ACIDIC DEPOSITION AND THE
CORROSION AND DETERIORATION OF MATERIALS IN
THE ATMOSPHERE: A BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1880-1982
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
OFFICE OF RESEARCH
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PART,
RESEARCH LARORATORY
AND DEVELOPMENT
PROTECTION AGENCY
NORTH CAROLINA 27711
-------
ACIDIC DEPOSITION AND THE
CORROSION AND DETERIORATION OF MATERIALS IN
THE ATMOSPHERE: A BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1880-1982
by
D.R. Flinn, S. D. Cramer, J. P. Carter, and P. K. Lee
Avondale Research Center, Bureau of Mines,
U.S. Department of the Interior
Avondale, Maryland 20782
and
S.I. Sherwood, Division of Historic Architecture,
National Park Service, U.S. Department of the
Interior, Washington, D. C. 20240
Interagency Agreement AD-14-F-1-452-0
Project Officer
John W. Spence
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
OFFICE OF RESEARCH
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PART,
RESEARCH LARORATORY
AND DEVELOPMENT
PROTECTION AGENCY
NORTH CAROLINA 27711
-------
NOTICE
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency policy and approved for
publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
ii
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ABSTRACT
Materials exposed to the atmosphere are subiected to a wide variety of
stressing agents such as wind, solar radiation, temperature, biological
species, many forms of water, and chemical species including pollutant gases,
particulate matter, and components of rainfall, dew, snow, sleet, fog and
aerosols. This bibliography contains more than 1300 article citations and
abstracts on the effects of acidic deposition, air pollutants, and biological
and meteorological factors on the corrosion and deterioration of materials in
the atmosphere. The listing includes citations for the years 1950 to 1982,
with selected citations for the years 1880 to 1949. The citations are
catalogued by year in six sections for metallic materials—ferrous alloys,
aluminum, copper, nickel, zinc and galvanized steel, and other metals— and
six sections for nonmetailic materials—masonry, stone and ceramics,
elastomers, fabrics, paints, plastics and other nonmetals. An author index
and an index of chemical, biological, and meteorological variables are
provided.
in
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CONTENTS
Abstract iii
Acknowledgments vi
Introduction 1 - 16
Ferrous Alloys Fe 1 - Fe 161
Aluminum Alloys . . .A1 1 - A1 35
Copper ALloys Cu 1 - Cu 44
Nickel Alloys Ni 1 - Ni 11
Zinc and Galvanized Steel Zn 1 - Zn 31
Other Metals OM 1 - OM 35
Masonry, Stone and Ceramics MSC 1 - MSG 89
Elastomers E 1 - F. 13
Fabrics F 1 - F 14
Paints Pa 1 - Pa 24
Plastics P 1 - P 14
Other Nonmetals ...ONM 1 - ONM 23
Author Index A 1 - A 37
Chemical, Biological, and
Meteorological Variable Index CBM 1 - CMB 10
v
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank Richard W. Schoepf, Center for Information and Library
Services, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., for computer
searches of the DIALOG data bases; Dorothy M. Chertok, Technical Information
Center, Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, for computer searches of
the Energy Information Data Base; R.M. Organ and K. Preslock, Conservation
Analytical Laboratory, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., for
graciously providing access to the Laboratory periodical and reprint files;
Doris Russo, Corrosion and Surface Science Group, Avondale Research Center,
U. S. Bureau of Mines, Avondale, Maryland, for her able assistance in
typing and layout of the initial draft of this bibliography; and Paul
Moran, Library, Avondale Research Center, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Avondale,
Maryland, for his dedication in the pursuit of seemingly inaccessible
references and for his generous utilization of the libraries resources.
vi
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INTRODUCTION
Materials exposed to the atmosphere are subjected to a wide variety of
stressing agents, including: wind, solar radiation, temperature, biological
species, water in its many forms, and chemical species including pollutant
gases, particulate matter, and components of rainfall, dew, snow, sleet, fog,
and aerosols. While each of these agents may contribute to the deterioration
of materials, in most cases it is the combination of two or more of the agents
that cause the more significant damage.
This bibliography contains an extensive listing of abstracts of
publications and reports dealing with the effects of natural and polluted
atmospheres on materials, including the effects of acidic deposition. Both
peer-reviewed and grey literature have been included. No attempt has been
made to define the term "acidic deposition;" instead, the literature was
searched for all reasonable material and chemical, biological, and
meterological interactions. A detailed discussion of the strategy used in the
search is given later.
Owing to the complicated processes occurring during deterioration of a
material, a very large number of studies have been conducted in attempts
either to ascertain the agent responsible for a certain type of damage to a
specific material or to determine the best materials to use in certain types
of characterized environments. In the former case, most work has been
conducted in laboratory environments where the suspected pollutant or other
agent could be introduced under controlled conditions. In the latter case,
materials have been field tested in somewhat arbitrarily designated "typical"
rural, urban, industrial, and marine environments. In only a few field
studies has any attempt been made to monitor the air quality and meteorolo-
gical varibles during the exposure. Virtually no studies have been reported
of attempts to determine the effects of "acidic rain" on materials.
For structures comprised of a number of materials and subject to local
microclimates, an analysis of the causes of deterioration becomes even more
difficult and even the definitions of "damage" may change. Certainly, the
analysis is usually much more descriptive and subjective compared to that for
single, well-characterized materials. Even with these sorts of difficulties,
a large amount of useful information exists regarding the effects on materials
1
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that resuLt from contact with the environment. It is, however, important for
the reader to understand that a large proportion of the literature contained
in this bibliography resulted from studies having limited scope. Since it was
not possible to predict the information desired by any particular reader, no
critical assessment of this literature has been attempted. Through the
various sections of the bibliography and the indexes, the reader should be
able to determine the extant literature for a given combination of material
with chemical and/or biological agent and meteorological variable.
One of the earliest surveys of materials damage due to pollutant gases in
the atmosphere was the 1939 Bureau of Mines Information Circular on the
"Effect of Sulfur Compounds in the Air on Various Materials" (I.C. 7064, L.R.
Burdick and J.F. Barkley, 9 pp.). It reflected an already growing concern
with the potential effect of air pollution on materials deterioration in the
atmosphere. The materials covered included cement, stone, paint, leather,
paper, cloth, copper, nickel, steel and zinc. Twentv-seven references were
cited. Similar reviews have been written in the intervening 40 plus years as
the study of atmospheric corrosion has greatly expanded.
The present bibliography contains more than 1300 citations of articles on
the effects of acidic deposition, air pollutants, and biological and
meteorological factors on the corrosion and deterioration of materials in the
atmosphere. Each citation is accompanied by an abstract of the contents of
the article. The citations are indexed in twelve materials sections covering
metallic and nonmetallic materials. Two indexes are provided for cross-
referencing citations: (1) an authors index, and (2) and index of chemical,
biological and meteorological variables. Many sources were consulted to
insure as complete a record as possible of the pertinent literature. This
included computer-assisted and manual searches of data bases, utilization of
existing bibliographies, and the review of appropriate proceedings, publica-
tions and documents. Furthermore, reference lists to the many articles,
proceedings, publications, books, and public documents available to the
authors were combed for literature that belonged in the hibligraphy.
The coverage of the literature on atmospheric corrosion in this
bibliography is intended to include all pertinent articles from the vears 1950
to 1982. For the years prior to 1950 the coverage is incomplete but includes
at least the more important articles from these earlier years. This has
2
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resulted in coverage extending, in some cases, back to 1880. The
following sections describe the principal data bases used in compiling
the bibllography, the indexing of citations, and the structure and
arrangement of the materials sections, the author index, and the index of
chemical, biological, and meteorological variables.
DATA BASES
Table 1 lists the data bases that were searched by computer. The
strategies used to perform these searches are indicated in the last
column and described in the footnotes to the table. The parentheses in
these footnotes describe the sets of data considered and "AND" refers to
the union of these sets of data. Thus, the computer searches produced
the subset of data common to the two (or three) larger data sets. The
dates covered by the computer searches are shown in table I.
Table 2 lists the data bases that were manually searched. There was
considerable overlap between the manual and computer searches of some
data bases. However, the manual search was a productive source of
articles that would otherwise have been missed. The Art and Archaeology
Technical Abstracts files and the periodical and reprint files of the
Conservation Analytical Laboratory .were significant sources of liter-
ature, particularly foreign literature on the degradation and corrosion
of materials in statuary, memorials, historical obiects and structures,
and artifacts.
^Table 3 lists some earlier bibliographies that provided leads to
articles on the corrosion and deterioration of materials. Table 4 lists
publications, proceedings and documents containing extensive materials on
the atmospheric corrosion and deterioration of materials. As noted ear-
lier, the reference lists to these and many other publications were also
combed for literature that belonged in the bibliography.
3
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Table 1 - Computer searched data bases.
DATA BASE
SUPPLIER
DATES COVERED
SEARCH
STRATEGY
A. DIALOG
Information
Retrieval Service
ARGICOLA
National Agri-
cultural Libr-
ary
1970 - 1981
1
APTIC
Manpower and
Technical
Informat ion
Branch, U.S.
Environmental
Protect ion
Agency
1966-October 1978
1
ARTBIBLIOGRAPHIES
MODERN
ABC-Clio, Inc.
1974 - 1980
2
CA SEARCH
Chemical
Abst racts
Service
1972 - 1980
3
COMPENDEX
Engineering
Information,
Inc.
1970 - February
1981
1970-1980
4
3
COMPREHENSIVE
DISSERTATION INDEX
Xerox Univ.
Microfllms,
Inc.
1900-March 1981
5
CONFERENCE PAPERS
INDEX
Cambridge Sci-
entific Abstr-
acts
1973-January 1981
4,6
ENVIROLINE
Environmental
Informat ion
Inc.
1971 - February
1981
1971-1980
4
3
ENVIRONMENTAL
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Environmental
Studies Inst.
1974-December 1980
7
HISTORICAL ABSTR-
ACTS
ABC-Clio, Inc.
1973 - 1980
S
4
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Table 1 - Computer searched data bases (continued).
DATA BASE
SUPPLIER
DATES COVERED
SEARCH
STRATEGY
METADEX
American
Soc iety
for Metals
1966 - 1980
3
NT IS
National Tech.
Infor. Service
1964 - 1980
3
POLLUTION
ABSTRACTS
Cambridge Sci-
entifc Abstr-
acts
1970-January 1981
1970-1980
1,6
3
SSIE CURRENT
SEARCH
Smithsonian
Science Info.
Exchange
October 1977 -
August 1980
3
WORLD ALUMINUM
ABSTRACTS
American
Society for
Metals
1968 - 1980
3
B. British Museum,
London, England
CONSERVATION DATA
BASE
British Museum
1974 - 1981
4
C. RECON Search,
Technical Infor.
Ctr. U.S. Dept. of
Energy
ENERGY INFORMATION
U.S. Department
of Energy
1974 - 1980
8
1 (Stone, Masonry, Concrete, Brick, Limestone, Marble,
Bronze) AND (Air Pollution, Atmospheric Pollution)
2 (Air Pollution)
3 (Atmospheric Corrosion, Atmospheric Corrosion Tests) AND
(Air Pollution)
^ (Metal, Stone, Masonry, Concrete, Brick, Limestone, Marble,
Bronze) AND (Deterioration, Corrosion) AND (Air Pollution,
Atmospheric Pollution)
^ (Metal, Stone, Masonry, Concrete, Brick, Limestone, Marble,
Bronze) AND (Deterioration, Restoration, Preservation,
Conservat ion)
k (Atmospheric Corrosion)
^ (Air Pollution, Atmospheric Pollution) AND (Atmospheric
Corrosion)
8 (Metals, Aluminum, Copper, Nickel, Alloys, Steels, Rubbers,
Glass, Asphalts, Cements, Ceramics, Paints, Nonmetals) AND
(Corrosion, Weathering, Decomposition, Corrosive Effects,
Corrosion Protection) AND (Acid Rain, Air Pollution, Sulfur
Oxides, Nitrogen Oxides, Ammonia, Ozone, Humidity)
5
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Table 2 - Manually searched data bases.
DATA BASE
SUPPLIER
DATES COVERED
Chemical Abstracts
Chemical Abstracts
Service
1950 - December 1980
Corrosion Abstracts
National Associa-
tion of Corrosion
Engineers
1962 - 1982
Engineering Index
Engineering
Information, Inc.
1950 - 1979
Periodical and
reprint files of
Conservation Analy-
tical Laboratory
National Museum of
American History,
Smithsonian Inst.,
Washington, D.C.
All
Art and Archaeology
Technical Abstracts
Institute of Fine
Arts, New York
University (for
International
Institute for Con-
servat ion)
1955-1981
6
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Table 3 - Selected bibliographies containing references
to atmospheric corrosion and deterioration of materials
TITLE, AUTHOR,
ORGANIZATION
REPORT
NUMRER
DATE
A Bibliography on the Corrosion
and Protection of Steel in
Concrete. E. Escalante and
S. Ito, National Bureau of
Standards
Special Publica-
tion 550
August 1^79
Acid Rain. Smithsonian
Science Information Exchange
None
Sept.
1980
Air Pollution Effects on
Materials: 1964-August 1978
(NTIS Data Base)
NTIS/PS-78/1073
Oct.
1978
Air Pollution Effects on
Materials: 1964-October 1979
(NTIS Data Base)
NTIS/PB80-801863
Dec.
1979
Air Pollution Effects on
Materials: 1971-April 1978
(API Data Base)
NTIS/PS-78/1074
Oct.
1978
Air Pollution Effects on
Materials: 1961-Sept. 1979
(API Data Base)
NTIS/PB80-801871
Dec.
1979
Health and Environmental Effects
of Acid Rain: 1966 - 1979.
N.S. Dailey and S.G. Winslow,
Toxicology Information
Response Center, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory
NLM/TIRC-80/1
March
1980
Hydrochloric Acid and Air Pollu-
tion: An Annotated Bibliogra-
phy. Air Pollution Technical
Information Center, U.S.
Environmental Protection
Agency
AP-100
July
1971
Long-Range Transport of Air
Pollutants and Acidic Precipi-
tation. Atmospheric Environment
Service, Environment Canada
None
July
1980
Materials of Art and Archaeology
Bibliography. N.S. Baer, Inst,
of Fine Arts, New York Univ.
