oEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
rHealth Effects Research
Lwbo. a/o>r-
Research frittrigle Park NC 27711
EPA. 600883026C
J^je 1C33
External Review Draft
Research and Development
Biological Effects of
Radiofrequency
Radiation
Review
Draft
(Do Not
Cite or Quote)
Part 3 of 3
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EPA-600/8-83-026A
June 1983
External Review Draft
Biological Effects of Radiofrequency Radiation
Edited By
Daniel F. Cahill and Joe A. Elder
Health Effects Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
NOTICE
This document is a preliminary draft. It has not been formally released by EPA
and should not at this stage be construed to represent Agency policy. It is
being circulated for comment on its technical accuracy and policy implications.
HEALTH EFFECTS RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA 27711
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DISCLAIMER
This report is an external draft for review purposes only and does not
constitute Agency policy. Mention of trade names or commercial products does
not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
i i
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FOREWORD
The many benefits of our modern, developing, industrial society are
accompanied by certain hazards. Careful assessment of the risk of existing
and new man-made environmental hazards is necessary to establish sound regula-
tory policy. Environmental regulations enhance the quality of our environment
in order to promote the public health and welfare and the productive capacity
of our nation's population.
The Health Effects Research Laboratory conducts a coordinated environ-
mental health research program in toxicology and clinical studies. These
studies address problems in air pollution, radiofrequency radiation, environ-
mental carcinogenesis and the toxicology of pesticides as well as other chemical
pollutants. The Laboratory participates in the development and revision of
air quality criteria documents on pollutants for which national ambient air
quality standards exist or are proposed, provides the data for registration of
new pesticides or proposed suspension of those already in use, conducts
research on hazardous and toxic materials, and is primarily responsible for
providing the health basis for radiofrequency radiation guidelines. Direct
support to the regulatory function of the Agency is provided in the form of
expert testimony and preparation of affidavits as well as expert advice to the
Admi ni strator.
The intent of this document is to provide a comprehensive review of the
scientific literature on the biological effects of radiofrequency radiation.
The purpose of this effort is to evaluate critically the current state of
knowledge for its pertinence and applicability in developing radiofrequency-
radiation exposure guidelines for the general public.
F. G. Hueter, Ph.D.
Di rector
Health Effects Research Laboratory
i i i
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ABSTRACT
This document presents a critical and comprehensive review of the avail-
able literature on the biological effects of radiofrequency (RF) radiation
through 1980. The objective is to determine whether the existing data base
can contribute to the formulation of RF-radiation exposure guidance for the
general public.
The frequency range of concern in this document is 0.5 MHz to 100 GHz,
which includes all the significant sources of population exposure to RF radia-
tion. Research reports that are judged to be credible according to a set of
objective criteria are examined for the relation between the RF energy ab-
sorbed and the presence or absence of biological effects. The reported conse-
quences of the interaction between RF radiation and biological systems are
examined from four perspectives by 1) RF-energy-induced core temperature
increases, 2) whole-body-averaged specific absorption rate (SAR), 3) the
exogeneous energy burden as a percentage of resting metabolic rate, and 4)
actual human experiences documented in epidemiological studies.
The existing data base does lead to tentative conclusions about the
relation between RF-radiation exposure and biological effects that may serve
as unadjusted upper limits for population exposure guidance; however, the un-
certainties and unknowns in the current state of knowledge are potentially
significant.
iv
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CONTRIBUTORS
Ernest N. Albert*
Joseph S. Ali
John W. All is
Ezra Berman
Carl F. Blackman,
Daniel F. Cahill1
Joe A. Elder
Michael I. Gage
Christopher J. Gordon
Doreen Hill
William T. Joines
James B. Kinn g
William P. Kirks
Charles G. Liddle
James R. Rabinowitz
Ralph J. Smialowicz
Ronald J. Spiegel
Claude M. Weil
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Office of Health Research
Health Effects Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
*Department of Anatomy
The George Washington University
Medical Center
Washington, DC 20037
^Current Address:
Carolina Power and Light Company
Harris Energy and Environmental Center
Route 1, Box 327
New Hill, NC 27562
^Office of Health Research
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20406
^Current Address:
Three Mile Island Field Station
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
100 Brown Street
Middletown, PA 17057
v
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CONTENTS
Foreword i i i
Abstract iv
Figures ix
Tables xii
Acknowledgment xv
1 Introduction 1-1
(Daniel F. Cahill^
1.1 Ground Rules and General Assumptions 1-1
1.2 General Approach 1-2
1.3 Specific Approach Used in This Review 1-3
2 Summary and Conclusions 2-1
(Daniel F. Cahill and Joe A. Elder)
3 Physical Principles of Electromagnetic Field Interactions . . . 3-1
3.1 Electromagnetic Field Theory 3-1
(Wi11iam T. Joines)
3.1.1 Electromagnetic spectrum 3-1
3.1.2 Wave propagation 3-5
3.1.3 Wave modulation 3-11
3.2 RF-Field Interactions with Biological Systems 3-15
(Claude M. Weil and James R. Rabinowitz)
3.2.1 Scattering and absorption of electromagnetic
waves 3-15
3.2.2 RF dosimetry definitions 3-31
3.2.3 Analytical and numerical RF electromagnetic
interaction models 3-34
3.2.4 Mechanisms of RF interaction with biological
systems 3-52
3.3 Experimental Methods 3-67
(Claude M. Weil and Joseph S. Ali)
3.3.1 Exposure methods used in biological
experimentation 3-67
3.3.2 Animal holders 3-97
3.3.3 Densitometric instrumentation 3-102
3.4 Dosimetric Methods 3-115
(James B. Kinn)
3.4.1 Whole body dosimetry 3-115
3.4.2 Regional dosimetry 3-119
3.4.3 Unresolved questions 3-122
vi i
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Pa^e
4 Effect of RF-Radiation Exposure on Body Temperature 4-1
4.1 Thermal Physiology 4-1
(Christopher Gordon)
4.1.1 Temperature regulation 4-1
4.1.2 Ambient temperature vs. RF-radiation exposure . . . 4-3
4.1.3 Mechanisms of heat gain during RF-radiation
exposure 4-5
4.1.4 Local thermal responses: Effect of RF-radiation
exposure on blood flow 4-11
4.1.5 Whole-body thermal response to RF-radiation
exposure and dependence on ambient
conditions 4-12
4.1.6 Heat stress and the general adaptation syndrome . . 4-17
4.1.7 Thermal physiology of humans 4-19
4.1.8 Thermoregulatory state and physiological
responsiveness to RF radiation 4-24
4.1.9 RF-radiation exposure and behavioral temperature
regulation 4-26
4.1.10 Unresolved questions 4-27
4.2 Numerical Modeling of Thermoregulatory Systems in Man and
Animals 4-33
(Ronald Spiegel)
4.2.1 Heat-transfer models 4-33
4.2.2 RF-radiation-heat-transfer models 4-37
4.2.3 Numerical results 4-42
4.2.4 Unresolved questions 4-45
5 Biological Effects of RF Radiation 5-1
5.1 Cellular and Subcellular Effects 5-1
(John W. Allis)
5.1.1 Effects on molecular systems 5-3
5.1.2 Effects on subcellular organelles 5-8
5.1.3 Effects on single cells 5-13
5.1.4 Unresolved questions 5-23
5.2 Hematologic and Immunologic Effects
(Ralph J. Smialowicz) 5-31
5.2.1 Hematology 5-33
5.2.2 Immunology 5-46
5.2.3 Unresolved questions 5-71
5.3 Reproductive Effects 5-73
(Ezra Berman)
5.3.1 Teratology 5-73
5.3.2 Reproduction efficiency 5-99
5.3.3 Testes 5-103
5.3.4 Unresolved questions 5-112
v i i i
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Page
