United States Air Pollution Training Institute
Environmental Protection MD 20
Agency Environmental Research Center
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
Air
c/EPA APTI
Course 400
AN INTRODUCTION TO AIR TOXICS
STUDENT WORKBOOK
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AN INTRODUCTION TO AIR TOXICS
STUDENT WORKBOOK
Prepared for:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Manpower and Technical Information Branch
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
Contract No. 68-02-3B89
EPA Project Officer: Charles 0. Pratt
February 9, 1987
Prepared by:
Radian Corporation
3200 Progress Center
Post Office Box 13000
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
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NOTICE
This 1s not an official policy and standards document. The opinions
and selections are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the
Environmental Protection Agency. Every attempt has been nade to represent
the present state of the art as well as subject areas still under
evaluation. Any mention of products or organizations does not constitute
endorsement by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
AVAILABILITY
This document Is issued by the Manpower and Technical Information
Branch Control Programs Development Division, Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards, U.S. EPA. It was developed for use 1n training courses
presented by the EPA Air Pollution Training Institute and others receiving
contractual or grant support from the Institute. Other organi2ations are
welcome to use the document.
This publication Is available, free of charge, to schools or
governmental air pollution control agencies intending to conduct a training
course on the subject covered. Submit a written request to the A1r
Pollution Training Institute, U.S. EPA, MD-20, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina 27711.
Others may obtain copies, for a fee, from the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), 5825 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia
22161.
Sets of slides and films designed for use In the training course of
which this publication 1s a part nay be borrowed from the A1r Pollution
Training Institute upon written request. The slides may be freely copied.
Some films may be copied; others nust be purchased from the commercial
distributor.
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INTRODUCTION
"An Introduction to Air Toxics" has been developed to provide staff
members from state and local air agencies with the background necessary to
assess the problem posed to their state or locality by toxic air pollutants
and to develop, Implement, and enforce control measures for toxic
pollutants. The course 1s designed for students to obtain an understanding
of air toxics Issues 1n six major areas: toxicology, ambient monitoring,
source assessment, exposure assessment, risk assessment, and
regulatory/programmatic issues.
This workbook 1s a guide to the lecture material. Included herein are
a glossary of terns used in the lectures; the goals, objectives, and
reference lists for each lesson; and reproductions of the slides used in the
lectures.
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GLOSSARY
"AN INTRODUCTION TO AIR TOXICS"
absolute risk: In epidemiological work, the observed deaths from a
given disease in an exposed population minus expected deaths from
the seme disease fn a matched control group divided by the total
person-years observed In exposed population.
acceptable dally Intake: numerical health criteria for non*carctnogens.
The value of AD I Is that concentration which Is not expected to
produce adverse effects In humans. (Ref: 45FR79324).
accuracy: the degree to which a measured value agrees with the true or
accepted reference value (e.g., pollutant concentration), usually
expressed as the percentage of the true or reference value
represented by the difference between the two (true and measured)
values.
adenocarcInomia: carcinoma (malignant new growth) derived from glandular
tissue or In which the tumor cells form recognizable glandular
structures.
adsorbent: solid material on the surface of which adsorption takes
place.
adsorption: a physical process In which molecules of gas, of dissolved
substances, or of liquids, adhere In an extremely thin layar to the
surfaces of solid bodies with which they are In contact.
aerosol: a dispersion of solid or liquid particles In gaseous media.
alveoli: thln-walled, polyhedral pouches which are clustered In bunches
like grapes around the ends of the bronchioles. Gas exchange
occurs between the air In the alveoli and the blood In the
capiIlaries.
Ames test: microbial screening test used to Identify mutogenlc
chemicals. Usually salmonella typhlymurlum Is the micro organism,
dependence on the emio acid hist(dine Is the observed parameter.
antagonism: the situation In which two chemicals, when given together.
Interferes with the action of the other chemical.
atmosphere, an: a unit of pressure equal to the pressure exerted by a
vertical column of mercury 760 mm high, at a temperature of 0*C,
and under standard gravity.
bloassay: study to determine the effect of a substance on a live animal
or an Isolated organ preparation.
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block group (BG): a bureau of Census classtfleaf ton for urban areas
composed of contiguous city blocks where a maximum of 1600 people
I Ive.
bronchus, bronchioles: one of a pair of respiratory tubes branching
Into either lung at the lower end of the trachea; It subdivides
into progressively finer passageways, the bronchioles, culminating
In the alveoli.
bubbler: a sampling device consisting of a gas dlsperser immersed in
an absorb Ing IIquId.
bubbler, fritted: a bubbler having a frit as the gas dlsperser.
calibration: establishment of a relationship between the response of a
measurement system obtained by Introducing various calibration
standards Into the system. The calibration levels should bracket
the range of levels for which actual measurements are to be made.
case-control studies: studies used to assess the relationship of
existing disease to other variables, such as exposure to toxic
agents. Two groups are chosen: (1) persons with the disease of
Interest, and (2), persons without the disease (control group).
The relationship of the toxic agent to the disease Is assessed by
analyzing the numbers of exposed persons In each group.
COM and CDMQC: CIImatologleal Dispersion Model - a steady state Gaussian
plume model, part of EPA's UNAMAP, appropriate for point and area
sources, urban areas, flat terrain, transport distances less than
50 kilometers, and long term averages over one month to one year or
longer.
chemiluminescence detection; the measurement of emitted visible or
ultraviolet radiation resulting from the reaction of a pollutant
with a reactive gas (e.g., detection of nitric oxide by reaction
with ozone).
cohort study: these studies assess how toxic exposures are related to
the development of disease. A study population without the disease
of Interest Is chosen. Persons within this population exposed to
the agent of Interest are Identified at the beginning of the study.
The entire population (exposed/unexposed) Is followed over a period
of time for the development of the disease. The reletlonslp
between exposure and disease Is assessed by examining the
development of the disease among the exposed end unexposed
subgroups.
column chromatography: a separation technique wherein the stationery
phase Is a solid (e.g., silica gel) and the mobile phase Is a
liquid, usually an organic solvent or mixture of solvents. The
technique Is usually performed using e tubular column operating an
ambient pressure, and Is most commonly used for the removal of
potential interferences prior to determination of the compound of
Interest.
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collection efficiency: the percentage of e specified substance retained
by gas cleaning or satnp 1 Irg device.
colorimeter; an Instrument used for color measurement based on optical
comparison comparison with standard colors.
condensate: liquid or solid matter formed by condensation from the
vapor phase. In sampling, the term Is applied to the components of
an atmosphere which have been Isolated by simple cooling.
condensation: the process of converting a material In the gaseous phase
to a liquid or solid state by decreasing temperature, by Increasing
pressure, or both. Usually In air sampling only cooling Is used.
confounding variable: In epidemiological studies.
CRSTER: a steady-state Gaussian dispersion model, part of EPA's UNAMAP,
appropriate for single point sources, rural or urban areas,
transport distances less than 50 km, end flat or rolling terrain
(no terrain above stack height).
cryogenic collection (trapping): a sampling process wherein an air
sample Is passed through a cooled trap (usually using liquid argon
or similar material as the cryogen) to collect organic compounds.
cytochrome P-450: enzyme system Involved In the metabolism of toxic
substances, particularly In the liver,
derivatizatIon: a sampling and analysis process wherein a compound to
be monitored Is converted to another more stable and/or readily
detectable compound via chemical reaction during the sampling or
analysis step.
desorptlon: the process of freeing from a sorbed state.
detection limit: the minimum quantity of a compound which yields a
"measurable response". Many statistical definitions of "measurable
response" ere In use. One must be careful to differentiate
"Instrumental detection IImlt", which refers to the minimum
quantity of material Introduclble Into a measurement system which
can be detected from "method detection limit" which refers to the
minimum concentration of compound In the sample which, when carried
through the entire sampling and analysis process, can be detected.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): the carrier of genetic Information In
cetls, composed of two chains of phosphate, sugar molecules
(deoxyrlbose), and purines and pyrlmldlnes wound In a double helix;
capable of self-replication as well as of determining RMA synthesis.
dosage: In the Human Exposure Model, the concentration x exposed
populations (people x y/m3).
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efficiency: a measure of "the performance of e collector. Usually It is
the ratio of the amount collected to the Inlet loading, expressed
In percentage.
efficiency, fractional: the mean collection efficiency for specific
size fractions of a contaminant. Commonly this term has been
applied to the performance of air cleaning equipment towards
particular matter in various size ranges.
electron capture doctor (ECO): a detection device for gas chromatography
which responds sensitively and selectively to electron deficient
(e.g., halogena+ed, nltrosubstttuted) compounds.
enumeration district (ED): a Bureau of Census classification for rural
areas where a maximum of 1600 people IIve in an area less than 300
square mlles.
epidemiology: the study of disease occurrence In human populations.
exposure: In the Human Exposure Model, the number of people exposed to
a concentration equal to or greater than the concentration listed.
flame ionization detector (FID): a detection device for gas
chromatography which responds to most organic compounds.
flaring: combusting of waste gases either through a flare stack and
flare tips or an enclosed burner head at ground level.
fluorescence spectrometry: the measure of ultraviolet or visible
radiation emitted by a compound after excitation with radiation of
a lower wavelength. The technique Is widely used for the
determination of potynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons.
gas chromatography (GC): a separation technique for organic compounds
wherein the stationary phase Is a solid, liquid coated on a solid,
or liquid coated or bonded to the Interior column vail (capillary
column) and the mobile phase Is an Inert gas.
Gauselan Model: a model that uses simple Gaussian functions to predict
atmospheric dispersion of a plume In three dimensions.
Concentration at a point In space Is based on emissions, average
wind speed, and atmospheric stability.
Hall electrolytic conductivity detector (HECD): a detector device for
gas chromatography which responses selectively to halogenated,
sulfur containing compounds, or nitrogen containing compounds
(depending on operating mode selected).
halogenated compound: a compound containing chlorine, bromine, or
Iodine (chlorinated compounds being the most commonly encountered
In ambient air).
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HEM—Human Exposure Mode!: a model used by EPA to estimate human
exposure to toxic air pollutants.
high performance liquid chromatography: a separation technique wherein
the mobile phase Is a liquid and the stationary phase Is a solid,
usually having a particle diameter of 10 ym or less. HPIC Is
similar to column chromatography except that small particle diameter
stationary phases and high pressures are used to achieve faster
analysis and greater resolution.
histology: the study of the minute structure, composition, and function
of the tissues.
Impaction: a forcible contact of particles of matter, a tern often used
synonymously wIth Impingement.
Impactor: a sampling device that employs the principle of Impacting
(Impingement). The "cascade Impactor" refers to a specific
Instrument which employs several Impactions In series to collect
successively smaller sizes of particles.
Impingement: the act of bringing matter forcibly In contact. As used
In air samplIng, Impingement refers to a process for the collection
of particular matter In which th» gas being sampled ts directed
forcibly against a surface.
Impingement, dry: the process of Impingement carried out so that
particular matter carried In the gas stream Is retained upon the
surface against which the stream Is directed. The collecting
surface may be treated with a film of adhesive.
Impingement, wet: the process of Impingement carried out within a body
of liquid, the latter serving to retain the particulate matter.
Initiator: a compound that can produce mutational changes In somatic
eel Is.
Intraperitoneal: within the abdominal cavity.
Intravenous: within e vein or veins.
Internal standard: e known quantity of a reference compound added to e
collected sample for use In the quantification of other compounds.
In vitro: within a glass; observable In a test tube; In en artificial
environment.
In vivo: within a living organism.
ISCST, ISCLT: Industrial Source Complex Model short term or long term:
a steady-state Gaussian plume model, part of EPA's UNAMAP,
appropriate for Industrial source complexes, rural or urban areas,
flat or rolling terrain, transport distances less than 50 km, and
one hour to annual averaging times.
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LD-0 (Lethal Dose.p): the dose of a chemfcal needed to produce death In
50 percent o? the dosed animals.
macrophage: a cell that Ingests bacteria, viruses and other Injurious
agents.,
mass spectroscopy CMS>t a widely used analytical Instrument capable of
Identifying and quantltIfyIng organic materials on the basis of the
mass fragmentation pattern. Most commonly used for organic analysts
In combination with gas chromotography (I.e.* GC-M5).
Master Enumeration District (MED): Bureau of Census data that contain
the population centrald coordinates for each enumeration district
and block group.
metabolite: any substance produced by metabolism or by a metabolic
process.
metastasis: the transfer of disease from one organ or part to another
not directly connected with It. It may be due either to the
transfer of pathogenic microorganisms or to transfer of cells, as
In malegnant tumors. The capacity to metastasize Is a
characteristic of all malignant tumors.
MPTER: Multiple Point Gaussian Dispersion Algorithm with Terrain
Adjustment, part of EPA's UNAMAP, appropriate for point sources,
rural or urban areas, flat or rolling terrain (no terrain above
stock height), transport distances less than 50 km, and one hour to
one year averaging times.
mucociliary escalator: the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles ere lined
with eel la (short hairlike structures) and coated with a thin layer
of mucus. The surface of these airways acts as a mucociliary
escalator by moving particles from the deep lung to the oral
cavities so they may be swallowed or excreated.
mutagen: a chemical that changes the genetic material In the nucleus of
the cell In ways that can be transmitted during cell division.
nitrogen-phosphorous detector (NPD): a detection device for gas
chromatography which Is sensitive and selective for nitrogen- end
phosphorous-containing organic compounds.
pathology: the study of the nature of disease, especially of the
structural and functional changes In tissues and organs of the body
which cause or are caused by disease.
phagocytosis: the engulfing of mfcroorganFsms, other cells, and foreign
particles by special cells celled phagocytes.
pharmacokinetics: the quantatlve study of the metabolic processes of
absorption, distribution, biotransformation, and elimination.
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photolonlzatIon detector (P10): detection device for gas chromatography
which detects aromatic, halogenated, and oleflnlc compounds but Is
relatively Insensitive for aliphatic compounds. The selectivity
can be adjusted by the choice of lamp energy.
precipitation, electrostatic: a process consisting of the separation of
particular matter from air or other gases under the Influence of an
electrostatic field.
precipitator, electrostatic: apparatus employing electrostatic
precipitation for the ieparatlon of particles from a gas stream.
The apparatus may be designed either for sampling or for cleaning
large volumes of gas.
precision: the degree of agreement of repeated measurements of the same
property, expressed In terms of dispersion of test results about
the mean result obtained by repetitive testing of a homogeneous
sample under specified conditions. The precision of a method Is
expressed quantitatively as the standard deviation computed from
the results of a series of controlled determinations.
primary carcinogen: compound that Interacts directly with DNA to cause
cancer.
promoter: agent capable of Increasing the probability of neoplastic
development contracted by a previous exposure of the cells to a
carcInogen.
quality assurance: a system of activities designed to provide assurance
that the quality control system Is performing adequately.
RAM: a steady-state Gaussian plume model, part of EPA's UNAMAP,
appropriate for point and area sources, urban areas, flat or
rolling terrain, transport distances less than 30 kilometers, end
one hour to one year averaging times.
relative risk: In epidemiological work, the number of observed deaths
from a given disease seen In an exposed population divided by the
number of expected deaths from the same cause In a matched control
popuI at I on.
£
resin: a porous polymer adsorbent such as Tanax for collection of gas
phase organic compounds.
safety factor: a multiplier or divider that reflects the degree or
amount of uncertainty that must be considered when extrapolating
animal to human data. Guidelines for choice of safety factors are
giver In 45FR79353.
scrubber: a type of apparatus used In sampling and In gas cleaning In
which the gas Is passed through a space containing wetted "packing"
or spray.
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secondary carcinogen: compound •that requires conversion through
metabolic activation before It can exert Its effect.
SHEAR: Systems Applications Human Exposure end Risk: model designed to
estimate patterns of pollutant concentrations and of health risk
due to fell Identified sources of potentially hazardous air
pollutants In a designated modeling region.
SHED: Systems Applications Human Exposure and Dosage—the exposue model
portion of EPA's Human Exposure Model, ft matches populations to
ambient concentrations.
sister chromatid exchange: In exchange at one locus between the sister
chromatids of a chromosome, which does not result In an alteration
of overall chromosome morphology.
sorbent: a liquid or solid medium In or upon which materials are
retained by absorption or adsorption.
spectrometry: a method of Identification of a compound by Identification
of the spectrum produced.
spectrophotometry: a method for Identification of substances and
determination of their concentration by measuring light
transmlttance In different parts of the spectrum.
stack tip downwash: Increased concentration of a pollutant In the
vicinity of the stack or emission point caused by a stack gas exit
velocity less than 1.5 times the mean wind speed at stack level.
