United States Office of January 1989
Environmental Protection Solid Waste EPA/530-SW-89-015A
Agency Washington, DC 20460
Office of Solid Waste
Characterization of Final Report
Products Containing
Lead and Cadmium
in Municipal Solid
Waste in the
United States,
1970 to 2000
Original editions of this document are printed on recycled
paper with ink free of lead and cadmium.
-------
United States Office of January 1989
Environmental Protection Solid Waste EPA/530-SW-89-015A
Agency Washington, DC 20460
Office of Solid Waste
v>EPA Characterization of Final Report
Products Containing
Lead and Cadmium
in Municipal Solid
Waste in the
United States,
1970 to 2000
Prepared for
United States
Environmental Protection Agency
Municipal Solid Waste Program
by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Prairie Village, Kansas
-------
Preface
This report was prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency by
Franklin Associates, Ltd. Marjorie A. Franklin was project manager and
principal author of the report. Staff support was provided by Jacob E.
Beachey, Kristine L. Cavosie, Suzanne C. Metzler, Janet M. Nelson, John P.
Neuhaus, Veronica R. Sellers, Robert C. Taylor, and Katherine L. Totten.
EPA's project manager was Gerry Dorian; later Janette Hansen
became project manager. The work was performed under subcontract to NUS
Corporation, EPA Contract No. 68-01-7310, Work Assignment 65. Gary Galida was
the NUS project manager.
ii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
PREFACE ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
Lead in Municipal Solid Waste 1
Cadmium in Municipal Solid Waste 5
Lead and Cadmium in Combustible and
Noncombustible Products 8
Potential Effects of Recycling 8
Limitations of This Report 8
1 LEAD AND CADMIUM IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE:
OVERVIEW AND SUMMARY 11
Overview of This Report 11
Wastes Included in This Report 11
Wastes Not Included in This Report 12
Methodology 12
Relative Discards of Lead and Cadmium 12
Trends in Discards of Lead and Cadmium 15
Lead in MSW 15
Cadmium in MSW 24
Products Containing Both Lead and Cadmium 31
Lead and Cadmium in Combustible and
Noncombustible Products 31
The Potential Effects of Recycling 35
Limitations of This Report 41
References 44
2 LEAD IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE 45
Background 45
Compounds of Lead 45
Allocation of Products Containing Lead to MSW 46
Products Assumed Not to be Discarded Into MSW 47
Ammunition 47
Bearing Metals 47
Cable Coverings 48
Caulking 48
Casting Metals 48
Pipes, Traps, and Other Extruded Products 48
Sheet Lead 49
Solder 49
Terne Metal: Motor Vehicles and Equipment 49
Type Metal 49
iii
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Page
Brass and Bronze Products 49
Cans and Other Shipping Containers 50
Consumer Electronics 51
Lead in Printed Circuit Boards 56
Lead in Glass in Television Sets 56
Total Lead in Consumer Electronics 58
Glass and Ceramic Products 58
Use of Lead in Glass and Ceramics 62
Leaded Glass 62
Enamels and Glazes 62
Solders and Sealers 62
PZT/PZLT 64
Glass-Bonded Mica 64
Glass Products Containing Lead that
Enter MSW 64
Glass Containers 65
Glassware 65
Tableware 65
Electronic Components 65
Enameled Products 65
Products Containing Lead that do not Enter MSW 66
Lead Discarded in Glass and Ceramics 66
Lead-Acid Storage Batteries 66
Composition of Lead-Acid Storage Batteries 71
Lead Consumption in Batteries 72
Automotive SLI Batteries 72
Motorcycle SLI Batteries 74
Portable SLA Batteries 74
Industrial Batteries 74
Total Lead Consumption in Batteries 74
Discards of Lead from Storage Batteries 77
SLI Battery Lead 77
Portable Lead-Acid Batteries 83
Light Bulbs 83
Lead in Solder in Light Bulbs 83
Lead in Glass in Light Bulbs 88
Total Lead in Light Bulbs 88
Pigments 88
Lead Pigment Compounds 91
End Uses of Pigments 93
Paints 93
Printing Inks 93
Textiles 96
Plastics 100
Artists' Paints 100
Industrial Crayons 100
Elastomers 100
iv
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Page
Adhesives 101
Traffic Paints 101
Metal Coil Coatings 101
Machinery and Automotive Finishes 101
Structural Steel Coatings 101
Marine Coatings 101
Discards of Pigments 102
Plastic Products 102
Heat Stabilizers 106
Applications of Heat Stabilizers 106
Estimates of Discards 106
Pigments 107
Estimates of Discards 112
Total Lead in Plastics 115
Rubber Products 115
Used Oil 115
Miscellaneous Products 132
Lead Foil 132
Collapsible Tubes 132
References 138
3 CADMIUM IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE 142
Background 142
Cadmium Compounds 142
Use of Cadmium in Products 143
Appliances 143
Consumer Electronics 144
Glass and Ceramics 144
Use of Cadmium in Glass and Ceramics 148
Glass or Ceramic Products Containing
Cadmium that Enter MSW 148
Products Containing Cadmium that do not
Enter MSW 152
Cadmium Discarded in Glass and Ceramics 152
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries 155
Types of Household Batteries 155
Carbon-zinc Batteries 155
Alkaline Batteries 155
Mercury Oxide Batteries 155
Silver Oxide Batteries 156
Zinc Air Batteries 156
Lithium Batteries 156
Nickel-cadmium Batteries 156
Quantities of Cadmium Discarded in Batteries 157
v
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Appendix
Pa&g
Pigments 158
Cadmium Pigment Compounds 158
End Uses of Pigments 164
Paints 164
Printing Inks 164
Textiles 164
Plastics 164
Artists' Paints 164
Elastomers 164
Machinery and Automotive Finishes 164
Discards of Pigments 165
Plastics 165
Stabilizers 165
Pigments 170
Estimates of Discards 170
Total Cadmium in Plastics 172
Rubber Products 172
Miscellaneous Products 172
Casings for Dry Cell Batteries 196
Electric Blankets and Heating Pads 196
Used Oil 198
References 199
MATERIALS FLOW METHODOLOGY FOR ESTIMATING
MSW DISCARDS 203
General Description of Methodology 203
Lead/Cadmium Methodology 203
References 207
vi
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 Relative discards of lead and cadmium in MSW,
1986 2
2 Lead in discards of products in MSW, 1970,
1986, and 2000 4
3 Cadmium in discards of products in MSW, 1970,
1986, and 2000 6
4 Relative discards of lead in organic and
inorganic products, 1986 9
5 Relative discards of cadmium in organic and
inorganic products, 1986 9
1-1 Materials flow methodology for estimating
lead and cadmium in MSW discards 13
1-2 Relative discards of lead and cadmium in
MSW, 1986 14
1-3 Lead in discards of products in MSW, 1986 20
1-4 Cadmium in discards of products in MSW,
1970, 1986, and 2000 29
1-5 Relative discards of lead in combustible
and noncombustible products, 1986 33
1-6 Sources of lead in noncombustible products,
1986 34
1-7 Sources of lead in combustible products, 1986 34
1-8 Relative discards of cadmium in combustible
and noncombustible products, 1986 36
1-9 Sources of cadmium in noncombustible
products, 1986 37
1-10 Sources of cadmium in combustible products,
1986 37
1-11 Relative discards of lead and cadmium in
noncombustible products in MSW, 1986 38
1-12 Relative discards of lead and cadmium in
combustible products in MSW, 1986 40
1-13 Discards of lead in SLI lead-acid batteries,
1970 to 2000 40
2-1 Discards of lead in brass and bronze into MSW,
1970 to 2000 53
2-2 Net discards of lead in solder in steel cans
and containers, 1970 to 2000 55
2-3 Discards of lead in consumer electronics,
1970 to 2000 61
2-4 Discards of lead in "all other" glass and
ceramics in MSW, 1970 to 2000 70
vii
-------
Figure
Pape
2-5
Methodology flow diagram for SLI storage
batteries
78
2-6
Discards of lead in SLI lead-acid batteries,
1970 to 2000
82
2-7
Discards of lead in portable lead-acid
batteries, 1970 to 2000
86
2-8
Discards of lead in light bulbs, 1970 to 2000
90
2-9
White lead content of paint produced, 1970
to 1985
94
2-10
Consumption of red lead pigments in the
U.S., 1967 TO 1984
95
2-11
Discards of lead in printing inks in MSW,
1970 to 2000
99
2-12
Discards of lead in pigments, 1970 to 2000
105
2-13
Discards of lead in plastics, 1970 to 2000
119
2-14
Sources of lead in plastics, 1970 to 2000
120
2-15
Discards of lead in pigments in rubber
products, 1970 to 2000
128
2-16
Discards of lead in used oil in MSW,
1970 to 2000
131
2-17
Discards of lead foil in wine wrappers,
1970 to 2000
134
2-18
Discards of lead in collapsible tubes,
1970 to 2000
137
3-1
Discards of cadmium in plated parts for
dishwashers and washing machines,
1970 to 2000
147
3-2
Discards of cadmium in plated parts for
radios and TVs, 1970 to 2000
151
3-3
Discards of cadmium in glass and ceramics,
1970 to 2000
154
3-4
Discards of cadmium in nickel-cadmium
batteries, 1970 to 2000
162
3-5
Cadmium pigment end uses by color compound
163
3-6
Discards of cadmium in pigments in
miscellaneous products, 1970 to 2000
169
3-7
Discards of cadmium in plastics, 1970 to 2000
192
3-8
Sources of cadmium discards in plastics, 1986
193
A-l
Materials flow methodology for estimating
MSW discards
204
A-2
Materials flow methodology for estimating lead
and cadmium in MSW discards
205
viii
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Lead in Products Discarded in MSW, 1970 to 2000 3
2 Cadmium in Products Discarded in MSW, 1970
to 2000 7
1-1 Discards of Lead in Products in the Municipal
Waste Stream, 1970 to 2000 (in short tons) 16
1-2 Discards of Lead in Products in the Municipal
Waste Stream, 1970 to 2000 (in percent) 17
1-3 Discards of Lead in Products in the Municipal
Waste Stream, 1986, Ranked in Order of
Weight of Lead 18
1-4 Sources of Lead in MSW, Ranked by Tonnage,
1970 to 2000 19
1-5 Discards of Cadmium in Products in the Municipal
Waste Stream, 1970 to 2000 (in short tons) 25
1-6 Discards of Cadmium in Products in the Municipal
Waste Stream, 1970 to 2000 (in percent) 26
1-7 Discards of Cadmium in Products in the Municipal
Waste Stream, 1986, Ranked in Order of Weight
of Cadmium 27
1-8 Major Sources of Cadmium in MSW, Ranked by
Tonnage, 1970 to 2000 28
1-9 Products Containing Both Lead and Cadmium, 1986 32
1-10 Wastes Other than MSW That May Contain Lead
and Cadmium 43
2-1 Products Containing Lead 47
2-2 Products Containing Leaded Brass and Bronze
Discarded into MSW 50
2-3 Discards of Lead in Leaded Brass and Bronze
into MSW, 1970 to 2000 52
2-4 Discards of Lead in Solder in Steel Cans and
Shipping Containers, 1970 to 2000 54
2-5 Lead Consumed in Solder in Consumer Electronics,
1962 to 1992 57
2-6 Lead Oxide (PbO) Levels in Television Components 58
2-7 Lead Consumed in Glass in Television Sets,
1962 to 1992 59
2-8 Discards of Lead in Consumer Products, 1970
to 2000 60
2-9 Chemical Form and Function of Lead in Glass
and Ceramics 63
2-10 Glass or Ceramic Products Containing Lead
that May Enter MSW 64
2-11 Domestic Consumption of Lead in Glass and
Ceramics, 1970 to 1986 67
ix
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Table
Page
2-12
Consumption of Lead in "All Other" Glass
In MSW, 1967 to 1997
68
2-13
Discards of Lead in Glass and Ceramics in MSW,
1970 to 2000
69
2-14
Form of Lead Consumed in Storage Batteries,
1986
71
2-15
Weight Analysis of Typical SLI Batteries
71
2-16
Lead Consumption in U. S. Automotive
Battery Shipments, 1966 to 1986
73
2-17
Lead Consumption in U. S. Motorcycle Shipments,
1966 to 1986
75
2-18
Summary of Lead Consumption by U. S. Battery
Shipments, 1966 to 1986
76
2-19
Lead in Automotive SLI Batteries, 1966 to 1996
79
2-20
Lead in Motorcycle Batteries, 1966 to 1997
80
2-21
Discards of Lead in SLI Lead-Acid Batteries,
1970 to 2000
81
2-22
Lead Consumption in Portable Sealed Lead-Acid
Batteries, 1966 to 1996
84
2-23
Discards of Lead in Portable Sealed Lead-Acid
Batteries, 1970 to 2000
85
2-24
Light Bulbs Assumed to Contain Solder and to be
Discarded into MSW
87
2-25
Lead Oxide (PbO) Levels in Light Bulbs
88
2-26
Discards of Lead in Light Bulbs, 1970 to 2000
89
2-27
Estimate of Deinked Papers Removed from MSW
by Paper Recycling, 1970 to 2000
97
2-28
Discards of Lead in Printing Inks in MSW,
1970 to 2000
98
2-29
Consumption of Lead in Pigments, 1970 to 2000
103
2-30
Consumption of Lead in Pigments, 1970 to 2000
104
2-31
Consumption of PVC Resin by End Use, 1960 to
1986
108
2-32
Estimates of Lead Used in Stabilizers in
PVC, 1960 to 1986
109
2-33
Import/Export Adjustment Ratios for Plastic
Products, 1962 to 1986
110
2-34
Discards of Lead in Stabilizers in PVC Plastics
Products, 1970 to 2000
111
2-35
Typical Ranges of Composition of Lead Chromate
Pigments
112
2-36
Consumption of Resins by End Use, 1960 to 1986
113
2-37
Estimates of Lead Used in Pigments In Plastics,
1960 to 1986
116
2-38
Discards of Lead in Pigments in Plastic
Products, 1970 to 2000
117
x
-------
Table Page
2-39 Discards of Lead in Plastics in MSW,
1970 to 2000 118
2-40 End Uses of Rubber that May Contain Lead
and/or Cadmium 121
2-41 Lead Consumption as a Pigment in Various
Rubber Products, 1968 to 2000 122
2-42 Lead Consumption in the Rubber Industry,
1970 to 2000 123
2-43 Consumption of Lead in Tires and Tire
Products, 1968 to 1998 124
2-44 Consumption of Lead in Nontire Products
Entering MSW, 1968 to 1998 125
2-45 Net Consumption of Lead in Nontire Products,
1968 to 1998 126
2-46 Gross Discards, Recovery, and Net Discards
of Lead in Rubber Products, 1970 to 2000 127
2-47 Discards of Lead in Used Oil, 1970 to 2000 130
2-48 Discards of Lead in Foil in MSW, 1969 to 2000 133
2-49 Discards of Lead in Collapsible Tubes in
MSW, 1970 to 2000 136
3-1 Cadmium Consumption in Plated Parts for
Dishwashers and Washing Machines, 1970
to 2000 145
3-2 Discards of Cadmium Plated Parts for Dish-
washers and Washing Machines, 1970 to 2000 146
3-3 Cadmium Consumption in Plated Parts for Radios
and TVs, 1962 to 1992 149
3-4 Cadmium Discards in Plated Parts for Radios
and TVs, 1970 to 2000 150
3-5 Glass and Ceramic Products Containing Cadmium
Pigments 152
3-6 Discards of Cadmium in Glass and Ceramics
1970 to 2000 153
3-7 Domestic Consumption of Cadmium in Batteries,
1966 to 2000 159
3-8 Consumption of Cadmium in Batteries for
Imports/Exports, 1970 to 2000 160
3-9 Discards of Cadmium in Nickel-cadmium
Batteries, 1966 to 2000 161
3-10 Consumption of Cadmium in Pigments, 1970
to 2000 166
3-11 Consumption of Cadmium in Pigments by End
Use, 1970 to 2000 167
3-12 Discards of Cadmium Pigments in Miscellaneous
Products, 1970 to 2000 168
xi
-------
Table
fflge
3-13
Consumption of Cadmium Pigments in Plastic
Resins
171
3-14
Estimates of Cadmium Used in Stabilizers and
Pigments in Plastics, 1970 to 1986
173
3-15
Estimates of Cadmium in PVC, 1970 to 1986
174
3-16
Discards of Cadmium in PVC in Plastic
Products, 1970 to 2000
175
3-17
Consumption of ABS Resin by End Use, 1960
to 1986
176
3-18
Estimates of Cadmium in ABS, 1970 to 1986
177
3-19
Discards of Cadmium in ABS in Plastic
Products, 1970 to 2000
178
3-20
Consumption of HDPE Resin by End Use, 1965
to 1986
179
3-21
Estimates of Cadmium in HDPE, 1970 to 1986
180
3-22
Discards of Cadmium in HDPE in Plastic
Products, 1970 to 2000
181
3-23
Consumption of Polypropylene Resin by End
Use, 1960 to 1986
182
3-24
Estimates of Cadmium in Polypropylene,
1970 to 1986
183
3-25
Discards of Cadmium in Polypropylene in
Plastic Products, 1970 to 2000
184
3-26
Consumption of LDPE Resin by End Use,
1965 to 1986
185
3-27
Estimates of Cadmium in LDPE, 1970 to 1986
186
3-28
Discards of Cadmium in LDPE in Plastic Products,
1970 to 2000
187
3-29
Consumption of Polystyrene Resin by End Use,
1960 to 1986
188
3-30
Estimates of Cadmium in Polystyrene, 1970
to 1986
189
3-31
Discards of Cadmium in Polystyrene Products,
1970 to 2000
190
3-32
Discards of Cadmium in Plastics in MSW,
1970 to 2000
191
3-33
Consumption of Cadmium in Pigments in Rubber,
1968 to 1998
194
3-34
Discards of Cadmium in Pigments in Rubber,
1970 to 2000
195
3-35
Discards of Cadmium in Miscellaneous Products,
1970 to 2000
197
xii
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
As disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW) has become an issue of
increasing importance in the United States, combustion of wastes has been
recognized as one of several alternative management approaches. A concern
associated with municipal waste combustion, however, is that heavy metals
(lead and cadmium in particular) have been found in analytical tests of the
ash from these facilities. This report characterizes the sources of lead and
cadmium in products disposed in MSW over the time period 1970 to 1986, with
projections to the year 2000.
LEAD IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
Lead is widespread in the municipal waste stream; it is in both
the combustible and noncombustible portions of MSW. Discards of lead in MSW
are overwhelmingly greater than discards of cadmium (Figure 1).
Lead-acid batteries (primarily batteries for automobiles) rank
first, by a wide margin, of the products containing lead that enter the waste
stream. Trends in quantities of lead discarded in products in MSW (ranked by
tonnage discarded in 1986) are shown in Table 1. The last two columns on the
table indicate whether the total tonnage of lead in a product is generally
increasing or decreasing, and whether the percentage of total MSW lead
contained in a product is increasing or decreasing.
Changing trends in discards of lead are illustrated in Figure 2.
Lead discards in batteries are shown to be growing steadily, as are discards
in consumer electronics. Discards of leaded solder in cans and lead in
pigments, however, virtually "disappear" from the graphic between 1970 and
1986. Lead discards in other products are shown to be relatively small.
Findings about the individual products in MSW that contain lead
are:
* Lead-acid Batteries contributed 65 percent of the lead in MSW in
1986; this percentage has ranged between 50 and 85 percent during the 1970 to
1986 period studied. The tonnages in Table 1 represent discards after
recycling, but of all the products considered, only lead-acid batteries are
recycled to a significant extent. Recycling rates, which have ranged from 52
to 80 percent, have a major effect on the tonnage of lead-acid batteries
discarded.
* Consumer Electronics (television sets, radios, and video
cassette recorders) accounted for 27 percent of lead discards in MSW in 1986.
They contribute lead from soldered circuit boards, leaded glass in television
sets, and plated steel chassis. Leaded glass accounts for most of the lead in
these products.
* Glass and Ceramics. as reported here, include lead in products
such as glass containers, tableware and cookware, and other items such as
1
-------
Figure 1. Relative discards of lead and cadmium in MSW, 1986.
Cadmium 1,788 tons
<' Lead v
^1213,652 tons
2
-------
Table 1
LEAD IN PRODUCTS DISCARDED IN MSW. 1970 TO
(Iri short tons)
Products liZQ liM 2Q00 Tonnage
Lead-acid
batteries 83,825 138,043 181,546 Increasing
Consumer
electronics 12,233 58,536 85,032 Increasing
Glass and
ceramics 3,465
7,956 8,910 Increasing
Plastics
Soldered
cans
1,613 3,577
24,117 2,052
Pigments 27,020 1,131
All others U,^7 2.537
Totals 164,840 213,652
3,228
787
682
1-701
281,887
Increasing;
decreasing
after 1986
Decreasing
Decreasing
Decreasing
zm
Pqrqeptflge
Variable
Increasing
Increasing; stable
after 1986
Fairly stable
Decreasing
Decreasing
Decreasing
3
-------
Figure 2. Lead in discards of products in MSW, 1970, 1986, anc
2000.
Year
2000
1986
mm™
1970
m All others 0 Pigments ~ Cans
Hi Glass ElI Electronics E3 Batteries
50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000
Plastics Tons
4
-------
optical glass. These contributed A percent of lead discards in 1986. (Leaded
glass in light bulbs is included in the "All Other" category in Table 1.)
* Plastics use lead in two ways: As a heat stabilizer (primarily
in polyvinyl chloride resins) and as a component of pigments in many resins.
This category, which includes products such as nonfood packaging, clothing and
footwear, housewares, records, furniture, appliances, and other miscellaneous
products, accounted for about 2 percent of lead discards in 1986. Plastics in
consumer electronics products are counted under that category.
* Soldered Cans have experienced a large decline in usage since
1970, when they contributed 14 percent of the lead in MSW. Leaded solder is
currently used in steel food cans, general purpose cans (like aerosols), and
shipping containers.
* Pigments containing lead compounds have declined greatly since
1970, dropping from 18 percent of total lead discards to less than one
percent. This category includes pigments used in paints, printing inks,
textile dyes, etc. Pigments used in plastics, glass and ceramics, and rubber
products are accounted for in those categories.
* All Others include brass and bronze products, light bulbs (which
contain lead in solder and in glass), rubber products, used oil, collapsible
tubes, and lead foil wine bottle wrappers. Collapsible tubes contributed over
5 percent of total lead discards in 1970, but their use has declined
dramatically since then. None of the other items has exceeded one percent of
the total since 1970.
CADMIUM IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
Like lead, cadmium is widespread in products discarded into MSW,
although it occurs in much smaller quantities overall. Since 1980, nickel-
cadmium household batteries have been the Number 1 contributor of cadmium in
MSW.
Trends in quantities of cadmium discarded in products in MSW
(ranked by tonnage discarded in 1986) are shown in Table 2.
Trends in discards of cadmium in products in MSW are illustrated
in Figure 3. Discards of cadmium in household batteries were small in 1970,
but then increased dramatically. Cadmium discards in plastics are relatively
stable. Discards of cadmium in consumer electronics are shown to decrease over
time, while the other categories are relatively small.
Findings about cadmium discards in individual products in MSW are:
* Household Batteries (rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries) have
accounted for more than half of cadmium discards in the U.S. since 1980. This
growth is projected to continue unless they are replaced by another type of
battery.
5
-------
Figure 3. Cadmium in discards of products in MSW, 1970, 1986,
and 2000.
Year
2000
1986
1 S70
18
rs
I
rj
500
1,000 1,500
2,000
2,500
All others ~ Pigments E3 Appliances
Electronics £3 Plastics II Batteries
3,000
Tons
6
-------
* Plastics continue to be an important source of cadmium in MSW,
contributing 28 percent of discards in 1986. Cadmium is used in stabilizers
in polyvinyl chloride resins and in pigments in a wide variety of plastic
resins. Cadmium is found in nonfood packaging, footwear, housewares, records,
furniture, and other plastic products.
Table 2
Products
Household
batteries
Plastics
Consumer
Totals
CADMIUM IN PRODUCTS DISCARDED IN MSW. 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
1970
53
342
1986
930
502
2000 Tonnage
2,035
380
Increasing
Variable
1,196 1,788 2,684
Percentage
Increasing
Variable;
decreasing after
1986
electronics
571
161
67
Decreasing
Decreasing
Appliances
107
88
57
Decreasing
Decreasing
Pigments
79
70
93
Variable
Variable
Glass and
ceramics
32
29
37
Variable
Variable
All others
12
8
11
Variable
Variable
* Consumer Electronics (television sets and radios) formerly had
cadmium-plated steel chassis in many cases. These chassis have been replaced
by circuit boards, so cadmium discards in consumer electronics are declining
as the older units are replaced. They contributed 9 percent of the total in
1986.
* Appliances (dishwashers and washing machines) formerly had
cadmium-plated parts to resist corrosion. This source of cadmium is declining
as cadmium-plated parts are replaced by plastics, which are themselves another
source of cadmium discards in appliances. Cadmium discards from appliances
accounted for about 5 percent of total in 1986.
* Pipments used in printing inks, textile dyes, and paints may
contain cadmium compounds, although this is not a large source of cadmium in
MSW (about 4 percent of total).
* Glass and Ceramics may contain cadmium as a pigment, as a glaze,
or as a phosphor. This is a relatively small source of cadmium in MSW.
7
-------
* All other sources of cadmium include rubber products, used oil,
and electric blankets and heating pads. These contribute very small amounts of
cadmium to MSW.
LEAD AND CADMIUM IN COMBUSTIBLE AND NONCOMBUSTIBLE PRODUCTS
Removal of the noncombustible products containing load ami cadmium
before municipal solid waste is incinerated has been suggested as a way to
manage the heavy metal content of incinerator ash. Using data developed in
this study, the lead and cadmium content of the combustible and noncombustib 1 e
fractions of MSW was examined.
Almost 98 percent of the lead in MSW is found in noncombustible
products, mostly in lead-acid batteries (Figure 4). If all the noncombustible
products containing lead were removed, most of the remaining lead would be in
plastics (71 percent) and other pigments (24 percent).
Noncombustible products also contribute the majority (64 percent)
of cadmium in MSW, with nickel-cadmium batteries being the primary source
(Figure 5). If all of the noncombustible products containing cadmium were
removed, plastics would contribute most of the remainder (88 percent;, with
other pigments accounting for 11 percent.
POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF RECYCLING
Recycling of lead-acid batteries to recover lead has a very
significant influence on the amount of lead discarded. A previous study for
EPA estimated the recycling rate of these batteries to be 80 percent in 1986-
if there were no recycling of batteries, up to 700,000 additional tons of lead
would have been discarded. The battery recycling rate has been as low as b'2
percent in the early 1980s. The rate is affected by several factors,
including the price of lead and regulatory requirements.
No other recycling of lead or cadmium was identified, although
small amounts of nickel-cadmium batteries may be exported for recycling.
There are, however, several products that are recovered for recycling in which
lead or cadmium is an incidental constituent. The lead or cadmium is thus
removed from the waste stream entering an incinerator by the recycling
process. The recycled products identified are: paper products that are
deinked for recycling purposes, soldered cans, rubber tires, appliances, glass
containers, and plastics.
LIMITATIONS OF THIS REPORT
While this report contains useful data on discards of lead and
cadmium in municipal solid waste, there are some limitations in its
application to the issue of lead and cadmium in municipal waste combustor ash.
These limitations are:
8
-------
Figure 4. Relative discards of lead in combustible and
noncombustible products, 1986.
Combustibles 2.3%
sNoncombustibles
*:97.7%
Figure 5. Relative discards of cadmium in combustible and
noncombustible products, 1986.
-------
* This characterization identifies the sources of lead and cadmium
in MSW; it does not tell us whether these are the major sources of leachable
lead and cadmium in MWC ash.
* The MSW characterization presented here may not correlate well
with the waste input at any particular MWC facility.
* The identified compounds of lead and cadmium may recombine with
other materials in the combustion chamber to form new compounds; this issue is
beyond the scope of this study.
* In addition to MSW, other nonhazardous wastes contain lead and
cadmium; these wastes may in some instances be incinerated along with MSW.
These wastes, which were identified but not characterized in this study,
include: municipal sludge, construction and demolition wastes, industrial and
military wastes, and automotive and other transportation equipment wastes.
10
-------
Chapter 1
LEAD AND CADMIUM IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE:
OVERVIEW AND SUMMARY
In the past few years, environmentally-sound disposal of municipal
solid waste (MSW) has become a major issue for the United States, especially
at the local and state levels. As more and more landfills are closed and new
landfills become increasingly difficult to site, communities are seeking
methods of disposal. Recovery and recycling of materials and combustion
(incineration) of MSW are two important alternatives that are being considered
and implemented.
Municipal waste combustion (MWC) is attractive to many communities
because combustion reduces the volume of waste by up to 90 percent and the
weight of waste by up to 80 percent. In addition, sales of recovered energy
products (e.g., steam or electricity) help to offset the costs of disposal.
Combustion of municipal solid waste does present some problems, however, and
one of these is the disposal of the ash remaining after the combustion process
is complete.
Analytical tests have detected heavy metals (lead and cadmium in
particular) in the ash remaining after municipal waste combustion (1). This
report addresses one of many unanswered questions about MWC ash: What are the
sources of lead and cadmium in municipal solid waste?
OVERVIEW OF THIS REPORT
This report characterizes lead and cadmium in products disposed in
municipal solid waste over the time period 1970 to 1986, with projections of
disposal to the year 2000. A summary of the findings is included in this
chapter, with more detailed discussions on lead in Chapter 2, and cadmium in
Chapter 3.
Wastes Included In This Report
Municipal solid waste is defined in EPA's Subtitle D* reports (2)
as wastes coming from household, Institutional, and commercial sources.
Examples of Institutional sources include hospitals (except for infectious
wastes), schools, and prisons. Examples of commercial sources include retail
stores, office buildings, and warehouses. Some wastes from industrial sources
are also included, for example: corrugated boxes and other packaging,
cafeteria and washroom wastes, and office wastes.
* Subtitle D of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulates
those wastes generally classified as nonhazardous, while Subtitle C deals
with hazardous wastes.
11
-------
Wastes Not Included in this Report
A number of wastes* regulated under Subtitle D are not
characterized in this study, including:
- Municipal sludge
- Industrial nonhazardous process waste
- Small quantity generator waste
- Construction and demolition waste.
While these wastes are not characterized for lead and cadmium content in this
report, they may contain those metals and if incinerated along with MSW, they
could contribute to lead and cadmium in the ash.
METHODOLOGY
The general methodology for this study is called the materials
flow methodology; it is based on a methodology for estimating municipal solid
waste that was developed at EPA in the mid-1970s (3) and that has been used
periodically for EPA reports ever since. The materials flow methodology
applies to the United States as a whole; it is not tailored to any specific
locality. Data series on production of the products and materials in the
waste stream are used as a basis. Adjustments are then made for imports and
exports of the products, for diversions away from the waste stream, for the
lifetimes of the products, and for materials recovery.
Application of the methodology to discards of lead and cadmium
required some additional steps. Numerous assumptions were required to
determine end uses of products (like lead-containing solder) that would enter
the municipal waste stream rather than others, such as demolition wastes.
Also, lead and cadmium occur in many intermediate products, such as pigments,
that enter the waste stream as part of another product. All assumptions were
documented. The methodology is summarized in Figure 1-1, and a more detailed
description is included in Appendix A of this report.
RELATIVE DISCARDS OF LEAD AND CADMIUM
Both lead and cadmium have been detected in analyses of ash from
municipal waste combustors (MWC). Discards of lead in products classified as
MSW are, however, very much greater than discards of cadmium.** As Figure 1-2
demonstrates, nearly 100 times more lead than cadmium was discarded in 1986;
this relationship has been relatively constant since 1970.
* See Reference 2 for definitions and discussion of these wastes.
** Later in this chapter, relative discards of lead and cadmium in the
combustible and noncombustible fractions of MSW are discussed.
12
-------
u>
Non-MSW
Products
Consumption
of Lead or
Cadmium
Diversions
i
Imports
Intermediate
Products
Imports
Diversions
A
Exports
Discards to
Incineration
or Landfill
Products
Entering
MSW
Manufacturing
or Converting
Losses
Exports
Manufacturing
or Converting
Losses
Materials
Recovery
Figure 1-1. Materials flow methodology for estimating lead and cadmium in MSW discards.
-------
Figure 1-2. Relative discards of lead and cadmium in MSW, 1986.
Cadmium 1,788 tons
14
-------
TRENDS IN DISCARDS* OF LEAD AND CADMIUM
Lead in MSW
Discards of lead in products in MSW from 1970 to 2000 are
summarized in Tables 1-1 and 1-2. Some perspective on the discards of various
products can be gained from Tables 1-3 and 1-4 and Figure 1-3. The products
are discussed below in order of their relative rankings in 1986 (Table 1-3).
(Each of these products is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2,)
Lead-Acid Batteries. By any measure, lead discarded in lead-acid
storage batteries overwhelms all other sources. These batteries, which
primarily provide starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) for automotive
products, rank Number 1 in discards for all years from 1970 to 2000 (Table 1-4
and Figure 1-3).
Table 1-2 demonstrates the high percentage of lead discarded in
these batteries. They were 50 percent of the total lead discards in 1970, 76
percent in 1980, and 65 percent in 1986, a percentage that is projected to
remain about constant to 2000. The figures show that discards of lead from
batteries peaked in 1982 at about 409,000 tons. Several factors contributed
to this: sales and imports of automotive vehicles were high in 1978 (there is
a four-year lag between battery purchases and discards); the estimated pounds
of lead per battery peaked at that time; and recycling of lead from batteries
was declining. (Recycling is discussed in more detail later in this chapter.)
An estimated 138,000 tons of lead in batteries were discarded in
1986. These discards are projected to increase gradually to about 182,000
tons in 2000 under stable conditions (Table 1-1 and Figure 1-3).
Consumer Electronics. This category of products includes
primarily television sets, radios, and more recently, video cassette recorders
(VCRs). Consumer electronics were the Number 4 contributor of lead in MSW in
1970, but by 1975 they were Number 2, a position they continue to hold (Table
1-4). The sources of lead in these electronics products include soldered
circuit boards, leaded glass in television sets, and plated steel chassis.
Discards of lead in consumer electronics amounted to about 12,000 tons in
1970, or 7 percent of total lead discards. By 1986, this has grown to 58,500
tons, or 27 percent of total. By 2000, discards of lead in consumer
electronics is projected to be 85,000 tons, or 30 percent of total. (See
Figure 1-3.)
Solder containing lead is commonly used in circuit boards in
consumer electronic products. This has been an increasing source of lead
discards, but the amount discarded is projected to decline in the future
(Table 1-1). This reflects a general decline in the use of lead in solder in
* "Discards" in this section refers to discards after recycling; in other
words, the products shown in these tables and figures would be incinerated
unless otherwise disposed.
15
-------
labia 1-1
DISCARDS* OF LEAP IN PRODUCTS IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM. 1970 TO 2000
(In short cons)
1970
1975
1980
1985
1986
1990
1995
2000
BRASS AND BRONZE PRODUCTS
A10
474
404
267
321
310
131
207
CANS AND OTHER SHIPPING CONTAINERS
Solder in food cans
11.995
10,291
6,882
1,898
1.139
642
594
44 3
Solder in beverage cans
9,22?
7,260
1,077
0
0
0
0
0
Solder general cans
2,307
1,911
1,257
911
7 78
439
406
303
Solder in shipping containers
588
660
459
198
135
52
46
41
Subtotal - cans and shipping
containers
24,117
20,122
9,675
3.007
2,052
1,133
1,046
787
CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
Circuit boards
1,417
1,759
3,441
5,883
6,092
3,568
2, 714
990
Plastics
0
0
0
0
0
46
26
42
TV picture tubes
10,430
17,935
17,690
40,818
52,165
48.230
76,280
84,000
TV and radio chaasis
386
499
683
310
279
0
0
0
Subtotal - consumer electron.
12,233
20,193
31,814
47.011
58,536
51,844
79,020
85,032
CLASS AND CERAMIC PRODUCTS**
3,465
4,122
5,396
6,911
7.956
8,415
8,66 3
8.910
LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERIES
Starting-lighting-ignition
83,823
206,420
205,641
221,913
137,996
167,236
172,639
181,44S
Portable
2
7
18
41
47
71
91
101
Subtotal - laad-acid batteries
83,825
206,427
205,659
221,954
138,043
167,307
172,730
181,546
LIGHT BULBS
Glass
491
507
623
706
709
727
787
84 7
Solder
156
161
197
224
225
230
249
268
Subtotal - light bulbs
647
668
820
930
934
957
1,036
1.115
PIGMENTS+
Printing inks
19,192
13,819
8,222
1,414
265
220
179
140
All other products
7,828
3,198
1,642
954
866
718
630
542
Subtotal - pigments
27,020
17,017
9,864
2,368
1,131
938
809
682
PLASTICS++
Nonfood packaging
775
689
968
916
934
1,007
1,003
1,003
Clothing
116
182
67
31
29
30
30
30
Footwear
152
342
264
372
324
290
290
290
Miscellaneous nondurabies
56
89
371
377
391
390
390
390
Subtotal - nondurable®
1,099
1,302
1,670
1,696
1,678
1,717
1,713
1. 713
Housewares
80
227
189
166
177
137
145
145
Toys
130
354
222
183
219
176
183
183
Records
97
166
304
209
242
215
95
120
Luggage
3
4
8
4
5
7
5
6
Furniture
84
155
426
368
416
362
160
177
Appliances
88
74
113
98
92
148
139
153
Miscellaneous durables
32
61
80
742
748
758
731
731
Subtotal - durables
514
1,041
1,342
1,770
1,899
1,803
1,458
1,515
Subtotal - plastics
1,613
2,343
3,012
3.466
3,577
3,520
3,171
3,228
RUBBER PRODUCTS
Tires and rubber products
36
38
70
42
48
55
57
59
All other rubber products
16
15
33
18
21
24
24
24
Subtotal - rubber products
52
53
103
60
69
79
81
83
USED OIL
1,557
1.230
810
314
192
61
48
36
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS
Collapsible tubes
9.310
2,860
1,477
607
639
240
220
200
Foil win* wrappers
591
356
383
24 3
202
100
80
60
Subtotal - alsc. products
9,901
3.216
1,860
850
841
340
300
260
GRAND TOTAL
164,340
275,865
269,417
287,138
213,652
234.904
267,086
281,887
* Discards after recycling.
