SOLID WASTE HANDLING IN METROPOLITAN AREAS DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. EDUCATION. AND WELFARE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE ------- SOLID WASTE HANDLING IN METROPOLITAN AREAS Prepared for the SURGEON GENERAL'S ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON URBAN HEALTH AFFAIRS February 1964 Reprinted December 1966 Reprinted January 1968 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Public Health Service Bureau of Disease Prevention and Environmental Control NATIONAL CENTER FOR URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL HEALTH Solid Wastes Program CINCINNATI ------- TABLE OF CONTENTS Page The Problem 3 Public Health Implications ..... 5 Economic Impact ..... 10 Legal Aspects 11 Effect of Community Differences and Technological Advances .. 13 Lack of Public Concern ....................lU Development of Standards , 15 Research and Training .18 The Metropolitan-wide Approach 27 State and Local Action .....29 Role of the Public Health Service 3^ Policy Questions 31 Bibliography 38 ------- .J THE PROBLEM By the year 2000, the population of the United States is expected to double. Our cities and their surrounding urbanized areas are already bearing the brunt of this explosive growth with its accompanying in- crease in industrial activities. This grovth, coupled with the increasing per capita rate of refuse production, results in an ever increasing volume of solid wastes that must be regularly collected, transported, and ultimately disposed of on suitable land. This long- term trend is shown in the accompanying graphs. Land required for waste disposal facilities is also in demand for many other more attractive uses in every metropolitan complex. Therefore, unless workable plans are made and implemented, metropolitan areas will be forced to haul refuse long distances, thus placing an addi- tional economic burden on this essential public service. To realisti- cally meet even short-term needs, suitable areas must be reserved for refuse disposal as a part of the over-all metropolitan area environ- mental health plan. A recent study has shown, for example, that most of the existing refuse disposal capacity in Northeastern Illinois is at sites on the periphery, too remote for efficient, economical use by areas of high population density. A key finding in this study was that "A growing menace to the beauty and healthfulness of the Chicago area will reach crises proportions well before 1980, unless better methods are used in disposing of a huge expected accumulation of garbage and other 1/ refuse." **/ ------- k Refuse disposal facilities in urbanized areas must be operated without creating public health hazards or nuisances in order to "be acceptable to nearby residents. Too often, refuse disposal opera- tions are open dumps—festering scars that disfigure the land- scape* Flies, rats, and other disease-carrying pests find large quantities of food, a favored breeding media, and suitable harbor- age in the piles of exposed refuse. The polluted drainage from open dumps is an additional insult to ground and surface water supplies in the area. The characteristic foul odors, produced by the decomposition of the refuse, together with the smoke created by inefficient open burning, are often identifiable for miles* Unless an objectionable dump is nearby, the average citizen's interest is limited to having his refuse collected regularly. This lack of public concern is a real handicap to responsible local officials in securing the necessary funds to operate adequate refuse collection and disposal systems, usually preventing the planning and construction of needed facilities in time to pre- vent them from being overloaded. The technical problems involved have appeared so deceptively simple compared to other environ- mental problems that only a handful of communities have maintained sufficient records to enable them to determine their unit costs of providing this service or to make realistic plans for needed facilities. ------- TOTAL REFUSE PRODUCTION IN THE U.S. 350 300 250 200 I t 260 * i t i / ~ ¥ / / / 15( /1 / rH PO 0) >- 8. on c o .1 150 100 50 0 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 Year ------- PER CAPITA REFUSE PRODUCTION 7.0 6.0 8. 4.0 CL rg CJ> a> 2.0 1960 1970 1980 1950 1940 1930 1920 Year ------- 5 PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS The storage, collection, and disposal of solid -wastes have been shown to have a variety of public health implications. Research efforts by a variety of disciplines have demonstrated that in addi- tion to the traditional sanitation aspects, air pollution, water pollution, vector control, occupational health, accident preven- tion, and fire prevention aspects of solid waste handling are fre- quently important in metropolitan areas. Serious air pollution problems are commonly caused by inadequate refuse disposal facilities. Recent studies in New Orleans ^ revealed a definite relationship between the number of asthma cases admitted to Charity Hospital Emergency Clinic and the presence of a silica crystal associated with poor combustion products. Large quantities of the substance were produced by subterranean burning at an abandoned refuse dump. Although all possible sources of this material were not examined, a correlation was shown between the number of asthma admissions and the number of fire department calls for dump fires during the same period. Open dumps, where burning is used to reduce the volume of solid wastes, often produce large quantities of smoke and odors. Im- properly designed and operated municipal incinerators also con- tribute significant quantities of objectionable air contaminants. In addition, single chamber incinerators and backyard trash burners that contribute additional air contaminants are used in most commun- ities. Fortunately, both sanitary landfills and incinerators, when ------- 6 properly designed and operated, can dispose of municipal refuse without creating air pollution problems. The available information concerning the effects of refuse fills on the quality of the adjacent ground water has been organized and reviewed by a research contractor for the California State 3/ Water Pollution Control Board. Three basic mechanisms by which refuse fills can pollute the ground vater were given. They are: 1. Direct horizontal leaching of the refuse by ground water, 2. Vertical leaching by percolating water, and 3. The transfer of gases produced during refuse decom- position by diffusion and convection. Further investigations were recommended on gas production and movement, leaching rates, percolation, and methods of controlling the movement of gas and water in landfills. An earlier study, sponsored by the California State Water Pollu- tion Control Board, —/ concluded that the movement of water through incinerator ash dumps will leach soluble salts and alkalies from the dump. An investigation at a sanitary landfill proved that ground water in the immediate vicinity will become grossly polluted by continuous or intermittent contact with deposited refuse .