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code: numerical classification
scheme developed chiefly for business and economic use to describe
production, service, education, legislative Industries.
standard mortality rate: number of persons dying (due to a particular
cause) divided by total number In group per unit time.
standard operating procedures (SOP): a detailed description of the
operation of a sampling or analysis system for specific application.
STAR: stability array data-characterizes frequencies and percentage
frequencies of wind direction by wind speed for stability classes.
STAR data are available through the National Climatic Center.
subcutaneous: beneath the skin.
synergism: the situation In which the combined effect of two chemicals
Is much greater than the sum of the effect of each agent given
alone.
p
Tenax : a polypheny I oxide polymer prepared as a porous adsorbent for
determination of gas phase_organIc compounds. The relatively good
thermal stability of Tenax allows recovery of adsorbed organlcs by
thermal desorptlon.
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teratogen: substances that cause defects In fetal development.
TIV (threshold limit values): airborne concentrations of substances for
which It Is believed that nearly all workers may be exposed for
8 hours a day and 40 hours a week without adverse effects.
UNAMAP: User's Network for Applied Modeling of Air Pollution. EPA's
collection of preferred dispersion models available on magnetic
tape through the National Technical Information Service.
unit risk factor: the lifetime cancer risk occurring In a hypothetical
population In which all Individuals are exposed continuously from
birth throughout their lifetimes (about 70 years) to a concentration
of I yg/m of the agent In the air which they breathe.
validation, data.' a systematic effort to review data to Identify
out!lers or error end thereby cause deletion or flagging of suspect
values to assure the val tdity of the data for the user.
validation, method: the process of documenting the performance
characteristics of a method through the analysis of blanks and
replicate samples of known analyte concentration. The analyte
concentrations tested should cover the range likely to be
encountered In the actual monitoring situation.
VALLEY: a Gaussian plume model appropriate for screening analysis In
complex terrain (terrain elevations above stack height) and for
averages of 24 hours.
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)N 1: BASIC TOXICOLOGY IN RELATION TO TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS (TAP)
Lesson Title: General Concepts In Toxicology
Lesson Number: 1
Lesson Time: 1 hour
Lesson Goal: To familiarize students with basic concepts of toxicology
Including absorption, distribution, excretion, metabolism,
and node of action.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should
be able to:
1. Describe how TAP enter the lungs and how they can be
distributed throughout the body (gaseous vs. PM;
soluble vs. Insoluble.)
2. Explain why some Inhaled TAP manifest their effects
in organs/tIssues other than the lungs.
3. List genetic factors that can Influence expression
of toxic effects.
4. List pre-existing conditions (asthma, lifestyle,
diet, smoking, drug Intake) that can influence
expression of toxic effects.
5. Define the following terms:
LD_. Synergism NOAEL
LC,.- Antagonism FEL
AcGte Eplder.lology Target organ
Chronic Dose-response relationship Metabolite
Standard flortal Ity Rate
General References:
Doull, J., Klessen, C., and M. Andur (eds). 1S80. Toxlcoiopv.
Second edition. New York: McMillan Publishing. Chapters 2, 3
(pp. 11-55).
Hatch, T. F., and Gross, P. 1964. Pulmonary Opposition and
Retention of Inhaled Aerosols. New York: Academic Press.
IARC Monographs on Carcinogens (various volunes).
NAS Monographs on specific pollutants.
HIett, H.H., Watson, J.D., and J.A. Wfnsten (eds). 1977.
Origins of Hunan Cancer. Books A, B and C. New York: Cold Spring
Harbor.
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14
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LESSON 1
An Introduction to Air Toxics
fStD'O" 3l
Uno>
ftue'«i'Si*ie'icxr
Ac9vi»>o't
OC'l'On
C&«ll
fS. Tot* Ccd?/A*rtf>/'c
t*L*re
fb cL|ff>>C */
tatorptlon
• Gtvts
ttpeiwi
• Bruits
• CKjiai'r">
CNtirtbuilOA
NaoifhEHcci*
HMifrinacti
• Acut*
• Craomc
imvitro
mm vivo
• CteOMC ftOMMyl
LMton 1
-7
y tvlttf e/ec?
CliOi'CI I
Lnion 2
ItffcftV D»u
• Ammoi mne Human
• TfMttfKM Bfltf ftOft t*H—»O*0
• A«*pl»b* AfnD«n1
Uuon J
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iltirtai
• National Teitofeg* tn
• feidapwuM n*m>cti
• t Ogttuit Snctlne
ki^trtini Htmttfi Eifswn
• Dmi H 1HI
• London tnfltncMMj IM2
• Muw V»«»| •Mftum I»W
*
Toalrotagfcii
0»ll III#
Goocf
A g£Su/ +
tgkf c t /<, {s/^/C- />
1*4 L P/efichtrr
of <*4 J ercotzcf
y *~C-ur^ /t, s
Historical Perspective
• Hg poisoning in hatters
• Hg, Pb poisoning «n Roman miners
• Acid misl exposure in Greek copper miners
DOSE • RESPONSE
—LDic —MTD
-LCjo -NOAEL
-SNARL -FEL
-ED*
LO«o
• Amount of material (oral dose} expected to
kill 50 percent of the animals exposed
• Statistically derived from the dose response
curve
• Example: For Syrian golden hamsters (mate
and female) the 48 hour oral LD» lor "X" in
feed was X mg/kg ^
Udose
LCso
• The concentration of material in air expected
to Kill 50 percent of the animals exposed
• Statistically derived from the dose - response
curve
• Example. For the male Fischer 344 rat, the
24 hour LCjc of "X" was 55 ppm.
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» *1 ,W*-" *">*** U""'
—MTD-' ' asOAEL
• Maximum lo(erated dose AbX _ . „ , ,
^_£Q //Wo /fCjCJMjA^-t /\htt /"VI /I
• Effective dose . . _ , - / / *° Uw-v»/u fe^r/r«- or J
• The amount of material (dose) w«*®d ,0^ /. I ^
produce a specific eHect o" * ® * ^
,ll«..«llu «cnr.a»or4 -,,1h 'honof.^l -Ho^.c
• Usually associated with "beneficial effects"
such as anesthesia
—NOAEL ii fct? rlTO 4tt»£f -fe-on a*y
• No observed adverse effect level
• Helps define threshold region for non
carcinogens
• Used with a safety factor to determine
"safe" levels of exposure or acceptable
daily intakes
«EFrank effects level ol*e«u*i/e 4-ffec + lcv* I
• Does not define a threshold
-SNARL
• Suggested no adverse response level
• Calculated independently by EPA and NAS
• NAS values calculated for adults
• EPA values calculated lor 10 Kg child
• EPA SNARLS are Health Advisories
{
1
S"!>oa. s e Sjj
^ 4* /— C f 0£ 4- /<-(/£¦
fiKAc/'*/ - *'C^
J VLTy 5lU
10
to ® m 10 m to o to loo no tio
Cone*ftti«llcA d Z fag*?!
Dose Response Curve
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EXPOSURE
• Inhalation: controlled air chambers,
intratracheal injection
• Ingestion: feed, water, corn oil (gavage)
• Dermal absorption: skin painting
• Intravenous: direct access to circulatory
system, provides data on rate of uptake
• Subcutaneous: injected beneath the skin
• Intraperitoneal: subject to metabolism in liver
Types ol Exposure
—Acute
• Single exposure or
• Multiple exposures within a short time
(ie 24 hrs)
—Chronic
• Multiple exposures over long time periods
—Subchronic /e>^° ~ h-f? J-f'e t-f /
• Exposure duration of about 3 months
13 losdP
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inrtinnori
_ Btocd/lympri
I | Cu^Q |
Eacrtuo* iiceien
ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT
OF
CHEMICALS IN THE LUNG
¦1000
01 TRACT
HOOD
TKACHKA/tAONCUS
¦lOOO
BLOOO
SYSTEMIC EFFECTS
• Target organ
• Cadmium —» kidney, lung
• Mercury—~ central nervous system, Kidney,
blood
• Perchloroethylene —»liver, central nervous
system
Carcinogen: Produces or accelerates
development of malignant or
potentially malignant tumors
Mutagen: Causes changes in chromosomes
Teratogen: Produces congenital malformations
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Synergism
• Effect, * Effect^ » Effect 1 + 2 or
1 + 2 = 20
• Example: carbon tetrachloride and ethanol
—Antagonism
• Effect, •+ Effectj« Effect 1 + 2
or 3 + 5 = 6
• Example- chelators and metals
—Potentiation
• Ef1ectt = 0, Effect, Effectj > Effectj or
0 + 5 = 10
• Example, carbon tetrachloride and
isopropanol
FACTORS AFFECTING TOXICITY
—Genetic Factors
• Enzyme Deficiency
—Pre-existing Illness
• Asthma and SO?
—Diet
• Cadmium and Zinc
Dose-Response
—Threshold
• Non carcinogens
• Concentration below which no adverse
effect occurs
—Non-threshold
• Carcinogens
• No "safe" dose
*
I AkgA io
I ca/c uffi fe
I f*'l> et C"EUf
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SESSION 1s BASIC TOXICOLOGY IN RELATION TO TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
Lesson Title: Health Effects: Measurement and Types
Lesson Number; 2
Lesson Time: 1 hour
Lesson Goel: To acquaint students with the types of health effects
associated with TAP and how the they are detected/measured.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of the lesson, the student should
be able to:
1. Describe differences In acute and chronic health
effects - systemic toxicants.
2. Define different types of cancers (I.e., mesothelioma,
leukemia, melanoma).
3. List characteristics of promotors, Initiators,
primary carcinogens.
4. Define teratogens is and explain briefly how Inhaled
toxicants are related to teratogenesls.
5. Define mutagenesis end briefly explain how
mutagenicity tests are conducted.
6. Define the following terms:
Bioassay
Control group
7. Describe the 4-tIered approach to toxicity testing.
Course Manual Readings:
Clayton, D.B., D. Kreskl, and I.C. Muno. The Power end
Interpretation of the Carclnogenlcty Bioassay. Regulatory
Toxicology and Pharmocology. 3(329-348), 1983.
General References:
Doull, J., Klessen, C., and M. Amdur (eds). 1980. Toxicology.
Second edition. New York: McMillan Publishing, pages 85-90,
124-134.
Calabrese, E.J. 1983. Principles of Animal ExtrapolatIon. New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
Environmental Protection Agency. Various dates. Health Assessment
Documents -
21
-------
General References (continued):
Hackney, J.D., Ltnn, W.S.# and E.L. Avol. 1984, Assessing Health
Effects of Air Pollution. Environmental Science and Technology
16(4): 115A-122A.
Kurzel, R.B., and C.L. Cetrulo. 1981. The Effect of Environmental
Pollutants on Human Reproduction Including Birth Defects.
Environmental Science and Technology 15(6): 626-640.
National Toxicology Program. 1984. Report of the NTP Ad Hoc Panel
on Chemical Carconogenesls Testing and Evaluation. Board of
Scientific Counselors, National Toxicology Program. Public Health
Service, Department of Health and Human Services. August 17, 1984.
22
-------
LESSON 2
An Introduction to Air Toxics
Tone
tmijvonj
tov»nlCM*S
(S*«VDn )|
Sower
Cipo»u>r
R,»
n.»h
AtteumfM
—•
Aiituntni
AntSiTxni
M»naQen*m
(Stivon 3t
(Setno* 4|
rScsfcin* Ji
iSctfo* y&i
t
t
ItfOnilOrinQ
Sample 1
Urui
2t
(Stttio" J)
F«4tr»>'Sl*l«a0C4>
Aeyu'«inr|r
Otcitu-*
(S*>s>on 6>
M«aith
l«S
Atoorptton
• Gaits
• Paniciet
CNairfevttori
bertltoo
I *«»nh Cutcit I
I ~Acute p
hroMt B'oatia
Lttion 1
iMlon 7
Toifclty D«l>
• Antmjf Human
• TftreihOia *ne Nor, iwt»tKHC
• Aeeapiatil* Amb*ril
Ce^cvnirahoii
l»»»on 3
SYSTEMIC VS LOCAL TOXICITY
—Systemic • requires absorption and distribution
• Produce effects in target organ(s)
—Local - occurs at site of first contact
• Some toxicants produce both systemic and
local effects
ACUTE VS CHRONIC
HEALTH EFFECTS
-Acute • short period of time (S24 hours)
-Chronic • long-term exposure
23
-------
HEALTH EFFECTS CONSIDERATIONS
—Length of exposure
—Frequency of exposure
—Dose level
—Fate in body
CARCINOMA
Malignant uncontrolled growth and cell division
of epithelial tissues
—Tend to infiltrate surrounding tissues
—Tend to metastasize
TYPES OF
—Mesothelioma ¦ malignancy of mesothelial
tissues (eg, pleura, pericardium, peritoneum)
—Leukemia • malignancy of blood-forming
organs, abnormal cell count/celt formation
—Sarcoma ¦ tumors of tissues such as cartilage,
bone, striated muscle
—Melanoma - tumor of melanin-pigmented celts
of skin or oral mucosa
- cM ie.ci'1.0 '*r-4
CHEMICAL CARCINOGENS
—Increased incidence of tumors
—Earlier incidence of tumors
—Development of different tumor types
—Increased multiplicity of tumors
)-ft?* 14^
I* JTfcgt "tlOAS — SAoC-f-t' C /r
i a, A/H+J )
"5. — sc/re/--
A//4-eg,c c^.r„
r, ca^c. c ^
S.AH C 0/7 A
CFt?
24
-------
—Primary Carcinogens
• Direct acting
• Electrophitic
—Secondary Carcinogens (Procarcinogens)
•Direct-acting
•Metabolites of parent compound
—Inorganic Carcinogens
•Change DMA by disrupting replication
—Cocarcrnogen
• Enhances genotoxic agent's effect when
administered simultaneously
—Promoter -> "K./r t*»c/y'r y +o cj? s-'C. e e.
• Enhances genotoxic agent's effect when
administered afterward
TESTING OF SUSPECTED CHEMICAL
CARCINOGENS/MUTAGENS
Decision Point Approach
1) Chronic bioassay does not reveal mode of
aclton
2} Extrapolation of data for risk evaluation
3] Efficiency in testing methods
TESTING - STEP 1
—Structure—activity relafconship determination r> 0< e-L«r''"'c-r4 S
Loot? f-tvltCv/AI? S-fjiiSC. A u
Tie of ft,e*£ }£t>uf>s
25
-------
TESTING - STEP 2
Screening Battery of In Vitro
Short Term Tests
—Microbial mutagenesis
—DNA repair
—Mammalian mutagenesis
—Sister chromatid exchange
—Cell transformation
TESTING - STEP 3
In Vivo Short Term Bloaesays
—jn vivo genotoxicity tests
—Induction of tumors
—Altered foot in rodent livers
TESTING - STEP 4
Chronic Bioassays
—Dose-response
—Dose-route
—Frequency-dose
-Frequency-route
—Expose parent generation
• Dosage of offspring
• Teratogenic effects
USE OF TEST DATA
—Identifies chemical carcinogens, mutagens,
teratogens, etc
—Dose - response curves
—Occurance and location of induced tumors
• Gross and histological pathological
examinations
r&s-rj
26
-------
SESSION I;
BASIC TOXICOLOGY IN RELATION TO TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
Lesson Title: Use of Toxicity Data end Limitations
Lesson Number: 3
Lesson Time: 45 minutes
Lesson Goal: To Inform students of the uses of toxicity data In
determining acceptable ambient concentrations and to
Identify the areas of uncertainly and I Imitations.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, student should be
able to:
1. List problems encountered when extrapolating animal data
to humans (2/3 power rule, metabolic differences, some
physiological differences).
2. Describe the current theory of carcinogenesis
(initiation, promotion, progression) and the threshold
concept.
3. Explain why the definition of "adverse health effects" Is
sometimes unclear (I.e., does Increase In enzyme level
mean anything pernonently detrimental 7) and sometimes
hard to quantify (e.g., CO and recognition, visual
tests).
4. Explain how and why threshold limit values were derived
and list limitations of their use in ambient environmental
assessments.
5. Describe how Carcinogen Assessment Group unit risk
factors are developed.
