BASICS OF POLLUTION CONTROL
PREPARED
FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER PROGRAM
SEMINAR
FOR
UPGRADING POULTRY PROCESSING FACILITIES
TO REDUCE POLLUTION
LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS
JANUARY 16, 17, 18, 1973
GURNHAM AND ASSOCIATES, INC.
POLLUTION CONTROL CONSULTANTS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
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BASICS OF POLLUTION CONTROL
PREPARED
FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER PROGRAM
SEMINAR
FOR
UPGRADING POULTRY PROCESSING FACILITIES
TO REDUCE POLLUTION
Little Rock, Arkansas
January 16, 17, 18, 1973
GURNHAM AND ASSOCIATES, INC.
Pollution Control Consultants
223 West Jackson Boulevard
Chicago, Illinois 60606
312-939-0568
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Table of Contents.
Introduction page 1
Part 1. Parameters of Pollution. 2
Types of Waterborne Wastes from the Poultry Industry. 2
Major Pollutants from the Poultry Industry. 3
Expression of Results. 4
In Concentration Units. 4
In Loading Units. 5
In Miscellaneous and Special Units. 6
Individual Parameters. 7
Total Suspended Matter. 7
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). 8
Grease. 10
Temperature. 11
Color. 12
Odor. 13
pH Value. 14
Acidity and Alkalinity. 15
Turbidity. 16
Settleable Matter. 17
Dissolved Matter 18
Total Residue on Evaporation. 19
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). 20
Total Organic Carbon (TOC). 21
Ammonia Nitrogen. 22
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen. 23
Phosphate. 24
Coliform Counts. 25
i.
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Table of Contents (continued).
: 2. Conducting a Plant Survey.
page 26
Purposes of the Survey.
26
Responsibility for the Survey.
27
Planning the Survey
28
Measurement of Flows.
29
Direct Monitoring.
30
Sampling.
31
Analysis.
32
Evaluation of the Survey.
33
Appendix. Application of Automatic Sampling to
Today's Water Quality Control Programs;
by C. F. Gurnham and M. I. Beach
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1
Introduction
The purpose of this booklet on "Basics of Pollution Control" is to
outline the technical measurements used by pollution control technolo-
gists, as these apply to the poultry processing industry. The Federal,
state, and local laws which control wastewater discharges from the
poultry industry, and the effluent standards and regulations that
result from these laws, are written in technical terms. Correct inter-
pretation requires a clear understanding of the technical words used.
Without such an understanding, it would be meaningless to conduct a
plant survey or to attempt to design the treatment facilities that will
assure compliance.
In Part 1 of "Basics of Pollution Control," waterbome wastes are first
defined in industry terms; i.e., as blood, feathers, etc. Next, these
waste quantities are expressed in the standard parameters of pollution
control technology, such as are used in the waste control regulations.
The units in which these parameters are expressed are described, followed
by a listing of the significance, sources, loadings, and limitations for
each parameter. Methods of analysis are described briefly.
Part 2 describes a program for the conduct of a plant wastewater survey,
with the purpose of determining specific sources of pollution within the
plant and the quantities of each discharged. A section of Part 2 dis-
cusses evaluation of data developed by the survey. The appendix includes
a paper that explains the devices and the techniques used for measuring flows
and for sampling wastewater streams.
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2
Parameters of Pollution.
Types of Waterbome Wastes from the Poultry Industry •
Process wastes.
Manure.
Blood.
Feathers.
Offal.
Viscera.
Heads, necks, lungs, bones.
Fats and greases.
Decomposed residues of the above.
Ancillary wastes.
Clean-up wastes.
Sanitary sewage from plant and office personnel.
Water treatment wastes.
Boiler blowdown wastes.
Spent cooling waters.
Kitchen and cafeteria wastes.
Laundry wastes.
Stonnwater and runoff.
From live bird storage areas.
From parking and trucking areas.
From roofs and other areas.
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3
Parameters of Pollution.
Major Pollutants from The Poultry Industry.
Most significant parameters.
*Total suspended matter.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
Grease.
Other significant parameters.
Temperature.
Color.
Odor.
pH value.
Acidity and alkalinity.
Turbidity.
"Settleable matter.
*Dissolved matter.
*Total residue on evaporation.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD).
Total organic carbon (TOC).
Ammonia nitrogen.
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen.
Phosphate.
Total coliform.
Fecal coliform.
* The items starred may be further classified as Volatile or Fixed.
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4
Parameters of Pollution.
Expression of Results in Concentration Units.
1. Milligrams per liter, mg/1 or mg/liter.
The common concentration unit since about 1960.
Note: 1000 milligrams = 1 gram;
453.6 grams = 1 pound;
3.785 liters = 1 gallon.
Specific gravity should be noted if it is significantly differ-
ent from 1.0; e.g., sludges and oils.
2. Micrograms per liter, yg/1 or yg/liter.
Used for very low concentrations, e.g., below 0.1 mg/liter.
Note: 1 mg/liter = 1000 yg/liter.
3. Parts per million, ppm (by weight).
Was the common concentration unit until about 1960.
For most practical purposes, is identical with mg/liter.
Note: 1 liter of water weights approximately 1,000,000 milligrams.
4. Parts per billion, ppb (by weight).
Note: 1 billion = (10)9 = 1,000,000,000.
Note: 1 ppm = 1000 ppb.
5. Per cent, % (by weight).
Recommended for high concentrations, as in sludges.
e.g., above 10,000 ppm.
Note: 10,000 ppm = 1%.