¦£/ it was found that continuous leaching of an acre-foot of sanitary landfill extracted a minimum of approximately 1.5 tons of sodium plus potassium, 1.0 ton of calcium plus magnesium, 0.91 ton of chloride, 0.23 ton of sulphate, and 3,9 tons of bicarbonate. This amount of leaching would take place in less than one year, with a much slower leaching rate occurring over subsequent years. ------- 7 Prom the fly production aspect alone, refuse handling deserves careful consideraxion. The ability of flies to quickly find and oviposit on any suitable material, including garbage, is veil 6/ known. Siverly and Schoof found that Phaenicia pallescens adults displayed the ability to enter garbage containers through openings as small as one-eighth of an inch in diameter. In other studies, Siverly and School 1/ found that as many as 70,000 flies were produced per cubic foot of garbage that was exposed to ovipositing flies. When flies infest garbage, the larvae are usually concealed in the garbage or in the lower part of the can so that ordinarily the householder is unaware of their presence. Although many of these larvae are carted away when the refuse is collected, studies have shown that during warm weather large numbers of larvae migrate from the cans before the refuse is collected and pupate in the backyards. Campbell and Black, for example, found that an average of 1,128 fly larvae per can, per week migrated from refuse cans to pupate before the combined refuse was collected at Concord, California. During the two years of study, a maximum count of 23,208 larvae was obtained from one can in a single week. The fly infested refuse that is ordinarily collected during warm weather must be carefully handled to prevent fly production. 9/ A study —' conducted in California shows that there are four es- sential factors to consider to prevent fly emergence from compacted cover material at sanitary landfills: ------- 8 1. Soil that can be compacted, 2. Suitable equipment for compacting the soil, 3. Adequate range of soil moisture, and Ik Adequate thickness of cover. Although no reasonable amount of uncompacted cover would prevent emergence, since house flies emerged through five feet of uncom- pacted cover, only a six inch layer of compacted cover vas suffi- cient to prevent fly emergence. The practice of feeding raw garbage to swine has both public health and economic implications. Consumers of improperly cooked pork, produced from swine fed raw garbage, are exposed to trichinosis, a disease caused by a parasitic roundworm contained in the infected pork. The fact that some ethnic groups in metropolitan areas eat foods containing raw or partially cooked meats may account for the continued high incidence of trichinosis in these areas. Swine fed raw garbage are exposed to trichinosis as well as vesicular exanthema, a disease that caused the slaughter of more than 400,000 swine during an outbreak in 1953 through 1955* Respite State and Federal regulations and generally effective control meas- ures that prohibit the feeding of raw garbage to swine, approxi- mately lj-0,000 swine are still being fed raw garbage in the United States annually. Solid wastes handling presents a formidable problem from an occu- pational health point of view, in a detailed study of the New York City Department of Sanitation, Sliepcevich ii/ found that ------- 9 sanitation workers have an extremely high injury frequency rate —69.2 average injuries per million man-hours worked for New York City sanitation men as opposed to 12.1 for manufacturing employees'^/Arthritis, cardiovascular disease, muscle and tendon diseases (particularly muscle ailments affecting the back), skin disease, and hernia could all he classified as occupational diseases of refuse collectors. The following table contains figures for the number of injuries per million man-hours worked for various occupations. 12/ Occupation No. of Injuries Wholesale & retail trade Local fire protection 12.6 28.6 Police Contract construction Lumber & wood products (not including furniture) 32.4 3^.5 U0.5 ------- 10 ECONOMIC IMPACT The storage, collection, and disposal of solid wastes is one of the major economic problems of urban areas. As the American Public Works Association recently pointed out: "The annual outlay for refuse collection and disposal services —over $1.5 billion--is exceeded only by expenditures for schools and roads." In addition to the expenditures by local governmental agencies, the editors of Refuse Removal Journal ±y have estimated that the annual expenditures of the private sanitation industry are over $1.3 billion. Prom the standpoint of the average person, these costs can no longer be considered minor. For example, the Washington Suburban Sanitary District charges the average homeowner $40.20 per year for water and sewer charges, and $30 per year for refuse service. Thus, the refuse service charge amounts to *t-3 percent of the total charge of $70.20. Field studies have shown that at least 85 percent of the total cost of providing refuse service is spent on collection. Since labor charges account for the major cost in the collect on operation, the development of new and more efficient methods for planning and operating refuse collection systems would suggest a most productive area for research investigation* ------- 11 LEGAL ASPECTS Although municipalities generally have ample legal authority to regulate solid waste handling within their corporate limits, few States have enacted laws which enable local governmental units in metropolitan areas to deal effectively with solid wastes. While municipalities can exercise the power of eminent domain within their corporate limits, the land available for refuse disposal is fre- quently insufficient to meet their needs. Even when a city finds land to purchase in a neighboring community or an unincorporated area, political boundaries are formidable obstacles which may pre- vent the site from being used for refuse disposal facilities. Few State laws provide any protection for city residents from the effects of nuisances that are maintained in neighboring communities. Illinois is one exception. The Criminal Code of Illinois authorizes municipalities to prohibit any offensive or unwholesome business or establistment located within one mile of their corporate limits (Illinois Revised Statutes (1961) ch. 2k, Sect. 11-^2-9, ch. 100-1/2, Sect. 27). In the recent case of the City of Chicago v. Fritz, 1814- N»E. 2d. 713 (1962), the City sought to enjoin Fritz from operating a dump within one mile of the corporate limits of Chicago. The dump, where garbage was burned, was found to be both a statutory public nuisance violation of the Criminal Code and a common law public nuisance. Therefore, the operation was abated by court injunction. State legal authority to provide refuse services on an area-wide basis is urgently needed in metropolitan areas. A few cities are ------- 12 currently sharing disposal facilities on a fee or prorated cost basis, and some counties have county-vide refuse disposed, systems, but State statutes often do not provide the legal authority for establishing and financing refuse disposal services on an area-wide basis* Although communities naturally wish to retain their rights of home rule, and therefore are often reluctant to give up their jurisdiction over such matters, scarcity of disposal sites and the economic