5.4 Nervous System 5-117
(Ernest N. Albert)
5.4.1 Morphologic observations 5-119
5.4.2 Blood-brain barrier studies 5-122
5.4.3 Pharmacological effects 5-126
5.4.4 Effects on neurotransmitters 5-129
5.4.5 Unresolved questions 5-131
5.5 Behavior 5-137
(Michael I. Gage)
5.5.1 Introduction 5-137
5.5.2 Summary 5-139
5.5.3 Naturalistic behavior 5-140
5.5.4 Learned behavior 5-145
5.5.5 Interactions with other environmental stimuli . . . 5-159
5.5.6 Unresolved questions 5-163
5.6 Special Senses 5-171
(Joe A. Elder)
5.6.1 Cataractogenic effects 5-171
5.6.2 Unresolved questions 5-184
5.6.3 Auditory effects 5-186
5.6.4 Unresolved questions 5-199
5.6.5 Human cutaneous perception 5-203
5.6.6 Unresolved questions 5-206
5.7 Other Physiological and Biochemical Effects 5-209
(Charles G. Liddle)
5.7.1 Clinical chemistry and metabolism 5-209
5.7.2 Endocrinology 5-219
5.7.3 Growth and development 5-225
5.7.4 Cardiovascular system 5-228
5.7.5 Calcium ion efflux 5-233
5.7.6 Unresolved questions 5-237
5.8 Genetics and Mutagenesis 5-241
(Carl F. Blackman)
5.8.1 Introduction 5-241
5.8.2 Effects on genetic material of cellular
and subcellular systems 5-243
5.8.3 Effects on genetic material of higher-order
biological systems 5-252
5.8.4 Unresolved questions 5-256
5.9 Life Span and Carcinogenesis 5-267
(William P. Kirk)
5.9.1 Life span 5-267
5.9.2 Carcinogenesis 5-273
5.9.3 Prausnitz and Susskind study 5-276
5.9.4 North Karelia connection 5-279
5.9.5 Moscow Embassy study 5-280
5.9.6 U.S. Navy study 5-281
5.9.7 Unresolved questions 5-282
ix
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Page
5.10 Human Studies 5-285
(Doreen Hill)
5.10.1 Occupational surveys 5-285
5.10.2 Mortality studies 5-291
5.10.3 Ocular effects 5-297
5.10.4 Reproductive effects 5-303
5.10.5 Unresolved questions 5-307
6 Assessment 6-1
(Daniel F. Cahill and Joe A. Elder)
6.1 Core Temperature 6-2
6.2 Specific Absorption Rate 6-5
6.3 Resting Metabolic Rate 6-13
6.4 Human Studies 6-18
References R-l
Glossary G~1
x
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FIGURES
Number Page
3-1 Far-field electromagnetic wave at a particular instant
in time 3-8
3-2 Power density vs. distance along axis from antenna
aperture 3-12
3-3 Interaction of RF radiation with electrical conductors,
biological tissue, and electrical insulators 3-16
3-4 Energy distribution in proximity to man at 1 GHz at the
chest plane contour presentation 3-19
3-5 Dielectric data for tissues in RF range 0.01 to 10 GHz 3-22
3-6 Illustration of object size vs. wavelength dependence 3-24
3-7 Whole-body average SAR vs. frequency for three polarizations
in a prolate spheroidal model of a human 3-26
3-8 Absorption dependence on various ground and multi-path
factors 3-30
3-9 ARD distribution in core of 6-cm radius multi-layered
sphere at 1650 MHz 3-42
3-10 Curve fitting of SAR data for a prolate spheroidal model
of man for three basic orientations 3-44
3-11 Effect of a capacitive gap on average SAR between the man
model and the ground plane 3-46
3-12 A realistic block model of man 3-48
3-13 Absorption for man block model standing on ground plane .... 3-50
3-14 The real component of the complex permittivity of muscle
as a function of frequency 3-55
3-15 EPA 2450-MHz anechoic chamber facility or 2.45-GHz far-field
facility 3-72
xi
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Number Page
3-16 EPA 2450-MHz anechoic chamber facility: diagram of the
microwave exposure facility 3-73
3-17 Diagram of absorber-lined horn 3-74
3-18 Diagram of a point-source compact range 3-75
3-19 Miniature anechoic chamber facility 3-77
3-20 Photograph of tapered exposure chamber at EPA facility .... 3-78
3-21 Facility for simultaneous exposure of 10 animals with
minimal inter-animal interaction 3-79
3-22 Monopole-over-ground plane irradiation facility 3-81
3-23 Coaxial air-line system for high power exposures of cell
cultures 3-86
3-24 Parallel-plate (microstrip) exposure system 3-87
3-25 Block diagram of complete RF near-field synthesizer 3-87
3-26 EPA 100-MHz rectangular strip line or Crawford cell 3-89
3-27 Circularly polarized 915-MHz waveguide facility 3-91
3-28 Photograph of exposure chamber with associated instrumentation
or the 970-MHz circularly polarized waveguide facility at EPA . 3-92
3-29 VHF resonant cavity facility 3-95
3-30 Multimodal cavity facility for primate irradiation 3-96
3-31 Water-supply system for exposure chamber 3-102
3-32 Samples of commercially available survey meters for
measuring RF electric-field strength 3-106
3-33 Microprocessor-control led twin-well calorimeter 3-118
4-1 Simple neural model of thermoregulation in a mammal 4-4
4-2 Simple model of temperature gradients in a homeotherm 4-6
4-3 Power densities at 2450 MHz necessary to raise rectal
temperature 1 °C in 60 min 4-8
4-4 SAR as a function of body weight 4-10
xi i
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Number Page
4-5 Idealistic response of a homeotherm1s metabolism and body
temperature to changes in ambient temperature 4-13
4-6 SAR at 2450 MHz, ambient temperature effects, and EHL
in mice 4-16
4-7 Effect of an increasing THI on the lethal dose of RF
radiatioh in mice 4-18
4-8 Effects of increasing skin temperature on sweating in
humans 4-21
4-9 Effect of exercise on heat loss, metabolic rate, and
tympanic temperature of humans 4-22
4-10 Effects of 5-HT injections on mice 4-25
4-11 Block diagram for one segment of the thermal model 4-40
4-12 Incident power density vs. exposure duration to obtain a
hot spot 4-45
5-1 Arrhenius plot of Na+ efflux 5-18
5-2 Summed incidence of abnormal and nonviable chick
embryo eggs exposed to radiation 5-78
5-3 Cross-sectional sketch of the human and the rabbit eye 5-174
5-4 Time and power density threshold for cataractogenesis in
rabbits 5-177
2
5-5 Distribution of energy absorption rate per mW/cm
incident power density in the rabbit's eye and head
exposed to 2450-MHz radiation 5-178
2
5-6 Distribution of energy absorption rate per mW/cm
incident power density in the rabbit's eye and head
exposed to 918-MHz radiation 5-179
6-1 Steady-state temperature vs. SAR and power density 6-6
6-2 Relationship of body mass to the SAR necessary to alter
the activity of various physiologic systems 6-17
xi i i
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TABLES
Number Page
3-1 Radiofrequency Bands 3-4
3-2 Proposed System of RF Dosimetric Quantities, Definitions,
and Units 3-32
3-3 Range of Resonant Frequencies of Man and Animals Irradiated
by Plane Waves in Free Space at 1 mW/cm2 With Long Axis
Parallel to Electric Field 3-37
3-4 Dielectric Permittivities for Various Tissues 3-54
3-5 Energy Units for RF Radiation 3-58
4-1 Partitioning of Heat Loss in Humans as a Function of
Ambient Temperature 4-20
4-2 Summary of Studies Concerning RF-Radiation Effects on
Thermoregulation 4-30
4-3 Summary of Studies Concerning RF-Radiation
Effects on Blood Flow 4-32
4-4 Steady-State Temperatures in a Human Body after Exposure to
80- and 200-MHz RF Fields 4-43
5-1 Classification of Cellular and Subcellular Experiments 5-2
5-2 Summary of Studies Concerning RF-Radiation Effects on
Molecular Systems 5-5
5-3 Summary of Studies Concerning RF-Radiation Effects on
Subcellular Systems 5-9
5-4 Summary of Studies Concerning RF-Radiation Effects on
Single Cells 5-14
5-5 Summary of Studies Concerning Hematologic Effects of
RF-Radiation Exposure 5-34
5-6 Summary of Studies Concerning Immunological Effects (In Vivo)
of RF-Radiation Exposure 5~50
xiv
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Number Page
5-7 Summary of Studies Concerning Immunologic Effects (^n Vitro)
of RF-Radiation Exposure 5-66
5-8 Conversion of J/g to W/kg 5-82
5-9 Summary of Studies Concerning Teratologic Effects of
RF-Radiation Exposure 5-100
5-10 Summary of Studies Concerning Reproductive Effects of
RF-Radiation Exposure 5-103
5-11 Summary of Studies Concerning Reproductive Effects of
RF-Radiation Exposure in the Rat 5-112
5-12 Summary of Studies Concerning RF-Radiation Effects on the
Nervous System 5-133
5-13 Summary of Studies Concerning RF-Radiation Effects on
Behavior 5-164
5-14 Summary of Studies Concerning Ocular Effects of Near-Field
Exposures 5-172
