zipper sufficiently to allow access to regulator and
breathing hose.
3. Disconnect breathing hose as main valve is closed.
4. Immediately attach canister for vapor, acid gas, dust, mist, or
fume to breathing hose. This provides protection against
contaminants still present.
5. Continue doffing suit as in steps A through K of previous section.
Take extra care to avoid contaminating helper and wearer.
5-4
TCS/EPA/9-82
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PART 6
MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS OF
PERSONNEL PROTECTIVE GEAR
Type
Respiratory Protective Apparatus
Company
American Optical Corp.
X
Bendix Corp.
X
Cesco Safety Products
X
Glendale Optical Co.»Inc.
X
Globe Safety Products, Inc.
X
H.S. Cover Co.
X
Inco Safety Products Co.
X
International Safety Instruments, Inc.
X
X
1
i Lab Safety Supply Co.
X
X
•Mine Safety Appliances
X
X
X
National Draeger, Inc.
X
Norton Co.
X
Pulmosan Safety Equipment Corp.
X
Rexnord Safety Products ,Inc.
X
Robertshaw Controls Co.
X
X
Scott Aviation
X
X
X
Siebe Gorman, Ltd.
X
Survivair Division of U.S. Divers Corp.
X
X
X
3M
X
6-1
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Chemical Protective CLothing
Type
Material
^ 4? ' ^ ^
o
\
to
Chem-Pro of East Wind ' x
X
1
X
X
I
; i
1
i
.. * - *
i
1
, /
Dayton Flexible Products ! x
X
1
1
1
i X ,
X '
i
Durafab.Inc. !
,
i
j
!
i
i
X
X
Edmont-Wilson Division
X
X
X
¦
X
X
X
1
1
X 1
Fyrepel Products, Inc. j
x !
X
i
1
1
1
Glover Latex, Inc.
X
i i
i i
i x
1
1
1
)
\
High City Footwear x
i
\
i
| i
1 x
X
j
i
1
1 International Latex, Inc. ;
i
i x
i
1
X
X
! X
x !
1 ;
4 |
| Li-fe Support Systems, Inc. 1
i
X
i
i
i
1
1
!
1
!
Lion Uniform,Inc.
•
l
l i
X
: I
Melco,Inc.
I
i
i
i
! !
1
X
1
X
Mine Safety Appliances
!x
X
X
X
i
i X
X
i
' x
X
1 —
! !
Norton Co.
1*
1
X
i X
X
X
X
Pioneer Industrial Products
• X
! X
X
1
! X
Record Industrial Co. x
X
1
1 X
X
:
}
X
Safety Clothing & Equip. Co.
X
X
X
' X
1
i
i
Sijal,Inc.
!
X
. ,
1
X
_1
f
f
Surety Rubber Co.
Whe^^r Apparel
x ' x
-------
MANUFACTURER/SUPPLIER ADDRESSES
American Optical Corp.
Safety Products Division
14 Mechanic St.
Southbridge, MA 01550
Bendix Corp.
P.O. Drawer 831
Lewisburg, WV 24901
304/647-4538
Cesco Safety Products
Parmelee Industries, Inc.
P.O. Box 1237
Kansas City, MO 64141
Chem-Pro of East Wind
33 Basset St.
Claxton, DE 19938
Dayton Flexible Products
2210 Arbor Blvd.
Dayton, OH 45439
Durafab, Inc.
P.O. Box 658
Cleburne, TX 76031
817/645-8851
Edmont-Wilson
Division of Becton, Dickinson,
and Co.
Coshocton, OH 43812
614/622-4311
Fyrepel Products,Inc.
P.O. Box 518
Newark, OH 43055
614/344-0391
Glendale Optical Co., Inc.
130 Crossways Park Dr.
Woodbury, NY 11797
Globe Safety Products, Inc.
125 Sunrise Place
Dayton, OH 45407
Glover Latex, Inc.
514 South Rose St.
Annaheim, CA 92805
714/535-8920
High City Footwear
5401-60th St.. Suite 3
Kenosha, WI 53142
414/652-8789
H. S. Cover Co.
107 E. Alexander St.
Buchanan, MI 49107
616/695-9663
Inco Safety Products Co.
Will son Division
P.O. Box 1733
Reading, PA 19603
215/374-4141
International Latex, Inc.
213 Hanna Blda.
Cleveland, OH 44115
216/523-1000
International Safety Instruments, Inc.
P.O. Box 846
Lawrenceburg, GA 30246
404/962-2552
Lab Safety Supply Co.
P.O. Box 1368
Janesville, WI 53545
800/356-0783
Life Support Systems, Inc.
1400 Stierlin Rd.
Mountain View, CA 94043
415/962-9800
Lion Uniform, Inc.
Industrial Safety Division
P.O. Box 14165
Northridge Branch
Dayton, OH 45414
513/278-6531
Melco, Inc.
6603 Governor Printz Blvd.
Wilmington, DE 19809
800/441-9749
Mine Safety Appliances
600 Penn Center Blvd.
Pittsburgh, PA 15235
412/273-5000
6-3
-------
National Draeger, Inc.
401 Parkway View Dr.
Pittsubrgh, PA 15205
412/787-1131
Norton Co.
Safety Products Division
Cranston, RI 02920
401/943-4400
Pioneer Industrial Products
512 East Tiffan St.
Willard, OH 44890
800/537-2897
Pulmosan Safety Equipment Corp.
30-48 Linden Place
Flushing, NY 11354
212/939-3200
Record Industrial Co.
P.O. Box 407
King of Prussia, PA 19406
215/337-2500
Rexnord Safety Products, Inc.
45 Great Valley Corporate Center
Malvern, PA 19355
215/647-7200
Robertshaw Controls Co.
333 N. Euclid Way
Anaheim, CA 92803
Safety Clothing and Equipment Co.
4900 Campbell Rd.
Willoughby, OH 44094
216/946-1880
Scott Aviation
225 Erie St.
Lancaster, NY 14086
716/683-5100
Siebe Gorman, Ltd.
Chessington Surrey
England
Sijal,Inc.
P.O. Box 205
205 Roesch Ave.
Oreland» PA 19075
215/572-0216
The Surety Rubber Co.
Box 97 - 611 High St.
Carrollton, OH 44615
Survivair Division
U.S. Divers Corp.
3323 West Warner Ave.
Santa Ana, CA 92702
714/540-8010
3M/0ccupational Health & Safety Products Div
220-7W-3M Center
St. Paul, MN 55144
612/733-6234
Wheeler Protective Apparel, Inc.
224 W. Huron St.
Chicago. IL 60610
312/787-1156
6-4
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PART 1
ENVIRONMENTAL INCIDENTS
INTRODUCTION
An environmental incident (also referred to as an episode) involves a
release or a threat of a release of hazardous substances, or it involves
hazardous substances that pose an imminent and substantial danger to public
health and welfare or the environment. Each incident presents special
problems. Response personnel must evaluate these problems and determine an
effective course of action to mitigate the incident.
Any incident represents a potentially hostile environment. Chemicals that
are combustible, explosive, corrosive, radioactive, toxic, or biologically
active can affect the general public or the environment as well as workers.
Workers may fall, trip, be struck by objects, or be subject to danger from
water, electricity, and heavy equipment; injury and illness may occur due
to physical stress and weather. Conditions created by an incident vary
widely, causing a broad range of risks to the public health and welfare,
the environment, or response personnel. While each incident is unique,
there are many commonalities. One is that all incident response requires
protecting the health and safety of the workers from any hazards present.
EXPOSURE TO TOXIC SUBSTANCES
Toxic or chemically active substances present a special situation because
they can be inhaled, ingested, absorbed through the skin, or destructive to
the skin. They may exist in the air or, due to site activities, become
airborne or splash on the skin. Ingested or inhaled, the substances can
cause no apparent illness or they can kill. On the skin they can cause no
demonstrable effects, they can damage the skin, or they can be absorbed,
leading to systemic poisoning.
Two types of potential exposure exist:
- Acute: Concentrations of toxic air contaminants are high relative to the
type of substance and its protection criteria. Substances may contact
the skin directly through splashes, immersion, air, etc., with serious
results. Exposures are for relatively short periods of time.
- Chronic: Concentrations of toxic air contaminants are relatively low.
Direct skin contact is with substances that are of low dermal activity.
Exposures are over longer periods of time.
In general, acute exposure to chemicals 1n air are more typical in
transportation accidents, fires, or releases at chemical manufacturing or
storage facilities. Acute exposures do not persist for long periods of
time. Acute skin exposures occur when workers must be close to the
1-1
-------
k in nrdpr to control the release (patching a tank car,
offloading a corrosive material, etc.) or contain and treat the spilled
material Once the immediate problems have been alienated, exposures
ttlid to becoSe more of a chronic nature as cleanup progresses.
rhronic exposures usually are associated more with longer-term remedial
operations^ Contaminated soil and debris from emergency operations may be
1 Solved soil and ground water may be polluted, or containment systems
inirf rfii.itPd chemicals. Abandoned waste sites represent chronic
As activities start at these sites, however, personnel engaged
in sampling? handling containers, bulking compatible liquids, etc. face
an increased risk of acute exposures to splashes, mists, gases, or
particulates.
Kfii+a anH rhrnnic exDOSure to toxic substances is one type of hazard.
Others are materlals that burn, explode, react, emit radiation, or cause
disease. All can create life-threatening situations.
&t anv sDecific incident, the hazardous properties of the materials may be
™iv a DOtential threat. For example, if a tank car of liquified natural
OK invSlved in an accident remains intact, the risk from fire and
1 r s low. in other incidents, hazards are real and risks high -
P „ toxic or flammable vapors are released. The health and safety of
response personnel requires that the hazards - real or potential - at an
episode must be characterized and appropriate preventive measures
instituted.
III. HEALTH AND SAFETY OF RESPONSE PERSONNEL
To reduce the risks to workers responding to hazardous substance
incidents, an effective health and safety program must be implemented
This would include considering, as a minimum, the following:
- Safe work practices.
- Engineered safeguards.
- Medical surveillance.
- Environmental and personnel monitoring.
- Personnel protective equipment.
- Education and training.
- Standard operating safety procedures.
As part of an Integrated program, standard operating safety procedures
provide instructions on how to accomplish specific tasks in a safe manner
In concept and principle, standard operating safety procedures are
1-2
-------
independent of the type of incident. Their applicability at a particular
incident must be determined and necessary modifications made to match
prevailing conditions. For example, personnel protective equipment, in
principle, is an initial consideration for all incidents; however, its
need and/or the type of equipment required is based on a case-by-case
evaluation. Likewise, someone must make the first entry onto a site. The
approach to be used can only be determined after assessing the conditions
prevailing at a specific incident.
The purpose of this document is to provide standard operating safety
guides related to site control and entry. The guidance included are not
meant to be a comprehensive treatment of the subjects covered. Rather,
they are meant to be used to complement professional training, experience,
and knowledge. The ommission of other safety procedures does not imply
their lack of importance, but that they will be addressed at a later
date.
1-3
TCS/EPA/10-82
-------
PART 2
STANDARD PROCEDURES
I. GENERAL
There are many guides or procedures for performing the variety of tasks
associated with responding to environmental episodes involving hazardous
substances. These instructions may be oriented to administrative,
technical, or safety matters and include such items as filing an expense
voucher, hiring a contractor, renting a car, using an instrument, following
safety procedures, and collecting samples. All these procedures are
intended to provide uniform instructions for accomplishing a specific task.
In addition to other types of procedures, safety-oriented operating
procedures are needed for incident response. The purpose of this section
is to provide selected standard operating safety guides which can be used
to develop more specific procedures.
II. DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD OPERATING SAFETY PROCEDURES
A major consideration in responding to accidental releases of hazardous
substances or incidents involving abandoned hazardous waste sites is the
health and safety of response personnel. Not only must a variety of
technical tasks be conducted efficiently to mitigate an incident, but they
must be accomplished in a manner that protects the worker. Appropriate
equipment and trained personnel, combined with standard operating
procedures, help reduce the possibility of harm to response workers.
For procedures to be effective:
Written instructions should be prepared in advance. The careful
thought needed to develop safe, practical procedures is difficult in
the stress created by responding to an incident.
Procedures must be based on the best available knowledge, operational
principles, and technical guidance.
Initial procedures must be field tested, reviewed, and revised when
appropriate by competent safety professionals.
Procedures must be understandable, feasible, and appropriate without
sacrificing safety.
All personnel involved in site activities must have copies of the
safety procedures and be briefed on their use.
Response personnel must be initially trained and periodically retrained
in personnel protection and safety.
2-1
-------
III. RESPONSE ACTIVITIES
Some procedures involved in response activities are primarily concerned
with general health and safety. In concept and principle, these are
independent of the type of incident, but are adapted or modified to meet
site-specific requirements. Other response activities associated with an
incident are unique. Each hazardous materials incident must be evaluated
to determine its hazards and risks. Various types of environmental
samples or measurements may be needed initially to determine the hazards
or to provide additional information for continuing assessment. Personnel
have to go on-site to accomplish specific tasks. Efforts are required to
prevent or reduce harmful substances from migrating from the site due to
natural or human activities. Containment, cleanup, and disposal
activities may be required. Each of these activities requires that
response personnel be protected from existing or potential hazards.
IV. OPERATING GUIDES
The standard operating safety guides that follow cover primarily site
control and entry. They serve as guides illustrating technical
considerations necessary in developing standard instructions. For a given
incident, the procedures recommended should be adapted to conditions
imposed by that specific situation. Other safety procedures related to
incident response operations are being developed.
2-2
TCS/EPA/10-82
-------
PART 3
SITE ENTRY - GENERAL MEASURES AND REQUIREMENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
Personnel responding to environmental episodes involving chemical
substances encounter conditions that are unsafe or potentially unsafe.
In addition to the danger due to the physical, chemical, and
toxicological properties of the material(s) present, other types of
hazards - electricity, water, heavy equipment, falling objects, loss of
balance, or tripping, for example - can have an adverse effect on the
health and safety of personnel.
This part discusses only safety measures and precautions associated with
the hazardous nature of chemical compounds. These practices establish
measures for reducing risks associated with hazardous substance response
operations. Safety measures to prevent accidents from other conditions
will be addressed in the future.
II. SAFETY PRACTICES
A. Personal Precautions
1. Eating, drinking, chewing gum or tobacco, smoking, or any
practice that increases the probability of hand-to-mouth transfer
and ingestion of material is prohibited in any area designated
contaminated.
2. Hands and face must be thoroughly washed upon leaving the work
area and before eating, drinking, or any other activities.
3. Whenever decontamination procedures for outer garments are in
effect, the entire body should be thoroughly washed as soon as
possible after the protective garment is removed.
4. No excessive facial hair, which interferes with a satisfactory
fit of the mask-to-face-seal, is allowed on personnel required to
wear respiratory protective equipment.
5. Contact with contaminated or suspected contaminated surfaces
should be avoided. Whenever possible, don't walk through
puddles, mud, and other discolored surfaces; kneel on ground;
lean, sit, or place equipment on drums, containers, vehicles, or
the ground.
6. Medicine and alcohol can potentiate the effects from exposure to
toxic chemicals. Prescribed drugs should not be taken by
personnel on response operations where the potential for
3-1
-------
absorption, inhalation, or ingestion of toxic substances exists
unless specifically approved by a qualified physician. Alcoholic
beverage intake should be minimized or avoided during response
operations.
B. Safety Plans and Procedures
1. A Site Safety Plan must be developed for all phases of site
operations and made available to all personnel. Unless time
precludes it, the plan must be written and posted.
2. All personnel must be familiar with standard operating safety
procedures and additional instructions contained in the Site
Safety Plan.
3. All personnel going on-site must be adequately trained and
thoroughly briefed on anticipated hazards, equipment to be worn,
safety practices to be followed, emergency procedures, and
communications.
4. Any required respiratory protective devices and clothing must be
worn by all personnel going on-site.
C. Operations
Entrance and exit must be planned and emergency escape routes
delineated. Warning signals for site evacuation must be
established.
2. Personnel should practice unfamiliar operations prior to doing the
actual procedure.
3. Personnel on-site must use the "buddy" system when wearing
respiratory protective equipment. As a minimum, a third person,
suitably equipped as a safety backup, is required during initial
entries.
4. During continual operations, on-site workers act as safety backup
to each other. Off-site personnel provide emergency assistance.
5. Communications using radios or other means must be maintained
between Initial entry members at all times. Emergency
communications should be prearranged in case of radio failure,
necessity for evacuation of site, or other reasons.
6. Visual contact must be maintained between "pairs" on-site and
safety personnel. Entry team members should remain close together
to assist each other during emergencies.
7. Wind indicators visible to all personnel should be strategically
located throughout the site.
1.
3-2
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8. Personnel and equipment in the contaminated area should be
minimized, consistent with effective site operations.
9. Work areas for various operational activities must be
established.
10. Procedures for leaving a contaminated area must be planned and
implemented prior to going on-site. Work areas and
decontamination procedures must be established based on prevailing
site conditions.
III. MEDICAL PROGRAM
To safeguard the health of response personnel, a medical program must be
developed, established, and maintained. This program has two essential
components: routine health care and emergency treatment.
A. Routine Health Care
Routine health care and maintenance should consist of at least:
1. Pre-employment medical examinations to establish the individual's
state of health, baseline physiological data, and ability to wear
personnel protective equipment. The frequency and type of
examination to be conducted thereafter should be determined by
medical personnel knowledgeable in the area of toxicology.
2. Arrangements to provide special medical examinations, care, and
counseling in case of known or suspected exposures to toxic
substances. Any special tests performed depend on the chemical
substance to which the individual has been exposed.
B. Emergency Medical Care and Treatment
The Site Safety Plan must address emergency medical care and treatment
of response personnel, including possible exposures to toxic
substances and injuries due to accidents or physical problems. The
following items should be included in emergency care provisions:
1. Name, address, and telephone number of the nearest medical
treatment facility should be conspicously posted. A map and/or
directions for locating the facility, plus the travel time, should
be readily available.
2. The facility's ability to provide care and treatment of personnel
exposed or suspected of being exposed to toxic (or otherwise
hazardous) substances should be ascertained. If the facility
lacks toxicological capability, arrangements should be made for
consultant services.
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3. All administration arrangements for accepting patients should be
made in advance with the facility.
4. Arrangements should be made to quickly obtain ambulance,
emergency, fire, and police services. Telephone numbers and
procedures for obtaining these services should be conspicuously
posted.
5. Emergency showers, eye wash fountains, and first aid equipment
should be readily available on-site. Personnel should have first
aid and medical emergency training.
6. Provisions should be made for rapid identification of the
substance to which the worker has been exposed (if this has not
previously been done). This information must be given to medical
personnel.
IV. EDUCATION AND TRAINING
All personnel involved in responding to environmental episodes must be
trained to carry out their response functions. Training must be provided
in the use of all equipment, including respiratory protective apparatus and
protective clothing; safety practices and procedures; general safety
requirements; advanced first aid; and hazard recognition and evaluation.
Safety training must be a continuing part of the total response program.
Periodic retraining and practice sessions not only create a high degree of
safety awareness, but also help to maintain proficiency in the use of
equipment and knowledge of safety requirements.
V. QUALIFIED SAFETY PERSONNEL
Personnel responding to chemical incidents must make many complex decisions
regarding safety. To make these decisions correctly requires more than
elementary knowledge. For example, selecting the most effective personnel
protective equipment requires not only expertise in the technical areas of
respirators, protective clothing, air monitoring, physical stress, etc.,
but also experience and professional judgment. Only a competent, qualified
person (specialist) has the technical judgment to evaluate a particular
incident and determine the appropriate safety requirements. This
individual, through a combination of professional education, on-the-job
experience, specialized training, and continual study, requires expertise
to make sound decisions.
VI. STRESS
A. Introduction
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Both physiological and psychological stress can affect response
personnel. Under certain conditions, stress can contribute
significantly to accidents or harm workers in other ways. To reduce
the potential for abnormal physical stress or mental anxiety:
1. Workers must be periodically examined by medical authorities to
determine if they are physically, and if possible, psychologically
fit to perform their jobs.
2. Continual practice and training must be provided in using personnel
protection equipment, especially the self-contained breathing
apparatus and chemical-resistant, protective clothing.
3. An effective safety program must be implemented and concerted
effort made to protect the worker. These actions help assure
personnel that their health and safety will be protected now and in
the future.
B. Weather
Adverse weather conditions are important considerations in planning and
conducting site operations. Hot or cold weather can cause physical
discomfort, loss of efficiency, and personal injury. Of particular
importance is heat stress resulting when protective clothing decreases
natural body ventilation. One or more of the following recommendations
will help reduce heat stress:
1. Provide plenty of liquids. To replace body fluids (water and
electrolytes) lost due to sweating, use a 0.1% salt water solution,
more heavily salted foods, or commercial mixes. The commercial
mixes may be preferable for those employees on a low-sodium diet.
2. Provide cooling devices to aid natural body ventilation. These
devices, however, add weight, and their use should be balanced
against worker efficiency. Long cotton underwear act as a wick to
help absorb moisture and protect the skin from direct contact with
heat-absorbing protective clothing. It should be the minimum
undergarment worn.
3. Install mobile showers and/or hose-down facilities to reduce body
temperature and cool protective clothing.
4. In extremely hot weather, conduct nonemergency response operations
in the early morning or evening.
5. Ensure that adequate shelter is available to protect personnel
against heat, cold, rain, snow, etc., which can decrease physical
efficiency and increase the probability of accidents.
6. In hot weather, rotate shifts of workers wearing impervious
clothing.
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C. Heat Stress Monitoring
For monitoring the body's recuperative ability to excess heat, one or
more of the following techniques should be used as a screening
mechanism. Monitoring of personnel wearing impervious clothing should
commence when the ambient, temperature is 70°F or above. Frequency of
monitoring should increase as the ambient temperature increases or as
slow recovery rates are indicated. When temperatures exceed 85°F,
workers should be monitored for heat stress after every work period.
1. Heart rate (HR) should be measured by the radial pulse for 30
seconds as early as possible in the resting period. The HR at the
beginning of the rest period should not exceed 110 beats per
minute. If the HR is higher, the next work period should be
shortened by 10 minutes (or 33%), while the length of the rest
period stays the same. If the pulse rate is 100 beats per minute
at the beginning of the next rest period, the following work cycle
should be shortened by 33%.
2. Body temperature should be measured orally with a clinical
thermometer as early as possible in the resting period. Oral
temperature (0T) at the beginning of the rest period should not
exceed 99°F. If it does, the next work period should be shortened
by 10 minutes (or 33%), while the length of the rest period stays
the same. However, if the 0T exceeds 99.7°F at the beginning of
the next period, the following work cycle should be further
shortened by 33%. 0T should be measured again at the end of the
rest period to make sure that it has dropped below 99°F.
3. Body water loss (BWL) due to sweating should be measured by
weighing the worker in the morning and in the evening. The
clothing worn should be similar at both weighings; preferably the
worker should be nude. The scale should be accurate to plus or
minus 1/4 lb. BWL should not exceed 1.5% of the total body weight.
If it does, the worker should be instructed to increase his daily
intake of fluids by the weight lost. Ideally, body fluids should
be maintained at a constant level during the work day. This
requires replacement of salt lost in sweat as well.
4. Good hygienic standards must be maintained by frequent change of
clothing and daily showering. Clothing should be permitted to dry
during rest periods. Persons who notice skin problems should
immediately consult medical personnel.
D. Effects of Heat Stress
If the body's physiological processes fail to maintain a normal body
temperature because of excessive heat, a number of physical reactions
can occur ranging from mild (such as fatigue, irritability, anxiety,
and decreased concentration, dexterity, or movement) to fatal.
Standard reference books should be consulted for specific treatment.
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Heat-related problems are:
- Heat Rash: caused by continuous exposure to heat and humid air and
aggravated by chafing clothes. Decreases ability to tolerate heat
as well as being a nuisance.
- Heat cramps: caused by profuse perspiration with inadequate fluid
intake and chemical replacement (especially salts). Signs: muscle
spasm and pain in the extremities and abdomen.
- Heat exhaustion: caused by increased stress on various organs to
meet increased demands to cool the body. Signs: shallow breathing;
pale, cool, moist skin; profuse sweating; dizziness and lassitude.
- Heat stroke: the most severe form of heat stress. Body must be
cooled immediately to prevent severe injury and/or death. Signs and
symptoms are: red, hot, dry skin; no perspiration; nausea; dizziness
and confusion; strong, rapid pulse; coma.
E. Effects of Cold Exposure
Persons working outdoors in temperatures at or below freezing may be
frostbitten. Extreme cold for a short time may cause severe injury
to the surface of the body, or result in profound generalized
cooling, causing death. Areas of the body which have high surface-
area-to-volume ratio such as fingers, toes, and ears, are the most
susceptible.
Two factors influence the development of a cold injury: ambient
temperature and the velocity of the wind. Wind chill is used to
describe the chilling effect of moving air in combination with low
temperature. For instance, 10°F with a wind of 15 miles per hour
(mph) is equivalent in chilling effect to still air at -18°F.
As a general rule, the greatest incremental increase in wind chill
occurs when a wind of 5 mph increases to 10 mph. Additionally,
water conducts heat 240 times faster than air. Thus, the body cools
suddenly when chemical-protective equipment is removed if the
clothing underneath is perspiration soaked.
Local injury resulting from cold is included in the generic term
frostbite. There are several degrees of damage. Frostbite of the
extremities can be categorized into:
- Frost nip or incipient frostbite: characterized by suddenly
blanching or whitening of skin.
- Superficial frostbite: skin has a waxy or white appearance and
is firm to the touch, but tissue beneath is resilient.
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- Deep frostbite: tissues are cold, pale, and solid; extremely
serious injury.
Systemic hypothermia is caused by exposure to freezing or rapidly
dropping temperature. Its symptoms are usually exhibited in five
stages: 1) shivering, 2) apathy, listlessness, sleepiness, and
(sometimes) rapid cooling of the body to less than 95°F, 3)
unconsciousness, glassy stare, slow pulse, and slow respiratory
rate, 4) freezing of the extremities, and finally, 5) death.
Standard reference books should be consulted for specific
treatments.
SUMMARY
The health and safety of response personnel are major considerations 1n
all response operations. All site operation planning must incorporate an
analysis of the hazards involved and procedures for preventing or
minimizing the risk to personnel. The Site Safety Plan establishes the
safety practices and procedures to be followed so that the welfare and
safety of workers are protected. The plan must evaluate both the nature
of the chemical compounds present and other hazards that could affect
response personnel.
3-8
TCS/EPA/10-82
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PART 4
SITE ENTRY - SURVEY AND RECONNAISSANCE
I. INTRODUCTION
The team(s) initially entering the site is to accomplish one or more of the
following objectives:
Characterize the hazards that exist or potentially exist affecting the
public health, the environment, and response personnel.
Verify existing information and/or obtain data about the incident.
Evaluate the need for prompt mitigation actions.
Collect supplemental information to determine the safety requirements
for personnel initially and subsequently entering the site.
Before the team enters the site, as much information as possible should be
collected, depending on the time available, concerning the type(s) of
hazards, degree of hazard(s), and risks which may exist. Based upon
available information (shipping manifests, transportation placards,
existing records, container labels, etc.) or off-site studies, the team
assesses the hazards, determines the need to go on-site, and identifies
initial safety requirements.
II. PRELIMINARY ON-SITE EVALUATION
The initial on-site survey is to determine, on a preliminary basis,
hazardous or potentially hazardous conditions. The main effort is to
rapidly identify the immediate hazards that may affect the public, response
personnel, and the environment. Of major concern are the real or potential
dangers - for example, fire, explosion, oxygen-deficient atmospheres,
radiation, airborne contaminants, containerized or pooled hazardous
substances, that could affect workers during subsequent operations.
A. Organic Vapors and Gases
If the type(s) of organic substance(s) involved in an incident is known
and the material is volatile or can become airborne, air measurements
for organics should be made with one or more appropriate, properly
calibrated survey instruments.
When the presence or types of organic vapors/gases are unknown,
instruments such as a photoionizer (HNU Systems*) and/or a portable gas
chromatograph (Century Systems OVA*), operated in the total readout
*The use of any trade names does not imply their endorsement by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
4-1
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mode, should be used to detect organic vapors. Until specific
constituents can be identified, the readout indicates total airborne
subtances to which the instrument is responding. Identification of
the individual vapor/gas constituents permits the instruments to be
calibrated and used for more specific analysis.
Sufficient data should be obtained during the initial entry to map or
screen the site for various levels of organic vapors. These gross
measurements can be used on a preliminary basis to: 1) determine levels
of personnel protection, 2) establish site work zones, and 3) select
candidate areas for more thorough qualitative and quantitative
studies.
Higher than background readings on the HNU or OVA may also indicate the
displacement of oxygen or the presence of combustible vapors.
B. Inorganic Vapors and Gases
The ability to detect and quantify nonspecific inorganic vapors and
gases is extremely limited. Presently, the HNU photoionizer has
limited detection capability while the Century Systems has none. (See
Appendix I for characteristics). If specific inorganics are known or
suspected to be present, measurements should be made with appropriate
instruments, if available. Colorimetric tubes can be used if
substances present are known (or can be narrowed to a few) and
appropriate tubes are available.
C. Radiation
Although radiation monitoring is not necessary for all responses, it
should be incorporated in the initial survey where radioactive
materials may be present - for example, fires at warehouses or
hazardous material storage facilities, transportation incidents
involving unknown materials, or abandoned waste sites.
Normal gamma radiation background is approximately 0.01 to 0.02
mi Hi roentgen per hour (mR/hr) on a gamma survey instrument. Work can
continue with elevated radiation exposure rates; however, if the
exposure rate increases to 3-5 times above gamma background, a
qualified health physicist should be consulted. At no time should work
continue with an exposure rate of 10 mR/hr or above without the advice
of a health physicist. EPA's Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation has
radiation specialists in each Region, as well as at Headquarters,
Montgomery, Alabama, and Las Vegas, Nevada, to assist.
The absence of gamma readings above background should not be
interpreted as the complete absence of radioactivity. Radioactive
materials emitting low-energy gamma, alpha, or beta radiation may be
present, but for a number of reasons may not cause a response on the
instrument. Unless airborne, these radioactive materials should
present minimal hazard, but more thorough surveys should be conducted
4-2
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as site operations continue to completely eliminate the presence of any
radioactive material.
D. Oxygen Deficiency
At sea level, ambient air must contain at least 19.5% by volume of
oxygen. At lower precentages, air-supplied respiratory protective
equipment is needed. Oxygen measurements are of particular importance
for work in enclosed spaces, low-lying areas, or in the vicinity of
accidents that have produced heavier-than-air vapors, which could
displace ambient air. These oxygen-deficient areas are also prime
locations for taking further organic vapor and combustible gas
measurements, since the air has been displaced by other substances.
Oxygen-enriched atmospheres increase the potential for fires.
E. Combustible Gases
The presence or absence of combustible vapors or gases must be
determined. If readings approach or exceed 10% of the lower explosive
limit (LEL), extreme caution should be exercised in continuing the
investigation. If readings approach or exceed 25% LEL, personnel
should be withdrawn immediately. Before resuming any on-site
activities, project personnel in consultation with experts in fire or
explosion prevention must develop procedures for continuing
operations.
F. Visual Observations
While on-site, the initial entry team should make visual observations
which would help in evaluating site hazards - for example, dead fish or
other animals; land features; wind direction; labels on containers
indicating explosive, flammable, toxic, or corrosive materials;
conditions conducive to splash or contact with unconfined liquids,
sludges, or solids; and other general conditions.
G. Direct-Reading Instruments
A variety of toxic air pollutants, (including organic and Inorganic
vapors, gases, or particulates) can be produced at, for example,
abandoned waste sites; fires at chemical manufacturing, storage,
reprocessing, or formulating facilities; or fires involving pesticides.
Direct-reading field instruments will not detect or measure all of
these substances. Thus, negative readings should not be interpreted as
the complete absence of airborne toxic substances. Verification of
negative results can only be done by collecting air samples and
analyzing them in a laboratory.
4-3
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III. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
A. Initial Surveys
In general, the initial entry is considered a relatively rapid
screening process for collecting preliminary data on site hazards.
The time needed to conduct the initial survey depends on the urgency
of the situation, type of incident, information needed, size of site
availability of resources, level of protection required for initial
entry personnel, etc. Consequently, initial surveys may need hours or
days to complete and consist of more than one entry.
B. Priority for Initial Entry Monitoring
Of immediate concern to initial entry personnel are atmospheric
conditions which could affect their immediate safety. These
conditions are airborne toxic substances, combustible gases or vapors
lack of oxygen, and to a lesser extent, ionizing radiation.
Priorities for monitoring these potential hazards should be
established after a careful evaluation of conditions.
When the type(s) of material(s) involved in an incident is identified
and its release into the environment suspected or known, the
material's chemical/physical properties and the prevailing weather
conditions may help determine the order of monitoring. An unknown
substance(s) or situation(s) presents a more difficult monitoring
problem.
In general, for poorly ventilated spaces - buildings, ship's holds,
boxcars, or bulk tanks - which must be entered, combustible
vapors/gases and oxygen-deficient atmospheres should be monitored
first with team members wearing, as a minimum, Level B protective
equipment (Levels of Protection are described in Part 5). Toxic
gases/vapors and radiation, unless known not to be present, should be
measured as the next priority.
For open, well-ventilated areas, combustible gases and oxygen
deficiency are lesser hazards, and require lower priority. However,
areas of lower elevation on-site (such as ditches and gulleys) and
downwind areas may have combustible gas mixtures, in addition to toxic
vapors or gases, and lack sufficient oxygen to sustain life. Entry
teams should approach and monitor whenever possible from the upwind
area.
C. Periodic Monitoring
The monitoring surveys made during the initial site entry phase are
for a preliminary evaluation of atmospheric hazards. In some
situations, the information obtained may be sufficient to preclude
additional monitoring - for example., a chlorine tank determined to be
releasing no chlorine. Materials detected during the initial site
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survey call for a more comprehensive evaluation of hazards and
analyses for specific components. A program must be established for
monitoring, sampling, and evaluating hazards for the duration of site
operations. Since site activities and weather conditions change, a
continuous program to monitor atmospheric changes must be implemented
utilizing a combination of stationary sampling equipment, personnel
monitoring devices, and periodic area monitoring with direct-reading
instruments.
D. Peripheral Monitoring
Whenever possible, atmospheric hazards in the areas adjacent to the
on-site zone should be monitored with direct-reading instruments, and
air samples should be taken before the initial entry for on-site
monitoring. Negative instrument readings off-site should not be
construed as definite indications of on-site conditions, but only
another piece of information to assist in the preliminary evluation.
E. Monitoring Instruments
It is imperative that personnel using monitoring instruments be
thoroughly familiar with their use, limitations, and operating
characteristics. All instruments have inherent constraints in their
ability to detect and/or quantify the hazards for which they were
designed. Unless trained personnel use instruments and assess data
readout, air hazards can be grossly misinterpreted, endangering the
health and safety of response personnel. In addition, only
intrinsically safe instruments should be used, until the absence of
combustible gases or vapors can be confirmed.
F. Ambient Atmospheric Concentrations
Any indication of atmospheric hazards - toxic substances, combustible
gases, lack of oxygen, radiation, and other specific materials -
should be viewed as a sign to proceed with care and deliberation.
Readings indicating nonexplosive atmospheres, low concentrations of
toxic substances, or other conditions may increase or decrease
suddenly, changing the associated risks. Extreme caution should be
exercised in continuing surveys when atmospheric hazards are
indicated.
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TABLE 4-1
ATMOSPHERIC HAZARD GUIDELINES
Mnnitorinq Equipment
Hazard
Ambient Level
Action
Combustible gas indicator
Explosive
atmosphere
Oxygen concentration meter Oxygen
< 10% LEL Continue investigation.
10%-25% Continue on-site
monitoring with extreme
caution as higher levels
are encountered.
> 25% LEL Explosion hazard;
withdraw from area
immediately.
< 19.5% Monitor wearing SCBA.
NOTE: Combustible gas
readings are not valid
in atmospheres with
< 19.5% oxygen.
19.5%-25<£ Continue investigation
with caution. SCBA not
needed, based on oxygen
content only.
Radiation survey
Radiation
> 25.0%
< 1 mR/hr
> 10 mR/hr
Colorimetrlc tubes
Organic and Depends on
inorganic species
vapors/gases
Discontinue inspection;
fire hazard potential.
Consult specialist.
Continue investigation.
If radiation is detected
above background levels,
this signifies the
presence of possible
radiation sources; at
this level, more
thorough monitoring is
advisable. Consult with
a health physicist.
Potential radiation
hazard; evacuate site.
Continue monitoring only
upon the advice of a
health physicist.
Consult standard
reference manuals for
air concentrations/
toxicity data.
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TABLE 4-1 (Continued)
HNU photoionizer
Organic
vapors/gases
1)
Depends on
species
Consult standard
reference manuals for
air concentrations/
toxicity data.
2)
Total
response
mode
Consult EPA Standard
Operating Procedures.
Organic vapor analyzer
Organic
1)
Depends on
species
Consult standard
reference manuals for
air concentrations/
toxicity data.
2)
Total
response
mode
Consult EPA Standard
Operating Procedures.
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TCS/EPA/10-82
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PART 5
SITE ENTRY - LEVELS OF PROTECTION
I. INTRODUCTION
Personnel must wear protective equipment when response activities involve
known or suspected atmospheric contamination, when vapors, gases, or
particulates may be generated, or when direct contact with skin-affecting
substances may occur. Respirators can protect lungs, gastrointestinal
tract, and eyes against air toxicants. Chemical-resistant clothing can
protect the skin from contact with skin-destructive and -absorbable
chemicals. Good personal hygiene limits or prevents ingestion of material.
Equipment to protect the body against contact with known or anticipated
chemical hazards has been divided into four categories according to the
degree of protection afforded:
- Level A: Should be worn when the highest level of respiratory, skin, and
eye protection is needed.
Level B: Should be selected when the highest level of respiratory
protection is needed, but a lesser level of skin protection. Level B
protection is the minimum level recommended on initial site entries until
the hazards have been further defined by on-site studies and appropriate
personnel protection utilized.
Level C: Should be selected when the type(s) of airborne subtance(s) is
known, the concentration(s) is measured, and the criteria for using air-
purifying respirators are met.
- Level D: Should not be worn on any site with respiratory or skin
hazards. Is primarily a work uniform providing minimal protection.
The Level of Protection selected should be based primarily on:
- Type(s) and measured concentration(s) of the chemical substance(s) in the
ambient atmosphere and its toxicity.
- Potential or measured exposure to substances in air, splashes of liquids,
or other direct contact with material due to work being performed.
In situations where the type(s) of chemical(s), concentrations), and
possibilities of contact are not known, the appropriate Level of Protection
must be selected based on professional experience and judgment until the
hazards can be better characterized.
While personnel protective equipment reduces the potential for contact with
harmful substances, ensuring the health and safety of response personnel
requires, in addition, safe work practices, decontamination, site entry
5-1
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protocols, and other safety considerations. Together, these protocols
establish a combined approach for reducing potential harm to workers.
II. LEVELS OF PROTECTION
A. Level A Protection
1. Personnel protective equipment
- Pressure-demand, self-contained breathing apparatus, approved by
the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) and National
Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
- Fully encapsulating chemical-resistant suit
- Coveralls*
- Long cotton underwear*
- Gloves (outer), chemical-resistant
- Gloves (inner), chemical-resistant
- Boots, chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank. (Depending on
suit construction, worn over or under suit boot)
- Hard hat* (under suit)
- Disposable protective suit, gloves, and boots* (Worn over fully
encapsulating suit)
- 2-Way radio communications (intrinsically safe)
2. Criteria for selection
Meeting any of these criteria warrants use of Level A Protection-
- The chemical substance(s) has been identified and requires the
highest level of protection for skin, eyes, and the respiratory
system based on:
-- measured (or potential for) high concentration(s) of
atmospheric vapors, gases, or particualtes
or
-- site operations and work functions involving high potential for
splash, immersion, or exposure to unexpected vapors, gases, or
particulates.
~Optional
5-2
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- Extremely hazardous substances (for example: dioxin, cyanide compounds,
concentrated pesticides, Department of Transportation Poison "A"
materials, suspected carcinogens, and infectious substances) are known or
suspected to be present, and skin contact is possible.
- The potential exists for contact with substances that destroy skin.
- Operations must be conducted in confined, poorly ventilated areas until
the absence of hazards requiring Level A protection is demonstrated.
- Total atmospheric readings on the Century OVA System, HNU Photoionizer,
and similar instruments indicate 500-1,000 ppm of unidentified
substances. (See Appendixes I and II.)
3. Guidance on selection criteria
The fully encapsulating suit provides the highest degree of protection to
skin, eyes, and respiratory system if the suit material is resistant to the
chemical(s) of concern during the time the suit is worn and/or at the
measured or anticipated concentrations. While Level A provides maximum
protection, the suit material may be rapidly permeated and penetrated by
certain chemicals from extremely high air concentrations, splashes, or
immersion of boots or gloves in concentrated liquids or sludges. These
limitations should be recognized when specifying the type of
chemical-resistant garment. Whenever possible, the suit material should be
matched with the substance it is used to protect against.
The use of Level A protection and other chemical-resistant clothing requires
evaluating the problems of physical stress, in particular heat stress
associated with the wearing of impermeable protective clothing. Response
personnel must be carefully monitored for physical tolerance and recovery.
Protective equipment being heavy and cumbersome, decreases dexterity,
agility, visual acuity, etc., and so increases the probability of accidents.
This probability decreases as less protective equipment is required. Thus,
increased probability of accidents should be considered when selecting a
Level of Protection.
Many toxic substances are difficult to detect or measure in the field. When
such substances (especially those readily absorbed by or destructive to the
skin) are known or suspected to be present and personnel contact is
unavoidable, Level A protection should be worn until more accurate
information can be obtained.
B. Level B Protection
1. Personal protective equipment
- Pressure-demand, self-contained breathing apparatus (MSHA/NIOSH
approved)
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- Chemical-resistant clothing (overalls and long-sleeved jacket-
coveralls; hooded, one or two-piece chemical-splash suit; disposable
chemical-resistant coveralls)
- Coveralls*
- Gloves (outer), chemical-resistant
- Gloves (inner), chemical-resistant
- Boots (outer), chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank
- Boots (outer), chemical-resistant (disposable)*
- Hard hat (face shield*)
- 2-Way radio communications (intrinsically safe)
2. Criteria for selection
Meeting any one of these criteria warrants use of Level B protection:
- The type(s) and atmospheric concentrations) of toxic substances hav*
been identified and require the highest level of respiratory
protection, but a lower level of skin and eye protection. These
would be atmospheres:
-- with concentrations Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health
(IDLH)
or
-- exceeding limits of protection afforded by a full-face,
air-purifying mask
or
-- containing substances for which air-purifying canisters do not
exist or have low removal efficiency
or
-- containing substances requiring air-supplied equipment, but
substances and/or concentraions do not respresent a serious skin
hazard.
- The atmosphere contains less than 19.5% oxygen.
- Site operations make 1t highly unlikely that the small, unprotected
area of the head or neck will be contacted by splashes of extremely
hazardous substances. y
~Optional
5-4
-------
- Total atmospheric concentrations of unidentified vapors or gases range
from 5 ppm to 500 ppm on instruments such as the Century OVA System or
HNU Photoionizer, and vapors are not suspected of containing high levels
of chemicals toxic to skin. (See Appendixes I and II.)
3. Guidance on selection criteria
Level B equipment provides a high level of protection to the respiratory
tract, but a somewhat lower level of protection to skin. The
chemical-resistant clothing required in Level B is available in a wide
variety of styles, materials, construction detail, permeability, etc. These
factors all affect the degree of protection afforded. Therefore, a
specialist should select the most effective chemical-resistant clothing (and
fully encapsulating suit) based on the known or anticipated hazards and/or
job function.
Generally, if a self-contained breathing apparatus is required, Level B
clothing rather than a Level A fully encapsulating suit is selected, based
on the protection needed against known or anticipated substances affecting
the skin. Level B skin protection is selected by:
- Comparing the concentrations of known or identified substances in air
with skin toxicity data.
- Determining the presence of substances that are destructive to and/or
readily absorbed through the skin by liquid splashes, unexpected high
levels of gases or particulates, or other means of direct contact.
- Assessing the effect of the substance (at its measured air concentrations
or splash potential) on the small area of the head and neck unprotected
by chemical- resistant clothing.
For initial site entry and reconnaissance at an open site, approaching
whenever possible from the upwind direction, Level B protection (with good
quality, hooded, chemical-resistant clothing) should protect response
personnel, providing the conditions described in selecting Level A are known
or judged to be absent. For continuous operations, the aforementioned
criteria must be evaluated.
At 500 pm total vapors/gases, upgrading to Level A protection may be
advisable. A major factor for re-evaluation is the presence of vapors,
gases, or particulates requiring a higher degree of skin protection.
C. Level C Protection
1. Personal protective equipment
- Full-face, air-purifying, canister-equipped respirator (MSHA/NIOSH
approved)
- Chemical-resistant clothing (coveralls; hooded, two-piece chemical
5-5
-------
splash suit; chemical -resistant hood arid apron; disposable chemical -
resistant coveralls)
- Coveralls*
- Gloves (outer), chemical-resistant
- Gloves (inner), chemical-resistant*
- Boots (outer), chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank*
- Boots (outer), chemical-resistant (disposable)*
- Hard hat (face shield*)
- Escape mask*
- 2-Way radio communications (intrinsically safe)
2. Criteria for selection
Meeting all of these criteria permits use of Level C protection:
- Measured air concentrations of identified substances will be reduced by
the respirator to at or below the substance's exposure limit, and the
concentration is within the service limit of the canister.
Atmospheric contaminant concentrations do not exceed IDLH levels.
Atmospheric contaminants, liquid splashes, or other direct contact will
not adversely affect the small area of skin left unprotected by chemical
resistant clothing.
Job functions have been determined not to require self-contained
breathing apparatus.
Total vapor readings register between background and 5 ppm above
background on instruments such as the HNU Photoionizer and Century OVA
System. (See Appendixes I and II.)
Air will be monitored periodically.
3. Guidance on selection criteria
Level C protection is distinguished from Level B by the equipment used to
protect the respiratory system, assuming the same type of chemical-
resistant clothing is used. The main selection criterion for Level C 1s
that conditions permit wearing air-purifying devices.
The air-purifying device must be a full-face mask (MSHA/NIOSH approved)
equipped with a canister suspended from the chin or on a harness. Canisters
~Optional
5-6
-------
must be able to remove the substances encountered. Quarter- or half-
masks or cheek-cartridge full-face masks should be used only with the
approval of a qualified individual.
In addition, a full-face, air-purifying mask can be used only if:
- Oxygen content of the atmosphere is at least 19.5% by volume.
- Substance(s) is identified and its concentration(s) measured.
- Substance(s) has adequate warning properties.
- Individual passes a qualitative fit-test for the mask.
- Appropriate cartridge/car.ister is used, and its service limit
concentration is not exceeded.
An air monitoring program is part of all response operations when
atmospheric contamination is known or suspected. It is particularly
important that the air be monitored throroughly when personnel are
wearing air-purifying respirators (Level C). Continual surveillance
using direct-reading instruments and air sampling is needed to detect any
changes in air quality necessitating a higher level of respiratory
protection. See Part 8 for guidance on air monitoring.
Total unidentified vapor/gas concentrations of 5 ppm above background
require Level B protection. Only a qualified individual should select
Level C (air-purifying respirators) protection for continual use in an
unidentified vapor/gas concentration of background to 5 ppm above
background.
D. Level D Protection
1. Personal protective equipment
- Coveralls
- Gloves*
- Boots/shoes, leather or chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank
- Boots (outer), chemical-resistant (disposable)*
- Safety glasses or chemical splash goggles*
- Hard hat (face shield)*
- Escape mask*
2. Criteria for selection
Meeting any of these criteria allows use of Level D protection:
No hazardous air pollutants have been measured.
*0pti onal
5-7
-------
Work functions preclude splashes, immersion, or potential for
unexpected inhalation of any chemicals.
3. Guidance on selection criteria
Level D protection is primarily a work uniform. It can be worn in
areas where: 1) only boots can be contaminated, or 2) there are
no inhalable toxic substances.
III. PROTECTION IN UNKNOWN ENVIRONMENTS
In all site operations, selecting the appropriate personnel protection
equipment is one of the first steps in reducing the potential for adverse
health effects. Until the hazardous conditions presented by an
environmental incident can be identified and personnel safety measures
commensurate with the hazards - real or potential - instituted,
preliminary measures will have to be based on applying experience,
judgment, and professional knowledge to the particular incident at hand.
Lack of knowledge concerning the hazards that could be encountered
precludes selecting protective equipment by comparing environmental
concentrations of known toxicants against protection afforded by each type
of equipment.
One of the first considerations in evaluating the risk of an unknown
environment is to measure immediate atmospheric hazards such as the
concentrations (or potential concentrations) of vapors, gases, and
particulates; oxygen content of the air; explosive potential; and, to a
lesser degree, the possibility of radiation exposure. In addition to air
measurements, visual observation and/or evaluation of existing data can
help determine the degree of risk from other materials that are explosive
have a high fire potential, are extremely toxic, or exhibit other
hazardous characteristics that cannot be monitored by field instruments.
Total vapor/gas concentration as indicated by instruments such as the
Century OVA System or the HNU Photoionizer is a useful adjunct to
professional judgment in selecting the Level of Protection to be worn in
an unknown environment. It should not be the sole criterion, but should
be considered with all other available information. Total vapor/gas
concentration should be applied only by qualified persons thoroughly
familiar with the information contained in Appendixes I and II.
The Initial on-site survey and reconnaissance, which may consist of more
than one entry, is to characterize the immediate hazards and, based on
these findings, establish preliminary safety requirements. As data are
obtained from the initial survey, the Level of Protection and other safety
procedures are adjusted. Initial data also provide information on which
to base further monitoring and sampling. No method can select a Level of
Protection in all unknown environments. Each situation must be examined
individually. Some general approaches can be given, however, for judging
the situation and determining the Level of Protection required.
5-8
-------
A. Level C
Level C protection (full-face, air-purifying respirator) should be
worn routinely in an atmosphere only after the type(s) of air
contaminant(s) is identified and concentrations measured. To permit
flexibility in prescribing a Level of Protection at certain
environmental incidents, a specialist could consider air-purifying
respirators for use in unidentified vapor/gas concentrations of a few
parts per million. The guideline of total vapor/gas concentration of
background to 5 ppm above background should not be the sole criterion
for selecting Level C. Since the individual contributors may never be
completely identified, a decision on continuous wearing of Level C
must be made, after assessing all safety considerations, including:
- The presence of (or potential for) organic or inorganic
vapors/gases against which a canister is ineffective or has a
short service life.
- The known (or suspected) presence in air of substances with low
TLV or IDLH levels.
- The presence of particulates in air.
- The errors associated with both the instruments and monitoring
procedures used.
- The presence of (or potential for) substances in air which do not
elicit a response on the instrument(s) used.
- The potential for higher concentrations in the ambient atmosphere
or in the air adjacent to specific site operations.
The continuous use of air-purifying respirators (Level C) should be
based on the identification of the substances contributing to the
total vapor/gas concentration and the application of published
criteria for the routine use of air-purifying devices. Unidentified
ambient concentrations of organic/vapors or gases in air approaching
or exceeding 5 ppm above background require Level B protection.
Individuals without appropriate training and/or experience should be
discouraged from modifying upward the recommended total vapor/gas
concentration guideline and associated Levels of Protection.
B. Level A
Level A should be worn when maximum protection is needed against
substances that could damage the surface of the skin and/or be
absorbed through the skin. Since Level A requires the use of a self-
contained breathing apparatus, the eyes and respiratory system are
also protected. For initial site entry, skin toxicants would exist
primarily as vapors, gases, or particulates in air, with a lesser
5-9
-------
possibility of splash. Continuous operations at an abandoned waste site,
for instance, may require Level A due to working with and around severe
skin toxicants.
Until air monitoring data are available to assist in the selection of the
appropriate Level of Protection, the use of Level A for initial site
entries may have to be based on indirect evidence of the potential for
atmospheric contamination or direct skin contact.
Considerations that may require Level A protection include:
- Confined spaces: Enclosed, confined, or poorly ventilated areas are
conducive to buildup in air of toxic vapors, gases, or particulates.
(Explosive or oxygen-deficient atmospheres also are more probable in
confined spaces.) Low-lying outdoor areas - ravines, ditches, and
gulleys - tend to accumulate any heavier-than-air vapors or gases
present.
- Suspected/known toxic substances: Various substances may be known or
suspected to be involved in an incident, but there are no field
instruments available to detect or quantify air concentrations. In
these cases, media samples must be analyzed in the laboratory. Until
these substances are identified and levels measured, maximum
protection may be necessary.
- Visible emissions: Visible emissions from leaking containers or
railroad/vehicular tank cars, as well as smoke from chemical fires,
indicate high potential for concentrations of substances that could be
extreme respiratory or skin hazards.
- Job functions: Initial site entries are generally walk-throughs in
which instruments and/or visual observations provide a preliminary
characterization of the hazards. Subsequent entries are to conduct
the many activities needed to reduce the environmental impact of those
hazards. Levels of Protection for later operations are based not only
on data obtained from the initial and subsequent environmental
monitoring, but also on the probability of contamination. Maximum
protection (Level A) should be worn when:
-- there is a high probability for exposure to high concentrations of
vapors, gases, or particulates.
-- substances could splash.
-- substances are known or suspected of being extremely toxic directly
to the skin or by being absorbed.
Examples of situations where Level A has been worn are:
- Excavating of soil suspected of being contaminated with dioxin.
5-10
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- Entering cloud of chlorine released in a railroad accidnent.
- Handling and moving drams suspected and/or known to contain substances
that were skin destructive or absorbable.
- Responding to accidents involving cyanide, arsenic, or undiluted
pestici des.
C. Level B
While Level B protection does not afford the maximum skin (and eye)
protection as does a fully encapsulating suit, a good quality, hooded,
chemical-resistant, one-or-two-piece garment, with taped joints,
provides a reasonably high degree of protection. At most abandoned
hazardous waste sites, ambient atmospheric gas/vapor levels have not
approached concentrations sufficiently high to warrant maximum
protection. In all but a few circumstances, Level B should provide
the protection needed for initial entry. Subsequent operations
require a re-evaluation of Level B based on the probability of being
splashed by chemicals, their effect on the skin, or the presence of
hard-to-detect air contaminants.
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
In addition to the topics previously addressed, there are other factors
which should be considered in selecting the appropriate Level of
Protection.
A. Protective Clothing
No adequate criteria are available, similar to the respiratory
protection decision-logic, for selecting protective clothing. A
concentration of a known substance in the air approaching a TLV or
permissible exposure limit for the skin does not automatically warrant
a fully encapsulating suit. A hooded, high quality, chemical-
resistant suit may provide adequate protection. The selection of
Level A over Level B is a judgment that should be made by a qualified
individual considering the following factors:
- Effect of the material on skin:
-- highly hazardous substances are those that are easily absorbed
through the skin, causing systemic effects, or that cause
severe skin destruction. Liquids are generally more hazardous
than vapors/gases and particulates.
-- less hazardous substances are those that are not easily
absorbed through the skin, causing systemic effects, or that
cause severe skin destruction
5-11
-------
- Concentration of the material - the higher the concentration, the
higher the risk.
- The potential for contact with the material due to the work being
done and the probability of direct exposure to the small area of skin
unprotected by Level B or C chemical-resistant clothing.
B. Chemicals Toxic to Skin
The chemicals listed in Appendix III are identified in the Oil and
Hazardous Materials Technical Assistance Data Base System (OHMTADS) as
having adverse skin effects ranging from irritation to absorption into
the body. Knowledge concerning the presence of absence of these
materials could be useful in selecting the necessary Level of
Protection. Other substances affecting the skin, but not listed in
OHMTADS, may be present. Therefore, a major effort should be made to
identify all substances.
C. Atmospheric Conditions
Atmospheric conditions such as stability, temperature, wind direction,
wind velocity, and pressure determine the behavior of contaminants in'
air or the potential for volatile material getting in air. These
parameters should be considered in determining the need for and Level of
Protection required.
D. Air Monitoring
A program must be established for periodic monitoring of the air during
site operations. Without an air monitoring program, any changes could
go undetected and jeopardize response personnel. Monitoring can be done
with various types of air pumps and filtering devices followed by
analysis of filtering media; portable real-time monitoring instruments
located strategically on-site; personal dosimeters; and periodic
walk-throughs by personnel carrying survey instruments.
E. Work in Exclusion Zone
For operations in the on-site Exclusion Zone (area of potential
contamination), different Levels of Protection m«y be selected, and
various types of chemical-resistant clothing may be worn. This
selection would be based not only on measured air concentrations, but
also on the job function or reason for being in the area and the
potential for skin contact or inhalation of the materials present.
F. Escape Masks
The use of escape masks Is an option in Level C and D protection. A
specialist should determine their use on a case-by-case basis. Escape
masks could also be strategically located on-site 1n areas that have
higher possibilities of vapors, gases, or particulates.
5-12
TCS/EPA/10-82
-------
PART 6
SITE CONTROL - WORK ZONES
I. INTRODUCTION
The activities required during responses to environmental incidents
involving hazardous substances may contribute to the movement of materials
(contaminants) from the site to unaffected areas. Response personnel
working and equipment used around the substances may become contaminated
and carry the material into clean areas. Material may become airborne due
to its volatility, or the disturbance of contaminated soil may cause it to
become wind blown. To minimize the transfer of hazardous substance(s)
from the site, due to site activities, contamination control procedures
are needed. Two general methods are used: establishing site work zones
discussed here and removing contaminants from people and equipment
(Part 7).
II. CONTROL AT THE SITE
A site must be controlled to reduce the possibility of: 1) exposure to any
contaminants present and 2) their transport by personnel or equipment from
the site. The possibility of exposure or translocation of substances can
be reduced or eliminated in a number of ways, including:
Setting up security and physical barriers to exclude unnecessary
personnel from the general area.
Minimizing the number of personnel and equipment on-site consistent
with effective operations.
Establishing work zones within the site.
Establishing control points to regulate access to work zones.
Conducting operations in a manner to reduce the exposure of personnel
and equipment and to eliminate the potential for airborne dispersion.
Implementing appropriate decontamination procedures.
III. WORK ZONES
One method of preventing or reducing the migration of contamination is to
delineate zones on the site where prescribed operations occur. Movement
of personnel and equipment between zones and onto the site itself would be
limited by access control points. By these means, contamination would be
expected to be contained within certain relatively small areas on the site
and its potential for spread minimized. Three contiguous zones
(Figure 6-1) are recommended:
6-1
-------
WIND DIRECTION
HOT LINE
CONTAMINATION
CONTROL LINE
ACCESS CONTROL
POINTS
CONTAMINATION
, _ . AREA , y
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION
CORRIDOR
COMMAND
POST
EXCLUSION
ZONE
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION ZONE
SUPPORT
ZONE
~
DIAGRAM OF SITE WORK ZONES
FIGURE 6-1
-------
- Zone 1: Exclusion Zone
- Zone 2: Contamination Reduction Zone
- Zone 3: Support Zone
A. Zone 1: Exclusion Zone
The Exclusion Zone, the innermost of three concentric areas, is the
zone where contamination does or could occur. All people entering the
Exclusion Zone must wear prescribed Levels of Protection. An entry
and exit check point must be established at the periphery of the
Exclusion Zone to regulate the flow of personnel and equipment in to
and out of the zone and to verify that the procedures established to
enter and exit are followed.
The outer boundary of Zone 1, the Hotline, is initially established
by visually surveying the immediate environs of the incident and
determining where the hazardous substances involved are located; where
any drainage, leachate, or spilled material is; and whether any
discolorations are visible. Guidance in determining the boundaries is
also provided by data from the initial site survey indicating the
presence of organic or inorganic vapors/gases or particulates in air,
combustible gases, and radiation, or the results of water and soil
sampli ng.
Additional factors that should be considered include the distances
needed to prevent fire or an explosion from affecting personnel
outside the zone, the physical area necessary to conduct site
operations, and the potential for contaminants to be blown from the
area. Once the Hotline has been determined, it should be physically
secured, fenced, or well-defined by landmarks. During subsequent site
operations, the boundary may be modified and adjusted as more
information becomes available.
B. Subareas Within the Exclusion Zone
All personnel within the Exclusion Zone must wear the required Level
of Protection. Personnel protective equipment is designated based on
site-specific conditions, including the type of work to be done and
the hazards that might be encountered. Frequently within the
Exclusion Zone, different Levels of Protection are justified.
Subareas are specified and conspicuously marked as to whether Level A,
B, or C protection is required (Figure 6-2). The Level of Protection
is determined by the measured concentration of substances in air,
potential for contamination, and the known or suspected presence of
highly toxic substances.
Different Levels of Protection in the Exclusion Zone might also be
designated by job assignment. For example, collecting samples from
open containers might require Level B protection, while for
walk-through ambient air monitoring, Level C protection might be
sufficient. The assignment, when appropriate, of different Levels of
6-3
-------
Protection within the Exclusion Zone generally makes for a more
flexible, effective, and less costly operation, while still
maintaining a high degree of safety.
C. Zone 3: Support Zone
The Support Zone, the outermost part of the site, is considered a
noncontaminated or clean area. Support equipment (command post,
equipment trailer, etc.) is located in the zone; traffic is restricted
to authorized response personnel. Since normal work clothes are
appropriate within this zone, potentially contaminated personnel
clothing, equipment, and samples are not permitted, but are left in
the Contamination Reduction Zone until they are decontaminated.
The location of the command post and other support facilities in the
Support Zone depends on a number of factors, including:
Accessibility: topography; open space available; locations of
highways, railroad tracks; or other limitations.
Wind direction: preferably the support facilities should be
located upwind of the Exclusion Zone. However, shifts in wind
direction and other conditions may be such that an ideal location
based on wind direction alone does not exist.
Resources: adequate roads, power lines, water, and shelter.
D. Zone 2: Contamination Reduction Zone
Between the Exclusion Zone and the Support Zone is the Contamination
Reduction Zone, which provides a transition between contaminated and
clean zones. Zone 2 serves as a buffer to further reduce the
probability of the clean zone becoming contaminated or being affected
by other existing hazards. It provides additional assurance that the
physical transfer of contaminating substances on people, equipment, or
in the air is limited through a combination of decontamination,
distance between Exclusion and Support Zones, air dilution, zone
restrictions, and work functions.
Initially, the Contamination Reduction Zone is considered to be a
noncontaminated area. At the boundary between the Exclusion and
Contamination Reduction Zones, decontamination stations are
established, one for personnel and one for heavy equipment. Depending
on the size of the operation, more than two stations may be necessary.
Exit from the Exclusion Zone is through a decontamination station.
As operations proceed, the area around the decontamination station may
become contaminated, but to a much lesser degree than the Exclusion
Zone. On a relative basis, the amount of contaminants should decrease
from the Hotline to the Support Zone due to the distance involved and
the decontamination procedures used.
6-4
-------
The boundary between the Support Zone and the Contamination Reduction
Zone, the Contamination Control Line, separates the possibly low
contamination area from the clean Support Zone. Access to the
Contamination Reduction Zone from the Support Zone is through a control
point. Personnel entering there would wear the prescribed personnel
protective equipment, if required, for working in the Contamination
Reduction Zone. Entering the Support Zone requires removal of any
protective equipment worn in the Contamination Reduction Zone.
IV. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
A. Modifications
The use of a three-zone system, access control points, and exacting
decontamination procedures provides a reasonable assurance against the
translocation of contaminating substances. This site control system is
based on a "worst case" situation. Less stringent site control and
decontamination procedures may be utilized if more definitive
information is available on the types of substances involved and
hazards they present. This information can be obtained through air
monitoring, instrument survey and sampling, and technical data
concerning the characteristics and behavior of material present.
B. Area Dimensions
The distance between the Hotline, Contamination Control Line, and
command post and the size and shape of each zone have to be based on
conditions specific to each site {Figures 6-2 and 6-3). Considerable
judgment is needed to assure that the distances between zone boundaries
are large enough to allow room for the necessary operations, provide
adequate distances to prevent the spread of contaminants, and eliminate
the possiblity of injury due to explosion or fire. Long-term
operations would involve developing reasonable methods to determine if
material is being transferred between zones and to assist in modifying
site boundaries.
The following criteria should be considered in establishing area
dimensions and boundary distances:
- Physical and topographical features of the site.
- Weather conditions.
- Field/laboratory measurements of air contaminants and environmental
samples.
- Air dispersion calculations.
- Potential for explosion and flying debris.
6-5
-------
CONTAMINATION REDUCTION
ZONE
SUPPORT
ZONE
x
EXCLUSION ZONE
(LEVEL C)
LEVEL
LEGEND
/EES ACCESS CONTROL
POINT
W DECONTAMINATION
^ STATION
8 ACRE,
EXCLUSION ZONE
LEVEL
NEW HAMPSHIRE WASTE SITE
FIGURE 6-2
-------
9
SHOPPING
CENTER
LEGEND
BUILDINGS
M M MM (I* RAILROAD TRACK
Cxll ACCESS CONTROL POINT
yWtf/ DECONTAMINATION STATION
8 1/2 ACRE FENCED EXCLUSION
ZONE
EXCLUSION
ZONE
CONTAMINATION REDUCTION
ZONE
LOCK HAVEN WASTE SITE
FIGURE 6-3
-------
Physical, chemical, toxicological, and other characteristics of the
substances present.
Cleanup activities required.
Potential for fire.
Area needed to conduct operations.
Decontamination procedures.
Dimensions of contaminated area.
Potential for exposure.
C. Monitoring and Sampling
To verify that site control procedures are preventing the spread of
contamination, a monitoring and sampling program should be established.
The Support Zone should be periodically monitored for air contaminants
using direct-reading instruments and/or collecting air samples for
particulate, gas, or vapor analysis. Analysis of soil samples
collected in the most heavily trafficked area would indicate
contaminants being carried from the Exclusion Zone by personnel,
equipment, or wind. Occassional swipe tests should be taken in
trailers and other areas used by personnel.
These same types of samples should be collected and air monitored in
the Contamination Reduction Zone. Increased concentrations in air or
other environmental media may indicate a breakdown in control over the
Contamination Reduction Corridor, ineffective decontamination
procedures, or failure to restrict site access.
6-8
TCS/EPA/10-82
-------
PART 7
SITE CONTROL - DECONTAMINATION
INTRODUCTION
Personnel responding to hazardous substance incidents may become
contaminated in a number of ways, including:
- Contacting vapors, gases, mists, or particulates in the air.
- Being splashed by materials while sampling or opening containers.
- Walking through puddles of liquids or on contaminated soil.
- Using contaminated instruments or equipment.
Protective clothing and respirators help prevent the wearer from becoming
contaminated or inhaling contaminants, while good work practices help
reduce contamination on protective clothing, instruments, and equipment.
Even with these safeguards, contamination may occur. Harmful materials can
be transferred into clean areas, exposing unprotected personnel. Or in
removing contaminated clothing, personnel may contact contaminants on the
clothing and/or inhale them. To prevent such occurrences, methods to
reduce contamination and decontamination procedures must be developed and
implemented before anyone enters a site and must continue (modified when
necessary) throughout site operations.
Decontamination consists of physically removing contaminants and/or
changing their chemical nature to innocuous substances. How extensive
decontamination must be depends on a number of factors, the most important
being the type of contaminants involved. The more harmful the contaminant
the more extensive and thorough decontamination must be. Less harmful
contaminants may require less decontamination. Combining decontamination,
the correct method of doffing personnel protective equipment, and the use
of site work zones minimizes cross-contamination from protective clothing
to wearer, equipment to personnel, and one area to another. Only general
guidance can be given on methods and techniques for decontamination. The
exact procedure to use must be determined after evaluating a number of
factors specific to the incident.
PRELIMINARY CONCERNS
A. Initial Planning
The initial decontamination plan assumes all personnel and equipment
leaving the Exclusion Zone (area of potential contamination) are
grossly contaminated. A system is then set up to wash and rinse,
7-1
-------
at least once, all the personnel protective equipment worn. This is
done in combination with a sequential doffing of equipment, starting at
the first station with the most heavily contaminated item and
progressing to the last station with the least contaminated article.
Each piece of clothing or operation requires a separate station.
The spread of contaminants during the washing/doffing process is
further reduced by separating each decontamination station by a minimum
of 3 feet. Ideally, contamination should decrease as a person moves
from one station to another farther along in the line.
While planning site operations, methods should be developed to prevent
the contamination of people and equipment. For example, using remote
sampling techniques, not opening containers by hand, bagging monitoring
instruments, using drum grapplers, watering down dusty areas, and not
walking through areas of obvious contamination would reduce the
probability of becoming contaminated and require a less elaborate
decontamination procedure.
The initial decontamination plan is based on a worst-case situation (if
no information is available about the incident). Specific conditions
at the site are then evaluated, including:
- Type of contaminant.
- The amount of contamination.
- Levels of protection required.
- Type of protective clothing worn.
The initial system is modified, eliminating unnecessary stations or
otherwise adapting it to site conditions. For instance, the initial
plan might require a complete wash and rinse of chemical protective
garments. If disposable garments are worn, the wash/rinse step could
be omitted. Wearing disposable boot covers and gloves could eliminate
washing and rinsing both gloves and disposable boots and reduce the
number of stations needed.
B. Contamination Reduction Corridor
An area within the Contamination Reduction Zone is designated the
Contamination Reduction Corridor (CRC). The CRC controls access into
and out of the Exclusion Zone and confines personnel decontamination
activities to a limited area. The size of the corridor depends on the
number of stations in the decontamination procedure, overall dimensions
of work control zones, and amount of space available at the site. A
corridor of 75 feet by 15 feet should be adequate for full
decontamination. Whenever possible, it should be a straight path.
7-2
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HEAVY EQUIPMENT
DECONTAMINATION
AREA
i I
EXCLUSION
ZONE
x
» 5
58*
2 uj S
— o 2
m
u
EXIT
PATH
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION
ZONE
a ¦ o . o ^
<2o
Ml
z|8
o
o
-S3-
LEGEND
„ HOTLINE
. CONTAMINATION
CONTROL LINE
ACCESS CONTROL
POINT - EXTRANCE
cs
ACCESS CONTROL
POINT - EXIT
ORESSOUT
AREA
SUPPORT
ZONE
REDRESS
AREA
i
t
i
i
i
I
ENTRY
PATH
CONTAMINATION REDUCTION ZONE LAYOUT
FIGURE 7-1
7-3
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The CRC boundaries should be conspicuously marked, with entry and exit
restricted. The far end is the hotline - the boundary between the
Exclusion Zone and the Contamination Reduction Zone. Personnel exiting
the Exclusion Zone must go through the CRC. Anyone in the CRC should
be wearing the Level of Protection designated for the decontamination
crew. Another corridor may be required for the entrance and exit of
heavy equipment needing decontamination. Within the CRC, distinct
areas are set aside for decontamination of personnel, portable field
equipment, removed clothing, etc. These areas should be marked and
personnel restricted to those wearing the appropriate Level of
Protection. All activities within the corridor are confined to
decontamination.
Personnel protective clothing, respirators, monitoring equipment,
sampling supplies, etc. are all maintained outside of the CRC.
Personnel don their protective equipment away from the CRC and enter
the Exclusion Zone through a separate access control point at the
hotli ne.
III. EXTENT OF DECONTAMINATION REQUIRED
A. Modifications of Initial Plan
The original decontamination plan must be adapted to specific
conditions found at incidents. These conditions may require more or
less personnel decontamination than planned, depending on a number of
factors.
1. Type of Contaminant
The extent of personnel decontamination depends on the effects the
contaminants have on the body. Contaminants do not exhibit the
same degree of toxicity (or other hazard). The more toxic a
substance is the more extensive or thorough decontamination must
be. Whenever it is known or suspected that personnel can become
contaminated with highly toxic or skin-destructive substances, a
full decontamination procedure should be followed. If less
hazardous materials are involved, the procedure can be downgraded.
2. Amount of Contamination
The amount of contamination on protective clothing is usually
determined visually. If it is badly contaminated, a thorough
decontamination is generally required. Gross material remaining on
the protective clothing for any extended period of time may degrade
or permeate it. This likelihood Increases with higher air
concentrations and greater amounts of liquid contamination. Gross
contamination also Increases the probability of personnel contact.
Swipe tests may help determine the type and quantity of surface
contaminants.
7-4
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3. Level of Protection
The Level of Protection and specific pieces of clothing worn
determine on a preliminary basis the layout of the decontamination
line. Each Level of Protection incorporates different problems in
decontamination and doffing of the equipment. For example:
decontamination of the harness straps and backpack assembly of the
self-contained breathing apparatus is difficult. A butyl rubber
apron worn over the harness makes decontamination easier. Clothing
variations and different Levels of Protection may require adding or
deleting stations in the original decontamination procedure.
4. Work Function
The work each person does determines the potential for contact with
hazardous materials. In turn, this dictates the layout of the
decontamination line. Observers, photographers, operators of air
samplers, or others in the Exclusion Zone performing tasks that
will not bring them in contact with contaminants may not need, for
example, to have their garments washed and rinsed. Others in the
Exclusion Zone with a potential for direct contact with the
hazardous material will require more thorough decontamination.
Different decontamination lines could be set up for different job
functions, or certain stations in a line could be omitted for
personnel performing certain tasks.
5. Location of Contamination
Contamination on the upper areas of protective clothing poses a
greater risk to the worker because volatile compounds may generate
a hazardous breathing concentration both for the worker and for the
decontamination personnel. There is also an increased probability
of contact with skin when doffing the upper part of clothing.
6. Reason for Leaving Site
The reason for leaving the Exclusion Zone also determines the need
and extent of decontamination. A worker leaving the Exclusion Zone
to pick up or drop off tools or instruments and immediately
returning may not require decontamination. A worker leaving to get
a new air cylinder or change a respirator or canisters, however,
may require some degree of decontamination. Individuals departing
the CRC for a break, lunch, end of day, etc., must be thoroughly
decontaminated.
B. Effectiveness of Decontamination
There is no method to immediately determine how effective
decontamination is in removing contaminants. Discolorations, stains,
corrosive effects, and substances adhering to objects maty indicate
contaminants have not been removed. However, observable effects only
7-5
-------
indicate surface contamination and not permeation (absorption) into
clothing. Also many contaminants are not easily observed.
A method for determining effectiveness of surface decontamination is
swipe testing. Cloth or paper patches - swipes - are wiped over
predetermined surfaces of the suspect object and analyzed in a
laboratory. Both the inner and outer surfaces of protective clothing
should be swipe tested. Positive indications of both sets of swipes
would indicate surface contamination has not been removed and
substances have penetrated or permeated through the garment. Swipe
tests can also be done on skin or inside clothing. Permeation of
protective garments requires laboratory analysis of a piece of the
material. Both swipe and permeation testing provide after-the-fact
information. Along with visual observations, results of these tests
can help evaluate the effectiveness of decontamination.
C. Equipment
Decontamination equipment, materials, and supplies are generally
selected based on availability. Other considerations are ease of
equipment decontamination or disposability. Most equipment and
supplies can be easily procured. For example, soft-bristle scrub
brushes or long-handle brushes are used to remove contaminants. Water
in buckets or garden sprayers is used for rinsing. Large galvanized
wash tubs or stock tanks can hold wash and rinse solutions. Children's
wading pools can also be used. Large plastic garbage cans or other
similar containers lined with plastic bags store contaminated clothing
and equipment. Contaminated liquids can be stored temporarily in metal
or plastic cans or drums. Other gear includes paper or cloth towels
for drying protective clothing and equipment.
D. Decontamination Solution
Personnel protective equipment, sampling tools, and other equipment are
usually decontaminated by scrubbing with detergent-water using a
soft-bristle brush followed by rinsing with copious amounts of water.
While this process may not be fully effective in removing some
contaminants (or in a few cases, contaminants may react with water), it
is a relatively safe option compared with using a chemical
decontaminating solution. This requires that the contaminant be
identified. A decon chemical is then needed that will change the
contaminant into a less harmful substance. Especially troublesome are
unknown substances or mixtures from a variety of known or unknown
substances. The appropriate decontamination solution must be selected
in consultation with an experienced chemist.
E. Establishment of Procedures
Once decontamination procedures have been established, all personnel
requiring decontamination must be given precise instructions (and
practice, if necessary). Compliance must be frequently checked. The
7-6
-------
time it takes for decontamination must be ascertained. Personnel
wearing SCBA's must leave their work area with sufficient air to walk
to CRC and go through decontamination.
IV. DECONTAMINATION DURING MEDICAL EMERGENCIES
A. Basic Considerations
Part of overall planning for incident response is managing medical
emergencies. The plan should provide for:
- Some response team members fully trained in first aid and CPR.
- Arrangements with the nearest medical facility for transportation
and treatment of injured, and for treatment of personnel suffering
from exposure to chemicals.
- Consultation services with a toxicologist.
- Emergency eye washes, showers, and/or wash stations.
- First aid kits, blankets, stretcher, and resuscitator.
In addition, the plan should have established methods for
decontaminating personnel with medical problems and injuries. Their
is the possibility that the decontamination may aggravate or cause more
serious health effects. If prompt life-saving first aid and/or medical
treatment is required, decontamination procedures should be omitted.
Whenever possible, response personnel should accompany contaminated
victims to the medical facility to advise on matters involving
decontamination.
B. Physical Injury
Physical injuries can range from a sprained ankle to a compound
fracture, from a minor cut to massive bleeding. Depending on the
seriousness of the injury, treatment may be given at the site by
trained response personnel. For more serious injuries, additional
assistance may be required at the site or the victim may have to be
treated at a medical facility.
Life-saving care should be instituted immediately without considering
decontamination. The outside garments can be removed (depending on the
weather) if they do not cause delays, interfere with treatment, or
aggravate the problem. Respiratory masks and backpack assemblies must
always be removed. Fully encapsulating suits or chemical-resistant
clothing can be cut away. If the outer contaminated garments cannot be
safely removed, the individual should be wrapped 1n plastic, rubber, or
blankets to help prevent contaminating the inside of ambulances and/or
medical personnel. Outside garments are then removed at the medical
7-7
-------
facility. No attempt should be made to wash or rinse the victim. One
exception would be if it is known that the individual has been
contaminated with an extremely toxic or corrosive material which could
also cause severe injury or loss of life. For minor medical problems
or injuries, the normal decontamination procedure should be followed.
C. Heat Stress
Heat-related illnesses range from heat fatigue to heat stroke, the most
serious. Heat stroke requires prompt treatment to prevent irreversible
damage or death. Protective clothing may have to be cut off. Less
serious forms of heat stress require prompt attention or they may lead
to a heat stroke. Unless the victim is obviously contaminated,
decontamination should be omitted or minimized and treatment begun
immediately.
D. Chemical Exposure
Exposure to chemicals can be divided into two categories:
- Injuries from direct contact, such as acid burns or inhalation of
toxic chemicals.
- Potential injury due to gross contamination on clothing or
equipment.
For the contaminant inhaled, treatment can only be by qualified
physicians. If the contaminant is on the skin or in the eyes,
immediate measures must be taken to counteract the substance's effect.
First aid treatment usually is flooding the affected area with water;
however, for a few chemicals, water may cause more severe problems.
When protective clothing is grossly contaminated, contaminants may be
transferred to treatment personnel or the wearer and cause injuries.
Unless severe medical problems have occurred simultaneously with
splashes, the protective clothing should be washed off as rapidly as
possible and carefully removed.
V. PROTECTION FOR DECONTAMINATION WORKERS
The Level of Protection worn by decontamination workers is determined by:
- Expected or visible contamination on workers.
- Type of contaminant and associated respiratory and skin hazards.
- Total vapor/gas concentrations 1n the CRC.
- Particulates and specific inorganic or organic vapors in the CRC.
7-3
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- Results of swipe tests.
- The presence (or suspected presence) of highly toxic or skin-
destructive materials.
A. Level C Use
Level C includes a full-face, canister-type air-purifying respirator,
hard hat with face shield (if splash is a problem), chemical-resistant
boots and gloves, and protective clothing. The body covering
recommended is chemical-resistant overalls with an apron, or chemical -
resistant overalls and jacket.
A face shield is recommended to protect against splashes because
respirators alone may not provide this protection. The respirator
should have a canister approved for filtering any specific known
contaminants such as ammonia, organic vapors, acid gases, and
particulates.
B. Level B Use
In situations where site workers may be contaminated with unknowns,
highly volatile liquids, or highly toxic materials, decontamination
workers should wear Level B protection.
Level B protection includes SCBA, hard hat with face shield, chemical -
resistant gloves, and protective covering. The clothing suggested is
chemical-resistant overalls, jacket, and a rubber apron. The rubber
apron protects the SCBA harness assembly and regulator from becoming
contaminated.
VI. DECONTAMINATION OF EQUIPMENT
Insofar as possible, measures should be taken to prevent contamination of
sampling and monitoring equipment. Sampling devices become contaminated,
but monitoring instruments, unless they are splashed, usually do not. Once
contaminated, instruments are difficult to clean without damaging them.
Any delicate instrument which cannot be decontaminated easily should be
protected while it is being used. It should be bagged, and the bag taped
and secured around the instrument. Openings are made in the bag for sample
intake.
A. Decontamination Procedures
1. Sampling devices
Sampling devices require special cleaning. The EPA Regional
Laboratories can provide information on proper decontamination
methods.
7-9
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2. Tools
Wooden tools are difficult to decontaminate because they absorb
chemicals. They should be kept on site and handled only by
protected workers. At the end of the response, wooden tools
should be discarded. For decontaminating other tools, Regional
Laboratories should be consulted.
3. Respirators
Certain parts of contaminated respirators, such as the harness
assembly and leather or cloth components, are difficult to
decontaminate. If grossly contaminated, they may have to be
discarded. Rubber components can be soaked in soap and water and
scrubbed with a brush. Regulators must be maintained according to
manufacturer's recommendations. Persons responsible for
decontaminating respirators should be thoroughly trained in
respirator maintenance.
4. Heavy Equipment
Bulldozers, trucks, back-hoes, bulking chambers, and other heavy
equipment are difficult to decontaminate. The method generally
used is to wash them with water under high pressure and/or to
scrub accessible parts with detergent/water solution under
pressure, if possible. In some cases, shovels, scoops, and lifts
have been sand blasted or steam cleaned. Particular care must be
given to those components in direct contact with contaminants such
as tires and scoops. Swipe tests should be utilized to measure
effectiveness.
B. Sanitizing of Personnel Protective Equipment
Respirators, reusable protective clothing, and other personal articles
not only must be decontaminated before being reused, but also
sanitized. The inside of masks and clothing becomes soiled due to
exhalation, body oils, and perspiration. The manufacturer's
instructions should be used to sanitize the respirator mask. If
practical, protective clothing should be machine washed after a
thorough decontamination; otherwise it must be cleaned by hand.
C. Persistent Contamination
In some instances, clothing and equipment will become contaminanted
with substances that cannot be removed by normal decontamination
procedures. A solvent may be used to remove such contamination from
equipment if it does not destroy or degrade the protective material.
If persistent contamination is expected, disposable garments should be
used. Testing for persistent contamination of protective clothing and
appropriate decontamiantion must be done by qualified laboratory
personnel.
7-10
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D. Disposal of Contaminated Materials
All materials and equipment used for decontamination must be disposed
of properly. Clothing, tools, buckets, brushes, and all other
equipment that is contaminated must be secured in drums or other
containers and labeled. Clothing not completely decontaminated
on-site should be secured in plastic bags before being removed from
the site.
Contaminated wash and rinse solutions should be contained by using
step-in-containers (for example, child's wading pool) to hold spent
solutions. Another containment method is to dig a trench about 4
inches deep and line it with plastic. In both cases the spent
solutions are transferred to drums, which are labeled and disposed of
with other substances on site.
ANNEXES
Annex 1, 2, and 3 describe basic decontamination procedures for a worker
wearing Level A, B, or C protection. The basic decontamination lines
(Situation 1), consisting of approximately 19 stations, are almost
identical except for changes necessitated by different protective clothing
or respirators. For each annex, three specific situations are described
in which the basic (or full decontamination) procedure is changed to take
into account differences in the extent of contamination, the accompanying
changes in equipment worn, and other factors. The situations illustrate
decontamination setups based on known or assumed conditions at an
incident. Many other variations are possible.
Annex 4 describes a minimum layout for personnel decontamination. The
number of individual stations have been reduced. Although the
decontamination equipment and amount of space required is less than needed
in the procedures previously described, there is also a much higher
probability of cross-contamination.
7-11
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ANNEX 1
LEVEL A DECONTAMINATION
A. EQUIPMENT WORN
The full decontamination procedure outlined is for workers wearing
Level A protection (with taped joints between gloves, boots, and suit)
consisting of:
- Fully encapsulating suit with integral boots and gloves.
- Self-contained breathing apparatus.
- Hard hat (optional).
- Chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank boots.
- Boot covers.
- Inner and outer gloves.
B. PROCEDURE FOR FULL DECONTAMINATION
Station 1: Segregated Equipment Drop
Deposit equipment used on-site (tools, sampling devices and containers,
monitoring instruments, radios, clipboards, etc.) on plastic drop cloths
or in different containers with plastic liners. Each will be
contaminated to a different degree. Segregation at the drop reduces the
probability of cross-contamination.
Equipment: various size containers
plastic liners
plastic drop cloths
Station 2: Boot Cover and Glove Wash
Scrub outer boot covers and gloves with decon solution or detergent/
water.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Al-1
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Station 3: Boot Cover and Glove Rinse
Rinse off decon solution from Station 2 using copious amounts of water.
Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 4: Tape Removal
Remove tape around boots and gloves and deposit in container with plastic
1i ner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 5: Boot Cover Removal
Remove boot covers and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
Station 6: Outer Glove Removal
Remove outer gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 7: Suit/Safety Boot Wash
Thoroughly wash fully encapsulating suit and boots. Scrub suit and boots
with long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brush and copious amounts of decon
solution or detergent/water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent/water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 8: Suit/Safety Boot Rinse
Rinse off decon solution or detergent/water using copious amounts of
water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Al-2
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Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 9: Tank Change
If worker leaves Exclusion Zone to change air tank, this is the last step
in the decontamination procedure. Worker's air tank is exchanged, new
outer gloves and boots covers donned, and joints taped. Worker then
returns to duty.
Equipment: air tanks
tape
boot covers
gloves
Station 10: Safety Boot Removal
Remove safety boots and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
boot jack
Station 11: Fully Encapsulating Suit and Hard Hat Removal
With assistance of helper, remove fully encapsulating suit (and hard hat).
Hang suits on rack or lay out on drop cloths.
Equipment: rack
drop cloths
bench or stool
Station 12: SCBA Backpack Removal
While still wearing facepiece, remove backpack and place on table.
Disconnect hose from regulator valve and proceed to next station.
Equipment: table
Station 13: Inner Glove Wash
Wash with decon solution or detergent/water that will not harm skin.
Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: basin or bucket
decon solution
or
detegent/water
small table
Al-3
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Station 14: Inner Glove Rinse
Rinse with water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: water
basin or bucket
small table
Station 15: Facepiece Removal
Remove facepiece. Deposit in container with plastic liner. Avoid
touching face with fingers.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 16: Inner Glove Removal
Remove inner gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 17: Inner Clothing Removal
Remove clothing soaked with perspiration. Place in container with plastic
liner. Do not wear inner clothing off-site since there is a possibility
that small amounts of contaminants might have been transferred in removing
fully encapsulating suit.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 18: Field Wash
Shower if highly toxic, skin-corrosive or skin-absorbable materials are
known or suspected to be present. Wash hands and face if shower is not
available.
Equipment: water
soap
small table
basin or bucket
field showers
towel s
Station 19: Redress
Put on clean clothes. A dressing trailer is needed in inclement weather.
Equipment: tables
chairs
lockers
clothes
Al-4
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C. FULL DECONTAMINATION (SIT. 1) AND THREE MODIFICATIONS
S
I
ST
ATI0
N NU
MBER
T
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
3
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
4
X
X
X
X
Situation 1: The individual entering the Contamination Reduction
Corridor is observed to be grossly contaminated or extremely toxic
substances are known or suspected to be present.
Situation 2: Same as Situation 1 except individual needs new air tank
and will return to Exclusion Zone.
Situation 3: Individual entering the CRC is expected to be minimally
contaminated. Extremely toxic or skin-corrosive materials are not
present. No outer gloves or boot covers are worn. Inner gloves are not
contaminated.
Situation 4: Same as Situation 3 except individual needs new air tank
and will return to Exclusion Zone.
Al-5
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TANK CHANGE
OUTER GLOVE
REMOVAL
EXCLUSION
ZONE
TAPE
REMOVAL
BOOT COVER
ft
GLOVE WASH
(T}» (JH (T}« y SEOUIPM^f?T°
0-
SOOT COVER BOOT COVER ft
REMOVAL GLOVE RINSE
SUIT/SAFETY BOOT
WASH
SUIT/SAFETY BOOT
RINSE
-HOTLINE —«
10 i
SAFETY BOOT
REMOVAL
11
FULLY ENCAPSULATING SUIT
AND HARD HAT REMOVAL
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION
ZONE
12 I
SC8A BACKPACK
REMOVAL
DECONTAMINATION LAYOUT
LEVEL A PROTECTION
FIGURE A1-1
13
INNER GLOVE
WASH
! 14 I
INNER GLOVE
RINSE
15
FACE PIECE
REMOVAL
16
0
FIELD
WASH
INNER GLOVE
REMOVAL
INNER CLOTHING
REMOVAL
REDRESS
. CONTAMINATION
CONTROL UNI
SUPPORT
ZONE
Al-6
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ANNEX 2
LEVEL B DECONTAMINATION
A. EQUIPMENT WORN
The full decontamination procedure outlined is for workers wearing
Level B protection (with taped joints between gloves, boot, and suit)
consisting of:
- One-piece, hooded, chemical-resistant splash suit.
- Self-contained breathing apparatus.
- Hard hat.
- Chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank boots.
- Boot covers
Inner and outer gloves.
B. PROCEDURE FOR FULL DECONTAMINATION
Station 1: Segregated Equipment Drop
Deposit equipment used on-site (tools, sampling devices and containers,
monitoring instruments, radios, clipboards, etc.) on plastic drop cloths
or in different containers with plastic liners. Each will be
contaminated to a different degree. Segregation at the drop reduces the
probability of cross-contamination.
Equipment: various size containers
plastic liners
plastic drop cloths
Station 2: Boot Cover and Glove Wash
Scrub outer boot covers and gloves with decon solution or detergent/
water.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
A2-1
-------
Station 3: Boot Cover and Glove Rinse
Rinse off decon solution from Station 2 using copious amounts of water.
Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 4: Tape Removal
Remove tape around boots and gloves and deposit in container with plastic
1i ner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 5: Boot Cover Removal
Remove boot covers and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
Station 6: Outer Glove Removal
Remove outer gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 7: Suit/Safety Boot Wash
Thoroughly wash chemical-resistant splash suit, SCBA, gloves, and safety
boots. Scrub with long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brush and copious
amounts of decon solution or detergent/water. Wrap SCBA regulator (1f
belt-mounted type) with plastic to keep out water. Wash backpack
assembly with sponges or cloths.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent/water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
small buckets
sponges or cloths
A2-2
-------
Station 8: Suit/SCBA/Boot/Glove Rinse
Rinse off decon solution or detergent/water using copious amounts of
water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
smal1 buckets
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
sponges or cloths
Station 9: Tank Change
If worker leaves Exclusion Zone to change air tank, this is the last step
in the decontamination procedure. Worker's air tank is exchanged, new
outer gloves and boots covers donned, and joints taped. Worker returns to
duty.
Equipment: air tanks
tape
boot covers
gloves
Station 10: Safety Boot Removal
Remove safety boots and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
boot jack
Station 11: SCBA Backpack Removal
While still wearing facepiece, remove backpack and place on table.
Disconnect hose from regulator valve and proceed to next station.
Equipment: table
Station 12: Splash Suit Removal
With assistance of helper, remove splash suit. Deposit in container with
plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
A2-3
-------
Station 13: Inner Glove Wash
Wash inner gloves with decon solution or detergent/water that will not
harm skin. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: decon solution
or
detergent/water
basin or bucket
small table
Station 14: Inner Glove Rinse
Rinse inner gloves with water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: water
basin or bucket
small table
Station 15: Facepiece Removal
Remove facepiece. Avoid touching face with gloves. Deposit in container
with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 16: Inner Glove Removal
Remove inner gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 17: Inner Clothing Removal
Remove clothing soaked with perspiration. Place in container with plastic
liner. Do not wear inner clothing off-site since there is a possibility
small amounts of contaminants might have been transferred in removing
fully encapsulating suit.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 18: Field Wash
Shower If highly toxic, skin-corrosive, or skin-absorbable materials are
known or suspected to be present. Wash hands and face if shower 1s not
available.
Equipment: water
soap
A2-4
-------
small tables
basins or buckets
field showers
Station 19: Redress
Put on clean clothes. A dressing trailer is needed in inclement weather.
Equipment: tables
chairs
lockers
clothes
C. FULL DECONTAMINATION (SIT. 1) AND THREE MODIFICATIONS
s
I
STATION NUMBER
T
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
3
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
4
X
X
X
X
Situation 1: The individual entering the Contamination Reduction
Corridor is observed to be grossly contaminated or extremely toxic
substances are known or suspected to be present.
Situation 2: Same as Situation 1 except individual needs new air tank
and will return to Exclusion Zone.
Situation 3: Individual entering the CRC 1s expected to be minimally
contaminated. Extremely toxic or skin-corrosive materials are not
present. No outer gloves or boot covers are worn. Inner gloves are not
contami nated.
Situation 4: Same as Situation 3 except individual needs new air tank
and will return to Exclusion Zone.
A2-5
-------
EXCLUSION
ZONE
SOOT COVER
TAPE
REMOVAL
OUTER GLOVE
REMOVAL
GLOVE WASH
SEGREGATED
EQUIPMENT
DROP
BOOT COVER
REMOVAL
BOOT COVER &
GLOVE RINSE
SUIT/SAFETY BOOT
WASH
SUIT/SC8A/BOOT/GLOVE
RINSE
TANK CHANGE
SAFETY BOOT
REMOVAL
SC8A BACKPACK
REMOVAL
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION
ZONE
DECONTAMINATION LAYOUT
LEVEL B PROTECTION
FIGURE A2-1
SPLASH SUIT
REMOVAL
INNER GLOVE
WASH
INNER GLOVE
RINSE
FACE PIECE
REMOVAL
INNER GLOVE
REMOVAL
INNER CLOTHING
REMOVAL
CONTAMINATION
CONTROL LINE
FIELD
WASH
REDRESS
SUPPORT
ZONE
A2-6
-------
ANNEX 3
LEVEL C DECONTAMINATION
A. EQUIPMENT WORN
The full decontamination procedure outlined is for workers wearing
Level C protection (with taped joints between gloves, boots, and suit)
consisting of:
- One-piece, hooded, chemical-resistant splash suit.
- Canister equipped, full-face mask.
- Hard hat.
- Chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank boots.
- Boot covers.
- Inner and outer gloves.
B. PROCEDURE FOR FULL DECONTAMINATION
Station 1: Segregated Equipment Drop
Deposit equipment used on-site (tools, sampling devices and containers,
monitoring instruments, radios, clipboards, etc.) on plastic drop cloths
or in different containers with plastic liners. Each will be
contaminated to a different degree. Segregation at the drop reduces the
probability of cross-contamination.
Equipment: various size containers
plastic liners
plastic drop cloths
Station 2: Boot Cover and Glove Wash
Scrub outer boot covers and gloves with decon solution or detergent/
water.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
A3-1
-------
Station 3: Boot Cover and Glove Rinse
Rinse off decon solution from Station 2 using copious amounts of water.
Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container {30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 4: Tape Removal
Remove tape around boots and gloves and deposit in container with plastic
1iner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 5: Boot Cover Removal
Remove boot covers and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
Station 6: Outer Glove Removal
Remove outer gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 7: Suit/Safety Boot Wash
Thoroughly wash splash suit and safety boots. Scrub with long-handle
soft-bristle scrub brush and copious amounts of decon solution or
detergent/water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent/water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 8: Suit/Safety Boot Rinse
Rinse off decon solution or detergent/water using copious amounts of
water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
A3-2
-------
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 9: Canister or Mask Change
If worker leaves Exclusion Zone to change canister {or mask), this is the
last step in the decontamination procedure. Worker's canister is
exchanged, new outer gloves and boots covers donned, and joints taped.
Worker returns to duty.
Equipment: canister (or mask)
tape
boot covers
gloves
Station 10: Safety Boot Removal
Remove safety boots and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
boot jack
Station 11: Splash Suit Removal
With assistance of helper, remove splash suit. Deposit in container with
plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gal Ions)
bench or stool
plastic liner
Station 12: Inner Glove Wash
Wash inner gloves with decon solution or detergent/water that will not
harm skin. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: decon solution
or
detergent/water
basin or bucket
Station 13: Inner Glove Rinse
Rinse inner gloves with water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
A3-3
-------
Equipment: water
basin or bucket
small table
Station 14: Facepiece Removal
Remove facepiece. Avoid touching face with gloves. Deposit facepiece in
container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 15: Inner Glove Removal
Remove inner gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 16: Inner Clothing Removal
Remove clothing soaked with perspiration. Place in container with plastic
liner. Do not wear inner clothing off-site since there is a possibility
small amounts of contaminants might have been transferred in removing
fully encapsulating suit.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 17: Field Wash
Shower if highly toxic, skin-corrosive or skin-absorbable materials are
known or suspected to be present. Wash hands and face if shower is not
availabl e.
Equipment: water
soap
tables
wash basins/buckets
field showers
Station 18: Redress
Put on clean clothes. A dressing trailer is needed in inclement weather.
Equipment: tables
chairs
lockers
clothes
A3-4
-------
C. FULL DECONTAMINATION (SIT. 1) AND THREE MODIFICATIONS
s
I
ST
ATIO
N NU
MBER
T
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
3
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
4
X
X
X
X
Situation 1: The individual entering the Contamination Reduction
Corridor is observed to be grossly contaminated or extremely skin-
corrosive substances are known or suspected to be present.
Situation 2: Same as Situation 1 except individual needs new canister
or mask and will return to Exclusion Zone.
Situation 3: Individual entering the CRC is expected to be minimally
contaminated. Extremely skin-corrosive materials are not present. No
outer gloves or boot covers are worn. Inner gloves are not
contaminated.
Situation 4: Same as Situation 3 except individual needs new canister
or mask and will return to Exclusion Zone.
A3-5
TCS/EPA/8/82
-------
EXCLUSION
ZONE
TAPE
REMOVAL
BOOT COVER
OUTER GLOVE
REMOVAL
GLOVE WASH
SEGREGATED
EQUIPMENT
DROP
BOOT COVER
REMOVAL
BOOT COVER A
GLOVE RINSE
"-HOTLINE-*
SUIT/SAFETY BOOT
WASH
SUIT/SAFETY BOOT
RINSE
CANISTER OR
MASK CHANGE
SAFETY BOOT
REMOVAL
SPLASH SUIT
REMOVAL
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION
ZONE
OECONTAMINATION LAYOUT
LEVEL C PROTECTION
FIGURE A3-1
INNER GLOVE
WASH
INNER GLOVE
RINSE
FACE PIECE
REMOVAL
INNER GLOVE
REMOVAL
INNER CLOTHING
REMOVAL
_CONT AMINATION
CONTROL LINE
FIELD
WASH
REDRESS
SUPPORT
ZONE
A3-6
-------
ANNEX 4
LEVEL A DECONTAMINATION, MINIMUM LAYOUT
A. EQUIPMENT WORN
The decontamination procedure outlined is for workers wearing Level A
protection (with taped joints between gloves, boots, and suit) consisting
of:
- Fully encapsulating suit with integral boots and gloves.
- Self-contained breathing apparatus.
- Hard hat (optional).
- Chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank boots.
- Boot covers.
- Inner and outer gloves.
B. PROCEDURE FOR FULL DECONTAMINATION
Station 1: Segregated Equipment Drop
Deposit equipment used on-site (tools, sampling devices and containers,
monitoring instruments, radios, clipboards, etc.) on plastic drop cloths
or in different containers with plastic liners. Each will be
contaminated to a different degree. Segregation at the drop reduces the
probability of cross-contamination.
Equipment: various size containers
plastic liners
plastic drop clothes
Station 2: Outer Garment, Boots, and Gloves Wash and Rinse
Scrub outer boots, outer gloves, and fully-encapsulating suit with decon
solution or detergent water. Rinse off using copious amounts of water.