advantages of using area-wide refuse disposal systems are forcing more metropolitan areas to consider this approach. ------- 13 EFFECT OF COMMUNITY DIFFERENCES AND TECHNOLO G I CAL ADVANCES The composition and quantity of solid wastes are affected "by the type of area served, the economic level of the area, the type and frequency of collection, and the types of industry served. Industrial and technological changes are resulting in the produc- tion of ever increasing quantities of refuse. Hospitals, for exam- ple, are making more use of inexpensive equipment which, can be dis- carded, instead of sterilized for reuse. Over 170 disposable items are available, ranging from paper blankets and latex surgeon's gloves to plastic cutlery and cardboard bedpans. Some technological developments have changed the place where solid wastes are produced rather than introducing new kinds of wastes. Consumer prepackaging of vegetables, for example, produces size- able quantities of trimmings and culls at the packing plant, but has virtually eliminated waste production in marketing some foods. ------- Ik LACK OF PUBLIC CONCERN The "garbage man" going about hia dirty, noisy work is a frequent and familiar sight in any neighborhood. He is generally conceded to have the most demeaning job, that requires no skill, and so is poorly paid. It is no wonder that the average citizen does not give a second thought to his refuse collection service unless a failure occurs or his rates are increased. Actually^ however, constantly increasing labor costs have triggered the use of complex and costly equipment to speed the job of refuse collection. This use of specialized equipment generally is forcing a more careful evaluation of the amount of work performed and usually results in higher wages. Refuse collection is hard physical work that is particularly hazardous, but usually unappreciated by the public. Aside from perfunctory coverage of the annual "clean- up" campaign, mass media find little that is newsworthy in any community's refuse collection service. Lack of public concern is too frequently translated into public apathy when city officials attempt to secure support for the expendi- tures necessary to provide adequate refuse collection and disposal systems. ------- 15 PEVE&QFMZNT OF STANDARDS Comprehensive survey procedures, together with applicable standards and criteria for the handling of solid wastes, are sorely needed. Although there are wide variations in the refuse handling procedure a used throughout the country, there is ample justification for estab- lishing minimum standards and criteria. These functional areas include storage; collection; and disposal, including incineration, sanitary landfilling, and composting. Research has played em important role in the development of Banitary and efficient handling procedures. For example, the practicality of using the sanitary landfill method of disposal in cold climates vas developed and demonstrated in a study conducted at Mandan, North 16/ Dakota. — This experimental operation helped to develop procedures for operating sanitary landfills under severe winter conditions, and provided new information on operating procedures that were succes- ful under these conditions. Recommended Standards For Sanitary Landfill Operations, 11/ together with a rating system, were developed "by the Public Health Service as an aid to "both public works and public health officials who share responsibility for providing and maintaining adequate refuse disposal operations. A draft copy of these standards has been distributed for thorough review by State and local officials. It is hoped that the use of such standards will facilitate the exchange of technical information and provide the basis for further improve- ments in operating practice. ------- 16 The orderly development of incinerator design practices and opera- tional procedures is handicapped by the lack of generally accept- able standards, particularly those oriented toward the reduction of air pollution. Several research studies have "been made on the effect of incinerator design and operation on stack discharges. Steriberg, et al», in a study of the effect of fuel moisture, combustion air, and rate of burning on pollutant emissions from central incinerators, found that the amount and distribution of combustion air had the greatest effect on particle emissions. In another study, Stenberg, et al., i^/pointed out the difficulties involved in burning highly volatile solid, waste materials without contributing appreciably to atmospheric pollution. The Process Industries Division of the American Society of Mechani- cal Engineers has established an Incinerator Committee to bring together as many diversified interests in one group as possible. Committee members represent many phases of the incineration indus- try—equipment manufactures, consulting engineers, and operational people. The Committee is studying many aspects of incineration including air pollution, design, instrumentation, materials handling, operations, refractories, and research. The wide-spread use of flue-fed, apartment house incinerators and other on-site incinerators, to reduce refuse volumes before collection, creates serious air pollution problems in many metro- politan areas. In an effort to find economical and practical solutions to these problems, the Building Research Advisory Board recently has formed a special committee to evaluate the available information. ------- IT Several methods to improve present flue-fed incinerator designs have "been suggested. MacKnight, et al., recommended converting the single chamber design into multiple chambers and adding a storage lain or installing an afterburner and a draft control damper. 21/ Kaiser, et al., —'recommended charging only during noriburning periods, using auxiliary gas burners, controlling combustion air, scrubbing the flue gas, or combinations of these methods. Sterling evaluated 35 different models of incinerators in con- Junction vith Detroit's regulations on domestic incinerators. The results showed that multiple chamber incinerators with gas burners produced less smoke, odor, and fly aBh than did single chamber units. Several modifications in design were recommended for further investigation. The development of workable standards for solid wastes handling requires the combined efforts of many interested groups. Competency in various aspects of solid wastes technology can be drawn from many sources, including researchers, professional societies and organizations, and Federal, State, and local health authorities. ------- 18 RESEARCH AND TRAINING The Public Health Service has awarded research grants, some of which have been completed, for a variety of projects in the field of solid wastes. The title of the project, the name of the principal investigator, the institution, and a brief description of the scope of the work involved in these projects are listed below. SUCCESSION AND ECOLOGY OF DIPTERA IN CATTLE DROPPINGS Mr. John R. Anderson Assistant Professor of Parasitology Department of Entomology and Parasitology University of California Berkeley California Grant No. EF-00515-01 Scope of Work: To ascertain the factors which determine the chronological appearance of different