None
1980
7
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Table 3 - Selected bibliographies containing references
Co atmospheric corrosion and deterioration of materials
(cont inued),
TITLE, AUTHOR,
REPORT
ORGANIZATION
NUMRER
DATE
Selected Bibliography of Atmos-
AD-A0648'56
Jan. 1979
pheric Corrosion. F. Mansfeld,
Office of Naval Research
8
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Table 4 - Proceedings, publications and documents
containing extensive materials on the atmospheric
corrosion and deterioration of materials.
PROCEEDINGS, PUBLICATIONS
PUBLICATION
AND DOCUMENTS
DATE
A. ASTM Special Technical Publications
175 - Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous
1955
Metals
435 - Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere
1967
558 - Corrosion in Natural Environments
1974
576 - Galvanic and Pitting Corrosion
1976
646 - Atmospheric Factors Affecting the
1978
Corrosion of Engineering Metals
691 - Durability of Building Materials and
1980
Components
727 - Electrochemical Corrosion Testing
1981
767 - Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals
1982
B. Other Publications
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H.
1982
Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.
Conservation of Historic Stone Build-
1982
ings and Monuments, National
Academy Press
Handbook of Corrosion Testing and
1971
Evaluation, edited by W.H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y.
Metals in America's Historic Buildings,
1980
M, Gayle, D.W. Look and J.G.Waite,
Heritage Conservation and Recrea-
tion Service, U.S. Department of
the Interior
Protection Against Atmospheric Corro-
1973
sion, K. Barton, Wiley, New York,
N.Y.
C. Proceedings
1st International Congress on Metal-
1962
lic Corrosion (London, 10-15 April
1961), Butterworths, London
2nd International Congress on Metal-
1966
lic Corrosion (New York, 11-15
March 1963), National Association
of Corrosion Engineers
3rd International Congress on Matal-
1969
lic Corrosion (Moscow, 1966)
Swets-Zeit 1inger, Amsterdam
9
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Table 4 - Proceedings, publications and documents
containing extensive materials on the atmospheric
corrosion and deterioration of materials (continued).
PROCEEDINGS, PUBLICATIONS
AND DOCUMENTS
PUBLICATION
DATES
C. Proceedings - continued
4th International Congress on Metal-
lic Corrosion (Amsterdam, 7-14
September 1969), National Associa-
tion of Corrosion Engineers
1972
5th International Congress on Metal-
Corrosion (Tokyo, 21-27 May 1972),
National Association of Corrosion
Engineers
1974
5th Scandinavian Corrosion Congress
(Copenhagen, 7-10 October 1968),
Danish Corrosion Centre, Copenha-
gen
1969
2nd International Symposium on the
Deterioration of Building Stones
(Athens, September 27-October 1,
1976), National Technical Univer-
sity, Athens
1976
4th Triennial Meeting (Venice, 1975),
ICOM Committee for Conservation,
ICOM, Paris
1975
International Symposium on the Dete-
rioration and Protection of Stone
Monuments, UNESCO and RILM, Paris
1978
D. Documents
Air Quality Criteria for Particulate
Matter and Sulfur Oxides, Final
draft, U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency
1981
Air Quality Criteria for Oxides of
Nitrogen, Final draft, U.S. Envir-
onmental Protection Agency
1981
Air Ouality Criteria for Ozone and
Other Photochemical Oxidants,
Final draft, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
1981
10
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TabLe 4 - Proceedings, publications and documents
containing extensive materials on the atmospheric
corrosion and deterioration of materials (continued)
PROCEEDINGS, PUBLICATIONS
PUBLICATION
AND DOCUMENTS
DATES
Impact Assessment Working Group 1,
April 1982
Phase II Report (Draft), U.S. -
Canada Memorandum of Intent on
Transboundary Air Pollution
The Acidic Deposition Phenomenon and
October 1982
Its Effects, Critical Assessment
Document (Draft), Volume II, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency
11
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MATERIALS SECTIONS
The bibliography is divided into twelve principal sections according to
the material that is at risk. These sections are identified in Table 5 and
include 6 sections on metallic and 6 sections on nonraetallic materials.
Citations are organized in the Materials Sections by year of publication, with
the most recent years first. Within each year the citations are arranged
alphabetically by title. This arrangement was chosen, rather than the
conventional arrangement by author, because it emphasies the contents of the
article and facilitates the identification of articles of interest.
Each citation includes the title of the article, followed by the authors,
name of journal or publication, volume and/or issue number, date of
publication, page numbers and parenthetically the language of publication if
it is not English. Since an article may treat more than one material,
citations may appear in more than one Materials Section. However, abstracts
are not repeated and the abstract accompanies only the first appearance of a
citation, as determined by the order of the Materials Sections given in Table
5. All subsequent citations of the same article are indexed to this earliest
citation so that the abstract is readily accessible.
Coding of the citations is done using the symbols given in Table 5,
followed by the year of publication, and the number of the citation in the
alphabetical sequence for the year. Thus, if a citation is number 12 in the
"Copper Alloy" section for the year 19XX, the code for that citation is CuXX-
12. Each citation is uniquely identified by such a code number. In the few
cases of citations from the 1800's, the full year is written out, e.g.,
Cul8XX-12. Citations that are repeated in later sections are followed
parenthetically by the code number for the initial citation of the article.
For example, if the article cited above in the "Copper Alloy" section were
also cited in the "Fabric" section, the citation in the "Fabric" section would
end with the coded notation (CuXX-12).
Citations drawn from Chemical Abstracts are marked with an asterisk (*)
following the citation. They can be ordered from the Chemical Abstracts
Service, P.O. Box 3012, Columbus, Ohio 43210. Citations drawn from
Engineering Index (Engineering Information, Inc.) are marked with a double
asterisk (**) following the citation. They can be order from the Engineering
12
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Societies Library, 345 East 47th Street, New York., N.Y. 10017. Citations from
the Chemical Abstracts Service and Engineering Information, Inc., are
copyrighted (c) and all rights are reserved. Permission has been granted for
this copyrighted material to be used in the present work with the following
conditions; No part of these abstracts may be reproduce or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying,
recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system without
permission in writing from their Publisher. A number of citations were also
drawn from Art and Archaeology Technical Abstracts, Institute of Fine Arts,
New York University, New York, N.Y.
Some abstracts used the following general terms to identify the material
at risk: metal, structural metal, metal structures, metal specimens, alloys,
various alloys. Hie specific materials studied were determined from an
examination of the full article when it was accessible. Otherwise, these
terms were translated for purposes of this bibliography to mean ferrous alloys
and zinc and galvanized steel. Because of the use of polymers in elastomers,
fabrics, and plastics, there was not always a clear choice for assigning a
citation to one of these sections. This problem also arose with the fabrics
and other nonmetal sections. Dyes would belong in "Other Nonmetals" but dyes
are used on fabrics and fading is often used to charaterize the atmospheric
deterioration of fabrics. Three citations that belong in the year 1980 are
found in the year 1982 because of last minute changes in the bibliography.
AUTHOR INDEX
Approximately 1500 authors are listed in this index. The authors are
listed alphabetically. Their publications are grouped following the format of
the 12 materials sections in the bibliography. For each of these sections the
citations are arranged by year with the most recent year first. Citations to
publications are indexed using the code described earlier in the discussion of
the Materials Sections. For citations repeated in several of the materials
sections, only the earliest citation of the publication, e.g., that which is
accompanied by the abstract, is catalogued in the Author Index. As an
example, suppose J. R. Smith is cited in the Ferrous Alloy section for
13
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Table 5 - Materials sections.
MATERIAL
SYMBOL
YEAR OF
EARLIEST CITATION
Ferrous alloys
Fe
1919
Aluminum alloys
A1
1929
Copper alloys
Cu
1927
Nickel alloys
Ni
1929
Zinc and Galvanized Steel
Zn
1929
Other Metals
OM
1927
Masonry, Stone and Ceramics
MSC
1880
Elastomers
E
1931
Fabrics
F
1937
Paints
Pa
1939
Plastics
P
1950
Other Nonmetals
ONM
1937
14
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publication 12 in the year 1957 and this citation is repeated in Zinc and
Galvanized Steel, in Masonry, Stone and Cement, and in Paint. Also, J. R.
Smith is cited in the Copper Alloy section for publication 3 in the year 1959.
The Author Index would read:
Smith, J.R.
Fe: 57-12
Cu: 59-3
The listings by material should not be interpreted to mean that these were the
only materials the author studied. Rather, they are the earliest appearance
in the bibliography of those specific citations.
Some names, particularly several Russian names, appeared in the literature
with slightly different spellings. When these various spellings clearly
referred to the same author, one spelling was chosen and all of the authors
citations were catalogued under that name.
CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLE INDEX
All citations that discuss specific chemical, biological, and
meteorological variables are identified in this index. However, water, water
vapor, dew, rain, snow, ice, sleet, fog, moisture, and humidity were excluded
because water is a common component in all corroding systems. All inorganic
sulfur compounds except hydrogen sulfide were also excluded because the
effects of sulfur oxides on the deterioration and corrosion of materials were
considered in a majority of the citations.
This index has three principal sections: chemical variables, biological
variables, and meteorogical variables. Within these sections there are a
number of subsections. Pertinent citations are catalogued under each
subsection following the format of the 12 Materials Sections in the
bibliography. The citations are indexed in exactly the way citations were
indexed in the Author Index. In this scheme the listings by material should
not be interpreted to mean that these were the only materials for which a
particular chemical, biological, or meteorological variable was studied.
Rather, they are the earliest appearance in the bibliography of those specific
citations. However, the sum of the citations listed under any given variable
constitutes all of the citations that refer to that specific variable.
-------
Citations referring to a marine environment were catalogued under
"Chloride". Citations that referred specifically to soiling were cataloged
under "Soiling", otherwise, reference to particulates or particulate matter
were catalogued under "Particulates-Other". Certain general phraseology was
not interpreted with respect to the Chemical, Biological and Meteorological
Variable Index without more specific information since the possible
interpretations were numerous. Examples of these are: "rural", "industrial",
"urban", "weathering", "weathering tests," "atmospheric pollutants",
"atmospheric exposure," "polluted sites," "four sites", "atmospheric
pollution," "natural atmospheres", "atmospheres at 7 locations", and
"atmospheric corrosion". When phrases such as these were the only descriptors
of the environment referred to in the citation, the citation was not
catalogued in this index.
16
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Fe-1
FERROUS ALLOYS
A Probe for Monitoring Corrosion In Marine Environments. V. S. Agarwala.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y. ,
1982, pp. 183-192.
A probe based on the principles of an electrochemical galvanic cell
has been developed for continuous monitoring of corrosivity in the marine
environment. An eight month evaluation of the probe has been made on an
aircraft carrier during its deployment in the Mediterranean. The current
transients monitored during this period have been analyzed and related to
the similar measurements in laboratory controlled experiments. The
results indicate a direct relationship between the probe current and the
corrosivity of the environmental variables.
Accelerated Atmospheric-Corrosion Testing. M. Khobaid, F. C. Chang, E. E.
Keppler, and C. T. Lynch. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by
S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and
Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 374-394.
No accurate methods are known for accelerated testing of corrosion
which yield reliable results for predicting the service life of aircraft
components and materials which degrade or fail due to environmental
attack. In an effort to provide the basis for development of realistic
accelerated corrosion tests, research is being conducted in controlled
atmospheres on the localized environmental enhancement of crack-growth
rates of aerospace alloys. Corrosion-fatigue and rising-load experiments
have been conducted using accelerating pollutants such as sulfur dioxide
and ambient air to 100 percent relative humidity air in a specially
designed atmospheric chamber. Initial results indicate that realistic
environmental enhancement of crack-growth rates can be employed to develop
accelerated tests which can be related to actual in-service degradation.
For materials with high stress-corrosion susceptibility, the threshold for
crack growth (Kjscc) was estimated to be 45 to 46 MPa m for 4340
steel at a 1440 MPa yield strength level, as compared to 49 to 52 MPa m
as determined by means of rising-load test and 44 to 46 MPa m by
fracture analysis in 1000 ppm S02 at 80 percent relative humidity. Thus,
a rapid and reproducible method for Kiscc determination appears
feasible.
Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. H. C. Martin.
Materials Performance, v. 21, No. 1, January 1982, pp. 36-39.
Acid rain is one of the most serious environmental problems of the
decade. This paper reviews the current scientific assessment of the
impact of acid rain on the natural environment. The costs incurred
through damage to buildings and structures in North America are discussed
with reference to relevant studies in Europe.
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4. Airborne Contaminants and the Pitting of Stainless Steels in the
Atmosphere. K. E, Johnson. Corrosion Science, v. 22, No. 3, 1982,
pp. 175-191.
The present work was undertaken with the aim of determining the
factors that lead to pitting of stainless steels in the atmosphere.
Specimens of Types 430, 304 and 316 stainless steels were inoculated
with the solid contaminants alumina, carbon, sodium chloride, amnmonium
sulphate and ferrous sulphate and exposed to humid atmospheres
containing high (100-3000 ppm) and low (0-0.15 ppm) levels of sulphur
dioxide. A synergistic effect was found with sulphur dioxide and sodium
chloride; in the absence of sulphur dioxide little pitting was found
with any of the contaminants investigated, including sodium chloride.
5. Atmospheric Corrosion and the Automobile. J. D. Palmer. Atmospheric
Corrosion, edited by W, H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp.
705-710.
The atmospheric testing of materials and components for automotive
service has varied considerably since automotive corrosion was recognized
as a major problem in the 1950's. It became evident that the
extrapolation of laboratory test results to service was very imprecise. A
great variety of coupon shapes has been used for on-vehicle exposures.
Electrical resistance probes were established as useful in providing
short term environmental monitoring but require correlation with component
or coupon weight loss to be accurate. Increasing reliance has been placed
on full-vehicle exposure under natural or accelerated field conditions but
there is considerable ignorance of most variables affecting automotive
corrosion rates. Recommendations for the conduct of atmospheric testing
for automotive service are presented and several areas worthy of
investigation are outlined.
6. Atmospheric Corrosion of Bimetallic Structures. V. Kucera and E.
Mattsson. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 561-574.
The following parameters of importance are discussed: the electrode
potential difference, the anodic and cathodic polarization and the
existence of passivating coatings, the distance between anodes and
cathodes, the thickness of the moisture film on the surface, and the
influence of atmospheric pollution. Some field test methods are described
including the circular disk method, the wire-on-bolt method, combination
of plates of dissimilar metals, and electrochemical test methods.
Important published investigations are surveyed, and some charts are
presented, useful in materials section.