** Except Cor glsss in light bulbs and television sets.
+ Exempt tot pigaents In glass, plastics, and rubber.
++ Except for plastics in conauaer electronics.
16
-------
Table 1-2
DISCARDS* OF LEAD IN
PRODUCTS
IN THE
MUNICIPAL
WASTE STREAM, 1970
TO 2000
(In percent of
total lead
discards)
Produc ts
1970
1975
1980
1985
1986
1990
1995
2000
BRASS AND BRONZE PRODUCTS
0.2
0.2
0. 1
0.1
0. 2
0.1
0.1
0.1
CANS AND OTHER SHIPPING CONTAINERS
Solder in food cans
7.3
3.7
2.5
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.2
Solder in beverage cans
5.6
2.6
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Solder in general cans
1.4
0.7
0. 5
0.3
0.4
0. 2
0.2
0.1
Solder in shipping containers
0.3
0.2
0. 2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
Subtotal - cans and shipping
containers
14.6
7.3
3.6
1.1
1.0
0.5
0. 4
0.3
CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
Circuit boards
0.9
0.6
1.3
2.1
2.9
1.5
1.0
0.4
Plastics
0.0
0.0
0.0
O.O
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
TV picture tubes
6.3
6.5
10.3
14.2
24.4
20.5
28.6
29.8
TV and radio chassis
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
Subtotal — consumer electronics
7.4
7.3
11.8
16.4
27.4
22.1
29.6
30. 2
GLASS AND CERAMIC PRODUCTS**
2.1
1.5
2.0
2.4
3.7
3.6
3. 2
3.2
LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERIES
Starting-lighting-ignition
50.8
74.8
76. 3
77.3
64.6
71.2
64.6
64.4
Portable
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Subtotal - lead-acid batteries
50.9
74. 8
76.3
77.3
64.6
71.2
64. 7
64.4
UCIIT I1UI.ISS
Glass
0.3
0.2
0. 2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0. 3
Solder
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Subtotal - light bulbs
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
PIGMENTS+
Printing inks
11.6
5.0
3.1
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
All other products
4.8
1.2
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.3
0. 2
Subtotal - pigments
16.4
6.2
3.7
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.3
PLASTICS-H-
Nonfood packaging
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
Clothing
0.1
0.1
0.0
O.O
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Footwear
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0. 2
0.1
0.1
0. 1
Miscellaneous nondurables
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0. 2
0.2
0.1
0.1
Subtotal - nondurables
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
Housewares
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Toys
0. 1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Records
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
Luggage
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Furniture
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
Appliances
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
Miscellaneous durables
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
0. 3
0.3
0.3
0.3
Subtotal - durables
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.9
0.8
0.5
0.5
Subtotal - plastics
1.0
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.7
1.5
1.2
1.1
RUBBER PRODUCTS
Tires and tire products
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
All other rubber products
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Subtotal - rubber products
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
USED OIL
0.9
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.03
0.02
0.01
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS
Collapsible tubes
5.6
1.0
0.6
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
Foil wine wrappers
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
Subtotal - misc. products
6.0
1.2
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.1
GRAND TOTAL
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
* Discards after recycling.
** Except for glass In light bulbs and television sets.
+ Except for pigments in glass, plastics, and rubber.
++ Except for plastics in consumer electronics.
17
-------
Table 1-3
DISCARDS* OF LEAD IN PRODUCTS III THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1986
RANKED IN ORDER OF WEIGHT OF LEAD
(In shore cons and percent of total)
Products Short Tons Percent
LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERIES
Starting-Lighting.-ignition 137,996 64.6
Portable 47 o.O
Subtotal - lead batteries 138,043 64.6
CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
Circuit boards 6,092 2.9
TV picture tubes 5 2,165 24.4
TV and radio chassis 279 0.1
Subtotal-consumer electronics 58,5 36 2 7 .
GLASS AND CERAMIC PRODUCTS** -7,956 3.7
PLASTICS*
Nonfood packaging 9 34 0.4
Clothing 29 0.0
Foocwear 3 24 0.2
Miscellaneous nondurables 391 0.2
Subtotal-uondurables 1,678 0.8
Housewares 177 0.1
Toys 219 0.1
Records 242 0.1
Luggage 5 0.0
Furniture 416 0.2
Appliances 92 0.0
Miscellaneous durables 748 0.3
Subtotal-durables 1,899 0.9
Subtotal-plastics 3,577 1.7
CANS AND OTHER SHIPPING CONTAINERS
Solder in food cans 1,139 0.5
Solder in general cans 7 78 0.4
Solder in shipping containers 135 0.1
Subtotal-cans and shipping containers 2.052 1.0
PIGMENTS++
Printing Inks 265 0.1
All other products 866 0.4
Subtotal -pigments 1,131 0.5
LIGHT BULBS
Glass 709 0.3
Solder 225 0.1
Subtotal-light bulbs 934 0.4
COLLAPSIBLE TUBES 639 0.3
BRASS AND BRONZE PRODUCTS 321 0.2
FOIL WINE WRAPPERS 202 0.1
USED OIL 192 0.1
RUBBER PRODUCTS
Tires and tire products 48 0.02
All other rubber products 21 0.01
Subtotal-rubber products 69 0.03
GRAND TOTAL 213,653 100.0
* Discards after recycling.
** Except for glass in light bulbs and television sets.
+ Except for plastics in consumer electronics.
++ Except for pignents in glsas, plastics, and rubber
18
-------
Table 1-4
SOURCES OF LEAD IN MSW. RANKED BY TONNAGE, 1970 TO 2000
RANK,^-^
^-^YEAR
1970
1975
I960
1966
1990
1995
2000
No. 1
Lead-Acid
Batteries
Lead-Acid
Batteries
Lead-Acid
Batteries
Lead-Acid
Batteries
Lead-Acid
Batteries
Lead-Acid
Batteries
Lead-Acid
Batteries
No. 2
Pigments
Consumer
Electronics
Consumer
Electronics
Consumer
Electronics
Consumer
Electronics
Consumer
Electronics
Consumer
Electronics
No. 3
Soldered
Cans
Soldered
Cans
Pigments
Glass
Products
Glass
Products
Glass
Products
Glass
Products
No. 4
Consumer
Electronics
Pigments
Soldered
Cans
Plastics
Plastics
Plastics
Plastics
No. 5
Collapsible
Tubes
Glass
Products
Glass
Products
Soldered
Cans
Soldered
Cans
Soldered
Cans
Ught Bulbs
No. 6
Glass
Products
Collapsible
Tubes
Plastics
Pigments
Pigments
Ught Bulbs
Soldered
Cans
Lead-Acid Batteries are primarily automotive batteries.
Pigments include pigments in paints, inks and dyes, but not those in glass, plastics, and rubber.
Soldered Cans include food, beverage, and other carts.
Consumer Electronics include circuit boards, picture tubes. TV and radio chassis, and plastics.
Collapsible Tubes are tubes of the type used for artists' paints.
Glass Products include all uses except light bulbs and TV picture tubes.
-------
Figure 1-3. Lead in discards of products In MSW, 1970, 1986, and 2000.
Year
2000
1986
1970
50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000
0 All others
VI Pigments ~ Cans
S3 Plastics
Tons
Hi Glass
11 Electronics El Batteries
20
-------
electronic components as reported by the Bureau of Mines, and reflects changes
in the manufacturing processes. Discards of lead from solder in consumer
electronics were about 1,400 tons in 1970 (less than one percent of the
total), and were about 76,000 tons in 1986 (about 3 percent of total). These
discards of lead are projected to decline to less than 1,000 tons and less
than one percent of total discards by 2000.
Leaded glass in television picture tubes is the major source of
lead in consumer electronic products. (According to the Bureau of Mines, 75
percent of lead used in glass is used in picture tubes.) Lead in the glass
provides shielding from X-rays and otherwise enhances the qualities of the
glass. This source of lead in MSW has increased steadily since 1970, and is
projected to continue to do so (Table 1-1). Discards of lead from glass in
TVs were about 10,000 tons in 1970 (6 percent of total), and were about 52,000
tons in 1986, or 24 percent of total lead. These discards are projected to be
84,000 tons, or 30 percent of total, in 2000 if present trends continue.
Finally, many steel chassis in television sets and radios were
coated with terne metal (a lead and tin alloy) up until 1980. This has never
been a major source of lead in MSW (less than one percent), and is projected
to disappear as old television sets are phased out.
It is of interest to note that in 1986, lead-acid batteries and
lead in consumer electronics together accounted for 92 percent of lead
discards in MSW.
Glass and Ceramic Products. It was possible to quantify lead in
glass in television picture tubes and light bulbs separately (Chapter 2).
Lead discards in the remaining products in MSW were quantified in total, but
it was not possible to determine separate end uses of the lead. This category
of discarded products includes glass containers for food, beverages, and
miscellaneous products such as cosmetics; glass and ceramic tableware and
cookware; mirrors; optical glasses; electronic products; enamels for
appliances and other uses; and miscellaneous decorative and other uses.
The major uses of leaded glass are in television picture tubes and
light bulbs, as described elsewhere. Other uses of leaded glass include
tableware and bifocal lenses in reading glasses.
Lead is a component in glazes and enamels used on glass
containers, tableware, and cookware. Enamels used in silk screening designs
on glass typically contain 40 to 50 percent lead monoxide. Lead is also used
as a colorant in some of these designs.
These discards ranked Number 3 in 1986 at almost 8,000 tons and
almost 4 percent of total lead discards. In 1970 lead use in these glass
products ranked Number 6 at 3,500 tons and 2 percent of total. This use is
projected to grow to 9,000 tons in 2000, or 3 percent of the total.
21
-------
Plastics.* Discards of lead in plastic products did not rank in
the top six sources in 1970, but in 1986 plastics ranked fourth, and this is
projected to continue (Table 1-4). Lead is used in two ways in plastics: as
a component in compounds designed to act as heat stabilizers, primarily in
polyvinyl resins, and as a component in pigments used in a variety of plastic
resins.
Discards of lead in plastic products has been growing, but this
source contributes a small portion of the total (Figure 1-3). In 1970 lead in
plastic discards contributed 1,600 tons, about one percent of the total. In
1986 lead in plastics comprised about 3,500 tons, less than 2 percent of
total. Projections to 2000 show about 3,200 tons of lead in plastics being
discarded, slightly more than one percent of total. The projected decline is
attributed to regulations on lead in certain products, such as toys and
furniture.
Discards of lead in products made of plastics ranked as follows in
1986: nonfood packaging (highest tonnage), miscellaneous durables, furniture,
miscellaneous nondurables, footwear, records, toys, housewares, appliances,
and others.
Soldered Cans. In 1970, lead in solder in cans and shipping
containers represented the Number 3 discard into MSW, but by 1986 this was the
Number 5 source of discards (Table 1-4). The use of leaded solder in steel
food cans has declined dramatically, and soldered steel beverage cans have
virtually disappeared. Use of leaded solder in general purpose cans, such as
aerosols, and in shipping containers has also declined. Figure 1-3
illustrates this decline.
Discards of lead in soldered cans were 24,000 tons, or over 14
percent of total discards, in 1970. In 1986, only 2,000 tons of lead were
discarded in soldered cans, representing less than one percent of total.
These discards are projected to be about 800 tons, much less than one percent
of total, in 2000.
Pigments. Discards of pigments in plastics, glass, and rubber are
discussed in other sections. The remaining pigments--those used in paints,
printing inks, textile dyes, and miscellaneous uses--are included in this
section. These pigments ranked second in discards of lead into MSW in 1970,
but they are ranked Number 6 in 1986 (Table 1-4). As illustrated in Figure 1-
3, use of lead in pigments has been in decline, in large part due to concerns
about toxicity.
Discards of lead in printing inks, once an important source of
lead, have declined dramatically, from 19,000 tons in 1970 to less than 300
tons in 1986. Use of lead in many kinds of paint has been regulated, also
leading to a decline in consumption.
* Plastics in consumer electronics are counted in that category.
22
-------
Total discards of lead in these pigments was 30,000 tons in 1970,
or 16 percent of total lead discards. This had declined to about 1,200 tons
in 1986--less than one percent of total. The decline is projected to
continue, to about 700 tons in 2000, much less than one percent of the total.
Lipht Bulbs. Light bulbs are not a large source of lead in MSW,
but are of interest because they contain two sources of lead: solder and
leaded glass. While not ranked in the top six sources of lead in MSW in 1986,
light bulbs are projected to be the Number 5 source in 2000 (Table 1-4).
In 1970 lead discarded into MSW from light bulbs was estimated to
be about 600 tons, less than one percent of the total. By 1986 these discards
were over 900 tons; by 2000, over 1,000 tons. The percentage of total is not
projected to be over one percent in any case.
Collapsible Tubes. Collapsible tubes made of lead are used for
products such as artists' paints. These tubes represented the Number 5 source
of lead in MSW in 1970 (Table 1-4), at over 9,000 tons and over 5 percent of
total discards. By 1986, however, collapsible tubes contributed only about
600 tons, less than one percent of the total. The decline is projected to
continue, to only 200 tons in 2000.
Brass and Bronze Products. Lead is a component of some brass and
bronze products, although most of these applications are not discarded into
MSW. Brass and bronze items that may be discarded into MSW include locks,
keys, and miscellaneous products such as clock and watch parts, musical
instruments, etc.
Discards of lead in brass and bronze products are a very small
part of total lead discards, estimated to be less than 500 tons per year since
1970 and declining.
Foil Wine Wrappers. Lead foil wine wrappers are used to cover the
corks on some wine bottles, although aluminum foil is replacing lead in many
instances. Discards of lead from this source are estimated to have declined
from about 600 tons in 1970 to about 200 tons in 1986, with a continued
decline to about 60 tons in 2000.
Used Oil. Gasoline additives were formerly an important use of
lead before the phase-out due to regulatory action began. Some of the lead
from the additives enters used automotive oil, as does some lead from other
sources such as engine wear. It was estimated that about 1,500 tons of lead
in used oil entered MSW in 1970, almost one percent of total discards. By
1986 this had decreased to less than 200 tons, and by 2000, lead in used oil
is projected to be only 36 tons.
Rubber Products. Most of the lead consumed by the rubber industry
is used in products like lead-sheathed hose that do not enter MSW. It was
estimated that 100 tons or less of lead enters MSW in rubber products each
year. About 50 tons of lead in rubber were discarded in 1970; about 70 tons in
1986; and a projected 80 tons in 2000.
23
-------
Cadmium in MSW
Discards of cadmium in products in MSW from 1970 to 2000 are
summarized in Tables 1-5 and 1-6. Tables 1-7 and 1-8 show how products
discarded into MSW rank in their contributions of cadmium. A perspective on
the changing importance of the various sources of cadmium is shown in Figure
1-4. Products containing cadmium in MSW are discussed below in order of the
relative rankings in 1986 (Table 1-7). (More details on these products are
contained in Chapter 3.)
Household Batteries. Household batteries (primarily rechargeable
nickel-cadmium batteries) have been the Number 1 source of cadmium in MSW
since 1980 (Table 1-8). Their growth has been rapid--they were the Number 5
source of cadmium in 1970. Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries have become very
popular for uses such as portable hand tools, small appliances such as vacuum
cleaners and mixers, portable television sets, cameras, etc.
In 1970 discards of cadmium in household batteries were estimated
at 53 tons, or 4 percent of total cadmium discards. By 1986 this number was
930 tons, or 52 percent of the total. If this growth continues as projected,
discards in 2000 will be over 2,000 tons, or 76 percent of total (Figure 1-4).
Plastics. Plastics have ranked second only to household batteries
as a source of cadmium in MSW since 1980 (Table 1-8). Like lead, cadmium is
used as a stabilizer in polyvinyl chloride resin and as a pigment in a variety
of resins.
Discards of cadmium in plastics were 342 tons in 1970, or almost
29 percent of the total cadmium discards. Cadmium in plastics peaked at 595
tons in 1978 (38 percent of total discards), then generally declined to 502
tons in 1986 (28 percent of total discards). Projected discards are 384 tons
in 2000, or 14 percent of total (Figure 1-4). The decline is generally
attributed to concern over toxicity and regulations on the use of cadmium in
products like toys and furniture.
In 1986, plastic products containing cadmium in discards ranked as
follows: nonfood packaging (highest tonnage), miscellaneous durables,
miscellaneous nondurables, furniture, toys, records, footwear, and others.
It is of interest to note that household batteries and plastics
combined accounted for 80 percent of cadmium discards into MSW in 1986.
Consumer Electronics. Discards of cadmium-plated chassis in
radios and television sets gave consumer electronics the Number 3 ranking in
cadmium discards in 1986. This is a declining source of cadmium discards,
however, ranking Number 1 in 1970 and Number 4 in 2000 (Table 1-8 and Figure
1-3). Cadmium was formerly used to plate the chassis or steel sheet that
holds electronic parts of the radio or TV together. By 1980 this technology
has been replaced by printed circuit boards, so this source of cadmium is
declining as older equipment is replaced.
24
-------
Table 1-5
DISCARDS* OF CADMIUM IN PRODUCTS IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM. 1970 to 2000
(In short tons)
Products
1970
1975
1980
1985
1986
1990
1995
2000
APPLIANCES
Cadnlua plating
Plastics
Subtotal - appliances
47
60
107
39
52
91
32
77
109
25
54
79
24
64
88
19
38
57
12
46
58
9
48
57
CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
Cadnlun plating 571
Plastics 0
Subtotal - consumer
electronics 571
CLASS AND CERAMIC PRODUCTS 32
330
0
330
27
176
0
176
23
158
0
158
25
161
0
161
29
101
36
137
32
67
41
108
34
20
47
67
37
ls>
U>
HOUSEHOLD BATTERIES
Nickel—cadmium batteries 51
Dry cell casings 2
Subtotal-household batteries 53
PIGMENTS** 79
PLASTICS+
Nonfood packaging 209
Clothing 15
Footwear 19
Miscellaneous nondurables 11
Subtotal-nonducables 254
Housewares 19
Toys 34
Records 12
Luggage 5
Furniture 10
Miscellaneous durables 8
Subtotal-durables 88
Subtotal-plastics 342
RUBBER PR0DUCTS++
USED OIL
10
209
2
211
65
133
36
70
13
252
56
109
21
6
18
21
231
483
13
1
996
2
998
56
128
8
31
37
204
33
53
65
9
77
15
252
456
8
996
3
999
59
139
2
27
43
211
21
32
22
5
35
73
188
399
6
1
927
3
930
70
166
2
21
51
240
31
44
29
9
46
103
262
502
1.305
3
1 . 108
78
150
2
21
46
219
20
34
12
7
23
78
174
393
1.709
3
1.712
85
150
2
21
46
219
22
33
7
6
11
82
161
380
9
1
2.032
3
2,015
93
150
2
21
46
219
22
33
8
7
13
82
165
384
9
1
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS
Electric blankets and
heating pads
CRAND TOTAL
1.196
1.222
1,828
1.727
1.788
2,015
2.388
2,684
* Discards after recycling.
** Except for pigments In glass, plastics, and rubber.
+ Except for plastics In appliances and consumer electronics.
-H- Assumed to be all nontlre products.
-------
Table 1-6
DISCARDS* OF CADMIUM IN PRODUCTS IN THE HUNTCIPAL WASTE STREAM. 1970 TO 3000
(In percent of total cadmium discards)
1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1990 1995 2000
APPLIANCES
Cadalua placing 3.9 3.2 1.8 1.4 1J 0.9 0.3 0.3
Plastics 5.0 4.3 4.2 3.1 3.6 1.9 1.8 1.8
Subtotal-appliances 8.9 7.4 6.0 4.6 4.9 2.8 2.1 2.1
CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
Cadalua plating 47.7 27.0 9.6 9.1 9.0 5.0 0.7 0.7
Plastics 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 l.S 1.8
Subtotal-consuaer
electronics 47.7 27.0 9.6 9.1 9.0 6.8 2.5 2.5
CLASS AND CERAMIC PRODUCTS 2.7 2.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.4
HOUSEHOLD BATTERIES
Nickel-cadmium batteries 4.3 17.1 54.5 57.7 51.8 64.8 75.7 75.7
Dry cell casings 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
Subtotal-household
batteries 4.4 17.3 54.6 57.8 52.0 64.9 75.8 75.8
to PIGMENTS** 6.6 5. 3 3.1 3.4 3.9 3.9 3.5 3.5
PLASTICS+
Nonfood packaging 17.5 10.9 7.0 8.0 9.3 7.4 5.6 5.6
Clothing 1.3 2.9 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Footwear 1.6 5.7 1.7 1.6 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8
Miscellaneous nondurables 0.9 1 .1 2.0 2.5 2.9 2.3 1.7 1.7
Subcocal-nondurables 21.2 20.6 11.2 12.2 13.4 10.9 8.2 8.2
Housewares 1.6 4.6 1.8 1 .2 1.7 1.0 0.8 0.8
Toys 2.8 8.9 2.9 1.9 2.5 1.7 1.2 1.2
Records 1.0 1.7 3.6 1.3 1.6 0.6 0.3 0.3
Luggage 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3
Furniture 0.8 1.5 4.2 2.0 2.6 1.1 0.5 0.5
Miscellaneous durables 0.7 1.7 0.8 4.2 5.8 3.9 3.1 3.1
Subtotal-durables 7.4 18.9 13.8 10.9 14.7 8.6 6.1 6.1
Subtotal-plastics 28.6 39.5 24.9 23.1 28.1 19.5 14.3 14.3
RUBBER PR0DUCTS++ 0.8 1.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3
USED OIL 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS
Electric blankets and
heating pads 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
CRAND TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
* Discards after recycling.
** Except for plgnents in glass, plastics and rubber.
+ Except for plastics in appliances and consumer electronics.
++ Assumed to be all non-tire products.
-------
Table 1-7
DISCARDS* OF CADMIUM IN PRODUCTS IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM. 1Qftfi
RANKED IN ORDER OF WEIGHT OF CADMIUM
(in short tons and percent of total)
Products Short Tons Percent
HOUSEHOLD BATTERIES
Nickel-cadmium batteries 927 51.8
Drycell casings 3 0. 2
Subtotal-household batteries 930 52.0
PLASTICS**
Nonfood packaging 166 9.3
Clothing 2 0.1
Footwear 21 1.2
Miscellaneous nondurables 51 2.9
Subtotal-nondurables 240 13.4
Housewares 31 1.7
Toys 44 2.5
Records 29 1.6
Luggage 9 0.5
Furniture 46 2.6
Miscellaneous durables 103 5.8
Subtotal-durables 262 14.7
Subtotal-plastics 502 28.1
CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
Cadmium plating 161 9.0
APPLIANCES
Cadmium plating 24 1.3
Plastics 64 3.6
Subtotal-appliances 88 4.9
PIGMENTS+ 70 3.9
GLASS AND CERAMIC PRODUCTS 29 1.6
RUBBER PRODUCTS++ 6 0.3
USED OIL 1 0.1
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS
Electric blankets and heating pads 1 0.1
GRAND TOTAL 1,788 100.0
* Discards after recycling.
** Except for plastics in appliances.
+ Except for pigments in glass, plastics, and rubber.
++ Assumed to be all non-tire products.
27
-------
Table 1-8
SOURCES OF CADMIUM IN MSW, RANKED BY TONNAGE, 1970 TO 2000
RANK^^
YEAR
1970
1975
1960
1966
1990
1995
2000
No. 1
Consumer
Electronics
Plastics
Household
Batteries
Household
Batteries
Household
Batteries
Household
Batteries
Household
Batteries
No. 2
Plastics
Consumer
Electronics
Plastics
Plastics
Plastics
Plastics
Plastics
No. 3
Appliances
Household
Batteries
Consumer
Electronics
Consumer
Electronics
Consumer
Electronics
Consumer
Electronics
Pigments
No. 4
Pigments
Appliances
Appliances
Appliances
Pigments
Pigments
Consumer
Electronics
No. 5
Household
Batteries
Pigments
Pigments
Pigments
Appliances
Appliances
Appliances
Consumer Electronics primarily includes cadmium plating on televisions and radios, plus some plastics in later years.
Plastics include all plastic uses except for appliances and consumer electronics.
Appliances primarily include cadmium plating in dishwashers and washing machines and plastics.
Pigments includes pigments in paints, inks, and dyes, but not those in glass, plastics and rubber.
Household Batteries are primarily rechargeable nickel-cadmium household batteries.
-------
Figure 1-4. Cadmium in discards of products in MSW, 1970, 1986
and 2000.
Year
2000
1986
1970
!~!<
03
500
1,000
1,500 2,000
2,500
All others ~ Pigments 0 Appliances
Electronics E Plastics 11 Batteries
3,000
Tons
29
-------
In 1970, cadmium discards in consumer electronics were estimated
at 571 tons, or 48 percent of total discards. By 1986, these discards were
161 tons, or 9 percent of total; projected 2000 discards are 67 tons, or 2.5
percent of total.
Appliances. There are two potential sources of cadmium in
discarded appliances: cadmium plating and plastics. Appliances ranked Number
4 in cadmium discards in 1986, but are projected to drop to Number 5 by 1990
(Table 1-8).
Cadmium was formerly used to plate nuts, bolts, and screws in
dishwashers and washing machines because of cadmium's corrosion-resistant
properties. As more appliance parts are made of plastic, however, the use of
cadmium plating has been phased out.
Appliances contributed an estimated 107 tons of cadmium to MSW in
1970, or 9 percent of the total. By 1986, these discards had declined to 88
tons, 5 percent of total. A continued decline is projected, to 57 tons, or 2
percent, in 2000.
Pigments. Cadmium in pigments in glass, plastics, and rubber is
discussed in other sections. It was not possible to quantify the amounts of
cadmium in other individual uses such as printing inks, textile dyes, and
paints; these categories are discussed collectively in this section. These
pigments ranked Number 5 in discards in 1986 (Table 1-8).
Discards of cadmium in pigments have been relatively constant over
the study period (Figure 1-4). In 1970, discards were an estimated 79 tons,
or about 7 percent of total discards of cadmium. In 1986, discards were 70
tons, or 4 percent of total. By 2000, projected discards will be 93 tons, or
just over 3 percent of total.
Glass and Ceramic Products. There are three uses for cadmium in
glass and ceramic products: as a pigment in the glass, as a glaze for glass
or ceramic products, and as a phosphor, e.g., in fluorescent tubes.
Glass and ceramic products account for a relatively minor portion
of cadmium discards in MSW. In 1970, 32 tons, or less than 3 percent of
total, were discarded. In 1986, 29 tons, or less than 2 percent of total,
were discarded. In 2000, it is estimated that 37 tons, or less than 2 percent
of total, will be discarded.
Rubber Products. Small amounts of cadmium are used in non-tire
rubber products such as hose and hot water bottles. This is a very minor
source of cadmium in MSW. An estimated 10 tons of cadmium were discarded in
rubber products in 1970, less than one percent of the total. In 1986, an
estimated 6 tons were discarded, again less than one percent. In 2000,
discards of 9 tons of cadmium in rubber products are projected, less than one
percent of the total.
30
-------
Used Oil. Studies have shown that small amounts of cadmium are
detected in used automotive oil. It was therefore estimated that one ton of
cadmium per year is discarded into MSW with used oil. This may overstate
these discards.
Miscellaneous Uses. Cadmium is used in very minor amounts in the
controls of electric blankets and heating pads. It was estimated that one ton
of cadmium is discarded in these products each year. This may overstate these
discards.
PRODUCTS CONTAINING BOTH LEAD AND CADMIUM
Throughout this report, estimates of lead and cadmium discards in
products have been made separately. There are a number of products, however,
that may often contain both metals in varying amounts. Table 1-9 presents a
listing of these products In 1986. Those quantified include consumer
electronics, glass and ceramic products, plastics, pigments, rubber products,
and used oil.
In addition, there are other products not quantified in Table 1-9
that may contain both lead and cadmium. It is projected, for example, that
some consumer electronics discarded after 1986 will include plastics that may
contain lead or cadmium. Appliances are not listed here, but they may contain
pigments formulated with cadmium or lead. Many products, especially
packaging, are made of composite materials, e.g., paper, plastic, and foil,
that could contain lead or cadmium in pigments. It is very difficult,
therefore, to predict whether some products do or do not contain lead and/or
cadmium.
LEAD AND CADMIUM IN COMBUSTIBLE AND NONCOMBUSTIBLE PRODUCTS
There has been considerable speculation as to whether the heavy
metals in municipal waste combustor ash come from combustible or
noncombustible materials (or both) in the incoming waste. While this study
was not designed to address this issue directly, some interesting observations
can be derived from the data series developed.
Lead in Combustible and Noncombustible Products
The relative tonnages of lead in combustible and noncombustible
products in MSW are shown in Figure 1-5. The noncombustible products
overwhelmingly predominate at almost 98 percent of the total weight of lead.
The reasons for this are illustrated in Figure 1-6: lead-acid batteries and
consumer electronics, two relatively heavy products, contribute most of the
lead in MSW. Glass products and all other sources, e.g., light bulbs and
soldered cans, account for the rest of the lead.
Sources of lead in combustible products in MSW are illustrated in
Figure 1-7. If all of the noncombustible products were removed from the
incoming waste at an incinerator (by deposits, preprocessing, or other
management methods), most of the remaining lead (71 percent) would be
31
-------
Table 1-9
PRODUCTS CONTAINING BOTH LEAD AND CADMIUM, 1986
(In short tons)
Products Lead
CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
Circuit boards 6,092
TV picture tubes 52,165
TV and radio chassis 279
Cadmium plating -
Subtotal - consumer
electronics 58,536
GLASS AND CERAMIC PRODUCTS 7,956
PLASTICS
Nondurables 1,678
Durables 1,899
Subtotal - plastics 3,577
PIGMENTS 1,131
RUBBER PRODUCTS
Tires 48
Non-tire products _21
Subtotal - rubber products 69
USED OIL 192
Cadmium
24
24
29
240
262
502
70
_6
6
1
32
-------
Figure 1-5. Relative discards of lead in combustible and norvcombustible products,
1986.
Combustibles 2.4%
33
-------
>Consumer<
Electronics
&28.1%>X
Lead-acid Batteries
SW/JC A Q/ :
DD. I /o
Figure 1-6. Sources of lead in noncombustible products, 1986
Glass 3.8% _ _ All Other 2.0%
Figure 1-7. Sources of lead in combustible products, 1986.
Pigments
523.8%$
H^PIasticsMHE
(including pigments)
H»71.0%r" ~
Used Oil
3.85%
Rubber 1.4%
34
-------
contained in plastic products. Other pigments in painted products or products
such as printed paper and dyed textiles would account for most of the rest (24
percent). Other small contributors of lead include used oil and rubber
products.
Cadmium in Combustible and Noncombustible Products
Noncombustible products also contribute the majority of cadmium in
MSW (64 percent), but not in such overwhelming amounts as is the case for lead
(Figure 1-8). The primary source of cadmium in noncombustible products is
household (nickel-cadmium) batteries (81 percent). Figure 1-9 also illustrates
that consumer electronics contribute the second highest amount of cadmium in
noncombustible products (14 percent). The remainder is contributed by
appliances and other products (e.g., electric blankets and heating pads).
If all the cadmium in noncombustible sources were removed from MSW
entering an incinerator, the cadmium in plastics would provide most of the
remainder (88 percent). This is illustrated in Figure 1-10. Pigments in
painted products, printed paper, and dyed textiles would contribute most of
the remainder of the cadmium (11 percent). Very small amounts would come from
rubber products and used oil in MSW.
Lead and Cadmium in Combustible and Noncombustible Products
The data reported above can be combined in another way to show the
relative discards of lead and cadmium in combustible and noncombustible
products.
Combined discards of lead and cadmium in noncombustible products
come overwhelmingly from the lead in products (Figure 1-11). For both metals
the primary source in this instance is batteries.
For combined discards of lead and cadmium in combustible products,
lead still predominates, but not by such an overwhelming margin (Figure 1-12).
Lead contributes almost 89 percent of these discards; cadmium, 11 percent.
For both lead and cadmium, plastic products contribute the highest tonnage in
combustible products, while pigments in other products are the second largest
contributor.
THE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF RECYCLING
Lead-acid Batteries
Recycling has been suggested as a way to reduce the amounts of
lead and cadmium entering municipal waste combustors. Only one of the lead or
cadmium-containing products currently identified is recycled in significant
amounts: lead-acid SLI batteries. This one product is extremely significant.
As noted earlier, lead-acid batteries contributed 65 percent of the lead
discards in MSW in 1986--138,000 tons. If these batteries were not recovered
for recycling at significant rates (80 percent in 1986), up to 700,000
35
-------
Figure 1-8. Relative discards of cadmium in combustible and
noncombustible products, 1986.
Combustibles!
fll36.0%®8|
Noncombustibles
36
-------
Electronics
|Household Batteries
81,2%l||lfl|
Consumer
Figure 1-9.
Sources of cadmium in noncombustible products,
1986.
Appliances
2.5%
All Others
2.2%
Figure 1-10. Sources of cadmium in combustible products, 1986.
Rubber and
uSed Oil 1.1%
Pigments
£10.9%X
/
/
v ';w • v' :
Plastics
pigments)
s O O . U /o s&l
37
-------
Figure 1-11. Relative discards of lead and cadmium in
noncombustible products in MSW, 1986.
Cadmium 0.5%
Figure 1-12. Relative discards of lead and cadmium in
combustible products in MSW, 1986.
Cadmium
|11 3%|
38
-------
additional tons of lead from lead-acid batteries would have been discarded in
1986.
Historic discards and recycling of lead-acid batteries are
illustrated in Figure 1-13. Recycling rates dropped as low as 52 percent in
the early 1980s (apparently due to low prices for lead and increased
regulations), and the figure illustrates that net quantities of batteries to
be disposed increased at that time. Recycling obviously plays an important
role in management of these batteries.
Other Products
No other recycling of lead or cadmium in products in MSW was
identified, although there may be some small exports of nickel-cadmium
batteries for recycling abroad. Some recycling of products in MSW that
removes lead and cadmium from disposal in a landfill or incinerator as a by-
product rather than as a goal of the recycling activity was identified.*
These activities are discussed briefly in this section. (More information can
be found in Chapters 2 and 3.)
Paper Products. A number of paper products are recovered for
recycling, including some that are printed with inks that could contain lead
or cadmium in the pigments. In many cases, such as newspapers made into
boxboard or magazines made into roofing felt, the inks tend to remain in the
recycled product. Some paper products are, however, deinked before being
recycled into new products. These include recovered newspapers that are
deinked before being made into new newsprint, and high grade recovered papers
like computer printout that are deinked before being made into a product like
paper towels.
It was estimated that up to 49 tons of lead in printing inks could
have been removed by recycling of deinked papers in 1986. Since use of lead
in printing inks was shown to be declining, removal of lead would also be
declining. Data were not available to make similar estimates for cadmium in
printing inks.
Solder in Cans. The lead in soldered steel cans is removed from
the municipal waste stream when the cans are recovered for recycling, though
the lead itself is not recycled, but would become an industrial waste. It was
estimated that 85 tons of lead were removed through recovery and recycling of
steel cans in 1986. Since the use of leaded solder in steel cans is
declining, removal of lead in this manner is also declining.
Rubber Products. Although rubber Is not recovered for recycling
in large quantities, some recycling of rubber tires does occur. This has the
potential to remove from the waste stream any lead pigments or other chemicals
present in the rubber. It was estimated that 3 tons of lead were removed from
* Lead or cadmium in these recycled products would either be incorporated
into the new products or would become industrial waste, e.g., sludges
from deinking papers.
39
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Figure 1-13. Discards of lead in SLI lead-acid batteries, 1970 to 2000.
Tons
1,000,000 t
900,000 ¦¦
800,000
700,000 ¦¦
600,000 ¦¦
500,000--
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
Gross
Discards
Discards
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
40
-------
the waste stream in this manner in 1986. Since all cadmium in rubber was
assumed to be in non-tire products, no recovery of cadmium was estimated.
Appliances. There is cadmium plating in older model dishwashers
and washing machines. If the ferrous metal in these appliances is recovered
for recycling, the cadmium is removed from the waste stream as well. It was
estimated that 2 tons of cadmium were removed in this way in 1986. This is a
declining source of cadmium in the waste stream.
Glass Products. Although it was not possible to quantify, there
are silk-screened designs that may contain lead and/or cadmium on many glass
containers. Many glass containers are recycled, so some lead and cadmium is
removed from the waste stream in this manner.
Plastics. Recycling of plastics in the United States has been
minimal; it was estimated to be one percent in 1986. Further, most of the
plastic products recycled under existing programs have been polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) beverage bottles or high-density polyethylene (HDPE) milk
jugs. Since lead and cadmium are not approved for use in food-contact
packaging, the metals would not be affected by this recycling. There is an
increasing amount of recycling of other plastic products, however, so some
lead and cadmium may be removed from the waste stream in this manner, now or
in the future.
Summary. Although precise estimates are not possible, probably
not more than one to 2 percent of lead in MSW (exclusive of lead in batteries)
is currently removed by recycling activities. The amount of cadmium affected
by recycling is even smaller.
LIMITATIONS OF THIS REPORT
While this report contains useful data on discards of lead and
cadmium in municipal solid waste, there are a number of limitations in its
application to the issue of lead and cadmium in municipal waste combustor ash.
Some of these limitations are discussed in this section.
Correlation of Characterization Data with Leachable Metals in Ash
The purpose of this report was to characterize the sources of lead
and cadmium in municipal solid waste. It is beyond the scope of this study to
identify the sources of leachable lead and cadmium in municipal waste
combustor ash.
Correlation of Characterization Data with Individual Samples of Ash
This report contains data characterizing the lead and cadmium
content of products defined as constituents of municipal solid waste. This
characterization may not correlate well with the input into any particular
combustion facility at the time ash samples were taken.
