Estuary Studies
Training Manual

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EPA-4 30/1-7 6-007
ESTUARY STUDIES
TRAINING MANUAL
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF WATER PROGRAM OPERATIONS

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EPA-4 -JO/ 1-76-007
April 1976
ESTUARY STUDIES
This course is offered to professional specialists
having an operational or administrative responsibility
for the studies of estuaries.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Water Programs
TRAINING PROGRAM

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CONTENTS
ORIGIN AND HYDROLOGY OF ESTUARIES
The Aquatic Environment
The Alarine Geology of Estuaries and
Periestuarine Phenomena
Hydrodynamics of Estuaries
The Physical Factors of the Estuary
Physical Characteristics of Estuaries
GEOLOGICAL STUDIES
The Marine Geology of Estuaries and
Periestuarine Phenomena
Periestuarine Features
CHEMICAL DYNAMICS OF ESTUARIES
Clay Minerology
Stable Carbon Isotope Ratio Variations
as Indicators of Pollution
ESTUARINE BIOLOGY
Introduction to the Biology of Estuarme
and Near-Shore Waters
The Physical and Biological Components of
the Estuarme Ecosystem and Their Analysis
Biological Field Methods
ESTUARINE POLLUTION
Fate of Wastewater Discharges to Marine
Environment
Estuarme Fisheries and Pollution
Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations

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THIS AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
Part 1 The Nature and Behavior of Water
I INTRODUCTION
The earth is physically divisible into the
lithosphere or land masses, and the
hydrosphere which includes the oceans,
lakes, streams, and subterranean waters
A Upon, the hydrospere are based a number
of sciences which represent different
approaches. Hydrology is the general
science of water itself with its various
special fields such as hydrography,
hydraulics., etc. These in turn merge
into physical chemistry and chemistry
B Limnology and oceanography combine
aspects of all of these, and deal not only
with the physical liquid water and its
various naturally occurring solutions and
forms, but also with living organisms
and the infinite interactions that occur
between them and their environment
C Water quality management, including
pollution control, thus looks to all
branches of aquatic science in efforts
to coordinate and improve man's
relationship with his aquatic environment
II SOME FACTS ABOUT WATER
A Water is the only abundant liquid on our
planet It has many properties most
unusual for liquids, upon which depend
most of the familiar aspects of the world
about us as we know it. (See Table 1)
TABLE 1
UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER
		Property	
Highest heat capacity {specific heat) of any
	Significance 	 _
Stabilizes temperatures of organisms and
geographical regions
Highest iMent heal of fusion (except
Thermostatic effect at freezing point
Highest heat of evaporation of any substance
Important m heat and water transfer of
atmosphere
The only substance thai has its maximum
density as a liquid (4<>C}
Fresh and brackish waters have maximum
density above freezing point This ia
Important w vertical circulation pattern
in lakes
Highest surface tension of any liquid
Controls surface and drop phenomena,
important In cellular physiology
Dissolves more substances in greater
quantity than any other liquid
Makes complex biological system possible
Important for transportation of materials
In solution.
Pure water has the highest dt-electrlc
constant of any liquid
Leads to high dissociation of Inorganic
substances In solution
Very little electrolytic dissociation
Neutral, yet contains both H+ and OH ions
Relatively transparent
Absorbs much energy In Infra red and ultra
violet ranges, but Little in visible range
Hence "colorless"
BI 21 f. 10. 75
1-1

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1 li. \gualn environment
13 Physical Factors of Significance
1 Water substance
Water is not simply "HgO" but in
reality is a mixture of some 33
different substances involving three
isotopes each of hydrogen and oxygen
(ordinary hydrogen H1, deuterium H2.
and tritium H3; ordinary oxygen O ,
oxygen 17, and oxygen 18) plus 15
known types of ions. The molecules
of a water mass tend to associate
themselves as polymers rather than
to remain as discrete units.
(See Figure 1)
SUBSTANCE OF PURE WATER
©00
% % % © © ©
TABLE 2
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY
OF PURE WATER AND ICE*
Temperature (°C)
Water
Density
Ice**
-10
.99815
.9397
- 8
.99869
.9360
- 6
.99912
. 9020
- 4
.99945
.9277
- 2
.99970
.9229
0
.99987	
. 9168
2
.99997

4
1.00000

6
.99997

3
.99988

10
.99973

20
.99823

40
.99225

60
.98324

80
.97183

100
.95838

Fifur« I
* Tabular values for density, etc., represent
estimates by various workers rather than
absolute values, due to the variability of
water.
** Regular ice is known as "ice I". Four or
more other "forms" of ice are known to
exist (ice II, ice III, etc. ), having densities
at 1 atm. pressure ranging from 1. 1595
to 1.67. These are of extremely restricted
occurrence and may be ignored in most
routine operations.
2 Density
a Temperature and density: Ice.
Water is the only known substance
in which the solid state will float
on the liquid state. (See Table 2)
This ensures that ice usually
forms on top of a body of water
and tends to insulate the remain-
ing water mass from further loss
of heat. Did ice sink, there
could be little or no carryover of
aquatic life from season to season
in the higher latitudes. Frazil or
needle ice forms colloidally at a
few thousandths of a degree
below 0° c. It is adhesive and
may build up on submerged objects
as "anchor ice", but it is still
typical ice (ice I).
1-2

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The Aquatic Environment
1)	Seasonal increase in solar
radiation annually warms
surface waters in summer
while other factors result in
winter cooling The density
differences resulting establish
two classic layers the epilimmon
or surface layer, and the
hypolimnion or lower layer, and
in between is the thgrmocline
or1 shear-plane.
2)	While for certain theoretical
purposes a "thermocline" is
defined as a zone in which the
temperature changes one
degree centigrade for each
meter of depth, in practice,
any transitional layer between
two relatively stable masses
of water of different temper-
atures may be regarded as a
thermocline.
3)	Obviously the greater the
temperature differences
between epilimnion and
hypolimnion and the sharper
the gradient m the thermocline,
the more stable will the
situation be.
4)	From information given above,
it should be evident that while
the temperature of the
hypolimnion rarely drops
much below 4° C, the
epilimnion may range from
0° C upward.
5)	When epilimnion and hypolimnion
achieve the same temperature,
stratification no longer exists.
The entire body of water behaves
hydrologically as a unit, and
tends to assume uniform chemical
and physical characteristics.
Even a light breeze may then
cause the entire body of water
to circulate. Such events are called
overturns, and usually result in
water quality changes of consider-
able physical, chemical, and
biological significance.
Mineral-rich water from the
hypolimnion, for example,
is mixed with oxygenated
water from the epilimnion
This usually triggers a
sudden growth or "bloom"
of plankton organisms.
6)	When stratification is present,
however, each layer behaves
relatively independently, and
significant quality differences
may develop.
7)	Thermal stratification as
described above has no
reference to the size of the
water mass, it is found in
oceans and puddles.
b The relative densities of the
various isotopes of water
influence its molecular com-
position. For example, the
lighter Oie tends to go off
first in the process of evaporation,
leading to the relative enrichment
of air by O^g and the enrichment
of water by 017 and O^g. This
can lead to a measurably higher
O^g content in warmer climates.
Also, the temperature of water
in past geologic ages can be
closely estimated from the ratio
of 018 in the carbonate of mollusc
shells.
c Dissolved and/or suspended solids
may also affect the density of
natural water masses {see Table 3)
TABLE 3
EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS
ON DENSITY
Dissolved Solids Density
(Grams per liter) 		(at 4"C)
0
1.00000
1
1.00085
2
1.00169
3
1. 00251
10
1.00818
35 (mean for sea water)	1. 02822
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The Aquatic Environment
d Types of density stratification
1)	Density differences produce
stratification which may be
permanent, transient, or
seasonal.
2)	Permanent stratification
exists for example where
there is a heavy mass of
brine m the deeper areas of
a basin which does not respond
to seasonal or other changing
conditions.
3)	Transient stratification may
occur with the recurrent
influx of tidal water in an
estuary for example, or the
occasional influx of cold
muddy water into a deep lake
or reservoir.
4)	Seasonal stratification is
typically thermal in nature,
and involves the annual
establishment of the epilimnion,
hypolimnion, and thermocline
as described above.
5)	Density stratification is not
limited to two-layered systems,
three, four, or even more
layers may be encountered in
larger bodies of water.
e A "plunge line" (sometimes called
"thermal line") may develop at
the mouth of a stream. Heavier
water flowing into a lake or
reservoir plunges below the
lighter water mass of the epiliminium
to flow along at a lower level. Such
a line is usually marked by an
accumulation of floating debris.
f Stratification may be modified
or entirely suppressed in some
cases when deemed expedient, by
means of a simple air lift.
The viscosity of water is greater at
lower temperatures (see Table 4).
This is important not only m situations
involving the control of flowing water
as in a sand filter, but also since
overcoming resistance to flow gen-
erates heat, it is significant in the
heating of water by internal friction
from wave and current action.
Living organisms more easily support
themselves in the more viscous
(and also denser) cold waters of the
arctic than in the less viscous warm
waters of the tropics. (See Table 4).
TABLE 4
VISCOSITY OF WATER (In miUipoises at 1 atm)
Temp, o c
Dissolved solids in g/ L
0
5
10
30
-10
26.0
	
	
	
- 5
21.4
	
	
	
0
17.94
18. 1
18.24
18.7
5
15. 19
15.3
15.5
16.0
10
13. 10
13. 2
13.4
13.8
30
8.00
8. 1
8.2
8.6
100
2.84
	
	
	
Surface tension has biological as well
as physical significance. Organisms
whose body surfaces cannot be wet by
water can either ride on the surface
film or in some instances may be
"trapped" on the surface film and be
unable to re-enter the water.
5 Heat or
energy
Incident solar radiation is the prime
source of energy for virtually all
organic and most inorganic processes
on earth. For the earth as a whole,
the total amount (of energy) received
annually must exactly balance that
lost by reflection and radiation into
space if climatic and related con-
ditions are to remain relatively
constant over geologic time.
1-4

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The Aquatic Environment
a For a given body of water,
immediate sources of energy
include in addition to solar
irradiation- terrestrial heat,
transformation of kinetic energy
(wave and current action) to heat,
chemical and biochemical
reactions, convection from the
atmosphere, and condensation of
water vapor.
b The proportion of light reflected
depends on the angle of incidence,
the temperature, color, and other
qualities of the water, and the
presence or absence of films
of lighter liquids such as oil.
In general, as the depth increases
arithmetically, the light tends to
decrease geometrically. Blues,
greens, and yellows tend to
penetrate most deeply while ultra
violet, violets, and orange-reds
are most quickly absorbed. On
the order of 90% of the total
illumination which penetrates the
surface film is absorbed in the
first 10 meters of even the clearest
water, thus tending to warm the
upper layers.
6 Water movements
a Waves or rhythmic movement
1)	The best known are traveling
waves caused by wind. These are
effective only against objects near
the surface. They have little
effect on the movement of large
masses of water.
2)	Seiches
Standing waves or seiches occur
in lakes, estuaries, and other
enclosed bodLes of water, but are
seldom large enough to be
observed. An "internal wave or
seich" is an oscillation in a
submersed mass of water such
as a hypolimnion, accompanied
by compensating oscillation m the
overlying water so that no
significant change m surface
level is detected. Shifts in
submerged water masses of
this type can have severe effects
on the biota and also on human
water uses where withdrawals
are confined to a given depth.
Descriptions and analyses of
many other types and sub-types
of waves and wave-like movements
may be found in the literature.
b Tides
1)	Tides are the longest waves
known, and are responsible for
the once or twice a day rythmic
rise and fall of the ocean level
on most shores around the world.
2)	While part and parcel of the
same phenomenon, it is often
convenient to refer to the rise
and fall of the water level as
"tide, " and to the resulting
currents as "tidal currents. "
3)	Tides are basically caused by the
attraction of the sun and moon on
water masses, large and small,
however, it is only in the oceans
and possibly certain of the larger
lakes that true tidal action has
been demonstrated. The patterns
of tidal action are enormously
complicated by local topography,
interaction with seiches, and other
factors. The literature on tides
is very large.
c Currents (except tidal currents)
are steady arythmic water movements
which have had major study only in
oceanography although they are
most often observed in rivers and
streams. They are primarily
concerned with the translocation of
water masses. They may be generated
internally by virtue of density changes,
or externally by wind or terrestrial
topography. Turbulence phenomena
or eddy currents are largely respon-
sible for lateral mixing in a current.
These are of far more importance
in the economy of a body of water than
mere laminar flow.
1-5

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The Aquatic Environment
d Conolis force is a result of inter-
action between the rotation of the
earth, and the movement of masses
or bodies on the earth. The net
result is a slight tendency for moving
objects to veer to the right in the
northern hemisphere, and to the
left in the southern hemisphere.
While the result in fresh waters is
usually negligible, it may be con-
siderable in marine waters. For
example, other factors permitting,
there is a tendency in estuaries for
fresh waters to move toward the
ocean faster along the right bank,
while salt tidal waters tend to
intrude farther inland along the
left bank. Effects are even more
dramatic in the open oceans.
e Langmuir circulation (or L. spirals)
is the interlocking rotation of
somewhat cylindrical masses of
surface water under the influence
of wind action. The axes of the
cylinders are parallel to the
direction of the wind.
To somewhat oversimplify the
concept, a series of adjoining cells
might be thought of as chains of
interlocking gears in which at every
other contact the teeth are rising
while at the alternate contacts, they
are sinking (Figure 2).
The result is elongated masses of
water rising or sinking together.
This produces the familiar "wind
rows" of foam, flotsam and jetsam,
or plankton often seen streaking
windblown lakes or oceans. Certain
zoo-plankton struggling to maintain
a position near the surface tend to
collect in the down current between
two Langmuir cells, causing such
an area to be called the "red dance",
while the clear upwelling water
between is the "blue dance".
This phenomenon may be important
in water or plankton sampling on
a windy day.
b WATER
SURFACE
WATER
SINKING
WATER
RISING
Figure 2. Langmuire Spirals
b. Blue dance, water rising, r. Red
dance, water sinking, floating or
swimming objects concentrated.
1-6

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The Aquatic Environment
6 The pH of pure water has been deter-
mined between 5 7 and 7 01 by various
workers. The- latter value is most
widely accepted at the present time.
Natural waters of coarse vary widely
according to circumstances.
C The elements of hydrology mentioned
above represent a selection of some of
the more conspicuous physical factors
involved in working with water quality.
Othsr items noi specifically mentioned
include: molecular structure of waters,
interaction of water and radiation,
internal pressure, acoustical charac-
teristics, pressure-volume-temperature
relationships, refractivity, luminescence,
color, dielectrical characteristics and
phenomena, solubility, action and inter-
actions of gases, liquids and solids,
water vapor, phenomena of hydrostatics
and hydrodynamics in general.
REFERENCES
1	Buswell, A. M. and Rociebush, W. H.
Water Sci. Am April 1956
2	Dorsey, N. Ernest. Properties of
Ordinary Water - Substance.
Reinhold Publ. Corp. New York,
pp. 1-673. 1940.
3	Fowle, Frederick E. Smithsonian
Physical Tables. Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collection, 71(1),
7th revised ed., 1929.
4	Hutcheson, George E. A Treatise on
Limnology. John Wiley Company.
1957.
1-7

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Part 2: The Aquatic Environment as an Ecosystem
I INTRODUCTION
Part 1 introduced the lithosphere and the
hydrosphere. Part 2 will deal with certain
general aspects of the biosphere, or the
sphere of life on this earth, which photo-
graphs from space have shown is a finite
globe in infinite space.
This is the habitat of man and the other
organisms. His relationships with the
aquatic biosphere are our common concern.
II THE BIOLOGICAL NATURE OF THE
WORLD WE LIVE EN
A We can only imagine what this world
must have been like before there was life.
B The world as we know it is largely shaped
by the forces of life.
1	Primitive forms of life created organic
matter and established soil.
2	Plants cover the lands and enormously
influence the forces of erosion.
3	The nature and rate of erosion affect
the redistribution of materials
(and mass) on the surface of the
earth (topographic changes).
4	Organisms tie up vast quantities of
certain chemicals, such as carbon
and oxygen.
5	Respiration of plants and animals
releases carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere in influential quantities.
6	COg affects the heat transmission of
the atmosphere.
C Organisms respond to and in turn affect
their environment. Man is one of the
most influential.
Ill ECOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF THE
INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
ORGANISMS, AND BETWEEN ORGA-
NISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT.
A The ecosystem is the basic functional
unit of ecology. Any area of nature that
includes living organisms and nonliving
substances interacting to produce an
exchange of materials between the living
and nonliving parts constitutes an
ecosystem. (Odum, 1959)
1	From a structural standpoint, it is
convenient to recognize four
constituents as composing an
ecosystem (Figure 1).
a Abiotic NUTRIENT MINERALS
which are the physical stuff of
which living protoplasm will be
synthesized.
b Autotrophic (self-nourishing) or
PRODUCER organisms. These
are largely the green plants
(holophytes), but other minor
groups must also be included
(See Figure 2). They assimilate
the nutrient minerals, by the use
of considerable energy, and combine
them into living organic substance.
c Heterotrophic (other-nourishing)
CONSUMERS (holozoic), are chiefly
the animals. They ingest (or eat)
and digest organic matter, releasing
considerable energy in the process.
d Heterotrophic REDUCERS are chiefly
bacteria and fungi that return
complex organic compounds back to
the original abiotic mineral condition,
thereby releasing the remaining
chemical energy.
2	From a functional standpoint, an
ecosystem has two parts (Figure 2)
1-9

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The Aquatic Environment
CO NSUMERS
PR 0 D U CERS
REDUCERS
NUTRIENT
MINERALS
FIGURE 1
a The autotrophic or producer
organisms, which construct
organic substance.
b The heterotrophic or consumer and
reducer organisms which destroy
organic substance.
3 Unless the autotrophic and hetero-
trophic phases of the cycle approximate
a dynamic equilibrium, the ecosystem
and the environment will change.
Each of these groups includes simple,
single-celled representatives, persisting
at lower levels on the evolutionary stems
of the higher organisms. (Figure 2)
1 These groups span the gaps between the
higher kingdoms with a multitude of
transitional forms. They are collectively
called the PROTISTA.
2 Within the protista, two principal sub-
groups can be defined on the basis of
relative complexity of structure.
a The bacteria and blue-green algae,
lacking a nuclear membrane may
be considered as the lower protista
(or Monera).
b The single-celled algae and
protozoa are best referred to as
the Higher Protista.
C Distributed throughout these groups will
be found most of the traditional "phyla"
of classic biology.
IV FUNCTIONING OF THE ECOSYSTEM
A A food chain is the transfer of food energy
from plants through a series of organisms
with repeated eating and being eaten.
Food chains are not isolated sequences but
are interconnected.
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The Aquatic Environment
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FREE LIVING AQUATIC ORGANISMS
Energy Flows from Left to Right, General Evolutionary Sequence is Upward
PRODUCERS 1
CONSUMERS
REDUCERS
Organic Material Produced,
		 1
' Organic Material Ingested or
Consumed
Digested Internally
Organic Material Reduced
by Extracellular Digestion
and Intracellular Metabolism
to Mineral Condition
ENERGY STORED
ENERGY RELEASED
ENERGY RELEASED
Flowering Plants and
Gymnosperms
Arachnids
Insects
Mammals
Birds
Basidiomycetes
Club Mosses, Ferns
Crustaceans
Reptiles

Liverworts, Mosses
Segmented Worms
Molluscs
Amphibians
Fishes
Fungi Imperfecti
Multicellular Green
Algae
Bryoz oa
Rotifers
Roundworms
Primitive
Chordates
Echinoderms
Ascomycetes
Red Algae
Flat worms


Brown Algae
Coelenteratea
Sponges
Higher Phycomycetes
DEVELOPMENT OF MULTICELLULAR
OR COENOCYTIC STRUCTURE
H 1 G
HER P
P r o t o z
R 0 T 1
o a
S T A
Unicellular Green Algae
Diatoms
Pigmented Flagellates
Amoeboid
Flagellated,
(non-pigmented)
Cilliated
Suctoria
Lower
Phycomycetes
(Chytridiales, et al )
DEVELOPMENT OF A NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
J
LOWER PROTISTA
(or _ Monera)
Actinomycetes
Spirochaetes
Blue Green Algae
Phototropic Bacteria
Chemotropic Bacteria
Saprophytic
Bacterial
Types
BI ECO pi 2a 1 69
FIGURE 2
1-11

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The Aquatic Environment
B A food web is the interlocking pattern of
food chains in an ecosystem. (Figures 3,4)
In complex natural communities, organisms
whose food is obtained by the same number
of steps are said to belong to the same
trophic (feeding) level.
C Trophic Levels
1	First - Green plants (producers)
(Figure 5) fix biochemical energy and
synthesize basic organic substances.
This is primary production' .
2	Second - Plant eating animals (herbivores)
depend on the producer organisms for
food.
3	Third - Primary carnivores, animals
which feed on herbivores.
4	Fourth - Secondary carnivores feed on
primary carnivores.
5	Last - Ultimate carnivores are the last
or ultimate level of consumers.
D Total Assimilation
The amount of energy which flows through
a trophic level is distributed between the
production of biomass (living substance),
and the demands of respiration (internal
energy use by living organisms) in a ratio
of approximately 1:10.
E Trophic Structure of the Ecosystem
The interaction of the food chain
phenomena (with energy loss at each
transfer) results in various communities
having definite trophic structure or energy
levels. Trophic structure maybe
measured and described either in terms
of the standing crop per unit area or in
terms of energy fixed per unit area per
unit time at successive trophic levels.
Trophic structure and function can be
shown graphically by means of ecological
pyramids (Figure 5).
t


m
Figure 3. Diagram the pond ecosystem. Basic units are as follows. I, abiotic substances—basic inorganic and
organic compounds; IIA, producers—rooted vegetation, IIB, producers— phytoplankton, III-1A, primary consumers
(herbivores)—bottom form*; Ill-IB, primary consumers (herbivores)—zooplankton, III-2, secondary consumers (car-
nivores)! II1-3. tertiary consumer* (secondary carnivores); IV, decomposers-bacteria and fungi of decay.
1-12

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The Aquatic Environment
Nutrient
supply
Phytoplankton
Zooplankton
Predatory
animals
Death and decay
Bacterial
action
Crabs
Mollusks
Worms
Figure 4. A MARINE ECOSYSTEM (After Clark, 1954 and Patten, 1966)

13

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The Aquatic Environment
Decomposers
(a)
1
Carnivores (Secoiida
Carnivores (Primary
c
A
[ Herbivores
Producers
I
(c)
„	1	1
,, T^/rr/ f f I—.
¦¦ f/ > I n a ! /1 t i i / i i i I
Figure 5. HYPOTHETICAL PYRAMIDS of
(a) Numbers of individuals, (b) Biomass, and
(c) Energy (Shading Indicates Energy Loss).
V BIOTIC COMMUNITIES
A Plankton are the macroscopic and
microscopic animals, plants, bacteria,
etc., floating free in the open water.
Many clog filters, cause tastes, odors,
and other troubles in water supplies.
Eggs and larvae of larger forms are
often present.
1	Phytoplankton are plant-like. These
are the dominant producers of the
waters, fresh and salt, "the grass
of the seas".
2	Zooplankton are animal-like.
Includes many different animal types,
range in size from minute protozoa
to gigantic marine jellyfishes.
B Periphyton (or Aufwuchs) - The communities
of microscopic organisms associated with
submerged surfaces of any type or depth.
Includes bacteria, algae, protozoa, and
other microscopic animals, and often the
young or embryonic stages of algae and
other organisms that normally grow up
to become a part of the benthos (see below).
Many planktonic types will also adhere
to surfaces as periphyton, and some
typical periphyton may break off and
be collected as plankters.
C Benthos are the plants and animals living
on, in, or closely associated with the
bottom. They include plants and
invertebrates.
D Nekton are the community of strong
aggressive swimmers of the open waters,
often called pellagic. Certain fishes,
whales, and invertebrates such as
shrimps and squids are included here.
E The marsh community is based on larger
llhigher" plants, floating and emergent.
Both marine and freshwater marshes are
areas of enormous biological production.
Collectively known as "wetlands", they
bridge the gap between the waters and the
dry lands.
VI PRODUCTIVITY
A The biological resultant of all physical
and chemical factors in the quantity of
life that may actually be present. The
ability to produce this "biomass" is
often referred to as the "productivity"
of a body of water. This is neither good
nor bad per se. A water of low pro-
ductivity is a "poor" water biologically,
and also a relatively "pure" or "clean"
water; hence desirable as a water supply
or a bathing beach. A productive water
on the other hand may be a nuisance to
man or highly desirable. It is a nuisance
if foul odors and/or weed-chocked
waterways result, it is desirable if
bumper crops of bass, catfish, or
oysters are produced. Open oceans have
a low level of productivity in general.
1-14

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The Aquatic Environment
VII PERSISTENT CHEMICALS IN THE
ENVIRONMENT
Increasingly complex manufacturing processes,
coupled with rising industrialization, create
greater amounts of exotic wastes potentially
toxic to humans and aquatic life.
They may also be teratogenic (toxicants
responsible for changes in the embryo with
resulting birth defects, ex., thalidomide),
mutagenic (insults which produce mutations,
ex., radiation), or carcinogenic (insults
which induce cancer, ex., benz pyrenes)
in effect.
A Metals - current levels of cadmium, lead,
and other substances whose effects on
humans and fish and wildlife are not fully
understood constitute a mounting concern.
Mercury pollution, for example, has
become a serious national problem, yet
mercury has been present on earth since
time immemorial. More research is
needed, yet we dare not relax our
standards until definitive answers have
been provided.
B Pesticides
1	A pesticide and its metabolites may
move through an ecosystem in many
ways. Hard (pesticides which are
persistent, having a long half-life in
the environment includes the organo-
chlorines, ex., DDT) pesticides
ingested or otherwise borne by the
target species will stay in the
environment, possibly to be recycled
or concentrated further through the
natural action of food chains if the
species is eaten. Most of the volume
of pesticides do not reach their target
at all.
2	Biological magnification
levels measured in parts per million—a
thousandfold increase. The sediments
including fecal deposits are continuously
recycled by the bottom animals.
a Oysters, for instance, will con-
centrate DDT 70, 000 times higher
in their tissues than it's concentration
in surrounding water. They can
also partially cleanse themselves
in water free of DDT.
b Fish feeding on lower organisms
build up concentrations in their
visceral fat which may reach several
thousand parts per million and levels
in their edible flesh of hundreds of
parts per million.
c Larger animals, such as fish-eating
gulls and other birds, can further
concentrate the chemicals. A survey
on organochlorine residues in aquatic
birds in the Canadian prairie provinces
showed that California and ring-billed
gulls were among the most contaminated.
Since gulls breed in colonies, breeding
population changes can be detected and
related to levels of chemical con-
tamination. Ecological research on
colonial birds to monitor the effects
of chemical pollution on the environ-
ment is useful.
C "Polychlorinated biphenyls" (PCB's).
PCB's are used in plasticizers, asphalt,
ink, paper, and a host of other products.
Action has been taken to curtail their
release to the environment, since their
effects are similar to hard pesticides.
D Other compounds which are toxic and
accumulate m the ecosystem:
1 Phalate esters - may interfere with
pesticide analyses
Initially, low levels of persistent	2 Benzapyrenes
pesticides in air, soil, and water may
be concentrated at every step up the
food chain. Minute aquatic organisms
and scavengers, which screen water and
bottom mud having pesticide levels of a
few parts per billion, can accumulate
1-15

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The Aquatic Environment
REFERENCES
1	Clarke, G. L. Elements of Ecology.
John Wiley & Sons, New York. 1954.
2	Cooke, W. B. Trickling Filter Ecology.
Ecology 40(2):273-291. 1959.
3	Hanson, E. D. Animal Diversity.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey. 1964.
4	Hedgpeth, J. W. Aspects of the Estuarine
Ecosystem. Amer. Fish. Soc., Spec.
Publ. No. 3. 1966.
5	Odum, E.P. Fundamentals of Ecology.
W. B. Saunders Company,
Philadelphia and London. 1959.
6	Patten, B.C. Systems Ecology.
Bio-Science. 16(9). 1966.
7	Whittaker, R.H. New Concepts of
Kingdoms. Science 163:150-160. 1969.
1-16

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Part 3. The Freshwater Environment
I INTRODUCTION
The freshwater environment as considered
herein refers to those inland waters not
detectably diluted by ocean waters, although
the lower portions of rivers are subject to
certain tidal flow effects.
Certain atypical inland waters such as saline
or alkaline lakes, springs, etc., are not
treated, as the main objective here in typical
inland water.
All waters have certain basic biological cycles
and types of interactions most of which have
already been presented, hence this outline
will concentrate on aspects essentially
peculiar to fresh inland waters.
H PRESENT WATER QUALITY AS A
FUNCTION OF THE EVOLUTION OF
FRESH WATERS
A The history of a body of water determines
its present condition. Natural waters have
evolved in the course of geologic time
into what we know today.
B Streams
In the course of their evolution, streams
in general pass through four stages of
development which may be called, birth,
youth, maturity, and old age.
These terms or conditions may be
employed or considered in two contexts:
temporal, or spatial. In terms of geologic
time, a given point in a stream may pass
through each of the stages described below
or: at any given time, these various stages
of development can be loosely identified
in successive reaches of a stream traveling
from its headwaters to base level in ocean
or major lake.
1	Establishment or birth. This
might be a "dry run" or headwater
stream-bed, before it had eroded
down to the level of ground water.
During periods of run-off after a
rain or snow-melt, such a gulley
would have a flow of water which
might range from torrential to a
mere trickle. Erosion may proceed
rapidly as there is no permanent
aquatic flora or fauna to stabilize
streambed materials. On the other
hand, terrestrial grass or forest
growth may retard erosion. When
the run-off has passed, however,
the "streambed" is dry.
2	Youthful streams. When the
streambed is eroded below the
ground water level, spring or
seepage water enters, and the
stream becomes permanent. An
aquatic flora and fauna develops
and water flows the year round.
Youthful streams typically have a
relatively steep gradient, rocky beds,
with rapids, falls, and small pools.
3	Mature streams. Mature streams
have wide valleys, a developed
flood plain, are deeper, more
turbid, and usually have warmer
water, sand, mud, silt, or clay
bottom materials which shift with
increase in flow. In their more
favorable reaches, streams in this
condition are at a peak of biological
productivity. Gradients are moderate,
riffles or rapids are often separated
by long pools.
4	In old age, streams have approached
geologic base level, usually the
ocean. During flood stage they scour
their beds and deposit materials on
the flood plain which may be very
broad and flat. During normal flo^
the channel is refilled and many
shifting bars are developed.
1-17

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The Aquatic Environment
(Under the influence of man this
pattern may be broken up, or
temporarily interrupted. Thus an
essentially "youthful" stream might
take on some of the characteristics
of a "mature" stream following soil
erosion, organic enrichment, and
increased surface runoff. Correction
of these conditions might likewise be
followed by at least a partial reversion
to the "original" condition).
C Lakes and Reservoirs
Geological factors which significantly
affect the nature of either a stream or
lake include the following:
1	The geographical location of the
drainage basin or watershed,
2	The size and shape of the drainage
basin.
3	The general topography, i.e.,
mountainous or plains,
4	The character of the bedrocks and
soils.
5	The character, amount, annual
distribution, and rate of precipitation.
6	The natural vegetative cover of the
land is, of course, responsive to and
responsible for many of the above
factors and is also severely subject
to the whims of civilization. This
is one of the major factors determining
run-off versus soil absorption, etc.
D Lakes have a developmental history which
somewhat parallels that of streams. This
process is often referred to as natural
eutrophication.
1 The methods of formation vary greatly,
but all influence the character and
subsequent history of the lake.
In glaciated areas, for example, a
huge block of ice may have been covered
with till. The glacier retreated, the
ice melted, and the resulting hole
1-18
became a lake. Or, the glacier may
actually scoop out a hole. Landslides
may dam valleys, extinct volcanoes may
collapse, etc., etc.
2	Maturing or natural eutrophication of
lakes.
a If not already present shoal areas
are developed through erosion
and deposition of the shore material
by wave action and undertow.
b Currents produce bars across bays
and thus cut off irregular areas.
c Silt brought in by tributary streams
settles out in the quiet lake water
d Algae grow attached to surfaces,
and floating free as plankton. Dead
organic matter begins to accumulate
on the bottom.
e Rooted aquatic plants grow on
shoals and bars, and in doing so
cut off bays and contribute to the
filling of the lake.
f Dissolved carbonates and other
materials are precipitated in the
deeper portions of the lake in part
through the action of plants.
g When filling is well advanced,
mats of sphagnum moss may extend
outward from the shore. These
mats are followed by sedges and
grasses which finally convert the
lake into a marsh.
3	Extinction of lakes. After lakes reach
maturity, their progress toward
filling up is accelerated. They become
extinct through:
a The downcutting of the outlet.
b Filling with detritus eroded from
the shores or brought in by
tributary streams.
c Filling by the accumulation of the
remains of vegetable materials
growing in the lake itself.
(Often two or three processes may
act concurrently)