6. List differences In types of data obtained from human and
animal studies. Describe how differences affect methods
of data manipulation.
Course Manual Readings:
Hlgglns, I.T.T. 1983. What Is an Adverse Health Effect7 JAPCA.
33(7) 661-664.
General References:
Tomatls, L. et. al. 1978. Evalutlon of the Carcinogenicity of
Chemical5: A Review of the Monograph Program of IARL. Cancer Res.
38:877.
Dourson, M.L. and J.F. Stara. 1983. Regulatory History and
Experimental Support of Uncertainty (Safety) Factors. Regulatory
Toxicology and Pharmacology. 3,224-238.
27
-------
General References (continued):
Hartung, R. 1981. The Use of Animal Toxicity Data. (In) Conference
Proceedings: Environmental Risk Assessment. How the New
Regulations Will Affect the Utility Industry. New Orleans, 1980.
EPRI/EA - 2064. pp 4-77 to 4-94.
Martel, N. and M.A. Schnelderman. 1975. Estimating Safe Levels, a
Hazardous Undertaking. Cancer Res. 35:1379.
Von Ryzln, J. and K. Ral. 1980. The Use of Quantal Response Data
to Make Predictions. (In) Scientific Basis of Tn»trltv Assessment.
H. Wltschl, ed. Amsterdam; Elsevier, North-Holland Biomedical
Press.
New York State Air Guide 1. 1983. Guidelines for the Control of
Hazardous Ambient Air Contaminants. New York State DEC, Division
of Air. Albany, New York.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygenlsts. 1980.
Documentation of Threshold Limit Values. 4th edition. Cincinnati:
ACGIH PublIcations.
Office ef Technology Assessment. 1981. Assessment of the
Technologies for Determining Cancer Risks from the Environment.
Washington, D.C. 240 pp.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hyglenlsts. 1983.
TLVs. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical
Agents In the Work Environment with Intended Charges for 1983-84.
Cincinnati: ACGIH Pub IIcatIons. (Note: This publication Is
updated yearly.)
28
-------
LESSON 3
An Introduction to Air Toxics
lc»>e
Cmijvon*
lSe»*K>"
Sooice
(ipoiu'r
A*»e«tm«ni
AtHHmtm
(S«k» 31
(&««»'»" i|
t
Mor»'rx
A#>f »>'neni
(&eii IS o -ho /a> Y 1 f O (
29
-------
DOSE EXTRAPOLATION
AND COMPARISON
—Life span of species
—Body size, weight
—Genetic variability
—Pharmacokinetics
PHARMACOKINETICS
—Rates of absorption, distribution, excretion
—Formation and activity of metabolites
EQUIVALENT DOSE
BETWEEN SPECIES
—mg/kg body weight/day
—mg/kg body weight/lifetime
—ppm in diet or water
—mg/m> body surface area/day (two-thirds
power rule)
DEFINITION OF ADVERSE
HEALTH EFFECT
—Decrease in functional capacity
—Decrease in level of well-being
QUESTION OF SUBTLE CHANGES
—Temporary airway resistance increase
—Enzyme level changes
—Temporary visual function decrease
ESTABLISHING ACCEPTABLE
AMBIENT CONCENTRATIONS
—CAG unit risk factors and human exposure
model
—Threshold limit values
30
-------
CAG UNIT RISK FACTORS
—With human exposure model provides
esiimated concentrations and associated
levels of risk
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES (TLVS)
—Developed by ACGIH for workplace exposures
—8 hour exposure duration
—ACGIH states TLVs not suitable for
environmental health assessments
—Some TLV's developed by analogy rather than
review of experimental data
USE OF TLV
—NY State Air Guide 1
—High, moderate toxicity, factor of 350
—Low toxicity, factor of 1/50
TLV'S AVAILABLE FOR
SUSPECT CARCINOGENS
• ACGIH does not consider a substance a
carcinogen of practical significance if.
—> I000mg/m> mice. >2000mg/m> rats
(respiratory)
— > I500mg/kg mice, >3000 mg/kg rats
—Total dose = 10 g mice, 100g rats (oral)
31
-------
32
-------
SESSION 2: MONITORING OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
Lesson Title: Sampling Methods for Toxic Air Pollutants
Lesson Number: 4
Lesson Time: 45 minutes
Lesson Goal: To familiarize the student with sampling procedures used in
conducting an air toxics monitoring program.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. Describe the following sample collection techniques used for
air toxics:
a. sorbent tubes
b. charcoal tubes
c. cryogenic traps
d. glass bulbs
e. liquid Impingers
f. silica gels
g. dosimeters (passive}
h. indicator tubes (Oraeger-type)
i. stainless steel canisters
j. polyurathane foam R
k. tedlar , teflon , or mylar bags
2. List factors to be considered in selecting an appropriate
sample collection technique:
a. nature of the compound to be collected
b. number of compounds to be sampled
c. stability of material to be sampled
d. concentration/dilution factors
e. ability to interface with the appropriate analytical
techniques
f. monitoring program goals and available resources
3. Explain why samples may require special packaging for
transport and describe the Federal regulations that should be
considered.
4. List Items to be Included 1n a test plan and describe the
purpose and use of a test plan.
Course Manual Readings:
Regan, G. L. 1983. Ambient A1r Monitoring for Volatile Organlcs Near
M1DC0 1, Gary, Indiana. (In) Measurement and Monitoring of
Non-Criteria (Toxic) Contaminants in Air. APCA Publication SP-50.
pp. 38-68. March 22-24, 1983.
33
-------
Course Manual Readings (continued):
Sweitzer, T. A. and D. J. Kolaz. 1983. Measurement of Ambient Toxic
Particulate Matter 1n Granite City, Illinois. (In) Measurement and
Monitoring of Non-Criteria (Toxic) Contaminants 1n Air. APCA
Publication SP-50. March 22-24, 1983.
General References:
Riggin, R. M. 1984. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of
Toxic Organic Compounds 1n Ambient Air. EPA-600/4-84-041.
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. April 1984.
Riggin, R. M. 1983. Technical Assistance Document for Sampling and
Analysis of Toxic Organic Compounds 1n Ambient A1r. EPA-600/4-83-027.
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. June 1983.
Walling, J. F. 1984. The Utility of Distributed Air Volume Sets When
Sampling Ambient Air Using Solid Adsorbents. Atmospheric Environment.
18(4):855-859.
Lewis, R. G., A. R. Brown and M. D. Jackson. 1977. Evaluation of
Polyurethane Foam for Sampling of Pesticides, Polychlorlnated Blphenyls
and Polychlorinated Naphthalenes in Ambient Air. Analytical Chemistry.
49(12):1668-1672.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Manual of
Analytical Methods. 2nd ed., DHEW Publication No. 77-157-A, Vol. 1-6,
Cincinnati, OH, 1977.
U.S. EPA. Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for the Analysis of
Pollutants. Federal Register, 44 (233), 69468-69476, 1979.
U.S. EPA. Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Physical Chemical
Methods. SW-846, U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response, Washington, D.C., July 1982.
Cox, R. D. Sample Collection and Analytical Techniques for Volatile
Organics in Air. (In) Proceedings of the APCA International Specialty
Conference on Measurement of Noncriterla (Toxic) Contaminants. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., Pittsburgh, PA, 1983.
Transportation skills program - 1976, "Hazardous Materials Guidelines
for Shippers," Hazardous Materials Training and Compliance Seminar.
Cox, R. D., K. J. Baughman and R. F. Earp. A Generalized Screening and
Analysis Procedure for Organic Emissions from Hazardous Waste Disposal
Sites. Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites - 1962.
Hazardous Materials Control Research Insltute, Silver Spring, MD,
p. 58, 1982.
34
-------
General References (continued):
Cox, R. D., R. F. Earp. Anal. Chem., 54:2265, 1982.
Grosjean, P. Environ. Sci. Techno!., 16:254, 1982.
Cox, R. D., K. W. Lee. Hazard Recognition Guidelines for the NIOSH
Hazardous Waste Occupational Safety and Health Manual. March 1983.
"Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement Systems,
Vol. 1, Principles," U.S. EPA, Office of R&D, EMSL, Research Triangle
Park, N.C. 1976.
"Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement Systems,
Vol. 2, Ambient Air Specific Methods," U.S. EPA, Office of R&D, EMSL,
Research Triangle Park, N.C. 1977.
"Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement Systems,
Vol. 3, Stationary-Source Specific Methods," U.S. EPA, Office of R&D,
EMSL, Research Triangle Park, N.C. 1977.
Nehls, G. J. and G. G. Akland. Procedures for Handling Aerometrlc
Data. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. 23(3):180-184,
March 1973.
Lewis, R. G. and M. D. Jackson. 1982. Modification and Evaluation of
a High-Volume Air Sampler for Pesticides and SemivolatHe Industrial
Organic Chemicals. Analytical Chemistry. 54(3):592-594.
National Technical Information Service. Department of Commerce. Port
Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22151 (source of various government/
contractor publications.)
35
-------
36
-------
LESSON 4
Aa Mreducttoft to Air Toxics
Toitc
(8MMT)
—«
llpowi
flitiwri 41
(See nnn 5*
Macular,
«
-------
TEST PLAN OBJECTIVES
—Purpose of monitoring
—Type of source(s) to be sampled
—Pollutants of concern
—Urgency of response
EXAMPLES OF
TEST PLAN OBJECTIVES
—Characterize emissions of toxic air pollutants
from a TSDF
—Assess impact of coal gasification plant on
local air quality
—Determine relative contributions of arsenic to
fugitive emissions at a secondary lead smelter
REVIEW SOURCE DATA
—Define pollutants
—Identify target areas
—Quantify emissions
—Identify data needs for pretest survey
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
SELECTING SAMPLING STRATEGY
—Nature of compound(s)
• Polar
• Acidic
• N-contalning
• O-containing
• Reactivity
—Applicability
• Reactive with compound?
• Heating impact on sensitivity?
• Volumes to sample?
• Selectivity
—Stability and Storage Time
—Concentration/Dilution
38
-------
agency specified methods
-NIOSH
• Select chemicals in air
-EPA
• Priority pollutants in water
• Select chemicals In solids
EPA Numbered Methods lor
Air Sampling
For mofl
TONMO CondkOMl* ui£ (coM) and tiKintM
link
Particulate Marcury MS Tiain with lodlna monochlorida
Imping**
Barylllum MS Train, llttar
Vinyl CMorida Bag aampla
METHODS FOR ORGANICS IN AIR
—Easy to use
—Contain sorbents for specific species
—Require long exposures
—Most require extractlon/desorptlon
—Dosimeters, indicator tubes
• Quick, inexpensive
• No on site calibration
DOSIMETERS
DOSIMETERS BASED ON
SORBENTS OTHER THAN
CHARCOAL
Species
Range of Application
(8 Hour Sampling)
(OiytanaOiUi
ramMwrP
HMWy
8.1-Oppm
0.1-flppm
eJ-KK*
-------
INDICATOR TUBES
—Active dosimeters
—Portable, easy to use
—Drawbacks
• False positives
• Limited sensitivity, selectivity
OMKW* OCTtCTO* TUM
u.'WM I I I I I I I
i • ¦ ¦ • ¦
SortMnts for Specific POHCs
Compound Typa
Gantfil PurpoM Organic*
Ganaral PurpeM Organic*
Ganaral PurpoM Cfllorinaiad Organic*
Ganaral Purpota N on polar
Oanaral Purpota. Battar for Polar
Organic* man XAD 2Ra*m
Ganaral purpoia • Pola; Organic*
XAD-2 Aaaln
TanaxGC
Ftorldl
Ambaraort XE 340
XAD BAailn
Ambaraort XE 347
DUAL SORBENT
-SS tubes packed with
• 3" Tenax
• 2* Spherocarb
-Applicable to many organics
-Analyze by thermal desorptlon Into GC
-Drawbacks
• Removing impurities from sorbent
• Storage time variable
m
x
TENAX CARTRIDGE MStONS
40
-------
SINGLE SORBENT
—Tenax
• Wide variety of organlcs
—Doesn't collect very volatile compounds
STAINLESS STEEL CANISTERS
—2 Vt -5 liters
r-Samples pressurized nltroQen
—Little sample contamination
—Wide application
—Expensive
OAS CANISTER
USE OF STAINLESS STEEL
CANISTERS
¦ Bulk Petroleum Transfer Facllty
• Monitoring for Beruino, Hexane
COIOCATEO SAMPLERS
• «% lo to* aifl.rme, Mruan
concentration 0
41
-------
CRYOGENIC TRAPS
—Collecting compounds too reactive for sortenis
or canisters
—Stored and transported In liquid nitrogen
—Expensive
CCTOaENIC TUP DCWON
CHARCOALTUBES
- Simple, readily available
. Solvent extraction of collected material
• Drawbacks
• poor detection limits
• Incomplete recovery
• Reactivity with charcoal
SILICA GEL TRAPS
—Recommended by NfoSH for amines,
N
-------
aniliwuwi)*—
m
SAMPLING MEAD WTTH
rOlVURETMAME FOAM
tchHMOe
43
-------
UIAM VOLUME M* Wt*Pt€« AVARABIE FROM
MW ««WL -nil wo**s (MOOEL rs-1)
CctKtrt'Viflr OCT'
1001
Days
— few i feac a ft* 3
Tadlir Bags
C.H.Cl, Stability
•0
•0
*0
0
0 1
Ooys
— ftn i fc#i * l«) he*
Tadlar Bags
C(HCIa Stability
44
Concr»ifJ4r< CC^
-------
Sampling Systems
B P > 100 C
ModKM mathod S trmln (MM5)
Sourc« umwwii tamptlng (SASS)
I P < MO C
Vol»lK» orgtnfe Mmpflng trfln (VOST)
0*1 umpling bulb (Qu bulb)
Oubag
uy
tJtMi
Modified Mathod 5Traln
Dm * c
SASS Scfwrnatfc Diagram
45
-------
Ttap Rpgv
Schematic of Volatile Organic Samplfne Train (VOST)
SAMPLE SHIPMENTYTRANSPORT
—FINES levied if shipment
• Not packaged, labeled according to DOT
regulations
• Paper work not complete
LEGAL AUTHORITY
—Public law 93£33
—Applies to
• Shippers
• Manufacturers
• Forwarders
• Agents
• Carriers
RAIL CARRIERS
—CFR 49, Parts 100-199
—ATA Safety Department
• "Handling Hazardous Material"
—Graziano's Tariff #31
DOMESTIC/INTERNATIONAL
AIR SHIPMENT
-CFR 49. Pert 175
-CAB #8. Tariff #6-0
—International Air Transport Association
Restricted Article Regulations
46
-------
SESSION 2: SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
Lesson Title: Analytical Methods
Lesson Number: 5
Lesson Time: 45 minutes
Lesson Goal: To familiarize the student with sampling and analytical
procedures used 1n conducting an air toxics monitoring
program.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. List and describe common analytical methods for volatile
organic compounds:
a. GC/MS
b. GC/photoionization detection/flame ionization detection
c. GC/PIO/Hall detector (also sulfur, nitrogen, and halogen
specific model)
d. GC/PID
e. GC/HECD-S
f. GC/HECD-H
2. List common analytical methods for toxic inorganic compounds:
a. Ion-specific electrodes
b. atomic absorption spectrometry
c. inductively coupled argon plasma spectrometry
3. Describe the components of a quality assurance program and
activities affected:
a. objectives
b. planning
c. training
d. costs
4. Explain the difference between precision and accuracy.
Course Manual Readings: (same as Lesson 4)
General References:
Rlggin, R. M. 1984. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of
Toxic Organic Compounds In Ambient Air. EPA-600/4-84-041.
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. April 1984.
47
-------
General References (continued):
Riggin, R. M. 1983. Technical Assistance Document for Sampling and
Analysis of Toxic Organic Compounds 1n Ambient Air. EPA-600/4-83-027.
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. June 1983.
Walling, J. F. 1984. The Utility of Distributed A1r Volume Sets When
Sampling Ambient Air Using Solid Adsorbents. Atmospheric Environment.
18(4):855-859.
Lewis, R. G., A. R. Brown, and H. D. Jackson. 1977. Evaluation of
Polyurethane Foam of Sampling of Pesticides, Polychlorlnated Biphenyls,
and Polychlorinated Naphthalenes In Ambient A1r. Analytical Chemistry.