7. Atmospheric Corrosion of Fastener Joints. E. Taylor. Extended Abstracts,
International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion (October 5-10, 1980,
Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 609-
610.
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The galvanic compatibility of the various metals used in joints,
composed of threaded fasteners and structural components was studied after
exposure for up to 3 years at unrelated global locations in Anasco, Puerto
Rico; Coventry, England; Jenkintown, Penn.; Kure Beach, N.C.; Nunawading,
Australia; Santa Ana, CA; and Tokyo, Japan. Some of the results from this
study can be utilized to recommend alloys and coatings which are
galvanically compatible in specific geographical areas or multi-
locat ions.
8. Atmospheric Corrosion of Malleable and Cast Irons and Steels. C. McCaul
and S. Goldspiel. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley,
New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 430-452.
The paper reviews literature on atmospheric corrosion of malleable
and cast irons and steel, with emphasis on factors which influence it and
methods for testing. It attempts to organize material and data so that it
may be useful to designers and engineers. It indicates limitations
relating to environmental factors and variables recognized at this time,
provides comparisons between these cast material types and their wrought
counterparts, and points to additional work needed in the field.
9. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals in the Tropics. C. R. Southwell and J. D.
Bultman. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York,
N.Y., 1982, pp. 943-968.
The tropics, where consistent weather patterns and low air pollution
usually prevail, provide reliable data for establishing corrosion rates of
metals in natural environments. In a study conducted in Panama 52 metals
were evaluated for 16 years in both single-metal and bi-metallic expo-
sures. Results are presented in detail and the data used to determine
final constant corrosion rates. Other tropical corrosion investigations
are reviewed; these furnish additional information for some alloys as well
as relative corrosivity of different tropical locations.
10. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals Under Moving Conditions. J. D. Talati and
B. M. Patel. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 695-704.
Atmospheric corrosion of mild steel, zinc, and aluminum has been
studied under moving conditions by exposing specimens on a railway coach
running between Ahmedabad and Bombay. The monthly rates of corrosion
ranged from 5-12, 76-329, and 582-2196 mg/dm^ for Al, Zn, and mild steel,
respectively; the yearly rates being 53-66 (Al), 1026-1168 (Zn), and 8333-
10408 mg/dm2 (m.s.). Monthly rates are higher during June-August (high
humidity and rainfall) and lower during December-March (lower
temperatures, no rainfall). Painted specimens did not show any corrosion
during the period of study.
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11. Atmospheric Corrosion of Stainless Steel. M. J. Johnson and P. J. Pavlik.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 461-474.
The various types of stainless steel and their corrosion resistance
to various atmospheric environments are discussed. The types of stainless
steel used in various applications and their performance are also
presented. Published data by various investigators are cited and new data
on some of the more recently developed alloys are listed. An extensive
bibliography is included in the paper.
12. Atmospheric Corrosion of Weathering Steels. D. Knotkova-Cermakova, J.
Vlckova, and J. Honzak. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S.
W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and
Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 7-44.
A general research program to study the corrosion behavior of
weathering steels is being completed by the State Research Institute for
Materials Protection. Three stages of research are discussed:
1. a description of the corrosion characteristics of these
materials,
2. the corrosion behavior of weathering steels in structural
service, and
3. the evaluation of the applicability of weathering steels for
typical real structures.
The results of this program were used to formulate the corrosion section
of the specification: Technical Direction for Application of Weathering
Steels.
A comparison of the cost of construction using conventional paint
coatings on steel versus the use of weathering steel is provided,
including the protection and operation of construction.
13. Atmospheric Corrosion Studies on Stainless Steels and Low Alloy Steel in a
Marine Atmosphere. A. S. Khanna and J. B. Gnanomoorthy. Atmospheric
Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 489-
500.
Specimens of austenitic stainless steels and a low alloy ferritic
steel with different fabrication and heat-treatment histories were mounted
on three panels, located about 100 km from sea and exposed to the marine
atmosphere of Kalpakkam. The results of observations on these specimens
for one to three years are reported in this paper. Sensitized specimens
had been extensively pitted and stressed or welded specimens had not
developed any crack.
14. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing by Electrolytic Cells in Norway and Sweden.
S. E. Haagenrud, V. Kucera, and J. Gullman. Atmospheric Corrosion,
edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 669-694.
The electrochemical technique is based on measurement and integration
of the current in electrolytic cells with an external imposed d-c voltage.
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The use in several applications is described, i.e., the influence of
environmental parameters on the cell current and time-of-wetness,
comparative studies of corrosion properties of different alloys, and
analysis of the corrosion environment in an industrial plant. The
possibilities and limitations of the technique are discussed.
15. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Australasia. J. F. Moresby, F. M.
Reeves, and D. J. Spedding. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H.
Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 745-754.
The history and details of testing metals and coatings in tropical,
sub-tropical temperate, and sub-antarctic climates in Australia and New
Zealand are described. Test sites vary from 3m to 600 km from the sea,
and some in N.S.W. approach Kure Beach, N.C. for severity. A unique
corrosivity survey of 900 km2 of Melbourne is in progress using BISRA type
steel coupons. This follows an earlier survey in 1961 and an Australia
wide 1968-1979 survey of cladding materials. Geothermal environments in
N.Z. with wet steam and H2S are discussed. Current government agencies'
and private companies' tests of coatings range from semi-desert to rain
forest locations.
16. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Brazil. A. C. Dutra and R. Vianna.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 755-774.
Atmospheric corrosion represents more than half of the total cost of
corrosion. Testing in actual field conditions is a must as it is rather
difficult to reproduce those conditions in the laboratory. The behavior
of an electrode under thin layer electrolyte differs largely from that
when immersed in a large volume. Atmospheric corrosion testing in Brazil
is recent but locations of testing sites represent the most important
climates. ABRACO (Brazilian Corrosion Association) has had an important
role in establishing technical norms and standardized procedures.
17. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Finland. T. Hakkarainen and S. Ylasaari.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 787-796.
Typical features of the Finnish climate and levels of concentrations
of atmospheric pollutants are described briefly. Corrosion tests include
outdoor exposures of mild steel, low alloy Cr-steel, hot dip galvanized
steel, zinc, and galvanic couples of dissimilar metals, as well as
laboratory experiments on the effect of concrete powder and soot on some
metals. Factors affecting the atmospheric corrosion rates are discussed
and some future trends in atmospheric corrosion testing in Finland are
outlined.
18. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in the Federal Republic of Germany.
G. Oelsner. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 797-806.
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Predictions about the expected corrosion behavior of metals and
alloys under atmospheric conditions are only possible by long-term
exposure. A quantitative measurement of special properties is absolutely
necessary. A way to describe the aggressiveness of the atmosphere is to
measure the corrosion rate of different metals. The welds of galvanized
steel constructions were protected best by zinc sprayed coatings with
subsequent paint coatings. For the investigation of the corrosion
behavior of aluminum materials, 12 different aluminum alloys were tested.
Anodized samples were also tested.
19. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Japan. T. Fukushima, N. Sato, Y.
Hisamatsu, and I. Matsushima, and Y. Aoyama. Atmospheric Corrosion,
edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 841-872.
Ten year exposure tests of steels estimated the corrosion loss
ranging from 0.05 to 0.90 mm depending on the location. Regression
equations relating the corrosion loss of steels to the environmental
factors were obtained. Aluminum alloys exposed for 20 years suffered from
pitting corrosion 0.004-0.277 mm in depth. Mechanisms of atmospheric
corrosion are discussed.
20. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Norway. L. Atteraas and S. E.
Haagenrud. Atomspheric Corrosion, edited by W. H Ailor, Wiley,
New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 873-892.
The Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) and VERITAS have
conducted long term tests in marine, industrial, and other atmospheres on
aluminum, zinc, carbon steel, and weathering steel. Nineteen sites are in
Norway and twelve in Sweden. Attempts to correlate laboratory results
with those from field tests using environmental data have been carried
out. Metallized and painted steels have also been studied.
21. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Southern Africa. B. G. Callaghan.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 893-912.
Extensive atmospheric corrosion programs have been carried out in
Southern Africa to evaluate the performance of metals, alloys, metal
coatings, duplex coatings (metal and organic), and paint coatings.
Corrosion rate data is provided on various steels, low alloy steels,
stainless steels, copper alloys, and aluminum alloys at sites ranging from
severe marine, industrial marine, industrial highveld (low relative
humidity, high solar radiation) to rural. Coatings exposed include
galvanized steel, thermally sprayed coatings of zinc and aluminum, and
electroplated coatings of zinc and cadmium.
22. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Spain. S. Feliu and M. Morcillo.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 913-922.
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Atmospheric corrosion aggressivity in Spain is being studied with the
help of various networks of test sites, covering urban and rural areas as
well as a number of industrial and/or marine locations. The corrosion
levels for mild steel, zinc, copper and aluminum in pure atmospheres have
been ascertained and relationships between corrosion and pollution
suggested. Initial results of long-term tests for determining the kinetic
expression of atmospheric corrosion are discussed. Corrosion inside
louvered boxes is compared with that in the open air.
23. Atmospheric Corrosion Tests in the USSR. Y. N. Mikhailovskii and
P. V. Strekalov. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley,
New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 923-942.
The published information describes the network of base atmospheric
exposure stations of the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the USSR
Academy of Sciences which are located in the vicinity of Murmansk, Moscow,
Zvenigorod, Batumi, and Vladivostok, i.e., in the most characteristic
climatic zones of the USSR (the Middle-European and the Asian parts of the
USSR, the Arctic, the subtropics). The main climatic characteristics of
the atmospheres, average concentrations of air pollutants, and the
frequencies of parameters determining the corrosive aggressiveness of
atmosphere are cited. The structure of stations, the meteorological and
testing equipment applied are described. Corrosive behavior of the basic
structural metals, steel, copper, zinc, aluminum, in atmospheric
conditions is analyzed.
24. Atmospheric Marine Corrosion of Structural Steels. B. R. Meybaum and
E. S. Ayllon. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 423-429.
Test samples of three weathering steels, CorTen A, B and B-QT, and
SAE 1010 steel were exposed for different periods and surface finishing at
the Marine Test Station of CAMET, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Polarization
of weathered samples showed a passivating effect due to the developing
"patina." SEM analysis evidenced the localized nature of the beginning
and propagation of the corrosion process. The attack nucleates
selectively causing ferrite dissolution, springing up from the steel
surface the cementite phase.
25. Atmospheric and Weather Factors in Corrosion Testing. H. Guttman.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 51-68.
This paper reviews techniques for measuring climatic/atmospheric
factors that are known to have an effect on the corrosion of metals. It
discusses corrosion rate studies carried out in conjunction with
measurements of atmospheric factors. The need to direct future research
effort to take into account conditions of actual service is stressed.
Such conditions include orientation, degree of shelter, effects of
corrosion product and/or foreign materials, and others. The importance of
time-of—wetness of a corroding substrate is discussed in detail.
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26. Automotive Corrosion in India. G. V. Ramanaiah, S. D. Chirputkar, and
B. L. Dhar. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 711-716.
The paper is a study on the influence of different atmospheric condi-
tions on corrosion behavior of automobiles in India. Area corrosion,
crevice corrosion, pitting and localized corrosion, fili-form corrosion,
and stress corrosion are the types of corrosion dealt with in the paper.
Further, the influence of different anticorrosive treatments on corrosion
resistance is described. Lastly, the contribution of corrosion in vehicle
accidents is touched.
27. Calibration of Atmospheric Corrosion Test Sites. E. A. Baker and T. S.
Lee. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and
E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767,
1982, pp. 250-266.
Inherent in the ability to accurately assess the performance of a
material exposed in the atmosphere is an understanding of the relative
corrosivity of that environment. The most reliable of present test
methods for ranking materials' corrosion behavior have necessarily
utilized long-term exposures to the natural environment in question.
Given the variable nature of many atmospheric factors, it becomes
important to determine the relative stability in the corrosivity of an
atmospheric exposure site. Only in this way can the desired credence be
given to atmospheric corrosion data generated for a variety of materials
over an extended duration.
A review is provided of the major factors which must be considered in
establishing a program to monitor and calibrate an atmospheric test site.
These factors include both environmental assessments and corrosion
evaluations. Consideration is given to the specific environmental
parameters which could be monitored as well as experimental procedures
which affect the atmospheric corrosion behavior of materials.
28. Colloid and Surface Phenomena in the Corrosion of Metals. E. Matijevic.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 123-138.
Colloidal hydrous oxides of various metals consisting of particles
uniform in size and shape have been prepared under conditions which
simulate different corrosion situations. These systems are then used to
elucidate chemical processes leading to nucleation and growth of such
model corrosion products. Furthermore, magnetic, optical, electric, and
absorptive properties of such monodispersed metal (hydrous) oxides are
investigated, as well as their interactions with various solutes of
interest in corrosion inhibition or chemical cleaning of the crud.
Finally, adhesion phenomena of these particles on various substrates and
their detachment from surfaces as a function of different parameters are
illustrated and theoretically explained.
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29. Control of Atmospheric Corrosion Pollutants in Great Britain. F. F. Ross
and T. P. Shaw. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley,
New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 19-30.
Control of emission of corrosive and other gases began 115 years ago.
Gas washing for sulfur dioxide was started in 1928 and largely abandoned
around 1960. Rules for chimney design were introduced in 1955 and
prohibition of smoke was extended from 1956 onwards. These two measures
have reduced the average urban concentration of sulfur dioxide by 70%.
The corrosiveness of the atmosphere has been, and is maintained on a
yearly update basis.
30. Controlling Features in Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel. B. R. Meybaum
and E, S. Ayllon. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley,
New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 501-508.
The atmospheric corrosion study was approached analyzing separately the
anodic and cathodic reactions occurring on the steel surface. With this
purpose, positive and negative overpotentials were applied to the test
samples in rainwater of urban-industrial and marine environments. Anodic
polarization orginated, by selective ferrite dissolution, geometrical pits
with polished walls and bottoms, corresponding to definite crystallogra-
phic plans. Negative overpotentials produced steel blistering. Both of
these characteristic attacks were also found in the respective outdoor
tests.
31. Corrosion Aggressivity of Atmospheres (Derivative and Classification). D.
Knotkova-Cermakova and K. Barton. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals,
edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea. American Society for Testing
and Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 225-249.