fly species on and in cattle droppings of various ages. Studies will be conducted under both undisturbed field and experimental conditions to determine the effects of the succession of spec es jn the population dynamics of the various species comprising the cattle dropping community. INTEGRATED CONTROL OF THE HOUSEFLY Mr. R. C. Axtell North Carolina State College Raleigh, North Carolina Grant No. EF—00^5^-01 Scope of Vork: To determine the effects of insecticides on manure- inhabiting mites and the factors affecting the behavior of macro- chelidae. The effects of various fly control techniques on the mites will also be investigated ------- 19 SANITARY ASPECTS OF COMPOSTED SEWAGE SLUDGE Mr. Anton H. Berkman Professor of Biological Sciences Texas Western College of the University of Texas El Paso, Texas Grant No. RG-5510 Scope of Work: To determine whether or not pathogenic, enteric, waterbo'rne organisms can survive the temperatures generated in composting processes. Survival time of pathogenic "bacteria vill be determined by inoculation on laboratory scale composting pile vith species from the American Culture Collection and local isolated species. Isolation and identification of protozans, helminth ova and cysts, will be done by; 1. Screening and washing, 2. Sedimentation, 3. Centrifugation, 4. Flotation, and 5. Microscopic examination. Viability of these pathogenic forms will be determined by feeding white rata and by inoculation of culture media, with life cycles to be completed when necessary. GARBAGE AM) WASTES FOR MUSHROOM PRODUCTION Dr. Seymour S. Block Assoc. Research Professor Department of Chemical Engineering University of Florida Gainesville, Florida Grant No. EF-085-04 Scope of Work: The investigators will attempt to prepare composts from municipal and industrial wastes that are capable of yielding ------- 20 mushrooms for human consumption, protein and vitamin-ricb fungus mycelium for animal feed, and humus fertilizer for plant growth. Work to date on this project has demonstrated that when properly "blended, fortified and composted, these materials will support mushroom growth and produce, in good yield, mushrooms for food,. Analysis of the spent residue, which is largely made up of mush- room mycelium, shows it to contain over 15 percent nitrogen, which will be evaluated as an animal feed. If found nutritious and palatable, large quantities of wastes can "be composted and inoculated with different fungi for protein feed production. The composted wastes will also "be tested for their suitability as a humus-type fertilizer to supply structure, drainage, moisture holding and base exchange properties to soils. THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MUNICIPAL REFUSE Mr. Don E. Bloodgood Professor of Sanitary Engineering Purdue University Lafayette, Indiana Grant No. EF-146-05 Scope of Work: Development of methods of sampling and analyzing municipal refuse. The investigators will obtain analytical information regarding the physical and chemical composition of refuse, and secure accurate data on the total amount of refuse produced. ------- 21 BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION FROM HOSPITAL SOLID WASTES Mr. Richard G. Bond, Professor School of Public Health University of Minnesota Minneapolis lU, Minnesota Grant No. EF-007-03 Scope of Work: Study of the sanitary hazards involved in solid waste handling and associated housekeeping procedures in a repre- sentative cross section of hospital institutions. Waste handling and resulting "bacteriological contamination will "be investigated at production areas, storage and utility areas, and at the location of ultimate disposal. In addition to such solid wastes as waste- basket trash; disposable medical and surgical supplies; and con- taminated instruments, laundry, and materials destined to be reused; other hospital solid wastes will also be studied. The techniques associated with waste handling will be duplicated in a chamber where the microbiological environment can be controlled, and the quantitative and qualitative bacteriology associated with the method of solid waste handling can be assessed. SANITARY LANDFILL INVESTIGATION Mr. Jerry C. Burchinal, Assoc. Professor Department of Civil Engineering West Virginia University Morgantown, West Virginia Grant No. EF-O^O-Ol Scope of Work: Bacteriological study of a sanitary landfill. The investigators will attempt to identify the groups and numbers of microorganisms which are active in aerobic and in anaerobic refuse decomposition, to determine the rate of change in the environment of buried refuse from aerobic to anaerobic conditions, and the effect of high temperatures on Escherichia coll and ------- 22 Aerobacter aerogenes and whether nitrogen, potassium, or phos- phorus is a limiting factor. They will make "both chemical and bacteriological analyses of the landfill seepage, and its effect on streams and vails in the vicinity of the landfill. MATHEMATICAL SIMULATION OP REFUSE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL SYSTEhE Dr. Abraham Cher ens Professor of Applied Mathematics and Economics Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois Grant No. EP-355-01 Scope of Work: Development of a mathematical model to simulate the refuse collection and disposal problem. The mathematical model will give an optimum solution to the problem based upon considera- tions of direct cost factors and pollutional levels to be expected from the operation of the disposal process involved (i.e., expected contribution to air pollution from incineration of refuse); the model will describe the influence of each significant variable upon the optimum solution; and the model will delineate the per- formance standards which any new procedure or process must meet in order to be competitive with existing methods. SANITARY ENGINEERING APPLIED TO LIVESTOCK MANURES Dr. Samuel A. Hart, Assoc. Professor Department of Agricultural Engineering University of California Davis, California Grant No. EF-265-01 Scope of Work: Development of sanitary and effective methods of rqgmflgHng the manure produced on concentrated livestock farms, such as dairies, beef feedlots, and poultry farms. The investigator will attempt to develop methods and machinery to collect the manure from where it is defecated by the animals. Laboratory and ------- 23 pilot plant operations of various processing and stabilization techniques—such as digestion, algae ponds, activated sludge com- posting, and drying—will "be conducted to develop methods that are successful and feasible at the farm level. Pinal disposal tech- niques and outlets vill he developed and evaluated. The most prob- able disposal will be on the agricultural land, where it must com- pete with inorganic fertilizers. Attention will be paid to getting manure into a better competitive position. HANDLING, TREATMENT, AMD DISPOSAL OF ANIMAL WASTES Messrs. G. E. Hazen and E. R. Baumann Iowa State University Ames, Iowa Grant No. EF-OO^lO-Ol Scope of Work: To determine the physical, chemical, and bacterio- logical characteristics of animal manure and to devise and test economically feasible methods of rendering the manure safe from the standpoint of public and animal health protection. Anaerobic