Management practices vary widely at municipal waste combustor
(MWC) facilities depending on many factors. If the waste was pre-processed
41
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before combustion, then many of the noncombustible materials that may contain
lead or cadmium were probably removed. Facility management also varies as to
whether large items such as appliances and furniture are excluded, and these
items are likely sources of heavy metals. If a facility has a small capacity
and small quantities of waste are handled at any given time, then the
opportunity to remove large noncombustible products is more frequent.
There are also differences among facilities as to the mixtures of
residential and commercial wastes handled, with some facilities processing
almost exclusively one or the other.
Effects of the Combustion Process on Ash Characteristics
This report characterized lead and cadmium in products that may
enter an incinerator. Whether the metals leave the incinerator in the same
form that they enter is unknown. For example, lead monoxide (PbO) is a very
common compound used in many products--glass, batteries, pigments, etc. The
melting point of lead monoxide is 1,630 degrees Fahrenheit, well within the
range of most municipal waste combustors. It is not known whether the PbO
would recombine with other elements in the MWC to form new lead compounds, but
it seems highly likely.
Lead and Cadmium in Other Wastes
This study was specifically designed to characterize lead and
cadmium in municipal solid waste. There are instances, however, when
incinerators that burn primarily MSW may receive and burn other wastes that
may contain these metals. While it was not possible in this report to
quantify the amounts of those wastes, nor to characterize them in terms of
lead and cadmium content, some data were gathered in the course of this study
that indicate where lead and cadmium may occur in some other wastes (Table 1-
10). This partial listing illustrates the problems involved in identifying
the sources of lead and cadmium in the ash from municipal waste combustors.
42
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Table 1-10
WASTES OTHER THAN MSW THAT MAY CONTAIN LEAD AND CADMIUM
Nonhazardous Wastes
Municipal sludge
Construction and
demolition wastes
Industrial and
military wastes
Automotive and other
transportation wastes
Possible Sources of Lead and Cadmium
Lead pipes, lead solder
Siding
Wall and ceiling tile
Structural steel
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe
Wire and cable coverings
Gutters and downspouts
Conduit
Wallcoverings
Plumbing fittings and hardware
Pipes and solder
Light fixtures
Neon tubing
Some window glass
Enameled building panels
Flooring materials
Paint (especially older houses)
Caulking
Conveyor belts
Industrial and military batteries
Industrial and military electronics
Communications equipment
Electrical machinery
Storage tanks
Hosing
Automotive finishes
Upholstery and trim
Auto tops
Mufflers
43
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Chapter 1
REFERENCES
1. U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste. Characterization of Municipal Wastc.
Combustor Ashes and Leachates from Municipal Solid Waste Landfills.
Monofllls and Co-disposal Sites. November 1987.
2. U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste. Subtitle D Study. Phase I Report
(EPA/530-SW-86-054). October 1986.
3. Smith, F. L., Jr. A Solid Waste Estimation Procedure: Material Flows
Approach. U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste. (SW-147). May 1975.
44
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Chapter 2
LEAP IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
BACKGROUND*
The metal lead has been used since ancient times; it may have been
the first metal to be smelted by early man. Lead pipes used by ancient Romans
are still in use today, and pottery glazed with lead oxide dates back to the
bronze age.
Lead is a bluish-white metal with a bright luster. It is soft,
malleable, and ductile. It is a poor conductor of electricity and is very
resistant to corrosion. Lead ores commonly occur with zinc, copper, and
pyrite ores. Galena (lead sulfide) accounts for more than 90 percent of
primary lead production at present. There is also a large secondary lead
industry that recycles lead from batteries and other lead scrap.
COMPOUNDS OF LEAD*
Lead is used in many compounds. Some of the more common are
briefly described here.
Lead Monoxide (PbO) commonly called litharge, is the most widely
used inorganic lead chemical. It is used in storage battery plates, ceramics
and glasses, paint, rubber, and other products. It is also used in the
production of other lead chemicals such as Lead orthoplumbate.
Lead Dioxide (Pb02) is used as an oxidizing agent in the
manufacture of chemicals and dyes and as a curing agent for sulfide polymers.
It is the active material of the positive plate in electric storage batteries.
Lead Orthoplumbate (Pb304) is commonly called red lead. It is a
brilliant red pigment, and is used as an inhibitor in surface coatings to
prevent corrosion of metals. It is used in storage batteries, leaded glass,
lubricants, and rubber. It is also used for making lead dioxide.
Lead Sulfide (PbS) or galena is a common lead mineral. Lead
sulfide has semiconducting properties. It is also used for mirror coatings,
and it is a component of blue lead pigments.
Lead Metaborate (Pb0*B203*H20) is used in glazes, enamels, and
glasses.
* These sections are based on References 1 through 7.
45
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Basic Lead Carbonate (2PbCOj"Pb(OH).,) is commonly called white
lead. It is the most important basic salt of lead. It Is a white pigment and
is used in surface coatings, greases, and plastic stabilizers.
Lead Silicates. The most common silicate of lead is lead
metasilicate (PbSIOj). The silicates are used in ceramics, glasses, paints,
rubber, and as stabilizers In plastics.
Basic Lead Sulfates (XPbO'PbSO^) are used as white or blue
pigments in paints and as stabilizers for plastics. It is also used as a
filler in rubbers and in inks.
Lead Chromate (PbCrO^) is an important pigment and is often
formulated in combination with other lead compounds or with inorganic salts of
other metals to make a range of colors, including chrome green, chrome yellow
and molybdate chrome orange. Chrome yellows contain lead sulfate; chrome
greens contain iron cyanides; and molybdenum chrome oranges contain molybdate
and often lead sulfate. These pigments are used in paints, coatings, inks, and
leather goods.
Basic Lead Chromate (PbCrO^'PbO) is used in pigments commonly
called chrome oranges.
Lead Chloride (PbCl2) can be prepared by the reaction of lead
monoxide or basic lead carbonate with hydrochloric acid. Most of its uses are
Industrial rather than in products that would commonly enter municipal solid
waste.
Lead chloride is used as a catalyst, as a cathode for seawater
batteries, as a flame retardant in polycarbonates, as a flux for the
galvanizing of steel, as a photochemical-sensitizing agent for metal patterns
on printed circuit boards, and for other uses.
Lead Salts are formed of lead and organic acids. Several lead
salts of higher fatty acids (C10 and over; commonly called lead soaps) have
important uses as paint driers, stabilizers for plastics, additives to
lubricating oil, and additives in rubber.
Tetraethvl Lead and Tetramethvl Lead were widely used as gasoline
additives before the phaseout of lead additives began.
ALLOCATION OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING LEAD TO MSW
The basic source of information on lead consumption in the United
States is the Minerals Yearbook published annually by the Bureau of Mines (8)
The categories reported by the Bureau of Mines are shown in Table 2-1. This
table has been arranged to show which categories of products have been assumed
to be at least partially disposed of in municipal solid waste, and which have
been assumed to be otherwise disposed, e.g., as Industrial, construction,
demolition, or automotive waste.
46
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Table 2-1
PRODUCTS CONTAINING LEAD
Products Assumed to
Partially or Totally
Enter MSW When Disposed
Products Assumed to Not
Enter MSW When Disposed
Brass and bronze
Casting metals
Electrical machinery and
equipment
Solder
Metal cans and containers
Electronic components and
accessories
Other electrical machinery
Storage batteries
Other metal products
Paints
Glass and ceramics
Other pigments and chemicals
Gasoline additives
Miscellaneous uses
Ammunition
Casting metals
Motor vehicles and equipment
Other transportation and equipment
Nuclear radiation shielding
Solder
Building construction
Motor vehicles and equipment
Bearing metals
Cable covering
Caulking (building construction)
Pipes, traps, and other extruded
products
Sheet lead
Terne metal (automotive)
Type metal
Source: Bureau of Mines (Reference 8). Allocations to municipal solid
waste disposal by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
The product categories as defined by the Bureau of Mines that are
assumed not to be discarded into MSW are discussed briefly in the following
section. Each category assumed to be discarded into MSW is discussed in detail
in later sections.
PRODUCTS ASSUMED NOT TO BE DISCARDED INTO MSW
Ammunition
Ammunition, by the nature of its use, was assumed not to be
discarded into MSW except under unusual circumstances.
Bearing Metals
Bearing metals using lead have been steadily declining. This
decline is attributed to the replacement of babbitt metals, which are lead and
tin-based, by copper and aluminum alloys, which contain much less lead. The
main market for the bearings is in the crankshafts of motor vehicles,
especially for heavy machinery. The other markets for leaded bearings are
industrial uses such as piston compressors, fractional horsepower motors, and
47
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hydraulic gear pumps. The ball and roller bearings used In consumer goods do
not contain lead (9, 10). Since leaded bearings are used only In automotive
and industrial uses, which are not classified as MSW, it was assumed that no
leaded bearings are disposed of in MSW.
Cable Covering
Cable coverings (sheathing) made of lead are used for telephone
cables, power cables, etc. It was assumed that these cables would be disposed
of in demolition or industrial waste landfills; about 25 percent are recycled.
The use of lead sheathing has declined because of replacement of lead
sheathings in telephone and low-to-medium power cables by paper - insulated,
polyethylene-covered cables (11, 12). The lead sheathing that is still used
is primarily for underground and submarine applications.
Caulking
The Bureau of Mines category of "caulking lead: building
construction" is assumed to be discarded as construction or demolition waste.
Casting Metals
The Bureau of Mines reports four categories of casting metals
containing lead. The category "electrical machinery and equipment" includes
some lead use in terne-coating for radio and television chassis; this is
described in a later section.
The other three categories of casting metals containing lead are
"motor vehicles and equipment," "other transportation and equipment," and
"nuclear radiation shielding." Automobiles and other transportation equipment
are not classified as municipal solid waste, and nuclear radiation shielding
would not be disposed of as MSW, so these latter three categories are assumed
not to enter MSW.
Pipes. Traps, and Other Extruded Products
As reported by the Bureau of Mines, over 90 percent of the lead in
this category is consumed for "building construction. Waste from this category
would thus be classified as construction or demolition waste. The remainder
of the lead consumed in this category goes to storage tanks, process vessels,
pipes, etc., for industrial use where corrosion protection is needed. Thus it
was assumed that none of this category goes to MSW.
Sheet Lead
Sheet lead is used in building construction, storage tanks and
process vessels for the chemical industry, and nuclear radiation shielding
(8). It is used in building construction as a roof sealant and as a noise
insulator. It was assumed that none of these uses would result in disposal
into MSW.
48
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Solder
The Bureau of Mines reports lead in five uses of solder. Three
categories--"metal cans and shipping containers," "electronic components and
accessories," and "other electrical machinery and equipment"--include products
that enter MSW; these are discussed in detail in later sections. The other two
categories are "building construction" and "motor vehicles and equipment."
Products from these categories are assumed not to enter MSW.
Terne Metal: Motor Vehicles and Equipment
Terne metal is steel coated with a lead-tin alloy. This category
as reported by the Bureau of Mines is assumed not to be discarded into MSW.
Because of its corrosion resistance, terne metal is used in automobiles for
fuel tanks, air cleaners, and radiator and heater assemblies. Some ter'ne metal
is discarded into MSW; this is discussed later in the section "Casting
Metals."
Type Metal
Type metal was formerly commonly used in typesetting printed
matter, but typesetting with molten lead has been almost entirely replaced
with other printing methods (letterpress) and this use of lead has nearly
disappeared. The lead type is reformed after each use, so none would have
been discarded into MSW in any event (13).
BRASS AND BRONZE PRODUCTS
Brass and bronze are used in a variety of products because both
have good mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and excellent ease of
forming.
Brass is mainly an alloy of copper and zinc with small additions
of various other metals. It is either cast into its final product, or it can
be cast into billets and then rolled, extruded, forged, or otherwise
processed. There are many types of brass; some examples are red-gold brass,
which is 75 to 85 percent copper; yellow brass, which is 60 to 70 percent
copper; and naval brass, which contains approximately 2 percent tin. Brass is
used in a variety of products, including architectural grillwork, bullet
jackets, imitation gold jewelry, plumbing fixtures, valves, decorative
objects, and marine hardware. Leaded brass is only used in plumbing fittings
and hardware. It is defined as leaded brass because it contains over 2
percent lead.
Bronze used to be an alloy of copper and tin, but the term is now
used to describe a variety of copper alloy materials. Bronze is mainly
copper, which carl be alloyed with many metals to produce aluminum bronze,
manganese bronze, silicon bronze, tin bronze, and others. Bronze is used
where special properties are needed, such as acoustical properties in bells
and color properties in decoration. Leaded bronze can have as much as 30
percent lead and is used only in pressure valves and fittings. Lead is not
used in plating applications for either brass or bronze (14).
49
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An estimated 98 percent of leaded brass and bronze is used in
building and plumbing hardware (14), which would become demolition waste when
discarded. A high percentage of this hardware would be recycled rather than
disposed because of its scrap value. The remaining 2 percent of leaded brass
and bronze is used in a variety of products, mainly locks and lock sets (Table
2-2). It was assumed that these products will be discarded into MSW, although
some undoubtedly become demolition waste.
Table 2-2
PRODUCTS CONTAINING LEADED BRASS AND BRONZE
DISCARDED INTO MSW
Locks, lock sets, and lock hardware
Keys and key blanks
Miscellaneous products
Clock and watch parts
Musical instruments
Ornamental products
Source: Copper Development Association (Reference 14).
Estimates of discards of lead in products containing lead and
brass and bronze into MSW were made using the following adjustments and
assumptions:
1. Domestic consumption was adjusted for imports
and exports of alloy rod, bar, and basic shapes,
which is used for the majority of leaded brass
and bronze products. (Net Imports are greater.)
2. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be zero,
since the high value of the metal makes it
feasible to recover and recycle (15).
3. It was assumed that there is no recovery for
recycling of these materials after they become
consumer products, since they are so dispersed.
4. A 10-year lifetime before discard was assumed for
these products. Discards of lead in brass and bronze
products are shown in Table 2-3 and Figure 2-1.
CANS AND OTHER SHIPPING CONTAINERS
Lead Is used in solder for the seams of steel cans and containers.
This use is in decline, however, as more steel cans have been made without
seams and as steel cans have been displaced by containers made of other
materials, such as aluminum or plastic. Steel cans are used for packaging
food and other products such as paint and aerosols. In the past, large
quantities of soldered steel cans were used for beverages, but this use began
to be phased out in the late 1970s, and use of 3-piece (soldered seam) cans
50
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for beverages was negligible in 1986 (19). Lead solder use in steel shipping
containers (barrels and drums) was also estimated.
Estimates of lead in solder for steel cans were made using
statistics from the Bureau of Mines, the American Iron and Steel Institute,
the Department of Commerce, and the Can Manufacturers Institute (8, 17, 18,
19). The following adjustments and assumptions were made:
1. The effect of imports and exports of empty steel
cans was less than one percent and thus was not
adjusted for. For steel shipping containers, net
exports were of some significance, and appropriate
adjustments were made. Imports and exports of steel
cans containing products were also considered. For
beverages, imports and exports were nearly equal and
thus were not adjusted for. Data were not available
to permit adjustments for nonfood and beverage steel cans.
Adjustments were made, however, for foreign trade of
canned food products. It was assumed that the
conversion of canning equipment from solder to nonsoldered
steel cans was somewhat slower abroad than domestically.
2. A 2 percent fabrication loss was assumed for steel cans.
3. Estimates of recycling of steel cans were taken from
the previous MSW characterization study for EPA (20).
4. It was assumed that steel cans are discarded in the
same year that they are manufactured (20). It was
assumed that steel shipping containers have a three -
year life cycle.
5. It was assumed that all steel cans that are not
recycled are discarded into MSW, but that only 20
percent of steel shipping containers are discarded
into MSW (20).
6. Projections were made assuming a continued decline in
discards of steel cans and shipping containers.
Results of these estimates are shown in Table 2-4 and Figure 2-2.
CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
The printed circuit boards used in comsumer electronics --
television, radios, and video cassette recorders (VCRs)--contribute lead in
solder to the municipal waste stream. In addition, television sets contain
leaded glass. Estimates of the contribution of lead from these products is
included in this section.
51
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Table 2-3
DISCARDS OF LEAD IN
LEADED BRASS
AND BRONZE
INTO MSW, 1970
TO 2000
(In short tons)
Discards
Adjustment
Discards
of
for
Gross
Other
Lead
Domestic Lead
Imports/
Discards
Than
Into
Year
Consumption 1/
Exports 2/
of Lead
3/ MSW 4/
MSW 5/
1970
20,485
—
20,485
20,075
410
1971
20,114
-
20,114
19,712
402
1972
20,607
-
20,607
20,195
412
1973
21,943
-
21,943
21,504
439
1974
23,328
-
23,328
22,861
467
1975
23,699
-
23,699
23,225
474
1976
25,447
-
25,447
24,938
509
1977
20,467
-
20,467
20,058
409
1978
21,021
-
21,021
20,601
420
1979
21,512
-
21,512
21,082
430
1980
20,044
165
20,209
19,805
404
1981
18,927
285
19,212
18,828
384
1982
19,805
135
19,940
19,541
399
1983
22,735
15
22,750
22,295
455
1984
22,240
-210
22,030
21,589
441
1985
13,404
-60
13,344
13,077
267
1986
15,660
405
16,065
15,744
321
1990
15,411
75
15,486
15,176
310
1995
8,623
420
9,043
8,862
181
2000
9,549
795
10,344
10,137
207
_1/ Bureau of Mines (Reference 8). Projections to 2000 by Franklin
Associates, Ltd. A 10-year product life was assumed, so discards
are consumption of 10 years earlier.
2J Based on Reference 16. Not available before 1970.
_3/ Domestic consumption + import/export adjustment.
4J Assumed to be 98 percent of gross discards based on Reference 14.
5/ By difference.
52
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Figure 2-1. Discards of lead in brass and bronze into MSW, 1970 to 2000.
Tons
600
500
40 0
300
200
100
2000
1970
1975
1980
1985
1995
1 990
53
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Table 2-4
DISCARDS OF LEAD IN SOLDER IN STEEL CANS AND SHIPPING CONTAINERS, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Gross Discards —^
Year
Food Cans
Beverage
Cans
Other
Cans
Subtotal
Shipping
Containers
Total
Gross
Discards
Percent
Recovery 2/
Recovery
Net
Discards
1970
12,240
9,415
2,354
24,009
600
24,609
2
492
24,117
1971
12,354
9,506
2,376
24,236
600
24,836
2
497
24,339
1972
12,454
9,511
2,378
24,343
600
24,943
2
499
24,444
1973
12,525
9,542
2,385
24,452
609
25,061
2
501
24,560
1974
11,472
8,723
2,181
22,376
587
22,963
2
459
22,504
1975
10,609
7,485
1,970
20,064
680
20,744
3
622
20,122
1976
9,284
6,349
1,888
17,521
701
18,222
3
547
17,675
1977
9,455
5,644
1,826
16,925
691
17,616
4
705
16,911
1978
9,462
4,543
1,514
15,519
478
15,997
4
640
15,357
1979
8,889
3,029
1,581
13,499
545
14,044
5
702
13,342
1980
7,244
1,134
1,323
9,701
483
10,184
5
509
9,675
1981
5,766
280
1,259
7,305
484
7,789
5
389
7,400
1982
5,925
70
1,327
7,322
482
7,804
5
390
7,414
1983
3,849
0
1,202
5,051
319
5,370
4
215
5,155
1984
2,345
0
888
3,233
265
3,498
4
140
3,358
1985
1,977
0
949
2,926
206
3,132
4
125
3,007
1986
1,186
0
810
1,996
141
2,137
4
85
2,052
1990
1,150
55
1,205
6
72
1,133
1995
1,075
50
1,125
i
79
1 ,046
2000
820
45
865
9
78
787
_!/ Based on data from the Bureau of Mines, the American Iron and Steel Institute, the Department of
Commerce, and the Can Manufacturers Institute (References 8, 17, IB, 19).
2i Recycling rates from Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste (Update 1988) (Reference 20).
3/ Net discards = gross discards - recovery for recycling.
-------
Figure 2-2. Net discards of lead in solder in steel cans and containers, 1970
to 2000.
Tons
25,000
20,000-
15,000-
1 0,000 ¦¦
5,000 ¦¦
\
V
v
\
H 1 1 1 1 1 1-
1970
1975
H 1 1—I—(-
1980
—. . .
i i t—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—•—i—i—«
1 985
1990
1 995
2000
55
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Lead in Printed Circuit Boards
The Bureau of Mines reports annual consumption of lead in solder
for electronic components and accessories (8). It was assumed that all of
this solder is used in printed circuit boards. The major markets for printed
circuit boards are computers, communications, and government/military uses.
Consumer products accounted for 11.7 percent of the printed circuit board
market in 1986 (21)
It was determined that printed circuit boards in computers--the
major market--generally do not enter MSW, because the boards removed for
repairs are returned to the manufacturers for recovery of components such as
memory chips (22) . The circuit boards are thus assumed to become industrial
waste rather than MSW. Other end uses such as communications were also
assumed to enter industrial rather than municipal waste.
Lead in solder In printed circuit boards for televisions, radios,
and VCRs was estimated using the following adjustments and assumptions:
1. The solder used in electronics is 63 percent by
weight tin and 37 percent by weight lead (7).
2. An adjustment was made for Imports and exports of
these products, assuming that the imported products
have the same amount of solder per item as the
domestically-produced products (23, 24).
3. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be zero because
of the soldering techniques used.
4. It was assumed that there is no recycling of these
products.
5. The lifetime of these products was assumed to be
eight years (25).
6. Projections were made based on a declining trend
in lead in solder used in consumer electronics.
Consumption of lead in solder In consumer electronics is shown in
Table 2-5.
Lead in Glass in Television Sets
Leaded glass is used in many television components including the
screen, funnel, and neck. Additionally, leaded glass solder is used to join
the various glass components. The typical lead composition of glass parts in
television sets is shown in Table 2-6.
Estimates of lead in glass in television sets were made using the
following adjustments and assumptions:
56
-------
Table 2-5
LEAD CONSUMED IN
SOLDER IN CONSUMER ELECTRONICS,
1962 TO 1992
(In short
tons)
Lead
Adjusted
Lead
Consumed in
Lead
Consumed in
Solder in
Consumed
Solder in
Domes tic
Adjustment
in Solder
Domestic
Consumer
for Imports/
in Consumer
Year
Electronics 1/
Electronics 2/
Exports 3/
Electronics 4/
1962
4,554
533
884
1,417
1963
4,785
560
901
1,461
1964
5,017
587
895
1,482
1965
5,248
614
784
1,398
1966
5,480
641
783
1,424
1967
5,712
668
1,091
1,759
1968
5,943
695
1,290
1,985
1969
6,175
722
1,873
2,595
1970
6,644
777
2,152
2,929
1971
6,757
791
2,487
3,278
1972
7,500
878
2,681
3,559
1973
7,650
895
2,203
3,098
1974
7,177
840
3,144
3,984
1975
6,516
762
3,132
3,894
1976
7,630
893
3,857
4,750
1977
8,860
1,037
4,847
5,884
1978
9,575
1,120
4,972
6,092
1979
11,402
1,334
4,377
5,711
1980
9,074
1,062
3,399
4,461
1981
6,179
723
2,497
3,220
1982
6,577
770
2,799
3,569
1983
6,254
732
2,744
3,476
1984
5,909
691
3,232
3,923
1985
4,615
540
2,079
2,619
1986
4,776
559
2,237
2,796
1987
4,394
514
2,200
2,714
1992
2,501
293
698
991
JL/ Bureau of Mines (Reference 8) .
2/ Estimated to be 11.7 percent of solder used in electronics. Institute
of Printed Circuits (Reference 21).
J3/ Department of Commerce (Reference 23). Projections by Franklin Associates,
Ltd.
_4/ Domestic consumption + import/export adjustment.
57
-------
1. It was assumed that lead in glass used domestically
in television sets is 75 percent of consumption of
lead in glass and ceramics (8).
2. An adjustment was made for imports and exports of
television sets using Department of Commerce data
(23). The lead content of imported television
sets was.assumed to be the same as that of
domestically-produced sets.
Table 2-6
LEAD OXIDE <"PbO) LEVELS IN TELEVISION COMPONENTS
Component
Face place or panel
Funne1
Neck
Glass solder
Source: References 2, 45, and 46.
3. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be minimal
(one percent).
4. It was assumed that there is no recycling of glass
in television sets.
5. The lifetime of television sets was assumed to be
eight years (25).
Consumption of lead in glass in television sets is shown in
Table 2-7.
Total Lead in Consumer Electronics
The combined lead in solder in printed circuit boards and in glass
in television sets is shown in Table 2-8 and Figure 2-3. While discards of
solder in consumer electronics are declining, lead in glass is continuing to
grow.
GLASS AND CERAMIC PRODUCTS
Lead is used in several ways in a wide variety of glass products.
It was possible to quantify lead use in two products that enter MSW:
television picture tubes and light bulbs. Use of lead in other glass and
ceramic products that enter MSW was quantified by difference and the products
are listed and described.
Lead Oxide
(percent-^
2 to 2.25
22.5 to 23
28.4 to 31
60 to 90
58
-------
Table 2-7
LEAD CONSUMED IN GLASS IN TELEVISION SETS,
1962 TO 1992
(In short
tons)
Net
Domestic
Domestic
Adj usted
Consumption
Consumption
Adj ustment
Consumption
of Lead
of Lead
Factor for
of Lead
in Glass
Manufacturing
in Glass
Exports/Imports
in Glass
Year
in TV Sets 1/
Losses @ 1% 2/
in TV Sets 3/
of TV Sets 4/
in TV Sets .
1962
10,000
100
9,900
1.05
10,395
1963
11,000
110
10,890
1.04
11,326
1964
12,000
120
11,880
1.05
12,474
1965
13,000
130
12,870
1.10
14,157
1966
14,000
140
13,860
1.13
15,662
1967
15,000
150
14,850
1.21
17,969
1968
16,000
160
15,840
1.25
19,800
1969
17,000
170
16,830
1.44
24,235
1970
18,434
184
18,250
1.53
27,922
1971
18,278
183
18,095
1.60
28,952
1972
17,414
174
17,240
1.61
27,756
1973
26,946
269
26,677
1.57
41,882
1974
34,949
349
34,600
1.61
55,705
1975
25,456
255
25,201
1.52
38,306
1976
24,225
242
23,983
1.77
42,449
1977
22,455
225
22,230
1.84
40,904
1978
28,222
282
27,940
1.87
52,247
1979
40,310
403
39,907
1.70
67,842
1980
37,501
375
37,126
1.63
60,515
1981
36,656
367
36,289
1.67
60,603
1982
28,544
285
28,259
1.71
48,322
1983
32,797
328
32,469
1.85
60,068
1984
38,114
381
37,733
2.06
77,730
1985
36,497
365
36,132
2.11
76,239
1986
33,715
337
33,378
2.21
73,765
1987
33,500
335
33,165
2.30
76,280
1992
30,000
300
29,700
2.75
81,675
1/ 1970-1986: Estimated to be 75 percent of total consumption (Reference 8).
_2/ Manufacturing losses are assumed to be small because glass is recycled in
the manufacturing process.
_3/ Net consumption = domestic consumption - converting losses.
4/ Derived from information in Reference 23. 1987 and 1992 estimated by
Franklin Associates.
5/ Net consumption x adjustment factor.
59
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Table 2-8
DISCARDS OF LEAD
IN CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Discards
of Lead
Discards of
Total Discards
in Solder
Lead in
of Lead
in Consumer
Glass in
in Consumer
Year
Electronics 1/
Television Sets 2/
Electronics
1970
1,417
10,395
11,812
1971
1,461
11,326
12,787
1972
1,482
12,474
13,956
1973
1,398
14,157
15,555
1974
1,424
15,662
17,086
1975
1,759
17,969
19,728
1976
1,985
19,800
21,785
1977
2,595
24,235
26,830
1978
2,929
27,922
30,851
1979
3,277
28,952
32,229
1980
3,441
27,756
31,197
1981
3,098
41,882
44,980
1982
3,984
55,705
59,689
1983
3,894
38,306
42,200
1984
4,750
42,449
47,199
1985
5,883
40,904
46,787
1986
6,092
52,247
58,339
1990
3,568
48,322
51,890
1995
2,714
76,280
78,994
2000
990
81,675
82,665
_1/ From fable 2-5. Assumes an eight-year lifetime for products
(Reference 25).
_2/ From Table 2-7. Assumes an eight-year lifetime for products
(Reference 25).
60
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Figure 2-3. Discards of lead in consumer electronics, 1970 to 2000.
Tons
90,000
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
1
Solder
970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Total
61
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Glass is a hard, brittle, usually transparent material that is
formed by melting crystalline materials at high temperatures and then coo ling
them to a rigid condition. Silica is the primary constituent of most glasses.
Most glass products are manufactured by blowing, molding, forming, or rolling
molten glass.
Ceramics are made by heating clay minerals or clay mixed with
other substances such as silica. The clay mixture can be formed into
virtually any shape.
Use of Lead in Glass and Ceramics
Lead monoxide (PbO) is the most commonly used form of lead in
glass and ceramics. Lead compounds used in glass and ceramics are summarized
in Table 2-9.
The intermediate products containing lead that are used in glass
and ceramic end products are discussed below.
Leaded Glass. Leaded glass is used in products where clarity is
important, such as television picture tubes. It also provides x-ray shielding
in picture tubes. It is used for its high electrical resistivity in electric
light bulb flares and exhaust tubes, in the form of woven fiber glass, and for
crystal glassware.
The amount of lead used in leaded glass products varies from 2
percent lead in television face plates to 82 percent lead in radiation shields
(26).
Enamels and Glazes. Leaded glass enamels are used for decoration
and labeling of, primarily, glass and metal. Lead lowers the melting
temperature of the enamel and allows it to be applied without damaging the
product. Glazes are very similar to enamels, but are applied to ceramic
products.
Enamels typically contain 40 to 50 percent lead oxide and are
applied to glass or metal (27). Glazes can contain 50 to 60 percent lead oxide
and are applied to ceramics. Not all enamels or glazes contain lead; lead use
in glazes for tableware has dropped significantly due to health concerns.
Solders and Sealers. Solders and sealers made of leaded glass are
used to join glasses of differing compositions, in metal to glass joints, when
an entire unit (such as capacitors) needs to be encapsulated within a solder-
type seal, and when electrical resistivity characteristics are advantageous.
Both glass solders and glass sealers have numerous applications within the
electronics industry.
Solders and sealers typically have lead levels of 70 to 80 percent
(28). These levels allow the soldering or sealing process to take place at
relatively low temperatures, thus avoiding product damage.
62
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Table 2-9
CHEMICAL FORM AND FUNCTION OF LEAD IN GLASS AND CERAMICS
Chemical
Function
Lead monoxide
Lead fluoride
Lead is added in the form of lead
monoxide (PbO) to enamels, glazes,
and glass. It can impart many
desirable properties to these
products. Lead monoxide is the
most common source of lead in
glass and ceramics.
Lead fluoride is used in glass coatings
for infrared reflection and in phosphors
for television tube screens (7).
Lead tetroxide
Lead sulfide
Lead metaborate
Lead titanate
Lead silicates
Commonly known as lead red, lead tetroxide
is used as a glass sealant for color tele-
vision picture tubes, and as a glass
pigment.
Lead sulfide is used in mirror coatings
to limit reflectivity (7).
The primary use of lead metaborate is
in glazes and enamels (7).
Lead titanate is a component of ceramic
insulators, capacitors, and other ceramic
electrical materials. It is also used
in some ceramic glazes and low-melting
glass sealants (7).
Lead monoxide and silicate are com-
bined to form lead silicates. See
lead monoxide.
Lead pigments
Numerous lead compounds are used as
colorants for glass, enamels, and glazes.
They include: lead tetroxide (red lead),
lead antimonate, basic lead carbonate
(white lead) (7), basic lead chromate,
and lead uranate (26).
63
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PZT/PZLT. Lead-based ceramics are reported to be "critically
important" to the electronics industry (2). They are piezoelectric materials
and are used to convert mechanical to electrical energy. These ceramics
contain 60 to 64 percent lead (65 to 69 percent lead oxide).
Glass-Bonded Mica. Glass-bonded mica is a mixture of powdered
lead glasses and powdered mica, which is formed using heat and pressure.
Glass-bonded mica fills the properties gap between ceramics and plastics, and
is known as the "ceramoplastic." Of the applications for the ceramoplastic,
only a few would be likely to find their way into the MSW stream, e.g.,
microwave components. Thus, the contribution of lead by glass-bonded mica to
MSW is probably quite low.
Glass Products Containing Lead that Enter MSW
According to the Bureau of Mines, 75 percent of lead used in glass
and ceramics goes to television sets (primarily picture tubes). These are
discussed in the Consumer Electronics section of this report. Lead used in
glass in light bulbs (electric lamps) is also quantified in a separate
section. Other uses are discussed in this section and summarized in Table 2-
10.
Table 2-10
GLASS OR CERAMIC PRODUCTS CONTAINING LEAD THAT MAY ENTER MSW
Products
Lead Form Lead Amount
Glass containers
PbO and pigments 40-50 percent
in
silk-screened
labels
Crystal glassware
PbO 24-25 percent
Other glassware
PbO 40-50 percent
in
decorations
Ceramic tableware
PbO 11-61 percent
in
some glazes
Appliances
PbO Unknown amount
in enamel
Enameled cookware
PbO 35-42 percent
in
enamel
Ophthalmic bifocal segment
PbO 51 percent
Mirrors
PbS Unknown
Igniters - gas appliances
PZT
Igniters - cigarette lighters
PZT
Transducers - remote controls
PZT
Electrical filters - radios, stereos
PZT
Ceramic bimorph (VCR head controller)
PZT
Phonograph pickup
PZT
Microwave components
Glass-bonded mica (PbO)
64
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Glass Containers. Glass containers are typically made of soda-
lime glass. Lead in glass containers can come from two sources:
- glass colored with lead-containing pigments
(see section on pigments)
- glass which has been decorated or labeled with
silk screening or decals.
Silk screened containers are limited primarily to beverage
containers and toiletries. Only a very small percentage of other containers
are silk screened (29).
The enamels used in silk screening glass contain AO to 50 percent
lead monoxide. The lead content allows firing onto the surface at lower
temperatures without damage to the container.
Glassware. Lead in glassware comes from two sources: lead
monoxide and pigments. The lead monoxide may be a primary component of the
glass itself as in crystal, where the lead monoxide content is typically 24 to
25 percent (27), or it may be screen printed on the surface as decoration.
Screen-printed decorations contain 40 to 50 percent lead monoxide.
Tableware. Ceramic and whiteware glazes may contain lead
monoxide. The use of lead monoxide in glazes for tableware has reportedly
decreased in recent years, but how much it is currently used has not been
documented. Reported levels of lead monoxide in glazes range from 11 percent
to 61 percent (2). Also, decorated tableware may have lead monoxide in the
screen-printed or decaled designs.
Electronic Components. Electronic components are an area of
increasing use of leaded glass and ceramics. Leaded glass is often used as a
solder or sealer. Lead is also a component of many so-called high-tech
ceramics, such as PZT and PZLT. They are piezoelectric materials and are used
to convert mechanical to electrical energy.
Glass-bonded mica may also be used in electronic components.
Enameled Products. Appliances are a major area of enamel use.
Enamels are applied in two layers, the ground-coat and cover-coat. The
ground-coat, which is formulated to promote a metal to enamel seal, typically
contains no lead. Some of the cover-coats contain lead monoxide, but this is
limited to clear cover-coat enamels (30). The level of use of this type of
enamel is not known.
Cookware Is often enameled because of its heat resistance, ease
of cleaning, permanent color, and corrosion resistance. Typical enamel
compositions for aluminum cookware contain 35 to 42.5 percent lead monoxide
(2).
65
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Products Containing Lead That Do Not Enter MSW
Many glass and ceramic products containing lead do not enter the
municipal waste stream. Some of these include architectural uses such as
porcelain-enameled aluminum building panels, windows glazed with lead
compounds for light reflectance and color properties, and lead-glazed wall and
floor tiles .
Industrial uses for these products include liquid level sensors,
strain gauges, many applications of circuit boards, fiber optic applications,
and radiation shielding.
Lead Discarded in Glass and Ceramics
Lead discarded in glass in television sets and light bulbs is
quantified in other sections. All other discards of lead in glass and
ceramics in MSW were estimated using the following assumptions:
1. Imports and exports could not be quantified
because the amounts of lead in specific
products were not known.
2. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be one
percent. Glass scrap can be recycled in-plant
easily and economically.
3. Removal of lead in glass and ceramic products by
recycling could not be estimated because the
amounts of lead in specific products were not
known. Some glass containers that have silk-
screened designs containing lead undoubtedly
are recycled.
4. The lifetime of these products was assumed to be
three years.
5. Projections were based on a conservative growth rate.
These estimates are shown in Tables 2-11, 2-12, and 2-13, and Figure 2-4.
LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERIES
According to the Bureau of Mines (8), manufacture of lead-acid
storage batteries consumed 76 percent of the lead used domestically in the
United States. Storage batteries are used in a wide range of applications.
The most familiar are starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) applications
(e.g., automobile batteries); "traction" appliances (e.g., for powering
electric golf carts, fork lifts, wheel chairs, etc.); and stationary batteries
used for emergency and standby power. Small lead-acid batteries are also used
to power portable equipment, such as toys, tools, lighting, and photographic
equipment, etc. About 80 percent of all lead-acid storage batteries are used
as SLI batteries for cars, trucks, buses, motorcycles, etc.
66
f
-------
Table 2-11
DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF LEAD IN GLASS AND CERAMICS,
1970 TO 1986
(In short tons)
Domestic
Consumption
Domestic
Portion of
in
Domestic
Consumption
All Other
"All Other1
Glass and
Consumption
in
Domestic
Entering
Year
Ceramics 1/
in TV Sets 2/
Light Bulbs 3/
Consumption 4/
MSW 5/
1970
24,578
18,434
462
5,683
4,262
1971
24,371
18,278
473
5,620
4,215
1972
23,219
17,414
506
5,299
3,974
1973
35,928
26,946
487
8,495
6,371
1974
46,598
34,949
421
11,229
8,421
1975
33,941
25,456
405
8,080
6,060
1976
32,300
24,225
432
7,643
5,732
1977
29,940
22,455
435
7,050
5,288
1978
37,629
28,222
439
8,968
6,726
1979
53,746
40,310
456
12,981
9,735
1980
50,001
37,501
437
12,063
9,047
1981
48,875
36,656
424
11,795
8,846
1982
38,058
28,544
414
9,101
6,825
1983
43,729
32,797
434
10,498
7,874
1984
50,819
38,114
461
12,244
9,183
1985
48,662
36,497
423
11,743
8,807
1986
44,953
33,715
422
10,816
8,112
_1/ Bureau of Mines (Reference 8).