49(12):1668-1672.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Manual of
Analytical Methods. 2nd ed., DHEW Publication No. 77-157-A, Vol. 1-6,
Cincinnati, OH, 1977.
U.S. EPA. Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for the Analysis of
Pollutants. Federal Register, 44 (233), 69468-69476, 1979.
U.S. EPA. Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Physical Chemical
Methods. SW-846, U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response, Washington, O.C., July 1982.
Cox, R. D. Sample Collection and Analytical Techniques for Volatile
Organics in Air. (In) Proceedings of the APCA International Specialty
Conference on Measurement of Noncrlterla (Toxics) Contaminants. Air
Pollution Control Association, Pittsburgh, PA, 1983.
Transportation skills program - 1976, "Hazardous Materials Guidelines
for Shippers," Hazardous Materials Training and Compliance Seminar.
Cox, R. D., K. J. Baughman, and R. F. Earp. A Generalized Screening
and Analysis Procedure for Organic Emissions from Hazardous Waste
Disposal Sites. Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites -
1982. Hazardous Materials Control Research Institute, Silver Spring,
MD, p. 58, 1982.
Cox, R. 0., R. F. Earp. Anal. Chem., 54:2265, 1982.
Grosjean, P. Environ. Sci. Techno)., 16:254, 1982.
Cox, R. D., K. W. Lee. Hazard Recognition Guidelines for the NIOSH
Hazardous Waste Occupational Safety and Health Manual. March 1983.
"Quality Assurance Handbook for A1r Pollution Measurement Systems,
Vol. 1, Principles," U.S. EPA, Office of R&D, EMSL, Research Triangle
Park, N.C. 1976.
48
-------
General References (continued):
"Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement Systems,
Vol. 2, Ambient Air Specific Methods," U.S. EPA, Office of RiD, EMSL,
Research Triangle Park, N.C. 1977.
"Quality Assurance Handbook for A1r Pollution Measurement Systems,
Vol. 3, Stationary-Source Specific Methods," U.S. EPA, Office of R&D,
EMSL, Research Triangle Park, N.C. 1977.
Nehis, 6. J. and 6. G. Akland. Procedures for Handling Aerometric
Data. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association.
23(3):180-184, March 1973.
Lewis, R. G. and M. D. Jackson. 1982. Modification and Evaluation of
a High-Volume Air Sampler for Pesticides and Semi volatile Industrial
Organic Chemicals. Analytical Chemistry. 54(3):592-594.
Office of Forms and Publications, U.S. EPA, Highway 70 Warehouse
Facility, Durham, N.C. 27703.
National Technical Information Service. Department of Commerce. Port
Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22151.
49
-------
50
-------
LESSON 5
An Introduction to Air Toxics
ISnvor Ji
MctiiOung
SAmpHflQ I
rS«itxy< ?>
Rut
*mnm
F^cttr
Ssiicr V
Hmwi
(tf«c ts
ttMfcaOTWnl
(Stltion l|
Station 2: Ambient Monitoring of Toxic
Air Pollutants
• Sou>c» foanfiftcsiie*
• JotftfHJu'iOft
• (mutton («timc<«
• Carrtrg* CQuipr***)
ANALYTICAL METHODS
FOR ORGANICS
-Transfer all ol the compounds of interest to a
gas stream
• Thermal desorption (solid sorbents,
cryogenic traps)
51
-------
HOCK
DUOIUM or TM OM4MC MIUTM rrtTIM
j^Msf Sj7(C,i'ZO^C,C?(>y
GC/MS -P cos4iVy, y
-Acceptable for almost any volatile organic
-Good for complex matrices
I—5> p(to+t> Tc>s^>>z^//0
GC/PID/FID
• Alkanes, aldehydes, ketones, eromatlcs,
helooenated compounds, sulfur
compounds
• ideal for screening p, . __
OC/PID/HECO-> *->" £-/,c/„, , ,
—Hall electrolytic conductivity detector
—Halogenated, N, S compounds
GC/PID
—Not selective detector
—Alkenes, ketones, aldehydes, mercaptans
v„
OTHER TECHNIQUES
—Needed for
• Formaldehyde
• Inorganic acids
• Metal vapors
• Tetraethyl lead
• Particulates
52
-------
—Atomic absorption spectroscopy
• Metals, metal vapors
—Colorlmetry
•formaldehyde
—Ion selective electrodes
• HF, HCI. HCN
—ICAP
• Metals
COST COMPARISON FOR
SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
1 Samft«Coll*C1>On
•OftMOHufctVlrftM
teg* butti c»r»tt0n
pyootnic
C*DH*< CQUigmtnt
matom
&++HQh
medium
lOtotMiufn
km*wo*jr*
tomirwOvn
I St"** Aoitrt't
GC MS
GCMD
n# fidpidhccoku
SOtCiliC »*Cl'OOt
AM
K*9
I«P
fflpdiuw
hiQft
QUALITY ASSURANCE/
QUALITY CONTROL
—Oc-^>spec,^c feocc'Aerr
• System of activities to provide a quality
product
• Routine checks of normal procedures
—QA-^> M /7AW)CLevi//
• System of activities to assure that QC is
performing well
• "External OC"
• Independent audits
• Interlab comparisons
53
-------
Organization Level
Q.A. Elements
Supervisor and
Quality Assurance
Coordinator
Document control and revision
OA policy and objectives
Organization
Quality planning
Training
Quality costs
inter- and fntralaboratory testing
Audit procedures
Data validation
Statistical analysis of data
Configuration control
Reliability
Quality reports to management
Q.A. manual
Q A. plans for projects
Operator f Procurement quality control
and { Calibration
Supervisor l Corrective action
Operator
Pretest preparation
Preventative maintenance
Sample collection
Sample analysis
Oata reporting
TYPICAL SAMPLING/ANALYSIS FREQUENCIES
FOR OC SAMPLES
Typ* o< Sampla
Flatd Blank#
Laboratory Blank#
Se*«SS«mpin
Typical f mgutner
Each Stmpi* Mi. at total 10%
ol total numb* ot aamptot
Patty, at taaat 10M of total
ttuntt* ot aamptoa Each
tateo o< t
Each umpta mi.
TYPICAL SAMPUNQ/ANALYStS FREQUENCIES
FOR QC SAMPLES (cont.)
Typa pi Sampia
Oupttcau (paraiW) Samples
twbwnant CaHMttart StwdM
Rafaranct Samptaa
Set! (Backup) Sampfaa
Typical ftoquancy
10S of total numbar ot
samptM, aacn umpta aat
0«My
Eae* aampta aai
54
-------
SESSION 2: AMBIENT MONITORING OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
Lesson Title: Case Study: Toxics Monitoring
Lesson Number: 6
Lesson Time: 30 minutes
Lesson Goal: To provide students with an example of sampling and analysis
of air toxics.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. Describe the monitoring methods Illustrated In the case study
addressing the following:
a. sample collection, storage, and analytical technique
b. results
c. problems encountered
d. solutions
e. conclusions
2. Identify changes to suggest in the approach presented.
55
-------
56
-------
SESSION 3.- SOURCE ASSESSMENT
Lesson Title: Sources of Toxic Air Pollutants
Lesson Number: 7
Lesson Time: 30 minutes
Lesson Goal: To describe sources of toxic air polfutants and to
highlight basic differences In the types of sources
emitting toxic air pollutants end those emitting criteria
pollutants. To provide Information sources useful In
Identifying facilities that potentially emit TAP.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of the lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. List basic differences In types of facilities emitting
criteria and toxic air pollutants (I.e., primary producers
vs. secondary fabricators/users and dispersive end users,
high tonnage vs. lower tonnage, point sources vs. process
and area fugitives, traditional vs. nontradltlonal
sources).
2. List steps for conducting source tests at sources of
toxic air polIutants.
3. List non-traditional sources of toxic air pollutants.
4. Describe how SIC codes may be used to Identify potential
TAP emitters.
Course Manual Readings:
Larenka, C.A. Clclrettl, N.J. OstrowskI, R.T. and IV. Rellly.
Experiences with Toxic Atr Contaminants Control In Philadelphia.
Presented at the EPA Region X Air Toxicant Workshop. Seattle,
Washington. Kay 16-17, 1984. 13pp.
General References:
EPA. Source Assessment Documents. Various dates.
Science Applications, Inc. 1979. Inventory of Carcinogenic
Substances Released Into the Ambient Air of California. Prepared
for California Air Resources Board.
EPA. Industrial Process Profiles for Environmental Use: Chapter 5
Basic Petrochemicals Industry. Research Triangle Park, N,C. EPA
600/2-77-023E. Also In this series:
Chapter 8 Pesticides Industry EPA 600/2-77-023E.
Chapter 24 Iron and Steel lndustry4EPA 600/2-77-D23X,
Chapter 6 Industrial Organic Chemicals EPA 600/2-77-023F.
Chapter 13 Plastic Izers EPA 600/2-77-023M.
Chapter 7 Organic Dyes and Pigments EPA 600/2-77-023G.
57
-------
58
-------
LESSON 7
An Introduction to Air Toxics
toiK
Eirw||ignf
31
Socce
iSftlK)* J)
Monnniiny
*n»irt'V
(Stlt'hn ?!
*tMltrr«ni
(SHI**" «l
rK<»
MftftXi it
Itivcti
M* "vehement
—•
(Sftno*-4*1
fW\ iftavt
Session 3: Source Assessment
• bOu'Ce iotnui*rM
Toilet
tflv««tory
Sowci
S*mpimg
M
• UlWIIu't *•»*»
• Tttl Pi«n
• Sampling
• AnalvtU
• QAJOC
t Saiai* Go*UO#«aiioni
Toxic Air Pollutants
• Organics and inorganics
• Emitted during production, use, and disposal
TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
• Develop a working list
—EPA's list
—State, locality lists
• Unrestricted list
SOURCES OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
• Traditional Sources
—Chemical manufacturing industries
—Solvent production and use
—Pharmacauticaia/cosmencs
—PiaBticCiubb«r
—Paints, Inks, vamithes
— Metal procettmg
—rotoum refining. distributing marketing
—Precision instrument, computer industries
—Mobile sources
59
-------
SOURCES OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
• Non Traditional Sources
—Landfills
—Hazardous waste sites
—Wastewater treatment plants
—Waste lagoons
—Hazardous waste incinerators
—Wood burning stoves
Screening Methods to Identify
Sources of Air Toxics
• Facilities that produce or use a given
compound
• Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code
Sources of Air Toxics in Chemical
Manufacturing Plants
• Reactor vents
• Distillation column vents
• Storage tanks
• Pressure relief valves
• Pump seals and valves
• Waste treatment lagoons
Mobile Sources
Motor vehicles and aircraft
• Fueling
• Engine exhaust
• Evaporation Irom fuel tanks
Combustion Sources
• Utility, industrial, institutional boilers
• Process heaters & furnaces
• Commercial, residential units
• Agricultural open burning
• Wood stoves
• Waste oil combustion
Solvent Use
• Surface coating
• Dry cleaning
• Degreaslng
• Printing & graphic arts
• Laboratories and hospitals
60
-------
Metal Processing
• Mining/milling
• Smelting/refining
• Scrap metal recovery
Petroleum Refining,
Distribution & Marketing
• Refinery
• Bulk terminals
• Service stations
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
pharmaceuticals
• Extraction, purification
• Research labs
COSMETICS
• Solvent
• Dyes, pigments
PLASTIC/RUBBER
• Solvents
• Dyes, pigments
• Piasticizers
PAINT, INK, VARNISH
• Solvents
• Dyes
Verification of Toxic Emissions
—Literature Search
• Source assessment documents
• NESHAPS documents
• Material balances
• Emission factor development documents
—Source testing
• Design test plan
• Design QA/OC plan
• Perform test
• Evaluate data
61
-------
62
-------
SESSION 3; SOURCE ASSESSMENT
Lesson Title: Preparing a Toxic Emissions Inventory
Lesson Number: 8
Lesson Time: 30 minutes
Lesson Goal: To present methodologies and data sources to help students
prepare toxic pollutant emission Inventories.
Lesson Objective: Upon conpietion of this lesson, the student should
be able to:
1. Explain why It Is important to Identify the purpose!s) of
an Inventory before It Is prepared.
2. Describe data sets needed to compile a toxic air pollutant
inventory (Identify source, type of TAP, quantity emitted,
location, control technique, control efficiency, exhaust
strean character 1stics, stack/vent characteristics,
nature of source-point vs. area/process fugitive, SIC
code, nature of emission-continuous, sporadic).
3. Explain how to prepare a survey questionnaire for Industry
nail out.
4. List several prelIminary sources of Information useful in
identifying sources/faciI itles which emit TAP. (Census
of Manufacturers, Manufacturers Directory (state-
specif Ic3» Thomas Register, Dun & Bradstreet, SRI
Directory of Chemical Producers, SIC code, criteria
pollutant Inventories, permit files).
5. Describe methods Of Identifying the type of TAP emitted
(SIC code, USDS, OSHA data on mixtures, Merck Index).
6. Describe how toxic air pollutant emissions can be
quantified and list limitations of each method. (Emission
factors/production data, estimates provided by sources).
7. Explain why stack charactertstlcs and exhaust stream
characteristics should be Included In en Inventory
(Ability of a given source to be controlled).
Course Manual Readings:
Carhart, B. S. 1984. Emission Inventory Techniques for Toxic and
Hazardous Substances: A Comprehensive View. Presented at the EPA
Region X Air Toxicant Workshop. Seattle, WA. flay 16-17, 1984.
63
-------
General References:
Cole, A.W. and J.T. Wllborn. 1984. Results of as Early EPA Effort
to Screen Toxic Air Pollution Sources In an Industrialized Urban
Area. APCA Paper 84-6.1. Presented at the 77th APCA Meeting. San
Francisco, California. June 24-29, 1984.
EPA. 1977. Source Assessment; Noncrlteria Pollutants. IERL.
Research Triangle Park, N.C. EPA 600/2-77-107. (See also 1978
update, NT IS PB * 291-747)
Ash, M. and I. Ash. 1978. Formulary of Paints and Other Coatings.
Volune 1. New York: Chemical Publishing Company.
EPA. 1976. Methodology for Inventorying Hydrocarbons. ORD.
Research Triangle Park, N.C. EPA 600/4-76-013.
EPA. 1984. Air Toxics Infornatton Clearinghouse: Bibliography of
EPA Reports. OAQPS. Research Triangle Park, N.C. EPA Contract
No. 68-02-3513, WA 41.
EPA. 1983. Emission Factors Handbook. ORPM. Washington, D.C.
Radian Corporation. Emission Estimating Guidelines Reports. Five
Reports. Prepared for EPA, Air Management Technology Branch.
Various dates.
Dun and Bradstreet, Inc. Million Dollar Directory. 2 Volumes.
Mew York, New York, (1984)
SRI International. 1984 Directory of Chemical Producers - United
States of America. Menlo Park, California, 1984.
Thomas PublIshlng Company. 1984 Thomas Register of American
ManufacturIng. New York, Hew York, 1984.
Windholz, M. 1983. Merck Index. An Encyclopedia of Chemicals and
Drugs. Tenth Edition. Merck en Co., Inc. Rahway, N.J.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1977 Census of Manufactures. U.S.
Government Printing Office. Washington, Olstrfct of Columbia,
August 1981.