Equipment: containers (30-50 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent water
rinse water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
A4-1
-------
Station 3: Outer Boot and Glove Removal
Remove outer boots and gloves. Deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
Station 4: Tank Change
If worker leaves Exclusion Zone to change air tank, this is the last step
in the decontamination procedure. Worker's air tank is exchanged, new
outer gloves and boot covers donned, joints taped, and worker returns to
duty.
Equipment: air tanks
tape
boot covers
gloves
Station 5: Boot, Gloves, and Outer Garment Removal
Boots, fully-encapsulating suit, and inner gloves removed and deposited
in separate containers lined with plastic.
Equipment: containers (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
Station 6: SCBA Removal
SCBA backpack and facepiece is removed. Hands and face are thoroughly
washed. SCBA deposited on plastic sheets.
Equipment: plastic sheets
basin or bucket
soap and towels
bench
Station 7: Field Wash
Thoroughly wash hands and face. Shower as soon as possible.
Equipment: water
soap
tables
wash basin/bucket
A4-2
TCS/EPA/10-82
-------
EXCLUSION
ZONE
TANK
CHANGE
$
SEGHEGATED EQUIPMENT
DROP
"-HOTLINE-*-
0
OUTER GARMENT, BOOTS. AND
1 GLOVES WASH AND RINSE
&—e>
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION
ZONE
OUTER BOOT AND
GLOVE REMOVAL
BOOTS. GLOVES. AND
OUTER GARMENT
REMOVAL
MINIMUM
DECONTAMINATION LAYOUT
LEVEL A PROTECTION
FIGURE A4-1
0
SCBA REMOVAL
CONTAMINATION
CONTROL LINE
0
FIELD WASH
SUPPORT
ZONE
A4-3
-------
PART 8
AIR SURVEILLANCE AT HAZARDOUS MATERIALS INCIDENTS
INTRODUCTION
Accidents involving hazardous materials or remedial actions at abandoned
waste sites can release a variety of substances into the air. Chemical
fires, transportation accidents, open or leaking containers, wind-blown
dust, and site cleanup activities produce emissions which can rapidly
affect the health and safety of response workers and people in the
vicinity. Hazardous atmospheres can involve:
- Flammable or explosive vapors, gases, and aerosols (explosive
atmosphere).
- Displacement of breathable air (oxygen-deficient atmosphere).
- Radioactive materials (radioactive environment).
- Toxic vapors, gases, and particulates (toxic atmosphere).
The presence of one or more of these hazards determines subsequent
actions to protect people or the environment, operations to mitigate
the incident, and safety considerations for response workers.
Airborne hazards can be predicted if the substance(s) involved, its
chemical/physical properties, and weather conditions are known. But
air surveillance is necessary to detect unknown air pollutants, to
identify or measure contaminants, or to confirm predictions.
This part provides guidance primarily on longer-term air sampling for
toxic substances. Information is Given in Part 4, Initial Site Entry
Survey and Reconnaissance, regarding initial determination of airborne
hazards.
OBJECTIVE OF AIR SURVEILLANCE
Air surveillance consists of air monitoring (using direct-reading
instruments capable of providing real-time indications of air
contaminants) and air sampling (collecting air on an appropriate
media or in a suitable container and followed by analysis.)
The objective of air surveillance during response is to determine the
type (chemical compound and associated hazard) and quantity of airborne
contaminants on-site and off-site and changes that occur during the
lifetime of the incident.
8-1
-------
The data obtained are used to help establish criteria for worker
health and safety, determine protective measures for the public,
evaluate the environmental impact of the incident, and determine
mitigation activities. To accomplish this requires establishing
an effective air surveillance program, tailored to meet the condi-
tions generated by each incident.
III. TYPES OF INCIDENTS
,< Mrt of initial hazard evaluation, direct-reading Instruments
(DRlt) visible indicators (signs, labels, placards type of container,
etc ) and other Information (manifests, consists, Inventories,
" °i, etc.) ,re used to evaluate the presence or potential
?oTa1r coS»1n1nt revise. Limited air sampling may also be con-
if time 1s available. Based on an assessment of this preliminary
Information, a more comprehensive air surveillance strategy 1s developed
and implemented.
Two general types of incidents are encountered:
_ FmHrnnmental emergencies, including chemical fires, spills, or other
"releases of hazardous materials which occur over a relatively short
noHod of time Since contaminants may be released rapidly, there
£e Jo time for air surveillance. In incidents where the released
material can be quickly identified (and/or sufficient time Is availa-
ble) direct-reading, hand-held monitoring instruments can be used.
Air sampling generally 1s limited unless the re ease continues long
enough for appropriate equipment to be brought In.
i onaer-term cleanup, Including planned removals and remedial actions
" If ahAndoned waste sites as well as restoration after emergency problems
have been controlled. During this period, especially at waste sites,
workersand the public may be exposed to a wide variety of airborne
materials over a much longer period of time. Since cleanup activities
requlre more time (and planning) to accomplish, appropriate equipment
fo? air monitoring and sampling can be secured, and air surveillance
program established.
IV. GENERAL SURVEILLANCE METHODS
nufina site ooerations, data are needed about air contaminants and aijy
^12* that may occur. Surveillance for vapors, gases, and particulates
? aIII ^L dRIs and/or air sampling systems. DRIs can be used to
detect many organlcs and a few Inorganics and provide approximate total
concentrations. If specific orgaMcs (and Inorganics) have been 1dent1-
then DRIS calibrated to those materials, can be used for more
liSfcat?Sn-sUe assessment. In many instances however, only air sampling
8-2
-------
(and laboratory analysis) can be used for detection and quantification.
The most accurate method for evaluating any air contaminant is to
collect samples and analyze them at a reliable laboratory. Although
accurate, this method has two disadvantages: cost and the time required
to obtain results. Analyzing large numbers of samples in laboratories
is very expensive, especially if results are wanted quickly. On-site
laboratories tend to reduce the turn-around time, but unless they can
analyze other types of samples, they also are costly. In emergencies
time is often not available for laboratory analysis of samples either
on-site or off-site.
To obtain air monitoring data rapidly at the site, instruments utilizing
flame ionization detectors (FIDs) and photoionization detectors
(PIDs) can be used. These may be used as survey instruments (total
concentration mode) or operated as gas chromatographs (gas chromatograph
mode). As gas chromatographs, these instruments can provide real-time,
qualitative/quantative data when calibrated with standards of known air
contaminants. Combined with selective laboratory analysis of samples,
they provide a tool for evaluating airborne organic hazards on a real-
time basis, at a lower cost than analyzing all samples in a laboratory.
V. AIR SAMPLING
For more complete information about air contaminants, measurements
obtained with DRIs must be supplemented by collecting and analyzing
air samples. To assess air contaminants more thoroughly, air sampling
devices equipped with appropriate collection media are placed at various
locations throughout the area. These samples provide air quality
information for the period of time they operate, and can indicate con-
taminant types and concentrations over the lifetime of site operations.
As data are obtained (from the analysis of samples, DRIs, knowledge about
materials involved, site operations, and potential for airborne toxic
hazards), adjustments are made in the type of samples, number of
samples collected, frequency of sampling, and analysis required. In
addition to air samplers, area sampling stations may also include
DRIs equipped with recorders and operated as continual air monitors.
Area sampling stations are located in various places including:
- Upwind - Because many hazardous incidents occur near industries or
highways that generate air pollutants, samples must be taken upwind
of the site to establish background levels of air contaminants.
" Support zone - Samples must be taken near the command post or other
support facilities to ensure that they are 1n fact located in a
"clean" area, and that the area remains "clean" throughout operations
at the site.
8-3
-------
Contamination reduction zone - Air samples should be collected alonq
the decontamination line to~ensure that decontamination workers
are properly protected and that on-site workers are not removing
their protective gear in a contaminated area.
Exclusion zone - The exclusion zone presents the greatest risk of
exposure to chemicals and requires the most air sampling. Sampling
stations should be located based upon hot-spots detected by DRIs,
types of substance(s) present, and potential for airborne contami-
nants. The data from these stations, in conjunction with intermit-
tent walk-around surveys with DRIs, are used to verify the selection
of proper levels of worker protection and exclusion zone boundaries,
as well as to provide a continual record of air contaminants. *
- Downwind - A sampling station(s) 1s
to indicate if any air contaminants
are indications of airborne hazards
samplers should be placed downwind.
located downwind from the site
are leaving the site. If there
in populated areas, additional
VI. MEDIA FOR COLLECTING AIR SAMPLES
Hazardous material Incidents, especially abandoned waste sites,
involve hundreds of potentially dangerous substances - gases, vapors,
and aerosols that could become airborne. A variety of media - liquids
and solids - are used to collect these substances. Sampling systems
typically include a calibrated air sampling pump which draws air Into
selected collection media. Some of the most common types of samples,
and the collection media used for them are:
- Organic vapors - Activated carbon 1s an excellent adsorbent for
most organic vapors. However, other solid adsorbents (such as
Tenax, silica gel, and Florisil) are routinely used to sample
specific organic compounds or classes of compounds that do not
adsorb or desorb well on activated carbon. To avoid stocking a
large number of sorbents for all substances anticipated, a smaller
number chosen for collecting the widest range of materials or for
substances known to be present generally are used. The vapors are
collected by an Industrial hygiene personal sampling pump with either
one sampling port or a manifold capable of simultaneously collecting
samples on several sorbent tubes. For example, a manifold with four
sorbent tubes (or as Individual pumps with varying flow rates).
The tubes might contain:
-- Activated carbon tube to collect vapors of materials with a
boiling point above 0 degrees centigrade. These materials
include most odorous organic substances, such as solvent vapors.
8-4
-------
-- A porous polymer such as Tenax or Chromosorb to collect sub-
stances (such as high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons, organo-
phosphorous compounds, and the vapors of certain pesticides)
that adsorb poorly onto activated carbon. Some of these porous
polymers also adsorb organic materials at low ambient tempera-
tures more efficiently than carbon.
— A polar sorbent such as silica gel to collect organic vapors
(aromatic amines, for example) that exhibit a relatively high
dipole moment.
-- Another speciality adsorbent selected for the specific site.
For example, a Florlsll tube could be used if polychlorinated
biphenyls are expected.
- Inorganic gases - The Inorganic gases present at an incident would
primarily be polar compounds such as the haloacid gases. They can
be adsorbed onto silica gel tubes and analyzed by ion chromatography.
Impingers filled with selected liquid reagents can also be used.
- Aerosols - Aerosols (solid or liquid particulates) that may be en-
countered at an incident include contaminated and noncontamlnated
soil particles, heavy-metal particulates, pesticide dusts, and
droplets of organic or Inorganic liquids. An effective method for
sampling these materials 1s to collect them on a particulate
filter such as a glass fiber or membrane type. A backup 1mp1nger
filled with a selected absorbing solution may also be necessary.
Colorlmetrlc detector tubes can also be used with a sampling pump
when monitoring for some specific compounds. Passive organic vapor
monitors can be substituted for the active system described 1f passive
monitors are available for the types of materials suspected to be
present at a given site.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's Manual of
Analytical Methods, Volumes 1-7, contains acceptable methods for
collecting and analyzing air samples for a variety of chemical
substances. Consult 1t for specific procedures.
COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Samples must be analyzed to determine types and quantities of substances
present. The following provides additional guidance on
sample collection and analysis.
- Aerosols
Samples for aerosols should be taken at a relatively high flow rate
(generally about 2 liters/minute) using a standard industrial hygiene
8-5
-------
pump and filter assembly. To collect total particulates, a membrane
filter having a 0.8 micrometer pore size is common. The sample can
be weighed to determine total particulates, then analyzed destructively
or nondestructlvely for metals. If the metals analysis is done non-
destructive^ or if the filter 1s sectioned, additional analyses {for
example, organlcs, inorganics, and optical particle sizing) can be
performed.
Sorbent Samples
The sorbent material chosen, the amount used, and sample volume
will vary according to the types and concentrations of substances
anticipated at a particular site. Polar sorbent material such
as silica gel will collect polar substances which are not adsorbed
well onto activated carbon and some of the porous polymers. The
silica gel sample can be split and analyzed for the haloacid gases
and aromatic amines.
Activated carbon and porous polymers will collect a wide range of
compounds. Exhaustive analysis to identify and quantify all the
collected species 1s prohibitively expensive at any laboratory and
technically difficult for a field laboratory. Therefore, samples
should be analyzed for principal hazardous constituents (PHCs).
The selection of PHCs should be based upon the types of materials
anticipated at a given site, from generator's records, and from
Information collected during the initial site survey. To aid 1n the
selection of PHCs, a sample could be collected on activated carbon
or porous polymer during the Initial site survey and exhaustively
analyzed off-site to identify the major peaks within selected
categories. This one thorough analysis, along with what is
already known about a particular site, could provide enough Information
to select PHCs. Standards of PHCs could then be prepared and used
to calibrate Instruments used for field analysis of samples. Sub-
sequent, routine off-site analysis could be limited to scanning for
only PHCs, saving time and money. Special adsorbents and sampling
conditions can be used for specific PHCs If desired, while continued
multimedia sampling will provide a base for analysis of additional
PHCs that may be identified during the course of cleanup operations.
Passive Dosimeters
A less traditional method of sampling 1s the use of passive dosimeters.
The few passive dosimeters now available are only for gases and vapors.
Passive dosimeters are used primarily to monitor personal exposure,
but they can be used to monitor areas. Passive monitors are divided
Into two groups:
~ Diffusion samplers, In which molecules move across a concentra-
tion gradient, usually achieved within a stagnant layer of air
between the contaminated atmosphere and the Indicator material.
8-6
-------
-- Permeation devices, which rely on the natural permeation of a
contaminant through a membrane. A suitable membrane should be
selected that is easily permeated by the contaminant of interest
and impermeable to all others. Permeation dosimeters are
therefore useful in picking out a single contaminant from a
mixture of possible interfering contaminants.
Some passive dosimeters may be read directly, as are DRIs and colori-
metric lenath-of-stain tubes. Others require laboratory analysis
similiar to that done on solid sorbents. Generally, passive dosimeters
are comparable to active sampling systems.
VIII. PERSONNEL MONITORING
In addition to area atmospheric sampling, personnel monitoring - both
active and passive - can be used to sample for air contaminants. Repre-
sentative workers are equipped with personnel monitors to indicate con-
taminants at specific locations or for specific work being done. Placed
generally within 2 feet of the mouth and nose, the monitors indicate the
potential for the worker to inhale the contaminant.
IX. CALIBRATION
As a rule, the air sampling system should be calibrated as a whole
rather than on the pump alone. Accurate calibration 1s essential for
proper operation and for accurate interpretation of resultant data.
As a minimum, the system should be calibrated prior to and after use.
The overall frequency of calibration will depend upon the general
handling and use of a given sampling system. Pump mechanisms should
be recalibrated after repair, when newly purchased, and following
suspected abuse.
8-7
TCS,ARE/EPA, IT/8/83
-------
ANNEX 1
GUIDE TO ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE TEAM'S
AIR SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM
I. APPROACH
A variety of long-term air surveillance programs can be designed to
detect a wide range of airborne compounds. To implement any program
a number of factors must be considered, including type of equipment,
costs, personnel required, accuracy of analysis, time required to
obtain results (turn-around-time), and availability of analytical
laboratories.
One approach to air surveillance, developed and used by the USEPA
Environmental Response Team (ERT), 1s described here. This program
achieves a reasonable balance between cost, accuracy, and time in
obtaining data using a combination of direct reading instruments (DRIs)
and air sampling systems to:
- Rapidly survey for airborne organic vapors and gases.
- Identify and measure organic vapors and gases.
- Identify and measure particulates and inorganic vapors and gases.
The approach 1s based on:
- Using flame Ionization detectors (FIDs) and/or photoionization
detectors (PIDs) for Initial detection of total organic gases and
vapors and for periodic site surveys (for total organlcs). Equipped
with strip chart recorders, the detectors are used as area monitors
to record total organic concentration and changes 1n concentration
over a period of time. Calibrated to specific organic contaminants,
they are used to detect and measure those substances.
- Collecting area air samples using personal pumps and organic gas/vapor
collection tubes. Samples are analyzed using the gas chromatograph
(GC) capabilities of field Instruments. Selected samples are also
analyzed 1n laboratories accredited by the American Industrial Hygiene
Association (AIHA).
- Using PIDs and/or FIDs (as a survey instrument or GC) to provide
real-time data and to screen the number of samples needed for laboratory
analysis.
- Sampling for particulates, Inorganic acids, aromatic amines, halogenated
pesticides, etc., when they are known to be Involved or when there are
Indications that these substances may be a problem.
8-9
-------
EQUIPMENT
At present, the following equipment is used for organic gas/vapor monitoring
however, other equivalent equipment can be substituted:
- HNU Systems Photoionizer (PID)
- Foxboro Century Systems OVA (FID)
- MDA Accuhaler 808 Sampling Pump
- Gillian Model Number HFS-UT113 Sampling Pump
- Tenax adsorption (metal) tubes
- Carbon sphere adsorption (metal) tubes
- Carbon-packed (glass) adsorption tubes
-- 150 milligram and 600 milligram sizes
PROCEDURE
This procedure is generally applicable to most responses. However, since
each incident is unlaue, modifications may be needed.
Organic Gases and Vapors. The sequence for monitoring organic gases and
vapors consists of several steps.
- Determine total background concentrations.
- Determine total concentration on-site.
- Collect area samples.
- Identify specific contaminants.
Background concentrations. Background readings of total organic gases
and vapors, using DRIs (FID/PID), are made upwind of the site 1n areas
not expected to contain air contaminants. If Industries, highways, or
other potential sources contribute to concentrations on-site, these
contributions should be determined. Depending on the situation and the
time available, additional monitoring should be done nearby to determine
1f contaminants are leaving the site.
Concentrations on-site. The on-site area 1s monitored (using DRIs) for
total gas/vapor concentrations, measured at both ground and breathing
zone levels. The Initial walk-throughs are to determine general ambient
concentrations and to locate higher-than ambient concentrations (hot-spots)
Transient contributors on-site, for example, exhausts from engines,
should be avoided. Concentrations are recorded and plotted on a site map
Additional DRI monitoring 1s then done to thoroughly define any hot-spots
located during the survey.
8-10
-------
Air samples. Sampling stations are located throughout the site. The
number and locations depend on evaluating many factors, including hot-spots
(by DRI), active work areas, potentials for high concentrations, and
weather conditions. As a minimum, stations should be located in a clean
off-site area (control or background station), exclusion zone, and downwind
of the site. As data are accumulated, location, number of stations, and
frequency of sampling can be adjusted.
Routinely, two 4-hour samples are collected in the morning and afternoon
using personal sampling pumps equipped with Tenax and/or carbon sphere
thermal adsorption tubes. Total gas/vapor concentration (using DRI)
should also be determined at the start and finish of each sampling run.
The readings obtained may show an approximate relationship (depending on
organics present) which will be helpful later in placing samplers.
Samples are desorbed with a thermal desorber and analyzed on the OVA for
total organic concentration and number of peaks. Chromatograms of samples
taken at the same location but at different times or from different
stations can be compared. Differences in heights of "total" peak, number
of independent peaks, and relative peak heights, if judiciously interpreted,
are useful for making preliminary judgments concerning air contaminant
problems. Appendix 1 shows a suggested format for calculating total gas/
vapor concentration.
If relatively high concentrations are detected by the initial DRI surveys,
samplers equipped with carbon collection tubes are run next to Tenax/carbon
sphere samplers, which are analyzed in the field. The carbon collection
tubes are analyzed by an AIHA accredited laboratory for identification
and measurement of contaminants.
Area surveys using DRI are continued routinely two-four times dally.
These surveys are to monitor for general ambient levels, as well as
levels at sampling stations, hot-spots, and other areas of site activities.
As information 1s accumulated on airborne organics, the frequency of
surveys can be adjusted.
Specific contaminants. Personal monitoring pumps with glass collection
tubes (to identify and measure contaminants 1n the laboratory) are run on
the first afternoon, concurrent with samplers equipped with Tenax/carbon
collection tubes. Generally, when total gas/vapor readings are low and
only a few peaks seen (from the field GC analysis of morning samples),
100-150 mg glass carbon tubes are used and operated at a flow rate of 100
cubic centimeters/minute until approximately 30 liters of air have been
collected. Depending on suspected contaminants and their concentrations,
higher flow rates and/or volumes may be needed. When total gas/vapor
readings are high and there are many peaks (from the morning samples),
then larger glass carbon columns (600 mg) are operated at a flow rate
from 0.5 to 1 1Iters/mlnute to collect 90 to 150 liters of air, depending
on the suspected contaminants and their concentrations.
8-11
-------
The results from laboratory analysis of glass carbon tubes are used for a
number of different purposes, including:
- To identify and measure organic gases and vapors collected during
the sampling period.
- To compare laboratory chromatograms and field chromatograms. If only
a few peaks (but the same number) are seen on each chromatogram (and
identified on the laboratory chromatogram) from samples collected at
the same location, it may be reasonable to assume, until standards are
run on the field GC, that the two chromatograms are identifying the
same materials.
- To Identify major contaminants on laboratory chromatograms and determine
what standards to prepare for the field GC. Field GC's can then be
used to identify and measure air contaminants against laboratory
prepared standards.
- To use the field GC as a screening device for determining when samples
should be collected for laboratory analysis, or when samples previously
collected should be analyzed. Changes in the number of peaks on the
field chromatograms from samples collected at the same location indicate
changes in the air, suggesting the need for collecting additional
samples for laboratory analysis.
If desorptlon equipment is not available for on-site sample analysis,
glass collection tubes should be collected dally. Only samples collected
every third to fifth day are sent to AIHA accredited laboratories for
analysis; the remaining samples are stored. Selected stored samples are
analyzed if third to fifth day samples Indicate changes in air contaminant
patterns. If daily on-site surveys detect low contamlnant(s) levels,
then 100-150 mg glass carbon columns are used. If the survey reveals
relatively high levels of contaminants, then 600 mg glass carbon tubes
are used.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) P4CAM
analytical method No. 127 should be followed as closely as possible. Flow
rates and collection tubes described 1n this guide are primarily for
organic solvents. If other than organic solvents are suspected, then the
NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods (Volume 1-7) should be consulted for the
appropriate collection media and now rates. Table 1 lists the organic
solvents Identified by the NIOSH P4CAM No. 127, many of which are found at
hazardous waste sites. These are Identified for possible gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis.
8-12
-------
Particulates and Inorganic Gases and Vapors. Sampling for particulates
is not done routinely. If these types of air contaminants are known or
suspected to exist, a sampling program 1s Instituted for them. Incidents
where these contaminants might be present are: fires involving pesticides
or chemicals, incidents Involving heavy metals, arsenic, or cyanide
compounds, or mitigation operations that create dust (from contaminated
soil and excavation of contaminated soil).
Sampling media and analytical methods for these air contaminants should
follow guidance given in the Manual of Analytical Methods.
8-13
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TABLE 1
Organic Solvents Identified by P&CAM Analytic Method No. 127
Organic Solvent Molecular Weight
Acetone
58.1
Benzene
78.1
Carbon tetrachloride
154.0
Chloroform
119.0
Dichloromethane
84.9
p-Dioxane
88.1
Ethylene dichloride
99.0
Methyl ethyl ketone
72.1
Styrene
104.0
Tetrachloroethylene
166.0
Toluene
92.1
1,1,2-Trichloroethane
133.0
1,1,1-Tri chloroethane
133.0
(methyl chloroform}
Trfchloroethylene
131.0
Xylene
106.0
Reference: Manual of Analytical Methods
U.S. Department of Health Education A Welfare,
Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control
National Institute of Occupational Safety & Health,
DHEVI (NIOSH) Publication Mo. 77-157-A
8-15
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APPENDIX 1
SAMPLE CALCULATION
1. Volume sampled by MDA Accuhaler 808 Personal Sampling Pump:
Volume sampled (cc) = (final stroke count - initial stroke count)
X (cc's/stroke*) X (multiplier factor for orifice used**)
~Specified on pump itself.
~~Specified in pump operations manual and Table 2. (for MDA Accuhaler)
Calculation:
At beginning of sampling period, Accuhaler stroke counter reads
16292.9. At end of sampling period, it reads 16632.9. What is the
volume of air sampled?
Volume sampled (cc) = 16632.9 (final stroke count} - 16292.9 (initial
stroke count) X 5.7 (cc/pump stroke) X 1.1 (multiplier for orifice)
Volume sampled = 2131.8 cc or 2.1 liters.
2. Reporting Format (for OVA GC Thermal Desorber)
a. Total GC Mode: Total concentration determined = 22 ppm
Time weighted = volume desorbed (liters) X concentration (ppm)
average (ppm) volume collected (liters)
= 0.300 (liter) X 22 (ppm) = 3.14 ppm as CH4 (methane)
z.1 (11ters)
c. Peaks: GC mode
4 peaks observed
d. Survey Concentration (total organlcs by DRI)
Start of sampling period ppm
End of sampling period ppm
ATTACH CHROMATOGRAM
8-17
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TABLE 2
Multiplier Factor for MDA Accuhaler 808
Personal Sampling Pumps
Volume/Stroke
Orifice Color Normal Flow Rate - cc/min Multiplier^
Calibration Yellow 100 1.1
at 20 cc/min
Orange 50 1.06
Red 20 1.00
Brown 10 0.99
Purple 5 0.97
Blue 2
Green 1
Black 0.5
Reference: Instruction Manual, Accuhaler, Personnel Sampling Pump
Models 808 and 818
MDA Scientific, Inc., Elmdale Avenue,
Glenview, IL 60025
8-18
RT, TCS, AE/EPA,IT/9/83
-------
APPENDIX I
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HNU PHOTOIONIZER
AND
ORGANIC VAPOR ANALYZER
I. INTRODUCTION
The HNU Photoionizer and the Century Organic Vapor Analyzer (OVA) are used
in the field to detect a variety of compounds in air. The two instruments
differ in their modes of operation and in the number and types of compounds
they detect (Table 1-1). Both instruments can be used to detect leaks of
volatile substances in drums and tanks, determine the presence of volatile
compounds in soil and water, make ambient air surveys, and collect
continuous air monitoring data. If personnel are thoroughly trained to
operate the instruments and to interpret the data, these instruments can be
valuable tools for helping to decide the levels of protection to be worn,
assist in determining other safety procedures, and determine subsequent
monitoring or sampling locations.
II. OVA
The OVA operates in two different modes. In the survey mode, it can
determine approximate total concentration of all detectable species in air.
With the gas chromatograph (GC) option, individual components can be
detected and measured independently, with some detection limits as low as a
few parts per million (ppm).
In the GC mode, a small sample of ambient air is injected into a
chromatographic column and carried through the column by a stream of
hydrogen gas. Contaminants with different chemical structures are retained
on the column for different lengths of time (known as retention times) and
hence are detected separately by the flame ionization detector. A strip
chart recorder can be used to record the retention times, which are then
compared to the retention times of a standard with known chemical
constituents. The sample can either be injected into the column from the
air sampling hose or injected directly with a gas-tight syringe.
The OVA is internally calibrated to methane by the manufacturer. When
measuring methane, it indicates the true concentration. In response to all
other detectable compounds, however, the instrument reading may be higher
or lower than the true concentration. Relative response ratios for
substances other than methane are available. To correctly Interpret the
readout, it is necessary to either make calibration charts relating the
instrument readings to the true concentration or to adjust the Instrument
so that it reads correctly. This is done by turning the ten-turn,
1-1
-------
TABLE 1-1
COMPARISON OF THE OVA AND HNU
OVA
HNU
Response
Application
Detector
Limitations
Responds to many organic gases
and vapors.
In survey mode, detects total
concentrations of gases and
vapors. In GC mode, identifies
and measures specific compounds.
Flame ionization detector
Does not respond to inorganic
gases and vapors. No tempera-
ture control.
Calibration gas Methane
Ease of
operation
Requires experience to inter-
pret correctly, especially
in GC mode.
Detection limits 0.1 ppm (methane)
Response time 2-3 seconds (survey mode)
Mai ntenance
Useful range
Service life
Periodically clean and inspect
particle filters, valve rings,
burner chamber. Check
calibration and pumping system
for leaks. Recharge battery
after each use.
0-1000 ppm
8 hours; 3 hours with strip
chart recorder.
Responds to many organic
and some inorganic gases
and vapors.
In survey mode, detects
total concentrations of
gases and vapors. Some
identification of compounds
possible if nore than one
probe is used.
Photoionization detector
Does not respond to meth-
ane. Does not detect a
compound if probe has a
lower energy than com-
pound's ionization
potential.
Benzene
Fairly easy to use and
i nterpret.
0.1 ppm (benzene)
3 seconds for 90% of total
concentration
Clean UV lamp frequently.
Check calibration
regularly. Recharge
battery after each use.
0-2000 ppm
10 hours; 5 hours with
strip chart recorder.
1-2
-------
gas-select knob, which adjusts the response of the instrument. The knob is
normally set at 300 when calibrated to methane. Secondary calibration to
another gas is done by sampling a known concentration of the gas and
adjusting the gas select knob until the instrument reading equals the true
concentration.
The OVA has an inherent limitation in that it can detect only organic
molecules. Also, it should not be used at temperatures lower than about
40°F because gases condense in the pump and column. It has no temperature
control, and since retention times vary with ambient temperatures for a
given column, absolute determinations of contaminants are difficult.
Despite these limitations, the GC mode can often provide tentative
information on the identity of contaminants in air without relying on
costly, time-consuming laboratory analysis.
. HNU
The HNU portable photoionizer detects the concentration of organic gases as
well as a few inorganic gases. The basis for detection is the ionization
of gaseous species. The incoming gas molecules are subjected to
ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which is energetic enough to ionize many
gaseous compounds. Each molecule is tranformed into charged ion pairs,
creating a current between two electrodes. Every molecule has a
characteristic ionization potential (I.P.), which is the energy required to
remove an electron from the molecule, yielding a positively charged ion and
the free electron.
Three probes, each containing a different UV light source, are available
for use with the HNU. Energies are 9.5, 10.2, and 11.7 electron volts
(eV). All three detect many aromatic and large-molecule hydrocarbons. The
10.2 eV and 11.7 eV probes, in addition, detect some smaller organic
molecules and some halogenated hydrocarbons. The 10.2 eV probe is the most
useful for environmental response work, as it is more durable than the 11.7
eV probe and detects more compounds than the 9.5 eV probe.
The primary HNU calibration gas is benzene. The span potentiometer knob is
turned to 9.8 for benzene calibration. A knob setting of zero increases
the sensitivity to benzene approximately tenfold. As with the OVA, the
instrument's response can be adjusted to give more accurate readings for
specific gases and eliminate the necessity for calibration charts.
While the primary use of the HNU is as a quantitative instrument, it can
also be used to detect certain contaminants, or at least to narrow the
range of possiblities. Noting instrument response to a contaminant source
with different probes can eliminate some contaminants from consideration.
For instance, a compound's ionization potential may be such that the 9.5 eV
probe produces no response, but the 10.2 eV and 11.7 eV probes do elicit a
response. The HNU does not detect methane.
1-3
-------
The HNU is easier to use than the OVA. Its lower detection limit is al«n
in the low ppm range. The response time is rapid; the meter needle reaches
90% of the indicated concentration in 3 seconds.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Both of these instruments can monitor only certain vapors and gases in air.
Many nonvolatile liquids, toxic solids, particulates, and other toxic gases
and vapors cannot be detected. Because the types of compounds that the HNU
and OVA can potentially detect are only a fraction of the chemicals
possibly present at an incident, a zero reading on either instrument does
not necessarily signify the absence of air contaminants.
The instruments are generally not specific, and their response to different
compounds is relative to the calibration gas. Instrument readings may be
higher or lower than the true concentration. This can be an especially
serious problem when monitoring for total contaminant concentrations if
several different compounds are being detected at once. In addition, the
response of these instruments is not linear over the entire detection
range. Care must therefore be taken when interpreting the data. All
identifications should be reported as tentative until they can be confirmed
by more precise analysis. Concentrations should be reported in terras of
the calibration gas and span potentiometer or gas-select-knob setting.
Since the OVA and HNU are small, portable instruments, they cannot be
expected to yield results as accurate as laboratory instruments. They were
originally designed for specific industrial applications. They are
relatively easy to use and interpret when detecting total concentrations of
known contaminants in air, but interpretation becomes more difficult when
trying to identify the components of a mixture. Neither instrument can be
used as an indicator for combustible gases or oxygen deficiency.
The OVA (Model 128) is certified by Factory Mutual to be used in Class I,
Division 1, Groups A,B,C, and D environments. The HNU is certified by
Factory Mutual for use in Class I, Division 2, Groups, A, B, C, and D.
1-4
TAT/E&E/10-82
-------
APPENDIX II
RATIONALE FOR RELATING TOTAL ATMOSPHERIC VAPOR/GAS CONCENTRATIONS
TO THE SELECTION OF THE LEVEL OF PROTECTION
I. INTRODUCTION
The objective of using total atmospheric vapor/gas concentrations for
determining the appropriate Level of Protection is to provide a numerical
criterion for selecting Level A, B, or C. In situations where the presence
of vapors or gases is not known, or if present, the individual components
are unknown, personnel required to enter that environment must be protected.
Until the constituent substances and corresponding atmospheric
concentrations of vapor, gas, or particulate can be determined and
respiratory and/or body protection related to the toxicological properties
of the identified substances, total vapor/gas concentration, with judicious
interpretation, can be used as a guide for selecting personnel protection
equipment.
Although total vapor/gas concentration measurements are useful to a
qualified professional for the selection of protection equipment, caution
should be exercised in interpretation. An instrument does not respond with
the same sensitivity to several vapor/gas contaminants as it does to a
single contaminant. Also since total vapor/gas field instruments see all
contaminants in relation to a specific calibration gas, the concentration of
unknown gases or vapors may be over - or under-estimated.
Suspected carcinogens, particulates, highly hazardous substances, or other
substances that do not elicit an instrument response may be known or
believed to be present. Therefore, the protection level should not be
based solely on the total vapor/gas criterion. Rather, the level should be
selected case-by-case, with special emphasis on potential exposure and
chemical and toxicological characteristics of the known or suspected
material.
II. FACTORS FOR CONSIDERATION
In utilizing total atmospheric vapor/gas concentrations as a guide for
selecting a Level of Protection, a number of other factors should also be
considered:
- The uses, limitations, and operating characteristics of the monitoring
instruments must be recognized and understood. Instruments such as the
HNU Photoionizer, Century Organic Vapor Analyzer (OVA), MIRAN Infrared
Spectrophotometer, and others do not respond identically to the same
concentration of a substance or respond to all substances. Therefore,
experience, knowledge, and good judgment must be used to complement the
data obtained with instruments.
II-l
-------
- Other hazards may exist such as gases not detected by the HNU or OVA,
(i.e. phosgene, cyanides, arsenic, chlorine), explosives, flammable
materials, oxygen deficiency, liquid/solid particles, and liquid or
solid chemicals.
- Vapors/gases with very low toxicities could be present.
- The risk to personnel entering an area must be weighed against the need
for entering. Although this assessment is largely a value judgment, it
requires a conscientious balancing of the variables involved and the
risk to personnel against the need to enter an unknown environment.
- The knowledge that suspected carcinogens or substances extremely toxic
or destructive to skin are present or suspected to be present (which
may not be reflected in total vapor/gas concentration) requires an
evaluation of factors such as the potential for exposure, chemical
characteristics of the material, limitation of instruments, and other
considerations specific to the incident.
- What needs to be done on-site must be evaluated. Based upon total
atmospheric vapor concentrations, Level C protection may be judged
adequate; however, tasks such as moving drums, opening containers, and
bulking of materials, which increase the probability of liquid splashes
or generation of vapors, gases, or particulates, may require a higher
level of protection.
- Before any respiratory protective apparatus 1s issued, a respiratory
protection program must be developed and implemented according to
recognized standards (ANSI Z88.2-1980).
III. LEVEL A PROTECTION (500 to 1,000 PPM ABOVE BACKGROUND)
Level A protection provides the highest degree of respiratory tract, skin
and eye protection 1f the Inherent limitations of the personnel protective
equipment are not exceeded. The range of 500 to 1,000 parts per million
(ppm) total vapors/gases concentration 1n air was selected based on the
following criteria:
- Although Level A provides protection against air concentrations greater
than 1,000 ppm for most substances, an operational restriction of 1,000
ppm is established as a warning flag to:
-- evaluate the need to enter environments with unknown concentrations
greater than 1,000 ppm
-- Identify the specific constituents contributing to the total
concentration and their associated toxic properties
-- determine more precisely concentrations of constituents
II-2
-------
~ evaluate the calibration and/or sensitivity error associated with the
instrument(s)
-- evaluate instrument sensitivity to wind velocity, humidity temperature,
etc.
A lower limit of 500 ppm total vapors/gases in air was selected as the value
to consider upgrading from Level B to Level A. This concentration was
selected to fully protect the skin until the constituents can be identified
and measured and substances affecting the skin excluded.
The range of 500 to 1,000 ppm is sufficiently conservative to provide a
safe margin of protection if readings are low due to instrument error,
calibration, and sensitivity; if higher than anticipated concentrations
occur; and if substances highly toxic to the skin are present.
With properly operating portable field equipment, ambient air concentrations
approaching 500 ppm have not routinely been encountered on hazardous waste
sites. High concentrations have been encountered only in closed buildings,
when containers were being opened, when personnel were working in the
spilled contaminants, or when organic vapors/gases were released in
transportation accidents. A decision to require Level A protection should
also consider the negative aspects: higher probability of accidents due to
cumbersome equipment, and most importantly, the physical stress caused by
heat buildup in fully encapsulating suits.
LEVEL B PROTECTION (5 to 500 PPM ABOVE BACKGROUND)
Level B protection is the minimum Level of Protection recommended for
initially entering an open site where the type(s), concentrations), and
presence of airborne vapors are unknown. This Level of Protection provides
a high degree of respiratory protection. Skin and eyes are also protected,
although a small portion of the body (neck and sides of head) may be
exposed. The use of a separate hood or hooded, chemical-resistant jacket
would further reduce the potential for exposure to this area of the body.
Level B impermeable protective clothing also Increases the probability of
heat stress.
A limit of 500 ppm total atmospheric vapor/gas concentration on portable
field instruments has been selected as the upper restriction on the use of
Level B. Although Level B personnel protection should be adequate for most
commonly encountered substances at air concentrations higher than 500 ppm,
this limit has been selected as a decision point for a careful evaluation
of the risks associated with higher concentrations. These factors should
be considered:
- The necessity for entering unknown concentrations higher than 500 ppm
wearing Level B protection.
- The probability that substance(s) present are severe skin hazards.
11-3
-------
- The work to be done and the increased probability of exposure.
- The need for qualitative and quantitative identification of the specific
components.
- Inherent limitations of the instruments used for air monitoring.
- Instrument sensitivity to winds, humidity, temperature, and other
factors.
V. LEVEL C PROTECTION (BACKGROUND TO 5 PPM ABOVE BACKGROUND)
Level C provides skin protection identical to Level B, assuming the same
type of chemical protective clothing is worn, but lesser protection against
inhalation hazards. A range of background to 5 ppm above ambient
background concentrations of vapors/gases in the atmosphere has been
established as guidance for selecting Level C protection. Concentrations
in the air of unidentified vapors/gases approaching or exceeding 5 ppm
would warrant upgrading respiratory protection to a self-contained
breathing apparatus.
A full-face, air-purifying mask equipped with an organic vapor canister (or
a combined organic vapor/particulate canister) provides protection against
low concentrations of most common organic vapors/gases. There are some
substances against which full-face, canister-equipped masks do not protect
or substances that have very low Threshold Limit Values or Immediately '
Dangerous to Life or Health concentrations. Many of the latter substances
are gases or liquids in their normal state. Gases would only be found In
gas cylinders, while the liquids would not ordinarily be found in standard
containers or drums.
Every effort should be made to identify the individual constituents (and
the presence of particulates) contributing to the total vapor readings of a
few parts per million. Respiratory protective equipment can then be
selected accordingly. It is exceedingly difficult, however, to provide
constant, real-time identification of all components in a vapor cloud with
concentrations of a few parts per million at a site where ambient
concentrations are constantly changing. If highly toxic substances have
been ruled out, but ambient levels of a few parts per million persist, it
is unreasonable to assume only self-contained breathing apparatus should be
worn. The continuous use of a1r-purifying masks in vapor/gas concentrations
of a few parts per million gives a reasonable assurance that the
respiratory tract is protected, provided that the absence of highly toxic
substances has been confirmed.
Full-face, air-purifying devices provide respiratory protection against
most vapors at greater than 5 ppm; however, until more definitive
qualitative information is available, concentration(s) greater than 5 ppm
indicates that a higher level of respiratory protection should be used.
Also, unanticipated transient excursions may increase the concentrations in
11-4
-------
the environment above the limits of air-purifying devices. The increased
probability of exposure due to the work being done may require Level B
protection, even though ambient levels are low.
INSTRUMENT SENSITIVITY
Although the measurement of total vapor/gas concentrations can be a useful
adjunct to professional judgment in the selection of an appropriate Level
of Protection, caution should be used in the interpretation of the
measuring instrument's readout. The response of an instrument to a gas or
vapor cloud containing two or more substances does not provide the same
sensitivity as measurements involving the individual pure constituents.
Hence the instrument readout may overestimate or underestimate the
concentration of an unknown composite cloud. This same type of inaccuracy
could also occur in measuring a single unknown substance with the
instrument calibrated to a different substance. The idiosyncrasies of each
instrument must be considered in conjunction with the other parameters in
selecting the protection equipment needed.
Using the total vapor/gas concentration as a criterion used to determine
Levels of Protection should provide protection against concentrations
greater than the instrument's readout. However, when the upper limits of
Level C and B are approached, serious consideration should be given to
selecting a higher Level of Protection. Cloud constituents) must be
identified as rapidly as possible and Levels of Protection based on the
toxic properties of the specific substance(s) identified.
11—5
RT/TCS/EPA/10-82
-------
APPENDIX III
DERMAL TOXICITY DATA
I. SELECTION OF CHEMICALS
The approximately 350 chemicals listed in Table III-l, at the end of this
appendix, are identified in the Oil and Hazardous Materials Technical
Assistance System (OHMTADS) as being dermally active. Since OHMTADS
contains only about 1200 chemicals, or may not indicate a listed chemical
as a skin hazard, other reference sources should also be consulted.
The data in Table III-1 were compiled by a toxicologist through a special
project with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. As with any
source of information, the data should be cross-checked against other
standard references.
II. USE OF TABLES
A. Categories
Table 111-1 divides chemicals into two categories:
Category 1 (more serious), which includes:
- Gases having a systemic dermal toxicity rating of moderate to
extremely hazardous and a skin penetration ranking of moderate to
high.
- Liquids and solids having a systemic dermal toxicity rating of
extremely hazardous and a skin penetration ranking of moderate to
high.
- Gases having a local dermal toxicity rating of moderate to
extremely hazardous.
- Liquids and solids having a local dermal toxicity rating of
extremely hazardous.
Category 2 (less serious), which includes:
- Gases having a systemic dermal toxicity rating of slightly
hazardous and a skin penetration ranking of slight.
- Liquids and solids having a systemic dermal toxicity rating of
slightly hazardous and a skin penetration ranking of moderate to
slight.
- Gases having a local dermal toxicity rating of slightly
hazardous.
III-l
-------
- Liquids and solids having a local dermal toxicity rating of
moderate to slightly hazardous.
B. Physical State
The physical state of the chemicals listed is their normal state. In
a fire, some listed as solids or liquids could vaporize and represent
a greater hazard to the skin. The chemicals listed may also be found
mixed with other substances, which could change how they affect the
skin.
C. Skin Penetration
Negligible Penetration (solid - polar)
+ Slight Penetration (solid - nonpolar)
++ Moderate Penetration (liquid/sol id - nonpolar)
+++ High Penetration (gas/liquid - nonpolar)
D. Potency (Systemic) Lethal amount to
a /0-kilogram man
+++ Extreme Hazard (LD50: 1 mg/kg-50 mg/kg) drops to 20 ml
++ Moderate Hazard (LD50: 50-500 mg/kg) 1 ounce - 1 pint
(1 pound)
+ Slight Hazard (LD50: 500-15,000 mg/kg)
1 pint - 1 quart
(2.2 pounds)
E. Potency (Local)
+++ Extreme - Tissue destruction/necrosis
++ Moderate - Irritation/inflamation of skin
+ Slight - Reddening of skin
III. RELATION OF TABLE III-l AMD LEVELS OF PROTECTION
TaKia ttt-i is to Drovlde data that a qualified person can
The purp°se of Ta site-spec1fic knowledge to select protective
clothing? The data relate to sMn toxicity only J should not be used to
select respiratory protection equipment.
th« known or suspected presence and/or measured concentration of Category
The known or suspec f concentrations warrants wearing a fully
encapsulating suit Uevel A). The known or suspected presence and/or
III-2
-------
measured concentration of Category 2 chemicals at or above the listed
concentrations suggests that a lesser level of skin protection (Level B
or C) is needed.
There is no decision-logic for choosing protective clothing as there is for
choosing respiratory protective equipment- The use of a fully
encapsulating suit over other types of chemical-resistant clothing is
generally a judgment made by a qualified individual based on an evaluation
of all pertinent information available about the specific incident. Other
guidance and criteria for selecting personnel protection equipment are
contained in Part 5, Site Entry - Levels of Protection and in Appendix II.
OTHER REFERENCES
Table III-l does not include all substances affecting the skin. Other
standard references should be consulted, in particular:
- Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in
the Workroom Environment With Intended Changes for 1982, American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 6500G1enway Ave.,
Building D-5, Cincinnati, OH 45211 (1982).
- NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC 20402 (August 1981).
- Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 (1980).
Whenever possible, data in one reference should be cross-checked with other
references.
Ill —3
TCS/EPA/10-82
-------
TABLE III-l
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
2,2 Dichloroprop1on1c acid
solid
+
local
++
-
2
2,4,5 - T Acid
solid
+
systemic
local
+
++
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4,5 - T Amines
solid
+
systemic
local
+
++
10 mg/m^/Sh
2
2,4,5 - T Esters
solid
+
systemic
local
+
+
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4,5 - TP Acid
solid
+
systemic
local
+
++
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4,5 - TP Acid Esters
liquid
++
systemic
local
+
+
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4,5 - T Salts
solid
+
systemic
local
+
+
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4 - D Acid
solid
+
systemic
local
+
++
10 mg/mfy8h
2
2,4 - Dlchlorophenol
solid
+
systemic
local
+
++
-
2
1 2,4 - 0 - Esters
liquid
++
systemic
local
+
+
10 mg/m3/8h
2
12- Ethyl hexyl Acrylate
liquid
¦H- I
local
+++
-
2
* - Methyl - 5 - ethyl pyri-
dine
liquid
++
local
+
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Z - Napthol
solid
+
local
++
-
2
3,5 - Xylenol
solid
+
systemic
local
++
+
-
2
Acetaldehyde
liquid
+
local
systemic
++
+
200 ppm/8h
360 mg/m3/8h
2
Acetic Anhydride
liquid
+
local
systemic
++
+
5 ppm/8h
20 mg/nr/8h
2
Acetone
liquid
+++
local
++
1,000 ppm/8h
2,400 mg/m3/8h
2
Acetone Cyanohydrln
liquid
++
systemic
+++
10 ppm/8h
1
Acetoacetone
liquid
•M-
local
++
-
2
Acetyl Bromide
fuming
liquid
+++
local
+++
5 ppm/15 min
1
Acetyl Chloride
fuming
liquid
+++
local
+++
5 ppm/15 min
1
Acr1d1ne
solid
+
local
sensitizer
+++
-
2
Acrolein
liquid
+
local
sensitizer
+++
0.1 ppm/8h
.25 mg/m3/8h
2
Acrylonltrlle
liquid
+++
systemic
local
+++
++
2 ppm/8h
1
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Adlplc Acid
solid
+
local
+
-
2
Adlponltrlle
liquid
+++
systemic
+++
18 mg/m3/8h
1
Alkyl dimethyl 3,4 -
D1ch1orobenzylamnion1 urn
Chloride
liquid
+
local
~
-
2
Allyl Alcohol
liquid
++
systemic
local
++
++
2 ppm/8h
5 mg/nr/8h
2
Ally! Chloride
liquid
++
local
++
1 ppm/8h
3 mg/m3/8h
2
Ammonia
gas
+
local
+++
25 ppm/8h
18 mg/m3/8h
1
Ammonium Bicarbonate
solid
+
local
-H-
-
2
Ammonium Bichromate
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Ammonium Blfluorlde
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Ammonium Bisulfite
solid
+
local
+++
-
2
Ammonium Carbamate
solid
+
local
-
2
Ammonium Carbonate
solid
+
local
++
-
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Ammonium Citrate
(Dibasic)
solid
+
local
+++
-
2
Ammonium Ferrocyanlde
solid
+
local
+
-
2
Ammonium Hydroxide
liquid
++
local
-H-+
-
1
Ammonium Phosphate
(Dibasic)
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Ammonium Sulfamate
solid
+
local
++
10 mg/m^/8h
2
Ammonium Sulfide
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Ammonium Sulfite
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Ammonium Tartrate
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Ammonium Thiocyanate
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
-
2
Ammonium Thiosulfate
solid
local
++
-
2
Aniline
liquid
++
local
++
5 ppm/8h
2
Antimony
solid
+
systemic
local
++
++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-1 (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetratior
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Antimony Pentachloride
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
Argon - 37 (radioactive)
gas
+++
systemic
+++
-
1
Arslne
gas
+++
systemic
+++
0.05 mg/m^/8h
1
Arsenic
solid
-H-
local
systemic
+++
+++
.25 mg/m^/8h
1
Arsen1c-74 (radioactive)
solid
++
systemic
+++
-
1
Arsenlc-76 (radioactive)
solid
++
systemic
+++
-
1
Arsen1c-77 (radioactive)
solid
++
systemic
+++
-
1
Arsenic Acid
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
1
Arsenic Disulfide
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
-
1
Arsenic Pentoxlde
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
-
1
Arsenic Trlbromlde
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
1
Arsenic Trichloride
solid I ++
1 l
local
systemic
¦H4
+++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
1 1
-------
TABLE III-x (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Arsenic Tr1ox1de
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
.25 mg/m3/8h
1
Arsenic Tr1sulf1de
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
1
Barium
solid
+
local
++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Benzene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+-H-
75 ppm/30 min
1
Benzophenone
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Benzoyl Chloride
liquid
¦M-
local
+++
5 mg/m^/8h
1
Benzoyl Peroxide
solid
++
local
+++
5 mg/m^/8h
1
Benzyl Alcohol
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Benzyl Benzoate
liquid
++
local
++
-
2
Benzyl Bromide
liquid
++
local
++
-
2
Benzyl Chloride
liquid
++
local
+++
1 ppm/8h
2
Beryllium Nitrate
solid
+
local
++
0.25 mg/m^/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Brombenzylcyan1de
liquid
<77 F-solic
++
local
systemic
++
+++
-
1
Calcium Hypochlorite
solid
+
local
•H-
*
1
Calcium Oxide
solid
+
local
-H-
10 mg/m^/30 min
2
Calcium Phosphide
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Camphor
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
2 ppm/8h
2
Captan
solid
++
local
systemic
-H-
++
5 mg/m^/8h
2
Carbaryl
solid
++
local
systemic
+
++
5 mg/m^/8h
2
Carbofuran
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
0.1 mg/m^/8h
1
Carbon Disulfide
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+++
20 ppm/8h
60 mg/m3/8h
1
Carbon Monoxide
gas
+++
systemic
+++
50 ppm/8h
1
Carbon Tetrachloride
liquid
+++
systemic
local
+++
~
10 ppm/8h
1
CetyldlmethyJbenzyl -
sgmonlum Chloride
solid
~
local
+
-
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Chloracetophenone
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.05 ppm/8h
2
Chlordane
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.5 mg/mfy8h
2
Bromine
liquid
(fuming)
++
local
systemic
+++
++
.1 ppm/8h
1
Butyl amine
liquid
-H-
local
-M-+
5 ppm/8h
1
Butyl Hereaptan
liquid
-M-
local
++
.5 ppm/8h
2
Butyric Acid
liquid
++
local
++
-
2
Calcium Arsenate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
-m-
1 mg/m^/8h
1
Calcium Arsenlte
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
-
1
Calcium Carbide
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Calcium Cyanide
solid
++
systemic
local
+++
++
5 mg/m^/10 min
1
Chlorine
gas
+++
local
+++
1 ppm/8h
3 mg/m3/8h
1
Chlorine - 36 (radioactive)
gas
-H-+
local
+++
-
1
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Chloroacetlc Acid
solid
++
local
++
-
2
Chlorobenzene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
75 ppm/8b
350 mg/nr/8h
2
Chlorobutadlene
liquid
++
local
++
25 ppm/8h
2
Chloromethane
gas
+++
local
systemic
+
++
100 ppm/8h
1
Chlorop1cr1n
liquid
¦H-
local
+++
0.1 ppm/8h
1
Chlorosulfonic Acid
liquid
++
local
+++
5 ppm/8h
1
Chlorthlon
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
+
-
2
Chromyl Chloride
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
.1 mg/m^/8h
1
CMU
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+
-
2
Copper Naphthenate
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
500 ppm
2
Coumaphos
solid
+
local
systemic
-H-
+++
-
2
Cresyldlphenyl Phosphate
liquid
l
local
"
-
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Crotonaldehyde
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
2 ppm/8h
2
Cumene
liquid
++
local
systemic
•H-
+
50 ppm/8h
2
Cuprlc Acetate
solid
+
local
systemic
+++
++
0.1 mg/m^/8h
2
Cuprlc Acetoarsenate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
0.1 mg/m^/Sh
2
Cuprlc Sulfate, Ammoniated
solid
+
local
++
2 mg/m^/8h
2
Cyanogen
gas
+++
systemic
local
+++
++
10 ppm/8h
1
Cyanogen Bromide
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
0.5 ppm/8h
1
Cyanogen Chloride
gas
+++
local
systemic
++
++
10 ppm/15 min
5 mg/m3/8h
1
Cyclohexanol
liquid
+
local
systemic
++
+
50 ppm/8h
2
Cyclohexanone
liquid
+
local
systemic
++
+
50 ppm/8h
2
Cyclohexylamine
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
10 ppm/8h
2
Decaborane
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.05 ppm/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetratior
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Decanal
liquid
++
local
++
-
D1acetone Alcohol
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
50 ppm/8h
2
Dlamylamine
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Dlborane
gas
++
local
systemic
++
++
.1 ppm/8h
1
Dlcamba
solid
+
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
D1chlob1nil
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+
-
2
Dlchlone
solid
+
local
++
-
2
D1chlorodif1ouromethane
gas
++
systemic
++
1,000 ppm/8h
2
Dlchloroethyl Ether
11qu1d
++
local
systemic
++
++
5 ppm/8h
2
Dlchloromethane
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
200 ppm/8h
2
Ofchloropropane
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
75 ppm/8h
2
Dlchloropropene
liquid j
-
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
-¦ -
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Oichloropropene Dlchloropro-
pane
liquid
•H-
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Dlchlorvos
liquid
-H-
systemic
++
.1 ppm/8h
1 mg/m3/8h
2
D1cyc1opentad1ene
liquid
++
local
+++
5 ppm/8h
2
01ethanolamine
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Diethyl amine
liquid
++
local
++
25 ppm/8h
2
01ethylene Glycol
liquid
~
systemic
+
-
2
01ethylenetr1 amine
liquid
local
+++
1 ppm/8h
2
Diethyl Phthalate; Ethyl
Formate
liquid
++
local
+
-
2
Dimethyl amine
oily
liquid
++
local
+++
10 ppm/8h
18 mg/m3/8h
2
H,N - dimethyl aniline
oily
liquid
+++
systemic
local
++
+
5 ppm/8h
25 mg/nr/8h
2
Dimethylsulfate
liquid
++
local
+++
1 ppm/8h
2
Dloxane (p-d1oxane)
liquid
•H-
local
systemic
++
+
50 ppm/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
I
1
cr»
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Olphosgene
gas
++
local
+++
-
1
Diquat
++
local
systemic
++
++
0.5 mg/m^/Bh
2
Disulfotone
liquid
++
systemic
+++
.1 mg/m^/8h
1
Dluron
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
DNBP
++
systemic
+++
-
2
DNBP-NH4-salt
++
systemic
+++
-
2
1-Dodecanol
solid
+
local
+
-
2
Endosulfan
solid
++
systemic
+++
0.1 mg/m^/8h
2
Endothal
local
++
Epichlorohydrln
liquid
++
local
systemic
~
++
5 ppm/8b
19 mg/m3/8h
2
Ethion
liquid
++
systemic
•H-
-
2
Ethyl Acetate
liquid J
++ J local
•f+
CO
jarn
i.?
CL
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Ethyl Acrylate
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
25 ppm/8b
100 mg/m3/8h
2
Ethyl Benzene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
100 ppm/8h
2
Ethyl Chloride
liquid
++
local
frostbite
-H-
1,000 ppm/8h
2
Ethylene
gas
++
local
frostbite
++
-
2
Ethylene Cyanohydrln
liquid
++
systemic
+
-
2
Ethylene D1bromide
liquid
++
local
systemic
4+
++
20 ppm/8h
50 ppm/5 min
2
Ethylene Dlchlorlde
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
10 ppm/8h
200 ppm/5 m1n
2
Ethylene Glycol D1acetate
liquid
++
systemic
+
-
2
Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl
Ether Acetate
liquid
++
systemic
local
+
+
100 ppm/8h
2
Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl
Ether
liquid
++
systemic
25 ppm/8h
2
Ethylene Oxide
liquid
+
local
+++
50 ppm/8h
2
Ethyl Ether
liquid
+
local
+++
400 ppm/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetratlor
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Ferbam
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+
15 mg/m^/8h
2
Ferric Hydroxide
solid
-
local
++
-
2
Ferric Nitrate
solid
-
local
++
1 mg/m^/8h
2
Ferric Sulfate
solid
-
local
++
-
2
Ferrous Sulfate
solid
-
local
++
-
2
Ferrous Hydroxide
solid
-
local
++
-
2
Ferrous Sulfite
solid
-
local
-H-
-
2
Fish Oil
liquid
++
local
al1ergen
+
-
2
Fluorine
gas
+++
local
-H-+
.1 ppm
1
Formaldehyde
liquid
++
local
systemic
-H-+
++
3 ppm/8h
2
Formic acid
liquid
++
local
4-H-
5 ppm/8h
2
j
Furfural J
liquid j
*+
local j
•H-f
5 ppm/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-*"(CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Gas oils
liquid
++
local
+
-
2
Glyoxal
liquid
+
local
+
-
2
Guthion
solid
++
systemic
++
-
2
Heptachlor
solid
+++
systemic
local
++
+
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Heptane
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
500 ppm/8h
2
Heptanol
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
+*
-
2
HETP
liquid
+++
systemic
+++
-
1
Hexaborane
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Hexamethy1ened1 amine
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
-
2
Hexane
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
500 ppm/8h
2
Hexanol
liquid
++
local
+++
++
-
2
Hexylene Glycol
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
25 ppm/8b
125 mq/m3/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Hydrazine
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
1 ppm/8h
1
Hydrochloric Acid
liquid
¦H-
local
systemic
+++
+
5 ppm/8h
1
Hydrofluoric Acid
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
+
3 ppm/8h
1
(Tritium) (Radioactive)
gas
+++
systemic
+++
-
1
Hydrogen Cyanide
gas
+++
systemic
+++
10 ppm/8h
1
Hydrogen Fluoride
gas
+++
local
+++
3 ppm/8h
1
Hydrogen Sulfide
gas
+++
systemic
+++
10 ppm/8h
1
Hydroqulnone
solid
++
local
systemic
++
++
2 mg/m^/8h
2
Hypochlorous Acid
liquid
local
-H-+
-
2
Indole
solid
++
local
+++
-
2
Iron Dost
solid
-
local
•H-
-
2
Isobutyl Alcohol
liquid I
¦H-
local I ~
systemic | ~+
100 ppm/8h
Z
-------
TABLE II1-1 (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Isobutyraldehyde
liquid
++
local
systemic
++*
+
-
2
Isobutyr1c Acid
liquid
+
local
systemic
+++
+
-
2
Isophorone
liquid
•H-
local
systemic
++
++
25 ppm/8h
2
Isophthaloyl Chloride
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Isopropyl Acetate
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
+
250 ppm/8h
2
Isopropylamine
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
5 ppm/8h
2
Isopropyl Ether
liquid
4+
local
systemic
++
+
250 ppm/8h
2
Kepone
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
Krypton 85 (radioactive)
gas
+++
systemic
+++
-
1
Lead Arsenate
solid
+
local
systemic
+
++
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Lead Fluoborate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Lindane
solid
++
systemic
++
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Malathlon
liquid
++
systemic
+++
10 mg/m^/Sh
2
MCP
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
-
2
Merc aptod1methar
systemic
++
-
2
Mercuric Cyanide
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
.01 mg/m^/8h
2
Mercuric Nitrate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
.05 mg/m^/8h
2
Methacrylonltrlle
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
1 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Acrylate
liquid
-M-
local
systemic
+++
++
10 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Arayl Acetate
liquid
¦M-
local
systemic
+
++
50 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Amyl Alcohol
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
25 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Bromide
liquid
or gas
+
local
+++
20 ppm/8h
1
Methyl Chloride
liquid
+
local
-H-+
100 ppm/8h
2
Methylene Chloride
liquid
local
systemic 1
-H-
++
500 ppm/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-i (CONTIMJEO)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Hqaid
++
local
systemic
+
++
590 mg/m3/8h
2
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
+
100 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Mercaptan
gas
+++
local
systemic
-H-
++
10 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Methacrylate
liquid
++
local
+++
100 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Parathlon
liquid
+++
systemic
+++
200 ug/m3
1
Mexacarbate
solid
-H-
local
systemic
+
+++
-
2
Monoch1oroacetone
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Monoch1orod1f1uorometh ane
liquid
++
local
(frostbite)
systemic
+++
++
1,000 ppm/8h
2
Monoethylamine
gas
+++
local
-M-+
10 ppm/8h
1
Monoisopropanolamine
liquid
++
local
•M-
-
2
Monomethylamine
gas
+++
local
+++
10 ppm/8h
1
Morpholine
liquid
++
local
systemic
•M-
++
20 ppm/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetratior
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Mustard Gas
gas
++
local
+++
-
1
m-xylene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
100 ppm/8h
2
m-xylyl Bromide
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Nab am
solid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Naled
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
3 mg/m3/8h
2
n-amyl Acetate
liquid
++
local
++
100 ppm/8h
2
Naphthalene
solid
~
local
systemic
++
++
10 ppm/8h
50 mg/m3/8h
2
Naphthenlc Acid
solid
~
local
++
-
2
n-butyl Acetate
liquid
++
local
+
150 ppm/8h
710 mg/m3/8h
2
n-butyl Acrylate
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
n-butyl Alcohol
liquid
++
local
systemic
-H-
+
50 ppm/8h
2
' n-butyraldehyde
liquid
-H-
local
+++
m
2
-------
TABLLE Ill-i (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical 1
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Nickel Ammonium Sulfate
solid
+
local
+~
1 mg/m^/8h
2
Nickel Carbonyl
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
.05 ppm/8h
2
Nitric Acid
liquid
~
local
+++
2 ppm/8h
1
Nitric Oxide
gas
+4
local
+++
25 ppm/8h
1
NltrllotHacetic Acid
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Nitrogen Dioxide
gas
++
local
++
5 ppm/15 min
1
Nitrobenzene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
1 ppm/8h
5 mg/m3/8h
2
Nitrogen Chloride
liquid
++
local
++
-
2
Nitroglycerine
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
2 mg/n»3/8h
2
Ozone
gas
+
local
systemic
++
++
.1 ppm/8h
2
Nitrous Oxide
gas
++
local
+++
25 ppm/8h
2
Nonane
liquid
++
local
++
-
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITT
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Nonyl Phenol
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
n-propyl Alcohol
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
+
200 ppm/8h
2
Omazene
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
o-n1trophenol
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
+
-
2
o-nitroan1l1ne
solid
~
local
systemic
+
+++
-
2
Oxyd1prop1on1tr11e
liquid
++
systemic
local
++
+
-
2
o-xylene
liquid
++
local
systemic
~
+
100 ppm/8h
2
para-nltroaniline
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
1 ppm/8h
2
Pentanal
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Perchloromethyl mere apt an
liquid
+++
local
systemic
++
++
.1 ppm/8h
2
Pheno1carb/1amine Chloride
liquid
-H-
local
++
-
2
Phenolmercurlc Acetate
solid
~
local
systemic
+
-
2
-------
TABLE III-i '(CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Phosgene
gas
+
local
+++
.1 ppm/8h
1
White Phosphorous (yellow)
solid
+
local
systemic
+++
++
-
1
Phosphorous Oxychlorlde
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
-
2
Phosphorous Pentasulflde
solid
+
local
systemic
+++
++
1 mg/m^/8h
2
Phosphorous Trichloride
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
.5 ppm/8h
3 mg/m3/8h
2
Phthal1c-Ac1d-D1ethyl-Ester
liquid
++
local
+
-
2
Phthallc Anhydride
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+
1 ppm/8h
2
p-n1trophenol
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Potassium Arsenate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
-H-+
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Potassium Arsenlte
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
-
2
Potassium Permanganate
solid
+
local
+++
-
2
Propane
gas
++
local
frostbite
+++
1,000 ppm/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Proparglte
systemic
++
-
2
PropIonaldehyde
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
Propionic Acid
liquid
++
local
4+
10 ppm/8h
2
Propionic Anhydride
liquid
*+
local
+++
-
2
Propyl Acetate
liquid
++
local
++
200 ppm/8h
2
Propylamine
liquid
•H-
local
systemic
+++
++
-
2
Propylene
gas
+++
local
+
4,000 ppm/8h
2
Propylene Oxide
liquid
++
local
++
100 ppm/8h
2
p-xylene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
100 ppm/8h
2
Pyrethrln I
liquid
++
local
(allergen)
systemic
~
+
-
2
Pyrethrfn II
liquid
++
local
(allergen)
systemic
~
+
-
2
Pyrethrum J
solid j
¦f
local
(allergen)!
systemic 1
++
++
5 mg/m^/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-I (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
1
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Pyridine
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
5 ppm/8h
2
Pyrocatechol
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+
1 ppm/8h
2
Qulnhydrone
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Quinine
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+
-
2
Quinolene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Quinone
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.1 ppm/8h
2
Resorclnol
solid
+
local
systemic
+++
++
10 ppm/8h
2
Sallcyaldehyde
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
sec-Butyl amine
liquid
+
local
systemic
+++
++
15 mg/m^/8h
2
Selenium
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Selenium 75
(Radioactive)
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
-
2
Sesone
solid
local
systemic
++
4ar
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Silver Nitrate
solid
~
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
S1maz1ne
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
+
-
2
Sodium Anthraqulnone
Sulfonate
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Sodium Arsenate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Sodium Arsenlte
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
.5 mg/m^/Sh
2
Sodium Bisulfite
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Sodium Borate
solid
•f
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Sodium Butyldlphenyl
Sulfonate
liquid
++
local
++
-
2
Sodium Decylbenzene Sulfonate
+
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
Sodium Fluoride
solid
+
local
++
+++
2.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Sodium Huoroslllcate
solid 1 +
local
++
2.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Sodium Hydrosulflte
liquid J **
local
•H-+
-
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERNAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Sodium Hypochlorite
liquid
++
local
-H-+
-
2
Sodium Lauryl Sulfate
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Sodium Methyl ate
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Sodium Naphthalene
Sulfate
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
Sodium Nitrite
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Sodium Octylsulfate
solid
+
local
+
-
2
Sodium Selenlte
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.2 mg/m^/8h
2
Strychnine
solid
4
local
systemic
++
+++
.15 mg/m^/8h
.45 mg/m3/15
min
2
Styrene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
100 ppm/8h
125 ppm/8h
2
2
Sulfoxide
solid
+
local
+
-
2
Sulfur
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Sulfur Dioxide
gas
-H-+
i -
local
-H-+
5 ppm/8h
1
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Sulfuric Acid
liquid
++
local
+++
1 mg/m^/8h
1
Sulfur Monochlorlde
liquid
++
local
+++
1 ppm/8h
2
TBA
solid
+
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
T-Butylhydroperoxi de
liquid
+
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
TCA
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
TOE
solid
++
systemic
~
-
2
Tert-butyl amide
solid
•»-
local
systemic
+
+
-
2
Tetraborane
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
-
2
Tetradecanol
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+
-
2
Tetraethylene Pentamine
liquid
~
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Tetraethyl Pyrophosphate
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
+++
-
2
J Thallium j
solid j
+
systemic
I
+++
0.1 mg/m^/8h
2
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Thallous Nitrate
solid
+
systemic
+++
0.1 mg/m^/Sh
2
Thlophosgene
liquid
+
local
+++
-
2
Thlrara
solid
++
local
systemic
++
++
5 mg/m^/8h
2
Titanium 44
solid
+
local
~
-
2
Titanium Chloride
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Toluene
liquid
+
local
systemic
+
+
100 ppm/fih
375 mg/m3/8h
2
Toluene d11socyanate
liquid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.02 ppm/8h
.14 mg/m3/8h
2
Toxaphene
solid
++
local
systemic
+
++
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Trlchlorfon
solid
++
systemic
++
-
2
Trlchloroethane
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
10 ppm/8h
45 mg/m3/8h
2
Trlcresyl Phosphate
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
Tr1ethyl aluminum
liquid
+
local
+++
-
1
-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetratioi
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Triethylene Glycol
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
Trlethylenetetramlne
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
Trlmethylamine Gas
gas
++
local
-H-+
25 ppm/8h
1
Trlmethylamine Solution
liquid
++
local
¦M-+
25 ppm/8h
2
Trinitrotoluene
solid
++
local
systemic
++
+
1.5 mg/m3/8h
2
tJranyl Nitrate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.25 mg/m3/8h
2
Vanadium Oxytrlchlorlde
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
5 ppm/15 m1n
2
Vapam
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Vinyl Acetate
liquid
++
local
++
10 ppm/8h
30 mg/m3/8h
2
Vinyl Bromide
gas
•H-+
local
systemic
+++
+++
200 ppm/8h
1
Vinyl Chloride
gas
+++
local
systemic
+++
+++
200 ppm/8h
1
Vinyl Ether
liquid
•*+
local
systemic
++
-M-
-
2
-------
TABLE Ill-i (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Xenon 133 (radioactive)
gas
+++
systemic
-H-+
-
1
Z1nc Borate
solid
+
local
++
10 mg/m^/8h
2
Z1nc Chloride
solid
+
local
++
1 ppm/8h
2
Z1nc Cyanide
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+++
-
1
Z1nc Hydrosulflte
solid
+
local
+++
-
2
Z1nc Phenol sulfonate
solid
+
local
+++
-
2
Z1nc Phosphide
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
-------
APPENDIX IV
SITE SAFETY PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION
A site safety plan must be prepared (or reviewed) by a qualified safety
person for each response involving hazardous substances. As soon as
possible after operations at an incident commence, safety requirements
must be written, conspicuously posted, distributed to all response
personnel and discussed with them. In non-emergency situations, for
example, remedial action at abandoned hazardous waste sites, safety plans
can be developed simultaneously with general operation plans and
implemented when remedial actions begin. Emergency situations may require
verbal safety instructions and use of standard operating safety procedures
until specific safety protocols can be written. For any incident, the plan
must include health and safety considerations for all activities required
at the incident. The safety plan must be periodically reviewed to keep it
current and technically correct.
II. MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS
As a minimum, the site safety plan must:
Evaluate the risks associated with the incident and with each operation
conducted.
Identify key personnel and alternates responsible for both site safety
and response operations.
Address Levels of Protection to be worn by personnel during various
site operations.
Designate work areas (exclusion zone, contamination reduction zone, and
support zone), boundaries, size of zones, distance between zones, and
access control points into each zone.
Establish decontamination procedures for personnel and equipment.
Determine the number of personnel and equipment needed in the work
zones during initial entries and/or subsequent operations.
Establish site emergency procedures, for example, escape routes,
signals for evacuating work parties, emergency communications (internal
and external), procedures for fire and/or explosions, etc.
Determine location and make arrangements with the nearest medical
facility (and medical life squad unit) for emergency medical care for
routine-type injuries and toxicological problems.
IV-1
-------
Implement a program for periodic air, personnel monitoring, and
environmental sampling.
Train personnel for any non-routine site activities.
Consider weather and other conditions which may affect the health and
safety of personnel during site operations.
Implement control procedures to prevent access to the site by
unauthorized personnel.
IV -2
TCS/EPA/10-82
-------
PERSONNEL SAFETY PLAN
OTTATI AND GOSS
HAZARDOUS WASTE SITE
Kingston, New Hampshire
Third Revision
Revised: 19 May 1982
* This is a copy of an actual safety plan currently
being used on the Ottati and Goss hazardous waste
site. It is provided here only as an example of
how a safety plan may be assembled. Some of the
original contents have been omitted because they
can be found elsewhere in the manual.
IV-3
-------
CONTENTS
TOPIC
Purpose
Applicability
Responsibilities
1. On-Scene Coordinator
2. Safety Officer
Site Organization
Topographic Map (Figure 1)
Zones of Contamination
Site Plan (Figure 2)
Level of Hazard Determination
Minimum Equipment and Respiratory Protection
Air Monitoring Survey
Emergency Contingency Plan
Emergency Telephone Numbers
Emergency Route Map "Kingston" (Figure 3)
Emergency Route Map "Exeter" (Figure !<)
Emergency Route Map "Haverhill" (Figure 5)
Degrees of Hazard and Personnel Protection Levels (Attach. 1)
Appendices
Decontamination
Local Contingency Plan
Safety Equipment (Exposure Action Levels)
Chemical Resistance Charts
Index of Skin Toxic Chemicals (OHM-TADS)
Index of Skin Absorbed Chemicals (OHM-TADS)
Dermal Toxicity Rating 4 Recommended Levels of Protection
D.O.T. Hazardoud Classification Chart
Chemical Characteristics Category List
Windchill Chart
Heat Stress Casualty Prevention Plan
IV- 4
PAGE
1
1
1
2
2
3
6
8
9
10
11
13
W
15
16
17
I
II
III (omitted)
IV (omitted)
V (omitted)
VI (omitted)
VII (omitted)
VIII (omitted)
IX
X
XI
-------
I Purpose
The purpose of this plan is to assign responsibilities, establish personnel
protection standards, mandatory operating procedures, and provide for con-
tingencies that may arise while operations are being conducted at the
Ottatl and Goss Hazardous Waste Site In Kingston, New Hampshire.
II. Applicability
The provisions of the plan are mandatory for all EPA personnel and personnel
under contract to EPA while Section 311 activities are being conducted
at the site. These activities include Investigation, sampling, and mitigation
undertaken on the site or at any off-site areas which may be affected by
contamination from the site. All visitors to the site will be required
to abide by these procedures. It Is strongly recommended that State of
New Hampshire personnel involved in cooperative site operations implement
these procedures.
III. Responsibilities
1. On-Scene Coordinator (OSC)
In accordance with 40 CFR 1510.36: "The OSC shall direct Federal pollution
control efforts and coordinate all other Federal efforts at the scene
of a discharge or potential discharge."
A. At the Ottatl & Goss site, the OSC has the primary responsibility
for:
1. Assuring that appropriate personnel protective equipment is
available and properly utilized by all EPA and contractor
personnel.
2. Assuring that personnel are aware of the provisions of this
plan, are instructed In the work practices necessary to ensure
safety, and in planned procedures for dealing with emergencies.
IV-5
-------
3. Assuring that personnel are aware of the potential hazards
associated with alte operations.
I|. Supervising the monitoring of safety performance by all per-
sonnel to ensure that required work practices are employed.
5. Correcting any work practices or conditions that may result
in injury to personnel or exposure to hazardous substances.
B. The On-Scene Coordinator for this site is: Robert Ankstitus.
2. Safety Officer
In accordance with the draft chapter 9 of EPA*s Occupational Health
and Safety Manual, as ordered by Executive Order 12196: "The Safety
Officer is responsible for implementing the safety plan at the site."
A. At the Ottati & Goss site, the Safety Officer shall:
1. Conduct site monitoring of personnel hazards to determine the
degree of hazard present.
2. Determine personnel protection levels and necessary clothing
and equipment to ensure the safety of personnel.
3. Evaluate weather and chemical hazard information, and recommend
to the OSC any necessary modifications to work plans and per-
sonnel protection levels to maintain personnel safety.
4. Monitor the safety performance of all personnel to ensure that
the required practices are employed.
B. The Safety Officer for this site is: Gordon Bullard
IV. Site Organization
The Ottati A Goss Hazardous Waste Site Is located in Kingston, New Hampshire,
near Rte. 125 (See Map, Figure 1). The site is part of a borrow pit operation
1V-6
-------
Qttati & Gobs Hazardous Haste Site Kingston, NH
HAVERHILL OUADRANOLE
NEW HAMPSHIRE—MASSACHUSETTS jtfi
19 MINUTE SERIES (TOPOGRAPHIC) ^
m m tMM« fin*.< IK
&
£
&
M
of Op«r»tion»
IV-7
-------
adjacent to a small stream which flows via a marsh into Country Pond.
Within 100 yards of the stream 4300 drums, in various stages of deterior-
ation were abandoned. These open and sealed drums contain various hazardous
substances. Some of these drums, due to their condition and displacement
by rainfall, have contaminated the ground in the area where they were
abandoned.
During the winter and spring and 1981, EPA undertook operations to move
the drums into staging areas preparatory to sampling them. During the
course of these operations an H-NU was used to obtain organic vapor levels
for the site. The ambient air (including background) for the site usually
indicated less than 5 ppm organic vapor with frequent increases to 20-30
ppm in the immediate vicinity of the drum movement operations. Some in-
dividual drums, checked on a random basis, indicated 2000+ ppm (within
6 inches of the bung).
In order to reduce the potential for contaminant migration and reduce the
risk of personnel exposure to hazardous substances, three zones will be
established. The three zones are: 1) Exclusion Zone; 2) Contamination
Reduction Zone; and 3) The Clean Zone.
V. Determination of Zones of Contamination
A. Exclusion Zone (See Site Plan, Figure 2)
The Exclusion Zone is the area southerly of the small stream at point
"H". This area encompasses the sand and gravel pit. Within this zone
the designated "level of hazard" will be established, necessitating
the use of personnel protection equipment.
Due to the condition of the drums and the soil and debris of the former
drum storage site, a potential for wind migration of contaminants
exists. The Exclusion Zone has, therefore, been made sufficiently
large to encompass forseeable dispersion based on operations conducted
during the spring of 1981. In order to facilitate operations in this
zone, three sub-areas will be established:
1. "Area C" will be the area within the Exclusion Zone where only
background vapor levels exist. This area serves as a buffer within
IV-8
-------
which wind dispersion of contaminants might occur. In "Area C"
personnel will be required to wear the protective clothing desig-
nated for "Area B" operations and carry an air purifying respirator.
A red flag will be flown in a prominent location to serve as a
wind reference.
2. "Area Bw is the area within which the wearing of both protective
clothing and respiratory protection will be required due to the
potential for contamination from the drums during work activities.
This area is in fact four locations: 1) Staging Area 1; 2) Staging
Area 2; 3) Staging Area 3; and *0 Staging Area U (including the
former drum handling area.
NOTE: Experience during the summer of 1981 indicates that outside
the above areas the level of hazard is negligible, but when oper-
ations resume it may be necessary to form them into one area.
3- "Area A" is the term used to delineate "hot spots" within "Area
B". A hot spot is a point at which the contaminant levels are,
at least periodically, higher than the level of hazard Indicated
for "Area B" and require an increase in protection above that
provided. These spots will be identified by an orange "bicycle
pennant." Personnel working in these areas will wear the res-
piratory protection and safety clothing necessary for the special
degree of hazard. Additionally, personnel will use any necessary
monitoring devices and safety tools to complete their specific
tasks in a safe manner.
In order to provide an adequate Safety Zone the special level of
hazard protection area will extend at least 50 feet from the pennant.
B. Contamination Reduction Zone
The Contamination Reduction Zone serves as a buffer between the Clean
Zone and the Exclusion Zone. The zone incorporates the entire borrow
pit area and a portion north of the small stream.
IV-9
-------
t
UMlW' "•*
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turn
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JW B*cW«ion *°°®
Contw»in»tlon
— — Reduction «*>«
-------
Personnel intending to enter the Exclusion Area shall don the appro-
priate protective clothing Tor the area(s) that they Intend to enter,
as well as, obtain the respiratory protective equipment that Is necessary
prior to crossing the Hotline at point nH" into the Exclusion Area.
Decontamination and Exclusion Zone equipment storage and maintenance
will be carried out in this Zone. No equipment used in the Exclusion
Zone will enter the Clean Zone until it has been decontaminated in
the Contamination Reduction Zone. To support Exclusion Zone activities
three facilities will be situated in the zone.
1. Decontamination Station
The Decontamination Station will be located at the other perimeter
of the Contamination Reduction Zone. All personnel who have been
within the Exclusion Area shall pass through a decontamination
procedure prior to re-entering the Clean Zone (See Decontamination
Procedure, Appendix I).
2. Heavy Equipment Park
A Heavy Equipment Park will be designated near the Decontamination
Station for the storage, maintenance, and decontamination of vehicles
used in the Exclusion Zone.
3. Weather Shelter
A Weather Shelter will be located in the Contamination Reduction
Zone to provide some protection to personnel when taking breaks,
without requiring them to fully decontaminate.
C. Clean Zone
The Clean Zone is the outer area and may be considered clear of con-
tamination. The past history of the site, however, indicates that
parts of this zone were used to stockpile drums prior to their being
processed through a drum recycling facility owned by the Great Lake
Container Corporation* Ground contamination is therefore present.
Work that might be necessary in the former storage areas Is to be
considered to require protective clothing.
IV-11
-------
Depending on the location, respiratory protection may not be necessary.
Private vehicles not needed for operations are restricted to the parking
lot at the Command Post.
The EPA Command Post, or Mobile Laboratory, and an Equipment Trailer
will be located within the Clean Zone.
1. The Command Post will serve as the OSC's headquarters and will
be equipped with:
a) First aid supplies
b) Weather Station
c) Communications
d) Safety Plans
e) Communication Watch
2. The Mobile Laboratory will be equipped to analyze and categorize
the materials at the site. Access will be restricted in order
to minimize contamination and interference with analysis.
3- The Equipment Trailer will be used to store safety materials prior
to their distribution from the clean side of the Decontamination
Station. Other equipment will be stocked here for future use and
damaged equipment will be repaired here after decontamination.
VI. Determination of the Level of Hazard
The level of hazard will be determined by periodic monitoring of the site
for contamination by the Safety Officer (See Attachment 1).
The investigation, to date, has not indicated the presence of substances
which may be absorbed through the skin. The investigation indicates that
various substances, primarily industrial solvents, are present in suffi-
cient quantities to cause irritation to the eyes, lungs, intestinal tract,
and many are known or suspect carcinogens. Only a small portion of the
drums have been sampled; therefore, personnel will be required to wear
as a minimum:
A. Gloves
A 2-glove system will be worn.
IV-12
-------
1. Inner Gloves - Nitrile or PVC
2. Outer Gloves - Butyl Rubber or Nitrile
The inner gloves will be worn at all times within the Exclusion Zone.
The outer gloves will be work when contact with drums and other con-
taminated materials is expected.
B. Disposable Splash Suit
All personnel, as a minimum, within the Exclusion Zone will wear a
polylaminated Tyvek disposable coverall.
C. Head Gear
Hard hats will be worn at the site if overhead work occurs.
D. Eye Protection
Face shields or goggles will be worn within the Exclusion Zone. "Safety"
glasses are not sufficient protection and contact lenses will not be
worn at the site.
E. Boots
Cover boots will be worn in the Exclusion Area. Steel-toed boots will
be worn by personnel handling drums, or coverboots over steel-toed
workshoes.
F. Respiratory Protection
The respiratory protective devices used at this site will fall into
three categories:
1. Positive Pressure, Demand, Open Circuit, Self Contained Breathing
Apparatus (SCBA or Positive Pressure Demand Airline Respirator)
2. Air Purifying Respirator
3. Constant Flow
Only NIOSH/MSHA approved equipment wili be used.
The level of respiratory protection to be used will be based upon the
use of a photoionization detector (HNU). In order to provide a maximum
of protection, the following procedure will be followed:
IV-13
-------
1. Positive pressure, demand, open circuit, SCBA will be worn if the
level of organic vapors exceeds 25 ppm.
2. An air purifying respirator will be used when the organic vapor
level is between 6 ppm and 25 ppm.
3. If the organic vapor level is 5 ppm or less, no device is necessary,
but either an air purifying respirator or approved escape device
will be carried.
Examples of NIOSH/MSHA approved devices are:
1. SCBA - MSA Ml Pressure Demand TC 13F-30
2. Air Purifying - MSA Ultra Twin Cartridge TC 21C-188 (cartridges
and/or cannisters must be NIOSH approved for the respirator.)
3. Escape - Robertshaw 5-minute TC 13F-28
*PPM in Breathing Zone Wear
0-5 None
6-25 Air Purifying
26+ S.C.B.A.
CAUTION: Individual jobs at the site may require personnel to
wear an increased level of protection than generally necessary
for the site. For example: 1) acid raingear; 2) butyl rubber
aprons; 3) SCBA when others on air purifying respirator; and 4)
hard hats with faceshields.
Note: Operations will be conducted during the summer months when
excessive ambient air temperatures may cause personal injury and
increased accident probability. Safety procedures to avoid heat
stress casualty potential are outlined in Appendix XI.
•H-NU calibrated to 9.8 with benzene.
VII. Air Monitoring Survey
The Safety Officer will survey the site every second hour, and at such
other times as deemed necessary by an alteration of wind speed or direction,
or the type of work being conducted, using a photoionization detector.
IV-14
-------
The Safety Officer shall use a copy of the Site Plan to indicate the lo-
cation where readings were recorded, velocity of the wind, and the HNU
reading. A minimum of 10 locations will be checked during each bihourly
survey.
Three activated charcoal filter pumps will be maintained in the Contami-
nation Reduction Zone and sampled twice a day in order to assess the com-
position of the organic vapors upwind, downwind, and within the Exclusion
Zone.
VIII. Emergency Contingency Plan
On-site emergencies can be expected to result from fire, chemical reaction
of drum contents or personnel casualty. If an incident occurs necessita-
ting a response to an emergency, the OSC will sound an air horn. The
signal is at least 5 short blasts (each of 1 second duration).
Personnel will assemble at the Decontamination Station to receive SCBA,
orders to evacuate, or other assignments.
If the weather deteriorates to the point where the OSC believes work should
cease, he will sound 1 prolonged blast (1 of 4-6 second duration) to order
the crew to cease operations and assemble at the Decontamination Station.
Fire
If a fire emergency occurs the crew will assemble at the Decontamination
Station, on the 5 blast signal. The OSC will issue his response orders,
having already alerted the Fire Department (642-5512) and the Police Depart-
ment (772-4716) to execute the Town Emergency Plan (See Appendix II).
Fire fighting materials on-site will include:
1. 20 gallons of A Triple F foam,
2. 2 large dry chemical extinguishers (mounted on wheels)
3* 5 20-lb. dry chemical extinguishers
4. 4 MSA 401 SCBAs (for F.D. use only - additional to all others).
IV-15
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Drum Leak
Personnel will assemble at the Decontamination Station, on the 5 blaat
signal. The OSC will issue his cleanup orders, in order that the problem
may be controlled and cleaned up rapidly. In addition to materials on-
site for the job, the following materials will be on-site:
Lime - 200 lb.
Speedy Dry - 200 lb.
Overpack Drums - 100
Lab Packs - 25
Reconditioned Hazmat Drums - 100
Personnel Casualty
Personnel will assemble at the Decontamination Station, on the 5 blast
signal, except for one man who will remain with the casualty. The OSC
will issue orders for first aid assistance to the casualty. If the casualty
has sustained an injury which may involve contact with contaminated material,
a sample of the material will be taken for immediate analysis.
Severe Casualties
The OSC will contact the Kingston Ambulance (612-5512) for assistance.
If the casualty requires transfer to a hospital, the primary hospital will
be the Exeter Hospital. The OSC will contact the hospital (778-7311) and
inform them of the incident and the nature of the injury. If Exeter Hospital
is unable to assist (due to other emergencies), the OSC will contact Hale
Hospital in Haverhill (372-71^1) and alert them.
IV-16
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EMERGENCY TELEPHONE NUMBERS
Immediate Emergencies
1. Kingston Police Dept. (603) 772-1716
2. Kingston Fire Dept. (603) 642-5512
3. Kingston Ambulance (603) 612-5512
State your name, location, and the nature of the emergency.
Emergency Support
1. U.S. EPA (617) 223-7265
2. Peabody Clean Industry (617) 567-6500
3. Exeter Hospital (603) 778-7311 (7 digits only)
Directions:
A. North on Rte. 125 to Rte. Ill
B. East on Rte. Ill to Exeter Town Hall
C. Turn right
D. Follow Rte. 108 to hospital entrance on Highland St. (See Maps,
Figures 3 & 4).
k. Hale Hospital, Haverhill, MA (617) 372-7111 (7 digits only)
Directions:
A. South on Rte. 125 to Haverhill's Central Plaza
B. Turn left onto Ginty Blvd. (Rte. 9.7)
C. Following Rte. 97 to Hale Hospital's entrance on Woodbridge
Road (See Maps, Figures 3 4 5).
State Officials
1. State Fire Marshall's Office (603) 271-3336
2. NHWSPCC (603) 271-3503
3> Bureau of Solid Waste Mgmt. (603) 271-1611
IV-17
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Ott.ti t Co., BlIlriou, Wiitt ^
Mng.ton, Hew Hanpahlr*
1
PNMftl
0
«»
9
-Mum map or
ROCKINGHAM COUNTY
SOUTHERN AREA
CktM
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BMW
till
125
jjMJt* tiitt Nm|M
8
-------
I
l£>
Ottatl & Got* Hazardous
Kingston, Hev Hupahire
HOSPITAL
ai
map of
rroiu
ROCKINGHAM COUNTY
SOUTHERN AREA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
-------
HAVERHILL, MASSACHUSETTS
Ottatl 4 Cotm ffazarrfoua V«ite
«ngiton. Rev H«ap.hir«
Fijur# IS
IV-20
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DEGREES OF HAZARD
AND
LEVELS OF PERSONNEL PROTECTION
Degree of Conditions Level of Protection
Hazard
First Degree
1.
2.
3.
Unknown Hazards
IDLH Atmospheres
Oxygen Deficient
Atmospheres
1.
Self Contained Breathing
Apparatus (SCBA) of the
Positive Pressure Demand Type.
1.
2.
3.
Unknown Hazards
Percutaneous Chemicals
Vapors which can injure
the skin
2.
Appropriate Type of Fully
Encapsulating Suit.
Second Degree
1.
2.
IDLH Atmospheres
Oxygen Deficient
Atmospheres
1.
Self Contained Breathing
Apparatus (SCBA) of the
Positive Pressure Demand 1VP®«
1.
Liquids which can injure
the skin
2.
Boots, Gloves* Rain/Chemical
Splash Suit with Hood.
Third Degree
1.
2.
3.
4.
Atmospheres with at least
19%% Oxygen
Atmospheres for which the
Chemical fc Concentration
are Known and are below
IDLH level.
Contaminants have Good
Warning Properties
Atmospheres for which
a NIOSH/MSHA approved
Cartridge/Cannister is
available
1.
2.
1.
Approved Air Purifying
Respirator (Gas Mask) with the
Appropriate Approved Cartridge
(Cannister)
Carry: Approved Emergency
Escape Unit
Boots, Gloves, ChemClos (Splash
Suit if necessary). Face Shield
or goggles.
Fourth Degree
1.
2.
3.
1.
Atmospheres with at least
19%% oxygen
No IDLH Atmospheres
Dust and other
particulates in the Air
No Harmful Chemicals or
Atmospheres that might
injure the skin
1.
2.
1.
Approved Air Purifying
Respirator (Gas Mask) with the
Appropriate Approved Cartridge
(Cannister).
Carry: Approved Emergency
Escape Unit
Boots, Gloves, Coveralls,
Face Shield/Goggles
Fifth Degree
1.
2.
Atmosphere with at least
19%% Oxygen
Atmosphere which
contains no Hazards-But
where a Hazardous
Substance Incident
'ight occur.
1.-
1.
Carry: Approved Emergency
Escape Unit
Appropriate Clothing for the
investigation/inspection.
IV-21
Attachment 1
-------
appendix I
Decontamination Procedure
Decontamination Procedure shall be used when contact with contaminants
made or when personnel depart the Standby Zone.
1. Personnel Scrub Boots at the Pans provided Outside the DECONSTA.
2. Disposable Tyvek Clothing and Gloves are Disposed of into the
the Dirty Trash Drum provided outside the DECONSTA.
3. Spent Cartridges/Cannisters are disposed of into the Drum provided
outside the DECONSTA.
4. The DECONSTA is entered for the Decontamination of other equipment
in the pans provided in the DECONSTA.
5. Use a new set of inner gloves to clean equipment.
6. Dispose of any generated Dirty Trash in the Drum provided in the
Contamination portion of the trailer.
7. Depart the DECONSTA via the Clean Room, for the issufe of new
clothing/material, or depart from the Standby Zone.
IV-22
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DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURE
Contg-Tiination Reduction Zone
, « Coverboot
• 0 Storage
• •
• •
Dirty (T)
Trash V2-/
© ©
Storage
:iean Gear Storage
Equipment Wash
Cotamination Side
Cr
=>
c=
Clean Side
s
O"""
Storage
Heater
©
o
Spent
Cartridges
o
(2 ) Dirty
n-/ Trash
Exitl
Col Exclusion Zone
-------
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL INCIDENT ANNEX
Town of
KINGSTON, NEW HAMPSHIRE
OTTATI and GOSS site
IV-24
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PART I.
PART II.
PART III.
PART IV.
PART V.
PART VI.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PURPOSE FA9-1.1
AUTHORITY FA9-2.1
SITUATIONS FAS-3.1
RESPONSIBILITIES FA9-4.1
CONCEPT OF OPERATIONS FA9-5.1
ATTACHMENTS
A. Town of Kingston map
B. Map of predetermined sectors
C. Listing of residence in evacuation axes..
IV-25
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FA9-1.1
Date: DEC 17 19S!
Town of
Kingston, New Hampshire
Hazardous Material Incident Annex
OTTATI and GOSS site
I. PURPOSE
A. The identification of a Hazardous Materials Dumpsite in
Kingston, New Hampshire has recently caused some concern
by people living in its vicinity, this annex is intended
to be used by the appropriate authorities to help minimize
injuries and to outline procedures to be used in case of an
accident at the Ottati and Goss site.
IV-26
-------
a. «-w " £ . JL
Date: DEC 17 13C0
t. AUTHORITY
A. Authority for this Functional Annex is contained in the
Town of Kingston Basic Emergency Management Plan.
B. REVIEW FOR APPROVAL/AUTHORIZATION
1. This page shall be executed annually/biennially by the
new Governing Body members immediately following the
community's elections.
2. Reviewed and approved; Date: , DEC ^ ^80
Signature : ^
+ *
Laurence Middlemiss
Civil Defense Director
3. Concurrence of approval: Date: DEC.l 7 1980 ^
Signature^Z/y,^.^CrS
Typed name : Michael Priore
Chairman, Board ot
Selectmen
DEC 1 7 1980
Date:
Signature
ph Southwick
Typed name
Board of Selectmen
Date: DEC 17 1980
Signature:
Typed name
: ^"k?
John Reinfuss
Board of Selectmen
IV-27
-------
FA9-3.1
Date : DEC 1 7 m
III. SITUATIONS
1. The site is located approximately four miles south of
Kingston Center, off from route 125. The area is lightly
populated, (apjirox. 300 plus )
2. The dumpsite is currently being monitored by the EPA and
the N.H. Bureau of Solid Waste Management.
3. A watchman is stationed on the Ottati and ^oss site. He
will immediately notify by telephone, the police and fire
departments of any fire, escape of material, or other
unusual circumstances at or around the Ottati and Ooss
site.
A. Upon notification, the police and fire departments will
respond to the site. Determination of appropriate
protective actions will be made.
IV-28
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1- AS - U . 1
Date: DEC 1 7 ]?SC
RESPONSIBILITIES
A- In accordance with the Basic Emergency Management Plan for
the Town of Kingston, the following responsibilities are
assigned.
1. POLICE DEPARTMENT
a. From the site will notify the Kingston Board of
Selectmen, Kingston Civil Defense Director, Danville
Police and Fire Departments, Newton Police and Fire
Departments, and the State Police. The State Police
will notify the State Civil Defense, State Bureau of
Solid Waste and Management.
b. Will initiate a door to door notification of residence
in the affected area.
c. Will establish road blocks at
(1) Route 125 & Newton Junction Road
(2) Newton Junction Road & Park Road
(3; Route 125 & Old Route 125 near the Town garage
(4) Route 111 & Mill road
(5) Frontage Road & Hunt Road will be established
by the Danville Police Department.
d. Maintain crowd control.
e. Maintain security to discourage unauthorized people
in the area.
2. FIRE DEPARTMENT
a. The Fire Department will notify and request appropriate
fire mutual aid in accordance with the situation as
it exists.
b. Request if necessary specialized fire fighting
equipment from Pease AFB and N.H. National Guard.
c. Assist in door to door notification if necessary.
IV-29
-------
Date: DEC 1 7 I98C
3. HIGHWAY DEPARTMENT
a. Will give initial assistance with traffic control.
b. Will assist the Fire Department in containment of
materials in the event this becomes necessary.
A. CIVIL DEFENSE
a. Upon notification will activate the Emergency Operations
Center (EOC) in accordance with Section 5 Part B of the
Town of Kingston Basic Emergency Management Plan (BEMP).
b. Emergency public information will be disseminated in
accordance with Section 5 Part C of the Town of
Kingston BEMP.
c. Emergency shelter will be established in accordance
with the Shelter Annex of the Emergency Management Plan.
d. Heterological data for the site could be obtained
from the National Weather Service in Concord, N.H.
(228-8763).
e. Additional State and Federal Assistance will be
requested as needed upon authorization of the
Selectmen by the Civil Defense Director. State
and Federal Assistance will be coordinated by the
New Hampshire Civil Defense Agency.
IV-30
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FA9-5.1
Date: JAN 1 9 13
V. CONCEPT OF OPERATIONS
1. Evacuation procedures.
A. If a hazardous situation exists and evacuation is
determined necessary;
(1) Complete evacuation of all residence on the
following roads will be made.
(a) Route 125 from the South end of Old Mill Road
to Stoneybrook Lane.
(b) MeeJcs Road
(c) Sunshine Drive
(d) Shady Lane
(e) Ann Hannagan Lane
(f) Old Mill Road
(g) Mill Road from Old Mill Road to h way between
Towle Road and Route 111
(h) Stoneybrook Lane
(i) Towle Road
(2) Road blocks will be established.
(3) An accurate assesment of atmospheric conditions
will be obtained.
(4) Emergency shelter will be established at the
Town Hall.
B. If additional evacuation is determined necessary;
U) The evacuation zone will be extended to a 1 mile
radius using predetermined sectors.
(2) Predetermined sectors will be established as 45 degree
vectors on either side of the determined wind
direction.
IV-31
-------
E A S
J
Newton
Junction
wm&
Vim
. r *>„
IV-32
-------
WtSQN
[SAW;
JONEYflROOK
ft (^OAO
ADIUS"
-------
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES FOR RESPONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIALS DUMPSITE. KINGSTON, N.H
The Identification of a Hazardous Materials Dumpsite In Kingston, New
Hampshire has recently caused some concern by people living In its vicinity.
The site Is located approximately four miles south of Kingston Center off
from route 125. The area Is lightly populated and surrounded by swampland.
The dumpsite 1s currently being monitored by the EPA and the N.H. Bureau
of Solid Waste Management.
In accordance with the Basic Emergency Management Plan for the Town of Kingsto
the following procedures will be followed 1n the event of an accident at the site,
which would pose a threat to the safety of the people in Kingston:
CV <(» /) 7 Ii'r
A watchman is stationed at the^slte. He will immediately notify by telephone,
the police and fire departments of any fire, escape of material, or other unusual
circumstances at or around the^site.
- 1 i
Upon noti fication, the police and fire department will respond to the site.