Specific gravity is apt to differ significantly from 1.0.
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5
Parameters of Pollution.
Expression of Results in Loading Units.
Loading units are based on magnitude of flow, as well as on concentra-
tion.
1. Pounds per day
Note: Gallons/day x 8.34 x specific gravity = Pounds (flow)
per day.
Pounds (flow) per day x concentration in mg/liter 4
1,000,000 = Pounds of pollutant per day.
2. Pounds per unit of production.
Unit of production may be one or 1000 birds processed, or
1000 pounds live weight killed, or other convenient unit.
Note: Pounds of pollutant per day + units of production per
day = pounds of pollutant per unit of production.
3. Other units.
Variations of the above common loading units are possible;
e.g., by use of metric units, other production units, or other
time units.
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6
Parameters of Pollution.
Expression of Results in Miscellaneous and Special Units.
1. Population equivalents.
Pounds of pollutant per day + pounds of same pollutant usually
associated with one person's daily discharge to municipal
sewers.
Most commonly applied to BOD, but could be used for other para-
meters such as suspended solids or chlorine demand.
For BOD, the accepted per capita daily loading is 0.17 or 0.2
pounds. (Note that the conventional per capita loading of
100 gallons of sewage of 200 mg/liter BOD = 0.17 pound BOD).
2. pH value.
A measure of the ionic concentration of hydrogen ion, and thus
of the strength of acid or alkali.
pH is the base-10 logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen-
ion concentration in gram-mols per liter.
pH is generally considered to range from 0 to 14, 7 being
neutral, lower values acidic, higher values alkaline.
3. Special units.
Special units are used for certain other parameters, such as
temperature, color, odor, turbidity, settleable matter,
specific conductance, and coliforms.
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7
Parameters of Pollution.
Total Suspended Matter.
Also called: Nonfiltrable Residue, or Suspended Solids (SS) .*
Includes: Materials removed by laboratory filtration. However,
should not include coarse or floating matter (e.g., bones and
heads), because of the impossibility of obtaining a proper
sample.
Significance: A measure of visible pollution. Also a measure of
material that may settle in quiet parts of natural streams or
sewers, causing clogging, unsightly deposits or sludge banks, and
similar problems.
Sources: Almost all water-using areas in plant, such as holding pens,
eviscerating and processing. Also all clean-up operations.
Raw Waste Loading: No "typical" value. A recent study of 8 broiler
plants showed a range from 2.4 to 97 pounds per 1000 birds; average
27. At 8 gallons per bird, this average corresponds to a concentra-
tion of 400 mg/1.
Limitations: Both waterway and sewer standards usually ban sludges and
floating debris. Otherwise, some areas have no regulation, and in
others it may be as low as 35 mg/1 for waterways, 200 for sewers.
Surcharge ordinances often charge only for excess above 200 mg/1.
Analysis: Filter on glass fiber disc; wash; dry at 103°C; weigh.
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8
Parameters of Pollution.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)¦
Significance: An indirect measure of the biodegradable organic pollu-
tant. More specifically, a measure of the oxygen consumed by
aerobic decomposition of the waste, under carefully specified con-
ditions. It can be related to depletion of oxygen in a natural
stream, or to the oxygen requirements for waste treatment by aerobic
biological processing (secondary treatment).
Sources: All organic materials that enter the waste stream, including
manure, blood, particles of flesh, fats, and waste products.
Raw Waste Loading: Widely variable. A recent study of 18 broiler
plants showed a range from 14 to 70 pounds per 1000 birds; average
37. At 8 gallons per bird, this average corresponds to a concentra-
tion of 550 mg/1.
Limitations: In streams, the BOD concentration should not be high enough
to reduce the dissolved oxygen (DO) level too far; e.g., not below
about 4 mg/1 DO for most fish life. This is not a simple relation-
ship, as the BOD reaction is slow, and DO is simultaneously replenished
by natural means. Many states restrict the BOD of effluents to 20
or 30 mg/1; or to lower values if the stream is small in comparison
to the flow of effluent. For discharge to a municipal sewer, a limita-
tion of 200 or 300 mg/1 is often applied, and surcharge rates often
apply above 200.
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9
Parameters of Pollution.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). (Continued)
Analysis: Incubate a sample at 20°C for 5 days, after mixing with
oxygen-saturated water, biological seed, and chemical nutrients.
Measure DO before and after incubation, and calculate the loss
of DO as the BOD. All conditions must be carefully controlled,
and procedures followed exactly (see analytical texts).
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10
Parameters of Pollution.
Grease.
Also called: Oil and Grease; Hexane-solubles; Petroleum-ether-
solubles .
Significance: Oily materials form unsightly films, interfere with
aquatic life, clog sewers, disturb the biological process in sewage
treatment plants, and may be a fire hazard.
Sources: Primarily from evisceration, but also significant in other
areas and in clean-up.
Raw Waste Loading: Widely variable. Three broiler plants studied
recently varied from 3 to 11 pounds per 1000 birds; average 6.
At 8 gallons per bird, this average corresponds to a concentration
of 90 mg/1.
Limitations: In waterways, grease is limited in that it must not be
visible; a proposed limitation is 15 mg/1. In sewers, a typical
limitation is 100 mg/1; some cities are more severe.
Analysis: Acidify; filter; dry; extract with hexane or equivalent;
evaporate solvent; dry; weigh. Directions must be followed exactly
(see analytical texts).
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11
Parameters of Pollution.
Temperature.