5-15 Summary of Studies Concerning Ocular Effects of Far-Field
Exposures 5-173
5-16 Summary of Studies Concerning Auditory Effects of RF Radiation
in Humans 5-188
5-17 Summary of Studies Concerning Threshold Values for Auditory-
Evoked Potentials in Laboratory Animals 5-201
5-18 Summary of Studies Concerning Human Cutaneous Perception of
RF Radiation 5-204
5-19 Summary of Studies Concerning RF-Radiation Effects on
Clinical Chemistry and Metabolism, Endocrinology, and
Growth and Development 5-210
5-20 Summary of Studies Concerning RF-Radiation Effects on
Various Aspects of Cardiac Physiology 5-234
5-21 Summary of Studies Concerning Genetic and Mutagenic
Effects of RF-Radiation Exposure 5-263
5-22 Summary of Studies Concerning RF-Radiation Exposure
Effects on Life Span/Carcinogenesis 5-268
5-23 Summary of Prausnitz and Susskind Data 5-271
xv
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Number Page
5-24 Distribution of Years of Exposure for 226 Radar Workers 5-287
5-25 Age Distribution of 226 Microwave Workers and 88 Controls 5-287
5-26 Microwave Exposure Levels at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow 5-292
5-27 Number of Deaths from Disease and Mortality Ratios by
Hazard Number 5-296
5-28 Classification by Military Occupation of World War II and
Korean War Veterans With and Without Cataracts 5-299
5-29 Estimated Relative Risk of Cataracts Among Army and Air
Force Veterans 5-300
5-30 Paternal Radar Exposure Before Conception of Index Child 5-305
5-31 Summary of Selected Human Studies Concerning Effects of
RF-Radiaton Exposure 5-311
6-1 Studies Reporting "No Effects" at SAR's < 10 W/kg Grouped
by Biological Variable 6-10
6-2 Studies with Reported "Effects" at SAR's < 10 W/kg Grouped
by Biological Variables 6-11
6-3 Equivalent Power Density for Five Ages and Mass Sizes at
Resonant Frequency for SAR = 0.4 W/kg 6-14
6-4 The Increased RMR and Equivalent SAR and Power Density
Predicted to be Associated with the Onset of Human
Thermoregulatory Response 6-18
6-5 Summary of Estimates of Unadjusted Limits for RF-Radiation
Exposure at Resonant Frequencies 6-21
xv i
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank Jan Parsons and Carole Moussali, Northrop
Services, Inc., for editorial review of this document, and Linda Jones and
Connie Van Oosten, Northrop Services, Inc., for the word processing.
Wanda Jones, Bonnie Waddell, and Barbara Queen are also to be commended for
their word processing assistance on earlier versions of this document.
xv i i
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SECTION 6
ASSESSMENT
Daniel F. Cahill
Joe A. Elder
There are several approaches available for examining the interaction
between RF energy and biological systems. The biological consequences may be
assessed in terms of (1) their association with RF-energy-induced elevations
of core temperature, (2) whole-body-averaged energy absorption rate (SAR),
(3) the exogenous RF-energy burdens as a percentage increase over the resting
metabolic rate (RMR), and (4) human effects provided by epidemiological and
clinical studies.
None of these approaches is entirely satisfactory. The "temperature
increase vs. biological effect relationship" fails to explain effects that
have been observed in the absence of detectable increases in temperature. It
is also limited because of incomplete knowledge of the body's response to
localized increases in temperature, and because core temperature is not the
most sensitive indicator of the quantity of absorbed external energy (Adair
and Adams 1980b). The SAR is currently a limited concept because, as typi-
cally used, it is an estimation of absorbed energy as averaged over the
6-1
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whole-body mass. It does not address the implications of the existence of
localized areas of increased energy deposition in exposed biological systems,
or the considerable differences between species in their capacity to regulate
a given energy burden. The RMR, although reflecting species differences in
the internal production of energy, is limited in that it is also an average
value for the whole body. Epidemiological and clinical studies suffer pri-
marily from inadequate dosimetry, small numbers of subjects, and confounding
environmental variables, which may affect the assessment end points. Never-
theless, we shall employ each of these approaches to the limits of their
applicability in an attempt to determine whether the existing data base can
contribute to the formulation of RF-radiation exposure guidance for the
general public.
6.1 CORE TEMPERATURE
Heating is the least controversial explanation for RF-radiation effects
at high exposure levels. It seems appropriate, therefore, to begin by examin-
ing RF-radiation exposures associated with quantifiable heat-related phenom-
ena. The applicability of core-temperature increases as the controlling
factor for population RF-radiation exposure has been considered by Tell and
Harlen (1979).
The average rectal (core) temperature is approximately 37.0 °C (98.6 °F)
for humans and most mammals. Prolonged elevation of a core temperature at 42
°C (107 °F) is associated with heat stroke and brain lesions; the temperature
41.2 °C (106.2 °F) occurs in only 1 of 1000 humans during fever (Folk 1974).
6-2
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With RF-radiation exposures, even brief periods (15 to 20 min) at core tem-
peratures of 41.5 to 42.5 °C in rats can result in increased fetal resorp-
tions, decreased fetal body weights (Chernovetz et al_. 1977), and significant
red blood cell (RBC) hemolysis and K+ efflux in adult rats (Peterson et cfL
1979). In healthy young men whose mean body temperature was increased to 41
°C by RF-radiation exposure for up to 3 h, sperm numbers had decreased 60
percent by 40 to 60 days after treatment (MacLeod and Hotchkiss 1941). At
this core temperature, temporary infertility in male rats has also been
reported (Berman et aj. 1980).
8erman et a_h (1981) report that when RF-radiation exposure produces a
maternal colonic temperature of < 41 °C in the pregnant rat, no effects are
detectable in the fetus. O'Connor (1980) reached similar conclusions.
The mouse fetus is apparently more sensitive to increased maternal body
temperature than is the fetal rat. Berman et aK (1978) report that a 0.8 °C
temperature differential between exposed and sham-irradiated dams produced a
10 percent decrease in the body weight of the mouse fetus.
Several RF-radiation-induced effects have been reported for other stages
of life in various animal species at core temperature increases of 1 to 3 °C.
These include a stress-like response of the adrenal glands in irradiated
infant rats (Guillet and Michael son 1977); increased serum glucose and blood
urea nitrogen (BUN) levels in adult rabbits (Wangemann and Cleary 1976);
increased serum thyroxine and T^ levels in dogs (Magin et al^. 1977a,b); in-
creases in circulating neutrophils and T and B lymphocytes in spleens of mice,
along with a decrease in circulating lymphocytes (Liburdy 1977, 1979);
6-3
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change in lymphocyte traffic between bone marrow, spleen, liver, and lung
similar to that produced by stress-related steroids (Liburdy 1980); increased
responsiveness of lymphocytes to mitogen stimulation in monkeys (Prince et aK
59
1972); increased white blood cell (WBC) count and decreased Fe uptake in
mice (Rotkovska and Vacek 1975); decreased exploratory activity of rats (Hunt
et al. 1975); decreased vigilance in monkeys (de Lorge 1976); and work
stoppage in rats (D1Andrea et aK 1977).
Core temperature increases of 1 to 2 °C are reported to be associated
with decreased serum thyroxine and corticosteroid levels (Lu et aK 1977).
Michael son et aK (1964) found hemoconcentration and decreased lymphocyte,
neutrophil, and eosinophil levels over a AT = +1.0 to 1.7 °C in dogs.
Djordjevic and Kolak (1973) observed increases in RBC, hematocrit, and hemo-
globin at a AT = +1.0 °C in rats, which may also be a case of hemoconcentra-
tion. Pazderova-Vejlupkova and Josifko (1979) more recently report decreases
in the hematocrits, WBC, and lymphocyte numbers at AT = +0.5 °C.