Determination of appropriate protective actions will be made
From the site the Kingston Police Department will notify the Kingston Board
Df Selectmen, Kingston Civil Defense Director, Danville Police and Fire Departments
Newton Police and Fire Departments, State Police, State Civil Defense, State
Bureau of Solid Waster and Management and (other states agencies).
The Fire Department will notify and request aoproprlate fire mutual aid In
accordance with the situation as It exists.
Heterological Data for the site could be obtained from the National Ueather
Service in Concord, N.H. (228-8761)
Notification to the general public within one mile of the site will be
affected by the police department utilizing door to door^iotification of 20-25
families who live within one mile of the site.
Sheltei for those displaced will be set up at the Town Hall.
Emergency public information will be disseminated over the Fmerpency Broadcast
System via Radio Stations, WOKQ, UKXR, and UBBX.
Operations will be conducted from the Emergency Operations Center located at
the Kingston Police Department. Operations will be coordinated by the Kingston
Civil Defense Director.
Traffic control around the site will be maintained by the Kingston Police
Department with assistance from state police.
Specialized fire fighting equipment 1s available from Pease AF8 and N.H.
National Guard upon request.
The Kingston Highway Department will assist the Fire Department In containment
of materials in the event this becomes necessary.
IV-34
-------
Additional State and Federal Assistance will be requested a> needed upon
authorization of the Selectmen by the Civil Defense Director. State and
Federal Assistance will be coordinated by the New Hampshire Civil Defense
Agency.
Cownents, questions, or additional information concerning .these procedures
should be directed to the Kingston Civil Defense Director.
Kingston Board of Selectmen
IV-35
-------
I
(jj
o>
•Mmi or U» am pM
lwun to the Itwn IhUl
I
NORTH
Gftrr poo
mmi of the area pa
**"" to Uc K]c» Nunot
building (located
next to the Ltttla
M«er Note! area).
NOTE: it W* need to evacuate
la evident, but there In no
late emergency, ALL
"evaciated realdenta will go
to tta TOUN HAU,
-------
Mint tnu Nar' t To Tr*e IVuldcs Your laved Ones
Hrrc nrr cnly jrtvrnl ntrrrntlain Top i*\ evneintlm of ¦ short (hrotloi.
Medical Stvpllc*
A. Prescription ardlclnea
Oilldren and Infaita
A. Disposable diaper* and powder
B. Bottles
C. Nllk/mwla
0. Pavorite —11 toy
EMatlon An* ¦
Mmt «m - H nil* radlua arowtd the alte.
m Additional m will bo evacuated aa the need Imiwa apparent.
<
l
u
vj
Relocation tenter*
Worth of the area - Tbwi Hull
IoiAi of the aim - Pica Hnrkrt building ( located next to the Little
River Hotel area).
HJIEs If the need to evacuate la evident, but there la no Irnedlate
fJUUUMi *11 evacuated renldenta will (go to the Toxn Hall.
Baa nffigi Inftxwatlon Radio Station
mm - i&o/m, vmm
HirniymTj
III —MoKn
low Note
SteMjr tmn IYtjh a wlrrn -
Within • V i*lle radii* of the alte - Evacuate the area and tp
to a relocation center.
Within a *i Mil* radius of tte alte - Stay Indoor*, eloae door* I
irlndoNs, turn on the radio
for farther instruction*.
1\m off all fM vd electric appliance*
Cloee and look all doom and alndowa
Urn the telephone only In an awiyncj altintlon
Keep cata at all times, nmlc la your
piateat enIn m nwrpcncjr.
-------
Brergency Instructions
.High Note
Low Note
Steady tone frcra a siren -
Within a \ mile radius of the site - Evacuate the area and go
to a relocation center.
"Within a h mile radius of the site - Stay indoors, close doors &
windows, turn an the radio
for further instructions.
Turn off all gas and electric appliances
Close and lock all doors and windows
Use the telephone only in an emergency situation
Keep calm at all times. Panic is your
greatest enerry in an emergency.
IV-38
-------
ftie Plan
In the event of an Incident at the hazardous waste site Involving a
potentially dangerous release of chemical fumes, the Town Plan for Hazardous
Material Incidents will go into operation imnediately.
When it does, it triggers a coordinated effort en the part of the
Environmental Protection Agency, Town police and fire departments, Town Civil
Defense, Area police and fire departments, New Hanpshire Civil Defense, other
state government agencies, emergency workers, the American Red Cross and the
Salvation Arrrty. These groups have only one goal - to protect the public.
That means .no one should be confused or misinformed. When an emergency
is declared, the area radio station , WKXB 15^0/AM, 1070/FM, will continually
update the situaticn_andiproyide people with information.
IV-39
-------
Evacuation Area
Primary area - \ mile radius around the site.
Additional area will be evacuate^ as the need becomes apparent.
Relocation Centers
North of the area - Town Hall
South of the area - Flea Market building ( located next to the Little
River Motel area).
NOTE: If the need to evacuate is evident, but there is no inmediate
emergency, all evacuated residents will go to the Town Hall.
Bnergency Information Radio Station
WKXR - 15WAM, 1070/FM
IV-40
-------
What You May Want To Take Besides Your Loved Ones
These are only general suggestions for an evacuation of a short duration.
Medical Supplies
A. Prescription medicines
Children and Infants
A. Disposable diapers and powder
B. Bottles
C. Ml lk/f onnula
D. Favorite small toy
IV-41
-------
Evacuation
If you have been asked to evacuate, do not hesitate or waste time trying to
take your possessions with you. Instead:
1. Gather your family together. If your children are in school do not try
to pick them up. At the end of the school day they will be transported
to a safe location where you may go to get them.
2. Pack only essential items (see checklist).
3. Turn off gas and electric appliances.
il. Lock doors and windows.
5. Relocation centers will not accept pets. If you do have a place to go
bring them along, other wise keep your pets indoors.
6. Know where you're going . . . North of the site will go to the Town Hall,
South of the site will go to the Flea Market building located next to
the Little River Motel area.
7. Don't rush. You're a lot more likely to get hurt that way.
Far the Disabled
Special provisions will be made to provide care and transportation for all
the disabled. It.is important that you let your needs be known, so contact in
advance your Local Civil Defense Agency.
)0 NOT TRY RE-ENTERING THE EVACUATED ARB FOR ANY REASON WHATSOEVER,
IV-42
-------
What to do and when to do it
You'll be warned In several ways, Just as you would be during a tornado
alert: over the radio.or public-address system, by siren, even by word of mouth.
The signal frcra the siren is a three to five minute steady tone.
Do Not call the police or sheriff or fire department or anyone else unless
it's absolutely necessary (and then limit your call to one minute if you can).
The phone lines have to be kept open for use by emergency personnel.
Finally, respond promptly to all instructions. If you're asked to take
shelter indoors and remain there, do it quickly. Do not evacuate. If you're
asked to evacuate the area, get your family together, and leave as soon as
possible.
IV-43
-------
appendix IX
Chemical Characteristics
- Acid
- Caustic
- Organic Flammable
- Organic Halogenated
- Organic Non-Halogenated
- Resin/Polymer
- Paint Sludge
- Organic Still Bottoms
- Insoluble Oils
- Acid Sensitive
- Acid Generating
- Corrosive
- HjO - Sensitive
- Aqueous
- Oxidizer
- Asbestos
- Heavy Metal
- Emulsified Oil
- Cyanide
- Peroxides
- Sulfide
- Sulfites
The physical and chemical properties of the contents of each waste container
as well as general properties relative to the condition and quantity of
each container should be compiled on individual field records.
IV-44
-------
appendix X
~TNDCH1LX CHART
Local Wapcntw* (f)
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dflaak
IV-45
-------
APPENDIX XI
Heat Stress Casualty Prevention Plan
Due to the Increase in ambient air temperatures and the effects of protective
outer wear decreasing body ventilation, there exists an increase in the potential
for injury, specifically, heat casualties. Site personnel will be instructed
in the identification of a heat stress victim, the first-aid treatment procedures
for the victim and the prevention of heat stress casualties.
A. Identification and Treatment
1) Heat Exhaustion
a) Symptoms: Usually begins with muscular weakness, dizziness, nausea,
and a staggering gait. Vomiting is frequent. The bowels may move
involuntarily. The victim Is very pale, his skin is clammy, and
he may perspire profusely. The pulse is weak and fast, his breathing
is shallow. He may faint unless he lies down. This may pass,
but sometimes it remains and death could occur.
b) First Aid: Immediately remove the victim to the Decontamination
Reduction Zone in a shady or cool area with good air circulation.
Remove all protective outer wear. Call a physician. Treat the
victim for shock. (Make him lie down, raise his feet 6-12 Inches,
and keep him warm but loosen all clothing.) If the victim la
conscious, it may helpful to give him sips of a salt water solution
(1 teaspoon of salt to 1 glass of water). Transport victim to
a medical facility.
2) Heat Stroke
a) Symptoms; This is the most serious of heat casualties due to the
fact that the body excessively overheats. Body temperatures often
are between 107 -110 P. First there is often pain in the head,
dizziness, nausea, oppression, and a dryness of the skin and mouth.
Unconsciousness follows quickly and death is imminent if exposure
continues. The attack will usually ocour suddenly.
b) First Aids Immediately evacuate the victim to a cool and shady
area In the Decontamination Reduction Zone. Remove all protective
outer wear and all personal clothing. Lay him on his back with
the head and shoulders slightly elevated. It is Imperative that
the body temperature be lowered Immediately. This can be accomplished
by applying oold wet towels, Ice bags, etc., to the head. Sponge
off the bare skin with cool water or rubbing alcohol, if availablet
or even place him in a tub of cool water. The main objective is
to cool him without chilling him. Give no stimulants. Transport
the victim to a medical faeility as soon as possible.
IV-46
-------
B. Prevention of Heat Stress
1) One of the major causes of heat casualties is the depletion of body
fluids. On the site there will be plenty of fluids available. Personnel
should replace water and salts loss from sweating. Salts can be replaced
by either a 0.1> salt solution, more heavily salted foods, or commercial
mixes such as Gatorade. The commercial mixes are advised for personnel
on low sodium diets.
2) A work schedule will be established so that the majority of the work
day will be during the morning hours of the day before ambient air
tempterature levels reach their highs.
3) A work/rest guideline will be implemented for personnel required to
wear Level B protection. This guideline is as follows:
Ambient Temperatures
Maximum Wearing Time
Above 90°F
J hour
1 hour
80°-90°F
70°-80°F
60°-70°F
50°-60°F
i»0°-50°F
30°-40°F
Below 30°F
3 hours
hours
2 hours
5 hours
6 hours
8 hours
A sufficient period will be allowed for personnel to "cool down."
This may require shifts of workers during operations.
IV-47
-------
PART 1
RESPONSE ORGANIZATION
INTRODUCTION
The number of people. Federal, State, and local agencies, resources, and
activities needed to respond to an environmental incident can vary
greatly. To sucessfully accomplish the primary response goal -- the
protection of the public health and the environment -- requires an
effective, integrated organization. All the various elements must
develop into a functional unit capable of efficiently and promptly
conducting required operations with the resources available.
No single organizational structure will suffice because each incident tends
to establish its own management requirements. There are commonalities
among incidents, however, that are applicable to the development of any
response organization. The specific organization, function to be
performed, and structure needed are established to meet the requirements
imposed by a specific response situation.
PROCEDURES
An organization must establish a system capable of managing and directing
response activities toward a successful conclusion. For an organization
to function effectively, it must:
- Determine objectives.
- Designate a leader.
- Assign responsibilities and functions.
- Define lines of authority.
- Establish communications through lines of authority.
- Plan and direct activities, operations, and functions.
- Manage resources (money, equipment, personnel).
- Develop policy and procedures.
- Conduct public relations and information activities.
- Maintain a training program
An organizational chart and functional statement should be developed
linking personnel with various operations and establishing communications
channels.
1-1
-------
To a large degree, the organization chart depends on the functions to be
performed {the level of response) and the Project Officer's mode of
operation. The key elements are:
- Defining objectives.
- Delegating authority.
- Assigning functions and responsibilities.
- Establishing a chain-of-command.
- Establishing internal communication channels.
- Developing working relationships and coordinating activities.
The response organization needed for an incident may range from a few
people to hundreds representing many agencies. Regardless of size, the
above elements are essential. An organization capable of functioning
evolves naturally to manage the conditions imposed by a particular
incident. A more timely, effective response operation, however, is one 1n
which environmental incidents are anticipated and a response plan
developed and tested prior to its need. National, Regional, State, and
local contingency plans provide broad frameworks and/or detailed plans for
responding to incidents involving hazardous substances. This type of
advanced planning eliminates many of the problems associated with setting
up a response organization during a crisis.
1. PERSONNEL
To manage and direct the various activities required at an Incident,
personnel or organizations must be selected when an incident occurs or be
assigned the responsibility for specific activities in contingency plans.
The positions, functions, and responsibilities listed here represent
operational requirements of a major response effort. They should be
tailored to fit a particular environmental Incident.
- Project leader/on-scene coordinator/officer-in-charge: Has clearly
defined authority and responsiblity to manage and direct all response
operations.
- Scientific advisor: Directs and coordinates scientific studies, sample
collection, field monitoring, analysis of samples, Interpretation of
results, and remedial plans. Provides guidance to the project leader
in those areas.
- Safety officer: Advises and consults with project leader on all
matters related to the health and safety of those Involved 1n site
operations. Establishes and directs the safety program. Coordinates
these activities with the scientific advisor.
1-2
-------
- Field leader: Directs activities related to cleanup contractors and
others involved in emergency and remedial measures.
- Public information officer: Releases information to news media and the
public concerning site activities.
- Security officer: Manages general site security. Provides liaison
with local law enforcement and fire departments.
- Recordkeeper: Maintains official record of site activities.
- Field operations officer: Directs actvities of team leaders.
Coordinates these operations with the scientific advisor.
- Team leaders: Manage specific assigned tasks such as:
-- entry team(s)
~ decontamination
-- sampling
— monitoring
-- equipment
-- photography
-- communications
- Financial officer: Provides financial and contractual support.
- Logistics officer: Provides necessary logistical support.
IV. PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING RESPONSE ACTIVITIES
Planning and implementing the response to a hazardous substance incident
involves the following steps:
- Organize: Establish an organization. Assign responsibilities. Modify
as required as operations proceed.
- Evaluate situation: Based on available information, make preliminary
hazard evaluation.
- Develop plan of action: Determine additional information needed to
assess incident. Develop preliminary operations plan for collecting
information, emergency countermeasures, remedial actions, etc.
1-3
-------
- Make preliminary off-site survey: Collect additional data to evaluate
situation (monitor, sample, make visual observations). Institute
emergency actions to protect public health and environment. Identify
requirements for on-site reconnaissance. Determine Level of Protection,
if necessary, for off-site personnel.
- Make initial on-site reconnaissance: Collect additional data (monitor,
sample, make visual observations) to determeine or verify hazardous
conditions and make an overall assessment of the incident. Modify
initial entry safety procedures as more data are obtained. Determine
Levels of Protection for initial entry team(s) and subsequent
operations. Plan and implement site control and decontamination
procedures.
- Modify original plan of action: Modify or adapt original plan based on
additional information obtained during initial entries. Institute or
revise immediate emergency measures. Plan long-term actions including:
-- site safety plan.
-- additional monitoring and sampling.
— resource requirements.
-- cleanup and restoration measures.
— legal implications and litigation.
- Complete planned cleanup and restoration:
V. INITIAL ON-SITE RECONNAISSANCE
Before anyone enters the site of a hazardous substance incident, as much
information as possible should be collected in the time available,
concerning the type(s) of hazards, degree of hazard(s), and risks which may
exist. Based on available information (shipping manifests, transportation
placards, existing records, container labels, sampling, monitoring, etc.)
or off-site studies, the project leader considers:
- The need to go on-site.
- Type of data needed:
— organic vapors/gases
-- inorganic vapors/gases
-- oxygen concentration
-- radiation
-- samples needed for laboratory analysis
-- particulates
- Instruments available.
1-4
-------
Priority for collecting data and samples.
Off-site measurements needed.
Levels of Protection entry team(s) need.
Number and size of entry team(s).
Decontamination procedures.
Site control procedures including:
-- designation of work zones
-- control of access
-- physical barriers
Medical backup resources available.
Emergency actions/countermeasures to be taken.
Evaluation of hazards.
Organization of effort.
Briefing of response team.
Equipment needed.
Emergency actions needed to protect public and environment.
Evaluation of the total environmental setting of the incident.
1-5
TCS/EPA/9-82
-------
RESPONSE EQUIPMENT
The following list of equipment encompasses the entire range available for
responding to incidents involving hazardous substances. Not all of this
equipment may be needed on any given incident. The various categories of
response equipment are:
- Communication Gear
Hand Held Radios
- Personnel Clothing and Equipment
See Schedule A
- Field Equipment
Combustible gas indicator
HNU Photoionizer
Century Systems Organic Vapor Analyzer (OVA)
Oxygen meters
Colorimetric indicator tubes
Specific gas detectors
Radiation detector
Metal detector
Pressure-demand, self-contained breathing apparatus with extra air
cyl i nders
Full face, air-purifying respirators with appropriate canisters
Fit testing kit
Photographic equipment
Film badges
Dosimeters
Organic vapor badges
First aid kit (See Schedule B)
Hand tool kit (See Schedule C)
Reference materials (See Schedule D)
Field support kit (See Schedule E)
Soil sampling set (See Schedule F)
Water sampling set (See Schedule G)
Air sampling set (See Schedule H)
Other field equipment (See Schedule I)
Emergency oxygen inhalator
Portable wash unit
Fire extinguisher
- Miscellaneous Items
See Schedule J
1-6
-------
SCHEDULE A: PERSONNEL CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
Fully encapsulating suit
Chemical-resistant splash suit
Chemical-resistant, steel-shank and toe boots
Safety work boots, leather
Work gloves
Rain suit
Wi ndbreaker
Medium weight jacket
Appropriate winter clothing
Coveralls (work)
Coveralls (Nomex)
Uniform pants and shirts
Socks (regular)
Socks (heavy)
Underclothes
Earplugs
Clipboard
Hardhat with and without face shield
Hardhat for cold weather
Safety goggles, soft sides for full eye protection
Safety glasses
SCHEDULE B: FIRST AID KIT
A medical first aid kit consisting of:
First aid guide
Aspi rin
Pain aid
Cold tablets
EEZ lozenges
Trail antacid
Gelusil tablets
Ex-lax
Syrup of ipecac
Vasoli ne
Antibiotic ointment
Insect repellent
Sting relief
Chigger/tick remover
Poison ivy treatment
Snake bite kit
Ammonia inhalants
Blood clotter
Tourniquet
Ice pack
Ice pack (large)
Salt tablets
Sci ssors
Forceps (Dumont 5 in.)
Tweezers
Cotton Swabs
Clean wipe alcohol swabs
Antiseptic swabs
Antiseptic spray
Burn septic spray
Spray-on bandage
Eye Drops
Eye/skin neutralizer
Eye Wash
Adhesive Tape
Cohesive Tape
Telfa steri1 pads
Band Aids
Curad bandage (2 1/4 x 3 1/2 in.)
Finger tip bandages
Knuckle bandages
Elastic strip bandage
Triangle bandage
Carlisle compress dressing
1-7
-------
Gauze bandage (1 in. x 18 ft.)
Gauze bandage (2 in. x 12 ft.)
Gauze bandage (3x3 in.)
Gauze bandage (2x2 in.)
Litter
Butterfly closure (medium)
Finger splint
Blanket
Powdered charcoal
Traction splints (arm and leg)
SCHEDULE C: HAND TOOL KIT
Wood mallet
Rubber mallet
Ballpeen hammer
Claw hammer
Hand hammer (nonsparking, 2 doubleface, Beyllium-Copper)
Hacksaw
Lumberjack's knife
Duckbi11 snips (12 in.)
Rod and bolt cutter (24 in.)
Diagonal cutting pliers (8 in.)
Lineman's pliers (8 in.)
Slipjoint pliers (8 in.)
Locking plier wrench (10 in.)
Pipe wrench (non sparking)
Wrench set (combination)
Screwdrivers (5 slotted, 4 phillips)
Heavy-duty stapler and staples
Pressure gauge
Lock-type tape measure
Winding reel tape
Electrical tape
Strapping tape
Duct tape
NFPA Guide on Hazardous Materials
CHRIS Condensed Guide to Chemical Hazards
Sax Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials
Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemical Safety Manual
Matheson Gas Data Book
NI0SH/0SHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
TLV's For Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the Work Environment
Binoculars (7 x 35mm wide angle) (2)
Rangefinder (2)
Spotting scope
Stereoscopes
Compass (2)
Hand level (2)
Hand calculator (2)
Cassette recorder (1-hour tape)
SCHEDULE D: REFERENCE MATERIALS
SCHEDULE E: FIELD SUPPORT KIT
1-8
-------
SCHEDULE F: SOIL SAMPLING SET
Soil auger (cork screw, tube)
Auger extensions
Power head (electric)
Soil sample tubes (1 1/2 x 6 5/8 in.)
Replacement tips for tube samplers (regular)
Wet, heavy-duty tips
Scoops for bottom sediments
Stainless steel pipe section (2 in. ID/taper on penetrating end)
Electrical resistivity apparatus
Labels
Logbook for soil profile
Stainless steel spoons
Post hole digger
Pi ck-ax
Shovel
Stainless steel pans
SCHEDULE G: WATER SAMPLING SET
Weighted bottle sampler
Pond sampler
Glass and polyethylene containers
Scoops and dippers
Suction devices (hand pumps)
Water level indicator
Cased thermometers/thermistors
Teflon bailer
Dissolved oxygen meter
Conductivity meter with 50 ft cord
SCHEDULE H: AIR SAMPLING SET
Draeger tubes (gas detector)
Hi-vol sampler and pre-weighed filters
Impinger tubes
Carbon absorption tubes
Particulate samplers
Wind direction indicator
Wind speed indicator
Barometric pressure indicator
Temperature indicator
SCHEDULE I: OTHER FIELD EQUIPMENT
Rope (300 ft, polypropylene, 16-1b) (1)
Heavy-duty tow chain (15 ft) (1)
Heavy-duty extension cord (100 ft) (1)
Garden hose (50 ft, 5/8 in. ID) (1)
Scrub brushes (4)
1-9
-------
Plastic buckets (4)
Large log book (1)
Safety flares (vehicle use) (2)
Rechargeable lanterns (2)
Wrecking bar (nonsparking, 30 x 3/4 in.) (1)
Spud bar (2)
Sledge hammer (4-lb) (2)
Shovel (D handle, square point, nonsparking) (2)
Shovel (D handle, round point, nonsparking) (2)
Shovel (long handle, round point, nonsparking) (2)
Buna N gloves (5)
Jasper work gloves (5)
PVC disposable gloves (5)
Neoprene gloves (5)
Sol vex gloves (5)
Natural rubber gloves (5)
PVC disposable boots (5)
Life vests (5)
Hip/chest wader (5)
Rain suits (5)
SCHEDULE J: MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS
Redwood plugs (various sizes)
Valve packing
Revere miracle seal (synthetic rubber)
Duct tape
Nylon wire
Paper clips and alligator clips
Magnetic hangers
Rubber bands
Paper and note pads
Pens, penci1s, markers
CIipboards
Kirrwipes
Kleenex
Detergent (large)
Plastic drop sheet
Black spray paint
Yellow spray paint
Green marking tape (perimeter)
Color coding DOT security tags (red, yellow, green)
Restricted Area signs
Rubber tarp tie-down straps
Electric power outlet strip (8 outlets)
Air-tight container for sample storage
Clean water supply
Anti-fog solution
1-10
TAT/WESTON/9-83
-------
PART 2
CLEANUP TECHNIQUES AND RESOURCES
I. INTRODUCTION
One of the most difficult tasks in responding to a hazardous material
incident is to assess the problem. Only then can initial containment
measures, which are so vital to the overall success of the cleanup effort,
get underway. Properly assessing the incident and applying containment
measures can greatly minimize environmental insult. Conversely, improper or
imprudent measures can spread contamination and cause life-threatening
situations, not only for those on-site but also for the nearby population.
One of the first steps in dealing with an incident is to identify the
chemicals present and their hazards. The physical state of the material -
solid, liquid, or gas - is usually easy to determine. However, response
activities can change a material and thus increase or decrease the potential
for migration. For example, washing down a water-soluble powder with water
greatly increases its mobility, while adding an absorbent (such as "speedy
dry") to a liquid minimizes its migration potential. Each incident is
unique, so there is no "one" answer to preventing migration.
II. RESPONSE PRINCIPLES
A. Mitigation
Stopping the release is the first order of business at a hazardous waste
site or a chemical spill. Until the release is stopped, it will be
difficult or impossible to properly contain the material. Mitigating
the release may be as simple as uprighting an overturned drum or turning
off a valve. It may also be as difficult as plugging a hole in an acid
tank or patching a high-pressure transfer line. Various types of plugs,
patches, saddles, and epoxies are available for this kind of activity.
Many times just shoving a stick into a hole can temporarily slow or stop
a leak.
Generally, liquids and liquified gases are the most difficult to deal
with. If a tank car has been involved in an accident or if its
structural integrity is suspect, then its contents should be transferred
to secure facilities such as tanks in a nearby tank farm. It may be
necessary to bring in tank trucks or rail cars.
B. Containment
Until the released materials are contained, the environment will
continue to be damaged, the area of involvement will grow larger, and
cleanup will become more difficult.
2-1
/
-------
Solids are among the easiest materials to contain. Even if shipping
containers rupture, solids ordinarily don't move far. It is necessary
to close off the release area to avoid having the materials tracked away
from the site on shoes, clothing, or vehicle tires. It is also
important not to increase the mobility of the material by the
indiscriminate application of water or other liquids. In some cases,
"herding" the material with high-pressure low-volume water sprays may be
an answer. However, the consequences of this action must be thoroughly
investigated.
Liquids can be difficult to contain. In some cases, the containment may
already be in place. As an example, most tank farms have a berm around
their periphery for containment. If a transfer line breaks or if an
accident occurs in transporting or loading/unloading a liquid, however,
there will usually be no "automatic" containment. On concrete,
blacktop, or other hard surfaces, berms can be made with dirt, sand,
absorbents, or urethane foam packs specifically designed for this
purpose. If the spill is on the ground, berms can be constructed by
simply mounding the soil itself.
In many cases, though, it may be more advantageous to "herd" the liquids
by ditches, swales, and berms to an existing low point or constructing a
catch basin. This allows the material to pool and thus makes cleanup
much easier. When hazardous liquids enter storm/sanitary sewers,
culverts, or ditches, it is important to attempt to prevent migration
downstream. This may be done with earth, valves (if the system is so
equipped), or other suitable media. Any flow in the vessel from
upstream may have to be diverted from the affected area or pumped around
the spill site. When hazardous liquids enter a large or fast-flowing
body of water, booms can be used for containment. Also, overflow dams
or weirs can be used to contain liquids that sink.
Containing gases or vapors is very difficult. Materials escaping inside
a building may be partially contained. Generally, it is preferable to
attempt to disperse a gas cloud with air compressors or water mists.
Vapor clouds, however, tend to hang together and move downwind as a
mass. Weather conditions such as humidity, temperature, and wind speed
and direction can greatly affect cloud formation and dispersion. If the
cloud Is large enough, evacuation may be the only answer.
C. Cleanup and Removal
Heavy equipment such as backhoes and front-end loaders are usually used
to clean up contaminated materials at the site of a release. In most
cases, after the gross contamination has been removed by the equipment,
the last fine cleaning is done with hand tools. On hard surfaces,
brooms made of absorbent materials may be the best way to pick up the
contaminated materials. A variety of containers can be used for actual
removal, depending on subsequent disposal or treatment and the
material's physical and chemical characteristics. Drums, sealed dump
trailers, lugger or roll off boxes, vacuum trucks, or tank trucks can
2-2
-------
all be used . All transportating, treatment, storage, and disposal of
hazardous wastes must conform with the regulations issued under
Subtitle C of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).
Clay, flyash, baghouse dust, lime, sand, and dirt can all be used to
absorb contaminants. Additionally, neutralization, phase separation,
and gelling can be used to produce an end product which can be
disposed of or recycled.
Some hazardous materials require additional treatment that may not be
economically feasible to do at the site because of the small amounts
involved. Carbon absorption, chlorination, and other special
processing are best done at a treatment or disposal facility.
III. METHODS FOR RELEASES INTO WATER
Hazardous materials that find their way into water can do damage because
water is used by plants, animals, and humans.
A. Chemicals That Float
Chemicals lighter than water float on the surface and can be treated
or removed in various ways. Oil booms are usually the fastest method
of containment in small, slow-current streams and are widely
available. Once the chemicals have been contained, they can be herded
to a collection point. There they can be skimmed from the surface
using several different types of skimmers. Alternatively, they can be
collected for disposal by sorbents, which can be loose or in sheets or
pads. In the case of a viscous liquid, straw may be used.
In some cases, surface tension modifiers can be used to break up the
floating layer. The droplets sink, making removal easier. However,
the use of these chemicals is prohibited by some laws.
B. Chemicals That Sink
If chemicals heavier than water enter a small stream or low-flow
situation, the easiest way to remove them from the botton is to
bypass, pump, or divert the flow, dewater the involved area, and
excavate the contaminants. If this is not feasible, they can be
dredged with conventional equipment. However, many times a "mud cat"
can be the easiest and cheapest piece of equipment to use. The dredge
products are pumped to a spoil area. Later they can be removed or, 1f
environmentally sound, covered in place.
C. Chemicals That Dissolve In Water
Removal of chemicals dissolved in water requires specialized pieces of
equipment, which must be mobilized at the site. This usually
precludes their use on very low-volume incidents. When large volumes
2-3
-------
of water are affected, however, it is usually cheaper to treat at the
site and discharge, rather than to haul to a treatment facility.
Among the processes that can be used on dissolved chemicals:
- Neutralization: Can be done on a batch or continuous basis. Care
must be taken to assure that any precipate formed is removed before
the treated water is discharged to the environment.
- Precipitation: May occur as a result of neutralization and other
chemical reactions. Clarifiers or flocculants can be added to
enhance the process. Sand filters can also be used as a final step
before discharge.
- Carbon adsorption: Can be used to remove contaminants if other
methods are inadequate. Care must be taken to ensure that as much
of the suspended solids as possible is removed before the
absorption step. If not, large quantities of carbon will be used,
decreasing efficiency and increasing the cost of the cleanup.
D. Vapor Reduction
Vapor reduction is critical when volatile materials are involved
because vapors burn more readily than liquids or solids. Foams, water
sprays, or fogs have been used successfully to reduce the vapor hazard
and fight fires. Foam and water fog must be used carefully and:
- Proper equipment must be available for the foam/water being
appli ed.
- The foam/water must be applied at the proper rate to be most
effecti ve.
- Sufficient quantities must be available to do the complete job.
- Foams are expensive and it may be desirable to reserve them for
fire fighting.
IV. MOBILE EQUIPMENT
Mobile units are frequently available for use on site. Generally, they
are self-contained and are able to function independently during field
operations. Several types are in use:
- Response van: Has safety equipment, tools, materials, supplies, and
other equipment. Usually has capacity for on-site as well as remote
communi cations.
- Mater treatment unit: Has own generating and pumping capacity. Has
sand filters, carbon absorbers, and portable tanks.
2-4
-------
- Mobi1e field lab: Has basic analytical capability to monitor ground
water. Usually has total organic carbon analyzers, gas chromatograph,
and absorption spectrophotometer.
- Personnel trailer: Has sanitary facilities and showers for field
personnel. May also have office and communications capability.
2-5
TAT/WESTON/8-83
-------
PART 3
INCIDENT MITIGATION
I. TECHNIQUES FOR CONTROLLING HAZARDOUS MATERIAL RELEASES
The techniques for controlling the release of a hazardous material depend
on whether the release is on land, water, or gets in the air. For
releases into water, the techniques also vary depending on the material 's
density and solubility. Determining the feasibility of controlling a
release can be determined by asking certain questions.
A. Releases Affecting Air (Table 3-1)
1. Will any natural phenomenon such as wind dispersion render the
containment device ineffective?
2. Can the release be approached safely?
3. Can the material be removed by reaction with a water mist?
4. Can a suitable setup be established to collect the water in
contai nment?
5. Would the repercussions of the device, especially in creating a
water pollution problem, be more harmful than natural dispersal
and/or breakdown of the released material?
6. Would another containment device be better?
B. Releases on Land (Table 3-2)
1. Will any natural phenomenon such as rain, soil, or subsoil render
the containment method ineffective?
2. Will any man-made conditions such as wells or underground drain
tile render the method ineffective?
3. Can enough containment material, personnel, and equipment, be
obtained?
4. Can the method be deployed safely and effectively?
5. Can the method contain the release quickly enough?
6. At what point is the containment device likely to leak, and how
can the leaks be minimized or prevented?
7. Would the repercussions of the method be more harmful than the
natural dispersal and/or breakdown of the released material?
8. Would another containment device be better?
3-1
-------
TABLE 3-1
RELEASES IN AIR
Technique
Method
Use
Advantages
Disadvantages
Mist knockdown
Fans or blowers
Spray fine mist
into air
Disperse air by
directing blower
toward It
Water-soluble or
low-lying vapors
Very calm and
shelterd areas
Removes hazard
from air
Can direct air
away from
populated areas
Creates water pollution
problem
Must be contained in
solution.
Is not effective in
winds
Needs large capacity
blowers
Is hard to control
-------
Application or
Technique Construction Method
Earthen
dikes
Compact earth with
earth-moving equipment
(height depends on
earth type)
Foamed
polyurethane
Use trained personnel
to construct
Foamed
concrete
Use trained personnel
to construct
Excavation
Use earth-moving
equipment; line if
possible
Excavation
and dikes
Use earth-moving
equipment; 1ine if
possible
XABLE 3-2
RELEASES ON LAND
Use
Advantages
Disadvantages
Flat or sloped
surface
Material is on site
Equipment is common
Hard, dry surfaces Dike holds up to 3
feet of water
Flat ground; slow- Concrete adheres well
moving spill to substrates (clay/
shale/grass)
Liquids seep through
soi 1
Some surface soils are
not suitable
Dike leaks on wet
ground
Equipment is not
common
Equipment is not
common
Concrete must set for
a time; will not hold
high hydraulic heads
15 feet
Soft ground;
natural cavity
Soft ground
Material is on site
Equipment is common
Technique needs less
space than separate
operations
Material is on site
Equipment is common
Large amounts of
material must be moved
Liquids seep through
soil
Some surface soils are
not suitable
Large amounts of
material must be
moved
Liquids seep through
soi 1
Some surface soil
not suitable in all
cases
-------
C. Releases in Water: Materials That Are Soluble (Table 3-3)
1. Will any natural phenonmenon such as discharge volume, spill
volume, soil structure, bottom composition, or rainfall render the
containment method ineffective?
2. Will any man-made conditions such as dams, concrete channels, or
bypasses render the method ineffective?
3. Can enough containment material, equipment, and personnel be
obtained?
4. Can the method be deployed safely and effectively?
5. Can the method contain the release quickly enough?
6. Will leakage and seepage be problems? If so, how can they be
ameliorated or prevented?
7. Would the repercussions of the method be more harmful than the
natural dispersion and/or breakdown of the released material?
8. Would another containment method be better?
D. Releases in Water: Materials That Float (Table 3-4)
1. Will any natural phenomenon such as wind, waves, current, or tidal
action render the containment device ineffective?
2. Will any man-made conditions such as periodic discharge from dams,
water intakes, or boat traffic render the device ineffective?
3. Can enough devices be obtained?
4. Can the devices be deployed safely and effectively?
5. Can the device contain the release quickly enough?
6. At what point is the containment device likely to leak, and how
can the leaks be minimized or prevented?
7. Would the repercussions of the device be more harmful than the
natural dispersal and/or breakdown of the released material?
8. Would another containment device be better?
3-4
-------
TABLE 3-3
RELEASES IN WATER: MATERIALS THAT ARE SOLUBLE
Application or
Technique Construction Method Use Advantages Disadvantages
Sealed
booms
Boom
device to anchor
Containment Contains
limited volumes of water
leaking containers
entire depth
Diversion of
uncontaminated
water
Use earth-moving
equipment
Special area where
topography is right
Can put clean water back
into stream
Can be used for flowing
water
Is difficult to deploy
Is not used for large
bodi es
Is difficult to get
good seal
Is difficult to move
large amounts of earth
Needs clear area with
impermeable soil to
hold water
Gelling
agent (40)
dispersion
devices
Containment
of entire
waterbody
Various; requires
trained personnel
For small volumes
Use earth-moving
equipment to
construct dike with
sandbags, other
materials; install liner
For entirely
contaminated area
Stops contaminant
from flowing and
permeating ground
Can contain a large
waterbody
Material on site
Is easy to contruct
Damages once clean
area
Materials are hard to
obtain
Cannot be used in
large area
Generates wastes
requiring off-site
disposal
Is suitable only for
waterbodies with
containable overflow
Permeability
May be an unstable
condition
-------
TABLE 3-4
RELEASES IN WATER: MATERIALS THAT FLOAT
Application or
Technique Construction Method Use Advantages Disadvantages
Booms
Varies; needs deploy-
ment device
Water with not too
much current
Can be used on large
area; many varieties
avail able
Useful only in waves
less than 2-4 feet and
currents less than
0.7 knots
Weirs
By boat
Calm water
Is not easily clogged;
collects and contains
Not useful in rough
water
Pneumatic Use air compressor
barriers or diffuser to deploy
Shallow water only
Does not create a
physical barrier to
vessels
Useful in rough water
Useful only in shallow
water and thin layers
of contaminants
Herding
Apply chemicals on
water
Rough water such
as shore lines
Useful in rough water.
Chemicals hard to
obtain
Is not 100% effective
-------
E. Releases in Water: Materials That Sink (Table 3-5)
1. Will any natural phenomenon such as bottom composition, current,
waves, access, or water depth render the containment method
ineffecti ve?
2. Will any man-made conditions such as boat traffic, concrete
channels, or periodic discharge from dams render the method
ineffective?
3. Can enough containment materials, equipment, and personnel be
obtai ned?
4. Can the method be deployed safely and effectively?
5. Can the method contain the release quickly enough?
6. At what point is the containment method likely to leak, and how
can the leaks be minimized or prevented?
7. Would the repercussions of the method be more harmful than the
natural dispersion and/or breakdown of the released material?
8. Would another containment method be better?
3-7
TCS/EPA/9-82
EPA-600/2-77-227
-------
TABLE 3-5
RELEASES IN WATER: MATERIALS THAT SINK
Technique
Application or
Construction Method
Use
Advantages
Disadvantages
Natural
depressions
or barriers
None
Special areas where
topography is right
No construction is
needed
Can be used only in
certain areas
Excavations
and dikes
Use divers with
hydraulic or vacuum
pumps
Place concrete or
sand bags to form
dike if bottom material
is not sufficient
Where bottom can be
moved
Material is on site
Is hard to construct
Stirred-up bottom may
cause dispersion and
increase turbidity
-------
II. REMEDIAL CONTROL TECHNIQUES FOR UNCONTROLLED HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES
See Figure 3-1
A. Separation and Concentration
1. Flocculation - sedimentation
2. Activated carbon
3. Reverse osmosis
4. Oil-water separators
5. Thin-film extraction
6. Soils washing
B. Containment/Encapsulation
1. Volatiles
2. Leachate
3. Surface water
4. Ground water (passive)
- slurry wall
- grout curtain
- sheet pilings
- bottom sealing
5. Plume management (active)
- drains
- shallow wells
- deep wells
- leachate treatment
6. Excavation and reburial
7. Fixation/stabilization
8. Encapsulation
C. Decomposition
1. Thermal
2. Biological
3. Chemical
D. Recycling
3-9
TCS/EPA/8-83
-------
FIGURE 3-1
CROSS SECTION SHOWING ELEMENTS OF A HYPOTHETICAL HAZARDOUS WASTE SITE
Water Tabl
Stream
A - Waste pile
B - Drum or container
C - Damaged drum
D - Tank
E - Above-grade diked lagoon.
May be lined or unlined.
If lined, may be leaking.
May contain floating
scums, liquids, and
sludges
F - Dike may be breached,
leaking, unstable, or
overflowing
G - Below-grade pit or pond.
May be lined or unlined.
If lined, may be leaking.
May contain floating
scums, liquids, and
sludges
H - Burial site
May contain solids and
solids contaminated
with liquids
I - Contaminated runoff
J - Contaminated discharge to
surface water
K - Uncontaminated runoff
L - Uncontaminated soil
M - Uncontaminated soil and
ground water
N - Highly contaminated soil
0 - Contaminated subsoil
P - Vertical or horizontal
percolation from waste
to ground water
Q - Contaminated soil and
R - Zone of influence
S - Shallow injection well
3-10
-------
PART 4
TREATMENT METHODS
I. INTRODUCTION
Various schemes can be used to treat hazardous materials, including:
filtration, carbon adsorption, gravity separation, coagulation,
precipitation, ion exchange, oxidation, and reduction. These treatment
schemes can be applied either in a batch mode, depending on how the
hazardous materials are contained, or in a continuous flow-through
process. Discharging to a municipal sewage treatment plant, before or
after treatment on site, should also be considered, providing it does not
interfere with the plant's operations.
II. FILTRATION
Filtration physically removes particulate matter by passing contaminated
water through a layer of porous media such as sand. The treatment may be
used prior to passing the water through a carbon column, ion exchange
system, or a final polishing step. While various types of media can be
used in filtration, field applications should be kept simple. A gravity-
or pressure-flow filter column with two media would be a good choice.
During a run, the head loss gradually increases as solids accumulate in
the filter media. When the head loss reaches the limit set by the
hydraulic conditions of the filter design, the run stops and the filter is
backwashed. In some cases, the quality of effluent from the filter may
control when the run ends. Filters may be backwashed with stored filter
effluent; the backwash waste, after removal of suspended solids, is then
retreated and refiltered. Another method of on-site filtration involves
permitting water to pass by gravity through a built-up sand or coal bed.
Continuous filtration usually involves bringing a portable filter on the
site.
III. CARBON ADSORPTION
In carbon adsorption, organic chemicals and some inorganic chemicals are
removed from water by being physically adsorbed on the large surface area
of activated carbon (500-1000 square meters per gram). Activated carbon
is produced from many materials, including wood, coal, and lignite. The
adsorption process and its effectiveness depends on the nature of the
material being adsorbed and the type of carbon used. In general,
concentrations of greater than 1000 milligrams per liter (mg/1) of a
chemical require long detention times and large quantities of carbon.
The amount of carbon needed to adsorb a given chemical must be established
by field testing. When the carbon has been exhausted, it must be replaced
and the spent carbon regenerated or disposed of. With on-site releases,
4-1
-------
powdered activated carbon can sometimes be added directly to the soill
The carbon must be thoroughly mixed with the contaminated water for
adsorption to be effective. Off-site treatment involves pumping the
contaminated water through a column of granular carbon.
IV. GRAVITY SEPARATION
Gravity can be used to physically separate suspended solids from water.
Two processes are involved:
- Sedimentation, in which particles with a specific gravity greater than
water are removed from a suspension by settling to the bottom.
- Flotation, in which particles with a specific gravity less than water
float to the top.
Sedimentation may be used as a pretreatment and concentration step to
reduce the load on subsequent processes. Various factors affect the rate
of settling, including particle size and shape, temperature of the water,
and the presence of other materials. The rate of settling can be
determined by field testing. While sedimentation may involve removal of
hazardous solid materials, it most often is associated with pretreating
liquids prior to other processing.
V. COAGULATION
Coagulation involves the addition of a material such as ferric chloride,
aluminum sulfate, or organic polyelectrolytes to assist in precipitation
of constituents of specific wastewaters.
A. Ferric chloride is effective in clarifying both organic and inorganic
suspensions. For best results, the final pH should be above 6.
Lime or caustic soda may have to be added to raise the pH. Large
suspensions require addition of 50-500 mg/1; much larger amounts may
be needed for very highly concentrated or alkaline suspensions. If
the wastewater has low alkalinity, lime may be needed to bring the pH
to at least 6. Excessive ferric chloride should be avoided because it
results in a brown-colored effluent.
B. Aluminum sulfate (alum) is effective in clarifying both inorganic and
organic suspensions. The pH can usually be controlled in a range of
6.5 - 7.5, which is crucial for good results. Addition of 100-1000
mg/1 should be effective; much larger amounts may be needed for highly
concentrated or alkaline suspensions. As with ferric chloride,
suspensions with low alkalinity may require addition of lime or
caustic soda to produce the desired pH.
C. Polyelectrolytes, which are available in cationic, anionic, or
nonionic form, may be effective alone for flocculating suspensions
4-2
-------
of inorganic materials. They usually are not effective alone for
flocculating organic suspensions, but can be used with alum or ferric
chloride. The amounts of polyelectrolyte added vary with both the
charge on the polymer and the suspension involved. In dilute
suspensions, 1-10 mg/1 of cationic polyelectrolytes are generally
added versus about 0.5 - 5 mg/1 of anionic and nonionic compounds.
When the suspension concentration is greater than 1000 mg/1, 1-300
mg/1 of cationic polyelectrolyte or 1-1000 mg/1 of an anionic or
nonionic compound are added.
VI. ION EXCHANGE
Ion exchange is a chemical process in which ions held by electrostatic
forces to functional groups on the surface of a solid are exchanged for
ions of a different material in solution. The process usually takes place
on a synthetic resin. Various kinds are available, including weakly
acidic, strongly acidic, basic, and strongly basic. Ions are exchanged
until the resin is exhausted; then the resin is regenerated with a
concentrated solution of ions flowing in a reverse direction, or replaced
with new resin. The amount of resin required must be established by
chemical tests of the wastewater for the ion of interest. The best type
of resin is established mainly b.y the specific contaminant to be removed,
the amount of wastewater involved, and other ionic demands on the resin.
Off-site ion exchange treatment can be accomplished by pumping the
wastewater through an ion exchange column with the ability to either
regenerate or replace the resin when it becomes exhausted. In-situ
treatment is similar to carbon adsorption; the resin is mixed with the
wastewater in a suitable containment area.
VII. OXIDATION
Oxidation reactions, in which electrons are transferred from a substance,
are more common than reduction reactions. Chlorination and aeration are
two ways to oxidize materials. Oxidation reactions are commonly used to
oxidize cyanide to the less toxic cyanate and then to carbon dioxide and
nitrogen. These reactions are most effective at alkaline pH, so both
sodium hydroxide and liquid hypochlorite in concentrations of 5% - 6% are
commonly added. Dosages are determined by a bench scale test.
Air can be used as an oxidizing agent. It is more available than chlorine
compounds, but not as strong. In general, air is introduced in the form
of bubbles which rise to the surface. As they travel through the water
column, the oxygen in air is transferred to the water, where it can
oxidize the hazardous compound. This aeration method is only useful for
easily oxidized materials.
4-3
-------
VIII. REDUCTION
Reduction reactions are applicable only to a small number of compounds.
Sodium bisulfite is the most suitable reducing agent, but others,
including sodium sulfite and sodium metabisulfite, can also be used. The
amount of reducing agent is determined by a bench-scale test. Excess
reducing agent can be removed by addition of more wastewater or by
aeration.
Reduction is used to change chrome compounds from higher valences (eg.
Cr+") to the Cr+^ oxidation state which is easier to precipitate.
This reaction occurs at low pH, so acid must be added to reduce the pH
2-3. Reduction is also used on sodium or calcium hypochloride.
4-4
TCS/EPA/9-83
EPA 600/2-77-227
-------
PART 5
DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
I. SECURE LANDFILL
Leachate Removal Standpipes Monitoring Underdrains
Recompacted Clay
30 MiLHypalon Liner
Recompacted Clay
Existing Clay
Bedrock'
TYPICAL SECURE LANDFILL
FIGURE 5-1
A secure landfill is a specially designed and operated landfill which is
suitable for disposal of hazardous wastes. (Figure 5-1). Depending upon the
geology of the site, however, only solid or "solidified" wastes may be
approved for disposal.
The secure landfill area consists of several "cells". The cells contain
monitoring systems and leachate collection systems with standpipes and pumps
to allow for the removal of any detected leakage. The cells are lined with
heavy plastic, and are surrounded by nearly impermeable clay berms. The
siting requirements for secure landfills are strict; they must be
constructed in an area with a deep groundwater table and must meet other
geological and hydrological requirements to prevent groundwater
contamination.
5-1
-------
Usually, landfilled waste is contained in 55-gallon steel drums which are
stacked in layers within each cell. To provide further protection, a
6-inch layer of dirt is put between each layer. The wastes within each
cell must be compatible to prevent adverse chemical reactions, and accurate
disposal records must be kept. When a cell is filled, additional clay
and liner are put on top of the cell to seal it.
II. INCINERATION
MW Elmimtor.
Primary Combust ion Chambers
v* Vortfawtrtc
After-toumar
MgftEnwgy
Vwiturl Scnjfctof
wbaoiWIon
Neutralized Vfater
Ash (to fUll
Captured Parifckilates
(topondl
TYPICAL ROTARY KILN INCINERATOR
FIGURE 5-2
Incineration is a controlled process in which high-temperature combustion
totally destroys hazardous wastes or converts them to materials that can be
handled more safely. Nearly all types of toxic gas, liquids, or solid
wastes can be disposed of through incineration.
There are numerous types of incinerators. Rotary kiln incinerators
(Figure 5-2) are commonly used to destroy hazardous wastes. The wastes,
pretreated if necessary, are conveyed to the kiln or main incineration
unit. Depending on the waste, the time can vary from a few seconds to an
hour or more at temperatures up to 3,000°F.
5-2
-------
If the initial combustion produces undesirable compounds, an afterburner,
or second incinerator, may be used to ensure total destruction. When
afterburners are used, the waste containers themselves may be safely
burned. This is ideal for transformers containing PCB's. The gases
produced are piped through special scrubbers before being vented to the
atmosphere.
When properly designed and operated, incinerators are an effective disposal
method because the wastes and/or containers are totally destroyed, leaving
only a relatively innocuous residue for disposal.
5-3
TCS/EPA/8-83
-------
PART 6
Friday
July 16, 1982
Part V
Environmental
Protection Agency
National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Contingency Plan
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
AGENCY
40CFR Part 300
ISWH-FRL 2163-4)
National Oil and Hazardous
Substances Contingency Plan
agency; Environmental Protection
Agency.
action: Final rule.
summary: Pursuant to Section 305 of the
Comprehensive Environmental
Response. Compensation, and Liability
Act of 1980 (CERCLA) and Executive
Order 12316, the Environmental
Protection Agency is promulgating
revisions to the National Contingency
Plan (NCP) for oil and hazardous
substances. The revised NCP effectuates
the new responsibilities and powers
created by CERCLA. CERCLA provides
that actions taken in response to
releases of hazardous substances shall,
to the greatest extent possible, be ia
accordance with the revised NCP.
Section 311 of the Clean Water Act
provides that actions taken to remove
oil discharges shall, to the greatest
extent passible, be in accordance with
the NCP. The revised NCP, promulgated
today, shall be applicable to response
actions taken pursuant to CERCLA and
section 311 of the Clean Water Act
dates: The promulgation date for the
revised National Contingency Plan shall
be July IB, 1982. Under section 305 of
CERCLA. tills revised Plan cannot take
effect until Congress has had at least
sixty "calendar days of continuous
session" from the date of promulgation
in which to review the Plan. Since the
actual length of this review period may
be affected by Congressional action, it is
not possible at this time to specify a
date on which this revised Plan will
become effective. Therefore, EPA will
publish a notice in the Federal Register
at the end of the review period
announcing the effective date of this
revised Plan..
addresses: The public docket for the
revised National Contingency Plan is
located in Room S—398, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 401 M
Street S.W,.Washington, D.C. 2046a
and is available for viewing from 9:00
ajn. to 4:00 pjn., Monday through
Friday, excluding holidays.
for further information contact:
Sylvia Lowrance. Office of Emergency
and Remedial Response (WH-548). U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 401M
Street S.W, Wasliington, D.C 20460,
Phone (202) 382-2203.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION;
I. Introduction
Pursuant to Section 105 of the
Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act of 1980, Pub. L. 96-510 ("CERCLA"
or "the Act") and Executive Order
12316, the Environmental Protection
Agency ("EPA" or "the Agency"), on
March 12.1982, proposed revisions to
the National Contingency Plan (NCP) (47
FR10972). The supplementary
information section of the March 12
proposal discussed in detail the
statutory basis of the NCP and the
nature and purpose of the proposed
revisions. (See 47 FR 10972 through
10978.) The Agency allowed the public
forty-five days to submit comments on
the proposed revisions. The Agency
received 146 comments totalling over
1,000 pages in length on the proposed
revisions.
Today, the Agency is promulgating
revisions to the NCP. In preparing the
revisions to the Plan, the Agency has
carefully considered all of the public
comments submitted on the proposed
revisions. The Agency has made many
modifications to the proposed revisions
in response to the public comments.
In developing the proposed revisions
to the Plan, the Agency's primary
concerns were to ensure that the revised
Plan met the statutory requirements of
CERCLA and section 311 of the Clean
Water Act (CWA), and that it
established an effective response
program. The Agency reviewed the
public comments and incorporated
suggested changes where appropriate.
All significant comments and the
Agency's response to those comments
are discussed below. EPA believes that
the revised flan includes all of the
expanded CERCLA response authorities
and adequately meets each of the
statutory requirements of CERCLA and
section 311 of the CWA. In meeting
these requirements, EPA has also sought
to ensure that the Plan does not contain
unnecessarily rigid or cumbersome
provisions, or provisions that are
beyond the statutory mandate. EPA did
not believe it was necessary to expand
upon the national response organization
and procedures established by Subparts
A through D, nor upon the procedures
for responding to oil discharges in the
existing Plan. Experience has shown the
national response organization and the
oil discharge procedures to be efficient
and effective methods for responding to
environmental emergencies. It would be
counter-productive to abandon
established and workable procedures.
Therefore, EPA has left the response
structure of the existing Plan generally
intact so that the proven national and
regional response structure may be used
for the expanded hazardous substance
response authorities of CERCLA.
Section II of this preamble explains
how the revised NCP meets the
statutory requirements of section 105 of
CERCLA and related provisions of
section 311 of the CWA. The preamble
to the proposed revisions discussed the
revisions in relation to each of the
subparts of the Plan and not with
respect to how each statutory
requirement was satisfied (47 FR 10972
through 10978). To ensure that it is clear
how the revised Plan addresses each of
the statutory requirements. Section O
discusses in detail those provisions of
the Plan that implement each of the
statutory requirements.
Sections 111, IV, V, and VI of this
preamble address the major issues
raised in the public comments. The
sections summarize the significant
comments Submitted on each of these
issues and the Agency's response to
these comments. Section VII addresses
additional comments that related to
specific provisions in Subparts A
through H of the Plan. Section VQI
addresses any remaining general
comments.
II. Statutory Requirements for the NCP
The following is a section-by-section
analysis of each component required by
section 105 of the CERCLA and related
provisions of section 311 of the CWA.
and a description of how the Plan meets
each requirement
1. Section 105(1}—Methods for
discovering and investigating facilities
at which hazardous substances have
been disposed of or otherwise come to
be located.
(a) Discovery. Section 300.63 of the
Plan lists five methods by which a
release or facility can be discovered.
The major tools for discovery are those
provided by Congress in CERCLA.
Section 103(a) of CERCLA requires
persons in charge of facilities or vessels
to notify the National Response Center
(NRC) as soon as they have knowledge
of releases into the environment of
hazardous substances in amounts equal
to or greater than reportable quantities
determined pursuant to section 102 of
CERCLA. Section 103(c) of CERCLA
requires persons to notify EPA of the
existence of certain hazardous waste
treatment storage, and disposal
facilities. EPA published guidancp with
respect to this requirement on April 18,
1961 (46 FR 22144). In addition, section
104(e) of CERCLA provides
investigatory authority which may lead
to discovery of a release by an
investigating official. Section 300.63
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31181
further provides for discovery of
releases through inventory efforts (e.g.
section 3012 of the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA)) and reports required by
Federal or State permits. The Plan lists
existing requirements for reporting
releases and authorities for discovering
releases, and complements these
methods by referencing other sources of
discovery, including random inventories
and incidental observations.
EPA believes that the methods
discussed above are adequate to
discover most releases. The Agency's
experience has shown these methods to
be effective. When implementing the
section 103(c) notification requirements,
EPA received 11,000 reports of facilities
where hazardous wastes are or had
been potentially treated, stored or
disposed. Moreover, since enactment of
CERCLA, persons have been required to
immediately report to the National
Response Center (NRC) hazardous
substance releases that exceed
reportable quantities. The reports which
are required by these sections cover
most releases for which EPA and the
United States Coast Guard (USCG) are
delegated response authority under
section 104 of CERCLA.
(b) Investigation. For investigating
releases, the Plan sets forth a three-step
process: (1) Initial investigation to
determine the nature of the release
(J 300.64); (2) screening to determine
whether the release warrants immediate
response or further investigation
300.64(a) and (c) and 300.65); and (3)
further investigation for non-emergency
releases which may warrant Federal
action (i S 300.66,300.67(d) and (e), and
300418(e) through (1)).
Section 300.64 of the Plan details the
initial steps to be undertaken in
Investigating a reported release through
a preliminary assessment. The
assessment can be adapted to address
the specific nature of a particular
release. For example, a release that
could cause immediate and significant
barm to human health, welfare or the
environment should be assessed much
more rapidly than a release in which the
risk of harm is less acute and
immediate. Flexibility in the initial
investigation process is provided for in
| 300.64(a)(1) through (4] which sets
forth a methodology for an initial
evaluation of the release based on
readily available data. In. the case of
hazardous waste management facilities.
1300.64(b) provides for the gathering of
additional data when more time is..
available. The distinctions between
|300.64(a) and (b) recognize that, in
responding to most CERCLA releases.
additional information may be
necessary beyond that required to
respond in classic spill situations under
section 311 of the CWA. Thus, in order
to implement CERCLA effectively. EPA
has added the additional components of
S 300.84(b). EPA considered and decided
against adding greater detail to the
requirements in this section because the
scope of the assessment is most
appropriately determined by the
conditions of the release.
After the preliminary assessment, the
Plan provides for either terminating
investigation activities under the
conditions detailed in { 300.64(c), taking
an immediate removal pursuant to
{ 300.65 or continuing investigatory
activities of non-emergency releases as
discussed in § 300.68. The Plan allows
for the three methods by which
investigatory activities may be
continued: through use of investigatory
authorities provided in section 104(b) of
CERCLA; through use of entry and
investigatory authorities allowed under
section 104(e) of CERCLA (see
S 300.66(c)(1)); and through inspection of
the release as detailed in i 300.66(c)(2).
The investigatory methodology
described above and included in the
Plan provides EPA with sufficient
discretion to undertake the necessary
investigatory activities as determined by
the nature of the release in a manner
consistent with the statute. In
developing the Investigatory
methodology, the Agency relied upon
experience gained under the section 311
program for investigating releases,
which has proven to be very effective.
The authorities are designed to provide
response personnel with a detailed
framework for investigation of releases,
while still providing them with enough
flexibility to tailor assessments to
particular release conditions.
2. Section 105(2)—Methods for
evaluating, including analyses of
relative costs, and remedying any
releases from facilities which pose
substantial danger to the public health
or the environment
(a) Evaluation. The investigation
activities explained above are the first
step contained in the Plan for evaluating
a release. Once Investigatory activities
are completed, the Plan establishes an
evaluation scheme based on the type of
release under consideration. The basic
premise supporting the evaluation
scheme is that the less imminent the
threat, the greater the time available for
the evaluation process.
For releases requiring immediate
removal (i.e., emergency response),
{ 300.65 of the Plan provides for the
initiation of response action without
delay based upon the determination
during the preliminary assessment that
an emergency situation requires
immediate response action (see
SS 300.64(a) and 300.65(a)). For releases
that may require planned removal (i.e.,
short-term but not emergency response],
{ 300.67 provides for evaluation of the
release by the State requesting the
removal. The evaluation must include
the information required by J 300.67(b) of
the Plan. The evaluation of candidates
for planned removal continues as EPA
applies the factors in { 30C.B7 to
determine whether the release-should, in
fact, be funded as a planned removal
The most extensive evaluations are
those required for releases which
potentially require remedial action (i.e..
long-term response) and thus are
candidates for inclusion on the National
Priorities List After the inspection has
been completed (see { 300.66(b) and (c)),
releases may be ranked pursuant to the
Hazard Ranking System. This ranking
system provides for a more detailed
evaluation of the particular threats
presented by the release and determines
placement on the National Priorities
List (The Hazard Ranking System is
contained in Appendix A and is
explained in section V(A) below).
Evaluation activities continue even after
the release is included on the National
Priorities List Because of the complexity
of releases that may require long-term
remedial response, and the need to
assure that remedies will adequately
mitigate the threat from individual
releases, { 300.68(f) through (i) provides
for both investigation and study prior to
undertaking a remedial response. Both
of these steps include a final evaluation
of the release and potential remedies
based on factors enumerated in
§ 300.66(g) through (J).
EPA believes that the methods for
evaluating releases discussed above and
included in the Plan provide the most
effective evaluation approach for
dealing with widely varying threats
posed by'releases. Where the threat is
immediate, evaluation actions are
limited in order that rapid response can
be taken. As the threats become less.
immediate, the Plan allows more
extensive evaluation.
(b) Methods for evaluating relative
costs. In the area of cost evaluation,
EPA again bases the level of evaluation
on the immediacy of the threat. First, for
immediate removals, cost evaluation is
limited to the statutory threshold of six
months or $1 million unless an
emergency continues (see { 300.65(d)).
Thus, once the Agency determines that
an immediate removal is necessary, the
Plan vests in the lead agency the
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Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137, Friday, July 10. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
authority to take whatever action the
lead agency deem* necessary to Bbate
the emergency. In an emergency. It is not
possible to require detailed cost
evaluation because of the critical need
to act as rapidly as possible.
In the case of a planned removal, the
Plan provides for additional cost
evaluation requirements. Section
300.67(a)(1) includes cost-savings as one
of the criteria for taking a planned
removal. Moreover, the nature of the
response itself provides for cost-savinga
by allowing preventative actions.
Finally, like immediate removal.
$ 300.67(e) imposes the statutory limits
of six months of $1 million on the action.
Thus, the Flan maintains stringent
limitations on the costs of planned
removal actions which must be included
in the planning of the project
The remedial response category
provides for extensive coat evaluation.
From the time the proposed extent of a
remedial action is determined pursuant
to {300.68(e), the costs of the remedial
alternatives are considered. First, after
alternatives are initially developed aa
provided in S 300.68(g), the Plan requires
analysis of the cost of each alternative
relative to the other alternatives under
consideration (see {300.66(h)). On the
basis of this analysis of comparative
costs and other factors, the Plan calls for
an assessment of the various
alternatives in order to eliminate those
that are more expensive but that do not
provide significantly greater health or
environmental protection. For the
remaining alternatives, the Plan then
requires ({300.68(1)) (hat costs be
examined in detail for each individual
alternative. This entails extensive
evaluation of the costs of each remedial
alternative to facilitate comparison of
feasible alternatives. This analysis is
used to make the final Judgment on the
appropriate remedial alternative based
oh costs and the other factors required
by { 300.68Q).
(c) Methods for remedying releases.
Section 300.70 contains a lengthy,
although not exhaustive, fist of methods
for remedying releases. This list
provides information oa those methods
of remedying releases which are
considered appropriate and
demonstrated methods. In addition, EPA
has developed a technical handbook
which can be utilized along with this
section of the NCP to provide more
technical information on the
circumstances and types of releases in
which these methods may be
successfully employed. li>e manual is
entitled "Handbook for Remedial Action
at Waste Disposal Sites'* and is
available from Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Research and
Development. Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory, Solid and
Hazardous Waste Research Division,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268.
3. Section 105(3}—Methods and
criteria for determining the appropriate
extent of removal, remedy, and other
measures authorized by CERCLA.
Sections 300.65(c) and 300.67(d)
establish the procedures by which the
appropriate extent of removal is
determined. For this limited response
category, EPA has determined that the
appropriate extent of action is the
abatement of the threat that required the
initiation of a removal action. Therefore,
in the case of immediate removal, EPA
has limited the extent of removal to
abatement of the immediate and
significant risk (see { 300.65 (a) and (c)).
Likewise in the case of planned
removals, (he Plan Emits the extent of
the action to abatement of the problem
posed by the presence of factors listed
in { 300.87(c).
EPA believes that this type of a priori
procedure far limiting removal actions Is
necessary because removal response is
statutorily a more limited action than
remedial response. Removal actions are
intended to eliminate the threat which
precipitated the action, these responses
may not folly abate the threat caused by
a release. However, without audi
limitations, an inordinate share of the
Fund might be spent on completing
removal actions at releases which pose
a less significant threat than other
releases which have been placed on the
National Priorities List Moreover, if
removal actiona were not limited in
scope, projects might continue until
reaching the statutory limitation of six
months or $1 million, without having
achieved any tangible or specified
clean-up objectives.
Section 300.88 of the Plan establishes
methods and criteria for determining the
ippropriate extent of remedy. Remedial
/esponse involves long-term actions to
mitigate threats primarily from
hazardous waste management facilities.
This section of Subpart F is one of the
most extensive sections of the Plan. The
Agency has far less experience with
remedial actions than with removal
actions. Under the removal program in
section 311 of the CWA, EPA gained a
great deal of experience in undertaking
short-term clean-up actions, primarily in
response to spills of oiL However,
CERCLA created remedial action as a
new type of response. In order to assure
that response personnel hsve adequate
guidance to follow when investigating,
planning, and implementing remedial
response, EPA has provided a detailed
systematic procedure for determining
the appropriate extent of remedy in
Subpart F. The procedure is structured
in a step-by-step format which requires
a series of analyses and judgments
based upon criteria enumerated in the
Plan. The methodology set forth in
5 300.66 Includes:
(1) An initial scoping of the project
based on criteria in { 300.68(e) to
determine the type or types of remedial
action that may be necessary. (Remedial
response is categorized as initiaL source
control, or off-site remedial action.)
(2) A remedial investigation to
determine the precise nature and extent
of the problem and to assure that the
remedial evaluation was accurate (see
{ 300.68(f)).
(3) Development of alternatives based
on the type or types of remedial action
necessary (see { 300.68(g)).
(4) An initial screening of the
alternatives based on economic
engineering and environmental criteria
specifically enumerated in S 3oa68(h)(l),
(2), and (3). This step requires a
decision, based on the criteria, to
eliminate certain alternatives because:
(a) The alternative requires an
expenditure of money far in exceas of
other alternatives (without providing
substantially greater public health or
environmental benefit) ({ 300.68(h)(1)):
(b) the alternative has significant
adverse environmental impacts or fails
to effectively contribute to the
protection of public health, welfare or
the environment (5 300.68(h)(2)); and (e)
the alternative is not feaaible from aa
engineering perspective ({ 300.68(h)(3)).
(5) Detailed analysis of remaining
alternatives based on components
specifically referenced in f 300-660X2).
(6) The lead agency's determination of
the appropriate extent of remedy, baaed
upon its selection of the alternative-
which meets the standard of | 300.87m
(i.e., "the lowest cost alternative whidb
effectively mitigates and minimizes
damage to and provides adequate
protection of public health, welfare "H
the environment"*).
EPA believes that this process
provides s sound basis for determining
the appropriate extent of remedy,
particularly given the limited experience
in remedying hazardous substance
releases. This process allows for the
selection of the appropriate remedies
developed through careful atudy and
inquiry without requiring a rigid
selection process which would preclude
the flexibility needed to incorporate our
expanding knowledge and experience in
developing remedies. Significant issue*
concerning the Agency's selection of the
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Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday. July 16, 1982 / Rules and Regulations 31183
appropriate extent of response are
discussed in Section III oT this preamble.
4. Section 105(4}—Appropriate roles
and responsibilities for the Federal,
Slate, and local governments and for
interstate and non-governmental
entities in effectuating the Plan.
EPA has developed an entire subpart
and numerous other provisions of the
Plan to assure efficient and effective
coordination of all participants in
response to oil discharges and
hazardous substance releases. These
provisions of the Plan are largely based
on extensive experience gained under
the section 311 response program.
The following sections of the Plan
address Federal agency involvement:
(1) Section 300.21—specifies
responsibilities delegated to each
Federal agency under Executive Orders
11735 and 12316.
(2) Section 300.22—encourages all
Federal agencies to coordinate activities
through the National Response Team
(NRT) and Regional Response Team
(RRT) structure and with affected
private and public entities and to make
facilities and resources available for
response actions.
(3) Section 300.23—identifies those
Federal agencies which are members of
the NRT and which may be called upon
by response personnel for assistance;
encourages use of regional contingency
plans to specify roles relevant to the
¦abject area; requests that Federal
agencies appoint members to participate
in the national response structure; and
specifically enumerates the new
responsibilities for hazardous substance
response among EPA, USCG, the
Department of Health and Human
Services (HHS), the Department of
Defense (DOD). and the Federal
Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA).
State and local roles and
responsibilities are specified in J 300.24,
which requests that each State
participate in RRTs; gives States
authority to fully participate (and vote)
on the RRT; encourages local
governments to participate in RRT
activities; encourages States to use
enforcement authorities; and encourages
States to take the lead on CERCLA
responses by entering into agreements
with the Federal government In
addition, a new { 300.62 has been added
which addresses the State role in taking
remedial response and the States'
responsibilities when doing so. A more
thorough discussion of the State role is
contained in Section IV of this
preamble.
Roles of private entities are specified
in f 300.25, which encourages and
stresses the critical importance of
private commitments for assisting in
response, and requests that private
entities assume specific responsibilities
in the appropriate regional or local
contingency plans. This section also
contains information on the safe and
effective use of volunteers in response
actions.
Subpart C further specifies the roles
that each of these groups can play in the
national response structure—Federal
agencies through their participation in
the NRT (§ 300.32(a)); and Federal
agencies. States, and localities through
their participation in the RRT
(5 300.32(b)). Within this national
framework. Subpart C further discusses
the role of the on-scene coordinator
(OSC) in coordinating with States, the
private sector and other Federal entities.
For example. S 300.33(b) requires the
OSC to notify States and Federal
agencies when they are affected or
when their expertise is requested in a
response action. While the Plan contains
the critical framework for national roles
and responsibilities, regional and local
plans are designed to specify how these
roles and responsibilities will be carried
out in light of particular regional and
local capabilities and needs.
5. Section 105(5)—.Provision for
identification, procurement,
maintenance, and storage of response
equipment and supplies.
The requirements of CERCLA section
105(5) are satisfied in several sections of
the Plan, briefly summarized here. The
NRT evaluates equipment readiness and
coordination, and makes
recommendations as to the appropriate
equipping and protection of response
teams ({ 300.32(a)). The NRT also
coordinates the supply of equipment and
personnel to the affected region in the
event of a response action (i 300.34(h)).
The RRTs consider equipment readiness
and similar issues in their continuing
reviews of regional and local responses
(S 300.32(b)(6)). The role of the RRTs in
requesting and coordinating assistance
and provision of resources from Federal,
State, and local government agencies
and from private parties in the event of
a release (5 300.34(f)) bears directly on
the requirements of CERCLA section
105(5). Section 300.34 of the Plan also
provides for the use of the National
Strike Force and Strike Teams which
make available specialized containment
and removal equipment emergency task
forces managed by USCG OSCs who
have the capability to deploy equipment
and the Emergency Response Team
(ERT) of the EPA which can provide
access to specialized decontamination
equipment. The Plan also devotes a
separate section, $ 300.37—Response
Equipment to the Spill Clean-up
Inventory system which is available for
obtaining rapid information on the
location of response end support
equipment
In addition to these provisions in the
Plan which insure access to response
equipment and supplies. Subpart D
emphasizes the importance of the
development of Federal regional plans
for each standard Federal region, and of
Federal local plans wherever
practicable. Included in these plans
should be information on all useful
facilities and resources available from
all sources that can be employed in the
event of a release (Si 300.42(a) and
300.43(a)). The Plan does not discuss in
great detail the precise division of
responsibility assigned to all levels of
government because the amount and
type of resources available will vary
among regions, as will the need for
particular types of resources. In
addition, it is possible that different
levels of government will take more
active roles in planning and carrying out
response activities. Accordingly, the
Plan provides that responsibilities in the
identification, procurement
maintenance, or storage of equipment
and supplies shall be assigned at this
level through the development of
Federal regional and Federal local
plana.
6. Section 105(8}—A method for and
assignment of responsibility for
reporting the existence of such facilities
which may be located oa federally
owned or controlled properties and any
releases of hazardous substances from
such facilities.
Section 300.23(d) sets forth
responsibilities of all Federal agencies
for reporting the releases of hazardous
substances and discharges of oil from
facilities or vessels which are under
their jurisdiction orcontroL The
reporting procedures in { 300.23(d) are
in accordance with CERCLA section 103
and Subparts E and F of the Plan.
Specifically, in Subpart E, i 300.51(b).
reports of discharges are directed to the
NRC or the nearest USCG or EPA office.
If not previously reported to the
responsible OSC all reports an
required to be relayed promptly to the
NRC Subpart F. ( 300.63(b). reiterates
the statutory requirement of CERCLA
section 103(a) for immediate notification
of the NRC by the person in change of a
vessel or facility as soon as he has
knowledge of a release from the vessel
or facility of a hazardous substance in
an amount equal to or greater than the
reportable quantity, established
pursuant to section 102 of CERCLA. Any
releases that have not been previously
reported should also be promptly
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Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 16, 1982 / Rules and Regulations
reported to the NRC. Thus, the Plan both
assigns responsibility to the Federal
agencies involved and provides the
method by which such reporting is to be
accomplished.
7. Section 105(7)—Means of assuring
that the remedial action measures an
cost-effective over the period of
potential exposure to hazardous
substances of contaminated materials.
EPA has devoted a great deal of
attention to developing a process that
will insure the cost-effectiveness of
remedial action measures. There are
several aspects of this process which
should be noted. First, the Plan limits
the extent of evaluation and
investigation activities if the release
does not present complex technical
problems or requires rapid response.
Section 300.68(d) and (e) focuses
investigation activities and development
of alternatives on the problems
presenting the greatest need. Second,
the Plan emphasizes the systematic
development of remedial alternatives
(including, where appropriate, the
alternative of taking no action) which
forms the basis for examining cost-
effectiveness. Third, the initial screening
of remedial action alternatives to
eliminate those with extremely high
costs that do not offer significantly
greater protection further safeguards tne
process against unnecessary
expenditures. Fourth, the remaining
viable alternatives must be evaluated in
terms of their costs, the level of
protection that they provide, their
reliability in providing that level of
protection, and the ability to implement
the remedy after considering technical,
environmental, legal, and administrative
constraints (I 300.68(10.
EPA notes that, in both the initial
screening and the detailed analysis of
alternatives, the costs of alternatives
must be compared over time and must
include operation and maintenance
costs (i 300.58(h)(1) and (iH2)(ii)). This
ensures that the statutory requirement
for consideration of the duration of costs
is satisfied. Finally, EPA has included in
{ 300.68(j) an explicit statement that the
extent of remedy to be selected for each
site will be the cost-effective remedial
alternative. Thus, EPA has both
established the procedures for arriving
at a cost-effective remedial action and
provided'a decision rule for selection of
cost-effective remedies in order to fulfill
the statutory requirement
8. Section 105(8)—Criteria for
determining priorities among releases or
threatened releases and. based upon
this criteria, a list of national priorities.
EPA has included as Appendix A to
the Plan a Hazard Ranking System
(HRSJ which, together with the
administrative system established in
( 300.66, constitutes the criteria and
methods EPA is using to establish
national priorities for remedial action.
The Agency presented a detailed
discuaaionof the development »nJ
components of the HRS in the preamble
to the proposed revisions (see 47 FR
10975 through 10976). Additionally, a
discussion of the significant public
comments on the HRS and the National
Priorities List and EPA's response to
those comments is presented in Section
V of this preamble. EPA is deferring
publication of the National Priorities List
at this time. It will be included as
Appendix B to this Plan. Accordingly,
this Appendix is reserved.
9. Section 105(9)—Specified roles for
private organizations and entities in
preparation for response and in
responding to releases of hazardous
substances, including identification of
appropriate qualifications and capacity
thereof.
Section 300.25 specifies the roles of
volunteers, industry groups, and.
academic organizations in response
actions. This section stresses the
important role of these groups in
providing scientific and technical
information needed in devising clean-up
strategies as well as the assistance role
of volunteers in response. As discussed
in subsection 4 above, coordination of
these entities is achieved through the
national and regional response
structure. It is critical that private
entities be coordinated closely with
governmental entities to assure efficient
response actions. Therefore, the Plan
calls for specific commitments of
resources by private entities in f 300.25,
and for detailing these specific
commitments in regional and local
plans. EPA believes these plans are the
appropriate mechanisms to list those '
private resources that are nearby,
applicable to local conditions, and
readily available.
10. Section 105 also requires that the
Plan specify procedures, techniques,
materials, equipment, and methods to be
employed in identifying, removing, or
remedying releases of hazardous
substances comparable to those
required under section 311(C)(2) (F) and
(G) and (j)(l) of CWA.
Section 311(c)(2)(G) of the CWA
requires that die Plan include a schedule
specifying dispersants or other
chemicals, if any, that may b* used in
removing oil or hazardous substances
from water. Subpart H of the Plan
establishes procedures for authorizing
the use of dispersants and other
chemicals for removing oil discharges or
releases of hazardous substances.
Subpart H vests authority in the OSC to
authorize use of any dispersant or other
chemical to move an oil discharge if
such dispersant or chemical is on EPA's
Acceptance List developed under Annex
X of the existing Plan. Use of
dispersants and chemicals not on EPA's
list may be euthorized by the
Administrator or her designee. Section
VU(H) of this preamble contains ¦
further discussion of this issue.
The remaining provisions of sections
311(c)(2)(F) and (j)(l) of the CWA
require development of procedures that
have comparable provisions in section
105 of CERCLA and have been -
discussed above. With regard to
comparable provisions for the removing
and remedying of hazardous substance
releases, i 300.70—Methods of '
Remedying Releases, details the types of
techniques that may be considered in
remedial actions. Furthermore, both
{ 300.65—Immediate Removal, and
{ 300.87—Planned Removal, contain
Information on the types of techniques
and measures which may be used for
removal action for hazardous substance
releases.
HL Comments on Determining the
Appropriate Extent of Responaa
The Agency received many comments
on the Plan's provisions in Subpart F
relating to the determination of the
appropriate extent of response. Moat at
the comments focused on the provisions
for determining the appropriate extent of
remedy. While some commentart
supported the process established in
S 300.68 for selecting a remedy, many
commenters criticized the Plan for not
explicitly requiring consideration of
State and Federal health and
environmental standards in
development of remedies. Similar
comments stated that the Plan should
include specific levels of clean-up that
must be attained with any remedy.
EPA developed the methodology far
determining the appropriate extant of
remedy based on the recognition that
experience in developing remedies far
hazardous waste sites is limited.
Moreover, each hazardous wasta
has unique characteristics which mailt
individual attention. Often the unique
characteristics of sites will represent
factors that have never bean dealt with
before. These considerations lad EPA to
develop a methodology which would
provide structured and reasoned
decision-making while still allowing the
flexibility to deal with unique and
unforeseen characteristics. EPA believes
the system included in | 300.68 of the
NCP accomplishes these goals.
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Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, ]uly IB. 1982 / Rules and Regulations 31185
A. Environmental Standards
The system does not explicitly require
that environmental standards be used in
determining the appropriate extent of
remedy. However, j 300.08 does specify
"environmental effects and welfare
concerns'* as one of the criteria to be
considered in determining the
appropriate extent of remedy. In some
cases, this would allow EPA to consider
applicable standards in selecting the
appropriate remedy. It must be noted,
however, that circumstances will
frequently arise in which there are no
clearly applicable standards. For
instance, acceptable levels of hazardous
substances in soil are not established,
and there are no generally accepted
levels for many other hazardous
substances in other media. Even where
there are standards for a particular
substance, they may not be applicable
to the conditions surrounding the
release. Therefore, if the Plan included a
rigid requirement that standards be met
it would obscure the real issue in many
cases of how to adequately protect
public health.
EPA cannot develop new standards
for the hundreds of substances*it will be
confronted with in response actions. Not
only is the requisite legal authority
lacking in CERCLA, but such a task
would also be enormous, costly and
time-consuming, and would unduly
hamper the clean-up of releases, which
is CERCLA's primary mandate.
Therefore, EPA has developed a system
for decision-making which has as its
primary feature a reasoned process that
contains a series of checks throughout to
ensure that the decision-making process
produces an effective remedy. The
methodology emphasizes cost-effective,
environmentally sound remedies which
are feasible and reliable from an
engineering standpoint
B. Cost Effectiveness
Several commenters argued that the
process for selecting a remedy placed
too much emphasis on cost.
Although cost does play an important
role in selection of remedies, it does not
take precedence over protection of
public health, welfare and the
environment. First the initial scoping of
a project provided for in | 300.68(e) does
not involve any consideration of cost
other than requesting Fund financing for
the work. The primary consideration at
this stage if defining the nature of the
problem requiring remedy. As
alternatives for remedying the release
are developed under S 300.66(g), again
the primary emphasis is on the
techniques available to dean up, not on
cost
Cost considerations are first
addressed when alternatives are
initially screened in S 300.08(h). This
cost analysis is required by section
105(2) of CERCLA. EPA has modified
! 300.08(h)(1) to clarify that alternatives
cannot be rejected on the basis of cost
alone, since any clean-up alternative
would be more costly in simple dollar
terms than a no action alternative.
Alternatives may be rejected for cost
reasons at this stage, but only if they do
not provide substantia^ greater public
health or environmental benefit This
section requires that in order for
alternatives to be given further
consideration they must be technically
and environmentally sound and must
effectively contribute to protection of
public health, welfare and the
environment For the alternatives that
remain after the initial screening, a
detailed analysis is required of their
cost engineering feasibility, and
environmental, welfare and public
health effectiveness.
Some of the .commenters' concern as
to the extent of the Plan's emphasis on
environmental and public health
protection could be the result of an
inadvertent omission in the Federal
Register of one of the factors requiring
analysis in i 300.88(i). Section
300.68(i)(2)(iv) requires comparative
assessment of alternatives in terms of
their effectiveness in minimizing and
mitigating the health or environmental
problem. This assessment is essential,
along with consideration of cost and
engineering reliability, in making the
decision required by S 300.68Q). The.
final decision on the appropriate
alternative is based on cost-
effectiveness; it selects the lowest cost
alternative which effectively mitigates
and minimizes damage to and provides
adequate protection of public health,
welfare and the environment
(S 300.680)). EPA notes that this series
of analyses and check points explicitly
requires remedies that provide the
requisite protection of public health
while still meeting statutory
requirements for analysis of costs and
cost-effectiveness. Cost alone may not
control these decisions.
IV. Comments on the Role of States in
Implementing the Plan.
Several commenters stated that the
Plan generally failed to adequately
identify the roles of Stste and local
governments. Other more specific
comments on the role of States included:
(1) That States should be allowed to
designate OSCs and participate fully in
the national response structure; (2) that
the Plan should allow greater State
participation in decision-making
regarding the need for and extent of
CERCLA-funded response: (3) that the
Plan should specify procedures for
entering into contracts or cooperative
agreements; and (4) disagreement with
the requirement that States share in
response costs other than those costs
specified in section 104(c)(4) of
CERCLA.
EPA agrees with commenters that the
States should play a large role in the
Superfiind program. Subpart B of the
Plan provides extensive detail 8S to
States' participation in response actions
(see discussion in Section 11(4) above).
To the extent States are willing and
capable, the Plan allows States to
participate fully in the national response
structure. In addition to the specific
provisions cited in section D(4) of this
preamble, the Plan also encourages
State involvement and delineates State
roles in the following provisions.
(1) Section 300.25(b)—encourages use
of technical and scientific information
generated by States.
(2) Section 300.25(c)—encourages
State officials to coordinate volunteers
pursuant to local plana.
(3) Section 300.32(a)(7)(iv)—allows
NRT to develop procedures to improve
coordination with States.
(4) Section 300.32(b)—includes States
on RRTs.
(5) Section 300.32(b)(2)—allows State
membership in RRT and allows
additional State representatives as
observers.
(8) Section 300.32(b)(5)—encourages
States to participate actively in RRT
activities and designate individuals to
assist in development of Federal
regional and Federal local plans, and to
serve as the contact point for
coordinating response with "local
governments.
(7) Section 300.32(b)(6)(vii)—requires
RRT to include in reports to NRT efforts
taken to improve State and local
coordination.
(8) Section 300.33(b)(3)—requires the
OSC to coordinate response efforts with
appropriate State agencies.
(9) Section 300.33(b)(5)—requires OSC
to notify States of possible discharges or
releases.
(10) Section 300-34(d)(3)—requires the
SSC to assist OSC in responding to State
requests for assistance.
(11) Section 300.34(f)(0)—gives the
States participating in the RRT the same
status as any Federal member of the
RRT.
(12) Section 300.36(c)—requires the
NRC to advise States of notices of
discharges or releases.
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31186
Federal Register / Vol.-47. No. 1371 Friday, July 16, 1982 / Rules and Regulations
(13) Section 300.42(a)—requires RRTs
to work with Stales in developing
regional plant.
(14} Section 300.43—specifies that
local plans should provide for
coordination with die Stats.
(15) Section 300.55(a)(5)—provides for
OSC to determine whether State has
capability and an agreement in place to
undertake oil discharge response, in lieu
of Federal lead response being taken.
(16) Section 300.67(b)—requires the
State representative to the RRT and DOI
to arrange lor use of volunteers lor
waterfowl affected by oil discharges.
(17) Section 300.58(f)(4)—allows
States to be reimbursed for oil removal
pursuant to 33 CFR Part 153.
(18) Section 300.01(c)—encourages
Stats participation in response actions.
(18) Section 300.B3(b)—requires f'ie
NRC to notify the State when notiVos of
releases are received pursuant to
section 103(a) of CERCLA.
.(20) Section 300.68(c)(1)—requires
State officials responsible for providing
Fund-financed response to coordinate
with those responsible for enforcement
activities.
(21) Section 300.80(d)—establishes a
system by which States can submit.
candidates for the Nation Priori lua IJat
(22) Section 300.81(b)—requires OSC
to consult with affected States before
authorizing use of dispersants 'of other
chemicals.
In addition to these numerous
provisions, to respond to comments r's
concerns, EPA has added a new ] 2":>.62
which specifically outlines the roam ar
in which State* may enter into corit. .-.eta
and cooperative agreements for
response actions pursuant to CERCT A.
EPA believes that State participation
and cooperation are crucial to
undertaking response actions. Thm i:' ire,
under this section. Stales an
encouraged to undertake response
actions. The extent of activities tb;>t a
State will be authorized to undertake will
be specified in the cooperative
agreement or contract EPA cannot
specify in the Plan all authorities which
a State will exercise because the
specific content of each agreement or
contract will be determined by the
nature of the response action to be
taken, the extent of State capability %
and die extent to which die State wishes
to have responsibility for the response.
Section 300.02(d) sets forth commi!<:;.-'nU
which the State must provide prior to
remedial design activity. Section 30 1 *2
also authorizes contracts or coopi-i - e
agreements for undertaking removal
actios.
EPA agrees with commenters th.it
States should be able to designate 1 ¦»
and act ss full partners In the resjpo )
structure. Providing that statutory and
administrative requirements are met by
States, the Plan permits and, in fact,
encourage States to take the lead on
response actions pursuant to a contract
or cooperative agreement. In order to
clarify that an OSC may be a State
official whose scope of authority is
specified in the cooperative agreement,
EPA has modified the definition of "On-
Scene Coordinator" in { 300.6.
Moreover, to clarify that a "lead
agency" may be a State acting pursuant
to the terms of a contract or cooperative
agreement EPA has modified the
definition of lead agency in § 300.0 as
well. These modifications are discussed
at greater length in section VII(A) of this
preamble.
Finally, many of the comments
questioned provisions included in the
Guidance for Entering into Cooperative
Agreements. EPA notes that this
guidance was published the day before
the NCP was proposed. The guidance is
not a part of this Plan, and thus a
discussion of the provisions in that
guidance is not appropriate to a
discussion of the provisions of this Plan.
However, one'issue which was raised in
this context also affects the Plan. The
issue is whether the statute allows EPA
to require cost-sharing by States when it
is not explicitly set forth in the statute.
In the Plan, this issue is relevant to
section 1300.67(b)(4) which requires
States to share costs of planned
removals.
CERCLA section 104(c) requires that
no remedial actions be provided
pursuant to section 104 of CERCLA
unless the State fa> which the release
occurs first enters into a contract or
cooperative agreement providing
assurances that (1) The State wiQ assure
all future maintenance of the removal
and remedial action; (2) the State wQI
assure availability of an acceptable
hazardous"waste disposal facility/if
necessary; and (3) that the State will
pay either 10 per cent of the cost of the
remedial action (including all future
maintenance) or, in the case of a facility
that was owned at the time of disposal
of hazardous substances therein by the
State or political subdivision thereof, at
least 50 per cent of any turns expended
in response to a release at such a
facility. The statute is silent with respect
to State cost-sharing for removal actions
at privately-owned sites. EPA will
require that States requesting Fund»
financed removals enter into an
appropiate cooperative agreement or
contract EPA's genera) grant regulations
provide that pantees and those
receiving Federal assistance through a
cooperative agreement must share
prefect costs except aa otherwise
provide by law (see 40 CFR 30.720(a)).
Where, as here, the statute is silent as to
cost-sharing on certain response actions,
EPA can require the States carrying out
such actions to contribute at least S per
cent of the cost of the action.Pursuant
1o its grant regulations, EPA has decided
to require that Stales pay 10 per cent of
planned removal costs at privately-
owned sites. The same requirement
shall apply to planned removals
provided pursuant to a State/EPA
contract The type of legal instrument
(i.e., cooperative agreement or contract)
used in authorizing the planned removal
should not affect the State's share of the
cost and, therefore, both arrangements
will require a 10 per cent State coat
share.
V. Comments on the Hazard Ranking
System and the National Priorities List
The preamble to the proposed
revisions included a detailed discussion
of the Hazard Ranking System (HRS)
and the National Priorities list (NPL) (47
FR10975 through 10977). The Agency
received extensive comments on the
HRS and NPL Many of the comments
supported the basic structure of the HRS
and EPA's proposed development of flit
NPL. Others made suggestions far
general and specific modifications. The
Agency has adopted many of the
suggested comments and they are
discussed below. The HRS is included
as Appendix A to the revised Plan, h
the preamble to the proposed revision,
the Agency explained why it was
deferring publication of the NPL (47 FR
10877). Now that the HRS is finalized,
the Agency has requested that the
States submit their priority rankings
applying the HRS. After the Agency
receives the Slate submissions. It will
develop the NPL and propose that Hst
for public comment When promulgated,
the NPL will be Appendix B to the
revised Plan.
The Agency has Included a very
lengthy and, at times, quite technical
discussion in responstf to the comments
on the HRS and NPL The Agency
believes that thia extensive discussion is
necessary in order to respond to all of
the significant public comments which
often addressed very technical aspects
of the HRS. Many of the comments
questioned the data requirements of the
HRS with a frequent criticism being that
the HRS failed to accurately distinguish
between the degree of hazard presented
at different releases; the result being
thst the HRS might give high scores to
releases that otherwise should not be
included-on the NPL
The role and importance of the HRS
and NPL must be kept in perspective.-
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Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137, Friday, July 16. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
31107
the NPL which will include at least 400
releases, is merely the first step in
considering a release for Fund-financed
remedial response. If a release is
included on the NPL but a later remedial
investigation discloses the hazard to be
less significant than originally thought to
be, a decision may be made not to
provide Fund-financed remedial
response. Similarly, the NPL will be
reviewed periodically and a release can
be added if more extensive data
indicate a more significant hazard at the
release.
A Hazard Ranking System
1. Overview of the Hazard Ranking
System. As discussed in the preamble to
the proposed revisions (47 FR10975), the
HRS is designed to estimate the
potential hazard presented by releases
or threatened releases of hazardous
substances, pollutants and
contaminants. Application of the HRS to
data from an observed or potential
release will enable the Agency to
calculate a "score" or estimate of the
risk from such release. The HRS score
for each release will be used in
determining the placement of the release
on the NFL.
The calculation of the HRS score for a
release analyzes the five potential
"pathways" of exposure of the human
population or a sensitive environment
Each release or potential release is
analyzed for exposure from (1) ground
water,-(2) surface water, (3) air, (4)
direct contact and (5) fire and
explosion. A score wOl be developed for
each of the first three "pathways."
Pathways (4) and (5) are used to identify
emergency situations that require
removal action and, therefore, are not
considered in calculating the HRS score.
For each "pathway," the HRS
analyzes three categories of "factors"
that are designed to encompass most
aspects of the likelihood of exposure to
a hazardous substance through a release
and the magnitude or degree of harm
from such exposure. The three
categories of "factors" analyzed for
each of the three "pathways" reflect (1]
The existence or likelihood of a release,
(2) the characteristics of the hazardous
substances that have been or may be
released, and (3) the population or
sensitive environment that is
threatened. In the HRS, the first
category of {actors includes three
subsets of factors, one for an "observed"
release and, as an alternative when no
release has been observed, two for
aesessing.the likelihood of a release,
designated as "route" and
"containment" factors. For purposes of
discussion, they will all be considered
as part of the first of the three categories
of factors. Each of the three categories
may have a number of separate
"factors" that will each receive a
numerical value according to a set scale
for each factor. For example, under
category (2), factors that would be
analyzed and given numerical values
would Include the toxicity, persistence,
and quantity of the hazardous
substance.
After numerical values are assigned to
each factor, the HRS uses mathematical
formulas, chosen to reflect the relative
importance and interrelationships of the
various factors to calculate a final score.
Those formulas combine the numerical
values of all "factors" in a category,
then combine the three categories within
each "pathway," and finally, combine
the three pathway scores to yield a final
score for the release or potential release.
Therefore, the HRS score represents, for
each release or potential release, an
analysis of the probability and
magnitude of harm to the human
population or sensitive environment
from exposure to hazardous substances
as a result of contamination of ground
water, surface water, or air.
2. Response to Comments.
Commenters generally supported the
HRS In its structure of "pathways" and
"factor" categories, and the
mathematical calculations for
approximating the relative potential
hazard. Thus, the HRS as promulgated
today remains fundamentally the same
as thejroposed HRS. However,
commenters did raise significant issues
and suggest changes, that are addressed
below. General comments and
responses are contained in subsection
(a). Specific comments on the three
"factor" categories are arranged
according to each category and are
addressed in subsection (b).
(a) Response to General Comments.
(1) Cost and Availability of Information.
Several commenters maintained that the
data required by the HRS to score
releases can be very expensive and will
slow the remedial action process for
many releases. Other commenters
argued that aome of the data required
would not be available. Other
commenters suggested that more factors
should be considered or that existing'
factors should be considered in a higher
level ofdetaiL
As these conflicting comments
indicate, the amount of information to
be collected must be balanced against
the cost and time required to obtain that
information..EPA anticipates that
several thousand releases may-
eventually be evaluated for inclusion on
the NPL The number and type of factors
in the HRS must be consistent with the
costs of data collection, the large
number of releases, and the resources
available for implementing the program.
The Agency's experience with the
Interim Priorities List indicates that the
HRS data requirements, after some
adjustments, are adequate without being
unduly burdensome or costly.
EPA agrees that some of the data
required by the proposed HRS may not
be readily available. In developing the
HRS, the Agency has excluded a number
of factors, such as "bioaccumulation."
because sufficient information is not
currently available. The Agency
believes that adequate information
exists or can be obtained for each of the
remaining factors in the three "factor"
categories in the HRS.
Some commenters suggested that such
non-technical factors as political
concerns, community and socio-
economic Interests, and previous
response actions should be included in
the HRS.
The Agency has not included such
non-technical considerations in the
HRS. Section 105(8)(A) of CERCLA
requires the establishment of priorities
in light of the relative potential hazard
to public health, welfare and the
environment and the HRS is designed to
estimate this relative hazard, rather than
assess the above subjective factors.
However, the Agency may consider
community interests and socio-economic
factors in determining the appropriate
remedial action for releases once they
are included on the NFL.
The Agency does not believe that
previous response actions should be
taken into account in scoring a release.
The HRS'makes clear that releases are
scored oh the basis of conditions that
existed prior to any response actions.
Allowing partial response to affect the
score would be a disincentive for public
agencies to undertake any clean-up
action because Federal funding for full-
scale clean-up might not be available, la
addition, if responsible parties have
undertaken partial or temporary clean-
up actions prior to scoring, releasee
might be excluded from the NPL without
sufficient consideration of the need for
further action or permanent remedy.
A number of commenters maintained
that the HRS promotes the listing of
releases with known quantified data, to
the detriment of releases where analysis
has not been performed..
As discussed above,. EPA has tried to
minimize the information required for
the HRS, so that releases which have
not been extensively investigated are
not eliminated from the system.
However, the HRS does include
minimum data requirements. Hie
-------
alternative would be to score releases
on the basis of inadequate information,
or to wait until extensive information
has been generated for every release. It
would be difficult to develop a system
that provides a meaningful comparison
between releases where information has
been collected and releases where little
is known. The requirement of section
105(8)(A) of CERCLA to list national
priorities will not be met if EPA waits
until extensive information has been
generated for aD releases. Releases for
which the minimum data required for
HRS scoring do not exist can also be
addressed in revisions of the NPL, after
adequate information has been collected
for these releases.
Some commenters expressed concern
that some of the scientific literature
referenced in the HRS had not been
subject to rigorous peer review.
The scientific literature referenced in
the HRS was taken from scientific
literature available for public review
and scrutiny. In addition, the rating
factors have been reviewed by the
States, the EPA regional offices and the
general public as part of the rulemaking.
In developing the HRS, the Agency
evaluated additional scientific literature
and selected that literature that it
believed to be the most appropriate and
scientifically sound.
(2) Pathways. One commenter
suggested that the HRS should be
designed so that releases with scores for
a particular "pathway" fl.e., ground
water, surface water, or airj that exceed
a designated threshold are
automatically given higher placement on
the Nn* or are subject to further
analysis.
The Agency believes thai the HRS is
adequately designed to accommodate
situations where a release has a high
potential for contamination through a
single pathway. Hie scoring formula of
the HRS ensures that if only one
pathway is rated with a high score, the
HRS icon could stfll be sufficiently high
that the release could be included
among the highest priorities. Using a
designated threshold, as suggested by
this comment, would also accomplish
this objective. However, EPA does not
believe this is necessary and the
existing process for aggregating all
factors to pbtain the score for a relase
more accurately reflects the situation at
a particular release;
One commented objected~because the
HRS gives equal consideration to the air,
surface water, an
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Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 16. 1982 / Rules and Regulations 311B9
EPA agrees with this comment and
has clarified the directions in section 3.S
of the revised HRS, concerning 'Targets
for the Ground Water Migration Route."
The same "aquifer of concern" must be
used for all rating factors, so that if a
release is observed in any specific
aquifer, this aquifer must be used to
identify "target" populations as well.
Several commentera argued that
qualitative evidence of release, such as
objectionable taste in water, should not
be equated with quantitative evidence
of release, such as measured presence of
substances.
The HRS now requires more
conclusive evidence to demonstrate the
existence of an observed release.
Generally, only analytical
measurements are acceptable as
evidence of an observed release.
Qualitative evidence of releases justifies
a score for an observed release only if
there is conclusive evidence to confirm
that a release has occurred at the
facility.
Several commenters suggested that
the HRS should give greater
consideration to the mobility of
hazardous substances. A few
commenters specifically suggested that
the lack of mobility of heavy metals in
soil should be taken into account in
estimating the likelihood of release.
He HRS considers mobility by
assessing the physical state (i.e.,
whether liquid, gas or solid) of the
hazardous substance and assigning the
highest value for liquid substances and
the lowest value for solid substances.
This factor is now considered under the
HRS*s designation of "route" factor,
designed to estimate the likelihood of a
release. The Agency does not believe
that it is feasible to include other factors
reflecting mobility in the HRS. The level
of scientific understanding ofthe
transport and fate of hazardous
substances in the environment is not
adequately developed to justify
estimates ofthe likelihood of a release
without an expensive and extensive
data collection effort For example, to
deteimine the mobility of metals at a
particular facility, extensive data
collection and analyses of the soils and
leachate are necessary. EPA believes
that these analyses would add
Inordinately to the cost and time
required to collect data, without
significantly improving the ability of the
HRS to predict the likelihood of release.