64
-------
LESSON 8
lOiK.
f mttKrfii
in*«iiro*wi
'Vis1** 3i
An Introduction to Air Toxics
SOtriCC ¦
tipoiu'*
1 «s»«tsment t-*
Aimiincii
tSeis>on 3) ¦
(Sai»>on o
Mnruio*mg
Samotux t
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'IKIimrni
lS*il*on b)
l)nii
R.ftfc
Factor
5}
Hi*k
Uin$Q*ntr"
fStlliOn Ml
tte'*i'S(«i»rl t,
fWviri#lL«r
f>H
-------
Administrative Data
• Name of plant personnel to contact
• Location
• SIC code
• Operating schedule
• Departments within the plant
Production/Process Data
• Raw materials used, amount stored
• Process (low diagrams
• Intermediates formed
• Product additives, finishes, conditioners
Equipment Used
• Degreasers (cold cleaner, vapor-degreaser)
• Pamt spray booth
• Drying ovens
• Closed mixers
• Covered conveyor belts
• Floating/fixed roof storage tanks
Control Devices
• Type of control
• Efficiency
• Maintenance of equipment
• Proper installation
Exhaust Stream Characteristics
• Velocity
• Temperature
• Pollutant concentration
• Location of vent/stack
• Moisture content
66
-------
Data Collection Methods
• Mailed questionaire
—Standardized format for easier data analysis
—Frees personnel time
• Telephone survey
—faster response
—Opportunity to clarity responses Immediately
Data Collection Forms
• Generic enough to cover all types ot facilities
• Designed for specific industry segments
• Coding responses helps computer data entry
Selecting Facilities to Contact
• State Manufacturers Directory
• Census of Manufacturers
• Criteria Pollutant 1nventories/SlC Code
• Thomas Register
• Dun & Bradstreet
• SRI Directory ot Chemical Producers
• Industry trade groups
In-House Data
• Existing permit files
• Inspection reports
• Public complaints (odor, dust)
Supplementing Data from Questtonalres
• Material safety data sheets from manufacturers
• Color Index (dyes and pigments)
• Pesticide Index
• OSHA data on mixtures
Calculating Emissions
• Emission factors
• Source testing data
• Material balances
67
-------
68
-------
SESSION 3: SOURCE ASSESSMENT
Lesson Title: Uses of Toxic Emission Inventories
Lesson Number: 9
Lesson Time: 30 minutes
Lesson Goal: To present various ways In which toxics Inventories may
be used by State/local agencies In Identifying and
controlling toxics problems.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should
be able to:
1. Describe the following uses of toxic emissions
Inventories:
a. locate counties/areas of highest emissions
b. Identify the more toxic emissions
c. observe trends In material use/emission based on
SIC code of source/fecfIity
d. Identify sources in densely populated areas
e. Identify types of sources most easily/most
econonically controlled
f. Indirectly evaluate the effectiveness of existing
regulations.
2. Explain how prioritization of sources in the Inventory
can be accomplished, (depending on specific area of toxic
pollutant control being assessed).
a. assign numerical Index to factors of Importance
(exposure potential, toxicity of pollutant)
b. devise weighting factors for each numerical Index
c. evaluate sources with highest weighted indices
Course Manual Readings:
Kfrchner, D. S. and J. L. Nolan. 1984. A Toxics Air Pollutant
Inventory for the Puget Sound Region - Procedures and Preliminary
Results. Presented at the EPA Region X Air Toxicant Workshop.
Seattle, Washington. May 16-17, 1984.
General References:
Wehrum, B., Ahmed, S. and B. Davis. 1984. Air Toxics Emission
Patterns and Trends. EPA Contract 68-02-3513 Task 46. Research
Triangle Park, N.C.
69
-------
General References (continued):
Nagda, N.L., O.J. Pelton, and J.l. Swift. 1979. Emission Factors
and Emission Inventories for Carcinogenic Substances. (In).
Proceedings of the Air Pollution Control Association, 72nd Annual
Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio. June 24-29, 1979. APCA Paper
79-3.1 15 pp.
Price, J.H. and J.O. Ledbetter. 1983. The Comparative Cost
Effectiveness of Reducing Public Exposure to Carcinogens by Abating
Chemical Plant Emissions. (In) Proceedings of the Air Pollution
Control Association. 76th Annual Meeting. Atlanta, Georgia., June
19-24, 1983. APCA Paper 83-6.4. 15 pp.
Melfng, J.J. et. al. 1981. Procedures for Estimating Area Source
Emissions In Colorado. Final Workbook, 2 volumes. EPA Contract
68-02- 35t3. Austin, Texas,
PES, Inc. 1979. Emission Inventory for Enforcement of New Source
Review Policies. EPA Contract 66-01-4148. Santa Monica,
California. April, 1979.
Bradley, R., J. Stredler, and H. Taback, 1980. Improving Emission ..
Inventory Quality - A QA/QC Approach. Presented at the 73rd Annual
Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association. Montreal,
Canada. June 22-27, 1980.
70
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LESSON 9
An Introduction lo Air Toxics
1 &OUICC ¦
f
I *IICIin«nl J—*
I t&e»i»
USES OF INVENTORIES
• Assemble and integrate data
• Evaluate existing regulations
• Identity "high priority" sources
• Observe trends in process changes, material
substitutions
IDENTIFICATION OF
"HIGH PRIORITY" SOURCES
• Quantity of toxic pollutant emitted
• Severity of associated health effect
• Potential for exposure
• Potential for further control of source
PRIORITIZATION OF SOURCES
—Numerical index or ranking for each source
• Quantity emitted
• Health effect
• Control options
• Potential population exposed
—List sources with highest ranking in each
category
—Allocate resources accordingly
-------
RANKING BY TONNAGE EMITTED
Source
Location
Pollutant
TPY Ranking
A
Busy Street
Cadmium
5 4
B
Residential Ave
PercMoroethyiene
15 2
C
Busy Street
1,1,1-Tnchioroetnane
27 1 *
0
Mountain Road
Arsenic
3 5
E
Industrial BWd
BaP
6 3
RANKING BY SEVERITY OF HEALTH EFFECT/TOXICITY
To» biting Facts'
«OMW»
MMtm
TP*
TlV
TPY - '
A
Busy Siimi
CO
S
06
100
6
fWt>a*nii*i *•*
fct'C
15
33t
OS
C
fluly Siimi
1 t 1 T
V
IBOO
01
D
Mountain Rota
*1
J
02
15
E
inau«n»i Bi>a
B«P
e
02
X
RANKING BY POTENTIAL FOR EXPOSURE
Position Cipow*
Iwii ICoxwr) W* 10X lUnkjng
A
10000
s
ioo
1 •
B
10000
15
05
1
C
10000
n
01
1 •
D
1000
3
15
«
E
15000
t
10
i
RANKING BY POTENTIAL FOR CONTROL
I—
WWW
ID
TO.
Sassst
A
Co
s
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©
B
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05
i
c
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at
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is
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f
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4
72
-------
SESSION 3i SOURCE ASSESSMENT
Lesson Title: Control Techniques for Toxfc Air Pollutants
Lesson Number: 10
Lesson Time: 30 minutes
Lesson Goal: To acquaint students with the types of controls
applicable to toxic atr pollutants.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should
be able to:
). Identify control techniques used to control toxfc afr
poIlutants.
2. Explain how control of toxic air pollutants can differ
from that of criteria pollutants.
General References:
Goldberg, A,J. 1973. A Survey of Emissions and Controls for
Hazardous and Other Pollutants. Washington, D.C. EPA R4-73-021.
Golovoy, A. and J. Brasiew. 1981. Adsorption of Automotive Paint
Solvents on Activated Carbon: 1. Equilibrium Adsorption of Single
Vapors. JAPCA SI(8): 861-865.
Chiou, C.T. and P. 5. Rencroft. 1977. Adsorption of Phosgene and
Chloroform by Activated and Impregnated Carbons. Carbon 15:49.
Muela, C.A. 1974. Control Technologies for Moncrlteria Pollutants.
Final report. California Energy Comrrlsslon Contract
No. 110-011(7/8).
Shareef, G.S., Miles, A.J. and B.K. Post. 1984. Hazardous Air
Pollutant (HAP) Control Technology, A Iiterature review. Draft
report. Research Triangle Park, N.C. EPA Contract 68-02-3171.
Gerstie, 0. and D.N. Albrlnck. 1982. Atmospheric Emissions of
Metals from Sewage Sludge Incineration. JAPCA 32(11): 1119-1123.
Shareef, G. $., A. J. Miles, and B. K. Post. 1984 Review of HAP
Control Technology Data Base. Oraft Final Report. Volume 1. EPA
Contract No. 68-02-3171. Work Assignment 87. Research Triangle
Park, N.C. Chapter 5, pp. 18-84.
EPA. 1982. Preliminary Study of Sources of Inorganic Arsenic.
0AQPS. Research Triangle Park, N.C. EPA 450/5-82-005.
Daugherty, D.P. and D.W. Coy 1979. Assessment of the Use of
Fugitive Emission Control Devices. Research Triangle Park, N.C.
EPA 600/7-79- 045.
73
-------
General References (continued):
Justze, 6.A. et. al. 1977. Technical Guidance for Control of
Industrial Process Fugitive Particulate Emissions. Final report.
EPA 450/3-77-010.
EPA. 1978. Emission Inventory/Factor Workshop, Volume II.
Research Triangle Park, N.C. EPA 450/3-78-0426.
White, H.J. 1964. The Art end the Science of Electrostatic
Precipitation. JAPCA 34M1):1163-1167.
74
-------
LESSON JO
lone
tmiMKXtk
i
Onn
ftn*
flilur
t&*tt*on if
*MHh
fir*, it
I)
Session 3: Source Assessment
• SOu'Ct to Dti+tcfi***'
• Smp'">9
• AAftfyllfl
tOMX
• Se'ch
Control of Air Toxics
—Source characteristics
• Point, area, process/area fugitives
—Pollutant characteristics
• Vapor, gas, particulate
• Chemical, physical properties
Basic Controls for Point Sources of
Toxic Volatile Organlcs
• Combustion
• Adsorption
• Absorption
• Condensation
75
-------
Combustion
• Most universally applicable
• No opportunity for material recovery
• Heat recovery possible
Types of Combustion Control
• Thermal Incineration
• Catalytic incineration
• Flaring
• Disposal in boilers/process heaters
Thermal Incineration
• Efficiency depends on temperature, residence Te>-tp^ /ttoo v a jtrj.
time and mixing er C! r
• High efficiency • up to 100% l?C £4 ^ es „c ^
• less dependent on chemical properties ^
Catalytic Incineration i, Mt>+ i*
e a v
• Lower temperature used than thermal
incineration
• Catalysts include platinum, palladium altoys,
copper oxide, chromium, cobalt
• Efficiency 24-99 7%
Flaring
• Streams with high heating valve
• Efficiency 95-100% for VOC
• Used as primary control and during upset
conditions
• Successfully used at acrylonltrile, cyctohexarve
and ethylene plants
Boilers/Process Heaters
• Smaller streams which will not drop firebox
temperature show better results
• Must coordinate bolter firing with process
off gas production
• Control of acetic anhydride, butadiene, ethylene
oxide with boilers
• Control at ethylbenzene/styrene and linear
alhylbenzene plants with process heaters
• Efficiency of 96 - 99% in PCB incineration 75
-------
j_o S c jlr
Adsorption ^^Aoe L^rT*Sfe&ce ARf^ *'* cjooot &e /t>OJ Co^Cf^
• Vapor phase adsorption for exhausts with
relatively low concentrations
• Efficiency depends on pollutant, adsorbant,
temperature and vapor concentration *. i*//<
• Best results with compounds of molecular j0e? *h> +t Snotcie * **r
weights between 45 and 130 ** , ,
_ / uW • j/,#cu/r • Vo oo-f
• Different types of activated carbon suited for y/v** ^
different compounds LffC
• Used for control of alcohols, ketones,
aromatic compounds
• Heat build-up associated with adsorption of
MEK, acetone, phenol, waste stream
concentratjon should be <25% LEL
/a,4-c> soh ¦/¦/OA' af^ce
Absorption - F.*ce 3- ^ pUMrf.. 0<-c '
• Selectively transfer components of waste £p/7^i> * ^ J '
stream to a nonvolatile liquid f f ' to
• Physical and chemical absorption
Absorbents are water, solutions of NaOH,
Na?COj
e Used in packed towers, plateftray towers,
spray chambers
• 70-99% efficient
• Control of aromatics, alcohols, acids,
aldehydes, chlorinated compounds, esters
Condensation
• Increase P, constant T
• Constant P, reduce T
• Surface or contact condensers
• Efficiency 25-99 B percent
• Auxiliary controls with scrubbers and adsorbers
• Applicable for methyl chloride, methyl
chloroform, formaldehyde, perchloroethylene,
xylene
Basic Control Techniques for Point
Sources of Toxic-Containing
Particulate Matter
• ESP
• Fabric filter
• Wet scrubber
• Cyclone
• HEPA filter
77
-------
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
• Effective for particle diameters <20iim
• Efficiency of 66-100%
• Sucesslully used to control Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn. Ni,
Zn from smelters, fossil fuel combustion,
cement manufacture
Fabric Filters
• High collection efficiencies for 0.1-0 5um
particles
• Permits reuse of collected material
• Efficiency depends on temperature, flow rate,
particle size distribution, fabric type and
air-to-cloth ratio
• Sucessfully used for Inorganic and organic
particles
—As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn
—Adipic acid
—Caprolactam
—Dimethyl terephthalates
Wet Scrubbers
• Removes particles by contact with a liquid
• Prevents re-entrainment
• Efficiency of 60-99% for Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni
• Efficiency of 96% for phthallc anhydride
and maleic anhydride vapors
Cyclones
• Centrifugal force separates particles from
carrier gas
• Efficiency increases with particle size, density
cyclone body length
• Efficiency of 60-97% in primary and secondary
metal industries
High Efficiency Particulate Filters
• Efficiency of 99.9% when placed after
baghouse at arsenic-containing herbicide
plant
• Used to control radioactive particles
78
-------
Control of Non-Point Sources
• Work practice change
• Material substitution
• Local exhaust ventilation
• Oust suppression
local Exhaust Ventilation
• Collecting hoods feeding to control device
• Enclosure ol source, feeding to control device
Work PracticefMateria! Substitution
• Covers on degreasers
• Replacing & maintaining pump seats, valves
• Solvent substitution {Less toxic, less reactive)
• Water based coatings
• Chemical binders tor dust suppression
• Wind screens
• Surface covers
79
-------
80
-------
SESSION 4: EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Lesson Title: Introduction to Conducting en Air Toxics Exposure
Assessment
Lesson Number: 11
Lesson Time: 1 hour
Lesson Goal: To define for the student +he meaning and goats of an
exposure assessment, the components of an exposure
assessment, and the generic methods that may be used to
conduct an exposure assessment.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. Explain the meaning of the tern exposure assessment and
Its Importance in connection with air toxics.
2. Describe the reasons for conducting air toxic exposure
assessments and their use as indicators in air toxics
regulatory programs.
3. Explain the meaning and role of all components of an air
toxics exposure assessment:
a. Source characteristics
1. emissions
2. stock parameters
3. location
b. Pollutant dispersion
1. meteorological factors
2. terrain factors
3. buildings, manmade factors
c. Ambient concentrations
1. ambient monitoring data
2. dispersion modeling results
d. Population density
e. Pollutant toxicity
4. Discuss the use of ambient monitoring data and/or
dispersion modeling results In conducting an exposure
assessment.
81
-------
5. Describe the limitations of using ambient monitoring or
dispersion modeling data In an exposure analysis and the
reason for using one or the other.
Course Manual Readings:
Proceeding of the Workshop on Exposure Assessment of Hazardous
Chemicals. Prepared for U.S. EPA. Research Triangle Park, N.C.
April 1980.
82
-------
LESSON 21
Te«*
Imitcnt
tPf«rMOr«|
3i
Sovct
/$«•»«* 3)
An Introduction to AJr Toxica
¦ (>CO»u<« ¦
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(Stuc^ 5i
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(S«ti«r Ji
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6ni«r 61
Session 4: Expoiura A»w»»nwit
(ipoiurt
A*M»on»nl
p»f*on® x conc«nlr«tlon
Ei*mpl« EPA Human
t'peture
Model
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
—Concentration estimate
—Population estimate
—Exposure estimate
Total Exposure = Population x Concentration
(Dosage) (people x |tg/m3)
Population Exposed = Number of persons
exposed to a given
concentration
PURPOSES OF EXPOSURE
ASSESSMENT
—Screening analysis
—Section 112 of the Clean Air Act
—Regulatory basts for new and existing sources
ot toxic chemicals
83
-------
CONCENTRATION ESTIMATE
—Modeling
—Ambient air monitoring data
SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS
—Chemical properties
• Reactivity
• Photochemical properties
• Decay rate
• Formation products
—Source locations and size
• Reference manuals. U.S goveri
publications
• Trade journals
• Exact locations obtained usina
USGS maps
—Source types
• Single point
• Line
• Area
AREA CLASSIFICATION
Urban vs Rural
—Land use
—Population density
TYPE OF TERRAIN
—Flat-level (homogeneous)
—Complex terrain (non-homogeneous)
• Air flow around (over) hills
• Channeling of flow by valleys
• Impact ol plume on terrain features
• Land/water Interface
FACTORS AFFECTING
REPRESENTATIVENESS OF
METEOROLOGICAL DATA
Proximity of met data collection Bite to the
source location
Complexity of terrain around the source
tocation
Amount of data available and when data
were collected
-------
SOURCES OF
METEOROLOGICAL DATA
—National Climatic Center (NCC) archived data
—National Weather Service (NWS) reporting
stations
—On site
GENERAL CATEGORIES OF
METEOROLOGICAL DATA NEEDED TO
INPUT INTO DISPERSION MODELS
—Transport wind speed and direction
—Ambient air temperature
—Mixing height
—Stability class
Need a combination of.