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The Aquatic Environment
III PRODUCTIVITY IN FRESH WATERS
A Fresh waters in general and under
natural conditions by definition have a
lesser supply of dissolved substances
than marine waters, and thus a lesser
basic potential for the growth of aquatic
organisms. By the same token, they
may be said to be more sensitive to the
addition of extraneous materials
{pollutants, nutrients, etc.) The
following notes are directed toward
natural geological and other environ-
mental factors as they affect the
productivity of fresh waters.
B Factors Affecting Stream Productivity
(See Table 1)
TABLE 1
EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE ON STREAM
PRODUCTIVITY-
(The productivity of sand bottoms is
taken as 1)
Bottom Material
Relative
Productivity
Sand
1
Marl
6
Fine Gravel
9
Gravel and silt
14
Coarse gravel
32
Moss on fine gravel
89
Fissidens (moss) on coarse
111
gravel

Ranunculus (water buttercup)
194
Watercress
301
Anacharis (waterweed)
452
^Selected from Tarzwell 1937
To oe productive of aquatic life, a
stream must provide adequate nutrients,
light, a suitable temperature, and time
for growth to take place.
1 Youthful streams, especially on rock
or sand substrates are low in essential
nutrients. Temperatures in moun-
tainous regions are usually low, and
due to the steep gradient, time for
growth is short. Although ample
light is available, growth of true
plankton is thus greatly limited.
2	As the stream flows toward a more
"mature" condition, nutrients tend to
accumulate, and gradient diminishes
and so time of flow increases, tem-
perature tends to increase, and
plankton flourish.
Should a heavy load of inert silt
develop on the other hand, the
turbidity would reduce the light
penetration and consequently the
general plankton production would
diminish.
3	As the stream approaches base level
(old age) and the time available for
plankton growth increases, the
balance between turbidity, nutrient
levels, and temperature and other
seasonal conditions, determines the
overall productivity.
C Factors Affecting the Productivity of
lakes (See Table 2)
1 The size, shape, and depth of the
lake basin. Shallow water is more
productive than deeper water since
more light will reach the bottom to
stimulate rooted plant growth. As
a corollary, lakes with more shore-
line, having more shallow water,
are in general more productive.
Broad shallow lakes and reservoirs
have the greatest production potential
(and hence should be avoided for
water supplies).
TABLE 2
EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE
ON LAKE PRODUCTIVITY *
(The productivity of sand bottoms is taken as 1)
Bottom Material
Relative Productivity
Sand
1
Pebbles
4
Clay
8
Flat rubble
9
Block rubble
11
Shelving rock
77
* Selected from Tarzwell 1937
1-19

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The Aquatic Environment
2	Hard waters are generally more
productive than soft waters as there
are more plant nutrient minerals
available. This is often greatly in-
fluenced by the character of the soil
and rocks in the watershed and the
quality and quantity of ground water
entering the lake. In general, pH
ranges of 6. 8 to 8. 2 appear to be
most productive.
3	Turbidity reduces productivity as
light penetration is reduced.
4	The presence or absence of thermal
stratification with its semi-annual
turnovers affects productivity by
distributing nutrients throughout the
water mass.
5	Climate, temperature, prevalence of
ice and snow, are also of course
important.
D Factors Affecting the Productivity of
Reservoirs
1	The productivity of reservoirs is
governed by much the same principles
as that of lakes, with the difference
that the water level is much more
under the control of man. Fluctuations
in water level can be used to de-
liberately increase or decrease
productivity. This can be demonstrated
by a comparison of the TVA reservoirs
which practice a summer drawdo>vn
with some of those in the west where
a winter drawdown is the rule.
2	The level at which water is removed
from a reservoir is important to the
productivity of the stream below.
The hypolimnion may be anaerobic
while the epilimnion is aerobic, for
example, or the epilimnion is poor in
nutrients while the hypolimnion is
relatively rich.
3	Reservoir discharges also profoundly
affect the DO, temperature, and
turbidity in the stream below a dam.
Too much fluctuation m flow may
permit sections of the stream to dry,
or provide inadequate dilution for
toxic waste.
IV CULTURAL EUTROPHICATION
A The general processes of natural
eutrophication, or natural enrichment
and productivity have been briefly out-
lined above.
B When the activities of man speed up
these enrichment processes by intro-
ducing unnatural quantities of nutrients
(sewage, etc. ) the result is often called
cultural eutrophication. This term is
often extended beyond its original usage
to include the enrichment (pollution) of
streams, estuaries, and even oceans, as
well as lakes.
V CLASSIFICATION OF LAKES AND
RESERVOIRS
A The productivity of lakes and impound-
ments is such a conspicuous feature that
it is often used as a convenient means of
classification.
1	Oligotrophic lakes are the younger,
less productive lakes, which are deep,
have clear water, and usually support
Salmonoid fishes in their deeper waters.
2	Eutrophic lakes are more mature,
more turbid, and richer. They are
usually shallower. They are richer
in dissolved solids; N, P, and Ca are
abundant. Plankton is abundant and
there is often a rich bottom fauna.
3	Dystrophic lakes, such as bog lakes,
are low in Ph, water yellow to brown,
dissolved solids, N, P( and Ca scanty
but humic materials abundant, bottom
fauna and plankton poor, and fish
species are limited.
B Reservoirs may also be classified as
storage, and run of the river.
1	Storage reservoirs have a large
volume in relation to their inflow.
2	Run of the river reservoirs have a
large flow-through in relation to their
storage value.
1-20

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The Aquatic Environment
C According to location, lakes and
reservoirs may be classified as polar,
temperate, or tropical. Differences in
climatic and geographic conditions
result in differences in their biology.
VI SUMMARY
A A body of water such as a lake, stream,
or estuary represents an intricately
balanced system in a state of dynamic
equilibrium. Modification imposed at
one point in the system automatically
results in compensatory adjustments at
associated points.
B The more thorough our knowledge of the
entire system, the better we can judge
where to impose control measures to
achieve a desired result.
6	Tarzwell, Clarence M. Experimental
Evidence on the Value of Trout 1937
Stream Improvement in Michigan.
American Fisheries Society Trans.
66:177-187. 193S.
7	U. S. Dept. of Health, Education, and
Welfare. Public Health Service.
Algae and Metropolitan Wastes.
Transactions of a seminar held
April 27-29, 1960 at the Robert A.
Taft Sanitary Engineering Center.
Cincinnati, OH. No. SEC TR W61-3.
8	Ward and Whipple. Fresh Water
Biology. (Introduction). John
Wiley Company. 1918.
REFERENCES
1	Chamberlin, Thomas C. and Salisburg,
Rollin P. Geological Processes and
Their Results. Geology 1: pp i-xix,
and 1-654. Henry Holt and Company.
New York. 1904.
2	Frey, David G. Limnology in North
America. Univ. Wise. Press. 1963.
3	Hutcheson, George E. A Treatise on
Limnology Vol. I Geography, Physics
and Chemistry. 1957. Vol. II.
Introduction to Lake Biology and the
Limnoplankton. 1115 pp. 1967.
John Wiley Co.
4	Hynes, H.B.N. The Ecology of Running
Waters. Univ. Toronto Press.
555 pp. 1970.
5	Ruttner, Franz. Fundamentals of
Limnology. University of Toronto
Press, pp. 1-242. 1953.
1-21

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Part 4. The Marine Environment and its Role in the Total Aquatic Environment
TABLE 1
I INTRODUCTION
A The marine environment is arbitrarily
defined as the water mass extending
beyond the continental land masses,
including the plants and animals harbored
therein. This water mass is large and
deep, covering about 70 percent of the
earth's surface and being as deep as
7 miles. The salt content averages
about 35 parts per thousand. Life extends
to all depths.
B The general nature of the water cycle on
earth is well known. Because the largest
portion of the surface area of the earth
is covered with water, roughly 70 percent
of the earth's rainfall is on the seas.
(Figure 1)
1001 Oeaanle
Evtpont Ion
SEA SURFACE
Flrira 1. THE WATER CYCLE
Since roughly one third of the
rain which falls on the land is again
recycled through the atmosphere
(see Figure 1 again), the total amount
of water washing over the earth's surface
is significantly greater than one third of
the total world rainfall. It is thus not
surprising to note that the rivers which
finally empty into the sea carry a
disproportionate burden of dissolved and
suspended solids picked up from the land.
The chemical composition of this burden
depends on the composition of the rocks
and soils through which the river flows,
the proximity of an ocean, the direction
of prevailing winds, and other factors.
This is the substance of geological erosion.
(Table 1)
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE MAJOR IONS
OF TWO STREAMS AND SEA WATER
(Data from Clark, F.W . 1924, "The Composition of River
and Lake Waters of the United States", U.S. Geol Surv.,
Prof Paper No. 135, Harvey, H W., 1057, "The Chemistry
and Fertility of Sea Waters", Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge)
Ion
Delaware River
at
LambertviUe, N.J.
Rio Grande
at
Laredo, Texas
Sea Water
Na
6 70
14.78
30.4
K
1.46
85
1. 1
Ca
17.49
13 73
1 16
Mg
4 81
3 03
3 7
CI
4 23
21 65
55 2
so4
17 49
30. 10
7.7
C°3
32.95
11 55
mco3 0 35
For this presentation, the marine
environment will be (1) described using
an ecological approach, (2) characterized
ecologically by comparing it with fresh-
water and estuarine environments, and
(3) considered as a functional ecological
system (ecosystem).
H FRESHWATER, ESTUARINE, AND
MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
Distinct differences are found in physical,
chemical, and biotic factors in going from
a freshwater to an oceanic environment.
In general, environmental factors are more
constant in freshwater (rivers) and oceanic
environments than in the highly variable
and harsh environments of estuarine and
coastal waters. (Figure 2)
A Physical and Chemical Factors
Rivers, estuaries, and oceans are
compared in Figure 2 with reference to
the relative instability (or variation) of
several important parameters. In the
oceans, it will be noted, very little change
occurs in any parameter. In rivers, while
"salinity" (usually referred to as "dissolved
solids") and temperature (accepting normal
seasonal variations) change little, the other
four parameters vary considerably. In
estuaries, they all change.
23

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The Aquatic Environment

Degree of instability
Avail-
ability
of
nutrients
(degree)

Type of environment
and general direction
of water movement
Salinity
Temperature
Water
elevation
Vertical
strati-
fication
Turbidity

1
1
-
-
-
—
/ \l
/Estuarine I
S J
—
—
—
—
—
—
Oceanic "t^~r
I
¦
¦
¦
B
¦
Figure2 . RELATIVE VALUES OF VARIOUS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FACTORS
FOR RIVER, ESTUARINE, AND OCEANIC ENVIRONMENTS
B Biotic Factors	G Zones of the Sea
1	A complex of physical and chemical
factors determine the biotic composi-
tion of an environment. In general,
the number of species in a rigorous,
highly variable environment tends to be
less than the number in a more stable
environment (Hedgpeth, 1966).
2	The dominant animal species (in
terms of total biomass) which oscur
in estuaries are often transient,
spending only a part of their lives in
the estuaries. This results in better
utilization of a rich environment
The nearshore environment is often
classified in relation to tide level and
water depth. The nearshore and offshore
oceanic regions together, are often
classified with reference to light penetra-
tion and water depth. (Figure 3)
1
1 Neritic - Relatively shallow-water
zone which extends from the high-
tide mark to the edge of the
continental shelf.
1-24

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The Aquatic Environment
MARINE ECOLOGY
¦PEL A CtC-
re* woUr
Supra
Bttoro)
Littoral
[tnKrhdol]
Su b m 11 or o I
PELAGIC (Wottr)
Ntrihc
OcrcaK
£(xf*tog<
VtlOpthjQfC
8cr>/fit/ojic
AA/itppttOfC
BENTMIC (Bottom)
Supro•Ultorol
LillorOl (lAltrhJgl)
SvbMIO'Ol
lnn«r
OwUf
Batftyol
Abyltol
Molol
Hq>9 Cvfrtti !f> brce*4'l CfiJ
nd'tCf fv* If* /""/I Of
4'tct't (fierce/ • ct /A#
4*,iroi*ir>»Af oft t«rtticA
S'S C*J
AiyttOfit/ogiC
r*c»
Ficure 3—Classifi','itwn oj marine etnironmenls
a Stability of physical factors is
intermediate between estuarine
and oceanic environments.
b Phytoplankters are the dominant
producers but in some locations
attached algae are also important
as producers.
c The animal consumers are
zooplankton, nekton, and benthic
forms.
2 Oceanic - The region of the ocean
beyond the continental shelf. Divided
into three parts, all relatively
poorly populated compared to the
neritic zone.
a Euphotic zone - Waters into which
sunlight penetrates (often to the
bottom in the neritic zone). The
zone of primary productivity often
extends to 600 feet below the surface.
1)	Physical factors fluctuate
less than in the neritic zone.
2)	Producers are the phyto-
plankton and consumers are
the zooplankton and nekton.
b Bathyal zone - From the bottom
of the euphotic zone to about
2 000 meters.
1)	Physical factors relatively
constant but light is absent.
2)	Producers are absent and
consumers are scarce.
c Abyssal zone - All the sea below
the bathyal zone.
1)	Physical factors more con-
stant than in bathyal zone.
2)	Producers absent and consumers
even less abundant than in the
bathyal zone.
1-25

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The Aquatic Environment
III SEA WATER AND THE BODY FLUIDS
A Sea water is a remarkably suitable
environment for living cells, as it
contains all of the chemical elements
essential to the growth and maintenance
of plants and animals. The ratio and
often the concentration of the major
salts of sea water are strikingly similar
in the cytoplasm and body fluids of
marine organisms. This similarity is
also evident, although modified somewhat
in the body fluids of fresh water and
terrestrial animals. For example,
sterile sea water may be used in
emergencies as a substitute for blood
plasma in man.
B Since marine organisms have an internal
salt content similar to that of their
surrounding medium (isotonic condition)
osmoregulation poses no problem. On the
other hand, fresh water organisms are
hypertonic (osmotic pressure of body
fluids is higher than that of the surround-
ing water). Hence, fresh water animals
must constantly expend more energy to
keep water out (i. e., high osmotic
pressure fluids contain more salts, the
action being then to dilute this concen-
tration with more water).
1	Generally, marine invertebrates are
narrowly poikilosmotic, i.e., the salt
concentration of the body fluids changes
with that of the external medium. This
has special significance in estuarine
situations where salt concentrations
of the water often vary considerably
in short periods of time.
2	Marine bony fish (teleosts) have lower
salt content internally than the external
environment (hypotonic). In order to
prevent dehydration, water is ingested
and salts are excreted through special
cells in the gills.
IV FACTORS AFFECTING THE DISTRI-
BUTION OF MARINE AND ESTUARINE
ORGANISMS
A Salinity. Salinity is the single most
constant and controlling factor in the
marine environment, probably followed
by temperature. It ranges around
35, 000 mg. per liter, or "35 parts per
thousand" (symbol: 35%o ) m the language
of the oceanographer. While variations
in the open ocean are relatively small,
salinity decreases rapidly as one
approaches shore and proceeds through
the estuary and up into fresh water with
a salinity of "0 %0 (see Figure 2)
B Salinity and temperature as limiting
factors in ecological distribution.
1	Organisms differ in the salinities
and temperatures in which they
prefer to live, and in the variabilities
of these parameters which they can
tolerate. These preferences and
tolerances often change with successive
life history stages, and in turn often
dictate where the organisms live:
their "distribution. "
2	These requirements or preferences
often lead to extensive migrations
of various species for breeding,
feeding, and growing stages. One
very important result of this is that
an estuarine environment is an
absolute necessity for over half of
all coastal commercial and sport
related species of fishes and invertebrates,
for either all or certain portions of their
life histories. (Part V, figure 8)
3	The Greek word roots "eury"
(meaning wide) and "steno" (meaning
narrow) are customarily combined
with such words as "haline" for salt,
and "thermal" for temperature, to
give us "euryhaline" as an adjective
to characterize an organism able to
tolerate a wide range of salinity, for
example; or "stenothermal" meaning
one which cannot stand much change
in temperature. "Meso-" is a prefix
indicating an intermediate capacity.
1-26

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The Aquatic Environment
C Marine, estuarine, and fresh water
organisms. (See Figure 4)
EURYHALINE
Marine
Stenohaline
Fresh Water
Stenohaline
ca. 35
Salinity
0
Figure 4. Salinity Tolerance of Organisms
1	Offshore marine organisms are, in
general, both stenohaline and
stenothermal unless, as noted above,
they have certain life history require-
ments for estuarine conditions.
2	Fresh water organisms are also
stenohaline, and (except for seasonal
adaptation) me so- or stenothermal.
(Figure 2)
4 Some well known and interesting
examples of migratory species which
change their environmental preferences
with the life history stage include the
siirimp (mentioned above), striped bass,
many herrings and relatives, the salmons,
and many others. None are more
dramatic than the salmon hordes which
lay their eggs in freshwater streams,
migrate far out to sea to feed and grow,
then return to the stream where they
hatched to lay their own eggs before
dying.
5 Among euryhaline animals landlocked
(trapped), populations living in lowered
salinities often have a smaller maximum
size than individuals of the same species
living in more saline waters. For
example, the lamprey (Petromyzon
marinus) attains a length of 30 - 36"
in the sea, while in the Great Lakes
the length is 18 - 24".
Usually the larvae of aquatic organisms
are more sensitive to changes in
salinity than are the adults. This
characteristic both limits and dictates
the distribution and size of populations.
D The effects of tides on organisms.
3 Indigenous or native estuarine species
that normally spend their entire lives
in the estuary are relatively few in
number. (See Figure 5). They are
generally meso- or euryhaline and
meso- or eurythermal.
allnity
Figure 5. DISTRIBUTION OF
ORGANISMS IN AN ESTUARY
a Euryhaline, freshwater
b Indigenous, estuarine, (mesohaline)
c Euryhaline, marine
1 Tidal fluctuations probably subject
the benthic or intertidal populations
to the most extreme and rapid variations
of environmental stress encountered
in any aquatic habitat. Highly specialized
communities have developed in this
zone, some adapted to the rocky surf
zones of the open coast, others to the
muddy inlets of protected estuaries.
Tidal reaches of fresh water rivers,
sandy beaches, coral reefs and
mangrove swamps ixi the tropics; all
have their own floras and faunas. All
must emerge and flourish when whatever
wat^r there is rises and covers or
tears at them, all must collapse or
retract to endure drying, blazing
tropical sun, or freezing arctic ice
during the low tide interval. Such a
community is depicted m Figure 6.
1-27

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The Aquatic Environment

KWZJZf i
Figure 6
Zonation of plants, snails, and barnacles on a rocky shore. While
this diagram is based on the situation on the southwest coast of
England, the general idea of zonation may be applied to any temper-
ate rocky ocean shore, though the species will differ. The gray
zone consists largely of lichens. At the left is the zonation of rocks
with exposure too extreme to support algae; at the right, on a less
exposeii situation, the animals are mostly obscured by the algae.
Figures at the right hand margin refer to the percent of time that
the zone is exposed to the air, i. e., the time that the tide is out.
Three major zones can be recognized: the Littorina zone (above the
gray zone); the Balanoid zone (between the gray zone and the
laminarias); and the Laminaria zone. a. Pelvetia canaliculata;
b. Fucus spiralis; c. Ascophyllum nodosum; d. Fucus serratus;
e. Laminaria digitata. (Based on Stephenson)
SNAILS
e Littorina neritoides
C* L. rudis
O Iobtusata
L. littorea
RAiiNACLES
© Chthamalus stellatus
® Balanus balanoides
3 B. perfo ratus
28

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The Aquatic Environment
V FACTORS AFFECTING THE
PRODUCTIVITY OF THE MARINE
ENVIRONMENT
A The sea is in continuous circulation. With-
out circulation, nutrients of the ocean would
eventually become a part of the bottom and
biological production would cease. Generally
in all oceans there exists a warm surface
layer which overlies the colder water and
forms a two-layer system of persistent
stability. Nutrient concentration is usually
greatest in the lower zone. Wherever a
mixing or disturbance of these two layers
occurs biological production is greatest.
B The estuaries are also a mixing zone of
enormous importance. Here the fertility
washed off the land is mingled with the
nutrient capacity of seawater, and many
of the would's most productive waters
result.
C When man adds his cultural contributions
of sewage, fertilizer, silt or toxic waste,
it is no wonder that the dynamic equilibrium
of the ages is rudely upset, and the
environmentalist cries, "See what man
hath wrought"!
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
REFERENCES
1	Harvey, H. W. The Chemistry and
Fertility of Sea Water (2nd Ed.).
Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
234 pp. 1957.
2	Hedgpeth, J. W. (Ed.). Treatise on
Marine Ecology and Paleoecology.
Vol. I. Ecology Mem. 67 Geol.
Soc. Amer., New York. 1296 pp.
1957.
3	Hill, M. N. (Ed. ), The Sea. Vol. n.
The Composition of Sea Water
Comparative and Descriptive
Oceanography. Interscience Pubis.
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
554 pp. 1963.
4	Moore, H. B. Marine Ecology. John
Wiley &. Sons, Inc., New York.
493 pp. 1958.
5	Reid, G. K, Ecology of Inland Waters
and Estuaries. Reinhold Publ.
Corp. New York. 375 pp. 1961.
6	Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming.
The Oceans. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
New York. 1087 pp. 1942.
This outline contains selected material
from other outlines prepared by C. M.
Tarzwell, Charles L. Brown, Jr.,
C. G. Gunnerson, W. Lee Trent, W. B.
Cooke, B. H. Ketchum, J. K. McNulty,
J. L. Taylor, R. M. Sinclair, and others.
1-29

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Part 5- Wetlands
I INTRODUCTION
A Broadly defined, wetlands are areas
which are "to wet to plough but too
thick to flow." The soil tends to be
saturated with water, salt or fresh,
and numerous channels or ponds of
shallow or open water are common.
Due to ecological features too numerous
and variable to list here, they comprise
in general a rigorous (highly stressed)
habitat, occupied by a small relatively
specialized indigenous (native) flora
and fauna.
B They are prodigiously productive
however, and many constitute an
absolutely essential habitat for some
portion of the life history of animal
forms generally recognized as residents
of other habitats (Figure 8). This is
particularly true of tidal marshes as
mentioned below.
C Wetlands in toto comprise a remarkably
large proportion of the earth's surface,
and the total organic carbon bound in
their mass constitutes an enormous
sink of energy.
D Since our main concern here is with
the "aquatic" environment, primary
emphasis will be directed toward a
description of wetlands as the transitional
zone between the waters and the land, and
how their desecration by human culture
spreads degradation in both directions.
H TIDAL MARSHES AND THE ESTUARY *=-"
B Estuarine pollution studies are usually
devoted to the dynamics of the circulating
water, its chemical, physical, and
biological parameters, bottom deposits, etc
C It is easy to overlook the intimate relation-
ships which exist between the bordering
marshland, the moving waters, the tidal
flats, subtidal deposition, and seston
whether of local, oceanic, or riverine
origin
D The tidal marsh (some inland areas also
have salt marshes) is generally considered
to be the marginal areas of estuaries and
coasts in the intertidal zone, which are
dominated by emergent vegetation. They
generally extend inland to the farthest
point reached by the spring tides, where
they merge into freshwater swamps and
marshes (Figure 1). They may range in
width from nonexistent on rocky coasts to
many kilometers.
1 rcehvotcr
SK. MR'tl •>
ridil March
Mud Flat
I

Subiiralc
Blue Clay
"There is no other case in nature, save
in the coral reefs, where the adjustment
of organic relations to physical condition
is seen in such a beautiful way as the
balance between the growing marshes
and the tidal streams by which they are
at once nourished and worn away "
(Shaler, 1886)
Pl£ur» 1 Zonatiofl In • positive New England estuary 1 Spring lido level. 2 Mean high tide,
i Mean low tide. 4 Dog hole, 5 Ico cleavage pool, 6 Chunk of Sportlia turf deposited by ic«,
T Organic ooxe with associated community, 8 ccl^rae* (Zostero), 0
dam invya) •	"	1
nibbed mussel* (modiolus)-
• mud snail (Naasa) community 10 Sea lettuc« (Ulval
1-31

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The Aquatic Environment
III MARSH ORIGINS AND STRUCTURES
A In general, marsh substrates are high in
organic content, relatively low in minerals
and trace elements. The upper layers
bound together with living roots called
turf, underlaid by more compacted peat
type material.
1 Rising or eroding coastlines may
expose peat from ancient marsh
growth to wave action which cuts
into the soft peat rapidly (Figure 2).
Terrestrial turf
Salt marsh peat
¦ mm®®**"
Substrate
• -¦ - - - • - • • •	
Such banks are likely to be cliff-like,
and are often undercut. Chunks of
peat are often found lying about on
harder substrate below high tide line.
If face of cliff is well above high water,
overlying vegetation is likely to be
typically terrestrial of the area.
Marsh type vegetation is probably
absent.
Low lying deltaic, or sinking coast-
lines, or those with low energy wave
action are likely to have active marsh
formation in progress. Sand dunes
are also common in such areas
(Figure 3). General coastal
configuration is a factor.
Figure 2. Diagrammatic section of eroding peat cliff

•SOIM
Figure 3
Development of a Massachusetts Marsh since 1300 BC, involving an
18 foot rise in water level. Shaded area indicates sand dunes. Note
meandering marsh tidal drainage. A: 1300 BC, B: 1950 AD.
1-32

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The Aquatic Environment
a Rugged or precipitous coasts or
slowly rising coasts, typically
exhibit narrow shelves, sea cliffs,
fjords, massive beaches, and
relatively less marsh area (Figure 4).
An Alaskan fjord subject to recent
catastrophic subsidence and rapid
deposition of glacial flour shows
evidence of the recent encroachment
of saline waters in the presence of
recently buried trees and other
terrestrial vegetation, exposure
of layers of salt marsh peat along
the edges of channels, and a poorly
compacted young marsh turf developing
at the new high water level (Figure 5).
NEWPORT
OREGON
Figure 4 A. River Mouth on a Slowly Rising Coast Note absence
of deltaic development and relatively little marshland,
although mud flats stippled are extensive
Terrestria
Tidal marsh
Shifting flats

Figure 5 Some general relationships in a northern fjord with a rising water level 1. mean low
water. 2. maximum high tide, 3. Bedrock, 4. Glacial flour to depths In excess of
400 meters, 5. Shifting flats and channels, 6. Channel against bedrock, 7. Burled
terrestrial vegetation, 8. Outcroppings of salt marsh peat.
b Low lying coastal plains tend to be
fringed by barrier islands, broad
estuaries and deltas, and broad
associated marshlands (Figure 3).
Deep tidal channels fan out through
innumerable branching and often
interconnecting rivulets. The
intervening grassy plains are
essentially at mean high tide level.
1-33

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The Aquatic Environment
Tropical and subtropical regions
such as Florida, the Gulf Coast,
and Central America, are frequented
by mangrove swamps. This unique
type of growth is able to establish
itself in shallow water and move out
into progressively deeper areas
(Figure 6). The strong deeply
embedded roots enable the mangrove
to resist considerable wave action
at times, and the tangle of roots
quickly accumulates a deep layer of
organic sediment. Mangroves
in the south may be considered to
be roughly the equivalent of the
Spartina marsn grass in the north
as a land builder. When fully
developed, a mangrove swamp is an
impenetrable thicket of roots over
the tidal flat affording shelter to an
assortment of semi-aquatic organisms
such as various molluscs and
crustaceans, and providing access
from the nearby land to predaceous
birds, reptiles, and mammals.
Mangroves are not restricted to
estuaries, but may develop out into
shallow oceanic lagoons, or upstream
into relatively fresh waters.
«Od
Figure 6 Diagrammatic transect of a mangrove swamp
showing transition from marine to terrestrial
habitat
tidal marsh is the marsh grass, but very
little of it is used by man as grass
(Table 1)
The nutritional analysis of several
marsh grasses as compared to dry land
hay is shown in Table 2.
TABLE 1. General Order* of Magnitude of Gross Primary Productivity In Terms
at Dry Weight of Organic Matter Fixed Annually
Ecosyatem
Jes.E
gma/M /year
a/square mete ra/year)
lba/acre/year
Lain) deserte, deep oceans
Grasslands, forests, cutrophle
lAkea, ordinary agriculture
Eituarles, deltas, coral reefs,
intensive agriculture (sugar
cane, rice)
Tena
Hundreds
Hundreds
Thousands
Ten-thousands
TABLE 2. Analyses of Some Tidal Marsh Grasses
T/A Percentage Composition
Dry Wt Protein Fat fiber
Water
Ash
N-frer Extract
Dntichln spicar* (pure Mind, dry)




28 5 3 17
32 4
62
6.7
45 5
Short Sp»rttn* ihcrmflori and SiUccrma europaea (in standing water)

12 7 7 2.5
31 1
ee
120
37 7
Sparhna aftcrniftor? ttaU, pure Hand in
i Handing water)


35 7 ft 20
29 0
a.3
15 5
373
Spsftma pit* m '(>'*" t'^nil, dry)




3 2 11
30 0
8.1
90
44 5
Sp^rtma ittcrnifhjfj and Sfurtnu potrm (mucd ttand, wet)


3 4 6.8 1 9
296
6.1
104
42 8
Sjurtins aUcrnithjra Uhort, wt-t)




2 2 6-0 2 4
30 4
6.7
133
36 3
Comparable Analytci (or Hay




1s« i ijf f> 0 2 0
30 2
67
42
44 9
HO 37
2U S
10 4
59
30 5
Analyses performed by Roland W. Gilbert, Department
of Agricultural Chemistry, U.R.I.
IV PRODUCTIVITY OF WETLANDS
Measuring the productivity of grasslands
is not easy, because today grass is seldom
used directly as such by man. It is thus
usually expressed as production of meat,
milk, or in the case of salt marshes, the
total crop of animals that obtain food par
unit of area. The primary producer in a
1-34

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B The actual utilization of marsh grass is
accomplished primarily by its decom-
position and ingestion by micro organisms.
(Figure 7) A small quantity of seeds and
solids is consumed directly by birds
» •
*
o
«c
*
¦
Figure 7 The nutritive composition of
successive stages of decomposition of
Spartlna marsh grass, showing Increase
In protein and decrease ui carbohydrate
with increasing age and decreasing size
of detritus particles.
1	The quantity of micro invertebrates
which thrive on this wealth of decaying
marsh has not been estimated, nor has
the actual production of small indigenous
fishes and invertebrates such as the
top minnows (Fundulus), or the mud
snails (Nassa), and others.
2	Many forms of oceanic life migrate
into the estuaries, especially the
marsh areas, for important portions
o? their life histories as is mentioned
elsewhere (Figure 8). It has been
estimated that in excess of 60% of the
marine commercial and sport fisheries
are estuarine or marsh dependent in
some way.
The Aquatic Environment
YOUhJG
I5QUNPI
—-ooc
EGG*
ADULT
Figure 8 Diagram of the life cycle
of white shrimp (after Anderson and
Lunz 1965).
3 An effort to make an indirect
estimate of productivity in a Rhode
Island marsh was made on a single
August day by recording the numbers
and kinds of birds that fed on a
relatively small area (Figure 9).
Between 700 and 1000 wild birds of
12 species, ranging from 100 least
sandpipers to uncountable numbers
of seagulls were counted. One food
requirement estimate for three-
pound poultry in the confined inactivity
of a poultry yard is approximately one
ounce per pound of bird per day.
Greater yellow legs (left)
and black duck
Great blue heron
Figure 9 Some Common Marsh Birds
1-35

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The Aquatic Environment
One-hundred black bellied plovers
at approximately ten ounces each
would weigh on the order of sixty
pounds. At the same rate of food
consumption, this would indicate
nearly four pounds of food required
for this species alone. The much
greater activity of the wild birds
would ooviously greatly increase their
food requirements, as would their
relatively smaller size.
Considering the range of foods con-
sumed, the sizes of the birds, and the
fact that at certain seasons, thousands
of migrating ducks and others pause
to feed here, the enormous productivity
of such a marsh can be better under-
stood.
V INLAND BOGS AND MARSHES
A Much of what has been said of tidal
marshes also applies to inland wetlands.
As was mentioned earlier, not all inland
swamps are salt-free, any more than all
marshes affected by tidal rythms are
saline.
B The specificity of specialized floras to
particular types of wetlands is perhaps
more spectacular in freshwater wetlands
than in the marine, where Juncus,
Spartina, and Mangroves tend to dominate.
1	Sphagnum, or peat moss, is
probably one of the most widespead
and abundant wetland plants on earth.
Deevey (1958) quotes an estimate that
there is probably upwards of 223
billions (dry weight) of tons of peat
in the world today, derived during
recent geologic time from Sphagnum
bogs. Particularly in the northern
regions, peat moss tends to overgrow
ponds and shallow depressions, eventually
forming the vast tundra plains and
moores of the north.
2	Long lists of other bog and marsh plants
might be cited, each with its own
special requirements, topographical,
and geographic distribution, etc.
Included would be the familiar cattails,
spike rushes, cotton grasses, sedges,
trefoils, alders, and many, many
others.
C Types of inland wetlands.
1	As noted above (Cf: Figure 1)
tided marshes often merge into
freshwater marshes and bayous.
Deltaic tidal swamps and marshes
are often saline in the seaward
portion, and fresh in the landward
areas.
2	River bottom wetlands differ from
those formed from lakes, since wide
flood plains subject to periodic
inundation are the final stages of
the erosion of river valleys, whereas
lakes in general tend to be eliminated
by the geologic processes of natural
eutrophi cation often involving
Sphagnum and peat formation.
Riverbottom marshes in the southern
United States, with favorable climates,
have luxurient growths such as the
canebrake of the lower Mississippi,
or a characteristic timber growth
such as cypress.
3	Although bird life is the most
conspicuous animal element in the
fauna (Cf: Figure 9), many mammals,
such as muskrats, beavers, otters,
and others are also marsh-oriented.
(Figure 12)
Figure 12
1-36