Corrosivity classification of the atmosphere is important for
selecting optimal protective systems. This classification should be based
on an understanding of the corrosion process together with reasonable
engineering principles. By a critical analysis of the factors providing
limits to the classification problem, several heretofore unresolved
questions have been answered. These questions involve design factors,
effects of different types of sheltering, fabrication effects, and the
transformation of measured values to information which can be utilized
technically. The Czechoslovakian system of standards covering this field
is described and complemented by examples of specialized specifications
for different industries. Questions for further research are proposed in
order to further the classification efforts.
32. Corrosion Fatigue of Metals in the Atmosphere. I. H. Craig and
R. N. Perkins. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 969-982.
A critical review of the literature in relation to the fatigue of
metals and alloys in natural humid atmospheres is presented. Emphasis is
placed on the proposed mechanisms of fatigue in humid environments and an
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attempt is made to rationalize the various mechanisms in terms of the
kinetics and thermodynamics of the interactions involved in the fatigue
process.
33. Economic Assessment of Pollution Related Corrosion Damage. F. H. Haynie.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 3-18.
The importance of corrosion as a product life limiting factor will
increase with the necessity to conserve limited resources. Thus, an
economic model to assess pollution related corrosion costs becomes a
useful decision tool. Physical damage, geographic distribution,
maintenance, replacement, substitution, and value lost due to decreased
utility or appearances are incorporated into this model. These
interrelated factors are subject to individual decisions, which can be
assumed in calculating best, worst, and most likely cases for different
pollution levels.
34. Eight-Year Atmospheric Corrosion Performance of Weathering Steel in
Industrial, Rural, and Marine Environments. H. E. Townsend and J. C.
Zoccola. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr.,
and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP
767, 1982, pp. 45-59.
Weathering steel (ASTM A588, Grade B) and steels with 0.021 and 0.21
percent copper were tested for corrosion resistance in marine, rural, and
two industrial environments. The results of these tests are represented
well by kinetic equations of the form C = AT8, where C is the corrosion
loss, T is time, and A and B are constants. On the basis of the time
required to achieve a 250 pm (0.01 in.) thickness loss that is calculated
using these equations, the weathering steel is 6 to 19 times more durable
than 0.021 percent copper steel and 2 to 10 times more durable than the
0.21 percent copper steel.
35. Electrochemical Methods for Atmospheric Corrosion Studies. F. Mansfeld.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 139-160.
Past and present efforts to use electrochemical techniques for the
evaluation of atmospheric corrosion phenomena are reviewed. Techniques
for the determination of the time-of-wetness tw and the recent
controversy concerning the definition of tw are discussed. Various
approaches for measurements of atmospheric corrosion rates and the
question of the efficiency of electrochemical sensors ("cell factor") are
evaluated. Recent results obtained in the author's laboratory concerning
the reproducibility of electrochemical measurements in a statistically
designed experiment under atmospheric corrosion conditions (15 sensors of
one type; RH = 65, 80, 95%; 0.1 or 1.0 ppm S02) are presented.
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36. Electrotopography - A New Tool for Corrosion Research. M. Ensanian.
Extended Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion
(October 5-10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v.
80-2, 1980, pp. 480-482.
This cotranunicat ion attempts to briefly summarize a new methodology
and some of the highlights of a large body of experimental knowledge,
collectively referred to as electrotopography. It is based upon a new and
unique form of rotational contact, nonequi 1 ibriuni, electrochemical
potential, and represents a powerful new tool for the characterization of
complex solids (alloys, semiconductors, and metalloids) and their
surfaces, under both static and dynamic conditions. Topological
invariance considerations are discussed.
37. Environment, Microenvironment, and the Durability of Building Materials.
P. J. Sereda and H. E. Ashton. J. Durability of Building Materials,
v. 1, No. 1, 1982, pp. 49-66.
This paper reviews the state-of-the-art regarding the monitoring and
importance of environmental factors of temperature, moisture
(precipitation and relative humidity), solar radiation, and pollution.
These factors are reLated to the microenvironment to which building
materials in a structure are exposed. Evidence is reviewed regarding the
importance of microenvironment on the specific processes of corrosion and
deterioration and thus on the performance of building materials. Methods
of monitoring the microenviroment are reviewed, especially in connection
with the measurement of the time-of-wetness and UV irradiation. Areas
where information is lacking, as in the case of effects of pollutants,
including acid rain, are identified.
38. Evaluation of Corrosivity of Various Atmospheres. T. Zak and G.
Chojnacka-Kalinowska. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 217-226.
The atmospheric corrosion of low-carbon steel in various climatic
conditions (at 14 weather-forecast stations located in different regions
of Poland) was examined. Corrosion losses were determined at monthly
intervals for two years. The results obtained were correlated with
meteorological parameters and SO2 concentrations. Suitability of one- and
multi-parameter equations was statistically determined. The best results
were obtained when correlating the corrosion rate (K) and the time when
the specimen is wet. The wet time was calculated from the difference of
air and dew point temperatures using the equation K = atg + b where a
and b are the regression coefficients. This equation was found as most
suitable for predicting the corrosion losses on the territory of Poland.
39. Evaluation of the Effects of Microclimate Differences on Corrosion. F. H.
Haynie. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and
E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767,
1982, pp. 286-308.
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Analytical and statistical analyses of data obtained from a
contracted exposure study performed by Rockwell International in St.
Louis, Mo., reveal that many microclimate differences can account for
observed differences in corrosion behavior within a geographic region.
Data from Mansfeld's Atmospheric Corrosion Monitors (ACM's) were evaluated
with data from the Regional Air Monitoring System (RAMS). Relative
humidity, temperature, wind speed, and levels of total sulfur gases, such
as sulfur dioxide, and oxides of nitrogen were found to be statistically
significant variables. Problems of covariance were avoided by
partitioning the large data set into subsets.
Relative humidity was found to be the most important but least
accurate variable. Because it is seldom measured at exposure sites, an
equation was developed to relate site-to-site relative humidity
differences to temperature differences. With average relative humidity
and another empirical equation, time-of-wetness can be estimated. The
results are in good agreement with time-of-wetness from the ACM's.
40. Indoor Corrosion Testing. W. 0. Freitag. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited
by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 265-274.
An Accelerated Business Environment (ABE) test was developed to
determine the vulnerability of magnetic alloys to atmospheric attack in
computer environments. The atmosphere consists of 300 ppb SO£ and 300 ppb
N02 in air at 20*C and 75% RH. FeNi and NiCo films are visibly attacked
in 6 hr and are pitted in 24-48 hr. The corrosion products formed at the
pits contain sulfur and chlorine, as measured by EDX. The general
validity of the ABE test was established by comparing its effects with
those of 5000 hr exposure to various indoor ambients. The morphology of
the corrosion is the same in ABE as in the ambients.
41. Influence of Accelerated Weathering on the Corrosion of Low-Alloy Steels.
H. Schwitter and H. Bohni. J. Electrochem. Soc., v. 127, No. 1, 1932,
pp. 15-20.
In low-alloy steels under accelerated atmospheric corrosion
conditions, the type of weathering, particularly the ratio of the time-of-
wetness to the drying time, has a greater influence on the corrosion
behavior than does the composition of the alloys. Electrochemical
measurements show that the rust protection is not only due to the
formation of compact macroscopic protective layers, but also to
passivation effects. Passivation occurs for a prolonged period only at
favorable accelerated weathering conditions, A model for the
interpretation of the corrosion behavior of low-alloy steels is proposed.
42. Measurement of the Time-of-Wetness by Moisture Sensors and Their
Calibration. P. J. Sereda, S. G. Croll, and H. F. Slade. Atmospheric
Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American
Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 267-2d5.
A 1-year program involving several laboratories located in different
climatic zones has afforded an opportunity to evaluate the response of
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miniature moisture sensors (developed at the National Research Council of
Canada) to surface moisture on panels exposed to the atmosphere. It has
shown that when these moisture sensors are placed on the surface of metal
or plastic panels, they respond to moisture conditions at the surface or,
more precisely, at the sensor surface, and that such moisture conditions
result from interaction of the total environment with the material as well
as with the ambient relative humidity conditions.
43. Prediction at Long Terms of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Structural
Steels from Short-Term Experimental Data. A. A. Bragard and H. E.
Bonnarens. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr.,
and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP
767, 1982, pp. 339-358.
Two experimental laws expressing the relationship between the weight
losses and the time of exposure allow a fair assessment of the corrosion
evolution of steels in numerous sites. The simultaneous existence of
these two laws implies intercorrelation between the coefficients of the
empirical equations. The effects of the climatic and pollution factors on
these coefficients are discussed. It is suggested to represent the
corrosiveness of a test site toward a steel grade by the one-year weight
loss, and the further evolution of corrosion as a function of this weight
loss and the relative humidity of the site.
44. Progress in Atmospheric Corrosion Testing. D. Knotkova-Cermakova, K.
Barton, and M. Cerny. Extended Abstracts, International Symposium on
Atmospheric Corrosion (October 5-10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida),
Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 526-528.
Atmospheric corrosion testing on sites is an important component of a
system comprising basic research of the mechanisms and kinetics of
corrosion, deterioration processes of protection coatings, classification
of the aggressivity, etc. Testing sites should be erected as a complex
network representing typical characteristics and have to be well organized
and technically equipped (examples—the national Czechoslowak system, the
international network of sites of the COMECON). The testing activities
include programs with models simulating products and structures. The
examples of complex testing programs and their evaluation and utilization
are presented. Actual problems in atmospheric corrosion testing
(influence of design factors, corrosion under shelters, general technical
interpretation of information) are formulated.
45. Rapid Methods for Determining Atmospheric Corrosivity and Corrosion
Resistance. D. P. Doyle and T. E. Wright. Atmospheric Corrosion,
edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 227-244.
The paper deals with the CLIMAT (Classification of Industrial and
Marine Atmospheres) test, which is used, as the name implies, to classify
atmospheric corrosivity for a given location. Experience is mainly with
aluminum and its alloys but some work with other metals has also been
also been done. The paper also describes the SIMAT (Simulation of
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Fe-14
Industrial and Marine Atmospheres) test, which has been developed in order
to obtain accelerated test data on various aluminum alloys, relating to
atmospheric applications.
46. Reproducibility of Electrochemical Measurements of Atmospheric Corrosion
Phenomena. F. Mansfeld, S. Tsai, S. Jeanjaquet, E. Meyer, K. Fertig,
and C. Ogden. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean,
Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM
STP 767 , 1982, pp. 309-338.
A brief discussion is given of recent efforts to use electrochemical
techniques for monitoring of atmospheric corrosion phenomena. Problems
existing with the interpretation of time-of-wetness measurements are
identified, and the finding that electrochemical sensors in their present
design and application determine only fractions of the true corrosion rate
is discussed. In order to resolve some of these difficulties, a
statistically designed experiment is being carried out to evaluate the
reproducibility of electrochemical measurements of atmospheric corrosion
phenomena and to determine the effects of sensor design on time-of-wetness
and cell efficiency. Results are presented for the first phase of this
project, in which 15 atmospheric corrosion monitors (ACM), each of the
copper/steel and steel/steel type, have been fabricated with steel and
copper from three different heats. These ACM's have been tested in
triplicate runs by exposure to aqueous .001M sodium chloride at a relative
humidity of 45 percent until the surface had dried out, followed by
additional exposure to either a moist air environment at three levels of
relative humidity (65, 80 and 95 percent) or a sulfer dioxide (S02) test
at three levels of S02, approx. *0, 0.2, and 1.1 ppm. During each test,
steel plates from each heat were exposed to determine weight loss data.
At present, only the drying-out data have been analyzed by statistical
methods. It has been found both from electrochemical and weight loss data
that the heat of the steel plays an important role, with one heat
corroding at a higher rate than the other two which have equal corrosion
rates. No differences were found between the five sensors of one heat.
Additional factors that influence the measurement are day-to-day
variations of the environment in the test chamber and to some extent the
position of the ACM's in the test chamber. By comparing the
electrochemical and weight loss data, a cell efficiency of about 20
percent was found for copper/steel and about 7 percent for steel/steel.
This low cell factor is considered to be due mainly to local cell action
on individual plates and to resistance polarization in the electrolyte.
The copper/steel and steel/steel ACM's are being exposed on the
Rockwell International Science Center roof for an aging period of three
months, after which another series of laboratory tests will be conducted.
47. Stress Corrosion of Metals in the Atmosphere. A. Gallaccio. Extended
Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion (October 5-
10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980,
pp. 581-582.
Attention is focused on the stress-corrosion cracking of a variety of
metal alloys in atmospheric environments. Included for the various alloys
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Fe-15
are discussions of the specificity of some atmospheric constituents
associated with initiating cracking; metallurgical and processing factors
bearing on cracking susceptibility; cracking of weldments, or of
contiguous parent alloy; testing methods employed; practices available or
applied for mitigating cracking. Commentaries are offered, as considered
warranted, and as supported by the available information.
48. The Interplay of Weather, Climate, and the Durability of Materials. P. W.
Brown and L. W. Masters. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 31-50.
The durability of materials is dependent, to a large extent, on the
in-service environment to which they are exposed. From the standpoint of
durability testing in general and assessing the resistance of a metal to
atmospheric corrosion in particular, the characterization of the in-
service environment is essential. The environmental factors of importance
in durability testing can be divided into factors relating to: (i)
weathering, (ii) biological organisms, (iii) stress, Civ) incompatibility,
and (v) use. The effects of environmental factors on atmospheric
corrosion are discussed with emphasis placed on weathering factors.
Climatological data along with data on the abundance of pollutants are
presented.
49. The Oxidation of FegO^ on Iron and Steel Surfaces. J. T. Keiser, C. W.
Brown, and R. A. Heidersbach. Corrosion, v. 38, No. 7, July 1982, pp.
357-360.
Infrared and Raman spectroscopy were used to study the oxidation of
FegO^ on surfaces of weathering steel, carbon steel, and pure iron. Two
sets of samples were polished and coated with an FegO^ paste. One set
was moistened daily with distilled water and allowed to freely dry in air.
The second set was treated in a similar manner except that every other
day a 0.1M Na2S01+ solution was used in place of the distilled water
solution. In the set of samples treated only with distilled water, Fe30lt
was oxidized to yFeOOH on both the weathering and carbon steel surface,
but oxidation of FegO^ was not observed on the pure iron surface. On
all of samples treated with 0.1M Na2S01+, FegO^ was oxidized initially to
YFeOOH which converted to aFeOOH after several weeks. The initial
oxidation of FejO^ is proposed to occur by a reaction with H202 produced
from the reduction of 02.