• cloud cover
• net radiation and insolation
• standard deviation of the veriical and
horizontal wind direction ituctuations
MANMADE FACTORS AFFECTING
POLLUTANT DISPERSION
—Stack tip downwash
—Building wake effects
AMBIENT AIR MONITORING
NETWORK DATA
RECOMMENDATIONS
—Appropriate averaging times used
Points of maximum concentration are being
measured
—Data measurement, reduction, and storage
meet EPA monitoring and quality assurance
requirements
—Each Individual source Impact Identified If
more than one source or emission point is
Involved
—A full year of data available
85
-------
AMBIENT AIR MONITORING DATA
—When Is It better than dispersion model
concentration values
—Difference in pollutant concentration
distributions as determined by modeling and
derived from monitoring network data
—Cost
POPULATION ESTIMATE
-MED list
• ED • enumeration district
• BG • block group
—Population centroid
—Additional consideration
• Growth lactors
• Activity levels
• Population mobility
Need to integrate population centroid and
concentration data to determine exposure.
Typical Modeling Problem
CAVEATS WHEN
DETERMINING EXPOSURE
—Population centroWs do not give the population
density, only the population total as the area
of the centroid is unknown
—Urban BC are not uniformly distributed In
vertical and horizontal space
EXPOSURE ESTIMATE
caicuiatrt
xoncantration value
at a gria point
•population centroid
witn population total
l«tM unoamaam
Sourca
86
-------
REPORTING EXPOSURE
ASSESSMENTS RESULTS
Total Exposure = people x uglm1
(Dosage)
Population Exposed = # of people exposed
SUMMARY
—An exposure assessment integrates a
population base with a measure or modeled
pollutant concentration level to determine
exposure.
SUMMARY
—Modeled concentration values are affected by
• Source characteristics
• Type of area
• Meteorological data
• Manmade factors
SUMMARY
—The population input
• Usually determined from population centrotds
obtained from MED
• MED can be modified or an alternate data
base used
• Can reflect human activity patterns
SUMMARY
—Ambient air monitor concentrations depend on
• Siting of the monitors
• Quality and quantity of data
87
-------
88
-------
SESSION 4: EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Lesson Title: Using the EPA Human Exposure Model (HEM)
Lesson Number: 12
Lesson Time: 1 hour
Lesson Goal: To familiarize the student with EPA's HEM for conducting air
toxics exposure assessments.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. Define the intended uses and applications of the HEM and
describe the framework of EPA's exposure methodology.
2. Describe the dispersion model and population data elements of
the HEM and their relationship to estimating public exposure.
3. Describe the outputs possible from using the HEM.
4. Describe the limitations of the HEM.
5. Name the dispersion model used in the HEM and describe the
assumptions associated with the use of this model.
6. Describe how the population data base part of the HEM is
structured and how the HEM distributes people and determines
exposure.
7. Define and supply the inputs needed to run any option of the
HEM.
8. Describe the concept of STAR sites.
9. Describe why pinpointing source locations 1s Important in
using the HEM.
10. Determine public exposure using the HEM population data base
and non-HEM generated ambient concentrations.
Course Manual Readings:
Anderson, G. E. and G. VI. Lundberg. User's Manual for SHEAR. Prepared
for Pollutant Assessment Branch, OAQPS, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Research Triangle Park, NC. May 1983.
Inorganic Arsenic Emissions from Glass Manufacturing Plants -
Background Information for Proposed Standards, Appendix E.
EPA-450/3-83-011a. April 1983.
89
-------
Course Manual Readings (continued}:
Duggan, G.M. How to Use the Human Exposure Models as Implemented at
EPA NCC. SASD/OAQPS, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Research
Triangle .Park, NC. July 1982.
General References:
Systems Applications, Inc. Human Exposure to Atmospheric
Concentrations of Selected Chemicals - Volume 1. EPA-2/250-1.
Prepared for OAQPS, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Research
Triangle Park, NC. February 1982.
90
-------
LESSON 12
An Introduction to Air Toxics
tOK
trniium
(Settw Ji
Soviet
A*Wi»m*nl
iStllWi 3)
r""^r
¦ Fipoimi ¦
A|HI|rf«ni E—•
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F*ttr*tsSill«4.
-------
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
—The only source of exposure is the ambient,
or public air.
—All exposure occurs at people's residences
—People stay at their residences tor 70 years
—The estimated ambient air concentrations,
and the plant emissions which cause these
concentrations, persist for 70 years
—Ambient air concentrations are the same
inside and outside of residences.
—Multiplies number of people by applicable
concentration to produce exposure estimate
LIMITATIONS OF THE HEM
• Flat terrain is assumed Elevated terrain
near sources would result in higher
concentrations
• Only one pollutant is modeled at a time The
additive impacts of multiple chemicals emitted
by a source are not calculated
• The additive impact of sources close to one
another is not calculated
• Re-entrainment not included Would cause
increase in concentrations near re-entrainment
areas
• Site-specific meteorology not used
• The long-term emission rates needed are
based on assumptions rather than on long-term
emission testing
EXAMPLE INPUT CARD
92
-------
EMISSIONS DATA BASE
REQUIRED INPUTS
—Number of plants
For Each Plant
—Name of chemical being modeled
—Plant identification
—Latitude of the emissions source
—Longitude of the emission source
—Urban or rural setting
—Number of emission sources at the plant
• >•»
EMISSIONS DATA BASE
REQUIRED INPUTS
For Each Emission Source:
—Type of emission {process vent, storage vent,
fugitive, stack)
—Emission rate (kg/yr)
—Stack or vent height (m)
—Building (of vent or stack) cross sectional area
perpendicular to the mean wind flow (m>)
—Vent type (vertical or non
-------
METEOROLOGICAL DATA
—No specific input needed
—Model uses stability array (STAR) summaries
from closest site to the source
—STAR summary contains a joint frequency-of-
occurrence of wind speed, atmospheric
stability, and wind direction, classified
according to Pasquill's categories
—Specific STAR site data can be requested to
better represent source meteorological
conditions
DISPERSION MODEL
—Climatological dispersion model (COM)
• Simple model
• Models horizontal dispersion in 16 wind
directions
• Gaussian plume equation for verticle
dispersion
• Does not consider terrain
SCHEMATIC OF DISPERSION MODEL
Z lowtft
m, »j ••
0102°) D"iia*cti'iC * *00* J
4 Cofteft'itio* focoeiot
SftftOOO 0**6 C*I Ot1i*OC fry * CWWWSf'Ot #OCtOtOt
94
-------
EXAMPLE CONCENTRATION OUTPUT
Cfroffimn
WW*
frr*et«n
S
85*
SW
ws*
w
WWW
NW
ttc
I 7JW*000
151096*000
(Conc«nu«fio* «m*crogr»mM:tfO< mmtm$
. pfrfwiwsd Dmaftce QCmt
5 7 IP >D I1C
001
D«>«
0C«.
COO'
A AfM *wgH<*«
B ••OCltl E"ii|l'0«l »'t* I^WJ CO*W
C ^OCMI •'<* 6» CO"1*0'
0 *roe»i» •« Centre*
0000'
OTHER
—Dispersion model part of HEM can be
bypassed, only census data and exposure
model used
—Can input other ambient concentration levels
from independent modeling or ambient
measurements
—Alternate concentration inputs must match
distribution of receptors (polar grid, 10 down-
wind distances, 16 radials)
95
-------
POPULATION DATA BASE
—Based on 1980 census
—Contains
• Latitude and longitude of centroid of each
enumeration district or block group (ED/BG)
• Number of people in each ED/BG
• An ED/BG contains less than 1600 people
SCHEMATIC OF HEM ESTIMATION OF
EXPOSURE FOR POPULATION CENTROIDS
WITHIN 2.8 KM OF THE SOURCE
Mv
Z i C« Cd"c«*t'atio* *«e«Don ico«etntriiio*i titimjiK
:*• OiiM't'O* mpo«
¦ °2 **0' *'°*S *fuC^ eo*ci«tt»tro"i a* ttt>mat«c ©j
O'lWftiOA moo*1
_ tow o' 00«f met**
SCHEMATIC OF HEM ESTIMATION OF
EXPOSURE FOR CONCENTRATIONS BEYOND
2.8 KM FROM THE SOURCE
ft.
•ocvt»t«* tyn»e
r*e*eton teo*ci*irata*« Mirfnstto Pi
moo**1
iMtraottK COACtAtrtti^ft
My
e
C,-C«
c
96
-------
HYPOTHETICAL EXPOSURE
CALCULATION
—A real case would contain many more
concentration/population pairs
Concentration Population Exposure
(pgftnJ) (People x pg/m'|
2 x 900 = 1600
1 * 1000 = 1000
05 X 1000 = 500
Total aggregate exposure = 3300
Maximum individual exposure = 2 ygJrn^
EXAMPLE HEM OUTPUT FOR
INDIVIDUAL PUNT
Concentration ¦ Ambient Concentration
Exposure * Number of people exposed to
that or a higher concentration
Dosage = Concentrations x number ot
people exposed (also to cumulative)
EXAMPLE HEM OUTPUT FOR
INDIVIDUAL PLANT
4?MEC DaerM* * IM
temiDegww Ui
lluP ~ I
i m • m 1 Mt •
a aw
IJM - ®1 <1 tH'
-------
EXAMPLE HEM OUTPUT FOR
INDIVIDUAL PLANT
• Total exposed population ¦ 952351 people
• Aggregate exposure « 2.59 x Unpeople x
»»g/m'
• Maximum Individual exposure ¦ 1.24 x 10-'
EXAMPLE HEM EXPOSURE OUTPUT
SUMMARY FOR 40 PUNTS
EMITTING ARSENIC
H>OM • BLOOT
111 - ttl
IJD - ODt
t««0B0
tn * obi
SHEAR MODEL
—Models 3 types of sources
• Point
• Prototype
• Area
—Calculates additive impact of multiple sources
located close to one another
—Can consider multiple chemicals
—Similar In function to HEM ¦ models
dispersion, population, and exposure.
—Model is more complex to use and more
expensive
98
-------
SESSION 4: EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Lesson Title: Case Study Example of Exposure Assessment Using the Human
Exposure Model (HEM)
Lesson Number: 13
Lesson Time: 2 hours
Lesson Goal: To familiarize the student with the process of using EPA's
HEM for performing Inhalation exposure assessments.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. Apply the HEM to specific air toxics exposure assessments.
2. Construct appropriate HEM Inputs based on emission release
information specific to industrial facilities.
3. Describe how to input data Into the HEM.
4. Describe how to access and execute the EPA HEM.
5. Interpret the outputs of an EPA HEM execution (Including
graphical descriptions of pollutant concentrations and
population distributions within the study area).
6. Contact appropriate EPA personnel to correct any problems
encountered in using the model.
Course Manual Readings:
User's Manual for the Human Exposure Model (HEM). Prepared by
Pollutant Assessment Branch, OAQPS. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Research Triangle Park, NC. June 1986.
99
-------
LESSON 13
An introduction to Air Toxics
loic
(miim
ii
Suh*C*
AlNIWI
iStllfir }t
¦ I
I -
>cNim i
(Stucn r
liMttmmi
-------
APPLICATION OF HEM
• Preparation of Inputs
• Execution of HEM
• Interpretation of HEM outputs
PREPARATION OF HEM INPUTS
• Required Inputs
• Site ID
• Chemical ID
• Meteorological data
• Emission characteristics
• Transformation of source descriptions to
HEM Inputs
• Construction of computerized Input file
TRANSFORMATION OF SOURCE
DATA INTO HEM INPUTS
• Direct computation of inputs
• Filling data gaps
• Performing QA for data
EXAMPLE INPUT CARD
MtHl* 9* C«9 V latft *• M
rwwr- - ...
Mt»ii om si i of it* *mu
-------
ACCESSING THE NCC • UNIVAC
COMPUTER
• Obtaining an NCC-UN1VAC account
• Communicating with NCC-UNIVAC
• File concepts for the NCC-UNIVAC
EXECUTING THE HEM
• Storing Input data
• Building a batch Job
• Submitting Inputs for execution
• Accessing HEM output files
MODEL INPUT SUMMARY
• Source characteristics
• Population data file access
DISPERSION MODEL OUTPUT
• Polar grid network
• Ambient pollutant concentration
distribution
EXPOSURE MODEL OUTPUT
• Cumulative exposure summary
• Minimum/maximum exposure reports
• Population distribution (optional)
102
-------
SESSION 5; RISK ASSESSMENT
Lesson Title: Introduction to Rfsk Assessment
Lesson Number: 14
Lesson Tiire: 30 minutes
Lesson Goal: To fntroduce students to quantitative risk assessment.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the students should
be able to:
1. Identify and describe the 4 basic components of risk
assessnent (hazard Identification, exposure Identi-
fication, dose-response, risk characterIzatlon).
2. Distinguish between risk assessment and risk managenent.
Course Manual Readings:
NAS. 1983. Risk Assessment In the Federal Government. Managing
the Process. Washington, D.C. 1983. 191 pp. Chapter 1,
pp 17-51.
General References:
Rodricks, J.Y. R.G. Tardlff. 1984. Conceptual Basis for Risk
Assessment (In) Assessment and Management of Chemical Risk. ACS
Syposlum Series 239. pp 3-13.
D. Krewski and C. Brown. 1981. Carcinogenic Risk Assessment: A
Guide to the Literature. Biometrics. 37: 353-366.
Lowrence, W.W. 1976. Of Acceptable Risk - Science and the
Determination of Safety. Wl11 lam Kaufmann, Inc. Los Altos, CA.
160 pp.
McCray, I.E. 1983, An anatomy of risk assessment. Working Paper
of Committee on the Institutional Means for Assessment of Risks to
Public Health. NAS. Washington, D.C.
103
-------
104
-------
Ltiiun it
An Introduction to Air Toxics
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Regulate**
Ore i« «on
*Se»%««> 61
Session 5: Risk Assessment
Hit *3
lu«
• 90M^np0^M c^«i
f«tc«pQJalK>"
• D0pu**tK>r
• Oonc«nu#t«
BptDtci tt*pvm
of human papw4a(OT
Session 5: Risk Assessment
QUALITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT
• Is exposure to the substance associated with
adverse health effects ?
QUANTITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT
• Use of scientific data to estimate potential
responses in a human population
105
-------
THRESHOLD EFFECTS
• A dose exists below which no response occurs
In the biological model
• Non-carcinogens
• NOEL, NOAEL; LOEL, LOAEL, FEL
• ADI
NON-THRESHOLD EFFECTS
• No safe dose
• Carcinogens
RISK ASSESSMENT
• Based on scientific data
• Probability of health effects
RISK MANAGEMENT
• Policy decisions using results of risk
assessment
• Choice of regulatory options
• Includes political, social, economic factors
Risk Assessments Include:
• Hazard identification
• Dose-response assessment
• Exposure assessment
• Risk characterization
Hazard Identification
• Epidemiological data
• Animal bioassays
• In vitro studies
• Structure activity relationships
Dose Response Assessment
• Describes relationship between exposure
concentration and observed responses
• Low-dose extrapolation
• Animal to human extrapolation
• Unit risk estimate
106
-------
DoM-fUtportM Sample Curve
I
1
j
1
*© '**» * i >1
* mo vro*
H-f-H
K-fH
Typtt*t Lmd Found lit
OliNHwq Wilar
TvoM< U**t Uwd tn
fctpii^—ni paytgi
'*07 • MmMmm Tatar **4 Oom
Exposure Assessment
—Determination of exposure concentration
• Ambient monitoring
• Modeling
—Definition of population exposed
• Sensitive subpopulations
• BG/ED
Risk Characterization
• Combines hazard identification, dose-response
assessment and exposure assessment
—Individual risk
—Aggregate risk
• Includes confidence timlts
107
-------
108
-------
SESSION 5: RISK ASSESSMENT
Lesson Title: Components of Risk Assessment
Lesson Number: 15
Lesson Time: 45 minutes
Lesson Goal: To familiarize students with the types of data needed to
perform a risk assessment and to explain basic concepts in
hazard identification and dose-response assessments.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. Describe types of data available for use In risk assessment
(animal and human).