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The Aquatic Environment
VI POLLUTION
A No single statement can summarize the
effects of pollution on marshlands as
distinct from effects noted elsewhere on
other habitats.
B Reduction of Primary Productivity
The primary producers in most wetlands
are the grasses and peat mosses.
Production may be reduced or eliminated
by:
1 Changes in the water level brought
about by flooding or drainage.
a Marshland areas are sometimes
diked and flooded to produce fresh-
water ponds. This may be for
aesthetic reasons, to suppress the
growth of noxious marsh inhabitating
insects such as mosquitoes or biting
midges, to construct an industrial
waste holding pond, a thermal or a
sewage stabilization pond, a
"convenient" result of highway
causeway construction, or other
reason. The result is the elim-
ination of an area of marsh. A
small compensating border of
marsh may or may not develop.
b High tidal marshes were often
ditched and drained in former days
to stabilize the sod for salt hay or
"thatch" harvesting which was highly
sought after in colonial days. This
inevitably changed the character
of the marsh, but it remained as
essentially marshland. Conversion
to outright agricultural land has
been less widespread because of the
necessity of diking to exclude the
periodic floods or tidal incursions,
and carefully timed drainage to
eliminate excess precipitation.
Mechanical pumping of tidal marshes
has not been economical in this
country, although the success of
the Dutch and others in this regard
is well known.
2	Marsh grasses may also be eliminated
by smothering as, for example, by
deposition of dredge spoils, or the
spill or discharge of sewage sludge
3	Considerable marsh area has been
eliminated by industrial construction
activity such as wharf and dock con-
struction, oil well construction and
operation, and the discharge of toxic
brines and other chemicals.
C Consumer production (animal life) has
been drastically reduced by the deliberate
distribution of pesticides. In some cases,
this has been aimed at nearby agricultural
lands for economic crop pest control, in
other cases the marshes have been sprayed
or dusted directly to control noxious
insects.
1	The results have been universally
disastrous for the marshes, and the
benefits to the human community often
questionable.
2	Pesticides designed to kill nuisance
insects, are also toxic to other
arthropods so that in addition to the
target species, such forage staples as
the various scuds (amphipods), fiddler
crabs, and other macroinvertebrates
have either been drastically reduced
or entirely eliminated m many places.
For example, one familiar with fiddler
crabs can traverse miles of marsh
margins, still riddled with their burrows,
without seeing a single live crab.
3	DDT and related compounds have been
"eaten up the food chain" (biological
magnification effect) until fish eating
and other predatory birds such as herons
and egrets (Figure 9), have been virtually
eliminated from vast areas, and the
accumulation of DDT in man himself
is only too well known.
1-37

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The Aquatic Environment
D Most serious of the marsh enemies is
man himself. In his quest for "lebensraum"
near the water., he has all but killed the
water he strives to approach. Thus up to
twenty percent of the marsh—estuarine
area in various parts of the country has
already been utterly destroyed by cut and
fill real estate developments (Figures
10, 11).
E Swimming birds such as ducks, loons,
cormorants, pelicans, and many others
are severely jeopardized by floating
pollutants such as oil.
Figure 10. Diagrammatic representation of cut-and-fill for
real estate development, mlw 3 mean low water


QCE/tr/
Figure 11. Tracing of portion of map of a southern
city showing extent of cut-and-fill real
estate development.
1-38

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The Aquatic Environment
VII SUMMARY
A Wetlands comprise the marshes, swamps,
bogs, and tundra areas of the world.
They are essential to the well-being of
our surface waters and ground waters.
They are essential to aquatic life of
all types living in the open waters. They
are essential as habitat for all forms of
wildlife.
B The tidal marsh is the area of emergent
vegetation bordering the ocean or an
estuary,
C Marshes are highly productive areas,
essential to the maintenance of a well
rounded community of aquatic life.
D Wetlands may be destroyed by:
1	Degradation of the life forms of
which it is composed in the name of
nuisance control.
2	Physical destruction by cut-and-fill
to create more land area.
REFERENCES
1	Anderson, W.W. The Shrimp and the
Shrimp Fishery of the Southern
United States. USDI, FWS, BCF,
Fishery Leaflet 589. 1966.
2	Deevey, E.S., Jr. Bogs. Sci. Am. Vol.
199{4):115-122. October 1958.
3	Emery, K. O. and Stevenson. Estuaries
and Lagoons. Part II, Biological
Aspects by J. W. Hedgepsth, pp. 693-
728, in: Treatise on Marine Ecology
and Paleoecology. Geol. Soc. Am.
Mem. 67. Washington, DC, 1957.
4	Hesse, R., W. C. Allee, and K. P.
Schmidt. Ecological Animal
Geography. John Wiley &. Sons. 1937.
5	Morgan, J.P. Ephemeral Estuaries of
the Deltaic Environment in: Estuaries,
pp. 115-120. Publ. No. 83, Am.
Assoc. Adv. Sci. Washington, DC. 1967.
6	Odum, E.P. and Dela Crug, A. A.
Particulate Organic Detritus in a
Georgia Salt Marsh - Estuarine
Ecosystem, in: Estuaries, pp. 383-
388, Publ. No. 83, Am. Assoc. Adv.
Sci. Washington, DC. 1957.
7	Redfield, A.C. The Ontogeny of a Salt
Marsh Estuary, in: Estuaries, pp.
108-114. Publ. No. 83, Am. Assoc.
Adv. Sci. Washington, DC. 1967.
8	Stuckey, O.H. Measuring the Productivity
of Salt Marshes. Maritimes (Grad
School of Ocean., U.R.I.) Vol. 14(1):
9-11. February 1970.
9	Williams, R. B. Compartmental
Analysis of Production and Decay
of Juncus reomerianus. Prog.
Report, Radiobiol. Lab., Beaufort, NC,
Fiscal Year 1968, USDI, BCF, pp. 10-
12.
This outline was prepared by H. W. Jackson,
former Chief Biologist, National Training
Center, and revised by R. M. Sinclair, Aquatic
Biologist, National Training Center, MPOD,
OWPO, EPA, Cincinnati, OH 45268.
Descriptors: Aquatic Environment, Biological
Estuarine Environment, Lentic Environment,
Lotic Environment, Currents, Marshes,
Limnology, Magnification, Water Properties
1-39

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THE MARINE GEOLOGY OF ESTUARIES AND PERIESTUARINE PHENOMENA
I WHAT IS AN ESTUARY?
A Historically - Lower Tidal Reaches of a
River
B Physical Characteristics
1	Geomorphological considerations -
coastal indentation with a 3-dimensional
shape based on erosion, deposition,
structure, and biological activity
2	Environmental considerations
a Normal - fresh to brackish to saline,
circulation dependent on river
discharge and tidal circulation
b Inverse - hypersaline to saline,
evaporite deposits, climate changes
C Biological Characteristics
1	Monotonous population as compared to
sea
2	Unspecialized organisms able to
penetrate and exist m an unstable and
shifting biotope
D Definition - "An estuary is a semi-
enclosed coastal body of water which has
a free connection with the open sea and
within which sea water is measurably
diluted with fresh water derived from
land drainage• " {Pritchard in Lauff, 1967)
n ESTUARINE CLASSIFICATION BASED
ON GENESIS
A Drowned River Valleys - Chesapeake Bay,
Tampa Bay, St. Johns' Estuary
B Fjords - New England Coast
C Bar-built - Pamlico Sount, Gulf Coast
Estuaries
D Structural - San Francisco Bay
E Circulation Subdivided
IH ESTUARINE EVOLUTION
A Effects of Sea Level Rise and Fall
1 Pleistocene eustatic changes
2
YEARS BEFORE PRESENT	^
~
210 001 100000 JO 100 lotos 10 000 s 000 ; COO 1010 z
100
General custatic curve for the last
200, 000 years Largely conjectural.
Semi log scale. (After Guilcher, 1969)
2 Tectonic effects
B Effects of varying rates of discharge
1	Drainage basm characteristics - size,
plant cover, agriculture, rock type
2	Climate - rainfall and temperature control,
plant cover and weathering
3	Circulation
a Estuarine - rates of flushing, maxi-
mum velocity
b Nearshore - longshore currents and
drift
4	Deposition
a Bay-head delta encroachment -
function of rate of sediment supply vs.
rate of sediment removal
W.TE. 7.6.70
2-1

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The Marine Geology of Estuaries and Periestuarine Phenomena
b Periestuarine deposition - bay
month bars, splits, barrier islands,
beaches, and chenier plains
c Biological influences - reefs, grass,
salt marshes
Human interactions - cultivation, dredge
and fill, drainage and shipping channels,
dams and flood control
C Ontogeny
Lowering sea level - valley down-
cutting, coarse-grained sediments
Rising sea level - valley alluviation,
fine-grained sediments
a Still stands - bay month bars, spits,
barriers, and other periestuarine
deposition
REFERENCES
1	Emery, K. O. and Stevenson, R. E.
1957, Estuaries and Lagoons I, Physical
and Chemical Characteristics, in
Treatise on Marine Ecology and
Paleoecology I. J. W. Hedgpeth, ed.,
Geol. Soc. America Memoir 67, p. 613 -
693.
2	Hedgpeth, J. W., 1957, Estuaries and
Lagoons, n. Biological Aspects, in
Treatise on Marine Ecology and
Paleoecology I, J. W. Hedgpeth, ed.,
Geol. Soc. America Memoir 67, p. 693 -
729.
3	Lauff, G. H. (ed.), 1967, Estuaries,
American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science Publication No. 83,
Washington, D. C.# p. 1 - 14, 93 - 120,
667 - 706.
Destruction - delta fills river valley
and builds out onto shell
This outline was prepared by Dr. Grant
Go ode 11, Department of Oceanography,
Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL.
2-2

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HYDRODYNAMICS OF ESTUARIES
I DEFINITION OF AN ESTUARY2
A semienclosed enbayment, connected with
the ocean, which contains an appreciable
amount of sea salt.
II INFLOW AND EVAPORATION
It is common to designate as positive, an
estuary with significant dilution (river inflow),
and as negative or inverse, an estuary where
evaporation dominates. Pritchard suggested
that the intermediate sort of estuary where
neither process dominates is designated as
neutral.
III	SHAPE OF ESTUARIES
A Drowned River Valley
B Fjord Type
C Bar-built
IV
A Forces Acting for Any Type of Estuary
1	Wind induced circulation
2	Tidal motion
a Mixing
b Inflow and outflow
3	Seasonal temperature and salinity
changes
B Source or Sink of FreshWater
V STUDY OF WATER EXCHANGE
A Salt Balance
B Water Balance
VI DISTRIBUTION OF SALT AND
TEMPERATURE
A T-S Diagram
B Vertical and Horizontal Salinity and
Temperature Distribution
C Equations Useful in Describing Salt and
Mass Conservation
VII FIELD OF MOTION
Equations useful in representing fields of
motion, and Mixing processes and mathemati-
cal representation of such processes.
VIII MODELING OF ESTUARIES
(Ref. Keulegan's article in Ippen's book. )
REFERENCES
Ippen, A T Estuary and Coastline
Hydrodynamics. 1966. McGraco-Hill.
(Contains papers by a number of
different authors.)
2 Pritchard, D. W. Estuarine Hydrography
in Advances in Geophysics. Vol. I.
1952. Academic Press.
This outline was prepared by Dr. Raymond
Staley, Associate Professor of Oceanography,
Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida.
1
CAUSES OF WATER EXCHANGE AND
MIXING BETWEEN ENBAYMENT AND
OCEAN
W.TE he. 3. 6. 70
3-1

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THE PHYSICAL FACTORS OF THE ESTUARY
I CIRCULATION AND DIFFUSION
A Methods of Observation
B Types of Estuarine Circulation
1	Salt wedge estuary
2	Two-layer flow with entrainment
3	Two-layer flow vertical mixing
4	Vertically homogeneous estuaries
5	Exceptional cases
C Basic Principles of Circulation and Mixing
n SALT BALANCE AND CIRCULATION
IK SALINITY MEASUREMENTS IN THE	
ESTUARIES	This outline was prepared by B Burke,
Bissett-Berman Corporation, Miami, Florida.
A Purpose of Salinity Measurements
B Conductivity Measurements
C Salt Injection for Circulation and
Diffusion Studies
D Salinity Measurement Instrumentation
E The Use of Estuarine Salinity
Measurements
IV CURRENT MEASUREMENTS IN THE
ESTUARY
A Methods of Observation
B Current Measurement Instrumentation
W. TE. 8. 6. 70
4-1

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PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ESTUARIES
I INTRODUCTION
During most of the history of physical
oceanography, prime emphasis has been
directed toward an understanding of the
structure and circulation of the open ocean.
Within the last 50 years increasing effort has
been directed toward the study of inshore
regions and the environmental factors affect-
ing the movement and fate of wastewater
pollutants after they have been discharged
into estuarine water.
b Tidal action may extend inland far
beyond any salinity penetration
(to the "fall line").
c Estuarine generated tidal currents
and water qualities may extend far
out to sea.
d Bottom topography, current patterns,
quality characteristics, etc., may
be changed drastically by the proc-
ess of nature (as with delta formation)
or may be changed by the action of
man.
H DEFINITION
A No definite agreement exists as to the
proper definition of what constitutes an
estuary.
1	Finch and Trewartha define an estuary
as "embayments resulting from sub-
mergence. "
2	Ketchum defines an estuary as "any
region in which seawater is measurably
diluted by land water drainage. "
3	An estuary is defined here as "a body
of water bordered by, and partly cut
off from, the ocean by land masses
originally shaped by non-marine
agencies, and where river water mixes
with and measurably dilutes seawater.
The most significant characteristic of
estuaries is the general prevalence of
steep gradients in nearly all parameters.
The above may be interpreted to refer
to the body of water extending from a
line between the outermost headlands
to the farthest upstream penetration
of seawater, but it must also be
recognized that.
a The latter point may vary with
seasonal or meteorological con-
ditions, stream flow, etc.
B Bays are relatively simple, usually broad,
indentations in a coastline in which there
is little or no admixture of fresh water,
and into which oceanic water circulates
freely with no significant change in quality.
C Flats. In relatively protected portions
of bays and estuaries, broad deltaic
deposits may build up to the point of
intertidal exposure called tidal flats,
which tend to stabilize. Flats may be of
mud, sand, or a mixture of both. If
covered with emergent brackish water
vegetation, it is a salt marsh, in the
tropics often a mangrove swamp.
in CLASSIFICATION OF ESTUARIES IN
TERMS OF FRESHWATER INFLOW
AND EVAPORATION
A Positive Estuary - coastal indentures in
which there is a measurable dilution of
seawater by land drainage.
Freshwater inflow + precipitation >
Evaporation
B Inverse Estuary - type of estuary in which
the evaporation exceeds the land drainage
(freshwater inflow) plus precipitation.
Evaporation > Freshwater + precipitation
input
W.TE. 5a. 2. 70
5-1

-------
Contain one or more sills which define
deep interior basins, with a shallow
sill at the mouth.
U-shape cross section with very steep
sides.
Physical Characteristics of Estuaries
Neutral Estuary - type of estuary where
neither the freshwater inflow nor the
evaporation dominates.
IV CLASSIFICATION OF ESTUARIES IN
TERMS OF GEOMORPHOLOGICAL
STRUCTURE
Geomorphology - an area of physical geo-
graphy which deals with the form of the earth,
the general configuration of the surface of
the earth.
A Coastal Plain Estuaries
1	Formed by drowning of former river
valleys, either from subsidence of the
land or from a rise in sea level.
2	Usually an elongated indenture of the
coast line with the river flowing into
the upper end.
3	Usually has shallow depths and shoal
areas with a dendritic or branching
shore line.
4	Sediments can be transported into the
estuary either from the river at the
head of the estuary or from the mouth
by action of ocean currents and waves.
Examples of Coastal Plain Estuaries:
a Chesapeake Bay and tributaries
b Lower Colorado River
c Lower Hudson River
d St. Lawrence River
e San Francisco Bay
f Tampa Bay
g Galveston Bay
B Fjord Estuaries
1	Elongated indentures of the coast line.
2	Glacially-cut formations which can
exceed 1000 feet in depth.
Generally positive type estuary but a
few inverse estuaries of this type are
found in arid regions.
6	Sediments are transported into estuary
by rivers and shoreline erosion.
7	Examples of Fjord Estuaries in North
America include Puget Sound and many
inlets of British Columbia and Alaska.
C Bar-Built Estuaries or Lagoons
1	Results from the development of an
offshore bar on a shoreline of low
relief and shallow water.
2	Usually a very narrow channel exists
between the open sea and the estuary.
3	These estuaries may be positive or
inverse depending on the freshwater
input and the climate of the region.
4	This type of estuary is common on the
eastern and Gulf Coasts of the United
States.
V CLASSIFICATION OF ESTUARIES IN
TERMS OF THE PREDOMINANT MIXING
PROCESS
A Mixing caused by tides - in the majority
of estuaries the predominant cause of
movement and mixing appears to be the
tide, upon which is superimposed a
weaker river flow.
In some of the large estuaries, such as
the Bay of Fundy, or Cooke Inlet, Alaska,
the periodic flooding action of the tides is
supplemented by seiche (or long stationary)
waves in which the node is at the opening
to the sea and the antinode (point of
maximum vertical movement) near the
head. The result may be tides of ten to
5-2

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Physical Characteristics of Estuaries
A clear definition of the estuary under con-
sideration for reception of wastewater
discharges is essential to successful
ultimate disposal to the ocean.
twenty meters with corresponding tidal
currents contributing.
B Mixing caused by meteorological conditions
in many of the shallower bar-built estuaries
or sounds, the movement and mixing of
water appear to depend primarily on the
wind.
C Mixing caused by river flow The position
of the wedge of salt water which intrudes
into the mouths of the Mississippi or the
Delaware Rivers, for example, depends
upon the flow of the river.
D Bores are common in tidal channels with
relatively narrow entrances, long reaches,
and high tides. As a result of such cir-
cumstances, the volume and velocity of
the ebb flow may hold back the advance of
the flood tide until it has built up a
sufficient head to overflow the ebb current
and advance rapidly up the estuary as a
wall or continuously breaking wave of from
a few centimeters to a meter or more in
height (eight meters has been reported).
E In many estuaries no single cause of
movement and mixing predominates, i.e.,
in some bar-built estuaries the tidal
motion will dominate near the channel
connecting the estuary with the ocean, but
within the estuary both wind and tide may
contribute appreciably to the motion and
mixing as in San Francisco Bay or
Chesapeake Bay.
VI SUMMARY
The type of estuary is important in waste-
water disposal because the movement of
pollutants (flushing rate) to the open ocean
varies with the type of estuary under
investigation.
The classification of an inshore region as an
estuary is dependent upon the geomorpho-
logical characteristics, amount and location
of freshwater input, evaporation rates,
meteorological conditions and the mechanisms
involved in the movement and mixing of the
estuarine waters.
REFERENCES
1	Emery, K. and Stevenson, R.E.
Estuaries, Lagoons, and Tidal Flats.
Geol. Soc. Am. Memoir No. 67. 1958.
2	Finch, V. C. and Trewartha, G. T.
Elements of Geography. McGraw-
hill, New York. 1942.
3	Ketchum, B.H. The Exchange of Fresh
and Saltwater in Tidal Estuaries.
J. Mar. Res. 10:18-38. 1951.
4	Ketchum, B.H. Hydrographic Factors
Involved in the Dispersion of Pollutants
Introduced into Tidal Waters. J.
Boston Soc. Civ. Eng. 37, No. 3:296-
314. 1950.
5	Lauff, George H., Editor. Estuaries.
Pub. No. 83. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci.
Washington, D. C. 1967.
6	Phelps, E.B. and Velz, C.J. Pollution
of New York Harbor. Sewage Works
Journals, No. 1:117-157. 1933.
7	Pritchard, D.W. Advances in Geophysics.
Volume I. Academic Press. 1952.
8	Tully, J. Oceanography and Prediction
of Pulpmill Pollution in Alberni Inlet.
Bull. Fish Res. Board Canada 83.
169 pp. 1949.
This outline was prepared by P. F. Atkins,
Jr., SA Sanitary Engineer, formerly with
FWPCA Training, SEC and revised 1970
by H. W. Jackson, Chief Biologist, National
Training Center, Water Programs Operations,
EPA, Cincinnati, OH 45268.
5-3

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THE MARINE GEOLOGY OF ESTUARIES AND PERIESTUARINE PHENOMENA
I SEDIMENTOLOGY
A Textural Considerations
1 Definitions
a Size - millimeters vs. phi scale
mm
phi
Pebbles
Granules
Sand
Silt
Clay
> 4
4 to 2
2 to 1/16
1/18 to 1/256
< 1/256
< - 2
2 to - 1
- 1 to 4
4 to 8
> 8
d Biological components
1)	Shell and tests
2)	Partially degraded organic matter
B Hydrodynamics of Sediment Transport
1 Settling velocity
a Stokes1 law v = Cd
Cd
1/2
b Impact law v
c Variables
1) Particle size, shape and density
b Histograms and cumulative curves
c Shape - physical vs. hydrodynamic
2	Descriptive sedimentary statistics
a Measures of central tendency -
mean, median
b Measures of dispersion - standard
deviation, skewness, kurtosis
3	End member concept
SAND
GRAVEt
SILT
4	Textural classifications
(See figure on following page)
5	Composition of size grades
a Multicomponent grains
b Monommeralic grains
c Clay mineralogy - lllite, chlorite,
montmorillonite, kaolmite and their
degraded and crystallographically
mixed counterparts
W.TE. 9.6.70
CONSOLIDATED
w CLAY AND SILT
UNCOMSOl DATED.
-co		
SIZe DIAMETER IN MICRONS
Lroslon transportation and deposition velocities foi different
grain sizes nit. diagram Indicates possible value*; for vaiious
stages of consolidation (Data from various authors in Sunclborg
(1956) and observations of the author ) (Postma in lauff 1967)
2 Fluid flow characteristics
a Fluid properties
b Lammer vs turbulent flow
c Scale and intensity of turbulence
6-1

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The Marine Geology of Estuaries and Periestuarme Phenomena
Textural Classifications
CLAY
CLAY
SAND
SILY
SAND
SILY
CLAY
smdV"	"?il, /
SAND
SILY
V;
SAND
SILY
10%
CLAY
CLAY
SILY
SAND
SILY
Nomenclature of sand, silt, and clay mixtures. A: After Robinson (1949). B: After Shepard
(1954). C: After Army Engineers. D: After Trefethen (1950). E: After Folk (1954).
F: AfterA.P.I. Project 51 (Shepard, 1954). Pettijohn, 1957.)
2

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The Marine Geology of Estuaries and Periestuanne Phenomena
3 Suspended load and flocculation
CHLORtwrTY H.
a 4 6 8 10 12 14 1© 18
I I I I I I I I I
21* € |B" 1 2 I I Z | CLAT/LITII
' o - units
a - VEBMICOIITCS
* - POTASSIUM MONIMOBIUOMITES
7 14 T2 30 36 43 SO 66 68
IONIC STRENGTH
( IA ¦ SCALE READING x 10*2 )
IONIC STRENGTH
(I.S. = Scale Reading X 10"2)
Settling velocities of clay minerals in seawater at different chlorinities (Whitehouse et al., 1960).
(After Postma in Lauff, 1967)
4 Traction load
a Bed dilation
5 Lag effects
INLET
Diagram showing the velocities with which different water masses move with the tides at each
point along a section through a tidal area from the inlet to the shore. The curves apply only to
idealized, average conditions. This illustrates the effects of settling lag and scour lag (Van
Straaten and Kuenen, 1958). (After Postma in Lauff, 1967)
3

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The Marine Geology of Estuaries and Periestuarine Phenomena
Origin of ripple bedding from current ripples. Plane a: Surface section of ripples with
crests having opposing apical directions. This section cuts into the foremost ripple and
the cut is shifted forward about half the ripple length to show the structure which exists
beneath the ripple. Plane b: Front view of the structure yields festoon bedding.
Plane d: Horizontal view of the remaining structure. The forepointing parts of the
cosets disappear (compare surface a), eroded from the bottom of the ripple troughs,
leaving only the structure of the backpointing part of the lee laminae intact.
E
o
o
(0
O
I-
o
-------
The Marine Geology of Estuaries and Periestuarine Phenomena
2	Cross bedding
3	Scour, cut and fill
b


w
An association of bed forms (and internal structures) commencing with point bars
and ending with small scale ripples and parting lineations. (Allen, 1968)
4 Apositional fabric
D Depositional Geomorphology
1 River deltas
2 Bars
RIVER SEA
b
FRESH
WATER
FRESH
WATER
SALTWATER
I SEA - S
SEA - SAND DEPOSIT HERE
Formation of a bar in a salt wedge (Van Veen, 1950)
(Postma in Lauff, 1967)
5
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The Marine Geology of Estuaries and Periestuarine Phenomena
3	Tidal deltas
4	Periestuarine phenomenon
a Splits, barrier islands, cheniers,
beaches, dune fields, nearshore
littoral sediments
E Rates of Deposition
1 Factors affecting
a Discharge - climate
b Sediment load - drainage basin
c Circulation - physical conformation
d Man
REFERENCES
1	Allen, J.R. Current Ripples, Their
Relation to Patterns of Water and
Sediment Motion, North-Holland
Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
433 p. 1968.
2	Guilcher, Andre. Pleistocene and
Holocene Sea Level Changes, Earth
Science Reviews, Vol. 5 (2), p. 69-97.
1969.
3	Lauff, G. H. (ed.). Estuaries, American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Publication 83, p. 130-290.
1967.
4	Middleton, G.V. (ed.). Primary
sedimentary structures and their
hydrodynamic interpretation, Soc.
Econ. Paleontologists and Mineralogists
Special Publication No. 12, Tulsa,
Oklahoma, 265 p. 1965.
5	Pettijohn, F.J. Sedimentary Rocks,
Harper and Brothers, New York,
718 p. 1957.
6	Symposium on Estuaries, 1969, South-
eastern Section, Geological Society
of America, Columbia, S.C., to be
published as a Memoir of the Geol
Soc. America, B. Nelson, Editor.
6-6
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The Marine Geology of Estuaries and Periestuarine Phenomena
II SAMPLING
A Population - class of data from which a
sample is drawn
1	Normal or gaussian
2	Binomial - most percentage data
3	Poisson - rarely occurring events
4	Transformations - stabilizes the
variance
B Meaning of Randomness - not an intrinsic
property of the data but of the process
which generated it
1	Formalization procedures insures:
a Validity of measures of accuracy
and precision and statistical tests
b Elimination of personal bias
c Elimination of allocation of samples
2	Applies to analysis of data as well as
its collection
C Unrestricted Random Sampling - suitable
when the population being sampled is
reasonably homogeneous
D Stratified Sampling - suitable when natural
subdivisions (i. e., bathymetry) of the
population are present. Involves dividing
target population into non-overlapping
segments (strata) which together comprise
the population.
E Systematic Sampling - suitable when rather
uniform distribution over a traverse or
area is desired. Randomization occurs
through selection of first sample site or
through a combination with B.
F Cluster Sampling - suitable when a level
of variability is sought. Involves collecting
a group of closely spaced samples at each
major sampling point. Randomization
occurs in selection of main sampling point
and of individual points in cluster.
G Multi-Level (nested) Sampling - suitable
when a precise level of variability is
sought on which to base long-term
monitoring by systematic sampling. An
extension of cluster sampling wherein
sampling is accomplished in a hierarchical
spacial (or temporal) design
III ANALYSIS OF DATA
A Generation ofNumbers
1 Accuracy and precision
B Mechanical vs. Hydrological Textures
C Analysis of Variance - basis for decision
making. Do two (or more) populations
differ from one another (significantly)9
1 Must know characteristics of population
D Regression and Correlation - in theory
regression considers the frequency dis-
tributions of one variable when another is
held fixed at several levels which
correlation considers the joint variation
of two variables.
1	Assumes linearity, normalcy (more
important for correlation), homogeneity
of variance (more important for
regression)
Scatter diagrams
2	Non-linear and multiple regression
a Polynomial to nth power require
n + 1 variables
b Non-linear multiple regression
y = f (x., x , x,	x )Z
v £. i	n
REFERENCES
1 Griffiths, J. C. Scientific method an
analysis of sediments, McGraw-Hill,
508 p. 1967.
6-7
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The Marine Geology of Estuaries and Periestuarine Phenomena
2	Krumbein, W.C. and Graybill, F A.
An Introduction to Statistical Models
in Geology, McGraw-Hill, 475 p. 1965.
3	Miller, R. L. and Kahn, J.S. Statistical
Analyses in the Geological Sciences,
Wiley, 483 p. 1962.
This outline was prepared by Dr. Grant
Goodell, Department of Oceanography,
Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL.
6-8
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PERIESTUARINE FEATURES
I DEFINITION: Features which are
peripheral to estuaries, such as beaches
and barrier islands
II BEACHES, DUNES AND BEACH-DUNE
RIDGES
A Definitions
B Materials: Different Sands, Gravel
(Shingle)
C Sources of Materials, Man's Influence
D The Dynamic Air-Sea-Land Interface
E The Beach, a River of Sand
F Beach Ridges and Dune Ridges Ridge
Systems. Dune Vegetation
in BARRIER ISLANDS AND BEACHES
CHENIERS, BAYMOUTH BARS, SPITS
A Definitions
B Development of these Peripheral Features
C Importance of these Peripheral Features
for the Estuaries which they enclose
IV COA STA L MA RSHE S
A
B
C The Interaction between Vegetation and
the Substrate
D Some Physical Mass Properties of Marsh
Seds
V NATURAL PROCESSES OF EROSION
AND DEPOSITION. MAN'S IMPACT
A Waves and Longshore Currents. Wind
B Hurricanes: Betsy, Alma and Camille
as Examples
C Modification of Erosional and Depositional
Processes by Man
D Greatest Threat to the Periestuarine
Environment: The Civil Engineer
E Development and Settlement of Beach
Areas: What to do and mainly what not
to do
F Development and Settlement of Marsh
Areas. Dredge and Fill Operations
G Direct Changes of the Not-Settled,
Adjoining Areas through Siltation and
Modification of the Longshore Drift
System
H Indirect Changes Imposed on the
Hydrography of Adjoining Areas
Preconditions for the Development of
Coastal Marshes
1	Geographic setting and climatic
conditions
2	Geologic conditions
Coastal-marsh Sediments
1	Inorganic components
2	Organic components
I The Need for Long-Range Planning plus
Specific Investigations of Areas to be
Developed
This outline was prepared by Dr. D. Warnke,
Assistant Professor of Oceanography,
Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL.
W.TE. 10.6. 70
7-1
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CLAY MINERALOGY
I Clay minerals are best described chem-
ically as hydrous aluminum silicates. These
minerals are made up of two fundamental
units which are
A Tetrahedral or Silica Layers (Si^O^.) -
these tetrahedra are composed oT silica
in four fold coordination with oxygen.
In clays the tetrahedra are connected at
three corners in the same plane to form
hexagonal rings (Figure 1).
Brucite or Gibbsite Layers (Mgg(OH)g or
Al^tOH)^) - these units having
magnesium or aluminum ions octahedrally
coordinated between two planes of hydroxyl
ions. In the brucite or trioctahedral layer
all the octoctahedral positions are filled
with magnesium ions. In the gibbsite or
dioctahedral layers only 2/3 of the
octahedral positions are filled to maintain
charge balance in the structure. The
octahedral layer is illustrated in Figure 2.
OaNDQ = OXYGEN
OAND°= SILICONS
Figure 1. Diagram of the tetrahedral sheet, or silica sheet, of phyllosilicate structures
(The left-hand diagram is a single tetrahedral unit ) Source- Grim, 1958,
page 44
JQ