2J Assumed to be 75 percent of domestic consumption based on information from
the Bureau of Mines (Reference 8).
3/ See section on light bulbs.
4/ By difference.
5/ Assumed to be 75 percent of "All Other." Includes crystal glassware, glass
containers, decorative tableware, ceramics, enameled cookware, and some
electronics.
67
-------
Table 2-12
CONSUMPTION OF LEAD IN "ALL OTHER" GLASS IN MSW, 1967 TO 1997
(In short tons)
Consumption
of Lead in Net Consumption
"All Other Glass" Converting of Lead in
Year
Entering MSW 1/
Losses @ 1% 2/
"All Other Glass"
1967
3,400
34
3,666
1968
3,700
37
3,663
1969
4,000
40
3,960
1970
4,262
43
4,219
1971
4,215
42
4,173
1972
3,974
40
3,934
1973
6,371
64
6,307
1974
8,421
84
8,337
1975
6,060
61
5,999
1976
5,732
57
5,675
1977
5,288
53
5,235
1978
6,726
67
6,659
1979
9,735
97
9,638
1980
9,047
90
8,957
1981
8,846
88
8,758
1982
6,825
68
6,757
1983
7,874
79
7,795
1984
9,183
92
9,091
1985
8,807
88
8,719
1986
8,112
81
8,031
1987
8,500
85
8,415
1992
8,750
88
8,663
1997
9,000
90
8,910
1/ From Table 2-11. 1967 to 1969 and projections by Franklin
Associates, Ltd.
2/ Converting losses are assumed to be small because scrap glass
is recycled in the manufacturing process.
_3/ Consumption - converting losses. Includes crystal glassware, glass
containers, decorative tableware, ceramics, enameled cookware, and
some electronics.
68
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Table 2-13
DISCARDS OF LEAD IN GLASS AND CERAMICS IN MSW, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Lead in "All
Total Lead
Lead in
Lead in
Other" Glass
in Glass
Year
Television Sets 1/
Light Bulbs 2/
and Ceramics 3/
and Ceramics
1970
10,395
491
3,366
14,252
1971
11,326
510
3,663
15,499
1972
12,474
532
3,960
16,966
1973
14,157
576
4,219
18,952
1974
15,662
565
4,173
20,400
1975
17,969
506
3,934
22,409
1976
19,800
512
6,307
26,619
1977
24,235
586
8,337
33,158
1978
27,922
611
5,999
34,532
1979
28,952
623
5,675
35,250
1980
27,756
635
5,235
33,626
1981
41,882
600
6,659
49,141
1982
55,705
607
9,638
65,950
1983
38,306
610
8,957
47,873
1984
42,449
706
8,758
51,913
1985
40,904
709
6,757
48,370
1986
52,247
672
7,795
60,714
1990
48,322
727
8,415
57,464
1995
76,280
787
8,663
85,730
2000
81,675
847
8,910
91,432
1/ See section on television sets (Table 2-7). Assumes an 8-year life for
television sets (Reference 25).
2/ See section on light bulbs (Table 2-26). Assumes a one-year life for
light bulbs.
3/ From Table 2-12. Assumes a 3-year life for "all other" glass and
ceramics in MSW. Projections by Franklin Associates.
69
-------
Tons
1 0,000 r
9,000-
8,000-
7,000 ¦¦
6,000-
5,000 ¦¦
4,000 ••
3,000-
2,000 ¦¦
1,000-
Figure 2-4. Discards of lead in "all other" glass and ceramics in MSW,
1970 to 2000.
/ -•
\
1—| (—H K
0 I 1 I I I I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1—+-
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
H 1 I
2000
70
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Composition of Lead-Acid Storage Batteries
Approximately one-half of the lead-acid storage battery's weight
is lead or lead components. Lead (metal) and lead dioxide are used in roughly
equal quantities. The form and quantities of lead consumed in the United
States in the production of storage batteries are shown in Table 2-14.
The components of SLI lead-acid batteries are shown in Table 2-
15. Batteries for other applications have analogous components. The averge
weight of SLI batteries is 36 pounds, one-half of which is lead.
Table 2-14
FORM OF LEAD CONSUMED IN STORAGE BATTERIES
(1986)
Total Lead
(short tons)
Soft lead 567,545
Lead in antimonial lead 292,995
Lead in alloys 80.615
Total 941,155
Source: Bureau of Mines (Reference 8).
Table 2-15
WEIGHT ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL SLI BATTERIES
Percent
Active materials 36.0
Electrolyte 27.5
Grids 21.5
Container, lid, vent plugs, separators 10.3
Top lead 4.7
Total 100.0
Source: Handbook of Batteries and Fuel Cells (Reference 31).
The lead-acid battery uses lead dioxide as the active material of
the positive electrode and metallic lead, in a highly porous structure, as the
negative active material. The preparation of the active material consists of
a series of mixing and curing operations using leady oxide (PbO + Pb),
sulfuric acid, and water. The electrolyte is a sulfuric acid and water
solution, about 1.28 specific gravity or 37 percent acid by weight in the
71
-------
solution, about 1.28 specific gravity or 37 percent acid by weight in the
fully-charged condition. As the cell discharges, both electrodes are
converted to lead sulfate; the process reverses as the battery is charged.
Lead is used to make the grid on which the active materials are
placed as well as the active materials. Pure lead is generally too soft to
use as a grid material, so it is hardened by the addition of antimony metal.
Other elements are often added to grid alloys as grain refiners or to improve
workability. Cadmium was used in the Seventies to enhance processability, but
is not being used in significant quantities now because of its toxicity and
difficulty in removal during lead recovery (recycling) operations.
For preparation of the lead dioxide, lead is oxidized and then
converted to a plastic dough-like material so it can be pasted onto the grid
structure.
A simple lead-acid cell consists of one negative electrode, one
positive electrode, and one separator in between. Separators, typically
rubber, cellulose, or sintered PVC, are used to electrically insulate each
plate from its nearest counterelectrode neighbors. They are porous to allow
acid transport into or out of the plates. A variety of tank materials have
been used for lead-acid storage batteries, but the most common are PVC,
polyethylene, or polypropylene.
Portable lead-acid batteries usually include spirally-wound
plates in a cylindrical metal container in sizes ranging from D cells to 12-
ounce cans and from six ounces to 3-1/2 pounds (32). These batteries are
operationally like the car batteries, but instead of the liquid sulfuric acid,
they contain a minimum amount of electrolyte, which is absorbed in the
separator material or in a gel. They are often termed sealed lead-acid (SLA)
batteries.
Lead Consumption in Batteries
There are four major categories of lead-acid batteries for which
data are available:
1. Automotive SLI batteries
2. Motorcycle SLI batteries
3. Portable sealed lead-acid (SLA) batteries
4. Industrial batteries.
Automotive SLI Batteries. The Battery Council International
maintains annual statistics for automotive batteries, including those for
passenger cars, trucks and buses, special tractors, marine, general utility,
golf cart, and miscellaneous uses. The data do not include batteries for
motorcycles, aircraft, and military uses.
The typical useful lifetime of these batteries is three to four
years (33). Failing batteries are not normally repaired, but are recycled or
discarded.
72
-------
Table 2-16
LEAD
CONSUMPTION
IN U.S. AUTOMOTIVE BATTERY
SHIPMENTS, 1966 TO
1986 1/
Replacement
Original
Lead per
Total Lead
Batteries
Equipment
Export
Total
Bnttery
Consumed
Year
(millions)
(mill ions)
(millions)
(millions)
(pounds) 2/
(short tons)
1966
31.1
10.3
0.2
41.6
20.1
418,080
1967
31.0
9.0
0.2
40.2
20.4
410,040
1968
33.8
10.7
0.5
45.0
20.9
470,250
1969
35.5
10.1
0.8
46.4
22.0
510,400
1970
37.9
8.2
0.8
46.9
23.0
539,350
1971
39.1
10.6
0.9
50.6
23.7
599,610
1972
43.1
11.3
1 .0
55.5
24.0
666,000
1973
43.5
12.6
1.0
57.1
24.9
710,895
1974
44.4
10.1
1.1
55.6
25.8
717,240
1975
42.6
9.0
1.3
52.9
24.5
648,020
1976
49.2
13.4
1.5
64.1
23.6
756,380
1977
54.6
14.7
1.4
70.7
23.9
844,865
1978
56.4
15.2
1.6
73.2
23.7
867,420
1979
53.7
14.4
1.2
69.3
22.6
783,090
1980
50.1
10.0
1.6
61.7
21.7
669,445
1981
53.6
10.0
1.9
65.5
22.2
727,050
1982
54.2
8.4
2.0
64.6
21.5
694,450
1983
56.1
10.8
2.1
69.0
21.1
727,950
1984
59.3
12.8
2.6
74.7
20.6
769,410
1985
58. 7
13.5
2.2
74.4
20.6
766,320
1986
60.3
13.3
2.1
75.7
20.0
757,000
1_/ Battery Council International (Reference 36). Includes passenger car (12 volt and 6 volt), heavy duty
(12 volt and 6 volt), special tractor, marine, general utility, golf car, and miscellaneous.
2/ Through 1981 (Reference 33). After 1981, data are from Bureau of Mines (Reference 8).
-------
Estimates of lead consumption in automotive batteries are shown
in Table 2-16. Millions of batteries used for original equipment vehicles,
for replacement of failed batteries, and for export were summed. These
numbers were then multiplied by an average weight of lead per battery to
obtain total lead consumption.
Motorcycle SLI Batteries. This category includes batteries for
motorcycles, scooters, and all terrain vehicles (ATVs). Lead consumption for
these batteries was estimated based on information from the Motorcycle
Industry Council and Department of Commerce statistics (34)(35) (Table 2-17).
Again, replacement batteries and original equipment batteries were summed,
then multiplied by an average weight of lead per battery.
Portable SLA Batteries. Sealed lead-acid storage batteries have
a number of consumer uses--providing power for toys, VCRs, portable radios arid
TVs, flashlights, portable tools and appliances, electric-start lawn mowers,
emergency lighting, and alarm systems. They also have a number of nonconsumer
uses, including power for telecommunications, medical instrumentation, and
backup lighting and alarm systems. These batteries were developed in the early
1970s; their uses are often the same as those of nickel-cadmium batteries
(discussed in Chapter 3).
Industrial Batteries. The Lead Industries Association maintains
data on lead consumed in industrial batteries. Industrial batteries are
defined as those used for the following applications:
1. Motive power for in-plant industrial trucks,
underground mining equipment, airline ground
support equipment, on-road electric vehicles,
and other special purposes. Golf cart batteries
are excluded from this category.
2. Stationary batteries for telephone switching
equipment, remote telecommunications, standby
and emergency power, alarms systems, computers
that require an uninterruptible power supply, etc.
3. Other applications such as renewable energy storage
(solar), railroad car lighting and diesel locomotive
starting batteries, and other commercial-industrial
applications.
Total Lead Consumed in Batteries. Consumption of lead in the
four categories of storage batteries is summed in Table 2-18. Since this is
such an important category of lead consumption, the totals were checked
against the annual lead consumption figures published by the Bureau of Mines
(8). The agreement is generally quite close; differences can probably be
explained by annual variations in the way the data from the various sources
are reported.
74
-------
Table 2-17
LEAD CONSUMPTION IN U.S. MOTORCYCLE SHIPMENTS, 1966 TO 1986 1/
Replacement
Original
Lead per
Total Lead
Batteries
Equipment
Total
Battery
Consumed
Year
(thousands)
(thousands)
(thousands)
(pounds) 2/
(short tons)
1966
584
30
614
8.9
2,732
1967
651
30
681
9.0
3,064
1968
696
30
726
9.2
3,340
1969
772
40
812
9.7
3,938
1970
941
35
976
10.2
4,978
1971
1,115
25
1,140
10.5
5,985
1972
1,253
35
1,288
10.6
6,826
1973
1,457
45
1,502
11.0
8,261
1974
1,655
40
1,695
11.4
9,662
1975
1,655
40
1,695
10.8
9,153
1976
1,644
80
1,724
10.4
8,965
1977
1,644
110
1,754
10.6
9,296
1978
1,623
80
1,703
10.5
8,941
1979
1,807
120
1,927
10.0
9,635
1980
1,898
130
2,028
9.6
9,734
1981
1,944
125
2,069
9.8
10,138
1982
1,918.
100
2,018
9.5
9,586
1983
1,862
100
1,962
9.3
9,123
1984
1,827
155
1,982
8.8
8,721
1985
1,815
130
1,945
8.8
8,558
1986
1,786
105
1,891
8.4
7,942
1_! Motorcycle Industry Council, Inc. and Statistical Abstract (References
34 and 35). Includes motorcycles, scooters, and all terrain vehicles
(ATVs).
2/ Franklin Associates, Ltd. estimate of 8 pounds in 1987 from catalog
shipping weights. Variation assumed to parallel automotive battery
weights.
75
-------
Table 2-18
SUMMARY OF LEAD CONSUMPTION IN U.S.
BATTERY SHIPMENTS,
1966 TO 1986
Bureau of Mines
Total Lead
Percei
Automotive
Motorcycle
Industrial
Portable
Total Lead
Consumption Account
Year
(short tons)
1/ (short tons) 2/
(short tons)
3/ (short tons) 4/
(short tons)^
(short tons) 5/
For
1966
418,080
2,732
—
1.0
420,813
-
-
1967
410,040
3,064
52,100
1.3
465,206
-
-
1968
470,250
3,340
58,400
1.7
531,991
-
-
1969
510,400
3,938
57,400
2.0
571,740
-
-
1970
539,350
4,978
63,600
2.5
607,930
593,453
102.4
1971
599,610
5,985
68,100
3.1
673,698
679,803
99.1
1972
666,000
6,826
64,400
3.8
737,230
726,592
101.5
1973
710,895
8,261
80,800
4. 7
779,961
769,447
104.0
1974
717,240
9,662
80,900
5.8
807,807
851,881
94.8
1975
648,025
9,153
75,400
7.0
732,585
699,414
104.7
1976
756,380
8,965
77,800
8.5
843,153
822,404
102.5
1977
844,865
9,296
90,900
10.2
945,071
945,876
99.9
1978
867,420
8,941
93,400
12.1
969,773
969,224
100.1
1979
783,090
9,635
101,900
14.3
894,639
897,638
99.7
1980
669,445
9,734
83,600
16.7
762,796
711,377
107.2
1981
727,050
10,138
85,600
19.2
822,307
848,939
96.9
1982
694,450
9,586
75,100
22.0
799,157
776,375
100.4
1983
727,950
9,123
91,700
24.7
828,798
889,445
93.2
1984
769,410
8,123
113,000
27.5
891,158
954,096
93.4
1985
766,320
8,558
160,700
30.3
935,608
926,968
100.9
1986
757,000
7,942
184,500
32.9
949,475
941,155
100.9
1./ From Table 2-16.
2/ From Table 2-17.
V Battery Council International for 1967 through 1982 (Reference 36). After 1982, data are from Bureau
oE Mines (Reference 8).
4/ Estimate by Franklin Associates, Ltd., based on total sales dollars (Reference 31).
_5/ Bureau of Mines (Reference 8).
-------
Discards of Lead from Storage Batteries
A flow diagram for SLI storage batteries is shown in Figure 2-5.
Recycling is an important factor in determining lead-acid storage battery
discards. The Bureau of Mines tracks the total lead recovered from lead-acid
batteries. The total lead recycled each year consists of lead recovered for
reuse plus scrap battery lead exported plus any increase in battery lead scrap
inventory at the smelters. The recycle rate for automotive and motorcycle SL
batteries is obtained by first subtracting the industrial lead recovered
(about 9 percent of total) (37) from the total battery lead recycled and
dividing by the gross discards. The remainder is presumed to be discarded into
municipal solid waste.
Since 1970, the recycle rate has varied from a high of 85 percent
to a low of 52 percent. Other researchers (References 33 and 38) have
calculated the recycle rate using a somewhat different approach for estimating
gross discards, but similar recycle rates result. In the Sixties, when the
price of secondary lead was high and regulations on the secondary smelters
were minimal, the recycle rate was reported to be as high as 97 percent (33).
In the Seventies and early Eighties, a number of secondary smelters went out
of business because of the low price of lead, changes in the materials used
for battery manufacture (e.g., polypropylene cases), and the high cost of
complying with environmental regulations. Of 60 operational secondary
smelters in 1982, only 23 remained in 1987 (39, 40). In spite of the small
number of secondary smelters remaining, the recycle rate appears to be
significantly higher in 1986 than in 1982.
Discards for each type of battery are summarized below.
SLI Battery Lead. Discards of lead in automotive and motorcycle
SLI batteries were estimated using the following adjustments and assumptions:
1. Adjustments were made for imports and exports
using Department of Commerce data (41).
2. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be 5 percent
based on information in a recent study for EPA (33).
3. Recycling of lead in batteries was taken from a
recent study for EPA (33). Recovery of lead from
industrial batteries was assumed to be 9 percent;
Industrial batteries are assumed to not be discarded
into MSW (37).
4. The lifetime of automotive batteries was assumed
to be four years (33); for motorcycle batteries,
three years (34).
5. Projections of discards were based on past trends.
77
-------
-J
00
Battery
Exports
Vehicle
Exports
U.S. Storage
Battery
Shipments
Lead-Acid
Storage Batteries
Gross
Discards
Product Life
Time Delay
Replacement
Battery
Imports
Vehicle
Imports
Recycled
Lead
Net
Discards
Figure 2-5. Methodology flow diagram for SLI Storage Batteries
-------
Table 2-19
LEAD IN AUTOMOTIVE SLI BATTERIES, 1966 TO 1996
(In short tons)
Domestic
Lead
Consumption Manu- Domestic
in Auto facturing Con-
Year Batteries 1/ Losses 2/ sumption
Gross Lead
Available
for
Discard
Total Total in Auto
Imports _3/ Exports 3/ Batteries kj
1966
418,080
20,904
397,176
12,364
4,554
404,986
1967
410,040
20,502
389,538
16,144
4,864
400,817
1963
470,250
23,512
446,738
20,222
8,200
458,760
1969
510,400
25,520
484,880
25,164
12,028
498,016
1970
539,350
26,968
512,382
30,367
12,848
529,902
1971
599,610
29,980
569,630
38,611
16,335
591,906
1972
666,000
33,300
632,700
38,659
17,738
653,620
1973
710,895
35,545
675,350
42,483
19,835
697,999
1974
717,240
35,862
681,378
49,279
22,623
708,034
1975
648,025
32,401
615,624
36,861
25,125
627,359
1976
756,380
37,819
718,561
40,760
26,500
732,820
1977
844,865
42,243
802,622
49,178
25,679
826,120
1978
867,420
43,371
842,049
58,337
28,200
854,186
1979
783,090
39,154
743,936
58,488
23,746
778,677
1980
669,445
33,472
635,973
57,306
24,769
668,509
1981
727,050
36,352
690,698
54,709
27,565
717,841
1982
694,450
34,722
659,728
52,902
25,562
687,067
1983
727,950
36,398
691,552
83,628
27,923
747,258
1984
769,410
38,470
730,940
110,661
33,024
808,576
1985
766,320
38,316
728,004
138,671
30,206
836,469
1986
757,000
37,850
719,150
145,295
28,291
836,154
1987
-
-
-
-
-
791,838
1988
-
-
-
-
-
817,177
1989
_
_
—
_
835,154
1990
-
-
-
-
-
845,176
1991
-
-
-
-
-
862,925
1992
-
-
-
-
-
871,554
1993
-
-
-
-
-
880,270
1994
-
-
-
-
-
889,072
1995
-
-
-
-
-
897,963
1996
-
-
-
-
-
906,943
1/
2/
3/
4/
Battery Council International (Reference 36). Includes original equipment and
replacement batteries for cars, trucks, tractors, marine, general utility,
golf car, and miscellaneous. Excludes industrial batteries, aircraft, mili-
tary, motorcycles, scooters, and ATVs.
Five percent of consumption (Reference 33).
Estimated based on Department of Commerce data (Reference 41).
Projections from 1986 to 1991 are based on U.S. Industrial Outlook projections
for car and truck sales, including imports (Reference 39). One percent growth
rate estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd. after 1991.
79
-------
Year
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Table 2-20
LEAD IN MOTORCYCLE BATTERIES, 1966 TO 1997
(In short tons)
Domestic
Lead
Consumption
in Motorcycle
Batteries 1/
Manu-
facturing
Losses 2/
Net
Domestic
Con-
sumption
Total Total
Imports _3/ Exports 3/
Gross Lead
Available
for
Discard in
Motorcycle
Batteries 4/
2,732
137
2,595
879
0
3,475
3,064
153
2,911
1,325
0
4,236
3,340
167
3,173
1,800
0
4,973
3,938
197
3,741
3,013
0
6,754
4,978
249
4,729
5,361
0
10,091
5,985
299
5,686
7,771
0
13,456
6,826
341
6,485
8,616
10
15,091
8,261
413
7,848
6,462
12
14,298
9,662
483
9,179
8,593
9
17,762
9,153
458
8,695
5,016
13
13,699
8,926
448
8,517
3,383
33
11,868
9,296
465
8,831
4,504
57
13,279
8,941
447
8,494
4,871
38
13,327
9,635
482
9,153
4,500
91
13,562
9,734
487
9,247
5,390
116
14,521
10,138
507
9,631
5,194
121
14,704
9,586
479
9,107
5,633
82
14,657
9,123
456
8,667
4,952
76
13,542
8,721
436
8,285
5,424
87
13,622
8,558
428
8,130
7,050
70
15,110
7,942
397
7,545
5,302
65
12,782
-
-
-
-
-
12,910
-
-
-
-
—
13,039
_
-
—
—
—
13,169
-
-
-
-
-
13,301
-
-
-
-
-
13,434
-
-
-
-
-
13,568
-
-
-
-
-
13,704
-
-
-
-
-
13,841
-
-
-
-
-
13,979
-
-
-
-
-
14,119
-
-
-
-
-
14,260
Motorcycle Industry Council, Inc. and Statistical Abstract (References 34
and 35). Includes original equipment and replacement batteries for motor-
cylces, scooters, and all terrain vehicles (ATVs).
Five percent of consumption (Reference 33).
Estimated based on Department of Commerce data (Reference 41).
Projections by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
80
-------
Table 2-21
DISCARDS OF LEAD IN SLI LEAD-ACID BATTERIES, 1970 TO 2000
(In short
tons)
Gross
Net
Discards of
Recycled
Discards of
Lead in SLI
Lead in SLI
Lead in SLI
Percent
Year
Batteries 1/
Batteries 2/
Batteries
Recycled
1970
409,222
325,399
83,823
79.5
1971
405,791
306,109
99,682
75.4
1972
465,514
335,209
130,305
72.0
1973
508,106
353,067
155,039
69.5
1974
543,358
414,685
128,673
76.3
1975
606,996
400,576
206,420
66.0
1976
667,918
443,566
224,352
66.4
1977
715,761
521,829
193,932
72.9
1978
721,732
553,796
167,936
76.7
1979
639,227
545,969
93,258
85.4
1980
746,099
540,458
205,641
72.4
1981
839,447
519,404
320,043
61.9
1982
867,749
458,557
409,192
52.8
1983
793,198
415,126
378,072
52.3
1984
683,213
500,334
182,879
73.2
1985
732,498
510,585
221,913
69.7
1986
700,610
562,614
137,996
80.3
1990
849,063
681,827
167,236
80.3
1995
876,493
703,854
172,639
80.3
2000
921,203
739,758
181,445
80.3
_1/ From Tables 2-19 and 2-20. Assumes a four-year life for automotive
batteries and three years for motorcycle batteries (References 33
and 34).
2_l From Reference 33. Assumes that 9 percent of lead recovered from
battery scrap is from industrial batteries (Reference 37).
81
-------
Figure 2-6. Discards of lead in SLI lead-acid batteries, 1970 tc
Tons 2000.
Net Discards?
iiSMSi:;
£
-------
Gross discards of lead in automotive and motorcycle batteries are
summarized in Tables 2-19 and 2-20. Gross discards for the two types of
batteries are combined and recycled battery lead is deducted to obtain net
discards into MSW (Table 2-21 and Figure 2-6).
Portable Lead-Acid Batteries. Only a limited number of companies
manufacture portable lead-acid batteries, and quantitative data were difficult
to obtain. Best estimates were made using the following adjustments and
assumptions:
1. Consumption of lead was estimated based on
dollar sales from the Handbook of Batteries
and Fuel Cells (31) and a weight of lead per
battery number from an industry representative
(32).
2. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be 5 percent.
3. Recycling of these batteries was assumed to be
negligible.
4. The lifetime of these batteries was assumed to
be four years.
5. Growth of production of these batteries has been
rapid, but it is projected to level off in a few years.
6. It was assumed that 25 percent of these batteries
would not be discarded in municipal solid waste.
This accounts for those used for medical and
industrial instrumentation.
The results of these estimates are shown in Tables 2-22 and 2-23
and Figure 2-7. It is estimated that these batteries have grown from a
contribution of two tons of lead in MSW in 1970 to 47 tons in 1986. Growth is
expected to continue to about 101 tons in 2000.
LIGHT BULBS
The industry classified as "Electrical Machinery and Equipment"
is the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) system includes light bulbs
(called electric lamps in the SIC classification). Light bulbs typically
contain both lead and solder in leaded glass.
T.ead in Solder in Light Bulbs
Solder is used at the base of many light bulbs to hold the
assembly together. The solder can be seen upon inspection of the bulb.
83
-------
Table 2-22
LEAD CONSUMPTION IN PORTABLE SEALED LEAD-ACID BATTERIES, 1966 TO 1996
(In short tons)
Domestic
Net
Lead
Consumptioi
Consumption
Manu-
Adjustment
of Lead in
in Portable
facturing
for Imports/
Portable
Year
Batteries 1/
Losses 2/
Exports 3/
Batteries
1966
1
0.1
2
3
1967
1
0.1
3
4
1968
2
0.1
3
5
1969
2
0.1
4
6
1970
3
0.1
5
7
1971
3
0.2
6
9
1972
4
0.2
7
11
1973
5
0.2
9
13
1974
6
0.3
11
17
1975
7
0.4
13
20
1976
9
0.4
16
24
1977
10
0.5
19
29
1978
12
0.6
23
34
1979
14
0.7
27
41
1980
17
0.8
32
48
1981
19
1.0
37
55
1982
22
1.1
42
63
1983
25
1.2
47
70
1984
28
1.4
47
73
1985
30
1.5
58
86
1986
33
1.6
63
94
1991
43
2.1
81
121
1996
47
2.4
90
135
1/ Estimated by Franklin Associates based on dollar values (Reference 31).
2/ Estimated to be 5 percent of consumption.
3/ Estimated based on information from an industry representative (Ref-
erence 32). Exports are negligible.
4/ Net consumption = domestic consumption - manufacturing losses + net
imports.
84
-------
Table 2-23
DISCARDS OF LEAD IN PORTABLE SEALED LEAD-ACID BATTERIES, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Discards of
Lead in
Discards
Net Discards
Portable
Other Than
of Lead Into
Year
Batteries 1/
MSW 2/
MSW
1970
3
1
2
1971
4
1
3
1972
5
1
4
1973
6
2
5
1974
7
2
5
1975
9
2
7
1976
11
3
8
1977
13
3
10
1978
17
4
13
1979
20
5
15
1980
24
6
18
1981
29
7
22
1982
34
9
26
1983
41
10
31
1984
48
12
.36
1985
55
14
41
1986
63
16
47
1990
94
24
71
1995
121
30
91
2000
135
34
101
1/ From Table 2-22. Assumes a four-year life.
2! Assumes that 25 percent not discarded in MSW to account for those
used in medical and industrial instrumentation.
3/ Net discards - total discards - discards other than MSW.
85
-------
Tons
120 t
Figure 2-7. Discards of lead in portable lead-acid batteries, 1970
to 2000.
100-
80-
60
40
20
0
1970
H 1—I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 h
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
86
-------
The Bureau of Mines (8) reports lead consumption by the total SIC
category Electrical Machinery and Equipment, but in no further detail. Lead
consumption in light bulbs was estimated by obtaining the units of light bulbs
produced, estimating how many of these would be discarded into MSW, and
multiplying the estimated quantity of lead in solder per light bulb. The
latter estimate was made by experimental means.
Different kinds of light bulbs included in the SIC classification
were categorized into bulbs assumed to enter HSW and those assumed not to
enter MSW. (The latter include automotive and industrial bulbs, for example.)
Bulbs that enter MSW were further categorized into those that contain lead in
older and those that do not. Bulbs that do not contain lead in solder
include flash cubes and other flash lamps, some projection lamps, and
miniature Christmas tree bulbs.
Using Department of Commerce statistics, units of the kinds of
bulbs shown in Table 2-24 were tabulated.
Table 2-24
LIGHT BULBS ASSUMED TO CONTAIN SOLDER
AND TO BE DISCARDED INTO MSW
15 to 150 watts, white lamps
Lamps above 150 watts
Reflector: par type
Tungsten halogen
All other special types
Christmas tree lamps'*
15 to 150 watts, all other
Three-way lamps
Reflector: R type
Decorative under 150 watts
Flashlight
Sun lamp bulbs
* Does not include miniature bulbs, which do not contain leaded solder.
Source: Department of Commerce Standard Industrial Classification Manual
(Reference 42). Allocations by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Additional adjustments and assumptions included:
1. Adjustments for imports were made for each type
of lamp. Export adjustments were included in the
Department of Commerce (43) figures used.
2. The amount of solder in 16 lamps of nine
different types was determined experimentally. The
solder in each lamp was removed by melting and weighed.
The mean amount of solder in each lamp was 0.1585 grams.
Both the experiment and discussions with industry
representatives confirmed that the amount of solder in
each type of lamp is approximately the same (44).
3. The amount of lead in the solder was assumed to be
50 percent of the total weight (44).
87
-------
4. It was assumed that there is no recycling of light bulbs.
5. Bulbs were assumed to have a one-year life before
discard (44).
Lead in Glass in Light Bulbs
Light bulbs contain leaded glass in the flare and exhaust tube,
both of which are part of the mount that is at the base of the bulb. (These
glass parts can be seen inside a transparent bulb.) Leaded glass is used at
the base of light bulbs because the glass needs to be highly insulating so
that the bulbs can operate at low temperatures.
Lead monoxide content in light bulbs ranges from 20 to 30 percent
(Table 2-25). The best estimate is that there are 0.25 grams of lead in the
glass in an average bulb (44). The same methodology was used as that outlined
above, except that the weight of lead in the glass was not obtained
experimentally.
Table 2-25
LEAD OXIDE LEVELS IN LIGHT BULBS
Component
Unspecified
Tubes
Flares
Lead Oxide
(percent)
20 to 30
20 to 29
20 (incandescent
or fluorescent)
6 (halogen)
Source: References 45 and 46.
Total Lead in Light Bulbs
Lead in glass and solder in light bulbs that would be discarded
in MSW is summarized in Table 2-26 and Figure 2-8. The lead in solder has
been increasing very slowly, while lead in glass has been on a more rapidly
increasing trend.
PIGMENTS
Pigments are intermediate products that become constituents in a
wide variety of end products, including inks, paints, dyes, and colorants for
glass and plastics. Because pigments become so widely dispersed, it was not
possible to quantify every end use to which they might be applied. In this
88
-------
Table 2-26
DISCARDS OF LEAD IN LIGHT BULBS, 1970 TO 2000
Lead in Lead in Total
Light Bulb in Solder Glass in Lead in
Consumption JL/ Light Bulbs 2/ Light Bulbs _3/ Light Bulbs
Year (thousand units) (short tons) (short tons) (short tons)
1970
1,782,498
156
491
647
1971
1,748,498
153
482
635
1972
1,930,407
169
532
701
1973
2,089,385
183
576
758
1974
2,051,291
179
565
744
1975
1,840,991
161
507
668
1976
1,837,121
160
506
667
1977
1,857,306
162
512
674
1978
2,127,018
186
586
772
1979
2,215,646
194
611
804
1980
2,260,592
197
623
820
1981
2,304,932
201
635
837
1982
2,176,621
190
600
790
1983
2,204,020
193
607
800
1984
2,213,537
193
610
803
1985
2,562,037
224
706
930
1986
2,571,385
225
709
933
1990
2,638,045
230
727
957
1995
2,855,494
249
787
1,036
2000
3,072,943
268
847
1,115
If Consumption one year prior to discard (Reference 44). Includes
adjustment for exports and imports. Department of Commerce data
(Reference 46).
2/ Weight of solder in each bulb estimated at 0.1585 grams. Lead in
solder assumed to be 50 percent of weight (Reference 44).
3/ Weight of lead in glass in each bulb estimated at 0.25 grams
(Reference 44).
89
-------
Total
Solder;
Tons
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1970
Figure 2-8. Discards of lead in light bulbs, 1970 to 2000
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
90
-------
section, lead compounds that are used in pigments are discussed, followed by a
discussion of end uses for pigments. Finally, quantities of lead in pigments
in MSW are estimated.
Lead Pigment Compounds*
Pigments can be colored, colorless, black, white, or metallic.
Generally, they are of small particle size and remain insoluble in the medium
or binder in which they are dispersed. Properties and characteristics that
are factors in pigment selection include hue, tint, tinctorial strength,
brightness, texture, dispersibility, opacity, oil absorption, lightfastness,
weatherability, and chemical, heat, moisture, bleed, and migration resistance.
Some of the more common lead pigments are discussed below.
Basic Lead Silico Sulfate (PbS0^"Si02). Basic lead silico sulfate
is a pigment with a core of silica and a coating of mixed lead salts. It was
the first of such pigments developed for the paint industry. Its greatest
utilization has been in multi-pigment house paints, both water-base and
solvent-base.
Dibasic Lead Phosphite (2Pb0PbHP03'l/2H20) . Dibasic lead
phosphite was first used as a stabilizer for plastics, but its ability to
eliminate bleed-through of cedar and redwood stains in emulsion primers has
broadened its use. It is still used by plastics and pigment industries. In
the plastics industry, it acts as an effective stabilizer for polyvinyl
chloride resins or other resins having a chlorine content. In the pigment
industry, it acts as an anti-corrosive agent in metal protective coatings and
as an anti-staining agent in latex coatings over cedar and redwood.
Basic Lead Silicate (PbSO^'PbO). Basic lead silicate pigments
were first promoted as a stabilizer for vinyl chloride plastics for use in
polyvinyl chloride wire coating. Basic lead silicates tend to produce durable
paint films, and are helpful in water-base primers for wood by reducing and
controlling cedar and redwood staining. The high lead content is also helpful
in resisting corrosion on metal surfaces. The mild reactivity of basic lead
silicate helps to stabilize linseed oil films. This pigment is still used as
an effective stabilizer for polyvinyl chloride plastic compounds.
Chrome Green Pigments (PbCr0^*xPbS04"yFeNH4Fe(CN)6) . Chrome green
pigment used to be the most widely used green pigment. Today its market has
been challenged by phthalocyanine green because of the potential toxicity of
lead content in chrome green pigments. Chrome green has been used in the
manufacture of paints, printing inks, linoleum, paper goods, and plastics.
White Hiding Lead Pigments (2PbC05'Pb(0H)2) . This pigment is
generally called lead carbonate. Legislation has prohibited the use of lead
ingredients above promulgated limits for use on interior surfaces or exterior
paints that are accessible to children.
* This section is based on References 47 and 48.
91
-------
These regulations have made way for titanium dioxide and zinc pigments to take
command of the white pigment market. Although the use of basic lead
carbonates has been reduced, it has not been eliminated, and because of its
cost and multitude of applications, the products that it has been applied to
are numerous.
Molvbdate Orange Pigment (PbCr04,PbS0^,PbMo04) . Molybdate orange
pigment is a solid solution of lead chromate, lead molybdate, and lead
sulfate. Molybdate orange is principally valued for its hiding power and its
tinting strength. Printing inks and color graphics have used this pigment
extensively because of the ease of use and rapid processing capabilities, as
well as its eye-catching qualities when used in advertisements, magazine
covers, and printed layouts. Molybdate orange pigments are also used in floor
coverings, pigmented leather, paper, plastics, and coated fabrics.
Calcium Plumbate (2Ca0+Pb02). Calcium plumbate was first used as
a method of preparation for glass manufacture. Calcium plumbate became a
viable paint pigment as the need for reduced lead in pigments surfaced. Its
major use is in the manufacture of primers for steel and galvanized steel.
T.aati Chromate Pigments (3,2PbCr04*lPbSOji,PbCr04,2*5PbCr04,lPbS04) .
Chrome yellow and chrome orange are considered to be two of the most versatile
pigments, and thus have a wide spectrum of end uses. Major end uses include:
automotive finishes, agricultural machinery, architectural finishes, and
coatings for interior and exterior use. Traffic paints consume large amounts
of medium chrome yellow for highway stripes and road markings, as well as curb
markings and crosswalks. Other areas where lead chromate pigments are used
include colorants in vinyl, rubber, and paper.
Red Lead (Pb304). Most red lead is manufactured from lead oxides
(litharge) or leady oxides. Red lead is designated by grades, principally,
85, 95, 97, and 98 percent red lead. Most pigments that are used today are
the 97 to 98 percent red lead composition. This reflects the true minimum
lead content. Red lead is one of the oldest pigments, and has been used
extensively for the protection of many iron and steel products.