digestion, incineration, and stabilization ponds will be among the methods Investigated* INCINERATION OF AUTOMOBILE BODIES AND BULKY WASTE MATERIALS Mr. Elmer R. Kaiser Senior Research Scientist College of Engineering New York University New York, New York Grant No. RG-676O Scope of Work: The investigation of present methods and facilities used by cities to incinerate bulky waste materials* Development of design parameters for incinerators capable of consuming bulky wastes not normally handled in conventional municipal incinerators ------- 2b was also carried out. This work has been completed and the results published. FYROLYSIS OF MUNICIPAL REFUSE Mr. Elmer R. Kaiser Senior Research Scientist College of Engineering New York University New York, New York Grant No. EF-00530-01 Scope of Work: To determine the nature and quantity of the vola- tile matter from the pyrolysis of refuse constituents, such as paper, wood, fats, oils, waxes, garbage, sewage sludge, etc. From the data it will be possible to calculate the possibilities for gasifying refuse to produce hot, raw combustible gas for boiler firing. The fundamental nature of the data will permit other uses related to refuse burning, such as calculation of combustion air requirements for incineration. FACTORS CONTROLLING UTILIZATION OF SANITARY LANDFILL SITE Mr. Robert C. Merz Professor of Civil Engineering University of Southern California Los Angeles 7, California Grant No. EF-l60-03 Scope of Work: To study the effects of physical and chemical phenomena on the rate of decomposition of organic matter in a sanitary landfill. The investigators will include practical field tests at a large disposal operation in the vicinity of Los Angeles. The field tests will consider the influence of moisture, soil admixture, depth of fill, type of soil, aeration, and temperature. 2k/ Preliminary results of this work have been published. —' ------- AEROBIC DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC WASTE MATERIALS Dr. Karl L. Schulze Associate Professor of Civil Engineering Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan Grant No. RG-4180 Scope of Work: To investigate the process of aerobic decomposi- tion of organic waste materials, including a study of: 1. The effect of moisture, temperature, and air supply upon the end product; and 2. The utilization rates and breakdown of solid protein material under aerobic conditions. Thermoelements and solenoid valves will be used to control the temperature by controlling the air supply for the first study. Casin will be absorbed on vermiculite and placed Under aerobic conditions at optimum temperature and moisture. Paper chroma- tography will then be used to study the breakdown products ob- tained in the second study. Results of some of this work have been published. The Public Health Service has conducted research on a number of solid waste handling methods. Examples of such research are: the practicality of using the sanitary landfill method of dis- 16/ posal in cold climates,—' the effects of community-wide instal- lation of household garbage grinders on environmental sanitation, the effects of food waste grinders on septic tank systems, ^ tto effect of improving refuse handling facilities on community fly populations, ^^the field study of small-scale windrow and bin composting operations, ^2/ and laboratory studies of aerobic thermophilic decomposition including the effect of heating and cooling on the composting process. ^ ------- 26 Research efforts were recently reviewed by the American Public 31/ Works Association in their report, Solid Wastes Research Needs.— This study indicated that a comprehensive research program is defi- nitely needed in the solid wastes field. It suggests many worthy projects and points out that "the annual expenditures in this field—using industry standards as a guide—Justify the annual investment of at least $7*5 million in research." It also indicates that the Federal Government has already set a precedent of finan- cing research on liquid and gaseous wastes and that it should logically support a broad, well-conceived research program in the solid wastes field. Since only introductory courses on solid wastes engineering are offered by a few colleges and universities, even professionally trained public works officials receive little formal training in this field. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute has applied for a Public Health Service research training grant to prepare a graduate training program. Although this application was approved, unfortu- nately, it could not be funded. ------- 27 THE METROPOLITAN-WIDE APPROACH The question which so frequently confronts communities that are con- sidering metropolitan-vide refuse services is, "What level of the local government should provide refuse collection and disposal serv- ices?" One of the "biggest obstacles to organizing efficient refuse collection and disposal systems in metropolitan areas is the multitude of local governmental units. In Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, for example, there are 129 local political subdivisions. These local political subdivisions may be separated by natural boundaries, such as rivers or mountains, or by the political boundaries of satellite communities that surround a central city. The provision of economical refuse service under such conditions is complicated and may be further hampered by State or international boundaries. Traditionally, ama].1 and large cities have provided their own "total" service. During the last few years, however, there is a trend in metropolitan areas toward each conrunity continuing to provide col- lection service, with disposal service provided on an area-wide basis# The increasing population and higher population density has resulted in a shortage of land for disposal sites, an Increase in the quant i»- ties of refuse that must be collected, and longer hauling distances to disposal sites that may even be located beyond the limits of the urbanized area. Area-wide refuse disposal service is being provided in a few metro- politan areas by special purpose districts, by counties, or by cooper- ative agreements between cities and other local political subdivi- sions. Unfortunately, many States do not have enabling legislation, ------- 28 which permits special purpose districts to be formed or counties to provide these services, with the result that investments are needlessly duplicated and some areas are not provided adequate serv- ice. The scarcity of disposal sites and the economic advantages gained by using transfer stations with fewer and larger scale dis- posal facilities are forcing more metropolitan areas to consider the establishment of some type of metropolitan-wide refuse disposal serv- 33/ ice. In a recent Refuse Study, —^ conducted for the Connecticut Capitol Region, for example, it was pointed out that a regional operation could lead to "more suitable, efficient, and economical disposal practices." It was estimated that savings of up to 15 per- cent would be possible with region-wide disposal service. This fragmentation of responsibility for providing refuse collection and disposal services and other functions of local governments was recognized as a problem worthy of study