/>.
lO
&
o
OndO = HYDROXYLS Q ALUMINUMS,MAGNESIUMS, ETC.
I
Figure 2 Diagram of the Octahedral sheet, or gibbsite sheet, of phyllosilicate
structures. (The left-hand diagram shows a single octahedral unit)
When A1 occupies the centers of the+ctahedra, only two-thirds of
the possible sites are filled, when Mg occupies these positions, all
sites are filled Source Grim, 1958, page 48
GE.cl 1.6.70
8 -1
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Clay Mineralogy
All clays basically originate by a com-
bination of the two units described above.
The layers are combined in such a way
that the unbonded oxygens of the Si^O^
sheets replace 2/3 of the hydroxyls in one
plane of the octahedral layer. This
relationship is illustrated below.
Charge
oooooo
6 OH
- 6
oooo
4 Al5+
+12
OOOOOO
40=, 20H~
-10
oooo
4 Si4"
+16
OOOOOO
6 0=
-12
Three basic criteria for the classification
of clay minerals:
1	Type of combination of SigO^ layers
with brucite or gibbsite layers,
1 octahedral: 1 tetrahedral or two
octahedral: 1 tetrahedral.
2	Cation content of the octahedral layer
(A1 or Mg).
3 Manner or perfection of stacking of the
fundamental (1:1 or 2:1) units upon each
other.
D Structural Classification of Common Clay
Minerals
1 Two layer (1:1) silicates -
dioctahedral (Al^Si^O^ (OH)g
kaolinite
nacrite
dickite
halloysite
trioctahedral (MggSi^O^
serpentines
The various members of the dioctahedral
group differ only in the stacking along the
c-axis and morphology. A diagram of the
kaolinite structure is given below.
O OXYGENS
@ HYDROXYLS
O ALUMINUMS
oo SILICONS
8- 2
-------
Clay Mineralogy
trioctrahedral
talc (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)
vermiculite (Mg^Si^O^OH^ *
The montmorillonite structure is shown
in the diagram below.
2 Three layer (2.1) silicates
dioctahedral
montmorillonite (Al^Si^O jq (OHjg ¦ xH^O)
muscovite (KA12 (Al, Si)301Q(0H)2)
EXCHANGEABLE CATIONS nHfcO
OOXY6ENS® HYDROXYLS O ALUMINUM, IRON, MAGNESIUM
oANDo SILICON,OCCASIONALLY ALUMINUM
8-3
-------
Clay Mineralogy
Three layer (special structure)
chlorite (Mg5Al(Al, Si)3O10(OH)g-
contains octahedral layer between
2.1 units.
illite (K0.2Al4(Si8.6Al0_2)O20(OH)4 -
in many cases illite is a clay containing
alternate layers having a montmorillonite
and a muscovite type structure.
E Important Characteristics of Certain Clay
Groups
1	The two layer dioctahedral minerals
are all essentially pure hydrous
aluminum silicates. For example,
kaolinite always has a composition
approximating the ideal formula
A14Si4°10(OH)8-
2	The three layer clays show extensive
isomorphous substitution and almost
never have a composition near the ideal
formula. These clays often have less
than 2/3 of the possible inter layer cation
population and thus exhibit variable
basal spacings. The common sub-
stitution in the tetrahedral sheets of
montmorillonite is Al3+ for Si4+, the
amount of substitution being limited to
about 15%. In the octahedral sheets a
much greater variety of substitution is
possible; the comnj^n substitutions
being Mg^+ gjjid Fe , and the rarer
ones are Zn , Ni^+, and other tran-
sition metals. A more realistic formula
for montmorillonite is (Al, Mg, Fe)
{Si.Al) 0„_- xH-O. The.substitution
of Al3^or2(k4+ Sr of Mg2 for A1T+
leaves a deficiency of positive charge
in the montmorillonite units. The net
negative charge is compensated for in
various ways including: 1) replacement
of O" by OH , 2) by introduction of
excess cations into the octahedral layer
(Al in the ideal structure fills only 2/3
of the available positions), and 3) by
adsorption of cations onto surfaces and
in inter layer positions.
II SEDIMENT, SOURCE, AND ORIGIN
A The type, composition, and reactivity of
sediment transported to estuaries by
rivers is dependent on the nature of
chemical and physical weathering processes
in individual watersheds. The primary
inorganic phases in river sediments which
are thought to participate extensively in
mineral-water reactions are the clay
minerals, ferromanganese oxides, and
x-ray amorphous aluminosilicate material.
To establish models which can predict the
capacity of mineral buffer systems in
river and estuarine environments two
questions must be considered. What is
the mineral composition and concentration
in the aqueous system and how stable is
the composition of the system?
B The investigations of Kennedy (1965),
Griffin (1962), Nelson (1960), Neiheisel
and Weaver (1967) provide a good survey
of clay mineral abundances in watersheds
from most areas of the United States.
Illite is the dominant clay mineral with
smaller amounts of kaolinite, vermiculite,
and aluminum-interlayer clay minerals
in streams and estuaries of the eastern
United States. Illite, Kaolinite,
vermiculite, montmorillonite, and
chlorite are observed in central Atlantic
coast estuaries. In the southeastern
United States kaolinite is the dominant
clay mineral in most rivers with lesser
amounts of montmorillonite. The clays
in the central and west-central part of the
country consist mainly of montmorillonite,
vermiculite and mixed layer clays. The
mineralogy of west coast streams and
estuaries has not been extensively
investigated but is reported to be extremely
variable as a result of the great range in
weathering environments (Kennedy, 1965).
C Regional variations in clay mineral
composition are related to variations in
parameters which control clay mineral
formation such as climate, parent rock
type, topography, vegetation, and the age
of the soil mantle. An excellent study by
Barshad (1966) quantitatively demonstrated
8-4
-------
Clay Mineralogy
the importance of precipitation rate and
parent rock type on clay mineral genesis.
In considering long term water quality
controls it should be kept in mind that
most soils are disequilibrium mineral
assemblages and an evolution in water
and clay mineral composition of any
watershed can be expected as weathering
continues. A comparison of water com-
position and soil mineralogy to theoretical
mineral-water equilibrium diagrams
enabled Harriss and Adams (1966) to
establish the equilibrium status of soils
in several watersheds of the southeastern
and central United States.
D If natural sediments are to be utilized in
water quality control planning for estuaries
then variations in composition and con-
centration of the reactive minerals must
be considered. Weaver (1967) demonstrated
large variability in the suspended clay
suites of the Arkansas River over a two
year period. The composition of the clay
mineral suite was related to the storm
pattern in the watershed.
m MINERAL-WATER REACTIONS IN
ESTUARIES
A The following paragraphs will consider the
general characteristics of ion exchange
and sorption-desorption reactions in
estuaries and the role of mineral water
reactions on the regulation of certain
cations in sea water.
B Ion Exchange Reactions
1 Experimental studies by Weaver (1958),
Potts (1959), Powers (1959), and
Carroll and Starkey (1960) indicate that
during the transfer of clay minerals
from river to sea water the minerals
attempt to adjust to changes in solution
composition. Exchangeable calcium is
partially released to sea water primarily
in exchange for magnesium and amounts
of sodium and potassium. The changes
in exchangeable cations as a result of
treating sediment from the Neuse River,
North Carolina, in sea water for six
months are presented in Table 1.
These results are similar to those
obtained by Potts (1959) with Missouri
River sediment treated with sea water
for 86 hours. The kinetics of these
ion exchange reactions appear to be
rapid with an apparent equilibrium
reached in less than 86 hours. The
exact compositional changes m the
exchange sites on the clays will be
dependent on the mineralogy of the
sediment as discussed in the above
references. Keller (1964) has
demonstrated that the changes observed
in exchangeable cations on treatment
of river clays to sea water are in
qualitative agreement with thermo-
dynamic calculations.
Muller (1964), Porrenga (1967),
McCrone (1967), and Ragland et al.,
(1970) have measured exchangeable
cations on natural fresh water,
estuarine, and marine clays and found,
in agreement with the experimental
studies, up to 50 percent increase m
exchangeable magnesium and smaller
increases in sodium and potassium on
marine clays compared to fresh water
clays.
2 The total exchange capacity of s ediment
mineralogy and the amount and chemical
characteristics of any organic matter
present. McCrone (1957) determined
exchange capacities of 30-40 milli-
equivalents per 100 grams sediment
in the Hudson River estuary. In
Hudson Estuary sediment approximately
75 percent of the exchange sites are
occupied by hydrogen ions rather than
magnesium or sodium ions. McCrone
suggests that organic coatings inhibit
exchange reactions on clays. In con-
trast to the Hudson Estuary results,
Ragland et al., (1970) found that the
ratio of exchangeable sodium in
Pamlico Sound sediment to dissolved
sodium m coexisting interstitial water
followed a Nernst distribution up to a
salinity of approximately 12 parts per
thousand. The exchange sites of
Pamlico Sound sediment, which con-
sists of kaolinite, illite, chlorite,
mixed layer clays, and minor amounts
8-5
-------
Clay Mineralogy
of montmonllonite, are saturated at
this salinity and will not act as an
effective alkali or alkaline earth
buffer at higher salinities.
C Sorption-Desorption Reactions
1	Hundreds of analyses of fresh water,
estuarine, and marine sediments have
been obtained, primarily in attempts
to discover empirical relationships
between elemental concentrations in
sediments and the salinity of the
coexisting water (Degans et al., 1957,
1958; Keith and Degans, 1959, Potter,
et al., 1963, Nota and Loring, 1964,
Shimp et al., 1968.) These studies
indicate that B, Cr, Cu, Ga, Ni, V,
Li, F and S are higher in marine than
fresh water sediments. The mechanisms
for enrichment of these trace elements
m marine sediments not known.
Turekian and Scott (1967) have demon-
strated for Cr, Ag, Mo, Ni, Co, and
Mn that the concentration of these
elements in suspended sediment is
independent of their concentration in
coexisting river water indicating
disequilibrium.
2	Laboratory studies by Carritt and
Goodgal (1954), Bien et al., (1958),
Fleet (1965), Pomeroy et al., (1965,
Lerman (1966), Karkar et al., (1968),
and Mackenzie et al., (1967), indicate
that detrital clays can take up and
release numerous constituents in the
marine environment including P, Si,
B, Co, Ag, and Se.
2	Bien, G., Contois, D., and Thomas, W.
Removal of soluble silica from fresh
water entering the sea. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta. 14 35-54. 1958.
3	Carritt, D. and Goodgal , S. Sorption
reactions and some ecological
implications, Deep Sea Research.
1:224-243. 1954.
4	Carrol, D. and Starkey, H. Effect of
sea water on clay minerals, in
Swineford, A., ed., Clays and Clay
Minerals. Pergamon Press,
New York. p. 80-101. 1960.
5	Degans, E., Williams, E. and Keith, M.
Environmental studies of carboniferous
sediments. Part I: Geochemical
criteria for differentiating marine from
freshwater shales. Bull. Amer.
Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 41:2427-2455
1957.
6	Degans, E., Williams, E. and Keith, M.
Environmental studies of carboniferous
sediments. Part II: Application of
geochemical criteria. Bull. Amer.
Petrol. Geol. 42:981-997. 1958.
7	Fleet, M.E.L, Preliminary investigations
into the sorption of boron by clay
minerals. Clay Minerals Bull.
6:3-16. 1965.
8	Griffin, G. Regional clay mineral facies-
products of weathering intensity and
current distribution in the northeastern
Gulf of Mexico. Geol. Soc. Amer.
BuU. 73:737-768. 1962.
REFERENCES
1 Bar shad, I. The effect of a variation
in precipitation on the nature of clay
mineral formation in soils from acid
and basic igneous rocks, Proc.
Internatl. Clay Conf. 1:167-173. 1966.
9 Grim, R. Clay Mineralogy. McGraw-
Hill, New York. 1953.
10 Harriss, R. and Adams, J. Geochemical
and mineralogical studies on the
weathering of granitic rocks. Amer,
J. Sci. 264:146-173. 1966.
8-6
-------
Clay Mineralogy
11	Kharkar, D , Turekian, K and Bertine,
K. Stream supply of dissolved silver,
molybdenum, antimony, selenium,
chromium, cobalt, rubidium, and
cesium to the oceans. Geochim.
Cosochim. Acta. 32:285-298. 1968.
12	Keith, M. and Degans, E. Geochemical
indicators of marine and fresh water
sediments, in: Abelson, P., ed.
Researches in Geochemistry. Wiley,
New York. p. 38-61. 1959.
13	Keller, W.D. Diagenesis in clay mmerals-
A review, in Swineford, A., ed.
Clays and Clay Minerals. Pergamon
Press, p. 136-57. 1963.
14	Kennedy, V. C. Mineralogy and cation
exchange capacity of sediments from
selected streams. U.S. Geol. Survey
Prof. Paper 433-D 28 pp. 1965
15	Lerman, A . Boron in clays and estimation
of paleosalimties. Sedimentology
6 267-286 1966.
21	Potts, R Cationic and structural
changes in Missouri River clays when
treated with ocean water M.S. Thesis,
Umv Missouri, Columbia, Missouri.
1959.
22	Powers, M. C Adjustment of clays to
chemical change and the concept of the
equivalence level, Proc. 6th Conf.
on Clays and Clay Minerals, p. 309-
326. 1959.
23	Ragland, P., Johnson, D and Dobbins, D.
Water-Clay interactions in North
Carolina's Pamlico estuary, Environ.
Sci Tech (in press) 1970.
24	Shimp, N. , Witters, J. , Potter, P. and
Schleicher, J. Distinguishing marine
and freshwater muds J Geol. 77:
566-580 1969.
25	Turekian, K and Scott, M Concentrations
of Cr, Ag, Mo, Ni, Co, and Mn in
suspended material in streams.
Environ. Sci Tech. 1 940-942 1967.
16 Loring, D and Nota, D. Occurrence and
significance of iron, manganese, and
titanium in glacial marine sediments
from the estuary of the St Lawrence
River. J. Fish. Res Bd. Canada.
25:2327-2347 1968
26 Weaver, C. The effects and geologic
significance of potassium "fixation"
by expandable clay minerals derived
from muscovite, biotite, chlorite, and
volcanic material. Amer Mineral.
43:839-861. 1958.
17 McCrone, A. The Hudson River estuary
Sedimentary and geochemical properties
between Kingston and Haverstraw,
New York. J. Sed Pet. 37*475-486.
1967.
27 Weaver, C. Potassium, illite, and the
ocean. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta.
31:2181-2196. 1967.
18	Neiheisel, J. and Weaver, C Transport
and deposition of clay minerals,
Southeastern United States J. Sed
Pet. 37:1084-1116. 1967.
19	Nelson, B. Clay mineralogy of the
bottom sediments. Rappahannock
River, Virginia, in Swineford, A., ed
Clays and Clay Minerals. Pergamon
Press. p. 135-147. 1960.
20 Potter, P., Shimp, N. and Witters, J
Trace elements in marine and fresh
water argillaceous sediments. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta. 27 669-694. 1963
This outline was prepared by Dr. Robert
Harriss, Assistant Professor, Department
of Oceanography, Florida State University,
Tallahassee, FL.
8-7
-------
STABLE CARBON ISOTOPE RATIO VARIATIONS
AS INDICATORS OF POLLUTION*
I Stable isotope ratio variations for several
of the light elements have provided insight into
many natural geochemical processes. These
variations can also serve as indicators of
man's activity in cases where the natural
stable isotope ratios have been shifted by
significant addition or removal of material
with different and characteristic stable
isotope ratios. This effect has so far been
demonstrated only for stable carbon isotopes
However, the prospects of detecting very
subtle changes in geochemical reservoirs of
major biologically active elements by this
technique appear promising.
A Background
1	The major elements which show non-
radiogenic isotope ratio variations m
nature along with their stable isotope
abundances are shown in Table 1. If
there were no isotope effects in physical
and chemical processes all natural
materials would have these exact
isotopic abundances. Isotopes effects
do occur so the exact isotope ratio of
a given sample for these elements will
depend on the chemical and physical
history of the sample.
2	Two types of chemical isotope effects
operate m natural systems, the equilib-
rium isotope effect and the kinetic
isotope effect. The chemical basis of
the equilibrium isotope effect is well
understood (Urey, 1947). Isotope
equilibrium constants may be cal-
culated provided the necessary spectral
data is available (Bigeleisen and Mayer,
1947, Bigeleisen, 1958). In exchange
reactions which have an equilibrium
isotope effect the heavy isotope con-
centrates in one of the chemical species
because the chemical properties of each
isotopic species are slightly different.
As an example, consider the exchange
between carbon dioxide and bio-
carbonate at equilibrium.
C13Oa(g) + HC1203"(aq) = C1202(g) +
HC1303" (aq)
The equilibrium constant for this
reaction is
(1)
K =

where the concentrations are the same
as abundance ratios. In this case if
there were no isotope effect K would
be one. The reference already given
forms the basis for the calculation of
this type of equilibrium constant. In
practice it is usually more useful to
measure equilibrium constants than to
calculate them. The isotope equilibrium
constant for reaction (1) has been
measured by several workers (Hoering,
1960, Vogel, 1961, Deuser and Degens,
1967, Wendt, 1968). The experimental
quantity is the fractionation factor, a.
The equilibrium constant is readily
derived from a.
For reaction 1,
-------
Stable Carbon Isotope Ratio Variations as Indicators of Pollution
temperature but not on the conditions
of the reaction or its mechanism.
Table 1
PERCENT ISOTOPIC ABUNDANCES FOR
BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE ELEMENTS*
Carbon
Oxygen
12 98.893
16
99.759
13 1.017
17
0.0374

18
0. 2039
Nitrogen
Sulfur
14 99.634
32
95 0
15 0.366
33
0. 760

34
4. 22

36
0. 014
*G. Friedlander, J.W. Kennedy and J. M.
Miller, Nuclear and Radiochemistry. 2nd
ed. Wiley, N. Y.
1964.
3 Data in the field of isotope geochemistry
is expressed in terms of 6 (del), the per
mil (parts per thousand) difference
between the isotope ratio of the sample
and a standard material. While this
terminology may seem awkward at first,
its merits soon become obvious. Del
is the quantity that most isotope ratio
mass spectrometers yield. Del is all
that is required to relate calculated
equilibrium constants and experimentally
determined fractionation factors.
Del-C*^ is defined as
.C13.(c'V12) sample-(c'3/c12)std X 1000
(C13/C12) std.	(3)
Similar definitions can be written for
isotope pairs of other elements.
Isotope reference standards are avail-
able from the National Bureau of
Standards. NBS20 is the carbon standard
used in this chapter. Based on this
definition stable isotope ratio variations
will be expressed as small positive and
negative numbers. A negative 6 means
the sample is enriched in the light isotope
relative to the standard while a positive
6 means the sample is likewise depleted
in the light isotope. Modern isotope
ratio mass spectrometers will measure
6 to within ± 0. 1 to 0. 5 per mil on a
routine basis.
As a result of the equilibrium isotope
effect in reaction (1), atmospheric COg
is about 7 per mil enriched in C^
relative to the bicarbonate of sea water.
This is illustrated in Figure 1 where
atmospheric CO? (g) is -7 and sea
water bicarbonate is near zero. The
small amount of CO (g) dissolved in
sea water, and the large amount in
fresh water, will remain at -7 per mil
so long as it is in isotopic equilibrium
with atmospheric COg. These two
reservoirs constitute the two major
biologically active reservoirs of
inorganic carbon. It will be seen
later that the activities of man have
changed the C^^/C1^ ratio, i.e. fiC*^
of both these reservoirs in some
environments.
The kinetic isotope effect is the second
type of chemical process which brings
about variations in 6 values in natural
systems. Kinetic isotope effects,
being mechanism dependent, are not
as readily calculated as equilibrium
isotope effects. Organic chemists
have studied reaction mechanisms by
comparing measured and calculated
isotope effects (Bigeleisen and
Wolfsberg, 1958).
Kinetic isotope effects are the result
of competitive isotope reaction of the
general type
Ax + B
1
(4)
a2+b - p2
where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to
the light and heavy isotopic species.
A and B are the reactants and P the
product. Due to the kinetic isotope
effect the molecule with the light
isotope generally reacts significantly
9-2
-------
Stable Carbon Isotope Ratio Variations as Indicators of Pollution
~4
-4
•12
•20
| otm.
4Cl3X.
-28
• 36
o 21 mar ine Utnosiones (avg.)°
UBS 20 	
oceanic
HCOj a
CO.,
marine
invortebralos
marine planes
o marine coTfrninlty1
_land planl.fr
marine crude
0li8C
natural
gases0
procambrIon
rocksd
-44-
Figur© I
faster than the heavy one. In this case
the isotope effect is given by the ratio
of rate constants, kj/k2. If the reser-
voir of A is large enough to not become
depleted, the fractionation factor, a is
_ (heavy/light) P
a (heavy/light) A
(5)
If the product (P) is taken as the sample
and the reactant (A) as the standard in
(3)then
"¦ 1 + tSF
Kinetic isotope effects in biological
cycles are responsible for most of the
isotope ratio variations observed for
the elements carbon, nitrogen, sulfur
and for the 6O1® of atmospheric 0„.
A very excellent review of stable
isotope chemistry and geochemistry
as well as a discussion of experimental
techniques are given in a recent
publication by McMullen and Thode
<1963}.
The overall results of the equilibrium
and kinetic isotope effects in the various
chemical reactions of carbon, which
constitute the carbon cycle in nature,
are shown in Figure 1. Natural carbon
has been separated into a series of
reservoirs each with a more or less
characteristic isotope ratio.
B Stable Isotope Ratios as Indicators
13
Del-C of atmospheric CC>2 has been
shown to be almost constant with regard
to time and location (Keeling, 1961).
This is not the case for aquatic inorganic
carbon (IOC). IOC is the total CO^ that
can be released by an excess of acid.
Del-C1'* of IOC in fresh water at pH 7 is
present as COg (aq) it should have the
same 6C^ as atmospheric COg, -7.
The values for estuaries then will vary
depending on the mixture of fresh and ^
marine waters. Fresh water IOC - 6C
values as negative as -8 and -9 "have been
reported (Sackett and Moore, 1966).
They are more negative than -7 due to the
contribution of CO^ derived from the
oxidation of organic matter. If normal
marine waters with IOC - 6 C*3 values
near zero or even normal fresh waters
with IOC - C*3 values of -7 to -9 receive
large amounts of IOC derived from organic
carbon as a result of man's activity the
IOC - 6 C13 of the normal system will be
shifted. This is especially so for the
marine system.
13
Reimers (1968) studied the 6 C values
of various chemical fractions of the
effluents of sewage treatment plants
The effluent IOC - 6 C13 range was -9. 3
to -13.9. The average value was -11. 2.
The marine bay. Corpus Christi Bay,
which received these effluents had an IOC
-6 C range from + 0. 3 to - 4.7 per mil
with -2.0 being the average over a five
month period. The open Gulf of Mexico
has IOC - 6 C13 values of ± 0.5. The
negative values of the Bay are the result
9-3
-------
Stable Carbon Isotope Ratio Variations as Indicators of Pollution
of the sewage effluent and the input of
normal river IOC The pH of the bay was
always 8 so that bicarbonate would be the
chief molecular form of inorganic carbon.
It is clear that even in this shallow bay the
IOC is not in isotopic equilibrium with the
atmospheric CO^. Exchange is not as fast
as input. At equilibrium, reaction (1)
would generate IOC with a 6 C1^ close to
zero. In cases where large amounts of
sewage effluent are being put directly into
marine waters, as in offshore California,
the IOC - 6 C*3 may well serve as an
indicator of man's activity If the effluent
is introduced well below the air-sea
boundary, so that atmospheric exchange
is eliminated, then the IOC - 6C^ may
serve as a tracer of the water mass
receiving the effluent.
Petroleum and natural gas have the most
negative 6 C*3 values of any of the major
geochemical reservoirs of carbon
(Figure 1). Calder and Parker (1968)
demonstrated that petrochemicals derived
from petroleum and natural gas retain this
negative 6 C^ They found that fourteen
petrochemicals taken from a plant had an
average 6 C^ of -27.2 while the dissolved
organic carbon (DOC) in the effluent from
the same plant ranged between -25.7 and
-39 3 The same relationships hold for
refinery effluents because crude oil is
almost as negative as petrochemical
carbon. Most of the 128 crude oils
reported by Eckelma.net al. (1962) had
6 C13 values between -26 and -29 with a
good many in the -30 to -33 range
13
The 6 C of the organic carbon for the
Houston Ship Channel is shown in Table 2.
The average DOC -6 C13 was -30.5
This contrasts with a value of -20 for
DOC -<5 C1^ of normal marine water found
by these authors, and -22 found for
Pacific Ocean water (Williams, 1968).
When normal and pollutant carbon are ^
mixed, as in the Ship Channel, the 6 C
of the mixture is given by the expression:
^n=
C 6 + C 6
n n	p p
C + C
n p
(6)
where C = concentration of carbon mg
per liter
6 = 6 C
13
and n refers to normal carbon, p to
pollutant carbon, and m to the mixture.
Still following Calder and Parker the
ratio of the amount of pollutant carbon
to normal carbon in the mixture is given
by-
6 - 6
n m
6 -6
m p
Trial values put into equation (6) indicated
that between 50 to 85 percent of the carbon
atoms in the Houston Ship Channel are
derived from petrochemical pollution.
Normal marine organic carbon has the
most positive 6C value of the organic
reservoirs. Therefore the aquatic
system consisting of a marine bay receiving
effluents from oil refineries and petro-
chemical plants is an ideal case to
demonstrate the use of stable isotope ratio
variations as indicators of man's activity.
Calder and Parker found that the organic
carbon in the Houston Ship Channel shows
the predicted relationships
Much more research needs to be done on
this approach. It -would be very importai^
to establish base line data for DOC - 6 C
for a number of our major rivers, estuaries
and near shore marine waters. As man
continues to use the marine environment
it may well be that the DOC - 6C^ and
IOC - 4C^ values will gradually shift,
if indeed they have not already done so.
9-4
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Stable Carbon Isotope Ratio Variations as Indicators of Pollution
Table 2
DEL-C13 AND CONCENTRATION OF DISSOLVED AND PARTICULATE
ORGANIC CARBON IN THE HOUSTON SHIP CHANNEL*
DOC	POC
tation
mg C/liter
c13
mg C/liter
c13
1
5. 8
- 26
20
1
CD
00
2
5.6
- 31.2
4.2
- 21 3
3
3.9
- 31 5
3 2
- 24.2
4
4. 0
- 29.3
2.6
- 23 1
5
9 0
- 30. 1
19
- 26 3
6
26
- 26. 9
12
- 24 4
7
3. 1
--
4. 0
- 23 3
8
11
00
CO
1
8. 8
- 27 4
9
3. 8
- 29
2.4
- 24. 7
10
8. 4
- 27. 1
3.8
- 25. 9
11
6 0
- 27. 5
2.9
- 24
12
4 1
- 28.2
3.6
- 25. 2
13
2.7
CM
00
CM
1
4 0
- 26
14
19
- 32
16
1
CO
yi
00
15
2.9
--
2 2
to
CO
o
16
1 4
1
to
00
2.7
- 23. 3
17
2. 1
- 24.9
4. 4
-21.1
*Calder and Parker (1968)
13
Reimers (1968) studied DOC - 6 C of
sewage plant effluents However it appears
that this ratio is not characteristic enough
to be useful as a tracer. The potential use
of IOC - 6C^ of sewage effluents has
already been pointed out. We have done a
preliminary study of paper mill effluent
DOC - 6C^ values which suggest that this
may be a useful parameter for these
systems (Table 3). It was found that the
tall oil fraction of the plant studied has a
6 C13 of-27. DOC - 6 C13 of the plant
effluent was -27.4. This plant did not
recover its tall oil. A marine bay
receiving substantial quantities of this ^
type of effluent would have its DOC - 6 C
shifted. The same effect might be observed
on a river by comparing data taken up-
stream and downstream from a papermill.
Friedman and Irsa (1967) have shown that
air rich in automobile exhaust can show
an 8 per mil enrichment m C12 for carbon
dioxide. Again this shift toward a more
negative 6C^3 is due to the introduction
of carbon dioxide derived from petro-
chemical products.
9-5
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Stable Carbon Isotope Ratio Variations as Indicators of Pollution
Table 3
,13
DEL C VALUES FROM A PAPER MILL*
Fraction
Hardwood
Pine
Chips
- 24. 5
- 24. 8
Black Liquor
- 25. 2
- 24.9
Bleached Cellulose
- 23.4
- 23. 0
Lime Mud
Tall Oil
Effluent
23.4
27.0
27.4
*Calder, 1969
13
The 6 C method gives no information
about the chemical structures of organic
pollution or its toxic properties. Its
greatest usefulness is that it gives insight
into the over-all carbon flux of very large
systems from relatively few and simple
measurements. It is a subtle indicator
of man's impact on nature.
REFERENCES
1	Bigeleisen, J. The significance of the
product and sum rules to isotopic
fractionation process. In Proceedings
of the International Symposium on
Isotope Separation, J. Kistemaker, J.
Bigeleisen and A. O. C. Nier (eds.).
Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York.
1958.
2	Bigeleisen, J. and Mayer, M. Calculation
of equilibrium constants for isotopic
exchange reactions. J. Chem Phys
15-261. 1947.
Bigeleisen, J. and Wolfsberg, M.
Theoretical and experimental aspects
of isotope effects in chemical kinetics.
In Advances in Chemical Physics, I.
Prigogine (ed.) Interscience Publishers,
Inc., New York. 1958.
Calder, J.A. Carbon isotope effects in
biochemical and geochemical systems.
Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Texas. 1969.
Calder, J.A. and Parker, P L. Stable
carbon isotope ratios as indices of
petrochemical pollution of aquatic
systems. Environmental Sci. and
Tech. 2:535. 1968.
Craig, H. The geochemistry of the stable
carbon isotopes. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta. 3:53. 1953.
9-6
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Stable Carbon Isotope Ratio Variations as Indicators of Pollution
7	Deuser, W.G. and Degens, E.T. Carbon
isotope fractionation in the system CO
(gas) -- CO- (aqueous) — HCO ~
(aqueous). Nature. 215:1033 1967.
8	Eckelmann, W.R., Broecker, W S.,
Whitlock, D.W, and Allsup, J.R.
Implications of carbon isotope com-
position of total organic carbon of some
recent sediments and ancient oils.
Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
46:699. 1962.
9	Friedman, L. and Irsa, A. P. Variations
in the isotopic composition of carbon in
urban atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Science. 158 263. 1967.
10	Hoering, T.C. The biogeochemistry of
the stable isotopes of carbon.
Carnegie Institution of Washington Year
Book. 59.158. 1960.
11	Keeling, C. A mechanism for cyclic
enrichment of carbon-12 by terrestrial
plants. Geochim. et Cosmochim.
Acta. 24:299. 1961
12	McMullen, C. C. and Thode, H. G.
Isotope abundance measurements and
application to chemistry. In Mass
Spectrometry, C. A. McDowell (ed.)
McGraw and Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York. 1963
13	Parker, P,L. Stable isotope ratio
variations (as indicators of man's
activity), unpublished manuscript. 1970.
14	Reimers, Robert S. A stable carbon
isotopic study of a marine bay and
domestic waste treatment plant.
Masters Thesis, University of Texas
at Austin. 1968.
15	Sackett, W.M. and Moore, W.S.
Isotopic variations in dissolved inorganic
carbon, Chemical Geology 1:323. 1966.
16	Urey, Harold C. The thermodynamic
properties of isotopic substances.
J. Chem. Soc., p. 562-581. 1947.
17	Vogel, J. C. Isotope separation factors
of carbon in the equilibrium system
CO,, - HCOg~- COg, in summer course
on nuclear geology, Varenna, 1960,
publ., by Laboratories Di Geologia
Nucleare, Pisa. 1961
18	Wendt, I. Fractionation of carbon
isotopes and its temperature dependence
in the system CO„ -Gas-CO in solution
and HCO ~ - CO„ in solution. Earth
and Planet. Sci Lett., 4-64-68 1968.
19	Williams, P.M. Stable carbon isotopes
in the dissolved organic matter of the
sea. Nature 219- 152-153. 1968
This outline was prepared by Dr. John
Calder, Department of Oceanography,
Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL.
-------
INTRODUCTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF ESTUARINE AND NEAR-SHORE WATERS
I INTRODUCTION
A The Biological Nature of the World We
Live In
1	We can only imagine what this world
must have been like before there was
life.
2	The world as we know it is largely
shaped by the forces of life.
a We (man, a living organism)
cultivate the lands and waters and
manage the plants and animals.
b Plants cover the lands and enormously
influence the forces of erosion.
c The nature and rate of erosion affect
the redistribution of materials (and
mass) on the surface of the earth
(topographic changes).
d Organisms tie up vast quantities of
certain chemicals, such as carbon
and oxygen,
e Respiration of plants and animals
releases carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere in influential quantities.
f COg affects the heat transmission of
the atmosphere.
g The interrelationships between the
total heat budget of the earth and such
phenomena as oceanic circulation
patterns, long term climatic cycles,
and weather, are far from understood.
3	If we are to manage our environment, we
must understand the nature of all factors
affecting it.
B Many kingdoms or basic patterns of life
may be discerned in nature, each contrib-
uting to the final synthesis. Since the
organisms of any one place can only be
understood in their relationships to all
organisms, much of the following sections
will be very general.
II THE GENERAL RELATIONSHIPS OF
LIVING ORGANISMS
A Living organisms have been long grouped
into two kingdoms Plant and Animal.
Modern developments, however, have made
this simple pattern technically untenable.
It has become evident that there are as
great and fundamental differences between
certain other groups and these (two), as
there are between traditional "plant" and
"animal. " The accompanying chart
(Figure 1) consequently shows the fungi
as a third "kingdom. "
B The three groups are essentially defined
as follows on the basis of of their nutritional
mechanisms.
1	Plantae. photosynthetic, synthetizing
their own organic substance from
inorganic minerals. Ecologically
known as PRODUCERS.
2	Animalia ingest and digest solid
particles of organic food material.
Ecologically known as CONSUMERS.
3	Fungi: extracellular digestion
(enzymes secreted externally). Food
material then taken in through cell
membrane where it is metabolized and
reduced to the mineral condition.
Ecologically known as REDUCERS.
C Each of these groups includes simple,
single celled representat lves, persisting
at lower levels on the evolutionary stems
of the higher organisms (as well as the
higher and more complex types).
1 These groups span the gaps between the
higher kingdoms with a multitude of
BI. MAR. 13. 9. 72
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Introduction to the Biology of Estuarine and Near-Shore Waters
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FREE LIVING AQUATIC ORGANISMS
Energy Flows from Left to Right, General Evolutionary Sequence is Upward
PRODUCERS 1
CONSUMERS
REDUCERS
Organic Material Produced,
.!
Organic Material Ingested or
Consumed
Digested Internally
Organic Material Reduced
by Extracellular Digestion
and Intracellular Metabolism
to Mineral Condition
ENERGY STORED
ENERGY RELEASED
ENERGY RELEASED
Flowering Plants and
Gymnosperma
Arachnids Mammals
Insects Birds
Basidiomycetes
Club Mosses, Ferns
Crustaceans Reptiles