Significance: In streams, high tenqjerature (thermal pollution) decreases
the solubility of oxygen, is detrimental to aquatic life, and acceler-
ates the development of septicity. In sewers, it accelerates corro-
sion and septicity, and interferes with settling at the treatment
plant.
Sources: Primarily from cooking wastes; also from use of steam and hot
solutions during cleaning.
Limitations: Temperature rise in stream usually limited to a few degrees
above ambient, with a maximum temperature of 85 to 95°F. Sewer limita-
tion is commonly 140 to 150°F.
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12
Parameters of Pollution.
Color.
Significance: Primarily esthetics. May be troublesome for certain
industrial uses, as in the food, paper, and textile industries.
Sources: Mostly from blood.
Limitations: Drinking water limited to 15 color units; food processing
wateT limits range from 5 to 20 units.
Analysis: Compare, visually or photoelectrically, with standards made
from chloroplatinic acid compounds.
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13
Parameters of Pollution.
Odor.
Significance: Esthetically objectionable. May indicate other types of
pollution, often resulting from septicity (anaerobic conditions).
Sources: Many sources; most important are manure, offal, and blood.
Limitations: Usually restricted, but by qualitative indication only.
Analysis: Prepare sample in a series of dilutions, and determine
"threshold" or barely detectable value. A panel of several experi-
enced judges should be used.
Taste is somewhat analogous to odor in significance, sources, and methods
of determination. Taste is not commonly measured or estimated in
wastewaters; but may nevertheless be significant in the receiving
water.
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14
Parameters of Pollution.
pH Value.
See also discussion on page 6.
Significance: Either high or low values may cause corrosion of metals,
concrete, and other materials. Either is harmful to aquatic life.
Sources: Almost entirely from cleaning operations. Soaps and deter-
gents are generally of high pH; boiler blowdown is usually highly
alkaline. Strong acids (low pH) are sometimes used for scale re-
moval and other difficult cleaning jobs, and the development of
septic conditions in organic wastes may also cause a low pH.
Limitations: Discharges usually restricted within the 5.5 to 10 range;
frequently to only a portion of this range, such as 6 to 8.5.
^oialysis: By colorimetry (indicator solutions or test papers). More
accurately, by electrometric instrument.
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15
Parameters of Pollution.
Acidity and Alkalinity.
A measure of the total quantity of acid (or alkali) present, measured
below (or above) the neutral point of pH 7 or some other arbitrary
point. Note that pH is a measure of the strength; acidity and alka-
linity are measures of total quantity. Thus a small amount of strong
acid (e.g., sulfuric) may produce a very low pH, while a large con-
centration of weak acid (e.g., acetic) may not produce a pH below
3 or 4; however, the latter would require a larger amount of alkaline
neutralizing agent to restore a neutral condition.
Significance: Not as significant as pH as a measure of pollutional effects;
but indicates quantity of chemicals required for treatment.
Sources: Same as for pH.
Limitations: None; but see pH limitations.
Analysis: Measure the quantity of a-standard alkali (or acid) required
to bring the pH to the desired point. This point may be neutrality (pH 7)
or one of the common colorimetric indicators: Methyl orange, 4.5, or
Phenolphthalein, 8.3. The specific acid or alkali is not significant;
values are reported in terms of calcium carbonate (CaCO^) equivalent.
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16
Parameters of Pollution.
Turbidity.
Significance: Esthetics. Also, by interfering with light penetration
in streams, affects aquatic life and retards oxygen regeneration
by photosynthesis. Detrimental to some industrial water uses.
Sources: Any source of finely suspended or colloidal matter, either
solid or liquid. From practically every operation in the plant,
including clean-up.
Limitations: Usually 5 to 10 units (JTU, or Jackson turbidity units)
for domestic water supplies; 10 to 100 units for critical industrial
uses.
Analysis: Measure, visually or photoelectrically, the transmission of
light through a sample. May be by use of standards, or by threshold
visibility, or by direct optical measurement.
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17
Parameters of Pollution.
Settleable Matter.
Also called Settleable Solids.
Significance: The settleable portion of total suspended matter.
(see page 7).
Sources: (seepage 7)-
Limitations: Limitations are usually based on total suspended matter.
When limits on settleable matter are stated, they may be very low,
e.g., 0.1 milliliter/liter.
Analysis: Allow the sample to remain undisturbed in a glass Imhoff
cone, for one hour or other suitable period; record the volume of
sediment accumulated, in milliliters per liter. Alternately, measure
the total suspended solids in a sample both before and after settling,
and report the difference in mg/liter.
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18
Parameters of Pollution.
Dissolved Matter.
Also called Filtrable Residue, Dissolved Solids, or Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS).
Significance: Very little, except in high concentrations of the OTder
of 5000 mg/1 (0.5 per cent). Harmful to humans and other animal
life at high strength. Troublesome for certain industrial uses.
Sources: Salt from animal tissues and preservatives; cleaning chemicals;
boiler blow-down.
Limitations: In drinking water, 500 mg/1.
Analysis: Calculate as the difference between Total residue on evapo-
ration (page 19) and Total suspended matter (page 7). Alternately,
filter (as on page 7), evaporate to dryness, weigh. Ionic dissolved
matter (inorganic salts) can be estimated by specific conductance
measurement, reported in micromhos per centimeter.
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Parameters of Pollution.
Total Residue on Evaporation.
Also called Total Solids (TS).
Significance: None, of itself; but see
(page 7) and Dissolved matter (page
Sources: See pages 7 and 18.
Limitations: See pages 7 and 18.