Other factors which might affect
mobility, such as'solubility and
volatility,"have been deleted from the
HRS because of insufficient Information,
and because the information that is
available applies only to pure
compounds not normally found at
hazardous waste releases.
A few commenters objected to
designating as "liquid" the physical
state ofiiquids in wastewater treatment
ponds regulated by NPDES permits or
by RCRA.
The Agency has determined that spills
and one-time or continuous accidental
releases of untreated or partially treated
substances from these facilities may be
addressed under CERCLA. Higher
values are assigned to liquids because
they are more likely to migrate from the
facility. If releases from such facilities
are scored, there is no reason not to
treat liquid hazardous substances as
"liquids." If the substance is well
controlled because the facility is well
operated, the release will receive a low
numerical value for the "containment"
factors.
Some commentera objected because
the HRS does not include geochemical
removal mechanisms, such as sorption
and coprecipitation, that remove metals
and radiochemical pollutanta from
migrating ground water.
EPA believes that the data base
regarding theae mechanisms is not
sufficiently broad to warrant inclusion
in the HRS. If it is shown that these
mechanisms will prevent migration of
substances at a facility, this fact will be
taken into account in determining the
need for response action at a particular
releaae.
Some commenters argued that the
HRS should provide for scoring the
potential for a release to the air.
The HRS has not been changed in this
respect There must be an observed
release, rather than a potential releaae,
in the air pathway. Definitive
characteristics could not be established
for air migration because existing data
bases were inadequate. Air releases
must currently exist, must be measured,
and must not be caused by disturbances
from investigations.
One commenter suggested that gases
not be considered under the ground
water pathway.
EPA disagrees because many gases
are soluble in water and therefore may
migrate to ground water with leachate
from a facility.
Finally, the HRS now provides that in
determining net precipitation fa> identify
the potential for leachate generation at a
facility, seasonal rather than annual
data may be used when available. In
some regions of the country, seasonally
heavy rainfall may increase the
likelihood of leachate generation, even if
net precipitation is low when measured
on an annual basis.
(2) Category 2: "Waste"
Characteristics. Most of the comments
on the waste characteristics category of
the HRS concerned two issues: toxicity
and persistence, and quantity of
hazardous substances. [The liRS uses
the term "hazardous waste" and "waste
characteristics." These terms encompass
all hazardous substances that are
covered by CERCLA section 101(14} and
allow for including those substances
meeting the definition of pollutant or
contaminant in section 104(a)(2).)
(i) Toxicity and Persistence. Soma
commenters argued that the range of
numerical values (generally zero to
three) that can be assigned to a factor is
too narrow to realistically rate relative
toxicity because of the differences
among the many substances.
In developing the HRS, EPA reviewed
many rating schemes and determined
that rating schemes using high, medium
and low ratings function in a
satisfactory manner for Ihe purposes of
the HRS. Releases will be scored on a
large number of factors and distinctions
among releases will emerge after
consideration of all factors.
A number of commenters disagreed
with the use of the Sax rating system for
chronic effects. They suggested that the
HRS rate only acute toxicity because of
the lack of recognized authority on
chronic toxicity effects. In addition,
some commenters suggested that values
derived from acute toxicity tests should
be applied to identify and classify
toxicity values for the HRS.
The Agency believes that the HRS
appropriately considers chronic effects.
Most exposures to hazardous
substances via air and water exist at
low levels, and extend over a long
period. In addition, most projected
health effects are chronic. These effects
may contribute significantly to the
potential hazard of releases to public
health and the environment An in-depth
search was made of the scientific
literature and state-developed systems
to find alternative methods of
incorporating acute and chronic toxic
effects in the HRS. No system has been
identified as a suitable alternative to the
rating system developed by Sax.
Alternative scoring methods suggested
by commenters have been carefully
studied and ruled out for reasons
including inapplicability, complexity*
and expense of application. Exclusive
reliance on acute toxicity testing is not
appropriate because a system is needed
for both acute and chronic value*.
Some commenters maintained that the
score for the factor evaluating the
degree of hazard of substances at a
release should not be based on a
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31190 Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday. July 18. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
substance that is present only in
miniscule quantities.
The HRS provides that the score for
the factor evaluating the degree of
hazard of substances at a release, rated
by toxicity and persistence, is based oa
the most hazardous substance at the
release. The HRS has been revised so
that if information is available on the
amount of the substance present the
hazardous substance used to evaluate
the degree of hazard must be present at
levels at least equal to the reportable
quantities established under section 102
of CERCLA.
Some commenters objected to the fact
that the HRS determines degree of
hazard by scoring the most hazardous
substance that is not adequately
contained. Thus, a facility with waste
containing only a small proportion of an
extremely hazardous substance could
score the same for degree of hazard as a
facility with waste containing a very
high proportion of that substance.
The Agency does not believe that it is
possible to require a detailed analysis of
the relative proportion of different types
of hazardous substances at a facility
without inordinate expense and delay.
Representing the hazards at facilities on
the basis of the most hazardous single
compound present will generally
provide an adequate evaluation of the
relative hazards.
A number of commenters argued that
concentration of hazardous substances
should be considered in rating toxicity,
so that the toxicity of a substance is
measured at the point where impacts on
human health or the environment
actually occur.
The Agency's positidn is that
concentration data on long- or short-
term levels are frequently unavailable,
controversial, and costly to obtain.
Experience in sampling'and monitoring
programs has shown that actual
measurements at different locations of a
release may vary considerably. The
determination of a representative
concentration would require repetitive
or continuous monitoring over a long
period of time, using the same protocols
at all releases to generate comparable
data. In addition, the points of human
contact vary for each release or
potential release. The HRS does assign
lower values to target populations that
are further from the release; however,
EPA does not believe that it is necessary
to expend a large portion of the Fund to
collect data simply to determine
precisely the relative potential risk of a
release on a national scale.
Several commenters proposed that ¦
bioaccumulation factor should be added
to reflect the fact (hat some chemicals
are stored and accumulated in body
tissue.
EPA has investigated the use of
bioaccumulation and found that there is
no measure of bioaccumulation
potential with readily available data
that would enable EPA to inlcude this
factor in the HRS.
Finally, the HRS now combines
toxicity and persistence in a matrix, and
the scale has been changed so that their
combined value equals zero when
toxicity equals zero, regardless of
persistence. The change was made for
simplicity and to facilitate application of
the HRS.
(ii) Hazardous Substance Quantity. A
number of commenters argued that
hazardous substance or "waste"
quantity should be part of the
assessment of the nature of the
substance and that treating quantity as
a separate category serves to bias the
HRS so that large quantities of law
hazard substances score high.
The Agency agrees with this
comment. Accordingly, quantity has
been changed into an additive factor
under "Waste Characteristics," thus
reducing its significance to the overall
score. In addition, the HRS instructions
have been clarified, to specifically
exclude contaminated soil and water
from determinations of hazardous
substance quantity..
A number of commenters stated that
the HRS is designed to address those
releases which have 2,000 or more
drums of hazardous substances.
The Agency has changed the HRS so
that it no longer requires any minimum
-quantity of hazardous substances,
unless the substances are not present in
reportable quantities.
Some commenters maintained that the
-quantity of substances used to rate the
waste quantity factor should be
calculatd by multiplying the
concentration of hazardous substances
by the total quantity of hazardous and
nonhazardous substances at the facility.
Some suggested that if the
concentration of hazardous and
nonhazardous substances at a facility is
known, then the waste quantity factor
should be determined by only the
quantity of hazardous substances at the
facility.
Hie Agency believes any method to
identify actual quantities of hazardous
substances at a facility must take into
account the fact that nearly all
substances contain some portion of non-
hazardous materials. The Agency has
considered several alternative methods
and has been unable to develop aa
internally consistent approach far
comparing pure hazardous substance
quantity at facilities where definitive
information is available with hazardous
substance quantity at facilities where
such information is not available.
Therefore, the HRS remains unchanged
and waste quantity is calculated
according to the total amount of
substances at a facility.
(3) Category 3: 'Target" Population
and Sensitive Environment That /*
Threatened. The "target" category
consists of factors for estimating the
magnitude of the threat to affected
populations or sensitive environments
potentially exposed to the release.
Comments generally addressed three
areas: exposure from contaminated
ground water, use of water resources,
and the sensitive environmental factor.
(i) Exposure from Contaminated
Ground Water. The method far
determining the population potentially
exposed to ground water contamination
is to estimate the number of people
living within a three-mile radius. Soma
commenters maintained that the actual
population that is potentially exposed
should be identified where information
exists to show that these estimatee do
not reflect the actual exposed
population. They also argued that flu
HRS should ellow consideration at
hydrogeologic information on ground
water flow direction and natural
place geologic barriers between shallow
and deep aquifers.
The population within a three-mile
radius of the facility is still considered
the potentially exposed population
under the revised HRS. Determining %
extent of population actually exposed or
threatened by using ground water flow
information is generally not practicable.
In many instances the information ia not
available, and in others the flow'
direction varies. Even where there ia
extensive knowledge of geohydrology,
interpretation is nearly always subject
to dispute. Requiring s precise measure
of the affected population would add
inordinately to the time and expense of
applying the HRS. Provisions for ll«ith<|
the area of concern based on flow we
not included in the HRS. becauae of the
lack of reliable data on direction of flow
and because the direction of flow
frequently varies. The HRS does require
that the same aquifer used to identify a
release must be used in determining the
potentially exposed population. In
addition, geohydrologica] data on
known aquifer Interruptions may bo
used to show that potential targets
which are located within three miles do
not draw from the affected aquifer.
Some commenters objected on the
basis that the three-mile radius is
excessive In comparison to the area
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Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 18. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
31191
designated by EPA under the
underground injection progam.
The area of review in the Safe
Drinking Water Act's Underground
Injection Control (U1C) program,
however, refers to that area within
which existing wells, because of
increased formation pressure caused by
injection activity, might allow the
movement of fluids between formations.
It does not refer to any estimate of how
far contaminants may travel. The three-
mile radius used in the HRS is based on
EPA's experience that, in most case*
currently under investigation,
contaminants can migrant to at least
this distance. It should be noted that no
commenters disagreed with the selection
of three miles for technical or scientific
reasons.
Some commenters asserted thai, when
determining the nearest well, it is not
Appropriate to assume that houses or
buildings near a facility have wells that
draw from the aquifer of concern.
The Agency agrees and has changed
the text under "Populations Served by
Groundwater" (Appendix A. section 3.S)
to require more definitive evidence of
ground water use. People within three
miles who do not use water from the
aquifer of concern are not to be counted.
A number of commenters suggested
that the HRS should consider the
dilution of contaminants by the
environmental media since it is the
concentration at the probable point of
exposure that-is of concern.
The HRS has been designed to
consider environmental dilution of
released hazardous substances by
lowering the score of populations
potentially exposed as their distance
from the hazardous substance in ere ises.
A sophisticated analysis of attenuation
would require information that it not
readily available for most of the
releases that should be considered for
theNPL.
Finally, the HRS now combines the
distance to the nearest well and the
population served by ground water into
a matrix to provide greater
discrimination of scores. The combined
value equals zero wben either the'
population served equals zero or the
distance to the nearest well is greater
then three miles (see Appendix A.
section 3.5).
(ii) Use of Water Resources. Somi
commenters maintained that, when
considering an aquifer of concern, the
HRS should distinguish between
aquifers in use, hot used, or unusable.
Section 3.5 of the HRS addressing
"Targets for Groundwater Use" has
been changed, so that points are not
assigned for aquifers that are unusable
for reasons such as extreme salinity or
extremely low yield.
Some commenters felt that the HRS
should contain a provision for
considering industrial use of ground or
surface water which may affect the
extent of exposure.
The Agency agrees and has elevated
the value for water used for commercial
food processing. Though less hazardous
than direct consumption of drinking
water, this use warrants a higher value
than provided in the previous version of
the HRS.
A number of commenters suggested
that the HRS ratings should consider
future use of resources.
The Agency considered ways of
addressing future uses, but was unable
to develop or identify a mechanism to
objectively measure future use. The
Agency concluded that attempting to
assign numerical values 1o future uses
would be too speculative.
Several commenters asserted that
food chain exposure to hazardous
substances should be considered in the
HRS.
While (he food chain is not treated as
a separate pathway of exposure, food
chain contamination is specifically
addressed In rating factors for water
use, land use, and the target population
exposed to potentially contaminated
water through irrigation.
(iff) Sensitive Environment Factor
The Distance to a Sensitive
Environment Category 3 includes a
factor for assigning a numerical value
based on the distance from a hazardous
substance release to a sensitive
environment, such as wetlands or the
critical habitats of endangered species.
Some commenters maintained that the
factor assessing the distance from a
release to a critical habitat of an
endangered species should assess the
distance to the "range" of an
endangered species, not just the critical
habitat Other commenters suggested
that national wildlife refuges should be
added to the environmental factor in
addition to critical habitats.
The Agency believes that the concept
of "range" for endangered species is
much too broad to be used in the HRS.
The majority of potential exposures of
endangered species within their range
would be temporary in nature and
would likely have little effect on their
safety. The Agency has modified the
environmental factor to include national
wildlife refuges as a sensitive
environment.
Several commenters proposed that the
environmental factor representing the
distance to a wetland should be refined
to differentiate between wetlands along
streams at high flow conditions and
streams at stagnant flow conditions.
The Agency has not made this change
because of the difficulties in predicting
the transport and fate of hazardous
substances and estimating the potential
damage based on stream flow rates.
Some commenters argued that flood
plains should not be equated with
critical habitats in the sensitive
environment factor.
EPA agrees because flood plains may
accommodate a wide range of activities
instead of, or in addition to, serving as
critical habitats. The reference 1o flood
plains has been deleted from the
sensitive environment factor.
A number of commenters objected to
the fact that the HRS assigns the highest
score for the factor "distance to a
sensitive environment" wben a facility
is within X mile of federal reserved
lands, regardless of how well the facility
is constructed. The commenters
suggested that this provision reduces the
availability of such areas for new
facility siting.
The HRS Is not used to rank
prospective sites for future hazardous
waste disposal facilities. Any facility
located in such an area that is well
constructed and maintained will rank
very low due to other factors In the HRS.
Some commenters suggested that a
sensitive environment factor should be
added to the list of potential targets of
ground water contamination. The HRS
only includes the sensitive environment
as a factor for the surface water and air
pathways.
When contaminated ground water is
released or flows into surface water, it
is considered under the surface water
pathway. The Agency is unaware of any
serious impacts on sensitive
snvironments due exclusively to ground
water pollution. As a result, it is not
necessary to add a separate rating
factor under the ground water pathway,
since sensitlve-environments are
addressed under the surface water
pathway.
Finally, a general comment made by
several commenters was that there are
inconsistencies in the methods used to
assign numerical values to the different
factors.
The Agency believes that the
conditions represented by rating factors
in the HRS are not equally important in
the evaluation of a hazardous situation.
Accordingly, the rating factor scales are
intentionally different and multipliers
have been chosen based on professional
judgment and experience concerning the
relative importance of each factor. The
selection of scales and multipliers has
been confirmed by the consistency of
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31192
Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 16. 19B2 / Rules and Rpgulations
scores with the perceived hazard al
releases.
B. National Priorities Ust
The most significant comments on the
provisions governing the NPL (S 300.66
(d) and (e)) requested: (1) Clarification
of criteria used for including releases on
the NPL; (2) explanation of the relation
of the NPL to remedial actions; (3)
inclusion of procedures for adding and
deleting releases from the NPL; (4)
deletion of the requirement for State
assurances at the time the releases are
submitted to EPA; and (5) clarification
of provisions for adding State top
priority releases to the NPL The
following sections discuss these
comments and explain the Agency's
changes in response to these comments.
1. Criteria for Including Releases on
the NPL Some commenters indicated
that it is not clear whether the Plan
provided that inclusion (ranking) of a
release or "site" on the NPL would be
based on the purely "mathematical"
factors included in the HRS, or whether
other factors will also be considered.
The HRS was developed pursuant to
section 105(8)(A) of CERCLA. This
section provides for development of
criteria and priorities based on relative
risk or danger to public health or
welfare or the environment, taking into
account the following considerations; (1)
Tie population at risk, (2) the hazard
potential of hazardous substances at
such facilities, (3) the potential for
contamination of drinking water
supplies, (4) the potential for direct
human contact, (5) the potential for
destruction of sensitive ecosystems, (6)
State preparedness to assure State costs
and responsibilities, and (7) other
appropriate factors. The HRS was
designed to take into account only those
aspects of the above considerations .
(generally, considerations (1) through
(5)) that reflect the risk of harm existing
at releases and that can be quantified
for inclusion in a mathematical model.
Once an HRS score has been assigned,
the additional factors referenced in
section 105(8)(A) will be considered in
selecting releases for the NPL, and in
selecting releases from the NPL for
Fund-financed remedial actions. This
process is set forth in Subpart F,of the
NCP.
Other commenters argued that
releases which may present the
sufficient degree*of risk to be placed on
the NPL should nonetheless be excluded
if CERCLA does not authorize Fund-
financed response. One example is the
provision in section 111(e)(3) precluding
use of Fund money for remedial action
with respect to "federally owned
facilities."
The Agency has decided that where
available data indicates that active
Federal facilities are the source of a
release (either inside or outside the
facility)."these facilities will not be
included on the NPL.
2. Role of the HRS in Selecting
Releases from the NPL for Remedial
Action. Many commenters maintained
that the HRS does not provide sufficient
detail to distinguish among releases for
the purpose of deciding when to take
remedial action, and therefore all
releases on the NPL should be equally
eligible for remedial action. Several
others staled that, all other factors being
equal, releases with a high HRS score
should be given a higher priority for
remedial action.
The NPL identifies releases that are
eligible for remedial action and the
relative risk as calculated by the HRS.
The actual selection of sites for remedial
action depends not only on relative risk
but also on the availability of cost-
sharing and other State assurances, the
existence and status of responsible
parties, the status of enforcement
actions, and other considerations
included in Subpart F of the Plan. In
addition, remedial investigations or
feasibility studies might produce mon»
precise information that affects the
urgency of remedial action. The Agency
will therefore not necessarily respond to
releases in order of their HRS scores.
3. Adding and Deleting Releases from
the NPL Several commenters suggested
that the Plan should explicitly provide
that the NPL will be updated at least
annually as required by CERCLA
section 105(8)(B). Other commenters
suggested that the Plan should explain
the process by which a release can be
removed from or added to the NPL after
the initial publication of the NPL
Specific grounds suggested by
commenters for deleting releases from
the List included: (1) The existence of a
Federal agreement for clean-up by
private parties; (2) a more sophisticated
assessment of risk; and (3) voluntary
remedial actions that may reduce the
release's NPL ranking.
EPA has added to the NCP a provision
({ 300.66(e)(7)), stating that EPA will
revise the NPL at least annually. The
criteria for adding releases to the NPL
are the same criteria for including
releases on the initial List Additions
will be made consistent with the process
in s 300.66(e) for developing the initial
List The Agency has not included
criteria for deleting releases from the
List. At this time, EPA did not believe
that it had the necessary experience to
establish a procedure in the Plan for
removing releases from the List In
guidance issued on June 2fl, 1982. EPA
indicated conditions when it might
remove releases from the NPL If. after
EPA and the Stales acquire experience
in working with the NPL it becomes
necessary to establish such a procedure
in the Plan. EPA will propose the
necessary modifications.
4. Stale Assurances. Section 300.65(e)
of the proposed revisions to the NCP
required States, when submitting
releases for inclusion in the NPL. to
indicate in a letter of intent either their
ability to make the assurance* for cost-
sharing, future maintenance, and
disposal site availability as required by
section 104(c)(3) of CERCLA. or their
intention to make those assurances st
the appropriate time. Many Stales
objected to the requirement to make
assurances at this early stage in the
process. They argued that Slates are in
no position to make these assurances
when submitting releases for inclusion
on the NPL because the appropriate
extent of remedy, the types and amounts
of wastes that require off-sile disposal
and the amounts of money needed to
fulfill these assurances are uncertain.
States also argued that they should not
be required to provide assurances at a
stage when EPA has not committed to
providing funds for remedial action on a
site.
EPA has reconsidered this
requirement in light of the public
comments and has decided to elimimeje
the requirement for assurances when
releases are submitted for inclusion an
the NPL There will be sufficient time
before remedial actions are initiated for
(he States to provide the necessary
assurances.
5. State Priority Submissions. Several
commenters suggested that EPA should
clarify the provision for States to
identify their top priority release. One
commenter requested that EPA
explicitly acknowledge that the Stale's
lop priority release need not be the top
ranked under the HRS.
Section 300.66(d)(3) provides that each
State may designate a release aa the
State's highest priority release by
certifying that the release presents the
greatest danger to public health, welfare
and the environment among known
releases in the State. The State's freest
priority release does not have to be file
State's highest ranked release under the
HRS.
One commenter indicated that
releases should be included on the NPL
at the initiative of States, and that EPA
should include releases only after
consultation and general agreement with
the States.
The great majority of the releasee
considered for inclusion.on the NPL will
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Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 10, 1982 / Rules and Regulations 31193
be at the initiative of the States. EPA
has the authority, however, to add
releases where necessary to assure that
the NPL reflects, to the extent possible,
the releases presenting the greatest risk
or danger to public health, welfare and
the environment. Section 300.60(e)(1)
provides that States' priorities will be
reviewed and consolidated by EPA into
the NPL, and that EPA may add, in
consultation with the States, any
additional priority releases known to
EPA.
VI. Comments Regarding Planned
Removal
In the preamble to the proposed
revisions, EPA explained its reasons for
delineating two categories of removal
actions—"immediate" and "planned"
(47 FR 10975). This delineation was
intended to specify those circumstances
when the Agency believed it would be
appropriate for the Fund to finance a
removal action. The delineation neither
authorized response, actions beyond the
statutory definitions of removal, nor
improperly restricted the types of
removal actions authorized by the Act
Many comtaenters felt that the
proposed description of planned
removals was confusing and not
adequately explained. Other
conunenters expressed concern that the
criteria for taking a planned removal
were too broad or undefined and did not
adequately differentiate planned
removal from immediate removal or
remedial action. In order to more clearly
delineate those situations in which
planned removals may be taken and the
purposes for which this category of
response is. intended, EPA has modified
§ 300.67.
Section 300.67(a)(1) allows for
planned removals when the conditions
for terminating an immediate removal
exist, yet a substantial cost savings can
be realized by completing the action and
not demobilizing equipment and
resources. EPA believes that such
response flexibility is needed to ensure
the effective use of Fund money and to
achieve the greatest amount of
protection of public health and the
environment with the funds available.
This category will be used to respond to
releases at which a small ambunt of
work is necessary to complete clean-up
at a release, thus avoiding the high cost*
of demobilizing equipment only to
mobilize again for a continued response.
In addition, S 300.67(a)(2) allows action
at a release that is not on the National
Priorities List and that does not meet the
criteria for an immediate removal, yet
poses a risk to public health or the
environment that requires action before
the release could be added to the
National Priorities List for remedial
action.
Some conunenters questioned whether
planned removals were needed at all, or
whether the statutory categories of
removal and remedial action could
suffice.
Immediate removals are intended for
response to situations of immediate and
significant harm to human life or health
or the environment; these are emergency
situations which require rapid
immediate response. Other situations
also exist which require an expedited
response, but not an immediate one. In
these situations, more deliberation can
be given to planning the response
action. The statutory category removal
action covers both of these situations.
By making this distinction between
immediate and expedited response, the
Plan provides for better management of
the Fund.
Section 300.67(b) requires that any
request for a planned removal be made
by the State governor or his or her
designee. This request must include
relevant information about the release
and assurances for cost-sharing. Many
commenters questioned EPA's proposal
to require State cost-sharing for planned
removal actions. Commenters felt that
States would not have sufficient funds
to meet these requirements; that such a
requirement would delay response
action unnecessarily; and that CERCLA
did not authorize requiring State cost-
sharing for removal actions.
EPA has chosen to require cost-
sh'aring for planned removals, in
exercise of its discretion under the
statute and EPA grant regulations
(discussed in Section IV above), for a
number of reasons. First, such cost-
sharing provides evidence that the State
is committed to removal action at the
site in question, and has made the
determination that action is needed to
prevent a significant risk to public
health or the environment Second, the
statute provides for and encourages an
active State role in selecting the releases
that require response and in sharing the
costs of response. This requirement
contributes to effectuating the State role
under CERCLA. The NCP section on
planned removals provides for both
aspects of this role. Planned removals
will only be undertaken if the State
governor or his designee requests such
action. Therefore, the Plan now gives the
States a high degree of flexibility in
selecting their own sites for receiving
Federal money. The request for planned
removal, however, must be
accompanied by a plan for the removal
action and by assurance that the State
will help in the funding of the action.
Finally, although situations appropriate
for planned removals require expedited
action, EPA believes that there will be
sufficient time before taking a planned
removal to arrange for cost-sharing with
the affected State without causing delay
in response.
Several commenters noted that it
would be contradictory to require a
State to submit a planned removal site
for the National Priorities List, since
there would be no point in listing a
release as a priority after it had been
cleaned up.
EPA has consequently eliminated this
requirement. Other commenters noted
that the provisions of $ 300.66 of the
proposal were inconsistent at several
points; for example, in requiring a
planned removal action to minimize and
mitigate damages without relying on
future response actions, while also
emphasizing actions which are
consistent with any subsequent
remedial activities. EPA has therefore
eliminated these provisions. EPA has
also eliminated from this section the
requirement that pollution reports be
submitted, since the requirement that
OSCs submit these reports is already
included in Subpart C.
To fulfill the mandate of CERCLA
section 105(3), EPA has added
considerable detail to the section on
planned removals pertaining to the
appropriate extent of planned removal
action. The Plan now delineates the.
types of situations in which planned
removal action may be appropriate
(i 300.67(a)), the criteria for taking
planned removal action ($ 300.67 (a) and
(c)), and the criteria for terminating a
planned removal action ({ 300.67(d)).
The Plan reiterates the statutory
limitation in CERCLA on the time period
and dollar expenditure allowed for
removal action except under certain
specified conditions.
VTL Comments and Modifications
Relating to Individual Subparts
This section responds to additional
comments (not discussed above) and
explains other changes made to each
subpart of the Plan as a result of
comments.
A. Subpart A
Several commenters noted that S 300.3
of Subpart A merely repeated the
statutory requirements for the NCP"s
content Other commenters suggested
that instead of this repetition, the Plan
should clearly delineate its coverage.
EPA agrees and has replaced the list
of statutory requirements in the Plan'
with a new } 300.3(a) which specifies
toe scope of Federal response
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31194
Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 16. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
authorities under Section 311 of the
CWA and under CERCLA. In addition,
EPA has added a new paragraph (b) to
this section which summarizes the scope
of the Plan's provisions. This summary
more accurately reflects the coverage of
the Plan.
Many commenters suggested
modifications to the definitions in
§ 300.8. In most cases, the suggested
modifications pertained to definitions
that were taken directly from the Clean
"Water Act or CERCLA, and
modification was deemed unnecessary.
Several commenters noted that it was
unclear that the definition of "size class
of discharges" in { 300.6 referred only to
discharges of oil. EPA has modifiedlhe
definition by changing the undefined
term "pollution" to "oil discharges" and
stating explicitly that it means
discharges of oil only. It is noted that the
term "discharge," as used in the Plan,
applies only to oil.
Other commenters suggested thqt the
Plan establish size classes for releases
of hazardous substances. Most of the
commenters were concerned that
reporting requirements under CERCLA
were too stringent and could lead to
reporting of insignificant releases.
EPA does not believe it is appropriate
to establish in the Plan general size
classes for releases of hazardous
substances, since the quantity of a
hazardous substance is not always
indicative of its toxicity. Small
quantities of one hazardous substance
may be more toxic and present a more
significant threat to human health than
greater quantities of other hazardous
substances. CERCLA establishes
reporting requirements for releases of
hazardous substances and authorizes
EPA to establish specific reportable
quantities for releases of all hazardous
substances. Until such time as EPA
develops regulations revising reportable
quantities, section 102(b) of CERCLA
assigns a reportable quantity of one
pound to substances defined as
hazardous by section 101(14) of
CERCLA. with the exception of those
substances for which reportable
quantities have been established
pursuant to section 311(b)(4) of the
Clean Water Act For the above stated
reasons, the Agency believes that it is
neither appropriate nor necessary to
establish size classes of releases far
hazardous substances in the Plan.
Definition of reportable quantities is not
a requirement of section 105 of CERCLA.
Rather, the Agency has initiated
separate proceedings to address this
matter as required by section 102 of
CERCLA.
A few commenters noted that the
definition of "coastal zone" contained in
the Plan differs from that under the
Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA)
and questioned whether it should be
consistent. The definition included in
the Plan specifies that it is to be used
only "for the purpose of this Plan." This
term is used in the Plan for the sole
purpose of distinguishing between EPA
and USCG jurisdictional areas for
response activities. Accordingly, it need
not be consistent with the CZMA
definition.
One significant modification to
Subpart A is in response to comments
that specific decision-making
responsibilities in the Plan should be
clarified. Commenters noted that the use
of the terms "lead agency" and "on-
sccns coordinator1' (OSC) referred only
to Fc-t'eral officials, to the exclusion of
State officials, and that the term "lead
agency" was unclear. EPA has modified
the definitions of "lead agency" and
"OSC" to provide that both may include
a State agency or official acting
pursuant to the terms and authorities
granted through a contract or
cooperative agreement with the Federal
gov nxnent. This modification -
acknowledges the important role States
may exercise in response actions. The
tei-m "lead agency" refers to the Federal
or State official that provides the OSC.
"Lead agency" is used because several
agencies are granted the authorities that
will be exercised by the "lead agency"
under the Plan. These authorities often
extend beyond the authority of an OSC.
To further delineate the
responsibilities of OSCs, the final
revised Plan includes a provision for
designation of a "responsible official" to
exercise OSC authority in certain
situations. The new term "responsible
official" refers to those individuals
responsible for undertaking planned
removals or remedial actions under
CEKCLA. The definition includes State
officials if the State is granted this
aui'.urity pursuant to a contract or
cooperative agreement. EPA added this
term to clarify that, in the case of
pruned removal or remedial actions,
the official in charge may not always be
called an OSC. In such long-term
actions, the official in charge could be
an OSC, but is more likely to be another
official of the Federal or State
government. Accordingly, this official is
defined as a "responsible official" and is
given the authorities and responsibilities
assigned to OSCs.
Finally, commenters suggested that it
was inappropriate to require that -
volunteers be recruited am) trained by
the response authority. This provision is
simply intended to require that
volunteers be competent for the actions
for which they are being utilized. EPA
has clarified this provision by deleting
the words "recruited" and "trained"
from the definition of volunteer in'
§ 300.6 and has clarified S 300.25(c)
pertaining to volunteers. This
modification is discussed below.
B. Subpart B
Subpart B delineates the
responsibilities and roles that all levels
of government and private entities may
play in response activities. Several
commenters suggested that $ 300.21
detail the delegations given to the
various Federal agencies in Executive
Orders 12318 and 11735. In addition,
several commenters suggested that
Subpart B should include an outline of
the specific responsibilities and
capabilities of Federal agencies under
the Plan. A few commenters suggested
that additional material on the roles of
HHS and FEMA would be appropriate,
since they have new-response authority
under CERCLA.
EPA does not believe it is necessary
to include details from Executive Orders
12310 and 11735. Both are referenced in
5 300.21 and are readily available to the
public. Details from Executive Order
11735 were not repeated in the existing
Plan, and experience indicates that
there was no misunderstanding resulting
from their absence in the Plan. EPA
notes that where delegations are
germane to the Plan, they are stated in
the appropriate context, as in the
division of responsibilities between EPA
and USCG in response actions noted in
§ 300.33(a).
In addition, EPA finds it unnecessary
to specifically list all the responsibilities
and capabilities each agency has to
bring to bear in a response action.
Responsibilities and capabilities are
subject to constant change by statutory
modifications and reorganizations and,
because of resource constraints,
capabilities will vary. EPA believes the
Plan appropriately delineates the
responsibilities that each agency should
fulfill in the context of the national
response structure and the potential
capabilities of each agency. EPA agrees,
however, that the roles of FEMA, HHS
and DOD deserve special mention in the
Plan. Unlike the section 311 program, in
which response authority was vested
only in the USCG and EPA, Executive
Order 12318 grants certain response
authorities to FEMA, HHS and DOD.
EPA has added an explanetion of the
division of responsibilities between
EPA, USCG. FEMA, HHS and DOD in •
new { 300.23(e).
Section 300.22 of Subpart B requires
that where appropriate, discherges of
radioactive materials will be handled
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pursuant to the appropriate Federal
radiological plan. EPA recognizes that
many such incidents may not be covered
by authorities under CERCLA or the
CWA. The precise extent of response
authority under CERCLA has not been
determined. Accordingly, any clean-up
activity under CERCLA of radioactive
releases will be determined on a case-
by-case basis. Federal authorities for
responding to radiological incidents fall
within the purview of several* agencies.
To assure that the Federal government
adequately coordinates these
authorities, there are several existing
mechanisms and others under
development For radioactive releases
from commercial nuclear power plants,
Federal emergency response is
coordinated by FEMA and the NRC
through the National Radiological
Emergency Preparedness/Response Plan
for Commercial Nuclear Power Plant
Accidents (Master Ran), 45 FR 84910.
For radioactive releases not associated
with commercial nuclear power plants,
the Federal radiological assessment and
monitoring is coordinated by DOE under
the Interagency Radiological Assistance
Plan (IRAP). FEMA is preparing a
comprehensive Federal plan that will
encompass all types of radiological
incidents that may require a Federal
response. It will include incidents or
accidents at commercial nuclear power
plants. The tentative title for the new
Federal plan is the Federal Radiological
Emergency Response Plan (FRERP). The
IRAP has been revised and updated by
DOE and will soon be republished as
' the Federal Radiological Monitoring and
Assessment Plan (FRMAP). The FRMAP
will be incorporated into the FRERP to
establish the latter as one single Federal
response plan for any type of significant
radiological emergency.
Several commenters suggested that
| 300.22 (a) through (c), relating to
coordination of Federal agency
activities, should include the mandatory
"shall" rather than "should."
EPA disagrees and notes again that
Federal agency responsibilities will vary
due to statutory and budgetary
constraints beyond the control of EPA
as author of the Plan. EPA cannot
impose obligations upon these agencies
which they may not be able to fulfilL
The Plan must be flexible enough to
accommodate these changing
conditions. Agency budgets and
missions are modified annually.
Moreover, Interagency Agreements,
Memoranda of Understanding, and
guidance documents are the appropriate
mechanisms for detailed descriptions of
tasks each agency will perform.
Several commenters stated that the
thresholds contained in S 300.22(d) did
not include a "substantial" threat of
release as required by statute.
Section 300.22(d)(2) refers to
enforcement authority under section
106(a) of CERCLA, rather than response
authority under section 104(a) of
CERCLA. Section 106(a) of CERCLA
does not require a "substantial" threat
as does section 104. Due to this
difference, no change is necessary.
One commenter objected to the fact
that { 300.22(d)(2) allowed the NRT to
recommend that EPA or USCG exercise
its enforcement authorities, since the
NRT is not delegated such authority.
EPA agrees and has deleted this
provision.
A few commenters questioned the
wording of $ 300.22(e) stating that it
gives a great deal of authority to the
government to coordinate private
behavior and that terms such as
"pollution" and "large" quantity of oil
were not defined. This provision is
taken directly from section 311(b)(2)(A)
of the Clean Water Act In this section.
Congress did not define the referenced
terms. In situations requiring the
exercise of this authority, decisions'
must necessarily be subjective since
they are based on the unique
circumstances surrounding each
situation.
Many commenters stated that it was
unclear which agencies were
"participating" agencies under S 300.23
(a) and (c). EPA has clarified this by
deleting the term "participating"
agencies in S 300.23 and noting instead
that the agencies are the "Federal"
agencies listed in paragraph (b) of the
same section. The agencies listed in
paragraph (b) are the current members
of the National Response Team. EPA
has deleted HUD and SBA from this list
since they are not current members.
One commenter suggested it was
preferable to put the requirement that
Federal agencies provide representation
to the NRT and RRT and assist-in
formulating regional and local plans in
section 300.23(c), in Order to include
agency responsibilities to the NRT and
RRTs in one place. EPA agrees and has
added this requirement in S 300.23(c)(3).
To avoid duplication in the Plan, EPA
has deleted the second sentence of
S 300.24 (d), (e) and (f) and instead
added a cross-reference to the new
S 300.62 (discussed in section IV above)
which more comprehensively outlines
the State role under CERCLA.
Some commenters requested State
participation in the Regional Response
Team be greater and that it be
mandatory. Other commenters
questioned whether Stale participation
in RRT activities was a reimburseabJe
cost
Section 300.24 does allow States full
membership on the RRT. This
membership is not mandatory, however,
since States should have the discretion
to participate or not participate given
State needs and resources. The issue of
which costs are eligible is not one that
the Plan resolves. Rather, the extent to
which costs will be reimbursed shall be
specified in individual cooperative
agreements with States. Another
commenter noted that { ( 300.24(a) and
300.32(b)(2) were contradictory in that
§ 300.32 allows local governments to
fully participate in RRT aotivities while
{ 300.24(a) makes local participation
contingent upon approval of the State
representative. EPA sgrees that these
sections are inconsistent and has
modified $ 300.32(b)(2) to provide that
only States have the same status as
Federal members (i.e. voting members),
leaving local participation subject to the
provisions of § 300.24(a).
Other commenters stated that the
provisioivi of $ 300.24(c) potentially
created duplicative State programs and
unnecessarily encouraged States to take
response and enforcement actions. EPA
disagrees. This section merely
recognizes that many States have active
response and enforcement programs
which are in no way pre-empted by
CERCLA. Where such programs exist.
EPA encourages their use. This section
recognizes that such programs and the
Federal program are important
complements to one another. One
commenter stated that the Plan should
not indicate a preference for State
enforcement action over Federal action.
EPA agrees and notes that § 300.24(C)
encourages State enforcement but does
not indicate a preference over Federal
enforcement action.
Other commenters objected to the use
of the term "potentially" in referring to
responsible parties in S 300.24(c) and
elsewhere in the Plan.
EPA used this term in response to
comments on earlier drafts of the Plan
which raised objections to calling all
involved parties responsible until
enough evidence was gathered for the
Agency to determine that they are
responsible. Since this is often a time-
consuming process, EPA has used the
term "potentially" responsible.
A few commenters questioned
whether the Plan adequately specified
those actions that would be eligible for
Federal funding.
Subpart F establishes criteria upon
which decisions as to eligibility for
Federal funding will be based. The
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31196 Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday. July 18. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
eligibility of particular actions will be
decided on a case-by-case basis using
these factors. The Plan cannot ensure
funding approval for specific actions
since current demands for response and
expected future demands exceed
available funds.
Many commenters were confused as
to the provisions in S 300.25 (d) through
(f). Several questioned when the Fund
will be used to pay for private party
clean-up, and whether the section
prohibits the taking of remedial action
by any person who does not have prior
approval. Moreover, commenters stated
that I 300.25(e) of the proposal implied
that anyone who does not intend to seek
Fund reimbursement needs no prior
approval. Others questioned whether
there should be any prior approval
requirements.
In response to these concerns, EPA
has substantially,modified { 300.25 (d)
through (f). Paragraphs (e) and (f) of the
proposal have been eliminated and
paragraph (d) has been rewritten to
require that persons who intend to
undertake response actions, and seek
reimbursement from the Fund, must
obtain preauthorization in order for the
response action to be considered
consistent with the Plan for purposes of
section 111(a)(2) of CERCLA. This
provision does not apply to the Federal
government or to a State or other person
acting pursuant to a contract or
cooperative agreement
Section pf CERCLA allows'
payment of claims for response costs
incurred by "any other person" as a
result of carrying out the NCP. provided
that such costs are approved under lhe
Plan and certified by the responsible
Federal official. Section 300.25(d)
provides the mechanism for approval of
such costs under the NCP. This
mechanism is through notice to the
Administrator or her designee and
submission of an application for prior
approval (preauthorization) of the
action.
This preauthorization process allows
EPA to better manage Fund money, and
helps ensure that private response is
conducted in an environmentally sound
manner. Further, the preauthorization
process gives persons who wish to
submit response claims a method to
assure themselves that their costs will
meet the approval component of section
111(a)(2). EPA is developing procedures
for processing such claims pursuant to
section 112 of CERCLA*
The provision requiring that private
response actions be preauthorized is
included in the Plan to ensure that Fund
-money is spent in a cost-effective and
environmentally sound manner,
regardless of the party taking the action.
In the case of those operating pursuant
to a contract or cooperative agreement,
EPA can assure consistency with the
NCP through the agreement. In the case
of the Federal government taking Fund-
financed action, consistency with the
Plan is assured through internal agency
approval procedures. Section 300.25(d)
imposes a similar advance approval
requirement on those wishing to bring a
claim against the Fund for response
costs in accordance with section
lll(a)2). Section 300.25(d) does not
apply to private parties who undertake
response actions, but do not intend to
seek reimbursement from the Fund.
C. Subpart C
Subpart C establishes the national
and regional response structure and
explains the role of government and
private entities in the response
structure. ^
Several commenters requested further
detail in § 300.32(a) on the
responsibilities and authorities of the
NRT. EPA believes this section
adequately details the role of the NRT
as the national organization for
coordinating Federal response to major
pollution incidents and developing
recommended actions for national
response policies. Roles and
responsibilities of the NRT during
response actions are detailed in J 300.34
(f) and (g). One commenter noted that
while the Plan allows the NRT to make
recommendations on training, equipping,
and protecting response teams .and
coordination of governmental and
private entities, section 105 requires that
such provisions be specified in the Plan.
EPA notes that the Plan does specify
these components throughout Subparts
B and C. The provision regarding die
NRT is intended to allow the body to
recommend improvements or
modifications in these areas, based on
its collective expertise.
Some commenters objected to
deletion of material from the existing
Plan relating to by-laws of the NRT. EPA
eliminated these provisions because
they were considered "ministerial" and
neither necessary nor appropriate in the
Plan. Section 300.32(a) allows the NRT
to adopt such by-laws as it deems
necessary to Its operations. Other
commenters suggested making provision
in the Plan that NRT meetings be open
to the public. Again, such a provision is
not appropriate in this Plan, since some
meetings may be public and others may
require executive session. It is more
efficient for the NRT to provide for these
decisions in its own procedures.
Several commenters asked how
membership on the NRT is determined
and suggested that the Plan provide for
State membership on the RRT. EPA has
clarified the membership process by
adding a sentence to { 300.32(a)(1)
which provides that agencies may
request membership on the NRT by
forwarding such requests to the
chairman. States are not permitted to be
members of the NRT; participation is
limited to members with a national
presence. The RRT Is the appropriate
coordinalive body for States. The NRT
likewise restricts Federal agency
members to those with a national
presence. For example, the Tennessee
Valley Authority is a Federal entity that
is very active in response activities. It la
a member only of the RRT, however,
because its activities are limited to a
single geographic area.
Several commenters pointed out that
the provisions of i 300.32(a)(7)(i) wen
confusing since they implied that the
NRT responds only to nationally
significant releases. EPA has clarified
this section by providing that the NRT
maintains national readiness to respond
to incidents which are beyond regional
capability. This provision clarifies that
the NRT role is complementary to that
of the RRT.
Other commenters maintained that
the Plan vested broad and unspecified
discretionary authorities in the NRT and
RRTs. These commenters believed that
certain responsibilities vested in the
NRT and RRTs should be specified in
the Plan. EPA disagrees. The Plan
provides the NRT and RRTs with the
authority they require to act as effective
coordinating bodies. Their activities are
not exclusive of the Plan; rather, they
are complementary to the Plan. For
example, the NRT is empowered to
develop procedures for ensuring
coordination of response activities
among the various levels of government
and private entities (| 300.32(a)(7)(iv]).
This authority obviously does not
preempt the rest of Subparts B and C
which also provide for such ,
coordination. This section is simply one
of the many provisions in these subparts
to assure such coordination.
Several commenters were confused
over the role of State and local
governments on the Regional Response
Teams. EPA has clarified S 300.32(b) tp
provide that States may be voting
members on the RRT. while local
representatives may participate in
meetings in a non-voting capacity. The
reason for allowing only one vote per
State is to assure efficiency of RRT
operations. Allowing an unlimited
number of representatives from ¦ single
State to vote would distort the fairness
of representation on the RRT. This
would result in an unwieldy and unfair
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Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137. Friday, July 16. 1982 / Rules and Regulations 31197
voting system, which could be biased
toward whoever had the most people in
attendance. It should be noted that
voting is rarely necessary within either
the NRT or RRTs since members usually
achieve consensus.
Another commenter suggested that the
Plan specify those agencies that
compose the Regional Response Team.
Such specification is not appropriate to
the national Plan, since participating -
agencies may vary from region to region.
Therefore, specification is left to the
regional plans.
Several commenters suggested that
qualifications for various response
personnel mentioned in Subpart C (OSC.
SSC. etc.) be included in the Plnn. EPA
believes that the Plan is an
Inappropriate place to specify personnel
qualifications. Depending on the ares
covered, qualifications may vary and
they are more appropriately considered
in the hiring process, not through
regulation.
Section 300.33 of the Plan discussei
the division of responsibilities, roles and
coordinating activities that should be
used in a response. Section 300.73(a)
specifies (he geographic division of
response authority between EPA and
the USCG. Because commenters noted
that, within the USCG/EPA division,
DOD has authority for response to
releases from its own facilities. EPA has
inserted (his exception in S SCO 33(a).
Many commenters urged = t 'lie Plan
clearly state that the OSCis responsible
for response operations, that others at
the acene are under the direction of the
OSC. and that the OSC must nut be
unduly hampered by officials t--'it at the
scene. Section 30033(b) of the PI an
clearly specifies that it is the OSC thai
directs on-scene operations. That is, the
OSC is the official In charge of ecting
on-scene operations. The OSC'a
authority is subject only to otlmr
response authorities delegated >>.ider
Executive Order 12316. Other i a, the
OSC directs all activities du;: ; i
response action. The special. . jist.ince
authorized by Subpart C (i.e., '¦ ! SSC,
BHT and strike forces) inclu4' ntitios
which may he called upon I' j OSC
to assist in response operat:' 'ii'A is
sensitive to the fact that re:1 - tsa
should not be unduly delay ' v. '.ile
awaiting approvals or conci ; - by
officials who are removed » 'he
scene.
Section 300.33(b) (1) Qiror^> (to)
provides a checklist of OSC
responsibilities during a ret; -e. 'itus
list is complementary to re:. > :s
in Subparts E and F and s«. >
primarily to assure approp.' :
coordination by the OSC. ¦" •
commenter suggested add: , >
S 300.33(b)(6) a requirement that the
OSC notify FEMA of situations
potentially requiring evacuation,
temporary housing, or permanent
relocation. EPA agrees and has added
this requirement and consolidated
{ 300.33(b) (0) and (B) into a single
paragraph. In addition, in order to
assure that the notifications for which
an OSC has responsibility are stated in
one place, EPA has added a sentence to
{ 300.33(b)(7) noting that the OSC may
call upon HHS for advice in the worker
health and safety area and included a
new paragraph (9) requiring notification
of affected Federal land managing
ngenciea. Several commenters stated -
that in § 300.33(b), the OSC also should
lie required to notify State and local
ngenciea. EPA does not believe.this
notification is necessary since the Plan
already provides for the National
Response Center to notify the Governor
of the affected State or his or her
Assignee of discharges or releases.
Other State and local agencies should
arrange to be notified through their
State's mechanisms.
A few commenters suggested that (he
Emergency Response Team (ERT)
responsibilities cited in { 300.33(d) of
¦he proposal be expanded and that only
the OSC be allowed to request the
support of the ERT. EPA does not
believe expansion of EST
responsibilities is necessary, since those
detailed in the Plan are broad examples
of the types of services the ERT
provides. Although the OSC is the
primary requester of ERT services, the
ERT also may be needed for response
activities by others. EPA believes this
flexbility should be preserved in -the
Plan. Another commenter stated that the
Plan leaves to the ERT decisions which
should be made in the Plan. EPA notes
that nowhere in $ 300.34(c) does the
Plan require decision making by the
ERT—it simply outlines ERT expertise
which can be called upon.
Several commenters questioned how
the RRT decides whether or not to
activate. Some of these commenters
were concerned that the RRT should not
become involved in response operations
without approval of the OSC. The
Regional Response Team is activated
when the criteria in § 300.34(f) are met
It is not necessary for the RRT to receive
OSC concurrence to activate. Instead,
the chairman of the RRT makes the
decision as to whether the RRT should
be activated [often on the basis of a
request from a State representative). In
the majority of cases, the chairman is
from the same agency as the OSC and,
in fact, can be the OSCs supervisor.
Therefore, there should be no
disagreement as to (he need to activate
the RRT. Imposition of formal OSC
concurrence requirements are
unnecessary and inappropriate.
Section 300.34(f)[5)(iv) allows the RRT
to suggest replacement of the OSC. A
few commenters suggested that private
parties also be allowed to do so.
Certainly, the Plan does not preclude
such a request; however, it is
inappropriate to encourage such
requests in the Plan, especially since the
OSC will often be involved in situations
where private parties have failed to
clean up properly. Requests for
replacement of OSCs should not occur
every time a responsible party disagrees
with the OSC action.
Several commenters noted (hat
proposed S 300.36(c) did not clearly
state the CERCLA and CWA
requirements for reporting discharges
and releases. Accordingly, EPA has
clarified the Plan to note that reports of
discharges or releases of oil and
hazardous substances above reportable
quantities should be made in
accordance with 33 CFR Part 153. and
~ection 103(9) of CERCLA. In addition,
EPA has eliminated J 300.35(d)
regarding pollution reports since.the
same requirement appears elsewhere in
the Plan. A few commenters requested
that { 300.36 of the proposal note that
the Spill Clean-up Inventory System
(SKIM) is also available to private
parties. EPA agrees and has noted this
availability in § 300.37.
D. Subpart D
Subpart D establishes requirements
for Federal regional contingency plans
and Federal local contingency plans.
Several commenters requested that
additional detail be added to the NCP
regarding the required content of these
plans. EPA does not believe additional
material is necessary. First, in the case
of regional plans, { 300.42 (a), (b) and (c)
outlines the components that should be
included in such plans, and explicitly
states that regional plans will follow the
format of the NCP to the extent possible.
This provides guidance to the regions on
the topics which should be covered in
their plans. Further detail could result in
an unduly rigid mechanistic formula for
developing regional plans. EPA
recognizes that each region will have
distinct needs in developing such plans
and has provided the flexibility to allow
these plans to be tailored to regional
needs. These plans are required to be ~
developed by RRTs In consultation with
States.
In the case of Federal local plans
(S 300.43), EPA has deleted the
requirement that fhey follow the format
of (he nationd Flan. Several
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commenters pointed out lhat this section
gave inadequate attention to local needs
and conditions. By deleting the
requirement that Federal local plans
should follow the NCP, EPA is providing
greater flexibility for local plans to be
developed in accordance with
provisions in 8 300.43(a) and to be
adequately coordinated with existing
local response structures.
Finally, several commenters
questioned why the Plan did not require
State and local contingency planning by
State and local governments. EPA
strongly encourages all levels of
government to undertake such planning;
however, EPA believes it is only
appropriate for the NCP to specify
mandatory planning by Federal entities.
Several commenters suggested that
the Plan require adoption of State and
local plans when they accomplish the
same purposes as the Federal regional
or Federal local plan. Such a
requirement is unnecessary in this Plan.
First regional plans cover Federal
regions which cross State boundaries,
thus State plans would not be
appropriate as regional plans. Second,
both Federal regional and Federal local
plans outline how Federal entities will
coordinate with Slate and local
governments. Local and State plans
generally deal with coordination of
State and local entities. Because of these
differences, such a requirement would,
in most cases, simply pose an additional
burden of examining and determining
that such Plans are not appropriate. It
should be noted, however, that nothing
in this Plan precludes drawing upon
State and local plans where they are
appropriate.
Conversely, other suggested that State
plans be required to conform to the NCP.
EPA does not believe that such a
requirement is appropriate to the
national Plan since States should be free
to tailor State plans to particular State
needs. This would not, however,
preclude. EPA from requiring State
planning as a condition for receipt of
Federal funds.
£ Subparts
Subpart E establishes procedures for
responding to discharges of oil pursuant
to section 311 of the Clean Water Act
This section reflects the experience
gained in oil removal under that
program and remains largely unchanged
from the existing Plan. Like Subpart F.
this subpart includes phases of
response, beginning with discovery of
discharges under i 300.51, and
continuing through documentation for
cost recovery actions in § 300.54. In
addition. S 300.55 contains a summary of
actions the OSC should take upon being
notified of a discharge of oil; i 300.56
details requirements for pollution
reports, which are reports submitted on
removal actions; { 300.57 details special
considerations for safety of personnel
and waterfowl conservation which must
be considered during removal action;
and S 300 58 details funding
requirements for oil removal.
EPA received very few comments on
this Subpart. Most comments generally
favored EPA's decision not to make any
significant changes to the procedures in
the existing Plan for responding to oil
discharges. The comments and
modifications to Subpart E are
discussed below.
Some commenters noted that Subpart
E did not clearly differentiate between
the requirements for persons "in charge"
and "responsible parties" under section
311 of the CWA. EPA has clarified this
distinction in two provisions. First
§ 300.51(a)(1) has been modified to'
clarify that notification requirements in
case of oil spills under section 311(b)(5)
apply to all persons "in charge." not
"responsible parties." Second, similar
clarification has been made to
{ 300.55(a)(4) where "responsible party"
has been changed to a "discharger or
other person."
One commenter noted that } 300.58
did not adequately discuss all sources of
funding available for oil response
actions. EPA agrees and has modified
§ 300.58(c) to more clearly differentiate
between oil related funds, including the
oil pollution fund authorized by section
311(k) of the CWA; the fund authorized
by the Deepwater Port Act; the fund
authorized by the Outer Continental
Shelf Lands Act; and the fund
authorized by the Trans-Alaska Pipeline
Authorization Act
F. Subpart F
Subpart F is the major new section of
the NCP. It establishes the management
system under which response to
hazardous substances will be
undertaken. Although most of Subpart F
applies to Fund-financed response, it
should be noted that { 300.68 (e) through
(j) also applies to clean-up by
responsible parties. Subpart P
establishes seven phases of response,
from discovery through various levels of
response to documentation of response
for cost recovery purposes. The phases
are designed to give response personnel
a decisionmaking framework for
undertaking response action. All of the
phases need not be undertaken. For
example, Phase ID—Immediate
Removal, will not be necessary at all
releases, nor will all releases be eligible
for such funding.
Several commenlcrs stated lhat the
process established in Subpart F
appears to contemplate a lengthy
planning process. One commenter
suggested that the Plan include
deadlines for particular actions. Another
suggested that planning be minimized.
EPA believes that the response steps
established in Subpart F assure that
Fund money is spent in the most
judicious manner on the most severe
problems by providing several check
points for taking further action. Such
checks are necessary, since at each step
in the planning process new information
may become available showing that the
problem is not as severe as anticipated
or that it is, in fact, more severe than
anticipated. The inclusion of such check
points does not cause delay or lengthy
planning. Subpart F allows the planning
to be tailored to the complexity of the
problem presented.
Many commenters. suggested that,
throughout Subpart F, the term "release"
should explicitly include "substantial
threat of release" under section 104(a) of*
CERCLA. EPA notes that the Plan's
definition of "release" (see f 300.0) .
incorporates this term in order to avoid
repeating the phrase. Where the Plan
refers to section 10S of CERCLA in
which enforcement authority does not
include "substantial threat" but merely
a threat posing imminent and'
substantial endangerment the Plan
notes this through reference to section
108 of CERCLA. The same scheme hat
been used with regard to discharges of
oil.
Section 300.01 sets forth basic
hazardous substance response
authorities and policies. Several
commenters questioned the adequacy of
i 300.61(c)(3) and pointed out'that it is ,
important to keep the public informed
and to include them in the decision-
making process. Specific comments
included: (1) Strong advocacy of greater
emphasis on public participation: (2)
that the Plan places unlimited and
unquestioned authority in the hands of
the lead agency and NRT; (3] that ther*
should be some procedure to enable the
public to understand the protection they
are being provided; and (4) that the Plan
should include specific procedural
requirements for public information ami
consultation.
EPA agrees that It is important to be
sensitive to the needs of communities
affected by hazardous substance
releases and has incorporated this in
{ 300.81(c)(3). EPA has devoted
substantial effort toward developing an
effective community relations program
which has been implemented through
guidance documents. In order to indicate
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that the Agency hns issued guidance in
this area, EPA haB added in
{ 300.61(c)(3) that it is necessary to be
sensitive to local concerns "in
accordance with applicable guidance."
The guidance provides for development
of community relations programs on a
site-by-aite basis.
EPA has added a new } 300.62 on the
Slate role under CERCLA. EPA decided
to add this new section to emphasize the
ability of States to undertake
responsibility for much of the response
detailed in Subpart F. This new section
is discussed at length in Section IV of
this Preamble.
Section 300.63 of Subpart F is the first
step in any response. It details the
methods by which releases are
discovered, and therefore, the methods
by which response personnel became
aware of potential problems. This
section is required by section 105(1) of
CERCLA. The provisions of this section
are discussed at length in Section II of
this preamble. A few specific comments
on this section are noted here. Several
commenter* noted that S 300.62(b) of the
proposal was unclear as to the
notification requirements for reporting
releases to the NRC. EPA has clarified
this provision in a new $ 300.63(b) by
detailing the requirements for •
notification and noting that reporting
requirements under section 103(a) of
CERCLA arise when a reportable
quantity is released. Another commenter
pointed out that States may not want to
be notified in the case of minor releases
pursuant to proposed § 300.62. EPA
notes that this is a statutory requirement
of section 103 of CERCLA.
Section 300.64 of the Plan establishes
the procedures for performing a
preliminary assessment of releases. This
assessment is generally based on
readily available information and is
tailored to the particular type of release
(i.e., emergency or long-term). In
situations requiring emergency action
pursuant to § 300.65, this initial
investigation and evaluation will be
short In the case of slower, long-term
releases, this step will be more .
extensive and is the first step for
investigating and evaluating the
problems posed by the release. The
content of this section is discussed
generally in Section II above. Additional
comments are noted below.
Several commenters said that the Plan
was not specific enough regarding the
appropriate extent of a preliminary
assessment and that the assessment
procedures were not adequate for
evaluating a release. Others requested
that such assessments be eliminated
since assessments can be very time
consuming and costly.
EPA believes that S 300.64 is
sufficiently detailed. The preliminary
assessment is for screening purposes
only—it is not the final evaluation for
determining whether remedial action is
needed. Requirements for a more
detailed preliminary assessment would
interfere with and delay the decision
making process at this stage of the
response. For example, a less severe
release where information is readily
available would allow an expedited
assessment More serious releases with
little information available would '
require an extended assessment. For
this reason, EPA has included the
methods which may be employed to
undertake an assessment while the lead
agency reserves the discretion to tailor
the assessment to the factors pertaining
to the individual release. EPA further
notes that the assessment is just the first
step in evaluating a release. It is used to
screen out those releases which may not
merit a Federal response. For example,
EPA's experience indicates that the vast
majority of classic spills are responded
to by private parties or State or local
governments, making further Federal
involvement unnecessary or very
limited. The assessment also allows the
lead agency to quickly move into Phase
III and take emergency action, if
necessary; to determine that the release
requires further evaluation under Phase
IV, through a site inspection, and
perhaps investigation; or to determine'
that it does not require Fund-financed
response. This preliminary assessment
assures that limited Fund money is
available to respond to the most
significant releases.
Other commenters questioned the
need for a site visit during Phase n. A
site visit will be made only in those
situations in which additional
information is needed (£ 300.B4(b)]_to
allow the lead agency to make an
informed decision on the appropriate
response to the release.
One commenter pointed out that
§ 300.63(b) would have prohibited a site
visit if sophisticated safety equipment
was needed, thus prohibiting-* visit
even if such equipment was available.
EPA agrees that this provision could be
better worded and has replaced this
requirement with: "* * * if conditions
are such that it may be performed
safely." This modification allows such
visits to be taken when safety
equipment is readily available, while
still assuring the safety of response
personnel going on or near the release.
A few commenters questioned how
EPA will determine whether further
response is required, i.e., whether
certain levels of contamination will be
responded to while others will not
During the preliminary assessment, one
cannot determine with certainty the
degree of contamination. For this
reason, EPA has included the factors of
I 300.64(c) for the lead agency to use in
determining when no further action is
necessary. Amount of contaimination
alone is not the sole determining factor.
The other factors of { 300.64(c) must be
considered as well.
Section 300.65 establishes criteria for
undertaking immediate removals (i.e..
emergency response). Several
commenters contended that the criteria
for taking immediate removal needed to
be more detailed. The Plan gives several
examples of the types of situations
requiring emergency action as well as a
threshold for taking such action (see
§ 300.65(a)). EPA does not believe that
further detail is appropriate. The Agency
has listed as examples those situations
that will clearly require emergency
response. For those situations that are
not specifically listed, application of the
criteria contained in j 300.65(a) will
determine whether emergency removal
is necessary. EPA believes that this
format provides the flexibility required
for effective response to a wide range of
emergencies.
Several commenters pointed out that
the statutory requirement of S 104(c)(3)
of CERCLA for limiting response to six
months or $1 million was omitted from
the section on Immediate Removal. EPA
agrees that'the statutory requirement
should be reiterated in the Plan and has
accordingly added a new paragraph (d).
Several commenters suggested that a
substantial amount of decisionmaking
authority should be delegated to OSCs :
in order that response not be delayed
pending consultation with officials not
at the site. Another commenter
suggested requiring OSC consultation \
with EPA Headquarters to assure
consistency of Fund expenditures.
Moreover, one commenter suggested
that the Plan allow OSCs to spend up to
$500,000 on removal actions. EPA agrees
that response personnel must be able to
address classic emergency situations in
a timely manner, and believes that
§ 300.65 facilitates timely response. EPA
does not believe, however, that
delegations of spending authority should
be included in the Plan, since such
delegations are often subject to
modifications. Internal agency approval
processes for EPA personnel to expend
funds are neither appropriate to the Plan
nor required by section 105 of CERCLA.
Instead, § 300.65 contains the methods
and criteria for determining whether the
problem should be addressed as an "
emergency, leaving administrative
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funding procedures to Agency guidance
and directives.
Section 300.06—Phase IV provides for
continuing evaluation of releases
through investigation and inspection of
the release, and details the procedure
for using the Hazard Ranking System
and compiling the National Priorities
List. Section ft of this preamble
discusses investigation and inspection
activitiei and Section V discusses the
establishment of the National Priorities
List
Section 300.67—Phase V sets forth the
criteria for undertaking planned removal
actions. A discussion of comments
related to planned removal provisions in
the Plan is included in Section VI above.
Section 300.88—Phase VI provides
methods and criteria for undertaking
remedial action and for determining the
appropriate extent of remedy. A full
discussion of the criteria and methods
for determining the appropriate extent of
remedy and the comments on these
criteria and methods is set forth in
Sections II and III of this preamble.
Section 300.69—Phase VH requires
response personnel to maintain and
collect information during all response
actions for potential use in cost,
recovery. This section of proposed
revisions is unchanged except for the
addition to paragraph (b) of the
provision that information and reports
on response actions must be forwarded
by response personnel only \yhen taking
Fund-financed action. This modification
clarifies that Federal agencies, such as
DOD, that take remedial action using
their own funds need not forward such
reports to the RRC or NRT.
Section 300.70 sets forth methods for
remedying releases in accordance with
section 105 of CERCLA. A discussion of
this provision is included in Section II of
this preamble. Several comments were
received suggesting minor modifications
and additions to this section. The
Agency has incorporated those
modifications and additions that
included appropriate methods for
remedying releases and covered by a
category already listed that were not
already included in the methods listed in
S 300.70
Section 300.71 establishes
requirements for worker health and
safety. This section was proposed at
§ 300.70 and detailed worker health and
safety considerations, eligible and
noneligible costs, and methods for
obtaining funding under the Disaster
Reb'ef Act EPA has deleted the eligible
and noneligible costs section of the
propos&L Several commenters found the
section vague and confusing. Since it is
difficult to discern cost components that
are eligible or noneligible from broad
categories which are outlined in the
proposal. EPA is deleting this section.
EPA notes that delineation of eligible
and noneligible costs in the Plan is not a
requirement of section 105 of CERCLA-
Eligible costs are specifically defined in
State contracts or cooperative
agreements and other guidance [such as
OMB circulars and EPA grant
regulations).
Proposed S 300.70(a) (now section
300.71) has been modified to clarify that
response personnel must comply with
applicable OSHA regulations. EPA has
deleted the requirement that OSCs
submit safety reports to the work group
established pursuant to section 301(f) of
CERCLA. The work group has nearly
completed its study and
recommendations; thus, it is
unnecessary for OSCs to submit safety
reports for the group's consideration.
G. Subpart G
Section 111(h)(1) of CERCLA provides
that damages for injury to. destruction
of, or loss of natural resources resulting
from a release of hazardous substance,
for purposes of CERCLA and section
311(f) (4) and (5) of the CWA, will be
assessed by Federal officials designated
by the President under the National
Contingency Plan. If further provide*
that designated officials will act as
trustees for purposes of section 111 of
CERCLA and section 311(f)(5) of the
CWA.
Section 111(b) of CERCLA allows
claims to be asserted against the
Superfund far (1) claims asserted and
compensable but unsatisfied under
section 311 of the CWA which are
modified by section 304 of CERCLA; and
(2) other claims resulting from a release
or threat of release of a hazardous
substance from a vessel or facility for
injury to, destruction of, or loss of
natural resources, including cost for
damage assessment Such claims may
be asserted only by the President, acting
as trustee, for natural resources over
which the United States has sovereign
rights, or natural resources within the
territory or the fishery conservation
zone to the extent they are managed or
protected by the United States, or by
any State for natural resources within
the boundary of that State belonging to,
managed by, controlled by, or
ppertaining to the State.
Section 107(f) of CERCLA provides
that the President or authorized
representative of a State will act on
behalf of the public as trustee to recover
for d;i mages to natural resources
pursuant to section 107 of CERCLA.
Subpart G implements these
provisions, pursuant to Executive Order
12316, by designating those Federal
trustees who will act on behalf of the
President in assessing damages, bringing
claims, and recovering damages for
natural resources under these provisions
of CERCLA. A few commenters were
concerned that Subpart C did not
adequately note the purposes for which
trustees are appointed. EPA has
clarified this by noting in section 300.72
that Subpart G is limited to the purposes
of CERCLA. To clarify that States are
also given authority to undertake such
actions. EPA has added a new S 300.73
that provides that States are trustees for
resources within the States' boundaries,
belonging to, managed by, controlled by,
or appertaining to the State. In addition.
EPA has added a new subsection in
S 300.72. Section 300.72(a) designates
trustees for land subject to the
management or protection of a Federal
land managing agency and $ 300.72(b)
designates trustees for fixed or non-
fixed resources subject to the
management or protection of a Federal
agency. These subsections are intended
to clarify trusteeship responsibility for
these individual resources. Subsequent
sections have been renumbered
accordingly.
In addition, EPA has also modified
$ 300.72(c) to clarify that in subsection
(c), where affected resources are subject
to the respective statutory authorities
and jurisdictions of both DOI and DOC
in the geographical areas identified in
this subsection, they will act as co-
trustees. In order to facilitate mote
efficient and effective exercise of
Federal trusteeship responsibilities, the
DOC and DOI, as part of the co-
trusteeship responsibility for waters
subject to tidal influence and for
contiguous upland areas where a
pollution incident may affect resources
under the authorities of both agencies,
are encouraged to enter, as soon as
practicable, into a Memorandum of
Understanding which will delineate the
respective trusteeship responsibilities of
each agency in these areas. Co-
trusteeship will not apply to a
resource(s) for which either agency has
sole management or protective
responsibility. In these cases, the agency
having that responsibility .will act as
sole Federal trustee. EPA has also
added a provision to $ 300.74 which
encourages that in cases where trustees
have concurrent jurisdiction, the
trustees coordinate their activities. The
term "natural resources," as defined by
CERCLA. is extremely broad. The term
includes both fixed and non-fixed
resources. It is, therefore, possible that
trusteeship responsibilities will overlap.
Since natural resource assessment,
'damage assessment and restoration
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31201
planning generally will need to be
performed and restoration plans
developed on a geographic basis, it is
important that trustees coordinate
efforts.
H. Subpart H
The proposed Subpart H replaced
Annex X of the previous Plan and
provided for a case-by-case
authorization by the Administrator or
her designee of the use of dispersants or
other chemicals in treating oil
discharges or hazardous substance
releases. The Agency explained in the
preamble to the proposed revisions (47
FR 10978) that it was eliminating the
detailed testing procedures of AnnexX
in order to simplify the process for
authorizing the use of dispersants and
other chemicals. Testing procedures and
a process for authorizing use of
dispersants and other chemicals would
be developed as the Agency gained
greater knowledge on this subject
Many commenters objected to the
proposed Subpart H. Most commenters
urged that the decision making authority
should not be with the Administrator or
a designee in Headquarters but rather
should be with the OSC in order to
enable rapid decision making. Several
other commenters suggested that the
Plan should include testing procedures
Jo enable the Agency to develop a list of
acceptable dispersants and other
chemicals that could be used as a guide
in decision making. Finally, some
commenters stated that Subpart H
should provide for involvement of the
affected State in the decision making
process.
In response to these comments, EPA
has made the following changes to
Subpart H. First, the proposed text of
| 300.81(b) has been deleted as being
unnecessary and. in its place, provision
has been made for OSCs to authorize
the use of dispersants or other
chemicals. The OSC may authorize the
use of dispersants or other chemicals to
treat discharges of oil. if such
dispersants or other chemicals are on
EPA's Acceptance List developed
pursuant to the testing and acceptance
procedures of the previous Plan. There
are three important limitations in this
authorization. First, it applies only to
discharges of oil and not to releases of
hazardous substances. OSCs have much
greater experience in responding to
discharges of oil than releases of
hazardous substances into water.
Additionally, most of the dispersants or
other chemicals on EPA's Acceptance
List are for use primarily in treating
discharges of oiL The second limitation
is that OSCs may only authorize use of
dispersants or other chemicals on EPA's
Acceptance List. That list includes
twenty-eight products tested and found
acceptable for their intended purposes
pursuant to Annex X of the previous
Plan. While EPA believes that the
procedures in former Annex X need
modification to simplify the testing
requirements, EPA also believes that the
decisions to include those twenty-eight
products on the list were sound and that
they can be used in an environmentally
safe manner under the proper conditions
and directions. Finally, the Agency, in
§ 300.81(b), has specifically provided
that the affected State will be consulted
regarding the use of any dispersant or
other chemicals in the waters of such
State. The OSC must also obtain the
concurrence of the EPA representative!
to the Regional Response Team.-
For those dispersants and other
chemicals not on EPA's Acceptance List,
S 300.81(c) continues to provide that the
Administrator or her designee may
authorize use of such products for
discharges of oil or releases of
hazardous substances. This provision
ensures that any product may be .
authorized for use if it is determined
that such product can be. used safely in
the waters into which the oil has been
discharged or the hazardous substances
released.
Subpart H, at this time, does not
include testing procedures and a process
for designation dispersants or other
chemicals as acceptable for use.
However, the Agency is developing new
testing procedures and will propose
those procedures and an approval
process for public comment in the near
future. The time constraints for
promulgating the final revisions
precluded completion of development of
new testing procedures in time for
including them in this publication.
Vm. Other Comments
This section discusses additional
issues raised by comments which were
generally applicable to the Plan or ¦
particular subpart, or which were
outside the scope of the NCP.
Several commenters objected tu
language iii the Plan that used the term
"should" in Ueu of "shalL" In some
instances, EPA agreed with the
comments and has modified the
language. Each of these modifications is
noted in the discussion above of the
individual subparts. However, EPA
believes that, in the remaining cases,
use of the term "should" is preferable
for several reasons. First EPA sought, in
revising the Plan, to provide a document
that would allow the Federal
government, or States acting under
contracts or cooperative agreements, the
flexibility to design response actions to
the particular needs of individual
releases. Use of the term "shall" would
impose upon response personnel the
duty to routinely perform certain actions
regardless of site-specific exigencies,
thus inhibiting timely and effective
response. Second, response personnel
have many mandatory statutory
requirements that they must meet prior
to or during a response. Where there is a
mandatory statutory requirement, the
Plan specifies those requirements as
mandatory. However, if the Plan were to
make all other requirements mandatory
(such as notification of all other Federal
agencies, all individual State agencies,
and all involved parties) response
personnel would be faced with an
enormous administrative burden that
would severely hamper their ability to
perform their primary objective of timely
and effective response. Finally, in the
new CERCLA response program, there
is. to date, little experience in
responding to rele'ases from hazardous
waste sites. EPA has made mandatory
these provisions relating to activities
that experience has shown to be
necessary at all hazardous waste sites,
or which are required by statutes.' EPA
has provided discretion for other
activities that may be appropriate. This
allows the OSC or responsible official to
make the decision, based on the
particular site conditions, that an action
is or is not appropriate.
Other commenters questioned
whether permits would be required for
CERCLA sites. EPA also believes this is
an issue beyond the scope of the NCP.
This issue will be resolved in
conjunction with those EPA programs
that affect CERCLA actions.
Several commenters asked what
criteria EPA would use in determining
whether a release poses an "imminent
and substantial endangermenL" This
term has limited usage in CERCLA, and
it pertains exclusively to response .
authority thresholds for Fund-financed
response to pollutants and contaminants
under section 104(a) of CERCLA and to
the threshold for enforcement actions
under section 106 of CERCLA. Section
106 is not implemented through the Plan.
The term is a legal term of art which the
courts have interpreted through a series
of cases, and thus, is beyond the scope
of the NCP.
Many commenters questioned how
clean-up of Federal facilities would be
addressed. EPA is currently developing
guidance on this issue. Since the issue
requires agreement among Federal
agencies as to their respective clean-up
obligations, EPA believes that the issue
should be resolved in guidance, or
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through Memoranda of Understanding,
rather than through the Plan.
Several coir men ten objected to the
deletion of Annex VI of the previous
Plan which contained sampling
procedures. Suggestions included: (1)
That, if deleted, a manual should
thoroughly cover sampling; and (2) that
a separate section should specify basic
elements of a site assessment, including
reference to sampling and test protocols.
The Plan does specify the basic
elements for site assessments in
sections 300.04 and 300.60. However,
EPA does not believe it is necessary to
include technical sampling guidance in
the Plan and notes that sampling
procedures are not required by section
105 of CEKCLA. However, EPA agrees
that sampling procedures are important
in assessing sites and, accordingly, has
begun preparation of a sampling
manual
One commenter suggested that
Subpart F should provide for restoration
of natural resources. The statute does
not require that the Flan address
resource restoration, other than that
which is incidental to the actual
response operation. The appropriate
place for addressing the restoration
phase is through the damage assessment
regulations and claims procedures
required by sections 301 and 112 of
CERCLA.
A few commenters noted that
treatment of oil and hazardous
substances as separate entities in the
Plan makes it difficult to report and fund
incidents involving both oil and
hazardous substances. EPA will
coordinate such incidents on a case-by-
case basis. The statutory authorities
(and, therefore, funding and response
requirements) for the two types of
materials are distinct Reporting of
discharges or releases should not pose a
problem since both are reported to one
central telephone number.
Several commenters raised issues
regarding CERCLA enforcement efforts.
Enforcement efforts are not addressed
by the NCP. Guidelines for use of
enforcement authorities have been
published in a separate document at 47
FF 20684 (May 13,1982).
IX. Regulatory Impact Analysis;
Regulatory Flexibility Act
An analysis of the economic Impacts
of the revisions to the NCP was
conducted to determine whether the
revised NCP is a major rule under
Executive Order 12291 and, therefore,
required the preparation of a Regulatory
Impact Analysis. EPA concluded that
the revised Plan is a major rule because
it is likely to result in an annual effect
on the economy of $100 million or more.
The Regulatory Impact Analysis is
available for inspection at Room S-398,
Environmental Protection Agency, 401 M
Street, S.W., Washington. D.C. 20460.
This regulation was reviewed by the
Office of Management and Budget.
As required by the Regulatory
Flexibility Act of 1980, the Agency has
reviewed the impact of the revised NCP
on small entities. EPA certifies that the
NCP will not have a significant impact
on a substantial number of small
entities. Aside from the level of clean-up
required by responsible parties, the NCP
does not address enforcement actions.
However, the Regulatory Impact
Analysis recognizes that some
enforcement actions (including cost
recovery actions) taken against parties
responsible for hazardous substance
releases at sites that are identified on
the National Priorities List after it is
published. Therefore, some of these
costs have been included in assessing
the total impact of the NCP. Moreover, it
is a matter of Agency discretion whether
or not to proceed with enforcement-
actions against small entities which may
be significantly affected by such actions.
Therefore, there are no necessary
adverse impacts on small entitier
directly associated with the NCP.
As part of the Regulatory Impact
Analysis of the revised NCP, EPA
estimated that some 60 small firms
might be adversely affected by
enforcement actions associated with the
NCP. This estimate is based on the
relative proportions of small firms to
other size Erma within affected
industries, and is not reflective of actual
responsibilities of small firms for
particular hazardous substance releases.
The Agency is consequently not
committed to taking this number of
enforcement actions against small firms,
nor limited to this figure. Nevertheless,
EPA estimates that this would result in
far less than 20 percent of the total
number of small firms experiencing
adverse effects. In general, parties
responsible for hazardous substance
releases may be found across a full
range of Industries and SIC codes. No
small organizations will be adversely
affected by the Tevised NCP, nor is there
any likelihood of significant impacts on
a substantia] number of small
municipalities as a result of enforcement
actions associated with the NCP.
Interested parties are referred to the
details of the analysis, which is
available for inspection at Room S-398,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
401 M Street S.W, Washington, D.C.
2046a
List of Subjects in 40 CFR Part 300
Air pollution control. Chemicals.
Hazardous materials lntergovernm«nlal
relations. National resources.
Occupational safety and health. Oil
pollution. Reporting and record looping
requirements, Superfund, Waste
treatment and disposal. Water pollution
control. Water supply.
Dated: July ft. 1982.
Anna M. Gomjcb,
Administrator.
Part 1510, Title 40 of the Code of
Federal Regulations is redesignated as
Part 300 in a new Subchapter J of
chapter 1 and revised to read as follows:
PART 300—NATIONAL OIL AND
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
POLLUTION CONTINGENCY PLAM
Subchapter J—Superfund Program*
Subpart A—Introduction
S«&
300.1 Purpose and objectives.
300.2 Authority.
300.9 Scope.
300.4 Application.
300.5 Abbreviations.
30041 Definitions.
Subpart B—Responsibility
300.21 Duties of President delegated to
Federal agendas.
300.22 Coordination among and by Federal
agendas.
300.23 Other aaaistanca by Federal
agencies.
300.24 State and local participation.
300.25 Non-government participation.
Subpart C—Organization
300.31 Organizational concepts.
300.32 Planning and coordination.
300.33 Response operations.
300.34 Spedsl forces and teams.
300.32 Multi-regional responses.
300.30 Communications.
M0.17 Response equipment.
Subpart D—Plana
300.41 Regional and local plans,
300.42 Regional contingency plans.
300.43 Local contingency plans.
Subpart E—Operational Response Phasaa
tor Oil Removal
300.51 Pbaea 1—Discovery and notification.
300.52 PtoasaH—Preliminary assessment
and Initiation of action.
300.53 Phase HI—Containment,
countermeaaurea, dean-op and dispoaaL
300.54 Phase IV—Documentation and cost
recovery.
300.59 General pattern of response.
300.56 Pollution reports.
300.57 Special considerations.
300.50 Funding.
Subpart F—Hazardous Substanea
Response
300.61 General.
300.62 State role.
300.63 Phase I—Diicovery and notification
300.64 Phase Q—Preliminary assessment
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Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137. Friday, July ID, 1982 / Rules and Regulations
31203
See.
300.09 Phase III—Immediate removal.
300.00 Phase IV—Evaluation and
determination of appropriate response-
planned removal and remedial action.
300.07 Phase V—Planned removal.
300.00 Phase V]—-Remedial action.
300.00 Phase V71—Documentation and cost
recovery.
300.70 Methods of remedying releases.
301X71 Worker health and safety.
Subpart G—Trustees (or Natural Resources
300.72 Designation of Federal trustees.
300.73 State trustees.
300-74 Responsibilities of trustees.
Subpart H—Us* of Dlspersants and Other
Chemicals
300.01 General.
Appendix A—Uncontrolled Hazardous
Waste Site Ranking System; a users
manual
Authority: Sec 105, Pub. L. 99-510, 94 Stat
2704.42 U.S.C. 9005 and sec. 311(c)(2). Pub. L
02-500, as amended; 80 Stat 865, 33 U.S.C.
132Hc)(2): Executive Order 12310, 47 FR 42237
(August 20,1001); Executive Order 11735.38
FR 21243 (August 1873}.
Subpart A—Introduction
g 300.1 Purpose and objectives.
The purpose of the National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Pollution
Contingency Plan {Plan) is to effectuate
the response powers and responsibilities
created by the Comprehensive
Environmental Response.
¦ Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980
(CERLA) and the authorities established
by section 311 of the Clean Water Act
(CWA), as amended.
13002 Authority.
The Plan is required by section 105 of
CERCLA, 42 U.S.C. 9605, and by section
311(c)(2) of the CWA, as amended, 33
U.S.C. 1321(c)(2). In Executive Order
12310 (46 FR 42237) the President
delegated to the Environmental
Protection Agency the responsibility for
the amendment of theNCP and all of the
other functions vested in the President
by section 105 of CERCLA. Amendments
to the NCP shall be coordinated with
members of the National Response
Team prior to publication for notice and
comment! Amendments shall also be
coordinated with the Federal Emergency
Management Agency and the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission in order to
avoid inconsistent or duplicative
requirements in the emergency planning
responsibilities of those agencies.
13003 Scop*.
(a) Hie Plan applies to all Federal
agendes and is in effect for:
(1) The navigable waters of the United
States and adjoining shorelines, for the
contiguous zone, and the high seas
beyond the contiguous zone in
connection with activities under the
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act or
the Deep Water Port Act of 1B74. or
which may affect natural resources
belonging to. appertaining to, or under
the exclusive management authority of
the United States (including resources
under the Fishery Conservation and
Management Act of 1S7B). (See sections
311(b)(1) and 502(7) of the Clean Water
Act.)
(2) Releases or substantial threats of
releases of hazardous substances into
the environment and releases or
substantial threats of releases of
pollutants or contaminants which may
present an imminent and substantial
danger to public health or welfare.
(b) The Plan provides for efficient,
coordinated and effective response to
discharges of oil and releases of
hazardous substances, pollutants and
contaminants in accordance with the
authorities of CERCLA and the CWA. It
provides for:
(1) Division and specification of
responsibilities ainong the Federal, State
and local governments in response
actions, and appropriate roles for
private entities.
(2) The national response organization
that may be brought to bear in response
actions, including description of the
organization, response personnel and
resources that are available to respond.
(3) The establishment of requirements
for Federal regional and Federal local
contingency plans, and encouragement
of pre-planning for response by other
levels of government
(4) Procedures for undertaking
removal operations pursuant to section
311 of the Clean Water Act
(5) Procedures for undertaking
response operations pursuant to
CERCLA.
(6) Designltion of trustees for natural
resources for purposes of CERCLA.
(7) National policies and procedures
for the use of dispersants and other
chemcials in removal and response
actions.
(c) In implementing this Plan,
consideration shall be given to the Joint
Canada/U.S. Contingency Plan; the
U-S./Mexico Joint Contingency Plan and
international assistance plans and
agreements, security regulations and
responsibilities based on international
agreements, Federal statutes and
executive orders. Actions taken
pursuant to this Plan shall conform to
the provisions of international joint
contingency Plans, where they are
applicable. The Department of State
should be consulted prior to taking any
action which may affect its activities.
}300.4 Application.
The Plan is applicable to response
taken pursuant to the authorities under
CERCLA and section 311 of Ihe CWA.
§ 300.5 Abbreviations.
(a) Department and Agency Title
Abbreviations.
DOC—Department of Commerce
DOD—Department of Defense
DOE—Department of Energy
DOI—Department of the Interior
DO]—Department of Justice
DOL—Department of Labor
DOS—Department of State
DOT—Department of Transportation
EPA—Environmental Protection Agency
FEMA—Federal Emergency Management
Agency
HHS—Department of Health and Human
" Services
NIOSH—National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health
NOAA—National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
OSHA—Occupational Safety and Health
Administration
USCG—U.S. Coast Guard
USDA—VS. Department of Agriculture
(b) Operational Title Abbreviations.
ERT—Environmental Response Team
FCO—Federal Coordinating Officer
NRC—National 'Response Center
NRT—National Response Team
NSF—National Strike Force
OSC—On-Scene Coordinator
PAAT—Public Affairs Assist Team
PLAT—Public Information Assist Team
RRC—Regional Response Center
RRT—Regional Response Team
SSC—Scientific Support Coordinator
{300.6 Definitions.
Terms not defined in this section have
the meaning given by CERCLA or the
CWA.
Claim, as defined by section 101(4) of
CERCLA, means a demand in writing for
a sum certain.
' Claimant as defined by section 101(5)
of CERCLA. means any person who
presents a claim for compensation under
CERCLA.
Coastal zone, at defined for the
purpose of this Plan, means all US.
waters subject to the tide, UH. waters of
the Great Lakes, specified ports and
harbors on the inland rivers, waters of
the contiguous zone, other waters of the
high seas subject to this Plan, and the
land surface or land substrata, ground
waters, and ambient air proximal to
those waters. The term coastal zone
delineates an area of Federal
responsibility for response action.
Precise boundaries are determined by
EPA/USCG agreements and identified
in Federal regional contingency plans.
Contiguous zone means the zone of
the high-seas, established by the United
-------
States under Article 24 of the
Convention on the Territorial Sea and
Contiguous Zone, which is contiguous to
the territorial sea and which extends
nine miles seaward from the outer limit
of the territorial sea.
Discharge, as defined by section -
311(a)(2) of CWA, includes, but is no I
limited to. any spilling, leaking,
pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying or
dumping of oil. For purposes of this Plan,
discharge shall also mean substantial
threat of discharge.
Drinking water supply, as defined by
section 101(7) of CERCLA, means any
raw or finished water source that is or
may be used by a public water system
(as defined in the Safe Drinking Water
Act) or as drinking water by one or more
individuals.
Environment, as defined by section
101(8) of CERCLA, means (a) the
navigable waters of the United States,
the waters of the contiguous zone, and
the ocean waters of which the natural
resources are under the exclusive
management authority of the U.S. under
•the Fishery Conservation and
Management Act of 1978, and (b) any
other surface water, ground water,
drinking water supply, land surface and
subsurface strata, or ambient air within
the United Slates or under the
jurisdiction of the United States.
Facility, as defined by section 101(9)
of CERCLA, means (a) any building,
structure, installation, equipment, pipe
or pipeline (including any pipe into a
sewer or publicly owned treatment
works), well, pit, pond, lagoon,
impoundment, ditch, landfill, storage
container, motor vehicle, rolling stock,
or aircraft, or (b) any site or area where
a hazardous substance has been
deposited, stored, disposed of or placed,
or otherwise come to be located; but
does not include any consumer product
in consumer use or any vessel.
Federally permitted release, as
defined by section 101(10) of CERCLA.
means (a) discharges in compliance with
a permit under section 402 of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act; (b)
discharges resulting from circumstances
identified and reviewed and made part
of the public record with respect to ¦
permit issued or modified under section
402 of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act and subject to a condition
of such permit; (c) continuous or
anticipated intermittent discharges from
a point source, identified in a permit or
permit application under section 402 of
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
which are caused by events occurring
within the scope of relevant operating or
treatment systems; (d) discharges in
compliance with a legally enforceable
permit under section 404 of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act; (e) releases
in compliance with a legally enforceable
final permit issued pursuant to section
3005 (a) through (d) of the Solid Waste
Disposal Act from a hazardous waste
treatment, storage, or disposal facility
when such permit specifically identifies
the hazardous substances and makes
such substances subject to a standard of
practice, control procedure or bioassay
limitation or condition, or other control
on the hazardous substances in such
releases; (f) any release in compliance
with a legally enforceable permit issued
under section 102 or section 103 of the
Marine Protection, Research and
Sanctuaries Act of 1972; (g) any
injection of fluids authorized under
Federal underground injection control
programs or State programs submitted
for Federal approval (and not
disapproved by the Administrator of
EPA) pursuant to part C of the Safe
Drinking Water Act; (h) any emission
into the air subject to a permit or control
regulation under section ill, section 112,
title 1 part C. title 1 part D, or State
implementation plans submitted in
accordance with Section 110 of the
Clean Air Act (and not disapproved by
the Administrator of EPA), including any
schedule or waiver granted,
promulgated, or approved under these
sections; (i) any injection of fluids or
other materials authorized under
applicable State law (1) for the purpose
of stimulating or treating wells for the
production of crude oil, natural gas, or
water, (2) for the purpose of secondary,
tertiary, or other enhanced recovery of
crude oil or natural gas, or (3) which are
brought to the surface in conjunction
with the production of crude oil or
natural gas and which are reinjected; (j)
the introduction of any pollutant into a
publicly-owned treatment works whtfn
such pollutant is specified in and In
compliance with applicable
pretreatment standards of section 307
(b) or (c) of the CWA and enforceable
requirements in a pretreatment program
submitted by a State or municipality for
Federal approval under section 402 of
such Act and (k) any release of source,
special nuclear, or by-product material,
as those terms are defined in the Atomic
Energy Act of 1954, in compliance with a
legally enforceable license, permit
regulation, or order issue pursuant to the
Atomic Energy Act of 1954.
Fund or Drust Fund means the
Hazardous Substance Response Trust
Fund established by section 221 of
CERCLA.
Ground water, as defined by section
101(12) of CERCLA. means water in a
saturated zone or stratum beneath the
surface of land or water.
Hazardous substance, as defined by
section 101(14) of CERCLA. means (a)
any substance designated pursuant to
section 311(b)(2)(A) of the CWA; (b) any
element, compound, mixture, solution, or
substance designated pursuant to
section 102 of CERCLA; (c) any
hazardous waste having the
characteristics identified under or listed
pursuant to section 3001 of the Solid
Waste Disposal Act (but not including
any waste the regulation of which under
the Solid Waste Disposal Act haa been
suspended by Act of Congress); (d) any
toxic pollutant listed under section
307(a) of the CWA; (e) any hazardoua
air pollutant listed under section 112 of
the Clean Air Act; and (f) any
imminently hazardous chemical
substance or mixture with respect to
which the Administrator has taken
action pursuant to section 7 of the Toxic
Substances Control Act. The terms do
not include petroleum, including crude
oil or any fraction.thereof which is not
otherwise specifically listed or
designated as a hazardous substance
under subparagraphs (a) through (f) of
this paragraph, and the term doea not
include natural gas, natural ga% liquids,
liquified natural gas or synthetic gaa
usable for fuel (or mixtures of natural
gas and such synthetic gaa).
Inland zone means the environment
inland of the coastal zone excluding the
Great Lakes and specified ports ana
harbors of inland rivers. The term inland
zone delineates the area of Federal
responsibility for response action.
Precise boundaries are determined by
EPA/USCG agreement and identified in
Federal regional contingency plana.
Lead agency means the Federal
agency (or State agency operating
pursuant to a contract or cooperative
agreement executed pursuant to aection'
104(d)(1) of CERCLA) that provides the
on-scene coordinator or the responsible
ofliciaL
Natural Resources, as defined by
section 101(16) of CERCLA, meant lan^t
fish, wildlife, biota, air, water, ground
water, drinking water supplies, and
other such resources belonging to,
managed by, held In trust by,
appertaining to, or otherwise controlled
by the United States (including the
resources of fishery conservation tones
established by the Fisheiy Conservation
and Management Act of 1876), any State
or local government or any foreign .
government.
Offshore facility, as defined by
section 101(17) of CERCLA and section
31l(a)(ll) of the CWA, means any
facility of any kind located in, on. or
under any of the navigable waters of the
U.S. and any facility of any kind whJdi
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Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 18, 1982 / Rules and Regulations 31205
is subject to the jurisdiction of the U.S.
and is located in, on, or under any other
waters, other than a vessel or a public
vessel.
Oil, as defined by section 311(a)(1) of
CWA. means oil of any kind or in any
form, including, but not limited to,
petroleum, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse,
and oil mixed with wastes other than
dredged spoil.
Oil pollution fund means the fund
established by section 311(k) of the
CWA.
Onshore facility, (a) as defined by
section 101(18) of CERCLA means any
facility (Including, but not limited to,
motor vehicles and rolling stock) of any
kind located in, on, or under any land or
non-navigable waters within the United
StBtes; and (b) as denned by section
311(a)(10) of CWA means any facility
(including, but not limited to, motor
vehicles and rolling stock) of any kind
located in, on, or under any land within
the United States other than submerged
land.
-On-Scene Coordinator means the
Federal official predesignated by tha
EPA or the USCG (or a State ofBcial
acting pursuant to a contract or
cooperative agreement executed
pursuant to section 104(d)(1) of
CERCLA) to coordinate and direct
Federal responses under this Plan;
provided, however, that with respect to
releases from DOD facilities or vessels,
the OSC shall be designated by DOD.
Person, as defined by section 101(21)
of CERCLA, means an individual, firm,
corporation, association, partnership,
consortium, joint venture, commercial
entity, U.S. Government, Stats,
municipality,'commission, political
subdivision of a State, or any interstate
^°p¥an means the National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Pollution
Contingency Plan published under
section 311(c) of the CWA and revised
pursuant to section 105 of CERCLA.
Pollutant or contaminant, as defined
by section 104(a)(2) of CERCLA, shall
include, but not be limited to, any
element substance, compound, or
mixture, including disease causing
agents, which after release into the
environment and upon exposure,
ingestion, inhalation, or assimilation
into any organism, either directly from
the environment or indirectly by
ingesting through food chains, will or
may reasonably be anticipated to cause
death, disease, behavioral
abnormalities, cancer, genetic mutation,
physiological malfunctions (including
malfunctions in reproduction) or
physical deformation, in such organisma
or their offspring. The term does not
include petroleum, including crude oil
and any fraction thereof which is not
otherwise specifically listed or
designated as a hazardous substance
under section 101(14)(A) through (F) of
CERCLA, nor docs it include natural
gas, liquified natural gas, or synthetic
gas of pipeline quality (or mixtures of
natural gas and synthetic gaa).
Release, as defined by section 101(22)
of CERCLA; means any spilling, leaking,
pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying,
discharging,' injecting, escaping,
leaching, dumping, or disposing into the
environment but excludes (a) any
release which results in exposure to
persons solely within a workplace, with
respect to a claim which such persons
may assert against the employer of such
persons; (b) emissions from the engine
exhaust of a motor vehicle, rolling stock,
aircraft vessel, or pipeline pumping
station engine; (c) release of source, by-
product or special nuclear material from
a nuclear incident as those terms are
defined in the Atomic Energy Act of
1954, if such release is subject to
requirements with respect to financial
protection established by the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission under section
170 of such act or, for the purposes of
section 104 of CERCLA or any other
response action, any release of source,
by-product or special nuclear material
from any processing site designated
under section 102(a)(1) or 302(a) of the
Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control
Act of 1078; and (d) the normal
application of fertilizer. For the purposes
of this Plan, release also means
substantial threat of release.
Remove or removal as defined by
section 311(a)(8) of CWA refers to
removal of oil or hazardous substances
from the water and ahorelines or the
taking of such other actions as may be
necessary to minimize or mitigate
damage to the public health or welfare.
As defined by section 101(23) of
CERCLA. remove or removal means the
clean-up or removal of released
hazardous substances from the
environment; such actions as may be
necessary taken in the event of the
threat of release of hazardous
substances into the environment; such
actions as may be necessary to monitor,
assess, and evaluate the release or
threat of release of hazardous
substances; the disposal of removed
material; or the.taking or such other
actions as may be necessary to prevent
minimize, or mitigate damage to the
public health or welfare or the
environment, which may otherwise
result from such release or threat of
release. The term includes, in addition,
without being limited to, security fencing
or other measures to limit access,"
provision of alternative water supplies.
temporary evacuation and housing of
threatened individuals not otherwise
provided Tor. action taken under section
104(b) of CERCLA, and any emergency
assistance which may be provided
under the Disaster Relief Act of 1074.
Remedy or remedial action, as
defined by section 101(24) of CERCLA,
means those actions consistent with
permanent remedy taken instead of, or
in addition to, removal action in the
event of a release or threatened release
of a hazardous substance into the
environment to prevent or minimize the
release of hazardous substances so that
they do not migrate to cause substantial
danger to present or future public health
or welfare or the environment The term
includes, but is not limited to, such
actions at the location of the release as
storage, confinement, perimeter
protection using dikes, trenches, or
ditches, clay cover, neutralization,
clean-up of released hazardous
substances or contaminated materials
recycling or reuse' diversion,
destruction, segregation or reactive
wastes, dredging or excavations, repair
or replacement of leaking container*,
collection of leachate and runoff, onsite
treatment or incineration, provision of
alternative water supplies, and any
monitoring reasonably required to
assure that such actions protect the
public health and welfare and the
environment The term includes the
costs of permanent relocation of
residents and businesses and
community facilities where the President
determines that alone or in combination
with other measures, such relocation is
more cost-effective than and
environmentally preferable to the
transportation, storage, treatment
destruction, or secure disposition offsite
of hazardous substances or may
otherwise be necessary to protect the
public health or welfare. The term does
not include offsite transport of
hazardous substances, or the storage,
treatment, destruction, or secure
disposition offsite of such hazardous
substances or contaminated materials
unless the President determines that
such actions (a) are more cost-effective
than other remedial actions; (b) will r
create new capacity to manage in
compliance with subtitle C of the Solid
Waste Disposal Act hazardous
substances in addition to those located
at the affected facility; or (c) are
necessary to protect public health or
welfare or the environment from a
present or potential risk which may be
created by further exposure to the
continued presence of such substances
or materials.
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31206 Federal Register / Vol.
Respond or response, as defined by
section 101(25) of CERCLA, means
remove, removal, remedy, or remedial
action.
Responsible officio] refer# to lhe
Federal offical (or State official acting
pursuant to a contractor cooperative
agreement executed pursuant to section
104(d)(lJ of CERCLA], assigned by the
lead agency, responsible ior
coordinating planned removals,
remedial actions and .related activities
under Subpart F of this plan. Where
reference is made to the responsibilities
and authorities of an OSC, those
responsibilities and .authorities also
apply lo .a responsible official.
Size classes of discharges refers to
the following size classes of oil
discharges -which are provided as
guidance to the OSC and serve as the
criteria for-the actions delineated m
Subpart £. Ttiey are -not meant 1o imply
associated degrees of hazard to public
health or welfare,-norare they*
measure of environmental damage. Any
oil discharge that poses a substantia]
threat to the public health or welfare or
results in critical public concern shall be
classified as a major discharge
regardless of 1he following quantitative
measurer '
(a) Minor discharge -means a
discharge to the inland waters of less
than 1,000 gallons -of oil or a discharge to
the coastal waters of Jess than 30,000
gallons of oil
(b) Medium discharge means a
discharge of 1,000 Jo 10,000 gallons ¦of oil
to the inland waters or a discharge of
10,000 to 100,000 gallons of oil to the
coastal waters.
(c) Major discharge means a
discharge of more than 10,000 gallons of
oil to the Inland waters or more than
100,000 gallons of ofl to lhe coastal
waters.
Trustee mean* any Federal natural
resources management agency
designated in Subpart G of (his plan,
and any State agency which may
prosecute claims far damages under
section 107(f) of CERCLA.
United States, as defined by section
311(2)[5) of CWA. refers to (he States,
the District of Columbia, the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Guam.
American Samoa, the Virgin Islands,
and the Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands. As defined "by section 101(27) of
CERCLA. United States and State
include the several States -of the United
States, Ibe District of Columbia, the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Guam.
American Samoa, the United States
Virgin Islands, The Commonwealth of
the Northern Marianas -and any other
territory or possession o ver -which
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31207
mmmmr
(c) In addition to thuir general
responsibilities under paragraph (a) of
this section Federal agencies should:
(1) Make necessary information
available to the NRT, RRTs, and OSCs.
(2) Inform the NRT and RRTs
(consistent with national security
considerations) of changes in the
availability of resources that would
affect the operations of the Plan.
(3) Provide representative as
necessary to the NRT and RRTs and
assist RRTs and OSCs in formulating
Federal regional and Federal local
contingency plans.