Liverworts, Mosses
Segmented Worms Amphibians
Molluscs Fishes
Fungi Imperfecti
Multicellular Green
Algae
Bryozoa Primitive
Chordates
Rotifers
Roundworms Echlnoderms
Ascomycetes
Red Algae
Flat worms

Brown Algae
Coelenterates
Sponges
Higher Phycomycetea
DEVELOPMENT OF MULTICELLULAR OR COENOCYTIC STRUCTURE
H 1 G
HER P R 0 T 1
Protozoa
S T A
Unicellular Green Algae
Diatoms
Pigmented Flagellates
Amoeboid Cilliated
Flagellated, Suctoria
(non-pigmented)
Lower
Phycomycetes
(Chytridlales, et al.)
DEVELOPMENT OF A NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
J
LOWER PROTISTA
< o r M o n e r a )
Blue Green Algae
Phototropic Bacteria
Chemotropic Bacteria
BI ECO pi 2a 1.69
Actinomycetcs
Spirochaetes
Saprophytic
Bacterial
Types
FIGURE 1
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Introduction to the Biology of Estuarine and Near-Shore Waters
transitional form. They are collectively
called the PROTISTA.
2 Within the Protista, two principle sub-
groups can be defined on the basis of
relative complexity of structure:
a The bacteria and blue-green algae,
lacking a nuclear membrane may be
considered as the lower protista
(or Monera).
b The single celled algae and protozoa
are best referred to as the higher
protista.
D Distributed throughout these groups will
be found the traditional "phyla" of classic
biology.
Ill PLANTS
Having chlorophyll, these organisms produce
organic matter by photosynthesis.
A The vascular plants are usually larger and
possess roots, stems and leaves.
1	Some types emerge above the surface.
2	Submerge types typically do not extend
to the surface.
3	The most familiar marine representa-
tives of this group are the eel grases
(Zostera, Phyllospadix).
B Algae
1 Algae in general may be defined as
small plant-like organisms or relatively
simple structure. Actually the size
range is extreme: from only a few
microns to over three hundred feet in
length. Commonly observed examples
include the greenish pond scum or frog
spittle of freshwater ponds, much of the
golden brown slime covering rocks in a
trout stream, and the great marine
kelps and seaweeds. Such freshwater
forme as Nitella and Chara or stonewort
are also included.
2	Algae approach ubiquity in distribution
In addition to their presence in com-
monly observed bodies of water, cer-
tain algae also live in such unlikely
places as thermal springs, the surface
of melting snow, on the hair of the three
toed sloth in Central America, and in
conjunction with certain fungi to form
lichens.
3	Marine and estuarine algae may be
arranged in six groups, four scientific
categories named below, and two loose
groupings of similar types.
a Blue-green algae or Cyanophyceae.
These are typically small and lack
an organized nucleus, pigments are
dissolved in cell sap. Structure
very simple. Often found in polluted
waters.
b Diatoms or Bacillariophyceae. These
have pillbox like structure of S1O2 -
may move. Extremely common.
Many minute in size, colonial forms
may produce hairlike filaments.
Golden brown in color.
c Brown algae or Phaeophyceae. This
is a predominantly marine group and
includes the giant kelps and rockweeds.
d Red algae or Rhodophyceae. This
group is almost exclusively marine.
Many delicately structured and many
deep water forms included.
e The "pigmented flagellates" include
representatives of several scientific
categories all are motile by virtue
of possessing one or more flagellae.
The marme organisms causing red
tides and paralytic shellfish poisoning
(Dinoflagellates) are included in this
group.
f "Nonmotile green algae" have no
locomotor structure or ability in
mature condition. Like the pigmented
flagellates, this is an artificial
grouping.
1) Unicellular representatives may
be extremely small.
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Introduction to the Biology of Estuarine and Near-Shore Waters
2)	Multicellular forms may produce
great floating mats of material.
3)	The "sea lettuce" of rich estuarine
water is a familiar example.
IV FUNGI
Lack chlorophyll and consequently most are
dependent on other organisms. They secrete
extracellular enzymes and reduce complex
organic material to simple compounds which
they can absorb directly through the cell wall.
A Schizomycetes or bacteria are typically
very small and do not have an organized
nucleus.
1	Autotropic bacteria are atypical in that
they can synthetize basic food materials
from inorganic substrates. They may
be photosynthetic or chemosynthetic.
2	Heterotropic bacteria are most common.
They require the presence of organic
material on which to feed.
B "True fungi" usually exhibit hyphae as
the basic of structure.
V ANIMALS
A Lack chlorophyll and consequently feed
on or consume other organisms.
Typically ingest and digest their food.
B The Animal Phyla
1	PROTOZOA are single celled
organisms; many resembling algae
but lacking chlorophyll (cf: illustration
in "Oxygen" lecture).
2	PORIFERA are the sponges, both
marine and fresh water representatives.
3	COELENTERATA include corals,
marine and fresh water jelly fishes,
and the fresh water hydra.
4	PLATYHELMINTHES are the flat
worms such as tape worms, flukes
and Planaria. Some important
human parasites are included.
5	NEMATHELMINTHES are the round
worms and include both free-living
forms and many dangerous parasites.
6	ROTIFERS are multicellular micro-
scopic predators.
7	BRYOZOA are small colonial sessile
forms, marine or fresh water.
8	MOLLUSCA include snails and slugs,
clams, mussels and oysters, squids
and octopi.
9	BRACHIPODS are bivalved marine
organisms usually observed as fossils.
10	ANNELIDS are the segmented worms
such as earthworms, sludge worms
and many marine species.
11	ECHINODERMS include starfish, sea
urchins and brittle stars. They are
exclusively marine.
12	CTENOPHORES, or comb jellies, are
delicate jelly-like marine organisms.
13	ARTHROPODA the largest of all animal
phyla. They have jointed appendages
and a chitinous exoskelton.
a CRUSTACEA are divided into a
cephalathorax and abdomen, and
have many pairs of appendages.
1)	CLADOCERA include Daphnia,
a common fresh water micro-
crustacean, swim by means of
branched antennae.
2)	PHYLLOPODS are the fairy
shrimps, given to eruptive
appearances in temporary pools.
3)	COPEPODES include both marine
and fresh water microcrustacea--
swim by means of unbranched
antennae.
4)	OSTRACODS are like microscopic
"clams with legs. " Generally
bottom livers.
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Introduction to the Biology of Estuarine and Near-Shore Waters
5)	ISOPODES are dorsoventrally
compressed, called sowbugs.
Terrestrial and aquatic marine
and fresh water.
6)	AMPHIPODA - known as scuds,
laterally compressed. Marine
and fresh water.
7)	DECAPODA - crabs, shrimp,
crayfish, lobsters, etc. Marine
and fresh water.
b INSECTA - body divided into head,
thorax and abdomen, 3 pairs of legs,
adults typically with 2 pairs of wings.
Only one rare marine species. Nine
of the twenty odd orders include
species with fresh-water-inhabiting
stages m their life history as follows.
1)	DIPTERA - 2 winged flies
2)	COLEOPTERA - beetles
3)	EPHEMEROPTERA - mayflies
4)	TRICHOPTERA - caddis flies
5)	PLECOPTERA - stone flies
6)	ODONATA - dragon flies and
damsel flies
7)	NEUROPTERA - alder flies,
Dobson flies and fish flies
8)	HEMIPTERA - true bugs, sucking
insects such as water
striders, electric light bugs
and water boatman
9)	LEPIDOPTERA - butterflies and
moths
c ARACHINDA - body divided into
cephalothorax and abdomen,
4 pairs of legs - spiders, scorpions,
ticks and mites. Few aquatic
representatives except for the fresh
water mites and tardigrades.
C CHORDATA
1	PROCHORDATES - primitive marine
forms such as acorn worms, sea squirts
and lancelets.
2	VERTEBRATES - all animals which
have a backbone.
a PISCES or fishes, including such
forms as sharks and rays, lampreys.
and higher fishes, both marine and
fresh water.
b AMPHIBIA - frogs, toads and
salamanders - marine species rare.
c REPTILA - snakes, lizards and
turtles.
d MAMMALS - whales and other warm-
blooded vertebrates with hair.
e AVES - birds - warmblooded
vertebrates with feathers.
VI THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
A There are few major groups of organisms
that are either exclusively terrestrial or
exclusively aquatic. The following remarks
will therefore apply in large measure to
both, but primary attention will be directed
to aquatic types.
B One of the first questions usually posed
about an organism seen for the first time
is "What is it?" usually meaning "What
is its name?" The naming or classifica-
tion of biological organisms is a science
in itself (taxonomy). Some of the principles
involved need to be understood by anyone
working with organisms however.
1	Names are the "key number, " "code
designation, " or "file references"
which we must have to find information
about an unknown organism.
2	Why are they so long and why must they
be in Latin and Greek? File references
in large systems have to be long in order
to designate the many divisions and
subdivisions. There are over a million
and a half items (or species) included
in the system of biological nomenclature
(very few libraries have as many as a
million books to classify).
3	The system of biological nomenclature
is regulated by international congresses.
a It is based on a system of groups and
super groups, of which the foundation
10-5
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Introduction to the Biology of Estuarine and Near-Shore Waters
(which actually exists in nature) is
the species. Everything else has
been devised by man and is subject
to change and revision as man's
knowledge and understanding increase.
b The categories employed are as
follows
The species is the foundation.
Similar species are grouped into
genera (singular: genus)
Similar genera are grouped into families
Similar families are grouped into orders
Similar orders are grouped into classes
Similar classes are grouped into phyla
(phylum)
Similar phyla are grouped into
kingdoms
Other categories such as subspecies,
variety strain, division, tribe, etc. are
employed in special circumstances.
4 The scientific name of an organism is its
genus name plus its species name. This is
analogous to our system of surnames (family
names) and given names (Christian names).
a The generic (genus) name is always
capitalized and the species name
written with a small letter. They
should also be underlined or printed
in italics when used in a technical
sense. For example:
Homo sapiens - modern man
Homo neanderthalis - neanderthal man
Esox niger - chain pickerel
Esox lucius - northern pike
Esox masquinongy - muskellunge
b Common names do not exist for most
of the smaller and less familiar
organisms. For example, if we wish
to refer to members of the genus
Anabaena (an alga), we must simply
use the generic name, and-
Anabaena plactonica,
Anabaena constricta, and
Anabaena flos-aquae
are three distinct species which have
different significances to water treat-
ment plant operations.
5 A complete word list of the various categories
to which an organism belong to known as
its "classification. " This may be written
as follows for Phacus pyrum a green
flagellate, for example:
Kingdom Plantae
Phylum Euglenophyta
Class Euglenophyceae
Order Euglenales
Family Euglenaceae
Genus Phacus
Species Pyrum
a It should be reemphasized that since
all categories above species are
essentially human concepts, there is
often divergence of opinion in regard
to how certain organisms should be
grouped. Changes result.
b The most appropriate or correct name
for a given species is also sometimes
disputed, and so species names too are
changed. The species itself, as an entity
in nature, however, is relatively time-
less and so does not change to man's eye.
10-6
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Introduction to the Biology of Estuarine and Near-Shore Waters
VII ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF
OftGANISMS
A Aquatic organisms are distributed around
the world as, essentially, marine, or
freshwater inhabitants.
B The greatest variety and abundance of
animal life is in the oceans and coastal
waters, while plants are most diverse
on land.
C In the estuaries, marine and freshwater
organisms meet and mingle.
D Salinity is the most important single factor
determining the distribution of organisms
in estuaries (Figure 2).
1 Organisms which are restricted to a
narrow range of salinity (either fresh-
water or saltwater) are called stenohalu
2	Organisms tolerant of a range of salini-
ties are called euryhaline.
3	Marine-euryhaline organisms comprise
the largest group in estuaries.
4	Indigeous (native) estuarine organisms
are the smallest group, often called
mesohaline.
VIII COMMUNITIES OF LIFE
Major divisions of the aquatic habitat are
shown in Figure 3. Some definitions and
other associated terms are given below.
A Benthos: organisms living on or associated
with the bottom, i. e., bottom
organisms.
B Plankton organisms living dispersed in
the water in the pelagial zone,
140
120
100
(S)
UJ
o
iLt 90
a
CO
II
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Introduction to the Biology pf Estuarine and Near-Shore Waters
REFERENCES
ctf tLt BUZ1DS blfatlL