Basic Lead Sillco Chromate (PbSi03*3Pb0,PbCr04*Pb0). The orange-
colored metal pigments are basic lead silico chromate. They are unique in the
fact that they contain a core of silica and are coated with active basic lead
salts. Basic lead silico chromate was first marketed in 1955. Since then it
has had a broad application in metal protective paints (shop coats,
maintenance paints, and body and finish coats for structural steel). A second
type of basic lead silico chromate was marketed in 1969 for its use in the
electro-deposition of water-base coatings for the automotive industry. Their
use has been increased because of the capability to be tinted to a variety of
colors.
Phloxine (C20H6Br4O5Pb) . Phloxine has a market in publication
printing because of its excellent transparency and brilliance. A form of
phloxine in mineral oil is being used in some newspaper printing, replacing
lithols that were previously used. Phloxine is still used in some rotogravure
inks.
92
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End Uses of Pigments
In addition to pigmentation, lead pigments can be used as driers,
activators, vulcanizers, etc., to impart a physical change or properties to a
product. More discussion on end uses is included below.
Paints. Leaded house paints such as basic lead carbonate (white
lead), basic lead sulfate, leaded zinc oxide, and lead silicates, were common
up until 40 or 50 years ago. During the 1930s, more economical pigments such
as titanium dioxide began to replace white lead pigments for interior
application.
By 1955, the American National Standards Institute established
voluntary standards limiting the lead content in paints intended for
children's toys, furniture, and interior surfaces to a maximum of one percent
lead. In 1971, the Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act prohibited the
use of paints containing more than one percent lead by weight in the
nonvolatile portion of liquid paints or in the dried film on all interior and
exterior surfaces accessible to children in residential structures. In 1972,
the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ordered a reduction of the lead content
in paints used in and around households to 0.5 percent by January 1, 1973 and
0.06 percent two years later. Further legislation in 1976 limited lead in
paint to 0.06 percent and also required the Department of Housing and Urban
Development to prohibit lead-based paint in residential structures built or
rehabilitated with federal assistance. Also, the Department of Health,
Education and Welfare banned lead paints from cooking and eating utensils and
the Consumer Products Safety Commission prohibited lead paints on toys and
furniture. As a result of all these events, the white lead content of paint
dropped dramatically (Figure 2-9).
Red lead and other corrosion-inhibiting pigments are also
important lead pigments, but they are used primarily for coating structural
steel and iron, and thus are not generally discarded into MSW. Consumption of
red lead has also decreased dramatically (Figure 2-10).
Printing Inks. Printing inks consist of a dissolved dye or
pigment in a vehicle to produce a fluid or paste that can be transferred to
paper, film, foil, or metal, then dried. Literally thousands of commercial
printing inks have been developed to meet needs of printers such as rates of
feed, drying time, opacity, brilliance, and the nature of the medium to be
printed. The type of ink used varies with the type of printing used. The
four major types of printing are:
- Raised type (typographic, letterpress, flexographic)
- Planar surface (planographic, lithographic)
- Recessed or engraved (intaglio, rotogravure)
- Stencil (wire, silk screen).
Carbon black is the most widely-used substance for pigmenting
inks, but organic pigments, including those using lead compounds, account for
a considerable amount. Lead compounds often used in printing inks include
93
-------
Figure 2-9. White lead content of paint produced, 1970 to 1985.
Tons
8,000 -j
•v.
7,000 "s.
6,000-
5,000-
4,000-
3,000-
2,000-
1,000- •—•
\
—•—•—•.
-4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I K
0
1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984
94
-------
Figure 2-10. Consumption of red lead pigments in the U.S., 1967 to 1984.
Tons
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
/v/—s
\
•—
-•—•
—I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984
95
-------
phloxine red, chrome yellow (varying formulations of lead chromate depending
on the shade desired), lead chromate, and lead sulfochromate.
Discards of lead in printing inks in products entering MSW were
estimated using data on consumption of lead in printing inks from the
Department of Commerce (51). The following adjustments and assumptions were
used:
1. Imports and exports of these products were not
available, but they are believed to be
insignificant.
2. Manufacturing losses were estimated to be 5
percent (52).
3. An adjustment was made for recycling of paper,
which removes some of the ink from the waste
stream (Table 2-27). Only recycling of paper
that is deinked (some newspapers and some office-
type papers such as computer printout) was used
in the adjustment. The ink that is removed from
these recycled papers is not recycled, of course,
but it becomes an industrial waste rather than
MSW. Ink that is recycled on paper that is not
deinked (e.g., newspapers made into boxboard)
was considered to enter the municipal solid waste
stream at some point.
4. Lead in ink was assumed to enter MSW in the same
year that it Is consumed.
5. Projections were made based on past trends, which
show a decreasing use of lead in printing ink.
The results of these estimates as shown in Table 2-28 and Figure
2-11 indicate that the use of lead in printing inks has declined rapidly.
Textiles. Inorganic salts, including lead compounds, are useful
to the textile dyeing industry. Titanium dioxide, however is the most widely-
used Inorganic pigment for these purposes. Dyes in the yellow, orange, and
green colors are most likely to contain lead compounds. Use of lead in these
dyes is discussed below.
Yellow textile pigments may contain chrome yellows, which are
essentially lead chromate with varying amounts of lead sulfate. This pigment
is not in common use in textile dyeing, however.
Chrome orange pigments are basic lead chromates; they are not
currently used in textile dyeing. Molybdate orange pigments (coprecipitate
mixtures of lead chromate, lead molybdate, and sulfate) do have some limited
use in textile printing.
96
-------
Table 2-27
ESTIMATE OF DEINKED PAPERS REMOVED FROM MSW BY PAPER RECYCLINC, 1970 TO 2000
(lit thousand tons and percent)
I)e i nked
lllgh-
Delnked
Total
News as a
Grade
Total
Papers as a
Uaste
Delnked
Percent of
Deinking
Dei nked
Percent of
Paper
Newspapers
Newspapers
Newspapers
Paper
Papers
Total Uaste
Year
Recycled
1/ Recycled 1/
Recycled 2/
Recycled
Recycled 1/
Recycled 3/
Paper Recycled
1970
12,562
2,445
371
15. 2
851
1,222
9. 7
1971
12,899
2,405
393
16. 3
891
1,284
10.0
1972
11,369
2,557
421
16.5
852
1,273
11. 2
1973
15,189
2,903
483
16.6
946
1,429
9. 4
1974
15,689
2,854
406
14.2
892
1,298
8. 3
1975
13,072
2,416
463
19. 2
803
1,266
9. 7
1976
15,419
2,821
522
18.5
934
1,456
9.4
1977
16,348
3,081
544
17.7
944
1 ,488
9.1
1978
16,791
2,862
532
18.6
1,158
1,690
10.1
1979
18,025
3,162
679
21.5
1,250
1,929
10. 7
1980
17,971
3,279
852
26.0
1,318
2,170
12.1
1981
17,659
3,276
894
27.3
1,346
2,240
12. 7
1982
16,975
3,402
1,066
31.3
1,358
2,424
14. 3
1983
18,596
3,436
1,036
30.2
1,547
2,583
13.9
1984
20,309
3,719
1.258
33.8
1 ,663
2,921
14.4
1985
20,049
3,772
1,312
34.8
1,664
2,976
14.8
1986
21,598
4,050
1,364
31. 7
1,819
3,183
14.7
1990
24,048
4,500
1,594
35.4
2,000
3,594
14.9
1995
27,386
4,900
1,800
36. 7
2,300
4,100
15.0
2000
30,709
5,400
2,000
37.0
2,600
4,600
15.0
JL / 1970-1977: Franklin Associates, Ltd. (Reference 54).
1978-1986: American Paper Institute (Reference 55).
1990-2000: Estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd..
2J 1970-1980: Franklin Associates, Ltd. (Reference 53).
1.981-1990: American Paper Institute (Reference 56).
1995-2000: Estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd..
3/ Delnked newspapers recycled 4- hlgli grade deinking papers recycled.
-------
Table 2-28
DISCARDS OF LEAD IN PRINTING
INKS IN MSW, 1970
TO 2000
(In shore
tons)
Consumption
Removed by
of Lead in
Manufacturing
Recycling
Net
Year
Printing Ink 1/
Losses 2/
of Paper 3/
Discards
1970
22,500
1,125
2,183
19,192
1971
21,000
1,050
2,100
17,850
1972
19,946
997
2,234
16,715
1973
21,929
1,096
2,061
18,772
1974
20,497
1,025
1,701
17,771
1975
16,200
810
1,571
13,819
1976
14,987
749
1,409
12,829
1977
12,563
628
1,488
10,447
1978
11,571
579
1,169
9,823
1979
11,020
551
1,179
9,290
1980
9,918
496
1,200
8,222
1981
8,595
430
1,092
7,073
1982
3,086
154
441
2,491
1983
2,755
138
383
2,234
1984
2,424
121
349
1,954
1985
1,763
88
261
1,414
1986
331
17
49
265
1990
275
14
41
220
1995
225
11
34
180
2000
175
9
26
140
1/ Department of Commerce (Reference 51). 1970-1971 and projections
by Franklin Associates.
2,/ Assumed to be 5 percent (Reference 52).
3/ From Table 2-27. Previously in percentage form.
98
-------
Figure 2-11. Discards of lead in printing inks in MSW, 1970 to 2000.
Tons
20,000 -r
1
18,000-
16,000-
* \
14,000 -
\
«
12,000-
10,000 -
8,000 ¦
6,000 -
4,000 ¦
2,000 ¦
\
\
-I—i—i i i I—i i i i—iiii
1 970
1975
1980
1985
1990
a1-f-• I I I I •
1995
2000
99
-------
Chrome green can be developed using lead chromate for the pigment
base, but it is generally not used in textile printing (47).
It was not possible to quantify the amounts of lead pigments used
in textile dyeing.
Plastics. Use of plastic products in the United States is
growing, and use of pigments in the products is thus growing also. Lead
pigments are not extensively used in plastics manufacture, but chrome green,
chrome yellow, and chrome orange pigments are used. Molybdate orange is also
used. More information in use of pigments in plastics is included elsewhere
in this report.
Artists' Paints. Oil colors contain large amounts of pigment,
ranging from 30 percent for toners to as high as 75 to 80 percent with dense
pigments such as white leads. Because of toxicity concerns, labeling of
paints containing toxic substances is required under the Pure Food and Drug
Act.
Basic carbonate white lead, called flake white by artists, is the
most important lead pigment in oil paints. Although flake white is the
traditional white pigment used, it has been largely displaced now by titanium
and zinc white pigments.
Another lead pigment with minor use is Naples yellow (lead
antimoniate). Lead chromate yellows and greens are no longer listed by most
paint manufacturers (47).
Industrial Cravons. The wood product industries use "lumber
crayons" that are sometimes called kiel markers. These crayons can be tinted
with inorganic pigments such as lead chromate for orange, green, and yellow
markers.
Elastomers. Pigments in elastomers (rubber products) have four
uses:
- as an inert filler
- as a reinforcing filler
- as an acceleration activator
- as a colorant.
Pigments may be used in elastomers for color identification of two similar
objects, to improve aesthetic appeal, or to match two parts of different
composition with the same color. Examples of these uses include coloring white
walls on tires, the backing on carpeting, sporting goods such as basketballs,
rubber bands, rubber-based floor tile, housewares, and clothing and footwear
(47).
Lead compounds used as activators and vulcanizers in rubber
include litharge (lead oxide), lead peroxide, and lead stearate. Molybdate
oranges and chrome yellows may use lead compounds to pigment rubber products.
100
-------
More information on lead use in rubber is included in another
section of this report.
Adhesives. Adhesives are used in many industries, including
paper, wood, furniture, shoes, textiles', film and foil, and other. The
adhesives may be colored for identification or for aesthetic purposes.
Inorganic pigments such as chrome yellow, chrome green, and
molybdate orange may be used for pigmenting adhesives. The pigments generally
constitute about 10 percent by weight of the product (47).
Data to quantify use of lead pigments in adhesives were
not found.
Traffic Paints. Yellow traffic paints applied to highways,
signs, and guard railings are a major user of lead-based chrome yellow
pigments. The pigment constitutes 25 percent of the total weight of the paint
(47). It has been estimated that nearly 40 million pounds of lead in paints
is applied to the nation's highways (53).
Since these paints are not used in products that would enter MSW,
they were not included in the estimates made here.
Metal Coil Coatings. Coil coating refers to the continuous
application of a protective and/or decorative and/or functional finish on
metal strips. The process originated with the Venetian blind industry.
Inorganic pigments that may be used for coil coatings include chrome yellow
and molybdate orange.
Most coil coated strip is used in the building and construction
trades, in commercial equipment, and in the traffic and transportation
industries, and thus they would not typically enter MSW. A few coil coated
consumer goods, such as tool and tackle boxes, garden tools, games and toys,
and clocks, were estimated to be disposed of in MSW.
Machinery and Automotive Finishes. Paints used for machinery and
automotive finishes represent another important use that is not discarded into
MSW. Lead chromate yellows are often used in finishes for farm equipment,
trucks, and other machinery. Molybdate lead chromates are also used. Use of
these pigments was not included in the amounts estimated to go to MSW.
Structural Steel Coatings. Red lead paints are used for
corrosion protection of structural steel in items such as bridges, support
beams, and other construction products. Basic lead silicochroraate has also
been used for this purpose, and monobasic lead chromate was used in the past,
although it has been discontinued. These uses were assumed not to go to MSW.
Marine Coatings. Anti-corrosive coatings are also needed for
marine applications such as ship bottoms, buoys, and offshore towers. Red lead
has been used extensively for this purpose, but zinc dust has largely replaced
red lead. Basic lead silicochromate is also being used for corrosion
protection. All marine uses were assumed not to go to MSW.
101
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Discards of Pigments
Discards of lead iri pigments in MSW were estimated using as the
basic source consumption of lead reported by the Bureau of Mines (8). The
categories reported by the Bureau of Mines as "Paints" and "Other Pigments and
Chemicals" were included. The category reported as "Glass and Ceramics" is
used in the Glass and Ceramics section of this report. Other adjustments and
assumptions were as follows:
1. An adjustment was made for imports and exports
of lead in pigments using Department of Commerce
data (57). In this instance exports are larger
than imports. Data were not available to determine
pigments in products imported and exported, such
as textiles or paper products.
2. Manufacturing losses were estimated to be two
percent based on industrial sources (58).
3. It was assumed that there is no recycling of these
products except for the removal of some printing
ink as described earlier.
4. It was assumed that lead in pigments in the "all
other" category is disposed the same year that
the lead is consumed. While this would not be
true for pigmented products entering demolition
or automotive waste, for example, it is a
reasonable approximation for the types of
products that enter MSW.
5. Projections were made using past trends. Only
lead pigments used in non-MSW applications were
projected to increase substantially. Most
applications assumed to enter MSW, such as
printing inks, are declining.
The results of these estimates are summarized in Tables 2-29 and
2-30 and Figure 2-12. Overall the use of lead in pigments has declined
steadily since 1976.
PLASTIC PRODUCTS
Lead has two uses in the manufacture of plastics: as a heat
stabilizer and as an ingredient in pigments. Discards of lead into MSW from
these uses were estimated separately, then totaled.
102
-------
Table 2-29
CONSUMPTION OF LEAD IN PIGMENTS, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Domestic
Net
Consumption
Adj ustment
Consumption
of
for
of
Lead in
Manufacturing
Imports/
Lead in
Year
Pigments 1/
Losses 2/
Exports 3/
Pigments 4/
1970
74,158
1,483
1,163
71,512
1971
56,887
1,138
892
54,857
1972
65,995
1,320
970
63,705
1973
72,838
1,457
1,214
70,167
1974
69,615
1,392
1,439
66,784
1975
45,131
903
490
43,738
1976
73,291
1,466
1,077
70,748
1977
70,042
1,401
892
67,749
1978
63,688
1,274
748
61,666
1979
46,331
927
681
44,723
1980
36,451
729
535
35,187
1981
39,491
790
619
38,082
1982
29,034
581
312
28,141
1983
31,992
640
316
31,036
1984
33,847
677
464
32,706
1985
31,544
631
435
30,478
1986
31,686
634
437
30,615
1990
33,630
673
440
32,517
1995
35,696
714
442
34,540
2000
37,517
750
445
36,322
l! Bureau of Mines (Reference 8). Includes categories reported as
"Paints" and "Other Pigments and Chemicals." Lead consumption
reported as "Glass and Ceramics" is included in that section of
this report. 1970-1978 estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
based on Bureau of Mines figures.
2y Estimated to be 2 percent based on industry sources (Reference 58).
3/ Derived from Department of Commerce data (Reference 57). Exports
exceed imports. Does not include pigments in imported/exported
products.
_4/ Domestic consumption - manufacturing losses - net exports.
103
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Table 2-30
CONSUMPTION OF LEAD IN PIGMENTS BY END USE, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Net Consumption of
Con-
Consumption
Consumption
Consumption
All Other
Consumption
Lead in
sumption i
of Lead as a
of
of
Consumption
of
Pigments
of Lead
Pigment
Lead as a
Lead as a
of Lead in
Lead in
Other
in Pigments
' in
Pigment in
Pigment in
Pigments
Year
Pigments 1/
Than MSW 2/
Into MSW 3/
Rubber 4/
Plastics 5/
in Inks 6/
in MSW 7/
1970
71,512
38,128
33,384
103
2,953
22,500
7,828
1971
54,858
25,980
28,878
102
2,924
21,000
4,852
1972
63,706
34,615
29,091
102
2,895
19,946
6,148
1973
70,168
38,288
31,880
95
2,867
21,929
6,989
1974
66,784
37,369
29,415
102
2,338
20,497
5,978
1975
43,739
21,436
22,303
96
2,809
16,200
3,198
1976
70,749
46,141
24,608
147
2,780
14,987
6,694
1977
67,750
45,998
21,752
169
2,752
12,563
6,268
1978
61,667
41,747
19,920
196
2,723
11,571
5,430
1979
44,724
27,610
17,114
75
3,042
11,020
2,977
1980
35,187
21,168
14,019
78
2,381
9,918
1,642
1981
38,083
25,037
13,046
105
2,712
8,595
1,634
1982
28,142
21,159
6,983
97
2,249
3,086
1,551
1983
31,037
24,036
7,001
107
2,574
2,755
1,565
1984
32,707
26,221
6,486
118
2,673
2,424
1,271
1985
30,479
25,006
5,473
131
2,625
1,763
954
1986
30,616
26,725
3,891
127
2,567
331
866
1990
32,518
28,790
3,728
135
2,600
275
718
1995
34,541
30,951
3,590
135
2,600
225
630
2000
36,322
32,870
3,452
135
2,600
175
542
J./ From Table 2-29.
2! Estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd. based on Department of Commerce and other references (References
7, 47, 59, 60, and 61). Includes traffic paints, coil coatings, machinery and automobile finishes,
structural steel paints, and marine finishes.
_3/ By difference.
4/ See Table .?-41 in the Rubber section.
j>/ See Table 2-37 in the Plastics section.
SI See Table 2-28 in th is section.
JJ By difference. Includes lead in pigments in textiles, adhesives, artists' paints, some coil coatings,
and miscellaneous. Discards assumed to be the same as consumption.
-------
Figure 2-12. Discards of lead in pigments, 1970 to 2000
12,000 j
10,000 -¦
8,000 -¦ •
6,000-
4,000
2,000 ¦
•-I
\
l I I l I I I l I I I l l l l I l I l I
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
105
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Heat Stabilizers
Heat stabilizers are used extensively in polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
resins to protect the polymer from thermal degradation during processing and
to help retain the physical properties and color of the finished product. In
fact, development of effective heat stabilizers has contributed to the growth
of PVC use in a wide variety of applications. Lead stabilizers are used
mainly in opaque, rigid, and flexible formulations of extrusion, injection,
and compression molded products.
Barium, cadmium, and lead compounds are used as heat stabilizers,
with lead ranking third in usage. The principal compounds of lead used as
heat stabilizers include tribasic lead sulfate, basic lead sulfate silicate,
basic lead carbonate, and basic lead phthalate (62).
Applications of Heat Stabilizers. Consumer products that are
likely to be made of PVC containing lead stabilizers include: appliance
housings, sporting and recreational items, toys (previous to 1978), footwear,
handbags, luggage, credit/bank cards, floppy disk jackets, furniture (previous
to 1978), shower curtains, window shades, blinds and awnings, and garden hose.
Use of lead stabilizers has become more limited than in the past due to the
toxicity of the metal.
Other products apt to be made of PVC are assumed not to enter
MSW: wire and cable coverings, building and construction applications
(siding, pipe, conduit, gutters, etc.), and transportation applications (auto
upholstery, auto tops, etc.).
Estimates of Discards. The basic source of data on use of lead
as a heat stabilizer in plastics was a Special Report on Chemicals and
Additives published by Modern Plastics (63). Allocation of plastic resin use
to products in MSW followed the same methodology as that used for previous MSW
characterization studies (20)(64). Adjustments and assumptions were made as
follows:
1. It was assumed that all lead in heat stabilizers
is used in polyvinyl chloride (65). Data on
polyvinyl chloride resin consumption by product
category was taken from Modern Plastics (66).
2. It was assumed that 80 percent of the amount of
lead stabilizer use reported is lead metal (67).
3. It was assumed that no lead stabilizers are used
in food packaging, since lead is not approved
for that use.
4. It was assumed that lead in heat stabilizers is
distributed evenly throughout the remaining PVC
uses. The end uses assumed to be discarded into
MSW are: nonfood packaging, clothing, footwear,
106
-------
miscellaneous nondurables (disposable bags and
wrap, and home-use trash bags), housewares, toys,
records, luggage, consumer electronics, furniture,
appliances, and miscellaneous durables (shower
curtains, handbags, flooring, lighting, blinds,
and window shades). Heat stabilizers are also
used in PVC resins destined for other end uses,
e.g., PVC pipe, that are not discarded into MSW.
5. Each category of PVC end use was adjusted for
imports and exports using Department of Commerce data (39).
It was assumed that use of lead heat stabilizers
in these products is in the same proportion as
domestic use.
6. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be one percent
(20)(64).
7. It was assumed that there is no recycling of these
PVC products.
8. The lifetimes of these products were assumed to be
as follows:
Packaging and miscellaneous nondurables: Less
than one year
Clothing and footwear: 2 years
Housewares, toys, and miscellaneous durables:
5 years
Records, luggage, consumer electronics, furniture,
and appliances: 10 years.
These are the same lifetimes as those used in the
previous MSW characterization studies (20)(64).
9. Projections were based on past trends.
The results of these estimates are shown in Tables 2-31 through
2-34. Consumption of PVC resin by end use destined to be discarded into MSW
is shown in Table 2-31. Estimates of lead use in heat stabilizers per ton of
nonfood PVC resin are shown in Table 2-32. Adjustment ratios for
imports/exports of certain products are shown in Table 2-33. These ratios
show that imports are greater than domestic consumption for products such as
footwear, luggage, and consumer electronics.
Finally, discards of lead in stabilizers used in plastic products
made of PVC resin are shown in Table 2-34.
flints
The two most widely-used lead-based pigments used in plastics are
lead chromates and molybdate oranges. The plastics industry has been cited as
the third largest consumer of lead chromate pigments (48). Molybdate oranges
107
-------
Table 2-31
CONSUMPTION OF PVC RESIN BY END USE. 1960 TO 1986 1/
(In thousand short tons)
Nondurables Durables
Honfood
Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous
Year
Packaging
Clothing
Footwear
Nondurables
Housewares
Toys
Records
Furniture
Appliances
Durables
Total
1960
_
_
_
28
20
20
68
1961
-
-
-
-
-
-
30
24
15
-
69
1962
-
-
-
-
-
-
30
28
14
-
72
1963
-
-
-
-
-
-
38
32
14
-
84
1964
-
-
-
-
-
-
40
27
14
-
81
1965
-
-
-
-
9
30
48
37
17
6
147
1966
-
-
-
-
11
33
48
44
16
6
158
1967
-
-
-
-
12
39
50
51
15
6
173
1968
-
34
37
-
14
43
61
58
15
6
268
1969
-
32
45
-
17
48
58
77
18
7
302
1970
83
36
47
5
17
53
70
75
19
8
413
1971
86
36
48
6
19
58
66
91
21
8
439
1972
102
46
50
8
24
64
75
108
22
10
509
1973
110
48
69
12
24
77
73
120
22
12
567
1974
118
38
53
14
28
67
77
118
23
12
548
1975
111
33
54
12
22
52
64
91
23
15
477
1976
128
36
55
36
24
49
75
104
22
15
544
1977
142
25
55
47
26
47
88
114
23
64
631
1978
155
25
56
67
28
41
106
116
32
127
753
1979
191
8
49
55
25
40
80
108
43
165
764
1980
171
6
42
57
23
33
57
82
35
168
674
1981
181
7
44
63
23
40
52
77
40
163
690
1982
189
6
37
62
21
33
56
47
32
171
654
1983
217
8
42
78
23
37
40
34
45
183
707
1984
258
8
37
78
26
35
35
43
46
171
737
1985
203
10
34
83
24
29
34
38
43
192
690
1986
221
9
33
94
26
31
22
41
54
209
740
1/ From Reference 66.
-------
Table 2-32
ESTIMATES OF LEAD USED IN STABILIZERS IN PVC, 1960 TO 1986
(In short tons)
Lead PVC Resin
Stabilizers Used in Use of Lead in
Used in Lead in Lead in Nonfood Stabilizers per
Year Plastics 1/ Stabilizers 2/ Applications 3/ Ton of Resin 4/
1960
-
-
-
0.003249
1961
-
-
-
0.003249
1962
-
-
-
0.003249
1963
-
-
-
0.003249
1964
-
-
-
0.003249
1965
-
-
-
0.003249
1966
-
-
-
0.003249
1967
-
-
-
0.003249
1968
-
-
-
0.003249
1969
-
-
-
0.003249
1970
7,150
5,720
1,421,000
0.004025
1971
7,431
5,945
1,561,000
0.003808
1972
7,712
6,170
1,734,000
0.003558
1973
7,993
6,394
1,906,000
0.003355
1974
8,274
6,619
2,072,000
0.003195
1975
8,555
6,844
2,227,000
0.003073
1976
8,835
7,068
2,320,000
0.003047
1977
9,116
7,293
2,231,000
0.003269
1978
6,800
5,440
2,488,000
0.002186
1979
11,140
8,912
2,590,000
0.003441
1980
10,968
8,774
2,420,000
0.003626
1981
11,519
9,215
2,526,000
0.003648
1982
10,362
8,290
2,385,000
0.003476
1983
10,800
8,640
2,488,000
0.003473
1984
10,800
8,640
3,128,000
0.002762
1985
10,650
8,520
3,151,000
0.002704
1986
10,826
8,661
3,357,000
0.002580
1_/ 1978-1985 from Reference 63. Previous years and 1986 estimated
by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
2/ Estimated to be 80 percent of weight of stabilizer based on
Reference 67.
3/ From Reference 64.
4/ 1960-1969 is the average of 1970-1986.
109
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Table 2-33
IMPORT/EXPORT ADJUSTMENT RATIOS FOR PLASTIC PRODUCTS,
1962 TO 1986 ^
Consumer
Year
Clothing
Footwear
Toys
Luggage
Electron:
1962
—
—
-
1.07
—
1963
-
-
-
1.06
-
1964
-
-
-
1.06
-
1965
-
-
-
:1.06
-
1966
-
-
1.05
1.12
-
1967
-
-
1.06
1.12
-
1968
-
1.24
1.07
1.11
-
1969
-
1.30
1.08
1.10
-
1970
1.05
1.35
1.11
1.15
-
1971
1.05
1.39
1.09
1.14
-
1972
1.06
1.30
1.08
1.23
-
1973
1.06
1.47
1.10
1.23
-
1974
1.05
1.48
1.10
1.19
-
1975
1.06
1.57
1.00
1.21
-
1976
1.08
1.67
1.12
1.29
-
1977
1.08
1.94
1.14
1.38
1.64
1978
1.12
2.06
1.16
1.50
1.66
1979
1.12
2.02
1.17
1.43
1.58
1980
1.17
1.95
1.18
1.38
1.54
1981
1.14
2.04
1.17
1.44
1.81
1982
1.16
2.24
1.22
1.54
1.85
1983
1.13
2.58
1.21
1.57
1.98
1984
1.25
3.18
1.36
1.92
2.31
1985
1.30
2.64
1.58
1.82
2.59
1986
1.33
2.73
1.67
2.09
2.67
1/ Ratios for the adjustment of domestic consumption to reflect domestic
consumption determined by category, from Reference 39.
110
-------
Table 2-34
DISCARDS OF LEAD IN STABILIZERS IN PVC PLASTICS PRODUCTS, 1970 TO 2000 1/
(In short Cons)
Hondurables Durables
Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous
Year
Packaging
Clothing
Footwear
Nondurables
Housewares
Toys
Records
Furniture
Appliances
Durables
Total
1970
331
109
142
20
29
96
91
64
64
19
966
1971
324
103
181
23
35
111
97
77
48
19
1,019
1972
359
151
24 3
28
39
133
97
90
45
19
1,204
1973
365
143
241
40
45
148
123
103
45
19
1,273
1974
373
172
220
44
55
167
130
87
45
23
1,315
1975
338
169
323
37
68
234
156
119
55
32
1.530
1976
386
126
238
109
72
238
156
142
51
30
1,548
1977
458
106
248
153
85
243
161
164
48
35
1,702
1976
336
117
266
146
80
281
196
187
48
40
1,697
1979
650
89
332
188
89
233
187
248
58
38
2,110
1980
614
61
241
206
67
158
279
299
76
46
2,047
1981
652
29
320
227
72
166
249
343
79
45
2,183
1982
649
23
281
212
86
175
264
380
77
207
2,355
1983
746
27
312
269
60
102
242
399
73
274
2.504
1984
706
22
277
212
86
158
244
373
73
563
2,714
1985
542
30
357
222
83
140
195
277
70
601
2,517
1986
564
27
309
239
84
168
226
314
66
589
2,586
1990 641 29 278 231 63 123 206 293 127 514 2,503
1995 641 29 278 231 70 136 91 102 114 546 2,237
2000 641 29 278 231 70 136 114 120 129 546 2,294
1/ Consumption of PVC resin (Table 2-31) adjusted for lead per ton (Table 2-32), one percent manufacturing losses, exports/imports (Table 2-33),
and life of products.
-------
also find a wide range of applications in plastics. Consumption of molybdate
orange by the plastics industry accounts for 25 percent of the total usage
(48). Use of these pigments peaked in the early and raid-Seventies, however,
and usage has been declining due to concerns over possible health hazards and
restrictive legislation.
Lead chromate pigments impart hues ranging from greenish or light
yellows to deep oranges and primrose. These pigments may also be mixed with
blue pigments to produce chrome greens or phthalochrome greens.
Molybdate orange is a mixture of lead chromate, lead molybdate,
and lead sulfate. Colors can range varying from reddish yellows to red-shade
oranges depending on the mixture of compounds. Some typical ranges of
composition are shown in Table 2-35.
Table 2-35
TYPICAL RANGES OF COMPOSITION OF LEAD CHROMATE PIGMENTS 1/
Molybdate
Medium Lemon Primrose Orange
(Percent) (Percent) (Percent) (Percent'I
PbCrO< 90 to 94 62 65 to 71 69 to 80
PbS0A 0 to 6 20 to 38 23 to 30 9 to 15
PbMo04 0 0 0 3 to 7
PbO 0 0 0 0
Other 4 to 6 1 to 6 3 to 8 3 to 13
1/ Adapted from the Pigment Handbook (Reference 48).
Estimates of Discards. The methodology for estimating discards
of lead-containing pigments in plastics was similar to that for heat
stabilizers, except that pigments are widely used in all resins, rather than
being restricted to PVC. Plastic resin use was allocated to products assumed
to be discarded into MSW, again using data from Modern Plastics (63) (Table
2-36).
Effective early in 1978, the Consumers Safety Commission issued a
ban on lead in toys and other articles intended for use by children, and on
furniture articles for household use. The use of lead-containing additives in
food-contact products has never been allowed by the Food and Drug
Administration. One of the categories included in the products allocated to
disposal in MSW is "Toys." This category contains sporting and recreational
items, and was therefore considered to contain lead pigments in spite of the
ban on lead in children's items. Likewise, there is a "Furniture" category
included in MSW discards. This category includes furniture for other uses
than in households. In addition, there is assumed to be a 10-year time lag
before furniture is discarded. Therefore, discards of furniture containing
lead pigments are still included in the estimates.
112
-------
Table 2-36
CONSUMPTION OF RESINS BY END USE, I960 TO 1986 1/
(In thousand short tons)
Miscellaneous Nondurables
Nonfood
Total Misc.
Food Contact
Total Nonfood
Year
Packaging
Clothing
Footwear
Nondurables
Misc. Nondurables
Misc. Nondurables
1960
_
1961
-
-
-
-
-
-
1962
-
-
-
-
-
-
1963
-
-
-
-
-
-
1964
-
-
-
-
-
-
1965
-
-
-
-
-
—
1966
-
-
-
—
—
-
1967
-
-
-
-
-
-
1968
-
34
46
-
-
-
1969
-
32
56
-
-
-
1970
1,226
36
58
143
43
100
1971
1,270
36
59
186
56
130
1972
1,507
46
61
231
71
161
1973
1,618
48
54
344
105
239
1974
1*730
38
64
391
119
272
1975
1,606
33
66
347
106
242
1976
1,853
36
67
1,026
312
714
1977
2,058
25
67
1,358
413
945
1978
2,209
25
68
1,551
509
1,043
1979
2,573
8
61
1,708
597
1,111
1980
2,295
6
52
1,664
590
1,074
1981
2,336
7
54
1,636
587
1,049
1982
2,288
6
43
1,596
574
1,022
1983
2,468
8
48
1,826
650
1,176
1984
2,737
8
40
1,941
686
1,255
1985
2,886
10
37
1,881
688
1,193
1986
3,056
9
36
1,996
740
1,256
(continued)
-------
Table 2-36 (continued)
Durables
Consumer Misc.
Year
Housewares
Toys 3/
Records
Luggage
Electronics 4/
Furniture
Appliances 5/
Durables
1960
—
—
28
14
-
95
112
—
1961
-
-
30
15
-
113
84
-
1962
-
-
30
15
-
132
78
-
1963
-
-
38
16
-
153
81
-
1964
-
-
40
16
-
176
80
-
1965
245
161
48
16
-
173
93
62
1966
282
189
48
17
-
208
87
63
1967
314
208
50
17
-
241
84
65
1968
373
243
61
18
-
273
84
68
1969
447
369
58
20
-
360
97
77
1970
441
297
70
20
-
352
103
80
1971
478
326
66
14
-
423
114
82
1972
602
363
75
17
-
501
118
104
1973
623
437
73
22
-
554
121
126
1974
707
381
77
21
-
543
124
123
1975
558
292
64
14
-
418
125
156
1976
625
277 7/
75
17
-
478
121
163
1977
662
262
88
13
186
519
125
685
1978
564
267
106
18
176
519
129
857
1979
631
268
80
21
95
538
133
1,008
1980
537
237
57
32
194
449
137
912
1981
559
261
52
34
215
461
149
945
1982
499
211
56
26
201
364
3 60
872
1983
548
240
40
28
212
377
172
1,047
1984
565
251
38
26
124
441
J 83
1,202
1985
575
260
34
22
78
447
195
1,881
1986
597
277
22
21
89
460
206
1,966
If Based on Reference 2.
2/ Includes disposables, home-use bags and wrap, and home-use trash bags.
_3/ Includes sporting and recreational c<|iii|>mciiL •
Includes radios, stereos, telephones, etc.
_5/ Includes plastic destined for discard from room air conditioners, dishwashers, dryers, freezers,
microwave ovens, ranges, refrigerators, washers, and water heaters.
J>/ Includes shower curtains, handbags, flooring, lighting, window shades, and blinds.
JJ Estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
-------
Lead in lead-containing pigments was assumed to be 60 percent of
the pigment weight used, and the amount of lead in pigments per ton of nonfood
resin used was calculated (Table 2-37). Adjustments for manufacturing losses
and imports/exports were made in the same manner as that for estimating lead
use in stabilizers.
Finally, the adjusted estimates of discards of lead in pigments
in plastic products were tabulated (Table 2-38).
Total Lead in Plastics
Total discards of lead in products in municipal solid waste were
obtained by adding the contributions of heat stabilizers and pigments
(Table 2-39). The relative contributions of heat stabilizers and pigments are
shown in Figure 2-13, and the products contributing to lead in plastics are
shown in Figure 2-14.
RUBBER PRODUCTS
Lead (or cadmium) compounds may be added to elastomers (rubber
products) for a number of purpose: as pigments, fillers, activators,
vulcanizers, curing activators, and plasticizers. Lead may also be used as a
metal as part of the product, for lead-sheathed hosing, for example.
Pigments may be used in elastomers for color identification of
two similar objects, to improve aesthetic appeal, or to match two parts of
different composition with the same color. Examples of these uses include
coloring white walls on tires, the backing on carpeting, sporting goods such
as basketballs, rubber bands, rubber-based floor tile, housewares, and
clothing and footwear (47).
Lead compounds used as activators and vulcanizers in rubber
include litharge (lead oxide), lead peroxide, and lead stearate. Molybdate
oranges and chrome yellows may use lead compounds in pigment rubber products.
Accelerator activators may employ inorganic compounds such as lead oxide, red
oxide, and white lead (68). Lead dimethyl dithicarbamate is used in the base
compound for V-belt compositions. Table 2-40 lists some of the products
manufactured by the rubber industry that may contain lead and/or cadmium.
A breakdown of pigment use between tires and other rubber
products was made using information from the Department of Commerce and a
previous study for EPA (Table 2-41).
The Department of Commerce reports annual use of lead in the
rubber industry (Table 2-42) (51). Information from a study for EPA (68)
indicates, however, that most of this lead use is for manufacture of lead-
sheathed hosing and for making molds for the manufacturing process.
Therefore, lead in products that reach MSW is assumed to come from the lead in
pigments for rubber as estimated in the section on Pigments.
Other adjustments and assumptions used in making estimates of
lead discarded in rubber products are as follows:
115
-------
Table 2-37
ESTIMATES OF LEAD USED IN PIGMENTS IN PLASTICS, 1960 TO 1986
(In short tons)
Chrome Molybdate
Lead in.