by the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. Hopefully, new methods of organ- izing such essential services can be devised. ------- STATE AND LOCAL ACTION 29 State leadership is essential to successfully attack solid waste problems in metropolitan areas. Two recent studies have concluded that State legislation must compliment local governmental action in order to make it possible to provide adequate refuse disposed the Northeastern Illinois and the Hartford, Connecticut, metropoli- tan areas. Both reports point out the need for area-vide refuse disposal agencies. Unfortunately, few States have delegated the authority necessary to establish area-wide refuse collection and/or disposal systems. The Census of Governments: 1962,for example, reports that only nine States--California, Connecticut, Kentucky, Michigan, New Jersey, Ohio, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Washing- ton—have provisions for the formation of districts or authorities to organize and operate such area-wide systems. In September, 19^3, a questionnaire concerning the status of State health department solid wastes programs, was sent to the States via the Public Health Service Regional Offices. The four questions asked and the answers received are tabulated below. For the individual State tabulations, see page 31* 1 33/ services for metropolitan areas. These studies ? • ' were made in No. 0/0 l) Does the Sta-fce agency consider that it has a responsibility in the solid waste field? Unqualified yes Little No 43 86 ^ 8 3 6 2) Is the State responsibility Unqualified yes covered by specific legisla- Qualified yes tive authority? If so, please No furnish copies of applicable statutes. 25 50 7 Ik 18 36 ------- 30 No. 212 Is there a specific State Unqualified yes 16 32 program directed at this Partial program 3 6 proTHam? Program being developed 2 4 No 29 58 How much professional time Equal to or less than 0.25 10 20 does the State agency Equal to or less than 0.5 22 44 devote to this activity? Less than 1 26 52 (Number of man years). 1 7 14 Greater than 1 7 14 Unknown 10 20 In many cases the State4s legislative authority is not clearly defined or lacks adequate power. The authority for some States in the "qualified yes" group is "based on general health or nuisance laws or for the control of dumping refuse on public and private property without permission. This last group could be considered anti-litter laws. Only a few of the States have specific legislation giving authority to the State health department for the control of the storage, collection, and disposal of solid wastes. The amount of time spent by the State health departments indicates the inadequate amount of work being devoted to solid wastes. Fifty- two percent of the departments spend less than one man-year per year and forty-four percent less than one-half man-year, whereas Mew York devotes fifteen to twenty man-years per year. This survey indicates that most State health departments have a lack of clearly defined responsibility and adequate programs directed at solid wastes problems which are currently facing in- corporated and unincorporated communities. ------- 31 Region State i Responsi- • bility Legislative Authority (State Programs • Man Years I Connecticut Yes Yes Yes | Unknown Maine ! No No ! No j Less than 1 Massachusetts | Yes Yes : Partial j 2 New Hampshire j Yes Yes ! No ! 0.25 Rhode Island No No j No j 1/12 Vermont j No NO ! • i No | Unknown 11 Delaware ; Yes Yes iBeing developed Less than 1 fJev-Jersey j Yes Yes | Yes 1.5 < .New' York ; Yes Yes 1 Yes 15-20 • Pennsylvania Yes Qualified yes J Yes ! 7 III Kentucky Yes j Yes 1 Yes ! 0.5 Maryland ! Yes Yes Being developed' 0.75 North Carolina! Yes No ; Yes 0.5 Virginia Yes No I Yes 1.75 West Virginia i Yes Yes i No 0.5 TV Alabama ] Yes No No 1/12 Florida I Yes No NO 1/12 Georgia Yes No j No 1/12 Mississippi ' Yes No j No 1/12 South Carolina 1 Yes NO No 1/12 Tennessee 1 Yes No i NO f 1/12 V Illinois Yes Qualified yes• NO 1 Indiana t Yes j Qualified yes 1 Yes 0.5 Michigan ' Yes Yes | Partial 0.33 Ohio j Yes No NO 0.5 Wisconsin j Yes Yes NO 0.7 VI Iovra, | Yes Yes NO Unknown Kansas 1 Yes No No Unknown Minnesota Little No No Unknown Missouri I Yes Qualified yes Yes Unknown Nebraska Yes Yes Yes Unknown North Dakota Yes Yes Yes Unknown South Dakota Yes No No Unknown VII Arkansas Yes Yes No 0.1 Louisiana Yes Yes No 1.0 Kew Mexico Yes Qualified yes No 0.5 Oklahoma Yes Qualified yes No 1.0 Texas Yes Yes No 1.0 VIII Colorado Little | No No 0.5 Idaho Yes i Yes No 1.0 Montana Little 1 No No 0.02 Utah Yes Yes No 0.25 Wyoming Little No No 0.04 IX Alaska Yes | Yes Partial Unknown Arizona Yes 1 Yes Yes 1 California Yes | Yes Yes k Hawaii Yes 1 Yes Yes 1 Nevada Yes j Qualified yes No 0.5 Oregon Yes ! Yes Yes 2 Washington i Yes • Yes Yes i 0.5 ------- 32 Several States have, however, made important contributions toward the solution of solid waste problems. New York and New Jersey, for example, have recently revised their State sanitary codes to con- trol the use of open dumps for refuse disposal. Extensive studies of ground water pollution by refuse fills have been sponsored by the State of California. Local governmental officials have used a variety of legal provi- sions and technical approaches to solve solid waste problems in some metropolitan areas. The Los Angeles County Sanitation Dis- 36/ tricts, for example, made a detailed study and report, —' which led to the establishment of a system of transfer stations and sanitary landfills, which now serve more than fifty cities and a large unincorporated area in the county. In neighboring Orange County, the Highway Department prepared a Master Plan of Refuse Disposal, ^ which anticipated the county's disposal needs up to the year 2000. The county-wide system of transfer stations and sanitary landfills was subsequently established with the support of all the cities and other local governmental units. 38/ A recent survey by the Housing and Home Finance Agency — reports that twenty-four planning agencies have completed seventeen solid waste disposal studies, fourteen others are underway, and six more are anticipated. The planning agencies doing these studies are evenly divided between three types--multi-jurisdictional, city-county, and county. ------- 33 Comprehensive planning is an essential step in the design of effi- cient area-vide refuse collection and disposal services. Local conditions must be evaluated, the possible solutions investigated, and the best methods of providing service determined. Such engi- neering studies can be made by either local public works agencies or consulting engineering firms. ------- 34 R 0 L E OP THE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE Under provision of the Public Health Service Act of 19^4, the Public Health Service supplies technical assistance, guidance, and consultation to State and local governmental agencies, individuals, and professional organizations concerned with solid waste handling. This work is performed by three full-time professional staff person- nel in Headquarters and two full-time and one half-time regional consultants. In addition, the Public Health Service awards research grants for the investigation of various aspects of solid waste