1	Davis, C. D. The Marine and Fresh
Water Plankton. Michigan State
University Press, pp 1-562. 1955.
2	Hedgpeth, J. W. Treatise on Marine
Ecology and Paleoecology. Volume 1.
The Geological Society of America,
Memori 67. pp. 1-1296. 1957.
3	Hesse, R., Allee, W. C., and Schmidt,
K. P. Ecological Animal Geography.
John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1-597. 1937.
Tidal zone: that portion of the littoral between
the tides.	_	„
Figure 3
which are capable of little or no
locomotion. Animal plankton are
known as zooplankton, plants as
phytoplankton.
Reid, G. K. Ecology of Inland Waters
and Estuaries. Reinhold Publishing
Co. pp. 1-375. 1961.
Sverdrup, H. O., Johnson, M. W., and
Fleming, R. H. The Oceans. Prentice-
Hall. pp. 1-1087. 1942.
C Nekton: active swimming forms like cer-
tain fish, prawns, cephalopods,
and others. In the sea, the dis-
tinction between zooplankton and
nekton is often ambiguous.
Periphyton: The community of microscopic
organisms attached to surfaces.
There is considerable interchange between
these various communities, especially
between plankton and periphyton.
This outline was prepared by H. W. Jackson,
Chief Biologist, National Training Center,
DTTB, MDS, OWP, EPA, Cincinnati, OH
45268.
8
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THE PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS OF THE ESTUARINE
ECOSYSTEM AND THEIR ANALYSIS
I THE BIOTIC COMPONENT OF THE
ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
A The Problem of Taxonomy
1	Necessity of identifying species
Studies of the ecology of any habitat
require the identification of the
organisms found in it. One cannot
come up with definitive evaluations of
stress on the biota of an estuary unless
we can say what species constitute the
biota. Species vary in their responses
to the impact of the environment,
2	Solutions to the problem
a Evasion
B Environmental Classification of Biota
1 Plankton
All motile aquatic organisms, plant
or animal, whose powers of locomotion
are too feeble to resist the set and
drift of currents are classified as
plankton.*
a Phytoplankton
The term phytoplankton is usually
applied to acellular (unicellular)
floating plants but strict adherence
to the foregoing definition should
include all floating cellular plants
such as Sargassum.
Treat the ecosystem as a "black
box" --a unit -- while ignoring
the constitution of the system.
This may produce some broad
generalizations and will certainly
yield more questions than answers.
b Compromise
Work only with those taxonomic
categories with which one has
the competence to deal. Describe
the biotic component as a
taxocenosis limited to one or two
numerically dominant taxonomic
categories, bearing in mind that
numerically taxa which are ignored
may be very important to the ecology
of the estuary.
c Comprehensive description
Attempt a comprehensive descrip-
tion of the biota. No one can claim
competence to deal with more than
one or two groups. The cooperation
of experts must be obtained. The
Smithsonian Institution has a clear-
inghouse for this sort of thing*.
Lists of expert taxonomists can be
obtained (2 a, b, c) (3). There
will be none for some groups. Also
collaboration is time consuming.
b Zooplankton
The animal plankters are zooplankton.
Some kinds of plankton organisms are
equivocal in their conforming to the
requirements for classification as
plants or animals.
c Holoplankton
Organisms which are classified as
plankton at all stages of their life
cycles are called holoplankton. The
term is applied both to phytoplankton
and zooplankton species which con-
form to this definition.
holoplankters.
d Meroplankton
Planktonic reproductive stages of
species which in other stages of the
life cycle live on the bottom or are
strong swimmers are called
meroplankton. These are eggs,
larvae, swarming stages, juveniles,
or sexual alternates to vegetative
stages of a host of marine plants and
animals.
BI. MAR. eco.ll. 6. 70
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
e Tychoplankton
Small, weakly motile, bottom -
dwelling organisms which are
accidentally swept into suspension
by turbulent water motion are
called tychoplankton, It is easy to
see that many of the planktonic
species in turbulent estuaries are
likely to be tychoplankters.
2	Nekton**
Organisms which remain suspended in
the water and whose powers of locomo-
tion are great enough to resist the set
and drift of currents are called nekton.
Only three major taxonomic categories
are represented in this classification--
the fishes, the cephalopod molluscs
(octopuses and squids) and certain
crustaceans (shrimps and swimming
crabs). Many of these, because of
strong affinities for the bottom, may
just as easily fit in the benthos (See c).
Typical estuarine nekton are shown in
Figure 4. Bottom dwelling or reproduc-
ing nekton species are called demersal.
Those which live and reproduce sus-
pended in the water are called pelagic.
3	Benthos
Organism which as adults or in the
sessile stages of their life-cycles,
live on the bottom are called benthos,
as, of course, are all whose entire
life cycle is spent there. The benthos
may also be subdivided
a Epiflora
Plants, cellular or acellular, macro-
or micro-, which live attached to or
living on the bottom are called
epiflora.
b Epifauna
Animals which live on the bottom
are called epifauna. Many repre-
sentatives of the epifauna are
permanently attached to the bottom,
a phenomenon which does not occur
in the terrestrial environment.
Many of these are colonial, which
is to say, consist of groups of
individuals incompletely separated
from one another, like Siamese
twins. A result is the evolution of
life-forms which are more like
conventional plants in appearance
than like animals. Other epifauna
creep about on the bottom. Figure 5
shows typical epifauna and flora.
c Infauna
Animals which live buried in
unconsolidated sediments or in
burrows in solid substrates are
called infauna. Fixed infauna are
those which live in permanent
burrows while burrowing infauna
move about displacing sediment as
they go or by creeping or swimming
between the sand grains. If they
progress by displacing sediment
particles, they are called megafauna.
If they are adapted to creeping in the
interstitial spaces, they are called
meioiauna. Organisms which are so
small that they can float or swim in
the interestitial spaces are called
microfauna.
d Inflora
Macroscopic plants are uncommon on
bottoms consisting of unconsolidated
sediments. The big exception to this
rule are the sea "grasses. " Micro-
scopic plants are abundant either
fixed to sand grains or lying about
on or between them. Bacteria are
abundant on all bottom surfaces and
in the spaces between sediment grains.
A variety of mega-infauna are shown
in Figure 6, while Figure 7 shows a
number of meio- and micro infauna
and inflora.
C Ecological Classification of the Biota
Classification of any sort is a matter of
convenience to enable us to pigeon-hole
items with which we deal. Ecologists
have found it convenient and useful to be
able to pigeon-hole aquatic organisms -
particularly those of estuaries where
normal environmental conditions vary
greatly, both spatially and temporally--
according to the tolerances of those
organisms to ranges of variations in
environmental properties. Thus we have,
as an example, a classification of estuarine
organisms based on tolerance to salinity
changes
1 Salinity Tolerance®' 7
As mentioned elsewhere salinity in a
true estuary ranges from that of
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
treshwater at the head to that of sea-
water at the mouth. Few organisms
are tolerant of this entire range.
Salinity tolerance limits are imposed
by a species ability to compensate for
osmotic stress imposed by variation
in the salt content of its environment
a Limnetic
Limnetic species are freshwater
ones characteristic of the river
which empties into the head of the
estuary. They can tolerate salt
content up to 0. 5 parts per thousand.
b Oligohaline
Oligohaline species are those
derived from freshwater but which
have become adapted to living in the
head of the estuary where salinity
ranged from 0. 5 to 5 0 parts per
thousand.
c True estuarine
Truly estuarine species are those
which can survive in waters ranging
from 5. 0 to 30. 0 parts salinity per
thousand. These may be species
whose tolerance is purely passive,
which is to say, not based on re-
sisting osmotic stress, or species
which do possess mechanisms for
osmo-regulation. They are species
which are really typical of estuaries
being unable to tolerate salinities
as low as those of the head of the
estuary or those of the sea itself.
The oyster, Crassostrea virginica
is a good example. Some prawns
of the genus Palaemonetes are also
truly estuarine.
d Marine euryhaline
The great majority of estuarine
species are marine species tolerant
of salinities ranging from 5.0% to
those characteristic of the open sea.
Passively euryhaline species are
those which tolerate fluctuations in
salinity without being able to actively
adjust. In dilute waters they swell
or lose salt, in more saline waters
they shrink or passively accumulate
salt. Many molluscs and worms are
passively euryhaline. Actively
euryhaline species are able to con-
trol the salt concentrations of their
body fluids despite osmotic stress
imposed by variation in environ-
mental salinity This is character-
istic of many polychaetes, most
estuarine fishes, and many crabs.
e Marine stenohaline
Species adapted to living at the
mouth of the estuary where salin-
ities range from 25'^boto those of
the open sea are called marine
stenohaline. Most echinoderms
which one finds at the mouth of
estuaries are stenohaline. The
gribble, a tiny crustacean which
destroys dock pilings is stenohaline.
Many of the common oyster's worst
enemies are stenohaline.
f Mixohaline
The few species which tolerate the
full range running from freshwater
to the sea are called mixohaline.
The blue crab, Callinectes sapidus
is a notable example of this as well
as all the migrants such as the
sturgeons, salmon, striped bass,
and river herrings which pass
through the entire range on their
annual reproductive journeys.
2 Temperature tolerance
In estuaries, where environmental
temperatures vary much more widely
than in the sea, organisms may also
be classified according to temperature
tolerance in the same manner. Thus
we have oligothermal, eurythermal,
and stenothermal species.
II ESTUARINE HABITATS
A habitat is the kind of place in which one
normally expects to find a given kind of
organism. It may be supposed that, because
of the wide variety of assemblages of physical
conditions and biotic communities, estuaries
contain a number of distinct'habitats which
will be roughly proportional to the variety
of conditions.
A Geomorphological Classification of
Estuaries®* 9
1 Positive estuaries
Positive estuaries are those in which
the influx of freshwater measurably
exceeds evaporation, producing the
gradient referred to in the preceding
section.
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
a Drowned river valleys	B
Many of the estuaries on the East
Coast of the United States fall into
this category. Chesapeake Bay is
our largest American East Coast
drowned river valley.
b Fjords
Fjords are canyons formerly filledand
carved out by mountain glaciers. TheyJ
too, are drowned by rise of sea level
although their bottoms may never have
been above sea level. Fjords are found
on the Coasts of Norway, Greenland,
British Columbia, Chile, and elsewhere.
c Bar-built estuaries
Bar-built estuaries are drowned
river valleys or points of egress of
freshwater to the sea which have
been partly blocked off by the build-
up of barrier islands or spits. The
North Carolina Sounds and the Texas
lagoons are examples of bar-built
estuaries.
6 10
Classification of Estuarine Environments '
Many authors have proposed subdivisions
of the sea into environmental categories. . _
These have been summarized by Hedgpeth.
In estuaries we have
1	Pelagic - environmental subdivisions
of the water in estuaries, inhabited by
plankton and nekton.
a Neritic - the water overlying the
edges of the sea from a depth of
about 100 fathoms to the shore.
The watery environment of all
estuaries except the deeper parts of
some fjords and tectonically pro-
duced estuaries is neritic.
b Oceanic - seawater which is more
than 100 fathoms deep in oceans by
definition.
2	Benthic - environmental subdivisions
of the bottom of the sea including its
farthest landward influence.
a Supralittoral
d Fault or graben produced estuaries
Where differential lowering of the
land occurs along the coast in
tectonically active regions,
estuaries are formed. Tomales
Bay north of San Francisco, which
is situated in the San Andreas fault
zone is such an estuary. San
Francisco Bay is another. The
Gulf of California and the Red Sea
are similarly formed, but of these
only the former could be called an
estuary.
2	Neutral estuaries
Neutral estuaries are those in which
evaporation more or less equals inflow
of freshwater, so salinities remain
essentially the same as that of the
adjacent seawater. Alligator Harbor,
near here, is such as estuary.
3	Negative estuaries
Negative estuaries are those in which
evaporation so much exceeds fresh or
seawater influx that salinities exceed
those of the adjacent sea. The upper
reaches of the Laguna Madre of the
Texas Coast is a hyper saline lagoon
or negative estuary.
This is a zone between the truly
marine and the truly terrestrial (or
freshwater) invaded by seawater
only when storm surges push the
rising tide higher than predicted.
Easy to define on open coasts, it is
not easily detectable on the bottoms
of estuaries. The supralittoral is,
however, clearly defined in the
small beaches, rocky headlands
and manmade structures and the
salt marshes which border estuaries,
b Littoral
The littoral is the mtertidal. It is
the bottom which is alternately
covered and exposed by the spring
tides if not by the neaps. Large
areas of the shores and bottoms of
shallow estuaries fall in the littoral.
In estuaries characterized by little
turbulence, the rising tide enters
the main channel as an underlying
wedge of dense saltwater, pushing
the lighter, freshwater up. There
is therefore a very interesting but
hard to detect intertidal zone which
is never exposed to air.
c Sublittoral
The sublittoral, by definition,
extends from the lowest low water
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
marks to the depth of 100 fathoms.
It is that portion of the estuary
which is always covered by seawater.
Obviously, there is also a special
estuarine portion of the bottom
which is covered by seawater diluted
as a result of turbulent mixing with
freshwater coming in from the other
end.
q
C Estuarine Habitats
1	Pelagic
Because of the salinity gradient that
develops in a positive estuary charac-
terized by reasonable mixing, there
develops also a series of pelagic
habitats which are more easily
detected by the presence of typical
organisms than by other properties.
a Head
This is the low salinity habitat of
0. 5 to 5. Oft occupied by the oligo-
haline species.
b Upper, middle and lower reaches
These are zones with salinities
ranging from 5 to 18, 18 to 25, and
25 to 307c . Not all truly estuarine
species nor all marine euryhaline
species are found throughout the
entire range. Many will be re-
stricted to, or find best growth in
one of these reaches.
c Mouth
This is the zone with marine
salinities ranging from 30 to 40% ,
and will be inhabited by euryhaline
as well as stenohaline marine
species.
2	Benthic
a Supralittoral
As noted, rocks and other hard
surfaces (like bulkheads, dock
pilings, etc.), marshes and
beaches will have a zone of transition
between the truly marine and the
truly terrestrial which is wet only
by splash or storm surges.
b Littoral and sublittoral
1)	Beaches
Beaches normally are associated
with the open coast as they are
dependent for their existence on
wave action and longshore currents.
But the shores of large estuaries
may have small beaches which
have the same physical and
biotic properties as open coast
beaches. Because of constantly
shifting sand, this is a very
limiting habitat for soft bodied
megafauna but a safe haven for
meio and microfauna.
2)	Rocky intertidal
Especially in estuaries, the
rocky intertidal (and other hard
surfaces) will be characterized
by a great diversity of organisms
which occur in zones depending
on their ability to withstand pro-
longed periods of exposure to the
atmosphere.
3)	Sand flats and shoals
Found in the middle and lower
reaches and mouth of the estuary,
sand flats and shoals which owe
their existence to tidal currents
without the wave action which
makes beaches are habitats for
a tremendous diversity of epiflora
and fauna and of infauna. The
greater stability of the sediment
permits the existence there of
rooted plants and many kinds of
megafauna.
4)	Mud flats
In the upper reaches and other
places protected from currents
and waves, mud flats develop.
With a very high organic content,
anaerobic conditions prevail below
the top two or three millimeters
except where oxygenated water
is entrained by burrowing
organisms. The surface is
characterized by intense biological
activity.
5)	Oyster bars
In positive estuaries where sedi-
mentation precludes establishment
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
of oyster colonies in the zones
of estuarine salinity, oysters
can grow only near the mouth
where salinity is high enough to
support oyster predators. The
oysters then thrive only in the
intertidal and produce large
reefs exposed by the falling tide.
6)	Mangroves
Along the shores of tropical
estuaries great thickets of
mangroves provide a peculiar
type of intertidal and subtidal
habitat. The prop roots of the
red mangrove provide substrate
for many benthic species and
shelter for many pelagic ones.
7)	Submarine meadows
The bottoms of many estuaries
sire covered with extensive
growths of marine "grasses"
which are seagoing relatives of
some of our pond weeds. They
provide a habitat for a greater
assemblage of species than any
other marine habitat except the
coral reef.
8)	Mussel and barnacle beds
On firm, peaty intertidal bottoms
of temperate and boreal estuaries
extensive beds of the blue mussel
and of barnacles form a special
kind of habitat.
9)	Salt marshes
On the sides and shores of the
upper, middle and lower reaches
of drowned river valleys and on
the shores of bar built estuaries,
salt marshes will be found.
Dominated by a single species of
grass, but inhabited by a very
limited variety of animals, they
vie in productivity with Iowa
cornfields, nourishing not only
their inhabitants but also many
organisms in the adjacent lower
portions of the estuaries.
10) The interstitial
The interstitial habitat is the
space between the grains of
sediment occupied by the meio-
and micro-infauna. Dependent
on turbulence for percolation
of oxygenated water it has a
greater diversity of organisms
on and near beaches.
HI THE ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM12
The term ecosystem implies that not only
is a particular habitat required by a partic-
ular assemblage of organisms but also that
the assemblage or community modifies and
to a certain extent creates the habitat. The
root of the term is perhaps best defined by
Watt11 who says that, "A system is an
interlocking complex of processes charac-
terized by many reciprocal cause-effect
pathways. " The interactions between the
biota and the physical properties and among
themselves are the processes. Ecosystems
vary in size. Theoretically, at least, each
could flourish with an input of energy only.
A The Physical Components
1	Substrate
The substrate is that portion of the
physical environment on or within
which organisms live. It is the ground,
the sediment, the rock or other surface.
It provides purchase, food, shelter,
or attachment.
2	Medium
The medium is the fluid which bathes
the organisms. For us it is the
atmosphere. For estuarine organisms
(except when the tide is out) it is the
water. It is the medium through and
with which individuals exchange matter
and energy.
3	Energy sources'
Every ecosystem must have a primary
energy source. For terrestrial eco-
systems it is ultimately the sun. For
small circumscribed systems on
earth, the energy input comes as
chemical energy. From most eco-
systems most of the input energy is
lost as heat in a very short time--
all of it ultimately.
B The Biological Component--The
Community
1 Definition
A biological community is an assemblage
of interacting populations of species.
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuanne Ecosystem
all more or less dependent upon each
other for their individual and collective
survival.
2	Mega- and micro- communities
The biota of an entire estuary, sea, or
ocean may be considered a community,
just as may be the biota found on a
single blade of turtle grass. The
essential thing is that the assemblage
is so integrated that by mutual support
and dependence its constituents could
survive without outside input other
than energy in some form.
3	Community succession
a Spatial
Just as the gradient of water prop-
erties extends from head to mouth
of the estuary, so also may be
found a succession of different
bottom types inhabited by distinct
and recognizable assemblages
of species. This is spatial
succession.
b Temporal
At any one point or station in the
estuary, a succession of different
assemblages of species maybe
found with the passage of time.
This is particularly true of pelagic
species and epifaunal and epifloral
organisms and on a seasonal basis.
This is temporal succession.
IV ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS13' 14
A Energy Flow and the Cycling of Matter
The essential attribute of ecosystems is
change, the result of the constant cycling
and recycling of matter accompanied by
the degradation and one way passage of
energy. Energy enters the system from
without and quantitatively passes out of it,
after delays ranging from fractions of
seconds to millions of years. Matter
keeps being recycled as a means of
capturing and transferring energy. The
estuarine ecosystems are not exceptions.
1 Trophic structure of the community
The biotic component is the principal
and certainly the most efficient captor
and utilizer of energy. It takes energy
as it comes to the ecosystem, in the
form of light, converts it to a usable
form—the energy of chemical bonds
and m so doing makes more life. Its
units grow and reproduce. The energy
bearing matter changes hands repeatedly.
All the while greater or lesser portions
of the energy are lost as heat which
ultimately is radiated on out (resuming
its original journey from the sun) into
space as infrared radiation from the
dark side of the earth. In each com-
munity there are discernible levels
between which matter and energy are
exchanged.
a Trophic levels
The initial trophic (processor of
energy-bearing matter) level is
that of the primary producer. Most
of these are photosynthetic plants
which make new living matter
(complex chemical energy-bearing
organic compounds) from nonliving
matter (simple inorganic compounds)
the extra energy required for this
coming in the form of light.
Primary consumers are vegetarian
animals which (pardon the redundancy)
eat plants. They do this because they
are dependent for energy entirely on
that of chemical bonds, except for
what energy they can pick up by
sun-bathing. They cannot use light
for essential life processes. This
is true of all other consumers as
well.
Secondary consumers are the meat
eaters or carnivores which eat
herbivores or other carnivores.
Decomposers are the molds and
bacteria which break down organic
substances into the inorganic which
the primary producers used in the
first place. This is not to say that
the producers and consumers do not
do this too, but the ultimate dissolu-
tion of organic to inorganic is per-
formed by the decomposers.
Primary producers are also called
autotrophs.
All the others are called heterotrophs,
except that some people apply a
special term--saprotroph--to the
decomposers.
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
b Food chains and food webs
Because particular consumer species
become adapted to consuming
particular primary producers and
they in turn are peculiarly esteemed
as articles of diet by especial species
of carnivores, there appear in
communities more or less obligate
interdependencies which are called
food chains. Because these chains
become joined by cross linkages, the
trophic structure of the community
takes on the appearance of a web of
interactions.
c Dispersal
Dispersal is the rate at which
individuals of a species population
spread through the habitat from a
point of entry, either as immigrants
or as newly reproduced recruits.
d Growth and age at first maturity
This is the average size and age of the
population when the individuals first
come into reproductive condition.
e Recruitment
2 The Eltonian pyramid and the second
law
In most organisms, most of the food
consumed is used up maintaining the
status quo. Only a fraction appears
as a growth or reproductive increment.
It therefore requires a far greater
gross input from any trophic level to
achieve the net at the next above. This
step by step reduction in realized
living matter is called the Eltonian
pyramid. Figure 8 shows a theoretical
food web. The three Eltonian pyramids
shown in Figure 9 demonstrate the
different results obtained when the
pyramids are erected on the basis of
numbers, biomass as weight, and
energy content.
B Population and Community Dynamics*
Populations are assemblages of individuals
of one species. Communities are assem-
blages of interacting populations. Both
populations and communities have measur-
able properties peculiar to their respective
levels of organization. Such properties
may be used to estimate the effect on
either of stress in any form.
1 Relevant population properties
a Density
Density is the average or mean num-
ber of individuals per unit area or
volume of the environment.
b Dispersion
Dispersion is the pattern of spatial
distribution of individuals in the
habitat. It may be aggregated,
random or regular.
Recruitment is a rate also--the
rate at which new individuals are
added to the population.
f Mortality vs survival
Mortality is the rate at which
individuals are removed from the
population, by whatever means.
The survival rate is the reciprocal
of mortality.
g Frequency
Frequency is the rate at which
individuals appear in samples,
expressed as a percent. It is the
number of individuals divided by
the number of sampling units {see
below) multiplied by 100.
h Fidelity
Fidelity is a measure of the extent
to which one may expect to find a
species in a sample of the habitat.
2 Properties of associations of
populations1'
a Population pairs (pairs of species)
1)	Affinity is a measure of the extent
to which a species is a normal
constituent of another's environment.
2)	Dominance
Dominance is a measure of the
extent to which one of a pair of
species dominates the other.
3)	Relative abundance
Relative abundance is the number
of individuals of a population
relative to the numbers of
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
individuals of other populations
which have been demonstrated
to be significant parts of the
first population's environment.
Asa population property, it is
also useful to develop ideas
about the structure of the
community.
V
4) Concordance
A
Concordance is a property of
pairs of species. It measures
the extent to which they agree that
the environment in which they are
found is a good one to live in.
Much less useful is the simple
correlation coefficient.
All these are numerical properties.
They are defined in terms of num-
bers the significance of which can
be tested objectively.
b Assemblages of populations -
communities
1)	Diversity
Diversity is a measure of the
complexity of the biotic portion
of an ecosystem. The greater
the diversity the greater the
number of ecological niches, or
"occupations, " occupied by
species populations. The magni-
tude of diversity of a community
is a function of time and the
stability of the environment--
allowing for the evolution, in situ,
of niches and of immigration of
species from without. This
property, which may also be
defined mathematically, is at
once a means of identifying the
community, and a means of cor-
relating its structure with the
stability of the environment
2)	Species - abundance curves
If as one takes successive sample
units from the habitat he plots the
number of species against the
natural logarithm of the number
of individuals he gets a curve
which is a measure of the density
of the community. It has been
demonstrated that a break in the
curve may be interpreted as
invasion by the sampler into the
habitat of another community.
3) Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the capacity of a
community to survive in the face
of unusual stress. It is a function
of diversity.
EVALUATION OF CHANGE IN AN ESTUARY
Criteria
1	Community composition
If the normal species composition of
one or more communities is known,
even qualitatively, it may be used as a
means of estimating the effects of change
in environmental conditions.
a Indicator communities
The identification of peculiar com-
munities with particular assemblages
of physical environmental conditions
may be used to indicate the develop-
ment of such environmental conditions
as a result of natural or man-made
change.
b Indicator species
The same concept set forth in the
preceding paragraph may be applied
to particular species.
2	Population properties
The numerical properties of populations
of species known to be obligate inhabit-
ants of estuaries may be used as more
objective evaluations of change resulting
from alteration of the environment.
3	Productivity
Productivity is a measure of the rate
of production of living matter by a
population, a community, or of an
entire ecosystem. Although it is not
easy to measure, it is an attractive
criterion upon which to estimate the
economic potential of a habitat, or of
any of the constituents as well as the
effects upon that potential of alterations
in the environment.
a Primary or autotrophic productivity18'
This is the rate of production of new
living matter from inorganic sub-
stances chiefly by photosynthesizing
plants. As will be recalled from our
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuanne Ecosystem
discussion of trophic levels, we
have always to distinguish between
gross primary production and net,
the difference being the consumption
of the product by the producer itself.
b Consumer or heterotrophic
productivity^ ^1
This is the rate of production of
living matter by herbivores and
carnivores. In species where
populations are easy to sample; it
is not too difficult to do.
22
c Productivity of the estuary
From an economic point of view
it becomes eminently desirable to
be able to estimate the capacity of
the estuary, as an ecosystem, or
of any part of it, through the
activities of its inhabitant species,
to yield living matter. Obviously,
the description of the estuary as an
ecosystem--its physical properties
and biotic communities--must be
at hand in order to use this criterion.
4 Microbiological assays
If the capacity of the water or of the
sediment on the bottom of any or all
parts of the estuary to support life
and economically desirable produc-
tivity is known, then the effects of
changes in these constituents of the
environment can be evaluated by micro-
biological assays. This, put simply,
means assaying the capacity of water
or sediment taken from the estuary to
support growth of populations under
controlled laboratory conditions.
Necessity of Continuing Periodic
Observations
1 Correlation versus regression
If only spot measurements of physical
and biotic properties of the estuary are
made, one may be lucky enough to
obtain significant correlations, but if
periodic measurements are made,
not only will correlations be more
acceptably significant, but also one
may be able to plot regression curves,
by which change in biotic properties
may be linked with combinations of
physical properties and their variations
over a period of time.
2	Seasonal effects
An obvious reason for basing evalua-
tion of change in an estuary on
observations made periodically over
a long period of time is that the normal
effects of seasonal climatic change
have to be taken into account.
24
3	Succession
One of the effects of seasonal climatic
change is the annual succession of
populations and communities of organ-
isms in those parts of the estuary
where periodic changes are greatest.
One community will arise, prosper and
fritter away to be supplanted by another.
Other forms of stress bring this about.
Catastrophic change, as for example
the complete covering of an area of
bottom by flood borne silt will establish
the basis for the beginning of a new
succession. Introduction of hard sur-
faces into the environment, or hurricane
destruction of grass beds or oyster bars
will do likewise. Knowledge of normal
stages of succession is essential to
reliable evaluation of change.
VI THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF SAMPLING
A Necessity of Sampling
1	Excision of sampling units
In order to estimate properties, describe
the biota, or whatever, it is in most
cases necessary to sample--to remove
portions of the habitat to see what's in it.
Only rarely can one enumerate items in
situ, leaving them untouched by the
process.
2	Impracticality of whole counts
Even where it is possible to count
individuals in situ in the habitat, it
is generally physically and economically
impractical, so we have to make do with
samples.
25 26
B Necessity of Programmed Sampling '
1 Accuracy and precision
a In any kind of mensuration, it is
eminently desirable to do it accurately.
Accuracy is a measure of our con-
fidence that the sampling method we
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuanne Ecosystem
employ is free of error, representa-
tive of the population we are samp-
ling or that the methods subsequently
employed to analyze the sample will
yield acceptably close estimates of
the properties of the population we
have sampled.
b Precision is a measure of the
confidence we have that methods
employed once will yield unswerv-
ingly reliable estimates. This is
to say that we are dependent on
precision in order to make
comparisons.
C Sampling for Community Composition
1 Systematic sampling
When we are only trying to sample for
qualitative data--to determine what
kinds of things we find in the habitat--
and especially when we have a lot of
territory to cover, it is best to lay
down a geometrically regularly spaced
pattern of stations at which to take
sampling units.
a Limitations
Systematic sampling is limited to
the making of surveys. It is the
method of reconnaisance. It is
biased and therefore useless or at
least very unreliable for the estimate
of quantitative properties of
populations.
b Advantages
Systematic sampling is the method
of choice when time and money are
limited and only qualitative data
are required. It is the method of
reconnaisance.
c Spatial and temporal systematic
sampling
In an estuary spatial systematic
sampling may be done at the inter-
sections of a grid or at intervals on
transects, or merely at regularly
spaced intervals on a midline or even
with the center of the main channel
running from the head to the mouth.
Temporal systematic sampling
means taking a sampling unit at
regularly spaced intervals in time
at the same point in space.
D Sampling for Population or Community
Properties
1	Necessity for control of bias
Sampling for numerical properties
demands freedom from bias. Bias is
a measure of inequality of the chances
of individuals being picked up in the
sample. Freedom from bias is a
measure of the equality of opportunity
of every individual being taken in the
sample. This is one of the criteria
for accuracy.
2	Sampling patterns
a Random sampling
Random sampling may be achieved
by laying out a grid, for example,
numbering the intersections of the
grid in a systematic manner and
taking samples at intersections
whose numbers are ordered by the
sequence found in a table of random
numbers or the last two or three
digits in a series on any page of the
Manhattan telephone book. Random
sampling gives maximal freedom
from bias. But it is difficult and
sometimes uneconomical to do.
b Stratified random sampling
A pattern of sampling which is easier
to do and still gives a sample almost
as free of bias as a random sample,
is stratified random sampling. In
this case, for example, one may
select regularly spaced areas in a
habitat and excise units on a random
pattern within each.
3	Sampling unit and sample size
The size of the "chunk" for excise
from the habitat as well as the number
of chunks influence the representative-
ness of the sample. If the former is
too small in relation to the pattern of
spatial distribution of what you are
sampling you may get a sample which
will suggest clumping even though the
species is uniformly distributed. If it
is too large you may get an erroneous
suggestion of uniform distribution. A
way in which both birds can be killed
with one stone is to sample what seem
to be significant species, using three
or four sampling unit sizes. As
successive lots of five sampling units
11-11
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
are taken, the cumulative mean is
plotted on the ordinate against the
number of units on the abscissa. For
an unrealistically large sampling unit,
the curve will be level from the
beginning. For an unacceptably small
unit the curve will fluctuate wildly and
never level off. For an optimally
sized unit, the curve will fluctuate
(or deviate) on either side of a certain
value at which it will level off. The
intercept with the abscissa of a line
dropped from the point of leveling off
gives the optimal number of sampling
units, or sample size. The point of
leveling off gives as near a representa-
tion of the true population mean of the
species as possible.
4 Estimates of accuracy
In Section B, 1 above we defined
accuracy as a property of method. It
may also, of course, be defined as
a property of the result. In this case
it is a measure of the closeness of an
estimate to the true value. Minimizing
the variance which is the basis of the
method described in the preceding
paragraph is a practical way of ensur-
ing a mean which is acceptably accurate.
Obviously, the larger the sample, the
smaller the average deviation from the
mean. This is a practical way of eval-
uating the accuracy of a determination.
Another rule of thumb is not to accept
an estimate which is less than 2. 5
times its standard deviation.
[I PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN ESTIMATING
POPULATION OR COMMUNITY
PROPERTIES
A Methods of Collecting
1 Plankton4' 27' 23
a Nets
Qualitative plankton nets are funnel
shaped devices, closelv resembling
the airport "wind-sock 1 with a con-
tainer on the small end. They are
made of monofilament nylon cloth of
varying mesh sizes. They may be
towed horizontally, vertically or
obliquely. Even the finest does not
catch all the plankton. Quantitative
plankton nets are equipped with
opening and closing devices and with
meters which make possible an
estimate of the amount of water which
has been strained.
b Pumps
Pumps are preferable to nets be-
cause one can be certain that all the
water of the sample goes through the
net, if that is employed to filter out
the plankton. Within the limits im-
posed by the lowering of hose, one
can know the exact depth from which
a sample is obtained. The bulkiness
of hose is a disadvantage.
c Traps
5 Estimating precision
Precision has been defined as an attri-
bute which is achieved when acceptable
accuracy is obtained in a succession
of samples of the same population.
Estimate of precision may be made by
the method of testing to determine the
probability that a greater difference
between the means of two samples
could be obtained If an acceptable
probability is achieved one may assume
that the method is precise and that the
two samples are drawn from the same
population.
Plankton traps are devices which
cut off a volume of water, isolating
the plankton in it. The many kinds
of water bottles used by aquatic
scientists fall into this category.
2 Nekton28
Nekton means fishes as a general rule.
Being nekton they must be captured by
conventional fishing methods.
a Tagging
A number of methods for estimating
population properties of fishes are
based on the principle of the effect
of the whole population diluting the
11-12
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
concentration of marked individuals.
A result is the development of a
variety of tags with which live fish
are marked and returned to the
environment.
b Fishing gear
1)	Hook and lane
2)	Mazes
Mazes range from hoop or fyke-
nets to huge stationary fish traps.
3)	Entangling nets
Typical entangling nets are
trammel nets which consist of
three nets in one--two outside
ones with large meshes and one
inside one with small meshes.
The fish swim through the large
mesh on one side, push the fine
mesh through the large mesh on
the other and make a pocket from
which they cannot escape. Gill
nets are made of mesh of such a
size that the fishes push their
heads through but are stopped by
the dimensions of their bodies.
Retreat is impossible because
their gill opercula hang up.
4)	Encircling nets
These are the seines by which
fishes are surrounded and hauled
out on the beach. Purse seines
are constructed so they can be
drawn together on the bottom.
5)	Towed nets
The most widely used towed net
is the oter trawl which is a
funnel shaped net whose mouth is
kept open by paravanes as they
are towed through the water.
6)	Poison
In circumscribed, small bodies
of water fairly accurate whole
counts of the fish populations can
be made by poisoning the water
with rotenone.
c Fishing statistics
1) Annual canvass
This is an annual survey con-
ducted to determine not only how
how many fishes were caught by
commercial operators, but also
who went out when and with what
kind of gear.
2)	Sales slip
In some states and countries,
there is required by law, that all
who sell fish relay to the Conser-
vation Department one copy of
every record of sale.
3)	Vessel landings
Fishery statistics may be accu-
mulated by obtaining from middle-
men the records of vessel landings.
4)	Log books
5)	Daily delivery sheets
6)	Fixed gear records
These are the records of fish
taken out of fish traps and pound
nets.
7)	Sport fishing records
Valuable fishing statistics can be
obtained through angler's organ-
izations and the operators of sport
fishing lodges, marinas, boats
and the like.
3 Benthos29
a Gear
1)	Dredges
Dredges are rigid box or net
like structures dragged along the
bottom clipping off the epifauna
or digging in slightly to remove
the most superficial infauna.
2)	Grabs
Grabs are devices which bite out
single chunks of the bottom.
3)	Sieve, shovel, tongs, rakes
On bottom which may be reached
with tools operated by hand, or
on which a person may wade, any
of a variety of devices may be used
to sample the benthos.
11-13
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
b Fishery statistics
For information concerning benthos
populations which are exploited
commercially, fishery statistics
of the sort outlined in the section
on nekton may be useful.
B Processing the Collections
1	Plankton23
Plankton caught in conventional nets
usually need to be diluted to achieve
concentrations which are workable
in the small containers used on micro-
scope stages. Plankton caught by
pump or in traps usually have to be
concentrated.
a Filtration
Small volumes as from water
bottles can often be quantitatively
filtered on membrane filters, the
counts and identifications being
made when the membrane is trans-
ferred to a slide for microscopic
study. The plankton may be stained
and the filter cleared with cedar oil
or with Karo syrup.
b Sedimentation
As filtration often damages delicate
organisms, dilute samples may be
allowed to settle out in vessels
especially designed for the purpose,
the collection then being examined
preferably by an inverted microscope.
c Centrifugation
A high speed centrifuge of appro-
priate design will concentrate all
but the tiniest plankton organisms.
Because the smaller sizes are lost
through the meshes of nets and in
centrifuging, filtrations and sedi-
mentations are preferable.
2	Nekton
Fishes need only to be preserved. This
requires injections of preservative into
the body cavity and exposure to appro-
priate concentrations of the stuff long
enough to insure complete infiltration.
3	Benthos
Most benthic organisms are small and
collections taken by dragging or grabbing
usually require careful sorting or
sieving to separate them from sedi-
ment or other trash.
C Determinations of Quantitative Properties
1	Plankton
a Density
r v
Density is given by — in which
x is the number of individuals in
each sampling unit and N is the
number of sampling units expressed
as units of area or volume. The
values of x may be determined by:
1)	Direct counts of aliquots
Small plankton organisms may be
counted on counting chambers of
the sort used in blood counts;
larger kinds maiy be counted in
Sedgwick-Rafter cells or any
other small dish or container
which may be scribed or calibrated
to facilitate counting.
2)	Cultures
The population densities of phyto-
plankton species maybe estimated
by such methods as the dilution
technique.
3)	Estimates of chemical parameters
Determination of the chlorophyll,
particulate carbon, "organic"
phosphate or carbon of samples
may be used to estimate popula-
tion density.
2	Nekton28
a Determination of meristic characters
Meristic characters such as the
number of vertebrae, the number
and distributions of scales, and
certain body proportions of fishes
have been shown to be related to
environmental influences. The
important thing to remember is that
one should be quite rigid about making
his counts in the same places.
b Age determinations
The age of fishes cam be determined
by any of a number of means.
11-14
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
1)	Scales
The scales of bony fishes have
annual rings which may be
counted.
2)	Otoliths
Otoliths are concretions found
in the auditory labyrinth of
fishes. The successive layers
are laid down annually, so
sections of these structures
reveal the fish's age.
3)	Vertebrae
Similar annual concretions are
found in the centra of some
fishes' vertebrae.
4)	Spines and rays
Annual increments of growth can
be detected in the bony spines
and rays found in fishes' fins.
5)	Tagging
By capturing fishes, tagging
them with date-bearing devices
and releasing them, recapture
gives an accurate determination
of age since the date of tagging.