Lead
Total
Resin Used
in Nonfood
Use of
Lead in
Year
Yellow
Orange
Total
Pigments
2/ Applications 3/
Ton of Re
1960
_
—
0.00020
1961
-
-
-
-
-
0.00020
1962
-
-
-
-
-
0.00020
1963
-
-
-
-
-
0.00020
1964
-
-
-
-
-
0.00020
1965
-
-
-
-
-
0.00020
1966
-
-
-
-
-
0.00020
1967
-
-
-
-
-
0.00020
1968
-
-
-
-
-
0.00020
1969
-
-
-
-
-
0.00020
1970
2,942
1,979
4,921
2,953
8,460,000
0.00035
1971
2,912
1,962
4,874
2,924
9,400,000
0.00031
1972
2,881
1,944
4,825
2,895
10,340,000
0.00028
1973
2,851
1,927
4,778
2,867
11,280,000
0.00025
1974
2,821
1,909
4,730
2,838
12,220,000
0.00023
1975
2,790
1,891
4,681
2,809
13,160,000
0.00021
1976
2,760
1,874
4,.634
2,780
13,712,720
0.00020
1977
2,630
1,856
4,486
2,692
13,246,480
0.00020
1978
2,699
1,839
4,538
2,723
15,156,560
0.00018
1979
3,086
1,984
5,070
3,042
16,795,920
0.00018
1980
2,315
1,653
3,968
2,381
16,803,440
0.00014
1981
2,646
1,874
4,520
2,712
17,523,480
0.00015
1982
2,205
1,543
3,748
2,249
16,913,420
0.00013
1983
2,530
1,760
4,290
2,574
19,376,220
0.00013
1984
2,640
1,815
4,455
2,673
20,920,640
0.00013
1985
2,625
1,750
4,375
2,625
21,885,080
0.00012
1985
2,529
1,748
4,277
2,566
22,936,940
0.00011
1/ 1979-1985 from Reference 63. Previous years and 1986 estimated by
Franklin Associates, Ltd.
2/ Estimated to be 60 percent of weight of pigments based on Reference 67.
_3/ From Reference 64.
4/ By division. 1960-1969 is the average of 1970-1986.
116
-------
Table 2-38
DISCARDS OF LEAD IK PIGMENTS IN PI.ASTIC PRODUCTS, 1970 TO 2000 _1/
(In short tons)
Nondurables Durables Total Lead In
Nonfood
Miscellaneous
Consumer
Miscellaneous
Pigments :
Year
Packaging
Clothing
Footwear
Nondurabies
Housewares
Toys
Records
Luggage
Electronics
Furniture
Appliances
Durables
Plastics In
1970
444
7
11
36
51
33
6
3
_
20
23
13
647
1971
407
7
14
42
59
41
6
3
-
23
18
13
632
1972
439
14
26
47
65
46
6
3
-
27
16
13
703
1973
429
12
24
63
77
54
8
4
-
32
17
14
714
1974
418
14
21
66
93
83
8
4
-
37
17
16
776
1975
351
13
19
53
160
119
10
4
-
36
19
29
813
1976
l'J5
10
21
152
151
114
IH
4
-
43
IH
26
-------
Table 2-39
DISCARDS OF LEAD IN PLASTICS IN MSW. 1970 TO 2000 1/
Nondurables
(In
short tons)
Durables
Nonfood
Miscellaneous
Consumer
Miscellaneous
Year
Packaging
Clothing
Footwear
Nondurables
Housewares
Toys
Records
Luggage
Electronics
Furniture
Appliances
Durables
Total
1970
775
116
152
56
80
130
97
3
_
84
88
32
1,613
1971
732
110
194
64
94
153
104
3
-
101
66
32
1,651
1972
798
164
269
75
104
179
104
3
-
117
61
33
1,907
1973
794
155
266
103
122
202
131
4
-
135
62
33
2,007
1974
792
186
241
110
147
249
138
4
-
123
62
38
2,091
1975
689
182
342
89
227
354
166
4
_
155
74
61
2,343
1976
781
136
259
261
225
352
166
4
_
185
70
56
2,494
1977
919
114
269
365
260
358
171
4
-
214
66
66
2,805
1978
767
126
287
349
245
409
209
4
_
243
66
73
2,777
1979
1.160
95
358
408
260
334
199
5
-
322
78
68
3,286
1980
968
67
264
371
1 89
222
304
8
_
426
11 3
80
3,014
1 'JBl
i .U43
J1
J', 1
4UJ
20i>
iyi
2/0
5
-
47y
Ufa
80
3,20b
1982
980
24
295
360
234
242
286
6
-
526
112
360
3,426
1983
1,100
29
328
438
170
163
262
7
-
545
105
441
3,587
1984
1.082
23
289
385
212
220
262
6
-
504
103
763
3,850
1985
916
31
372
377
166
183
209
4
-
368
98
742
3,466
1986
934
29
324
391
177
219
242
5
-
416
92
748
3,576
1990
1,003
30
290
390
137
176
215
7
46
362
148
758
3,562
1995
1,003
30
290
390
145
183
95
5
26
160
139
731
3,198
2000
1,003
30
290
390
145
183
120
6
42
177
153
731
3,270
Discards of lead in stabilizers plus lead in pigments.
-------
Figure 2-13. Discards of lead in plastics, 1970 to 2000.
Tons
4,000
3.500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1 ,000
500
0
1
Pigments (all resins)
Heat stabilizers (PVC)i
1975
1980
1 985
1 990
1 995
2000
119
-------
Figure 2-14. Sources of lead discards in plastics, 1986.
iAII Others
¦ 14.6%|
y Nonfood 5
packaging
)><26.1 %5
Misc. Durables;
BBS 2 0.9% 18?
Records
6.8%
Footwear
9.1%
Misc
Nondurables
1 °-9\.iFurniture]
¦11.6%-
120
-------
Table 2-40
END USES OF RUBBER THAT MAY CONTAIN LEAD AND/OR CADMIUM
Tires
Inner tubes
Cable coverings
Seals
Automotive radiator and heating
hosing
Footwear
Vehicle suspension and body supports
Bridge bearings
Vibration insulators
"0" rings
Sealants
Jar rings
Miscellaneous sporting goods
Tank Linings
High-voltage insulators
Hose
Converyor belts and belting
Gaskets
Flexible bellows
Piers and boat bumpers
Springs
Packaging
Rubber-coated fabric
Mats and matting
Flooring
Miscellaneous sundries
1. Imports and exports of rubber tires were accounted
for using data from the previous EPA MSW characterization
study (20). This includes tires on imported cars.
2. Manufacturing losses of 3 percent for tire manufacture
and 5 percent for manufacture of other rubber products
were taken from the MSW characterization study (20).
3. Lead removed from the waste stream by the diversion of
rubber by tire wear was estimated using data from the
MSW characterization study (20).
4. Lead removed from the waste stream by recycling
of rubber tires was estimated using data from
the MSW characterization study (20).
5. Tires and other rubber products were assumed
to be discarded two years after manufacture.
6. Projections were made based on past trends.
The results of these estimates are shown in Table 2-43 (tires and
tire products), Tables 2-44 and 2-45 (nontire products), and Table 2-46 (gross
discards, recovery, and net discards of lead in rubber products going to MSW).
Figure 2-15 illustrates that the trend of discards of lead in rubber is
expected to remain flat.
121
-------
Table 2-4 L
LEAD CONSUMPTION AS A PIGMENT IN VARIOUS RUBBER PRODUCTS,
1968 TO 2000 1/
(In short tons)
Year
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
Lead
in Tire
Pigments
45
45
45
47
47
42
48
41
59
75
77
54
35
43
39
43
47
55
51
Lead Lead in Fab-
Lead in in Hose ricated
Footwear and Belting Products
Pigments Pigments Pigments
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
4
3
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
13
9
6
7
6
7
8
9
8
50
50
50
47
47
45
46
47
75
81
102
72
45
55
50
55
60
70
65
Total
Rubber
Pigments
103
103
103
102
102
95
102
96
147
169
196
75
78
105
97
107
118
131
127
1990
1995
2000
52
52
52
3
3
3
71
71
71
135
135
135
1/ From Department of Commerce and U.S. EPA reports (References 51 and
69). 1968-69 and projections by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
122
-------
Table 2-42
LEAD CONSUMPTION IN THE RUBBER INDUSTRY, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Lead Lead
Consumed Consumed by
by Rubber Lead Consumed Rubber Industry
Year Industry 1/ As a Pigment 2/ (other than pigments) 3/
1970
1,200
103
1,097
1971
1,200
102
1,098
1972
1,212
102
1,110
1973
1,102
95
1,007
1974
1,212
102
1,110
1975
1,102
96
1,006
1976
1,653
147
1,506
1977
1,984
169
1,815
1978
2,204
196
2,008
1979
1,543
75
1,468
1980
992
78
914
1981
1,212
105
1,107
1982
1,102
97
1,005
1983
1,212
107
1,105
1984
1,322
118
1,204
1985
1,543
131
1,412
1986
1,433
127
1,306
1990
1,500
135
1,365
1995
1,500
135
1,365
2000
1,500
135
1,365
1/ Department of Commerce (Reference 51).
_2/ From Table 2-41.
_3/ By difference. Assumed not to enter MSW.
123
-------
Table 2-43
CONSUMPTION OF LEAD IN TIRES AND TIRE PRODUCTS, 1968 TO 1996
(In short tons and percent)
Domestic
Net Domestic
Adjusted
Consumption
Consumption
Consumption
of Lead
of Lead
of Lead
in Pigments
Manufacturing
in Pigments
Adjustment
In Pigments
for Tires and
Losses
for Tires and
for Imports/
for Tires and
"Year
Tire Products 1/
at 3 Percent 2/
Tire Products 3/
Exports 4/
Tire Products
1968
45
1
44
1.03
45
1969
45
1
44
1.04
46
1970
45
1
44
1.07
47
1971
47
1
46
1.08
4 0
1972
47
1
46
1.10
50
1973
42
1
41
1.08
44
1974
48
1
47
1.15
53
1975
41
1
40
1.31
52
1976
59
2
57
1.04
59
1977
75
2
73
1.11
81
1978
77
2
75
1.11
83
1979
54
2
52
1.12
59
1980
35
1
34
1.12
38
1981
43
1
42
1.13
47
1982
39
1
38
1.17
44
1983
43
1
42
1.19
50
1984
47
1
46
1.23
56
1985
55
2
53
1.28
68
1986
51
2
49
1.32
65
1988
52
2
50
1.27
64
1993
52
2
50
1.31
66
1996
52
2
50
1.35
68
J_/ 1972-1986: U.S. Department of Commerce (Reference 51). (1985 and 1986 are preliminary.)
196B-1971 and projections estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
_2/ Franklin Associates, Ltd. (Reference 20).
_3/ Domestic consumption - converting losses.
4/ Derived from Reference 20.
_5/ Net domestic consumption x adjustment factor.
-------
Table 2-44
CONSUMPTION OF LEAD IN KQHTIRE PRODUCTS EtVTEMNGMSU, 1968 TO 1996
(In short tons)
I,ead in
Lead in
Lead in
Lead in
Fabricated
Lead in
Hose and
Hose and
Fabricated
Products
Lead in
Nontire
Bolting
Belting Pigments'
Products
Pi gnients
Footwear
Products
Year
Pigments 1/
Entering MSW 2/
Pigments 1/
Entering MSW 3/
Pigments 1/
Entering MSW
1968
6
3
50
12
2
17
1969
6
3
50
12
2
17
1970
6
3
50
12
2
17
1071
r>
3
12
2
17
1972
6
3
47
12
2
17
1973
6
3
45
11
2
16
1974
6
3
46
11
2
16
1975
6
3
47
12
2
17
1976
10
5
75
19
3
27
1977
10
5
81
20
3
28
1978
13
6
102
25
4
35
1979
9
4
72
18
3
25
1980
6
3
45
11
2
16
1981
7
3
55
14
2
19
1982
6
3
50
12
2
17
1983
7
3
55
14
2
19
1984
8
4
60
15
3
22
1985
9
4
70
17
3
24
1986
8
4
65
16
3
23
1988
9
4
71
18
3
25
1993
9
4
71
18
3
25
1998
9
4
71
18
3
25
Projections estimated by Franklin Associates, l,td.
1/ From Table 2-41. All lead in footwear pigments assumed to enter MSW.
2J Estimated to be 50 percent of total by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
if Estimated to be 25 percent of total by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
1^1 Sum of lead in hose and belting pigments entering MSW, fabricated products entering MSW, and
footwear pigments.
-------
Table 2-45
NET CONSUMPTION OF LEAD IN NONTIRE PRODUCTS, 1968 TO 1998
(In short tons)
Net Domestic
Domestic Consumption
Consumption of Lead Manufacturing of Lead
Pigments for Losses Pigments in
Year Nontire Products II at 5 Percent 2/ Nontire Products 3/
1968 17 1 16
1969 17 1 16
1970 17 1 16
1971 17 1 16
1972 17 1 16
1973 16 1 15
1974 16 1 15
1975 17 1 16
1976 27 1 26
1977 28 1 27
1978 35 2 35
1979 25 1 24
1980 16 1 15
1981 19 1 18
1982 17 1 16
1983 19 1 18
1984 22 1 21
1985 24 1 23
1986 23 1 22
1988 25 1 24
1993 25 1 24
1998 25 1 24
JL/ From Table 2-44.
2/ Franklin Associates, Ltd. (Reference 20).
3/ Net domestic consumption = domestic consumption - manufacturing los
126
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Table 2-46
GROSS DISCARDS, RECOVERY, AND NET DISCARDS 07 LEAD IN RUBBER PRODUCTS, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons and percent)
Adjusted Discards of Lead
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
Pigments
in Tires
and Tire
Adjustment
Factor
for
Adjusted
Pigments
in Tires
and Tire
Year Products 1/ Diversion 2/ Products
45
46
47
49
50
44
53
52
59
81
83
59
38
47
44
50
56
0.07
0.07
0.10
0.10
0.08
0.07
0.07
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.09
0.08
42
43
43
44
46
41
49
47
54
75
75
55
36
44
41
46
51
Pigments
in
Nontire
Products
16
16
16
16
16
15
15
16
26
27
33
24
15
18
16
18
21
3/
Total
Gross
Discards
58
59
59
60
62
56
64
63
80
102
108
79
51
62
57
64
72
Adjustment
Factor
for
Recovery _2 /
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.09
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.08
0.09
0.08
0.05
Recovery
6
6
6
5
4
3
4
4
5
5
5
3
2
4
3
4
3
Net
Discards
52
53
53
55
58
53
61
59
75
97
104
75
48
58
54
60
70
1990
64
0.08
59
24
83
0.07
79
1995
2000
66
68
0.08
0.08
61
63
24
24
85
87
0.07
0.07
1/ From Table 2-4 3. Consumption is assumed to be discarded two years later.
2/ Derived from Reference 20. Applies to tires only.
3/ From Table 2-45. Consumption is assumed to be discarded two years later.
4/ Gross discards - recovery.
4
4
8L
82
-------
Tons
120 t
100--
80 ¦
60-
•
40-
20 ¦¦
Figure 2-15. Discards of lead in pigments in rubber products, 1970 to 2000.
A
1970
-1—i—i—i—r-
1975
1—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—t—r—i—i-
1980
1985
1990
-I h
1995
1—i
2000
128
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USED OIL
Used oil is generated from many sources, including automotive
lubricating oils, industrial lubricating oils, and other uses. The most
likely source of used oils in MSW is oil discarded by do-it-yourself (DIY) oil
changers and very small quantity generators such as small industry automobile
fleets and service stations. A 1983 technical background study for EPA
estimated that about 24 percent of used oil was disposed or dumped by this
type of generator (69).
Used oil can be a problem because it is contaminated by the
breakdown of the additive package and by sources such as metal particles from
engine wear, incomplete products of gasoline combustion, etc. An extensive
EPA test program in the early 1980s showed median concentrations of 240 parts
per million of lead and 3 parts per million of cadmium (69). The primary
source of lead in used automotive oil is lead in gasoline additives; this
quantity has been decreasing since the phaseout of lead permitted in gasoline
began in 1970.
Discards of lead in used oil discarded in MSW were estimated
using the following adjustments and assumptions:
1. Discards of used oil into MSW were assumed to remain
at 24 percent of total used oil; this is probably
high, since some is dumped on the ground or into the
sewers rather than put into MSW.
2. It was assumed that used oil generated is proportional
to gasoline sales.
3. It was assumed that lead in used oil is proportional to lead
in gasoline. Use of lead in gasoline additives is reported
on an annual basis by the Bureau of Mines (8).
4. While large amounts of used oil are reused and recycled,
no additional recycling was assumed, since the 24 percent
assumed to go to MSW is by definition not recycled.
5. The used oil was assumed to be discarded in the same
year that the lead in gasoline additives was consumed.
6. Lead in used oil is projected to continue to decline
because of the phaseout of lead in gasoline additives
and the eventual removal from use of automobiles using
leaded gasoline. Lead in used oil will not go to zero,
however, because there are other sources of lead, such
as engine wear.
The estimated discards of lead in used oil in MSW are summarized
in Table 2-47 and Figure 2-16.
129
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Table 2-47
DISCARDS OF LEAD
IN USED OIL IN
MSW, 1970 TO
2000
Estimated
Average
Net MSW
Estimated
Used Oil
Lead in
Discards
Used Oil in MSW
in MSW
Used Oil
of Lead
Year
(million gallons) 1/
(tons) 2/
(ppm) 3/
(tons)
1970
142
556,257
2,889
1,636
1971
149
594,760
2,686
1,598
1972
159
634,031
2,655
1,683
1973
166
662,534
2,504
1,659
197A
161
645,432
2,347
1,515
1975
165
661,900
1,606
1,261
1976
174
696,104
2,083
1,450
1977
179
716,372
1,966
1,408
1978
185
739,808
1,607
1,189
1979
178
713,839
1,746
1,246
1980
168
673,935
1,265
853
1981
165
660,000
1,125
742
1982
163
650,499
1,222
795
1983
165
660,000
900
594
1984
168
673,301
781
526
1985
172
689,770
442
305
1986
177
708,772
268
190
1987
178
712,572
170
121
1988
176
702,438
105
74
1990
171
684,069
102
70
1995
159
637,198
95
60
2000
157
628,964
77
48
1/ Based on gasoline sales (Reference 70) and information in Reference 69.
2,/ Assumes 8 pounds per gallon.
_3/ Based on consumption of lead in gasoline additives from the Bureau of
Mines (Reference 8), and information in Reference 69.
Projections estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
130
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Figure 2-16. Discards of lead in used oil in MSW, 1970 to 2000.
Tons
1,800 |
1,600
1,400-
1,200-
1,000-
800 -
600-
400-
200-
0 -I—r
V*.
\
v
\
i t t <—i—i—i—r-
1970
1975
1980
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
1985 1990 1995 2000
131
-------
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS
The Bureau of Mines reports uses of lead In "Other Metal
Products," which include lead foil; collapsible tubes; lead used in annealing,
galvanizing, and plating; and ballast and weights (8). Only lead foil and
collapsible tubes were identified as entering MSW in appreciable quantities.
The Bureau of Mines reported these items as separate categories through 1977.
Lead Foil
Lead foil has three major applications:
1. as shielding for radioactive materials
2. as wrappers for some wine bottle corks
3. in paper-insulated filter capacitors.
Only wine bottle wrappers were considered to be discarded into MSW. Very
little data were available on this application, but estimates of discards were
made using the following assumptions and adjustments:
1. Lead foil wine wrappers constitute 10 percent
of domestic lead foil consumption.
2. An adjustment was made for lead foil on
imported wine bottles, assuming all have
foil wrappers, which is not true, but a
high percentage appear to have the wraps (71).
3. Manufacturing losses would be negligible.
4. There is no recycling of foil wrappers from MSW.
5. The wrappers are discarded in the same year that
they are produced.
6. Projections were made assuming a continuing
decline in use of lead foil wrappers.
The results of these estimates are shown in Table 2-48 and Figure
2-17. Using the assumptions above, use of lead foil in wine wrappers
parallels the declining domestic consumption of total lead foil. The ratio of
imported wine to domestic wine generally increased each year until 1982, but
this ratio has since declined. Use of lead foil in wine wrappers is thus
projected to continue to decrease.
Collapsible Tubes
Collapsible tubes made of lead are used for artists' colors and
for highly-corrosive adhesives and glues. As reported by the Bureau of Mines
(8), consumption of lead in collapsible tubes reached a peak in 1969 and has
since declined. Franklin Associates estimated consumption after 1977 using
132
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Table 2-48
DISCARDS OF LEAD
IN FOIL
IN MSW, 1969 TO 2000
(In short
tons)
Domestic
Adj usted
Domestic
Lead in
Ratio of Net
Increase in
Discards
Consumption of
Foil Wine Wraps
Wine Imports
Foil Wine Wraps
of Lead in
Year
Lead In Foil 1/
Entering MSW 2/
to
Domestic
3/
Due to Imports 4
Foil Wine Wraps
1969
5,881
588
0.05
29
618
1970
5,521
552
0.07
39
591
1971
4,417
442
0.08
35
477
1972
4,592
459
0. LI
51
510
1973
4,985
499
0.14
70
568
197/.
4,40/,
440
o.n
57
498
1975
3,205
321
0.11
35
356
1976
5,126
513
0.14
72
584
1977
3,568
357
0.17
61
417
1978
3,546
355
0.23
82
436
1979
3,328
333
0.23
77
409
1980
3,111
311
0.23
72
383
1981
2,893
289
0.27
78
367
1982
2,676
268
0. 30
80
348
1983
2,458
246
0.31
76
322
1984
2,241
224
0.28
63
287
1985
2,023
202
0.20
40
243
1986
1,806
181
0.12
22
202
1990
100
1995
80
2000
60
1/ Bureau of Mines (Reference 8).
2_f Assumed to be 10 percent of total.
_3/ Derived from Information in Reference 20.
Import ratio x domestic lead foil use.
5/ Domestic lea
-------
Figure 2-17. Discards of lead foil in wine wrappers, 1970 to 2000.
Tons
600 «
500 -¦
400 -¦
300 -¦
200 -¦
1 970
1985
1975
1980
1990
1995
2000
134
-------
some information from the Department of Commerce (51) The decline in use of
lead in collapsible tubes is attributed to increasing use of aluminum for this
purpose (72).
Discards of lead in collapsible tubes were estimated using the
following assumptions:
1. No evidence was found of imports or exports of
lead in collapsible tubes.
2. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be negligible.
3. The lifetime of lead tubes before discard was
assumed to be two years.
4. Discards were projected to continue to decline.
These estimates of discards of lead in collapsible tubes are
shown in Table 2-49 and Figure 2-18.
135
-------
Table 2-49
DISCARDS OF LEAD IN COLLAPSIBLE TUBES IN MSW,
1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Discards of Lead
in
Year Collapsible Tubes
1970
9,310
1971
12,484
1972
10,913
1973
10,041
1974
4,020
1975
2,860
1976
2,488
1977
2,216
1978
2,329
1979
2,054
1980
1,477
1981
900
1982
757
1983
613
1984
548
1985
607
1986
639
1990
240
1995
220
2000
200
Source: 1970-1977: Bureau of Mines (Reference 8). Assumes a two-
year time lag before disposal.
1978-2000: Estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd. based
on Reference 51.
136
-------
Figure 2-18. Discards of lead in collapsible tubes, 1970 to 2000.
Tons
1 4,000 T
1 2,000 t \
10,000
8,000 ¦¦
6,000 ¦¦
4,000--
2,000 ¦¦
1 970
1—i—i—i—i—i—i—t-
1975
1980
1 995
1985
1 990
137
-------
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17.
Chapter 2
REFERENCES
Greninger, D., V, Kollonitsch, and C. H. Kline. Lead Chemicals.
International Lead Zinc Research Organization, Inc. 1975.
Nordyke, J. S., Editor. Lead in the World of Ceramics. The
American Ceramic Society, Inc. 1984.
Encyclopedia of Materials Science and Engineering. Volume 4.
Pergamon Press. 1986.
Weast, R. C., Editor. Handbook of Chemistry and Phvsics. 53rd
Edition. The Chemical Rubber Co. 1973.
Lawler, G. M. , Editor. Chemical Origins and Markets. Fifth Edition.
Chemical Information Services, Stanford Research Institute. 1977.
Windholz, M., Editor. The Merck Index. Merck & Co,, Inc. 1983.
Kirk-Othmer. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Volume 14.
Third Edition. 1981.
U. S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals Yearbook. 1986 and earlier years.
Telephone conversation with representative of the Bearing Specialist
Association. May 20, 1988.
Telephone conversation with representative of an industrial corporation.
May 20, 1988.
Telephone conversation with representative of the Insulated Cable
Engineers Association. April 17, 1988.
Telephone conversation with representative of the U. S. Department
of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. April 17, 1988.
Telephone conversation with representative of the U. S. Department
of Commerce, Office of Consumer Goods. April 8, 1988.
Telephone conversation with representative of the Copper Development
Association. March 29, 1988.
Telephone conversation with representative of the National Screw
Machine Association. March 13, 1988.
Telephone conversation with representative of the Copper Development
Association. May 16, 1988.
American Iron and Steel Institute. 1986 Annual Statistical Report.
138
-------
18.
19.
20,
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
1986 and earlier years.
U. S. Department of Commerce. "Steel Shipping Drums and Pails."
Current Industrial Reports. 1986 and earlier years.
Can Manufacturers Institute. 1986 Can Shipments Report. 1986 and
earlier years.
Franklin Associates, Ltd. Working papers for Characterization of
Municipal Solid Waste in the United States. 1960 to 2000 (Update
19881. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response. April 1988.
Telephone conversation with representative of the Institute of Printed
Circuits. June 6, 1988.
Telephone conversation with representative of an industrial corporation.
June 6, 1988.
U. S. Department of Commerce. "Radio and Television Receivers,
Phonographs, and Related Equipment." Current Industrial Reports.
1964-86.
Business Trend Analysts, Inc. The U. S. Battery Market. 1986.
Dana Chase Publications, Inc. "The Lifetime Expectancy/Replacement
Picture." September 1987.
Shaw, K. Ceramic Colours and Potter Decoration. Maclaren & Sons, Ltd.
1962.
Telephone conversation with representative of an industrial corporation.
February 15, 1988.
Singhdeo, N. N. and R. K. Shukla. "Solder Glass Processing."
Glass Science and Technology. Volume 2: Processing I. Edited by
D. R. Uhlmann and N. J. Kreidl. 1984.
Franklin Associates, Ltd. Based on a limited survey of retailers.
April 4, 1988.
Eppler, R. A. "Glazes and Enamels." Glass: Science and Technology,
Volume 1: Glass Forming Systems. Edited by D. R. Uhlmann and
N. J. Kreidl. 1983.
Salkind, A. J., et al. Handbook of Batteries and Fuel Cells.
McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1984.
Telephone conversation with an industry representative. June 2, 1988.
Putnam, Hayes, & Bartlett. The Impacts of Lead Industry Economics
139
-------
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
and Hazardous Waste Regulations on Lead-Acid Battery Recycling:
Revisions and Update. Prepared for Office of Policy Analysis,
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. September 1987.
Telephone conversations with representatives of the Motorcycle
Industry Council, Inc. December 30, 1987 and May 26, 1988.
U. S. Department of Commerce. Statistical Abstract of the United
States. 1986 and earlier years.
Battery Council International. Industry Statistics; 1987.
Telephone conversation with representative of the Bureau of Mines.
June 7, 1988.
Palmer, J. G. "An Impending Crisis?" GNB, Inc. April 1986.
U. S. Department of Commerce. U. S. Industrial Outlook. 1988 and
earlier years.
McCoy and Associates, Inc. The Hazardous Waste Consultant. Volume 5,
Issue 1. January-February 1987.
U. S. Department of Commerce. U. S. Imports for Consumption and
General Imports. 1986 and earlier years.
U. S. Department of Commerce. Standard Industrial Classification
Manual. 1972 edition.
U. S. Department of Commerce. "Electric Lamps." Current Industrial
RePPm. 1969-1987.
Telephone conversations with representatives of an industrial
corporation. May 15, 17, 18, and 20, 1988.
Pfaender, H. G. Schott Guide to Glass. Van Norstrand Rheinhold Co.
1983.
Telephone conversation with representative of an industrial corporation.
February 8, 1988.
Patton, T. C., Editor. The Piement Handbook. Volume 3. First Edition.
1973.
Patton, T. C., Editor. The Pigment Handbook. Volume 1. Second Edition.
1988.
Lawler, G. M., Editor. Chemical Origins and Markets. Fifth Edition.
Stanford Research Institute. 1977.
Rauch Associates, Inc. The Rauch Guide to the U.S. Ink Industry. 1986.
140
-------
51. U. S. Department of Commerce. The End-Use Market for Thirteen Non-
Ferrous Metals. June 1986. Also conservations with a Department of
Commerce representative.
52. Telephone conversations with industry representatives. March 1988.
53. Environmental Defense Fund Draft Report to the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency. 1987.
54. Franklin Associates, Ltd. Waste Paper: The Future of A Resource.
1980-2000. Solid Waste Council of the Paper Industry. December 1982.
55. American Paper Institute. 1987 Statistics of Paper. Paperboard &
Wood Pulp¦
56. American Paper Institute. Paper. Paperboard. and Wood Pulp Capacity.
1986 and earlier years,
57. U. S. Department of Commerce. Census of Manufacturers. General
Imports - FT135 and U. S. Exports - FT410.
58. Telephone conversations with representatives of the paint industry.
59. U. S. Department of Commerce. "Paint and Allied Pigments." Current
Industrial Reports. July 1984 and October 1986.
60. Kirk-Othmer. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Volume 17.
Third Edition. 1981.
61. Rich, S., Editor. Kline Guide to the U. S. Paint Industry. Sixth
Edition. Charles H. Kline and Co. 1981.
62. Telephone conversation with representative of an industrial corporation.
June 6, 1988.
63. "Special Report on Chemicals and Additives." Modem Plastics. May 1985
and earlier years.
64. Franklin Associates, Ltd. Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste In
the United States, 1960 to 2000. Working Papers. U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency. June 1986.
65. Rauch Associates, Inc. Rauch Guide to the U. S, Plastics Industry. 1987.
66. "Special Report: Resin Statistics." Modern Plastics. May 1985.
67. Encyclopedia of Polymer Science. Volume 12. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1970.
68. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Assessment of Industrial
Hazardous Waste Practices. Rubber and Plastics Industry. Rubber
Products Industry. 1978.
141
-------
69.
Franklin Associates, Ltd. Composition and Management of Used Oil
Generated in the United States. U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency. September 1984.
70. U. S. Department of Energy. Annual Energy Outlook. DOE/EIA-0383.
Federal Highway Administration. Table MF33GA. 1986 and earlier years.
71. Telephone conversation with representative of the Wine Institute.
June 1, 1988.
72. Telephone conversation with representative of an industrial corporation.
April 11, 1988.
141a
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Chapter 3
CADMIUM IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
BACKGROUND*
Cadmium is a relatively rare metal that has some unique
characteristics that make it useful in a variety of products. It is silvery-
white in color and is soft, ductile, and easily worked. It has good
electrical and thermal conductivity. When exposed to moist air, cadmium
oxidizes slowly to form a thin coating of cadmium oxide, which protects the
metal from further corrosion.
Cadmium usually occurs as the mineral greenockite (CdS). It is
usually mined in association with zinc, but sometimes with lead and copper
ores. It is almost never found alone in economical quantities. Secondary
(recycled) cadmium production is of minor significance in the United States.
Unlike lead, which has been used since ancient times, cadmium has been refined
and utilized relatively recently.
CADMIUM COMPOUNDS**
Some of the commonly-used compounds of cadmium are discussed in
this section.
Cadmium Oxide (CdO) has many uses, often in the preparation of
cadmium products. It is used in processes in the manufacture of nickel-
cadmium batteries, stabilizers for PVC, glass, phosphors, semiconductors,
electroplating, and ceramic glazes, among other uses.
Cadmium Sulfide (CdS) is the most widely used cadmium compound.
It is also called cadmium yellow, and is used in red and yellow pigments, in
phosphors, as a photoconductor, and other uses.
Cadmium Hydroxide (CdH202) is used mainly as the active material
in the negative electrodes of nickel-cadmium batteries.
Cadmium Chloride (CdCl2) is used in the manufacture of nickel-
cadmium batteries. It is also used as a pigment in dyeing and calico printing
and in phosphors.
* Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (Reference 1).
** This section is based on References 2, 3, and 4.
142
-------
Cadmium Nitrate (CdN206) is used in the manufacture of nickel-
cadmium batteries.
Cadmium Sulfate (CdO^S) is used in the manufacture of nickel-
cadmium batteries.
Cadmium Carboxcvlates are incorporated in stabilizers for
polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Cadmium Acetate (C^H^CdO^) is used for iridescent effects on
pottery and porcelain and in electroplating.
Cadmium Fluoride (CdF2) is used in the manufacture of phosphors
and glass.
Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) is used in photoconductors,
semiconductors, and phosphors.
Cadmium Tellurlde (CdTe) is used in phosphors and semiconductors.
Cadmium Salts are used as light stabilizers in plastics;
cadmium/barium salts are used as heat stabilizers in plastics.
USE OF CADMIUM IN PRODUCTS
Consumption of cadmium by end use is reported by the Bureau of
Mines (5). The end use categories are more limited that those reported for
lead, however. The categories reported annually include: coating and
plating, batteries, pigments, plastics stabilizers, and other (including
alloys). Products in each of these categories enter the municipal waste
stream.
While consumption of lead in the U.S. was over 1.2 million tons
in 1986, consumption of cadmium was a relatively small 4,800 tons. Overall,
the domestic consumption of cadmium in the U.S. declined until 1983, but it
has increased since then. In percentage and tonnage, coating and plating and
plastic stabilizers have declined since 1970. Use of cadmium in pigments grew
in the early 1970s, but has remained about stable since 1975. Domestic use of
cadmium in nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries has been significant, although the
tonnage has been fairly stable since 1976.
The remainder of this chapter is devoted to discussion and
quantification of cadmium in products discarded into municipal solid waste.
APPLIANCES
A relatively small amount of cadmium plating is found in
dishwashers and washing machines that were made some years ago. Cadmium
plating of steel offers good resistance to corrosion, and thus it had
application for coating nuts, bolts, and screws that were exposed to
detergents, alkalis, and water. As more plastics are used in these
appliances, the need for cadmium plating has decreased. There is a time lag.
143
-------
of course, in the discards of appliances, and thus cadmium from these
applications continues to appear in the waste stream years after consumption
in manufacture has declined.
Cadmium plating is still used in numerous applications by the
automotive, aerospace, and military markets, but these are not defined as
generators of MSW.
Discards of cadmium plating in appliances were estimated using
the following adjustments and assumptions:
1. No adjustment for imports or exports was made, since
there is only minor import/export activity for these
appliances (6).
2. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be 10 percent based
on information from a trade association (7).
3. An adjustment was made for removal of cadmium plating
from the waste stream when ferrous metals from the
appliances are recovered.
4. The lifetime of these appliances was assumed to be
eight years based on the previous EPA MSW characterization
s tudy (6).
5. Discards of cadmium in plated parts in appliances were
projected to continue to decrease.
Estimated discards of cadmium in appliances are shown in Tables
3-1 and 3-2 and Figure 3-1.
CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
In the past, cadmium was used to plate radio and television
chassis (the square steel sheet used to hold all of the electronic parts
together). Cadmium-plated chassis were used in about half of the televisions
produced during the 1970s, but by 1980 the technology had advanced to the
point that the steel chassis was no longer used (9)(10). The present chassis
is a printed circuit board made of resin (11). Because televisions and radios
are not discarded for some years after they are purchased, cadmium plating
from this source is still discarded into MSW.
Estimates of cadmium-plated radio and television chassis were
made using the following adjustments and assumptions:
1. Adjustments for imports and exports were made based
on data from the U. S. Department of Commerce (12).
2. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be 10 percent
based on information from a trade association (7).
144
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Table 3-1
CADMIUM CONSUMPTION IN PLATED PARTS FOR
DISHWASHERS AND WASHING MACHINES, 1962 TO 1992
(In short tons)
Domestic Net Domestic
Consumption in Manufacturing Consumption in
Year Plated Parts 1/ Losses 2/ Plated Parts
1962
53
5
48
1963
51
5
46
1964
50
5
45
1965
48
5
43
1966
47
5
42
1967
45
5
40
1968
44
4
40
1969
42
4
38
1970
41
4
37
1971
39
4
35
1972
38
4
34
1973
46
5
41
1974
33
3
30
1975
33
3
30
1976
32
3
29
1977
30
3
27
1978
29
3
26
1979
30
3
27
1980
26
3
23
1981
24
2
22
1982
23
2
21
1983
21
2
19
1984
20
2
18
1985
18
2
16
1986
17
2
15
1987
15
2
13
1992
11
1
10
1/ Estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd. using data from the
U.S. Department of Commerce (Reference 8).
2/ Assumed to be 10 percent based on Reference 7.
145
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Table 3-2
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM PLATED PARTS FOR
DISHWASHERS AND WASHING MACHINES, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Year
Gross Discards
of Cadmium in
Plated Parts 1/
Recovery of
Cadmium in
Plated
Ferrous Parts
Net Discards of
Cadmium in
2/ Plated Parts
1970
48
1
47
1971
46
1
45
1972
45
2
43
1973
43
2
41
1974
42
2
40
1975
40
1
39
1976
40
2
38
1977
38
2
36
1978
37
2
35
1979
35
2
33
1980
34
2
32
1981
41
2
39
1982
30
2
28
1983
30
2
28
1984
29
2
27
1985
27
2
25
1986
26
2
24
1990
21
2
19
1995
14
2
12
2000
10
1
9
1/ From Table 3-1 using an average 8-year time lag (Reference 6).
2/ Derived from data in MSW Characterization Study (Reference 6).
146
-------
Figure 3-1. Discards of cadmium in plated parts for dishwashers and washing
machines, 1970 to 2000.