Analysis: Evaporate to dryness; weigh,
pended matter and Dissolved matter.
Total suspended matter
18).
Alternately, add Total sus-
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20
Parameters of Pollution.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).
Significance: An indirect measure of total organic pollution. More
rapid than the 5-day BOD test (page 8), but not the same in signi-
ficance. Measures the amount of material oxidixed by dichromate-
sulfuric acid reagent, under carefully specified conditions. In-
cludes some inorganic substances; not identical with the BOD test
in what it includes and what it fails to include.
Sources: See BOD (page 8)-
Limitations: Not commonly used as a regulatory parameter. Useful in
in-plant studies to compare organic wastes (BOD test is often too
slow); sometimes an approximate BOD: COD ratio can be discovered.
Analysis: Treat sample with a standard amount of oxidant; hold at
boiling temperature for 2 hours; measure amount of remaining oxidant;
report amount consumed as oxygen equivalent.
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Parameters of Pollution.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC).
Significance: Similar to COD (page 20). The organic matter is oxidized
and the resulting carbon dioxide is measured. Corrections are possible
for inorganic carbon sources, such as carbonates and bicarbonates.
Sources: See BOD (page 8).
Limitations: See COD (page 20).
Analysis: Proprietary equipment (expensive).
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22
Parameters of Pollution.
Ammonia Nitrogen.
Nitrogen may exist in wastewaters in any of several forms, starting
(usually) with protein (organic nitrogen), through various products
of decomposition to ammonia, then by oxidation to nitrite and ni-
trate. A chemically intermediate form, elemental nitrogen, is inert
and harmless.
Significance: In low concentrations, is a necessary nutrient for aquatic
plant life; but too much may encourage eutrophication. Free ammonia
is harmful to fish, and corrosive to copper and copper alloys.
Sources: Present in and develops from protein materials, such as most
poultry fractions. Also in ammonia leaks from refrigeration sys-
tems .
Limitations: Limited to 0.05 or 0.1 mg/1 in drinking water. A rather
severe effluent limit is 5 mg/1.
Analysis: Add alkali; steam-distill into a standard acid solution;
titrate to determine acid neutralized. Report as N.
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23
Parameters of Pollution.
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen.
Significance: A measure of the ammonia and organic nitrogen. Used in
conjunction with the ammonia nitrogen test to determine (by differ-
ence) the organic nitrogen. In waterways and sewers, decomposes to
form ammonia nitrogen (see page 22).
Sources: See Ammonia nitrogen (page 22).
Limitations: Not a common parameter for regulation.
Analysis: Digest with nitric and sulfuric acid to destroy organic
matter and convert to ammonia nitrogen; then determine as on page 22.
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24
Parameters of Pollution.
Phosphate.
Commonly reported as P; sometimes as PO^. 1 part P = approximately
3 parts PO^.
Significance: A necessary nutrient for aquatic plant life; hence
sometimes a cause of eutrophication when present in excess.
Sources: Primarily from detergents; also present in bones and other
parts.
Limitations: Recent regulations are limiting discharge to streams
to 1 mg/1 as P.
Analysis: Determine colorimetrically by special reagents. It is
sometimes desirable to distinguish dissolved and suspended phos-
phate .
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25
Parameters of Pollution.
Coliform counts.
Significance: Total coliform count and fecal coliform count are used
as indicators of bacterial pollution. It is not feasible to deter-
mine pathogenic organisms directly as a routine test, so these "in-
dicator organisms" are used instead.
Limitations: Variable among different areas. A "typical" limitation
is 20,000 total coliforms or 1000 fecal coliforms, per 100 milliliters.
Sources: Manure; sanitary wastes.
Analysis: Incubate in special plates or culture media. Sometimes ex-
pressed as MPN (most probable number); sometimes by direct count.
Common unit is number per 100 ml.
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26
Conducting a Plant Survey.
Purposes of the Survey.
To determine compliance with regulations.
Or lack of compliance.
Local.
State.
Federal
To prevent public embarrassment.
Or, if too late, to counteract it.
Prevent nuisance suits.
To provide data.
For a water management program.
For detection of material wastage and losses.
For water conservation and recycling.
For design of a treatment system.
For a discharge permit application.
Local, State, Federal.
For calculation of surcharge rate.
For use in private lawsuits by neighbors.
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Conducting a Plant Survey.
Responsibility for the Survey.
Corporate management.
Company or plant management.
Plant technical staff.
Engineering department.
Plant engineer.
Plant laboratory.
Consultant.
Should be familiar with:
Waste treatment processes and design.
Regulatory limits and procedures.
The poultry industry and its operations.
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Conducting a Plant Survey.
Planning the Survey.
Define and understand the purposes and goals.
Study the regulations that must be met.
List the data expected from the survey.
Obtain and verify maps and plans.
Surrounding area.
Plant area.
Building and department boundaries.
All waste sources.
Detailed sewer maps.
Obtain basic information on plant operations.
Shifts and hours.
Clean-up schedules.
Production data.
Water sources and usage.
Plan flow measurement and sampling program.
Points to be studied.
Flow measurement methods.
Sampling and analysis program.
Train the survey crew.
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•29
Conducting a Plant Survey.
Measurement of Flows.
Locations:
Water intake to plant.
Water effluent from plant.
Intermediate flows.
Individual process streams.
Methods:
Direct meter.
Bucket and stopwatch.
Sump or vessel filling.
Weir.
Sharp-crested rectangular, right-angled V-notch, and other.
Parshall flume.
Cross-section/velocity measurements.