50. Possibilities of Following Up Corrosion Processes in the Atmosphere by
Measuring Moistening of the Surfaces. I. Jirovsky, D. Knotkova-
Cermakova, I. Kokoska, and J. Prusek. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by
W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 69-82.
Corrosion threat to metals depends on the period of moistening of the
surface and the aggressiveness of the surface electrolyte. The moistening
period calculated from the thermodynamic parameters of the atmosphere does
not agree in the first place in the case of sheltered surfaces and massive
products. The QA system indicates the presence of adsorbed or phase layer
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Fe-16
of ionic-conductive solution on the surface. The moistening period course
is recorded by a continuous curve or numerically. The system was given
checks at atmospheric stations and under operational conditions (the
closed spaces of car bodies, the building frame works, facades). It forms
part of a system of automatic collection and processing of corrosion
significant data.
51. The Statistical Analysis of Atmospheric Corrosion Data. R. A. Legault and
J. G. Dalai. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 285-294.
Statistical techniques for establishing the precision of a particular
replicated measurement are demonstrated using atmospheric corrosion data.
Establishing the reliability of a comparison is demonstrated with examples
of the numerical computations necessary to the application of diagnostic
tests such as the "difference of means test." Mathematical modeling is
examined in some detail. Among the techniques examined are discriminant
analysis, multiple regression analysis, "lack of fit" tests, determination
of prediction reliability, extreme value statistics, and experimental
design.
52. Theoretical Fundamentals and Engineering Principles of Atmospheric
Corrosion of Metals. Y. N. Mikhailovskii. Atmospheric Corrosion,
edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 85-106.
The nature of atmospheric corrosion is discussed as a combination of
corrosion and electrochemical processes on metals beneath absorbed and
thin phase layers of electrolytes. The effects of oxygen absorption,
water molecule absorption, sulfurous gas absorption, and aerosols of salts
are considered. USSR work has related the observed corrosion to the
parameters of the temperature-humidity and atmospheric aerochemical
complex.
53. Urban-Industrial Atmospheric Corrosion of a Weathering Steel. B. R.
Meybaum and E. S. Ayllon. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H, Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 415-422.
The aim of this paper was to determine the initial and propagation
stages of the atmospheric corrosion of a weathering steel in
urban-industrial environments. The attack would begin with the
penetration of water leading to the formation of almost circular blisters.
Also, pits nucleate on the surface. The propagation of these processes
would produce the caves observed in cross-sections of weathering steels
after long exposure periods. Thu3, propagation would follow the same
scheme, although the penetration is macroscopically considered uniform.
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Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. H. C. Martin.
Paper No. 114, Corrosion/81 (Toronto, Canada), National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX., April 6-10, 1981, 7 pp.
Acid Rain has been recognized as one of the most serious
environmental problems of the decade. This paper reviews the current
scientific assessment of the impact of acid rain on the natural
environment. The costs incurred through damage to buildings and
structures in North America are discussed with reference to relevant
studies in Europe.
An American Tragedy. R. H. Boyle. Sports Illustrated, v. 55, No. 13,
September 21, 1981, pp. 68-82.
Among the environmental damages attributed to acid rain are stone
damage on the U.S. Capitol and the Washington Monument and corrosion
damage to the Statue of Liberty.
Applications of an Electrochemical Accelerated Method for Testing
Corrosion in the Atmosphere and in the Splash Zone. M. Pourbaix and A.
Pourbaix. Metallic Corrosion, Proc. 8th Intern. Congr. Metallic Corr.
(Sept. 6-11, 1981, Mainz, Fed. Rep. Germany), Dechema, Frankfurt, v. 1,
1981, pp. 305-310.
An accelerated test method for atmospheric corrosion was developed in
1966. It was used to study mechanisms of atomspheric corrosion, to
compare weathering steels, copper steels and carbon steels, to develop
preweathering treatments and new low-alloy steels for marine use.
Attempts were made to predict the behavior of steel in the natural
exposure sites, from their climatic and pollution characteristics and
from results of the test method.
Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel in the Canadian Arctic. G. J. Biefer.
Mat. Perf., v. 20, No, 1, 1981, pp. 16-19.
The first atmospheric corrosivity survey of the Canadian Arctic and
sub-Arctic was performed, using mild steel wire-on-nylon bolt specimens,
exposed for a period of one year. For purposes of comparison, specimens
were also exposed at a number of points in southern Canada. Average rates
of penetration by corrosion as low as 2 to 5 ym/yr were recorded at ten
inland sites on the mainland of the western Arctic and in the northwest
Arctic Islands. However, at seven other northern sites, usually within 1
kilometer of the sea, corrosion rates of 21 to 34 ym/yr were experienced,
comparable to the rates of 22 to 30 ym/yr recorded at seven points in
southern (>iebec and Ontario,
Corrosion Properties of Weathering Steels. D, Knotkova-Cermakova, L.
Rozlivka, J. Vlckova, G. V. Akimov. Metallic Corrosion, Proc. 8th
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Intern. Congr. Metallic Corr, (Sept. 6-11, 1981, Mainz, Fed. Rep.
Germany), Dechema, Frankfurt, v. 2, 1981, pp. 1792-1799.
The material corrosion properties of the Atmofix weathering steel
have been deduced from the extensive station tests as well as the tests in
the microclimates of the actual constructions. As a direct convertibility
of the mentioned results to the corrosion behavior of steel on an object
is difficult, the test program of the models of the steel girders and
individual frames with the samples was realized direct on the selected
steel constructions. The systematical investigation of the corrosion
effects on the selected objects was connected with the ultrasonic
measurement of the element wall thickenesses and corrosion tests of a
special arrangement taking the specific character of the concerned objects
into account. The new method of the rust layer compactness evaluation
proved to be very helpful.
Determination of Atmospheric Corrosion Kinetics by an Electrochemical
Method. J. A. Gonzalez, J. M. Bastidas and S. Feliu. Metallic
Corrosion, Proc. 8th Intern. Congr. Metallic Corr. (Sept. 6-11, 1981,
Mainz, Fed. Rep. Germany), Dechema, Frankfurt, v. 1, 1981, pp. 311-316.
Corrosion values calculated from polarization resistance measurements
are compared with those from gravimetric data, for mild steel and zinc
subjected to a variety of laboratory and natural exposure conditions. It
is concluded that atmospheric corrosion predictions carried out by the
electrochemical method proposed provided a high degree of reliability.
The sensitivity of the method is such that it is not only applicable to a
fairly corrodible material, such as Fe, but also to a much more resistant
material, such as Zn. The instantaneous response of the multilamellar
cells used permits knowing what is happening during the initial moments
and at any stage of the corrosion process.
Determination of the Corrosivity of Atmospheres With Electrochemical
Techniques. F. Mansfeld. Extended Abstracts, Fall Meeting,
Electrochemical Society, Denver, CO, v. 81-2, October 11-16, 1981, pp.
444-445 .
The atmospheric corrosion process is of discontinuous nature with
corrosion occurring only during the t iine-of-wetness (tw). The total
corrosion loss M during a certain exposure period can be expressed as:
M ¦ s ritw,i
i-1
where rj is the corrosion rate during the i-th time-of-wetness. In
order to fully characterize the corrosion behavior, it is therefore
necessary to determine ri, tw> { and the frequency n of the time-
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Fe-1 9
of-welness periods during exposure. Such measurements can be performed
using electrochemical techniques.
Time-of-wetness (tw) can be determined with electrochemical sensors
which give a comparison of the output of a Cu/zinc atmospheric corrosion
monitor (ACM) in the form of galvanic current ig, the relative humidity
(RH) and temperature T recorded at the same site for one week. From the
ig-time curves tw has been determined as the time for which the
background current of the ACM is exceeded. In addition, the corrosion
time tcorr for which i<> > 1.0 yA (corresponding to a corrosion
rate for zinc in excess of 3 ym/year) and the ratio <* ¦ tcorr^w
have been determined. These three parameters are used to characterize the
corrosivity of different test sites and/or to determine the changes of
corrosivity with time.
The corrosion rate of the anode material in an ACM, which can be
calculated by integration of the current-time curve, can also be used to
determine the corrosivity of a test site. Comparisons of integrated celL
current Q and weight loss data in outdoor exposure and laboratory studies
have shown that in the case of steel the electrochemical sensors measure
only about 20% of the corrosion rate as determined by weight loss. The
author has investigated the probable causes of these deviations in a
statistically designed experiment. It was found that the particular heat
of the sensor material, the aging process in outdoor exposure, the
microclimate on different material surfaces, the conducivity of surface
electrolytes, the sensor design and probably other factors all can
influence the sensor output and its correlation with weight loss.
While the use of electrochemical sensors undoubtedly has increased
the possibilities for developing a better understanding of atmospheric
corrosion processes and allows to establish criteria for determining the
corrosivity of atmosphere, more work needs to be done to develop these
sensors into instruments which can be used to obtain quantitative data.
8. Effects of Environmental Factors on Atmospheric Corrosion of Carbon Steel
in Niigata (Japan). F. Katoh, S. Yasukawa, H. Nishimura and M. Yasuda.
Boshoku Gijutsu, v. 30, No. 6, 1981, pp. 337-343 (Japanese).*
To investigate the effects of environmental factors on the
atmospheric corrosion of carbon steel, the corrosion rate and the amount
of chemical pollutants in the atmosphere were determined and the data of
some meteorological elements were obtained for A yr. Strong positive
correlations were found between the amounts of chloride, sulfate, and S02
and the corrosion rate. Strong negative correlations were found between
the air temperature, duration of sunshine, and solar radiation, and the
corrosion rate.
9. Evaluation of Electrochemical Techniques for Monitoring of Atmospheric
Corrosion Phenomena. F. Mansfeld. Electrochemical Corrosion Testing,
ASTM STP 727, edited by F. Mansfeld and U. Bertocci, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1981, pp. 215-237.
A review is presented
electrochemical techniques
corrosion, measure time-of
of past and present efforts to
to evaluate basic phenomena of
-wetness, and perform corrosion-
use
atmospheric
rate
-------
measurements in outdoor exposure. This is folLowed by a summary of recent
work carried out in the author's laboratory. Time-of-wetness measurements
have been carried out continuously over a three-year period at the same
location using copper/steel and copper/zinc sensors. An analysis of the
monthly distribution of relative humidity and corrosion rates determined
with the same sensors has resulted in correlations between them.
Weight-loss measurements under thin layers of electrolytes that are drying
at RH < 100 percent have shown that, in most cases, corrosion rates are
much higher under these conditions than in bulk solutions.
Electrochemical measurements carried out under identical conditions show
the continuous increase of corrosion rates during the drying period. A
comparison of corrosion rates determined by weight loss and
electrochemical techniques under thin layers of electrolytes indicates
that the electrochemical data underestimate the true corrosion rates. The
determination of cell factors based on weight-Loss data is one approach
for using the electrochemical technique in a more quantitative manner.
Factors Affecting the Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel. B. R. Meybaum, E.
S. Ayllon, R. T. Bonard, S. L. Granese and J. L. Ikeha. Metallic
Corrosion, Proc. 8th. Intern Congr. Metallic Corr. (Sept. 6-11, 1981,
Mainz, Fed. Rep. Germany), Dechema, Frankfurt, v. 1, 1981, pp. 317—
335.
The purpose of this paper was to determine the influence of the
morphological and chemical characteristics of the rusts developed on
different steels upon their corrosion rates, when they are submited to
atmospheric corrosion in four distinct environmental conditions. The
influence of the rolling process on the initiation and growth of the rusts
was analized. SEM and optical microscopy in connection with EPMA were
used. The analysis by means of XR spectroscopy and x-ray diffraction of
the prepared samples of pure «, 3, Y and 6 FeOOH and of magnetite was
applied to the characterization of the rusts in which these iron compounds
are generally informed to be present. An electrochemical spectroscopy of
these substances was intended to test the results of the analysis of the
natural rust, through the characteristic curve obtained for the reduction
of each of them.
Poland - The Most Polluted Country in the World. L. Timberlake. New
Scientist, v. 92, No. 1276, October 22, 1981, pp. 248-250.
In Poland's Katowice region, the nation's industrial heartland and
source of most of its steel and coal, the sulfuric acid and nitric acids
which fall with each rain have so corroded the railway tracks that trains
are not allowed to go more than 40 km per hour. Much of Katowice's
pollution is blown by the prevailing winds 70 km east to the City of
Cracow, where it fails in the form of acid rain and where the destruction
it causes is likely to have international repercussions. The city is a
unique architectural embellishments. The faces of important stone statues
at Wawel Castle have crumbled. Steeples fall off churches; balconies must
be constantly replaced and repaired; the view down every narrow street is
disrupted by the scaffolding of workers trying to hold the buildings
together.
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Fe-21
Acid rain dissolved so much of the gold roof of the 16th century
Sigismund Chapel of Wawel Cathedral that it recently had to be replaced.
Something not unlike aqua regia falls daily in the Cracow rains, and
converted the chapel's original gold roof into soluble chlorides.
12. Practical Experience with an Electrochemical Technique for Atmospheric
Corrosion Monitoring. V. Kucera and J. Gullman. Electrochemical
Corrosion Testing, ASTM STP 727, edited by F. Mansfeld and U. Bertocci,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981, pp. 238-255.
An electrochemical technique based on integration of the current in
electrolytic cells with an external impressed voltage has been used in
various investigations. Cells that permit measurements extending over
several years without risk of short-circuiting by corrosion products have
been developed. The electronic integrator has been proved to function
reliably during all measurements. Even if the electrochemical background
of the technique is not well defined, a relation has been found to exist
between the cell current and the corrosion rate. The relation is fairly
constant in measurements at one site, but depends to some extent on the
degree of pollution, which is a serious limitation. The technique
appears, however, to be well suited for comparative studies of different
alloys and the protective effect of corrosion products, and for studies of
copper and zinc in run-off from building structures. The time of wetness
measured by the technique may be of interest in the study of the influence
of climatic factors.
13. Preweathered Zinc for Roofing. M. Leclercq. Metallic Corrosion, Proc.
8th. Intern. Congr. Metallic Corr. (Sept. 6-11, 1981, Mainz, Fed. Rep.
Germany), Dechema, Frankfurt, v. 1, 1981, pp. 299-304.
Preweathered zinc is now available in the form of strips in coils and
in sheets both of which, from the point of view of handling and of working
the metal as well as satisfying esthetical purposes, fully answer the
requirements of roofing. It is obtained by a continuous process, being
the result of a chemical conversion treatment of the metallic zinc strip
by chemical and/or mechanical pretreatment, conversion by a phosphatizing
treatment and the application of a temporary protective film.