Below a 0.5 °C rise in core temperature, current research predominantly,
although not unanimously, reports no detectable effects on reproduction, fetal
weight, growth, development, hematological and immunological end points,
hormone levels, and clinical blood chemistry (Berman et a2- 1978, 1980;
Johnson et al_. 1978; Michaelson et aK 1978; Guillet and Michaelson 1977;
Djordjevic et ak 1977; Smialowicz et ak 1979b; Milroy and Michaelson 1972;
Lovely et aH. 1977; Wangemann and Cleary 1976). Considering the collective
evidence, but without accounting for population variables such as age, sex,
and health, it could be argued that RF-radiation exposure levels should
6-4
-------
produce a transient core temperature increase of no more than 0.5 °C. This
increase is within normal oscillations of human temperature between the sleep-
ing state and the height of daily physical activity (Cahn et a^. 1968).
Furthermore, a transient core temperature of 37.5 °C is below the heat
Threshold Limit Value of 38 °C for deep body temperature to which, it is
believed, nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed without adverse health
effects (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists 1980).
Spiegel et aK (1980a) have developed numerical procedures that describe
the human body's thermal response under various conditions of electromagnetic-
radiation exposure. This thermal model, although based on sound physiological
and physical foundations, has not yet been experimentally verified. However,
it predicts that, under the worst-case exposure conditions, for a free-space
resonant frequency of 80 MHz or a ground plane resonant frequency of 40 MHz
for the 50th-percentile man (Diffrient et al^. 1974), the power density re-
quired to produce a core temperature rise of 0.5 °C would be approximately
6 mW/cm (Figure 6-1). The model also predicts a 3.6 °C rise in the internal
temperature of the lower thigh at this power density exposure. The model
cannot presently provide similar estimates for 1-, 5-, 10-, and 70-year-old
humans.
6.2 SPECIFIC ABSORPTION RATE
There are considerable data on the biological effects of RF-radiation
exposure that do not include core temperature measurements as one of the
experimental parameters. However, these studies nearly always specify the
6-5
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100
22.5
2.25
10
Tl = LOWER THIGH CORE TEMPERATURE
Tr = RECTAL TEMPERATURE
INITIAL TEMPERATURE: TL = 36.53 °C, TR=36.92 °C
AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE = 30 °C
RELATIVE HUMIDITY = 30 percent
RADIATION FREQUENCY = 80 MHz
a
oc
a
o
EXPANDED
SCALE
0.0225 \- 0.1
37.1
36.7
36.9
37.1
36.9
0.0225
FINAL TEMPERATURE, °C
Figure 6-1. Steady-state temperature vs. SAR and power density.
frequency and power density of the field. Individually, neither parameter
provides a reasonable correlate with biological effects, because RF-energy
absorption is known to depend on the relation between wavelength and absorber
size and orientation. However, when frequency and power density are combined
6-6
-------
with a knowledge of absorber size and dielectric property, an estimate of SAR
can be made. The SAR is currently the parameter used most frequently to
describe the RF-radiation energy absorbed by a biological system. It may also
be employed as a correlate for the observed biological responses.
If one considers only the basic relation between the measured or esti-
mated SAR's and the reported effects, the data cited in the preceding chapters
show that SAR values near 100 W/kg are associated with effects on mammalian
systems such as increased embryonic and fetal resorptions, birth defects,
postnatal weight decrements, and reduced survival upon re-irradiation of the
offspring of mice exposed during pregnancy (Rugh 1976a; Rugh et a]_. 1975).
With other biological systems, such as Drosophila (Hamnerius et a]_. 1979),
bacterial cells (Blackman et a^. 1975), or biopolymers (Hamrick 1973; Allis
1975), no effects are usually reported.
Most of the information in the literature we have considered is derived
from studies whose authors have reported or estimated SAR's at or below
45 W/kg. Experimental protocols using SAR's in the range 10 to 45 W/kg
primarily involve brief (several minutes) exposures. Even at these high rates
of energy absorption, the iji vitro studies have shown few effects on the
irradiated systems if temperature is properly controlled, e.g., no mutation
induction in bacteria (Blackman et al^. 1976; Dutta et al^. 1979a, 1980; Corelli
et al. 1977); no effects on enzyme activities (Ward et a^. 1975; Bini et aj.
1978; Allis and Fromme 1979); no effects on the physical characteristics
and structure of biomolecules such as nucleic acids and proteins (Corelli
et al. 1977; Allis 1975; Allis et a2. 1976); and no change in lymphocyte
6-7
-------
transformation (Smialowicz 1976). Notable exceptions are Ismailov's (1971,
1977, 1978) reports that the human RBC exhibits increased electrophoretic
mobility, K+ efflux, Na+ influx, and hydrogen exchange at SAR's between 10 and
45 W/kg; and Seaman and Wachtel's (1978) observation of a threshold at 7 W/kg
for the increased firing rate of Aplysia pacemaker neurons.
Intact mammalian systems have generally been found to be affected by
SAR's in the 10- to 45-W/kg range, even when the exposures have been short
(minutes to hours). Lethal effects for pregnant rats have been reported by
Chernovetz et aK (1977), along with fetotoxic effects (Berman et al^. 1978).
Some components of the immune system appear to react with an increased re-
sponse, whereas others demonstrate diminished responses. Those components
reported to increase are PMN levels (Kitsovskaya 1964; Michaelson et aL 1964;
Lappenbusch et aK 1973; Liburdy 1977); splenic lymphocytes (Wiktor-Jedrzejczak
et al. 1977a,b,c; Sulek et aK 1980); lymphocyte response to mitogen stimula-
tion (Huang and Mold 1980; Wiktor-Jedrzejczak et al^. 1977a,b,c); and lymphocyte
transformation to the lymphoblast stage (Huang et al^. 1977).
Roszkowski et al_. (1980) recently reported a general immunosuppressive
effect at 35 W/kg. These workers found an increase in lung cancer colonies
and an inhibition of contact sensitivity to oxazolone in mice. Decreases are
also reported in the primary antibody response to sheep red blood cell (SRBC)
(Wiktor-Jedrzejczak et aK 1977a,b,c), the CFU for the erythroid granulocyte-
macrophage series in bone marrow (Huang and Mold 1980), lymphocyte traffic
from lung to spleen (Liburdy 1980), and circulating lymphocyte levels
(Lappenbusch et al^. 1973; Liburdy 1977).
6-8
-------
Some biological end points appear to be unaffected even at 10 to 45 W/kg;
e.g., postnatal survival, adult body weight, and longevity (Guillet and
Michael son 1977; Spalding et aK 1971) as well as the incidence of chromosome
aberrations (McRee et aK 1978; Huang et aL 1977). Varma and Traboulay
(1976) do, however, report changes in the physical properties of DNA extracted
from the testes of mice exposed to 15 to 65 W/kg for 80 min.
Approximately 75 percent of the experimental studies that met the cri-
teria for inclusion in this document employed SAR's < 10 W/kg. Since the
current data base deals with a limited range of biological variables and
exposure durations when these studies are differentiated by observed "effects"
(without regard to biological significance) or "no effects," and arranged
within these two groupings by decreasing SAR values (Tables 6-1 and 6-2), a
dichotomy becomes quite evident. A break point appears to occur at about 6
W/kg. Nearly all of the "no effects" data are associated with SAR's < 6 W/kg
regardless of species, exposure duration, or mode of exposure. This implies
that "effects" are more likely for SAR's > 6 W/kg.
Below 6 W/kg there exists a "gray" area in which both positive and nega-
tive results are reported. Nearly 90 percent of "effects" cited as occurring
at < 6 W/kg involve behavioral, hematological or immunological elements, cen-
tral nervous system structure and/or function, or hormone levels.