Dilution method.
Other considerations:
Temporary vs. permanent installation.
Indicating vs. recording meters.
Integrating meters.
Signal to automatic sampler.
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30
Conducting a Plant Survey.
Direct Monitoring.
Locations.
Plant effluent.
Possibly other locations.
Permanence.
Fixed vs. movable.
Parameters.
Temperature.
pH.
Turbidity.
Color.
Dissolved oxygen.
Conductance.
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31
Conducting a Plant Survey.
Sampling.
See appendix for copy of "Application of Automatic Sampling to Today's
Water Quality Control Programs."
Selection of sampling sites.
Selection of sampling period.
Usually 24 hours; other periods may be better.
Frequency of sampling.
Type of sample.
Grab vs. composite.
At least, a representative composite for each 24-hour period.
Automatic samplers.
Sample preservation.
Sampling difficulties.
Stratified waste streams.
Coarse solids.
Cleaning § maintenance.
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32
Conducting a Plant Survey.
Analysis.
Field vs. laboratory tests.
References:
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.
13th ed., 1970. American Public Health Association, New York.
FWPCA Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. 1969.
U. S. Department of the Interior.
1971 Book of ASTM Standards, With Related Material; Part 23, Water,
Atmospheric Analysis. American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia.
Treatability studies.
Settleability.
pH titration curve.
Toxicity (bio-assay).
Biodegradability.
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Conducting a Plant Survey.
Evaluation of the Survey.
First survey day is usually only a trial run.
Look for inconsistencies, inadequate data, etc.
E.g., individual waste total vs. effluent flow and analysis.
Some error is inevitable.
Preparation of material balances.
On water.
On individual pollutants.
Calculation of loadings.
Per day.
Per unit of production.
Variability during the day.
Comparison with other plants in the industry.
Recommendations.
Based on original (or modified) purpose.
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APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC SAMPLING
TO
TODAY'S WATER QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAMS
C. Fred Gurnham, President
Gurnham and Associates, Inc.
223 West Jackson Boulevard
Chicago, Illinois 60606
Martha I. Beach, Vice President
N-CON Systems Company, Inc.
410 Boston Post Road
Larchmont, New York 10538
PRESENTED AT
The 17th Ontario Industrial Waste Conference
Ontario Water Resources Commission
Niagara Falls, Ontario
June 9, 1970
A water quality control program is an organized and well thought-
out plan for determining and controlling the quality of the water
leaving a plant or of the water recirculating through plant processes.
Metering, sampling, and analysis are essential keys to organizing the
most economical and efficient program. Only through such studies can
we gain the knowledge of water and wastewater characteristics which is
essential to both the design and the operation of any water quality
control program.
Every industry, from the small, isolated cheese factory to the
multi-faceted industrial giant, should be aware of the increasing
emphasis being placed on water quality control. Local, state, and
federal agencies, pressured by an aroused citizenry, are rigidly
enforcing existing laws and pushing for the passage of even more strin-
gent regulations. The industrialist can no longer afford to laugh off
or ignore citizens' campaigns to "save the environment". If he fails
to comply with water quality standards of his area, the fines imposed
are outright business losses. A disregard for the wishes of the
community in which he operates could ultimately lead to a shut-down or
complete business collapse.
The industrialist is in business to make a profit. A sound water
quality control program, one based on a real knowledge of the streams
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35
involved, can enhance the profit picture by reducing water usage and
lessening the quantities of valuable materials lost as waste. Improved
product yields, increased efficiencies of operation, and more equitable
sewer use charges are additional benefits.
The initial step in developing a sound water quality control program
is the metering, sampling, and analysis of all the significant streams
leading into a plant, circulating through the plant, and leaving the
plant. This procedure is basic to any of the following purposes:
1. To meet regulatory agency effluent requirements.
2. To determine equitable charges for joint treatment.
3. To design adequate treatment processes.
4. To plan for water reuse and conservation.
5. To determine product losses, either for the purpose of planning
a recovery system or for the design of processes which prevent
such losses.
6. To determine treatment efficiency and to trouble-shoot any
process failures.
7. To design treatment plant expansion.
8. To serve as the basis for development of an automated treatment
system.
There are several basic requirements for an effective program. Not
only the program director, but each individual staff member - especially
the plant operator - must know what the program is all about, why it has
been initiated, how it will be conducted, and what it is expected to
reveal.
Only the very largest of industries find it economical to employ
specialists in water pollution abatement. For most plants, it is more
efficient to retain a qualified pollution control consultant as director
of the water quality control program. He has had experience in similar
projects; he is familiar with the latest equipment, technology, and
regulatory agency requirements; and he is qualified to interpret the
data and to make process changes or design recommendations.
A second basic requirement for a successful program is a sound
knowledge of sampling procedures and equipment. The accessibility
of sampling sites, the general character of wastes and their flow
pattern, and the analysis to be made are all variables that must be
considered.
Requisites for a Sampling Program
To fulfill any or all of the purposes of a program, samples must be
truly representative. The composition of the sample must be in close
agreement with the composition of the stream from which it was taken and
which it is assumed to represent.
Careful selection of the sampling site is crucial. Typical streams
to be sampled include influent, effluent, laterals, receiving water above
and below the outfall, effluents from each of the specific processes,
pretreated or partially treated waste streams, and storm drains. Ideally,
each sampling point should include all pertinent substreams and should
exclude other streams that might contribute dilution or interfere with
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36
the analyses to be made. Pertinent substreams should be well mixed.