(d) All Federal agencies are
responsible for reporting releases of
hazardous substances and discharges of
oil from facilities or vessels which are
under their jurisdiction or control in
accordance with Bection 103 of
CERCLA. and Subparts E and F of this
Plan.
(e) Executive Order 12310 delegates to
the USCC and EPA all authorities under
sections 104 (a) and (b) and 101(24) of
CERCLA subject to the following;
(1) HHS is delegated all authorities
under section 104(b) of CERCLA relating
to a determination that illness, disease
or complaints thereof may be
attributable to exposure to a hazardous
substance, pollutant or contaminant (In
addition, section 104(i) of CERCLA calls
upon HHS to: establish appropriate
disease/exposure registries; conduct
appropriate health surveys and studies;
develop and provide appropriate testing
for exposed individuals; develop,
maintain and provide information on
health effects of toxic substances; and
maintain a list of areas restricted or
closed because of toxic substance
contamination.)
(2) FEMA is delegated the authorities
vested in the President by section 104(a)
of CERCLA to the extent they require
permanent relocation of residents,
businesses, and community facilities or
temporary evacuation and housing of
threatened individuals not otherwise
provided for. (FEMA is also delegated
authority under section 101(24) of
CERCLA to the extent they require a
determination by the President that
"permanent relocaton of residents and
businesses and community facilities" is
"included within the terms "remedy" and
"remedial action" as defined in section
101(24) of CERCLA.)
(3) DOD is delegated all authority of
section 104 (a) and fb) of CERCLA with
respect to releases from DOD facilities
or vessels, including vessels owned or
bareboat chartered and operated.
({} If the situation is beyond the
capability of State and local
governments and the statutory authority
of Federal agencies, the President,
acting upon a request by the Governor,
may declare a major disaster or
emergency and appoint a Federal
Coordinating Officer to assume
responsibility for direction and control
of the Federal response.
( 300.24 State and local participation.
(a) Each State governor is requested
to assign an office or agency to
represent the State on the appropriate
RRT. Local governments are invited to
participate in activities on the
appropriate RRT as may be provided by
State law or arranged by the State's
representative. The State's
representative may participate fully in
all facets of activities of the appropriate
RRT and is encouraged to designate the
element of the State government that
will direct State supervised response
operations.
(b) State and local government
agencies are encouraged to include
contingency planning for response,
consistent with this Plan and Regional
Contingency Plans, in all emergency and
disaster planning.
(c) States are encouraged to use State
authorities to compel potentially
responsible parties to undertake
response actions, or to themselves
undertake response actions which are
not eligible for Federal funding.
(d) States may enter into contracts or
cooperative agreements pursuant to
section 104(c)(3) and (d) of CERCLA or
section 311(c)(2)(H) of the CVVA, as
appropriate, to undertake actions
authorized under Subparts E and F of
this Plan. Requirements for entering into
these agreements are included in
S i 300.58 and 300.02 of this Plan.
§ 300.25 Non-Government participation,
(a) Industry groups, academic
organizations, and others are
encouraged to commit resources for
response operations. Specific
commitments should be listed in Federal
regional and Federal local contingency
plans.
(b) It is particularly important to use
the valuable technical and scientific
information generated by the non-
government local community along with
those from Federal and State
government to assist the OSC in
devising clean-up strategies where
effective standard techniques are
unavailable, and to ensure that pertinent
research will be undertaken to meet
national needs.
(c) Federal local contingency plans
should establish procedures to allow for
well-organized, worthwhile; and safe
use of volunteers. Local plans should
provide for the direction of volunteers
by the OSC, or by other Federel, State or
local officials knowledgeable in
contingency operations and capable of
providing leadership. Local plans also
should identify specific areas in which
volunteers can be used, such as beach
surveillance, logistical support, and bird
and wildlife treatment. Unless
specifically requested by the OSC,
volunteers generally should not be used
for physical removal or remedial
activities. If, in the judgement of the
OSC or an appropriate participating
agency, dangerous conditions exist,
volunteers shall be restricted from on-
scene operations.
(d) If any person other than the
Federal government or a State or person
operating under contract or cooperative
agreement with the United States, takes
response action and intends to seek
reimbursement from the Fund, such
actions to be in conformity with this
Plan for purposes of section 111(a)(2) of
CERCLA may only be undertaken if
such person notifies the Administrator
of EPA or his/her designee prior to
taking such action and receives-prior
approval to take such action.
Subpart C—Organization.
$ 300.31 Organizational concepts.
Three fundamental kinds of activity
are performed pursuant to the Plan:
planning and coordination, operations at
the scene of a discharge and/or release,
and communications. The organizational
elements created to perform these
activities are discussed below in the
context of their roles in these activities.
f 300.32 Planning and coordination.
(a) National planning and
coordination is accomplished through
the National Response Team (NRT).
(1) The NRT consists of
representatives from the agencies
named in 5 300.23. Each agency shall
designate a member to the team and
sufficient alternates to ensure
representation, as agency resources
permit Other agencies may request
membership on the NRT by forwarding
such requests to the chairman of the
NRT.
(2) Except for periods of activation
because of a response action, the
representative of EPA shall be the
chairman and the representative of
USCG shall be the vice chairman of the
NRT. The vice chairman shall maintain
records of NRT activities along with
national, regional, and local plans for
response actions. When the NRT Is
activated for response action, the
chairman shall be the representative of
the Federal lead agency.
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(3) While the NRT desires to achieve a
consensus on all matter* brought before
it, certain matter* may prove
unreeolvable by this means. In such
cases, each cabinet department or
agency serving as a participating agency
on the NRT may be accorded one vote in
NRT proceedings.
(4} The NRT may establish such by-
laws and committees as it deem*
appropriate to further the purposes for
which it is established.
(5} When the NRT is not activated for
a response action, it shall serve as a
standing committee to evaluate methods
of responding to discharges or releases,
to recommend needed changes in the
response organization and to
recommend revisions to this Plan.
(8) The NRT may consider and make
recommendations to appropriate
agencies on the training, equipping and
protection of response teams and
necessary Tesearch, development,
demonstration, and evaluation to
improve response capabilities.
(7) Direct planning and preparedness
responsibilities of the NRT include:
(i) Maintaining national readiness to
respond to a major discharge of oil or
release of a hazardous substance or
pollutant or contaminant which is
beyond regional capabilities;
(ii) Monitoring incoming reports from
all RRTs and activating when necessary;
(iii) Reviewing regional responses to
oil discharges and hazardous substance
releases, including an evaluation of
equipment readiness and coordination
among responsible public agencies and
private organizations; and
(iv) Developing procedures to ensure
the coordination of Federal, State, and
local governments and private response
to oil discharges and releases of
hazardous substances, pollutants or
contaminants.
(8) The NRT may consider matters
referred to it for settlement by an RRT.
. (b) The RRT serves as the regional
body for planning and preparedness
actions before a .response actionis
taken and foe coordination and advice
during such action. The RRT consists of
regional representatives of the
participating agencies and
representatives of State .governments
(and local governments as agreed upon
with States).
(1) Except when (he RRT is activated
for a removal incident the
representatives of EPA and USCG shall
act as co-chairmen,
(2) Each participating agency should
designate one member and at least one
alternate member to the RRT.
Participating States may also designate
one member and at least one alternate
member to the Team. All agencies and
States may also provide additional
representatives as observers to meetings
of the RRT.
(3) RRT members should designate
representatives from their agencies to
work with OSCs in developing Federal
local contingency plans, providing for
the use of agency resources, and in
responding to discharges and releases
(see I 300.43).
(4) Federal regional and Federal local
plans should adequately provide the
OSC with assistance from the Federal
agencies commensurate with agencies'
resources, capabilities, and
responsibilities within the region. During
a response action, the members of the
RRT should seek to make available the
resources of their agencies to the OSC
as specified in the Federal regional.and
Federal local contingency plans.
(5) Affected States are encouraged to
participate actively in all RRT activities
(see S 300.24(a)), to designate
representatives to work with the RRT
and OSCs in developing Federal
regional and Federal local plans, to plaa
for and make available State resources,
and to serve as the^ontact point for
coordination of response with local
government agencies whether or not
represented on the RRT.
(6) The RRT serves as a standing
committee to recommend changes in the
regional response organization as
needed, to revise the regional plan as
needed, and to evaluate the
preparedness of the agencies and (he
effectiveness of local plans for the
Federal response to discharges and
releases. The RRT should:
(i) Make continuing review of regional
and local responses to discharges or
releases, considering available legal
remedies, equipment readiness and
coordination anonj responsible public
agencies and private organizations.
(ii) Based on observations of response
operations, recommend revisions of the
National Contingency Flan to the NRT.
(iii)Consider and recommend
necessary changes based on continuing
review of response actions in Ihe region.
(iv) Review OSC actions to help
ensure that Federal regional and Federal
local contingency plans are developed
satisfactorily.'
(v) Be prepared to respond to major
discharges or releases outside the
region.
(vi) Meet at least semi-annually to
review response actions carried out
during the preceding period, and
consider changes in Federal regional
and Federal local contingency plans.
(vii) Provide letter reports on their
activities to the NRT twice a year, no
later than January 31 and July 31. At a
minimum, reports should summarize
recent activities, organizational changes,
operational concerns, and efforts to
improve State and local conditions.
(c) The OSC is responsible for
developing any Federal local
contingency plans for the Federal
response in the area of the OSCa
responsibility. This may be
accomplished in cooperation with the
RRT and designated State and local
representatives (see $ 300.43).
Boundaries for Federal local
contingency plans shall coincide with
those agreed upon between EPA. DOD
and the USCG {subject to Executive
Order 12316} to determine OSC areas of
responsibility and sbould be clearly
indicated in the regional contingency
plan. Where practicable, consideration
should be given to jurisdictional
boundaries established by State and
local plans.
(d] Scientific support for the
development of regional and local plana
is organized by appropriate agencies to
provide special expertise and
assistance. Generally, the Scientific
Support Coordinator tSSC) for plans
encompassing the coastal area will be
provided by NOAA, and the SSC for the
inland area will be provided by EPA or
DOI. This delineation of responsibility
maybe modified within a region by
agreement between DOC. DOI, and EPA
representatives to the RRT. SSCs may
be obtained from other agencies if
determined to be appropriate by the
RRT.
§ 30043 Response operations.
(a) EPA and USCG shall designate
OSCs for all areas in each region
provided, however, that DOD shall
designate OSCs for releases from DOD
facilities and vessels. DOD will be the
immediate removal response authority
with respect to incidents involving DOD
military weapons and munitions.
Immediate removal actions involving
nuclear weapons should be conducted in
accordance with the ]oint Department of
Defense. Department of Energy, and
Federal Emergency Management
Agency Agreement for Response to
Nuclear Incidents and Nuclear Weapons
Significant Incidents, of January 8,1981.
The USCG will furnish or provide OSCs
for oil discharges and for the immediate
removal of hazardous substance^
pollutants, or contaminants Into or
threatening the coastal zone except that
the USCG will not provide
piedesigriated OSCs for discharges and
releases from hazardous waste
management facilities or in similarly
chronic incidents. EPA shall furnish Of
provide OSCs for oil discharges and
hazardous substance releases Into or
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threatening the inland zone and, unless
otherwise agreed, for all planned
removals and remedial actions.
(b) The OSC directs Federal Fund-
financed response efforts and
coordinates all other Federal efforts at
the scene of a discharge or release
subject to Executive Order 12316. A*
part of the planning and preparation for
response, the OSCs shall be
predesignated by the regional or district
head of the lead agency.
(1) The Firs I official from an agency
with responsibility under this plan to
arrive at the scene of the discharge or
release should coordinate activities
under this Plan until the OSC arrives.
(2) The OSC shall, to the extent
practicable under the circumstances,
collect pertinent facts about the
discharge or release, such as its source
and cause: the existence of potentially
responsible parties; the nature, amount,
and location of discharged or released
materials; the probable direction and
time of travel of discharged or released
materials; the pathways to human
exposure; potential impact on human
health, welfare and safety; the potential
impact on natural resources and
property which may be affected;
priorities for protecting human health,
welfare and the environment, and
appropriate cost documentation.
(3) The OSC shall direct response
operations (see Subparts E and F for
descriptive details). The OSCs effort
stall be coordinated with other
appropriate Federal, State, local and
private response agencies.
(4) The OSC shall consult regularly
with the RRT In carrying out this Plan
and will Veep the RRT informed of
activities under this Flan.
(5) The OSC shall advise the
appropriate State agency [as agreed
upon with each State) as promptly as
possible of reported discharges and
releases.
{6) The OSC shall evaluate incoming
information and immediately advise
FEMA of potential major disaster
situations. In the event of a major
disaster or emergency, under the
Disaster Relief Act of 1974 [Pub. L. 93-
288). the OSC will coordinate any
response activities with the Federal
Coordinating Officer designated by the
President In addition, the OSC should
notify FEMA of situations potentially
requiring evacuation, temporary
housing, and permanent relocation.
(7J In those instances where a
possible public health emergency exists,
the OSC should notify the HHS
representative to the RRT. Throughout
response actions, the OSC may call
upon the HHS representative far
assistance in determining public health
threats and for advice on worker health
and safety problems.
(8) All Federal agencies should plan
for emergencies and develop procedures
for dealing with oil discharges and
releases of hazardous substances
(designated under section 311(b)(2) of
the CWA) from vessels and facilities
under their jurisdiction. All Federal
agencies, therefore, are responsible for
designating the offices that can
coordinate response to such incidents in
accordance with this Plan and
applicable Federal regulations and
guidelines. II in the opinion of the OSC,
the responsible Federal agency does not
act promptly or take appropriate action
to respond to a discharge or release
caused by a facility or vessels under its
jurisdiction, the OSC in charge of area
where the discharge or release occurs
may conduct appropriate response
activities. With respect to discharges or
releases from Department of Defense
(DOD) facilities and vessels, the OSC
shall be furnished by the DOD.
(9) The OSC should advise the
affected land managing agency and
trustees of natural resources, as
promptly as possible, of releases and
discharges affecting Federal resources
under its jurisdiction.
(10) The OSC is responsible for
addressing worker health end safety
concerns at a response scene, in
accordance with S § 300.57 and 300.71 of
this Plan.
(11) The OSC shall submit pollution
reports to the RRC and appropriate
agencies as significant developments
occur during removal actions.
§ 300.34 Special Fotcm and Team*.
(a) The National Strike Force (NSF)
consists of the Strike Teams established
by the USCG on the Atlantic, Pacific
and Gulf coasts and Includes emergency
task forces to provide assistance to the
OSC.
(1) The Strike Teams can provide
communication support, advice and
assistance for oil and hazardous
substances removal. These teams also
have knowledge of ship salvage, damage
control, and diving. Additionally, they
are equipped with specialized
containment and removal equipment,
and have rapid transportation available.
When possible, the Strike Teams will
train the emergency task forces and
assist in the development of regional
and local contingency plans.
(2) The OSC may request assistance
from the Strike Teams. Requests for a
team maybe made directly to the
Commanding Officer of the appropriate
team, the USCG member of the RRT, the
appropriate USCG Area Commander, or
the Commandant of the USCG through
the NRC.
(b) Each USCC OSC manages
emergency task forces trained to
evaluate, monitor, and supervise
pollution responses. Additionally, they
have limited "initial aid" response
capability to deploy equipment prior to
the arrival of a clean-up contractor, or
other response personnel.
(c)(1) The Emergency Response Team
(ERT) is established by EPA in
accordance with its disaster and
emergency responsibilities. The ERT
includes expertise in biology, chemistry,
hydrology, geology and engineering.
(2) It can provide access to special de-
contamination equipment for chemical
releases and advice to the OSC in
hazard evaluation; risk assessment;
multimedia sampling and analysis
program; on-site safety, including
development and implementation plans;
clean-up techniques and priorities;
water supply de-contamination and
protection; application of dispersanls;
environmental assessment degree of
clean-up required; and disposal of
contaminated material..
(3) The ERT also provides both
introductory and intermediate level
training courses to prepare response
personnel.
(4) OSC or RRT requests for ERT
support should be made to the EPA
representative on the RRT; the EPA
Headquarters. Director, Office of
Emergency and Remedial Response; or
the appropriate EPA regional emergency
coordinator.
(d) When requested by the OSC the
SSC shall serve as a member of the
OSCs staff and assist the OSC in
fulfilling responsibilities in support of
response actions. The extent and nature
of SSC involvement in the operational
mode shall be determined by the OSC.
The SSC may.
(1) Coordinate response from the
scientific community to OSC requests
for assistance and to requests from the
OSC as appropriate, for performance of
environmental assessment.
(2) Serve as the principal liaison for
scientific advice from the scientific
community to the OSC. The SSC shall
ensure that differing scientific views
within the scientific community are
communicated to the OSC in a Umely
manner.
(3) The SSC will assist In responding
to requests for assistance from State and
Federal agencies regarding scientific
studies and environmental assessments.
Details on provision of access to
scientific support shall be included in
regional contingency plans.
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(e) The USCG Public Information
Assist Team (PIAT) and the EPA Public
Affairs Assist Team (PAAT) may help
OSCs and regional or district offices
meet the demands for public information
and participation during major
responses. Requests for these teams
may be made through the NRC.
lf)(l) The RRT should be activated by
the Chairman as an emergency response
team when a discharge or release:
(1) Exceeds the response.capability
available to the OSC in the place where
it occurs;
(ii) Transects regional boundaries; or
(iii) May pose a substantial threat to
the public health, welfare or to the
environment, or to regionally significant
amounts of property. Regional
contingency plans shall specify detailed
criteria for activation of RRTs.
(2) When the RRT is activated for an
immediate removal action, the chairman
shall be the representative of the lead
agency. When the RRT is activated for a
Fund-financed planned removal or
remedial action, the chairman shall be
the representative of EPA.
(3) The RRT may be activated during
any pollution emergency by a request
from any RRT representative to the
chairman of the Team. Request for RRT
activation shall later be confirmed in
writing. Each representative, or an
appropriate alternate, should be notified
immediately when the RRT is activated.
(4) During prolonged removal or
remedial action, the RRT may not need
to be activated or may need to be
activated only in a limited sense, or
have available only those members of
the RRT who are directly affected or can
provide direct response assistance.
(5) When the RRT is activated for a
discharge or release, agency
representatives shall meet at the call of
the chairman and may:
(i) Monitor and evaluate reports from
the OSC. The RRT may advise the OSC
on the duration and extent of Federal
response and may recommend to the
OSC specific actions to respond to the
discharge or release.
(ii) Request other Federal, State or
local government or private agencies to
provide resources under their existing
authorities to respond to a discharge or
release or to monitor response
operations.
(iii) Help the OSC prepare information
releases for the public and for
communication with the NRT.
(iv) If the circumstances warrant,
advise the regional or district head of
the agency providing the OSC that a
different OSC should be designated.
(v) Submit Pollution Reports
(POLREPS) to the NRC as significant
developments occur.
(6) When the RRT is activated,
affected States may participate in all
RRT deliberations. State government
representatives participating in the RRT
have the same status as any Federal
member of the RRT.
(7) The RRT can be deactivated by
agreement between the EPA and USCG
team members. The time of deactivation
should be included in the POLREPS.
(g) The NRT should be activated as an
emergency response team when an oil
discharge or hazardous substance
release:
_ (1} Exceeds the response capability of
the region in which it occurs:
(2) Transects regional boundaries;
(3) Involves significant population
hazards or national policy issues,
substantia] amounts of property, or
substantial threats to natural resources;
or
(4) Is requested by any NRT member.
(h) When activated for a response
action, the NRT shall meet al the call of
the chairman and may:
(1) Monitor and evaluate reports from
the OSC. The NRT may recommend to
the OSC, through the RRT, actions to
combat the discharge or release.
(2) Request other Federal, State and
local governments, or private agencies,
to provide resources under their existing
authorities to combat a discharge or
release or to monitor response
operations.
(3) Coordinate the supply of
equipment, personnel, or technical
advice to the affected region from other
regions or districts.
$ 300.35 Multi-regional response*.
(a] If a discharge or release moves
from the area covered by one Federal
local or Federal regional contingency
plan into another area, the authority for
removal or response Actions should
likewise shift. If a discharge or release
or substantial threat of discharge or
release affects areas covered by two or
more regional plans, the response
mechanisms of both may be activated.
In this case, removal or response actions
of all regions concerned shall be fully
coordinated as detailed in the regional
plans.
(b) There shall be only one OSC at
any time during the course of a response
operation. Should a discharge or release
affect two or more areas, the EPA, DOD
and USCG, as appropriate, shall give-
prime consideration to the area
vulnerable to the greatest damage. The
RRT shall designate the OSC if EPA,
DOD and USCG members are unable to
agree on the designation. The NRT shall
designate the OSC if members of one
RRT or two adjacent RRTs are unable to
agree on the designation.
(c) Where the USCG has provided the
OSC for emergency response to a
release from hazardous waste
management facilities located in the
coastal zone, the responsibility for
response action shall shift to EPA, in
accordance with EPA/USCG
agreements.
§ 300.36 Communications.
(a) The NRC is the national
communications center for activities
related to response actions. It is located
at USCC Headquarters in Washington,
D.C. The NRC receives and relays
notices of discharges or releases to the
appropriate OSC, disseminates OSC and
RRT reports to the NRT when
appropriate, and provides facilities for
the NRT to use in coordinating a
national response action when required.
(b) The Commandant, USCG. will
provide the necessary communications,
plotting facilities, and equipment for th«
NRC
(c) Notice of an oil discharge or a
release of a hazardous substance in aa
amount equal to or greater than the
reportable quantity must be mad*
immediately in accordance with 33 CFR
Part 153, Subpart B and section 103(a) «f
CERCLA, respectively. Notification shall
be made to the NRC Duty Officer, HQ
USCG. Washington, D.C telephone (800)
424-8802 (or current local telephone
number). All notices of discharges or
releases received at the NRC shall be
relayed immediately by telephone to tin
OSC and State.
(d) The RRC provides facilities and
personnel for communications,
information storage, and other
requirements for coordinating response.
Each regional plan will specify the
location for the RRC
} 300.37 Response equipment
The Spill Cleanup Inventory (SKIM)
system is available to help OSCs and
RRTs and private parties gain rapid
information as to the location of
response and support equipment This
inventory is accessible through the NRC
and USCG's OSCs. The inventory
includes private and commercial
equipment, as well as government
resources. The RRTs and OSCs ahaU
ensure that data in the system are
current and accurate. The USCG is
responsible for maintaining and
updating the system with RRT and OSC
input
Subpart D—Plana.
{ 300.41 Regional and local plana.
(a) In addition to the National
Contingency Plan (NCP), a Federal
regional plan shall be developed for
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31211
each standard Federal region and,
where practicable, a Federal local plan
shall be developed.
(b) These plans will be available for
inspection at EPA regional offices or
USCG district offices. Addresses and
telephone numbers for these offices may
be found in the United States
Government Manual [issued annually)
or in local telephone directories.
$ 300.42 Regional contingency plana.
(a) The RBTs, working with the Slates,
shall develop Federal regional plans for
each standard Federal region. The
purpose of these plans is coordination of
a timely, effective response by various
Federal agencies and other
organizations to discharges of oil and
releases of hazardous substances,
pollutants and contaminants in order to
protect public health, welfare and the
environment Regional contingency
plans should include information on all
useful facilities and resources in the
region, from government, commercial,
academic and other sources. To the
greatest extent possible, regional plans
will follow the format of the National
Contingency Plan.
(b) SSCs shall organize and
coordinate the contributions of
scientists of each region to the response
activities of the OSC and RRT to the
greatest extent possible. SSCs. with
advice from RRT members, shall also
develop the parts of the regional plan
that relate to scientific support
(c) Regional plans shall contain lines
of demarcation between the inland and
coastal zones, as mutually agreed upon
by USCG and EPA.
} 300.43 Local contingency plana.
(a) Each OSC shall maintain a Federal
local plan for response in hia or her area
of responsibility, where practicable. In
areas in which the USCG provides the
OSC, such plans shall be developed in
all cases. Tie plan should provide for a
well-coordinated response that ia
integrated and compatible with the
pollution response, fire, emergency and
disaster plansof local, State and other
non-Federal entitiesi The plan should
identify the probable locations of
discharges or releases, the available
resources to respond to multi-media
incident*, where audi resources can be
obtained, waste disposal methods and
facilities consistent with local and State
plans developed under the Resource
Conservation and Recoveiy Act (42
U.S.C. 0901 et seq.), and a local structure
for responding to discharges or releases.
(b) While the OSC to responsible for
developing Federal local plans, a
successful planning effort will depend
upon the fuO cooperation of all the
agencies' representatives and the
development of local capabilities to
respond to discharges or releases.
Particular attention should be given,
during the planning process, to
developing a multi-agency local
response team for coordinating on-scene
efforts. The RRT should ensure proper
liaison between the OSC and local
representatives.
Subpart E—Operational Response
Phases for Oil Removal
S 300.51 Phase I—Discovery and
notification.
(a) A discharge of oil may be
discovered through:
(1) A report submitted by the person
in charge of the vessel or facility in
accordance with statutory requirements;
(2) Deliberate search by patrols; and
(3) Random or incidental observation
by government agencies or the public.
(b) Reports of discharges should be
made to the NRC or the nearest USCG
or EPA office. All reports shall be
promptly relayed to the NRC if not
previously reported to the responsible
OSC. Federal regional and Federal local
plans shall provide for prompt reporting
to the NRC RRC, and appropriate State
agency (as agreed upon with the State).
(c) Upon receipt of a notification of
discharge, the NRC shall promptly notify
the OSC The OSC shall proceed with
the following phases as outlined in
Federal regional and Federal local
plans.
§ 300.52 Phase II—Preliminary
assessment and Initiation of action.
(a) The OSC for a particular area is
responsible for promptly initiating
preliminary assessment.
(b) The preliminary assessment shall
be conducted using available
information, supplemented where
necessary and possible by an on-scene
inspection. The OSC shall undertake
actions to:
(1) Evaluate the magnitude and
severity of the discharge or threat to
public health and welfare and the
environment;
(2) Assess the feasibility of removal;
(3) Determine the existence of
potential responsible parties; and
(4) Ensure that jurisdiction exists for
undertaking additional response actions.
(c) The OSC, in consultation with
legal authorities when appropriate, shall
make a reasonable effort to have the
discharger voluntarily and promptly
perform removal actions. The OSC shall
ensure adequate surveillance over
whatever actions are initiated. If
effective actions are not being taken to
eliminate the threat or if removal is not
being properly done, the OSC shall so
advise the responsible party. If the
responsible party does not take proper
removal actions, or is unknown, or is
otherwise unavailable, the OSC shall,
pursuant to section 311(c)(1) of the
CWA, determine whether authority for a
Federal response exists, and, if so. take
appropriate response actions. Where
practicable, continuing efforts should be
made to encourage response by
responsible parties.
(d) The OSC should ensure that the
trustees of affected natural resources
are notified, in order that the trustees
may initiate appropriate actions when
natural resources have been or are
likely to be damaged (see Subpart G).
} 300.53 Phase III—Containment,
countermeasures, clean-up, and disposal.
(a) Defensive actions should begin as
soon as possible to prevent, minimize, or
mitigate damage to the public health or
welfare or the environment. Actions
may include: analyzing water samples to
determine the source arid spread of the
oil; controlling the source of discharge;
measuring and sampling; damage
control or salvage operations; placement
of physical barriers to deter the spread
of the oil or to protect endangered
species; control of the water discharged
from upstream impoundment; and the
use of chemicals and other materials in
accordance with Subpart H, to restrain
the spread of the oil and mitigate its
effects.
(b) Appropriate actions should be
taken to recover the oil or mitigate its
effects. Of the numerous chemical
physical methods that may be used, the
chosen methods should be the most
consistent with protecting the public
health and welfare and the environment
Sinking agents shall not be used.
(c) Oil and contaminated materials
recovered in clean-up operations shall
be disposed of in accordance with
Federal regional and Federal local
contingency plana.
$ 300.54 Phase IV—Documentation and
cost recovery.
(a) Documentation shall be collected
and maintained to support all actions
taken under the CWA and to form the
basis for cost recovery. In general,
documentation should be sufficient to
prove the source and circumstances of
the incident the responsible party or
parties, and impact and potential
impacts to the public health and welfare
and the environment When appropriate,
documentation should also be collected
for scientific understanding of the
environment and for the research and
development of Improved response
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31212 Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday. July 16. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
methods and technology. Damages to
private citizens (including loss of
earnings) are not addressed by this Plan.
Evidentiary and cost documentation
procedures and requirements are
specified in the USCG Marine Safety
Manuel (Commandant Instruction
M16000.3) and 33 CFR Part 153.
(b) The OSC shall ensure the
necessary collection and safeguarding of
information, samples, and reports.
Samples and information must be
gathered expeditiously during the
response to ensure an accurate record of
the impacts incurred. Documentation
materials shall be made available to the
trustees of affected natural resources
where practicable.
(c) Information and reports obtained
by the EPA or USCG OSC shall be
transmitted to the appropriate offices
responsible for follow-up actions.
f 300.56 General pattern of response.
(a) When the OSC receives a report of
a discharge, actions normally should be
taken in the following sequence
(1) Immediately notify the RKT and
NRC when the reported discharge is an
actual or potential major discharge.
(2) Investigate the report to determine
pertinent information such as the threat
posed to public health or welfare, or the
environment, the type and quantity of
polluting material, and the source of the
discharge.
(3) Officially classify the size of the
discharge and determine the course of
action to be followed.
(4} Determine whether a discharger or
other person is properly carrying out
removal. Removal is being done
properly when:
(i) The clean-up is fully sufficient to
minimize or mitigate damage to the
public welfare (removal efforts are
"improper" to the extent that Federal
efforts are necessary to prevent further
damage).
(ti) The removal efforts are in
accordance with applicable regulations
and guidelines, including this Plan.
(S) Determine whether a State or
political subdivision has the capability
to carry out response actions and a
contract or cooperative agreement has
been established with the appropriate
fund administrator for this purpose.
(0) Notify the RRT [including the
affected State), SSC, and the trustees of
affected natural resources in accordance
with the applicable regional plan.
(b) Hie preliminary inquiry will
probably show that the situation falls
into one of five classes. These classes
and the appropriate response to each
are outlined below:
(1) if the investigation shows that no
discharge exists, the case shaQ be
considered 8 false alarm and should be
closed.
(2) If the investigation shows a minor
discharge with the responsible party
taking proper removal action, contact
should be established with the party.
The removal action should be monitored
to ensure continued proper action.
(3) If the investigation shows a minor
discharge with improper removal action
being taken, the following measures
shall be taken:
(i) An immediate effort should be
made to stop further pollution.
(ii) The responsible party shall be
advised of what action will be so
considered appropriate.
(iii) If the responsible party does not
properly respond, he shall be notified of
his potential liability for Federal
response performed under the CWA.
This liability includes all costs of
removal and may include the costs of
assessing and restoring damaged natural
resources and other actual or necessary
costs of a Federal response.
(iv) The OSC shall notify appropriate
State and local officials, keep the RRT
advised and initiate Phase ID operations
as conditions warrant
(v) Information shall be collected for
possible recovery of response costs in
accordance with $ 300.54.
(4) When the investigation shows that
an actual or potential medium oil
discharge exists, the OSC shall follow
the same general procedures as for a
minor discharge. If appropriate, the OSC
shall recommend activation of the RRT.
(5) When the investigation shows an
actual or potential major oil discharge,
the OSC shall follow the same
procedures as for minor and medium
discharges.
{ 300.56 Pollution reports.
(a) Within 60 days after the
conclusion of a major discharge or when
requested by the RRT, the EPA or USCG
OSC shall submit to the RRT a complete
report on the response operation and the
actions taken. The OSC shall at the
same time send a copy of the report to
the NRT. The RRT shaQ review the
OSCs report and prepare an
endorsement to the NRT for review. This
shall be accomplished within 30 days
after the report has been received.
(b) The OSCs report shall accurately
record the situation as it developed, the
actions taken, the resources committed
and the problems encountered. The
OSCs recommendations are a source
for new procedures and policy.
(c) The format for the OSCs report
shall be as follows:
(1) Summary of Events—A
chronological narrative of all events,
Including:
(1) The cause of the discharge;
(ii) The initial situation;
(iii) Efforts to obtain response by
responsible parties;
(iv) The organization of the response;
(v) The resources committed:
(vi)The location (water body. State,
city, latitude and longitude) of the oil
discharge and an indication of whether
the discharge was in connection with
activities regulated under the Outer
Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA),
the Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authority Act
or Deepwater Port Act; or whether it
might have or actually did affect natural
resources managed or protected by th«
U.S.:
(vii) Comments on Federal or State
efforts to replace or restore damaged
natural resources and damage
assessment activities; and
(viii) Details of any threat abatement
actions taken under section 311 (c) or (d)
of-the CWA.
(2) Effectiveness of Removal
Actions—A candid and thorough
analysis of the effectiveness of removal
actions taken by:
(i) The responsible party;
(ii) State and local forces;
(iii) Federal agencies and special
forces; and
(iv) (If applicable) contractors, private
groups and volunteers.
(3) Problems Encountered—A list of
problems affecting response with
particular attention to problems of
intergovernmental coordination.
(4) Recommendations—OSC
recommendations, including at a
minimum:
(i) Means to prevent a recurrence of
the discharge:
(ii) Improvement of response actions;
(iii) Any recommended changes in the
National Contingency Plan or Federal
regional plan.
S 300.57 Special considerations.
(a) Safety of Personnel—The OSC
should be aware of threats to human
health and safety and shall ensure that
persons entering the response area us*
proper precautions, procedures, and
equipment and that they possess proper
training. Federal local plans shall
identify sources of information on
anticipated hazards, precautions,
requirements to protect personnel during
response operations. Names and pbom
numbers of people with relevant
information shall be included.
Responsibility for the safety of all
Federal employees rests with the head*
of their agencies. Accordingly, each
Federal employee on the scene must ba
apprised of and conform with OSHA
regulations and other deemed necessary
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Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137, Friday, July 16. 1982 / Rules and Regulations 31213
by the OSC. All private contractors who
are working on-site must conform to
applicable provisions of the
Occupational Safety and Health Act and
standards deemed necessary by the
OSC
fb) Waterfowl Conservation—The
DOI representative and the State liaison
to the RRT shall arrange for the
coordination of professional and
volunteer groups permitted and trained
to participate in waterfowl dispersal,
collection, cleaning, rehabilitation and
recovery activities (consistent with 18
U.S.C. 703-712 and applicable State
laws). Federal regional and Federal
local plans will, to the extent
practicable, identify organizations or
institutions that are permitted to
participate in such activities and
operate such facilities. Waterfowl
conservation activities will normally be
included in Phase IS response actions
(S 300.53 of this subpart).
$ 300.54 Funding.
(a) If the person responsible for the
discharge does not act promptly or take
proper removal actions, or if the person
responsible for the discharge is
unknown. Federal discharge removal
actions may begin under section
311(c)(1) of the CWA. The discharger, if
known, is liable for the costs of Federal
removal in accordance with section
311(f) of the CWA and other Federal
laws.
fb) Actions undertaken by the
participating agencies in response to
pollution shall be carried out under
existing programs and authorities when
available. This Plan intends that Federal
agencies will make resources available,
expend funds, or participate in response
to oil discharges under their existing
authority. Authority to expend resources
will be in accordance with agencies'
basic statutes and, if required, through
Interagency agreements. Specific
Interagency reimbursement agreements
may be signed when necessary to
ensure that the Federal resources will be
available for a timely response to a
discharge of oil. The ultimate decision
as to the appropriateness of expending
funds rests with the agency that is held
accountable for such expenditures.
(c) The OSC shall exercise sufficient
control over removal operations to be
-able to certify that reimbursement from
the following funds is appropriate:
(1) The oil pollution fund,
acJministered by the Commandant,
USCG, has been established pursuant to
section 311[k) of the CWA. Regulations
governing the administration and use of
the fund are contained in 33 CFR Part
153.
(2) The fund authorized by the
Dccpwater Port Act is administered by
the Commandant, USCG. Governing
regulations are contained in 33 CFR
Parts 136 and 150.
(3) The fund authorized by the Outer
Continental Shelf Lands Act as
amended, is administered by the
Commandant, USCG. Governing
regulations are contained in 33 CFR
Parts 138 and 15a
(4) The fund authorized by the Trans-
Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act is
administered by a Board of Trustees
under the purview of the Secretary of
the Interior. Governing regulations are
contained in 43 CFR Part 29.
(d) Response actions other than
removal, such as scientific
investigations not in support of removal
actions or law enforcement, shall be
provided by the agency with legal
responsibility for those specific actions.
(e) The funding of a response to a
discharge from a Federally operated or
supervised facility or vessel is the
responsibility of the operating or
supervising agency.
(f) The following agencies have funds
available for certain discharge removal
actions:
(1) EPA may provide funds to begin
timely discharge removal actions when
the OSC is an EPA representative.
(2) The USCG pollution control efforts
are funded under "operating expenses."
These funds are used in accordance
with agency directives.
(3) The Department of Defense has
two specific sources of funds which may
be applicable to an oil discharge under
appropriate circumstances. (This does
not consider military resources which
might be made available under specific
conditions.)
(i) Funds required for removal of a
sunken vessel or similar obstruction of
navigation are available to the Corps of
Engineers through Civil Works
Appropriations, Operations and
Maintenance, GeneraL
(ii) The U.S. Navy may conduct
salvage operations contingent on
defense operational commitments, when
funded by the requesting agency. Such
funding may be requested on a direct
cite basis.
(4) Pursuant to section 311(c)(2)(H) of
the CWA, the State or States affected by
a discharge of oil, may act where
necessary to remove such discharge and
may, pursuant to 33 CFR Port 1S3, be
reimbursed from the pollution revolving
fund for the reasonable costs incun-ed in
such a removal.
(i) Removal by a State is necessary
within the meaning of section
311(c)(2)(H) of the CWA when the OSC
determines that the owner or operator of
the vessel, onshore facility, or offshore
facility from which the discharge occurs
does not effect removal properly, or is
unknown, and that:
(A) State action is required to
minimize or mitigate significant damage
to the public health or welfare which
Federal action cannot minimize or
mitigate, or
(B) Removal or partial removal can be
done by the State at a cost which is less
than or not significantly greater than the
cost which would be incurred by the
Federal departments or agencies.
(ii) State removal actions must be in
compliance with this Plan in order to
qualify for reimbursement
(iii) State removal actions are
considered to be Phase ID actions, under
the same definitions applicable to
Federal agencies.
* (iv) Actions taken by local
governments in support of Federal
discharge removal operations are
considered to be actions of the State for
purposes of this section. Federal
regional and Federal local plans shall
show what funds and resources are
available from participating agencies
under various conditions and cost
arrangements. Interagency agreements
may be necessary to specify when
reimbursement is required.
Subpart F—Hazardous Substance
Response
1300.61 GeneraL
(a) This subpart establishes methods
and criteria for determining the
appropriate extent of response
authorized by CERCLA when any
hazardous substance is released or there
is a substantial threat of such a release
into the environment or there is a
release or substantial threat of a release
into the environment of any pollutant or
contaminant which may present an
imminent and substantial danger to the
public health or welfare.
(b) Section 104(a)(1) of CERCLA
authorizes removal or remedial action
unless it is determined that such
removal or remedial action will be done
properly by the owner or operator of the
vessel or facility from which the release
or threat of release emanates, or by any
other responsible party.
(c) In determining the need for and in
planning or undertaking Fund-financed
action, response personnel should, to the
extent practicable, consider the
following:
(1) Encourage State participation in
response actions (see | 300.63).
(2) Conserve Fund monies by
encouraging private party clean-up.
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31214 Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 16, 1902 / Rules and Regulations
(3) Be sensitive to local community
concerns (in accordance with applicable
guidance).
(4) Rely on established technology
when feasible and cost-effective.
(5) Encourage the participation and
sharing of technology by industry and
other experts.
} 300.62 State role.
(a) States are encouraged to
undertake actions authorized under this
subpart Section 104(d)(1) of CERCLA
authorizes EPA to enter into contracts or
cooperative agreements with the State
to take response actions authorized
under CERCLA, when EPA determines
that the State has the capability to
undertake such actions.
(b) EPA will,provide assistance from
the Fund to States pursuant to a contract
or cooperative agreement The
agreement can authorize States to .
undertake most actions specified in thia
Subpart
(c)(1) Pursuant to section 104(c)(3) of
CERCLA, before any Fund-financed
remedial action may be taken, the
affected State(s) must enter into ¦
contract or cooperative agreement with
the Federal government
(2) Included in such contract or
cooperative agreement must be
assurances by the State consistent with
requirements of section 104(c)(3) of
CERCLA.
(d) Prior to remedial design activity,
the State must make a firm commitment,
through either a cooperative agreement
or a new or amended State contract to
provide funding for remedial
implementation by.
(1) Authorizing the reduction of a
State credit to cover its share of costs;
(2) Identifying currently available
funds earmarked for remedial
implementation: or
(3) Submitting a plan with milestone*
for obtaining necessary funds.
(e) State credits allowed under section
104(c)(3) of CERCLA must be
documented on a site-specific basis for
State out-of pocket non-Federal eligible
response costs between January 1,1978,
and December 11,1980. Prior to remedial
investigation activity at a site, the State
must submit Its estimate of these costs
as a part of the pre-application package
when a cooperative agreement is used,
or as a part of the State contract State
credit* wiO be applied against State cost
shares for Federally-funded remedial
actions. A State cannot be reimbursed
from the Fund for credit in excess of Its
matching share.
(f) Pursuant to section 104(c)(2) of
CERCLA. prior to determining any
appropriate remedial action, EPA shall
consult with the affected State or States.
( 300.63 Phase 1—Discovery or
notification.
(a) A release may be discovered
through:
(1) Notification in accordance with
aectiona 103(a) or (c) of CERCLA;
(2) Investigation by government
authorities conducted in accordance
with section 104(e) of CERCLA or other
statutory authority;
f3) Notification of a release by a
Federal or State permit holder when
required by its permit;
(4) Inventory efforts or random or
incidental observation by government
agencies or the public
(5) Other sources.
(b) If not reported previously, a
release should be promptly reported to
the NRC. Section 103(a) of CERCLA
requires any person in charge of a vessel
or facility to immediately notify the NRC
as soon as he has knowledge of a
release (other than a federally permitted
release) of a hazardous substance from
such vessel or facility in an amount
equal to or greater than the reportable
quantity determined pursuant to section
102(b) of CERCLA. The NRC shall
convey the notification expeditiously to
appropriate government agencies, and in
the case of notices received pursuant to
section 103(a), the NRC shall also notify
the Governor of any affected State.
(c) Upon receipt of a notification of a
release, the NRC shall promptly notify
the appropriate OSC,
1300.64 Phase II—Preliminary
assessment
(a) A preliminary assessment of a
release identified for possible CERCLA
response should be undertaken by the
lead agency. If the reported release
potentially requires immediate removal,
the preliminary assessment should be
done as promptly as possible. Other
releases shall be assessed as soon as
practicable. The lead agency should
base its assessment on readily available
information. This assessment may
include;
(1) Evaluation of the magnitude of the
hazard;
(2) Identification of the source and
nature of the release;
(3) Determination of the existence of a
non-Federal party or parties ready,
willing, and able to undertake a proper
response; and
(4) Evaluation of factors necessary to
make the determination of whether
immediate removal is necessary.
(b) A preliminary assessment of
releases from hazardous waste
management facilities may include
collection or review of data such as site
management, practices, information from
generators, photographs, analysis of
historical photographs, literature
searches, and personal interviews
conducted as appropriate. In addition, a
perimeter (ofT-sile) inspection may be
necessary to determine the potential for
a release. Finally, if more information is
needed, a site visit may be performed, if
conditions are such that it may be
performed safely.
(c) A preliminary assessment should
be terminated when the OSC
determines:
(1) There is no release;
(2) The source is neither a vessel nor a
facility;
(3) The release involves neither a
hazardous substance, nor a pollutant or
contaminant that may poae an imminent
and substantial danger to public health
or welfare;
(4) Hie amount released doea not
warrant Federal response:
(5) A party responsible for the release,
or any other person, is providing
appropriate response, and on-seen*
monitoring by the government is not
recommended or approved by the lead
agency; or
(8) The assessment is completed.
1300.65 Phase ill—Immediate removal
(a) In determining the appropriate
extent of action to be taken at a gives
release, the lead agency shall first
review the preliminary assessment to
determine if immediate removal action
Is appropriate. Immediate removal
action shall be deemed appropriate in
those cases in which the leed agency
determines that the initiation of
immediate removal action will prevent
or mitigate immediate and significant
risk of harm to human life or heflSth or to
the environment from such situations ak
(1) Human, animal, or food chain
exposure to acutely toxic substances;
(2) Contamination of a drinking water
supply;
(3) Fire and/or explosion; or
(4) Similarly acute situations.
(b) If the lead agency determines that
immediate removal is appropriate,
defensive actions should begin as soon
as possible to prevent or mitigate danger
to the public health, welfare, or the
environment. Actions may include, but
are not limited to:
(1) Collecting and analyzing samples
to determine the source and dispersion
of the hazardous substance and
documenting those samples for possible
evidentiary use.
(2) Providing alternative water
supplies.
(3) Installing security fencing or
measures to limit access.
(4) Controlling the source of releaso.
(5) Measuring and sampling.
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Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 18. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
31215
(6) Moving hazardous substances off-
site for storage, destruction, treatment,
or disposal provided that the substances
are moved to a facility that is in
compliance with subtitle C of the Solid
Waste Disposal Act, as amended by the
Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act.
(7) Placing physical barriers to deter
the spread of the release.
(8) Controlling the water discharge
from an upstream impoundment.
(9) Recommending to appropriate
authorities the evacuation of threatened
individuals.
(10 Using chemicals and other
materials in accordance with Subpart H
to restrain the spread of the substance
and to mitigate its effects.
(11) Executing damage control or
salvage operations.
(c) Immediate removal actions are
complete when, in the opinion of the
lead agency, the criteria in subsection
(a) of § 300.65 are no longer met and any
contaminated waste materials
transported off-site have been treated or
disposed of properly.
(d) Immediate removal action shall be
terminated after $1 million has been
obligated for the action or six months
have elapsed from the date of initial
response to a release or threatened
release unless it is determined that:
(1) Continued response actions are
immediately required to prevent, limit or
mitigate an emergency,
[2} There is an immediate risk to
public health or welfare or the
environment; and
(3] Such assistance will not otherwise
be provided on a timely basis.
(e) If the lead agency determines that
the release still may require planned
removal or remedial action, the lead
agency or a State may initiate, either
simultaneously or sequentially. Phase IV
or V as appropriate.
$ 300.66 Phase IV—Evaluation and
determination of appropriate response-
planned removal and remedial action.
(a) The purpose of this phase is to
determine the appropriate action when
the preliminary assessment indicates
that further response may be necessary
or when the OSC requests and the lead
agency concurs that further response
should follow an immediate removal
action.
(b) As soon as practicable, an
inspection will be undertaken to assess
the nature and extent of the release and
to assist in determining its priority for
Fund-financed response.
(c)(1) Pursuant to section 104 (b) and
(e) of CERCLA, the responsible official
may undertake investigations,
monitoring, surveys, testing and other
information gathering as appropriate.
These efforts shall be undertaken jointly
by the Federal or State officials
responsible for providing Fund-financed
response and those responsible for
enforcing legal requirements.
(2) A major objective of an inspection
is to determine if there is any immediate
danger to persons living or working near
the facility. In general, the collection of
samples should be minimized during
inspection activities; however,
situations in which there is an apparent
risk to the public should be treated as
exceptions to that practice. Examples of
apparent risk include use of nearby
wells for drinking water, citizen
complaints of unusual taste or odor in
drinking water, or chemical odors or
unusual health problems in the vicinity
of the release. Under those
circumstances, a sampling protocol
should be developed for the inspection
to allow for the earliest possible
detection of any human exposure to
hazardous substances. The site
inspection may also address:
(1) Determining the need for
immediate removal action;
(ii) Assessing amounts, types and
location of hazardous substances stored;
(iii) Assessing potential far
substances to migrate from areas where
they were originally located;
(iv) Determining or documenting
immediate threats to the public or
environment
(d) Methods for Establishing
Priorities. (1) States that wish to submit
candidates for the National Priorities
List must use the Hazard Ranking
System (included in Appendix A) to
rank the releases.
(2) EPA will notify States at least
thirty days prior to the deadline for
submitting candidate releases for the
National Priorities List or any
subsequent revisions.
(3} Each State may designate a facility
as the State's highest priority release by
certifying, in writing signed by the
Governor or the Governor's designee,
that the facility presents the greatest
danger to public health, welfare or the
environment among known facilities in
the State.
(e) National Priorities List. (1)
Compiling the National Priorities List—
EPA Regional Office will review State
hazard rankings to ensure uniform
application of the Hazard Ranking
System and may add, in consultation
with the States, any additional priority
releases known to EPA. The States'
priorities will be reviewed and
consolidated by EPA Headquarters into
a National Priorities List pursuant to
section 105(8) of CERCLA. To the extent
practicable, each State's designated top
priority facility will be included among
the one hundred highest priority
facilities.
(2) No facilities presently owned by
the Federal Government will be
included on the National Priorities List.
(3) EPA will submit the recommended
National Priorities List to the NRT for
review and comment
(4) EPA will publish a proposed
National Priorities List for public
comment
(5) The National Priorities List is
presented in Appendix EL
(6) Ranking of Releases—Similar
hazard ranking scores assigned to
releases cannot accurately differentiate
among risks represented by the releases.
Thus, in order to avoid misleading the
public that real differences in risk exist
similar scores may be grouped on the
National Priorities List
(7) EPA will revise and publish the
National Priorities List at least once
annually. In addition, revisions will give
notice of the deletion (if any) of releases
previously listed.
S 300.67 Phase V—Planned removal
(a) Planned removal may be
undertaken pursuant to a contract or
cooperative agreement when the lead
agency determines that
(1) There would be a substantial cost
savings by continuing a response action
with the equipment and resources
mobilized for an immediate removal
action taken pursuant to § 300.64, but
terminate pursuant to j 300.64(c); or
(2) The public and/or environment
will be at risk from exposure to
hazardous substances if response is
delayed at a release not on the National
Priorities List
(b) Planned removal must be
requested by the Governor of the
affected State or his designee. Requests
must include:
(1) A description of the nature and
extent of the release;
(2) A description of actions taken or
underway at the site;
(3) A description of the proposed
planned removal; and
(4) Assurances that the State will pay
at least 10 percent of the costs of the
action, including all future maintenance,
or at least 50 percent or such greater
amount as EPA may determine
appropriate, taking into account the
degree of responsibility of the State or
political subdivision, of any sums
expended in response to a release at a
facility that was owned at the .time of
any disposal of hazardous substances
therein by the State or a political
subdivision thereof.
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Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137, Friday. )uiy 16. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
(c) Among the factor* that EPA will
use to determine whether a planned
removal is appropriate under
{ 300.67(a)(2) are the following;
(1) Actual or potential direct contact
with hazardous substances by nearby
population;
(2) Contaminated drinking water at
the tap;
(3) Hazardous substances in drums,
barrels, tanks, or other bulk storage
containers, that are known to pose a
serious threat to public health or the
environment;
(4) Highly contaminated soils largely
at or near surface, posing a serious
threat to public health or the
environment
(5) Serious threat of fire or explosion;
or
(8) Weather conditions that may
cause substances to migrate and pose a
serious threat to public health or the
environment
(d) Planned removal actions shall be
terminated when the lead agency
determines that the risk to the public
health or the environment has been
abated. In making this determination,
the lead agency shall consider whether
the factors listed in } 300.66(c) continue
to apply to the release and whether any
contaminated waste material*
transported off-site have been treated or
disposed of properly.
(e) Unless the EPA finds that (1)
continued response actions are
immediately required to prevent, limit or
mitigate an emergency, (2) there is an
immediate risk to public health or
welfare or the environment, and (3) such
assistance will not otherwise be
provided on a timely basis, obligations
from the Fund, other than those
authorized by section 104(b) of
CERCLA, shall not continue after $1
million has been obligated for response
actions or six months has elapsed from
the date of initial response to the
release.
S 300.68 Phase VI—Remedial action.
(a) Remedial actions taken pursuant
to this section (other than responses at
Federal facilities) are those responses to
releases on the National Priorities List
that are consistent with permanent
remedy to prevent or mitigate the
migration of a release of hazardous
substances into the environment
(b) States are encouraged to
undertake Fund-financed remedial
actions in accordance with S 300.62 of
this-Plan.
(c) As an alternative or in addition to
Fund-financed remedial action, the lead
agency may seek, through voluntary
agreement or administrative or judicial
process, to have those persons
responsible for the release clean up in a
manner that effectively mitigates and
minimizes damage to, and provides
adequate protection of. public health,
welfare, and. the environment. The lead
agency shall evaluate the adequacy of
clean-up proposals submitted by
responsible parties or determine the
level of clean-up to be sought through
enforcement efforts, by consideration of
the factors discussed in paragraphs (e)
through (j) of this section. The lead
agency will not, however, apply the cost
balancing considerations discussed in
paragraph (k) of this section to
determine the appropriate extent of
responsible party clean-up.
(d)(1) The lead agency, in cooperation
with State(s), will examine available
information and determine, based on the
factors in paragraph (g) of this section,
the type or types of remedial response
thai may be needed to remedy the
release. This scoping will serve as the
basis for requesting funding for a
remedial investigation and feasibility
study:
(1) In the case of initial remedial
measures, a single request may be made
by a State for funding the remedial
investigation, feasibility study, design
and implementation, in order that such
measures may be expedited while
continuing the remainder of the remedial
planning process.
(ii) In the case of source control or off-
site remedial action, the initial funding
request should be for the remedial
investigation and feasibility study.
Requests for funding of design and
implementation should be made after
the completion of the feasibility study.
(2) As a remedial investigation
progresses, the project may be modified
if the lead agency determines that
based on the factors in 300.68(e), such
modifications would be appropriate.
(e) In determining the appropriate
extent of remedial action, the following
factors should be used to determine the
type or types of remedial action that
may be appropriate
(1) In some instances, initial remedial
measures can and should begin before
final selection of an appropriate
remedial action if such measures are
determined to be feasible and necessary
to limit exposure or threat of exposure
to a significant health or environmental
hazard and if such measures are cost-
effective. Compliance with $ 300.67(b) is
a prerequisite to taking initial remedial
measures. The following factors should
be used in determining whether initial
remedial measures are appropriate:
(i) Actual or potential direct contact
with hazardous substances by nearby
population. (Measures might include
fences and other security precautions.)
(ii) Absence of an effective drainage
control system (with an emphasis on
run-on control). (Measures might includi
drainage ditches.)
(iii) Contaminated drinking water at
the tap. (Measures might include the
temporary provision of an alternative
water supply.)
(iv) Hazardous substances in drums,
barrels, tanks, or other bulk storage
containers, above surface posing a
serious threat to public health or the
environment. (Measures might include
transport of drums off-site.)
(v) Highly contaminated soils largely
at or near surface, posing a serious
threat to public health or the
environment. (Measures might include
temporary capping or removal of highly
contaminated soils from drainage
areas.)
(vi) Serious threat of fire or explosion
or other serious threat to public health
or the environment. (Measures might
include security or drum removal.)
(vii) Weather conditions that may
cause substances to migrate and to pose
a serious threat to public health or Un
environment (Measures might include
stabilization of berms. dikes or
impoundments.)
(2) Source control remedial actions
may be appropriate if a substantial
concentration of hazardous substances
remain at or near the area where they
were originally located and inadequate
barriers exist to retard migration of
substances into the environment Source
control remedial actions may not be
appropriate if most substances hava
migrated from the area where originally
located or if the lead agency determines
that the substances are adequately
contained. Source control remedial
actions may include alternatives to
contain the hazardous substances where
they are located or eliminate potential
contamination by transporting the
hazardous substances to a new location.
The following criteria should be
assessed in determining whether and
what type of source control remedial
actions should be considered:
(i) The extent to which substances
pose a danger to public health, welfare,
or the environment. Factors which
should be considered in assessing tH|
danger include:
(A) Population at risk;
(B) Amount and form of the substance
present;
(C) Hazardous properties of the
substances:
(D) Hydrogeological factors (e.g. nfl
permeability depth to saturated zone,
hydrologic gradients, proximity to a
drinking water aquifer); and
(E) Climate (rainfall, etc.).
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Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137. Friday. July 16. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
31217
(ii) The extent to which substances
have migrated or are contained by either
natural or man-made barriers.
(iii) The experiences and approaches
used in similar situations by State and
Federal agencies and private parties.
(iv) Environmental efTects and welfare
concerns.
(3) In some situations it may be
appropriate to take action (referred to as
offsite remedial actions) to minimize
and mitigate the migration of hazardous
substances and the effects of such
migration. These actions may be taken
when the lead agency determines that
source control remedial actions may not
effectively mitigate and minimize the
threat and there is a significant threat to
public health, welfare, or the
environment. These situations typically
will result from contamination that has
migrated beyond the area where the
hazardous substances were originally
located. Offsite measures may include
provision of permanent alternative
water supplies, management of a
drinking water aquifer plume or
treatment of drinking water aquifers.
The following criteria should be used in
determining whether and what type of
offsite remedial actions should be
considered:
(i) Contribution of the contamination
to an air, land or water pollution
problem.
(ii) The extent to which the
substances have migrated or are
expected to migrate from the area of
their original location and whether
continued migration may pose a danger
to public health, welfare or environment
(iii) The extent to which nature] or
man-made barriers currently contain the
hazardous substances and the adequacy
of the barriers.
(iv) The factors listed in paragraph
(e)(2)(f) of this section.
(v) "Hie experiences and approaches
used in similar situations by State and
Federal agencies and private parties.
(iv) Environmental effects and welfare
concerns.
(OA remedial investigation should be
undertaken by the lead agency (or
responsible party if the responsible
party will be developing a clean-up
proposal) to determine the nature and
extent of the problem presented by the
release. This includes sampling and
monitoring, as necessary, and includes
the gathering of sufficient information to
determine the necessity for and
proposed extent of remedial action.
During the remedial investigation, the
original scoping of the project may be
modified based on the factors in
% 300.68(e). Part of the remedial
investigation involves assessing
whether the threat can be mitigated and
minimized by controlling the source of
the contamination at or near the area
where the hazardous substances were
originally located (source control
remedial actions) or whether additional
actions will be necessary because the
hazardous substances have migrated
from the area of their original location
(offsite remedial actions).
(g) Development of Alternatives. A
limited number of alternatives should be
developed for either source control or
offsite remedial actions (or both)
depending upon the type of response
that has been identified under
paragraphs (e] and (f) of this section as
being appropriate. One alternative may
be a no-action alternative. No-action
alternatives are appropriate, for
example, when response action may
cause a greater environmental or health
danger than no action. These
alternatives should be developed based
upon the assessment conducted under
paragraphs (e) and (f) of this section and
reflect the types of source control or
offsite remedial actions determined to
be appropriate under paragraphs (e) and
(f) of this section.
(h) Initial Screening of Alternatives.
The alternatives developed under
paragraph (g) of this section will be
subjected to an initial screening to
narrow the list of potential remedial
actions for further detailed analysis.
Three broad criteria should be used in
the initial screening of alternatives:
(1) Cosf. For each alternative, the cost
of installing or implementing the
remedial action must be considered,
including operation and maintenance
costs. An alternative that far exceeds
(e.g. by an order of magnitude) the-costs
of other alternatives evaluated and that
does not provide substantially greater
public health or environmental benefit
should usually be excluded from further
consideration.
(2) Effects of the Alternative. The
effects of each alternative should be
evaluated In two ways: (i) Whether the
alternative itself or its implementation
has any adverse environmental effects;
and (ii) for source control remedial
actions, whether the alternative is likdy
to achieve adequate control of source
material, or for offsite remedial actions,
whether the alternative is likely to
effectively mitigate and minimize the
threat of harm to public health, welfare
or the environment If an alternative has
significant adverse effects, it should be
excluded from further consideration.
Only those alternatives that effectively
contribute to protection of public health,
welfare, or the environment should be
considered further.
(3) Acceptable Engineering Practices.
Alternatives must be feasible for the
location and conditions of the release,
applicable to the problem, and represent
a reliable means of addressing the
problem.
(i) Detailed Analysis of Alternatives.
(1) A more detailed evaluation will be
conducted of the limited number of
alternatives that remain after the initial
screening in paragraph (h).
(2) The detailed analysis of each
alternative should include:
(A) Refinement and specification of
alternatives in detail, with emphasis on
use of established technology;
(B) Detailed cost estimation, including
distribution of costs over time:
(C) Evaluation in terms of engineering
implementation, or constructability;
(D) An assessment of each alternative
in terms of the extent to which it is
expected to effectively mitigate and
minimize damage to, and provide
adequate protection of, public health,
welfare, and the environment relative to
the other alternatives analyzed; and
(E) An analysis of any adverse
environmental impacts, methods for
mitigating these impacts, and costs of
mitigation.
(3) In performing the detailed analysis
of alternatives, it may be necessary to
gather additional data in order to
complete the analysis.
(j) The appropriate extent of remedy
shall be determined by the lead agency's
selection of the remedial alternative
which the agency determines is cost-
effective (i.e. the lowest cost alternative
that is technologically feasible and
reliable and which effectively mitigates
and minimizes damage to and provides
adequate protection of public health,
welfare, or the environment).
(k) Section 104(c)(4) of CERCLA
requires that the need for protection of
public health, welfare and the
environment at the facility under
consideration be balanced against the
amount of money available in the Fund
to respond to other sites which present
or may present a threat to public health
or welfare or the environment taking
into consideration the need for
immediate action. Accordingly, in
determining the appropriate extent of
remedy for Fund-financed response, the
lead agency also must consider the need
to respond to other releases with Fund
monies.
{ 300.69 phase VII—Documentation and
cost recovery.
(a) During all phases, documentation
shall be collected and maintained to
support all actions taken under this
Plan, and to form the basis for cost
recovery. In general, documentation
should be sufficient to provide the
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31218 Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137. Friday. July 16. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
source and circumstances of the
condition, the identity of responsible
parties, accurate accounting of Federal
costs incurred, and impacts and
potential impacts to the public health,
welfare and environment.
fb) The information and reports
obtained by the lead agency for Fund-
financed response action should be
transmitted to the RRC Copies can then
be forwarded to the NRT, members of
the RRT, and others as appropriate.
§ 300.70 Methods of remedying releases.
(~) The following section'lists
methods for remedying releases that
may be considered by the lead agency in
taking response action. This list of
methods should not be considered
inclusive of all possible methods of
remedying releases. <
fb) Engineering Methods for On-Site
Actions.—(l)(i) Air emissions control—
The control of volatile gaseous
compounds should address both lateral
movement and atmospheric emissions.
Before gas migration controls can be
properly installed, field measurements
to determine gas concentrations,
pressures, and soil permeabilities should
be used to establish optimum design for
control. In addition, the types of
hazardous substances present the depth
to which they extend, the nature of the
gas and the subsurface geology of the
release area should, if possible, be
determined. Typical emission control
techniques include the following:
(A) Pipe vents;
(B) Trench vents:
(C) Gas barriers;
(D) Gas collection systems;
(E) Overpacldng.
(ii) Surface water controlt—These are
remedial techniques designed to reduce
waste infiltration and to control runoff
at release areas. They also serve to
reduce erosion and to stabilize the
surface of covered sites. These types of
control technologies are usually
implemented in conjunction with other
types of controls such as the elimination
of ground water infiltration and/or
waste stabilization, etc. Technologies
applicable to surface water control
include the following:
(A) Surface seals;
(B) Surface water diversion and
collection systems:
(1) Dikes and benns;
[2] Ditches, diversions, waterways;
(5) Chutes and downpipes;
(4) Levees;
(5) Seepage basins and ditches;
(~) Sedimentation basins and ponds;
(7) Terraces and benches.
(C) Grading:
(D) Revegetatioo.
(iii) Ground water controls—Ground
water pollution is a particularly serious
problem because, once an aquifer has
been contaminated, the resource cunnot
usually be cleaned without the
expenditure of great time, effort and
resources. Techniques that can be
applied to the problem with varying
degrees of success are as follows:
(A) Impermeable barriers:
(7) Slurry walls;
{2) Grout curtains;
(J) Sheet pilings.
(B) Permeable treatment beds;
(C) Ground water pumping:
(7) Water table adjustment:
[2] Plume containment
(D) Leachate control—Leachate
control systems are applicable to control
of surface seeps and seepage of leachate
to ground water. Leachate collection
systems consist of a series of drains
which Intercept the leachate and
channel it to a sump, wetwell. treatment
system, or appropriate surface discharge
point Technologies applicable to
leachate control include the following:
(2} Subsurface drains;
[2] Drainage ditches;
(3] Liners.
(iv) Contaminated water and sewer
lines—Sanitary sewers and municipal
water mains located down gradient from
hazardous waste disposal sites may
become contaminated by infiltration of
leachate or polluted ground water
through cracks, ruptures, or poorly
sealed joints in piping. Technologies
applicable to the control of such
contamination to water and sewer lines
include:
(A) Grouting;
(6) Pipe relining and sleeving:
(C) Sewer relocation.
(2) Treatment technologies, (i)
Caseous emissions treatment—Cases
from waste disposal sites frequently
contain malodorous and toxic
substances, and thus require treatment
before release to the atmosphere. There
are two basic types of gas treatment
systems:
(A) Vapor phase adsorption;
(B) Thermal oxidation.
(ii) Direct waste treatment methods—
In most cases, these techniques can be
considered long-term permanent
solutions. Many of these direct
treatment methods are not fully
developed and the applications and
process reliability are not well
demonstrated. Use of these techniques
for waste treatment may require
considerable pilot plant work.
Technologies applicable to the direct
treatment of wastes are:
(A) Biological methods:
(7) Treatment via modified
conventional wastewater treatment
techniques;
(2) Anaerobic, aerated and facultative
lagoons',
(3) Supported growth biological
reactors.
(B) Chemical methods:
(7) Chlorinatiom
(2) Precipitation, flocculation,
sedimentation;
(J) Neutralization;
(4) Equalization;
(5) Chemical oxidation.
(C) Physical methods:
(7) Air stripping;
(2) Carbon absorption;
(.?) Ion exchange;
(¦#) Reverse osmosis;
(5) Permeable bed treatment;
(6) Wet air oxidation:
\7) Incineration.
(iii) Contaminated soils and
sediments—In some cases where it can
be shown to be cost-effective,
contaminated sediments and soils will
be treated on the site. Technologies
available include:
(A) Incineration;
(B) Wet air oxidation;
(C) Solidification;
(D) Encapsulation;
(E) In situ treatment:
(7) Solution mining, [soil washing or
soil flushing):
[2] Neutralization/detoxification;
(3) Microbiological degradation.
(c) Offsite Transport for Storage.
Treatment, Destruction or Secure
Disposition.—(1) General—Offsite
transport or storage, treatment,
destruction, or secure disposition oftstte
may be provided in cases where EPA
determines that such actions:
(0 Are more cost-effective than other
forms of remedial actions;
(ii) Will create new capacity to
manage, in compliance with Subtitle C
of the Solid Waste Disposal Act,
hazardous substances in addition to
those located at the affected facility; or
(iii) Are necessary to protect public
health, welfare, or the environment from
a present or potential risk which may be
created by further exposure to the
continued presence of such substances
or materials.
(2) Contaminated soils and sediments
may be removed from the site.
Technologies used to remove
contaminated sediments on soils
include:
(i) Excavation;
(ii) Hydraulic dredging;
(iii) Mechanical dredging.
(d) Provision of Alternative Wafer
Supplies—Alternative water supplies
can be provided In several ways:
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Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137. Friday, July 16, 1902 / Rules and Regulations
31210
(1) Provision of individual treatment
units;
(2) Provision of waler distribution
system;
(3) Provision of new wells in a new
location or deeper wells;
(4) Provision of cisterns;
(5) Provision of bottled or treated
water.
(6) Provision of upgraded treatment
for existing distribution systems.
(e) Relocation—Permanent relocation
of residents, businesses, and community
facilities may be provided where it is
determined that human health is in
danger and that, alone or in combination
with other measures, relocation would
be cost-effective and environmentally
preferable to other remedial response.
Temporary relocation may also be taken
in appropriate circumstances.
§ 300.71 Worker health and safety.
Lead agency personnel should be
aware of hazards, due to a release of
hazardous substances, to human health
and safety and exercise great caution in
allowing civilian or government
personnel into an affected area until the
nature of the release has been
ascertained. Accordingly, the OSC or
responsible official must conform to
applicable OSHA requirements and
other guidance. All private contractors
who are working at the scene of a
release must conform to applicable
provisions of the Occupational Safety
and Health Act and any other
requirements deemed necessary by the
lead agency.
Subpart G—Trustees for Natural
Resources.
§ 300.72 Designation of Federal trustees.
When natural resources are lost or
damaged as a result of a discharge of oil
or release of a hazardous substance, the
following officials are designated to act
as Federal trustees pursuant to section
111(h)(1) of CERCLA for purposes of
sections 111(h)(1), 111(b) and 107(f) of
CERCLA:
(a)(1) Natural Resource Loss. Damage
to resources of any kind located on, over
or under land subject to the ~
management or protection of a Federal
land managing agency, other than land
or resources in or under United States
waters that are navigable by deep draft
vessels, including waters of the
contiguous zone and parts of the high
seas to which the National Contingency
Plan is applicable and other waters
subject to tidal influence.
. (Z) Trustee. The head of the Federal
land managing agency, or the head of
any other single entity designated by it
to act as trustee for a specific resource.
(b)(1) Natural Resource Loss. Damage
to fixed or non-fixed resources subject
to the management or protection of a
Federal agency, other than land in
resources in or under United States
waters that are navigable by deep draft
vessels, including waters of the
contiguous zone and parts of the high
seas to which the National Contingency
Plan is applicable and other waters
subject to tidal influence.
(2) Trustee. The head of the Federal
agency authorized to manage or protect
these resources by statute, or the head
of any other single entity designated by
it to act as Iruslee for a specific
resource.
(c)(1) Natural Resource Loss. Damage
to resource of any kind subject to the
management or protection of a Federal
agency and lying in or under United
States waters that are navigable by
deep draft vessels, including waters of
the contiguous zone and parts of the
high seas to which the National
Contingency Plan is applicable and
3 other waters subject to tidal influence,
and upland areas serving as habitat for
marine mammals and other species
subject to the protective jurisdiction of
NOAA.
(2) Trustee. The Secretary of
Commerce or the head of any other
single Federal entity designated .by it to
act as trustee for a specific resource;
provided, however, that where resources
are stibject to the statutory authorities
and jurisdictions of the Secretaries of
the Departments of Commerce or the
Interior, they shall act as co-trustees.
(d)(lj Natural Resource Loss.
Damages to natural resources protected
by treaty (or other authority pertaining
to Native American tribes) or located on
lands held by the United States in trust
for Native American communities or
individuals.
(2) Trustee. The Secretary of the
Department of the Interior, or the head
of any other single Federal entity
designated by it to act as trustee for
specific resources.
5 300.73 State trustee*.
Pursuant to section 111(h)(1) of
CERCLA and for purposes of sections
111(h)(1), 111(b) and 107(1} of CERCLA.
States may act as trustee for damage to
resources within the boundary of a State
belonging to, managed by, controlled by,
or appertaining to such State.
$ 300.74 Responsibilities ot trustees.
(a) The Federal trustees for natural
resources shall be responsible for
assessing damages to the resources in
accordance with regulations
promulgated under section 301(c) of
CERCLA, seeking recovery for the losses
from the person responsible or from the
Fund, and devising and carrying out
restoration, rehabilitation and
replacement plans pursuant to CERCLA.
(b) Where there are multiple trustees,
because of co-existing or contiguous
natural resources or concurrent
jurisdictions, they shall coordinate ana
cooperate in carrying out these
responsibilities.
Subpart H—Use of Oispersants and
Other Chemicals
§ 300.81 General.
(a) Section 311(c)(2)(G) of the Clean
Water Act requires that EPA prepare a
schedule of dispersants and other
chemicals, if any, that may be used in
carrying out the plan.
(b) The OSC, with the concurrence of
the EPA representative to the RRT and
in consultation with the States, may
authorize the use of dispersants and
other chemicals on oil spills; provided,
however, that such dispersants and
other chemicals must be on the list of
accepted dispersants prepared by EPA.
(c) In the case of dispersants arid
other chemicals not included on the list
of accepted dispersants, EPA will
continue to authorize use on a case-by*
case basis. Case-by-case approvals will
be made by the Administrator or her
designee.
Appendix A—Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste
Site Ranking Sustem; A User* Manual
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations OList of Tables
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Using the Hazard Ranking System-
General Considerations
3.0 Ground Water Migration Rout*
3.1 Observed Release
3.2 Route Characteristics
3.3 Containment
3.4 Waste Characteristics
3.5 Targets
4.0 Surface Water Route
4.1 Observed Release
4.2 Route Characteristics
4.3 Containment
4.4 Waste Characteristics
4.5 Targets
5.0 Air Route
5.1 Observed Release
5.2 Waste Characteristics
5.3 Targets
6.0 Computing the Migration Hazard Mode
Score, Sd
7.0 Fire and Explosion
7.1 Containment
72 Waste Characteristics
7.3 Targets
8.0 Direct Contact
8.1 Observed Incident
62 Accessibility
8.3 Containment
8.4 Waste Characteristics
8.5 Targets
-------
31220
Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137, Friday, July 18. 1902 / Rules and Regulations
List of Illustration*
Figure No.
1 HRS Cover Sheet
2 Ground Water Route Work Sheet
3 Depth to Aquifer of Concern
4 Mean Annual Lake Evaporation (In
Inches)
5 Normal Annual Total Precipitation
(inches)
0 Distance to the Nearest Well
7 Surface Water Route Work Sheet
8 One Year 34-Hour Rainfall
9 Air Route Work Sheet
10 Work Sheet for Computing S*
11 Fire and Explosion Work Sheet
12 Direct Contact Work Sheet
List of Table*
Table No.
1 Comprehensive List of Rating Factor*
2 Permeability of Ceologic Material*
3 Containment for Ground Water Route
4 Wane Characteristic* Value* for Some
Common Chemical*
5 Persistence (Biodegradability) of Some
Organic Compound*
5 Sax Toxicity Rating*
7 NFPA Toxicity Rating*
6 Value* for Facility Slope and Intervening
Terrain
9 Containment Values for Surface Water
Route
10 Values for Sensitive Environment
(Surface Water)
11 NFPA Reactivity Rating*
12 Incompatible Material*
13 Values for Land Use (Air Route)
14 NFPA IjjnitaUility Levels and Assigned
Value*
15 Values for Sensitive Environments (Fire
and Explosion)
1.0 Introduction
The Comprehensive Environmental
Response. Compensation and Liability Act of
1980 (CERCLA) (Pub. L. 96-510) requires the
President to identify the 400 facilities in the
nation warranting the highest priority for
remedial action. In order to set the priorities.
CERCLA requires that criteria be established
based on relative risk or danger, taking into
account the population at risk; the ha2ardous
potential of the substances at a facility, the
potential for contamination of drinking water
supplies, for direct human contact, and for
destruction of sensitive ecosystems; and
other appropriate factor*.
This document describe* the Hazard
Ranking System (HRS) to be used is
evaluating the relative potential of
uncontrolled hazardous *ubstance facilities
to cause health or safety problems, or
ecological or environmental damage. Detailed
instructions for using the HRS are given in
the following section*. Uniform application of
the ranking system in eacb State will permit
EPA to identify those release* of hazardous-
substances that pose the greatest hazard to
human* or the environment. However, the
HRS by itself cannot establish priorities for
the allocation of fund* for remedial action.
The HRS Is a means for applying uniform
technical judgment regarding the potential
hazard* presented by a facility relative to
other facilities. It does not address the
feasibility, desirubiiity. or dugree of ciuunup
required. Neither doss it deal with the
ret*dinet>9 or ability of a State to carry out
such remedial action as may be indicated, or
to meet other conditions prescribed in
CERCLA.
The HRS assigns three score* to ¦
hazardous facility;
• S* reflects the potential for harm to
humans or the environment from migration of
a hazardous substance away from the facility
by routes involving ground water, surface
water, or air. It is a composite of separate
scores for each of the three route*.
• Sra reflects the potential for harm from
substances that can explode or cause fire*.
• Sue reflect* the potential for harm from
direct contact with hazardous substance* at
the facility (i.e., no migration need be
¦involved).
The score for each hazard mode (migration,
fire and explosion and direct contact) or
route is obtained by considering a aet of
factors that characterize the potential of the
facility to cause harm (Table 1). Each factor
Is assigned a numerical value (on a scale of O
to 3,5 or B) according lo prescribed
guidelines. This value is then multiplied by a
weighting factor yielding the factor score. The
factor scores are then combined: scores
within a factor category are added: then the
total scores tor each factor category are
multiplied togetherto develop a score for
ground water, surface water, air, fire and
explosion, and direct contact
BILLING COM iJU-U-H
-------
TABLE 1
COMPREHENSIVE LIST TO RATING FACTORS
HAZAU) mot
FACTO* CATEGORY
FACTORS
CKOUKO WATER ROUTE
SURFACE WATER ROUTE
AIR ROUTE
Route
• Depth to Aquifer of Concern
• Facility Slope and
e Net Preclpltetlon
Intervening Terrain
a Permeability of
* One*Tcar 24-Hour Rainfall
Unsaturated Zone
a blatince to Nearest Sutface
Water
• Physical State 1
d tfcyelcal State
Containment
• Conteindent
• tofttdlnment
Waste
• Toxicity/Per*l«tenc«
a toklclty/fereidtence
e Reamvity/lncdmpetlbility
Chiric(«riftlci
• Hacardoue Weaca Quantity
d ka«*tddua Waste Quantity
e Toxicity
T«r|«t«
• Ground Water Use
• Surface Water Use
a Land Use
• Distance to Nearest Hell/
e Distance to Sensitive
e Population Within t-Mll« Radius
Population Served
Environment
• Distance to Sensitive
a Population Served/Distance
Environment
tm Vaeef Intake Do*netreaa
Fire md
ContalnMtii
a Containment
Explosion
Watte
• Direct Evidence
Characteristic*
• IgnttabiUty
• Reactivity
• Incompatibility
• ttaaardoua Waste Quantity
a Dletance to Nearest Population
Ttr|
-------
31222
Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137. Friday, July 16. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
In computing or So,., or nn individual
migration route score. the product of its factor
category scores it divided by the maximum
possible score. and the resulting ratio is
multiplied by 100. The last step puts all
scores on a scale of 0 to 100.
SM is a composite of the scores for the three
possible migration routes:
S«- Vsi. + s?„ + s.'
where:
Sn — ground water route score
S.„ » surface water route score
S. =» air route score
The effect of this means of combining the
route scores is to emphasize the primary
(highest scoring) route in abrogating route
scores while giving some ucklitional
consideration to the secom'riry or tertiary
routes if they score high. The factor 1/1.73 is
used simply for the purpose of reducing Sn
scores to a 100-point scale.
The HRS does not quantify the probability
of harm from a facility or the magnitude of
the harm that could result, although tha
factors have been selected in order to
approximate both those elements of risk. It is
s procedure for ranking facilities in terms of
the potential threat they pose by describing:
• The manner in which the hazardous
substances are contained,
• The route by which they would be
released.
• The characteristics and amount of the
harmful substances, and
• The likely targets.
The multiplicative combination of factor
category scores is an approximation of the
more rigorous approach in which one would
express the hazard posed by a facility as the
product of the probability of a harmful
occurrence and the magnitude of the
potential damage.
The ranking of facilities nationally for
remedial action will be based primarily on
5m- and Soc may be used to identify
facilities requiring emergency attention.
2.0 Using the Hazard Ranking System—
Centra! Considerations
Use of the HRS requires considerable
information about the facility, Its
surroundings, the hazardous substances
present and the geological character of the
area down to the aquifers that may be at risk.
Figure 1 illustrates a format for recording
general information regarding the facility
being evaluated. It can also serve as a cover
sheet for the work sheets used in the
evaluation.
Where there are no data for a factor, it
should be assigned a value of zero. However,
if a factor with no data is the only factor in ¦
category (e.g.. containment), then the factor is
given s score of 1. If data are lacking for more
than one factor in connection with tha
evaluation of either S>w> S_ S^, or Sue
that route score is set at zero.
The following sections give detailed
instructions and guidance for rating a facility.
Each section begins with a work sheet
designed to conform to the sequence of step*
required to perform the rsting. Guidance for
evaluating each of the factors then follows.
Using the guidance provided, attempt to
assign a score for each of the three possible
migration routes. Bear in mind that if data ara
missing for more than one factor in
connection with the evaluation of a route,
then you must set that route score at 0 (i.e,
there is no need to.assign scores to factors In
a route that will be set atO).
BILLING CODE 6S60-50-M
-------
Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137 / Friday, July 16. 19B2 / Ruins and Regulations
Facility nama:
Location:
EPA fleflion:
Pwon(i) in charge of the facility:
Nam* of Reviewer Date:
General description of the facility:
(For example: landfill, surface impoundment, pile, container, tyoes of tiazardous substance*: location of the
facility; contamination route of major concern; types of information needed for rating; agency action, etc.)
Scot—: Sm - (S^ - - S„ = )
SFE -
SDC "
FIGURE 1
HRS COVER SHEET
-------
31224 Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137. Friday, July 18. 19B2 / Rules and Regulations
3.0 Cround Water Migration Route
3.1 Observed Release. If there is direct
evidence of release of a substance of concern
from h facility to ground watur, enter a score
of 45 on line 1 of the work sheet for the
ground water route (Figure 2); then you need
not evaluate routs characteristics and
containment factor* (lines 2 and 3). Direct
evidence of release must be analytical. If a
contaminant is measured (regardless of
frequency) in ground water or in a well in the
\ irinity of the facility at a significantly (In
terms of demonstrating that a release has
occurred, not in terms of potential effects)
higher level than the background level, then
quantitative evidence exists, and a release
has been observed. Qualitative evidence of
release (e.g., an oily or otherwise
objectionable taste or smell in well water)
constitutes direct evidence only if it can be
confirmed that it results from a release at the
facility in question. If a release has been
observed, proceed to "3.4 Waste
Characteristics " to continue scoring. If direct
evidence is lacking, enter a value of 0 on line
1 and continue the scoring procedure'by
evaluating Route Characteristics.
3.2 Route Characteristics. Depth to
aquifer of concern is measured vertically
from the lowest point of the hazardous
substances to the highest seasonal level of
the saturated zone of the aquifer of concern
(Figure 3). This factor is one indicator of the
ease with which a pollutant from the facility.
could migrate to ground water. Assign a
value as follows:
DiftUnc* (1m1)
Mwanad
vafu«
7AtnlSa
a In ?«
t
0 In 911
Net precipitation (precipitation minus
evaporation) indicates the potential for
leachate generation at the facility. Net
seasonal rainfall (seasonal rainfall minus
seasonal evaporation) data may be used if
available. If net precipitation is not measured
in the region in which the facility is located,
calculate it by subtracting the mean annual
lake evaporation for the region (obtained
from Figure 4) from the normal annual
precipitation for the region (obtained from
Figure 5). EPA Regional Offices will have
maps for areas outside the continental U.S.
Assign a value as follows:
Ntt t»r«ctpHttion (inchM)
Anign«d
1A
o
. 1
2
$
Permeability of unsaturated zone (or
Intervening geological formations) is an
indicator of the speed at which • ^
contaminant could migrate from o facility.
Assign a value from Table 2. •
Tadle 2-—Permeability of Geologic
Materials'
Type ot malarial
Clay, compact M. shale;
unfracturad rnaUmorphtc
and igneoue rocfta.
8M. Iowa, aWy days, aSly
loame. day loamac laas
dotomaea. and i
•lone; moderately
Fine sand and utty land;
sandy loama: loamy
sands: moderately par-
meable Smostona, dele-
I no kanl); moderately
fractured Ignaoua and
metamorpMe rodta,
soma csarte *
Gravel, sand: NgMy frao-
lured Igneous and mete-
kant limestone
Aeproumate range el
Hydraulic rcindmtmtty
<19"* est/
<10"%>M"aa/
< 10" ^lO"'cm/see —
>10~B cm/see-
AJM.
1 Oertved Horn Davis, B. H„ mi I
Nttum MaMrite ti FJow'Thrvuffh PofOtM
OeWest ed.. Academic Prase. New Verti, 1Mk Fn _
and JA Cherry, OrourdwUr. Prentice-HaS. ma. New York.
1S7SU
BILLING CODE SMO-M-M.
-------
Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137 / Friday, July 16, 1982 / Rules and Regulations 31
Ground Water Route Work Sheet
Rating Factor
Assigned Value
(Circle One)
Multi-
plier
Score
Max.
Score
Ret.
(Section)
~
Observed Release
45
45
3.1
If observed release is given a score of 45, proceed to line [3],
II observed release is given a score of 0, proceed to line [|].
a
Route Characteristics
Depth to Aquifer ot
Concern
Net Precipitation
Permeability of the
Unsaturated Zone
Physical State
0 12 3
0 12 3
0 12 3
0 12 3
Total Route Characteristics Score
15
3.2
0
Containment
0 12 3
3.3
0 Waste Characteristics
T oxicity / Persistence
Hazardous Waste
Quantity
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 . 1
0 1 2345678 1
18
8
3.4
Total Waste Characteristics Score
26
ED Targets
Ground Water Use
Distance to Nearest
Well/Population
Served
0
1
2
3
3
9
0
4
6
8
10
1
40
12
16
18
20
24
30
32
35
4b
3.5
Total Targets Score
49
0 II line 0 is 45, multiply Q * 0 * QD
II line Q is 0, multiply [3 * 0 * 0 * OD
57,330
00 Divide line [6] by 57,330 and multiply by 100
sgw"
FIGURE 2
GROUND WATER ROUTE WORK SHEET
-------
DRINKING WATER
WELL SERVING
5 PEOPLE
DRINKING WATER
WELL SERVING
5000 PEOPLE
j jgjr jCIv
^ n f i t n
iiiiiSta
uncontaminatlo aquifer
•Treat target >nd route characteristics factors consistently, for example, If the upper aquifer Is
the aquifer of concern, then the "depth to aquifer of concern" Is 20 feet and the "population served"
Is 5 persons, tf the lower aquifer Is "of concern", the "depth" Is 120 feet (assuming no known
contamination below the Indicated "hazardous substance") and the "population" Is 5000 persons.
If the upper Aquifer Is contaminated end tha lower aquifer Is "of concern", the "depth" would be
80 fact (vertical distance between hatatdous substance and aquifer of concern) and the population
would be 5000 persons.
FIGURE 3
Depth to Aquifer of Concern
-------
EVAPORATION
I nclias)
0
-T-i *
^^^"vsr j*\
'TT"^ %**-*! * >
U-3*
Plat* 2
*W* iBiud on p«riod 1946-55
Source; Cllaatic Atlaa of the United States, U.S. Department of Co»m°rce, National Climatic
Center, Aahville, H.C., 1979.
Figure 4
Mean Annual.Lake Evaporation•(In Inches)
Q_
(5
»
«
Q
<
s.
•fe
s
Z
o
u
s
a.
09
<<
"cT
<<
co
00
N
50
c
0)
CO
09
3
a.
50
CO
0Q
c
O
3
(o
Kn9
V|
-------
Q
AI*U«
\
ltM|« W MH I •
m»r|»l«U4 •• «••• ftc
mh. particularly
1« WMUIlMa I
%
uia M mm it]i>44
Jourcai CllMtlc Atlf of tlx Unlt«4 U.S. DtfutMnt of Comtct, tfationvl Cllaatlc Ctnt«r,
«»hv111a. N.C.. 197*.
Figure 5
Normal Annual Total Precipitation (Inches)
M
M
09
"1
A
CL
O
70
ti
w
<
*
vj
Z
o
CO
VI
Q.
c
«<
cr
<<
CO
CD
ts)
: X
c
C
3
Q.
50
00
C
o
3
o»
-------
Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 16, 19B2 / Rules and Regulations
31229
Physical stale refer! to the ilate of the
hazardous substances at the time of disposal,
except that gain generated by the hazardous
substances in a disposal area should ba
considered in rating this factor. Each of the
hazardous substances being evaluated is
assigned a value as follows:
cenaoSdatad or itaMlnd-
unmnaufld—d or unatabMirad..
Puadw or fin* malarial..
Aaalgnad
value
A. Surface Impowidtnanl
•nar (natural or artificial) compatUa
maala. and adaquata laaefcata aoNacSon
panwaNa compatible Gnar wtti i
iy Hanv or inadaquata tra
run-or dfearaion nudurat
patmaaM* compatible *—•
B. Coolalna™
¦aalart and in aound condHloa adaquata
rmdatinn mlad and In aound condition, no Knar
InUn^ modarataly parmuM Inar -
taating and no Inar or incpmpatWa In*.
ncewwed and wish cUbiBzMt or pots co*>
, ws* unatabitaad, and aaaantitfty non par*
i mwowara*. waata unatabifizad, modarataly pa*
»trm. and laacftato ooftacton tyatarw , ¦
Table 3.—Containment Value for Ground
Water Route—Continued
Amjoh containment a vaiua ol 0 ft (1) a> 9ta hazardoua
auoatancaa at tha taoMv ara wndartam bv an aeaarftiatty
non pamwebia turtmom (natural at artificial) and adaquata
leachaia couacuon ayatama and dwaiamn a/atama ara
praaant or (2) thara ii no ground watar in tha vtdmty. Tha
vaiua "IT doaa not Meata no nafc. Rattwr. I tndieataa a
aignrficanrty tawar ratatoa rtak whan comparad with mora
aanoua artai on a national toai Othanwtaa, avaiuata tha
contammarrt far aach «f ffa dtttrnnm maana of atoraga ar
diipoaaJ at tha tadtty. uaaig tha loauwwig piidanoa.
EaaantiaJly non parmaaMa Inar. inar compatibla
wtth waato, and adaquata taachata ooflactton
3J Containment
Containment is a measure of the natural or
artificial means that have been used to
minimize or prevent a contaminant from
entering ground water. Examples include
liners, leachate collection systems, and
sealed containers. In assigning a value to this
rating factor (Table 3), consider all waya in
wMcb hazardous substances are stored or
disposed at the facility. If the facility Involve*
mot* than on* method of storage or disposal,
assign the highest from among aD applicable
value* (e.g.. If a landfill has a containment
velue of X. and, at the same location. ¦
surface impoundment has a value of 2, assign
containment a value of 2).
Table 3.—Containment Value for Ground
Water Route
EaaantiaSy nan parma ibta compattta Inar, no
laachata oofiacton ayatam, and landflH aurfaoo
pracludaa poncftng.
Modarataly parmaabta, compaUrta inar. and iandMI
•uriaca pradudaa porting..
No finar or ineompalibla Inar modarataly parmaabia
oompatibfa Knar; iandfll aurfaca aocounQ— pond*
. kng; no fun-on
A«ign eentainmant a vaiua of 0 If: (1) al tha hazardous
mibatanoaa al tha faciMy ara undartain by an aaaantiafty
mr parmaabia aurfaca (natural or artftotr) and adaquata
coiiacflon ayatama and dl»ww ayatama ara
paaant or <2) thara ia no ground wotar in tha vicinity. Tha
ash* "0" doaa not Indwata no riafc. Rathar, K Micataa a
ajaittaanOy loarar taMva rtafc whan oompavd with mora
mua a«aa on a national lavaL Otharwiaa, ovaiuata tha
uaaaiiMnoii tor aach at tha drtfaram maana of atoraga m
Apoad al tha facility, uaing tha fottowfc? guidanoa.
aignad
0 Value lor
lojdcHy
Vak» for parairtanoa
0
1
t
t
t
0
0
0
0
0
1 1
9
•
•
12
s
•
•
It
It
a «
«
11
If
19
Persistence of each hazardous substance is
evaluated on its biodegradability as follows:
Eaaly fatodagradafala compounds..
Straight chain hydrocarbons-
Subatitutad and othar ring compounds
Mataia, potycycte oompounda and
"3?
More specific information is given in
Tables 4 and 8.
Toxicity of each hazardous substance
being evaluated is given a value using the
rating scheme of Sax (Table e) or the
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
(Table 7] and the following guidance:
Tadcfly
¦ Sax laval 0 or NFPA lav* 0_
* Oh ImI 1 m MEPi laual 1
Sax laval 1 or NFPA laval 1.
Sax laval t or NFPA laval t_
Sax laval 3 ar NFPA laval 3 or 4„
Auignad
3.4 Watte Characteristics. In determining
a waste characteristics score, evaluate the
most hazardous substances at the facility
that could migrate (Le„ if acored, containment
ia not equal to zero] to ground water. Take
the substance with the highest score a*
representative of the potential hazard due to
waste characteristics. Note that tha
substance that may have been observed in
the release category can differ from the
substance used in rating waste
characteristics. Where the total inventory of
substances in a facility ia known, only those
present in amounts greater than the
reportable quantity (see CERCLA Section 102
for definition) may be evaluated
Toxicity 4nd Persistence have been
combined in the matrix below because of
their important relationship. To determine the
overall value for this combined factor,
evaluate each factor individually as '
discussed below. Match the individual value*
assigned with the values in the matrix for tha
combined rating factor. Evaluate several of
the most hazardous substances at the facility
independently and enter only the highest
score in the matrix on the work aheet
Table 4 presents values for some common
compounds.
Hazardous waste quantity includes all
hazardoua substances at a facility (aa
received) except that with a containment
value of Ol Do not include amounts of
contaminated aoil or water; in such cases, the
amount of contaminating hazardoua
substance may be estimated.
On occasion, it may be necessary to
convert data to a common unit to combine
them. In such cases, 1 ton-1 cubic yard—4
drums and for the purpo'ses of converting
bulk storage, 1 drum—50 gallon*. Assign a
value a* follows:
Tona In cubic yarda
Numbar of drums
Auignad
vaiua
0
0
1-10
1-40
n-et
41-290
e>-i2S
251-600
ise^sflO
501*1.000
251-C28
1.001-2.500
62S-1^SO
2.501-5,000
1^51-2.500
5,001-10,000
>2.500
>10,000
Table 4.—Waste Characteristics Values
for Some Common Chemicals
Chamieat/Gompound
Aeataldahyda-
Aldrtn___
Ammonia, Anhydrous.
C*rton TataeMortdau.
CMorobamana~
CreaokO.
CraaoMvtAP.
Forme Acad
taopropyf Ethar_
I hitsae
Matftyf E9i)i Katona.
Mathyf ParaStfonki
Xyfana SoMicn—
Ntttrfc Add.
Patfdaum, Karoaana
(Fuaf Ol N& 1) —
SuSurie Add.
Todo.
konA»-
Wrty*
AO
-------
31230 Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 16. 1902 / Rules and Regulations
Table 4 —Waste Characteristics Values
for Some Common Chemicals—Continued
Table 5.—Persistence (Biodegradabiuty)
of Some Organic Compounds'—Contmuod
Chemical/Compound
TowC'
%'
Po«s»»
tenoo*
ignite*
biifty*
Reac-
tivity •
Trichiorobererene ——
«•Thchioroethene___
2
2
2
9
2
1
1
1
3
0
0
0
akMn
heptachlor
benzopyrene
hc*piachlor epoxide
benzothiasola
1A3.4A7.7-
heptachloronoftomand
bemothiophena
hexacMoreberuena
benzyl butyf phythelete
hexachioro-13-butadeno
brornochiorobenzano
hexscNoroeyelohaxano
bromoform butanal
hexachloroethano
bromophenyf phyntyl athar
methyl benzothiazolo
chlordana
pentachsqrobiphanyl
chlorohydroxy banzephenone
pantachlorophenol
bift-chioroisoprophyl ether
1,1.9e3-totrachloroacetone
nxhioronitrobenzena
letrachloroptianyl
006
thiomethytben?othlazola
DOT
triehlorobenzane
dbromobenzana
thchksro^phenyl
dibutyt phthaJate
trichlorofkiromo thane
1.4-dichloro6anzene
2,4,e-trichlorophanol
ifchlorodlfluoroethane
triphen^ phosphate
dotdrtn
bromodichloromothana
daihyl phthalata
brcmafomi
dlt?-athylh«xyf)phthaleta
carbon tatrarhlorida
dhaxyl phthalata
chloroform
Mobutyf phthalata
chloromochloromethana
dioxolene
atrazlne
trana»2 athyt 4 iiiethyH ^
dioaolarta
(diethyl) atrazine
guaiaool
barbital
2-hy*c«yadipoi*le
bornfol
Hophorono
bromobansana
Indene
cMorobaraana
bopropheny^-isopropyi ben-
1^*bia
triazine iosmar
2,6-
Table 7.—NFPA Toxioty Ratings*
0 Miiwttlt which on *>po«n undar In ..
wouM etlar no IMlti huai4 Myontf HuM of
combustibla mitaritfl
1 Materials only •figMV haxwdouo to haaMv M
Onkablo to •—* wlt-«ontain«d bruWng i
( Materials hazanloua to huWv bul .araoa
xriMrad trooly wW< aolreontalrad bmt*n
ta.
* Materials •rtrwnoly huantou* 10 hoaMv bu
may ba entered wtth atuaiiia cars. Fu| pr
doihmj. Including sel-conuinad btaamnf
tus, rubber glovea. boots and band* around I
arma and waisl should ba pwtead. No sun ¦
shotM ba swioasrl.
4 A law wMfa Ol •» gas or vapor could cauaa « _
the gas. vapor, or IquM oovM ba taM an panat«i»n
ttia lira DgMare' normal U pcetacOv* ctoMna «Neh
Is designed tar resistance «o Mat For moat ah—d
cats having a Health 4 rainft the normal Ml piotao-
live clothing availa&la to (ha average Ira daMMmaM
win not prnvyje adequate protection igalnal
contact wtth these material*. Only specW pr
clothing designed to protect agalnat toe
haiard should ba wont
*Nst«nal fn Protection Aasociatioa Niton* n*
VoL 13. No. «. 1»7T.
3.S Targets. Ground water us* indiutM
the nature of the use made of ground water
drawn from the aquifer of concern within S
miles of the hazardous substance, including
the geographical extent of the measurable
concentration in the aquifer. Assign • value
using the following guidance:
-------
Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 16, 1902 / Rules and Regulations
31231
Ground »«i«i um
UnuMbt* <• 9-, u»r>« tquriaf,
low yofcj. 01c.)
Cowrxrcul, mdoct/ial cm •¦•gat'on and anoihor
wafer some* prcsantty awMfctae. not used, but
Drinking water with frunctpai waiw Worn aflat-
nata unttwaaterwd tomct« p»e«nity «v«>labt«
(la^ mwrjl hookup w«wtrient&), or com-
rvwcial. nCusbi«i at «rtg*u>n wrtn no oth«i
wl1«f SOutCO prtMnfFy tv»>Ub%
Drinking watar, no municipal *¦•»« Uom inemat*
untfvMtonod tomcttt p»«nmry avaiiatM
At&iQnad
vak*
Distance lo nearest well andpopulation
served have been combined in the matrix
below lo belter reflect the important
relationship between the distance of a
population from hazardous substances and
the size of the population served by ground
water that might be contaminated by those
substances. To determine the overall value
for this combined factor, score each
individually as discussed below. Match the
individual values assigned with the values in
the matrix for the total score.
Van*
lOf
Van* tor cftstanc* lo nearest wal
papula-
bon
0
1
2
3
4
Mntd
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
4
6
B
10
2
0
•
12
ie
20
a
0
12
10
24
30
4
P
10
24
32
35
9
0
20
30
35
40
Distance to nearest well is measured from
the hazardous substance (not the facility
boundary) to the nearest well that draws
water from the aquifer of concern. If the
actual distance to the nearest well is
unknown, use the distance between the
hazardous substance and the neatest
occupied building not served by a public
water supply (e.g.. a farmhouse). If a
discontinuity in the aquifer occurs between
the hazardous substance and all wells, give
this factor a score of 0, except where it can
be shown that the contaminant is likely to
migrate beyond the discontinuity. Figure 6
illustrates how the distance should be
measured. Assign a value using the following
guidance:
Distance
V»tu«
- 3 ..JU
1
2
3
4
BIIUNG CODE 6SSO-SQ-M
-------
2 MILES
WELL Ma 2
VALLEY
v^j*'***<*t»*v y.^'j ;i,j
^SK^NC^AMlNATEd PORTION OF THE"!
>>>:>>;"::::;X:::>:::s a m e aquifer
i«• • t. !•
• J. J-J-'j J-- -i-' J - y I*- i/-l J '¦Vytw;
^CONTAMINATED AQUIFER OFCONCERN^V
* UUli lAMiriMifctf www«r tn w» V _i' _r _r. _L'_r ' iV.