The converted zinc surface exhibits a uniform dark gray color and its
whole surface is covered with a continuous and tightly adhering layer of
zinc phosphate crystals, which is responsible for its excellent behaviour
under conditions of mechanical deformation and atmospheric oxidation.
Thus, the many advantages of this new product are:
1) the shiny metallic appearence is disposed of during the first few
months of exposure;
2) the dark gray colour is harmonious to that of other materials generally
used for roofing purposes in our region of the world;
3) the resistance of the zinc to oxidation is enhanced as a result of the
presence of a conversion phosphate coating.
A study of this coating has been made dealing with its properties and
its behaviour under exposure to accelerated and field testing.
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Fe-22
14. Some Aspects of Nature of Sulphur Dioxide Accelerated Atomspheric
Corrosion of Iron. D. J. Spedding and A. J. Sprott. Metallic
Corrosion, Proc. 8th. Intern. Congr. Metallic Corr. (Sept. 6-11, 1981,
Mainz, Fed. Rep. Germany), Dechema, Frankfurt, v. 1, 1981, pp. 329-
335.
The nature of the sites of discrete adsorption of sulphur dioxide on
a clean iron surface has been investigated. Studies of the oxides and
oxyhydroxides of iron likely to be on the surface of iron exposed to the
ambient atmosphere indicated high sulphur dioxide uptake on Y-Fe20g . In
addition, the sorbed sulphur dioxide on Y-Fe20g was irreversibly bound,
while that on a «-FeOOH ( a major surface component of the iron) was
reversibly bound. It is proposed that points of high sulphur dioxide
uptake on iron are due to the presence of Y~Fe203 in a surface film that
is predominantly <*-FeOOH. Sulphate formed from sulphur dioxide at high
uptake points probably initiate the formation of sulphate nests and thus
active corrosion.
The dependence of the mass of sulphur dioxide sorbed by an iron
surface on the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere was also
investigated. It was found that there was no clear relationship between
the mass of water at a given relative humidity on the iron surface and the
mass of sulphur dioxide sorbed. It is proposed that interactions of
sulphur dioxide with water vapor prior to adsorption may explain the above
observat ions.
15. The Consideration of the Microclimate Effect on the Characteristic of
Atmospheric Environments and Corrosion of Metals. D. Knotkova-
Cermakova, P. Holler, J. Vlckova. Metallic Corrosion, Proc. 8th.
Intern. Congr. Metallic Corr. (Sept. 6-11, 1981, Mainz, Fed. Rep.
Germany), Dechema, Frankfurt, v. 1, 1981, p. 337.
During the recent 10 years a high number of experimental results have
been collected, in the department of atmospheric corrosion of the State
Research Institute of Material Protection, on the corrosion of metals and
data on the characteristics of the atmospheric environment for the
standard environments of the typical outdoor shed and indoor types as well
as for various microclimates.
The statistical processing of the long-time climate characteristics
with the view to the atmospheric corrosion of metals and the dividing of
the Czecholslovak territory into the individual regions has been carried
out. The investigation of the corrosion aggressively distribution in the
selected regions as well as in the territory of Czechoslovakia as a unit,
has been carried out, too.
The results have been analyzed with the view of the basic indices of
the corrosion aggressivity of atmospheres and the utilizabi1ity of the
common criterions for the actual exploitation microclimates has been
considered. The knowledge had been utilized for the generalization
conductive to the proposals of the atmospheric corrrosivity classification
for the standarization within the framework of the CEMA and ISO.
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Fe-23
16. The Effect of Phase Composition on Corrosion Behaviour on Ion-nit riding
Layers. A. E. Varhoshkov and I. A. Bedloev. Metallic Corrosion, Proc.
8th. Intern. Congr. Metallic Corr. (Sept. 6-11, 1981, Mainz, Fed. Rep.
Germany), Decheraa, Frankfurt, v. 2 1981, pp. 1086-1092.
In recent years the ion-nit riding technology has achieved
considerable progress. One of the main contributions of the process is
the possibility it offers in producing nitrided layers of a definite phase
composition. The aira of the experiments was to assess the functional
relationship between the structure of the nitride layers and their
corrosion characteristics in different types of electrolytes. The phase
composition of the diffusion layers has been determined by metallographic
and X-ray analysis. Electrochemical procedures based on the cathodic and
anodic polarization curves were used to study the corrosion behaviour of
the different ion-nitrided layers. Nitriding sponsors the increase of
corrosion resistance in neutral electrolytes. A greater corrosion
resistance is observed in biphase (e + y) nitride layers.
17. The Mechanism of Corrosion of Mild Steel by Elemental Sulphur/Water
Suspensions. S. B. Maldonado and P. J. Boden. Metallic Corrosion,
Proc. 8th, Intern. Congr. Metallic Corr. (Sept. 6-11, Mainz, Fed. Rep.
Germany), Decheiaa, Frankfurt, v. 1, 1981, pp. 338-343.
Elemental sulphur suspended in demineralized water undergoes
hydrolysis to form and H2S and this reduces the pH. Rapid
corrosion of mild steel is caused by the continuous replacement of
hydrogen ions (from sulphur/water hydrolysis) as those are consumed by the
cathode reaction. This study gives quantitative data on this hydrolysis
and also gives infomation on the breakdown of well-formed passive films
on mild steel in 0.1 M NaOH as a result of HS~ ions. Breakdown potentials
have been determined below which corrosion by sulphur is prevented. This
potential may, however, be sufficiently negative (approx. -0.8-1.0 V vs
SCE) to cause hydrogen embrittlement.
1980
1. A Model of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals Allowing for Meteorological and
Aerochemical Characteristics. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, P. V. Strekalov, and
V. V. Agafonov. Protection of Metals, v. 16, No. 4, 1980, pp. 308-323.
The authors discuss a physicochemicaL model and a corresponding
mathematical representation of the processes of atmospheric corrosion of
metals in relation to time, air humidity and temperature, and the
concentrations of sulfur dioxide and chlorides in the atiaosphera. On the
basis of data obtained from the seven corrosion stations of the European
member-nations of the Council for Mutual Economic Aid, they determine
the parameters necessary for predicting the atmospheric corrosion of
metals. They calculate the probable rates of atmospheric corrosion of
steel, zinc, copper, aluminum, and magnesium alloys in the open air and in
a semiclosed atmosphere. The error of the model calculations does not
exceed 18-21%.
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2. A Review of Air Pollutant Damage to Materials. J. E. Yocum and A. R.
Stankunas. Draft Report to Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, December
1980, 92 pp.
The presence of air pollutants, notably sulfur oxides, particulate
matter, nitrogen oxides, and ozone under the proper circumstances can
exacerbate damage to non-living materials thereby producing costs to
society. The types of damage that can be caused by air pollution are
summarized. Problems in quantifying the extent of damage to materials of
specific pollutants are: (1) The types of damage associated with air
pollutants tend to occur in unpolluted atmospheres and cannot be
distinguished from those caused or enhanced by the presence of air
pollutants. Damage can be produced by moisture, CC^, natural particulate
matter, sunlight, and other features of the natural environment. Thus,
determining the isolated influence of a given pollutant in an ambient
exposure situation is not a straightforward process. (2) Laboratory
studies where individual pollutants are introduced to sensitive materials
in known exposures independent of other influences tend to be operated at
unrealistically high concentrations and otherwise are not representative
of real life exposure situations. (3) Reduction in ambient levels of
pollutants such as SO£ as the result of air pollution control efforts has
significantly reduced the exposure and degree of possible damage to
exposed materials. Damage identified and measured today may have been the
result of much earlier exposure when concentrations were much higher. (4)
Changes over recent years in the types of materials and protective
coatings exposed to the atmosphere as a result of technological
improvements in materials is having a fundamental effect upon the nature
and extent of air pollution-induced damage to materials and associated
damage costs. (5) Determination of the quantities of materials in place
in relation to air pollutant exposures is a difficult task, especially
when significant amounts of certain materials (for example, fabrics,
paints, and paper) may be exposed to indoor environments or other
locations not represented by typical ambient monitors.
Society is faced with the difficult task of balancing the benefits
it may gain by reductions in pollution levels against the economic and
social costs of obtaining those reductions. Unfortunately, the current
ability of society to accurately relate the costs of damage to materials
to the level of ambient pollution is poor. The existing state-of-the art
for employing economic damage functions in rational decision-making is
such that only crude, qualitative use of such results is appropriate.
Type of economic damage, methods for calculating economic impact on
material damage, and specific economic damage functions are discussed.
Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance of Steels Prepared From the Magnetic
Fraction of Urban Refuse. S. D. Cramer, J. P. Carter, and B. S. Covino,
Jr. U.S. Bureau of Mines RI 8447, 1980, 32 pp.
The Bureau of Mines conducted a corrosion study in which the magnetic
fraction of urban refuse was used as melting stock in the preparation of
high-strength low-alloy and carbon steel. Samples of these alloys and
those of comparable commercial-grade steels were exposed to industrial,
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rural, and marine environments. This paper presents the results of 0.5,
1.0, 1.5, and 3.8 years exposure. The use of the magnetic fraction of
urban refuse as melting stock increased the atmospheric corrosion
resistance of carbon steel by 25 percent. Increasing sulfur (from the
atmosphere) in the corrosion film resulted in increased corrosion
resistance. The residual elements in the steel most responsible for
improving corrosion resistance were copper and tin.
4. Background and Principles of Long-Term Performance of Building Materials.
S. E. Pihlajavaara. Durability of Building Materials and Components,
ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 5-16.
A review is presented of historical background information, service
life expectations and the need for research in the field of the durability
of materials. The necessary procedures and intervals of the maintenance
of some building materials also are examined. Information on the
performance of materials should be expressed clearly in terms of service
years dependent on degradation factors, of degradation effects during
lifetime, and of maintenance procedures and intervals.
5. Characterization of Atmospheric Corrosion Products on Weathering Steels.
B. R. Meybaum and E. S. Ayllon. Corrosion, v. 36, no. 7, July 1980, pp.
345-347.
Microalloyed steels show a greater atmospheric corrosion resistance
than plain carbon steels through the formation of protective films,
designated as patinas. During the development of these films, they
present a continuous double layer structure. The inner phase is the only
one left after long exposure periods and determines the low atmospheric
corrosion rates observed. In the present work a new technique was applied
for the separation of phases. Characterization of two phase films and of
the inner phase alone was performed by IR analysis, electrochemical
reduction, and scanning electron microscopy. Test pieces of a weathering
steel (C, 0.11; Mn, 0.38; Si, 0.23; P, 0.9; Cr, 0.69; Ni, 0.11; and Cu,
0.38) were exposed for 9 and 22 months at a semi-industrial atmosphere.
Characterization techniques, applied to samples of two phase films and of
the inner phase, showed little difference in composition. However,
morphological differences suggest on the contrary, greater barrier effect
due to the inner phase rather than the outer one.
6. Colloid Chemical Aspects of Corrosion of Metals. E. Matijevic. Pure
Appl. Chem., v. 52, 1980, pp. 1179-1193.
The corrosion of metals and alloys results in the formation of
soluble hydroxylated complexes and precipitated metal hydrous oxides, with
the end-products almost invariably in colloidal state as films, particles,
or aggregates. It is, therefore, obvious that in the course of the
corrosion process the materials undergo chemical and morphological
changes. Even if precipitation does not occur, the solution adjacent to
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the metal surface will have an entirely different composition than the
bulk liquid phase.
Little proven information is available on the chemical mechanism of
the processes involved in the precipitation of metal (hydrous) oxides.
This is, in part, due to the complexity of reactions involved in the solid
phase formation and to the sensitivity of precipitation processes to
various parameters, making it difficult to reproduce a given material.
Recently, it was possible to develop well defined colloidal metal
hydrous oxides which can serve as models for corrosion products. These
systems consist of particles uniform in chemical composition, size, and
shape, that can be repeatedly generated under reproducible conditions.
The so prepared "monodispersed" sols are used to elucidate the chemical
mechanism of metal corrosion processes, to study the properties of the
model corrosion products (surface, electric, magnetic, optical, etc.), to
investigate their interaction with various additives (chelating agents,
etc.), and, finally, to establish factors governing their adhesion or
their detachment from different substrates.
Examples of these model dispersions are shown and various studies
relevant to corrosion of metals in general and of iron in particular,
carried out with such materials, are discussed.
7. Corrosion of Metal in Wood Products. A. J. Baker. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G.
Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 981-993.
A description is given of the source of metal corrosion products that
cause wood deterioration around corroding metal in wet wood. Corrosion of
isolated steel fasteners in wood and the formation of acid conditions
around the corroding steel is explained in terms of "crevice corrosion."
The source of acid and alkaline conditions around corroding metals
undergoing galvanic corrosion and the source of alkaline conditions around
cathodically protected metal also are explained.
Results of a 3-year corrosion test of eleven wood fastener materials
in wood treated with copper-containing waterborne salt preservatives
indicate that, when long service life is required under wet conditions,
fastener materials that are cathodic with respect to copper should be
chosen. The literature indicates that metals in contact with fire
retardant-treated lumber and cellulose insulation under high moisture
conditions also may be subject to corrosion.
8. Critical Review of the Available Physicochemical Material Damage Functions
of Air Pollution. M. Benarie. Report No. EUR-6643, Commision on the
European Communities, 1980, 97 pp.
The effect of air pollution damage of materials with special emphasis
on the theory of damage functions, both from engineering and economic
points of view is reviewed. The damage of metals, coating materials,
construction materials, and fabrics are discussed.
9. Durability of Materials and Construction. J. H. Keyser. Durability of
Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda
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and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp.
38-55.
In this paper, the author emphasizes the need to use a systems
approach to solve complex durability problems and to incorporate a
durability subsystem within the quality assurance system. The purpose of
this approach is to continuously improve design, specifications,
construction and maintenance.
Based on case histories of performance of sidewalks, pavements, and
elevated structures, the author discusses problems linked with a few
elements of such a subsystem and concludes on the need to develop design
methods for durability, realistic specifications, meaningful durability
tests, and rational methods for assessment of durability. Furthermore,
the need to integrate the activities of all quality responsible agencies
into a single managerial effective quality assurance system is stressed.
10. Durability of Some Common Building Materials. W. H. Gutt and L. H.
Everett. Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691,
edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing
and Materials, 1980, pp. 131-144.