handling methods, as shown by the projects that are described in detail in the preceding section on Besearch and Training. The Environmental Sciences and Engineering Study Section, one of the Advisory Committees on research matters to the Public Health Service, proposed a national conference to stimulate research on solid wastes storage, collection, and disposal. The conference was supported by a Public Health Service grant (EF-005^9-01) and conducted in cooperation with the American Public Works Association and the Division of Environmental Engineering and Food Protection of the Public Health Service. It was held at the University of Chicago Center for Continuing Education on Deceniber 2-4, 1963. Over 200 university, public works, public health, and industry officials, as "well as representatives of two European countries, participated in the conference. The Public Health Service, in cooperation with the Tennessee Valley Authority, is planning to assist in the design and operation of a full-scale composting plant and study the public health aspects ------- 35 of the operation. In addition, the Tennessee Valley Authority plans to study the marketability and fertilizer value of the finished compost. Preliminary efforts are underway to locate the plant in a city within the area served by the Tennessee Valley Authority. Many communities are interested in this process and are looking increasingly to the Public Health Service for recommendations con- cerning the applicability of this refuse disposal method. The Public Health Service is cooperating with a variety of public and private organizations to improve solid wastes handling. Assist- ance, for example, was provided to the American Public Works Associ- ation in the preparation of Municipal Refuse Disposal 39/ and Refuse Collection Practice,^/which are manuals presently serving both health and public works officials as major guidelines for designing and evaluating refuse collection and disposal systems. In addition, the American Public "Works Association is conducting or has conducted several other studies, Including: an inventory of cur- rent Bolid waste handling practices, the use of paper bags for refuse storage and collection, ifl/ and a delineation of solid waste research 31/ needs. ^ Many other organizations are interested in various aspects of solid waste handling, They include: the American Public Health Association, the American Society of Civil Engineers, The Conference of State Sanitary Engineers, the Building Research Advisory Board, the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, and Keep America Beautiful, Inc. Even a casual perusal of the technical literature indicates that all aspects of solid waste handling technology have received increased ------- 36 attention during recent years. This growing interest becomes clear- ly evident "by comparing the number of items listed in the series of annotated bibliographies on refuse collection and disposal that have been prepared by the staff of the Division of Environmental 42/ Engineering and Food Protection. The 1958 - 1959 bibliography,—' for example, lists 358 items while the i960 - 1961 bibliography lists 627 items. In order to realistically meet the present and foreseeable needs in the solid waste field all levels of government—local, State, and Federal—will have to devote more attention to this subject. The role of the Public Health Service would be to: 1. Increase research and development work in both extra- mural and intramural programs. Legislation and additional funds would be needed to establish a larger research grants program. 2. Increase technical assistance, basic data collection, and dissemination of technical information to States and local governmental agencies. Additional funds would be required to place solid waste consultants in each of the nine regional offices. ------- 37 POLICY QUESTIO N—S OLID WASTE PROBLEM 1. In some metropolitan axeas the responsible agency collects only the garbage and the householder is responsible for arranging for collection and disposal of all other refuse. Therefore, should local government agencies be urged to assume responsibil- ity for the collection and disposal of all household refuse? 2. What should be the role of local agencies with regard to the collection and disposal of commercial and industrial wastes? 3. What should be the role of the States with respect to local solid waste collection and disposal? a) Should States authorize their local units to jointly and cooperatively provide refuse service? b) Should they authorize transfer of solid waste functions from municipalities to the county agencies? c) Should they provide more technical assistance to local agencies on solid wastes than they currently do? d) Are current State regulations on solid wastes adequate? i+. What should be the role of the local health agency (county, municipal, etc., to other local agencies (e. g., public works) in connection with solid wastes? 5* Should solid wastes functions be urged upon the smallest possible local, jurisdiction that can be persu'ded to accept the responsi- bility—or should it be urged upon tne largest jurisdiction that can efficiently perform the service? 6. Are waste disposal site decisions sufficiently coordinated with land use plans and should metropolitan regional planning agencies be required to Include planning for location and acquisition of land for future disposal sites for all parts of the metropoli- tan area? 7. Should private solid waste operations be considered as similar to utilities—with regard to monopoly, public service, health and welfare, State-wide licensing, etc.? 8. Should Federal grants be made to encourage regional or area- wide solid waste handling operations? 9* Is it feasible to develop multi-purpose districts to encompass several Jurisdictions and services? 10. What should be the role of the Public Health Service in im- proving solid waste operation*? ------- 38 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Sheaffer, 'John R.j von Boehm, Berndt; and Hackett, James E. Refuse Disposal Needs and Practices in Northeastern Illinois. Technical Report No. 3» Chicago: Northeastern Illinois Metropolitan Area Planning Commission; 72 pp. June 19&3. 2. Lewis, Robert; Gilkeson, Murray M.; and McCaldin, Roy D. Air Pollution and New Orleans Asthma, Public Health Reports 77:11:947, November 1962. 3. California State Water Pollution Control Board. Effects of Refuse Dumps on Ground Water Quality. SWPCB Pub. No. 2k, Sacramento: California State Printing Office; 107 pp. 196l. k, ibid. Report on the Investigation of Leaching of Ash Dumps. SWPCB Pub. No. 2. Sacramento: State Water Pollution Con- trol Board; 100 pp. 1952. 5, ibid. Report on the Investigation of Leaching of a Sanitary Landfill. SWPCB Pub, No. 10. Sacramento: State Water Pollution Control Board; 92 pp. 195^. 6, Siverly, R. E.j and Schoof, H» F. Utilization of various production media by muscoid flies in a metropolitan area, I. Adapability of different flies for infestation of preva- lent media. Annals Entomological Society of America 48:k:258, July 1955. 