The range 0.4 to 6.0 W/kg appears to represent a transition zone from a
range in which "effects" are highly likely (> 6 W/kg) to one in which properly
designed, duplicative experiments, conducted by competent investigators
6-9
-------
TABLE 6-1. STUDIES REPORTING "NO EFFECTS" AT SAR'S < 10 W/kg
GROUPED BY BIOLOGICAL VARIABLE
Biological Variable Relevant Studies SAR's
Growth Stavinoha et al_. (1975) 6.3
(Food, Water Intake) McAfee et al_. (1973) 6.0-8.0
Kaplan (1981) 3.4
Michael son et al_. (1978) 2.5-10.0
Johnson et aT. (1978) 2.5
Lovely et al. (1977) 1.0-2.5
D'Andrea et al. (1979) 1.0-2.5
Behavior D1 Andrea et al_. (1976) 5.0-6.0
Moe et al. (1976) 3.9
Mitchell et cH. (1977) 2.3
Sanza and de Lorge (1977) 2.1-4.7
Gage (1979a) 0.3
Scholl and Allen (1979) 1.6
de Lorge (1976) 1.1-1.4
Lovely et al_. (1977) 1.0
Roberti et al. (1975) 0.2-8.3
Schrot et aTT (1980) 0.2
Thomas et al. (1979) 0.2
Mortality/Life Span Kaplan (1981) 3.4
Johnson et cH. (1978) 2.5
Spalding et ^1. (1971) 1.7
Hematology/Immunology Smialowicz et al. (1979b) >4.0
Liburdy (1980) 3.8
Smialowicz (1981a) 2.0-3.0
Spalding et cfL (1971) 1.7
Djordjevic et ah (1977) 1.0
Mutations/Chromosomal Blackman et ah (1975, 1976) 0.08-7.5
Aberrations McLees et ah (1972) 1.3
Berman et ah (1980) 0.9
Teratology Johnson et al_. (1978) 2.5
Berman et a2- (1978) 2.0-8.1
Litter Size Michaelson et ah (1978) 2.5-10.0
Johnson et ah (1978) 2.5
Organ Weight Michaelson et ah (1978) 2.5-10.0
Mikolajczyk (1976) 1.0-2.0
(continued)
6-10
-------
TABLE 6-1. (continued)
Biological Variable
Relevant Studies
SAR's
Blood Chemistry
Wangemann and Cleary (1976)
0.8
Ferti1ity
Berman et aK (1980)
1.0-2.0
Hormones
Mikolajczyk (1976)
1.0-2.0
Parker (1973)
2.0-6.5
Lu et cTL (1977)
2.5
Milroy and Michaelson (1972)
0.25-2.5
Neurotransmitter Levels
Merritt et aH. (1976)
3.0
Metabolic Rate
Ho and Edwards (1977a,b)
5.5
TABLE 6-2. STUDIES
WITH REPORTED "EFFECTS" AT SAR'S
< 10 W/kg
GROUPED BY BIOLOGICAL VARIABLE
Biological Variable
Relevant Studies
SAR's
Behavior
de Lorge (1976)
5.0
Moe et cH- (1976)
3.6
Gage et al.. (1979)
2.7
de Lorge and Ezell (1980)
2.5-4.9
D'Andrea et al. (1980)
2.5
Mitchell et al.. (1977)
2.3
Thomas et
-------
TABLE 6-2. (continued)
Biological Variable
Relevant Studies
SAR's
Hematology/Immunology
Sulek et aj. (1980)
5.0-11.8
Smialowicz (1979a, 1982)
5.0-7.0
Liburdy (1979)
4.6
Michael son et cfL (1964)
4.0-6.0
Huang and Mold (1980)
3.6-10.0
Huang et aK (1977)
2.3-30.7
Djordjevic and Kolak (1973)
2.0
Deichmann et aK (1963)
1.5-2.2
McRee et al^. (1980a)
1.5
Czerski (1975)
0.5-0.8
Szmigielski et al_. (1975)
0.5
Baranski (1971)
0.5
Prince et aK (1972)
0.4-2.0
Hormones
Lu et al_. (1977)
5.0
Lotz and Michael son (1978)
3.0-12.8
Mikolajczyk (1976)
1.0-2.0
Drug Potentiation
Edelwejn (1968)
1.0
Thomas and Maitland (1979)
0.2
Mutati ons/Chromosome
Manikowska et aK (1979)
0.05-5.0
Aberrations
Neurotransmitter Levels
Merritt et aK (1977)
6.0
Fertility
Berman et al^. (1980)
5.6
Clinical Chemistry
Wangemann and Cleary (1976)
1.6-4.0
examining the same or similar end points, produce inconsistent results. The
increased variability of results may suggest that this zone is at the lower
limit of the effective SAR for some biological end points.
In § 3.2 (RF Field Interactions with Biological Systems), one of the
major determinants of SAR is the relation between the wavelength of the
electromagnetic radiation and the length of the object being irradiated.
6-12
-------
Resonance, the optimal coupling of energy into an absorber, occurs when the
object is nearly one-half the wavelength of the incident energy. The resonant
frequencies for the general population range from approximately 40 to 190 MHz
for two main reasons: body length varies with age, and the length of an
object (acting as an antenna) is effectively doubled when the object is in
contact with a conducting ground plane. When in free space or insulated from
ground, the antenna length is equal to the physical length. Exposure at
resonant frequencies represents a worst case, since the greatest absorption
occurs at these frequencies (wavelengths) for a given exposure level. The
average SAR for the resonant frequency in a ground-plane exposure is about 25
percent greater than for the free-space resonant frequency (Durney et aK
1978). But, in view of other more significant simplifications used in this
document, we have chosen to consider the SAR's and the associated exposures
(mW/cm ) to be equivalent for both exposure conditions.
Based on this viewpoint, a conservative limit for SAR would be 0.4 W/kg.
An SAR of 0.4 W/kg may be converted to corresponding power densities for human
infants, children, and adults by using the RF-radiation dosimetry data devel-
oped by Durney et aK (1978); examples are given in Table 6-3.
6.3 RESTING METABOLIC RATE
The whole-body averaged SAR identifies the rate of exogenous energy input
to a system in units of watts per kilogram. Although SAR does not necessarily
equate with heating, the impact of a given SAR will, to an extent, be governed
by the thermoregulatory capacity of the system.
6-13
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TABLE 6-3. EQUIVALENT POWER DENSITY FOR FIVE AGES AND MASS SIZES
AT RESONANT FREQUENCY FOR SAR =0.4 W/kg*
Resonant Frequency
Age
Average Mass
Power Density
Free Space
Ground Plane
(kg)
(mW/cm2)
(MHz)
(MHz)
1
10.0
1.2
190
95
5
19.5
1.1
140
70
10
32.2
1.2
95
50
Adult
female
61.0
1.7
80
40
Adult
male
70.0
1.7
80
40
*Data are from Durney et a^. (1978).
The RMR is a measure of endogenous energy production. Although it varies
widely for mammalian species, it has an established correlation with body mass
-0
(M), i.e., RMR = 3.86 M * W/kg (Kleiber 1975). Examples of this relationship
are listed below:
Species Average Mass (kg) RMR (W/kg)
Mouse 0.03 9.0
Rat 0.30 5.1
Squirrel monkey 1.10 3.8
Rhesus monkey 4.20 2.7
Man 70.00 1.4
RMR is also a function of several other variables, including age, sex,
and activity. For human beings, Ruch and Patton (1973) report the following
data:
6-14
-------
Age (years)
Average Mass (kg) RMR (W/kg)
1
5
10
20-24 (female)
20-24 (male)
10.0
19.5
32.2
61.1
70.0
2.8
2.5
2.0
1.2
1.3
Since species, body mass, and age are key factors in RMR, an RF-radiation
exposure that results in a given SAR will have different numerical relation-
ships to RMR for different species and ages. For example, an SAR of 2.0 W/kg
has the following approximate relationships to a subject's RMR:
A major consideration in the implications of absorbed RF energy is the
mammalian system's ability to regulate the additional load; again, species
plays an important role. The metabolic rate for a young adult male human
varies by approximately a factor of 8 from 1.3 W/kg when resting to 11 W/kg
for maximum sustained exercise (Kleiber 1975). The corresponding range of
metabolic rates for a rat varies only by a factor of approximately 3 (Taylor
et al. 1970). The span of metabolic rates accompanying various physical
activities reflects the thermoregulatory latitude of different species in
RMR (%)
Subject
150
100
70
50
40
20
Mouse
Adult male human
10-year-old child
1-year-old child
Squirrel monkey
Rat
6-15
-------
dealing with internally generated energy. But it is not known whether these
thermoregulatory ranges also apply to the ability to handle RF energy absorbed
from external sources.
To be consistent with the conservative approach we have taken in exam-
ining the other biological aspects of RF-energy absorption (i.e., core temp-
erature and SAR), it is appropriate to discuss the lowest SAR's that have been
reported to activate a thermoregulatory response in human beings and labora-
tory animals (e.g., increase evaporative heat loss [EHL], decrease metabolism,
or elevate skin temperature). Using a mathematical modeling technique, Spiegel
et al. (1979) found that an SAR of approximately 0.23 W/kg will increase EHL in
the young adult human male exposed at 80 MHz, a whole-body resonance frequency.