In this paper the durability of some materials used in building is
considered; in particular, concrete, fibrous composites, surface coatings,
and adhesives. For each of these materials the processes which cause
change in the physical, mechanical, or chemical properties are discussed
and the deterioration which occurs on aging is reviewed, identifying,
where appropriate, the specific environments producing unacceptable loss
of function or appearance. Careful selection of the material used in
specific applications is considered to be a prime requirement for
continued good service and low maintenance.
11. Indoor Corrosion of Metals. D. W. Rice, R. J. Cappell, W. Kinsolving, and
J. J. Laskowski. J. Electrochem. Soc., v. 127, No. 4, 1980, pp. 891-
901.
The indoor corrosion rates of Cu, Ag, Ni, Co, and Fe were measured at
eight locations in the United States. Concurrent pollutant and relative
humidity measurements were also made at six sites. The rates are shown to
be log-normally distributed over the sample population. A statistical
comparison of outdoor and indoor rates shows that silver corrodes
approximately the same both indoors and outdoors. Copper and nickel
corrode 100 times faster outdoors, and iron corrodes 2,000 times faster
outdoors. The corrosion rate sensitivity to relative humidity is
speculated to explain these differences. Pollutant concentrations are
shown to be generally attenuated indoors except for NH3 and reduced
forms of sulfur. The indoor corrosion rates of copper and silver are
reasonably well correlated to the measured reduced sulfur concentrations.
Nickel rates correlate best to the acid chlorine containing gases.
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12. Influence of Sulfur Dioxide, Periodical Wetting and Corrosion Products on
the Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel. R. Ericsson and T. Sydberger.
Werkst. Korros., v. 31, No. 6, 1980, pp. 455-463.*
Results from lab. atm. corrosion test on samples of a C- and a
low-alloy steel, with and without pre-exposure (1, 3, and 12 mo.) in an
outdoor atm. are reported. The lab. exposure was performed in
S02-containing (0.4 yg S02/cm2-h) and S02"free atmospheres at 90% relative
humidity and 22®. The influence of atm. S02 on the instantaneous
corrosion rate markedly decreases with increasing pre-exposure.
Comparisons of corrosion-rates calculated from outdoor and laboratory
exposure tests with and without periodical wettings show that the atm.
corrosion proceeds during or following the periods of atm. precipitation
or condensation, i.e., under conditions of an apparently wet rust layer.
A synergistic effect of S02 and periodical wetting was established. Due
to the leaching of sulfate ions from the rust layer, immersion sequences
(to simulate rainfall) resulted in lower corrosion rates than the
simulation of dew by short spraying sequences. The corrosion of pre-
exposed samples could be related to the amount of sulfate leached from the
rust during immersions.
13. Laboratory Studies of Atmospheric Corrosion—I. Weight Loss and
Electrochemical Measurements. F. Mansfeld and S. Tsai. Corrosion
Science, v. 20, 1980, pp. 853-872.
Electrochemical studies have been performed with the atmospheric
corrosion monitor (ACM) under thin layers of electrolyte which were drying
out at relative humidity (RH) < 100 percent. Galvanic couples
(copper/steel, copper/zinc) and one-metal (steel, zinc) ACMs were used.
Measurements were carried out as a function of RH and Na2S01+
concentration. In addition, weight loss data were collected under
identical conditions in thin layer experiments for steel and zinc in 0.01
N solutions of NaCl, Na2S01+, HCl, l^SO^ and distilled water in air, air +
1 ppm S02, Ar and Ar + 1 ppm S02. The data obtained in air and air + S02
were compared to weight loss results in bulk solutions.
The electrochemical technique makes it possible to follow the changes
of corrosion rates with time. As observed in outdoor exposure, a large
increase of corrosion rates occurs when the electrolyte layers become very
thin, shortly before the surface dries out. These findings explain the
results of the weight-loss data which show, for most environments, a much
larger corrosion rate than in the bulk electrolyte. An accelerating
effect of sulfur dioxide was observed for steel at higher RH values, while
for zinc, no effect occurred in NaCl, Na2S01+, and I^SO^, but an inhibiting
effect was measured in HCl and in distilled H20.
Since weight loss and electrochemical data were recorded under
identical conditions, it is possible to determine how accurately the ACM
data reflect the true corrosion rate. It was found for copper/steel ACMs
that the electrochemical data follow the same trends as the weight-loss
data, but account for only about 20 percent of the corrosion rate. Due to
larger scatter in the weight-loss data, a similar efficiency factor could
not be determined for copper/zinc. For steel and zinc ACMs, the true
Tafel slopes are not known, which makes a calculation of corrosion rates
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Fe-29
doubtful. The low cell efficiency is considered to be due to local
corrosion of single cell plates and to IR-drop effects.
Despite the fact that exact corrosion rates cannot, at present, be
obtained from ACM data, the technique appears very valuable for following
the changes of atmospheric corrosion behavior and for time-of-wetness
measurements.
14. Metals in America's Historic Buildings. M. Gayle, D. W. Look, and J. G.
Waite. U.S. Department of the Interior, Heritage Conservation and
Recreation Service, Washington, D.C., 1980, 170 pp.
Part I of this report presents short illustrated surveys of the
architectural metals most often used in American buildings and other arc-
hitectural features such as sculpture, fountains, and "street furniture".
The photographs document common uses of metals such as copper roofing,
zinc statuary, cast-iron storefronts. Part II examines the questions of
how architectural metals deteriorate, and concentrates on the techniques
available to architects and conservators in preserving and maintaining the
metal components.
15. Nature of Atmospheric Rust on Iron. I. Suzuki, Y. Hisamatsu, and N.
Masuko. J. Electrochem. Soc., v. 127, No. 10, 1980, pp. 2210-2215.
In order to elucidate the mechanism of self-protection of weathering
steel, the physical, chemical, and electrochemical nature of rust was
studied with special attention to the effect of copper addition. The
aggregating state of the rust layer is influenced by two factors: the
time of exposure and beneficial elements added to the steel. Copper
additions inhibit the growth of the primary colloidal particles. This
action of copper has an effect on the properties of rust and serves to
increase the protective ability of the rust layer.
16. Pacer Lime: An Environmental Corrosion Severity Classification System.
R. Summit and F. T. Fink. AFWAL-TR-80-4102 (Part 1), Wright
Aeronautical Laboratories, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, August 1980, 121
pp.
A system has been developed for rating the corrosivity of aircraft
operational environments. This system takes account of weather,
atmospheric pollutant, and geographic factors to compute a severity index
for three aspects of corrosion maintenance: aircraft washing, repainting,
and repair needs. Computed ratings are in good agreement with aircraft
corrosion experience and atmospheric testing programs at several
locations.
17. Pacer Lime: Experimental Determination of Environmental Corrosion
Severity. R. Summit and F. T. Fink. AFWAL-TR-80-4102 (Part 2), Wright
Aeronautical Laboratories, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, June 1980, 28 pp.
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Atmospheric exposure of aircraft alloys was conducted to provide
experimental data in support of an environmental rating system. Alloys
tested were magnesium AZ31B, 4340 steel, aluminum 2024-T3, 7075-T6 Alclad,
7079-T6 Alclad, and titanium-6Al-4V. Test sites were nine in the
continental U.S., one in Hawaii, and one in England. Measured corrosion
rates are in good agreement with literature values and USAF corrosion
maintenance experence.
18. Regional Air Pollution Study: Effects of Airborne Sulfur Pollutants on
Materials. F. Mansfeld. NTIS Report PB81-126351, January 1980, 163 pp.
Samples of galvanized steel, weathering steel, silver, marble, nylon
and two types of house paint and stress samples of Al 2014 and 7079 were
exposed at nine sites of the Regional Air Monitoring System in the St.
Louis area. Kind speed and direction, temperature, dew point, total
sulfur, S02, H2S, O3, N0X, total hydrocarbons, total suspended
particulate matter, sulfate a nitrate were recorded.
For galvanized steel a pronounced effect of time of first exposure
was observed. The corrosion behavior of weathering steel was not
seasonally dependent. House paint showed discontinuous erosive behavior.
Exposure to the south was more erosive than exposure to the north. Rates
for latex paint were higher than for oil based paint. The erosion rate of
marble decreased with time. At some sites 50% reflectance loss of silver
occurred after 3 months exposure. All samples of Al 7079 at 25 Ksi failed
in less than 255 days, while complete failure at 15 Ksi occurred between
277 and 630 days. For Al 2014 more scatter was observed.
The pollution levels in St. Louis were found to be rather low. Ozone
showed similar seasonal changes as the temperature. Sites close to the
center of St. Louis had lower ozone but higher NOx and total hydrocarbon
levels. Sulfate was about twice as high in summer as in winter. A first
attempt at multiple regression analysis was made. Apparent
inconsistencies in the estimated effects are believed to be due to
multi-collinearity.
19. The Meaning of Durability and Durability Prediction. G. Frohnsdorff and
L. W. Masters. Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM
STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 17-30.
The concept of durability is not well defined. The term durability
is often used to imply the possession of qualities associated with long
life. In some standards for building components, it is nonquantitative
and implies that design requirements are likely to be exceeded for the
design service life or some other specified period. The new ASTM
Recommended Practice for Developing Short-Term Accelerated Tests for
Prediction of the Service Life of Building Components and Materials (E 362
- 78), is outlined. The application of the recommended practice to
service life prediction is illustrated by an example for work being
planned on protective coatings for steel.
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1979
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metallic Systems. II. Analysis of the
Corrosiveness of a Medium at Atmospheric Testing Stations of Comecon
Countries Based on the Results of Five-Year Tests on Steel, Zinc, Copper
and Aluminum. K. Barton, D. Knotkova-Cermakova, P. V. Strekalov, V. S.
Kemkhadze, V. Kozhukharov, and A. Szobor. Zashch. Met., v. 15, No. 4,
1979, pp. 408-415 (Russian).*
The results of 5 year corrosion tests are outlined for steel, Zn, Cu,
and A1 in rural, industrial, and marine atmospheres. A comparative
evaluation of the corrosiveness of various atmospheres is made on the
basis of the annual duration of wetting of the metal surface and the
content of S02 and CI in the atmosphere.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels Prepared From the Magnetic Fraction of
Urban Refuse. S. D. Cramer, J. P. Carter, and B. S. Covino, Jr.
Resource Recovery and Conservation, v. 4, 1979, pp. 141-159.
I
The magnetic fraction of urban refuse was used as melting stock in
the preparation of a high-strength, low alloy (HSLA) steel and a carbon
steel. Product steels were made from incinerated steel can scrap,
nonincinerated-nondetinned steel can scrap, nonincinerated-detinned steel
can scrap, and dilutions of these scraps with No. 1 heavy melting scrap.
In continuing tests, 101x152x3 ura panels of the product steels were
exposed to industrial, rural, and marine environments to determine their
atmospheric corrosion properties. Panels of the respective commercial
steels were exposed at the same time to establish baseline data for the
test sites.
Weight-loss data are reported for atmospheric exposures of 0.5, 1.0,
1.5, and 3.8 years. The marine environment was the most corrosive; the
industrial environment was the least corrosive. The atmospheric corrosion
resistance of the carbon steel was improved 25 percent by using
incinerated scrap and nonincinerated-nondetinned scrap in the steelmaking
process. In no case was the atmospheric corrosion resistance of the
carbon steel degraded by using the magnetic fraction of urban refuse as
melting stock.
The residual elements responsible for improving the corrosion
resistance of the carbon steel were identified as tin and copper. At the
levels present in the product steels, Cr, Ni, and Pb had no observable
effect of the corrosion resistance of either the HSLA steel or the carbon
steel.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion Rates, Time-Of-Wetness and Relative Humidity. F.
Mansfeld. Werkst. Korros., v. 30, No. 1, 1979, pp. 38-42.*
The effect of relative humidity (RH) on the atmospheric corrosion
rates was studied in laboratory experiments for rust covered steel in air
and air + 1 ppm SO2. While a large effect of NaCl impurities in rust was
found, no effect of SO2 was observed. Time-of-wetness was determined in
outdoor exposure by an atmospheric corrosion monitor, and it was found
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that the time-of-wetness corresponded to RH > 40 percent in Thousand Oaks,
California.
4. Corrosion - Metals Reactions to Achieve Stability. III. Combating
Atmospheric Corrosion. H. E. Trout. Industrial Heating, v. 46, No. 8,
August 1979, pp. 30-31.
The overall effects of atmospheric corrosion are the results of a
number of interrelated factors acting upon the metal. These factors
include moisture in the air, temperature, impurities in the air
(S02, CI, and particles) and metal chemistry. The paper discusses these
aspects of atmospheric corrosion as they affect steels.
5. Electrochemical Properties of Iron Rust. I. Suzuki, N. Masuko, and Y.
Hisamatsu. Corrosion Sci., v. 19, 1979, pp. 521-535.
In order to elucidate the electrochemical properties of iron rust,
galvanostatic cathodic polarization of rusted steel and rust electrodes,
prepared by fixing a piece of rust plate on an acrylic plate with
conductive adhesive, was examined. The change in the amount of
crystalline substances in the rust layer was observed by X-ray
diffraction. The electrochemically active intermediate substances could
not be identified by X-ray diffraction, but their behavior was
distinguished from that of crystalline substances. The rest potential of
the rust electrode was controlled by the equilibrium potential of
intermediate substances. "An overlapping dual electrode" model is
proposed for rusted steel in aqueous solution. Beneficial elements added
to weathering steel inhibit the formation of crystalline magnetite in the
cathodic reduction process of rust and increase the electrical resistance
of the rust layer.
6. Electrochemical Studies of Atmospheric Corrosion. F. B. Mansfeld. NTIS
Report AD-A063922, January 1979, 135 pp.
Electrochemical studies of atmospheric corrosion phenomena have been
performed over a 42 month period. The kinetics of corrosion reactions
occurring under thin electrolyte layers (100-1,000 ym) have been studied
for steel, Zn, Cu and A1 by recording potentiodynamic polarization curves
using a modified atmospheric corrosion monitor (ACM). Normal Tafel
behavior was observed. The limiting current for oxygen reduction
increased linearly with inverse film thickness. Similar experiments in
which corrosion kinetics were determined from polarization resistance
measurements using the CORFIT computer program showed that with decreasing
film thickness the corrosion reaction becomes charge transfer controlled.