Tons
50 y
45
40 --
35 -
30 -
25
20 ¦"
1 5 ¦¦
10 ¦¦
5 -
H 1—I—I—I 1—I—I—I 1—I—I—I 1—I—I 1—I—1—I 1—1—I—1 1—I—h
1970
1975
1980
1 985
1990
1995
H 1—I
2000
147
-------
3. It was assumed that there is no recycling of radios
and television sets (11).
4. The lifetime of radios and televisions was assumed
to be eight years (13).
5. Projections were made based on past trends.
The results of these estimates are shown in Tables 3-3 and 3-4
and Figure 3-2.
Cadmium also is a component of plastics used in consumer
electronics; these are discussed and quantified in the section on Plastics.
GLASS AND CERAMICS
Cadmium pigments are not used as extensively as they once were in
glass, but are used in three ways: as a colorant in the glass itself, as a
glaze for glass and ceramic products, and as a phosphor. It was not possible
to quantify cadmium pigment use in any specific glass or ceramic product, but
products that may contain cadmium were identified. It was assumed that the
cadmium used in glass and ceramics is in the form of pigments and not in the
form of metal.
Use of Cadmium in Glass and Ceramics
Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is a common base for cadmium pigments. The
cadmium sulfide pigments include pure cadmium sulfides, various blends of
cadmium sulfides with other metal sulfides (zincs), and with cadmium selenide
(CdSe). Extensions of these pigments with barium sulfate (BaS04) extender
pigments yield pigments called lithopones.
Cadmium oxide (CdO) can be added to glass to change its physical
and optical properties, such as decreasing the thermal expansion coefficient
and decreasing the tendency for crystallization. A more common use is to
maintain the color of a cadmium pigment, for example, to maintain the red
color of the cadmium sulfur-selenium pigments in signal glass. Cadmium oxide
is also added for pigment production in the manufacture of yellow-colored
light bulbs, where cadmium sulfide is used for the yellow pigmentation.
Glass or Ceramic Products Containing Cadmium that Enter MSW
Glass and ceramic products that may contain cadmium are shown in
Table 3-5. Glass products containing cadmium that are likely to enter MSW
include yellow-colored glass, such as yellow light bulbs, and some solders.
Cadmium sulfur-selenide pigments, which are a solid solution of
cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide, and zinc sulfide, are sometimes used in
glazes for glass or ceramics. These pigments can make a range of colors from
light yellow to dark maroon. They may be used on products such as ceramic
dishes and pottery, glass soft drink containers, glass imported beer bottles,
and glass cosmetic bottles, all of which are commonly discarded into MSW.
148
-------
Table 3-3
CADMIUM CONSUMPTION IN PLATED PARTS
FOR RADIOS AND TVs, 1962 TO 1992
(In short tons)
Domestic
Adjustment
Cadmium
for
Consumption in
Manufacturing
Imports/
Net
Year
Radios and TVs 1/
Losses
2/ Exports 3/
Consumpt:
1962
218
22
375
571
1963
200
20
328
508
1964
180
18
279
441
1965
156
16
203
343
1966
141
14
181
308
1967
125
13
218
330
1968
108
11
194
291
1969
95
10
229
314
1970
76
8
216
284
1971
63
6
216
273
1972
44
4
136
176
1973
40
4
97
133
1974
30
3
116
143
1975
29
3
103
129
1976
29
3
124
150
1977
29
3
132
158
1978
28
3
136
161
1979
28
3
105
130
1980
26
3
72
95
1981
24
2
81
103
1982
22
2
81
101
1983
19
2
96
113
1984
18
2
61
77
1985
16
2
58
72
1986
14
1
55
68
1987
13
1
55
67
1992
9
1
12
20
_1/ Based on data from References 8 and 14.
If 10 percent loss (Reference 7).
J3/ Derived from import and export data (Reference 12).
4/ Net consumption « domestic consumption - manufacturing losses
+ import/export adjustment.
149
-------
Table 3-4
CADMIUM DISCARDS IN PLATED PARTS
FOR RADIOS AND TVs, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Discards
of
Year
Cadmium 1/
1970
571
1971
508
1972
441
1973
343
1974
308
1975
330
1976
291
1977
314
1978
284
1979
273
1980
176
1981
133
1982
143
1983
129
1984
150
1985
158
1986
161
1990
101
1995
67
2000
20
1/ From Table 3-3 using an 8-year lifetime of products (13).
150
-------
Figure 3-2. Discards of cadmium in plated parts for radios and TVs, 1970 to 2000.
Tons
600 T
500 ¦¦
400
300
200 ¦"
1 00 --
V
\
\
• vv,
\
w
0 —I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—1—1—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—t
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
151
-------
Table 3-5
GLASS AND CERAMIC PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM PIGMENTS
GLASS PRODUCTS
- yellow-colored light bulbs
- red signal glass for automobile, air, and train signal lamps
- photochromic glass
- architectural window coatings
- metal sealing solders
- microsphere optics
RED, ORANGE, AND YELLOW GLAZES
- ceramic dishes and pottery
- glass soft drink bottles
- glass imported beer bottles
- glass cosmetic bottles for foundation, nail polish, and cologne
PHOSPHORS
- mercury-vapor lamps
- fluorescent tubes
Source: From References 15, 16, 17, and 18.
Cadmium sulfide pigments are used in fluorescent light tubes
because they emit in the blue-green to red spectral region. These tubes are
generally discarded into MSW.
Products Containing Cadmium That Do Not Enter MSW
Some of the end uses for glass and ceramics that contain cadmium
do not enter the municipal waste stream. Architectural window coatings are an
example of this category. Cadmium sulfide is also used as a phosphor coating
on some mercury-vapor lamps, which are commonly used in non-MSW applications
such as street lights.
r.nrlmium Discarded in Glass and Ceramics
Discards of cadmium in glass and ceramics were estimated in the
section on Pigments, based on a statement that this use accounts for 8 percent
of total cadmium pigment use (19). This is summarized in Table 3-6 and Figure
3-3. The estimates shown in Table 3-6 include an adjustment for a 6 percent
manufacturing loss, based on Reference 20. It was assumed that 50 percent of
the total discards enters MSW.
152
-------
Table 3-6
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM IN GLASS AND CERAMICS, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Cadmium
Pigment Cadmium
Discards Pigment
in Glass Discards
Year and Ceramics 1/ Into MSW 2/ 3/
1970 64 32
1971 76 38
1972 92 46
1973 105 53
1974 101 51
1975 54 27
1976 67 34
1977 50 25
1978 60 30
1979 66 33
1980 46 23
1981 59 30
1982 50 25
1983 50 25
1984 45 23
1985 49 25
1986 58 29
1990 63 32
1995 68 34
2000 73 37
_1/ Estimated to be 8 percent of total cadmium pigment use (Reference 19).
Franklin Associates assumes products discarded in the same year consumed.
2/ Franklin Associates, Ltd. estimates 50 percent of cadmium pigments used
in glass and ceramics enters the MSW stream.
_3/ Manufacturing losses estimated to be one percent and are negligible for
this category.
153
-------
Tons
Figure 3-3. Discards of cadmium in glass and ceramics, 1970 to 2000.
6 0 t
50 ¦" / ^
40 - J
J ^vvv
20-I-
10-
0 —I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I I I—I—I—I—I—i—i—i—i—i—i i I—I—I
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
154
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NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES
There is a major market for batteries in the United States, with
purchases of nearly three billion batteries yearly (21). There are two types
of batteries: primary and secondary. Primary batteries, such as the
traditional zinc-carbon household battery, are discarded when discharged.
Secondary batteries are rechargeable. Examples of secondary batteries include
lead-acid automotive batteries (see Chapter 2), and nickel-cadmium batteries.
Household batteries come in three basic shapes: cylinders,
rectangles, and button-sized discs. There are hundreds of sizes; the most
commonly-used are AA, AAA, C, D, and 9-volt. The size of the battery
determines its lifetime, and products come designed to hold the most suitably-
sized battery (21) .
Types of Household Batteries
This section contains a brief discussion of the different types
of household batteries, with a more detailed discussion of nickel-cadmium
batteries, which are an important source of cadmium in municipal solid waste.
Carbon-zinc Batteries. These are known as general purpose and
heavy-duty batteries. The carbon-zinc (or zinc-carbon) battery has been the
traditional household battery, but it is being replaced by the alkaline
battery (22). These batteries are relatively inexpensive, but lose their
charge more quickly than other types (23).
Zinc is, of course, the primary metal in these batteries, ranging
from 3 to 22 grams per battery (24). They also contain very small quantities
of mercury, cadmium, and lead, in amounts between one and 50 milligrams per
battery (24).
Alkaline Batteries. Alkaline-manganese batteries are the most
commonly-used type in the United States today. They are more expensive than
carbon-zinc batteries, but last longer (23). Zinc is the predominant metal in
these batteries also; it is present in amounts between one and 24 grams per
battery (24). They do contain small quantities of mercury (generally less
than one gram per battery) and minute quantities of cadmium and lead (less
than 10 milligrams per battery) (24).
Mercury Oxide Batteries. The mercury or mercuric oxide battery
is a small button-sized battery containing 35 to 50 percent mercury (24)(25).
These batteries are used for hearing aids, watches, pocket calculators, and
the like.
These batteries contain zinc as well as mercury, but no
appreciable quantities of lead or cadmium.
155
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Silver Oxide Batteries. Silver oxide batteries come in the same
sizes as mercury oxide batteries, and are used for the same purposes. They
are gaining in popularity, whereas mercury batteries are less in demand (26).
Silver oxide batteries contain mercury in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 percent
(24)(25)(26) , as well as zinc. They contain negligible amounts of cadmium and
lead.
Zinc Air Batteries. Zinc air batteries also can substitute for
mercury oxide batteries in hearing aids and similar applications, but they are
more expensive. The governments of Denmark and Sweden intend to make this
substitution (26). Zinc air batteries contain about 2 to 3 percent mercury as
well as zinc (24)(26). They contain negligible amounts of cadmium and lead.
Lithium Batteries. Lithium batteries are a relatively new
contender to replace the mercury battery (26), as well as alkaline or nickel-
cadmium batteries for some applications, such as pacemakers, thin watches,
hearing aids, and calculators. The lithium battery has a long life (perhaps
up to 10 years), but is more expensive and is not yet marketed extensively
(21)(23)(27)(28). These batteries contain zinc, but no mercury, cadmium, or
lead.
Nickel-cadmium Batteries. Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries are a
major consumer of cadmium in the United States, and are the focus of this
section. Ni-Cd batteries were invented in the early 1900s, but were not used
extensively until the mid-1940s, when they came into use in the military and
industrial sectors. Ni-Cd batteries are secondary batteries (rechargeable).
In the early 1960s Ni-Cd batteries for consumer use were
developed, but they did not gain real popularity until the early 1970s. Ni-Cd
batteries are now used in many products: pocket calculators; toys;
microprocessors; hand tools such as portable drills, flashlights,
screwdrivers, hedge trimmers, and soldering irons; rechargeable appliances
such as hand-held vacuums, mixers, can openers, VCRs, portable televisions,
cameras, electric shavers, lawn mower engine starters, and alarm systems, to
name some examples (27). Many consumer applications such as appliances have
the Ni-Cd battery sealed in; the battery cannot be replaced by the owner.
New consumer uses for Ni-Cd batteries, such as portable lap
computers and cellular telephones, are continually developed. Ni-Cd batteries
are also competing with mercury batteries in hearing aids and pocket
calculators (29) and with carbon-zinc and other primary batteries, because
their initial higher cost can be offset as they are recharged (30).
Military and industrial uses of nickel-cadmium batteries include:
railroad signaling, diesel locomotive starting, commercial and jet aircraft
starting, satellites, missile guidance systems, naval signaling, television
and camera lighting, portable hospital equipment, computer memories, pinball
machines, and gasoline pumps. These uses were considered not to be discarded
into MSW.
There are some variations on the nickel-cadmium battery. The
silver-cadmium cell is costly and is used mainly in military and aerospace
156
-------
applications. Other uses include portable televisions, cameras, medical
electronics, and instrumentation that demand high energy density and constant
voltage (31). Mercury-cadmium batteries also have some limited applications,
such as artillery fuses, missiles, and satellites (31). Cadmium consumption
in silver-cadmium and mercury-cadmium batteries is not significant compared to
the Ni-Cd battery (32).
Other competitors to the Ni-Cd battery include sealed lead-acid
batteries (discussed in another section) and the lithium cell. A new nickel-
zinc cell is also being developed (30), and a rechargeable metal hydride
battery is reportedly being developed (33). Sales of these batteries are
relatively insignificant at the present time.
Quantities of Cadmium Discarded in Batteries
Estimating the quantities of cadmium in batteries was difficult
because reliable data on number of batteries sold were not available. Annual
cadmium consumption in batteries as reported by the Bureau of Mines (5) was
taken as the basic source. Estimates of cadmium discards in batteries were
made using the following adjustments and assumptions:
1. It was assumed that all cadmium consumption in
batteries is by Ni-Cd batteries, although very
small amounts are used in other batteries, as
discussed above.
2. An adjustment for imports and exports was made
using Department of Commerce data (34). Imports
of Ni-Cd batteries have been growing rapidly,
from over 46 million in 1985 to over 88 million
in 1987. It was assumed that the cadmium content
of imported batteries is the same as those
domestically produced.
3. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be 15 percent,
based on information from industrial sources.
4. It was assumed that Industrial and military uses
account for 25 percent of cadmium consumption in
batteries (24), and that these batteries are not
discarded into MSW.
5. It was assumed that 80 percent of Ni-Cd batteries
are sealed into a consumer product and are not
replaceable (24)(35). The lifetime of these
appliances (and batteries) was assumed to be four
years (25)(30).
6. It was assumed that of the remaining 20 percent of
Ni-Cd batteries, one half are no longer used within
three months of purchase (25). The remaining one-
half were assumed to be discarded in four years (25)(30).
157
-------
7. It was assumed that there is no significant post-
consumer recycling of Ni-Cd batteries, although some
are received during household hazardous waste
collections, and may be sent overseas for recycling
(36).
8. Projections of cadmium discards in batteries were made
assuming that Ni-Cd batteries will not be replaced by
competitors.
The results of these estimates are summarized in Tables 3-7, 3-8,
and 3-9, and Figure 3-4.
PIGMENTS
As discussed in Chapter 2 (Lead), pigments are intermediate
products that become constituents in a wide variety of end products. Like
lead, cadmium is found in many applications, although its use was once more
diverse than it is today. It was not possible to quantify cadmium-containing
pigments by end use, but this section contains a discussion of cadmium pigment
compounds and their end uses. Finally, quantities of cadmium discarded in
pigments in MSW are estimated.
Cadmium Pigment Compounds*
The major advantages of cadmium pigments include good alkali
resistance, excellent heat resistance, an extensive range of colors, good
hiding qualities, and ease of dispersability. Their disadvantages include
poor tinting strength, poor weatherability, and acid sensitivity. Cadmium
pigment compounds yield shades of yellow, orange, red, and maroon.
Cadmium sulfide (CdS) produces a golden-yellow pigment. Partial
substitution of zinc or mercury for cadmium, and of sulfur for selenium,
produces compounds for colors ranging from lemon-yellow to maroon. Extension
of these pigments with barium sulfate (BaS04) extender pigments yields
pigments called lithopones.
The majority of cadmium pigments (54 percent) are used to
manufacture cadmium yellows (Figure 3-5) (37). Cadmium sulfoselenides are the
next largest category at 29 percent, and mercadmiums constitute the remainder
(17 percent).
* Primary reference: Cadmium Council, Inc. (Reference 3).
158
-------
Table 3-7
DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF CADMIUM IN BATTERIES, 1966 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Domestic
Consumption
Diversion to
Net
of Cadmium
Military/
Manufacturing
Total
Domestic
Year
in Batteries 1/
Industry 2/
Losses 3/
Losses
Consumption
1966
60 e
15
7
22
38
1967
189 e
47
21
68
142
1968
290 e
73
33
106
184
1969
390
98
44
142
248
1970
263
66
30
96
167
1971
308
77
35
112
196
1972
606
152
68
220
386
1973
772
193
87
280
492
1974
727
182
82
264
463
1975
540
135
61
196
344
1976
1,565
391
176
567
998
1977
1,113
278
125
403
710
1978
1,345
336
151
487
858
1979
1,488
372
167
539
949
1980
1,036
259
117
376
660
1981
1,301
325
146
471
830
1982
1,113
278
125
403
710
1983
1,125
281
127
408
717
1984
1,003
251
113
364
639
1985
1,107
277
125
401
706
1986
1,445 e
361
163
524
921
1988
1,488 e
372
167
539
949
1990
1,574 e
394
177
571
1,003
1991
1,617 e
404
182
586
1,031
1992
1,660 e
415
187
602
1,058
1995
1,789 e
447
201
648
1,141
1996
1,832 e
458
206
664
1,168
2000
2,004 e
501
225
726
1,278
_1/ Bureau of Mines (Reference 5) .
2/ 25% of cadmium consumption for nickel-cadmium batteries is other than
consumer usage (Reference 24).
_3/ Converting and manufacturing losses are 15%. Material does not re-enter
process. Estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd. based on industry sources.
e = Estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
159
-------
Table 3-8
CONSUMPTION OF CADMIUM IN BATTERIES FOR
IMPORTS/EXPORTS, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Net
Domestic
Cadmium
Imported
Cadmium
Exported
Adj us ted
Year
Consumption 1/
in Product 2/
in Product 2/
Consumpt
1970
167
NA
NA
167
1971
196
NA
NA
196
1972
386
NA
NA
386
1973
492
0
e
4
e
488
1974
463
0
e
8
e
455
1975
344
0
e
11
e
333
1976
998
36
e
15
e
1,019
1977
710
65
e
19
e
756
1978
858
87
23
919
1979
949
165
37
1,077
1980
660
178
46
792
1981
830
225
56
999
1982
710
222
43
889
1983
717
251
37
931
1984
639
358
54
943
1985
706
336
73
969
1986
893
450
75
1,268
1987
921
643
86
1,478
1988
949
e
674
e
92
e
1,531
1990
1,003
e
738
e
106
e
1,635
1991
1,031
e
767
e
113
e
1,685
1992
1,058.
e
803
e
119
e
1,742
1995
1,141
e
931
e
139
e
1,933
1996
1,168
e
981
e
146
e
2,003
2000
1,278
e
1,180
e
173
e
2,285
1/ From Table 3-7.
'If Based on U.S. Department of Commerce data (Reference 34).
e = Estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
NA = Not available.
160
-------
Table 3-9
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM IN NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES, 1966 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Discarded in Discarded in Discards of
Adjusted First Year Four Years Cadmium in
Year Consumption _1/ (10 percent) 2/ Balance (90 percent) _3/ Batteries
1966
38
4
34
NA
4
1967
142
14
128
NA
14
1968
184
18
166
NA
18
1969
248
25
223
NA
25
1970
167
17
150
34
51
1971
196
20
176
128
148
1972
386
39
347
166
205
1973
488
49
439
223
272
1974
455
46
409
150
196
1975
333
33
300
176
209
1976
1,019
102
917
347
449
1977
756
76
680
439
515
1978
919
92
827
409
501
1979
1,077
108
969
300
408
1980
792
79
713
917
996
1981
999
100
899
680
780
1982
889
89
800
827
916
1983
931
93
838
969
1,062
1984
943
94
849
713
807
1985
969
97
872
899
996
1986
1,268
127
1,141
800
927
1987
1,478
148
1,330
838
986
1988
1,531
153
1,378
849
1,002
1990
1,635
164
1,471
1,114
1,305
1995
1,933
193
1,740
1,516
1,709
2000
2,285
229
2,056
1,803
2,032
_1/ Consumption adjusted for imports/exports (Tables 3-7 and 3-8).
_2/ 10% of all nickel-cadmium batteries are taken out of use by consumers
in first year (Reference 25).
_3/ 90% of all nickel-cadmium batteries will have a 4-year service life
(Reference 25).
NA = Not Available.
161
-------
Tons
2,500-r
2,000 ¦¦
1,500 ¦¦
Figure 3-4. Discards of cadmium in nickel-cadmium batteries, 1970 to
2000.
1,000 ¦¦
500 ¦¦
/W
4—1—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—1—4—I—I—I—I—I—I 1—I—I—I—1—4—I—I—I—I—I
1970
1975
1 980
1985
1 990
1995
2000
162
-------
Figure 3-5. Cadmium pigment end uses by color compound.
/ Cadmium
Sulfoselenides
w 29%
Cadmium Yellows
• 54
-------
End Uses of Pigments
Cadmium pigments find their greatest use in plastics. Ceramics,
paints, and miscellaneous applications make up the remainder. Some specific
applications are discussed below.
Paint. Extended cadmium pigments (lithopones) formerly were in
common use for interior household paints, but their use has diminished. Red
cadmium pigments are sometimes used in exterior architectural coatings. These
uses are not considered to be discarded into MSW.
Printing Inks. Good data on cadmium use in printing inks were
not available; the use of cadmium and other heavy metals in inks is
discouraged by trade associations like the National Association of Printing
Ink Manufacturers and the American Newspaper Publishers Association. Analyses
of magazines and other color-printed materials in the 1970s did reveal the
presence of cadmium in very small quantities of colored inks (38).
Textiles. Yellow pigments composed of cadmium sulfide, barium
sulfate, and zinc sulfate are used in textile printing. The quantities used
are very small, however, because of high costs and poor tinting capabilities.
The same is true for cadmium orange or red pigments (cadmium sulfoselenide or
mercadmium compounds).
Good data on quantities of cadmium pigments used in textile
printing were not available, but the quantities are apparently very small.
Plastics. Plastics are the most important end use of cadmium
pigments. These pigments disperse well in most polymers and give good color
and high opacity and tinting strength. Cadmium pigments also are insoluble in
organic solvents, and have good resistance to alkalis.
More information on cadmium pigments in plastics is included in
the plastics section.
Artists' Paints. Cadmium-barium pigments (lithopones) are used
for yellows, oranges, and reds in artists' paints. A cadmium-mercury sulfide
is used in a vermillion pigment.
Overall, artists' paints represent a minor use of cadmium. It
was not possible to quantify the amounts.
Elastomers. Cadmium pigments are used for several purposes in
rubber products. These are discussed in more detail in the section on rubber.
Machinery and Automotive Finishes. Cadmium reds and maroons, the
most durable of the cadmium pigments, are used in automobile finishes. Cadmium
reds are coprecipitated and cocalcined mixtures of cadmium sulfide and cadmium
selenide. Mercury cadmium pigments are also used occasionally.
164
-------
Overall use of cadmium pigments has declined in automotive
finishes (39), and discards of these products are not counted as municipal
solid waste.
Discards of Pigments
Discards of cadmium in pigments in MSW were estimated using as
the basic source consumption of cadmium reported by the Bureau of Mines (5).
(Discards of cadmium pigments in rubber and plastics are discussed in those
sections of this report.) Adjustments and assumptions were made, as follows:
1. An adjustment was made for imports and exports of
cadmium in pigments using Department of Commerce
data (40). Data were not available to determine
pigments in products imported and exported, such
as textiles.
2. Manufacturing losses were estimated to be six
percent (20).
3. It was assumed that there is no recycling of these
products.
4. It was assumed that the cadmium in pigments disposed
in MSW is disposed the same year that the cadmium
is consumed.
5. Projections were made using past trends.
These estimates are summarized in Tables 3-10, 3-11, and 3-12,
and Figure 3-6. Estimates for cadmium in pigments and glass and ceramics,
plastics, and rubber are discussed in the appropriate sections of this report.
PLASTICS
Like lead, cadmium is used for two purposes in the manufacture of
plastics: as a stabilizer and as an ingredient in pigments. These uses are
discussed and the quantities discarded into MSW are estimated In this section.
Stabilizers
Stabilizers containing cadmium compete directly with lead-
containing stabilizers for application in many products. The primary
application of both lead and cadmium stabilizers is in polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) resins. Degradation of polyvinyl chloride by heat or light results in
the release of hydrogen chloride and In color changes in the material (43).
Barium/cadmium stabilizers have for many years dominated the heat
stabilizer market, accounting for about 40 percent of all heat stabilizers in
1986 (44). Cadmium chloride formed in the reaction with liberated hydrogen
165
-------
Table 3-10
CONSUMPTION OF CADMIUM IN PIGMENTS, 1970 TO 2000
(In
short tons)
Domestic
Net
Consumption
Consumptic
of
Adjustment
of
Cadmium in
Manufacturing
for Imports/
Cadmium ii
Year
Pigments 1/
Losses
2/ Exports 3/
Pigments
1970
845
51
2
796
1971
1,005
60
2
947
1972
1,224
73
2
1,153
1973
1,400
84
3
1,319
1974
1,345
81
3
1,267
1975
717
43
2
676
1976
893
54
2
841
1977
661
40
1
622
1978
794
48
2
748
1979
882
53
3
832
1980
606
36
1
571
1981
783
47
2
738
1982
661
40
2
623
1983
661
40
1
622
1984
595
36
1
560
1985
656
39
2
619
1986
773
46
3
730
1990
835
50
3
788
1995
903
54
3
852
2000
976
59
3
920
1/ Bureau of Mines (Reference 5).
2/ Estimated, to be 6 percent based on Reference 20.
_3/ Derived from Department of Commerce data (Reference 40).
Does not include pigments in imported/exported products.
k_j Domestic consumption - manufacturing losses + net imports.
chloride is acidic and capable of initiating further degradation. The
presence of barium causes a rapid exchange of chlorine from cadmium to barium,
thus preventing this type of degradation (43). Barium/cadmium zinc mixtures,
barium/cadmium soaps, and cadmium salts are also used as stabilizers in
plastics.
166
-------
Table 3-11
CONSUMPTION OF CADMIUM IN PIGMENTS BY END USE, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Net
Consumption
of Cadmium
Consumption
of Cadmium
as a Pigment
Consumption'
of Cadmium
as a Pigment
Year in Pigments 1/ in Rubber 2/ in Plastics _3/
Consumption
of Cadmium
as a Pigment
in Glass
and Ceramics
4/
Consumption
of Cadmium as
a Pigment in
Other Products
5/
Consumption
of Cadmium
in Pigments
Other
Than MSW 6/
Net
Consumption
of Cadmium
as a
Pigment
in Other
Products
in MSW 7/
1970
796
8
G35
64
89
10
79
1971
947
10
756
76
105
14
91
1972
1,153
12
921
92
128
15
113
1973
1,319
14
1,053
105
147
19
128
1974
1,267
13
1,011
101
142
18
124
1975
676
7
539
54
76
11
65
1976
841
9
671
67
94
12
82
1977
622
7
497
50
68
9
59
1978
748
8
598
60
82
9
73
1979
832
9
663
66
94
10
84
1980
571
6
456
46
63
7
56
1981
738
8
589
59
82
9
73
1982
623
7
497
50
69
8
61
1983
622
7
497
50
68
7
61
1984
560
6
447
45
62
7
55
1985
619
7
493
49
70
11
59
1986
730
8
582
58
82
12
70
1990
788
8
628
63
89
11
78
1995
852
9
679
68
96
11
85
2000
920
9
734
73
104
11
93
1/ From Table 3-10.
7! See Table 3-33 In Rubber section.
_3/ See Table 3-14 in Plastics section.
4/ See Table 3-6 in Glass and Ceramics section.
5/ By difference.
bj Estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd. based on References 41 and 42. Includes automotive and machinery
paints and architectural coatings.
7/ Includes paints, inks, textiles, artists' colors, and miscellaneous.
-------
Table 3-12
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM
PIGMENTS IN MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS, 1970 TO
2000
(In short
tons)
Discards of
Discards of
Discards of
Discards of
Cadmium
Cadmium
Discards of
Cadmium
Cadmium
Pigments
Pigments
Cadmium
Pigments
Pigments
in Misc.
in Printing
Pigments
in Leather
in Paints &
Year
Products 1/
Inks 2/
in Textiles
2/ Products 2/
Other Colorants
1970
79
8
8
8
55
1971
91
10
10
10
61
1972
113
12
12
12
77
1973
128
14
14
14
86
1974
124
13
13
13
85
1975
65
7
7
7
44
1976
82
9
9
9
55
1977
59
7
7
7
38
1978
73
8
8
8
49
1979
84
9
9
9
57
1980
56
6
6
6
38
1981
73
8
8
8
49
1982
61
7
7
7
40
1983
61
7
7
7
40
1984
55
6
6
6
37
1985
59
7
7
7
38
1986
70
8
8
8
48
1990
78
8
8
8
54
1995
85
9
9
9
58
2000
93
9
9
9
64
1/ From Table 3-11. Discards are the same as consumption, since there is
no recycling of these products.
2/ Estimated to be one percent of domestic consumption in pigments (Table
3-10), based on Materials and Design (Reference 37).
3/ By difference.
168
-------
Figure 3-6. Discards of cadmium in pigments in miscellaneous products,
1970 to 2000.
Tons
140 t
120 •• /
100
80
60 ¦¦
40 ¦-
20 ¦¦
-/
/•
-I—I—I—I—I—I I I—I—I—I—I—I—I I I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
169
-------
The applications of cadmium stabilizers are similar to those for
lead stabilizers. The cadmium compounds are somewhat more expensive.
Pigments
Cadmium sulfide, which occurs naturally as a yellow mineral, has
been used as a colorant as least as far back as the eighteenth century. Use
of cadmium pigments has historically been high in the plastics industry, and
usage increased with the development of higher-temperature plastics
processing.
Three basic types of cadmium pigments in use today are: cadmium
yellow (sulfides of cadmium and sulfides of cadmium and zinc), cadmium reds
(sulfoselenides of cadmium), and cadmium-mercury reds (sulfides of cadmium and
mercury). Cadmium sulfide pigments impart colors from light yellow to orange,
red, and deep maroon. Those formulated with mercury range in color from deep
orange to dark red and maroon. Cadmium-mercury sulfides were developed as
replacements for cadmium sulfoselenides.*
A major use of cadmium pigments is in acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene (ABS) resins used in household appliances, telephones, refrigerator
liners, and sporting goods (45). However, other resins used in a wide variety
of applications also use cadmium pigments.
Estimates of Discards
Use of cadmium in the production of stabilizers and in pigments
is reported by the Bureau of Mines (5). Allocation of plastic resin use to
products in MSW followed the same methodology as that used for previous MSW
characterization studies (6)(46).
As was the case with lead stabilizers, it was assumed that all
cadmium in stabilizers is used in polyvinyl chloride resins (47), and that no
cadmium stabilizers are used in food packaging.
Use of cadmium in pigments in plastics is widely dispersed among
resins. Consumption of cadmium pigments by resin type is shown in Table 3-13,
* One of two major manufacturers of cadmium-mercury sulfide pigments
worldwide recently ceased production of all cadmium and lead-based
pigments (44).
170
-------
Table 3-13
CONSUMPTION OF CADMIUM PIGMENTS IN PLASTIC RESINS
(In percent of total consumption)
Resin
Percent
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)
High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
Polypropylene (PP)
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
Polystyrene (PS)
Others*
35
25
15
10
10
5
* Assumed to be polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Source: Lynch (Reference 19).
Additional adjustments and assumptions were made as follows:
1. It was assumed that cadmium in stabilizers is
distributed evenly throughout the nonfood PVC
uses. Consumption of PVC resin by end use was
tabulated in Table 2-31 in Chapter 2.
2. Each MSW end use was adjusted for imports and
exports as appropriate (Table 2-33 in Chapter 2).
It was assumed that use of cadmium in these products
is in the same proportion as domestic use.
3. Manufacturing losses in the manufacture of cadmium
stabilizers were assumed to be 2 percent (20).
4. Manufacturing losses in the manufacture of cadmium
pigments were assumed to be 6 percent (20).
5. Losses in the manufacture of plastic products were
assumed to be one percent (6)(46).
6. It was assumed that 80 percent of total cadmium in
pigments is used in plastics (19)(20).
7. It was assumed that there is no recycling of these
products.
8. The lifetimes of the products were those used in
previous MSW characterization studies (see the
list in Chapter 2).
9. Projections were based on past trends.
171
-------
Estimates of cadmium used in stabilizers and pigments in plastics
are shown in Table 3-14. Allocation of cadmium to the various plastic resins
and end uses in MSW is shown in Tables 3-15 through 3-31.
Total Cadmium in Plastics
Amounts of cadmium in stabilizers and pigments for each resin
were added together to obtain total discards of cadmium in plastics (Table 3-
32 and Figures 3-7 and 3-8).
RUBBER PRODUCTS
As discussed in Chapter 2, lead and cadmium may be used for a
variety of purposes in rubber products, including use as pigments, fillers,
activators, vulcanizers, curing activators, and plasticizers.
Cadmium oxide is used as an activator in rubber products.
Cadmium sulfide is used to pigment white elastomers. Other cadmium-containing
pigments used in rubber products include cadmium reds, cadmium maroons,
mercury/cadmium reds, cadmium oranges, and cadmium yellows (48).
Discards of cadmium in rubber products in MSW were estimated
using the following adjustments and assumptions:
1. All cadmium pigments in rubber were assumed to
be in nontire products.
2. Consumption of cadmium pigments in rubber was
assumed to be one percent of total consumption
of cadmium pigments (36).
3. Manufacturing losses were assumed to be 5 percent (6).
4. No adjustments were made for imports/exports.
5. There was assumed to be no recycling of these products.
6. Rubber products were assumed to be discarded two years
after manufacture.
7. Projections were made based on past trends.
The results of these calculations are shown in Tables 3-33
and 3-34.
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS
This section describes estimates of cadmium contained in two
products made of cadmium alloys: casings for alkaline and zinc-carbon
batteries, and the heating elements in electric blankets and heating pads. in
addition, cadmium content of used oil is discussed.
172
-------
Table 3-14
ESTIMATES OF CADMIUM USED IN STABILIZERS AND PIGMENTS IN PLASTICS, 1970 TO 1986
(In short tons)
Cadmium
Consumed in
Year Stabilizers _!/
1970 1,363
1971 1,628
1972 1,48ft
1973 1,235
1974 1,213
1975 661
1976 794
1977 562
1978 650
1979 745
1980 518
1981 727
1982 617
1983 617
1984 562
1985 615
1986 725
Adjusted Total Adjusted
Cadmium Cadmium Cadmium
Consumed in Consumed in Consumed in
Stabilizers 2/ Pigments 1/ Pigments 3/
1,336
1,595
1,458
1,21U
1,189
648
778
551
637
730
508
712
605
605
551
603
711
845
1,005
1,224
400
345
717
893
661
794
882
606
783
661
661
595
656
773
794
945
1 ,151
1,316
1,264
674
839
621
746
829
570
736
621
621
559
617
727
Cadmium
Consumed in
Pigments in
Plastics 4/
635
756
920
1,053
1,011
539
672
497
597
663
456
589
497
497
447
493
581
Total
Cadmium
Consumed in
Plastics 5/
1,971
2,351
2,379
2,263
2,200
1,187
1,450
1,048
1,234
1,393
963
1,301
1,102
1,102
998
1,096
1,292
'_!/ Bureau of Mines (Reference 5).
_2/ Adjusted for manufacturing losses of 2 percent (Reference 20).
_3/ Adjusted for manufacturing losses of 6 percent (Reference 20).
_4/ Assumed that 80 percent of total cadmium in pigments is consumed in plastics (References 19,
_5/ Cadmium consumed in stabilizers plus cadmium consumed in pigments.
-------
Table 3-15
ESTIMATES OF CADMIUM IN PVC, 1970 TO 1986
(In short tons)
Year
Total
PVC Resin
in Nonfood
Applications 1/
Cadmium
in
Stabilizers
in PVC 2/
Cadmium
in
Pigments
in PVC 3/
Total
Cadmium
in PVC 4/
Cadmium
per Ton
of Resin 5/
1970 1,454,752
1971 1,560,982
1972 1,667,212
1973 1,773,442
1974 1,879,673
1975 1,985,903
1976 2,092,133
1977 2,231,000
1978 2,488,000
1979 2,590,000
1980 2,420,000
1981 2,526,000
1982 2,385,000
1983 2,488,000
1984 3,128,000
1985 3,151,000
1986 3,357,000
1,336 32
1,595 38
1,458 46
1,210 53
1,189 51
648 27
778 34
551 25
637 30
730 33
508 23
712 29
605 25
605 25
551 22
603 25
711 29
1,368
0.0009400
1,633
0.0010463
1,504
0.0009023
1,263
0.0007121
1,239
0.0006593
675
0.0003398
812
0.0003880
576
0.0002580
667
0.0002680
763
0.0002947
530
0.0002192
742
0.0002937
630
0.0002639
630
0.0002530
573
0.0001832
627
0.0001991
740
0.0002203
1_/ Total resin in nonfood applications ¦ total resin consumption
(Reference 44) - resin for food applications.
2/ From Table 3-14.
_3/ Cadmium consumed in plastic pigments x 0.05 (Table 3-14).
4/ Total cadmium in PVC = cadmium stabilizers + cadmium in pigments.
5/ Cadmium per ton of resin = total cadmium in PVC t total PVC resin
in nonfood applications.
174
-------
Table 3-16
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM IN PVC IN PLASTIC PRODUCTS, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Nondurables Durables
Year
Nonfood
Packaging
Clothing
Footwear
Miscellaneous
Nondurables
Housewares
Toys
Records
Furniture
Appliances
Miscellaneous
Durables
Total
1970
77
15
19
5
4
14
12
9
9
3
166
1971
89
14
24
6
5
15
13
10
6
3
186
1972
91
35
57
7
5
18
13
12
6
3
247
1973
78
39
66
8
6
20
17
14
6
3
257
1974
77
44
56
9
7
23
18
12
6
3
254
1975
37
36
69
4
16
54
21
16
7
7
267
1976
49
26
49
14
20
65
21
19
7
8
278
1977
36
12
27
12
21
63
22
22
6
9
231
1978
41
15
34
18
17
60
26
25
6
8
251
1979
56
7
26
16
18
44
25
33
8
8
241
1980
37
8
29
12
7
20
65
70
18
5
271
1981
52
3
27
18
9
21
68
94
22
6
322
1982
49
1
17
16
7
14
67
96
20
16
304
1983
54
2
25
20
7
13
51
85
16
34
306
1984
47
2
21
14
7
14
50
77
15
48
295
1985
40
2
26
16
5
8
22
31
8
36
194
1986
48
2
20
20
7
14
29
40
8
47
236
1990
48
2
21
17
5
10
12
18
8
38
178
1995
48
2
21
17
5
10
7
7
8
41
166
2000
48
2
21
17
5
10
8
9
10
41
171
X! Consumption of PVC resin (Table 2-31 ), adjusted for cadmium per ton (Table 3-15), one percent manufacturing losses, exports/Imports
(Table 2-33 ), and life of products. Cadmium per ton of resin for 1960-1969 is the average of 1970-1986.