£*£££ SERVING THE POPUL AT
^^f:T: i:::::
SURFACE WATER
In the situation depleted above, the distance betveen th* hazardous substance
and the neareat veil (No. 1) la k alle. If well No. 1 did not exist, the distance
to well No. 2 would be lanaterlal since there Is a discontinuity In the aquifer
(•urfar* water) between It and the hazardous substance. Under such circumstances,
the factor acore would be "0". However,, If It could be deaonstrated that the con-
taalnent had bridged the discontinuity, then the distance to the nearest well would
be 2 Miles (assuming well No. 1 does not exlat).
ts}
w
t9
*n
a
Q.
Q
X
o
w
o
Z
o
vj
G-
a
'<
c^
CO
00
N
FIGURE 6
Distance Co Nearest Well
?0
e
o
3
Q.
50
(9
•»
PILUIIQ COOS Mtt-M-C
9
3
-------
Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 16, 1982 / Rules and Regulations
31233
Population served by ground water is an
indicator of the population at risk, which
include* resident* a* well hi other* who
would regularly use the water such as
worker* in factories or offices and atudents.
Include employee* in restaurant*, motels, or
campground* but exclude customer* and
traveler* passing through the area in auto*,
buses, or train*. If aerial photography 1* used,
and resident* are known to use ground water,
mume each dwelling unit ha* 3.B residents.
Where ground water i* used for irrigation,
convert to population by assuming 1-5
person* per acre of irrigated land. The well or
well* of concern must be within three miles
of the hazardous substances, including the
area of known aquifer contamination, but the
"population served" need not be. Likewise,
people within three miles who do not use
water from the aquifer of concern are not to
be counted. Assign a value us follows:
Population
Aaapnod
VMM
0
1
t
a
4
s
4.0 Surface Water Rout*
4.1 Observed Release. Direct evidence of
release to surface water must be quantitative
evidence that the facility is releasing
contaminants into surface water.
Quantitative evidence could be the
measurement of levels of contaminants from
a facility in. surface water, either at the
facility or downhill from it, that represent* a
significant (in terms of demonstrating that a
release has occurred, not In terms of potential
effects) increase over background level*. If
direct evidence of release has been obtained
(regardless of frequency), enter a value of 45
on line 1 of the work sheet (Figure 7) and omit
the evaluation of the route characteristics
and containment factors. If direct evidence of
release is lacking, enter a value of 0 on line 1
and continue with the scoring procedure.
4.2. Route Characteristics. Facility tfope
and intervening terrain are indicators of the
potential for contaminated runoff or spills at
a facility to be transported to surface water.
The facility slope is an indicator of the
potential for runoff or spills to leave the
facility: Intervening teiTain refers to the
average slope of the shortest path which
would be followed by runoff between the
facility boundary and the nearest downhill
surface water. TTti* rating factor can be
assesied using topographic map*. Table S
(hows value* assigned to various facility
conditions.
One-year 24-hour rainfall (obtained from
Figure 8) indicates the potential for area
sturms to cause surface water contamination
os a result of runoff, erosion, or flow over
dikes. Assign a value as follows:
Amount of rainlil (inch**)
VIM
0
t ft tn »A
|
s
)
Table 8.—Values for Facility Slope and
Intervening Terrain
hnervormg imn
Facility ttopo
Twain avorag* flop*
SM
in
M*
toco
«MT
<3
prt1
9 to
6
pol
Sto
•
9*
> •
pa
Facilty to doMtf b*ata_
F*c*ty ht» iwn
Av*r*g* Hop* (I to ft
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
<
0
1
1
t
•
0
*
a
*
t
Av*rag* ciopo (& to •
Awovogo stopo <> •
'Twmin nrngi «iopo <3 pet or _tft» upwind *o*i
mw body by vui of high* otoftfe*
BILLING COOC IH0-I04I
-------
31234
Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137 / Friday. July 16, 1982 / Rules and Regulations
Surface Water Route Work Sheet
Rating Factor
Assigned Value
(Circle One)
Multi-
plier
Score
Max.
Score
fief.
(Section)
03
Observed Release
45
45
4.1
If observed release Is given a value of 45, proceed to line Q.
If observed release is given a value of 0, proceed to line tu-
tu
Route Characteristics
Facility Slope and Intervening
Terrain
0
1
2
3
1
3
1-yr. 24-hr. Rainfall
0
1
2
3
1
3
Distance to Nearest Surface
Water
0
1
2
3
2
6
Physical State
0
1
2
3
1
3
Total Route Characteristics Score
15
4.2
Containment
0 12 3
4.3
0 Waste Characteristic*
Toxicity/Persistence
_ Hazardous Waste
Quantity
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 1
012345878 1
18
8
4.4
Total Waste Characteristics Score
26
tU
Targets
Surface Water Use
0
1
2
3
3
9
Distance to a Sensitive
0
1
2
3
2
6
Environment
Population Served/Distance
I
4
6
8
10
1
40
to Water Intake
I 12
16
18
20
Downstream
J 24
30
32
35
40
4.9
Total Targets Score
55
PH If line Q] is 45. multiply 0 x 0 * tH
If line Q is 0, multiply fH x (3) x Rl x (Tl
64,350
CD Divide line [5] by 64,350 and multiply by 100
®sw "
FIGURE 7
SURFACE WATER ROUTE WORK SHEET
-------
¦ -*^»- 'HIS >¦ •
y/fov
c
Sourest Jtelafftli Frequency AtU« 0/ tbc Utaitorf Stat**, Tschaicsl r*p*r No. 40, U.S. Departacnt o| Cowcrct,
of
*0,
S
Departacnt
U
NO,
•I
'•
U.S. CnWMMt rtlntlat Offlca, W««hlJ»jt»n, B.C., 1H)
MJJNQ COOC WHM
Figure 8
1-Year 24-Hour Rainfall (Inches)
-------
31236
Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137. Friday. July 18, 1982 / Rules and Regulations
Distance to the nearest surface water is the
shortest distance from thn hazardous
RuliHlnncc, (not the fucilily or property
lmundiiry) to the nearest downhill body of
tiiirfur.e water (e.g., lake or stream) that is nn
the connie (hut runoff can be expected to
follow and that at least occasionally contains
water. Do not include mun-made ditches
which do not connect with other surface
wuter bodies. In areas having less than 20
inches of normal annual precipitation (see
Figure 5). consider intermittent streams. This
factor indicates the potential for pollutant*
flowing overland and into surface water
bodies. Assign a value as follows:
Diatance
>2 mitee..
1 to 2 m«4#
1000 feel lo 1 mi*..
<1000 (Ml
Aasianad
value
Physical state is assigned a value using the
procedures in Section 3.2.
4.3 Containment. Containment is a
measure of the means that have been taken
to minimize the likelihood of a contaminant
entering surface water either at the facility or
beyond the facility boundary. Examples of
containment are diversion structures and the
use of sealed containers. If more than one
type of containment is used at a facility,
evaluate each separately (Table 9) and assign
the highest score.
Table 9.—Containment Values for
Surface Water Route—Continued
eoMftinfftoflt ft vftJu* of 0 * (1) all the watt* at the
ana tfl turrounOM) by drwrnoo cinjciurnt thot art in soond
co odd ton end acX«Quaia lo contain afl runoff, tp»ris. gr took*
from I ha waste; or (2) inl*rv«rvng terrain precludes runoff
from entering surface water. Otherwise. evaluata mo corv
tammunt for each of the drtferenl means of storage or
tirapoul at the sM and assign a value as follows:
0. Landffi
Landftl elope predudee runoff. lendM surrounded
by sound
raatton (a g., fisNng, boating, i
Drinking Watar •
AimuM
value
Distance to a senstitive environment refers
to the distance from the hazardous substance
(not the facility-boundary) to an area
containing an important biological resource"
or to a fregile natural setting that could suffer
an especially severe impact from pollution.
Table 10 provides guidance on assigning a
value to this rating factor.
Table 10—Values for Sensitive Environment (Surface Water).
4.4 Waste Characteristics. Evaluate
waste characteristics for the surface water
route with the procedures described in
Section 3.4 for the ground water route.
Assigned vafwe—
0
1
. 2
3
Distance to Wetlands1 (5 acre mini-
mum)
>2 mi
>1
1 to 2 n
ft to 1 m»e
100 feet to X mile _
< ft (rife
<100 feel
<* nM,
Dtstancs to Critical Habitat (of endaw
gered specie*) *
* to 1 »
'Wat I and to defined by EPA in the Cod* o( Federal Regulations 40 CFR Pan 230, Appendix A. 19
'Endangered species are dasiQnated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Table 9.—Containment Values for
Surface Water Route
Aatign containment a yakta HI 0 It. (1) at) the waate at ma
arte ia aurvounded by tfveraion atiuduraa that ara in aound
conditon snd adequate to contain an ninoH, spine, or Inks
Irom the waste; or (2) Intervening terrain prccludee runoff
from entering aurlaca MW. Otherwise. evaluate die corv
tamment tor aach ot Sio diHaranl meana of storage or
diapasal at tha site and aaaign s valua aa toflowa:
A. Surface Impoundment
Sound dWng or dfeeraion atrueture. adequate hee-
board, and no aroaion oirtdewt
Sound dMunfl or diversion etructura, but inadequate
Diking no) leaking, but potentially unsound______
Diking unaound. leaking, or in danger of coWapao ,
B. Containers
Corrtainan laaled, In aound condition. snd wr-
rounded by aound Aversion or containment
eyetem
Coniainera seated and In sound condition, but not
aurrounded by sound Aversion or containment
ayatem
Conteinera leaking end Areraion or containment
atructuree potentially unaound..
Containen leaking. and no diversion or containment
stnjctine or diversion atnicturaa leaking or In
r ot
C Waate PSaa
PVee are covered and aunwnded by aound dhw-
aion or Containment ayalaM
Pltea covered, wealaa unconaofldated. dtoraioft or
containment system not adequate
psee not covered, wastes unconeolidaMd, and dh
version or containment eyelem potentlaSy un-
sound.
psee not covered, weatee unoonaoSdated. and no
dlvenlon or conlaaimenl or dKrersion ayatem leak'
ing or In danger or ooBapeo
Population sen-ed by surface water with
water intake within 3 miles downstream from
facility (or 1 mile in static surface water such
as a lake) is a rough indicator of the potential
hazard exposure of the nearby population
served by potentially contaminated surface
water. Measure the distance from the
probable point of entry to surface water
following the surface water (stream miles).
The population includes residents aa well aa
others who would regularly use the water
such aa workers in factories or offices and
students. Include employee* in restaurants.
motels, or campgrounds but exclude
customers and travelers passing through the
area in autos, buses and trains. The distance
is measured from the hazardous subitance,
including observations in stream or sediment
samples, regardless of facility boundaries.
Where only residential houses can be
counted (e.g.. frora-an aerial photograph), and
residents are known to be using surface
water, assume 3.B Individuals per dwelling
unit Where surface water-is used for
irrigation, convert to population by assuming
13Tpersons per acre of land Irrigated. Assign
a value as follows:
Population
101-1.000.
1,001-3.000™
3.001-10.000.
> 10.000'
Distance to surface
>3
mile*
2-9
mMsa
1-t
ntfee
20C-1
mio
0
0
0
0
0
4
•
t
0
•
12
10
0
12
1«
24
0
11
24
22
0
20
90
n
«•
2.000
0
«e
so
so
as
5.0 AirJtoutm
5.1 Observed Release. The only
acceptable evidence of release for the air
route is data that show levels of a
contaminant at or in the vicinity of the
facility that significantly exceed background
levels, regardless of the frequency of
occurrence. If such evidence exists, enter a
value of 45 on line 1 of the work sheet (Figure
9); if not essign line 1 s 0 value and then
S,z>0. Record the date, location, and the
sampling protocol for monitoring data on the
work sheet. Data based on transitory
conditions due to facility disturbance by
investigative personnel are not acceptable.
BIUJNO COM tMO-M-U
-------
Federal: Register / Vol. 47. No. 137 / Friday, July 16. 1QB2 f Rufcs and Rraulaliors
Aii Route Work Sheet
_ . Assigned Value Multi-
Rating Factor . _ .
" (Circle One) pliei
Score
May.
Score
Ref.
(Section)
0 Observed Release 0 45 1
45
5.1
Dale and Local ion:
Sampling Protocol:
II line Q is 0, the Sa - 0. Enter on line [5].
II line Q] is 45. then proceed to line [2] •
QD Waste Characteristics 5.2
Reactivity and 0 12 3 1 3
Incompatibility
Tonicity 0 1 2 3 3 9
Hazardous Waste 012345678 1 8
Quantity
Total Waste Characteristics Score
20
[H Targets
Population Within 1 0 9 12 15 1f» > 30
4-Mtle Radius J 21 24 27. 30
Oistance to Sensitive 0 1 2 3 2 6
Environment
Land Use 0 2 ' 3
5.3
Total Targets Score
39
® Multiply fTJ x [2l » f51
35,100
fsl Divide line Q by 35,100 and multiply by 100 S a -
FIGURE 9
AJR ROUTE WORK SHEET
-------
5.2 Waste Characteristics. "Hie hazardous
substance thai was observed for scaring the
release category may be different from the
substance used to tcore waste
churaclerislics.
Reactivity and incompatibility, measures
of the potential for sudden releases of
concentrated air pollutants, are evulusted
independently. and the highest value tor
either is recorded on the work sheet.
Reactivity provides • measure of (he fire/
explosion throat at • facility. Assign a value
bused on the reactivity classification used by
NFPA (see Table 11). Reactivity ratings for a
number of common compounds are given in
Table 4.
Table 11.—NFPA Reactivity Ratings
Tabu 12.—Incompatible Materials—
Continued
» tfw ***» below, the mnong o* • Qrtrup A material wifft a
Group B maienal may he*e the potent*! eontequvnee e»
Sodium -
Ztne powder —
Other metals and
mmlsl hydridea.
Potential conwmencw: F« or
flammable hydrogan pat
**pkwon. ganKalion ot
Group ®-A
Group £-8
Alcohota-
Weter..
NFPAW*
Assigned
value
0 Material which *•
normaRy tlabte even
unoar fire expoeure cor
iflior» and »*'"ch .iFe
Jk
o
^ Maiariala which in ta
waeNaa are noftmHy
etatoie but which mey
become wnslabHi at
elwated tenweratvaa and pmsun or w
may react with wetv
wdh some roteeiA of
2 Matertala which in t*
imaatxa are no
unstabla and reader un
dargo violent ch^~ -a)
change but do not del
mala, ktdudos
ala which can undergo
chemical charvje '
rapid raleaae of anarg
tf at normel temped
Uvea and preaaurea er «Meh can o
uiiilia chemical ehen1
a at atwatAd tomp»re-
turec and preaaurea. A
tae Jncfudea thoce ma-
lehaK which vney read
Which may form potert
violera^ with
My a^rioaive
t
3 Materiala which m «w
fwaa»>aa ara capable <*
detonation or of exptoawe daoompoaiiion or of
expioaive reaction but
«McH fequ*e» a strong
Muting aouroa or «
>Nch muet be htaied
undar conftnameid ba
1
1
s
1
i
I
l
MMTtlve 10 IWtrrjl ur
mechanical shock at
•levatad lemperaturas
and preaaurea or whic
h ceed enploarvely ivt«
water without requiring haat or oontoarnoi*
9
4 MatariaH which bi
Stemeelve* ere rradty
* datonattoai
o> ol tetploelve deconv
poaiaon or aapto«> 'a
raartinrt at nonnal tonv
peraturaa and praaaa
•aa Mudas (na^rvsls
which ara aerate* la
thermal shock—»
—cheninl or 1oulup 1-
Acatylene stubs*
Afcaitna eaualle fiqJda,.
Alkaline dei
Aflcaftna cuiow*» iqufcfc
fluid.
Cairt*~ waatawatar-
lime eiudge t
LimawaStee
Lime and
Spentceusi
Addibd?*.
Acid and v/atar.
Battery acid.
Cham&ti cic:*%.
Electrolyio .-.cat
. ElcWng ncfi' ] * <*
pfcfcbng 1 olha
roaive a> -us>
. Spanl add.
. Span! mni-C .. *t
. Spent sulfuric
Gmi»M
Group 2-S
Beryfcm-
Cafaium—
LM*m-
Pota«si>^-
— Any concerrtrsted watts In
Groupe or 1-B.
Calcium.
lithium.
Metal hydrides
PtTtMWjm.
SO^X SOCL. PCk. CH„
set
Oitier wvier.reactive mm.
Potential consequences: Fr%, explosion, or heat gener*.
lion, generation at Damnable or lone gassa.
Group 4-A
Group 4-B
Concentrated Group 1-A or
1-0 wastea.
. Group 2-A MM*
Hatoganatad t>y
-------
Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 10, 1982 / Rules and Regulations
31239
four-mil< radius a* well as traniilenta auch as
workers in factories offices, restaurants,
motel*, or students. It excludes travelers
passing through the area. If aerial
photography ia uaed in making the count,
assume 3.8 Individuals per dwelling unit.
Select the highest value for this rating factor
¦¦ follows:
Distance to Population From Hazardous
Substance
Population
1 lo 100
101 lo 1,000—.
1,001 ID 3.000...
3,001 10 10,000-
Mora tfW 10,000„
0
It
21
24
XT
30
Distance to sensitive environment Is «d
indicator of the likelihood that a region that
contains important biological resources or
that is a fragile natural setting would suffer
serious^damage if hazardous substances were
to be released from the facility. Assign •
value from Table 10.
Land use indicates the nature and level of
human activity in the vicinity of a facility.
Assign highest applicable value from Table
13.
6.0 Computing the Migration Huxord Mode
Score, S*
To compute S„. complete the work sheet
(Figure 10) using the values of S„ and S,
obtained from the previous sections.
7.0 Fire and Explosion
Compute a score for the fire and explosion
hazard mode, Sra, when either a state or local
Tire marshal! has certified that the facility
presents a significant fire or explosion Ihreat
to the public or to sensitive environments or
there is a demonstrated fire and explosion
threat based on field observations (e.g.,
combustible gas indicator readings).
Document the threat
7.1 Containment. Containment is an
indicator of the measures that have been
taken to minimize or prevent hazardous
substances at the facility from catching fire or
exploding. Normally it will be given a value
of 3 on the work sheet (Figure 11). If no
hazardous substances that are individually
ignitable or explosive are present and those
that may be hazardous in combination are
segregated and isolated so that they cannot
come together to form incompatible mixtures,
assign this factor a value of 1.
7 2 Waste Characteristics. Direct evidence
oflgnitability or explosion potential may
exist in the form of measurements with
appropriate instruments. If so, assign this
factor a value of 3; if not, assign a value of 0.
Table 13.—Values fob Land Use (Am Route)
Auifpad v«Jua«
0
1
2
3
Dtoanea to Commarcii)
Distant* to National/Stat* Pvfci,
Fotaatt, WUdtfa Rwirvw, and.
^•sidanttal Arm.
Dwlanca to Agricultural Land* (In Pp»
duction wWwi Syeen): '
<( mat.
<* fNta.
<1iHl
<4 n*i.
WRNn waw of tNi
ortf a*a>fa
•utojaca lo<
¦ignfficawt
\npacta*
K to JL mia —
110 1 mBa —
Prim Jtgiand*
Dtstanca lo Matoric/Landmairfc Sitaa
(National flagiatar ol Htoterio
Placaa and Naliorud Natural Land»
marka^-
,1 miaa
1 to 2 m«w
' Defined In Coda o! Fadwal Rasulitiora. 7 CFD S57.S, 1M1.
S2
Groundwater Route Score (SgW)
Surface Water Route Score (S3W)
Air Route Score (St))
S2 + S2 + S2
gw sw a
/
2 2 2
$4 + S «¦ S
gw sw a
l/ s!... + St.. + s
.2
gw
*2
'sw
: /•¦»
SM "
FIGURE 10
WORKSHEET FOR COMPUTING SM
-------
31240
Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137 / Friday. July 16. 1982 / Rule9 and Regulation*
Fire and Explosion Work Sheet
Rating Factor
Assigned Value
(Circle Oris)
Multi-
plier
Score
Max.
Score
Ret,
(Section)
0
Containment
7.1
GO Waste Characteristics
Direct Evidence
Ignltability
Reactivity
Incompatibility
Hazardous Waste
Quantity
0 3
0 12 3
0 12 3
0 12 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8
7.2
Total Waste Characteristics Score
20
0 Targets
Distance to Nearest
Population
Distance to Nearest
Building
Distance to Sensitive
. Environment
Land Use
Population Within
2-Mile Radius
Buildings Within
2-Mile Radius
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 12 3
0 12 3
0 12 3
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
5
3
3
3
5
7.3
Total Targets Score
24
0
Multiply [7] x [2] x [j}
1,440
HJ Divide line [4] by 1,440 and multiply by 100
SFE
FIGURE 11
FIRE AND EXPLOSION WORK SHEET
-------
Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 16, 1982 / Rules and Regulations 31241
Ignilabilily i» an indicator of the threat of
fire al a facility and the accompanying
potential for release of air contaminants.
Assign this rating factor a value baaed on the
NFPA classification scheme (Table 14). Table
4 gives values for a number of common
compounds. Assign values as follows:
IgnlUUWy
Fle»h»ioint>200*F. or NFPA ImI O
Flnftpoim 140'F to 200"F or NFPA ImI 1.
Fl»«Hpo<01 SO"F to 140-F or NFPA M »_
Flashpoint < KTF or NFPA levels 3 or *
Reactivity. Assign values as in Section 5:2.
Incompatibility. Assign values as in
Section 5.2.
Hazardous Waste Quantity. Assign values
aa in Section 3.4.
Table 14.—NFPA Ignitability Levels and
Assigned Values
NFPA (aval
Astignad
valua
4 Vary flammabto gasas, vary vdatito (Umrr»
bta Squids, and matariate that In tha form of
duals or mists raadAy form axptosK* rmturaa
a
9 Liquids which can ba ignilad undar ad normal
tamparatura condrtiona. Any maiansls that ig-
rvtas spontanaously at normal tamparaturas in
2 Lipids which must ba modarataty haatad
bafora ignition w* occur and solids that raadty
a
1
0
1 Matariala that must ba prahaaiad bafora ignt»
ton can occur. Moat combustibia solids hava
ft UffMtalc that t«fl rmt hiati
Distanoa
Atojinad
1 rr1* » mte
q *1 1 mUaa
ft •
Distance to nearest building Is an indicator
of the potential for property damage.aa-&.
result of fire or oxplosion.- Assign a value as
follows:
Distance to nearest sensitive environment
is measured from the hazardous substances,
not from the facility boundary. It is an
indicator of potential harm to a sensitive
environment from fire or explosion at the
facility. Select the highest value using the
guidance provided In Table IS except assign
a value of 3 where fire could be expected to
spread to a sensitive environment even
though that environment is more then 100 feet
fronrthe hazardous substance^
Table 15.—Values for Sensitive Environments (Fire and Explosion).
Distanoa
Aawonad
valua
0
t
2
a
ntflUM
Aasignad viiua—
0
1
2
a
<100 tooL
Distance to Critical Habitat*..
1000 taat to ft mHa~
100 to 1000 toat
<100 taaL
• Wetland la defined by EPA in Vie Code of Federal Peculation* 40 CFH Part 230, Append™ A, 18
'Dastgnstad by tha UiLFrsh and Wiklbta Sarvioa.
Land Use. Assign values e« in Section &X
Population within two-mile radius
(measured from the location of the hazardous
substance, not from the facility boundary] ii
a rough indicator of the population at risk la
the event of fire or explosion at a facility? The
population to be counted Include* those
residing within the two mile radius as well aa
people regularly in the vicinity such as
workers in factories, offices, or students. It
does not include travelers passing through
the area. If aerial photography is used in
making the count, assume 3.8 individuals per
dwelling. Assign values as follows:
7.3 Targets. Distance to nearest
population is the distance from the hazardous
substance to the nearest building or area in
which one or more persons are likely to be
located either for residential, educational,
business, occupational, or recreational
purposes. It is an indicator of .the potential for
barm to humans from fire and explosion. The
building or area need not be off-site. Assign
value* a* follow*:
Population
Aasionad
valua
n
0
1 m im J
ioi tn i nnn
i ,nni a,nm ,
a.ooi «n io,nnA
vift/wi
Number of buildings within two milt
radius (measured from the hazardous
substance, not from the facility boundary) ia
a rough indicator of the property damage that
could result from Rre and explosion at a
facility. Assign values to this factor as
follows:
Numbar of bufldinga
Aasionad
V vaua
a
0
1 in 9a
97 «n ?*n , „
9M to 7aA
?•« tofMII-- , ,
8JI Direct ConlacLtha direct cODtact
hazard mode refers to the potential for injury
by direct contact with hazardous substance*
at the facility.
8.1 Observed Incident If there i* a.
confirmed instance in which contact with
hazardous substances at a facility ha* cautcd
injury, illness, or death to humans or
domestic or wild animals, enter a value of 4S
on line 1 of the work sheet (Figure 12) and
proceed to line 4 (toxicity). Document th*
incident giving the date, location and
pertinent details. If no such instance la
known, enter "0" on line 1 and proceed to
line 2.
8.2 Accessibility. Accessibility to
hazardous substance refers to the measures
taken to limit access by humans or animal* to
hazardous substances. Assign a value using
the following guidance:
A 24*hoif survaiflanca lystarfl (14, toto^rtsiofl
monitoring or survaManea by guards or facMly
hich continuously mongers and
an wtffidal or natural barvtoi (# 0- • tones com»
bmad wtth a dW), which oomplatsly surround!
fadtoy. and a maans to control «n*y. al afl
Vnaa. through tha galas or othar antrancaa to
tha JaciMy (*.9. aa attondaat. fission mowfe
ton, toefcad antrancaa, or oontrolad roadway
sacaaa to tha facMty)
Sacudty guardUbulno barrtar-
A barriar, but no saparata maans to control arary-
Bamart-do not comptotaly aurround thatooiHy—
"3?
-------
31242
Federal Register / Vol. 47. No. 137 / Friday, July 16. 1982 / Rules and Regulations
Direct Contact Work Sheet
Rating Factor
Assigned Value
(Circle Onel
Multi-
plier
Score
Max.
Score
Ref.
(Section)
CD Observed Incident
0 45
1
45
8.1
II line QQ Is 45. proceed to line Q]
If .line Q] Is 0. proceed to line QQ
0 Accessibility
0 12 3
1
3
8.2
0 Containment
0 15
1
15
8.3
[7} Waste Characteristics
Toxicity
0 12 3
5
15
8.4
SI Targets
Population Within a
1-Mile Radius
Distance to a
Critical Habitat
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 12 3
4
.4
20
12
8.5
Total Targets Score
32
fgl If line Q is 45. multiply fT) x |7) x ITl
If line Q is 0, multiply H] x [3] x [7] x 0
21,600
~ Divide line [6] by 21,600 and multiply by 100
Soc -
FIGURE 12
DIRECT CONTACT WORK SHEET
-------
Federal Register / Vol. 47, No. 137, Friday, July 16, 1982 / Rules and Regulations 31243
gj Containment. Containment indicates
whether the hazardous substance itself is
accessible to direct contact. For example, if
the hazardous substance at the facility is in
surface impoundments, containers (sealed or
giisealed). piles, tanks, or landfills with a
cover depth of less than 2 feet, or has been
¦pilled on the ground or other surfaces easily
contacted (e.g., the bottom of shallow pond or
creek), assign this rating factor a value of 15.
Otherwise, assign a value of 0.
0.4 Waste Characteristics. Toxicity.
Assign a value as in Section 3.4.
15 Targets. Population within one-mile
radius is a rough indicator of the population
that could be involved in direct contact
incidents at an uncontrolled facility. Assign a
value as follows:
endangered species by direct contact with
hazardous substance. Assign a value as
follows:
Population
Autqnttf
vtk*
i in inn
ioi tn i,noo
2 <1 mite — i
0
1
t
a
1 001 In .1 nrift
3 K to 1 mito
4 ft to K mita ,
Distance to a critical habitat (of an
endangered species) is a rough measure of
the probability of barm to members of an
|FR Doe. 82-19141 Flltd 7-15-42: MS am|
BILLING CODE S560-M-M
-------
PART 1
AIR MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
Response to an environmental incident requires careful preparation
and prompt action to reduce the hazards. Concurrently, the health
and safety of response personnel and the general public must be
protected. Air monitoring instruments provide an integral portion
of the information necessary to determine how these requirements
are being met. The purpose of this part is to:
- List air monitoring instruments useful for hazardous incident
response.
- Describe the operating theories and principles of these instru-
ments.
- Illustrate the proper interpretation and limitations of the
data obtained.
Used correctly, these instruments provide data that help response
personnel determine:
- Potential or real effects on the environment.
- Immediate and long-term risks to public health, including the
health of response workers.
- Appropriate personnel protection and respiratory equipment to
be used on-site.
- Actions to mitigate the hazard(s) safely and effectively.
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
To be useful in the field, air monitoring instruments must be:
- Portable.
- Able to generate reliable and useful results.
- Sensitive and selective.
- Inherently safe.
All of these traits may or may not be present in any one
instrument.
1-1
-------
A. Portability
A prime consideration that determines the usefulness of a
field instrument is portability. Transporation shock
resulting from the movement from one place to another,
together with unintentional abuse, ranks high in
shortening the usable life of an instrument. To reduce
this trauma, instruments should be selected that have
reinforced shells or frames, shock-mounted electronic
packages, or padded containers for shipment.
Exposure to the elements and the test atmosphere itself is
of concern for those instruments repeatedly used in
adverse conditions or as long-term monitors. Anodized or
coated finishes, weather-resistant packaging and remote
sensing are effective in reducing downtime and increasing
portabi lity.
In short, a portable unit should possess ease in
mobility, the ability to withstand the rigors of use,
quick assembly, and short check out and calibration time.
B. Reliable and Useful Results
Response time, the interval between an instrument
"sensing" a contaminant and generating data, is important
to producing reliable and useful results in the field.
Response time depends on: test(s) to be performed, dead
time between sample periods (the time for analysis, data
generation, and data display), and the sensitivity of the
instrument. Response time establishes the pace of the
overall survey and the individual tests.
Another consideration is that the instrument must give
results that are immediately useful. Instruments should
be direct reading, with little or no need to interpolate,
integrate, or compile large amounts of data.
C. Sensitivity and Selectivity
A third requirement of a good field instrument is the
ability to sample and analyze very low contaminant levels,
and, ideally, to discern among contaminants exhibiting
similar characteristics.
Sensitivity defines the lowest concentration an
instrument can accurately and repeatedly analyze. In the
strictest sense, it is a function of the detecting ability
of the instrument, and does not address the electronic
amplifier, if the unit has one. The operating range
establishes the upper and lower use limits of the
instrument. It encompasses the sensitivity limit at its
lower end and the overload point at its upper.
1-2
-------
Selectivity establishes what contaminants will elicit a
response on the instrument. Additionally, selectivity
mandates which, if any, interferences may produce a
similar response. Selectivity and sensitivity must be
reviewed and interpreted together. Many devices have high
selectivity but widely varying sensitivities for a given
family of chemicals, for example aromatics, aliphatics,
and amines.
Amplification, often used synonymously (and incorrectly)
with sensitivity, deals with an electronic amplifier's
ability to increase very small electrical signals
emanating from the detector. This capacity may be fixed
or variable. However, changing the amplification of the
detector does not change its sensitivity. For optimum
field usefulness, an instrument should possess high
sensitivity, wide range, high selectivity, and the ability
to vary the amplification of detector signals.
D. Inherent Safety
The portable instrumentation used to evaluate hazardous
material spills or waste sites must be demonstrated as
being safe to use in those hostile environments.
Electrical devices, such as the monitoring instruments,
must be constructed in such a fashion as to eliminate the
possibility of igniting a combustible atmosphere. The
sources of this ignition could be: an arc generated by
the power source itself or the associated electronics,
and/or a flame or heat source inherent in the instrument
and necessary for its proper functioning.
Several engineering, insurance, and safety industries have
standardized test methods, established inclusive
definitions, and developed codes for testing electrical
devices used in hazardous locations. The National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA), a forerunner in this
endeavor, created minimum standards in its National
Electrical Code (NEC), published every 3 years.
This code spells out among other things:
- Types of controls acceptable for use in hazardous
atmospheres.
- Types of areas in which hazardous atmospheres can be
generated and the types of materials that generate these
atmospheres.
1-3
-------
1. Hazardous Atmospheres
Depending upon the response worker's background, the term
"hazardous atmosphere" conjures up situations ranging from
toxic air contaminants to flammable atmospheres. For our
purposes, an atmosphere is hazardous if it meets the following
criteria:
- It is a mixture of any flammable material in air (see Class
and Group below) whose composition is within this material's
flammable range (LEL-LFL).
- A critical volume of the mixture is sufficiently heated by an
outside ignition source.
- The resulting exothermic reaction propagates the flame
beyond where it started.
Hazardous atmospheres can be produced by one of three general
types of materials:
- Flammable gases/vapors
- Combustible dusts
- Ignitable fibers
Whereas the flammable material may define the hazard associated
with a given product, the occurence of release (how often the
material generates a hazardous atmosphere) dictates the risk.
Two types of releases are associated with hazardous
atmospheres:
- Continuous: Those existing continuously In an open
unconfined area during normal operating conditions.
- Confined: Those existing 1n closed containers, systems, or
piping, where only ruptures, leaks, or other failures result
in a hazardous atmosphere outside the closed system.
There are six possible environments 1n which a hazardous
atmosphere can be generated. However, not every type of control
will prevent an Ignition 1n every environment. To adequately
describe the characteristics of those environments and what
controls can be used, the National Electrical Code defines each
characteristic:
- Class is a category describing the type of flammable material
that produces the hazardous atmosphere:
-- Class I 1s flammable vapors and gases, such as gasoline, and
hydrogen. Class I 1s further divided into groups A, B, C,
and D on the basis of similar flammabllity characteristics
(Table 1-1).
— Class II consists of combustible dusts like coal or grain and
is divided Into groups E, F, and G.
— Class III 1s 1gn1table fibers such as produced by cotton
milling.
1-4
-------
TABLE 1-1
CLASS I CHEMICALS BY GROUPS
Group D Atmospheres
Group A Atmospheres
Acetylene
Group B Atmospheres
Acrolein (inhibited)
Arsine
Butadiene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen
Manufactured gases containing more
than 30% hydrogen (by volume)
Propylene oxide
Propyl nitrate
Group C Atmospheres
Acetaldehyde
Allyl alcohol
n-Butyraldehyde
Carbon monoxide
Crotonaldehyde
Cyclopropane
Diethyl ether
Diethyl amine
Epichlorohydrin
Ethylene
Ethyleneimine
Ethyl mercaptan
Ethyl sulfide
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Morpholine
2-Nitropropane
Tetrahydrofuran
Unsynunetrical dimethyl hydrazine
(UDMH, 1-, 1-dimethyl hydrazine)
Acetic Acid (glacial)
Acetone
Acrylonitrile
Ammonia
Benzene
Butane
1-Butanol (butyl alcohol)
2-Butanol (secondary butyl alcohol)
n-Butyl acetate
Isobutyl acetate
di-Isobutylene
Ethane
Ethanol ( ethyl alcohol)
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl acrylate (inhibited)
Ethyl diamine
Ethylene dichloride
Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether
Gasoline
Heptanes
Hexanes
Isoprene
Isopropyl ether
Mesityl oxide
Methane (natural gas)
Methanol (methyl alcohol)
3-Methyl-l-butanol (isoamyl alcohol)
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl isobutyl ketone
2-Methyl-1-propanol (isobutyl alcohol)
2-Methyl-2-propanol (tertiary butyl alcohol)
Octanes
Petroleum naphtha1
Pentanes
1-Pentanol (amyl alcohol)
Propane
1-Propanol (propyl alcohol)
2-Propanol (isopropyl alcohol)
Propylene
Pyridine
Styrene
Toluene
Vinyl acetate
Vinyl chloride
Xylenes
Source: National Electrical Code, Vol. 70, Table 500-2. National Fire Protection
Association, 470 Atlantic Avenue, Boston, MA 02210 (1981).
*A saturated hydrocarbon mixture boiling in the range 20° - 135°C (68° - 275°F).
Also known by the synonyms benzine, ligroin, petroleum ether, or naphtha.
1-5
-------
- Division is the term describing the "location" of generation
and release of the flammable material.
-- Division 1 is a location where the generation and release are
continuous, intermittent, or periodic into an open,
unconfined area under normal conditions.
-- Division 2 is a location where the generation and release are
in closed systems or containers and only from ruptures, leaks,
or other failures.
Using this system, a hazardous atmosphere can be routinely and
adequately defined. As an example, a spray-painting operation
using acetone carrier would be classified as a Class I,
Division 1, Group D environment. Additionally, an abandoned waste
site containing intact closed drums of methyl ethyl ketone,
toluene, and xylene would be considered a Class I, Division 2,
Group D environment. Once the containers begin to leak and produce
a hazardous atmosphere, the environment changes to Class I,
Division 1, Group D.
2. Controls
Three methods exist to prevent a potential Ignition source from
igniting a flammable atmosphere:
- Explosion-proof: Encase the ignition source in a rigidly built
container. "Explosion-proof" instruments allow the flammable
atmosphere to enteV*. If and when an arc 1s generated, the
ensuing explosion Is contained within the specially designed and
built enclosure. Within it, any flames or hot gases are cooled
prior to exiting Into the ambient flammable atmosphere so that
the explosion does not spread into the environment.
Intrinsically Safe: Reduce the potential for arcing among
components by encasing them 1n a solid insulating material.
Also, reducing the Instrument's operational current and voltage
below the energy level necessary for ignition of the flammable
atmosphere provides equal protection. An "Intrinsically safe"
device, as defined by the National Electrical Code, 1s Incapable
"of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy under
normal or abnormal conditions to cause Ignition of a specific
hazardous atmospheric mixture 1n Its most easily ignited
concentration. Abnormal conditions shall Include accidental
damage to any...w1ring, failure of electrical components,
application of over-voltage, adjustment and maintenenace
operations and other similar conditions."
- Purged: Buffer the arcing or flame-producing device from the
flammable atmosphere with an Inert gas. In a pressurized or
"purged" system, a steady stream of, for example, nitrogen or
helium is passed by the potential arcing device, keeping the
flammable atmosphere from the Ignition source. This type of
control, however, does not satisfactorily control analytical
devices that use a flame or heat for analysis such as a
combustible gas Indicator (CGI) or gas chromatograph (GC).
1-6
-------
Certification
National groups such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Factory
Mutual (FM), and the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI), together with NFPA, developed test protocols for
certifying explosion-proof, intrinsically safe, or purged
devices to meet minimum standards of acceptance.
An electrical device certified under one of these test methods
carries a permanently affixed plate showing the logo of the
laboratory granting certification and the Class(es),
Div1s1on(s), and Group(s) it was tested against.
See Figure 1-1.
Certification means that if a device is certified as
explosion-proof, intrinsically safe, or purged for a given
Class, Division, and Group, and is used, maintained, and
serviced according to the manufacturer's instructions, it
will not contribute to ignition. The device is not, however,
certified for use in atmospheres other than those indicated.
Any manufacturer wishing to have an electrical device
certified by FM or UL must submit a prototype for testing.
If the unit passes, it is certified as submitted.
However, the manufacturer agrees to allow the testing
laboratory to randomly check the manufacturing plant at any
time, as well as any marketed units. Furthermore, any change
in the unit requires the manufacturer to notify the test
laboratory, which can continue the certification or withdraw
1t until the modified unit can be retested.
A unit may be certified either by UL, FM, or both. Both
laboratories follow test protocols established by NFPA and
ANSI. Therefore one certification 1s no better or worse than the
other. The important consideration 1s that the device is
approved for the Class(es), Divis1on{s), and Group(s) it will be
used in.
MSA
Combustible Gas and 02 Alarm
,«Tmflde| 26„ p>|t nffl 449900
calibrated for
Pentane r
Intrinsically Saft for um IA hazardous locations Class I, Division I,
Groups C and D and Non-lncorfdivt lor lis* In Class I, Divtsiojii 2, Groups A,
B, C, and D whan uitd with MSA Battary, Part No. 457S39.
MUST BE OPERATED IN ACCORDANCE WITH INSTRUCTIONS
MFD. BY
MINE SAFETY APPLIANCES COMPANY
PITTSBURGH. PENNSYLVANIA, US.A, 15208
Wll HtV I «.». PAT. >0. I.MI.7M PATtHTfB M CAM* MH tttili
FIGURE 1-1
-------
The mention of FM or UL in the manufacturer's equipment
literature does not guarantee certification. All certified
devices that are used in hazardous (flammable) locations must
be marked to show Class, Division, and Group, per NEC Table
500-2(b).
Other organizations such as the Mine Safety and Health
Administration (MSHA), Canadian Standards Association (CSA),
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), and the
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) have developed their own testing and
certification schemes for electrical devices in hazardous
locations common to their jurisdiction.
MSHA tests and certifies electrical equipment to be used in
hazardous atmospheres associated with underground mining.
These atmospheres usually contain methane gas and coal dust;
hence, the tests and certification are specfic to those two
contaminants.
Often the same monitoring equipment is used in mines as well
as above ground and therefore carry more than one
certification, such as FM and MSHA.
To ensure personnel safety, it is recommended that only
approved (FM or UL) instruments be used on-site and only 1n
atmospheres for which they have been certified. When
investigating incidents involving unknown hazards, the
monitoring instruments should be rated for use in the most
hazardous locations. The following points will assist in
selection of equipment that will not contribute to ignition of
a hazardous atmosphere:
- In an area designated Division 1, there 1s a greater
probability of generating a hazardous atmosphere than 1n
Division 2. Therefore, the test protocols for Division 1
certification are more stringent than those for Division 2.
Thus, a device approved for Division 1 1s also permitted
for use 1n Division 2, but not vice versa. For most
response work this means that devises approved for Class 1
(vapors, gases), Division 1 (areas of 1gn1table
concentrations), Groups A, B, C, D should be chosen
whenever possible. At a minimum, an Instrument should be
approved for use 1n Division 2 locations.
- An additional consideration 1s that all Instruments used 1n
a methane environment should be approved by the Mine Safety
and Health Administration (MSHA) as being safe 1n such
atmospheres.
- There are so many Groups, Classes, and Divisions that It 1s
impossible to certify an all-inclusive Instrument.
Therefore, select a certified device based on the chemicals
and conditions most likely to be encountered. For example,
a device certified for a Class II, Division 1, Group E
(combustible metal dust) would offer little protection
around a flammable vapor or gas.
1-8
-------
III. FIELD INSTRUMENTS
A. Introduction
Many hazards may be present when responding to hazardous
materials spills or uncontrolled hazardous sites. Four
conditions can occur: oxygen deficient atmosphere; explosive
atmospheres; toxic atmospheres; and radioactive environments.
When first approaching a spill or waste site the potential
hazards must be recognized and exposure risks evaluated. This
can be in the form of a methodical preliminary site survey.
Information gained will most likely be limited but will
provide enough data to make some initial decisions. These
might include respirator and protective clothing selection or
further definition of the hazard by qualitative assessment.
Once the plan of action, based on the initial survey, is done,
hazard evaluation is not over. No matter how passive the
situation appears, the site is potentially very dynamic.
Moving tanks and drums or excavation may introduce new
hazards. To ensure a safe working environment, continuous or
periodic monitoring of the hazards must be performed.
To perform initial site surveys and subsequent monitoring,
various portable instruments must be available. Such
instruments range from portable gas chromatographs to passive
dosimeters. The variety of instruments and operating
principles is wide. New instruments are introduced each year
incorporating advances in technology.
With such a variety of portable instrumentation available, it
follows that each serves a specific purpose. Some display an
immediate readout upon each sample taken manually. Others
monitor continuously and have built-in alarms to signal a
potential hazard. Many instruments are designed to sample
over a time period to determine a time-weighted average
exposure. These may be active or passive in design. There
are instruments which utilize unique components to determine
the concentration of a hazardous substance.
B. Oxygen-deficient Atmospheres
The oxygen content in a confined space is of prime concern to
anyone about to enter that space. Removal of oxygen by
combustion, reduction reactions, or displacement by gases or
vapors is a hazard which repsonse personnel cannot detect.
Consequently, remote measurements must be made before anyone
enters a confined space.
1-9
-------
Portable oxygen indicators are invaluable when responding
to hazardous material spills or waste sites. Terrain
variations in the "land and unventilated rooms or areas may
contain insufficient oxygen to support life. In addition,
oxygen measurements are necessary when combustible gas
indicator (CGI) measurements are made, since the oxygen
level in the ambient air effects the accuracy of CGI's
readout. When used properly the portable oxygen indicator
will read the percent oxygen in the immediate atmosphere.
The normal ambient oxygen concentration is 20.8%.
Most indicators have meters which display the oxygen content
from 0-25%. There ar& also oxygen indicators available
which measure concentration from 0-5% and 0-100%. The most
useful range for response is the 0-25% oxygen content
readout since decisions involving air-supplying respirators
and the use of combustible indicators fall into this range.
1. Theory
The oxygen indicator has two principle componets for
operation. These are the oxygen sensing devices and the
meter readout. In some units air is drawn to the oxygen
detector with an aspirator bulb or pump; in other units, the
ambient air is allowed to equilibrate with the sensor. The
oxygen detector uses an electrochemical sensor to determine
the oxygen concentration in air. A typical sensor consists
of: two electrodes, a sensing and a counting electrode; a
housing containing a basic electrolytic solution; and a
semipermeable Teflon membrane (Figure 1-2).
Th»rmittor
Figure 1-2
Selection from Product Literature, Rexnord Electronic Produrfc rKyj5inn
Biomarine Oxygen Sensor, by Rexnord, Inc.. copvrightPd hy pOvn0r,j reg"-'
reprinted with permission of Publisher. * *'
1-10
-------
Oxygen molecules (O?) diffuse through the membrane
intothe solution. Reactions between the oxygen and the
electrodes produce a minute electric current which is
directly proportional to the sensors's oxygen content.
The current passes through the electronic circuit. The
resulting signal is shown as a needle deflection on a
meter, which is usually calibrated to read 0-10%, 0-25%,
or 0-100% oxygen.
2. Limitations
The operation of oxygen meters depends on the absolute
atmospheric pressure. The concentration of natural
oxygen (to differentiate it from manufactured or
generated oxygen) is a function of the atmospheric
pressure at a given altitude.
At sea level, where the weight of the atmosphere above
is greatest, more O2 molecules are compressed into a
smaller volume than at higher elevations. As elevation
increases, this compression decreases, resulting in
fewer O2 molecules being "squeezed" into a given
volume. Consequently, an O2 indicator calibrated at
sea level and operated at an altitude of several
thousand feet will falsely indicate an oxygen- deficient
atmosphere {less than 19.5% as defined by NI0SH).
High concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) shorten
the useful life of the oxygen detector cell.
As a general rule, the unit can be used in atmospheres
greater than 0.5% CO2 only with frequent replacing or
rejuvenating of the oxygen detector cell.
Although several instruments can measure an
oxygen-enriched atmosphere (O2 greater than 21%),
no testing or other work should ever be performed
under such conditions because a spark, arc or flame
could lead to fire or explosion.
C. Explosive Atmospheres
The combustible gas indicator (CGI) is one of the finest
instruments to be used to survey a site; typically, CGI
readings are taken concurrently with O2 level readings.
It measures the concentration of a flammable vapor or gas in
air, indicating the results as a percentage of the lower
explosive limit (LEL) of the calibration gas.
The LEL of a combustible gas or vapor is the lowest
concentration by volume in air which will explode, ignite,
or burn when there is an ignition source. The upper
explosive limit (UEL) is the maximum concentration. Above
the UEL, there is insufficient oxygen to support combustion
so ignition is impossible. Below the LEL, there is
insufficient fuel to support ignition.
I'll
-------
1. Theory
Most combustible gas indicators operate on the "hot
wire" principle. In the combustion chamber is a
platinum filament that is heated. The platinum
filament is an integral part of a balanced resistor
circuit called a Wheatstone Bridge. The hot filament
combusts the gas on the immediate surface of the
element, thus raising the temperature of the
filament.
As the temperature of the filament increases so does
its resistance. This change in resistance causes an
imbalance in the Wheatstone Bridge. This is measured
as the ratio of combustible vapor present compared to
the total required to reach the LEL. For example, if
the meter reads 0.5 (or 50, depending upon the
readout), this means that 50% of the concentration of
combustible gas needed to reach an unstable flammable
or combustible situation is present. If the LEL for
the gas is 5% then the meter indicates that a 2.5%
concentration is present. Thus the typical meter
readout indicates concentration up to the LEL of the
gas. See Figure l-3a.
If a concentration greater than LEL and lower than
the UEL is present, then the meter needle will stay
beyond the 1.0 (100%) level on the meter. See Figure
1-3b• This indicates that the ambient atmosphere is
readily combustible. When the atmosphere has a gas
concentration above the UEL the meter needle will
rise above the 1.0 (100%) mark and then return to
zero. See Figure l-3c. This occurs because the gas
mixture in the combustion cell is too rich to burn.
This permits the filament to conduct a current just
as if the atmosphere contained no combustibles at
all.
0 J 1—-4L IOO
° '
-------
2. Limitations
As with any instrument based on an electrochemical
reation, all CGI's have several limitations:
-The reaction is temperature dependent. Therefore,
the measurement is only as accurate as the
incremental difference between calibration and
ambient (sampling) temperatures.
-Sensitivity is a function of physical and chemical
properties of the calibration gas versus those of the
unknown contaminant. Most combustible gas indicators
are calibrated to read accurately for methane or
pentane, but not all combustible gases and vapors
will give the same response as the calibration gas.
Because of the variation in the relative response of
the flammable substance in the atmosphere to the
calibration gas (e.g. methane), the instrument may
not give an accurate indication of the flammable
hazard-- the reading (%LEL) may be higher or lower
than the actual concentration.
-There is no differentiation between petroleum vapors
and combustible gases unless a charcoal pre-filter is
employed.
-The unit is intended for use only in normal
atmospheres, not ones that are oxygen enriched or
deficient. Oxygen concentrations are less than or
greater than normal may cause erroneous readings.
-Leaded gasoline vapors, halogens, and sulfur compounds
will foul the filament which decreases its
sensitivity. Compounds containing silicone will
destroy the platinum filament.
D. Toxic Atmospheres
1. Photoionzation Detector (PID)
a. Theory
The light from the sun when passed through a prism
dispersed into the many colors that make up the while
light spectrum. The hues of colors from the deep reds
through the deep purples are a relatively small
segment in the overall electromagnetic (e-m) spectrum.
1-13
-------
The e-m spectrum covers long wavelengths such as radio
waves through the ultrashort wave gamma radiation
(Figure 1-4). As the wavelengths decrease in size
(higher frequencies), the wave energy increases. This
relationship between energy and frequency is based
upon Planck's equation.
All atoms and molecules are composed of particles:
electrons, protons, and neutrons. Electrons,
negatively charged particles, rotate in orbit around
the nucleus, the dense inner core. The nucleus
consists of an equal number of protons (positively
charged particles) as electrons found in the orbital
cloud. The interaction of the oppositely charged
particles and the laws of quantum mechanics keep the
electrons in orbits outside the nucleus.
The energy required to remove the outermost electron
from the molecule is called the ionization potential
(IP) and is specific for any compound or atomic
species. IP is measured in electron volts (eV). High
frequency radiation (ultraviolet and above) is capable
of causing ionization and is hence called ionizing
radiation.
When a photon of ultraviolet radiation strikes a
chemical compound, it ionizes the molecule if the
energy of the radiation is equal to or greater than
the IP of the compound. Since ions are capable of
conducting an,electrical current, they may be
collected on a charged plate. The measured current
will be directly proportional to the number of ionized
molecules.
The photoionization process can be illustrated as:
RH + hnu > RH+ + e"
where RH is an organic or inorganic molecule and hnu
represents a photon of UV light with energy equal to
or greater than the ionization potential of that
particular chemical species to cause the emission of
electron e".
Units which utilize photoionization include the AID
580, the Photovac Model #10A10 (includes a gas
chromatographic mode), and the HNU P101 which is
described below.
b. HNU P101 Photoionization Detector
The HNU P101 is typical of field photoionization units
now available. It consists of two modules connected
via a signal-power cord (Figure 1-5):
1-14
-------
HON IONIZING RADIATION
IONIZING RAOIATION
RADIO FREQUENCIES
HEAT
GAMMA RAYS
MICROWAVES
VISIBLE
v LIGHT ,
INFRARED
X-RAYS
ULTRAVIOLET
1010
106
109
105
10b
104
U>'
103
-ir
102
105
10l
104 103
10° 10"1
102 101
10"2 10"3
10°
10-4
-irr
10"5
CM <0
1 1
- o o
i
10°
10-7
-tF-
in"8
10-5
10-9
10-6
10-10
I
10'7
10-11
1
¦
1
1
1
1
•
1
1
¦ II)
WAVELENGTH (urn/cm)
lilt
1
I
1
1
1
I
1
¦
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.1, 1
104
1—
105
I—
106
—1—
107
—f-
108
—1
109
1010 1011
—1 1
1012 1013
1 1
1014
1
1015
1
1016
1017
1
1018
i
1019
1
1020
1
1021
1
FREQUENCY (Hz) *3
^
INCREASING ENERGY CONTENT
FIGURE 1-4
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
-------
READOUT UNIT
Lamp Power
Supply
Mater
Readout
Ion Chamber
Bias
Battery
Ion Chamber
PROBE
Pump
Lamp
Preamp
FIGURE 1-5
PORTABLE PH0T0I0NIZATI0N DETECTOR
Selection from Instruction Manual for Plodel PI 101 Phototonization
Detector, by HNU Systems, Inc., copyrighted 1975, by HNU Systems,~
Inc., reprinted with permission of Publisher.
1-16
-------
- A readout unit consisting of a 4/1/2 in. analog
meter, a rechargable battery, and power supplies for
operation of the amplifier and the UV lamp.
- A sensor unit consisting of the UV light source,
pump, ionization chamber, and a preamplifier.
An electrical pump pulls the gas sample past a UV
source. Constituents of a sample are ionized,
producing an instrument response, if their ionization
potential (IP) is equal to or less than the ionizing
energy supplied by the instrument uv lamp being
utilized. The radiation produces an ion pair for each
molecule of contaminant ionized. The free electrons
produce a current directly proportional to the number
of ions produced. The current is amplified, detected,
and displayed on the meter.
Three probes are available with the HNU, containing
either an 11.7, a 10.2, or a 9.5-eV UV light source.
Species that have IP's greater than the lamp rating
will display a poor instrument response, or no
response at all. Thus employing the 11.7 eV lamp will
ensure the greatest range of detectable species;
however, it requires constant maintenance and frequent
lamp replacement. For many applications, the 10.2-eV
lamp/probe can be used. It offers relatively high
radiation levels without frequent lamp replacement;
and will detect many species. One notable exception
is the chlorinated aliphatics.
c. Limitations
Although the HNU photoionization unit is an excellent
instrument for survey, there are very important
limitations.
- The response to a gas or vapor may radically
change when the gas or vapor is mixed with other
materials. As an example, a HNU calibrated to
ammonia and analyzing an atmosphere containing 100
ppm would indicate 100 on the meter. Likewise, a
unit calibrated to benzene would record 100 in an
atmosphere containing 100 ppm benzene. However, in
an atmosphere containing 100 ppm of each, the unit
could indicate considerably less or more than 200
ppm, depending on how it was calibrated.
- Radio freqency interference from pulsed DC or AC
power lines, transformers, high voltage
equipment and radio wave transmission may produce an
error in response.
1-17
-------
- The lamp window must be periodically cleaned to
ensure ionization of the air containments.
- Although the HNU measures concentrations from about
1-2000 ppm, the response is not linear over this
entire range. For example, the response to benzene
is linear from about 0-600 ppm. This means the HNU
reads a true concentration of benzene only between 0
and 600. Greater concentrations are "read" at a
lower level than the true value.
The HNU can be used to help determine the proper
health and safety protocols when evaluating a
hazardous waste site or spill. However, the need to
properly interpret the HNU1 s data and to understand
the limitations of this instrument cannot be
overemphasised. One particularly important limitation
is how the HNU responds toward mixtures of chemicals.
If only one chemical species is present, the HNU can
be set to quantitatively respond to that chemical.
However, the HNU will not quantitatively respond to a
mixture unless the IP's of all chemicals in the
mixture are the same. This is because the HNU has a
different sensitivity to compounds with different
IP's. As a rule, the HNU is more sensitive to complex
compounds and less sensitive to simpler ones. In
order of decreasing sensitivity, measured on a scale
of 1 to 10, the HNU responds to:
- Aromatics Ke.g., benzene, toluene, xylene) and
aliphatic amine hydrocarbons: 10
- Unsaturated chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g.,
trichloroethylene, dichloroethylene): 5-9
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons (e.g., propylene): 3-5
- Paraffinic hydrocarbons with 5 to 7 carbons (e.g.,
hexane, heptane): 1-3
- Ammonia and paraffinic hydrocarbons with 1 to 4
carbons (e.g., ethane, propane): less than 1.
To compensate for this varying sensitivity, the HNU
incorporates a span pot (potentiometer), which varies
the gain on the amplifier. In the full clockwise (CW)
position at level 9.8, the HNU indicates the
approximate air concentration of all chemicals with a
sensitivity of 10 for example, aromatic hydrocarbons.
In full counterclockwise (CCW) position at level 0, it
indicates the approximate concentration of ammonia or
paraffinic hydrocarbons. With the span pot positioned
at any intermediate point, HNU indicates the
approximate air concentration of the chemical whose
sensitivity corresponds to that level.
.1-18
-------
When the span pot is set at 0 (fully CCW) and the
function switch to the 0-20 range, the scale on the
meter face reads 0-2 ppm. This expansion, which is
valid only for materials that have a high relative
sensitivity (10), allows measurements in the
parts-per-bi1 lion range (ppb).
In most circumstances, using the HNU at the lowest
setting (span pot 9.8) provides adequate data to
determine the proper health and safety protocols for
on-site workers. Unfortunately, several chemicals-
for example, acrolein-exhibit medium to low
sensitivity (0-5), while their toxicological effects
place their threshold limit value (TLV) at a very low
level. If these chemicals are indicated by the HNU
set to 9.8, for example, improper protective gear
could be chosen. Consider this scenario:
The air in an unknown hazardous environment must
be sampled. Response personnel survey the site
with an HNU, which indicates 2.0 ppm (instrument
span set to 9.8). Later, the air contaminant is
found to be acrolein with a TLV of 0.1 ppm (100
ppb) and an immediately dangerous to life or
health (IDLH) level of 5 ppm. Since acrolein
has a low relative sensitivity, its concentration
probably was in excess to 5 ppm, the IDLH value.
Thus total reliance to the HNU data without regard for
the chemical makeup of the sample can be a problem.
2. Flame Ionization Detector (FID)
a. Theory
The FID uses ionization as the detection method, much
the same as in the HNU, except that the ionization is
caused by a hydrogen flame, rather than by a UV light.
This flame has sufficient energy to ionize any organic
species with an IP of 15.4 or less.
Inside the detector chamber, the sample is exposed to
a hydrogen flame which ionizes the organic vapors.
When most organic vapors burn, positively charged
carbon-containing ions are produced which are
collected by a negatively charged collecting electrode
in the chamber. An electric field exists between the
conductors surrounding the flame and a collecting
electrode. As the positive ions are collected, a
current proportional to the hydrocarbon concentration
is generated on the input electrode. This current is
measured with a preamplifier which has an output
signal proportional to the ionization current.
1-19
-------
A signal conducting amplifier is used to amplify the
signal from the preamp and to condition it for
subsequent meter or external recorder display. An
example of an instrument using an FID is the Foxboro
Organic Vapor Analyzer (OVA), described below.
b. Foxboro Organic Vapor Analyzer (OVA)
The Foxboro OVA consists of two major parts:
- A 9-pound package containing the sampling pump,
battery pack, support electronics, flame ionization
detector, hydrogen gas cylinder, and an optional
gas chromatography (GC) column.
- A hand-held meter/sampling probe assembly.
The OVA is generally calibrated to methane, but can be
calibrated to the species of interest.
The OVA can operate in two modes:
Survey mode: During normal survey mode operation, a
sample is drawn into the probe and transmitted to the
detector chamber by an internal pumping system. When
the sample reaches the FID it is ionized as described
above and the resulting signal is translated on the
meter for direct-reading concentration as total
organic vapors or recorded as a peak on a chart. The
meter display is an integral part of the probe/readout
assembly and has a scale from 0 to 10 which can be set
to read 0-10, 0-100, or 0-1000 ppm v/v.
Gas chromatography mode: Gas chromatogaphy (GC) is a
technique for separating components of a sample and
qualitatively and quantitatively determining them.
The sample to be separated is injected into a column
packed with an inert solid; a carrier gas (hydrogen)
flows through the column. As the carrier gas forces
the sample through the column, the separate components
of the sample are retained on the column for different
periods of time. The amount of time a substance
remains on the column, which is called its retention
time, is a function of its affinity for the column
material, column temperature, and flow rate of the
carrier gas. Under preset instrumental conditions,
each component elutes from the column at a different
but reproducible length of time. As the components
elute from the column, they flow into the detector.
Since the output of the detector is connected to a
strip chart recorder, separate peaks are recorded for
each component. This readout is called a gas
chromatogram. See figure 1-6. Since the retention
times are reproducible, if the retention time of an
unknown agrees with the retention time of a known,
recorded under the same set of analytical conditions,
1-20
-------
the unknown is tentatively identified. In addition,
the area under each peak is proportional to the
concentration of the corresponding sample component.
If these areas are compared to the areas of standards,
recorded under identical analytical conditions, the
concentration of the sample components can be
calculated. Note that if the "base" of the peak can be
made very narrow by varying the column conditions,
component concentration is proportional to peak
height, which can be read directly off the chart.
Figure 1-6
Retention Time
A j Peak Height
-1
TIME (seconds)
Injection Peak Area
Selection from Product Literature, Foxboro Analytical, by Foxboro
rn J copyrighted by Foxboro Analytical, reprinted with permission
of Publisher.
c. Limitations
As with HNU Photoionizer, the OVA responds
differently to different compounds. Table 1-2 is
a list, provided by the manufacturer of the
relative sensitivities of the OVA to some common
organic compounds. Since the Instrument is
factory calibrated to methane, all relative
responses are given in percent, with methane at
100.
1-21
-------
TABLE 1-2
Selection from Product Literature, Foxboro Analytical, by Foxboro
Analytical, copyrighted by Foxboro Analytical, reprinted with
permission of Publisher.
Thus the identity of the chemical of interest must
be ascertained before its concentration can be
determined. In addition, the unit requires an
individual trained specifically to maintain and
operate it. Experience in gas chromatography is
essenti al.
3. Infrared Spectrophotometer
a. Theory
The infared spectrophotometer is a compound
specific instrument. Each compound being analyzed
will absorb at a discrete infrared wavelength.
The unit measures how much of the IR absorbed and
indicates in ppm or per cent absorbed.
The atoms of which molecules are composed are held
together by bonds of various types and lengths.
These arrangements, as in the classical ball and
spring configurations often presented in
introductory chemistry, establish finite locations
and discrete movements for each atom (ball) and
Compound
Relative Response
Methane
Ethane
Propane
n-Butane
n-Pentane
Ethylene
Acetylene
Benzene
Toluene
Acetone
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Methanol
Ethanol
Isopropyl alcohol
Carbon tetrachloride
Chloroform
Trichloroethylene
Vinyl chloride
100
90
64
61
100
85
200
150
120
100
80
100
15
25
65
10
70
72
35
1-22
-------
bond (spring). These movements can be either
vibrational-rotational stretching or bending of the
chemical bonds. The frequencies of these movements
are on the order of infrared radiation (IR). A given
bond movement can be initiated by stimulating the
molecule with IR of varying frequency. As the bond
moves, it absorbs the characteristic energy associated
with that movement. The frequencies and intensity of
IR absorbed are specific for a compound and its
concentration, providing a "fingerprint" which can be
used as an analytical tool.
Foxboro, Perkin-Elmer, and Beckman are producers of
portable infrared spectrophotometers. TheMiran IR
manufactured by Foxboro is discussed below.
Mi ran Infrared Spectrophotometer
The Miran (acronym for miniature infrared analyzer) is
a field IR spectrophotometer which uses a variable
length gas cell to measure concentrations of vapors in
ambient air.
Several movable mirrors permit repeated passes,
producing paths from several centimeters to several
meters.
Field analysis presents problems not normally
encountered in spectrophotometry in the laboratory.
With lab instruments, the analyst can control the
concentration of material entering the sample cell.
To analyze uncontrollable gas the Miran must make
repeated passes to achieve reliable results. Liquid
or solid samples are preferable to gas samples because
they possess more molecules than a gas of the same
volume.
Additionally, the spectra of analyses of the same
chemical in the liquid phase and gaseous phase are
markedly different. In the gaseous state, the
molecules are free to rotate, and inter-molecular
actions are at a minimum. The liquid state "locks"
the molecules in a given structure.
Limitations
The Miran is designed for industrial hygiene work in
occupational settings where known types of materials
are generated and where 120-volt AC power is
available. At hazardous waste sites neither of these
conditions is common, making Mirans of questionable
value. They also have not been recognized by any
approving agencies as being safe for use in a
hazardous location. Basically, the Miran is designed
for quantifying simple one- or two-component mixtures.
They can be used on a hazardous waste site with
1-23
-------
another analytical procedure for confirmation such as gas
chromatography. For use in unknown situations, one of the
more advanced units may be connected to a computer which is
capable of analyzing the readout through the IR spectrum
and can narrow the list of possible compounds to a minumum
resulting in identification of individual components.
4. Direct-Reading Colorimetric Indicator Tubes
In evaluating hazardous waste sites, the need often arises
to quickly measure a specific vapor or gas. Direct-reading
colorimetric indicator tubes can successfully fill that
need. They are usually calibrated in ppm or % concentration
for easy interpretation. There are indicator tubes
abvailable for continuous sampling over a longer period of
time.
a. Theory
The interaction of two or more substances may result
in chemical changes. This change may be as subtle as
two clear liquids producing a third clear liquid, or
as obvious as a colorless vapor and colored solid
producing a differently colored substance. Detector
tubes use this latter phenomenon to estimate the
concentration of a gas or vapor in air.
Colorimetric indicator tubes consist of a glass tube
impregnated with an indicating chemical (Figure 1-7).
The tube is connected to a piston cylinder- or
bellows- type pump. A known volume of contaminated
air is pulled at a predetermined rate through the
tube. The contaminant reacts with the indicator
chemical in the tube, producing a stain whose length
is proportional to the contaminant's concentration.
Detector tubes are normally species specific. In
other words, there are different tubes for different
gases; e.g., chlorine detector tube for chlorine gas,
acrylonitrile tube for acrylonitrile gas., etc. Some
manufacturers do produce tubes for groups of gases
(aromatic hydrocarbons, for example).
A preconditioning filter may precede indicating
chemical to:
- Remove contaminants (other than the one in question)
that may interfere with the measurement.
- React with a contaminant to change it into a
compound that reacts with the indicating
chemical.
- Completely change a nonindicating contaminant
into an indicating one.
Detector tubes and pumps are available from MSA,
Bendix, Drager, and Matheson/Kitigawa.
1-24
-------
COTTON PLUG
GLASS VIAL
COTTON PLUG
PRE FILTER
INDICATING CHEMICAL
ON SILICA GEL
FIGURE 1-7
DIRECT-READING COLORIMETRIC INDICATOR TUBE
-------
b. Limitations
Several different colorimetric indicating tubes
may be able to measure the concentration of a
particular gas or vapor, each operating on a different
chemical principle and each affected in varying
degrees by temperature, air volume pulled through the
tube, and interfering gases or vapors. The "true"
concentration versus the "measured" concentration may
vary considerably among and between manufacturers. To
limit these sources of error, to control the numerous
types and manufacturers of tubes, and to provide a
degree of confidence to users, the NIOSH Testing and
Certification Branch has certified Detector Tube
Units. The certified unit inculudes the aspirating
pump, detector tube, and accessories. The
certification implies that the unit must be accurate
within + or - 35% at 1/2 the PEL and + or - 25% at 1
to 5 times the PEL. A list of certified units (by
tube) can be found in the NIOSH detector tube
Certified Equipment List. (Note: the NIOSH detector
tube certification program has been discontinued.) To
improve performance of all tubes, they should be:
- Refrigerated prior to use to maintain shelf life of
approximately 2 years.
- Leak tested with the pump prior to sampling
and volumetrically calibrated on a quarterly basis.
Undoubtedly the greatest source of error is how the
operator "reads" the endpoint. The jagged edge where
contaminant meets indicator chemical makes it
difficult to get accurate results from this seemingly
simple test. A diligent and experienced operator
should be able to accurately read the endpoint.
5. Other gas samplers and monitors
There are several other gas monitors which utilize
electrochemical cells for detection. CO, H2S, and HCN are
three gases of interest. The principle is similar to the
O2 meter previously described. Monitors of this type are
typically adjusted to sound an alarm when a particular
contaminant level is reached.
Probably the newest detector available is the Mixed Oxide
Semi-Conductor (MOS). It can be calibrated to a variety of
gases including chlorine, TCE, ammonia, NO2, freon, and
toluene. It can be used in multiple detection units
incorporating several MOS detectors and an O2 cell.
1-26
-------
Several instrument packages combine two or more detectors.
For example, a combined hot wire detector for combustible
gases and an oxygen sensor use a common pump, battery, and
electronic circuit. Normally, each detector operates
independently, thereby allowing one to be used even if the
other is not working properly.
Combination units afford response personnel several
advantages over single units, chiefly portability.
Additionally, combined instruments may incorporate an
adjustable alarm circuit that alerts the user to potentially
hazardous conditions. This capacity frees the user of the
need to take frequent meter readings and focuses attention
on other hazards.
6. Programmed Thermal Desorber (PTD)
The programmed Thermal Desorber (Foxboro PTD-132A) utilizes
the principle of thermal desorption to extract contaminants
from charcoal or other detector tubes. The instrument .
performs this function automatically, and, in addition, has
the ability to store the desorbed sample in a 300 ml chamber
and to make replicate sample injections into a gas
chromatograph or other analytical instrument. It allows rapid
on-site analysis of collected air samples. Within the
instrument is a small oven which is used to heat the sorbent
tube to temperatures ranging from 100 - 350 C depending upon
the application. This heating has the effect of separating
the sample from the sorbent, thus freeing it to be carried by
a flow of clean carrier gas to the storage chamber. From
there, the sample is released in carefully controlled amounts
into the analytical instrument of choice. If the instrument
is a gas chromatograph, the chromatogram is recorded in the
normal fashion and the peaks qualitatively and quantitatively
determined. The calculations necessary to find the
concentration of contaminant in the original air are simply a
volumetric ratio.
1-27
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REFERENCES
National Electrical Code, Vol. 70, National Fire Prevention
Association," 470 Atlantic Ave., Boston, MA 02210 (1977).
2. Clayton, George D. (ed.), The Industrial Environment - Its
Evaluation and Control , 3rd ed., Public Health Services
Publication (1973).
3. Clayton, G.D., and F.E. Clayton (ed.), Patty's Industrial Hygiene
and Toxiciology, 3rd revised ed., Vol. 1: General Principles,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY (1978)
4. Klinsky, Joseph (ed.), Manual of Recommended Practice for
Combustible Gas Indicators and Portable Direct Reading
Hydrocarbon Detectors, 1st ed., American Industrial Hygiene
Association, Akron, OH (1980).
5. Conley, Robert, Infrared Spectroscopy, 2nd ed., Allyn and Bacon,
Inc., Boston, MA (1972).
TAT/9/83
1-28
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PART 2
ATMOSPHERIC SAMPLING INSTRUMENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
Typically, the atmosphere is sampled during a response to a hazardous
materials incident to identify and quantify any gases, vapors, or
particulates present. Such information may be obtained by two methods:
- Area sampling, which involves the placement of collection devices
within designated areas and operating them over specific periods
of time.
- Personal sampling, which involves the collection of samples from
within the breathing zone of an individual, sometimes by the
individual wearing a sampling device.
Once the sampling method has been selected, the type of sample desired
must be determined. Prevailing conditions, the scope of site operations,
and the intended use of the resulting information dictate the type
collected:
- Instantaneous or grab-type samples, which are characteristically
collected over brief time periods. They are useful in examining
stable contaminant concentrations or peak levels of short duration.
Instantaneous samples may require highly sensitive analytical
methods due to the small sample volume collected.
- Integrated samples, which are more typical of on-site measurements.
They are collected when the sensitivity of an analytical method
requires minimum sample periods or volumes, or when comparison
must be made to an 8-hour, time-weighted average/Threshold Limit
Value or other established standard.
Two types of sampling systems are used for the collection of integrated
samples:
- Active samplers which mechanically move contaminated air through a
collection medium.
- Passive samplers which rely on natural rather than mechanical
forces to collect samples. Passive samplers are classified as
either diffusion or permeation devices, according to their principle
of operation.
The sampling instrument or system chosen depends on a number of
factors, including:
2-1
-------
Instrument or system efficiency
Operational reliability
Ease of use and portability
Availability of the instrument and component parts
Information or analysis desired
Personal preference
. ACTIVE SAMPLERS
A. General Considerations
Active sampling systems or "trains" mechanically collect samples
on or into a selected medium. The medium is then analyzed in the
laboratory to identify and quantify the contaminant(s) collected.
Such a system typically consists of the following components:
- An electrically powered pump to move the contaminated air.
such a pump should contain a flow regulator to control the
rate of movement and a flow monitor to indicate that rate.
- A sampler consisting of an approprite sampling medium and a
container designed for that medium. The sampler used largely
depends upon the contaminant(s) to be sampled and the selected
sampling method.
- Flexible tubing to link the sampler to the pump.
Integrated samples are commonly collected over known time periods
and at know fixed flow rates. Thus, sample train calibration and
accurate time measurement are critical to active systems.
B. Sampling Pumps
Active sampling systems typically rely on electrically powered
pumps to mechanically induce air movement. The most practical
electrical sampling pump is powered by rechargable batteries and
can operate continuously at constant flow rates for at least 6 to
8 hours. Typically, they are compact, portable, and quiet enough
to be worn by individuals when monitoring personal exposures.
Generally, sampling pumps incorporate several of the following
components:
2-2
-------
- A diaphragm or a piston-type pumping mechanism.
- A flow regulator to control the sampling flow rate.
- A rotameter or stroke counter to indicate the flow rate or
sample volume.
- A pulsation dampener to maintain a smooth flow rate.
- Special features such as a programmable timing mechanism and
approvals for use in flammable or explosive atmospheres.
Battery-operated pumps may be classed as either high flow - 500 to
3,000 cubic centimeters per minute (cc/min) - or low flow - 50 to
200 cc/min - some, however, may reach higher or lower flow rates.
The rated stability of the pump should be accurate to within + 5%
of its set flow rate. The type of portable pump selected is
generally determined by such factors as the physical properties of
the contaminant, the collection medium, and the collection flow
rates specified by the analytical method used.
C. Samplers - Gas and Vapor Absorbers
Impingers and bubblers are used to collect gases and vapors by
liquid absorption (Figure 1). These samplers ensure that
contaminants in the sampled air are completely absorbed by the
liquid sampling medium selected. Four types of absorber devices
are used:
- Impinger, the most widely used gas absorber device. This
device, usually made of glass, consists of an inlet tube
connected to a stopper fitted into a graduated vial such that
the inlet tube rests slightly above the vial bottom. A measured
volume of absorber liquid is placed into the vial, the stopper
inlet is put in place, and the unit is then connected to the
pump by flexible tubing. When the pump is turned on, the
contaminated air is channeled down through the liquid at a
right angle to the bottom of the vial. The air stream then
impinges against the vial bottom, mixing the air with the
absorber liquid; the necessary air-to-1iquid contact achieved
by agitation. Prolonged contact is possible by increasing the
volume of the absorber liquid. Most standard methods rely on
one or two impingers to absorb contaminants, however, some may
require several connected in series. The popularity of
impingers rests on such qualities as simple construction, ease
of cleaning, the small quantity of liquid used (typically less
than 25 to 30 millimeters), and a size suitable for use as a
personal monitor.
2-3
-------
Figure 1
TT
Y)
( A))
(A) Midget Impinger
n
hN
( B )
(B) Fritted Bubbler
- Fritted bubbler, similar in use and appearance to an impinger,
but is generally used when a higher degree of air-liquid mixing
is desired. With these devices, the contaminated air is forced
through masses of porous glass, called frits, breaking the air
stream into numerous small bubbles. The frits are categorized
as fine, coarse, or extra coarse, depending on the number of
openings per unit area. The size of the bubbles depends upon
the size of the openings, as well as the absorber liquid used.
- Glass-bead column, used for special situations where the
absorber liquid is either viscous or a concentrated solution
is required. Glass beads within the column are coated with
the absorber liquid, thus providing greater surface area upon
which the contaminant can be absorbed. These devices are
typically used under very low flow rares (25 to 500 cc/min
range).
- Spiral and helical absorbers, somewhat similar in appearance
to impingers and bubblers. In general, they are used when
slightly soluble or slow reacting contaminants must be sampled,
and provide a prolonged period of contact with the absorber
liquid. These devices also require lower flow rates.
2-4
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D. Samplers - Particulates
Airborne particulates or aerosols include both dispersed liquids
(mists and fogs) and solids (dusts, fumes, and smoke). The most
common method of sampling particulates is to trap them on filters
using active systems to collect integrated samples. The main
difference between particulate sampling trains and other active
systems is the type of sampler.
Particulate samplers typically have an air inlet and a membrane
or fiber filter on which the particulates are collected; a
preselector may also be included ahead of the filter if the
particulates are to be classified by size. Particulate samplers
include such components as multi-piece filter membrane cassettes,
centrifugal separators or cyclones, impactors, impingers, and
elutriators.
One group of preselectors are the centrifugal separators or
cyclones which are commonly used to separate and collect those
particulates small enough to enter the respiratory system. Cyclones
commonly are conical or cylindrical in shape, with an opening
through which particulate-laden air is drawn along a concentrically
curved channel. Larger particles impact against the interior
walls of the unit due to inertial forces and drop into a grit
chamber in the base. The lighter particles continue on through
and are drawn up through a tube at the center of the cyclone,
where they are collected on a filter. Cyclones are available
down to units 10 mm in diameter which can be worn as personal
respirable dust monitors. Figure 2 illustrates a typical
cylindrical cyclone collector.
Flow connector
assembly
.Support screen
Filter
cassette
Filter
Coupler
Vortex finder
Cyclone
Sampling
line
Crlt
pot
Respirable Dust Sampler Assembly
2-5
-------
Impactors, another group of preselectors, separate out particulates
in an airstream by directing them toward a dry or coated flat
surface. Generally, impactors are composed of a number of stacked
perforated collection beds or plates, each with openings narrower
than the one before it. As the particulate-1aden air moves
through the plates, larger particles are deposited near the top
and smaller near the bottom.
Impingers may be used for the collection of particulate contaminants
in addition to gases or vapors, though applications in particulate
sampling are waning. Briefly stated, impingers act in much the
same way as impactors differing only in the fact that impingers
draw the particulates down through a liquid in which they are deposited.
The group of preselectors of perhaps least use in sampling during
responses to hazardous materials incidents are elutriators.
Elutriators separate out particulates of varying sizes by
gravitational effects under low velocities, and are commonly
classed as horizontal or vertical based on design principles.
Connected to most preselectors is a cassette containing the
filter material. Typically, these cassettes are molded out of
transparent polystyrene plastic to form a cylinder. They consist
of two or three stacked sections, the number depending on the
contaminant and the collection method. The sections of a casette
are molded to fit tightly when stacked and to tightly grip the
outer edge of the filter. Each cassette has end plugs to seal the
inlet and tubing connector port once the desired collection period
has been completed (Figure 3).
Figure 3
Backup screen
Ring piece
Filter
Assembly Of A Three Piece Filter Cassette
2-6
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E. Sample Bags
Sample bags, although of limited use during responses to hazardous
materials incidents, offer alternatives in the collection of
instantaneous and integrated samples of gases and vapors. Bag
sampling begins by connecting the bag inlet valve with flexible
tubing to the exhaust outlet of a typical sampling pump. The bag
inlet valve is opened, the pump turned on, and the sample collected.
Once sampling has been completed, the bag contents itself may be
sampled, directly emptied into an analytical instrument, such as
a gas chromatograph, or tested by colorimetric tube.
Sample collection bags can be constructed of a number of synthetic
materials, including polyethylene, Saran, Mylar, Teflon, and
Tedlar. They are square or rectangular with heat-sealed seams,
hose valve fittings, inlet valves, septums for syringe extraction
of samples, and come in varying volumes. The selection of a bag
should be based on a number of characteristics, including resistance
to adsorption and permeation, tensile strength, performance under
temperature extremes, construction features (seams, eyelets, and
fittings), and intended service life.
F. Collection Media - Gases and Vapors
Active sampler for gaseous and vapor contaminants make use of a
variety of collection media, including solids, liquids, and a new
class of long-duration colorimetric tubes. All require a pump to
ensure proper contact between the collection media and the
contaminants. Each category of media is subdivided into groups
specific for a particular contaminant or groups of contaminants.
Solid sorbents are the class of media most widely used in hazardous
materials sampling operations. These materials collect by
adsorption and are often the media of choice for insoluble or
nonreactive gases or vapors. Their popularity stems from a number
of factors, including high collection efficiencies, indefinite
shelf lives while unopened, ease of use compared to liquid
absorbers, improved tube design, and specific analytical procedures.
The solid sorbent to be used in generally specified in standard
sampling and anlytical methods. One such group of standard
methods is the "NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods". Besides
sorbent and tube configuration, these standards also specify such
requirements as maximum sample volumes and collection rates,
sample train configuration, and sample storage. The two most
widely used solid sorbents are:
2-7
-------
- Activated charcoal, which perhaps has the broadest range of
collection efficiencies. The highest efficiencies are for
organic vapors with boiling points above 0 degrees C, and the
lowest for organic gases wth boiling points below -150 degrees C.
Activated charcoal exhibits nonpolar qualities and has a
greater affinity for organic gases and vapors than for water,
which is polar. This property results in far greater retention
of adsorbed organic vapors than silica gel. Glass construction
sampling tubes in various sizes are available to satisfy any
analytical method recommending them^ Typically, the tubes
contain two volumes of activated charcoal, the larger being
the primary sample stage and the smaller the backup stage.
(Figure 4).
Figure 4
7 cm overall length of glass tubing
Inlet a
4 no ID I
|Outlet
16 mm OD
Fiberglass 12mm 3mm i
v —'
Urethane
foam dividers
A - 100 mg sorbant stage
B - SO mg sorbent stage
Construction Of A Typical 150 mg. Activated Charcoal
Tube For Low Flow Organic Vapor Sampling
- Silica gel, which is the next most widely used solid sorbent.
It exhibits polar characteristics preferentially adsorbing
more polar or polarizable compounds. Thus, in order of
decreasing collection efficiency, silica gel will adsorb water,
alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, aromatic compounds,
olefins, and paraffins. Silica gel is also packaged in glass
sampling tubes of several sizes, containing two or three stages
of sorbent in varying proportions as specified by the analytical
method.
2-8
-------
- A number of other synthetic sorbents are available for specific
gas or vapor contaminants or groups of contaminants (Table 1).
TABLE 1
SOLID SORBENTS COMMONLY USED IN GAS AND VAPOR SAMPLING
Solid Sorbent
Gas or Vapor Adsorbed
Activated charcoal
coconut base
Activated charcoal
petroleum base
Silica gel
Molecular sieve 5A
Molecular sieve 13X
Tenax GC
Floricil
Chromosorb 101
Chromosorb 104
Porapak Q
XAD-2
Organic solvents
1,2 - Dibromo -3- chloropropane;
ethylene; methyl bromide; n-propyl
nitrate; 1,1,2,2, -tetrachloroethane
Acetic acid; amines; amides
Sulfur dioxide
Acrolein
Allyl glycidyl ether; diphenyl;
ethylene glycol dinitrate;
nitroglycerin; white phosphorus;
trinitrotoluene
Polychlorinated biphenyls
Bis-chloromethyl ether
Butyl mercaptan
Furfuryl alcohol; methyl
cyclohexanone
DDVP; Demeton; ethyl silicate;
nitroethane; quinone; tetramethyl
lead (as lead)
2-9
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Liquid adsorbers, used with impingers or bubblers and powered
pumps to collect soluble or reactive gases and vapors (Table 2).
Only a relatively few analytical methods call for collection
by impinger or bubbler. Further, most of the common absorbers
tend to be contaminant-specific and have limited shelf lives.
TABLE 2
LIQUID ABSORBERS COMMONLY USED IN
GAS AND VAPOR SAMPLING
Absorbing Liquid
Gas/Vapor Absorbed
0.1N H2S04
Bases and amines
0.1N NaOH
Acids and phenol
0.1N HC1
Nickel carbonyl
A1 kaline CdS04
Hydrogen sulfide
(CdS04 * NaOH)
Methylene blue
Hydrogen sulfide
1% KI in 0.1N NaOH
Ozone
Nitro reagent (4-nitropyridyl
Di isocyanates
propylamine in toluene)
0.3N H202
Sulfur dioxide
O.lfc Aniline
Phosgene
1% NaHS02
Formaldehyde
Distilled water
Acids and bases
- Long-duration, direct-reading colorimetric tubes are a relatively
recent development aimed at filling the gap left by short-term
detector tubes. These indicator tubes are generally used 1n
the 2 hour to 8 hour range, and may be used for time-weighted
2-10
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average sampling. Unlike their short-term counterparts, long-
duration tubes require an electric rather than hand operated
pump and flow rates of 10 to 20 cc/min are common. Long-
duration tubes share the same advantages and disadvantages as
short-term tubes and so have only limited application to
response operations.
G. Collection Media - Particulates
Although impingers have been used to collect airborne particulates,
the most common method is dry filtration. This method utilizes a
specialized filter material as part of an active sampling train
to mechanically collect aersols. Two types of filter materials
are used:
- Fiber filters, which are composed of irregular meshes of fibers
forming openings or pores of 20 micrometers in diameter or
less. As particulate-laden air is drawn through such filters,
it is forced to change direction. Particulates then impinge
against the filter and are retained. A number of fiber filters
are available (Table 3). The two with perhaps the greatest
application to hazardous materials operations are cellulose
and glass. Filters of these materials typically consist of
thick masses of fine fibers and have low mass-to-face area
ratios, making them excellent for particulate mass/volume
analysis. Of the two, cellulose if the least expensive, is
relatively low in ash, has high tensile strength, and is
available in a variety of sizes. Its greatest disadvantage is
its tendency to absorb water, thus creating problems in
weighing. For this reason, glass fiber filters are finding
more applications.
- Membrane filters, which are microporous plastic films formed
by precipitating a resin out of an organic colloid. This
group of filters includes such materials as cellulose triacetate,
polyvinyl chloride, Teflon, polypropylene, nylon, and silver
(Table 3). These filters have an extremely low mass and ash
content. Some are completely soluble in organic solvents
enabling the concentration of collected particulates into
small volumes for later analysis. Membrane filters, like
fiber filters, collect particulates by impaction rather than
by acting as sieves.
2-11
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TABLE 3
FILTER MEDIA FOR AIRBORNE PARTICULATES
Filter Medium
Representative Application"
Cellulose ester, 0.45
micrometer pore
Cellulose ester, 0.8
micrometer pore
Fibrous glass
Polyvinyl chloride, 5.0
micrometer pore
Polyvinyl chloride, 5.0
micrometer pore,
in shielded cassette
Silver membrane
Metal fumes; acid mists
Asbestos; metal fumes; fibers;
chlorodiphenyls, (54% chlorine)
Total particulate; oil mists;
pesticides; coal, tar, and
pitch volatiles
Weight analysis; hexavalent
chromium
Electrostatic dusts
Total particulate; coal, tar,
and pitch volatiles; free
crystalline silica
Teflon
High temperature applications
2-12
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PASSIVE DOSIMETERS
Quantitative passive dosimeters have become available only since the
early 1970's, though a semiquantitative passive monitor for carbon
monoxide was patented as early as 1927. The key advantage of passive
dosimeters is their simplicity (Figure 5). These small, light weight
devices do not require a mechanical pump to move a contaminant through
a collection medium. Thus, calibration and maintenance are reduced
or eliminated, although the sampling period period must still be
accurately measured. Despite this obvious advantage, such sources of
error as observer interpretation, and the effects of temperature and
humidity hold true for both active and passive systems. Other sources
of error unique to passive dosimeters arise from the need for minimum
face velocities and the determination of contaminant diffusion
coefficients.
Figure 5
A
A - Sampler front
B - Draft shield
C - Grid section
D - Sorbant impregnated pad
E - Sampler back
An Example Of A Diffusion-Type Passive Sampler
2-13
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The few passive dosimeters now available apply to gas and vapor
contaminants only. These devices primarily function as personal
exposure monitors, although they have some usefulness in area
monitoring. Passive dosimeters are commonly divided into two groups,
primarily on how they are designed and operated (Table 4).
- Diffusion samplers, which function by the passive movement of
contaminant molecules through a concentration gradient created
within a stagnant layer of air between the contaminated atmosphere
and the indicator material. Some diffusion samplers may be read
directly, as are colorimetric length-of-stain tubes, while others
require laboratory analysis similar to that performed on solid
sorbents.
- Permeation dosimeters, which rely on the natural permeation of a
contaminant through a membrane. The efficiency of these devices
depends on finding a membrane that is easily permeated by the
contaminant of interest and not by all others. Permeation dosimeters
are therefore useful in picking out a single contaminant from a
mixture of possibly interfering contaminants. As with diffusion
samplers, some passive samplers may be of the direct reading type
while others may require laboratory analysis.
——- TABLE 4
AVAILABLE PASSIVE DOSIMETERS FOR GASES AND VAPORS
GROUPED BY PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Diffusion Devices Permeation Devices
Ammonia Chlorine
Carbon monoxide Hydrogen sulfide
Ethylene oxide Vinyl chloride
Formaldehyde
Mercury
Nitrogen dioxide
Organic vapor (general)
Phosgene
Sulfur dioxide
2-14
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CALIBRATION
Atmospheric sampling systems must be accurately calibrated if the
resultant data are to be correctly interpreted. Calibration of the
electrically powered pump in active systems is important to achieving
the constant flow rates often specified in standard analytical methods.
Passive sampling systems, however, because of their simplicity in
design and principles of operation, require no formal calibration.
As a minimum, an active sampling system should be calibrated prior to
use and following a prescribed sampling period. The overall frequency
of calibration depends upon the general handling and use a sampling
system receives. Pump mechanisms should be recalibrated after they
have been repaired, when newly purchased, and following any suspected
abuse.
As a rule, the sampling system as a whole should be calibrated rather
than the pump alone. Figure 6 illustrates the calibration of a
respirable dust sampling train. Only with all components connected
can the system be adequately examined under field-like operating
conditions. A system can be calibrated by any of several devices for
measuring air flow, including:
Figure 6
Screen
1000
Burette
1000 ml
Cyclone_
asseably
Beaker with
soap solution
Voluaetric Sampling
container P**P
Soap Bubble Flow Calibrator
2-15
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Soap bubble flow meter, which is the most popular. It represents
a primary standard and is used to calibrate the types of sampling
pumps discussed earlier, as well as the manually operated pumps
used for direct reading colorimetric tubes (Figure 6). This device
typically consists of an inverted graduated burette connected by
flexible tubing to the sampling train. Calibration is performed
as follows: The system's pump is started creating airflow into
the burette. The open end of the burette is dipped into a soap
solution creating a soap film bubble across the opening. The
solution is removed, and the bubble is allowed to rise up through
the burette. Travel time of the bubble between two graduated
points on the burette is measured. The flow rate (measured in
cc's/minute) is varied by adjusting the pump flow regulator.
Precision rotameter, which is the next most popular device. It
represents a secondary standard, and may be used to calibrate
instruments in the field. More compact and portable than the soap
bubble devices, the precision rotameter consists of a vertically
mounted tapered tube, with a float placed inside. As air is passed
up through the tube, the float rises until the rate of flow is
sufficient to hold the float stationary. Again, flow rate is
adjusted with the pump flow regulator.
2-16
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Wet test meter, which consists of a partitioned drum that is half
submerged in water (Figure 7). Air drawn in by the sampling train
enters an opening at the center of the drum and flows into individual
compartments, which also have openings at the edge of the drum.
This in turn causes the compartments to rise and the drum to
rotate. The number of rotations is indicated on a dial on the
face of the meter.
Figure 7
Water filling
funnel
Water level
sight glass
Water level
Calibration
point
Partitioned
rotating
drum
Gas pressure gauge
Gas thermometer
Gas outlet on
back of meter
Gas inlet on
back, of meter
Powell CH, Hoscy AO (eds): The Industrial Environment — lis Evaluation and Control 2nd Edition. Public Health
Service Publication No 614, 1965
Wet Test Meter
2-17
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Dry gas meter, which is similar to domestic gas meters (Figure 8).
This device consists of two bellows connected by valves and a
counting mechanism. As air is drawn into the device, one bag
fills and the other empties. The rate of this change is then
measured by dials on the face of the meter.
Figure 8
Bellows or
diaphragms
Mechanical valve
and counter
mechanism
Meter
readout
index
Powell CH, Hosey AO (eds): The Industrial Environment — Its Cvjluetion end Control. 2nd edition. Public Heelth
Service PuWicetion No. 614, 1965.
Dry Gas Meter
2-18
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APPENDIX I
Sources for the sampling equipment described are listed below:
ACE GLASS COMPANY
P.O. Box 688
Vineland, NJ 08360
609/692-3333
AMERICAN GAS & CHEMICAL CO. LTD.
220 Pegasus Avenue
Northvale, NJ 07647
202/767-7300
800/526-1008
ANDERSEN SAMPLERS
4215-C Wendell Drive
Atlanta, GA 30336
800/241-6898
6GI, INC.
58 Guinan Street
Waltham, MA 02154
617/891-9380
BARNANT CO.
28W092 Commercial Avenue
Barrington, IL 60010
312/381-7050
BENDIX CORP EPID
12345 Starkey Road
Largo, FL 33543
813/536-6523
CALIBRATED INSTRUMENTS, INC.
731 Saw Mill River Road
Ardsley, NY 10502
914/693-9232
DELTA POWER CORP
Box 1197
Mashpee, MA 02649
617/477-0404
DIRECT SAFETY CO.
Box 26616
Tempe, AZ 85282
800/528-7405
DOSIMETER CORP OF AMERICA
11286 Grooms Road
Cincinati, OH 45242
800/543-4976
DU PONT APPLIED TECH DIVISION
Marshall Mill Building
Barley Mi 11 Plaza
Wilmington, DE 19898
302/999-2552
DYNATROL INDUSTRIES, INC.
38 Harbor View Avenue
Stamford, CT 06902
203/325-3536
GILLIAN INSTRUMENT CORP
1275 Route 23
Wayne, NJ 07470
201/696-9244
HI Q FILTER PRODUCTS CO.
5151 Santa Fe St. STE G
San Diego, CA 92109
714/270-9675
INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE SERVICES, INC.
1830 McKinley Road
Bartlesville, OK 74003
918/333-2533
KURZ INSTRUMENTS, INC.
Box 849
Carmel Valley, CA 93924
408/659-3421
LAB SAFETY SUPPLY
3430 Palmer Drive, Box 1368
Janesville, WI 55347
800/356-6964
LUMIDOR SAFETY PRODUCTS
5364 NW 167th Street
Miami, FL 33014
305/625-5111
2-19
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3M/OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH & SAFETY
PRODUCTS DIVISION
220-7W, 3M Center
St. Paul , MN 55144
800/328-1300
612/733-6234
MDA SCIENTIFIC, INC.
1815 Elmdale
Glenview, IL 60025
800/323-2000
MG BURDETT GAS PROD MG SCIENCE
175 Meister Avenue, Box 5328
N Branch, NJ 08876
201/231-9595
MSA
600 Penn Center Boulevard
Pittsburgh, PA 15235
412/273-5172
MATESON CHEMICAL CORP EASTON DIVISION
1025 E. Montgomery Avenue
Philadelphia, PA 19125
215/423-3200
MATHESON
30 Seaview Drive
Secaucus, NJ 07094
201/867-4100
MEMBRANA, INC.
7070 Commerce Circle
Pleasanton, CA 94566
800/227-1245
MET ONE, INC.
Box 1937
Grants Pass, OR 97530
503/479-1248
MICRO FILTRATION SYSTEMS
6800 Sierra Court
Dulin, CA 94566
415/828-6010
MILLIPORE CORP LAB PRODUCTS DIVISION
80 Ashby Road
Bedford, MA 01730
800/225-1380
NATIONAL DRAEGER, INC.
Box 120
Pittsburgh, PA 15230
412/787-8383
NATIONAL MINE SERVICE CO.
4900/600 Grant Street
Pittsburgh, PA 15219
412/281-0688
NAUTILUS ENVIRONMENTALS, INC.
5400 Mitchelldale
STE B-4
713/686-2175
NUCLEPORE CORP
7035 Commerce Circle
Pleasanton, CA 94566
415/462-2230
POREX TECH DIVISION OF GMSC
7380 Bohannon road
Fairburn, GA 30213
800/241-0195
RAC DIVS10N ANDERSEN SAMPLERS
4215 Wendell Drive
Atlanta, GA 30336
800/241-6898
ROXAN, INC.
7831 Nita Avenue
Canoga Park, CA 92304
213/703-6108
SKC, INC.
395 Valley View Road
Eighty Four, PA 15330
412/941-9701
2-20
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SCK WEST, INC.
2021 GW Commonwealth
Fullerton, CA 92633
714/992-2780
SCHLEICHER & SCHUELL, INC.
543 Washington Street
Keene, NH 03431
603/352-3810
SCIENTIFIC GAS PRODUCTS, INC.
2330 Hamilton Boulevard
S. Plainfield, NJ 07080
201/754-7700
SIERRA INSTRUMENTS, INC.
Box 909
Carmel Valley, CA 93924
408/659-3177
SPECTREX CORP
3594 Haven Avenue
Redwood City, CA 94063
415/365-6567
STAPLEX CO AIR SAMPLER DIVISION
777 Fifth Avenue
Brooklyn, NY 11232
800/221-0822
THERMO ELECTRON CORP
125 Second Avenue
Waltham, MA 02254
617/890-8700
UNITED TECH BACHARACH INSTRUMENTS
301 Alpha Drive
Pittsburgh, PA 15238
412/784-2120
VALVO INSTRUMENTS CO, INC.
Box 55603
Houston, TX 77255
713/688-9345
WHATMAN PAPER DIVISION
9 Bridewell Place
Clifton, NJ 07014
201/773-5800
WHEATON SCIENTIFIC
1000 N. 10th Street
Millville, NJ 08332
609/825-1400
WISA PRECISION PUMPS USA
235 W. 1st Street
Bayonne, NJ 07002
201/823-3694
2-21
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APPENDIX II
The following represents a partial list of background references on the
subject of atmospheric sampling instruments. Although other sources may
be available, it is believed that these will provide the reader with a
good understanding of the subject.
The references are listed alphabetically by title and include author,
publisher, and place of publication for each entry. The year of publication
is given for governmental sources only. For the remainder, however, the
reader should attempt to obtain the most recent edition.
1. Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric Contaminants
American Conference of Governmetal Industrial Hygientists
6500 Glenway Avenue, Building D-E
Cincinnati, OH 45211 (513/661-7881)
2. Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene
National Safety Council
444 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60611
3. The Industrial Environment - Its Evaluation and Control, 1973
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Rockville, MD
(Available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 202/783-3238)
4. Industrial Hygiene Field Operations Manual 1980
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Washington, DC 20210
(Available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 202/783-3238)
5. Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Volumes I and III
Frank A. Patty
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
New York, NY
6. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods, Volumes I-VII
National Insitute for Occupational Safety and Health
Cincinnati, OH 45226
(Available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 202/783-3238)
2-23
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PART 3
RADIATION MONITORING
I. FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIOACTIVITY
A. Radioactivity is the property of the nucleus of an atom to spontaneously
emit energy in the form of radiation.
B. Radiation is excessive nuclear energy emitted in the form of high energy
electromagnetic waves or particles.
C. An element is a pure substance which cannot be broken down chemically or
physically into simpler substances.
1. At present 106 elements are known.
2. The smallest indivisible portion of an element is an atom.
a. An atom is comprised of a dense central core, called the
nucleus, containing protons and neutrons.
b. Surrounding the nucleus are orbits, planes, or clouds of
electrons.