Each stream to be sampled should have some form of flow measurement
device. The site should be safe and reasonably accessible.
Unfortunately, many areas to be sampled are far from ideal,
particularly in older industrial plants. When the preferred sampling
site is located under a several-foot layer of concrete, or when an
outfall is below the water level of the receiving stream, compromises
must be made. Sometimes it is necessary to sample several contributory
streams which made up the flow at the inaccessible site, and to combine
these samples in proportion to their flow contribution. This procedure
can result in a reasonable approximation of the actual effluent.
Selecting the time period for sampling is also crucial. A 21-hour
composite is generally considered to be the most practical and con-
venient sample period. However, longer or shorter periods of time may
be dictated by operating schedules, weekends, or potential process
upsets. If the water quality program is to include goals of product
loss control, by-product recovery, and water conservation, it is
particularly helpful to have data from each shift of operation. Hour
by hour sequential composites can also pinpoint processes or operations
which are causing particular problems or losses. In addition, there
are often psychological benefits to be derived from such procedures.
Supervisors and shift personnel usually react positively to the knowledge
that they will share credit for water quality improvements originating
on their Bhift.
Areas where flow is intermittent require special attention. These
areas, which include storm drains and wash-down sites, frequently con-
tribute significant volume and pollutant to the sewer system or
receiving waters. Yet flow exists during only a small portion of the
sampling period. Other streams need be sampled only when certain con-
ditions exist, such as flow greater than a specified minimum, high or low
pH, high temperature, or a specific ion. Equipment can be selected which
will sample only when predetermined parameters exist.
Selecting the time base for sampling is the next important step in
developing a program which will yield representative samples. The
simplest method is to collect samples on a regular time basis. This is
the most practical method - sometimes the only method, for sampling
streams of fairly regular flow, large receiving waters, or areas where
flow measurement is not possible. The frequent collection of a regular
quantity of sample on a regular time schedule may be expressed "VcTc" -
volume of sample constant, time interval also constant.
Types of Sample
There are six major types of samples, labeled by their base and
method of collection: individual or "grab", simple composite,
sequential composite, continuous, hand proportioned composite, and
automatic proportioned composite.
1. The individual or "grab" sample is retained as a separate entity
in its own container. In the extreme case, for very small flows,
the entire stream can be collected during the time interval
selected, then mixed, and an aliquot taken.
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2. The simple composite requires that all of the samples taken over
the specified time interval be deposited in a single container.
If, however, the composite is to be analyzed for oily materials
by the API method, it must be split into two separate containers.
This is true also if two different methods of preservation are
required (other than refrigeration) for the proposed analyses.
3. The sequential composite requires the collection of a series
(usually 2 to 8) of individual samples per container, each
container representing a specific time period. Such a procedure
is particularly useful where the character of the waste may vary
significantly from hour to hour, where batch dumping is expected,
or where self-cancelling conditions occur, such as alternating
high and low pH, which would not be apparent in a simple
composite sample.
4. Continuous sampling, in which a very small amount of sample is
collected in continuous flow, is useful for feeding monitors or
pilot scale processes, or for sampling receiving waters. This
technique is not recommended where the stream is high in suspen-
ded solids. If the continuous sample is composited, the product
is large, at times too large to be conveniently handled.
5. The hand proportioned composite can be obtained where flow charts
are available. Individual or sequential composite samples are
manually composited in accordance with the flow to obtain this
useful and representative type of sample.
6. The automatically proportioned composite does require additional
equipment and an understanding of the principles of proportioning,
but is not especially complicated. Sampling in proportion to
flow may be accomplished in either of two ways: by varying the
frequency of sampling in inverse ratio to flow, or by varying the
size of individual aliquots in proportion to flow volumes.
Where there is a transmitting flowmeter available, or where the flow
follows a sufficiently regular pattern that it can be translated to a
characterized cam programmer, the automatic sampler can be designed to
collect and composite fixed amounts of sample whenever "x" gallons of
flow are measured. The time between samples is thus varied by the volume
of the flow, resulting in more frequent samples when flow is high, fewer
when flow is low. This may be expressed as "VcTv" - volume of sample
constant, time between samples variable.
Where there are no flowmeters, but where flow is caused or varied by
the operation of a pump, it is possible to correlate pump capacity and
running time, to actuate the sampler after "Y" minutes of pump operation
and hence after every "x" gallons of flow. This method provides a means
of collecting a flow-proportioned composite without a flowmeter or primary
element; it also, indirectly, produces a reasonably accurate measurement
of flow. It has been used successfully in combined sewer overflow
research projects and in industrial waste installations where tributary
flows are collected in wet wells and pumped intermittently to the treat-
ment facilities.
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The second method for collecting flow-proportioned composites does
not require an integrating flowmeter, but only a primary flow measuring
element such as a weir or flume which creates a known head-to-flow
relationship, and a scoop or ejector sampler characterized to the weir
or flume. This method reverses the volume-time relationship by collect-
ing a variable amount of sample at regular intervals. It may be expres-
sed by "VvTc" - volume of sample variable, time between samples constant.
Although weirs are generally less expensive and easier to install,
it is preferable to install a Parshall or Palmer Bowlus flume if the
wastes tend to stratify or if they have significant amounts of settleable
solids or floating oils. Flumes also create a minimum flow restriction
and head loss in the channel being measured; whereas constrictions and
head loss of a weir cause back-up and sometimes flooding; and the weir
plate may collect settleable solids, which interfere with measurement
and sampling.