2. Explain why extrapolation from animal to human 1s needed and
why high to low dose extrapolation 1s needed.
3. Describe "risk assessment" of noncardnogerss, based on NOAEL
and safety factor, and TLV and safety factor.
4. Describe model outputs and what they mean (unit risk factor).
5. Describe EPA's classification system for evidence of
carcinogenicity.
Course Manual Readings:
Brown, C. C. 1984. High-to-Low Dose Extrapolation 1n Animals. ACS
Syp. Series 239. Rodricks and R. G» Landiff (ed.) pp. 57-79.
General References:
WAS, J977. Drinking Water and Health. Volume 1. "Chemical
Contaminants: Safety and Risk Assessment". Washington, D.C,
pp. 19-63.
HAS, 1986. Drinking Water and Health. Volume 6. Washington, D.C.
Environmental Protection Agency. Various dates. Health Assessment
Documents.
Examples: Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity Assessment of
1-3,Butadiene. EPA 600/B-85-004f.
Anderson, E. L. and the Carcinogen Assessment Group, 1983.
Quantitative approaches 1n use to assess cancer risk. Risk Analysis
2:277-295.
109
-------
110
-------
SESSION 5: RISK ASSESSMENT
Lesson Title: Uses of Risk Assessment in the Regulatory Process
Lesson Number: 16
Lesson Time: 1 hour (may extend longer, depending on class work time for
the example)
Lesson Goal: To identify uses of risk assessment in developing
regulations, and to provide a classroom example showing how
risk assessment may be used
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. Describe how exposure assessments can be combined with
dose-response/risk characterization to get a maximum
individual risk, or to get aggregate risk (risk
characterization)
2. Describe how risk assessments fit into implementation of
Section 112 of CAA.
3. Define the difference between risk assessment and risk
management and identify what types of activities are
associated with each process.
Course Manual Readings:
51 £R 33992. Final Guidelines for Risk Assessment for Carcinogens.
September 24, 1985.
General References:
Tabler, S.K. EPA's Program for Establishing NESHAP. JAPCA
34(5):532-536. 1984.
Padgett, J. EPA's A1r Toxics Control Program. Conference Proceedings:
Environmental Risk Assessment. How New Regulations will affect the
Utility Industry EA-2064. New Orleans, LA. October 1981. p. 3-35,
3-46.
Goldstein, 8.D. Toxic Substances 1n the Atmospheric Environment.
JAPCA 33(5):454-465. 1983.
Patrick, D.R. 1984. EPA's Process of Assessing and Managing Risks
Posed by Exposure to Toxic Air Pollutants," U.S. EPA 77th APCA Annual
Meeting June 24-29, 1984. (84-103.2).
Ill
-------
General References (continued):
Goldstein, B.D. 1984. "Risk Assessment Criteria for Risk Management"
U.S. EPA. 77th APCA Annual Meeting. June 24-29, 1964 (64-103.4).
Stigllani, W.M. 1983. Case Study: Asbestos Risk Assessments by
OSHA/NIOSH and EPA. Working Paper of the Committee on the
Institutional Means for Assessment of Risk to Public Health.
Washington, D.C. National Academy Press.
112
-------
LESSON 15
An Introduction to Air Toxics
|iM»|ioni
(Snwin 11
Gou'c*
CipeiMri
Mmiiwi
«IW«
fianor Ji
ISiiiwi
'
Si mining 4
'¦^•wSnteaotai
MiMnli
Urvjf
Kill
F«CI9
45»**an 5i
Stctlon 5: Risk A*w»WT»*nt
• H*T*< *af»
' 0*« *lHBDOtel&n
• do** '#»ptmm
¦iirapeiaito*
• BOCKIIIHO"
RISK ASSESSMENT
FOR CARCINOGENS
-Hazard identification • to determine If exposure
is associated with elfects
-Dose - response assessment • to define the
relationship between effect occurance and
dose
-Exposure assessment • to define the population
exposed and to estimate the exposure
concentration
-Risk characterization • to determine the extent
of the public health problem and address
uncertainties
113
-------
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
—Epidemiological Data
• Case ¦ control studies * relate existing
disease to variables
• Cohort studies ¦ relate development of
disease to variables
• Advantages - response seen m human
population
• Disadvantages ¦ co exposure and inadequate
measure of dose
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
—Animal Studies
• Long term bioassays • exposure for lifetime
of animal model
• Short term acute studies - exposure for
24 hours, 3 months etc
• Advantages • control of purity of dose,
quantity of dose, examination of tissues
• Disadvantage - response in animal model
may not truly represent response in humans,
conflicting results between studies
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
• Short term m vitro studies * mutagenicity,
Ames test
• Advantages - fast, less expensive, screening
tool
• Disadvantages ¦ can iiot "prove"
carcinogenicity
• Structure - activity relationships, probable
evidence of carcinogenicity by comparing
molecular structure of suspect chemical to
structure of Known carcinogen
114
-------
DOSE-RESPONSE ASSESSMENT
Quantitative relationship between amount
of agent administered and the response
of the test organism
Mathematical models used to predict
probability of response (risk)
HIGH TO LOW DOSE
EXTRAPOLATION
• Assume no IhreshoW for carcinogens
• Use mathematical models
-Multi stage
-Multi hit
—One hit
—Welbull
—Probit
I
I
>0'
* 10
-------
©
¦
©
¦
o
¦
ESTIMATED LOW-DOSE RESPONSE TO
BENZO(a]PYRENE
• Linearized multi stage model that calculates
95% upper limit risk most used
P,d = 1 - exp(q,d ~ q?d} + ... q^d")]
Where.
P,d = extra rtsk over background
d = dose
UNIT RISK FACTOR
• Global 83 computer program calculates
point estimates. 95% UCL
• Expressed aaq,* »2.5x
EQUIVALENT DOSE BETWEEN
SPECIES
• mfl/surtace area/day
• me/kg/day
• ppm
116
-------
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES
• Relative Risk
• Response Observed/Response Expected
DOSE-RESPONSE ASSESSMENT
• Quantitative relationship between amount
of agent administered and the response
of the test organism
• Mathematical models used to predict
probability of response (risk)
UNIT CANCER RISK FACTOR
• Excess lifetime risk due to a continuous
constant exposure of one unit of
carcinogen concentration
• Example: riskol2.7x
• Obtained from q,*
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
—Defines population exposed and the ambient
concentration of the agent
—Use of atmospheric dispersion models and
independent population counts
—Use of HEM
• individual risk
• Aggregate risk
117
-------
RISK CHARACTERIZATION
—Estimates magnitude of public health problem
—Combines exposure and risk assessment
—Includes discussions of uncertainties
HEM
—Individual risk
For persons living in area of maximum
exposure, the maximum lifetime risk
—Aggregate risk
Incidences of cancer amoung all persons in
the analysis after 70 years of exposure
PROBLEMS IN RISK ASSESSMENT
—Sensitive subpopulations
—Uncertainties in dose-response and exposure
assessments (confidence limits)
—Choice of extrapolation models
ASSESSMENT FOR
NON-CARCINOGENS
—Existence of a threshold
—NOEL/safety factor
—TLV/safely factor
CLASSIFICATION FOR EVIDENCE OF
CARCINOGENICITY
—Groups A, B,. B,. C, D, E
Group A Human Carcinogen
—Evidence from epidemiological studies
Group B Probable human carcinogen
—Bt at least limited evidence from
epidemiological studies
—Bj Inadequate epidemiological evidence,
sufficient animal evidence
Group C - Possible human carcinogen
—Limited animal evidence
Group D - Not classified
—Inadequate animal evidence
Group E — No data
118
-------
—Sufficient evidence
• Multiple species or strains
• Multiple experiments
• Unusual type or site of tumor, age at onset
—Limited evidence
• Single species, strain or e»periment
• Inadequate dose levels, duration of exposure,
numbers of ammafs
—Inadequate evidence
• Studies cannot be interpreted
—No evidence
• At least 2 well designed and well conducted
studies
—No data
119
-------
120
-------
SESSION 5: RISK ASSESSMENT
Lesson Title: Uses of Risk Assessment 1n the Regulatory Process
Lesson Number: 16
Lesson Time: 1 hour (may extend longer, depending on class work time for
the example)
Lesson Goal: To Identify uses of risk assessment 1n developing
regulations, and to provide a classroom example showing how
risk assessment may be used
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. Describe how exposure assessments can be combined with
dose-response/risk characterization to get a maximum
individual risk, or to get aggregate risk (risk
characterization)
2. Describe how risk assessments fit Into Implementation of
Section 112 of CAA.
3. Define the difference between risk assessment and risk
management and identify what types of activities are
associated with each process.
Course Manual Readings:
51 £R 33992. Final Guidelines for Risk Assessment for Carcinogens.
September 24, 1986.
General References:
Tabler, S.K. EPA's Program for Establishing NESHAP. JAPCA
34(5):532-536. 1984.
Padgett, J. EPA's Air Toxics Control Program. Conference Proceedings:
Environmental Risk Assessment. How New Regulations will affect the
Utility Industry EA-2064. New Orleans, LA. October 1981. p. 3-35,
3-46.
Goldstein, B.D. Toxic Substances 1n the Atmospheric Environment.
OAPCA 33(5):454-465. 1983.
Patrick, D.R. 1984. EPA's Process of Assessing and Managing Risks
Posed by Exposure to Toxic Air Pollutants,' U.S. EPA 77th APCA Annual
Meeting June 24-29, 1984. (84-103.2).
121
-------
General References (continued):
Goldstein, B.D. 1984. "Risk Assessment Criteria for Risk Management"
U.S. EPA. 77th APCA Annual Meeting. June 24-29, 1984 (84-103.4).
St1glian1, W.M. 1983. Case Study: Asbestos Risk Assessments by
OSHA/NIOSH and EPA. Working Paper of the Committee on the
Institutional Means for Assessment of Risk to Public Health.
Washington, O.C. National Academy Press.
122
-------
An Introduction to Air Toxics
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-------
ACCEPTABLE LEVEL OF RISK
—No set level
—Decisions made on case-by-case basis
—Acceplabte based on which criteria0
REDUCTION IN RISK
—Reduction in emissions and therefore exposure
—Reduction in exposure by process modification,
raw material substitution
FEASIBILITY OF SOURCE CONTROL
AND MATERIAL SUBSTITUTION
—Technical
—Economic
PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF RISK
REDUCTION METHODS
—Too stringent
—Too lax
CARCIKMf mc »0!l«O OF StNKNt C«tCVU«D *JMI »»»S OF
MOaUtfPHkTlC UUMMU MORmmrMTl* OiMBveOI*
THRU tmOtMlOlMtC Hunts
Ikw
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liOOtu't
li»>—
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• •
2 »)
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49 • »
!•«
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#«
937
til ¦ 10*
«f7« t»»
0" t* *'
in
©»>
iti ¦ B'W
toi « Sg»«J
CARCINOGENIC POTENCY OF BENZENE
CALCULATED ON THE
BASIS OF ANIMAL DATA
Oata ftiae
Female Hals [Maitoni
•I at. 198?)*
Mm tats (NTP. 1964)*
Female Rati {NTP, 1984]»
Male Mica (Snpfer. 1M0P
lifetime Risk lifetime Risk
Perppm Par uyw>
34 x 10-' 11 ¦ 10 "
20 x 10-* 60 x 10-'
13 x 10-> 10 x 10 *
14 x 10-» 43x 10-«
Geometric Mean 24 x 10-* 73 x 10 *
•Zym&ai giarvd carcinomas (Gavage study)
Hiemiiopoienc neoplasms (inhaiauon study)
124
-------
INTENT TO REGULATE UNDER SECTION 112
Total
Number of Emissions Stationary
Source EicMmg (Megagrams/yaar) Source
Category Facilities Before J Attar Emissions
Betuene
fugitive 226 7.900 2,500 106
Coke
by producl 55 29.000 3,300 M8
INTENT TO PROPOSE WtTHORAWAL OF
PROPOSED STANDARDS
Total
Number ol Emissions Stationary
Source Exijunf (Megagramaryear) Source
Calagory Facilities Before ' After Emissions
Maieic
anhydride
3 960 120
26
Eltiytberaenef
flyrene
8
o
ft
n
046
Beniene
ttoiage
126 620 400
INTENT TO REGULATE
UNOEfl SECTION 112 *co*.}
IB
Scwu
Cti««eri
Individual Aftnu«< Ctnce ClUt
fia'CKt I A»if< A#tor» l All*' < D»M«t»nc4
•mm
tuQilnrt
tyiOOOO 4*10000 043 0)4
03i
Com
noccuci
ttioooo 3vtoaoo im m
3 37
INTENT TO PROPOSE WITHDRAWAL
OF PROPOSED STANDARDS teont)
Mtiww Littion*
Some* hm«u« A Amw*i CM* Cmi
C«t*oorr (also i All*' 0>'o>t I A»r <
««iiiitt Wmiman 5 >mnwa OCX 00t« 0013
fnitwnw
«iin WMMn Itrnm 00067 CMW OOOSi
Iwni
¦mitt »*mooco 3»iodoo£! oou son Don
ALTERNATIVES TO RISK
ASSESSMENT IN
REGULATING AIR TOXICS
• TLV & Safety Factor
• CAG Unit Rtsk Factors
125
-------
126
-------
SESSION 6: REGULATORY/PROGRAMMATIC ISSUES
Lesson Title: Federal Initiatives In Air Toxics Control
Lesson Number: 17
Lesson Time: 45 minutes
Lesson Goal: To acquaint the student with Federal programs affecting air
toxics control.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. Explain the provisions of sections of the Clean Air Act that
affect control of air toxics.
a. Section 110: SIP's
b. Section 111(b): NSPS
c. Section 111(d): standards for existing sources
d. Section 112: NESHAP's
e. Section 211: fuel and fuel additives
2. List the substances Identified as hazardous air pollutants
under Section 112.
a. Mercury
b. Beryllium
c. Asbestos
d. Vinyl Chloride
e. Benzene
f. Radionuclides
g. Inorganic Arsenic
h. Radon-222
1. Equipment leaks
3. Explain the major portions of EPA's air toxics strategy.
4. Explain the concept of "indirect control of air toxics via
VOC and TSP controls."
5. Be aware of the following Federal statutes and their role 1n
control of toxic substances:
a. Toxic Substances Control Act
b. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
c. Occupational Safety and Health Act
6. Be aware of the following Federal toxic chemical coordinating
groups:
a. National Toxicology Program
b. Chemical Substance Information Network
127
-------
General References:
The Clean Mr Act As Amended. August 1977. Sections 110, 111, 112.
Environmental Protection Agency. September 1983. Federal Activities
1n Toxic Substances-2nd Edition. Chemical Coordination Staff,
Washington, D.C. EPA 560/TIIS-83-007.
Environmental Protection Agency. May 1983. Directory of Federal and
International Coordinating Groups for Toxic Substances-3rd Edition.
Chemical Coordination Staff, Washington, O.C. EPA 560/TIIS-83-004.
Environmental Protection Agency. June 1982. EPA Chemical Activity
Status Report-Volume I and II. Chemical Coordination Staff,
Washington, D.C. EPA 560/TIIS-82-002(a) and EPA 560/TIIS-62-002(b).
40 CFR Part 50. National Primary and Secondary Ambient A1r Quality
Standards.
40 CFR Part 60. Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources.
40 CFR Part 61. National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants.
29 CFR Part 1910. Occupational Health and Safety Standards.
Environmental Protection Agency. September 1983. Chemical Information
Resources Handbook. Chemical Coordination Staff, Washington, D.C.
EPA-560/T11S-83 -006.
Environmental Protection Agency. June 1985. A Strategy to Reduce
Risks to Public Health from Air Toxics. Washington, D.C.
Environmental Protection Agency. December 1985. Status of EPA
Decisions on Air Toxics Summarized. National Air Toxics Information
Clearinghouse Newsletter. Research Triangle Park, N.C.