7, ibid. Utilization of various production media by muscoid flies in a metropolitan area, II. Seasonal influence on degree and extent of fly production. Annals Entomological Society of America ^3:5:320, September 1955* 8, Campbell, Ernest; and Black, Ralph J. The problem of migra- tion of mature fly larvae from refuse containers and its implication on the frequency of refuse collection. California Vector Views 7:2:9* February i960. 9, Black, Ralph J.; and Barnes, A. M. Effect of earth cover on fly emergence from sanitary landfills. Public Works 89:2:91, February 1958. 10. U, S. Department of Agriculture, National Status on Control of Garbage Feeding. Mimeo. Janaury 1962 - June 1963. 11. Sliepcevich, Elna M. Effect of work conditions upon the health of the uniformed sanitationmen of New York City. Doctoral Dissertation, 253 PP» June 1955. Springfield Col- lege, Springfield, Massachusetts, ------- 39 12. U. S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States, 19&L. 82nd Edition. Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office; 1961. 13. Bugher, Robert D. Progress begins with research. The APWA Reporter 29:4:1, April 1962. 14. Anonymous. Figure in APWA release gives wrong impression. Refuse Removal Journal 5:10:6, October 1962. 15. University of California, Sanitary Engineering Research Project. An Analysis of Refuse Collection and Sanitary Landfill Disposal. Technical Bulletin No. 6, Series 37 • Berkeley: U. C. Press; 134 pp. 1952. 16. Weaver, Leo; and Keagy, Donald M. The Sanitary Landfill Method of Refuse Disposal In Northern States. Public Health Service Publication No. 225. Washington: u7 S. Government Printing Office; 31 pp. 1952. 17. Black, Ralph J.; Bogue, M. EeVon; Mallison, George F.; and Wiley, John S. Recommended Standards for Sanitary Landfill Operations (draft). U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service; 44 pp. September 1961. 18. Stenburg, Robert L.; Horseley, Ronald R.; Herrick, Robert A.; and Rose, Andrew H., Jr. Effects of design and fuel mois- ture on incinerator effluents. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 10:2:114, April I960. 19* Stenburg, Robert L.; Hangebrsuch, Robert P.; Von Lehmden, Darryl J.; and Rose, Andrew I;.*, Jr. Effects of high volatile fuel on incinerator effluents. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 11:3:376, August 1961. 20. MacKhight, Robert J.; Williamson, John E«; Sableski, Joseph J., Jr.3 and Dealy, James 0. Controlling the flue-fed incinerator. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 10:2:103, April I960. 21. Kaiser, E. R.; Halltsky, J.; Jacobs, M. B.; and McCabe, L. C. Modifications to reduce emissions from a flue-fed incinera- tor. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 10:3:IB3# June i960. 22. Sterling, Morton. Air pollution control and the gas industry. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 11:8:354, August 1961. 23. Kaiser, E. R.; and Tolciss, J. Incineration of Automobile Bodies and Bulky Waste Material. Technical Report 76^.1, Project S-96. New York: Research Division, College of Engineering, New York University; 20 pp. i960. ------- 40 24. Stone, Ralph; and Merz, Robert C. Scientific analysis of sanitary landfills, p. 2^0. American Public Works Associa- tion Yearbook, 1961. Chicago: American Public Works Association; 503 PP« 1961. 25. Schulze, Karl L. Rate of oxygen consumption and respiratory quotients during the aerobic decomposition of a synthetic garbage. Compost Science 1:1:36, Spring i960. 26. Er^anian, George K.; Belter, Walter G.j and Graber, Ralph C. Effects of Community-Wide Installation of Household Garbage- Grinders on Environmental Sanitation. Public Health Service Publication No. 224, Washington: u7 S. Government Printing Office; 4l pp. 1952. 27. Bendixen, Thomas W.; McMahan, Anthony A.; Thomas, Richard E.; and Coulter, James B. Effect of Food Wastes Grinders on Septic Tank Systems. Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center Report, Cincinnati: Public Health Service; 91 pp. November 15, 19&1. 28. Waldrop, R. H.; Pel, R.; and Schoof, H. P. Fly movement study shows benefits of control program. Modem Sanitation and Building Maintenance 10:9:19> September 1958T 29. Maier, Paul P.; Williams, Edward R.j and Mallison, George F. Composting studies. I. Composting municipal refuse by the aeration bin process, p. 590. Engineering Bulletin, Proceed- ings of the Twelfth Industrial Waste Conference. Series No. 94. Purdue: University of Purdue; September 1958* 30. Wiley, John S. Composting studies. II. Progress report on high-rate composting studies, p. 596. Engineering Bulletin, Proceedings of the Twelfth Industrial Waste Conference. Series No. 94. Purdue: University of Purdue; September 1958. 31. Bugher, Robert D. Solid Wastes Research Needs. APWA Research Foundation Project No. 113« Chicago: American Public Works Association; 80 pp. 1962. 32. James, Joseph A. A county-wide disposal program for Alle- gheny County, problems and issues, p. 102. Municipal Solid Wastes Disposal, Proceedings of the Third Pittsburgh Sanitary Engineering Conference. Pittsburgh: The Institute of Local Governments, University of Pittsburgh; 124 pp. November 4, 1961. 33. Refuse Study. Prepared for the Capital Region Planning Agency, East Hartford, Connecticut, "by Goodkin and O'Dea, and Leonard S. Wegman Company; February 1963. 96 pp. ------- kx 3^. Advisory Commission On Intergovernmental Relations, Perform- ance of Urban Functions: Local and Areawide. Report M-21. Washington: Advisory Commission On Intergovernmental Relations; 283 pp. September 1963. 35. U. S. Bureau of Census. U. S. Census of Governments: 1962. Vol. I. Governmental Organization. Washington: U. S. Govern- ment Printing Office; 376 pp. 19&3. 36. Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts, Joint Administrative Staff. Planned Refuse Disposal, A Report to the Directors of the County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County, California. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts; 118 pp. 1955* 37- Orange County Highway Department. Master Plan of Refuse Disposal. Santa Ana: Orange County, California, Highway Department; 58 pp. 1959* 38. U. S. Housing and Home Finance Agency. National Survey of Metropolitan Planning. Washington: U. S. Government Print- ing Office; 156 pp. December 16, 1963. 39» American Public Works Association, Committee on Refuse Dis- posal. Municipal Refuse Disposal. AIWA Research Foundation Project No. 104. Chicago: Public Administration Service; 506 pp. 1961. 40. American Public Works Association, Committee on Refuse Collection. Refuse Collection Practice. APWA Research Foundation Project No. 101. Chicago: Public Administration Service; 562 pp. 1958. 41. American Public Works Association. Paper Bags for Refuse Handling. APWA Research Foundation Research Project No. 115. Chicago: American Public Works Association; 39 pp. August 1963. k2, Williams, Edward R.; and Black, Ralph J. Refuse Collection and Disposal—An Annotated bibliography, 1958-1959* PHS Publication No. 91--Supplement D. Washington: U. S. Govern- ment Printing Office; 74 pp. 1961. 43. Black, Ralph J.; and Davis, Peter L. Refuse Collection and Disposal—An Annotated Bibliography, 1960-1961. PHS Publication No. 91—Supplement E. Washington: U. S. Govern- ment Printing Office; 6k pp. 1963. *U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1968 O - 293-366 ------- |