Which of these two ways of collecting samples in proportion to flow,
VcTv or VvTc, is the most accurate, and feasible? The answer depends on
the hydraulics of the site to be sampled, the character of the wastes,
convenience, safety, budget, and whether the installation is to be
permanent or temporary.
Where flowmeters are already installed or planned, the most con-
venient method of proportioning is to use a sampler that is paced by the
flowmeter to select constant volume samples at intervals varied by the
measured flow. Automatic samplers that operate on this principle are
available from less than $300.00 for a portable model to more than $2,000
for a unit that includes refrigerated sample storage and provides for
installation in the laboratory or other convenient location some distance
from the sampling site. This type of sampler produces representative
composites as long as the unit is properly installed, the wastes are well
mixed, and the flow does not vary more than about a 5 to 1 ratio.
In areas where there are no flowmeters, but where it is possible to
install a weir or flume, it may be less costly to collect flow-proport-
ioned samples with a proportional or characterized scoop. In situations
where flows vary greatly, carry heavy waste concentrations at low flow,
contain floating oils and solids, or tend to stratify,£he only way to get
a truly representative sample is to cross-section the stream depth on a
regular time base with a characterized scoop. Another useful feature of
the characterized scoop method of proportioning is that the total volume
of the composite can be used to determine the total flow for the sampling
period, without the use of a flowmeter.
Select Samplers Realistically
After the sites and the time base for sampling have been decided,
the equipment can be selected. All of the variables mentioned above
must be considered; accessibility of sampling site, general character
of the wastes, flow patterns, and the analyses to be made.
A great many noncommercial or "home-made" sampling devices are
currently in use, in industry and elsewhere. Many of these are extremely
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ingenious; a somewhat lesser number are adequate for their intended
purpose; and some are fully satisfactory. Whether home-made or prop-
rietory, equipment selection should be based on a realistic evaluation
of cost, including engineering and labor, cost of operation, simplicity
of operation, reliability, and maintenance. Equipment must be suitable
for the conditions under which it will function. Therefore it is neces-
sary to consider the following questions:
1. Will the installation be permanent or temporary: if temporary,
should it be portable? Will the unit be indoors, or outdoors,
protected or exposed to weather conditions. How convenient is the
access?
2. What are the power requirements: 110-volt AC, low voltage battery,
compressed air, liquefied gas, vacuum, or some combination of these?
3. Are the necessary flowmeters, weirs, or flumes available, or is their
installation possible?
4. What is the lift required or head available?
5. Will the equipment be expected to function under hazardous conditions:
in the presence of explosive or toxic materials, in corrosive or damp
areas, under high or low temperatures?
6. Will the equipment be liable to damage by accident? Will it be
accessible to vandals?
The proper equipment to do the job is not always the most expensive
and elaborate device on the market. Each type of equipment must be
judged according to its capabilities and limitations, as well as for its
operational characteristics as applied to the particular stream to be
sampled.
Why select automatic samplers? Because they are ready and willing
to work 24 hours a day; hence automatic samplers reduce the man-hours
¦nepessary to carry out a program, and provide a more reliable product
than hand sampling. The number of modifications commercially available
makes it possible to tailor a unit to the particular job. Automatic
samplers are first classified as portable or permanent. Permanent
samplers are further classified as to the method used for collecting
samples, including; cup or bucket-elevator, scoop, vacuum or compressor,
and pump.
The cup or bucket-elevator sampler must be placed directly over the
pipe or channel carrying the waste. It can be adjusted to collect
samples from depth within the flow. Floating materials in the stream,
however, tend to collect on the chain or sprocket and subsequently foul
the mechanism.
Either characterized or fixed volume scoop samplers are available.
The characterized scoop, better known as the Trebler scoop, is shaped to
collect a volume of sample that is proportional to the flow over a weir
or through a flume. The head-to-flow relationship of the primary element
determines the curve of the scoop required. Characterized scoops are
available for use with V-notch weirs (30°, 60°, and 90°), rectangular
weirs with or without end contractions, Cipoletti or trapezoidal weirs,
Parshall flumes, and Palmer Bowlus flumes. When used with a weir, the
characterized scoop rotates or oscillates into the stream to the depth
of the datum line of the weir, to collect samples of the liquid which
actually passes over the weir. When used with a Parshall or Palmer Bowlus
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flume, the scoop passes through the entire depth of the stream and
collects a full cross-section of the flow from bottom to top.
The fixed volume or "M-S" scoop, developed by McGuire and
Stormgaard, is shaped to collect a fixed volume of sample regardless
of the depth of the stream. It can be used to collect flow-proport-
ioned samples if it is paced by a flowmeter, a flow characterized cam
programmer, or a pump running-time totalizer.
Scoop samplers are well suited for wastes that have a high grit
content, that tend to stratify, or that have floating solids or oils.
They must, however, be located directly over an open channel or in a
manhole with a sufficient space for raising and lowering of the scoop.
An oscillating scoop requires less space than a rotating scoop.
Vacuum or compressor samplers draw or eject samples from a vessel
immersed in the waste stream. The shape of the vessel may be such that
it fills in proportion to the flow through a primary element. Samples
may be lifted from deep sewers or conveyed to areas safe from toxic
gases. The units are inherently explosion-proof if the electrical
components of the programming device are located away from the hazard-
ous area. However, they require both electrical power and a source
of compressed air or inert gas. The use of compressed air makes the
samples unsuitable for disolved oxygen analysis, but nitrogen or other
inert gas can be used to partially circumvent this problem.