This SAR is equal to about 20% of the RMR of a young adult male. Models are
not currently available to predict responses in humans of other ages. One
could assume that an SAR of 0.23 W/kg will activate EHL in humans of all ages,
or, since RMR varies with age, one could assume that an SAR equal to about 20%
of the RMR will activate a thermoregulatory response. Support for the latter
assumption is presented in Figure 6-2 (Gordon 1982a). Here an analysis of a
variety of thermoregulatory responses in both human beings (models) and labor-
atory animals shows that a linear relation exists between the log of body
mass and log of the SAR for the onset of a thermoregulatory response. It is
important to note that Figure 6-2 was constructed from data from a number of
laboratory studies that used different exposure techniques and environmental
conditions. Variables such as physiologic parameter, ambient temperature,
humidity, and age, to name a few, should affect the slope and intercept of the
regression line (Gordon 1982a). For the human mass range (10 to 80 kg, the
6-16
-------
"in
I I I I Mill
I I I I Mill TT
LOG y • -0 53 LOG x + 0 44
r - -0 9407
t - -7 79. P< 005
10»_
001
I I I I 111
I
1 0
BODY MASS. kg
I I I I I Mil
Figure 6-2. Relationship of body mass to the SAR necessary to alter the
activity of various physiologic systems. Each datum represents
the minimal SAR necessary to alter a physiologic response.
Ambient temperature in these studies ranged from 20 to 35 °C.
The number adjacent to each data point corresponds to the species,
physiologic parameter, frequency, and literature reference,
respecti vely:
(1) Mouse; inhibit metabolism; 2450 MHz; Ho and Edwards 1977b.
(2) Mouse; increase EHL; 2450 MHz; Gordon 1982a.
(3) Rat; inhibit metabolism; 2450 MHz; Phillips et aK 1975b.
(4) Rat; increase serum corticosterone; 2450 MHz; Lu et al^. 1981.
(5) Rat; increase serum corticosterone; 2450 MHz; Lotz and
Michael son 1978.
(6) Squirrel monkey; increase skin blood flow; 2450 MHz; Adair
and Adams 1980a.
(7) Modify thermoregulatory behavior; 2450 MHz; Adair and Adams
1980b.
(8) Rabbit; raise heart rate; 2450 MHz; Birenbaum et aK 1975.
(9) Man (model); increase EHL; 200 MHz; Spiegel et aK 1980a.
(10) Man (model); increase EHL; 80 MHz; Spiegel et al^. 1979.
6-17
-------
graph predicts that SAR's about 25% of the RMR are required to activate a
thermoregulatory response. The associated power density exposures at resonant
frequencies are from 1.2 to 2.6 mW/cm2 (Table 6-4). Note that we chose to
list in Table 6-4 the extrapolated SAR value from Figure 6.2 for the young
adult male rather than the lower SAR predicted by the mathematical model. The
equivalent power density at resonance is not significantly lower (1.3 vs.
0.9 mW/cm2).
TABLE 6-4. THE INCREASED RMR AND EQUIVALENT SAR AND POWER DENSITY PREDICTED
TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH THE ONSET OF HUMAN THERMOREGULATORY RESPONSE
Age
(years)
Average
body mass
(kg)
RMR
(%)
Equivalent
SAR
(W/kg)
Equivalent power
density at resonant
frequency*
(mW/cm2)
1
10.0
29
0.81
2.6
5
19.5
23
0.57
1.6
10
32.2
22
0.44
1.3
20-24 (female)
61.0
26
0.31
1.3
20-24 (male)
70.0
22
0.29
1.3
70 (female)
70.0
22
0.29
1.3
70 (male)
80.0
26
0.27
1.2
*Durney et al_. 1978.
6.4 HUMAN STUDIES
Human data is a source of information that must be considered in the
development of exposure guidelines. As stated earlier, most of the recorded
observations of the effects of RF-radiation exposure on human beings have been
provided by Soviet and other East European scientists. Because these are
6-18
-------
>primarily clinical studies, rather than examinations of specific diseases with
subsequent correlation with RF-radiation exposures, their utility is limited.
Many of the same shortcomings are seen in the U.S. and Western European
literature.
Most of the studies that provide sufficient technical detail have dealt
with human populations exposed to low levels of RF radiation without detecting
any effects. Lilienfeld et aj. (1978) found no effect on life span or cause
of death in persons exposed to RF radiation over a period of years.
Robinette et a^. (1980) also found no effect on life span, morbidity, or cause
of death in adult males occupationally exposed to radar for periods up to 4
years. Cleary et aL (1965) found no association between cataract formation
and occupational exposure, and Cohen et aH. (1977) report no correlation
between paternal exposure to RF radiation for several years and Down's
Syndrome (mongolism) in their offspring. A comprehensive medical surveillance
program conducted by an aircraft manufacturer did not detect any significant
changes in the health status of 335 employees exposed to average power den-
sities > 4 mW/crn^ of 0.4- to 8-GHz radar (SAR > 0.12 W/kg, Barron and Baraff
1958).
The health effects data base has been examined from four different per-
spectives to determine whether specific limits might be indicated. As noted
previously, no one perspective is complete, but this exercise employing
all the available approaches is instructive. Human studies, the fourth
6-19
-------
perspective, are few in number and have as a principal weakness inadequate
information on RF-radiation exposure, but do not indicate any obvious
relationship between low level exposure and increased mortality or morbidity.
Thus ho reasonable estimate of an upper exposure limit can be derived from
human studies. Table 6-5 presents the estimates for an upper limit for
exposure levels from three of the four perspectives unadjusted for considera-
tions of sex, health status, uncertainty, etc. These estimates range from
?
1.1 to 6.0 mW/cm at resonant frequencies.
TABLE 6-5. SUMMARY OF ESTIMATES OF UNADJUSTED LIMITS FOR
RF-RADIATION EXPOSURE AT RESONANT FREQUENCIES
Corresponding Power Density Exposures
(mW/cm^)
Parameter
Limit
year
old
5
years
old
10
years
old
20 to 24
years
old
70
years
old
Core temperature
SAR not likely
to be associated
with "effects"
Onset of
thermoregulatory
response
< 0.5 °C
1.4 W/kg
0.4 W/kg
1.2
25% of RMR 2.6
0.8-0.3 W/kg
1.1
1.6
1.2
1.3
6.0
1.7
1.3
1.7
1.2
* -
= Data not available.
6-20
-------
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GLOSSARY
ABSORPTION The irreversible conversion of electromagnetic energy into
other forms of energy as a result of interaction with matter. See SPECIFIC
ABSORPTION and SPECIFIC ABSORPTION RATE.
a-HELIX A conformation found in protein molecules where the amino acid chain
turns in a helical pattern with weak chemical bonds (hydrogen bonds)
forming between successive turns in the helix.
AMES TEST A standard test for mutagenic potential of various agents performed
with specialized strains of bacteria.
ANECHOIC CHAMBER A chamber lined with material that absorbs RF radiation;
an RF-exposure system free of scattered and reflected radiation.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM The quantity of motion of a rotating body - directly
proportional to the angular velocity of the rotating body.
ANTENNA A device for radiating or receiving radio waves.
ANTENNA REGIONS The distinction between electromagnetic fields far from
and those near to the antenna. The regions are usually classified into
three zones: near (static) zone, intermediate (induction) zone, and far
(radiation) zone. The zones are spatially located by drawing spheres
of different radii around the antenna. The radii are approximately r < \
for the near zone, A < r(\) for the intermediate zone, and r > \ for
the far zone. Note that A. is the wavelength of the electromagnetic field
produced by the antenna. In the far zone the field components (E and H)
lie transverse to the direction of the propagation, and the shape of the
field pattern is independent of the radius at which it is taken. In the
near and intermediate zones the field patterns are quite complicated,
and the shape is, in general, a function of the radius and angular position
(azimuth and elevation) in front of the antenna.
ATHERMAL EFFECT (NONTHERMAL EFFECT) Any effect of electromagnetic energy on
a body that is not a heat-related effect.
ATTENUATION A general term used to denote a decrease in magnitude of
RF transmission from one point to another.
AUTOLYSIS The decomposition of an organ or tissue by its own enzymes.
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AVERAGE POWER W The time-average rate of energy transfer:
t2
W = l/(t2 - tj Jt W(t)dt
For radar calculations, average power W = peak power x pulse width x pulse
repetition frequency.