If fishes known to be in their
first year sure so tagged, the age
in years is of course known
completely.
6)	Length - frequency
For many fishes—particularly
exploited species which occur in
estuaries--the average length
achieved at particular ages is
known. The frequency with
which a certain length appears
in a sample can thus serve as
an estimate of age.
c Estimates of properties^®'
1) Density
a) Area density
This is the number of individ-
uals per unit area, given, as
we have seen above by
L x
TT •
b)	Age frequency
Here one accumulates data
on the frequency with which
age groups appear in the catch.
An age-frequency curve is
plotted. From this we get
an estimate of mortality--the
rate at which individuals
are being removed from the
population. We then get an
estimate of total population
density by dividing the total
catch by the mortality rate.
c)	Capture-mark-recapture
Assuming that tagged fish
behave like untagged members
of the population in all respects,
that loss of tags is proportional
in different years, and that
there is no variation in fishing
activity, population density can
be estimated on the basis of
dilution of a proportion of
tagged fish by the population as
a wnole. The simplest equation
for this method is
P = N X
in which P equals the popula-
tion density, N is the total
catch for the season, M is
the number of fishes originally
marked and released, and R
is the number of these which
are recaptured. There are
more elaborate ways of doing
this when the above assumptions
break down.
d)	Regression
This method is based on the
fact that the decrease in the
catch per unit effort which
results from depletion of the
populations, is a function of
the extent of the depletion. It
is assumed that there is no
migration in or out of individuals
of the age group in question.
2) Growth and age at first maturity
This property is determined by
correlating the length of fishes
with the appearance of some
structure or state of development
11-15
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuanne Ecosystem
of some part of the reproductive
system taken to indicate the
onset of maturity.
3)	Recruitment
Estimates of recruitment depend
not only on tabulating the propor-
tions of age-groups in the catch,
but also on the catch including
the recruits.
4)	Mortality versus survival
This, as we have seen, depends
on determining the proportions
in the total catch of different age
groups. A plot of the decrease
in numbers of individuals per age
group with the passage of time
gives a survivorship curve.
The reciprocal of this is the
mortality.
5)	Frequency
Frequency is a statistic which is
useful in estimating the status of
a population in the community.
It is the number of times the
species appears in each sampling
unit divided by the number of
sampling units and multiplied by
100.
6)	Fidelity
As we have seen, this is a
measure of the consistency with
which a species appears in
samples. It is a measure of the
extent to which a species is
restricted to a particular habitat.
It may be determined by express-
ing the difference in frequency of
a species in two samples as a
proportion of the lesser value.
It ranges from 0 to infinity.
3 Benthos
The population properties of benthic
species which may be of use in evalua-
ting change in environmental factors
are essentially the same as those listed
for nekton. There are others, of
course.
D Properties of Pairs of Species -
Significant Associations
1 Determination of significant
associations
a Indices of affinity
One way of estimating affinity is
with the 2X2 contingency table
which will give the expected
frequency with which you will get
sampling units with A alone, B
alone, A and B, and neither.
Comparison of the expected with the
observed is done and an appropriate
test for the probability that you will
get a greater difference, or the
probability that the difference is
due to more than chance gives you
an index of affinity. There are
others.34
b Correlation coefficient
A positive correlation coefficient,
the formula for which can be found
in any good statistics text, gives
an estimate of the necessity for A
being a part of B's environment or
vice versa, A negative coefficient
shows the extent to which one is
bad for the other.
c Rank correlation coefficient
This is easier to do. It is also a
means of estimating whether one
species benefits by the presence of
the other or is harmed by it. The
procedure can best be obtained by
going to the original source. 32
E Properties of Assemblages of Populations-
Communities
1 Properties based on relative abundance
a Dominance
33
As suggested by Sanders , this
may be computed by first ordering
the species in each sampling unit
in terms of the number of individuals.
The individuals are then summed in
order starting with the most abundant
species. Those species which have
11-16
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem
been included in the summation
when it reaches the value of half
the total number of individuals
present in the unit are the numeri-
cal dominants of the unit. The
frequency of this dominance is an
important estimate of the significance
of the species' presence in the
community. Other ways of com-
puting dominance are offered by
Fager. ^4
b Concordance
As already stated, concordance is
an estimate of the extent of agree-
ment between species as to whether
or not the habitat in which they are
found is a good one in which to live.
The method by which, it is computed
is given by Kendall . While not
particularly difficult, it is a bit too
elaborate for inclusion here.
2 Properties based on affinity and
diversity
a Affinity
One of the most effective ways in
which to determine from distribu-
tional data what species found in a
sample are significant members of
the community is Fager's34 deter-
mination of recurrent groups.
This is based on the 2X2 contingency
type of index of affinity. It is not
too difficult and is invariably
repeatable by any succession of
persons who follow the rules.
b Diversity
A number of indices of diversity
which are used as a means of dis-
tinguishing between communities
have been devised. An index based
on the relationship of the number of
species to the logarithm of the
area from which they were collected
was proposed by Gleason. 3 5
Derivatives of this have beep pro-
posed by others. Sanders3® has
also developed an index of diversity
which cannot be used for distinguish-
ing between communities but which
is used to estimate the relation
between diversity and environmental
stress.
c Species abundance curves
Species abundance curves are
obtained by plotting the number of
species against the logarithm of the
number of individuals as sampling
units accumulate. For any one
community, a curve of this sort
should be a constant.
1 ESTIMATION OF PRODUCTIVITY
A Primary or Autotrophic Productivity
1	Phytoplankton1®
a Light and dark bottle method
Replicates of three glass stoppered
bottles are filled to overflowing with
a phytoplankton suspension. Two
are clear; the third is coated all
over with light-proof paint. The
dissolved oxygen in one of the clear
ones is determined. The other two
are exposed to light for four hours
and the dissolved oxygen in each
determined. Since oxygen is a pro-
duct of photosynthesis and the amount
is proportional to the carbohydrate
produced, the increase of dissolved
oxygen in the second clear bottle
corrected for the decrease in the
dark bottle is a measure of photo-
synthesis hence productivity.
b C14 Method18
A measured amount of radioactive
CO^4 as bicarbonate is added to a
series of replicates of bottles fitted
to overflowing with a phytoplankton
suspension. After a period of
exposure to light, the contents are
filtered through membrane filters.
The radioactivity of the latter is a
measure of the COz taken up by the
phytoplankton. The COz is propor-
tional to the carbohydrate produced
by photosynthesis.
2	Higher aquatic plants
37 "38
a Change in biomass '
An increase in biomass as weight
of representative samples of the
higher plants over a period of time
is a measure of productivity.
11-17
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The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarme Ecosystem
39
b Dissolved oxygen
In a narrow, shallow estuary,
changes in the oxygen content over
a twenty-four hour period of the
water flowing over a grass bed can
be used as an estimate of the bed's
productivity.
3 Salt marshes^"
a Grass productivity
The productivity of the marsh
grass over a period of time is best
estimated on the basis of change in
biomass.
b Detritus productivity
Periodic collection of detritus
carried off the marsh by the falling
tide may be used as a basis for
estimating, by weight, the amount
of detritus produced by the salt
marsh.
B Consumer or Heterotrophic Productivity
Consumer, or heterotrophic productivity
cannot easily be routinely estimated by
laboratory procedures. We are therefore
dependent on population statistics obtained
by sampling programs or from the
fisheries.
REFERENCES
Note: The references are listed in the order
in which they appear, by number, in the
outline. The symbols enclosed in parentheses
after each of these references show the posi-
tion in the outline at which the reference is
made.
1	Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting
Center, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, DC 20560. (A,2,C)
2	a Ibid (A, 2, C)
b Psammonalia: Newsletter of the
Society of Meinobenthologists.
c Polychaeta: A Newsletter of Polychaete
Research.
3	Secretaries of learned societies special-
izing in particular taxonomic categories
such as American Society of Ichthyolo-
gists and Herpetologists Malacological
Society, etc.
4	Hardy, A The Open Sea. Vol. I. The
World of Plankton. 1958. Houghton
Mifflin, Boston.(I, B, 1) (VII, A, 1)
5	Hardy, A. The Open Sea. Vol. II. Fish
and Fisheries. 1959. Houghton
Mifflin, Boston. (I,B,2)
6	Hedgpeth, J W. A Treatise on Marine
Ecology Geol. Soc. Amer. Memoir 67.
1957. p. 693. (I,C, 1) <11, B)
7	Kinne, O. The Effects of Temperature
and Salinity on Marine and Brackish
Water Animals. Oceanography and
Marine Biology, 2. pp. 281-342. 1964.
(I,C. 1)
8	Russell, R. J. Origins of Estuaries in
Tauff, G. H. (ed.) Estuaries. Publ.
No. 83, AAAS, Washington, pp. 93-99.
1967. (II,A, 1)
9	Carnkir, M. R. Ecology of Estuarine
Invertebrates: A Perspective. Ibid,
pp. 432-441. 1967. (II, A, 1) (II, C)
10	Hedgpeth, J W. Classification of Marine
Environments. In a Treatise on Marine
Ecology (J. W Hedgpeth, ed.) Geol.
Soc. Amer. , Memoir 67. pp. 17-27
(II, B)
11	Watt, K.E.F. System Analysis in Ecology.
Ch. 1, pp. 1-14. Academic Press,
New York. 1966. (Ill)
12	Macfadyen, A. Animal Ecology. Ch. 17.
Pitman, London. 1963. (Ill)
13	Lurdiman, R L. The trophic-dynamic
aspect of ecology. Ecology, 23.pp
399-418. 1942. (IV,A)
14	Odum, E P. Fundamentals of Ecology.
Ch. 2. Saunders, Philadelphia. 1959.
(IV, A)
15	Slobodkin, L. B Growth and Regulation
of Animal Populations. Holt, New York.
1964. (IV, B)
16	Alee, W. C , Emerson, A. E. , Park, O.,
Park, T. and Schmitt, K. P. Principles
of Animal Ecology. Saunders,
Philadelphia, Section III. 1949.
(IV, B)
17	Fager, E W. Communities of Organisms
in Hill, M N. (ed.) The Sea.
Intercilva N. Y, (IV, B, 2)(VII, D, 1)
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18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuanne Ecosystem
Goldman, C. R. (ed. ) Primary
Productivity in Aquatic Environments.
Umv. of Cal. Press, Berkeley. 1966.
(V, A, 3, a)
Yartsch, C. S Primary Productions
Oceanography and Marine Biology
1, 157-516. 1963. (V,A,3,a)
Raymont, J. E.G. Plankton and Pro-
ductivity in the Oceans. MacMiltan,
London. Ch. XVII (V, A, 3, b) 1963.
Reid, G K. Ecology of Inland Waters
and Estuaries. Reinhold, New York
1961. (V, A, 3, b)
Cushing, D H On the Nature of
Production in the Sea. Fishery
Investigations, London. Ser. II,
Vol. 22, No. 6. 1959. 
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BIOLOGICA L FIELD METHODS
I INTRODUCTION
A Due to the nature of ecological inter-
relationships, methods for the collection
of different types of aquatic organisms
differ. In general we can recognize
those that swim or float and those that
crawl, those that are big and those that
are little. Each comprises a part of
"the life" at any given survey station
and consequently a "complete" collection
would include all types.
B Field methods m the following outline
are grouped under four general
categories, the collection of
1	Benthos (or bottom dwelling
organisms). These may be
attached crawling, or burrowing
forms.
2	Plankton (plancton). These are all
of the microscopic plants and
animals normally swimming or
suspended in the open water
3	Periphyton or "aufwuchs". This is
the community of organisms
associated with the surfaces of
objects. Some are attached, some
crawl. The group is intermediate
between the benthos and the plankton
4	Nekton. Nekton are the larger,
free swimming active animals such
as shrimp or fishes.
C Aquatic mammals and birds, in most
cases, require still other approaches
and are not included.
D There is little basic difference between
biological methods for oceanic,
estuarine, or freshwater situations
except those dictated by the physical
nature of the environments and the
relative sizes of the organisms.
Fish, benthos, and plankton collection
is essentially the same whether con-
ducted in Lake Michigan, Jones'
Beach, or the Sargasso Sea.
1	Marine organisms range to larger
sizes, and the corrosive nature of
seawater dictates special i.are in
the design and maintenance of
marine equipment. Site selection
and collection schedules are
influenced by such factors as tidal
currents and periodicity, and
salinity distribution, rather than
(river) currents, riiiles, and pools.
2	Freshwater oi ganisms are m
general smaller, and the water is
seldom chemically cortosive on
equipment. Site selection in
streams involves riffles, falls,
pools, etc , and a unidirectional
flow pattern. Lake collection may
involve less predictable strati-
fication or flow pattei ns.
E Definite objectives should be established
in advance as to the size range of
organisms to be collected and counted,
l. e. microscopic only, microscopic
and macroscopic, those retained by
"30 mesh" screens, invertebrates and/
or vertebrates, etc.
H STANDARD PROCEDURES
A Certain standard supplementary
procedures are a part of all field
techniques. In order to be interpreted
and used, every collection must be
associated with a record of environ-
mental conditions at the time of
collection.
1 Data recorded should include the
following as far as practicable.
Location (name of river, lake, etc )
BI.MET. fm. le. 10.75
12-1
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Biological Field Methods
Station number (particular location
of which a full description should
be on record)
Date and hour
Air temperature
Water temperature (at various
depths, if applicable)
Salinity (at various depths, if
applicable)
Tidal flow (ebb or flood)
Turbidity (or light penetration, etc. )
Weather
Wind direction and velocity
Sky or cloud cover
Water color
Depth
Type of bottom
Type of collecting device and
accessories
Method of collecting
Type of sample (quantitative or
qualitative)
Number of samples at each station
Chemical and physical data, e. g.,
dissolved oxygen, nutrients, pH,
etc.
Collector's name
Miscellaneous observations (often
very important)
2 All collecting containers should be
identified at least with location,
station number, sample number,
and date. Spares are very handy.
3 Much transcription of data can be
eliminated by using sheets or cards
with a uniform arrangement for
including the above data. The
same field data sheet may include
field or laboratory analysis.
B Compact kits of field collecting equip-
ment and materials greatly increase
collecting efficiency, especially if
collection site is remote from
transportation.
IE PERSONA L OBSERVATION AND
PHOTOGRAPHY
A Direct or indirect observation of under-
water conditions has become relatively
efficient.
1	Diving spheres, pioneered by
William Beebe, Cousteau, Honot,
Willm, and Manad are proving
very important for deep water
observations.
2	Use of the aqualung permits direct
personal study down to over
200 feet.
3	Underwater television (introduced
by the British Admiralty for
military purposes) is now generally
available for biological and other
observations.
4	Underwater photography is
improving in quality and facility.
5	Underwater swimming or use of
SCUBA is quite valuable for direct
observation and collecting.
IV COLLECTION OF BOTTOM OR
BENTHIC ORGANISMS
A Shoreline or Wading Depth Collecting
Plates I, II
1 Hand picking of small forms
attached to or crawling on rocks,
sticks, etc. when lifted out of the
12-2
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Biological Field Methods
BOTTOM GRABS
clostd
Ekman
3
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Biological Field Methods
LIMNOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT
Hand Screen
-------
Biological Field Methods
water is a fundamental and much
used method for quickly assaying
what is present and what may be
expected on further search.
2	Patches of seaweed and eelgrass
and shallow weedy margins any-
where are usually studied on a
qualitative basis only.
a The apron net is one of the best
tools for animals in weed beds
or other heavy vegetation. It
is essentially a pointed wire
sieve on a long handle with
coarse screening over the top
to keep out leaves and sticks.
b Grapple hooks or a rake may
be used to pull masses of
vegetation out on the bank
where the fauna may be
examined and collected as they
crawl out.
c Quantitative estimates of both
plants and animals can be made
with a "stove pipe" sampler
which is forced down through
a weed mass in shallow water
and embedded in the bottom.
Entire contents can then be
bailed out into a sieve and
sorted.
d A frame of known dimensions
may be placed over an area to
be sampled and the material
within cropped out. This is
especially good for larger
plants and large bivalves.
This method yields quantitative
data.
3	Sand and mud flats in estuaries and
shallow lakes may be sampled
quantitatively by marking off a
desired area and either digging
away surrounding material or
excavating the desired material
to a measured depth. Handle-
operated samplers recently
developed by Jackson and
Larrimore, make for more
effective sampling of a variety
of bottoms down to the depth of
the handles. Such samples are
then washed through graded
screens to retrieve the organisms.
4	Ekman grabs are most useful on
soft bottoms. This is a completely
closing clamshell type grab with
spring operated jaws. Size of grab
is usually 6" X6" or 9" X9", the
12" X 12" size is impractical due
to its heavy weight when filled with
bottom material.
For use in shallow water, it is
convenient to rig an Ekman with
a handle and a hand operated jaw-
release mechanism.
5	The Petersen type grab (described
below) without weights will take
satisfactory samples in firm muds,
but tends to bury itself in very
soft bottoms. It is seldom used in
shallow water except as noted
below.
B Collecting in Freshwater Riffles or
Rapids
1	The riffle is one of the most
satisfactory habitats for comparing
stream conditions at different
points.
2	The hand screen is the simplest
and easiest device to use in this
situation. Resulting collections
are qualitative only.
a In use the screen is firmly
planted in the stream bed.
Upstream bottom is thoroughly
disturbed with the feet, or
worked over by hand by
another person. Organisms
dislodged are carried down
into the screen.
b Screen is then lifted and
dumped into sorting tray or
collecting jar.
12-5
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Biological Field Methods
3	The well-known square foot Surber
sampler is one of the best quan-
titative collecting devices for
riffles.
a It consists of a frame one foot
square with a conical net
attached. It is usable only in
moving water.
b In use it is firmly planted on
the bottom. The bottom stones
and gravel within the square
frame are then carefully gone
over by hand to ensure that all
organisms have been dislodged
and carried by the current into
the net. A stiff vegetable
brush is often useful in this
regard.
c From three to five square-foot
samples should be taken at each
station to insure that a reason-
able percentage of the species
present will be represented.
4	The Petersen type grab may be used
in deep swift riffles or where the
Surber is unsuitable.
a It is planted by hand on the
bottom, and worked down into
the bottom with the feet.
b It is then closed and lifted by
pulling on the rope in the usual
manner,
5	A strong medium weight dipnet is
the closest approach to a universal
collecting tool.
a Sweeping Weed beds and Stream
Margins
This is used with a sweeping motion,
through weeds, over the bottoms or
in open water. A triangular shape
is preferred by some.
b Stop net or Kicking Technique
This may be used as a roughly quan-
titative device m riffles by holding the
end flat against the bottom and
backing slowly up-stream
disturbing the substrate with
one's feet. A standard period
of time is used.
c The handle should be from 4
to 6 feet long, and about the
weight of a garden rake
handle.
d The ring should be made of
steel or spring brass, and
securely fastened to the
handle. It should be strong
but not cumbersome, size of
ring stock •will depend on
diameter of ring.
e The bag or net should be the
strongest available, not over
1/8 inch mesh, preferably
about 1/16 inch. Avoid 30 or
more meshes to the inch, this
is so fine that the net plugs too
easily and is slow and heavy
to handle.
f There should be a wide canvas
apron sewed around the rim
and protecting the bag. The
rim may be protected with
leather if desired.
D Deep Water Benthic Collecting Plate III
1	When sampling from vessels, a
crane and winch, either hand or
power operated, is used. The
general ideas described for shallow
waters apply also to deeper waters,
when practicable.
2	The Petersen type grab, seems to
be the best all around sampler for
the greatest variety of bottoms at
all depths, from shoreline down to
over 10, 000 meters. (Plate I)
a It consists of two heavily
constructed half cylinders
closed together by a strong
lever action.
12-6
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Biological Field Methods
DEEP WATER EQUIPMENT
Bathythermograph
Biological dredge
Otter trawl
PLATE IH
7
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Biological Field Methods
b To enable them to bite into
hard bottoms, or to be used in
strong currents, weights may
be attached to bring the total
weight up to between 50 and
100 lbs.
c Areas sampled range from
l/5th to l/20th square meters
(1/10 square meter equals
approximately 1. 1 square ft.)
d A Petersen grab to be hauled
by hand should be fitted with
5/8 or 3/4 inch diameter twisted
rope in order to provide
adequate hand grip. It is best
handled by means of wire ropes
and a winch.
3	Other bottom samplers include the
VanVeen, Lee, Holme, Smith-
Mclntyre, Knudsen, Ponar, and
others.
4	A spring loaded sampler has
recently been developed by Shipek
for use on all types of bottoms.
It takes a half-cylinder sample,
l/25th square meters in area and
approximately 4 inches deep at the
center. The device is automatically
triggered on contact with the
bottom, and the sample is com-
pletely protected enroute to the
surface. (Plate I)
5	Drag dredges or scrapes are often
used in mar me waters and deeper
lakes and streams, and comprise
the basic equipment of several types
of commercial fisheries. Some
types have been developed for
shallow streams. In general
however, they have been little used
in fresh water.
6	The above is only a partial listing
of the many sampling devices
available. Others that are often
encountered are the orange-peel
bucket, plow dredge, scallop type
dredge, hydraulic dredges, and
various coring devices. Each has
its own advantages and dis-
advantages and it is up to the
worker and his operation to decide
what is best for his particular needs.
The Petersen type and Ekman grabs
are perhaps the most commonly
used.
7	Traps of many types are used for
various benthic organisms,
especially crabs and lobsters.
Artificial substrates (below) are in
essence a type of trap.
8	Since most biological communities
are not evenly distributed, it is
advisable to routinely take at least
two and preferably more samples
from any one station.
E Artificial substrates rely on the
ecological predilection of organisms
to grow wherever they find a suitable
habitat. When a small portion of
artificial habitat is provided, it tends
to become populated by all available
species partial to that type of situation.
The collector can then at will remove
the habitat or trap to his laboratory and
study the population at leisure.
This versatile research technique is
much used for both routine monitoring
and exploratory studies of pollution.
It is also exploited commercially,
especially for shellfish production.
Types of materials used include
1	Cement plates and panels.
2	Wood (especially for burrowing
forms).
3	Glass slides (ex: Catherwood
diatometer).
4	Multiple plate trap (masonite).
5	Baskets (or other containers) holding
natural bottom material and either
imbedded in the bottom, or sus-
pended in the overlying water.
12-8
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Biological Field Methods
6 Unadorned ropes suspended in the
water, or sticks thrust into the
bottom.
F Sorting and Preservation of Collections
1	Benthic collections usually consist
of a great mass of mud and other
debris among which the organisms
are hidden. Various procedures
may be followed to separate the
organisms.
a The organisms may be picked
out on the spot by hand or the
entire mess taken into the
laboratory where it can be
examined more efficiently
(especially in rough weather).
Roughly equivalent time will
probably be required in either
case.
b Specimens may be simply
observed and recorded or they
may be preserved as a
permanent record.
c Organisms may be simply
counted, weighed, or measured
volumetrically, or they may be
separated and recorded in
groups or species.
2	If separation is in the field, this is
usually done by hand picking,
screening, or some type of flotation
process.
a Hand picking is best done on a
white enameled tray using
light touch limnological forceps.
b Screening is one of the most
practical methods to separate
organisms from debris in the
field. Some prefer to use a
single fine screen, others
prefer a series of 2 or 3
screens of graded sizes. The
collection may be dumped
directly on the screen and the
mud and debris washed through,
or it may be dumped into a
bucket or small tub. Water
is then added, the mixture is
well stirred, and the super-
natant poured through the
screen. The residue is then
examined for heavy forms that
will not float up.
c A variation of this method in
situations where there is no
mud is to pour a strong sugar
or salt solution over the
collection in the bucket, stir
it well, and again pour the
supernatant through the screen.
This time, however, saving
the flotation solution for
re-use. The heavier-than-
water solution accentuates the
separation of organisms from
the debris (except for the
heavy shelled molluscs, etc.).
A solution of 2-1/2 lbs. of
sugar per gallon of water is
considered to be optimum.
Preservation or stabilization is
usually necessary m the field.
a 95% ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is
highly satisfactory. A final
strength of 7 0% is necessary
for prolonged storage. If the
collection is drained of water
and flooded with 95% ethanol
in the field, a laboratory
flotation separation can usually
be made later, thus saving
much time. Considerable
quantities of ethanol are
required for this procedure.
b Formaldehyde is more widely
available and is effective in
concentrations of 3 - 10% of
the commercial formulation
However, it shrinks and
hardens specimens, collector,
and laboratory analyst without
favor1 In order to minimize
bad effects from formalin,
neutralized formalin is
12-9
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Biological Field Methods
recommended. MoDusc shells	VI
will eventually disintegrate in
acid formalin
A
c Properly preserved benthos
samples may be retained
indefinitely, thereby enhancing
their utility.
d Refrigeration or icing is very
helpful.
V MICROFAUNA AND PERIPHYTON
(OR AUFWUCHS) SAMPLING
A This is a relatively new area which
promises to be of great importance
The microfauna of mud and sand
bottoms may be studied to some extent
from collections made with the various
devices mentioned above. In most
cases however, there is considerable
loss of the smaller forms
B Most special microfauna samplers for
soft bottoms are essentially modified
core samplers in which an effort is
made to bring up an undisturbed portion
of the bottom along with the immediately
overlying water. The best type currently
seems to be the Enequist sampler which
weighs some 35 kg. and takes a 100 sq
cm sample 50 cm. deep.
B
C Microfauna from the surface of hard
sand or gravel bottoms may be sampled
by the Hunt vacuum sampler. This has
a bell-shaped "sampling" tube sealed
by glass diaphragm. On contact with
the bottom, the glass is automatically
broken and the nearly bottom material
is swept up into a trap.
D Periphyton attached to or associated
with hard surfaces such as rock or
wood may be sampled by scraping or
otherwise removing all surface
material from a measured area. The
periphyton, however, is more effectively
quantitatively sampled by artificial
substrate techniques described above.
THE COLLECTION, OR SAMPLING
OF PLANKTON PLATE IV
Phytoplankton- A Planned Program is
Desirable
1	A planned program of plankton
analysis should involve periodic
sampling at weekly or even more
frequent intervals.
2	A well-planned study or analysis
of the growth pattern of plankton
in one year will provide a basis
for predicting conditions the
following year since seasonal
growth patterns tend to repeat
themselves from year to year.
a Since the seasons and the years
differ, records accumulated
over the years become more
useful.
b As the time for an anticipated
bloom of some troublesome
species approaches, the
frequency of analyses may be
increased.
3	Detection of a bloom in its early
stages will facilitate more
economical control.
Field Aspects of the Analysis Program
1	Two general aspects of plankton
analysis are commonly recognized:
quantitative and qualitative.
a Qualitative examination tells
what is present.
b Quantitative tells how much.
c Either approach is useful, a
combination is best.
2	Equipment for collecting samples
in the field is varied.
a A half-liter bottle will serve
for surface samples of
phytoplankton, if carefully
taken.
12-10
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Biological Field Methods
PLANKTON SAMPLERS
High speed plankton sampler
PLATE IV
11
-------
Biological Field Methods
b A Kemmerer. Nansen, or other
special sampler (small battery
operated pumps are time saving)
is suggested for depth samples.
c Plankton nets concentrate the
sample in the act of collecting
and also capture certain larger
forms which escape from the
bottles. Only the more elaborate
types are quantitative however.
For phytoplankton, §20 or #25
size nets are commonly used.
Usually a net diameter of 5- 10
inches is sufficient. The smaller
forms, however, are lost through
any net.
C Zooplankton Collecting
1	Since zooplankton have the ability to
to swim away from water bottles, etc.,
nets towed at moderately fast speed
are used for their capture. Number
12 nets (aperature size 0. 119 mm,
125 meshes 1 inch) or smaller numbered
net sizes are commonly used. A net
diameter greater than 5" is preferred.
Frequently half meter nets or larger
are employed. These may be equipped
with flow measuring devices for
measuring the amount of water enter-
ing the net.
2	Other instruments such as the Clark-
Bumpus, Gulf-Stream, Hardy continu-
ous plankton recorder, and high-speed
instruments are used for collecting
zooplankton also.
3	The devices used for collecting plankton
capture both the plant and animal types.
The mesh size (net no.) is a method for
selecting which category of plankton is
to be collected.
D The Location of Sampling Points
1 Both shallow and deep samples are
suggested.
a "Shallow" samples should be
taken at a depth of 6 inches to one
foot. The surface film is often
significant.
b "Deep" samples should be taken
such intervals between surface and
bottom as circumstances dictate.
In general, the entire water column
should be sampled as completely as
practicable, and the plankton from
each level recorded separately.
2	For estuarine plankton, it is necessary
to sample different periods in the stage
of the tide, otherwise samples would
be biased to a given time, or type of
water carried by the tidal currents.
3	Plankton is subjected to the force of the
winds and currents. As a result, the
plankton is often in patches or "wind
rows" (Langmuir cells). For this reason
when using a net, it is often desirable to
tow the net at right angles to the wind or
current.
4	Nearly all plankton are horizontally
discontinuous. Planktonic organisms
tend to be numerous near the bottom in
daylight, but distributed more evenly
through the water column at night.
Therefore, a series of tows or samples
at different depths is necessary to obtain
a complete sampling. One technique
often employed is to take an oblique
tow from the bottom to the top of the
water column.
5	Pilot studies to indicate sampling
locations and intervals are often
mandatory. Some studies require
random sampling points.
6	The number of sampling stations
that should be established is limited
by the capability of the laboratory to
analyze the samples, but should
approach the needs of the objectives
as closely as possible.
12-12
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Biological Field Methods
7	Field conditions greatly affect the
plankton, and a record thereof
should be carefully identified with
the collection as in II above.
8	Provisions should be made for the
field stabilization of the sample
until the laboratory examination
can be made if more than an hour
or so is to elapse.
a Refrigeration or icing is very
helpful, but ice should never
be placed in the sample.
b Preservation by 5% formalin is
widely used but badly shrinks
animals and makes all forms
brittle.
c Lugols solution is a good
preservative.
d Ultra-violet sterilization is
sometimes used in the laboratory
to retard the decomposition of
plankton.
e A highly satisfactory merthiolate
preservative has been described
by Weber (1968).
VII COLLECTING FISH AND OTHER
NEKTON PLATES V, VI
A Fish and other nekton must be sought in
the obscure and unlikely areas as well
as the obvious locations in order for the
collection to be complete. Several
techniques should be employed where -
ever possible (this is appropriate for
all biota). It is advisable to check with
local authorities to inform them of the
reasons for sampling, because many of
the techniques are not legal for the
layman. In this area, perhaps more
than any other, professionally trained
workers are important. Also, there
must be at least one helper, as a single
individual always has difficulty in pulling
both ends of a 20 foot seine simultaneously1
The more common techniques are
listed below.
B Seines
1	Straight seines range from 4-6 feet
and upwards in length. "Common
sense" minnow seines with approxi-
mately 1/4 inch mesh are widely
used along shore for collecting the
smaller fishes.
2	Bag seines have an extra trap or
bag tied in the middle which helps
trap and hold fish when seining in
difficult situations.
C Gill nets are of use in offshore and/or
deep waters. They range in length
from approximately 30 yards upward.
A mesh size is designed to catch a
specified size of fish. The trammel
net is a variation of the gill net.
D Traps range from small wire boxes or
cylinders with inverted cone entrances
to semi-permanent weirs a half mile or
more in length. All tend to induce fish
to swim into an inner chamber pro-
tected by an inverted cone or V - shaped
notch to prevent escape. Current
operated rotating fish traps are also
very effective (and equally illegal) in
suitable situations.
E Trawls are submarine nets, usually of
considerable size, towed by vessels at
speeds sufficient to overtake and scoop
in fish, etc. The mouth of the net must
be held open by some device such as a
long beam (beam trawl) or two or more
vanes or "otter boards" (otter trawl).
Plate III
1	Beam and otter trawls are usually
fished on the bottom, but otter
trawls when suitably rigged are
now being used to fish mid-depths.
2	The midwater trawl resembles a
huge plankton net many feet in
diameter. It is proving very effec-
tive for collecting at mid-depths.
12-13
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Biological Field Methods
FISH NETS
Gill
Hoop
Pound
14
-------
Biological Field Methods
-------
Biological Field Methods
Numerous special designs have been
developed. Plate VI
F Electric seines and screens are widely
employed by fishery workers in small
and difficult streams. They may also
be used in shallow water like areas with
certain reservations.
G Poisoning is much used in fishery studies
and management. Most widely used and
generally satisfactory is rotenone in
varying formulations, although many
others have been employed from time to
time, and some appear to be very good.
Under suitable circumstances, fish may
even be killed selectively according to
species.
H Personal observation by competent
personnel, and also informal inquiries
and discussions with local residents
will often yield information of real use.
Many laymen are keen observers,
although they do not always understand
what they are seeing. The organized
creel census technique yields data on
what and how many fish are being
caught.
I Angling remains in its own right a very
good technique in the hands of the skilled
practitioner, for determining what fish
are present. Spear-fishing also is now
being used in some studies.
J Fish and other nekton are often tagged
to trace their movements during
migration and at other times. Minia-
ture radio transmitters can now be
attached or fed to fish (and other
organisms) which enable them to be
tracked over considerable distances.
Physiological information is often
obtained in this way. This is known as
telemetry.
Vin SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS ON BOATS
Handling biological collections (as con-
trasted to chemical and physical sampling)
on board boats differs with the size of the
craft and the magnitude of operations.
Some possible items are listed below.
Hoisting and many other types of gear are
used in common with other types of
collection, and will not be listed.
A Special Laboratory Room(s)
B Constant flow of Clean water for
culturing organisms. (Selection of
materials and design of a system to
insure non-toxic water may be very
troublesome but very important.)
C Live Box built into ship at water level
D Refrigeration System(s)
1	For controlling temperature of
experimental organisms in
laboratory.
2	For deep-freezing and storage of
specimens to be examined later.
E Storage Space (Unrefrigerated)
F Facilities for the safe storage and use
of microscopes and other laboratory
equipment.
G Facilities for the safe storage and use
of deck equipment.
H Administrative access to the Captain
and Technical Leader in order to
coordinate requirements for biological
collection (such as a slow plankton tow)
with those for other collections.
I Safety of personnel working in and
around boats, as well as in other field
activities should be seriously con-
sidered and promoted at all times.
IX OTHER TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL
FIELD STUDIES INCLUDE
A Productivity Studies of Many Types
B Life Cycle and Management
C Distribution of Sport or (potentially)
Commercial Species
12-16
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Biological Field Methods
D	Scattering Layers and Other Submarine
Sound Studies
E	Artificial Culture of Marine Food Crops
F	Radioactive Uptake
G	Growth of Surface-Fouling Organisms
H	Marine Borers
I	Dangerous Marine Organisms
J	Red Tides
K	Others
X	SOURCES OF COLLECTING
EQUIPMENT
Many specialized items of biological
collecting equipment are not available
from the usual laboratory supply houses.
Consequently, the American Society of
Limnology and Oceanography has compiled
a list of companies handling such items
and released it as "Special Publication
No. 1, Sources of Limnoligical and
Oceanographic Apparatus and Supplies."
Available from the Secretary of the Society.
XI	SAFETY
The hazards associated with work on or near
water require special consideration. Personnel
should not be assigned to duty alone in boats,
and should be competent in the use of boating
equipment (courses are offered by the U. S.
Coast Guard). Field training should also include
instructions on the proper rigging and handling
of biological sampling gear.
Life preservers(jacket type work vests) should
be wron at all times when on or near deep water.
Boats should have air-tight or foam-filled com-
partments for flotation and be equipped with
fire extinguishers, running lights, oars, and
anchor. The use of inflatable plastic or rubber
boats is discouraged.
All boat trailers should have two rear running
and stop lights and turn signals and a license
plate illuminator. Trailers 80 inches (wheel
to wheel) or more wide should be equipped with
amber marker lights on the front and rear of
the frame on both sides.
Laboratories should be provided with fire
extinguishers, fume hoods, and eye fountains.
Safety glasses should be worn when mixing
dangerous chemicals and preservatives.
A copy of the EPA Safety Manual is available
from the Office of Administration, Washington,
D. C. (Reference: 10)
References
1	Arnold, E.L., Jr. and Gehringer, J.W.
High Speed Plankton Samplers,
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Spec.Sci.
Rept. Fish No. 88:1-6.
2	Barnes, H. (ed.). Symposium on New
Advances in Underwater Observations.
Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci. ( Liverpool,
pp. 49-64. 1953.
3	Hedgepeth, Joel W. Obtaining
Ecological Data in the Sea Chapter 4
in "Treatise on Marine Ecology and
Paleoecology" Memois 67. Geol.
Soc. Am. 1963.
4	Isaacs, John D. and Columbus, O. D.
Oceanographic Instrumentation NCR
Div. Phys. Sci. Publ. 309, 233 pp.
1954.
5	Jackson, H.W. A Controlled Depth
Volumetric Bottom Sampler. Prog.
Fish Cult., April, 1970.
6	Lagler, Karl F. Freshwater Fishery.
Biology, Wm. C. Brown Company.
Dubuque. 1956.
7	Standard Methods for the Examination
of Water and Wastewater, APHA,
AWWA, WPFC, Publ. by Am. Pub.
Health Assoc. New York.
12-17
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Biological Field Methods
8	Sverdrup, H. U. et al. Observations
and collections at sea. Chapter X
in: The Oceans, Their Physics,
Chemistry, and Biology. Prentice-
Hall, Inc., New York, 1087 pp. 1942,
9	Usinger, R„ L. Aquatic Insects of
California (Section on Field Methods).
University of California Press.
Berkeley. 1956.
10	Weber, C.I. Biological Field and Lab
Methods for Measuring the Quality of
Surface Waters and Effluents. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Nat-
ional Environmental Research Ctr.,
Cincinnati, OH Environmental Monitoring
Series 670/4-73-001. July, 1973.
11	Welch, Paul S. Limnological Methods.
The Blakiston Company, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania. 1948.
12 FWPCA, Investigating Fish Mortalities.
USDI, No. CWT-5, 1970. U.S. Gov't.
Print. Off. 1970 0-3B0-257
This outline was prepared by H. W. Jackson,
Former Chief Biologist, National Training
Center, MPOD, OWPO, EPA, Cincinnati,
OH 45268, and revised by R. M. Sinclair,
Aquatic Biologist, National Training Center.
Descriptors-
Aquatic Environment, Analytical Techniques,
Sampling, On-Site Investigations, Preser-
vation, Samplers, Water Sampling,
Handling, Sample, Surface Waters, Aquatic
Life
12-18
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FATE OF WASTEWATER DISCHARGES TO MARINE ENVIRONMENT
I Marine disposal of wastes is practiced
where it is economically advantageous. In
areas where water is being reclaimed within
a closed system, marine disposal also pro-
vides for salt balance.
II	PHYSICAL ASPECTS
A	Surface Films
B	Wave Action
C	Currents
1 Time-averaged velocities of coastal
waters are typically of the order of a
few tenths of a knot. There are no
theoretical tools to predict currents
near the coast so that current measure-
ments are required for each study area.
D Dispersion
1	Initial dilution or stirring is due to
potential and kinetic energy. Outfall
depth and diffuser (port) spacing are
selected so as to maximize initial
dilution.
a The upper limit of initial dilution is
fixed by the amount of new water
flowing into the area.
b The initial mixture will spread on
the surface or at some intermediate
depth where the combined mass is
vertically stable.
2	Additional dilution is due to horizontal
mixing (diffusion) in vertical stable
ocean. This dilution proceeds at an
ever-increasing rate. The width of a
stream containing about 95% of the con-
taminant can be predicted from the
relationship
in which Wj and W2 are the initial and
final widths at times tj and t2 m
seconds. When
W is in centimeters,
e = 0.005 or 0.0025 where lateral
restraint such as a shoreline is absent
or present.
E Convergences at boundary of water masses
of different densities. Divergences ( up-
welling) bring nutrient-rich waters into
euphotic zone.
F Internal waves, surf, and swash strongly
affect properties at depth. Internal hy-
draulic jump and rip currents have been
postulated.
G Water transparency is affected by suspend-
ed solids in effluent and by increased
plankton populations.
II CHEMICAL ASPECTS
A In most pollution studies, concentrations
of chemical constituents of seawater may
be assumed constant.
1 Chlorinity may be used to calculate
dilutions of up to 300:1.
B Dissolved oxygen is generally no problem
in coastal waters.
Ill BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
A Municipal waste discharges result in
marked changes near the outfall. Over
IN. O. 1.6 65
13-1
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Fate of Waste water Discharge to Marine Environment
a larger area, the general effect is to
increase populations of plankton and
benthos.
IV BACTERIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
A Salinity is not bactericidal but is important
in flocculation and sedimentation.
B Coliform bacteria concentrations in sur-
face waters are reduced by dilution,
mortality, and sedimentation.
1	Southern California coastal waters
2	New York Harbor
C Mineralization on bottom of Santa Monico
Bay is 50 times as efficient as it is in the
water column.