128
-------
LESSON 17
An Introduction to Mr Toxics
ToiK
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fitlMX *
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rrt«ci»
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Session 6: RegulatofyfProgrammatlc Issues
Atr Toiici
tnlomvilktr
CtMrtnghoUM
St«l« »nt Local
Agwtcy Air Toilet
Program*
ItetfenM
PUnntng
Federal Initiatives In
Air Toxics Control
• Clean Air Act
• Toxic Substances Control Act
• Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
• Occupational Safety and Health Act
Clean Air Act
• Major Federal Statute Pertaining to Air Toxics
• Passed in 1963. Amended In 1977, Up tor
Reaauihorization in 1961
Sections of CAA that Affect Air Toxics
Indirect Control of Air Toxics
• Section 110- SIPs
• Section 111(b) NSPS
Oirect Control of Air Toxics
• Section 111(d)
• Section 112 • NESH APs
• Section 211
-------
Sections of CAA That
Affect Air Toxics
Indirect Control of Air Toxics:
• Ozone, particulates, NO,, SOj, CO, Pb
—Section 110" SlPs
—Section 111(b) NSPS
Sections of the CAA That
Affect Air Toxics
Direct Control of Air Toxics
• Section 111 (d)
• Section 112-NESH APS
Beryllium
Mercury
Vinyl Chloride
Asbestos
Benzene
• promulgated
• promulgated
• promulgated
• promulgated
1073/1978
1973/1975/1978
1976/1977/1978
1973/1975/1964
• Radionuclides
• Inorganic arsenic
• Radon*222
• Equipment leaks
• promulgated • 1985
• promulgated • 1986
• promulgated - 1986
• promulgated - 1984
• Benzene
—Maleic anhydride
manufacturing
—Ethylbenzene/
Styrene manufacturing
—Equipment leaks
—Benzene storage
tanks
—Coke by-product
recovery tanks
-proposal -1964
withdrawn
•proposal -1984
withdrawn
•promulgated >1964
•proposal -1984
withdrawn
-proposed 1984
OTHER DESIGNATIONS UNDER
SECTION 112
• Referred to States
• lntent-to-Llst
• Intent-to-Regulate
• Not-to-Regulate 130
-------
Toxic Substances Control Act
(TSCA)
• Passed in 1976
• Allows EPA to regulate chemicals In commerce
• TSCA Assistance Of'ice (800) 424*9065
Resource Conservation
And Recovery Act (RCRA)
• Passed In 1976
• Allows EPA to regulate hazardous wastes
from generation to disposal
Occupational Safety and Health Act
(OSHA)
• Passed In 1970
• Established OSHA. NIOSH, Occupational
Safety and Health Review Commission
• Calls for standards to protect workers from
exposure to toxic substances
Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act • 1986
Title 111: Emergency Planning and Community
Right-to-Know Act ot 1986
EPA's AIR TOXICS STRATEGY -1965
• National Regulation
• State Air Toxics Control Programs
• Multimedia Control Methods
• Accidental Releases
131
-------
National Toxicology Program
(NTP)
• Goats
—Expand spectrum of toxicotoflfcal information
—Conduct short-term assays
—Develop and validate test protocols
—Establish communication network
• Copies of publications:
NTP Public Information Officer
P. 0. Box 12233 (MD B204)
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
(919) 541-3991
132
-------
SESSION 6» REGULATORY/PROGRAMf 1ATIC ISSUES
Lesson Title: Key Issues In Developing and Operating a State or Local
Level Air Toxics Program
Lesson Number: 18
Lesson Time: 45 minutes
Lesson Goal: To acquaint the student with key policy Issues associated
with air toxics control at the state/local level and to
Introduce solutions to those Issues that are used by
State/local agencies. *
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of the lesson, the student should be
able to:
1. List the main considerations In development and operation
of end air toxics control program:
a. enabling legislation
b. function
c. scope
d. determination of acceptable emission levels
2. Explain how the function (I.e., the regulatory mechanisms
for achieving control) of an air toxics program can be
influenced by the enabling legislation (e.g., performance
limits versus technology requirements, guidelines versus
standards).
3. Describe policies used for limiting the scope of an air
toxics program.
4. Explain some of the methods used to deternlne If an
emissions level for a particular source is acceptable.
General References:
Pel land, A.S., S.C. Margerum, G.E. H11kIns* 1983. "Survey of
Eight State and Local Air Toxics Control Strategies.11 Presented at
APCA Specialty Conference: Measurement end Monitoring of
Noncrlterla (Toxic) Contaminants In Air. Chicago, Illinois.
March 22-24, 1983.
Study of Selected State and Local Air Toxics Control Strategies.
Research Triangle Park, N.C.s U.S. EPA (OAQPS). EPA 450/5-62-006.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1984. Magnitude and Nature of
the Air Toxics Problem In the United States. Research Triangle
Perk, N.C. U.S. EPA (OA9PS). Unpublished.
133
-------
General References (continued):
"Report on the Twelfth APCA Government Affairs Seminar." June
1984. Journal of the Atr Pollution Control Association. Vol. 34,
No.,6. pp. 624, 633-636.
STAPPA/ALAPCO. January 1984. Toxic Afr Pollutants: State and
Local Regulatory Strategies. Washington, D.C.: State and
Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators and Association of
Local Air Pollution Control Officials.
American Conference of Governmental and Industrial Hygtenlsts.
TLVs Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical
Agents In the Workroom Environment with Intended Changes for
1984-85. ACGIH, Cincinnati, OH.
Smith, C.S., S. A. Smith. Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse:
Interim Report of Selected Information on State and Local Agency
Air Toxics Activities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1984. 45 pp.
134
-------
LESSON 18
An Introduction to Air Toxlct
tn*OTior«i
Cnmn Jj
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tfpOMI
AiMimmi
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fitttojn ii
Session 6: Regulatory/Programmatic 1stues
State and Local Agency
Air Toxics Programs
Structural Considerations
1. Enabling legislation & administrative rules
2. Function
3. Scope
4. Determination of acceptable emission limits
Enabling Legislation &
Administrative Rules
• General air pollution control authority
• Specific authority for air toxics
135
-------
Relationship Between Air Toxics
Program and Legislation/Rules
Program must be:
e Consistent with legal mandate
• Compatible with regulatory framework
e Accomodating to organizational structure
MICHIGAN AIR OUAltnr CXVIStON OftOANOATtON
A»r tmrMOT*
AUMDWlt U*H
»»l Unit
Aif feegrtfnt ®reXf»
Cofnoiia^ce Brazen
Cnginvr Secuo*
Function
(Regulatory Mechanism]
Typical Permitting Process:
• Determination of a source's emissions and
emission rates
• Determination of acceptable ambient
concentrations
e Estimation of source's contribution to
ambient concentration
e Comparison of allowable ambient
concentration to source's contribution
Scope
• Substances
e Sources
e Minimum emission threshold
e Lifetime permit vs. permit renewal
136
-------
Determination of Acceptable
Emission Limits
• Control technology requirements
• Ambient guidelines or standards
• Risk assessment
137
-------
13B
-------
SESSION 6: REGULATORY/PROGRAIHATIC ISSUES
Lesson Title: Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse
Lesson Tlflie: 30 minutes
Lesson Nunber: 19
Lesson Goals To acquaint the student with the purpose of the Air Toxics
Information Clearinghouse, the Information available, and
how to get the Information.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should
be able to:
Explain the goal end function of the Air Toxics
Information Clearinghouse.
List the types of Information that will be provided to
the Clearinghouse by state and local agencies, EPA, and
other Federal agencies and private sources.
List the Information dissemination methods planned for
use by the Clearinghouse.
Explain why the success of the Clearinghouse depends on
participation by State and local agencies.
Understand what the Clearinghouse has to offer, how to
submit Information to the Clearinghouse, and how to
retrieve Information from the Clearinghouse.
General References:
Environmental Protection Agency. Air Toxics Information
Clearinghouse Newsletter, Vol. 1, No. 1-5; Vol. 2, Mo. 1. December
1983, February 1984, April 1984, July 1984, September 1984,
December 1984. Research Triangle Park, N.C.: U.S. EPA (OAQPS,
SASDI.
Post, B.K., C.E. Benton, A.S. Pel land. Environmental Protection
Agency. Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse: Bibliography of EPA
Reports and Federal Register Notices. January 1985. Research
Triangle Park, N.C.
Mead, R.C., A.S. Pel land, Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse:
Ongoing Research and Regulatory Development Projects.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
March 1984.
Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse: Automated Retrieval of
Chemical Information Resources. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, N.C. March 1984.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
139
-------
General References (continued):
Pel lend, A.S., B.K. Post, R.C. Meed. Air Toxics Information
Clearinghouse: Selected Bibliography of Health Effects and Risk
Assessment Information* Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Perk, N.C. July 1964,
Smith, C. S. end S. A. Smith. Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse:
Interim Report of Selected Information on State and Local Agency
Afr Toxics Activities. September 1984.
K.L. Blanchard and R.M. Schell. 1984. "The National Air Toxics
Information Clear^house." Presented at the 77th APCA Annual
Meeting. June 24-29, 1984. 84-7.6.
140
-------
LESSON 19
An Introduction to Air Toxica
tone
iSrtt** yt
m
Sourc*
OtiMr ft
^9>iUt9>r
Oirwen
Session 6: ReQulatoryfProQrammatlc Issues
AM Toilet
Inlemaiion
CtoirtnghouM
Slat* end Local
Agency Ur Toilet
Pragrim*
Emwganey
R*tpOOM
Planning
Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse
Goal:
To assist state and local agendas with air
toxics information needs
Who Provides Information?
• State and Local Agencies
• U. S. EPA
• Other Federal Agencies
141
-------
HOW DOES THE INFORMATION
GET TO USERS?
• Computerized Data Base
• Hard Copy Reports
• Newsletter
• Special Reports
How Does One Participate?
• To receive information
Contact Nancy Riley
U S EPA
(919)541-5519
• To submit information-
Contact Sandra Smith
Radian Corporation
(512) 4544797
142
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SESSION 6: REGUIATORY/PROGRAMMATIC ISSUES
Lesson Title: Emergency Response
Lesson Number: 20
Lesson Time: 45 minutes
Lesson Goal: To provide the student with practical guidance on
handling emergency air toxics episodes.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, the student should
be able to:
1. Describe the main elements of emergency response.
2. List the four steps presented for managing risks from an
air toxics episode:
a. quantification of the release and dispersion of
released material In the event of an episode.
b. quantification of the effects of a release on the
surrounding populace In the event of an episode.
c. identification of the potential release scenarios In
advance of an episode,
d. development and evaluation of protective measures
for protecting public from released material.
3. Describe emergency response planning and Implementation
In terms of both the:
a. emergency response organization.
b. emergency response emergency procedures.
4. Describe the emergency response plan developed by the
Georgia Department of Natural Resources.
General References:
Hens, J. M., and Sell, T. C. Evacuation Risks—An Evaluation.
Prepared for the Office of Radiation Programs of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1974.
QuarentelH, E. L. Evacuation Behavior and Problems; Findings and
Implications from the Research Literature. Prepared for the
Federal Emergency Management Agency by the Disaster Research Center
of the Ohio State University, 1980.
143
-------
General References (continued):
Lane, 0. A. end 8. C. Thomson. Monitoring a Chlorine Spill from a
Train Derailment. Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association. Vol. 31, No. 2, February 1981, PP* 122-127.
Smith, 0. 6. Computers! High-Tech Tools for Emergency Responses
Hazardous Materials and Waste Management Magazine. May-June 1984.
pp. 31-33.
Computers on Track of Toxtc Fumes. Chemical Week. March 7, 1984.
p. 36-37.
Jones, P. J. fit aL. Health Aspects of Chemical Safety. Planning
Emergency Response Systems for Chemlcel Accidents. Iterlm
Document 1. Emergency Response to Chemical Accidents. World
Health Organization, Copenhagen (Denmark), 1981. p. 262
144
-------
LESSON 20
An Introduction to Air Toxics
fa**
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tl«t» «M Local
A9*ney JUf lailes
ftrogrim*
ACCIDENT PREVENTION AND
EMERGENCY RESPONSE
• 6hort-Term, Unptannwi Ralaaae
- Acuta Haalth Concorna
ACCIDENT PREVENTION
Identification of Ctomlcale and Sourcaa
of Concern
Minimization of Rlaka
145
-------
EMERGENCY RESPONSE ELEMENTS
—Initial notification
—Emergency communications
—Emergency medical support
—Police/civil defense support
—Public education and Information
—Emergency organization/procedures
CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION
. Acute Toxicity
Dermal LDM<50mgrkQ
Oral LD*<25moftO
Inhalation LC„ < 0.5 mg/kg
• Production
SOURCE IDENTIFICATION
- Source Registration: New Jersey
• Inventory
• Process and equipment description
• Area profile
EMERGENCY RESPONSE
ORGANIZATION
—Purpose/authority
—Agencies involved
—When activated
—Procedures for activating organization
146
-------
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
Oou
Mat to atKtau ottn a*t*o*n ounuuan
INITIAL ORGANIZATION
OTHER ELEMENTS
—Emergency communications
—Assessment of severity and extent of release
—Means of protecting public
—Emergency medical support
—Public education and information
—Post emergency response
—Training and exercises
TECHNICAL ELEMENTS OF
EMERGENCY RESPONSE
—What is being released/how much?
-Where Is released materiel QOlnQ/how fast?
—Who is going to be effected?
—What Is health risk?
—What needs to be done to protect public?
147
-------
GEORGIA EMERGENCY
RESPONSE PLAN
—Comprehensive
—Lee*1 authority clear
—400 people
—24 hour coverage
KEY FUNCTIONS
—Initial notification
• Public catl state policy communication
center (1-800 number)
• State police call agency duty officer
(24-hour call)
• Duty officer activates emergency response
learn
EMERGENCY RESPONSE TEAM
—Members
• Air quality specialist
• Water quality specialist
• Hazardous materials specialist
• Law enforcement personnel
—Equipment
• Vehicle w/radio
• Public law enforcement operation phone
• Protective clothing
• Respirators
• Monitoring equipment
• Emergency procedures
• Reference material
148
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SESSION 6: REGULATORY/PROGRAMMATIC ISSUES
Lesson Title: Case Study: Operating State Programs
Lesson Number; 21
Lesson Time: 1 hour
Lesson Goal: To present students with a range of approaches to air
toxics control by examining programs developed by various
states.
Lesson Objectives: Upon completion of thl;s lesson, the student should
be able to:
1. Explain California's two-phased approach (risk assessment,
risk management) to air toxics control.
2. Understand the current and potential uses of New York*s
air toxics Inventory data.
3. Describe how Massachusetts takes health effects Into
consideration In selecting a "most appropriate
occupational level."
4. Understand the factors to which Michigan attributes Its
overall success In air toxics control.
General References:
See references cited for Lesson 18.
STAPPA/ALAPCO, January 1984. Toxfc Air Pollutants: State end
Local Regulatory Strategies. Washington, DC. State and Territorial
Air Pollution Program Administrators and Association of Local Atr
Pol IutIon Control Officials, p. 75-77.
Su, G. and K. A. Wurzel. A Regulatory Framework for Setting Air
Emission Limits for Non-Crlterla Pollutants. Proceedings
Measurement and Monitoring of Noncrlterta (Toxic) Contaminants In
Air. Specialty Conference - Air Pollution Control Association.
March 1983.
149
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150
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LESSON 21
An Introduction to Ak Toxics
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152
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MICHIGAN ATTRIBUTES SUCCESS TO:
—Public/Industry participation in development
—MuHldlsctpllnary staff
CALIFORNIA AIR RESOURCES BOARD
—Risk assessment
—Risk management
CARB RISK ASSESSMENT
1. Identification and Prioritization
—Risk to public health
—Amount of emissions
—Use
—Persistence in atmosphere
—Ambient concentrations In CA
CARB RISK ASSESSMENT
1. identification/Prioritization
2. DHS Assessment
-Health
—Exposure
3. Review by Scientific Review Panel
4. Public Hearing
CARB RISK MANAGEMENT
1. Investigation of control measures
2. Public Hearing, CARB adopts control measure
3. Control measure adopted by districts
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NEW YORK'S AIR TOXICS INVENTORY
—Data entered from permit application
• Emissions (CAS numbers)
• Emission rates
• Stack parameters
—Data on acceptable ambient levels included
—Search possible by pollutant, by geographical
area
MASSACHUSETTS APPROACH
1. Assess health effects
—Carcinogenicity
—Mutagenicity
—Teratogenicity
—Reproductive toxicity
—Acute and chronic toxicity
2- Assign hazard ranking
3. Choose occupational standard
4. Adjust occupational standard
5 Derive acceptable ambient level
154
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