BASES Biochemical compounds, either purine or pyrimidines, that are ring
structures containing carbon and nitrogen and which are capable of weak
bonding to each other.
0-SHEET A conformation found in protein molecules where two or more portions
of amino acid chains line up side-to-side, with weak hydrogen bonds forming
between adjacent chains.
BIOPOLYMER A polymeric substance formed in a biological system, e.g., DNA,
proteins.
BLASTOGENIC RESPONSE The transformation of small lymphocytes into large
morphologically primitive blast-like cells capable of undergoing mitosis;
this phenomenon can be induced in cultured by a variety of agents, includ-
ing mitogens as well as antigens, to which the cell donor has been previously
immunized.
BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER A functional concept to explain the observation that
many substances transported by blood readily enter other tissues but do
not enter the brain. The barrier functions as if it were a continuous
membrane lining the brain vasculature.
BURSA OF FABRICUS A lymphoidal organ in the hindgut of birds that influences
B cell development.
CALCIUM EFFLUX The release of calcium ions from a sample into a surrounding
solution.
CALORIE The amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one gram
of water 1 °C. One calorie equals 4.184 joules.
CARCINOMA Any of the various types of malignant neoplasm derived from
epithelial tissue, occurring more frequently in the skin, bronchi, stomach,
and prostate gland in men, and in the breast, cervix, and skin in women.
CATARACTOGENIC Giving rise to the formation of a cataract, an opacity in
the crystalline lens of the eye.
CHEMOSIS Excessive edema of the ocular conjunctiva.
CHROMOSOMES Large complex biochemical structures, containing nucleic acid
(DNA) and proteins, which can be visualized in some cells by certain light
microscopy techniques.
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CIRCULARLY POLARIZED If the electric field is viewed as a point in space,
the locus of the end point of the vector will rotate and trace out an
ellipse once each cycle.
COLONY-FORMING UNIT (CFU) Colonies of bone marrow or blood cells arising
from a single progenitor cell when grown iji vitro or j_n vivo.
COMPLEX DIELECTRIC PERMITTIVITY The characterization of electrical parameters
of materials at the macroscopic level.
CONFORMATION The spatial distribution of the parts of a macromolecule in
relation to each other, i.e., how a chain of amino acids folds on itself
to form a protein.
CONTINUOUS WAVE (CW) Electromagnetic fields that vary sinusoidally in time;
that is, those fields which oscillate at a single frequency.
COUNTER-CURRENT HEAT EXCHANGE The heat exchange between blood flowing in
opposite directions at different temperatures, e.g., adjacent arteries
and veins.
CORE TEMPERATURE The temperature near the center of the body; usually
measured through the rectum.
CYTOSIS Increase in number of cells, e.g., leukocytosis, increase in the
total number of circulating leukocytes.
DEBYE A unit for dipole moment equal to the dipole moment of a charge
distribution of one positive and one negative charge, each equal in
magnitude to the charge of an electron separated by 1 A (10-10 m).
DECIBEL (dB) A unit expressing the logarithmic ratio of two powers or
voltages. One tenth of a Bel.
DENSITOMETRY The measurement of exposure to an RF field; usually expressed
in units of milliwatts per square centimeter.
DEPTH OF PENETRATION For a plane wave electromagnetic field incident on the
boundary of a good conductor, the depth of penetration of the wave is that
depth at which the field strength of the wave has been reduced to 1/e or
approximately 37% of its original value.
DIELECTRIC MATERIAL A class of materials that act as electric insulators.
For this class the conductivity is presumed to be zero, or very small.
The positive and negative charges in dielectrics are tightly bound together
so that there is no actual transport of charge under the influence of a
field. Such material alters electromagnetic fields because of induced charges
formed by the interaction of the dielectric with the incident field.
DIPOLE A molecule (or other structure) having the effective centers of
positive and negative charges separated.
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DIPOLE MOMENT A quantity describing the strength of a particular dipole:
3 = Sy P(r) r dr
where the dipole (d) ts the^integral of the charge distribution (p(r))^
times the vector distance (r) from a designated origin over the entire
space containing the charge distribution (v).
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid; the chemical which makes up the genes, the basic
unit of heredity.
DNA MELTING CURVE Characteristic loss of helical structure and separation
of the strands of a DNA molecule when temperature is raised.
DOSIMETRY The measurement of the absorbed dose or dose rate by an object in
a radiofrequency field; usually expressed as watts per kilogram or joules
per kilogram.
DUTY FACTOR (CYCLE) The product of the pulse duration and the pulse
repetition frequency.
ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH The force on a stationary unit positive charge at
a point in an electric field. This force may be measured in volts per
meter (V/m).
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (EMR) Energy in the form of electric and magnetic
fields.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE A wave characterized by variations of electric and
magnetic fields. Electromagnetic waves are categorized as radio waves,
light rays, etc., depending on the frequency.
ELECTROPHORETIC MOBILITY The ability of a cell or macromolecule to move
in response to a constant electric field.
ELECTROSTRICTIVE FORCE Force exerted by an electrostatic field that causes
the elastic deformation of a dielectric.
ELLIPSOID SHAPE A surface, all plane sections of which are ellipses or
ci rcles.
ENZYME KINETICS (ACTIVITY) Measure of how rapidly an enzyme catalyzes a
chemical reaction.
EPITHELIOMA Carcinoma derived from squamous cells (scale-like cells) or
from the basal and adnexal cells (accessory cells) of the skin.
ERYTHROPOIESIS The production of red blood cells.
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EUKARYOTE An organism composed of one or more complex cells containing
chromosomes that are segregated from the rest of the cell by a nuclear
membrane. This distinction is in contrast to bacteria, which have less
complex DNA structure distributed throughout the cell volume.
EXCITATION The absorption of energy by a molecule or other structure.
FAR FIELD REGION See antenna regions.
FIELD-INDUCED MIGRATION The physical movement of charged bodies under the
influence of an electromagnetic field.
50TH PERCENTILE For a large set of measurements arranged in order of
magnitude, the 50% percentile is the value such that 50% of the measurements
are less than that value and 50% are greater.
FINITE DIFFERENCE TECHNIQUE The approximation of differentials by their
finite difference; e.g., dy/dx ~ Ay/Ax.
FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION A differential equation of order one
(only single-order derivatives are included in the equation).
FREQUENCY The number of sinusoidal cycles made by electromagnetic radiation
in one second; usually expressed in units of hertz.
GIGAHERTZ (GHz) One billion cycles per second.
HERTZ (Hz) One cycle per second.
HIST0PATH0L0GY The department of pathology concerned with minute structure,
composition, and function of diseased tissues; microscopic pathology.
HUMORAL Relating to the extracellular fluids of the body, i.e., blood and
lymph. In immunology, the name ascribed to immune mechanisms leading to
antibody products.
HYPERTHERMIA Exceptionally high temperatures.
IN UTERO Within the uterus or womb.
IN VITRO Within glass; observable in a test tube.
IN VIVO Within the living body.
INFINITE SLAB A piece of material that has a infinite cross section but
finite thickness.
IONIZING ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION Electromagnetic radiation of high
frequency, short wavelengths, and high photon energy which, when it
interacts with matter, causes the removal of electrons from atoms, e.g.,
x-rays and gamma rays.
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KILOHERTZ (KHz) One thousand cycles per second.
LOSSY CAPACITOR A capacitor containing a dielectric material with a loss
tangent above 0.1.
MACR0M0LECULE A molecule, such as a protein or a nucleic acid, that has
a molecular weight greater than a few thousand.
MEGAHERTZ (MHz) One million cycles per second.
METASTABLE A state that is not stable but will exist for a long period of
time.
MICROWAVES A particular segment of the RF radiation spectrum with a
frequency range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz.
MITOGEN A substance that stimulates lymphocytes to proliferate independently
of any specific antigen.
MODULATION The process of varying the amplitude, frequency, or phase of
an RF carrier wave.
MULTILAMELLAR VESICLES Phospholipid bilayers that form a series of
concentric closed spherical structures somewhat analogous to the layers
of an onion; these structures are commonly used as models for studying
membrane properties.
MYEL0P0IESIS The formation of bone marrow and the cells that arise from it.
NEUROTRANSMITTER A chemical substance that transmits nerve impulses across
a synapse.
NEAR FIELD REGION See antenna regions.