Time in hours for 90% reduction

Plant
Treatment
Dilution
T-90 ,
a
Mortality
T-90
m
Sedimentation
T-90
s
Combined
T-90
Hype non
Secondary
20
17.8
21.0
6. 5
Hyperion
Primary
20
17. 8
5. 3
3. 4
Organe County
Primary
5 to 10
17. 8
2.0 to 2.4
1. 5
(NOTE- All unhclormated effluents)
13-2
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Fate of Wastewater Discharge to Marine Environment
REFERENCES
1	Eldridge, E. F. Editor. Proceedings,
Sixth Annual Symposium on Water
Pollution Research: Oceanography and
Related Pollution Problems of the
Northwest. U. S. Public Health Service,
Region EX. Portland, Oregon. 1959.
2	Emery, K.O. The Sea Off Southern
California. Wiley, 1960.
3	Frankel, R. J. and Cumming, J. D. Tur-
bulent Mixing Phenomena of Ocean
Outfalls. Proc. ASCE, Vol. 91, No.
SA2, pp 33-59, 1965.
4	Gunnerson, C. G. Sewage Disposal in
Santa Monica Bay. Trans. ASCE, Vol.
124, pp 823-851. 1959.
5	Gunnerson, C. G. Discussion of Eddy
Diffusion in Homogeneous Turbulence.
Proc. ASCE, Vol. 86, No. HY4,
pp 101-109. 1960.
6	Gunnerson, C. G. Discussion of the Settling
Properties of Suspensions. Proc. ASCE,
Vol. 86, No. HY7, pp 29-32. 1961.
7	Gunnerson, C. G. Marine Disposal of
Wastes. Proc. ASCE. Vol. 87. No.
SA1, pp 23-56. 1961.
8	Gunnerson, C. G. Mineralization of
Organic Matter in Santa Monica Bay,
California. Chapter 60. Marine
Microbiology. C. H.Oppenheimer, Ed.
C. C. Thomas, Publishers, Springfield,
111. pp 641-653. 1963.
9	Hume, N. B., Bargman, R. D., Gunnerson,
C.G., and Tomel, C.E. Operation of
a Seven-Mile Digested Sludge Outfall.
Trans. ASCE, Vol. 126, pp 306-331.
1961.
io Hume, N. G., Gunnerson, C.G., and
Imel, C. E. Characteristics and Effects
of Hyperion Effluent in Santa Monica
Bay, California. Jour. WPCF, Vol.
34, No. 1, pp 15-35. 1962.
11	Ludwig, H. F., and Onodera, Ben.
Report on Collation, Evaluation and
Presentation of Scientific and Technical
Data Relative to the Marine Disposal
of Liquid Wastes. California State
Water Quality Control Board,
Sacramento. 1964.
12	Pearson, E. A. An Investigation of the
Efficacy of Submarine Outfall Disposal
of Sewage and Sludge. Pub. No. 14.
State of California Water Pollution Con-
trol Board. Sacramento, 1956.
13	Pearson, E.A. Editor. Proceedings,
First International Conference on
Waste Disposed in the Marine Environ-
ment. Pergamon Press. 1960.
14	Pearson, E.A., Pomeroy, R. D., and
McKee, J. E. Summary of Marine
Waste Disposal Research Program in
California. Pub. No. 22, California
State Water Pollution Control Board.
Sacramento. 1960.
15	Rawn, AM, and Palmer, H.K. Pre-
determining the Extent of a Sewage
Field in Sea Water. Trans. ASCE,
Vol. 98, pp 1036-1081. 1930.
16	Rawn, AM, Bowerman, F. R., and
Brooks, N. H. Diffusers for Disposal
of Sewage in Sea Water. Proc. ASCE,
Vol. 86, No. SA2, pp 65-102. 1960.
This outline was prepared by C G
Gunnerson, Formerly Engineer in Charge,
Data Utilization Studies, Water Quality
Section
13-3
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ESTUARINE FISHERIES AND POLLUTION
I INTRODUCTION
A A typical estuary is a dynamic system in
constant flux,
B Because of abrupt changes and wide
variations it is not uncommon to have
catastrophic mortalities due to natural
causes (usually a combination of adverse
physical conditions caused by extremes
in temperature, salinity, turbidity, etc.)
C Some of mortalities are from combination
of natural causes and adverse conditions
caused by man's activity
D Some of the mortalities are directly from
man's activity
E Some of the man-made effects on the biota
may be termed sub-lethal, m that there
is no direct mass mortality at first, but
a diminution of the populations at an ever
mcreasing rate. This may be due to a
decrease in the food supply, elimination
of the spawning and nursery areas and
other more subtle factors such as slow
accumulation of toxic substances, etc.
Mortalities caused by natural factors are
usually compensated by the fecundity of
the biota resulting in re-establishment of
natural populations. Adverse conditions
caused by man are often irreversible and
the natural resources are destroyed.
F Outright mortality caused by man's
activity is dramatic and usually instigates
reaction and action before the resource is
completely destroyed. Sub-lethal environ-
mental changes are more insidious and
cause for more alarm.
n MAN-MADE ADVERSE CONDITIONS
A Dredging and filling cause destruction of
the habitats for spawning, for nursery
grounds, feeding grounds, destruction of
primary producers (plants), etc
1	Much of the shallow estuarine areas,
especially in the Gulf of Mexico, are
grass flats. These are a source of
food and provide a habitat, indispen-
sable to many commercial and sport
marine animals, especially as nursery
grounds for the young
2	Marshes are very important to the
productivity of the estuarine system,
both as a habitat and as a nutrient
source for the system.
3	Mangrove forests in the more tropical
areas fill the same role as the marshes.
B Damming of rivers for industrial reasons
or as a source of potable water causes
many obvious adverse effects.
1	For those anadromous species (salmon,
Atlantic shad, alewife, etc.) the dams
effectively eliminate access to the
upstream spawning areas
2	Another less apparent effect of
damming and diversion of the fresh-
water runoff concerns the reduction
of the fertility of the estuaries, with
resulting decrease in life support.
The less dense freshwater tends to
flow over the salt water, and in com-
bination with the tidal cycle, results
in a tilling of the offshore bottom,
with a return of nutrient rich water.
In addition the impoundment causes the
nutrients brought down in the "runoff"
to settle out behind the dam.
3	Damming may result in changes in the
salinity gradient, allowing the upward
movement of more stenohalme species
that may be serious predators or com-
petitors of a fishery resource.
4	Damming may result in increased
siltation, both below and above the
dam in the reservoir. The effects
of impoundment on an estuary are
BI. MAR.eco. 12.6. 70
14-1
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Estuarine Fisheries and Pollution
usually gradual, and the adverse
changes are sometimes not seen for
several years.
C Pollution
Several types of pollution will be discussed
under this heading for convenience,
including the discharge of toxic substances,
so-called thermal pollution, contamination
from atomic wastes, pesticides and
domestic sewage.
1	Pulp mills long have been recognized
as a major source of pollution with
their discharge of toxic wastes. Those
animals that are sessile (e.g. oysters)
are particularly susceptible. Not only
do the effluents cause direct mortality
to the fishery but also to organisms in
the lower levels of the food chain,
effectively reducing the productivity of
the entire system.
2	Thermal pollution results from the
discharge of water used as a coolant
in industrial processes. Thermal
pollution is more critical in warmer
areas, where many of the organisms
are already living within several
degrees of their thermal death point.
The warmer the water the greater the
physiological activity and the less the
(>2 content, a combination causing
considerable stress. In some instances
in colder areas, thermal pollution is
called "thermal enrichment" because
the heated waters are used to warm
the natural waters during the colder
periods and extend the breeding and
growing periods of some organisms.
3	The "atomic age" period (still with us),
before the "space age" period has
caused alarm because of the effect of
radioactive material on aquatic resources.
Investigations showed that organisms
accumulate the radioactive materials,
manifold that of the surrounding medium.
Because of the dangers involved, the
use of atomic power has been strictly
regulated. Radioactivity in living
organisms has occurred, mainly from
fall out of earlier atmospheric explosions
and from accidents and leakage At
the present time the hazards of this
type of pollution have been minimized
4	Pollution from pesticides has received
a great deal of attention and will not
be given here.
5	Pollution from human sewage has been
with us for a long time and probably
will continue, despite the efforts to
treat human wastes. One of the main
threats is to human health as untreated
sewage allows for the spread of
pathogens, both in food and drinking
water In addition untreated sewage,
upon oxidation, creates a great demand
on oxygen, causing O2 depletion.
Another threat from pollution of this
type, including the wide use of deter-
gents, is the over fertilization of the
water.
Ill OYSTERS
Oysters of commercial importance are
species of two genera, Crassostrea and
Ostrea. Species of Ostrea are more
stenohaline than those of Crassostrea and
are not commonly found in salinities below
about 25 7oo, whereas Crassostrea are truly
estuarine and occur abundantly in salinities
down to about lO^oo. Besides their tolerance
to low salinities species of Crassostrea have
other adaptations to estuarine conditions.
Species of this genus have efficient
morphological and physiological adaptations
to live and feed in turbid water, which often
occurs in estuarines, and can remain closed
for extended periods to withstand such
stresses as freshets, etc.
Oysters are sessile animals, except for a
relatively brief larval period, and hence
unable to escape adverse conditions. Thus
they are very susceptible to all types of
pollution. There are many instances of the
detrimental effects of various types of
pollution. Oysters have remained in poor
condition because of the destruction of their
food supply They are filter feeders and any
stress that causes adverse changes in the
phytoplankton affect the well being of the
14-2
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Estuarine Fisheries and Pollution
oysters A few examples will be given
A The Olympia oyster, Ostrea lurida, is the
native species of our west coast and in
former years supported a considerable
fishery. O. lurida has been mostly re-
placed by the introduced Crassostrea gigas
from Japan. One possible reason for the
decline in the native O. lurida is the
inability of this species to cope with the
increased turbidity caused by man's
activity, whereas C. gigas can survive
under these conditions.
B Our native oyster on the Atlantic and Gulf
coasts is Crassostrea virgimca. It has
been found that this species (probably
better known biologically than any other
of either genera) is very selective in its
feeding habits, efficiently rejecting
antagonistic types of food. In one instance
oysters in Great South Bay, Long Island
were found to be in very poor condition.
Samples of the water showed abundant
phytoplankton. Further investigation
revealed that the species of phytoplankton
that were abundant were rejected by the
oysters. They were starving in "a sea
of plenty.11 The "bloom" of the objection-
able species of phytoplankton was deter-
mined to be caused by the increased
nutrient load from the wastes of the duck
farms on Long Island.
C Many productive oyster producing areas
are condemmed because of health reasons.
Untreated sewage increases the fertility of
an area and in some areas where such
conditions occur the oysters are very
productive. As filter feeders, however,
oysters concentrate pathogenic bacteria
and viruses. The practice of consumption
of raw oysters make them a health hazard.
D Industrial wastes, especially from paper
mills, have caused direct mortality, as
well as preventing growth in oysters.
There have been many investigations of
this type of pollution and the hazards are
well documented.
E Oysters tend to concentrate many of the
metals in their tissues. One indication
of industrial pollution is the concentration
of copper in the body tissues, in severe
cases, manifested by a green color in the
visceral mass. In such cases the oysters
are invariably "poor. "
F Oysters concentrate pesticides also,
partly from the food source and direct
absorption. Experimentally, oysters
have been shown to concentrate DDT
150 times that of the surrounding medium.
G There have been instances where oysters
have been killed by the silt from nearby
dredging operations.
IV SHRIMP
Shrimp are our most valuable commercial
seafood and species of the family Penaeidae
account for the majority of the catch. Three
species of Penaeid shrimp, the white, pink,
and brown, are the most important and are
caught in commercial quantities from North
Carolina around to Texas, both in the
estuarines and offshore, especially in the
Gulf of Mexico.
The white, pink and brown (and some other
species) spawn offshore*and the postlarvae
and young migrate into the estuaries (the
smaller are often found in almost fresh
water). The estuaries as nursery grounds
are essential to the life history of the shrimp
The life cycle is about one year and the
estuaries not only serve as a nursery ground
but in addition many are caught commercially
in the bays and river mouths on their
migration to the open water.
Several examples will be given of the effects
of pollution.
A The marshes and grass beds are the
ecological habitat of the very young shrimp
(as they grow larger they move pro-
gressively to deeper -water and seaward)
and anything that destroys these habitats
is detrimental to the shrimp. Dredging
and filling operations are especially
destructive.
14-3
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Estuarine Fisheries and Pollution
B Shrimp are affected by industrial effluents
also, but their motility allows them to
escape unfavorable conditions. The
ecological consequences of escaping
unfavorable conditions caused by pollution
are many and complicated. The polluted
habitat may be necessary for the particular
life stage. The escape from such a habitat
may result in the movement to a less
favorable habitat or if to a similar habitat,
may result in overcrowding, especially in
regard to the food supply, which is finite.
V SPOTTED SEA TROUT
The spotted sea trout, salt water trout,
weakfish of squeteague, Cynoscion nebulosus,
is an estuarine fish, especially in the warmer
waters, where it seldom migrates seaward.
In more northern areas there is a migration
to the more stable waters of the near shore
sea, during the coldest season. In Florida
the spawning is in the less turbulent portions
of the more saline estuaries and lagoons.
The eggs sink to the bottom and hatching
takes place in the bottom vegetation and
debris. After hatching,the young scatter and
are found in the vegetation; after 6-8 weeks
the young begin to school. In Florida it has
been found that the fish are largely non-
migratory and each estuary has its own
discrete population. The trout has a wide
tolerance to changes in the estuarine habitat
and in Florida has permitted this species to
occupy niches that are intolerable to other
large carnivorous fishes.
A Any pollution that affects the estuarine
areas, including excessive siltation, too
much reduction in salinity, toxic wastes,
grass bed destruction, etc., would effect
the species.
B Because of the non-migratory behavior
(at least in Florida and probably other
areas of the Gulf of Mexico), an estuary
that is made unfit for the fish would not
be readily recolonized by new recruits,
when and if conditions become favorable
again.
VI STRIPED BASS
The striped bass or rockfish, Roccus
saxatilis, is a far ranging species and lives
under conditions that are not estuarine in
some instances (landlocked). The greatest
production, however, is from areas where
certain estuarine conditions are extensive.
The striped bass is a very valuable sport
and commercial fish, especially along the
Atlantic coast. The bass has been sucess-
fully transplanted to the Pacific coast and
is found in certain freshwater impoundments,
where the required ecological conditions
exist. There is a relatively small population
along the Gulf of Mexico and management is
aimed at increasing the supply.
Spawning is in fresh water where the eggs
are broadcast by the females and fertilised
by one or more males. The eggs are semi-
buoyant and are kept suspended by currents.
If laid in quiet waters the eggs sink, become
smothered and die. Hatching occurs in 2-3
days in 15. 5-18°C and normally in estuarine
areas the young have been carried to low
saline water by the time the yolk sac is
absorbed. Fresh water seems essential for
spawning although eggs can develojp normally
in salinity up to 4 7oo.
There are several so-called land-locked
populations of striped bass, the best known
is in the Santee-Cooper Reservoir in South
Carolina. The reason for the continued
existence of these populations is that streams
flow into the reservoir and the currents keep
the eggs in suspension until they hatch.
Other reservoirs, although of large size,
may lack these streams, and stocking of
these has been unsuccessful.
The effects of pollution on aquatic life have
been discussed in the preceding examples
and only a few specific examples will be
given.
14-4
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Estuarine Fisheries and Pollution
A The Chesapeake Bay is the area of greatest
numbers of striped bass and the population
seems to be increasing despite a continuing
increase in pollution. The semibuoyant
eggs, kept in suspension by currents,
seems well adapted to silted conditions.
There is a suggestion that perhaps other
competing species do not have the adapta-
tions to survive readily with increased silt
load, resulting in an increase in the bass.
C Dams are very detrimental to striped
bass, in that they are prevented from
reaching their spawning grounds. If
adults are trapped behind dams or stocked
in impoundments, the successful spawning
and hatching of the eggs are prevented by
the ecological conditions discussed
previously.
B Striped bass are susceptible to industrial
pollution, especially during the spawning
migrations to fresh water. After spawning
the fish are emaciated and the added effect
of toxic conditions render the conditions
intolerable. Nonspawmng fish could
escape these stresses through migration.
This outline was prepared by Dr. Winston
Menzel, Associate Professor of Biological
Oceanography, Florida State University,
Tallahassee, FL.
14-5
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PROCEDURES FOR FISH KILL INVESTIGATIONS
I INTRODUCTION
Fish kills in natural waters, though un-
fortunate, can in many instances indicate
poor water quality leading to investigations
which may improve water quality. Prompt
investigations should be organized and
conducted so that the resultant data implicates
the correct cause. Fish kills tend to be
highly controversial, usually involving the
general public as well as a number of
agencies Therefore, the investigator can
expect his findings to be disputed, quite
possibly in a court of law
The following procedures are presented as
a working guide for investigating and re-
porting fish kills as developed by the
personnel of The Lower Mississippi River
Comprehensive Project (FWPCA).
II TYPES AND EXTENT OF FISH KILLS
A Natural Mortalities - Those which are
caused through natural phenomena such
as, acute temperature change, storms,
ice and snow cover, decomposition of
natural materials, salinity change,
spawning mortalities, parasites, and
bacterial or viral epidemics.
B Man caused fish kills - Produced by
environmental changes through man's
activity, and may be attributed to
municipal wastes, industrial wastes,
agricultural activities and water control	III
activities.
C One dead fish in a stream may be called	A
a fish kill, however, in a practical
sense some minimal range in number of
dead fish observed plus additional
qualifications should be used in reporting
and classifying fish kill investigations.
The following definitions should be used
as guidelines in reporting fish kill
investigations. These qualifications
are based on a stream approximating
200 feet in width and 6 feet in depth.
For other size streams, adjustments
should be made.
1	Minor fish kill considered here as
NO fish kill and reported so
1 - 100 dead or dying fish confined
to a small area or stream stretch.
Providing this is not a reoccurring
or periodic situation. For
example, near a waste outfall in
which stream dilution plays its
part and nullifies the effect of the
deleterious material. If this is a
reoccurring situation, it could be
of major significance and, there-
fore, investigated.
2	Moderate fish kill- 100 - 1000
dead or dying fish observed. In a
stream where dilution has had the
chance to play its role involving
a mile or so of stream , a number
of species are affected, and
apparently normal fish can be
collected immediately downstream
from the observed kill area.
3	Heavy fish kill 10, 000 fish or
more observed dead or dying.
In a stream where dilution has
had the chance to play its part,
but ten miles or more of the
stream are involved, many
species of fish are affected and
dying fish may still be observed
downstream.
PREPARATION FOR FIELD
INVESTIGATION
Secure maps of area to be investigated.
1	U.S. Geological Survey maps
a 1/250, 000 scale for general
location
b 1/24.000 for accurately
defining the kill area in the
field
2	Navigation maps (appropriate
agency)
BI. FI. 13d. 9. 72
15-1
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Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations
3	Other sources
4	From the data received from the
reporting agency, locate the kill
area on the map.
a Determine best access points.
b Locate possible known industries,
municipalities, or other
potential sources of pollution.
c Estimate the possible area to
be traveled or inspected on
1)	water
2)	land
3)	both
B Secure sampling equipment and deter-
mine size of investigation team needed.
1	Standard equipment to be taken on
all investigations (a standard
checklist with space for special
equipment will often save
embarrassment in the field.)
a	Thermometer
b	Dissolved oxygen sampler
c	D.O. bottles
d	Winkler D.O. test kit
e	Conductivity test meter
f	pH test meter or chemical kit
g	Sample bottles
h	Pencils and note paper
i Current edition of "Standard
Methods for the Examination
of Water and Wastewater "
2	If preliminary information is
available on the possible cause of
the kill, consult the latest edition
of "Standard Methods" for specific
physical and chemical equipment
required for collecting, analyzing,
or preserving samples possibly
containing the suspected causative
agent.
Form an investigating party
a If only one man is available
to make the investigation,
preference for choosing the
man should be in this order
1)	Specialized professional
personnel, such as,
engineer, chemist, or
biologist who is ex-
perienced in investigating
fish kills and who is
capable of adequately
reporting the technical
aspects of the investigation.
2)	A non-specialized pro-
fessional engineer,
chemist, or biologist who
has little or no experience
in fish kill investigations,
but who is capable of
adequately reporting the
technical aspects of the
investigation,
3)	A technician who has
considerable field
experience in pollution
and fish kill investigations
and who is capable of
reporting some of the
technical aspects of the
investigation.
4)	An office technician or
other personnel who has
had limited field work in
pollution investigations.
b If two or more men are needed
for the investigation, the party
should include at least one
person under category (1)
above. Preferably, the team
should include:
15-2
-------
Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations
1)	A biologist to make a
survey of the biological
changes.
2)	An engineer to make an
evaluation of the physical
condition of the fish kill
area and to make an
investigation of an industry
or a municipal wastewater
treatment plant if needed.
c If a fish kill is observed in its
initial state in the field by any
one of the people listed under
the classification in Section
B.3.a., the project office
should be informed immediately
(after working hours the project
director or deputy director
should be informed) so that an
adequately equipped, specialized
investigating party can be
formed if needed.
C Contact personnel of the laboratory or
laboratories which will participate in
analyzing samples. If possible estimate
the following and record on sample form
No. 1.
1	The number and size of samples to
be submitted
2	The probable number and types of
analyses required
3	The dates the samples will be
received by the laboratory
4	Method of shipment to the laboratory
5	To whom the laboratory results are
to be reported
6	The date the results are needed
IV MAKING THE FIELD INVESTIGATION
A Contact the local lay person or official
who first observed the kill and reported
it.
1	Obtain any additional information
which might be helpful which was
not reported previously.
2	If possible, retain the reporting
party as a guide or invite him to
accompany the investigating team.
Make a reconnaissance of the kill area.
1	Make a decision as to the extent
of the kill and if a legitimate kill
really has occurred.
2	If a legitimate kill exists take steps
to trace or determine the cause.
a Always perform the following
physical or chemical tests,
during the initial steps of the
investigation
1)	Temperature
2)	pH
3)	Dissolved oxygen
4)	Specific conductance
While none of these factors
may be directly involved in
the kill these tests are per-
formed simply and rapidly in
the field and can be used as a
baseline or starting point for
isolating the cause 
-------
Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations
3) Weather conditions pre-
vailing at the time of the
investigation and information
on weather immediately
prior to the kill
3	Make a rough sketch or define the
kill area on a map so that sampling
points, sewer outfalls, etc. can be
accurately located on a drawing to
be included in a final report.
4	Take close-up and distance
photographs of:
a Dead fish in the stream in the
polluted area.
b The stream above the polluted
area.
c Wastewater discharges.
Photographs will often show a
marked delineation between the
wastewater discharge and the
natural flow of water. Pictures
taken at a relatively high elevation,
(a bridge as opposed to a boat or
from a low river bank) will show
more and be more effective.
Color photographs are also more
effective in showing physical con-
ditions of a stream in comparison
to black and white prints.
C Sampling Procedures - The extent and
method of sampling will depend upon
location and upon the suspected cause of
the kill.
1 Stream and wastewater sampling.
a Sample the following points when
the pollutional discharge is
coming from a well defined
outfall.
1)	The effluent discharge
outfall
2)	The stream at the closest
point above the outfall which
is not influenced by the
waste discharge
15-4
3)	The stream immediately
below the outfall
4)	Other points downstream
needed to trace the extent
of the pollution
b The sampling should be ex-
tensive enough that when all
the data is compiled no question
will exist as to the source of
the pollution which killed the
fish.
c The number of samples to be
collected at a given cross
section will depend principally
on the size of the stream.
1)	Streams less than 200 feet
wide, not in an industrial
area usually can be
adequately sampled at one
point in a section (Figure 1).
2)	Streams 200 feet or wider
generally should be
sampled two or more
places in a section
immediately above and
below the pollutional
discharge, where the
pollutional waste has
adequately mixed with the
stream flow one sample
may suffice.
3)	A number of samples in a
cross section may be
required on any size of
stream to show that the
suspected pollutional
discharge is coming from
a source located in an
industrial or municipal
complex (Figure 2).
4)	Extensive cross sectional
sampling on rivers
greater than 200 feet wide
will be required for kills
involving suspected
agricultural or other types
of mass runoff.
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Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations
Suspected source of
pollution •—		
M


J

Direction ol -	«
	 ?	S
"8	5
CM	°l
Area of dead fish and/or
obvious pollution discharge.
Bridge
Figure I — Minimum Water Sampling Point On Streom 200 Feet Or Les9
Wide Involving An Isolated Discharge.
Discharge sources relatively close
to suspected source of pollution


g i e e

^2k2\
A.


0 « ,
^LtULU
Direction of
flow
' \t
il
uspected source
of pollution.
Bridge'
E
a
5 ~
Ill II III
P
I—
NT
Figure 2 — Minimum Water Sampling Points On A Stream Running
Through An Industrial Or Municipal Complex.
PLATE I - RELATIONSHIP OF FISH KILLS TO SOURCE OF TOXICITY
5
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Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations
5) Sample depths - On streams
5 feet in depth or less, one
mid-depth sample per
sampling locations. For
streams of greater depths,
appropriate sampling
judgment should be used,
since stratification may be
present.
Explanation of Plate I
1)	Collection point 1, Figure
1 and points 3 and 4,
Figure 2 should be collected
as near to the point of
pollutional discharge as
possible. These points
will vary according to
stream flow conditions, the
pollutional discharges into
a slow sluggish stream
usually will have a cone of
influence upstream of the
outfall; whereas, a swift
flowing stream usually will
not.
2)	Collecting an upstream
control sample from a
bridge within sight of the
pollutional discharge
would probably be satis-
factory in Figure 1 but
definitely not in Figure 2.
3)	Figures 1 and 2 are given
for illustrative purposes
only and should be used
only as a guide for sampling.
Thought must be given to
each individual situation
to insure adequate, proper
sampling. While too many
samples are better than
too few, effort should be
made not to unduly over-
load the laboratory with
samples collected as a
result of poor sampling
procedures.
2 Biological sampling
a In every investigation of fish
or wildlife kills the paramount
item should be the immediate
collection of the dying or only
recently dead organism.
This may be done by anyone,
sampling and preservation is
as follows:
1)	Collect 20 plus drops of
blood in a solvent rinsed
vial, seal same with
aluminum foil, cap and
freeze.
2)	Place bled carcass, or
entire carcass if beyond
bleeding stage, in plastic
bag and freeze. In case
no method of freezing is
available, icing for a
short period prior to
freezing may be acceptable.
Labeling of both blood and
carcass is important.
3)	Controls-live specimens
of the affected organisms
should be obtained from
an area within the same
body of water which had
not been influenced by the
causative agent. Once
obtained these specimens
should be handled in a
like manner.
b The number of individuals
involved and the species
affected should be enumerated
in some manner. At most
these will be estimates.
Depending on the given situation
such as area or distance
involved and personnel available
enumeration of fish kills may
be approached in one of the
following ways.
15-6
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Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations
1)	For large rivers, establish
observers at a station or
stations ( e. g., bridges)
and count the dead and/or
dying fish for a specified
period of time, then pro-
ject same to total time
involved.
2)	For large rivers and lakes,
traverse a measured
distance of shoreline,
count the number and
kinds of dead or dying fish.
Project same relative to
total distance of kill.
3)	For lakes and large ponds,
count the number and species
within measured areas, and
then project to total area
involved.
4)	For smaller streams one
may walk the entire
stretch involved and count
observed number of dead
individuals by species.
3 Biological sampling Macro-
Invertebrates:
a Sampling of benthic organisms
after the more urgent aspects
of the kill investigation has been
completed can prove to be
rewarding relative to extent and
cause of kill. Since this general
form of aquatic life is somewhat
sedentary by nature any release
of deleterious materials to their
environment will take its toll.
Thus by making a series of
collections up and downstream,
the affected stretch of stream
may be delineated when the
benthic populations are compared
to those from the control area.
Also the causative agent may
be realized when the specifics
of the benthic population present
are analyzed.
b Other aspects of the biota
which should be considered
are the aquatic plants. In lakes
and ponds floating and rooted
plants should be enumerated
and identified. The collection
of plankton (rivers and lakes)
should be taken in order to
determine the degree of bloom,
which in itself may cause fish
kills because of diurnal DO
levels.
c Both aquatic plants and macro-
invertebrates may be preserved
in a 5% formalin solution.
4 Bioassay
Static bioassay techniques as out-
lined in Standard Methods may be
effectively used to determine acute
toxicity of wastes as well as
receiving waters.
a In situ using live boxes
b Mobile bioassay laboratory
c Samples returned to Central
Lab for toxicity tests
V DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SOURCE
OF POLLUTION
A Seven general categories under which
causes of kills can be grouped are.
1	Industrial waste discharges
2	Waste discharges from municipal
sewerage systems
3	Water treatment plant discharges
4	Agriculture and related activities
5	Temporary activities
6	Accidental spills of oil and other
hazardous substances
15-7
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Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations
7 Natural causes
B Industrial Waste Discharges
1	Upon locating the outfall source,
collect a sample immediately if
possible at the point where the
wastes leave the company property.
2	Make an m-plant inspection if
possible.
a Contact the plant manager or
person in charge
b Request a brief tour of the
facilities
c Obtain general information
concerning the products
manufactured; raw materials,
manufacturing process,
quantities, sources, and
characteristics of wastes, and
waste treatment facilities if any.
Possibly the company may be
able to supply a flow diagram
or brochure of the plant
operations.
d Request specific information
concerning the plant operation
immediately prior to the start
of the kill.
C Waste discharges from a municipal or
domestic type sewerage system
1	Discharges from this source may
be domestic sewage and industrial
wastes combined with domestic
sewage. These wastes may be
subjected to treatment of a municipal
treatment plant or may be dis-
charged directly, untreated to a
stream
2	Generally, the municipality or
owner of the sewerage system is
held responsible for any discharge
in such a system, consequently,
after collecting samples, the owner
or a representative of the owner of
the sewerage system should be
contacted. This may be a sewage
treatment plant operator, city
engineer, public works supervisor,
a subdivision developer, etc.
a Obtain information about the
operation of the system.
b If the cause of the kill was the
result of an industrial waste
discharge to a municipal
sewer and thence to a stream,
information should be obtained
from a municipal official about
the industry and the problem
An inspection of the industrial
plant may be desirable.
Generally, this should be done
only in cooperation with a
municipal official.
D Agriculture and Related Activities
1	Pollution capable of causing fish
kills may result from such
agricultural operations as crop
dusting and spraying fertilizer
applications, and manure or other
organic material discharges to a
stream.
2	Generally, kills related to these
factors will be associated with
high rains and runoff.
3	The source or type of pollution
may be difficult or impossible to
locate exactly. It may involve a
large area. Talking to local
residents may help pinpoint the
specific problem area. Runoff
from fields, drainage ditches, and
small streams leading to the kill
area are possible sampling places
which may be used to trace the
cause
E Temporary Activities
1 Causes of kills may result from
such temporary or intermittent
activities as mosquno spraying,
construction activities involving
chemicals, oils, or other toxic
15-8
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Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations
substances, and weed spraying
with herbicide containing materials
toxic to fish such as arsenic.
2	As with agricultural activities,
tracing the cause of these kills is
difficult and may require extensive
sampling.
3	Accidental spills from ruptured
tank cars, pipelines, etc., and
dike collapse of industrial ponds
are frequently sources of fish kills.
F Possible Natural Causes of Fish Kills
1	Types of natural causes
a Oxygen depletion due to ice and
snow cover on surface waters
b Oxygen depletion at night because
of plant respiration or at any-
time during the day because of
natural occurring organics in
the water
c Abrupt temperature changes
d Epidemic and endemic diseases,
parasites, and other natural
occurring biological causes
e Lake water inversion during
vernal or autumnal turnover
which results in toxic material
or oxygen-free water being
brought to the surface
f Interval seiche movement in
which a toxic or low DO
hypolimmon flows up into a bay
or bayou for a limited period
of time, and later returns to
normal level
2	Fish kills in rivers below high dams
immediately following the opening
of a gate permitting hypolimnionic
water to flow down the stream
(as in TVA region)
VI CASE HISTORY
A The Lower Mississippi Endrin kill is an
excellent example of the investigation of
a major fish kill Bartsch and Ingram
give the following summary (See Table 1)
TABLE 1
ELEMENTS OF INVESTIGATIONS
I Examination of usual environmental
factors
II Elimination of parasites, bacterial or
viral diseases and botulism as causes of
mortalities*
HI Considerations of toxic substances
Examination and prognostication of
symptoms of dying fish Autopsy,
including-
Haematocrits and white cell counts
Kidney tissue study
Brain tissue assay for organic
phosphorus insecticide
Tissue analysis for 19 potentially
toxic metals
Gas chromatographic analysis of
tissues, including blood, for
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides
IV Explorations for toxic substances
Bioassay with Mississippi River
water
Bioassay with extracts from river
bottom mud
Bioassay with tissue extracts from
fish dying In river water and
bottom mud extracts
Bioassay with endrin to compare
symptoms and tissue extract
analyses with those of dying fish in
all bioassays
V Intensive chemical analysis for
pesticides in the natural environment,
experimental environment, river fish,
and experimental animals
VI Surveillance of surface waters for
geographic range and intensity of
pesticide contamination
VII Correlation and interrelation of findings
• Tha lowatlfaior aboald b« awara of tha
tact that apparatus? haahny flah may ba
bftrfcorlnj patlu|«niG teetirla to ihdr
bloodstream* (••• Bulloch ud Snlaatko)
Tbua tbara may ba aavaral factor* tavotvad
Is flab mortaliUaa all of vhlch nay oto*
¦cure tha primary aauaa or muaaa
9
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Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations
Bullock, G L. and Smeszko, S.F
Bacteria in Blood and Kidney of
Apparently Healthy Hatchery Trout
Trans American Fisheries
Society 98(2) 268-271 1969
Burdick, G E Some Problems in the
Determination of the Cause of Fish
Kills. Biol Prob vn Water
Pollution. USPHS Pub. No 999-
WP-25. pp. 289-292 1965.
Fish Kills Caused by Pollution in
1970. 11th Annual Report 21 p.
1972.
Mount, Donald I. and Putnicki, George J.
Summary Report of the 1963
Mississippi River Fish Kill
Investigation, 31st North American
Wildlife and Natural Res. Conf
11 pp. 1966
The investigation was designed to con-	3
sider and eliminate potential fish kill
possibilities that were not involved and
come to a point focus on the real cause.
It was found that the massive kills were
not caused by disease, heavy metals,
organic phosphorus compounds, lack of	4
dissolved oxygen or unsuitable pH.
Blood of dying river fish was found to
have concentrations of endrin equal to or
greater than laboratory fish killed with
this pesticide, while living fish had
lesser concentrations. Symptoms of	5
both groups of dying fish were identical.
It was concluded from all data obtained
that these fish kills were caused by
endrin poisoning.
0
B Recent investigations in Tennessee have
shown that the leaking of small amounts
of very toxic chemicals from spent
pesticide-containing barrels used as
floats for piers and diving rafts in lakes
and reservoirs can produce extensive
fish kills. The particular compound
used to control slime growth in manu-	^
facturing processes, contained two
primary chemicals in solution
(phenylmercuric acetate and 2, 4,
6-trichlorophenol) The former com-
pound which breaks down to form
diphenylmercury was found to be more	®
toxic to aquatic life than the latter.
REFERENCES
1	American Public Health Association, Inc.
Standard Methods for the Examination
of Water and Wastewater Section 231
Bioassay, Examination of Polluted
Waters, Wastewaters, Effluents, Bottom
Sediments, and Sludges. Thirteenth
Edition. New York. 1971.
2	Bartsch, A.F. and Ingram, William N.
Biological Analysis of Water Pollution
in North America. International
Verein Limnol. 16:786-800. 1966
Smith, L. L. Jr., et al. Procedures
for Investigation of Fish Kills
(A guide for field reconnaissance
and data collection) ORSANCO,
Cincinnati, OH. 24 pp. 1956
Tennessee Valley Authority Fish
Kill in Boone Reservoir. TVA
Water Quality Branch, Chattanooga
TN 61 pp 1968.
9 Tennessee State Game and Fish
Commission. Field Manual for
Investigation of Pollution and Fish
KiHs (USPHS WPD 3-0351-65
Grant) 71 pp. undated
10	Willoughby, L. G. Salmon Disease in
Windermere and the River Leven;
The Fungal Aspect. Salmon and
Trout Magazine. 186:124-130. 1969.
11	Muncy, Robert J. Observations on the
Factors Involved with Fish Mortality
as the Result of Dinoflagellate "Bloom"
in a Freshwater Lake. Proc. 17th
Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. of
Game & Fish Commissioners, pp.
218-222.
This outline was prepared by Jack Geckler,
Research Aquatic Biologist, Fish Toxicology
Activities, EPA, Newtown, OH 45244
15-10
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Project Personnel
Contacted	
a.	Name	
b.	Means of
Contact	
c.	Date & Time	
1. Reporting source
a.	Agency	
(1)	Address	
(2)	Phone (s)	
b.	Individual	
(1)	Address	___	
(2)	Phone	
(3)	Fish Kill Network	yes	no
c.	Other Contacts	
(1)	Address	
(2)	Phone	
(3)	Fish Kill Network	yes	no
2 Data furnished by reporting source
a. Location of Kill	
b Dates of Kill	Dying last observed
c.	Kinds of organisms	
d.	Approximate number killed	
e.	Cause of kill (if known)	
f.	Suspected causative sources	
g.	Measures taken	
h.	Other Agencies contacted	
(1) Date and Time	
3.	Action requested
a.	Field investigations		
b.	Laboratory analysis	
4.	Assistance to Project
a.	Provided by		
b	Personnel		
c.	Equipment			
d.	Transportation facilities		
11
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