D. Primary particles forming an atom are:
Particle Electrical Charge Mass (relative scale)
electron minus 1 1/1800 of proton
proton positive 1 1
neutron neutral 1
1. The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number and
identifies the element. Hydrogen has one proton, helium has two
protons, etc.
2. The number of electrons in an atom equals the number of protons;
hence an atom is electrically neutral.
3. The number of neutrons in the atom of an element varies. Atoms of
the same element with a different number of neutrons are called
isotopes of that element. The combination of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom is the mass number.
4. All the isotopes of all the elements are called nuclides,
a. Radionuclides are radioactive.
3-1
-------
b. Stable nuclides are not radioactive
5. There are approximately:
1,500 nuclides
- 285 are stable
1,215 nuclides are radioactive
- 65 radionuclides found in nature
T,150 man-made radionuclides
II. RADIATION
A. When the coulombic forces (repulsion forces due to the positive charges
of protons) are sufficient to overcome the nuclear forces (which hold
the nucleus together, "nuclear glue"), excess energy is emitted from
the nucleus in the form of electromagnetic waves or rays and/or high -
velocity particles.
B. Three types of radiation are of major concern:
1. Alpha particles - Particles consisting of two protons and two
neutrons bound together with an electrical charge of +2. Identical
to helium nuclei.
2. Beta particles - Particles with a single electrical charge. When
negatively charged, identical to electrons.
3. Gamma rays - High energy, short-wavelength, electromagnetic
radiation. Other types of electomagnetic radiation include visible
light, ultraviolet, and radar.
C. After the emission of an alpha or beta particle (but not gamma
radiation), the original atom is transformed or transmuted into an atom
of a different element called a "daughter". The daughter product may
or may not be radioactive.
1. By the process of ionization, radiation interacts with the
electrons surrounding the nucleus of the atoms or molecules that
comprise the material through which the radiation is traveling.
2. This process creates an ion-pair, a positively charged atom or
molecule and an electron(s) which is freed from the atom due to the
interaction with radiation.
3. After a series of ionizing interactions, each requiring a finite
amount of energy from the radiation, the radiation loses its
initial energy. In the case of alpha and beta particles, after
loss of all velocity:
a. An alpha particle picks up two electrons and becomes a helium
atom.
3-2
-------
b. An electron loses its velocity (kinetic energy) and becomes a
free electron.
c. Gamma radiation is eventually degraded and finally absorbed.
E. The various types of radiation differ in their ability to penetrate
matter (Table 3-1).
TABLE 3-1
ENERGY OF RADIATION: 1 MeV
Type of
radi ation
Distance
traveled
in ai r
Ion-pairs in
1 cm of air
Shi elding
required
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Less than 1 inch
Inches
Hundreds of
thousands
Hundreds
Hundreds of feet 1-2
A sheet of paper
1/16 inch of
aluminum foil
2 feet of
aluminum foil
III. IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIONUCLIDES
A. Radionuclides have three distinct characteristics that are useful for
identification purposes:
1. Half-life - the amount of time it takes for 1/2 the original
number of atoms of a specific radionuclide to decay is always the
same.
2. Type of radiation - the type(s) of radiation emitted by a
specific radionuclide is always the same.
3. Energy - the energy of the radiation emitted by a specific
radionuclide is always the same.
B. Although these characteristics are specific to each radionuclide,
there is a duplication among nuclides.
3-3
-------
IV. RADIATION INSTRUMENT USE
A. All radiation survey instruments work on the same principle: radiation
causes ionization in the detecting media. The ions produced are
"counted" electronically, and a relationship established between the
number of ionizing events and quantity of radiation present.
B. Major Types of Detectors
1. Ion detection tubes
a. Contain gas (frequently air) at atmospheric pressure.
b. Are generally not sensitive but are high-range instruments.
c. Are used predominantly for detecting and measuring gamma and
x-radiation.
2. Proportional detection tubes
a. Contain gas such as methane, 4% isobutane + 96% helium, p-10
(10% methane + 90% argon) at atmospheric pressure.
b. Inherently do not detect beta and gamma radiation. In survey
instruments used primarily for detecting and measuring alpha
radiation.
3. Geiger-Mueller detection tubes
a. Contain gas such as argon, helium, and neon, all with a
quenching agent, usually below atmospheric pressure.
b. Are sensitive, but not high-range instruments.
c. Are used to detect gamma and/or beta radiation.
4. Scintillation detection media
a. Contain solid crystal. (Liquid scintillation media not
ordinarily used in survey instruments.) As radiation
interacts with media, flashes of visible light are emitted and
electronically "counted".
b. Are used for detecting alpha or gamma radiation.
c. Are very sensitive generally and low-range instruments.
V. INSTRUMENT CONSIDERATIONS
A. Common/General Features
3-4
-------
1. Audio
2. Off-On
3. Battery Check
4. Range Selector
5. Fast/Slow Response
6. Night Light
7. Reset
B. Dial
1. Readout is generally in exposure rate mi 1liroentgens/hour (mR/hr),
or roentgens/hour, or less frequently counts/minute.
(See Table 3-2 for Exposure Guidelines.)
2. Exposure rate x exposure time = total exposure.
C. Background
1. After sufficient period of time to warm-up, gamma instruments
indicate exposure-rate of about 0.01-0.02 mR/hr. This is due to
natural background radiation from various kinds of radionuclides
found in the soil and high energy cosmic radiation from outer
space. Generally, there is no background for alpha and beta
radi ation.
D. Calibration
1. All radiation instruments should be calibrated frequently.
2. Dial reading should be compared and adjusted against an accurate
secondary standard or a known exposure-rate from a radioactive
source.
VI. REFERENCES
1. Pizzarello, J., R. L. Witcokski, Basic Radiation Biology,
Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, PA (1975).
2. Radiological Health Handbook, Department of Health and Human Services,
Bureau of Radiological Health, Publication number 017-011-00043-0,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
3-5
-------
Shapiro. Jacob, Basic Radiation Protection, Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, MA (1981)
Standards for Protection Against Radiation, Department of Energy,
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 10 CFR Chapter 1, Part 30.
3-6
TCS/EPA/9-82
-------
TABLE 3-2
REFERENCE CRITERIA FOR EXPOSURE TO RADIATION
GENERALIZED FEDERAL STANDARDS FOk kAUIATION WORKERS
Whole-Body Dose Equivalent
5 rem/year or an accumulated dose of 5 times chronological age - 18, but
may not be received at a rate greater than 3 rem/calendar quarter.
Federal Guideline
5 rem/year = 1.25 rem/calendar quarter = 100 mi 1lirem/week = 2.5 mi 11irem/hour
Units
rem = unit of biological damage from radiation. For gamma radiation: roentgen
= 1 rem or 1 mR/hour = 1 mi 1lirem/hour
Background Radiation
To the whole body, typically 150 mrem/year, but wide variation geographically.
Typical gamma exposure rate on survey instrument, 0.02 mR/hr.
Example Calculation
On an incident, gamma survey instruments indicate an average exposure rate of
10 mR/hour.
10 mR/hour = 10 millirem/hour
10 mrem/hour (exposure rate) x 6 hour/day (work day) x
5 days/week (work week) = 300 mrem/week (exposure per work week)
This exceeds Federal guideline of 100 mrem/week (and should not
be done).
Working at site for three months: 300 mrem/week (exposure rate/
week) x 4 weeks (weeks/month) = 1,200 mrem/month (exposure rate/
month) = 1.2 rem/month x 3 months = 3.6 rem/calendar quarter.
This exceeds Federal guideline of 1.25 rem/calendar quarter
(and should not be done).
3-7
TCS/EPA/9-82
-------
Biological effects of acute, whole-body radiation exposure
Type oi Exposure Biological Effects
Millirems Dose-Level Rems
1,000,000
450,000
250,000
100.000
50,000
25,000 f g
Lifetime dose iiom -
natural background
radiation of 125
millirems per year.
10,000
9,000
1.000
Gastrointestinal tract x-iay — 210
Dental x-rays (2) _
Chest x-ray
" wood
Housing: - brick
. stone ~
Food, water, air _
100
80
50
50
45
35
25
Jet plane travel 2500 miles _ 1
Television per year _ 1
1,000 Death within 30 days.
Hall ot those exposed will die within 30
450 days. Recovery, with some permanent
impairment, ol the other 50%.
Acute radiation sickness, lew or no deaths
and significant life shortening. Radiation
sickness includes vomiting, diarrhea, loss
ot hair, nausea, hemorrhaging, lever, loss
oi appetite and general malaise. Recov-
ery (it no complications) in about three
months.
¦Possible radiation sickness: little or no Ule
shortening.
(.Possible radiation sickness-, headache,
dizziness, malaise, nausea, vomiting
diarrhea, decrease in blood pressure,
irritability and insomnia
L Radiation ettects detectable only by labo-
ratory examination: decrease in white
blood cells, platelets... il background infor-
mation available prior to exposure.
j L_no effect on normal Ule span.
¦ 100 cases of cancer per million persons
exposed.
.21
.10
.08
-Currently the amount ol low-level radia-
tion a person receives can be measured
but cannot be related to the effects on the
body Because this data is inconclusive, the
•OLl effects of low-level radiation are assumed
to be directly related to the total amount
received.
3-8
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APPENDIX
From: Basic Radiological Health, Training Manual;
Radiological Health & Training Program; USEPA.
Quantities and Units of Radiation
I. INTRODUCTION
The structure and meaning of currently
accepted definitions used In quantitative de-
termination of radiation fields must be under-
stood. Without a physically consistent, realis-
tic, and measurable description of the
radiation field, the clinician, radiologist, or
technologist could not utilize radiation with
reproducibility or safety, nor could the effects
of radiation on living organisms be ascer-
tained. The concepts discussed in this outline
represent only part of a set of radia-
tion quantities and units established by the
International Commission on Radiation Units
and Measurements (ICRU) in its Report
Number 11, Radiation Quantities and Units,
published in 1968.
II. QUANTITIES AND UNITS
The ICRU has standards which clearly
delineate radiation quantities and radiation
units.
A "quantity" may be thought of as a de-
scription of a physical concept or principle.
The magnitude or measure of a quantity is a
"unit." Fundamentally, therefore, the quan-
tity is the more important. The unit places
limits upon, but will not serve to define, the
quantity. For example, the concept of length
is a quantity; the meter is a unit of length.
An internationally accepted system of writ-
ing and abbreviating units has been estab-
lished. To avoid confusion with the name of
the man for whom a unit may be named, the
name is capitalized when referring to the
man (Roentgen) but when referring to the unit,
the name will be written in lower case
(roentgen).
The abbreviation for the unit is, however,
capitalized (R). In cases where the abbrevia-
tion conflicts with another accepted symbol,
a combination of letters, usually the first and
last, is used. An illustration is seen in the
case of the unit curie. The abbreviation used
Is Ci, as other possible symbols conflict with
the symbol for coulomb and with common
chemical symbols.
A. Radiation Quantities
Radiation may be divided into two classes:
ionizing and non-ionizing. X rays, for ex-
ample, are classified as ionizing radiations
by virtue of their energy. Ionizing radiations,
however, include many types of radiations in
addition to x rays. The ICRU has considered
ionizing radiations In two categories:
1. Directly ionizing particles or charged
particles (electrons, protons, alpha par-
ticles, etc.), which have sufficient kinetic
energy to cause ionization by collision;
and
2. Indirectly ionizing particles or uncharged
particles (neutrons, gamma rays, x rays,
etc.), which can interact and liberate di-
rectly ionizing particles.
Quantities describing the effects of the
interaction of directly and indirectly Ionizing
radiations with matter have been developed
to cover many aspects of the interaction proc-
esses. For practical radiation protection
measurements and control, only four quanti-
ties are generally utilized. These will be
discussed in greater detail in the following
material.
B. Exposure
Historically, the most important term as-
sociated with radiation exposure has been the
roentgen. So, after a series of redefinitions,
the roentgen has been chosen as the unit for
3-9
-------
Quantities ajid Units of Radiation
the quantity exposure. The current definition
of exposure is;
The exposure (X) is the quotient of AQ by
Am, where AQ is the sum of the electrical
charges on all the ions of one sign pro-
duced in air when all the electrons (nega-
trons and positrons), liberated by photons
in a volume element of air whose mass is
Am, are completely stopped in air.
Several important restrictions applying to
the quantity are immediately apparent from
the wording of the definition:
1. The medium in which exposure is defined
is air; no other medium is acceptable.
2. The radiations for which exposure is
defined are photons (x ray and gamma).
3. The effect being measured is ionization
of the air.
4. All electrons liberated in the ionizing
processes must be stopped in air.
The last restriction serves to impose upper
limits on the maximum quantum energy which
may be directly measured in terms of ex-
posure, because the range of the electrons
liberated increases as a function of the
energy. A chamber (see a discussion of the
free air chamber) which measures exposure
directly must have dimensions such that the
distances from the electrodes to the sites of
interaction are greater than the maximum
range of the secondary electrons. For ex-
ample, a chamber intended to measure expo-
sure resulting from a beam of 2 MeV pho-
tons would require overall dimensions greater
than 15 meters, because the maximum range
in air of 2 MeV electrons which may be liber-
ated is on the order of 7.5 meters.
The meaning of the symbol A (read delta)
is best Illustrated by considering the fact that
the interaction of radiation is not continuous.
Interaction locations are discrete sites which
can only be described statistically. If the
measuring volume Is too small, a single
measurement of the effect may include no
interaction or, through chance, several inter-
2
INPIVKHIAI MLASUREfll NTS
FLl".TtlMK WITHIN THIS RANCL
TRUE VALUE
UK; Am
Figure 1.—Detector Response
vs. Volume
actions may have occurred within the volume.
Therefore, an average value must be deter-
mined. This effect of random variations ob-
tained by a series of measurements is shown
in the left region of the curve in Figure 1. As
the volume is increased, the effect of the
larger volume is to average the effects mea-
sured in a series of smaller volumes. The
result approaches closely the true average,
as indicated in the center portion of the
curve. A continued increase in the volume
would now include regions outside the radia-
tion field, and the measured values would
decrease, as shown on the right. In short, the
measurement of radiation fields involves
statistical averaging procedures; the symbol
A will precede the symbols for quantities that
may be involved in such averaging proce-
dures.
C. Absorbed Dose
Exposure, as noted earlier, is limited to
measurement of the ionization in air produced
by x or y radiations. This quantity iB, of
course, extremely limited: Many types of
radiation exist, and the material of interest
in which interaction occurs in most cases is
not air. Additionally, ionization produced by
the radiation may not be the effect which is
most usefully evaluated. "Absorbed dose" is
a quantity much more general in its struc-
turing. It is defined as follows:
The absorbed dose (D) is the quotient of
by Am, where AED is the energy imparted
Radiological Health
3-10
-------
Quantities arid Units nf Kadiation
by ionizing radiation to the matter in p
volume element, and Am is the massufiiic
matter in that volume element.
Am
The following points are to be seen in the
definition:
1. Any type of ionizing radiation (direcrlyor
indirectly ionizing) is included.
2. Any material may be used in making the
measurement.
3. The effect observed is the energy im-
parted by the radiation to the matter in
the volume element.
Most often a direct measurement of ab-
sorbed dose will be carried out by calo-
rimetry, since temperature changes—which
directly reflect the energy input to the mass
(if one excludes possible changes from as-
sociated chemical energies)—are relatively
easy to measure. Again, it must be pointed
out that selection of the size of the mass is
important as statistical averaging proce-
dures apply.
The energy imparted to the matter in the
volume element is not necessarily equal to
the amount of energy removed from the beam.
Secondary electrons, for example, may carry
some energy to matter in adjacent volumes.
The energy lost is related to another quan-
tity, "kerma" (kinetic energy released in
material).
Because absorbed dose is a general quan-
tity applying to any radiation in any material,
it could certainly be applied to x radiation in
air. Thus a relation between absorbed dose
and exposure may be established in air or in
other media.
D. Dose Equivalent
Research has shown that the effect of
ionizing radiations on biological systems is
not related exclusively to absorbed dose. The
effects observed depend on many factors and
include:
1. Type of radiation
2. Energy of the radiation
?. Distribution and/or fractionation of the
radiation
4. Biological endpoint chosen
5. Time at which the endpoint is evaluated
6. Species and strain of the organism utilized.
Many other factors, such as the adminis-
tration of certain drugs, also influence the
response to radiation. In an effort to provide
a comparable numerical basis for the effects
of various types of radiation for protection
purposes, a quantity termed the "dose equiva-
lent" (DE) has been defined as:
The product of the absorbed dose (D),
quality factor (QF), and other necessary
modifying factors;
DE = D (QF) (...).
Depending upon the effect chosen for eval-
uation, the result obtained when the effects of
two types of radiation are compared (fre-
quently termed in radiobiological research
the "relative biological effectiveness" or
RBE) may vary widely. A representative value
for the RBEs is selected by a committee to be
used for radiation protection purposes. This
value is termed the "quality factor" (QF).
Typical quality factors, given here, are
taken from Rees, D. J., Health Physics;
Principles of Radiation Protection (London:
Butterworth, 1967);
Quality
Factor
Type of Radiation
1.0 X rays; yrays; electrons; and 0
rays with E max greater than 0.03
MeV
1.7 0 rays with Emax not greater than
0.03 MeV
10.* Neutrons and protons up to 10MeV
10. Naturally occurring a particles
20. Heavy recoil nuclei
* 30. in the case of irradiation of the eyes.
3-11
-------
Quantities and Units of Radiation
E. Activity
A quantity is necessary to describe the rate
at which a radionuclide undergoes nuclear
transformations. Historically, radium was
used as a standard, but ICRU recommenda-
tions have established a quantity which is
independent of any particular substance and
depends only on measurable quantities, i.e.,
the number of transformations occurring and
the time during which these emissions took
place. The quantity involved is "activity" and
is defined as follows;
The activity (A) of a quantity of a radio-
active nuclide is the quotient of AN by At
where AN is the number of nuclear trans-
formations which occur in this quantity in
time At.
AN
A = .
At
Activity applies only to the number of
nuclear transformations taking place per
unit time and is not directly related to the
exposure rate, absorbed dose rate, or dose
equivalent rate due to the radionuclide.
F. Units
Each of the quantities discussed has a
measure or "unit" assigned to it. Exposure
is expressed in terms of the equation
Am
where Q represents electrical charge (pro-
duced by ionization) per unit mass of air.
Hence, any units of charge over mass would
conform with the definition. The ICRU has,
however, established a special unit, the use
of which is restricted to measurement of ex-
posure only. The unit of charge used is the
"coulomb," and the unit mass is the "kilo-
gram. " Specifically,
1 roentgen
= 2.58 X 10 '* coulombs/kilogram*
•The magnitude of this unit does not differ from the
magnitude of the previous definition.
4
Absorbed dose, defined in terms of energy
deposited in a mass, would demand units of
energy (joules, for example) per unit mass
(kilograms). Again, a special unit has been
defined which is used in referring to ab-
sorbed dose:
1 rad ='/ioo joule/kilogram
= 100 ergs/gram.
The unit of dose equivalent is the "rem,"
which is obtained by multiplying the dose in
rads by the appropriate quality factor and
other modifying factors. The ICRU notes in
its report that this statement . . does not
cover a number of theoretical aspects (in
particular the physical dimensions of some
of the quantities) ..." but that "... it
fulfills the immediate requirement for an
unequivocal specification of a scale that may
be used for numerical expression in radia-
tion protection." In short, since dimensional-
ity is ignored, rems = rads X QF. Since the
QF for x and gamma radiation is l.the num-
ber of rems is identical to the absorbed dose
in rads for these radiations.
The special unit for activity is the "curie."
The commission has recommended that
steps be taken to redefine the curie as
1 curie = 3.7 X 10'0 s"1 (exactly).
The earlier definition of the curie was based
on the activity of the radon gas in equilibrium
with one gram of radium. Recent measure-
ments have shown that the activity asso-
ciated with this standard is 3.61 X 10los"1
and hence the unit has been redefined as a
number independent of any given radioactive
nuclide.
III. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In the application of instrumentation to the
assessment of the radiation fields, care must
be taken to select instruments which will
truly indicate or measure the radiation quan-
tity of interest. Exposure can only be meas-
ured directly by an air-filled device which
measures ionization in air. In practice, most
exposure measuring instruments are related
Radiological Health
3-12
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Quantities and Units of Radiation
to a free-air chamber, and do not actually
measure exposure directly. Most of the
ionization produced and measured originates
in the chamber wall—which is hopefully an
"air equivalent" material.
IV. SUMMARY
Certain of the salient features of radiation
quantities and units are presented in the
following table:
Associated Features
Quantities
Exposure
Absorbed Dose
Dose Equivalent
Radiation types
x- or gamma ray
all ionizing
all ionizing
Media in which effects are
measured
air
any
biological system
Effects observed
ionization
energy deposited
biological effect
Units
roentgen
rad
rem
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Johns, Harold E., Physics of Radiology (2nd rev. ed.;
Springfield, 111.: Charles C Thomas, Publisher,
1964).
Radiation Quantities and Units (1CRU #11[ Washington,
D.C.: International Commission on Radiation
Units and Measurements, 1968]),
Recommendations of the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (International Commis-
sion on Radiological Protection, ICRP #6 [Elms-
ford, N.Y.: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1964]).
Recommendations of the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (International Commis-
sion on Radiological Protection, ICRP#19[Elrns-
ford, N.Y.: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1966]).
Report of Committee II on Permissible Dose for In-
ternal Radiation (International Commission on
Radiological Protection, ICRP #2 [Elmsford,
N.Y.: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1959]).
Report of Committee IV on Protection Against Elec-
tromagnetic Radiation Above 3 MeV and Elec-
trons, Neutrons, and Protons(InternationalCom-
mission on Radiological Protection, ICRP #4
[Elmsford, N.Y.: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1964]).
Symbols, Units and Nomenclature in Physics (Oak
Ridge, Tenn.: USAEC, Division of Technical
Information Extension, 1965).
3-13
5
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From: Basic Radiological Health, Training Manual;
Radiological Health & Training Program; USEPA.
Units of Radioactive Decay and the Decay Law
I. INTRODUCTION
The mosi widely used unit of quantity of
radioactive material is the curie.
II. THE CURIE UNIT
A. Original Definition
Originally, the curie unit applied only to
radium. It was based on the disintegrations
per second occurring in the quantity of
radon gas in equilibrium with one gram of
radium. If permitted to attain this equilib-
rium, one gram of radium will produce
about 0.66 mm' of radon. In this quantity
of radon, about 37 billion atoms disintegrate
each second.
B. Later Modification*
The International Radium Standard Com-
mission extended the definition in 1930 to in-
clude that quantity of any radioactive decay
product of radium which underwent the same
number of disintegrations per second as one
gram of radium. It avoided specifying the
figure exactly, so for some years the exact
value of the curie unit varied with each suc-
cessive refinement in the measurement of
the decay constant or the atomic weight of
radium.
C. Modern Practice
In 1950, the International Joint Commission
on Standards, Units, and Constants or Radio-
activity redefined the curie unit by accepting
37 billion disintegrations per second as a
curie of radioactivity regardless of its source
or characteristics. At present, the unit of
quantity of radioactivity, the curie, merely
requires that in the given sample of any ma-
terial, 3.7 x 10" disintegrations occur each
second. Smaller—and o f t e n more conven-
ient—units are the millicurie, (one-thou-
sandth of a curie: mCi), and the microcurie,
(one-millionth of a curie: /*Ci). Thepicocurie
(3.7 X 10*l dis/sec or 2.22 dis/min) is often
used to express the very low natural and
environmental levels.
D- Curies and Grams: Specific Activity
The term curie originated from the num-
ber of emanations from one gram of radium.
Thus, the activity of one gram of radium is
equivalent to one curie. It is important, how-
ever, to note that when applied to radio-
nuclides other than radium, the curie unit
does not make apparent what weight of the
material is required. Since the curie of
activity is 37 billion disintegrations per
second, the weight of the material required
to produce this number of disintegrations
per second will be a function of the decay
rate of the atoms of the material (i.e., the
disintegration constant) and of the number
of atoms of the material per gram (i.e.,
gram atomic weight). As examples, a curie
of pure MCo would weigh less than 0.9
milligram, whereas a curie of natural mU
would require over two metric tons of the
metal. "Curies per gram" is termed "spe-
cific activity."
III. THE RADIOACTIVE DECAY LAW
A. Th« Disintegration Constant
The activity of any sample of radioactive
material decreases or decays at a fixed rate
which is a characteristic of that particular
radionuclide. No known physical or chemical
agents (such as temperature, pressure,
solution, or combination) may be made to
influence this rate. The rate may be charac-
terized in at least two ways, one of which Is
3-14
-------
Units of Radioactive Decay and the Decay Law
the use of the disintegration constant (X).
The disintegration constant (X) represents
the fraction of the total number of atoms
present which decays in a unit time. Thus
the number of disintegrations occurring per
unit time in a given sample Is the product of
the number of atoms present in the sample,
(N), and the fraction of these disintegrating
in each unit time, (X), or;
where the minus sign is used to indicate that
the number of atoms is diminishing. Inte-
gration of the above equation leads to the
basic law of radioactive decay:
_ At
Nt = N0e
Written out, this equation reads; the number
of atoms (Nt) remaining after a time (t) is
equal to the original number (N0) multiplied
by e~At, where (e) is the base of the natural
system of logarithms and (X) is the disinte-
gration constant.
B. The Half-Life
The disintegration constant is not as con-
venient as another method of representing
the rate of radioactive decay. This is the half-
life, or T1$, of the radionuclide. It is the length
of time required for one half of the original
number of nuclei to disintegrate. The rela-
tionship of the half-life to the disintegration
constant (X) can be shown in the following way:
, _ 0.693
" T'/,
Therefore, one may substitute this expres-
sion for (A) in the basic decay law, and
0 , 693 t
Nt= N0e' T^~
If it is desired to have the equation in
terms of activity instead of number of atoms,
2
one can multiply both sides of the equation
by the disintegration constant (X) as follows.-
0. 693 t
X Nt= N0e~ y
/a
but X N = A
therefore:
0. 693 t
T^
This is the working equation for computing
the amount of radionuclide which will remain
from the original sample after an interval of
time elapses.
C. Computational Method
Example:
Given: A0 = 10 mCi of S2P
t =120 days
T^ = 14.2 days
Find At the quantity remaining after
120 days
(0# 693} (120>
At = (10) e~ sri
= 10 e~5JI5 =10(0.00288)
At =0.0288 mCi
This is the sort of calculation which would
be required before diluting a radioisotope for
future use or for determining the remaining
activity in a quantity of nuclide which had
been stored for some time since its stand-
ardization.
D. Graphic Method
There is an" easy graphical method of ac-
complishing this same computation. It is
based on the relation that each successive
Radiological Health
3-15
-------
half-life reduces the activity present by one-
half, and the effect is cumulative: i.e., two
half-lives reduce to y2 X y2 or three reduce
to l/2 X l/2 X l/2 or y&, etc. In the general case,
An = A0(§) n
where (n) is the number of half-lives elapsed.
This function is graphed in the Radiological
Health Handbook under Radioactive Decay,
Semi-Log Plot. The answer to the "example"
problem may easily be read from the graph
at the point where the line intersects the
horizontal axis. This number (8.44) is the
number of half-lives of 32P in a 120-day
period. A useful "rule of thumb" to remem-
ber is that seven half-lives will reduce any
activity to below 1 percent of its original
value.
Units of Radioactive Decay and the Decay Law
REFERENCE
(1) Kinsman, Simon (ed.), "Table of Isotopes,"
Radiological Health Handbook (Rev. ed.; FJB
1217B4R [Springfield, Va.: U.S. Dept. of Com-
merce, Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and
Technical Information, Sept. I960]).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kaplan, 1., Nuclear Physics (Cambridge, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., Inc., 1963).
Kinsman, Simon (ed.), Radiological Health Handbook
(Rev. ed.; PB 121784R [Springfield, Va.: U.S.
Dept. of Commerce, Clearinghouse for Federal
Scientific and Technical Information, Sept. I960]).
Murray, R, L„ Introduction to Nuclear Engineering
(2nd ed.; New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961).
Stephenson, R„ Introduction to Nuclear Engineering
(2nd ed.; New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1958).
This material was prepared by Mr. C. D. Geilker, formerly of the
Training Branch, Division of Radiological Health.
3-16
3
-------
From: Basic Radiological Health, Training Manual;
Radiological Health & Training Program; USEPA.
Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
I. INTRODUCTION
Since man can neither sense nor measure
the presence of radiation, instruments must
be used for its detection. Such instruments
measure or respond to the charged particleB
which are produced as radiation interacts
with matter. The basic difference between
the various instruments is the medium in
which the ionizing events occur.
The principal means of detection are: gas
Ionization, photographic emulsions, scintilla-
tion media, semiconductors, chemical de-
composition media, radiophotoluminescence
and optical density, thermoluminescence, and
calorimetry. They will be discussed in the
paragraphs that follow.
II. CAS IONIZATION
Radiation detection devices, based on the
principle of collecting ions formed by the
interaction of ionizing radiation in the cham-
ber wall and enclosed gas, comprise a large
segment of all radiation detection instruments
now in use. The gases usually uBed are air
or tissue-equivalent gas mixtures, or a
mixture of a noble gas and a small amount
of a polyatomic gas such as methane or
isobutane. The content, concentration, and
pressure will vary with the specific function
of the Instrument.
A. Regions of Rcspont*
The relationship of the several types of
gas ionization instruments can best be Il-
lustrated by a hypothetical experiment which
utilizes a detection chamber, a variable
voltage supply, and a current indicator of
high sensitivity and wide range.
In this experiment, if we expose the de-
tection chamber to a constant source of
radiation and apply an increasing voltage
REGION OF
iico«>in»hom
NIIATION
CHAMIII
region
PtOPOlTIONAL REGION C m
ECION
REGION 0>
MM I Tt 0
ft OfOt
IIONAUt*
CONTINUOUS
DISCHARGE
REGION
APP1IED VOLT A CI
Figure i.—Regions of Instrument Response
across the chamber, the measured current
output produced by ionization within the
chamber will yield five regions of response,
as illustrated in Figure 1.
1. RECOMBINATION REGION
In the first region, the Ions produced by
the radiation will be under very low voltage
gradients and will tend to recombine with
each other rather than migrate to the elec-
trodes and be collected. This recombination
of ion pairs decreases as the applied voltage
is increased and finally becomes negligible.
At some voltage the field Btrength will be
sufficient to collect essentially all of the ion
pairs that are formed. This first region is
known as the region of recombination and is
usually not useful for the operation of radia-
tion detection instruments.
3-17
-------
Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
2. SATURATION OR IONIZATION CHAM-
BER REGION
This region begins at the voltage at which
all ions formed are collected. These are the
primary ions resulting from the action of
the radiation, and are comprised of ion
pairs. The negative portion of the ion pair
(electron) is accelerated toward the anode
or positive electrode of the chamber, while
the positive ion (residue of the atom) is
drawn more slowly toward the cathode or
negative electrode. For some large increment
of voltage above the region of recombina-
tion, all ions produced in the gas by radiation
are collected by the electrodes. As the
voltage is increased within this region, the
ions are given more energy and move faster
toward the electrodes. However, they do not
become energetic enough to produce addi-
tional ionization. This second region provides
the first of the three operating regions for
gas ionization instruments.
particle with its high specific ionization
will produce a much larger pulse of current
than will beta radiation with its correspond-
ingly lower energy and lower specific ioniza-
tion, illustrated by the alpha and beta curves
respectively in Figure 1. This fact makes
possible pulse height discrimination between
alpha and beta which differ in the amount of
primary ionization produced.
This proportionality (of the number of
ions collected to the primary ionization) is
the reason for naming the third region of
instrument operation "the proportional re-
gion." The upper part of this region, where
the two curves begin to approach each other
(see Figure 1), is referred to as the "region
of limited proportionality" and is not gen-
erally used in radiation instrumentation.
This limit is controlled by the physical di-
mensions of the counter and the number of
gas atoms present. The true proportional
relationship no longer exists in this upper
region.
3. PROPORTIONAL REGION
If the voltage is increased above the
ionization chamber region, the number of
ions collected by the electrodes is greater
than the number produced by the radiation.
Under the voltage gradient, the primary
electrons achieve a high enough velocity
to cause secondary ionization in the filling
gas. This secondary ionization results in an
amplification of the number of ion pairs
produced by the radiation. Hence, each pri-
mary ion pair produces several additional
ions which are collected and measured on
the instrument.
The number of secondary ions produced
for each primary ion pair formed by the
radiation is called the "gas amplification
factor." As the voltage is raised, the gas
amplification factor is increased. Gas ampli-
fication factors are normally about 103;
factors as high as 10s or 106 are some-
times attained in this region. The number
of ions collected is related to the applied
voltage, and is proportional to the number of
primary ion pairs formed. Thus, an alpha
2
4. GEIGER-MUELLER REGION
In the G-M region the increased voltage
accelerates the primary electrons. These
latter interact with gas molecules, producing
a sequence of ionizing events during their
travel to the anode. When the secondary
ionization does start, it builds up rapidly,
since the secondary ionizing events can also
produce more ionization. The buildup of
ionization, referred to as a "Townsend ava-
lanche," then collects on the central
electrode.
Since a single ionizing event can produce
a very large number of ions, the number of
ions collected is relatively independent of
the applied voltage and the specific ionization
of the incident radiation. G-M counters op-
erating in the G-M region provide a gaa
amplification factor as high as 10'0 and are
extremely sensitive to any radiation which
produces even one ion pair. Consequently,
individual ionizing events may be detected.
The positive ions (often argon) produced
during this avalanche of electrons migrate
Radiological Health
3-18
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Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
to the cathode, where their electron defi-
ciency is satisfied by the excess negative
charge at the cathode. When the vacant
orbits of the gas atoms are filled, electro-
magnetic radiation is emitted. This radiation,
which may be either ultraviolet or x radia-
tion, tends to continue the discharge action,
and so sustain the period during which the
gas is essentially a conducting medium.
5. CONTINUOUS DISCHARGE REGION
If the voltage is increased above the
G-M region the gas arcs, thereby producing
a state of continuous discharge.
The experiment described (utilizing a de-
tection chamber, a variable voltage supply,
and a current indicator of high sensitivity
and wide range) is theoretically possible.
But in practice one does not convert an
ionization chamber to a proportional counter
or G-M counter by merely raising the
voltage. For practical reasons these instru-
ment types differ from each other not only
in voltage but in configuration and composition
of the contained gas.
B. Operational and Practical Considerations
The operational characteristics of detec-
tion instruments occur primarily in three of
the five regions of instrument response.
The first—the ionization chamber region—
provides low sensitivity but high range, since
it measures only the primary ionization
produced. Discrimination between the several
types of radiation is not possible except by
use of external absorbers. The operating
voltage for Ionization chamber instruments
will usually be between 60 and 600 volts,
depending upon the filling gas (usually air at
atmospheric pressure) and the physical size
and shape of the chamber.
Proportional instruments provide a high
sensitivity due to their gas amplification and
a (relatively) high range, since the secondary
ionization takes place over only a portion
of the chamber volume. Due to the propor-
tionality factor which exists in this re-
gion, the instrument is Inherently capable of
discriminating between different types of
radiation. Proportional counters are us-
ually filled with a mixture of argon and
methane, although air is sometimes used.
Operating voltages range from 500 to
5000 volts, depending upon chamber design
and filling gas.
The G-M region provides high sensitivity,
since any ionizing event occurring within the
G-M tube can be counted. It has a low range
due to the discharge dead time (the time
during which the gas is conducting and there-
fore insensitive to any further ionizing
events). Because of the nature of the dis-
charge, it is impossible to discriminate
between the various types of radiation in
this region. Geiger-Mueller chambers are
usually filled with argon or helium (and in
most cases, a quenching vapor) at lower than
atmospheric pressure. They operate in the
range of 600 to 3000 volts.
To suppress the secondary emission of
electrons from the cathode, a quenching
agent is used. Organic quenchinp agents,
usually polyatomic molecules such as ethyl
alcohol, absorb the energy from the positively
charged ion and dissociate into smaller
particles which do not emit ultraviolet light
and hence cannot eject electrons from the
cathode. The useful life of the organically
quenched tube is limited by the number of
quenching molecules present. Organically
quenched tubes have a reasonably flat plateau.
The use of halogen gases will produce the
same quenching effect; however, the halogen
ions apparently recombine after dissociation
and therefore do not limit the life of the
tube.
The G-M region is illustrated in Figure 2.
The threshold voltage is that applied voltage
where the pulses are first detected and the
avalanche effect results with further voltage
increase. Normal operating voltage Is se-
lected at approximately one-third the plateau
distance to obtain the greatest stability and
life of the tube. Sustained operation in the
continuous discharge region will result in
permanent damage to the G-M tube.
Each of the regions provides certain
operating characteristics described above
3
3-19
-------
Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instrument
breokbo* I
Voltage j /
\ /
Threshold
V/
Voltage ^
__— 1
1
1
Operating
1
S 1
/ 1
f _L_
Voltage
1
t
APPLIED VOLTAGE
Figure 2.—G-M Response Curve
which makes it useful for one purpose or
another: The ionization chamber region,
providing a direct indication of the number of
ions produced by a given radiation, is emi-
nently suitable for indicating cumulative
exposure or radiation exposure rate. Ion
chambers are not sensitive to low radiation
intensities, but complementary to their low
sensitivity is their ability to measure large
doses or high radiation intensities. Pro-
portional instruments find their best use in
the discrimination between alpha and beta
radiation, while G-M instruments are ex-
tremely sensitive indicating devices for
measuring low intensities of radiation. Both
the proportional and the G-M instruments
are counters; that is, they provide a pulse
of current for every particle or photon which
interacts within the chamber. These two
types are useful in the measurement of
radioactivity.
III. PHOTOGRAPHIC EMULSIONS
The first method used to detect nuclear
radiation was the exposure of photographic
plates. Becquerel thus discovered radio-
activity. Radiation interaction with the silver
balide in the photographic emulsion results
in ionization. The silver ions produced are
attracted to the negatively charged sensitivity
center in the crystal, where the silver ionB
are reduced to free silver. This concentra-
tion of silver ions is known as the "latent
image" and is proportional to the incident
ionizing radiation. The latent image acts
as a catalyst during the developing process
to convert the grain to free silver. This
results in an image amplification factor of
approximately 1010. The fixing process dis-
solves the non- reduced silver halide in the
emulsion, leaving the final radiograph.
Photographic emulsions are used ex-
tensively in research, autoradiography,
quality control, and personnel monitoring.
With the proper selection of film, filters,
etc., the film exposure may be related to
the type, energy, and quantity of radiation
received by the film.
IV. SCINTILLATION MEDIA
Scintillation detectors were in use as early
as 1908, and played an important part in the
experiments of Rutherford and his collabor-
ators. However, scintillation counting was not
widely UBed until 1947, when the newly
developed photomultiplier tube eliminated
the tedium of counting scintillations under
the microscope. The theory of scintillators
is based on the luminescent property of
certain materials. The interaction of radia-
tion in a scintillation media results in
absorption of energy. This energy raises a
molecule or an ion to an excited or elevated
energy state. The return to lower energy
or metastable state levels, and finally decay
to the ground state, results in the emission
of energy as visible or near-visible light.
The magnitude of each light pulse is pro-
portional to the energy deposited in the
medium. The energy deposited in the medium
more closely approaches the total energy of
the Incident radiation as the volume of the
scintillating medium increases. The combi-
nation of the phototube and suitable electronic
circuits has resulted in a very effective
counting system.
The sequence of transforming the energy
of ionizing radiation into measurable electri-
cal signals is illustrated in Figure 3. The
advantages of the scintillation detector are
the high efficiency in gamma ray detection
compared to gas flow detectors, the capacity
Radiological Health
3-20
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Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
LIGHT PHOTONS
*10 photons p«r
1000 eV energy
absorbed
SECONDARY
ELECTRONS
overoge of 1 photo-
electron per 10
photons
AMPLIFICATION
FACTOROF TUBE
electrons per
light photon
PREAMPLIFIER
AND
AMPLIFIER
DISCRIMINATOR
AND
PULSE SHAPER
SCALER
OR
ANALYZER
SOURCE OF RADIATION
SCINTILLATOR
(liquid or crystol)
OPTICAL WINDOW
PHOTOCATHODE
1st DYNODE
progressive voltaoe
grooient —100- 300
volts per dynode
10,h DYNODE (ANODE)
— ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Figure 3.—Schematic Diagram of Scintillator-
Photomultiplier Counting System
to handle high counting rates because of the
very short resolving time, and the ability
to detect different types and energies of
radiation. Perhaps the greatest use of
scintillation counters is in measuring the
energy spectrum of gamma emitters. Liquid
scintillation systems have the advantage of
high sensitivity, accuracy, reasonable sta-
bility and reproducible geometry. They have
the disadvantage of poor resolution. Solid
scintillation systems have high sensitivity
and high resolution, but reproducible geome-
try is more difficult to attain.
Some of the most common scintillation
media are: silver-activated zinc sulfide for
the detection of alpha radiation, anthracene,
naphthalene, stllbene, and liquid scintil-
lators such as 2, 5-diphenyloxazole (PPO)
and 2, 2-p-phenylenebis (5-phenyloxazole)
(POPOP) for measuring beta radiation; and
thallium-activated sodium iodide crystals
for gamma detection.
V. SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors use a dense ionizing me-
dium, so photons of higher energy can be
stopped completely within the medium. The
ionizing events produce an electric field at
the junction surface of two semiconductor
materials. The most widely used types of
semiconductor devices are diffused p-n
junction, surface barrier, and lithium drift
detectors.
A. Diffused p-n Junction
The diffused p-n junction detector obtains
Its name from its manufacturing process. A
slice of p-type silicon or germanium crystal
with a layer of n-type impurity (usually
phosphorus) deposited on the surface is
heated to form a p-n junction just below the
surface. The phosphorus may also be painted
onto the silicon and made to diffuse into it
by applying heat. Since the n-type crystal
has an excess of electrons and the p-type
has an excess of "holes" (holes may be thought
of as unit positive charges), the natural action
of the crystal tends to align the electrons
on one side of the junction and the holes on
the other. Thus, a difference of potential is
built up across the junction.
By applying an external voltage to the
crystal of such polarity as to oppose the
natural movement of electrons and holes
(reverse bias) the potential barrier across
the junction is increased and a "depletion
region" produced. (See Figure 4.) This
Conloct for
electrical leodoff
Chorged patitcWt
enter from th'it side
n-type rtqioft
prodicod by diffusion
in phosphorut
Depletion >
region '
p- typo tllicon
Ekctrico* tood
Metal electrode
Figure 4.—Schematic Representative of a
Diffused p-n Junction Detector
3-21
-------
Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
depletion region is the sensitive volume of
the detector, and is analogous to the gas
volume in a gas ionization detector. Charged
particles entering the depletion region pro-
duce electron-hole pairs analogous to ion
pairs produced in gas ionization chambers.
Since an electric field exists in this region,
the charge produced by the ionizing particle
is collected, producing a pulse of current.
The size of the pulse is proportional to the
energy expended by the particle.
B. Surface Barrier Detectors
The operating principle of the surface bar-
rier and lithium drift detectors is the same
as for the p-n junction, in that a depletion
region exists when an electric field is pro-
duced. The method of producing the depletion
region, as well as its dimensions and location
within the crystal, vary from one type to
another.
The surface barrier detector depends for
its operation upon the surface states of the
silicon or germanium. At the surface of a
piece of pure crystal, an electric field exists
such that both holes and electrons are
excluded from a thin region near the surface.
For n-type crystals, the field Is such as to
repel the free electrons from this region.
If a metal is joined to the crystal the free
electrons are still repelled, but a concentra-
tion of holes is produced directly under the
surface. If a reverse bias is then ap-
plied, a depletion region Is produced. (See
Figure 5.)
Contoet for
•Metrical tootoft
Choroid pari****
Thin goW tltctrodt
R.typt
Electrical I-
Mftal «l«clro4<
Figure 5.—Schematic Representation of a
Surface Barrier Detector
Surface barrier detectors give better reso-
lutions for particle spectroscopy than p-n
junctions, but deeper depletion regions are
possible with the latter. (The deeper the
depletion region, the higher the energy of
particles which can be analyzed, since the
particle must expend all its energy in the
depletion region.)
C. Lithium Drift Detectors
The lithium drift detector is produced by
diffusing lithium into low resistivity p-type
silicon. When heated to about 150° C under
reverse bias, the lithium ions drift into the
junction in such a way that the impurities
are compensated to form a depletion region
of high resistivity intrinsic silicon. Wide
depletion regions may be obtained at low bias
voltages in this manner.
Semiconductor detectors have been popular
mostly in the area of charged particle
spectroscopy. Much better resolution can be
obtained in these devices than with scintil-
lators or grid-type ionization chambers.
VI. CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION INDICATORS
Since radiation can cause ionization, it is
possible to use the ionization produced in a
chemical system as an indication of die
amount of radiation received. This is done
in the case of chemical decomposition indi-
cators; Ions produced by radiation combine
chemically to form new compounds or change
chemical characteristics from those existing
In the pre-irradiation stage.
A typical chemical decomposition indicator
is a chloroform-water mixture. When exposed
to radiation, it produces hydrochloric acid
In proportion to the radiation absorbed. This
formation of acid decreases the pH. By the
use of a suitable indicator, it 1b possible to
ascertain when a predetermined dose has been
received by the chemical system. An indicator
frequently used in this system is brom-
cresol-purple.
An inherent drawback of chemical de-
composition systems Is the fact that the
Radiological Health
3-22
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Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
sensitivity to radiation is quite low. While
these systems require higher exposure rates
for detectable chemical change, newer sys-
tems are being developed to respond to
lower exposures.
VII. RADIO PHOTO LUMINESCENCE AND
OPTICAL ABSORPTION
Radiophotoluminescence is the phenomenon
by which certain materials undergo changes
in their photoluminescent properties after
irradiation. Irradiated material will fluo-
resce when activated by light of the proper
wavelength (ultraviolet or near-ultraviolet),
while unirradiated glass will not fluoresce
under the same conditions.
Silver-activated phosphate glass has proved
a useful radiation detecting medium, exhibit-
ing the photoluminescence property. The
ionizing radiation liberates electrons within
the glass. These are trapped by the Ag+ ions
of the glass. The resulting metallic silver
centers serve as the origin of the photo-
luminescence. After radiation exposure of
the glass, it is subjected to ultraviolet light
and the resulting fluorescence detected by
a photomultiplier tube. The intensity of the
light emitted is proportional to the dose.
Personnel dosimeters of this type have been
developed which cover the range from 10 mR
to 104 R.
Higher radiation doses may be determined
by measuring the increased optical density
of the glass after irradiation. This is done
by making optical transmission measure-
ments using light of the proper wavelength
for the dose range of interest. This principle
is useful from 103 to 106 rads.
VIII. THERMOLUMINESCENCE
Thermoluminescence iB the phenomenon
whereby certain materials can absorb and
store energy from ionizing radiation, and
release this energy as light in the visible
or near-visible region of the spectrum when
the material is heated. Irradiation of a lu-
minescent material results in the excitation
(a) (b) (c)
energy level - E,
ground state - E0
Figure 6.—Schematic of Electron Energy
Bands
of electrons (see Figure 6) from the ground
state to the conduction band of the ma-
terial (a). The electrons are then trapped
in a metastable state, present as imper-
fections in the crystal lattice of the ma-
terial (b).
The electrons stored in the metastable
state are activated by the addition of energy
in the form of heat. The electron is then
able to return to the ground state, and the
energy released as light (c). The light in-
tensity is proportional to the energy absorbed
in the material from the original ionizing
radiation. The TLD (thermoluminescent
dosimetry) system requires a separate read-
out system which can measure either the
integrated light output during, or the peak
light output after, a constant heating cycle.
TLD is most widely used in person-
nel dosimetry and special research proj-
ects.
IX. CALORIMETRY
Calorimeters take advantage of radiation's
heating effect to detect its presence. A
calorimeter is a device for the measurement
of quantities of heat. Calorimeters have re-
ceived greatest application in the determina-
tion of the radiation-energy absorption in
material, since ultimately the absorbed en-
ergy is degraded into heat. Calorimetry can
also be used to determine the activity of a
sample of radioactive material. The main
advantage of the calorimetric method for
measuring absorbed energy or activity is
its inherent accuracy. For dosimetry pur-
poses a direct reading of energy absorption
can be obtained. However, the rate of heat
7
1
1
1
1
3-23
-------
Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
input is so small that only very high in-
tensities of radiation can be measured. For
this reason, calorimetry i6 not used for
routine monitoring purposes. Applications
include the measurement of the activity of
curie amounts of alpha emitters, the meas-
urement of the energy of particles produced
by particle accelerators, the dose from high
intensity x-ray machines, etc. Calorimetry
provides the only fundamental method for
measuring absorbed dose.
X. SUMMARY
Radiation detection instrument design has
been dictated by the exposure rate or activity
to be measured, the type and energy of the
radiation, accuracy desired, and the area of
interest in which the data are to be used.
Each of the primary means of detection dis-
cussed has inherent advantages and disad-
vantages. Laboratory and research studies
should utilize all types of media for specific
applications. Survey instruments use pre-
dominately gas ionization and scintillation
media. Personnel monitoring instruments
rely on gas ionization, photographic emul-
sions, and thermoluminescent media for
detection of radiation.
As a result of these considerations, radia-
tion detection instruments may be divided
into three groups:
1. Personnel monitoring instruments, which
measure accumulated exposure that can be
related to the dose equivalent.
2. Survey instruments designed to measure
exposure rate in milliroentgens per hour
(mR/hr) or activity in counts per minute
(cpm).
3. Laboratory instruments designed pri-
marily to relate the ionizing events In
terms of units of activity (curie).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A Manual of Radioactivity Procedures (National Bureau
of Standards Handbook No. 80 [ Washington, D.C.:
Supt. of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Nov. 1961]),
Attlx, F. H., and Roesch, W. C.. Radiation Dosimetry
(Vol. II Instrumentation) (2nd ed.; New York:
Academic Press, Inc., 1966).
Becker, K„ "Photographic, Glass or Thermolumines-
cence Dosimetry." Health Physics, Vol, 12,Noi.7
(1966).
Blatz, H., Introduction to Radiological Health (New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1964).
Brown, W. L., "Introduction to Semiconductor Particle
Detectors," IRE Transactions on Nuclear Science*
Vol. NS-8, No. 1. 1961. ' ~
Chase. C. D. and Rablnowltz, J. L., Principles of
Radioisotope Methodology (2nd ed.; Minneapolis:
Burgess Publ, Co., 1962).
Choppln, G. R_, Experimental Nuclear Chemistry {2nd
printing; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
inc., 1963).
Friedlander, G„ Kennedy, J. W„ Miller, J. W„
Nuclear and Radlochemlstry (2nd ed.; New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964).
Price, William J„ Nuclear Radiation Detection (2nd
ed.; New York! McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc..
1964).
8
3-24
Radiological Health
-------
From: Basic Radiological Health, Training Manual;
Radiological Health & Training Program;USEPA.
Survey Instruments
I. INTRODUCTION
None of the ionizing radiations is detectable
by any of man's five senses, therefore all
indications of their presence and intensity
must be obtained by instruments. Radiation
detection devices, like other measuring in-
struments, operate because of some effect
the phenomenon being measured has on
matter. In the case of radiation, this effect
is ionization. Survey meters are similar
to other radiation detection instruments in
their operational characteristics. A good
survey meter should be portable, rugged,
sensitive, simple in construction, and re-
liable. Portability implies lightness and com-
pactness with a suitable handle or straj»4ox
carrying. Ruggedness requires that an in-
strument be capable of withstanding mild
shock without damage. Sensitivity demands
an instrument which will respond to the type
and energy of radiation being measured.
Rarely does one find an instrument capable
of measuring all types and energies of
radiation that are encountered in practice.
Simplicity in construction necessitates con-
venient arrangement of components and sim-
ple circuitry comprised of parts which may
be replaced easily. Reliability is that at-
tribute which implies ability to duplicate
response under similar circumstances. All
these conditions are not met in any one
instrument, but they are approached in many.
In any monitoring operation, one must select
the proper instrument, use it intelligently,
and then be able to interpret the results
of the meter readings.
II. IONIZATION CHAMBERS
A. Theory
Ionization chambers are instruments in
which the ionization initially produced within
the chamber by radiation is measured without
further gas-amplification. Primary ions
formed in the chamber are attracted to the
respective electrodes, and the current pulses
are amplified externally to a measurable
current. The gas-amplification factor is
thus one.
B. Physical Description
Ionization chamber survey meters have
three principal components: (1) the ioniza-
tion chamber; (2) the electronic circuit; and
(3) the dial or indicating meter.
(1) Ionization Chambers are usually about
30 to 50 cu. in. in volume and are filled with
air at atmospheric pressure. The chamber
wall design and type of material used in
its construction determine the types of radia-
tion to which it is sensitive. The larger
the chamber the more sensitive the instru-
ment and the greater the voltage required
for proper operation. Practically all cham-
bers have walls that conduct electricity
and serve as the cathode, while wires mounted
in the center of the chambers constitute the
anode. Operating voltage is supplied by
batteries and has a magnitude of about 100
volts. The current which flows is directly
related to the type, energy, and quantity
of radiation penetrating the chamber. With
movable shields, as in the "Juno," it is
possible to discriminate between types of
3-25
-------
radiation. In general, ionization chamber
survey meters are used to measure rela-
tively high level intensities. Their low sen-
sitivity enhances their capacity to measure
radiation at higher dosages or exposure
rates.
(2) The electronic circuit is actually a
precision amplifier. Vacuum tube or tran-
sistor circuits are used to build up the
feeble ionization current so that it may be
measured directly by a microammeter. Most
survey meters incorporate a system where-
by the amplification characteristics of the
circuit may be changed by factors of ten.
This enables the operator to change the
instruments' range and sensitivity.
Since there is a gas amplification factor
of unity, circuit amplification becomes a
problem which one does not necessarily
have in a GM instrument. On the other
hand, there is no problem of quenching
the discharge or of losses due to coin-
cidence.
(3) The indicating meter is usually a micro-
ammeter that registers the amplified cur-
rent. The dial is generally calibrated in
milliroentgens/hour or, in the case of con-
tamination monitors such as the "Samson,"
in counts per minute.
C. Operation
Most ionization chamber survey instru-
ments have a selector switch marked "off,"
"wait," and xl, xlO, xlOO. When the switch is
off, the batteries are disconnected and the
meter is short-circuited making the instru-
ment inoperative. With the switch in the
wait position, the batteries are connected,
permitting the circuit to warm up and the
instrument to be zeroed after a warmup
period of from 1-5 minutes. The meter
is connected while the ionization chamber
is disconnected making it possible to adjust
the meter accurately to zero even in the
presence of radiation.
2
The ionization chamber does not wear
out or suffer changes in characteristics
as GM tubes do; however, the circuit of the
ionization chamber survey meter has more
elements that can get out of adjustment if
not properly handled. Loose leads and weak
batteries are a source of trouble which
can be readily serviced. Other difficulties
are usually caused by faulty circuits which
cannot generally be fixed without the aid
of a competent service man.
No aural indication is used in IC instru-
ments and thus the operator must con-
stantly watch the meter to ascertain the
field intensity. There is a lag between the
instant radiation enters the chamber and
the time when the meter reaches its maxi-
mum reading; therefore, one must allow
time for the meter to reach its maximum
before taking a reading. This is on the
order of a few seconds.
D. Calibration
Instruments are designed by manufac-
turers to read directly in radiation intensity
units, generally mr/hr or r/hr; however,
there is considerable error in a direct
reading, since the characteristics of indi-
vidual components causes variations in in-
strument response. Each instrument must
be calibrated for accurate interpretation.
Instrument response intended by the manu-
facturer is related to one type of radiation,
usually of a definite energy range. If radi-
ation of a different energy or type is meas-
ured, the results will be incorrect and
the instrument must be recalibrated with
radiation of the same type and energy that
is to be measured.
For gamma ray calibration an ionization
chamber instrument can be checked by placing
it in a known field of radiation. Radium and
Co6® are the most frequently used sources
for gamma calibration. A plot of scale read-
ings versus true radiation intensity can be
Radiological Health
3-26
-------
made by comparing scale readings at known
distances from the source against the true
intensities at these distances, employing
the formulae given below.
milligrams of Ra
I = , or I
D2
1.59 x millicuries of Co^O
where: I = Intensity, mr/hr
D = Distance from source to de-
tector, yards
From five to ten equally spaced scale
readings should be taken and a graph of
these values versus the calculated inten-
sities at the corresponding points should be
plotted on linear graph paper. A typical cali-
bration curve would plot meter readings on
the ordinate and corresponding "true" inten-
sities on the abscissa.
When calibrating an instrument, the refer-
ence point of the instrument is generally
considered as the center of the sensitive
volume. It should be pointed out that the
ionization chamber type survey instrument,
when properly calibrated, will give a good
measurement of x-or gamma radiation inten-
sity, but for alpha and beta radiation, only
qualitative measurements can be made.
E. Uses
In x-ray survey work, calibrated ionization
chamber instruments are very useful for
measuring dose rate. Ion chambers are used
extensively for beta and gamma survey work,
and if properly modified, they may be used
for neutron monitoring.
F. Typical Instruments
Cutie Pie: Perhaps the most widely used
and one of the most versatile ionization
chamber instruments available for radio-
logical survey work is the Cutie Pie. These
are available with maximum scale readings
up to 50 roentgens/hour.
Condenser r-meters: A very reliable and
accurate instrument for x-ray calibration
is the condenser r-meter. By nature, the
condenser r-meter measures cumulative
dose. It consists of a charger-reader mech-
anism and several detachable ion-chambers.
These chambers are charged and then left
in a radiation field for a known time. When
read on the charger-reader, they show the
total dose received during the time of ex-
posure. Ionization chambers for condenser
r-meters are available in ranges from 0.025
roentgens full scale to 250 roentgens full
scale and are nearly energy independent
(- 2%) for x-ray energies of 30 Kev effec-
tive to 400 Kev effective.
III. GEIGER-MUELLER INSTRUMENTS
A . Theory
Essentially, the theory of ion collection
in the GM type detector is the same as for
the IC instrument except that there is the
formation of secondary electrons; that is,
primary ions, formed by the incident radi-
ations, are accelerated (given energy) by
the high voltage potential and this added
energy enables them to produce secondary
ion-pairs. The ratio of the total number
of secondary ion-pairs produced to the pri-
mary ion-pair (Gas Amplification Factor)
may be as high as 10^. For control of the
amplification, a quenching gas is intro-
duced. The avalanche, caused by radiation
entering the Geiger-Mueller tube, sends a
pulse to the indicating unit of the survey
instrument. The quenching gas functions
to stop the avalanche and makes the GM
tube ready for another ionization event.
The amplification, inherent in the detector
tube, allows a single beta particle or gamma
photon to be detected.
3
3-27
-------
B. Physical Description
The principal elements of the portable
Geiger counter are: (1) the GM tube with
its housing; (2) the electronic circuit; and
(3) the meter.
(1) The GM Tube is essentially a glass
tube filled with an inert gas at less than
atmospheric pressure. The filling gas,
usually argon, yields ion pairs (when irradi-
ated). Generally, the tube wall is the cathode
and the wire traversing the axis of the tube
is the anode. Some tubes have a thin window
which admits alpha particles, but these are
not used in survey meters to any extent.
Each GM tube has its own characteristic
curve of counts/minute versus voltage, which
will vary with usage of the tube. The oper-
ating voltage must be well up on the Geiger
plateau for the proper operation, and it is
generally in the range of 1 to 2 thousand volts.
To count efficiently, Geiger tubes must
have adequate means for quenching the ioni-
zation avalanche started by a particle enter-
ing the tube. In survey Geiger counters the
tubes are invariably self-quenching; that
is, the gas within the tube contains from
10 to 25 per cent vapor of a substance
such as ethylene or iso-butane. Quenching
gas is decomposed by radiation, therefore
a self-quenching tube has a limited life-
time. It is thus obvious, that a Geiger
counter should not be left turned on when not
in use, especially near a source of radiation.
With a self-quenching tube there is a brief
lapse of time from the moment one particle
enters the tube until the tube is ready to
count the pulse produced by another particle.
The initial ionization, the avalanche, the
registration of the pulse, and the quenching,
all take place in the matter of a few micro-
seconds; then the tube must be cleared in
the residual ions. This clearing requires a
few hundred microseconds. Dead time be-
comes important when measuring intense
radiation fields.
4
Most Geiger tube walls are designed so
that all but the weakest beta particles may
enter. Allowing for the errors due to simul-
taneous entry, each and every beta particle
entering the tube will be counted. Gamma
ray counting is not nearly so efficient.
Since one measures each beta particle
and each gamma ray that produces ionization
within the sensitive tube volume, the instru-
ment is extremely sensitive to radiation,
and on the most sensitive scales background
levels can be read.
A discriminating shield is provided for
the GM tube or probe which when open ad-
mits both beta and gamma. With the shield
closed only gamma is admitted.
(2) The Electronic Circuit provides the
desired voltage to the GM tube, assists in
quenching the discharge and receives, am-
plifies and transforms pulses from the tube
to the type of impulse that can be heard in
an earphone and registered on a micro-
ammeter.
(3) The Indicating Mechanism on most
Geiger counters is usually twofold; that
is, earphones for aural indication and a
meter for visual indication. The meters
are in reality microammeters that indi-
cate radiation intensity by a pointer on a
scale. The pointer or needle will waver
slightly and an average reading should be
used. In general, the dial is calibrated
either in counts/minute or in milliroentgens/
hour, or both. Also, the instrument has a
switch for selecting different ranges of
sensitivity. For the mr/hr scale, the sen-
sitivities are usually indexed indicating full
scale values at a particular switch position,
whereas the counts/ minute scale is usually
marked by xl, xlO, xlOO, or xl,000 of full
scale as read on the face of the dial.
Equipment failure is generally due to bat-
teries (some instruments have a battery
check in the "on" position), loose connec-
tions or faulty GM tube.
Radiological Health
3-28
-------
C. Operation
The operation of the GM Survey Instru-
ment is essentially the same as that of the
IC Survey Instrument. The warmup period
is much less critical, and usually 5 to 10
seconds is ample. Care should be taken
not to exceed the maximum capacity of the
instrument; such excessive exposure will
likely damage the GM detecting tube. The
GM tube is in operation when in the "on"
position and no zero adjustment is possible.
It is important to remember that GM survey
meters are sensitive instruments and in
general do not read high levels of radiation
intensity.
D. Calibration
The calibration of GM instruments is the
same as for the IC type. The only change
that might be noted is that a smaller source
of radiation might be used for calibration,
since the sensitivity of the GM is much
greater than that of the IC instrument.
E. Uses
Survey Geiger-Mueller instruments are
useful for low level beta, and gamma ray
survey work; with proper modification, they
may also be used to monitor for neutrons.
Portable GM instruments are available in
a variety of types and full scale ranges from
.2 mr/hr to 50 mr/hr.
IV. PROPORTIONAL SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
A. Theory
This type instrument derives its name from
the fact that it operates in the proportional
region of the typical instrument response
curve. The probe has an extremely thin
window which admits alpha particles to the
ionization chamber. The operating voltage
is quite high, in the order of 1,500 to 4,000
volts. Gas amplification factors are in the
order of 105 to 10^. This instrument can be
made to respond only to alpha particles,
by choosing the proper operating point in the
proportional region, and by circuit adjust-
ment. Alpha particles, since they have the
highest specific ionization, give greater
pulses than do beta and gamma; thus, by
properly adjusting the input sensitivity of the
main instrument circuit, we can eliminate
all indications from the detecting element
except those produced by alpha particles.
B. Physical Description
Proportional survey instruments have
three principal components: (1) the ionization
chamber; (2) the electronic circuit; (3) the
meter.
(1) The Ionization Chamber has walls which
serve as one electrode, and wires trans-
versing the chamber which function as the
opposite electrode. Such a chamber contains
air or gas at normal pressure. A thin window
of nylon, etc., allows alpha particles to
enter, and the ionization they produce causes
secondary ionization proportional to the pro-
duction of primary ion pairs.
(2) The Electronic Circuit is more com-
plex than that used in other type instru-
ments. It is necessary to control the chamber
voltage within fairly narrow limits.
(3) The Meter is marked in counts/minute
with several sensitivity scales. The dial is
used in a manner already discussed.
C. Operation
The operation of the proportional radiation
survey instrument is similar to other in-
struments. A warmup period of several
minutes is usually required to allow the
circuit to become properly energized.
D. Calibration
Calibration of proportional meters for
alpha contamination is accomplished by
means of known quantities of the alpha emitter
in question deposited on planchets.
5
3-29
-------
E. Uses
Proportional survey instruments find their
greatest application in alpha survey work.
In making any alpha survey, the instrument
probe must be extremely close to the sur-
face being monitored.
V. SCINTILLATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
A. Theory
Scintillation counters depend upon the light
produced when ionizing radiation interacts
with a phosphor or crystal of certain sub-
stances capable of producing this light. The
scintillations produced in the phosphor or
crystal are then permitted to fall on a
photomultiplier tube which converts the light
pulses to electrical impulses. These elec-
trical impulses may then be amplified and
caused to register on a microammeter.
B. Physical Description
Scintillation type survey instruments have
four principal components: (1) the scintil-
lating phosphor or crystal; (2) the photo-
multiplier tube; (3) the electronic circuit;
and (4) the meter.
(1) Scintillating Phosphors may be liquid
or crystalline, but for survey work, the
crystalline type is, at present, preferable.
If one is interested in detecting alpha radia-
tion, a silver activated zinc sulfide screen
(similar to the sensitive screen of a tele-
vision picture tube) is generally used.
For the detection of beta radiation, an
anthracene crystal, covered with a thin metal
foil to shield out alpha radiation, is pref-
erable; for x- or gamma radiation a sodium
iodide crystal is generally employed. When
it is desirable to detect neutrons, a secondary
reaction must be employed such as the re-
action of thermal neutrons with boron in
which an alpha particle is released. The
alpha particle may then be detected with a
ZnS phosphor.
6
(2) The Photomultiplier Tube picks up
light flashes from the phosphor which is
in contact with it, and converts these light
flashes to electrical impulses. It consists
of a photosensitive screen, which emits
electrons when light falls on it, and a series
of dynodes at a positive potential with re-
spect to the photo cathode and with respect
to each other. An electron liberated in the
photocathode is accelerated to the first
dynode, which is about 100 volts positive
to the photocathode, where it knocks out
additional electrons that are accelerated
toward the second dynode. The second dynode
is 90 to 100 volts positive to the first dynode
and the electrons striking the second dynode
produce still more electrons. This multi-
plication process proceeds through each
successive dynode until the electrons reach
the anode. From this process, the current
amplification is in the neighborhood of 10^ -
1010.
(3) The Electronic Circuit serves to main-
tain the voltage across the elements of the
photomultiplier tube and to amplify the cur-
rent impulses from the photomultiplier tube
to a magnitude great enough to read on a
meter.
C. Operation
Operation of scintillation survey instru-
ments is similar to that of ion chambers
and GM instruments. It should be pointed
out that the photomultiplier tube of a scin-
tillation instrument will be ruined if ex-
posed to light without first removing the
voltage applied to the tube.
D. Calibration
Scintillation instruments may be calibrated
in the same manner as is used for a GM or
an ion chamber instrument,
E. Use*
As previously pointed out, scintillation
devices may be used to detect either alpha.
Radiological Health
3-30
-------
beta, gamma, or x-rays or neutrons simply
by placing the proper phosphor in contact
with the photo multiplier tube. Scintillation
detectors are very sensitive, more sensitive
and efficient than GM counters, particularly
to gamma radiation. They may be used to
detect extremely low levels of activity,
as the noise background may be kept much
lower than that encountered in the circuit-
ing of a GM or ion chamber instrument.
Losses due to dead time in a scintillator
are very slight, as light flashes may be
produced in many portions of the phos-
phor at the same time, and the de-
cay time of these flashes is very
short; consequently, scintillators are use-
ful for measuring very high radiation in-
tensities.
3-31
-------
From: Basic Radiological Health, Training Manual;
Radiological Health & Training Program; USEPA.
Personnel Instruments
I. INTRODUCTION
A. It is extremely difficult to measure the
absorbed dose or energy deposition in tissues
from varieties of radiations. The conditions
under which one must work are generally
complex, ill defined and irregular. Normally,
the best one can hope for is an estimate of
the exposure dose to x and y radiation. To do
this requires, usually, not one instrument or
method but several. Perhaps the most prac-
tical, although less accurate, is the film
dosimeter. With adequate definition of radia-
tion conditions and proper control and inter-
pretations, it Is possible to evaluate radiation
exposures under which personnel must work.
This usually gives one enough material from
which the absorbed dose might be inferred.
Then if such inferences are further substan-
tiated with dosimeter or pocket chamber data
and dose rate information from survey in-
struments one could finally arrive at a rather
reliable dose estimate. Therefore the devices
of most general importance and which will
be discussed below are: (1) film badges,
(2) pocket dosimeter, and (3) pocket cham-
bers. Survey meters are covered elsewhere
in this manual. Due to the increasing interest
in chemical dosimeters, rather than their
importance as a personnel monitoring in-
strument, certain fundamental properties of
this device are also mentioned.
II. FtLM DOSIMETRY
A. Emulsion
There are a variety of different types of
emulsions but the feature in common is a
gelatin base with silver halide which is spread
on film (cellulose) or glass. The thickness
ranges from a few microns to several hundred
microns. The most common thickness for
nuclear emulsions is from 10 to 25 microns.
This corresponds to a mass of about 2 to 5
mg/cm2. Over the emulsion there is usually
a thin protective coating of gelatin sometimes
referred to as a T coat (about 0.5 microns).
The silver halide grains in most emulsions
are silver bromide. The grain size is quite
important in determining sensitivity. Of
course other constituents of the emulsion as
well as developing techniques may modify
sensitivity. The constituents or type of the
emulsion may be varied depending on the
type radiation and the levels to be encoun-
tered. For example, If one is concerned with
recording the tracks of heavy particles, the
grain abundance is adjusted to about 3 times
that used in ordinary optical emulsions. Also,
certain sensitizers may be added, for ex-
ample, Boron-10, to greatly increase the
sensitivity for thermal neutrons.
B. TKvory of Latent Imog* Formation
The radiation loses energy by setting free
or raising the energy of one or more elec-
trons into the conduction energy band of the
crystal. Probably more than one ionization
event is required. The electrons migrate
about the crystal, eventually being trapped In
"sensitivity centers" which might consist of
impurities or deformities in the crystal
lattice. The electrostatic potential set up
about the centers results In the accumulation
of some silver ions which tend to move
1
3-32
-------
freely in the crystal. The number of ions
which take part in such migration depends
primarily on the temperature. These ions
collect around the sensitivity centers due to
the attraction for the negative electrons.
Ultimately, the ions are neutralized to form
the silver atoms. These atoms constitute
the latent image of the emulsion and act as
a catalyst during the development process to
completely convert the grain to silver. Thus,
the development process is merely an am-
plification (of about 10^2) of what has already
transpired. The probability of a latent image
being established increases with an increase
in the number of electrons in the sensitivity
centers; and this number is proportional to
the energy absorbed by the emulsion from
the radiation.
C. Limitations
1. ENERGY DEPENDENCE
Figure 1 demonstrates the sensitivity of
Ilford Line film to x-rays as a function of
their effective energy. The gradual rise in
sensitivity as the energy decreases is due
primarily to the photoelectric interaction
with silver at the lower energies. The de-
crease in sensitivity below 50 Kev is due to
absorption within the outer film covering.
Although not shown in Figure 1, the sensi-
tivity would tend to decrease slowly as the
energy of the photons is increased above 1
Mev. If the film is used to measure dose
from photons of known energy and is cali-
brated for this energy, the measurements
would be reliable. On the other hand, if a
wide range of energies are to be encoun-
tered, the energy dependence should be re-
duced such that the response is essentially
flat from above 50 Kev to 3 Mev (energies
outside of these limits should not be measured
in units of roentgens*). There are several
methods which have been used to reduce the
energy dependence. A lower silver bromide
content would be of some value but this may
affect resolution as well as sensitivity.
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Radiological Health
3-33
-------
Organic scintillators have been used with
some success.2
The ultra violet fluorescence effectively
increases sensitivity as well as improves
the energy response. The most common
approach has been to utilize a system of
filters calibrated to yield information as to
the energy of the unknown photons.3 Such
information may then permit an evaluation
of the exposure dose.
2. ANGULAR DEPENDENCE
Actually, the dose to material (tissue or
emulsion) is independent of the angle of inci-
dence since dose is computed first to an
infinitesimal slab then integrated over the
entire volume. But film darkening is de-
pendent on angle of incidence. Table 1
illustrates this dependence.
Table 1. Relative Film Badge Sensitivity for y-Rays Incident
at Various Angles
Angle of Incidence
0° (perpendicular inciderice)
22.50
45°
67.5°
90°
0.11 Mev
0.20 Mev
1.2 Mev
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.87
0.92
0.97
0.46
0.73
0.91
0.33
0.45
0.92
0.16
0.41
0.94
3. RATE Of EXPOSURE
The bulk of evidence indicates that the
photographic effect is independent of the rate
at which that exposure is produced. It is
certainly true for intensity ratios of at least
1 to 10,000. There is little knowledge of the
effect of microsecond exposures but due to
the phenomenon of multi hits (one grain hit
by more than 1 particle), it is probably of
some significance. On exposures of several
days, there is some fading of the film. The
fading is influenced by both temperature and
humidity. By selection of films of different
sensitivity, film dosimeters of wide ranges
can be devised. For example, DuPont 502
film can be used from 100 mr to 10 r, while
Eastman 548-0 double coat Is suitable from
500 to 10,000 r.
4. DEVELOPING TECHNIQUES
Even slight deviations in the developing
time, type, quality and temperature of de-
veloper may affect the density in film dosim-
etry. Therefore, the usual procedure is to
develop a set of known standards with each
batch of unknown films.
5. MATERIAL SURROUNDING FILM PACKET
Normally, tissue equivalent or air equiva-
lent material is used (lucite. bakelite) having
an open window for the detection of beta
particles. The thickness of the material
must be sufficient to permit electronic equi-
librium for the particular energy to be
measured. Obviously, in a mixed radiation
field, this ideal is difficult and sometimes
impossible to achieve. This effect is demon-
strated in Figure 3 where the equilibrium
thickness is indicated by the dotted line.
D. Neutron Film Dosimetry
1. The measurement of thermal neutron
dosage may be accomplished through the
3
3-34
-------
7
.5
.4
3
0
4
10
I
s
r
i
z
c
BAKELITE THICKNESS, mm.
ELECTRONIC EQUILIBRIUM IN BAKELITE,
OBTAINED WITH CO60 RADIATION
Figure 3
comparison of film densities under cadmium
and brass filters. These two filters are
designed to attenuate gamma radiation by
the same amount. However, because of the
(n, 7) reaction induced in the cadmium by
the thermal neutrons, the exposure behind
the brass when thermal neutrons are present
is lower than behind the cadmium. If a wide
spectrum of gamma energies are present, a
modification of this approach could be used.
As an alternative method of measuring neu-
tron dosage, track plates may be used. The
fast neutrons interact by (n, p) reactions and
the proton recoil tracks are counted and
their range is measured. The thermal neu-
trons interact with the emulsion by
(n, p) C*4; a cadmium filter is usually em-
ployed to distinguish between the slow and
fast neutrons. The sensitivity for slow neu-
trons may be increased by adding B*0 to the
emulsion since boron has a very high absorp-
tion cross section for thermal neutrons.
III. CHEMICAL DOSIMETRY
Due to the increased use of kilocurie
s trength sources, there is a growing need for
higher range dosimeters. A considerable
amount of research is presently underway
in this field in an attempt to develop both
solid and liquid dosimeters which by color
change, photoluminescence, or other altera-
tion, the radiation dose may be estimated.
The principle of such dosimetry is based
on the Bragg-Gray Theory which states that
4
the energy absorbed for unit mass of a sub-
stance (dE/dm) is related to the degree of
ionization (Jm) per unit mass produced in a
small air cavity within the material.
-^1 =
-------
Asa final point which should be emphasized,
at the present time chemical dosimeters are
not very useful in the dose ranges of interest
in personnel monitoring. Most chemical do-
simeters do not measure exposure doses
below about 10 r.
IV. DOSIMETERS AND POCKET CHAMBERS
A. Dosimeter*
A pocket dosimeter (Fig. 4) is a chamber
containing two electrodes, one of which is
quartz fiber loop free to move with respect
to its mounting. Like charges are placed on
the loop and its moutning, which forces the
loop outward from the mount due to the
repulsion of like charges. Ionization in the
chamber reduces the charge and allows the
fiber to move toward its normal position.
An optical system and a transparent scale
are all enclosed in the instrument which is
about the size and shape of a large fountain
pen. The fiber is fused to a metal frame and
the microscope is focused on a portion of
this fiber. Radiation entering the chamber
causes ionization within the sensitive volume.
This ionization discharges the electroscope;
the distance the fiber moves being propor-
tional to the dose received in the chamber.
Instruments of this type can be made suffi-
ciently rugged to withstand the shocks of
normal human activity, are small enough to
be worn comfortably, and are very useful for
measuring integrated exposures.Dosimeters
usually are made to have a full scale deflec-
tion corresponding to 200 mr, but can also
be made with other sensitivities such as 100
mr, 1 r, 10 r, 100 r, etc. The great advantage
of this type of instrument is that it can be
read at any time without the aid of a supple-
mentary charger-reader by simply holding it
up to a source of light and looking into
it.
Aluminum cose
Gloss window
,—3T
Eye piece
Lens
Lens
Side view showing
orrongement of fixed
and movable fibers
A-lnsuloting ring
B- Charging rod (hollow to odmit light from window)
C- Fixed heavy metol coated quortz fiber
D~ Movable fine metal coated quartz fiber
E- Metal cylinder
F - Transparent scole
G-Metal suDDort for fibers
Pocket-dosimeter electroscope.
Figure 4
Reprinted from Ralph E. Lapp and Howard L. Andrews, "Nuclear Radiation Phytic*", p 199,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1948.
3-36
-------
B. Pocket Chamber
A pocket chamber (Figure 5) has a cylin-
drical electrode with a coaxial collecting rod
well insulated from the rest of the instru-
ment. A charge is placed on this rod. Ions
formed in the chamber collect on the rod and
reduce the previously placed charge. A pocket
chamber differs from the dosimeter mainly
in that the electroscope portion (the quartz
fiber mechanism and optical system) is in an
external unit. This means that the chamber
must be charged and read with a separate
unit called a "charger-reader". The pocket
chamber is similar in size and shape to a
fountain pen. The change in charge is meas-
ured on a scale that may be calibrated in
milli-roentgens. The advantage of this unit
is its low cost when compared to a self-
reading dosimeter.
the penetration of part of the charge into the
insulator. It is not leakage in the ordinary
sense because it practically disappears if
the instrument is kept charged for a day or
so. To eliminate this, the instrument should
be charged a day or more before it is used.
Generally these instruments are designed to
respond to x- or gamma radiation, as the
walls are too thick to admit beta or alpha
radiation.
The chambers are calibrated by the manu-
facturer to read exposure in milli-roentgens,
or roentgens, but they show some energy
dependence in their sensitivity and may,
therefore, read erroneously. They are rela-
tively energy independent at high energies
(greater than 200 Kev) but it is best to know
what energy radiation is involved for correct
interpretation. Calibration curves can and
often should be made for pencil chambers.
DUST CAP
ea 4 UHmi
cap collector case
POCKET CHAMBER AND CHARGER-CHARGE READER
Figure 5
C. Operation Characteristics
A small amount of dust or lint on an insu-
lator of one of these instruments can be
enough to discharge it completely. Therefore,
they must be kept clean. Dropping or sudden
jarring will also sometimes discharge the
instrument.
Insulator "soak-in" is a phenomenon regu-
larly encountered in the operation of these
chambers. When an instrument has been out
of use for some time and is charged, a rather
rapid discharge may be noted. This is due to
6
V. SUMMARY
Film badges, dosimeters, and pocket
chambers are the principal personnel moni-
toring instruments. Each has specific ad-
vantages. Film badges provide a permanent
record of exposure, but require more work
to obtain readings than the ionization in-
struments. Dosimeters are especially use-
ful to determine exposure at any time while
continuing to act as a monitor without further
attention. Pocket chambers are quite simple
and therefore represent an inexpensive means
of measuring exposure.
There are other personnel monitoring in-
struments which have limited usefulness in
this field. Hand and foot counters are only
applicable in permanent locations such as
laboratories. Pocket alarms are impractical
due to their size and weight, when carried
on the person. At the present time, chemical
dosimeters are too insensitive for measuring
low-level, chronic type of personnel expo-
sures; however they offer a valuable adjunct
Radiological Health
3-37
-------
in estimating dose intensities during radia-
tion accidents and of course there are a
variety of research and industrial applica-
tions.
REFERENCES
1. "Report of the International Commission on
Radiological Units in Measurements (1CRU)
1959", Handbook 78. published by National Bu-
reau of Standards, January 16. 1961. Available
from Superintendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 Price
65^.
2. Hoerlin, H., "Development of a Wavelength In-
dependent Radiation Monitoring Film", ANL5168,
1953.
3. Tochilm, Davis, 1. H., Clifford. J., "A Cali-
brated Roentgen Ray Film Badge Dosimeter"
American Journal of Roentgenological Radium
Therapy, Vol. 64, page 475, 1950.
4. Hine, G. J., and Brownell, G, L., "Radiation
Dosimetry", Academic Press Inc., 1956.
5. Price, W. J., "Nuclear Radiation Detection",
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1958.
6. "Photographic Dosimetry of X- and Gamma
Rays", Handbook 57, Available from Superin-
tendent of Documents, Government Printing Of-
fice, Washington, D.C. 20402 Price 15tf.
3-38
7
-------
PART 4
MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS OF
FIELD MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
Type
Company
Analytical Instrument Development, Inc.
X
Anatole J. Si pi n Co., Inc.
X
Bacharach Instrument Co.
X
X
X
Bendix Corp.
X
X
!x
X
Chemetrics, Inc.
1
1
X
DuPont
X
X
r—s—
Eberline Instrument Corp.
X
Energetics Science
i
x_
X
-
Enmet Corp.
1
1
1 X
X
Environmental Compliance Corp.
X
1
! '
Environmental Measurements, Inc.
X
!
¦
;
Foxboro Analytical
X
X
:
Gilian Instrument Corp.
X
X
i
,
Glasrock Filtration Division
X
i
t
)
Hach Chemical Co.
—1
x i
HNU Systems, Inc.
X
t
LaMotte Chemical Products, Inc.
X I
Ludlum, Inc.
X
t
f
'
Matheson Safety Products
X
V i
i i
MDA Scientific
X
1
1
¦
i "1
I
Mine Safety Appliances
X
X
X
X
:
X
. !
f j
4-1
-------
Type
Company
National Draeger, Inc.
X
X
X
Photovac, Inc.
X
Rexnord Safety Products, Inc.
X
X
Spectrex Corp.
X
3M
X
Victoreen Instrument Division
X
MANUFACTURER/SUPPLIER ADDRESSES
Analytical Instrument Development, Inc.
Route 41 and Newark Rd.
Avondale, PA 19311
215/268-3181
Anatole J. Sipin Co. Inc.
505 Eighth Ave.
New York, NY 10018
212/695-5706
Bacharach Instrument Co.
625 Alpha Dr.
Pittsburgh, PA 15238
412/782-3500
Bendix Corp.
Environmental and Process
Instruments Division
P.O. Drawer 831
Lewisburg, WV 24901
304/647-4358
Chemetrics, Inc.
Mill Run Dr.
Warrenton, VA 22186
703/347-7660
Dupont
Applied Technology Division
Concord Plaza-Clayton Building
Wilmington, DE 19898
302/772-5989
Eberline Instrument Corp.
P.O. Box 2108
Santa Fe, NM 87501
505/471-3232
Dickinson,
Energetics Science
Division of Becton,
and Company
85 Executive Blvd.
Elmsford, NY 10523
914/595-3010
Enmet Corp.
2308 S. Industrial Highway
Ann Arbor, MI 48104
313/761-1270
4-2
-------
Environmental Compliance Corp.
P.O. Box 55
Venetia, PA 15367
412/922-4646
Environmental Measurements, Inc.
215 Lerdesdorff St-
San Francisco, CA 94111
415/398-7664
Foxboro Analytical
P.O. Box 5449
South Norwalk, CT 06856
203/853-1616
Gilian Instrument Corp.
1275 Route 23
VJayne, NJ 07470
201/696-9244
Glasrock Filtration Division
P.O. Box 45511
Atlanta, GA 30320
404/964-1421
Hach Chemical Co.
P.O. Box 389
Loveland, CO 80537
800/525-5940
HNU Systems, Inc.
30 Ossipee Rd.
Newton Upper Falls, MA 02164
617/964-6690
LaMotte Chemical Products Co.
Box 329
Chestertown, MD 21620
301/778-3100
Ludlum, Inc.
P.O. Box 248
Sweetwater, TX 79556
915/235-5494
Matheson Safety Products
P.O. Box 1587
Secaucus, NJ 07094
201/867-4100
MDA Scientific
1815 Elmsdale Ave.
Glenview, IL 60025
312/998-1600
Mine Safety Appliances
600 Penn Center Blvd.
Pittsburgh, PA 15235
412/273-5000
National Draeger, Inc.
401 Parkway View Dr.
Pittsburgh, PA 15205
412/787-8383
Photovac, Inc.
134 Doncaster Ave.
Unit 2
Thornhill, Ontario, Canada L3T 1L3
416/881-8225
Rexnord Safety Products. Inc.
45 Great Valley Corporate Center
Malvern, PA 19355
215/647-7200
Spectrex Corp.
3594 Haven Ave.
Redwood City, CA 94063
415/365-6567
3M/0ccupational Health & Safety Products Div.
220-7W 3M Center
St. Paul, MN 55144
612/733-6234
Victoreen Instrument Division
Sheller-Globe Corp.
10101 Woodland Ave.
Cleveland, OH 44104
800/321-9990
4-3
TAT/E&E/9-82
-------
PART 1
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS SAMPLING
I. INTRODUCTION
Sampling is the physical collection of a representative portion of a
universe (or environment). To be representative a sample must be collected
and handled by means that will preserve its original physical form and
chemical composition, as well as prevent contamination or changes in
concentration of the materials to be analyzed. For a sample to provide
meaningful data, it is imperative that it reflect the environment it came
from, that its physical and chemical integrity be maintained, and that it
be analyzed within a stringent quality assurance program.
Because hazardous incidents are so varied, sampling equipment and methods
also vary. However, if the procedures and equipment outlined in this unit
are used in sampling, the degree of uniformity necessary for representative
sampling of hazardous materials can be obtained. The primary means to meet
the goal of collecting representative samples is the development of and
adherence to a comprehensive sampling plan.
A plan should be prepared prior to the actual sampling to organize and
coordinate sampling activities, to maximize data accuracy and usefullness,
and to minimize risk and errors attributable to the sampling protocol.
A sampling plan should cover:
- the objectives of collecting the samples.
- the types of samples needed.
- the selection of sampling locations.
- the number of samples and the frequency of sampling.
- the collection and handling methods to be used.
The following factors must also be taken into consideration since they can
influence the sampling plan development process.
- The topographic, geologic, and hydrologic characteristics of the site.
For example, surface and groundwater and soil types.
- The meteorologic conditions. For example, temperature, air pressure,
precipitation, wind velocity, and seasonal variations.
- The flora and fauna of the area. For example, bioaccumulation and
biotransformation 1n the plant and animal life, especially agricultural
species.
- Geographic and demographic information. For example, population and
proximity to site and public health threats.
- Physical properties and hazardous characteristics of materials involved.
1-1
-------
II. OBJECTIVES OF SAMPLING
Samoles are taken to accomplish different objectives. In many cases, they
are taken to determine compliance with existing regulations. Other times,
thev are taken to determine the presence or absence of a particular
compound, the extent of dispersion, the treatment or decontamination
effectiveness, the suitability for recovery or recycling, the adequacy of
worker protection, the potential public health hazard, or the
compatibility of the materials in question.
It is important to determine the specific purpose of collecting the sample
because it will dictate many of the subsequent choices of methodology,
sampling sites, types and numbers of samples required, proper sample
containers, etc. For example, samples may be taken at an abandoned
hazardous materials storage facility to determine the compatibility of
materials. In this case, the samples must be obtained directly from the
drums, drains, tanks, ponds, lagoons, etc. containing the materials. This
will require special collection apparatus and safety equipment. However,
if the impact of this facility on the local water quality is to be
studied, then both off-site (upstream and downstream of the site) and
on-site samples should be obtained. The samples collected off-site may
require only minimal collection and safety equipment.
III. CLASSIFICATION OF SAMPLES
A. Environmental vs. Hazardous
- Environmental samples: Such samplesare considered to^contain no
contaminants or low concentrations of contaminants. They are
generally taken in an area surrounding a spill or dump site
(off-site) that may be contaminated.
- Hazardous samples: Such samples are considered to contain high
concentrations of contaminants. They are usually collected from
drums, tanks, lagoons, spills, and areas in the immediate vicinity
(on-site) of a site or incident.
The importance of this distinction is two-fold:
Personnel safety requirements: Any sample thought to contain
enouqh hazardous materials to" pose a safety threat should be
designated as hazardous and handled in a manner which ensures the
safety of both field and laboratory personnel.
Tr>ancnnrtatinn reauirements: Hazardous samples must be packaged,
" labeled, and shipped according to Department of Transportation (DOT)
regulations.
1-2
-------
B. Grab vs. Composite
The collection of representative hazardous or environmental samples
can be accomplished by taking either grab or composite samples.
- Grab: A grab sample is a discrete sample that is collected at one
specific time. Usually, this is considered representative of only
one specific site at a specific time. However, if the source of the
contamination is fairly stable over a period of time and/or
geographical area (such as a waste storage or disposal facility),
then the sample can be considered representative of that time period
or area. Sources that vary greatly over time or distance (for
example, release of contaminants into moving water or air) sharply
reduce the representative value of a grab sample. In such
situations, samples should be taken more frequently.
- Composite: A composite sample is a nondiscrete sample composed of
more than one specific sample collected at various sampling sites
and/or times and combined and treated as one. Composite samples may
give an "average" concentration or composition and may be an
alternative to analyzing numerous grab samples and then calculating
a statistical average. However, compositing provides no information
on sample variance or areas of much higher than average
concentration (i.e. hot spots). If the constituents or
concentrations can change significantly as a result of collection,
transport, or storage, composites cannot be used. Composites should
be utilized only after it has been demonstrated that there is no
significant change under the existing sampling conditions and
methodology.
When collecting hazardous samples, it is advisable to collect only
grab samples. Compositing samples poses a safety risk if it
involves samples of unknown hazard. The chemical changes that may
occur during compositing also support collection of grab samples.
Compositing unknown hazardous samples is usually only done when
testing for compatibility where the bulking of large quantities of
waste materials is desirable for disposal purposes.
C. QA/QC Sample Requirements
The laboratory analyzing the samples should be consulted before they
are collected to ensure that the laboratory's analytical needs are met
and that the appropriate types of samples are taken for a good quality
assurance/quality control (QA/QC) program.
The analyses to be done may require specific sample handling and
preservation procedures and also may require specific sample container
types, volumes, and numbers. Samples collected, handled, and
preserved incorrectly, or of insufficient volume or number are of
little or no value. Prior consultation with the laboratory on these
areas will minimize later analytical problems and maximize data
validity.
1-3
-------
Open communication with the laboratory becomes even more critical when
gathering evidence for possible legal actions. The following types of
samples are commonly taken to maintain an adequate quality assurance
program in such instances.
- Duplicate samples: Duplicate or multiple samples are essentially
Td¥ntTcalT "These samples must be collected at the same time, at exactly
the same location, with the same apparatus, and into identical
containers prepared in the same way, and filled to the same volume. All
duplicate samples are preserved and handled identically. The analysis
of duplicate samples using the same procedure and instrument provides an
indication of analytical variability and error.
- Split samples: A split sample is a sample that is divided into equal
portions and analyzed by another accepted analytical technique or
another qualified laboratory in order to compare results. Obtaining
accurate splits from non-homogeneous or multi-layered samples is often
very difficult and must be done with great care to ensure splits of
equal composition.
- Spiked samples: For this sample type a known quantity of the
contaminant is added to a sample at concentrations where the analytical
method is known to be accurate. Hazardous samples should only be spiked
in the laboratory. Environmental samples may be spiked in the field;
the quantity added must be coordinated with the laboratory to check the
accuracy of the field sampling procedures. Field spiking may also
indicate sample changes during transport.
- Blank samples: A sample blank is a sample of distilled-deionized,
contaminant-free water that is collected, containerized, treated (if
appropriate), and handled in the same manner as the samples. Blanks are
used as an indicator of sample contamination throughout the entire
process.
IV. LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING
As Section II illustrates, the locations of sampling sites are influenced
by the objectives of the study. Exact locations should be chosen
considering the factors that can influence the concentrations of the
material of concern. Choosing sites requires sound judgment, and only
after all logical choices are exhausted should they be selected randomly.
Occasionally a sampling scheme incorporating both judgment and random
sampling is used.
- Judament sampling: Judgment sampling is often the method of choice.
It relies on experience and available information to determine the
locations that will provide the most representative sample. Judgment
sampling requires knowledge of waste distribution, and the validity of
-------
- Random sampling: This method of sampling depends on the theory of
random chance probabilities in order to choose the most representative
sample. This process is utilized when numerous sampling locations are
available, but there is no satisfactory reason for choosing one over
another. Tables of random numbers, which are readily available from
many sources, or a random numbers generator should be used to eliminate
any bias of the sample collector (Table 1-1). Random sampling is often
used at dump sites involving thousands of drums of unknown content.
They should be separated into groups according to content based on
information provided by manifests, records, labels, etc. Drums of each
group are chosen at random intervals according to random sampling
techniques. Random sampling is also often used for sampling of lagoons,
ponds, and other surface waters. Here, the area of concern is divided
into a two- or three-dimensional grid, and the grid points to be sampled
are chosen randomly.
V. NUMBER OF SAMPLES
The appropriate number of samples to be collected at a particular site or
incident is dependent upon a variety of factors including the degree of
accuracy desired, the spatial and temporal variability of the media to be
sampled, and the cost of collecting and analyzing the samples.
Statistical methods and formulas are available to estimate the appropriate
sample number. These take into account sample variance and the degree of
accuracy desired to derive a statistically valid sample size.
Basically, the smaller the sample variance, the fewer samples required for
a given level of accuracy. Conversely, the larger the sample variance
and/or the greater the accuracy desired, the greater the sample size
requi red.
1-5
-------
TABLE 1-1
RANDOM NUMBERS TABLE *
03
47
43
73
86
36
96
47
36
61
46
98
63
71
62
97
74
24
67
62
42
81
14
57
20
42
53
32
37
32
16
76
62
27
66
56
50
26
71
07
32
90
79
78
53
12
56
85
99
26
96
96
68
27
31
05
03
72
93
15
55
59
56
35
64
38
54
82
46
22
31
62
43
09
90
16
22
77
94
39
49
54
43
54
82
17
37
93
23
78
84
42
17
53
31
57
24
55
06
88
77
04
74
47
67
63
01
63
78
59
16
95
55
67
19
98
10
50
71
75
33
21
12
34
29
78
64
56
07
82
52
42
07
44
38
57
60
86
32
44
09
47
27
96
54
49
17
46
09
62
18
18
07
92
46
44
17
16
58
09
79
83
86
19
62
26
62
38
97
75
84
16
07
44
99
83
11
46
32
24
23
42
40
64
74
82
97
77
77
81
07
45
32
14
08
52
36
28
19
95
50
92
26
11
97
00
56
76
31
38
37
85
94
35
12
83
39
50
08
30
42
34
07
96
88
70
29
17
12
13
40
33
20
38
26
13
89
51
03
74
56
62
18
37
35
96
83
50
87
75
97
12
25
93
47
99
49
57
22
77
88
42
95
45
72
16
64
36
16
00
16
08
15
04
72
33
27
14
34
09
45
59
34
68
49
31
16
93
32
43
50
27
89
87
19
20
15
37
00
49
*How to use the Random Numbers Table:
1 If sampling containerized wastes (i.e., drums, sacks, etc.) segregate the
containers according to waste type based on available information.
Number containers with the same waste type consecutively, starting from
01. If sampling surface waters, divide the area into a two- or
three-dimensional grid and number the grid locations.
2 Determine the number of samples you need to take. For routine
surveillance sampling one or two is usually adequate and random sampling
is not necessary. But for regulatory or research purposes, a larger
size (such as one sample for every group of five containers) taken
atTaodom wi 11 generate more statistically valid data.
3. Using the random numbers table, choose any number as a starting point.
a +hic niimhpr oo down the column, then to the next column to the
Haht or qo in anfpredetermi ned direction until you have selected the
predetermined number of samples with no repetitions. Numbers larger than
the population size are ineligible.
1-6
-------
Example: If four of a group of twenty drums are to be sampled and 19 were
chosen as the starting point in column four, the next eligible
numbers down this column are 12 and 04. So far you have chosen
only three eligible numbers. Proceed to the next column to the
right. Starting from the top, the next eligible numbers are 12
and 13, but 12 is already chosen. The four random numbers,
therefore, are 19, 12, 04, and 13, thus the drums with these
corresponding numbers would be sampled.
1-7
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PART 2
SAMPLING EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
I. INTRODUCTION
A variety of equipment and techniques are used for sampling at incidents
involving hazardous materials. Using the appropriate liquid and solid
materials samplers, selecting sample containers and closures, and properly
preserving samples are important for obtaining analytical data that give a
true picture of conditions of the incident.
A. Sampling Methods
At present, there are numerous accepted standardized methods for
collecting environmental samples. Many of these methods are specified
by industrial, governmental, or scientific organizations such as the
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM). Examples of common
publications that spell out specific sampling requirements for a
particular analysis are Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater, Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Waste and
the User's Guide to the EPA Contract Laboratory Program. Sampling
procedures can be found in Characterization of Hazardous Waste Sites--A
Methods Manual, Volume II, Available Samp!ing Methods; Samplers and
Sampling Procedures for Hazardous Waste Streams; and in the Federal "
Register^ If there is conflicting information, employ the most recent
U.S. Government method.
Limited information is available, and no universally accepted
standardized methods have been devised for collecting of hazardous
samples. Personnel collecting hazardous samples should use protective
clothing and equipment to minimize exposure.
Often personal judgment and evaluation of each sampling situation
combined with knowledge from previous experience must be used as the
primary source of information for obtaining representative hazardous
samples in a safe manner.
B. Sampling Equipment
Equipment to collect and contain hazardous samples should be:
- Disposable or easily decontaminated. A collection device may be
reused again only after thorough cleaning.
- Inexpensive, especially for disposable items.
2-1
-------
Easy to operate, because personnel may be wearing cumbersome safety
clothing and respiratory equipment.
- Nonreactive, so that it does not contaminate samples.
- Safe to use.
C. Selection of Samplers
Hazardous wastes are usually complex mixtures of semisolids, liquids,
or solids. The liquid and semisolid mixtures vary greatly in
viscosity, corrosivity, volatility, explosiveness, and fl amiability.
The solid wastes can range from powders to granules to big lumps.
The wastes are contained in drums, barrels, 5fcks; bl^ns* tankfr trucks,
vacuum trucks, ponds, and other containers. No single type of sampler
can collect representative samples of all types of waste, so a number
are commonly employed (Table 2-1).
The limitations of the various samplers currently available must be
recognized (Table 2-2). No equipment is made expressly for sampling
hazardous materials. Hazardous materials samplers are a combination of
equipment adapted for use from other fields and uniquely fabricated
equipment.
0. Sampling Technique
Another important factor for maintaining consistent and representative
sarnies is use of the same sampling technique. The same member of the
work party should collect all the samples of a particular type (member
A collects all drum samples, member B collects all soil samples, member
C collects all stream samples, etc.). These practices help to ensure
that data obtained from sample analyses are representative of the waste
sampled and not a result of erratic sampling techniques.
II. SAMPLERS
A. Liquids
1. Open-tube/drum sampler
A qlass open-tube (thief) is the most versatile of hazardous liquid
samplers because of its wide range of applications, relatively low
cost, and ease of operation.
Dpscriotion: The open-tube sampler is made of hollow glass (or
irffflcTuKliig), usually 1.2 m (4 ft) long. The Inside diameter
(10 ) is generally 6-13 mm (1/4 - 1/2 1n.), depending on the
lll/nlitv of the sample. Open tubes made specifically for sampling
/ drwn samplers) can be purchased. The only difference Is
a constricted orifice or orifices t.
facilitate maintaining a vacuum in the tube.