NONIONIZING RADIATION (NIR) Electromagnetic radiation of low frequency,
long wavelength, and low photon energy, unable to cause ionization
(i.e., to remove an electron from an atom); e.g., RF radiation.
NONTHERMAL Not related to heat.
NUCLEIC ACIDS Biochemical compounds, consisting of one or more subrings of
a base, a sugar, and a phosphate group. When subrings are covalently
bonded to each other, forming a chain, the bond occurs between the sugar
and the phosphate, with the base off to the side. In DNA (q.v.), two such
chains are weakly attached to each other through contact of their bases,
which form the rungs of a ladder, while the sugar and phosphate groups
form the sides of the ladder. The bases associate with each other only if
their chemical structure is compatible, i.e., complementary. There are
four such bases commonly found in DNA. The sequence of these bases
provides the information necessary to make other biochemical molecules.
OPERANT CONDITIONING The process of rewards and reinforcements by which
specific behaviors are learned.
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ORGANOGENESIS The development or growth of organs, especially embryologic.
OSMOTIC FRAGILITY The tendency of a cell membrane to break because of a
large imbalance of ion concentration inside and outside the cell.
PARABOLIC REFLECTOR One of the most widely used microwave antennas,
consisting of a metal disk whose surface forms a circular parabola.
PARAMETER Any of a set of physical properties whose values determine the
characteristics or behavior of something.
PHAGOCYTOSIS The engulfing of microorganisms, other cells, or foreign
bodies by phagocytes.
PENIA Reduction in the number of cells; e.g., neutropenia, reduction in
the number of polymorphonuclear neutrophiles.
PERITONEAL Relating to the peritoneum, which is the serous sac lining the
abdominal cavity and covering most of the viscera therein contained.
PHILIA Increase in number of cells; e.g., neutrophilia, increase in number
of neutrophiles.
PHONON A particle of mechanical vibrational (sound) energy.
PHOTON A particle of electromagnetic energy.
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER A double-1ayered sheet of phospholipid molecules
arranged so that the hydrophilic (water-1iking) part of the molecules
associate with water and the hydropholic (water-disliking) part of the
molecules associate with each other and avoid contact with water; this
structure is the basis for biological membranes.
PLASMID Short piece of DNA that normally codes for one of a few proteins
and can often be transferred to another cell; it is usually separate from the
cell's major DNA, which carries the information for reproducing the cell.
PLANE WAVE An electromagnetic wave in which the electric and magnetic field
vectors lie in a plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
POIKILOTHERM A cold-blooded animal; an ectotherm; an animal with little
or no control of its body temperature.
POLARIZABILITY A linear coefficient that quantitates the change in the
magnitude of the dipole moment (q.v.) of a molecule or any other structure
in response to an electric field, i.e.,
ci = ali + ci
o
where a is the polarizabi1ity, E is the applied electric field, and dQ ts
the dipole moment when there is no applied field.
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POWER DENSITY Magnitude of the Poynting vector at a point in space, in
power per unit area (watts per square meter). For plane waves E2 is
simply related to power density, and it is the quantity measured by a
survey meter when the sensing element is sensitive to the square of the
magnitude of the electric fields; i.e., P = E2/3770, in mW/cm2.
PROLATE SHPEROID An approximately spherical object that is elongated in
the direction of a line joining the poles; similar to a football.
PUPA The second stage in the development of an insect, between the larva and
the imago.
RADIATION The transfer of energy from one body to another through an
intervening medium.
RADIOFREQUENCY RADIATION See RF radiation.
RESONANCE A small electrical stimulus at a given frequency that produces
a large amplitude response in the system at the same frequency.
RESONANT FREQUENCY That "frequency which produces resonance in a system;
typically those frequencies whose wavelengths are integral multiples of
the body's length.
RESPIRATORY CONTROL RATIO A measure of mitochondrial activity and integrity;
the rate of utilization of oxygen in the presence of adenosinediphosphate
(ADP) divided by the rate of utilization of oxygen in the absence of ADP.
RESTING METABOLIC RATE (RMR) The metabolic rate of an animal which is resting
in a thermoneutral environment but not in the postabsorptive state. The
relationship of RMR (W/kg) to body mass, M (kg), is RMR = 3.86M"0'24.
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the rate of energy production of an animal
in a rested, awake, fasting, and thermoneutral state.
RF RADIATION Radiofrequency radiation; nonionizing electromagnetic
radiation in the frequency range 0 to 3000 GHz.
SARCOMA A tumor, usually highly malignant, formed by proliferation of
poorly differentiated cells; a malignant connective tissue neoplasm.
SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT Also called reinforcer schedule. The specification
of the way in which reinforcers are assigned to particular responses
within an operant class or classes. Examples include: the fixed ratio
schedule, in which the last of a constant, specified number of responses
is reinforced; the fixed interval schedule, in which a constant, specified
period of time must elapse before a response is reinforced; the differential
reinforcement of low rate schedule, in which a response is reinforced
only if at least a specified period of time has elapsed since the last
response.
"SILK" Polyester material used in the silk-screen graphic process.
SPECIFIC ABSORPTION The absorbed energy in the tissue, in joules per
kilogram (J/kg). See also SPECIFIC ABSORPTION RATE.
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SPECIFIC ABSORPTION RATE (SAR) The rate at which energy is absorbed in the
tissue, in watts per kilogram: SAR = ctE.2/p, where ct = tissue conductivity
at irradiation frequency, E^ = rms electric field strength in the tissue,
and p = tissue density.
SPONTANEOUS BEHAVIOR Unlearned or natural responses to a stimulus.
SQUARE LAW The output of a device is proportional to the square of the input
to the device.
SUBSTRATE The molecule upon which an enzyme catalyzes a chemical reaction.
SURVEY INSTRUMENT A portable instrument capable of measuring the strength
of electric and magnetic fields.
SYNGENEIC Individuals of a species that are genetically identical at all
relevant transplantation loci.
TEMPERATURE-HUMIDITY INDEX A means of estimating the heat stress caused
by variations in temperature and humidity.
TERATOLOGY That division of embryology and pathology which deals with
abnormal development and congenital malformations.
THERMAL EFFECT In the biological tissue or system, an effect that is
related to heating of the tissue through the application of electromagnetic
fields, and that can occur through other forms of heating.
THERMOGRAM A recording of temperature distribution over a surface or in
a material as measured at the surface.
THERMOGENIC LEVELS Power densities of RF radiation which produce measurable
temperature increase in the exposed object.
THERMOGRAPHY A technique for detecting and measuring variations in heat
emitted by various regions of the body.
THERMOREGULATION The maintenance of a particular temperature in the living
body.
TRANSDUCE To convert one form of energy into another form, e.g., from heat
to electrical current in a thermocouple.
TWIN-WELL CALORIMETRY The technique used to determine the absorbed RF dose
or dose rate by comparing the excess heat in an RF-exposed system to an
identical unexposed system in a comparison well.
VIGILANCE The degree of attentiveness or watchfulness. Vigilance is often
investigated by measuring the number of times the occurrence of an
infrequent event is correctly detected. In some experiments objective
measurements are made of the times the subject looks for occurrence of the
infrequent event. Called observing responses, these responses may be
required to allow observation of the infrequent event.
G-9
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WAVE A disturbance that moves through a medium.
WAVEGUIDE A transmission line comprised of a hollow conducting tube within
which electromagnetic waves may be propagated.
WAVE, TRANSVERSE ELECTRIC (TE) In a homogeneous, isotropic medium, an
electromagnetic wave in which the electric field vector is everywhere
perpendicular to the direction of the propagation.
WAVE, TRANSVERSE ELECTROMAGNETIC (TEM) In a homogeneous isotropic medium,
an electromagnetic wave in which the electric and the magnetic field
vectors are everywhere perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
WAVE, TRANSVERSE MAGNETIC (TM) In a homogeneous isotropic medium, an
electromagnetic wave in which the magnetic field vector is everywhere
perpendicular to the direction of the propagation.
WAVELENGTH The distance between points of corresponding phase of a periodic
wave of two constant cycles. The wavelength A is related to the phase
velocity v and the frequency by \ = v/f.
WHOLE-BODY IRRADIATION Pertains to the case in which the entire body is
exposed to the incident electromagnetic energy or the case in which the
cross section (physical area) of the body is smaller than the cross
section of the incident radiation beam.
G-10
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