-------
Table 3-17
CONSUMPTION OF ABS RESIN BY END USE, 1960 TO 1986 JL/
(In thousand short tons)
Nondurables
Nonfood
Durables
Consumer
Miscellaneous
Year
Packaging
Toys
Luggage
Electronics
Furniture
Appliances
Durables
1960
_
—
10
-
1
96
-
1961
-
-
10
-
1
72
-
1962
-
-
11
-
2
67
-
1963
-
-
11
-
2
70
—
1964
-
-
12
-
2
69
-
1965
-
22
12
-
2
80
2
1966
-
26
13
-
3
75
2
1967
-
29
13
-
3
73
2
1968
-
34
14
-
4
73
2
1969
-
38
15
-
5
85
2
1970
7
41
15
-
5
90
2
1971
7
46
11
-
6
93
2
1972
8
51
13
-
7
95
3
1973
8
61
17
-
7
97
4
1974
9
53
16
-
7
99
4
1975
8
41
11
-
6
100
5
1976
9
39
13
-
6
97
5
1977
10
37
10
37
7
100
21
1978
9
40
10
45
8
112
25
1979
3
30
12
42
7
80
45
1980
1
22
13
53
6
72
29
1981
2
28
14
66
7
94
33
1982
5
22
11
52
6
72
20
1983
2
23
10
39
2
80
18
1984
3
20
11
41
2
84
20
1985
3
15
9
32
2
89
27
1986
3
16
8
41
3
95
28
1/ Data for the years 1977-1986 from Modern Plastics (Reference 44).
estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd,
Data for previous years
-------
Table 3-18
ESTIMATES
OF CADMIUM IN
ABS, 1970
TO 1986
(In short
tons)
Total
ABS Resin
in Nonfood
Cadmium in
Cadmium per
Year
Applications 1/
Pigments in
ABS 2/
Ton of Resin
1970
505,321
222
0.0004401
1971
501,954
265
0.0005270
1972
498,570
322
0.0006462
1973
495,194
368
0.0007441
1974
491,818
354
0.0007198
1975
488,442
189
0.0003864
1976
485,067
235
0.0004845
1977
464,000
174
0.0003749
1978
519,000
209
0.0004027
1979
563,000
232
0.0004123
1980
429,000
159
0.0003718
1981
462,000
206
0.0004461
1982
304,000
174
0.0005723
1983
479,000
174
0.0003632
1984
503,000
157
0.0003113
1985
459,000
173
0.0003762
1986
483,000
203
0.0004212
_1/ Total resin in nonfood applications = total resin consumption -
for food applications (Reference 44).
_2/ Cadmium consumption in plastic pigments x 0.35 (Table 3-14).
_3/ Cadmium per ton of resin = cadmium in pigments f total ABS resin
in nonfood applications.
177
-------
Table 3-19
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM IN ABS IN PLASTICS PRODUCTS, 1970 TO 2000 1/
(In short tons)
Nondurables
Durables
Year
Nonfood
Packaging
Toys
Luggage
Consumer
Electronics
Furniture
Appliances
Miscellaneous
Durables
1970
3
13
5
_
<1
45
1
1971
4
14
5
-
<1
34
1
1972
5
17
5
-
1
31
1
1973
6
19
5
-
1
33
1
1974
6
20
6
-
1
32
1
1975
3
26
6
-
1
37
1
1976
4
35
7
-
1
35
1
1977
49
7
-
1
34
2
1978
4
42
7
-
2
34
3
1979
1
16
8
-
2
40
3
1980
21
8
-
2
39
2
1981
1
16
7
-
3
49
2
1982
3
18
10
-
4
61
8
1983
1
14
15
-
5
71
10
1984
1
10
14
-
5
71
18
1985
1
14
5
-
2
38
11
1986
1
15
8
—
3
47
15
1990
1
11
7
30
2
26
10
1995
1
11
6
31
1
33
9
2000
1
11
7
37
1
34
9
1/ Consumption of ABS resin (Table 3-17), adjusted for cadmium per ton (Table 3-18), one percent
manufacturing losses, exports/imports (Table 2-33 ), and life of products. Cadmium per ton of
resin for 1960-1969 is the average of 1970-1986.
-------
Table 3-20
CONSUMPTION
OF EDPE RESIN BY
END USE,
1965
TO 1986
1/
(In thousand
tons)
Nondurables
Durables
Nonfood
Nonfood Misc.
Miscellaneous
Year
Packaging
Nondurables Housewares
Toys
Durables
1965
_
57
17
14
1966
-
-
65
21
14
1967
-
-
72
22
15
1968
-
-
86
26
16
1969
-
-
104
29
18
1970
262
5
94
36
18
1971
345
6
102
36
19
1972
337
7
130
39
24
1973
422
10
134
48
28
1974
453
12
151
57
28
1975
424
11
120
44
35
1976
487
31
134
42
37
1977
541
41
143
40
154
1978
631
73
66
42
188
1979
754
70
80
45
244
1980
655
58
73
41
197
1981
754
89
80
45
212
1982
676
80
89
49
229
1983
743
111
94
54
260
1984
936
124
107
65
277
1985
1,055
67
121
80
289
1986
1,121
72
130
81
303
_1/ Data
for the years
1977-1986 from Modern Plastics
(Reference 44).
Data
for previous
years estimated by
Franklin
Associates,
Ltd.
179
-------
Table 3-21
ESTIMATES OF CADMIUM IN HDPE, 1970 TO 1986
(In short tons)
Total
HDPE Resin
Cadmium
in Nonfood
Cadmium
per Ton of
Year
Applications 1/
Pigments in HDPE 2/
HDPE Resin
1970
759,000
159
0.000209
1971
843,000
189
0.000224
1972
927,000
230
0.000248
1973
1,007,000
263
0.000261
1974
1,095,000
253
0.000231
1975
1,177,000
135
0.000115
1976
1,226,000
168
0.000137
1977
1,179,000
124
0.000105
1978
1,389,000
149
0.000107
1979
1,537,000
166
0.000108
1980
1,523,000
114
0.000075
1981
1,471,000
147
0.000100
1982
1,496,000
124
0.000083
1983
1,843,000
124
0.000067
1984
1,866,000
112
0.000060
1985
2,270,000
123
0.000054
1986
2,401,000
145
0.000061
1/ Total resin in nonfood applications = total resin consumption - resin
for food applications (Reference 44).
_2/ Cadmium consumed in plastic pigments x 0.25 (Table 3-14).
_3/ Cadmium per ton of resin = cadmium in pigments * total HDPE resin
in nonfood applications.
180
-------
Table 3-22
DISCARDS OF
CADMIUM IN HDPE
IN PLASTIC
PRODUCTS,
1970 TO 2000
(In
short tons)
Nondurables
Durables
Nonfood
Nonfood
Misc.
Misc.
Miscellaneous
Year
Packaging
Nondurables
Housewares
Toys
Durables
1970
54
1
7
2
2
1971
77
1
9
3
2
1972
83
2
9
3
2
1973
109
3
11
4
2
1974
104
3
14
4
2
1975
48
1
19
8
4
1976
66
4
23
9
4
1977
56
4
32
10
4
1978
67
8
35
14
7
1979
80
7
35
14
6
1980
48
4
14
5
4
1981
75
9
18
6
5
1982
56
7
15
5
16
1983
50
7
7
5
20
1984
56
7
9
6
26
1985
57
4
5
4
15
1986
67
4
8
5
21
1990
57
6
7
7
16
1995
57
6
7
6
17
2000
57
6
7
6
17
1/ Consumption of HDPE resin (Table 3-20), adjusted for cadmium per ton
(Table 3-21), one percent manufacturing losses, exports/imports (Table
2-33 ), and life of products. Cadmium per ton of resin for 1960-1969
is the average of 1970-1986.
181
-------
Table 2-23
Year
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
CONSUMPTION
OF POLYPROPYLENE RESIN
BY END USE,
1960 TO
1986
(In thousand short
tons)
Nondurables
Durables
Nonfood
Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous
Packaging
Nondurables
Housewares
Toys
Luggage
Furniture Appliances
Durables
_
_
4
T
4.
33
-
_
-
-
5
3
31
-
_
-
4
3
32
-
_
_
_
—
5
4
32
-
_
—
4
5
37
19
_
_
13
20
4
5
34
20
_
15
24
4
5
33
20
17
26
4
6
33
21
_
20
30
4
7
39
24
_
_
24
34
4
9
41
25
109
4
24
37
5
9
46
26
111
5
26
41
5
11
47
32
132
6
33
45
3
13
48
39
142
10
34
54
4
15
49
38
153
11
38
47
5
14
50
37
142
10
30
36
3
11
51
47
163
28
34
35
4
13
49
49
182
37
36
33
3
14
51
206
228
55
46
41
8
17
52
235
265
50
85
35
6
21
50
283
270
50
85
40
6
20
43
268
297
55
90
40
6
20
47
295
307
47
67
15
3
22
36
247
377
47
72
17
3
24
49
334
416
58
78
19
2
25
61
361
410
55
71
14
3
22
57
386
448
60
74
15
3
23
65
398
1/ Data for the years 1977-1986 from Modern PI as Lies (Reference 44). Data for previous years estimated
~ by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
-------
Table 3-24
ESTIMATES OF CADMIUM IN POLYPROPYLENE, 1970 TO 1986
(In short tons)
Total
PP Resin Cadmium
in Nonfood Cadmium per Ton
Year Applications !_/ Pigments in PP 2y of PP Resin 3/
1970
289,007
95
0.000330
1971
402,477
113
0.000282
1972
515, 9<-7
138
0.000268
1973
629,417
158
0.000251
1974
742,888
152
0.000204
1975
856,358
81
0.000094
1976
969,828
101
0.000104
1977
1,063,000
75
0.000070
1978
1,180,000
90
0.000076
1979
1,402,000
99
0.000071
1980
1,708,140
68
0.000040
1981
1,401,000
88
0.000063
1982
1,390,000
75
0.000054
1983
1,769,000
75
0.000042
1985
2,119,000
74
0.000035
1986
2,255,000
87
0.000039
1/ Total resin in nonfood applications = total resin consumption -
resin for food applications (Reference 44).
2_! Cadmium consumed in plastic pigments x 0.15 (Table 3-14),
_3/ Cadmium per ton of resin = cadmium in pigments * total PP resin
in nonfood applications.
183
-------
Table 3-25
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM IN POLYPROPYLENE IN PLASTIC PRODUCTS, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Year
Nondurables
Nonfood Miscellaneous
Packaging Nondurables Housewares
Durables
Miscellaneous
Toys Luggage Furniture Appliances Durables
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
36
31
35
35
31
13
17
13
17
19
11
19
16
16
17
14
17
1
1
2
2
2
1
3
3
4
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
8
7
9
8
8
3
3
2
3
6
3
6
2
3
3
4
4
13
12
13
15
10
3
4
3
4
3
2
3
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
4
3
1
1
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
15
13
13
12
10
5
5
2
2
3
3
3
8
9
10
9
7
4
5
14
18
20
11
18
1990
1995
2000
16
16
16
2
2
2
0
0
1
1
1
13
14
14
1_/ Consumption of PP resin (Table 3-23), adjusted for cadmium per ton (Table 3-24), one percent manu-
facturing losses, exports/imports (Table 2-33), and life of products. Cadmium per ton of resin for
1960-1969 Is the average of 1970-1986.
-------
Table 3-26
CONSUMPTION OF LDPE RESIN BY END USE, 1965 TO 1986 1/
(In thousand short tons)
Nondurables
Durables
Nonfood
Miscellaneous
Year
Packaging
Nondurables
Housewares
1965
—
-
85
1966
-
-
95
1967
-
-
113
1968
-
-
113
1969
-
-
136
1970
645
88
134
1971
671
115
146
1972
799
142
185
1973
860
212
191
1974
924
241
217
1975
863
214
171
1976
993
628
192
1977
1,103
827
204
1978
1,150
901
220
1979
1,321
982
238
1980
1,173
963
193
1981
1,218
974
193
1982
1,201
978
176
1983
1,308
1,060
196
1984
1,363
1,103
193
1985
1,428
1,093
200
1986
1,462
1,104
201
_1 / Data for the years 1977-1986 from Modern Plastics (Reference 44).
Data for previous years estimated by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
185
-------
Table 3-27
ESTIMATES OF CADMIUM IN LDPE, 1970 TO 1986
(In short tons)
Total LDPE
Resin in
Nonfood
Year Applications JL/
1970 1,645,836
1971 1,758,964
1972 1,872,091
1973 1,985,218
1974 2,098,345
1975 2,211,473
1976 2,324,600
1977 2,422,000
1978 2,557,000
1979 2,764,000
1980 2,766,000
1981 2,573,000
1982 3,460,000
1983 2,808,000
1984 3,281,000
1985 3,384,000
1986 3,453,000
Cadmium
Pigments
in LDPE 2/
64
76
92
105
101
54
67
50
60
66
46
59
50
50
45
49
58
Cadmium
per Ton of
LDPE Resin 3/
0.000039
0.000043
0.000049
0.000053
0.000048
0.000024
0.000029
0.000021
0.000023
0.000024
0.000017
0.000023
0.000014
0.000018
0.000014
0.000014
0.000017
1/ Total resin In nonfood applications = total resin consumption - resin
for food applications (Reference 44).
2/ Cadmium consumed in plastic pigments x 0.10 (Table 3-14).
_3/ Cadmium per ton of resin = cadmium in pigments r total LDPE resin
in nonfood applications.
186
-------
Table 3-28
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM IN LDPE IN PLASTIC PRODUCTS, 1970 TO 20Q0
(In short tons)
Nondurables
Nonfood Miscellaneous Durables
Year Packaging Nondurables Housewares
1970
25
3
2
1971
29
5
3
1972
39
7
3
1973
45
11
3
1974
44
11
4
1975
21
5
5
1976
28
18
6
1977
23
17
9
1978
27
21
10
1979
31
23
10
1980
19
16
4
1981
28
22
5
1982
17
14
4
1983
23
19
5
1984
19
15
6
1985
20
16
3
1986
24
18
4
1990
21
16
3
1995
21
16
3
2000 21 16
17 Consumption of LDPE resin (Table 3-26), adjusted for cadmium per
ton (Table 3-27) , one percent manufacturing losses, exports/imports
(Table 2-33), and life of products. Cadmium per ton of resin for
1960-1969 is the average of 1970-1986.
187
-------
Table 3-29
CONSUMPTION OF POLYSTYRENE RESIN BY END USE, I960 TO 1986 If
(In short tons)
Nondurables Durables
Nonfood Nonfood Misc. Consumer Miscellaneous
Year
Packaging
Footwear
Nondurables
Housewares
Toys
Electronics
Furniture
Appliances
Durables
1960
.
__
_
8
45
1961
-
-
-
-
-
-
10
47
-
1962
-
-
-
-
-
-
11
49
-
1963
-
-
-
-
-
-
13
57
-
1964
-
-
-
-
-
-
15
56
-
-
-
-
(>(>
VJ
-
1
Urj
2
1966
-
-
-
76
70
-
18
61
2
1967
-
-
-
84
77
-
21
59
2
1968
-
7
-
100
89
-
24
59
2
1969
-
9
-
120
99
-
31
68
2
1970
236
11
16
119
109
-
30
73
3
1971
246
11
21
130
119
-
37
81
3
1972
293
11
26
164
133
-
44
84
3
1973
315
15
39
169
160
-
48
85
4
1974
338
11
44
192
139
-
47
87
4
1975
316
12
39
151
107
-
37
88
5
1976
364
12
114
170
102
-
42
85
5
1977
404
12
150
181
97
96
46
88
21
1978
352
12
90
130
100
86
51
88
24
1979
369
12
82
126
108
91
69
72
26
1980
297
10
64
99
93
93
61
57
25
1981
223
10
84
107
99
97
55
61
25
1982
225
6
65
89
83
98
44
54
22
1983
193
6
111
104
99
107
26
66
25
1984
159
3
128
101
101
105
41
60
25
1985
190
3
139
100
106
105
45
68
26
1986
202
3
148
107
117
135
49
78
29
1/ Data for the years 1977-1986 from Modern Plastics (Reference 44). Data for previous years estimated by
Franklin Associates, Ltd.
-------
Table 3-30
ESTIMATES OF CADMIUM IN POLYSTYRENE, 1970 TO 1986
(In short tons)
Total PS
Resin in
Nonfood
Year Applications _1/
1970 1,007,000
1971 1,119,000
1972 1,229,000
1973 1,336,000
1974 1,452,000
1975 1,561,000
1976 1,627,000
1977 1,564,000
1978 1,211,000
1979 1,171,000
1980 1,162,000
1981 1,044,000
1982 1,045,000
1983 1,254,000
1984 1,289,000
1985 1,337,000
1986 1,451,000
Cadmium
Pigments in PS 2!
64
76
92
105
101
54
67
50
60
66
46
59
50
50
45
49
58
Cadmium
per
Ton of
PS Resin _3/
0.000063
0.000068
0.000075
0.000079
0.000070
0.000035
0.000041
0.000032
0.000049
0.000057
0.000039
0.000056
0.000048
0.000040
0.000035
0.000037
0.000040
1/ Total resin in nonfood applications = total resin consumption - resin
for food applications (Reference 44).
2j Cadmium consumption in plastic pigments x 0.10 (Table 3-14).
Cadmium per ton of resin = cadmium in pigments f total PS resin
in nonfood applications.
189
-------
Table 3-31
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM IN POLYSTYRENE IN PLASTIC PRODUCTS,
(In short tons)
.970 TO 2000
Nondurables
Durables
Nonfood Nonfood Misc. Consumer
Year Packaging Footwear Nondurables Housewares Toys Electronics
Furniture Appliances
Miscellaneous
Durables
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1990
1995
2000
15
16
22
25
23
11
15
13
17
21
12
12
11
8
5
7
8
8
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
3
3
1
5
5
4
5
2
5
3
4
4
5
6
3
4
4
5
6
7
9
12
13
13
5
7
6
6
7
4
6
4
4
3
4
4
5
5
8
9
11
14
11
4
5
3
6
7
4
6
6
10
10
1
2
2
2
3
4
3
1
2
3
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
6
7
6
3
4
2
2
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1/ Consumption of PS resin (Table 3-29), adjusted for cadmium per ton (Table 3-30), one percent manufacturing
losses, exports/imports (Table 2-33), and life of products. Cadmium per ton of resin for 1960-1969 is the
average of 1970-1986.
-------
Table 3-32
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM IN PLASTICS IN MSW, 1970 TO 2000 1/
(In short cons)
Nondurables Durables
Year
Nonfood
Packaging
Clothing
Footwear
Miscellaneous
Nondurables
Housewares
Toys
Records
LuRgage
Consumer
Electronics
Furniture
Appliances
Miscellaneous
Durables
Total
1970
209
15
19
11
19
34
12
5
.
10
60
8
403
1971
245
14
25
15
21
39
13
6
-
12
46
8
445
1972
275
35
58
19
24
45
13
6
-
14
44
8
541
1973
298
39
67
28
28
52
17
6
-
16
45
9
604
1974
285
44
57
29
34
57
18
6
-
14
45
9
597
1975
133
36
70
13
56
109
21
6
~
18
52
21
536
1976
179
26
50
43
65
130
21
7
-
22
49
23
616
1977
14/.
12
28
41
83
146
22
7
-
25
47
27
583
1978
173
15
35
55
83
143
26
8
-
29
48
28
644
1979
208
7
27
55
84
95
25
8
-
38
56
25
628
1980
128
8
31
37
33
53
65
9
-
77
77
15
532
1981
187
3
29
57
43
52
68
a
-
103
89
18
658
1982
152
1
18
42
34
43
67
11
-
108
99
55
631
1983
151
2
26
52
29
41
51
17
-
97
106
83
656
1984
144
2
22
43
35
39
50
15
-
88
102
114
653
1985
139
2
27
43
21
32
22
5
-
35
54
73
453
1986
166
2
21
51
31
44
29
9
-
46
64
103
564
1990
150
2
21
46
20
34
12
7
36
23
38
78
467
1995
150
2
21
46
22
33
7
6
41
11
46
82
467
2000
150
2
21
46
22
33
8
7
47
13
48
82
480
1/ Discards of cadmium In stabilizers plus pigments.
-------
Stabilizers
mm
Figure 3-7. Discards of cadmium in plastics, 1970 to 2000.
Tons
700 t
500 4
1970
1975
1980
1 985
II,v, | ( | ,
1 990 1 995 2 0 (
600 4
192
-------
Figure 3-8. Sources of cadmium discards in plastics, 1986.
All Other
|16.3%!
< Nonfood $
packaging
^29.3%^
Furniture
8.1 %L
Misc. Durables
If 1 8.2%i$S|
Misc.lM
Nondurables
9.0% ^
Appliances
11.3%
193
-------
Table 3-33
CONSUMPTION
OF CADMIUM IN
PIGMENTS IN RUBBER,
1968 TO 1998
(In
short tons)
Domestic
Consumption
Net
Consumption
of
Consumption
of
Cadmium in
of
Cadmium in
Rubber
Manufacturing
Cadmium in
Year
Pigments 1/
Products 2/
Losses 3/
Rubber Products
1968
1,000
10
0.5
10
1969
971
10
0.5
9
1970
845
8
0.4
8
1971
1,005
10
0.5
10
1972
1,224
12
0.6
12
1973
1,400
14
0.7
13
1974
1,345
13
0.7
13
1975
717
7
0.4
7
1976
893
9
0.4
8
1977
661
7
0.3
6
1978
794
8
0.4
8
1979
882
9
0.4
8
1980
606
6
0.3
6
1981
783
8
0.4
7
1982
661
7
0.3
6
198 3
661
7
0.3
6
1984
595
6
0.3
6
1985
656
7
0.3
6
1986
773
8
0.4
7
1988
804
8
0.4
8
1993
872
9
0.4
8
1998
945
9
0.5
9
1! Bureau of Mines (Reference 5). 1968 estimated by Franklj.n
Associates, Ltd.
_2/ Estimated to be one percent of cadmium consumption in pigments,
based on Reference 36.
3/ Estimated to be 5 percent (Reference 6).
-------
Table 3-34
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM IN PIGMENTS IN RUBBER, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Discards of
Cadmium in
Rubber
Year Products 1/
1970 10
1971 9
1972 8
1973 10
1974 12
1975 13
1976 13
1977 7
1978 8
1979 6
1980 8
1981 8
1982 6
1983 7
1984 6
1985 6
1986 6
1990 8
1995 9
2000 9
Consumption of cadmium in products is assumed to be discarded
two years later. It is assumed that all discards are nontire
products.
195
-------
Casings for Drv Cell Batteries
The Bureau of Mines reports cadmium consumed in alloys and other
products. Most of these products--cadmium solder used in industrial
applications, trolley wire, cable sheaths, control elements for nuclear
reactors, lens grinding blocks, etc.--are assumed not to be discarded into
MSW. The casings for alkaline and zinc-carbon batteries do contain 0.02
percent by weight of cadmium (49). The cadmium is actually an impurity in the
high-grade zinc used for the casings, but the amount is so small that it would
be too expensive to further purify the zinc.
Discards of cadmium in dry cell battery casings were estimated
using the following adjustments and assumptions:
1. The weight of cadmium discarded was based
on the amount of cadmium in the most
commonly-used battery (size AA), which
contains 2.2 milligrams of cadmium per
battery (49), and the estimated number
of alkaline and zinc-carbon batteries
sold each year--which was 62 percent of
the total 2 billion batteries sold in
1986 (24) and was assumed to slowly
decrease in earlier years.
2. An adjustment for imports and exports was not
made because of the small amounts involved.
3. No adjustment for manufacturing losses was
made because the amount of cadmium is based
on the weight of the finished product.
4. It was assumed that there is no recycling
of these batteries.
5. It was assumed that the lifetime of these
batteries is one year.
6. Projections were based on past trends.
The results of these estimates are summarized in Table 3-35.
Electric Blankets and Heating Pads
The heating elements in electric blankets and heating pads have a
synthetic fiber core with a 99 percent by weight copper, one percent by weight
cadmium alloy wire wound around it. The wire is covered with vinyl to protect
users. The cadmium discarded in electric blankets and heating pads was
estimated using the following adjustments and assumptions:
196
-------
Table 3-35
DISCARDS OF CADMIUM IN MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS, 1970 TO 2000
(In short tons)
Cadmium Cadmium
in Dry in Electric Cadmium
Cell Blankets and in
Year Casings 1/ Heating Pads 2/ Used Oil _3/
1970 2
1971 2
1972 2
1973 2
1974 2
1975 2
1976 2
1977 2
1978 2
1979 2
1980 2
1981 3
1982 3
1983 3
1984 3
1985 3
1986 3
1990 3
1995 3
2000 3
_1/ An average 1-year lifetime was assumed,
2^/ An average 8-year lifetime was assumed (Reference 13).
_3/ Assumed to be discarded the same year consumed.
197
-------
1. An average electric blanket has 0.00033
pounds of cadmium and approximately 4.7
million blankets are consumed per year
(50)(51).
2. Imports and exports are negligible (51).
3. Manufacturing losses are already accounted
for in the estimate.
4. There is no recycling of these products.
5. The lifetime of these products was assumed
to be eight years (13).
6. Projections were based on past trends.
The results of these estimates are shown in Table 3-35.
Used Oil
A 1985 study for EPA (52) showed the median concentration of
cadmium in automotive oils to be 1.4 ppm. Under the assumptions described in
the used oil section of Chapter 2, about one ton per year of cadmium is
discarded with used oil into MSW.
198
-------
Chapter 3
REFERENCES
1. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Volume A4. 1985.
2. Leone, G.L. and B.W. Lewis. Using Cadmium Safely: A Guide for the
Workplace. Cadmium Council, Inc. August 1986.
3. Cadmium Council, Inc. Cadmium Production Properties and Uses. 1980.
4. Windholz, M. , Editor. The Merck Index. Merck & Co., Inc. 1983.
5. Bureau of Mines. Minerals Yearbook. 1986 and earlier years.
6. Franklin Associates, Ltd. Working papers for Characterization of
Municipal Solid Waste in the United States. 1960 to 2000 (Update 1988") .
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response. April 1988.
7. Telephone conversation with representative of the American Electroplaters
and Surface Finishers Society. May 16, 1988.
8. U. S. Department of Commerce. The End-Use Markets for 13 Non-ferrous
Metals. June 1986.
9. Telephone conversation with representative of the Electronics Industry
Association. May 4, 1988.
10. Telephone conversation with representative of an industrial corporation.
May 24, 1988.
11. Telephone conversation with representative of a television repair shop.
May 27, 1988.
12. U. S. Department of Commerce. "Radio and Television Receivers,
Phonographs, and Related Equipment." Current Industrial Reports.
1964-1986.
13. Dana Chase Publications. "The Life Expectancy/Replacement Picture."
September 1987.
14. Marce, R. E. "Cadmium Plating Still a Must." Hitchcock Publishing
Co. 1978.
15. Cole, J. F., et al. "New Cadmium Technology." Edited Proceedings of
the Fourth International Cadmium Conference. 1983.
16. Radke, S. F., et al. "Recent Cadmium Technology." Edited Proceedings
of the Second International Cadmium Conference. 1979.
199
-------
17. Eppler, R. A. and D. S. Carr. "Cadmium iri Glazes and Glasses." Edited
Proceedings of the Third International Cadmium Conference. 1981.
18. Cubbon, R. C. P., et al. "The Development of New Protected Cadmium
Sulphide-Selenide Pigments of High Color Saturation for Ceramic
Applications." Edited Proceedings of the Fourth International Cadmium
Conference. 1983.
19. Lynch, R. "Color it Cadmium When You Need the Best." Plastics
Engineering. April 1985.
20. Yost, K. and K. Greenkorn. Source-Specific Impacts and Exposure
Mechanisms for Cadmium: A Systems Study. Purdue University. January
1984.
21. Booth, S. "Batteries: Helping the Customer Choose the Right Product
for the Job." Consumer Electronics. March 1988.
22. Duracell News Release.
23. "Dry-Cell Batteries." Consumer Reports. November 1987.
24. Telephone conversations and meeting with industrial sources.
25. Telephone conversations and meeting with representative of an
industrial corporation.
26. Environment Monographs. Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development. 1986.
27. Wehrenberg, R. "New Battery Materials Bring Power to the People."
Mechanical Engineering Magazine. August 1980.
28. Ansberry, C. "Kodak 10-Year Battery Has Flaw: Black and Decker Halts
Sale of Items." The Wall Street Journal. February 22, 1988.
29. Stevens, C. and S. Wright. "Disposal of Spent Batteries." Chemical
and Industry Magazine. July 1980.
30. Bromley, J.p et al. "Environmental Aspects of the Release and Fate
of Cadmium in Municipal Landfills, with Reference to the Use and
Disposal of Nickel-Cadmium Batteries and Pigmented Plastics."
Proceedings of the Fourth International Cadmium Conference. 1983.
31. "Cadmium in Batteries - Technical Notes on Cadmium." Cadmium Council,
Inc. 1979.
32. Scardaville, P. and M. Marcoux. "Consumer Uses of Nickel-Cadmium
Cells." Saft America, Inc. Proceedings of the Fifth International
Cadmium Conference. February 1986.
33. Hoffmann, P. "Hydride Batteries Charge Up." Chemical Week. May 25, 1988.
200
-------
34. U. S. Department of Commerce. Tariff Schedule of the U.S. Annotated.
(TSUSA 6831520). 1986 and earlier years.
35. Rose, M. Commercial Considerations in the Collection and Recycling of
Small Sealed Nickel-Cadmium Batteries. Rose Development Associates,
Inc.
36. Telephone conversation with representative of Mercury Refining Company.
May 1988.
37. Materials and Design. Volume 7, Number 6. November/December 1986.
38. Law, S. L. Metals in Ash Materials Filtered from Municipal Incinerator
Effluents. U. S. Bureau of Mines. 1976.
39. Rich, S., Editor, Kline Guide to the U.S. Paint Industry. Sixth Edition.
Charles H. Kline and Co. 1981.
40. U.S. Department of Commerce. Census of Manufactures. General Imports -
FT135 and U.S. Exports - FT410. 1986 and earlier years.
41. U.S. Department of Commerce. "Paint and Allied Pigments." Current
Industrial Reports. July 1984 and October 1986.
42. U.S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral Facts and Problems. 1985.
43. Brederick, P. "The Need for Barium-Cadmium Stabilizers." Edited
Proceedings of the Second International Cadmium Conference. 1979.
44. "Special Report: Resin Statistics." Modem Plastics. January 1987
and previous years.
45. Facts and Figures of the U.S. Plastics Industry. Society of the
Plastics Industry, Inc. November 1987.
46. Franklin Associates, Ltd. Working papers for Characterization of
Municipal Solid Waste in the United States. 1960 to 2000. U, S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response. June 1986.
47. Rauch Associates, Inc. The Rauch Guide to the U.S. Plastics Industry.
1987.
48. Rubber World Magazine. "The Blue Book: Materials, Compounding
Ingredients, and Machinery for Rubber." 1987.
49. Telephone conversation with industry sources. May 12, 1988.
50. Telephone conversation with representative of an industrial
corporation. June 7, 1988.
201
-------
51. Telephone conversation with representative of the U. S. Department
of Commerce, Office of Consumer Goods. June 7, 1988.
52. Franklin Associates, Ltd. Composition and Management of Used Oil
Generated in the United States. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency.
September 1984.
202
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Appendix A
MATERIALS FLOW METHODOLOGY FOR ESTIMATING MSW DISCARDS
The materials flow methodology for estimating municipal solid
waste generation was developed at EPA in the mid-1970s (1). It has been used
periodically for EPA reports ever since (2 through 8). Most recently, this
methodology was used to estimate MSW generation for use in EPA's Subtitle D
studies (9)(10).
The materials flow methodology produces estimates for the United
States as a whole; it cannot be used, except in a very general manner, to
define wastes generated in a particular locality. The methodology requires
making many assumptions, and thus it has been subject to numerous
modifications and refinements over the years as additional information became
available or new data sources were developed.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF METHODOLOGY
The materials flow methodology (Figure A-l) relies on published
data series documenting historical production (or consumption) of materials
and products that enter the municipal waste stream. U. S. Department of
Commerce statistics have been used for many of the data series, with trade
association data used in some instances. Deductions for manufacturing or
converting losses of materials during the manufacturing process are made.
Imports and exports significantly affect consumption estimates
for some products, and adjustments are made as appropriate. An adjustment is
also made for products that are destroyed in use (such as tread wear on rubber
tires) or diverted from the waste stream for long periods of time (e.g., books
in libraries). After all necessary adjustments are made, discards are
calculated, using an estimated lifetime for each product.
Estimates of product life have an important effect on discards.
Some appliances and furniture, for example, have estimated lifetimes of 10 to
20 years, so there is a long lag between production and discards. Other
products, such as packaging, are assumed to be discarded the same year they
are produced. Changes in production numbers may thus show up rapidly or
slowly, depending on product life.
In the general methodology, the discards are then adjusted for
materials and energy recovery. The final result, called "Net Discards" in
Figure A-l, would be the quantity of MSW landfilled or otherwise disposed.
LEAD/CADMIUM METHODOLOGY
The methodology used to estimate the quantities of lead and
cadmium in products discarded into MSW followed the general steps as outlined
above. Some modifications and additional steps were, however, required. The
methodology is described step-by-step below (Figure A-2).
203
-------
N3
O
¦js
Diversions
Imports
Discards
before
Materials
Recovery
Discards
after
Materials
Recovery
Domestic
Consumption
Net
Discards
Exports
Materials
Recovery
Energy
Recovery
Converting or
Manufacturing
Losses
Figure A-l. Materials flow methodology for estimating MSW discards.
-------
Non-MSW
Products
Consumption
of Lead or
Cadmium
Imports
Diversions
Intermediate
Products
Exports
o
(_n
Manufacturing
or Converting
Losses
Imports
D vers ons
Discards to
Incineration
or Landfill
Products
Entering
MSW
Exports
Materials
Recovery
Manufacturing
or Converting
Losses
Figure A-2. Materials flow methodology for estimating lead and cadmium in MSW discards.
-------
Data published annually by the Bureau of Mines (11) provided the
basic data for consumption of lead and cadmium in the United States. These
data account for imports and exports of the metals in ores and scrap, so
further adjustments were not necessary in this step.
The Bureau of Mines data report end uses of the metals in some
detail, especially for lead. An important step for each end use was assigning
consumption to products that were assumed to enter MSW and those that do not.
To cite an example: the data for lead consumption in solder include building
construction, metal cans and shipping containers, electronic components and
accessories, other electrical machinery and equipment, and motor vehicles and
equipment as end uses. Solder in building construction was assumed to become
demolition and construction waste rather than MSW, and solder in motor
vehicles and equipment was assumed to become automotive waste, which also is
not counted as MSW. The other categories of solder use were examined in
detail to determine which end products would enter MSW.
In the next step, end uses of lead and cadmium were determined to
be intermediate products or products that directly enter MSW. Unlike the
materials and products that were considered in the previous work, lead and
cadmium often occur as intermediate constituents of products. Lead, for
example, is one of several constituents in many compounds used in making
pigments. These pigments then are blended with many other ingredients to
become paints, dyes, inks, or other colorants, which then become part of many
other products--appliances, magazines, textiles, furniture, tires, etc.--that
enter the municipal solid waste stream. Other end uses cited by the Bureau of
Mines, such as lead-acid batteries, enter MSW without being reported as an
intermediate product.
As described in the General Description of Methodology,
adjustments were made as appropriate for manufacturing or converting losses,
imports, and exports, and diversions of intermediate products and end products
containing lead and cadmium that enter the municipal waste stream. For some
products, e.g., television sets, estimates of imports are at least as
important as domestic consumption of the metals.
Estimates of materials recovery and recycling were made for the
appropriate products. Recovery and recycling of the lead in lead-acid
batteries is an extremely important factor in determining the net discards of
lead. In a few other instances, such as soldered cans and printing ink on
newspapers, constituents containing lead or cadmium are removed from the
municipal waste stream as a result of recycling activities, although the heavy
metals themselves are not recycled.
The methodology for each product identified as containing lead or
cadmium in MSW is described in the following chapters. Variations in the
methodology were made as necessary; these are discussed in the appropriate
sections.
206
-------
1
2
3
h
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Appendix A
REFERENCES
Smith, F. L. , Jr. A Solid Waste Estimation Procedure: Material Flows
Approach. U. S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste. (SW-147). May 1975.
Franklin, W. E., et al. Base Line Forecasts of Resource Recovery.
1972 to 1990. Midwest Research Institute for the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency. March 1975.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management
Programs. Second Report to Congress: Resource Recovery and Source
Reduction (SW-1221. 1974.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management
Programs. Third Report to Congress: Resource Recovery and Source
Reduction (SW-161). 1975.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste. Fourth
Report to Congress: Resource Recovery and Waste Reduction (SW-600).
1977.
Franklin Associates, Ltd. Post-consumer Solid Waste and Resource
Recovery Baseline. Prepared for the Resource Conservation Committee.
April 6, 1979.
Franklin Associates, Ltd. Post-consumer Solid Waste and Resource
Recovery Baseline: Working Papers. Prepared for the Resource
Conservation Committee. May 16, 1979.
Resource Conservation Committee. Choices for Conservation: Final
Report to the President and Congress (SW-779). July 1979.
Franklin Associates, Ltd. Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste
in the United States. 1960 to 2000. U. S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste.
Final Report. July 11, 1986.
Franklin Associates, Ltd. Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste
in the United States. 1960 to 2000 (Update 19881. U. S. EPA, Office
of Solid Waste. Final Report. March 1988.
Bureau of Mines. Minerals Yearbook. 1986 and earlier years.
207
»U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFF ICE 11909-621-663
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