2-2
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TABLE 2-1
SAMPLERS FOR LIQUID/SOLID HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Category
Liquids, slurries
Sludges, sediments
Powdered or granular solids
Soi 1
Sampler
Open tube (thief)
COLIWASA
Pond sampler
Manual pump
Powered pump
Weighted bottle sampler
Kemmerer sampler
Extended bottle sampler
Open tube
Thin-wall corer
Gravity corer
Ponar dredge
Grain sampler
Sampling trier
Trowel/scoop/spoon
Waste pile sampler
Soil auger
Trowel/scoop/spoon
Posthole digger/shovel/
pickax
Split spoon sampler
2-3
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TABLE 2-2
SAMPLERS FOR HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Sampler
Open-tu be/COLIWASA
PVC
Applications
Liquids, slurries
Glass + Teflon
Pond (dip) sampler Liquids, sludges
Manual pump/Powered Liquids
pump
Weighted bottle
sampler
Extended bottle
sampler
Kernerer sanpler
Grain sampler
Liquids
Liquids
Liquids
Granular solids
Limitations
Not for containers over 1.5 meters
(5 ft) deep
Difficult to maintain vacuum
Not for materials containing ketones,
nitrobenzene, dimethylformamide, mesityl
oxide, tetrahydrofuran, or many common
solvents such as acetone
Not for materials containing hydrofluoric
acid and concentrated alkali solutions
COLIWASA may be difficult to decontaminate
and may cause cross-contamination of samples
Not for sampling beyond 3.5 m (11.5 ft)
Requires large amounts of disposable tubing
that must be compatible with material
Difficult to use with very viscous
liquids. Exterior of sample bottle exposed
to hazardous materials
Difficult to use with very viscous
liquids. Exterior of sample bottle exposed
to hazardous materials
Must be compatible with sample
Limited application for sampling moist
and sticky solids with a diameter of
0.6 cm (1/4 1n.)
Suppliers
Open-tube: Laboratory supply
houses
COLIWASA:
Nasco,
901 Janesvilie Ave.,
Fort Atkinson, WI 53538
Fabricate. Clamps available
Cole-Parmer Instrument Co.
7425 N. Oak Park Ave
Chicago, IL 60648
Local hardware stores and/or
laboratory supply houses
Fabri cate
Ace Glass Company
Vineland, NJ 08360
Laboratory supply houses
Laboratory supply houses
-------
Sampler
Applications
Sampling trier Solids
Trowel /scoop/
spoon
Waste pile sampler
^ Soil auger (manual)
in
Thin-wall corer
Gravity corer
Ponar dredge
Posthole digger/
shovel/pickaxe
Split spoon sampler
Solids, soil
surface
Loose solids
Soil deeper than
30 cm (1 ft)
Sludges, sediments,
soil
Sludges, sediments
Sludges, sediments
Soi 1
Soil
TABLE 2-2 (Continued)
SAMPLERS FOR HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Limitations
Possible difficulty in retaining core
sample of very dry granular materials
during sampling
Not for sampling deeper than 8 cm
(3 in.). Difficult to obtain
reproducible mass of samples
Not for sampling solid wastes with
dimensions greater than half the
diameter of the sampling tube
Does not collect undisturbed core
sample
Not for deep sampling. Possible wash-
out during retrieval
Must be compatible with sample
Not for sampling deeper than 8 cm (3 in.)
Not practical for sampling deeper than
60 cm (2 ft)
Can be too heavy to be used without
power equipment
Suppliers
Laboratory supply houses
Laboratory supply houses
Fabricate from pipe
Weyco Distri bution,
Sacramento, CA
Laboratory supply houses
Laboratory supply houses
Laboratory supply houses
Hardware stores
Drilling supply houses
-------
Procedure for use:
a. Slowly lower the tube into the liquid to the desired depth. It
may be desirable not to mix the contents of the container so
that a more representative sample can be collected.
b. At the desired depth, stopper the tube with a rubber stopper or
thumb or crease a piece of flexible tubing attached to the open
end of the sample tube. Stoppering establishes a vacuum in the
tube, enabling withdrawal of the sample from the container.
c. Slowly withdraw the tube from the vessel and release the sample
into an appropriate sample container. Avoid handling the
portion of the sampler that was in the liquid.
d. Dispose of the tube on site by placing it back into the
container that was sampled.
2. Composite liquid waste sampler (COLIWASA)
The composite liquid waste sampler (COLIWASA) permits the
representative sampling of multiphase, heterogeneous hazardous
liquids without the vacuum loss problems often associated with drum
thieves. It is most commonly sized to hold approximately 1 1 (0.26
gal) in a 1.52-m (5-ft) sampling tube, but it can be fabricated
in-house or commercially to other desired capacities or lengths.
The COLIWASA's main drawback is that it is difficult to
decontaminate. When sampling hazardous liquids, it must usually be
disassembled for effective decontamination and prevention of cross
contamination. Thus, if a large number of containers must be
sampled, the difficulty of and the time required for
decontamination may outweigh the advantages of its use.
Description: The main parts of the COLIWASA are the sampling tube,
the closure-locking mechanism, and the closure system (Figure 2-1).
The sampling tube of a COLIWASA holding approximately 1 1 (0.26
gal) of liquid consists of 1.52-m (5-ft) by 4.1-cm (1 5/8-in.) I.D.
translucent pipe, usually polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or borosilicate"
glass plumbing tube. The closure-locking system consists of a
sharply tapered neoprene stopper attached to a 0.95-cm (3/8-in.)
O.D. stopper rod of either PVC or Teflon. The upper end of the
stopper rod is connected to the swivel of a channeled aluminum bar.
The aluminum bar serves both as a T-handle and lock for the
sampler's closure system.
Procedure for use:
a. Put the sampler in the open position by placing the stopper rod
handle in the T-position and pushing the rod handle until it
sits against the sampler's locking block.
2-6
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Stopper
a
6.15 cm (2 V')
152 cm (60")
SAMPLING POSITION
T handle
Locking
block
~I l<— 2.86 cm (1 1/8")
17.8 cm (7")
32°-
m
16 cm (4")
.Pipe(translucent PVC or glass)
4.13 cm (1 5/8") l.D.
4.26 cm (1 7/8") O.D.
Stopper rod(PVC or Teflon)
0.95 cm (3/8") O.D.
CLOSE POSITION
Stonper(neoprene). #9, tapered:
Lock nut and washer(PVC or Teflon),
0.95 cm (3/8")
FIGURE 2-1
COMPOSITE LIQUID WASTE SAMPLER (COLIWASA)
2-7
-------
b. Slowly lower the sampler into the liquid so that the liquid
level inside and outside the tube are about the same. If the
level inside the sampler tube is lower than the outside the
sampler, the sampling rate is too fast, resulting in a
nonrepresentative sample.
c. When the sampler stopper hits the bottom of the waste
container, push the tube downward against the stopper to close
the sampler. Lock sampler in the close position by turning the
T-handle until it is upright and one end rests tightly on the
locking block.
d. Slowly withdraw the sampler from the container.
e. Carefully discharge the sample into a suitable sample
container. This is done by slowly pulling the lower end of the
T-handle away from the locking block, while the lower end of
the sampler is positioned in a sample container.
f. Thoroughly decontaminate the sampler prior to next use.
Pond (dip) sampler
The pond (dip) sampler can be used to collect liquids or sludges
from ponds, pits, lagoons, or open vessels, but only as far as its
limited reach. The sampler is not commercially available but can
be fabricated easily and inexpensively.
Description: The pond (dip) sampler consists of a container in an
adjustable clamp attached to the end of a telescoping pole 2.4 -
4.6 m (8-15 ft) long (Figure 2-2). The pole can be of wood,
plastic, or metal because the sample is collected in a sample jar
or beaker which is secured in the clamp.
Procedure for use: If a beaker is attached to the pole, ladle
liquids from the source into the sample container. If a sample jar
is attached to the pole, the sample can be taken directly; however,
the exterior of the sample jar will be subject to heavy
contamination.
Weighted bottle sampler
Weighted bottle samplers are used to sample liquids at depth.
These samplers are difficult to use in very viscous liquids. In
addition, the outside of the bottle is exposed to the waste. This
is undesirable if the bottle is used as the sample container.
Alternatives to the weighted bottle sampler are the Kemmerer and
the extended bottle sampler.
2-8
-------
Varigrlp clamp
Bolt hole
Beaker, stainless
steel or disposable
Pole, telescoping, aluminum, heavy
duty, 250-450 cm (96-180")
FIGURE 2-2
POND (DIP) SAMPLER
2-9
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Description: The weighted bottle sampler consists of a glass
bottle, a weight sinker, a bottle stopper, and a line for opening
the bottle and lowering and raising the sampler during sampling
(Figure 2-3). There are variations of this sampler, as
illustrated in the American Society of Testing and Materials
(ASTM) methods D 270 and E 300. This sampler can be either
fabricated or purchased commercially.
Procedure for use:
a. Gently lower the sampler into the liquid to the desired depth
so as not to remove the stopper prematurely.
b. Pull out the stopper with a sharp jerk of the sampler line.
c. Allow the bottle to fill completely as evidenced by the
cessation of air bubbles.
d. Raise the sampler and cap the bottle.
e. The bottle can be used as the sample container, but it must be
thoroughly decontaminated.
5. Extended bottle sampler
The extended bottle sampler is a grab sampler designed to sample
subsurface liquids to a maximum depth of 1.5 m (5 ft). It has a
simple mechanism that removes and replaces the sample bottle cap
while the bottle is submerged.
Description: The extended bottle sampler consists of a 1.8 m (6
ft) long aluminum tube (Figure 2-4). A stainless steel clamp is
attached to the end of the tube and can be adjusted to hold a
sample jar of desired size. The sample cap can be remotely removed
and replaced by turning a 1.8-m (6-ft) handle grip rod, which
attaches to the cap by means of a screw clamp or a suction cup.
Procedure for use:
a. Place an uncontaminated, capped bottle in the stainless steel
clamp.
b. Attach the rod to the cap by means of the screw clamp or
suction cup.
c. Lower the sampler into the liquid to the desired depth.
d. Turn the handle grip rod then remove the cap.
e. Allow the bottle to fill and then replace the cap.
f. Raise the sampler and thoroughly decontaminate it prior to its
next use.
2-10
-------
cork
Washer
Cork
Washer
FIGURE 2-3
WEIGHTED BOTTLE SAMPLER
2-11
-------
FIGURE 2-4
EXTENDED BOTTLE SAMPLER
2-12
-------
6. Manual pumps
Manual pumps operate by creating a vacuum. Because of the physical
limitations of vacuum pumps, the theoretical limit of their pumping
ability is about 9.4 m (31 ft). In practical use; however, vacuum
pumps are incapable of pumping from depths greater than 6.1 - 7.6 m
(20-25 ft). Another drawback of manual pumps is that they require
large amounts of disposable tubing, which must be compatible with
the waste being sampled.
Description: Manual pumps most commonly operate by peristalsis, or
by a bellows, diaphragm, or siphon mechanism. They are available
in various sizes and configurations.
Procedure for use: Manual pumps should be operated according to
the manufacturer's instructions. In most cases this involves
placing the sample inlet hose into the liquid, then manually
activating a crank or bellows (Figure 2-5). To avoid contamination
of the pump, a liquid trap is inserted in the sample inlet hose
where the sample is collected. The compatability of the inlet hose
with the sample must be determined to avoid sample contamination.
7. Kemmerer sampler
The Kemmerer is a messenger-activated water sampling device that
can be used to collect discrete, at-depth samples from surface
waters or bulk containers where the collection depth exceeds the
lift capacity of vacuum pumps.
Description: Commercially available Kemmerer samplers (Figure 2-6)
consist of a brass, PVC, or acrylic tube designed to hold from 0.4
to 8 1 (0.1 to 2.1 gal). Large stoppers or rubber cups, which act
to close off the ends of the tube when the trip head mechanism is
triggered, are attached to a rod that runs through the center of
the tube. The closure mechanism can be triggered by dropping a
messenger weight down the sample line. Some Kemmerer samplers have
a bottom drain to facilitate sample transfer.
The use of the Kemmerer to sample hazardous liquids is limited
because of the possible incompatibility of the construction
materials with the materials sampled. A commercially available
Kemmerer could be modified using more non-reactive materials such
as glass, Teflon, or stainless steel. Such modifications would
make the Kemmerer suitable for a wider range of materials.
Procedure for use:
a. Open the Kemmerer by lifting the stopper-trip head assembly.
b. Lower the sampler into the liquid to the desired depth.
c. Trigger the closure of the sampler by dropping the messenger
weight down the sample line.
2-13
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Hazardous
1iquid
container
Pump inlet
Manual
pump
Vacuum
flask
sample
FIGURE
MANUAL
2-5
PUMP
-------
BOTTOM
DRAIN
MESSENGER
CABLE
TRIP HEAD
CHAIN
CENTER ROD
UPPER STOPPER
BODY
LOWER STOPPER
FIGURE 2-6
MODIFIED KEMMERER SAMPLER
2-15
-------
d. Retrieve the sampler; hold the sampler by the center rod to
prevent the accidental opening of the bottom stopper.
e. Drain sampler by holding drain valve over sample bottle.
f. Thoroughly decontaminate sampler prior to next use.
B. Solids
1. Grain sampler
Grain samplers are best used for collecting dry granular or loose
solids no greater than 0.6 cm (1/4 in.) in diameter. Moist,
compressed, and large particle solids are difficult to collect.
Description: The grain sampler consists of two slotted
telescoping tubes, usually made of brass or stainless steel
(Figure 2-7). The outer tube has a conical, pointed tip on on
end that permits the sampler to penetrate the material being
sampled. The sampler is opened and closed by rotating the inner
tube. Grain samplers are 61 to 102 cm (24 to 40 in.) long by 1.27
to 3.81 cm (0.5 to 1.5 in.) in diameter.
Procedure for use:
a. Insert the sampler (in the closed position) into the material
being sampled from a point near a top edge or corner, through
the center, and to a point diagonally opposite the point of
entry.
b. Rotate the inner tube into the open position.
c. Twist sampler a few times to allow materials to enter the open
slots.
d. Place the sampler in the close position and withdraw.
e. Place the sampler in a horizontal position with the slots
facing upward.
f. Rotate and slide out the outer tube from the inner tube.
g. Transfer the sample in the inner tube into a suitable sample
container. If the inner tube is not removable, turn the
sampler upside down and pour the contents out of the slots in
the tube.
h. Thoroughly decontaminate the sampler prior to next use.
2-16
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_0
61-100 cm,
(24-40")
no
I
~H K"
1.27-2.54 cm (%-l")
FIGURE 2-7
GRAIN SAMPLER
61-100 cm,
(24-40")
1.27-2.54 cm (%-l")
FIGURE 2-8
SAMPLING TRIER
-------
2. Sampling trier
Sampling triers are used to sample moist or sticky compressed
solids or soil. One difficulty, however, is the removal of the
core sample cut with the trier.
Description: A typical sampling trier is a long tube about 61 to
102 cm~(24 to 40 in.) long and 1.27 to 2.54 cm (0.5 to 1.0 in.) in
diameter, with a slot that extends almost its entire length (Figure
2-8). The tip and edges of the tube slot are sharpened to allow
the trier to cut a core when rotated in a solid material. Sampling
triers are usually made of stainless steel with wooden handles.
Procedure for use:
a. Insert the trier into the solid material at a 0 to 45° angle
from horizontal to minimize spillage from the sampler. Tilt
the sample container if necessary.
b. Rotate the trier once or twice to cut a core of material.
c. Slowly withdraw the trier, making sure that the slot is facing
upward.
d. Transfer the sample into a suitable container with the aid of a
spatula and/or brush.
e. Thoroughly decontaminate the sampler prior to next use.
3. Waste pile sampler
The waste pile sampler is used to sample wet and large-diameter
solids.
Description: A waste pile sampler is essentially a large sampling
trier (Figure 2-9). It is commercially available, but it is easy
to fabricate from sheet metal or plastic pipe. Polyvinyl chloride
plumping pipe 152 cm (5 ft) long by 3.2 cm (1 1/4 in.) I.D. with
0.3 cm (1/8 in.) wall thickness is adequate. The pipe is sawed
lengthwise (about 60/40 split) until the last 10 cm (4 in.). The
narrower piece is sawed off, leaving a slot in the pipe. The edges
of the slot and the tip of the pipe are sharpened to permit the
sampler to cut into the material being sampled. The unsplit end
of the pipe serves as the handle.
Procedure for use: The procedure for using a waste pile sampler is
identical to that previously described for a sample trier.
4. Trowel/scoop/spoon
Trowels, scoops, and spoons are inexpensive, but they can be used
to sample only to a depth of 8 cm (3 in.).
2-18
-------
C3
122-183 cm
(48-72")
1
-HI
5.08-7.62 cm
(2-3") I.D.
FIGURE 2-9
WASTE PILE SAMPLER
FIGURE 2-10
TROWEL
2-19
-------
Description: A garden-variety trowel looks like a small shovel.
The blade is usually about 7.6 by 12.7 cm (3 by 5 in.) with a sharp
tip (Figure 2-10). A laboratory scoop is similar, but the blade is
usually more curved and has a closed upper end to contain material.
Scoops come in different sizes and materials. Stainless steel or
polypropylene scoops with 7.0- by 15.2-cm (2 3/4- by 6-in.) blades
are preferred. Another alternative for small samples is a
stainless steel tablespoon.
Procedure for use:
a. Collect small, equal portions of sample from the surface or
near the surface of the material to be sampled. Trowels and
spoons are also often used to cut "chunk" samples from the
exposed side of a hole made by another type of sampler.
b. Deposit samples in a suitable container.
c. Dispose of sampler or thoroughly decontaminate prior to next
use.
5. Thin-wall corer (push tubes)
Thin-wall corers or push tubes can be used manually or with power
equipment to obtain undisturbed soil profiles or sediment and
sludge samples. They can also be used to collect samples through
shallow overlying liquids. Samples can be extruded from the tubes
for examination or if tube liners are used, sealed and sent
directly to the laboratory in the tube liner.
Description: Push tubes used manually (also known as Shelby tubes)
are straight tubes generally 5.1 cm (2 in.) in diameter or less
and of varying length (Figure 2-11). Larger diameter push tubes
require the use of power equipment. A tapered nosepiece acts as
the cutting edge of the tube. They are generally constructed of
chrome-plated steel or stainless steel and most can be adapted to
hold brass or polycarbonate plastic liners.
Some thin-wall corers are modified by the addition of a handle to
facilitate driving the corer and a check valve on top to prevent
washout during retrieval through an overlying water layer.
Samples from a greater depth can be obtained by first augering a
hole to the desired depth and then attaching a push tube to a
sampling head connected to the correct length of push rod
extent ion.
Procedure for use:
a. Push the corer into the material to be sampled with a smooth
continuous motion until the tube is full.
2-20
-------
CHECK VALVE
NOSEPIECE
FIGURE 2-11
MODIFIED THIN-WALL CORER (HAND CORER)
2-21
-------
b. Twist the corer then pull to withdraw.
c. Remove the nosepiece (if removable) and push the sample out
into the sample container or tray.
d. Thoroughly decontaminate the sampler prior to next use.
6. Gravity corer
Gravity corers are used to collect sludge or sediment samples when
the deposits are covered by a deep overlying liquid layer. They
are capable of collecting essentially undisturbed samples from
penetration depths of up to 76 cm (30 in.). Penetration depth is
dependent upon the density of the substrate and the weight of the
corer. Care should be exercised when using gravity corers in
vessels or lagoons that have liners since penetration depths could
exceed that of the substrate and result in damage to the liner
materi al.
Description: Gravity corers are brass or steel tubes of varying
diameter and length (Figure 2-12). A tapered nosepiece facilitates
cutting and reduces core disturbance during penetration. A check
valve on the top allows water to pass through the corer on descent
but prevents washout during recovery. Many gravity corers can
accept plastic liners and additional weights for greater
penetration. Some corers have stabi1i1izing fins to produce a
straighter descent.
Procedure for use:
a. Attach the corer to the required length of sample line.
b. Secure the free end of the line to prevent accidental loss of
the corer.
c. Allow the corer to free fall through the liquid to the bottom.
d. Retrieve the corer with a smooth, continuous lifting motion.
e. Remove the nosepiece from the corer and slide the sample out of
the corer into a sample pan for examination or directly into a
sample container.
f. Thoroughly decontaminate the corer prior to next use.
7. Ponar dredge
Ponar dredges are grab samplers used to sample shallow sludge
layers or sediments. Maximum penetration depth is 8 to 10 cm (3 to
4 in.). Dredges do not collect undisturbed samples.
2-22
-------
stabalizing
FINS
-------
Description: The Ponar is a clamshell type scoop activated by a
counter lever system (Figure 2-13). It has a screened top to allow
free water passage when it is in the open position during descent.
Ponars are usually constructed of galvanized steel but can be
specially fabricated in stainless steel. A "Petite" version with a
232 cnr (36 in.^) sample area is available and is light enough
to be operated manually. Larger versions may require a winch.
Procedure for use:
a. Attach the Ponar to the required length of sample line.
b. Secure the free end of the sample line to prevent accidental
loss of the sampler.
c. Open the sampler jaws until they are latched. Support the
sampler by its lift line or the sampler will be tripped and the
jaws will close.
d. Slowly lower the sampler to the bottom and allow the sample
line to slack. When tension is released on the sample line the
latch releases allowing the clamshell to close when the sampler
is retrieved.
e. Slowly raise the sampler clear of the surface, and open the
clamshell into a sample tray.
f. Thoroughly decontaminate the sampler prior to next use.
8. Soil auger (manual)
A manual soil auger can sample deeper and more compacted soils and
solids than the other solid samplers previously discussed. A soil
auger can not be used to collect an undisturbed core sample since
this sampler destroys the cohesive soil profile. It is difficult
to distinguish between soil collected near the surface and that
collected from the bottom of the auger hole.
Description: The soil auger consists of a hard metal central shaft
and sharpened spiral blades or a metal tube with two angled teeth
at its bottom (Figure 2-14). When the tool is rotated clockwise
by its handle, it cuts the soil as it moves downward and deposits
most of the loose soil upward. Augers are available in various
sizes and configurations.
9. Split spoon sampler
Split spoon samplers are used when undisturbed soil samples are
needed from depths greater than obtainable with other soil sampling
equipment. The split spoon sampler is often used with power
equipment because of its weight.
2-24
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FIGURE 2-13
PONAR DREDGE
2-25
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FIGURE 2-14
SOIL AUGER
2-26
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Description: Split spoon samplers are made of heavy steel
tubing that can be split into two equal halves to reveal the soil
sample (Figure 2-15). A removeable tapered nosepiece facilitates
cutting. The split spoon is made to be attached to a drill rod and
forced into the ground by means of a 63.5 kg (140 lb) weight or by
a sledge hammer.
Procedure for use:
a. Using an auger, advance a drill hole to the desired depth.
b. Withdraw the auger from the drill hole and remove the auger bit
from the dri11 rod.
c. Attach the split spoon sampler to the correct length of drill
rod and operate the hammer of the drilling rig to force the
sampler into the undisturbed soil at the bottom of the drill
hole. If the drill hole was augered manually, use a sledge
hammer on the top end of the drill rod to force the sampler
i nto the soi1.
d. Retrieve the sampler from the hole and detach from the drill
rod.
e. Remove the nosepiece and open the sampler to reveal the soil
sample. A small portion at the top of the sample will usually
be disturbed and should be discarded.
f. Place the undisturbed portion of the sample into a sample
contai ner.
g. Thoroughly decontaminate the sampler prior to next use.
C. Cleaning and Storage Procedures
All samplers must be clean before use. After use, they must be washed
with warm detergent solution (for example, Liquinox or Alconox), rinsed
several times with tap water, rinsed with distilled water, drained of
excess water, and air dried, dried with a stream of warm, dry air, or
wiped dry. Samplers used on petroleum products, oil residues, or other
materials that adhere to the sampler may first have to be wiped with
absorbent cloth to eliminate gross contamination. The equipment is
then commonly rinsed with an organic solvent or multiple solvents,
followed by washing with detergent solution and rinsing with water. A
necessary piece of equipment for cleaning the tube of a COLIWASA is a
bottle brush that fits tightly in the tube. The brush is connected to
a rod long enough to reach the entire length of the sampler tube. This
ramrod and fiber-reinforced paper towels clean the COLIWASA tube
quickly.
2-27
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FIGURE 2-15
SPLIT SPOON SAMPLER
2-28
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Improper cleaning of sampling equipment will cause cross contamination
of samples. Such contamination is particularly important in samples
taken for legal or regulatory purposes. Also, contamination becomes
important when sampling wastes from different sources at the same time.
If samples are to be taken for legal or regulatory purposes, or if they
are expected to contain low concentrations of hazardous substances, a
clean, unused sampler is needed.
If the cleaning process has the potential for producing toxic fumes,
ensure adequate ventilation. If the washings are hazardous, store
them in closed waste containers and dispose of them properly in
approved disposal sites. Names of nearby sites may be obtained by
calling the agency in the State responsible for regulation of
hazardous wastes. Store clean samplers in a clean and protected area;
polyethylene plastic tubes or bags are usually adequate.
CONTAINERS, CLOSURES/CLOSURE LINERS
A. Containers
The most imporant factors to consider when chosing containers for
hazardous material samples are compatibility, resistance to breakage,
and volume. Containers must not melt, leach, rupture, or leak as a
result of chemical reactions with the constituents of a sample. Thus
it is important to have some idea of the composition of the sample.
The containers must have walls thick enough to survive sample
collection and transport to the laboratory. Containers with wide
mouths make it easier to transfer samples from samplers. Also, the
containers must be large enough to contain the required volume of the
sample or the entire volume of a sampler.
Plastic and glass containers are generally used for collection and
storage of hazardous material samples. Commonly available plastic
containers are made of high-density or linear polyethylene (LPE),
conventional polyethylene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, Teflon FEP
(fluorinated ethylene propylene), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or
polymethylpentene. Teflon FEP is the most inert, giving it the widest
range of application. Plastic containers are used only when the
constituents of the material are known not to react with the plastic.
Glass containers are relatively inert to most chemicals and can be
used to collect and store almost all hazardous material samples (Table
2-3). Two exceptions are strong alkali solutions and hydrofluoric
acid. Glass bottles are recommended for samples containing petroleum
distillates, chlorinated hydrocarbons, pesticides, solvents, and other
substances incompatible with plastic.
Several types of glass containers are available. Flint glass bottles
are cheap and available in various shapes and sizes. Borosilicate
glass is more inert, but the selection of containers is smaller.
Also, it is more expensive.
2-29
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Category
Metals, inorganics,
weak acids/bases
Organic solvents,
hydrocarbons,
chlorinated
hydrocarbons
Photosensiti ve
materials
Strong acids/bases
Hydrofluoric acid,
phosphoric acid
TABLE 2-3
SAMPLE CONTAINERS AND CLOSURES*
Recommended container
Glass or plastic
Glass
Amber plastic
or glass
Glass
Plastic
Recommended closure
Plastic cap with
plastic or Teflon
li ner
Plastic cap with
Teflon liner
Plastic cap with
plastic or Teflon
1 i ner
Plastic cap with
Teflon liner
Plastic cap with
plastic liner
*For more specific applications refer to Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater or the USEPA Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and
Wastes.
2-30
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B. Closures/Closure Liners
Sample containers must have tight, screw-type lids. Plastic bottles
are usually provided with screw caps made of the same material as the
bottles. Cap liners usually are not required. Glass containers
usually come with glass or rigid plastic screw caps. Caps often have
paper liners coated with wax. Other liner materials are polyethylene,
polypropylene, neoprene, and Teflon FEP.
Amber glass bottles and caps with Teflon liners are recommended for
use with hydrocarbons, pesticides, and petroleum residues. Teflon
liners may be purchased from plastic specialty supply houses.
The selection of containers, closures, and linings must be coordinated
with the laboratory, which may require specific containers for certain
analyses. In addition containers (type and size) must comply with DOT
regulations.
PRESERVATION AND STORAGE OF SAMPLES
For best results, samples should be analyzed immediately after collection.
Hazardous wastes are such complex mixtures that it is difficult to predict
exactly the physical, biological, and chemical changes that occur in the
samples during the interval between collection and analysis. For example,
the pH may change significantly in a matter of minutes, sulfides and
cyanides may be oxidized or evolve as gases, and hexavalent chromium may
slowly be reduced to the trivalent state. In addition, certain cations
may be partly lost as they are adsorbed on the walls of the sample
containers, microorganisms may grow in certain constituents, or volatile
compounds may be rapidly lost.
When taking background or low level, environmental samples, such changes
may be slowed down or prevented by refrigeration at 4 to 6°C (39 to 43°F),
or by adding preservatives. However, these treatments may be only
partially effective. Refrigeration may reduce loss of volatile components
and acid gases such as hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen cyanide, but it also
introduces the possibility that some salts may precipitate at lower
temperatures. On warming to room temperature for analysis, the
precipitates may not redissolve, thus giving inaccurate results.
Preservatives may retard constituents to stable hydroxides, salts, or
compounds, but they may also convert the initial constituents to other
forms (such as the products of nitration, sulfonation, and oxidation of
organic components). Thus, subsequent analyses may not identify the
original components or concentrations.
The preservation of unknown hazardous waste samples is not recommended
because of the possibility of an adverse chemical reaction between the
preservative and the sample. The preservative mj(y not only alter the
physical and chemical composition of the sample, but also may be highly
reactive with it. Because of the safety risks involved in adding
2-31
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preservatives to unknown hazardous waste samples, most often no
preservatives are used. When the identity or the chemical properties of a
material are known, the laboratory performing the analyses can be
consulted as to the appropriate preservation method.
The addition of a preservative may change the DOT packaging, labeling, and
shipping requirements for a sample. Shipping hazardous samples packed in
ice may not be permitted by DOT regulations (Refer to Part 5: Hazardous
Material Sample Packaging, Labeling, and Shipping).
2-32
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PART 3
DOCUMENTATION AND CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY PROCEDURES
INTRODUCTION
All information pertinent to field activities including sampling must be
recorded in various forms: logbooks, sample tags, photographs, etc. Proper
documentation and document control are crucial to enforcement actions,
since the government's case in a formal hearing or criminal prosecution
often hinges on evidence gathered by others. Therefore, each field worker
must keep detailed records of inspections, investigations, photographs
taken, and thoroughly review all notes before leaving the site.
The purpose of document control is to assure that all documents for a
specific project are accounted for when the project is completed.
Accountable documents include items such as logbooks, field data records,
correspondence, sample tags, graphs, chain-of-custody records, analytical
records, and photos. Each document should bear a serial number and should
be listed, with the number, in a project document inventory assembled at
the project's completion. Waterproof ink must be used in recording all
data in documents bearing serial numbers.
A documentation coordinator numbers all logbooks, sample tags, graphs,
chain-of-custody records, etc. In a logbook, he/she records transfer of
other logbooks to individuals who have been designated to perform specific
tasks on the project. All project logbooks are to be turned over to the
coordinator at the completion of each work period, and to a central file at
the completion of the field activity.
FIELD LOGBOOK
All information pertinent to a field activity must be entered in a bound
book with consecutively numbered pages. Entries in the logbook must
include at least the following:
- Date and time of entry.
- Purpose of sampling.
- Name and address of field contact (Federal, State, local
representati ve).
- Producer of waste and address (if known)
3-1
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- Type of process producing waste (if known).
- Type of waste (sludge, wastewater, etc.).
- Description of sample.
- Waste components and concentrations (if known).
- Number and size of sample taken.
- Description of sampling point.
- Date and time of collection of sample.
- Collector's sample identification number(s) and/or name.
- References such as maps or photographs of the sampling site.
- Field observations.
- Any field measurements made such as pH, flammability, or explosiveness.
Because sampling situations vary widely, notes should be as descriptive
and inclusive as possible. Someone reading the entries should be able to
reconstruct the sampling situation from the recorded information.
Language must be objective, factual, and free of personal feelings or any
other inappropriate terminology. If anyone other than the person to whom
the logbook was assigned makes an entry, he/she must date and sign it.
III. PHOTOGRAPHS
Photographs are the most accurate record of the field worker's
observations. They can be significant during future inspections, informal
meetings, and hearings. A photograph must be documented if it is to be
valid a representation of an existing situation. Therefore, for each
photograph taken, several items should be recorded in the field logbook:
- Date and time.
- Signature of photographer.
- Name And identification number of site.
- General direction faced and description of the subject.
- Location on site.
- Sequential number of the photograph and the roll number.
3-2
-------
Comments are to be limited to the photograph's location because any
remarks about its contents could jeopardize its value as legal evidence.
Photographs should be taken with a camera-lens system with a perspective
similar to that afforded by the naked eye. Telephoto or wide-angle shots
cannot be used in enforcement proceedings.
IV. SAMPLE LABELS
Each sample must be sealed immediately after it is collected and labeled
using waterproof ink. Labels may be filled out prior to collection to
minimize handling of the sample containers. Figures 3-1 and 3-2 are
examples of common sample label or tag formats.
Occasionally, sample containers are marked in the field using an etching
tool rather than immediately applying a sample label or tag. This avoids
possible label contamination problems and subsequent decontamination
difficulties. In this case, the data intended for the sample label are
written into a sampling logbook and transcribed onto the label after the
sample containers have been decontaminated.
The DC records the assignment of serial sample tags to field personnel in
his/her logbook. Sample tags must never be discarded. Lost, voided, or
damaged tags are immediately noted in the logbook of the person to whom
they were assigned.
Labels must be firmly affixed to the sample containers. Tags attached by
string are acceptable when gummed labels are not available or applicable.
Be sure that the container is dry enough for a gummed label to be securely
attached.
The label must include at least the following information:
- Name of collector.
- Date and time of collection.
- Place of collection.
- Sample number.
V. CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY PROCEDURES
As in any other activity that may be used to support litigation,
regulatory agencies must be able to provide the chain of possession and
custody of any samples which are offered for evidence or which form the
basis of analytical test results introduced as evidence. Written
procedures must be available and followed whenever evidence samples are
collected, transferred, stored, analyzed, or destroyed. The primary
objective of these procedures is to create an accurate written record
which can be used to trace the possession and handling of the sample from
the moment of its collection through analysis and its introduction as
evi dence.
3-3
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OFFICIAL SAMPLE LABEL
Collector Collector's Sample No.
Place of Collection
Date of Sample Time Sampled
Field Information
Figure 3-1
EXAMPLE OF OFFICIAL SAMPLE LABEL
3-4
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Proj. Code
Station No.
Sequenci N'o.
.Vo./D ay/Yr.
Ti.-r.e
Station Location
Cm p.
Grab
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF ENFORCEMENT
NATIONAL ENFORCEMENT INVESTIGATIONS CENTER
BUILDING 53, BOX 25227, DENVER FEDERAL CENTER
DENVER, COLORADO 8D225
1501
Samplers: (Signature)
obverse
Sample Type.'PrescrvaliveCs)
1. General Inorganics/Ice
2. Metals, HNOj
3. Nutrients/HjSO, & Ice
4. Oil & Grease, H,SOt &. Ice
5. Fhenolics/HjPO, & CuSO, & Ice
6. Cyanide/N20H_& Ice
7. Organic Characterization/Icc
3. .Volatile Organics/lcc
9. General Organics/lce
10. Tracer/None
11. Solids - Inorganics/Ice or Freeze
12. Solids - Orcanics/lcc or Freeze
13. Eiol. - Ino.-^nics/lce or Freeze
14. Biol.-Orgamcs. Ice or Freeze
15. Source Filter,-None
16. F-robe Wash,-None
17. In.pingcr Catch, None
IS. Ambient Filter/None
15. Solid Adsorbant/lce or Freeze
20. Ambient lmpinger/Amb. or Ice
21. Eenchos, Ethanol or Formal
22. Ejctcrioiocy/Ice
23. Plankton,-Formal; H^C!:; Lugol's
24. Cli!orophyll/lcc or Freeze
25. PatJioncnic Dacleria/lcc
2G.
Remarks:
reverse
FIGURE 3-2
SAMPLE TAGS
-------
A sample is in someone's "custody" if:
- It is in one's actual possession, or
- It is in one's view, after being in one's physical possession, or
- It is in one's physical possession and then locked up so that no one can
tamper with it, or
- It is kept in a secured area, restricted to authorized personnel only.
A. Sample Collection, Handling, and Identification
The number of persons involved in collecting and handling samples
should be kept to a minimum. Guidelines established in this manual
for sample collection, preservation, and handling should be used.
Field records should be completed at the time the sample is
collected and should be signed or initialed, including the date and
time, by the sample collector(s). Field records should contain the
following information:
- Unique sampling or log number.
- Date and time.
- Source of sample (including name, location, and sample type).
- Preservative used (if any).
- Analysis required.
- Name of collector(s).
- Pertinent field data (pH, DO, chlorine residual, etc.)
- Serial numbers on seals and transporation cases.
One member of the sampling team is to be appointed field
custodian--the documentation coordinator is a good choice. Samples
are turned over to the field custodian by the team members who
collected the samples. The field custodian documents each
transaction and the sample remains in his/her custody until it is
shipped to the laboratory.
Each sample is identified by affixing a pressure-sensitive gummed
label or standardized tag on the container(s). This label should
contain the sample identification number, date and time of
collection, source, preservative used, analysis required, and the
collector's initials. If a label is not available, the same
information should be recorded on the sample container legibly and
with waterproof ink.
3-6
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The sample container should then be placed in a transporation case,
along with the chain-of-custody record, pertinent field records,
and analysis request form as needed. The transportation case
should be sealed or locked. A locked or sealed chest eliminates
the need for close control of individual samples. However, on
those occasions when the use of a chest is inconvenient, the
collector should seal the cap of the individual sample container in
a way that any tampering would be easy to detect.
When samples are composited over a time period, unsealed samples
can be transferred from one crew to the next. The transferring
crew lists the samples and a member of the receiving crew signs the
list. The receiving crew either transfers the samples to another
crew or delivers them to a laboratory person, who signs for the
samples.
It is desirable to photograph (preferably with a polaroid camera)
the sample location or any visible pollution to facilitate
identification later. At the time the photo is taken, the
photographer should record time, date, site location, and brief
description of the subject on the back of the photo. Photographs
and written records that may be used as evidence should be handled
in a way that chain-of-custody can be established.
B. Transfer of Custody and Shipment
When transferring the samples, the transferee must sign and record
the date and time on the chain-of-custody record (Figure 3-3).
Custody transfers made to a sample custodian in the field should
account for each sample, although samples may be transferred as a
group. Every person who takes custody must fill in the
appropriate section of the chain-of-custody record. To minimize
custody records, the number of custodians in the chain-of- possession
should be minimized.
The field custodian is responsible for properly packaging and
dispatching samples to the appropriate laboratory. This
responsibility includes filling out, dating, and signing the
appropriate portion of the chain-of-custody record.
All packages sent to the laboratory should be accompanied by the
chain-of-custody record and other pertinent forms. A copy of these
forms should be retained by the originating office (either carbon or
photocopy). Mailed packages can be registered with return receipt
requested. For packages sent by common carrier, receipts should be
retained as part of the permanent chain-of-custody documentation.
Samples to be shipped must be packed so as not to break and the package
sealed or locked so that any tampering can be readily detected.
3-7
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CHAIN OF CUSTODY RECORD
SURVEY
SAMPLERS: (s^nohjr*)
STATION
number
STATION LOCATION
DATE
TIME
SAMPLE type
SEO.
NO.
NO. OF
containers
ANALYSIS
REQUIRED
Woltr
Air
Comp.
Grok.
Relinquished by: (Signaivm)
Received by: (si9«,h»»)
Date/Time
1
Relinquished by: (Signahm)
Received by:
Date/Time
1
Relinquished by: (Sifnatu;»)
Received by: (signatvrm)
Date/Time
Relinquished by: (s?notvr*)
Received by Mobile Laboratory for field
analysis: isignotonj
Date/Time
Dispatched by: is^natun)
Date/Time
1
Received for Laboratory by:
Date/Time
1
Method of Shipment:
Distribution: Orig. — Accompany Shipment
1 Copy—Survey Coordinator Fiild Filai
FIGURE 3-3
CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY RECORD
3-8
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C. Evidentiary Considerations
Writing chain-of-custody procedures, as well as the various
promulgated laboratory anaytical procedures, facilitates the admission
of evidence under Rule 803(6) of the Federal Rules of Evidence (P.L.
93-575). Under this statute, written records of regularly conducted
business activities may be introduced into evidence as an exception to
the "hearsay rule" without the testimony of the person(s) who made the
record. Although it is preferable, it is not always possible for the
individuals who collected, kept, and analyzed samples to testify in
court. In addition, if the opposing party does not intend to contest
the integrity of the sample or testing evidence, admission under Rule
803(6) can save a great deal of trial time. For these reasons, it is
important to standardize the procedures followed in collection and
analysis of evidentiary samples and to describe them in an instruction
manual. If need be, the manual can be offered as evidence of the
"regularly conducted business activity" followed by the lab or office
in generating any given record.
In criminal cases, however, records and reports of matters observed by
police officers and other law enforcement personnel are not included
under the business record exceptions to the "hearsay rule" according to
Rule 803(8), P.L. 93-595. It is arguable that those portions of the
compliance inspection report dealing with matters other than sampling
and analysis results come within this exception. For this reason, in
criminal cases, records and reports of response team members may not be
admissible. The evidence may still have to be presented in the form of
oral testimony by the person(s) who made the record or report, even
though the materials come within the definition of business records.
In a criminal case, the defense counsel may be able to obtain copies of
reports prepared by a witness, even if the witness does not refer to
the records while testifying. If obtained, the records may be used in
cross examination.
Records are not automatically admitted in either of these actions.
The business records section authorizes admission "unless the source of
information or the method or circumstance of preparation indicates lack
of trustworthiness." The caveat under the public records exception
reads "unless the sources of information or other circumstances
indicate lack of trustworthiness."
Thus, whether or not the team members anticipate that various reports
will be introduced as evidence, they should make certain that all
reports are as accurate and objective as possible.
3-9
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PART 4
CASE HISTORY: SAMPLE PLAN DEVELOPMENT
I. INTRODUCTION
This case history details the field work anticipated in sampling a
potentially hazardous waste disposal site in southwestern Missouri. This
site, designated as Farm Site 1, was identified during the Verona area
investigation in October 1979 and was conducted in response to an anonymous
complaint. The information outlined here is from the sampling plan
developed prior to on-site work. Actual events deviated from this plan as
work progessed, and the plan was modified accordingly.
II. BACKGROUND
An anonymous individual made a number of allegations to EPA about waste
handling and disposal operations of a pharmaceutical and chemical company
no longer in operation. From 1969 through 1971, this company manufactured
hexachlorophene at a facility in Verona, MO. The company had a number of
process wastes, including dioxin-laden still bottom residues, solvent-
contaminated wastewater, and spent filter media. All were either contained
or disposed of at a number of different locations, one of them Farm Site 1.
As a result of the call, EPA officials investigated the Verona area. The
investigation included about 25 personal interviews, site reconnaissance,
and photographs. Those interviewed included people who worked for the
company and eyewitnesses, who reported that they had hauled wastes to Farm
Site 1, dug a trench, and off-loaded drums into the trench.
Farm Site 1, located on a ridge top 11.3 km (7 miles) south of Verona,
covers 64.8 hectares (160 acres). There is a spring-fed pond about 9.1 m
(10 yards) west of the site but no nearby running water. Access to the
site is by an old logging road. Domestic animals do not have access to the
site. Reconnaissance of the site in October 1979 detected a depression in
the ground (where the trench had been dug) with dimensions of about 3.0 by
16.2 m (10 by 53 ft).
Next to the depression was a pile of excavated soil consisting of clay and
small rock. The interviews indicated that the site contained between 30
and 150 208-1 (55-gallon) metal drums with lids. In June 1971, the drums
were dumped out of the back of a dump truck and lay where they fell. They
were covered with 0.3 to 0.9 m (1 to 3 ft) of soil. According to the most
reliable eyewitness, the drums were in marginal condition at the time of
the burial.
4-1
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At least one drum had leaked or spilled. An individual walking on top of
the drums in the hack of the truck immersed one leg into the drum contents
when a drum lid gave away. It is reasonable to expect that most, if not
all, of the drums have rusted through and that to a large extent the
contents have been absorbed by the surrounding soil.
III. SAMPLING PLAN
Although the available data do not indicate with any certainty the
contents of the site, there is sufficient historical information to
suggest that the buried materials may be contaminated with dioxin, an
extremely toxic compound. The sampling methods and safety procedures
assume that dioxin is present in the disposal site.
A. Objectives
The objectives of this survey are:
- To document the presence or absence of dioxin, its precursors
and/or degradation products, or any other hazardous wastes in the
buried drums and adjacent soil (on-site).
- To study the migration of the material off-site.
A number of considerations bear upon the design of the sampling study.
Foremost of these is obtaining sufficient samples the first time to
satisfy the study objective, while not wasting money. It will require
a great deal of coordination with State and other Federal agencies to
mount this effort. To ensure that the site is only opened once, many
more samples will be collected than will be analyzed. These samples
will include soil bore hole samples around the site perimeter, as well
as drum and/or pit soil samples.
Samples collected from the disposal site will be analyzed first. If
these analyses provide positive results, the objective of the study
will have been satisfied. Analysis of bore hole samples may be
eliminated or performed on a selective basis to determine the extent
of lateral migration and the magnitude of possible site reclamation.
B. Procedures
1. Bore hole samples
Samples will be collected from 24 bore holes after clearing the
site and constructing the security fence, but before excavating
the disposal pit (Figure 4-1). Borings 1 through 12 will be
drilled approximately 3.0 m (10 ft) from the disposal pit to a
maximum depth of 4.6 m (15 ft) or to bedrock.
4-2
-------
T
Area 10
sposa
Chain Link
Fence
10 V 40'
1
Xf o o—
!
Double Swinging Gates
Perimeter of
Cleared Area
Decontamination
Area
00 Bore hole
and bore hole
number
Scale: 1"=25'
FIGURE 4-1
farm SITE 1
SECURITY FENCE AND BORE HOLE LOCATIONS
4-3
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Soil samples will be taken at depths of 3.0 to 4.6 m (10 to 15
ft). Borings 13 through 24 will be drilled outside the security
fence to a maximum depth of 6.1 m (20 ft) or to bedrock. Two soil
samples will be collected from each bore hole, one at 3.0 4.6 m
(10 to 15 ft) and one at 4.6 to 6.1 m (15 to 20 ft). A maximum of
36 bore hole samples is planned, although the actual number may be
less if bed rock is encountered at shallower depths.
Location No. of Samples
Borings 1-12 12
Borings 13 - 24
10 to 15 foot depth 12
15 to 20 foot depth _12
Tot a 1
Bore hole locations will be surveyed and marked with stakes. Bore
hole drillings will be placed back in holes immediately after the
samples are collected. For quality assurance purposes, a bore
sample in the vicinity, but away from the site, will be collected
and introduced into the sample lot. The source of this "blind"
sample will be disguised.
2. Disposal pit sample
The pit will be excavated from the edges using a backhoe with the
excavation proceeding from upwind to downwind. Digging will be
halted in the event of precipitation or gusty changing winds.
During excavation, the area will be periodically monitored for
explosive concentrations of gases. Excavation will continue only
long enough to sample the uppermost layer of drums. Manual
shoveling probably will be required to minimize movement and/or
damage to drums. Soil removed from the pit will be placed so as
to minimize entry of surface runoff into the pit. After sampling
is completed, the site will be reconstructed and soil layers
replaced in the same order as removed as far as feasible.
Present knowledge of the site suggests that the objective of the
study should be satisfied with approximately 10 drum and/or soil
samples. A more exact number cannot be determined until the site
is at least partially excavated.
3. Pond sample
In conjunction with site sampling, a single grab sample will be
collected from the spring-fed pond of the site and sent to the
Regional Laboratory for analysis of priority pollutants.
4-4
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4. Split samples
The EPA field staff will provide split samples to other interested
groups if they:
- Agree, in writing, to provide copies of all analytical data.
- Submit for review and approval a plan for the safe handling and
transportation of samples, and demonstrate that the laboratory
selected has the proper equipment and personnel to handle and
analyze samples containing dioxin or other hazardous
substances.
C. Equipment
1. Samplers/containers
Bore hole samples will be obtained by using a drilling rig with a
split spoon sampler. The sample in the split spoon will be placed
in a foil-lined pan, thorougly mixed, and then split into three
equal portions using a "laboratory clean" stainless steel spoon.
Each portion will be put into a 500-ml (1-pint) glass jar with a
Teflon-lined lid.
Drums will be sampled by "thieving" with laboratory clean glass
tubes. Semisolid drum residues and pit soil samples will be
collected with a clean stainless steel spoon and placed in 500-ml
(1-pint) glass jars with Teflon-lined lids.
2. Cleaning/decontamination
Between bore holes the split spoon sampler will be washed with
soap and water, rinsed with tap water, and then successively
rinsed with ethanol and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. All washes and
rinses will be retained and transferred to 208-1 (55-gallon)
drums.
A glass tube for collecting drum samples will be used only once,
then it will be broken and discarded inside the drum. Stainless
steel spoons will also be discarded on site after use.
All wash and rinse water, to the extent possible, will be
transferred to 208-1 (55-gallon) drums, which will be sealed,
labeled as to contents, and stored on site. Rinse solvents will
be transferred to open 208-1 (55-gallon) drums for evaporation.
Drums containing any solvent at the end of the survey will be
sealed, labeled, and stored on site. Lids are to be put on all
drums in the event of rain and at the close of each work day.
Drums are to be supported on wood blocks to reduce corrosion.
4-5
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3. Sample handling
The sample and its container represent major avenues of personnel
and environmental exposure. All precautions are to be taken to
ensure that all the samples removed from the site remain in the
sample container and that no residue remains on the outside of the
container. The procedure for handling samples will be:
- Identify sampling location and sample collection procedure.
- Enter location, procedure, date, and time on field data sheets.
- Place tag on sample container.
- Place small plastic bag around container and hold in place with
a rubber band around the mouth of the jar so that any sample
spilled during sample transfer will not contact jar.
- Collect sample and screw lid on tightly.
- Remove outer plastic bag with rubber band and dispose.
- Wash outside of container with soap and water, rinse, and wipe
with disposable paper towels.
- Remove container from decontamination area and take close-up
photographs. Allow container to air dry completely, then pack
for transport using DOT packing procedures.
- Maintain chain-of-custody and file completed data sheets.
D. Documentation
One member of the field crew is responsible for miscellaneous clerical
duties and recording. Each member is to be assigned a bound log book
for miscellaneous records and notes. All information, notes, etc.,
with the exception of information required on tags and field sheets,
is to be kept in the log books. Chain-of-custody procedures will be
employed for all samples.
E. Additional Considerations
1. Access
The access for members of the news media has not yet been
decided. For safety reasons, nonessential individuals will be
kept away from the site during excavation and sampling of the
disposal trench. No members of the response team will be
permitted inside the security fence without the permission of the
4-6
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project coordinator. The EPA film team is to remain outside the
fence once drilling has begun. At the discretion of the project
coordinator, the site, surrounding area, and access road may be
evacuated of all personnel.
2. Physical examinations
Only individuals who have received a complete physical examination
within the past year will be allowed inside the security fence
during drilling, excavation, and sampling.
3. Weather
Excavation or sampling will not take place during precipitation or
periods of strong or gusty winds. A meteorological station with
recorder will be set up to monitor wind speed and direction.
4. Respiratory protection
No individuals will be allowed inside the fence during core
drilling, excavation, and sampling without self-contained,
pressure-demand, breathing apparatus and appropriate protective
clothing. Respirators, except during donning and removal, shall
be operated in the positive pressure mode. All personnel wearing
respirators must shave at least once daily to avoid leakage at the
facepiece-to-face-seal.
5. Personal hygiene
No one will be permitted to eat, drink, or smoke inside the fenced
area. Outside the fence, they will thoroughly wash hands and face
with soap and water before doing so. Individuals must wash hands
with soap and water before urinating. All footwear worn inside
the fence must remain on site until the field work is completed.
At the end of each day, disposable clothing will be removed and
disposed of in 208-1 (55-gallon) metal drums, which will remain
inside the fence. Individuals are expected to shower promptly and
thoroughly after leaving the site at the end of each day.
6. Personnel exposure
If clothing is ripped or torn, it is to be removed and replaced as
soon as possible. Disposable clothing contaminated with an
observable amount of chemical residue is to be removed and
replaced immediately. Residue on fully encapsulating suits is to
be washed off as soon as possible. In the event of direct skin
contact, the affected area is to be washed immediately with soap
and water and the person taken to a hospital. A person will be
stationed in the decontamination area to assist in removal of
protective gear.
4-7
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7. Hospital
One person stationed outside the security area must know the
quickest route to medical facilities.
8. Fire
The rural volunteer fire department has agreed to standby during
excavation and sampling. The volunteers have had training in SCBA
and will provide a foam adaptor for fire fighting. EPA will
provide foam (light water). All vehicles will be equipped with
dry chemical fire extinguishers.
4-8
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PART 5
PACKAGING, MARKING, LABELING, AND SHIPPING
OF HAZARDOUS MATERIAL SAMPLES
I. INTRODUCTION
Samples collected during a response to a hazardous material incident may
have to be transported elsewhere for analysis. The Environmental
Portection Agency (EPA) encourages compliance with Department of
Transportation (DOT) regulations governing the shipment of hazardous
materials. These regulations (49 CFR parts 171 through 179) describe
proper marking, labeling, packaging and shipment of hazardous materials,
substances and wastes. In particular, part 172.402 (h) of 49 CFR is
intended to cover shipment of samples of unknown materials destined for
laboratory analysis.
II. ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES VERSUS HAZARDOUS MATERIAL SAMPLES
Samples collected at an incident should be classified as either
environmental or hazardous material (or waste) samples. In general,
environmental samples are collected off-site (for example from streams,
ponds, or wells) and are not expected to be grossly contaminated with
high levels of hazardous materials. On-site samples (for example, soil,
water, and materials from drums or bulk storage tanks, obviously
contaminated ponds, lagoons, pools, and leachates from hazardous waste
sites) are considered hazardous. A distinction must be made between the
two types of samples in order to:
- Determine appropriate procedures for transportation of samples. If
there is any doubt, a sample should be considered hazardous and
shipped accordingly.
- Protect the health and safety of laboratory personnel receiving the
samples. Special precautions are used at laboratories when samples
other than environmental samples are received.
III. ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES
Environmental samples must be packaged and shipped according to the
following procedures.
5-1
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A. Packaging
Environmental samples may be packaged following the procedures
outlined later in Section V for samples classified as "flammable
liquids" or "flammable solids". Requirements for marking, labeling,
and shipping papers do not apply.
Environmental samples may also be packaged without being placed inside
metal cans as required for flammable liquids or solids.
- Place sample container, properly identified and with a sealed lid,
in a polyethylene bag, and seal bag.
- Place sample in a fiberboard container or metal picnic cooler which
has been lined with a large polyethylene bag.
- Pack with enough noncombustible, absorbent, cushioning material to
minimize the possibility of the container breaking.
- Seal large bag.
- Seal or close outside container.
B. Marking/Labeling
Sample containers must have a completed sample identification tag and
the outside container must be marked "Environmental Sample". The
appropriate side of the container must be marked "This End Up" and
arrows placed accordingly. No DOT marking or labeling are required.
C. Shipping Papers
No DOT shipping papers are required.
D. Transportation
There are no DOT restrictions on mode of transportation.
IV. RATIONALE: HAZARDOUS MATERIAL SAMPLES
Samples not determined to be environmental samples or samples known or
expected to contain hazardous materials must be considered hazardous
substance samples and transported according to the following
requi rements:
- If the substance in the sample is known or can be identified, package,
mark, label, and ship according to the specific instructions for that
material (if it is listed) in the DOT Hazardous Materials Table,
49 CFR 172.101.
5-2
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- For samples of hazardous materials of unknown content, part 172.402 of
49 CFR allows the designation of hazard class based on the shipper's
knowledge of the material and selection of the appropriate hazard class
from part 173.2 (See Table 5-1).
The correct shipping classification for an unknown sample is selected
through a process of elimination, utilizing the DOT classification system (Table
5-1). Unless known or demonstrated otherwise (through the use of radiation
survey instruments), the sample is considered radioactive and appropriate
shipping regulations for "radioactive material" followed.
If radioactive material is eliminated, the sample is considered to contain
"Poison A" materials (Table 5-2), the next classification on the list. DOT
defines "Poison A" as extremely dangerous poisonous gases or liquids of
such a nature that a very small amount of gas, or vapor of the liquid,
mixed with air is dangerous to life.
Most poison A materials are gases or compressed gases and would not be found in
drum-type containers. Liquid poison A's would be found only in closed
containers. All samples taken from closed drums do not have to have to be
shipped as poison A's, which provides for a "worst case" situation. Based upon
information available, a judgment must be made whether a sample from a closed
container is a poison A.
If poison A is eliminated as a shipment category, the next two classifications
are "flammable" or "nonflammable" gases. Since few gas samples are collected,
"flammable liquid" would be the next applicable category. With the elimination
of radioactive material, poison A, flammable gas, and nonflammable gas, the
sample can be classified as flammable liquid (or solid) and shipped accordingly.
These procedures would also suffice for shipping any other samples classified
below flammable liquids in the DOT classification table.
For samples containing unknown material, other categories listed below
flammable liquids/solids oi. the table are generally not considered because
eliminating other substances as flammable liquids requires flashpoint
testing, which may be impractical and possibly dangerous at a site. Thus,
unless the sample is known to consist of material listed below flammable liquid
on the table, it is considered a flammable liquid (or solid) and shipped as
such.
5-3
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TABLE 5-1
DOT HAZARDOUS MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION (49 CFR 173.2)
1. Radioactive material
2. Poison A
3. Flammable gas
4. Nonflammable gas
5. Flammable liquid
6. Oxidizer
7. Flammable solid
8. Corrosive material (liquid)
9. Poison B
10. Corrosive material (solid)
11. Irritating material
12. Combustible liquid (in containers having capacities exceeding 110
gallons)
13. ORM-B
14. ORM-A
15. Combustible liquid (in containers having capacities of 110 gallons or
less)
16. ORM-E
5-4
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TABLE 5-2
DOT LIST OF CLASS "A" POISONS (49 CFR 172.101)
Material Physical state at standard temperature
Arsine
Gas
Bromoacetone
Liquid
Chloropicrin and methyl chloride mixture
Gas
Chloropicrin and nonflammable, nonliquified
compressed gas mixture
Gas
Cyanogen chloride
Gas (> 13.1°C)
Cyanogen gas
Gas
Gas i dent i f i cat i on set
Gas
Germane
-
Grenade (with Poison "A" gas charge)
-
Hexaethyl tetraphosphate/compressed gas mixture
Gas
Hydrocyanic acid (prussic) solution
Liqui d
Hydrocyanic acid, liquified
Gas
Insecticide liquified gas containing Poison "A"
or Poison "B" material
Gas
Methyldichloroarsine
Liqui d
Nitric oxide
Gas
Nitrogen peroxide
Gas
Nitrogen tetroxide
Gas
Nitrogen dioxide, liquid
Gas
Parathion/compressed gas mixture
Gas
Phosgene (diphosgene)
Liquid
5-5
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V. PROCEDURES: SAMPLES CLASSIFIED AS FLAMMABLE LIQUID (OR SOLID)
The following procedure is designed to meet the requirements for a "limited
quantity" exclusion for shipment of flammable liquids and solids, as set
forth in parts 173.118 and 173.153 of 49 CFR. By meeting these
requirements, the DOT constraints on packaging are greatly reduced.
Packaging according to the limited quantity exclusion requires notification
on the shipping papers.
A. Packaging
1. Collect sample in a glass container with (16 ounces or less)
nonmetallic, teflon-lined screw cap. To prevent leakage, fill
container no more than 90% full at 130°F. If an air space in the
sample container would affect sample integrity, place that
container within a second container to meet 90% requirement.
2. Complete sample identification tag and attach securely to sample
contai ner.
3. Seal container and place in 2-mil thick (or thicker) polyethylene
bag, one sample per bag. Position identification tag so it can be
read through bag. Seal bag.
4. Place sealed bag inside metal can and cushion it with enough
noncombustible, absorbent material (for example, vermiculite or
diatomaceous earth) between the bottom and sides of the can
and bag to prevent breakage and absorb leakage. Pack one bag per
can. Use clips, tape, or other positive means to hold can lid
securely, tightly, and permanently.
5. Place one or more metal cans into a strong outside container, such
as a metal picnic cooler or a DOT approved fiberboard box.
Surround cans with noncombustible, absorbent, cushioning material
for stablility during transport.
6. Limited quantities of flammable liquids, for the purpose of the
exclusion, are defined as one pint or less (49 CFR part 173.118 (a)
(2)).
7. Limited quantities of flammable solids, for the purpose of this
exclusion, are defined as one pound net weight in inner containers
and no greater than 25 pounds net weight in the outer container (49
CFR part 173.153. (a) (1)).
B. Marking/Labeling
1. Use abbreviations only where specified.
2. Place following information, either hand printed or in label form,
on the metal can
- Laboratory Name and Address
- "Flammable Liquid, n.o.s. UN1993" or "Flammable Solid, n.o.s.
UN1325."
Not otherwise specified (n.o.s.) is not used if the flammable
liquid (or solid) is identified. Then the name of the specific
5-6
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material is listed before the category (for example. Acetone,
Flammable Liquid) followed by its appropriate UN number found in
the DOT hazardous materials table (172.101).
3. Place the following DOT labels (if applicable) on outside of can
(or bottle).
- "Flammable Liquid" or "Flammable Solid."
- "Dangerous When Wet". Must be used with "Flammable Solid" label if
material meets the definition of a water-reactive material.
- "Cargo Aircraft Only". Must be used if net quantity of sample in
each outer container is greater than 1 quart (for "Flammable
Liquid, n.o.s.") or 25 pounds (for "Flammable Solid, n.o.s.").
4. Place all information on outside shipping container as on can
(or bottle), specifically,
Proper shipping name.
- UN or NA number.
- Proper label(s).
- Addressee and addressor.
(Note that the previous two steps (B.2 and B.3) are EPA
recommendations. Step B.4 is a DOT requirement.
5. Print "Laboratory Samples" and "This End Up" or "This Side Up"
clearly on top of shipping container. Put upward pointing arrows
on all four sides of container.
C. Shipping Papers
1. Use abbreviations only where specified.
2. Complete carrier-provided bill of lading and sign certification
statement (if carrier does not provide, use standard industry
form). Provide the following information in the order listed.
(One form may be used for more than one exterior container.)
- "Flammable Liquid, n.o.s. UN1993" or "Flammable Solid, n.o.s.
UN1325."
- "Limited Quantity" (or "Ltd. Qty.").
- Net weight or net volume (weight or volume may be abbreviated)
just before or just after "Flammable Liquid, n.o.s. UN1325" or
"Flammable Solid, n.o.s. UN1325"
- Further descriptions such as "Laboratory Samples" or "Cargo
Aircraft Only" (if applicable) are allowed if they do not
contradict required information.
5-7
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3. Include chain-of-custody record, properly executed, in outside
container if legal use of samples is required or anticipated.
0. Transportation
1. Transport unknown hazardous substance samples classified as
flammable liquids by rented or common carrier truck, railroad, or
express overnight package services.
2. Do not transport by any passenger-carrying air transport system,
even if they have cargo only aircraft. DOT regulations permit
regular airline cargo only aircraft, but difficulties with most
suggest avoiding them. Instead, ship by airlines that only carry
cargo.
3. Transport by government-owned vehicle, including aircraft. DOT
regulations do not apply, but EPA personnel will still use
procedures described except for execution of the bill of lading
with certification.
E. Other Considerations
1. Check with analytical laboratory for size of sample to be
collected and if sample should be preserved or packed in ice.
2. For EPA employees, accompany shipping containers to carrier and, if
required, open outside container(s) for inspection.
3. For overnight package services, determine weight restrictions - at
least one service limits weight to 70 pounds per package.
PROCEDURES: SAMPLES CLASSIFIED AS POISON "A"
A. Packaging
1. Collect samples in a polyethylene or glass container with an outer
diameter narrower than the valve hole on a DOT specification
#3A1800 or #3AA1800 metal cylinder. To prevent leakage, fill
container no more than 90% full (at 130°F).
2. Seal sample container.
3. Complete sample identification tag and attach securely to sample
container.
4. Attach string or flexible wire to neck of the sample container;
lower it into metal cylinder partially filled with noncombustible,
absorbent cushioning material (for example, diatomaceous earth or
vermiculite). Place only one container in a metal cylinder. Pack
with enough absorbing material between the bottom and sides of the
5-8
-------
sample container and the metal cylinder to prevent breakage and
absorb leakage. After the cushioning material is in place, drop
the end of the string or wire into the cylinder valve hole.
5. Replace valve, torque to 250 feet/pound (for 1-inch opening), and
replace valve protector on metal cylinder, using Teflon tape.
6. Place one or more cylinders in a sturdy outside container.
B. Marking/Labeling
1. Use abbreviations only where specified.
2. Place following information, either hand printed or in label form,
on the side of the cylinder or on a tag wired to the cylinder
valve protector.
"Poisonous Liquid, n.o.s. NA1955" or "Poisonous Gas, n.o.s.
NA1955".
- Laboratory name and address.
- DOT label "Poisonous Gas" (even if sample is liquid) on
cyli nder.
3. Put all information on metal cylinder on outside container.
4. Print "Laboratory Sample" and "Inside Packages Comply With
Prescribed Specifications" on top and/or front of outside
container. Mark "This Side Up" on top of container and
upward-pointing arrows on all four sides.
C. Shipping Papers
1. Use abbreviations only as specified.
2. Complete carrier-provided bill of lading and sign certification
statement (if carrier does not provide, use standard industry
form). Provide following information in order listed. (One form
may be used for more than one exterior container.)
- "Poisonous Liquid, n.o.s. NA1955".
- Net weight or net volume (weight or volume may be abbreviated),
just before or just after "Poisonous Liquid, n.o.s. NA1955" .
3. Include a chain-of-custody record, properly executed, in container
or with cylinder if legal use of samples is required or
anticipated.
4. For EPA employees, accompany shipping container to carrier and, if
required, open outside container(s) for inspection.
5-9
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D. Transportation
1. Transport unknown hazardous substance samples classified as
poison A only by ground transport or Government-owned aircraft.
Do not use air cargo, other common carrier aircraft, or rented
ai rcraft.
VII. SAMPLE IDENTIFICATION
The sample tag is the means for identifying and recording the sample and
the pertinent information about it. The sample tag should be legibly
written and completed with an indelible pencil or waterproof ink. The
information should also be recorded in a log book. The tag should be
firmly affixed to the sample container. As a minimum, it should include:
- Exact location of sample.
- Time and date sample was collected.
- Name of sampler and witnesses (if necessary).
- Project codes, sample station number, and identifying code (if
applicable).
- Type of sample (if known).
- Hazardous substance or environmental sample.
- Tag number (if sequential tag system is used).
- Laboratory number (if applicable).
- Any other pertinent information.
5-10
TCS/EPA/7-83
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APPENDIX I
US Department GUIDE FOR
of Transportation
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS SHIPPING PAPERS
Administration
The following information has been abstracted from the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49,
Parts 100-177
1. DEFINITIONS
A. SHIPPING PAPER (Sec. 171.8) A shipping paper may be a shipping order, bill of lading,
manifest, or other shipping document serving a similar purpose containing the information
required by Sec. 172.202, 172.203 and 172.204.
B. HAZARDOUS WASTE MANIFEST (CFR, Title 40, Sec. 262.20) A hazardous waste manifest is a
document (shipping paper) on which all hazardous waste is identified. A copy of the
manifest must accompany each shipment of waste from the point of pick-up to the destination.
(CFR, Title 49, Sec. 172.205)
2. SHIPPERS RESPONSIBILITY [Sec. 172.200(a)] The shipper has the responsibility to properly
prepare the shipping paper when offering a hazardous material for transport.
NOTE: For shipments of hazardous waste, the hazardous waste manifest is the only authorized
documentation. (CFR, Title 40, Sec. 262.23)
3. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS DESCRIPTION (Sec. 172.202) The shipping description of a hazardous
material on a shipping paper must Include the following information:
A. Proper shipping name- Sec. 172.101 or Sec. 172.102 (when authorized);
B. The hazard class prescribed for the material in the same section; [See exceptions
Sec. 172.202(a) (2) ].
C. The identification number for the material (preceded by "UN" or "NA" as appropriate); and
D. Except for empty packaglngs, the total quantity (by weight, volume, or as otherwise
appropriate) of the hazardous materials covered by the description.
E. Except as otherwise provided in the regulations, the basic description in 3A, B and C
above must be shown in sequence. For example "Acetone, Flammable Liquid, UN1090."
F. The total quantity of the material covered by one description must appear before_or after
(or both before and after) the basic description as indicated in 3A, B and C above.
(1) Abbreviations may be used to specify the type of packaging, weight or volume.
Example: "40 Cyl. Nitrogen Nonflamnable gas UN 1066, 800 pounds"; "1 box Cement
liquid, n.o.s., Flammable liquid, NAI133, 25 lbs."
(2) Type of packaging and destination marks may be entered in any appropriate manner
before or after the basic description.
G. Technical and chemical group names may be entered In parentheses between the proper
shipping name and hazard class. Example: Corrosive liquid, n.o.s. (capryrl chloride),
corrosive material.
4. GENERAL ENTRIES ON SHIPPING PAPERS (Sec. 172.201)
A. CONTENTS When describing a hazardous material on the shipping paper(s), that description
must conform to the following requirements:
(1) When a hazardous material, including materials not subject to the regulations, is
described on the same shipping paper, the hazardous material description entries
required by Sec. 172.202 and those additional entries that may be required by
Sec. 172.203.
a. Must be entered first (See Figure 1), or
b. Must be entered In a contrasting color, except that a description on a repro-
duction of a shipping paper may be highlighted, rather than printed, in a
contrasting color (these requirements apply only to the basic description
required by Sec. 172.202(a)(1), (2) and (3), (See Figure 1); or
c. Must be identified by the entry "X" placed before the proper shipping name in a
column captioned "HM" [the "X" may be replaced by "RQ" (Reportable Quantity),
if appropriate] See Figure 1.
(2) The required shipping description-on a shipping paper and.all copies that are used
for transportation purposes must be legible and printed (manually or mechanically)
in English.
(3) Unless it is specifically authorized or required, the required shipping description
may not contain any code or abbreviation.
1-1
-------
|»»SIC DESetlPTIQW
Typa el
Pickiiiflii Mi|
If U »•<
Ptoper Shipping W»wt I Haurd CUu J I Total Quaatity
.
fOtM
~T-~rr
£5-
wn
CMMIi
10
Dram, Giialiaa. FUamabla Liquid UK 1203
4500 lb*.
40
Cfl. Nitro|«a, NM-tlimmiblc Cm .UN10SI
100 lb*.
1
Dram, Flumiafelt UU4. ui. .UN1325
4SZ lb*.
4
Betas, Advertisiat Material, Paper. NOt
(0 lb*.
1
MO lb*.
12
Sad, Carboi
22 lbs.
COO
a ---
CERTIFICATION
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS ENTRIES USTEO FIRST
BASIC DECRIPTION
Typa af
PicUfiiip May
Bi AbkiniiM
If Usri.
Propar Shipping Niw | | Haiatd Pan | | Tatal Qaaatttf
_z;
\ -xpszsss&r,- y
rOTM UMIWIII'I
/ Z2T-
•Mt
«S5
10
Draan, Satalla*, FlaaiaiMa U«aM ,011201
4500 ib»!
4
Bam. Mmtniai Mataual, Papa'. HOI
SO lbs.
1
Draai, Flaamabla SalM, 1.0.S. ,UN132S ——
4S2 lb*.
12
Sals, Caibaa Papar
22 lbs.
40
CyL Ril/afta, Raa-fUawbla Cat .ttllOU —
SM IbL
HM Eatfics-Coatrastinf Cafes
CEIIIFIUTIOH
I Not*: Rapntfactiaa at a
1 ihippmj mm> aq li
bifhlifhlaj bf • hi(bli|btia|
paa falba* tkaa |n,M j, ,
caatratiaf catat.
HAZARDOUS HATUIAU ENTRIES^ONTIASTIHC COIOI
Malarial*
Waal
Tip* al
Pack*|iap May
t« UtmiiM
It Und.
IASIC DECRIPTIOMl
Prapar Sbippi*! "»¦ | | Haiai* tlaaa| | Tatal QaaatitT
HM
\ /
laiHOwam
u'J
sr.
mh
OMMMt
4
Inn, AdmViiai Malariab, / /
Papa», tax. / /
/
II
I
Draan; CawMaa, Flaaimabla Li
-------
(4) A shipping paper may contain additional information concerning the material provided
the information is not Inconsistent with the required description. Unless otherwise
permitted or required, additional information must be placed after the basic descrip-
tion required by Sec. 172.202(a).
a. When appropriate, the entries "IMCO" or "IMCO Class" may be entered immediately
before or immediately following the class entry in the basic description.
b. If a material meets the definition of more than one hazard class, the additional
hazard class or classes may be entered after the hazard class in the basic
description.
B. NAME OF SHIPPER A shipping paper for a shipment by water must contain the name of the
shipper.
5. ADDITIONAL DESCRIPTION REQUIREMENTS (Sec. 172.203) (ALL MODES)
A. Exemptions - Each shipping paper issued In connection with a shipment made under an
exemption must bear the notation "DOT-E" followed by the exemption number assigned
(Example: DOT-E 4648) and so located that the exemption number is clearly associated with
the description to which the exemption applies.
B. Limited Quantities - Descriptions for materials defined as "Limited Quantities"...must
include the words "Limited Quantities" or "Ltd. Qty." following the basic description.
C. Hazardous Substances
(1) If the proper shipping name for a mixture or solution that is a hazardous substance
does not identify the constituents making it a hazardous substance, the name or names
of such constituents shall be entered in association with the basic description.
(2) The letters "RQ" (Reportable Quantity) shall be entered on the shipping paper either
before or after the basic description required by Sec. 172.202 for each hazardous
substance. (See definition Sec. 171.8) Example: RQ, Cresol, Corrosive Material,
NA2076; or Adlpic Acid, ORK-E, NA9077, RQ.
D. Radioactive Materials - For additional description for radioactive materials, refer to
Sec. 172.203(d).
E. Empty Packagings
(1) Except for a tank car, or any packaging that still contains a hazardous substance,
the description on the shipping paper for an empty packaging containing the residue
of a hazardous material may include the word(s) "EMPTY" or "EMPTY: Last Contained
(Name of Substance)" as appropriate in association with the basic description of the
hazardous material last contained in the packaging.
(2) For empty tank cars, see Sec. 174.25(c).
(3) If a packaging, including a tank car, contains a residue that is a hazardous substance
the description on the shipping paper shall be prefaced with the phrase "EMPTY: Last
Contained (Name of Substance)" and shall have "RQ" entered before or after the basic
description.
?> Dangerous When Wet - The words "Dangerous When Wet" shall be entered on the shipping paper
in association with the basic description when a package covered by the basic description
is required to be labeled with a "DANGEROUS WHEN WET" label.
G* Poisonous Materials - Notwithstanding the class to which a material is assigned:
(1) If the name of the compound or principal constituent that causes the material to meet
the definition of a poison is not included in the proper shipping name for the
material, the name of that compound or constituent shall be entered on the shipping
paper in association with the shipping description for the material.
(2) The name of the compound or principal constituent may be either a technical name or
any name for the material that is listed in the NIOSH Registry. (Registry of Toxic
Effects of Chemical Substances. 1978 Edition) [Sec. 172.203(k)]
NOTE: For additional details, see Sec. 172.203(k)
H- Exceptions: OTHER REGULATED MATERIAL (ORM - A, B, C, AND D)
(1) Shipping paper requirements do not apply to any material other than a hazardous waste
or a hazardous substance that is:
a. An OKMrA, B or C unless it Is offered or Intended for transportation by air or
water when it is subject to the regulations pertaining to transportation by air or
water as specified in Sec. 172.101 (Hazardous Materials Table); or
b. An ORM-D unless it is offered or intended for transportation by air.
1-3
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MODAL REQUIREMENTS
(ADDITIONAL INFORMATION)
NOTE: In addition to the basic requirements for shipping papers, additional information is
listed for each mode.
TRANSPORTATION BY RAIL
A. SHIPPING PAPERS (Sec. 174.24)
(1) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, no person may accept for trans-
portation by rail any hazardous material which is subject to this subchapter unless
he has received a shipping paper prepared in a manner specified in Sec. 172.200.
In addition, the shipping paper must include a certificate, if required by
Sec. 172.204. However; no member of the train crew of a train transporting the
hazardous material 1s required to have a shippers certificate on the shipping paper
in his possession if the original shipping paper containing the certificate is in
the originating carriers possession.
(2) This subpart does not apply to materials classed as ORM-A, B, C or D.
B. ADDITIONAL DESCRIPTION FOR SHIPPING PAPERS [Sec. 172.203(g)]
(1) The shipping paper for a rail car containing a hazardous material must contain the
notation "Placarded" followed by the name of the placard required for the rail car.
(2) The shipping paper for each specification DOT 112A or 114A tank car (without head
shields) containing a flammable compressed gas must contain the notation "DOT 112A"
or "DOT 114A", as appropriate, and either "Must be handled in accordance with
FRA E.O. No. 5" or "Shove to rest per E.O. No. 5."
NOTE: For additional details, refer to Part 174.
TRANSPORTATION BY AIR
A. SHIPPING PAPERS ABOARD AIRCRAFT (Sec. 175.35) A copy of the shipping papers required by
Sec. 175.30(a)(2) must accompany the shipment it covers during transportation aboard an
aircraft.
NOTE: The documents required (shipping papers and notification of pilot-in-command) may be
combined into one document if it is given to the pilot-in-command before departure
of the aircraft. [Sec. 175.35(b)).
B. NOTIFICATION OF PILOT-IN-COMMAND (Sec. 175.33) The operator of the aircraft shall give
the pilot-in-command the following information in writing before takeoff (Sec. 175.35):
(1) Description of hazardous material on shipping papers (Sec. 172.202 and 172.203);
(2) Location of the hazardous material in the aircraft; and
(3) The results of the inspection requirements by Sec. 175.30(b).
NOTE: For additional details, refer to Part 175.
TRANSPORTATION BY WATER
A. SHIPPING PAPERS (Sec. 176.24) A carrier may not transport a hazardous material by vessel
unless the material is properly described on the shipping paper in the manner prescribed
in Part 172.
B. CERTIFICATE (Sec. 176.27)
(1) A carrier may not transport a hazardous material by vessel unless he has received a
certificate prepared in accordance with Sec. 172.204.
(2) In the case of an import r>r export shipment of hazardous materials which will not be
transported by rail, highway, or air, the shipper may certify on the bill of lading or
other shipping paper that the hazardous material is properly classed, described,
marked, packaged and labeled according to Part 172 or in accordance with the require-
ments of the IMCO Code. (See Sec. 171.12)
C. DANGEROUS CARGO MANIFEST (Sec. 176.30) The master of a vessel transporting hazardous
materials or his authorized representative shall prepare a dangerous cargo manifest, list,
or stowage plan. This document may not include a material which is not subject to the
requirements of CFR, Title 49, or the IMCO Code. This document must be kept in a desig-
nated holder on or near the vessel's bridge. (See Sec. 176.30 for details)
D. EXEMPTIONS(Sec. 176.31) If a hazardous material is being transported by vessel under the
authority of an exemption and a copy of the exemption is required to be on board the
vessel, it must be kept with the dangerous cargo manifest.
NOTE; For additional details, refer to Part 176.
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E. ADDITIONAL DESCRIPTION FOR SHIPPING PAPERS [Sec. 172.203(1)]
(1) Each shipment by water must have the following additional shipping paper entries:.
a. Indentification of the type of packages such as barrels, drums, cylinders, and
boxes,
b. The number of each type of packages including those in freight container or on
a pallet, and
c. The gross weight of each type of package or the individual gross weight of each
package.
(2) The shipping papers for a hazardous material offered for transportation by water to
any country outside the United States must have in parenthesis the technical name
of the material following the proper shipping name when the material is described
by a "n.o.s." entry in Sec. 172.101 (Hazardous Materials Table). For example:
Corrosive liquid, n.o.s. (caprylyl chloride), Corrosive material. However, for a
mixture, only the technical name of any hazardous material giving the mixture its
hazardous properties must be Identified.
9. TRANSPORTATION BY HIGHWAY
A. SHIPPING PAPERS (Sec. 177.817)
(1) General — A carrier may not transport a hazardous material unless it is accompanied
by a shipping paper that is prepared in accordance with Sec. 172.201, 172.202 and
172.203,
(2) Shipper's certification - An initial carrier may not accept hazardous materials
offered for transportation unless the shipping paper describing the material in-
cludes a shipper's certification which meets the requirements in Sec. 172.204 of this
subchapter. The certification Is not required for shipments to be transported en-
tirely by private carriage and for bulk shipments to be transported in a cargo tank
supplied by the carrier. [Sec. 177.817(c)]
(3) Interlining with carriers by rail - A motor carrier shall mark on the shipping paper
required by this section, if it offers or delivers a freight container or transport
vehicle to a rail carrier for further transportation: [Sec. 177.817(c)]
a. A description of the freight container or transport vehicle; and
b. The kind of placard affixed to the freight container or transport vehicle.
(4) This subpart does not apply to materials classed as an ORM-A, B, C or D.
(5) Accessibility of shipping papers: The driver and each carrier using the vehicle
shall ensure that the shipping paper is readily available and recognizable by
authorities in the case of an accident or inspection. [See Sec. 177.817(e) for
details]
B. ADDITIONAL DESCRIPTION nOR SHIPPING PAPERS [Sec. 172.203(h)] For additional descriptions
for Anhydrous ammonia see Sec. 172.203(h)(1); Liquefied petroleum gas see
Sec. 172.203(h)(2) and Exemptions see Sec. 172.203(a).
10. SHIPPER'S CERTIFICATION (Sec. 172.204)
A. GENERAL (Except B and D below)
(1) Except as provided in paragraphs (b) and (c) of Sec. 172.204, each person who offers
a hazardous material for transportation shall certify that the material offered for
transportation is in accordance with the regulations by printing (manually or
mechanically) the following statement on the shipping paper containing the required
description:
This is to certify that the above-named materials are properly
classified, described, packaged, marked and labeled, and are in
proper condition for transportation according to the applicable
regulations of the Department of Transportation.*
works "herein-named" may be substituted for the words "above named",
hazardous waste shipments, the words "and the EPA" must be added to the
of the certification. [See CFR, Title 40, Sec. 262.21(b)]
NOTE: The
*N0TE: For
end
1-5
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B. AIR TRANSPORTATION
(1) General - Certification containing the following language may be used in place of
the certification required by paragraph A(l) above:
I hereby certify that the contents of this consignment are fully
and accurately described above by proper shipping name and are
classified, packed, marked and labeled, and in proper condition
for carriage by air according to applicable national governmental
regulations.
(2) Duplicate Certificate - Each person who offers a hazardous material to an aircraft
operator for transportation by air shall provide two (2) copies of the certificate.
(Sec. 175.30)
(3) Passenger and Cargo Aircraft - If hazardous materials are offered for transportation
by air, add to the certificate the following statement:
This shipment is within the limitations prescribed for passenger/
cargo-only aircraft, (delete non-applicable)
(4) Radioactive Material - Each person who offers any radioactive material for trans-
portation aboard a passenger-carrying aircraft shall sign (mechanically or manually)
a printed certificate stating that the shipment contains radioactive material in-
tended for use in, or incident to, research, medical diagnosis or treatment.
NOTE: See Sec. 175.10 for exceptions.
C. SIGNATURE - The certifications required above must be legibly signed (mechanically or
manually) by a principal, officer, ^partner or employee of the shipper or his agent.
[Sec. 172.204(d)]
D. EXCEPTIONS - Except for a hazardous waste, no certification is required for hazardous
material offered for transportation by motor vehicle and transported:
(1) In a cargo tank supplied by the carrier, or
(2) By the shipper as a private carrier except for a hazardous material that is to be
reshlpped or transferred from one carrier to another.
(3) No certification is required for the return of an empty tank car which previously
contained a hazardous material and which has not been cleaned or purged.
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANIFEST INFORMATION
The following information has been abstracted from the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR),
Title 49, Parta 100-177 and CFR, Title 40, Part 262.
1. DEFINITIONS
A. HAZARDOUS WASTE MANIFEST (CFR Title 40, S262.20)
A hazardous waste manifest is a shipping document on which all hazardous wastes are
identified.
B. SHIPPING PAPER - A shipping order, bill of lading, manifest, or other shipping
document serving a similar purpose and containing the information required by
1172.202, 1172.203 and *172.204.
2. DOT HAZARDOUS MATERIALS MANIFEST REQUIREMENTS (J172.205)
A. No person may offer, transport, transfer or deliver a hazardous waste unless a
hazardous waste manifest is prepared, signed, carried and given as required of that
person by S172.205.
B. The shipper (generator) must prepare the manifest In accordance with the EPA
Regulations, CFR Title 40, Part 262.
C. The original copy of the manifest must be dated by, and bear the handwritten signa-
ture of the person representing the:
(1) Shipper (generator) of waste at the time it is offered for transportation, and
(2) Initial carrier accepting the waste for transportation.
D. A copy of the manifest must be dated by, and bear the handwritten signature of the
person representing:
(1) Each subsequent carrier accepting the waste for transportation, at the time of
acceptance, and
(2) The designated facility receiving the waste, upon receipt.
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E. A copy of the manifest bearing all required dates and signatures must be:
(1) Given to a person representing each carrier accepting the waste for transportation,
(2) Carried during transportation in the same manner as required for shipping papers,
(3) Given to a person representing the designated facility receiving the waste,
(4) Returned to the shipper (generator) by the carrier that transported the waste from
the United States to a foreign destination with a notation of the date of departure
from the United States, and
(5) Retained by the shipper (generator) and by the initial and each subsequent carrier
for three (3) years from the date the waste was accepted by the Initial carrier.
Each retained copy must bear all required signatures and dates up to and Including
those entered by the next person who received the waste.
F. The requirements of 5172.205(d) and (3) do not apply to a rail carrier when waste is
delivered to a designated facility by railroad if:
(1) All of the information required to be entered on the manifest (except generator
and carrier Identification numbers and the generator's certification) is entered
on the shipping paper carried in accordance with 5174.26(c);
(2) The delivering rail carrier obtains and retains a receipt for the waste that is
dated by and bears the handwritten signature of the person representing the
designated facility; and
(3) A copy of the shipping paper is retained for three (3) years by each railroad
transporting the waste.
G. The person delivering a hazardous waste to an initial rail carrier shall send a copy of
the manifest, dated and signed by a representative of the rail carrier, to the person
representing the designated facility.
H. A hazardous waste manifest required by CFR, Title 40, Fart 262 containing all the infor-
mation required by CFR, Title 49, Subpart C, may be used as the shipping paper.
THE MANIFEST-GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (5262.20)
A. A generator (shipper) who transports, or offers for transportation, hazardous waste
for off-site treatment, storage, or disposal must prepare a manifest before transporting
the waste off-site.
B. A generator (shipper) must designate on the manifest one facility which is permitted to
handle the waste described on the manifest.
C. A generator (shipper) may also designate on the manifest one alternate facility which
is permitted to handle his waste in the event an emergency prevents delivery of the
waste to the primary designated facility
D. If the transporter (carrier) Is unable to deliver the waste to the designated facility,
the generator must either designate another facility or instruct the transporter to
return the waste.
MANIFEST INFORMATION (5262.21)
A. The manifest must contain:
(1) Manifest document number;
(2) Generator's (Shipper's) name, mailing address, telephone number, and the EPA
Identification number;
(3) Name and EPA identification number of each transporter (carrier);
(4) Name, address and EPA identification number of the designated facility and an
alternate facility, if any;
(5) Description of the waste(s) (e.g. proper shipping name required by the Department
of Transportation Hazardous Materials Regulations CFR, Title 49, 5172.101,
5172.202 and 5172.203); and
(6) Total quantity of each hazardous waste by units of weight or volume, and the type
and number of containers loaded into or onto the transport vehicle.
B. Certification [5262.21(b)] The following certification must appear on the manifest:
This 1b to certify that the above named materials are properly classified, described,
packaged, marked, labeled and are in proper condit.>n for transportation according
to the applicable regulations of the Department of Transportation and the EPA"
1-7
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5. COPIES OF MANIFEST REQUIRED (5262.22)
The manifest must consist of at least the number of copies to provide the generator, each
transporter and the owner or operator of the designated facility with one copy each for
their records and another copy to be returned to the generator.
6. USE OF THE MANIFEST (5262.23)
A. The generator must:
(1) Sign the manifest certification by hand;
(2) Obtain the handwritten signature of the initial transporter and date of acceptance,
of manifest; and
(3) Retain one copy in accordance with 5262.40(a).
B. The generator must give the transporter the remaining copies of the manifest.
C. Shipment of hazardous waste within the United States solely by railroad or water (bulk
shipments only); the generator must send three (3) copies of the manifest dated and
signed in accordance with 5262.20 to the owner or operator of the designated facility.
NOTE: Copies of the manifest are not required for each transporter. For special
provisions for rail or water (bulk shipment) transporters see 5263.20(e).
7. PREPARATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE FOR SHIPMENT (5262.30)
A. Packaging Hazardous Waste - The generator (shipper) has the responsibility for the
classification and packaging of hazardous waste prior to offering for transportation.
The requirements for packaging will be found in the Department of Transportation
Regulations CFR, Title 49, Parts 172, 173, 178 and 179.
B. Labeling Requirements (5262.31) - Prior to offering a hazardous waste for transportation
off-site, the generator (shipper) must label each package in accordance with CFR Title
49, Part 172, Subpart E.
C. Marking Requirements (5262.32) - Prior to offering hazardous waste for transportation
off-site, the generator must:
(1) Mark each package of the hazardous waste; and
(2) Mark each container 110 gallons or less offered for transportation with the
following words and information displayed in accordance with the requirements
of CFR, Title 49, Sec. 172.304.
"HAZARDOUS WASTE-Federal Law Prohibits Improper Disposal. If found,
contact the nearest police or public safety authority or the United
States Environmental Protection Agency"
Generator's Name and Address
Manifest Document Number
D. Placarding Requirements (5262.33) - Prior to offering a hazardous waste for transporta-
tion off-site, the generator must:
(1) Placard the shipment; or ,
(2) Offer the initial transporter (carrier) the appropriate placards. (CFR Title 49,
Part 172, Subpart F)
NOTE: This handout is designed as a training aid only. It does not relieve persons from comply-
ing with the Department of Transportation's Hazardous Materials Regulations. Final
authority for use of shipping papers Is found in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49,
Part 100-177.
MOTE: This material may be reproduced without special permission from this office. Any comments
or recommendations should be sent to the address below.
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
RESEARCH AND SPECIAL PROGRAMS ADMINISTRATION
MATERIALS TRANSPORTATION BUREAU
OFFICE OF OPERATIONS AND ENFORCEMENT
INFORMATION SERVICES DIVISION, DMT-11
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20590
REVISED MAY 1981
1-8
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APPENDIX II
US Department
of Transportation
Research and
Special Programs
Administration
GUIDE FOR MARKINGS
The following information has been abstracted from the Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR), Title 49 Transportation, Parts 100-199. Refer to the appropriate Sections
for details.
NOTE: Rulemaking proposals are outstanding or are contemplated concerning the
regulations. Keep up to date with the changes.
MARKING - means the application of the descriptive name, proper shipping name,
hazard class, identification number (when authorized), instructions, cautions,
weight or a combination thereof on the outside shipping container. Marking also
includes the specification marks for both the inside and outside shipping con-
tainers required by the Hazardous Materials Regulations.
DESCRIPTIVE INFORMATION
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (5172.300-172.304)
All containers of hazardous materials, i.e.
packages, freight containers, or transport
vehicles, must, unless specifically exempted
be marked with the proper shipping name(s)
of the contents and the name and address
or either the consignee or consignor. All
markings must be:
Antimony Chloride, Solid
1. Durable, in English, and printed on or
affixed to the surface of the package or
on a label, tag or sign.
To: Johnson Products Co.
1420 Main St.
Armstrong, AK 52650
dOIIQ
o
2. On a background of a sharply contrasting
color and unobscured by labels or attach-
ments .
3. Away from other markings that could reduce
its effectiveness.
LIQUIDS - INSIDE CONTAINERS (§172.312)
1. Inside containers must be packed with
closures in the upright position.
2. Must be marked on the outside with
"THIS END UP" or "THIS SIDE UP".
3. Arrows must be used only to show orienta-
tion of package. An arrow symbol indicated
by ANSI Standard MH6.11968 "THIS WAY UP".
Pictorial (arrows) of goods is recommended.
/ Corrosive Liquid, N.O.S.
/Johnson Products Co.
/1420 Main St
Armstrong, AK / *'
52650 r/ J
this side up yt'
I l-l
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2
EXPORT BY WATER (§172.302)
All n.o.s. entries, when authorized in §172.101
or §172.102, must have the technical name(s) of
the material immediately following the proper
shipping name for export by water. For mixtures
(two or more) hazardous materials, the technical
name of at least two components must be identified.
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS (§172.310)
Corrosive Liquid, N.O.S.
(Phosohoric Acid)
To: Johnson Products Co.
1420 Rua Da La Main
Nice, Francs
1. Containers weighing over 110 pounds (gross
weight) must be marked on the container.
2. Must be marked "TYPE A" or "TYPE B" as
required in letters at least 1/2" high.
3. For export, the letters "USA" must follow
the specification markings or package
certification.
Fissii# Aadioacuvt
G.W. 985 Lbs.
Typ» 8. U-S>J4909/S( )f
To: Johnson Products Co.
1420 Ru« 0* M«in
M»C». PflWCT
u1 . u ... '4 j
OTHER REGULATED MATERIALS (ORM'S) (§172.316)
0RM materials must be designated immediately
following or below the proper shipping name
marking within a rectangular border approxi-
mately 1/4 inch larger on each side of the
designation. The appropriate designation must
be one of the following:
1. 0RM-A
2. ORM-B -KEEP
3. ORM-B
4. ORM-C
5. ORM-D
DRY 6. ORM-D-AIR
7. ORM-E
Oiled Material
ORM-C
To: Johnson Products Co.
1420 Main St
Armstrong, AK
52650
NOTE: These markings serve as the certifica-
tion by the shipper that the material is prop-
erly described, classed, packaged, marked and
labeled (when appropriate) and in proper con-
dition for transportation. Use of this type of
certification does not preclude the requirement
for a certificate on the shipping paper [5172.316(c)],
AUTHORIZED CONTAINERS IN OUTSIDE CONTAINERS
ORM-B'
Jkeep dry r-j
ORM-B KEEP DRY
EXAMPLE
When a DOT specification container is required for a hazardous material and that
container is overpacked in another container meeting the requirements of §173.21
and §173.24, the outside container must be marked in accordance with §173.25.
EXAMPLES: "THIS SIDE UP" or "THIS END UP" or "INSIDE PACKAGES COMPLY WITH
PRESCRIBED SPECIFICATIONS"
CYLINDERS - All cylinders must be marked in accordance with §173.34 and §§173.301
through 173.306. Cylinders passing reinspection and retesting must be marked in
accordance with 1173.34(e)(6).
II-2
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3
PORTABLE TANKS (5172.326 and §172.332) - Portable tanks must display the proper
shipping name in letters at least 2 Inches high and placed on two opposite sides.
Identification numbers [§§171.101 and 171.102 (when authorized)] are required on
each side and each end for capacities oi 1.000 gallons or more and on two opposing
sides in association with the proper shipping name for capacities of less than
1,000 gallons. The name of the owner or lessee must be displayed. Tanks carrying
compressed gases (DOT-51) must have all inlets and outlets, except safety relief
valves, marked to designate whether or not they communicate with vapor or liquid.
[S178.245-6(b)].
NOTE: When different hazardous materials are transported in marked portable tanks,
the shipping name and the identification number displayed must identify the material.
CARGO TANKS - HIGHWAY (COMPRESSED GASES) (§172.328) - Cargo tanks must be marked, in
letters no less than 2 inches high, with either the proper shipping name of the gas
or an appropriate common name, such as "Refrigerant Gas". Cargo tanks must only be
marked, i.e. proper shipping name and identification number [when authorized
(§§171.101 and 171.102)] for the material contained therein. DOT MC 331 tanks must
have inlets and outlets, except safety relief valves, marked to designate whether
they communicate with liquid or vapor when the tank is filled to its maximum per-
mitted silling density. [1178.337-9(c)1.
TANK CARS - RAIL (§172.330) - Tank cars, when required to be marked with the proper
shipping name by Parts 173 and 179, must be marked in letters at least 4 inches high
with at least 5/8 inch stroke with the proper shipping name or the appropriate common
name. Identification number markings (when authorized) must be displayed on each side
and each end [§§171.101 and 171.102 (when authorized)]. Tank cars must only be
marked for the material contained therein.
NOTE: See referenced Sections for requirements for D0T-106 and DOT 110 tank car tanks.
EXAMPLE OF PLACARD AND PANEL WITH IDENTIFICATION NUMBER
10901
NOTE: The Identification Number (ID No.) may be displayed on placards or on
orange panels on tanks. Check the sides of the transport vehicle If the ID
number is not displayed on the ends of the vehicle.
OTHER MARKING REQUIREMENTS
REQUALIFIED CONTAINERS - Reusable cylinders, portable tanks, cargo tanks and tank
cars are required to be either visually inspected or retested at periodic intervals.
When this Is accomplished, the date of the requalification must be shown on the
container as required in §{173.24, 173.31, 173.32, 173.33 and 173.34.
lIDlNUMBERl
11-3
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4
REUSE OF CONTAINERS - Some steel containers in the DOT Series (D0T-17C, 17E and 17H)
may be qualified for reuse by a reconditioner of drums who is registered with the
Department of Transportation. These drums must meet the requirements of §173.28(m)
i.e. old labels removed, exemption number (if any) and descriptive markings removed
and the drum reconditioned. Other containers may be reused under varying conditions.
See S173.28 for details.
CARGO HEATERS - Cargo heaters authorized for use with flammable liquid or gas must be
marked in accordance with S177.834(1)(2)(e) and (f).
MOTOR VEHICLES - Marking of motor vehicles and special requirements are found in
§§177.823 and 177.824.
SPECIFICATION CONTAINERS
Markings on specification containers must generally identify: (1) the DOT specifica-
tion number to which the container is made (Parts 178 and 179); (2) the manufacturers
name and address or symbol (registered with the Associate Director for the Office of
Hazardous Material Regulation). Duplicate symbols are not authorized. All containers
must comply with the marking requirements of §173.24 and the appropriate Section(s)
of Parts 178 and 179. Exceptions for Canadian and other import/export situations
may be found in §§171.12 and 173.8.
NOTE: For certain containers, specific detailed information such as original test
date information and Cype of material which may be required can be found in
Parts 178 and 179.
This publication does not contain all the marking requirements. It is designed as a
guide only. For details for all markings, consult Code of Federal Regulations, Title
49, Parts 100-199.
This publication may be reproduced without special permission from this office.
Department of Transportation
Research and Special Programs Administration
Materials Transportation Bureau
Office of Operations and Enforcement
Information Services Division, DMT-11
Washington, D.C. 20590
II-4
Revised September 1981
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PART 6
SUGGESTED REFERENCES
American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water
Pollution Control Federation, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater, Fiftenth ed., Publ. American Public Health Assoc. (1981).
American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM Standards, Standards
D1452, D1586, D3550, D270, E300, The Society, Philadelphia, PA.
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Handbook for Analytical
Quality Control in Water and Wastewater Laboratories, U.S. EPA -
600/4-79-019 (March 1979).
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Methods for Chemical
Analysis of Water and Wastes, U.S. EPA-600/4-79-020 (March 1979).
Environmental Research Information Center, Office of Research and
Development, Sampling of Water and Wastewater, U.S. EPA-600/4-77-039
(August 1977):
Kittrell, F.W., A Practical Guide to Water Quality Studies of Streams,
Publ. U.S. Gov't Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (1969).
Lind, Owen T., Handook of Common Methods in Limnology, Publ. C.V. Mosby
Co., St. Louis, MO (1974).
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Samplers and Sampling
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• US GOVERNMENT POINTING OFFICE-1083 - 759-102/0768
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