There are numerous variations of the pump sampler. One model
continuously pumps a portion of the stream to a remote chamber from
which samples are dipped, scooped, or siphoned to a sample container.
Another model continuously pumps a portion of the wastestream to a
location where a time or flow-activated valve momentarily diverts the
entire pump throughput to a sample container. A third version inter-
mittently pumps a portion of the stream, and a portion of this through-
put is diverted to a sample container. A fourth variety is equipped
with a low capacity or peristaltic pump which, operating either contin-
uously or intermittently, transfers its entire throughput to a single
container or series of containers.
The inlet on pump samplers must be located in a well-mixed position
of the stream. Exhaust or unused throughput should be returned down-
stream of the inlet and flow measuring device. Pump capacity must be
great enough that the liquid remains well mixed, particularly where
there is horizontal piping in which solids could settle. With low
capacity or self-priming pumps, lift should be kept to a minimum to
insure representative pick-up of solids and to prevent settling in the
inlet line. Inlet velocity must be at least Jl/4 to 1/2 feet per second.
Provision for flushing, backwashing, or draining to remove previous
samples is essential in models which pump intermittently. Submerged or
positive displacement pumps make it possible to locate the sampler in a
safe, convenient area; they also overcome lift or other hydraulic
problems at the site.
: If was
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determines the sampler's ability to handle various types and quantities
of particulate matter in the stream.
Several commercially available permanent samplers provide mechanic-
ally refrigerated storage areas for preservation of the collected samples.
Others can be supplied with separate refrigerators modified to permit
transfer of the sample directly into the container located inside the
refrigerator.
Those samplers which pump through a weir chamber for collection by
a dipper usually provide areas which can be used for probes to record
constantly changing parameters such as pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen,
and specific ions. Alarms can be connected to these probes to signal
parameters outside of a predetermined range.
Portable samplers are designed for temporary installation and
convenient relocation. They are particularly useful for survey work,
regulatory agency investigations, and research studies. They are
invaluable for trouble shooting treatment plants, checking effluent
from various processes and substreams within an industrial plant, and
determining the quality of the receiving waters above and below an
outfall.
Portable samplers with pumps may be operated by line power (115v.AC),
dry cells, or storage batteries. One portable pump sampler can be used
in conjunction with a transmitting flowmeter to produce flow-proportioned
composites. Several models collect a number of individual samples or
sequential composites. These are particularly useful where flow-propert-
ioned samples are not possible, or where the quality of water or waste
varies from hour to hour because of production or process operations.
Other samplers are operated by canned gas (Freon), or by the vacuum
produced by evacuation of the sample bottles in conjunction with a spring
clock drive. Portable units which are operated by batteries, gas,
evacuation, or spring-wound mechanisms have limited power and lift
capacity, and must be frequently replaced, recharged, renewed, or rewound.
Their chief value is that they make it possible to sample automatically
in areas where there is no other source of power. The vacuum powered or
suction sampler is inherently explosion-proof, and is the only sampler
which can be used safely in an explosive atmosphere. Special provision
can be made to start some portable samplers on command when storm flow
or other specific conditions prevail.
Obviously the sampler must produce a sample of adequate size for
the testing program planned. Preservation of the sample is often an
important consideration. Preservation of samples by meehanical refrig-
eration is not usually a built-in provision of portable samplers, but
samples can be kept chilled by enclosing the sample container with ice,
dry ice, or cans of "Skotch Ice". In cold weather, protection from
freezing may be equally significant. Chemical preservatives can be used
if they do not interfere with the analysis to be done on the sample;
sometimes chemical preservatives are required to protect certain
"delicate" parameters from change.
Whether a permanent or a portable sampler is selected, it is import-
ant to give some thought to the container. This must provide an adequate
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volume of sample for the analyses which will be run, and must have
sufficient capacity for unusually high flows when proportional samples
are taken. The container material should not react with the contents
of the waste, and must be easy to clean and convenient to handle.
To make the right equipment choice, it is necessary to compare and
coordinate conditions at the sampling site with the capabilities of
equipment available within the budget provided. Accuracy and reliability
in collecting representative samples are essential if the cost of the
analyses and data handling are to be justified. Manufacturer's literature
provides much of the information needed. However, the services of a
pollution control consultant are worth far more than their cost.
No matter what type of automatic sampler is selected, it will be the
least expensive part of the over-all water quality control program, No
investment, however small, is justifiable if the samples are not analyzed
and if the data is not continually reviewed. Accurate, up-to-date
records and regular reports to management are necessary. The correlation
of production schedules and housekeeping procedures with waste volume and
characteristics may reveal product losses, leaks, or excess water use.
Proper use of the data can result in reduced costs for utilities,
chemicals, or sewer use. A reduction in hydraulic loading may allow for
increased production without treatment plant expansion. Reductions in
BOD, COD, phosphates, solids, and metals cuts treatment costs and prevents
citations or law suits. Data may pinpoint troublesome wastes which can
be isolated and treated more economically at the source.
An adequate understanding and knowledge of the waste stream can
come only from metering, sampling, and analysis and from the coordinated
water quality control program. This knowledge is an economic, technical,
and legal necessity if industry is to continue profitable operations.
None of this, however, is worthwhile is the samples are not represent-
ative of the streams from which they come.
The authors would like to give credit to John S. Beach, Jr.,
President of N-CON Systems Company, Inc., John P. McGuire, President
of Consolidated Technology, and Betty A. Rose, of Gurnham £ Associates,
Inc., for their assistance in assembling and correlating this
information presented.
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