Laboratory and outdoor exposure tests have shown that corrosion rates
increase drastically when the electrolyte layers become very thin during
the drying out process at relative humidity (RH) < 100 percent. This
phenomenon has been studied in detail by evaluating the effects of
corrosion product chemistry, RH and SO2. A comparison of corrosion
rates obtained under identical conditions in weight-loss and electro-
chemical experiments has been carried out for steel and zinc as a function
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of RH and electrolyte concentration. The ACM's have been used extensively
to monitor atmospheric corrosion behavior in outdoor exposure. In the
final phase of this project surface analyses have been carried out for
4130 steel and zinc which had been corroding under thin electrolyte
layers.
7. Results of 30 Months Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in St. Louis, MO,
U.S.A. F. Mansfeld. Reliability of Materials for Solar Energy—Workshop
Proceedings, CONF-781228, v. 2, Pt. 1, October 1979, pp. 627-657.
Samples of galvanized steel, weathering steel, silver, marble, and
two types of house paint and stress samples of A1 2014 and 7079 have been
exposed for various lengths of time. Atmospheric data which include wind
speed and direction, temperature, relative humidity, total S, SO2, H2S,
O3» N0X, total hydrocarbon, total suspended particulates, sulfate and
nitrate concentrations have been collected at each of the nine exposure
sites under the regional air monitoring system (RAMS). For galvanized
steel and weathering steel, four different sets have been exposed in order
to study the effect of the atmospheric conditions at first exposure on
subsequent corrosion behavior. House paint showed discontinuous corrosion
behavior with time. Exposure to the south was more corrosive than
exposure to the north for both latex and oil base paint. Tarnishing of
silver plated samples was measured by the reflectance loss and by an
electrochemical technique. At some sites 50 percent reflectance loss
occurred after 3 months exposure. A first attempt has been made to
provide statistical correlation between corrosion and atmospheric data
using a multiple regression model. Some of the apparent inconsistencies
which seem to occur in the estimated effects of pollutants on corrosion
behavior are believed to be due to multi-col1inearity. Corrosion and
pollutant code numbers have been assigned to each test site based on the
average corrosion values and pollutant levels. No obvious correlations
between corrosion behavior and atmospheric conditions can be obtained by
comparison of these numbers.
8. Statistical Assessment of the Effect of Fluctuations in the Atmospheric
Concentration of Sulfur Dioxide on the Corrosion Rate of Metals. Y. N.
Mikhailovskii and V. A. San'ko. Zashch. Met., v. 15, No. 4, 1979, pp.
432-437 (Russian).*
To obtain functional relations between the corrosion rates of metals
and degree of atmospheric contamination by SO2, statistical data on SO2
concentration variation in the rural and urban areas was obtained and
analyzed. The corrosion rate of magnesium-alloy MA2-1 was maximum in the
winter months. The corrosion rate increased linearly with S02 content in
the atmosphere up to 35-40 mg/m3. At>100 mg/m3, the stimulating effect of
S02 decreased. For Cd, Zn, steel, and Cu the corrosion rate increase per
100 mg S02/m3 was 2.0, 2.0, 32.0, and 2.6 mg/m^-h, respectively. The
corrosion rate of metals in the urban atmosphere was 15 to 20 times higher
than that in rural atmospheres.
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9. The Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steel. J. E. Truman.
Stainless Steel Ind., v. 7, January 1979, pp. 11-13 and 17.
In several programs of work, initiated in 1938, sheet samples of
various grades of stainless steel were exposed on a laboratory roof in
Sheffield for periods of up to 5 years. Weight loss, extent of surface
and maximum pit depth were compared for the different steel grades and
surface finishes. A decrease in weight loss with increasing molybdenum
content is confirmed. Corrosion rates currently experienced are generally
lower than those encountered in earlier tests, due probably to changes in
the type and/or quantity of atmospheric pollution.
10. Use of Building Surfaces in the Passive Abatement of Gaseous Air
Pollutants. H. S. Judeikis. J. Architectural Research, v. 7, No. 1,
March 1979, pp. 28-33.
The potential utilization of building surfaces as a passive means of
air pollution abatement is considered here. Representative data from the
literature on the removal of gaseous air pollutants (S02, ozone, N0X)
and interaction with common building surfaces (metals and non-metals) are
reviewed. Based on these data, sample calculations indicate the magnitude
of reduction of indoor pollutant levels anticipated through the use of
these materials.
1978
1. Acid Precipitation in the Netherlands. A. J. Vermeulen. Environ. Sci.
Tech., v. 12, No. 9, September 1978, pp. 1017-1021.
Around 1966, the highest acid precipitation measurements in the world
(on a yearly basis) were made in the Netherlands. Damage to materials is
mentioned as one of the environmental consequences of acid rain.
2. ASTM Atmospheric Corrosion Testing: 1906 to 1976. W. H. Ailor.
Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM
STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1978, pp. 129-151.
In the early fall of 1976 ASTM Committee G-l on Corrosion of Metals
exposed more than 40 ferrous and nonferrous sheet materials at 5 test
locations. These exposures are a part of the third 20-year atmospheric
test program generated by ASTM corrosion groups since 1932. Metals
include new alloys, tempers, and coatings developed since the initiation
of the last program.
Exposures have triplicate exposed panels for removal periods of 2, 5,
10, and 20 years at test sites at Kure Beach, North Carolina, 24-m (80-ft)
lot; Newark-Kearny, New Jersey; Point Reyes, California; State College,
Pennsylvania, and Panama Canal Zone,
Ten metal suppliers are participating in this new long-term test
program. Among the metals exposed are Al, Cu, Pb, Mg, Ni, stainless
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steel, Ti, and Zn alloys. Aluminized- and galvanized-coated steels are
also being tested.
Evaluation of these materials includes weight loss (corrosion rates),
pitting depth, and changes in mechanical properties.
One task group is monitoring weather conditions at the sites and
another group is calibrating the site corrosivities through periodical
short-term (1 and 2 year) exposures of steel and zinc panels during the
course of the 20-year tests.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion. M. G. Fontana and N. D. Greene. Chapt. 8 in
Corrosion Engineering, McGraw-Hill Company, 2d ed., 1978, pp. 265-268.
A summary of the facts known about atmospheric corrosion is given:
the main corrosive agents, the corrosion rates of steel in different
atmospheres, the corrosion due to moisture, the high resistance to
corrosion of steel alloyed with nickel and copper and especially of
stainless steel.
4. Atmospheric Corrosion. T. Hakkarainen. Tutkimus Tek., 1978, No. 4-5, pp.
46-54 (Finnish).*
The main factors affecting the atmospheric corrosion of metals are
the wetting time of the metal surface and the SO2 content of the air.
With the exception of carbon steel, metals kept outdoors developed a dense
layer of corrosion products which protect the metal surface from further
corrosion. The most common protective measure for steel surfaces is to
isolate them with a surface coating. Reliable data on corrosion rates can
be obtained from long-range field tests during which the climatic
conditions are recorded.
5. Atmospheric Corrosion in Marine Environments. R. A. Legault and V. P.
Pearson. Corrosion, v. 34, No. 12, December 1978, pp. 433-437.
It has been demonstrated that the natural atmospheric corrosion
behavior of low alloy steels in marine environments can be accurately
described by an equation of the form: AW = Kt^. With this
relationship, reliable predictions of long-term weight losses can be made
from as few as two sets of determinations obtained in relatively short
exposures. The reliability of this relationship has also been established
for galvanized and aluminized steels.
6. Atmospheric Corrosion of Laminar Composites Consisting of Copper on
Stainless Steel. A. Baboian, G. Haynes, and P. Sexton. Atmospheric
Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646,
edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1978, pp. 185-203.
Atmospheric corrosion of laminar composites consisting of copper on
stainless steels has been studied through direct exposure of copper-clad
ferritic and austenitic stainless steels to provide information on
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Fe-36
galvanic effects at cut edges and pores in the copper cladding.
Qualitative and quantitative results after exposure for 7.5 years are
presented and environmental effects are considered. Application of
electrochemical techniques for predicting galvanically induced localized
corrosion are discussed and related to environmental conditions and alloy
composition. Mechanisms for galvanic pitting and crevice corrosion are
correlated with service performance of the copper-stainless steel couples.
7. Atmospheric Laboratory Bench. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, V. A. San'ko, N. A.
Sokolov, and P. N. Kudryavtsev. Zashch. Met., v. 14, No. 4, 1978,
pp. 515-517 (Russian).*
A laboratory bench is described which is used for corrosion tests of
metals as applicable to industrial regions. When used in rural regions,
S02 is added to each cell to imitate the industrial environment. The test
chamber (0.7 x 1.4 ra) is divided into several cells. Operation of the
chamber is automated and it can record the air humidity from 60 to 100
percent and of temperature from 15 to 35°C. Corrosion curves are plotted
for Cd, Ni, Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mg under fall and winter conditions in rural
regions, with surrounding air containing 2 mg S02/m3.
8. Corrosion in Old Iron Artifacts. F. K. Naumann. Werkst. Korros., v. 29,
No. 5, 1978, pp. 332-334 (German).
Examples are given of the selective action of corrosion in old iron
artifacts protected by various natural environments and having varying
degrees of carbonization. The structure of the corroded area is examined
microscopically to determine possible steps in corrosion. One of the
oldest examples of a case of intercrystalline stress cracking corrosion is
given.
9. Corrosion Investigations at Panama Canal Zone. M. A. Pelensky, J. J.
Jaworski, and A. Gallaccio. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion
of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1978, p. 58-73.
This paper reports on the progress of investigations being conducted
at the Panama Canal Zone relative to the corrosion of dissimilar metal
couples exposed in the atmosphere, in the soil, and in seawater. Machined
specimens of Al, brass, Mg, monel, steel, stainless steel, and Ti alloys
are included in this study.
Exposure of dissimilar and similar (control) metal couples was
initiated over 2 years ago for a planned maximum 5-year exposure. Couple
replicates (four of each metal) are removed from exposure periodically and
returned to the laboratory for visual examination and weight-loss
determinations to evaluate the corrosion effects of each of the environ-
ments on the various couples. A total of seven removals from each
environmental exposure is planned during the course of the corrosion
investigations. To date, five removals of atmospheric specimens, five
removals of seawater immersion specimens, and four removals of soil burial
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Fe-37
specimens, have been completed over a 2-year period and evaluated by this
laboratory. Results of findings to date are presented in this paper.
10. Corrosion of Carbon Steel During Cyclical Exposure to Wet Elemental
Sulphur and the Atmosphere. D. D. MacDonald, B. Roberts, and J. B. Hyne.
Corrosion Science, v. 18, 1978, pp. 499-501.
The corrosion of carbon steel during cyclical exposure to wet
elemental sulphur (four days) and the atmosphere (six days) has been
investigated. The integral corrosion rate is found to decrease with
successive cycles, thereby demonstrating that oxidation of the sulphide
film confers protection to the underlying steel.
11. Deteriorative Effect of Sulfur Pollution on Materials. J. 0. Nriagu.
Chapt. 1 in Sulfur in the Environment, Part II: Ecological Impacts,
edited by J. 0. Nriagu, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1978, pp. 1-59.
The chapter discusses the deteriorative effects of sulfur on cultural
artifacts and describes the effects on Fe, steel, Cu, Zn, Al, Mg, building
materials, paints, textiles, cement, concrete, paper, and wood.
12. Effects of Air Pollutants on Weathering Steel and Galvanized Steel: A
Chamber Study. F. H. Haynie, J. W. Spence, and J. B. Upham.
Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM
STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1978, pp. 30-47.
A statistically designed laboratory study of the effects of gaseous
air pollutants on materials was completed. Weathering steel and
galvanized steel were among materials exposed in controlled environment
chambers. The direct and synergistic effects of relative humidity, S02,
N02, and ozone in a programmed dew/'..ight cycle were studied. For
weathering steel, S02, relative humidity, and interaction between the two
were the important corrosion rate factors. For galvanized steel, only the
direct effects of S02 and relative humidity were important. The remainder
of the fifteen possible direct and synergistic effects were statistically
insignificant.
13. Extent of the Destructive Effect of Sulfur Dioxide on Some Chromium Steel
Grades Under Different Humidity in Air. Translated by B. Cwynar.
Translation, BISI 17219, December 1978, 17 pp.
This article includes the results of field investigations that were
realized at two experimental stations situated within the acting range of
a point source emission of S02 and differing in the emission value of this
gas. The investigations intended to determine the influence of the air
humidity on the intensity of the corrosive effect of atmospheres
containing various amounts of S02.
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14. Laboratory Testing of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel. T. Sydberger
and R. Ericsson. Werkst. Korros., v. 28, No. 3, 1977, pp. 154-158.
Laboratory exposure tests on mild steel were run with controlled pH,
temperature, S02 concentration, and air flow rate. The metal surface is
affected by atmospheric factors such as wind direction and velocity, and
location and orientation of the metal surface. With increasing SO2
concentration, the mild steel corrosion mechanism changes, giving
corrosion products with protective properties different from those formed
under normal atmospheric conditions. Wetting of steel surfaces due to
rain, fog, or dew plays an important role in the atmospheric corrosion of
steel.
15. Surface Characterization of Atmospherically Corroded and Blast Cleaned
Steel. C. Calabrese and J. R. Allen. Corrosion, v. 34, No. 10, 1978,
pp. 331-338.
The surface of carbon steel samples was corroded in an industrial
atmosphere, abrasive blasted, environmentally corrosion tested, and
examined by optical and electron micropscopy. When corrosion tested at
25° C and 50 to 100 percent relative humidity, the industrially corroded
and sandblasted steel quickly formed new corrosion product. For the same
exposures, the new mill or corroded/ground/blasted steels showed no new
corrosion. Atmospheric corrosion of steel proceeded heterogeneously, with
the corrosion products containing atmospheric chlorine and sulfur. When
sandblasted, the steel surface was layered by plastic deformation of the
pit walls trapping the scale product in surface folds. In the presence of
moisture, the trapped corrosion sites became active nuclei for the rapidly
formed new corrosion. In contrast, the normal passive oxide on
uncontaminated steel retarded new corrosion. Sites contaminated with
sulfur or chlorine were responsible for initiating new corrosion, and were
the likely sites for ultimate paint and coating failures.
16. The Changing Chemistry of Precipitation and Its Effects on Vegetation and
Materials. E. B. Cowling and L. S. Bochinger. Control and Dispersion
of Air Pollutants, Emphasis on N0X and Particulate Emissions, edited
by R. L. Byers, D. W. Cooper and W. Licht. American Institute of
Chemical Engineers Symp., Series No. 175, v. 74, 1978, pp. 134-142.
The results of European precipitation measuring network studies are
reported. The growth and development of plants, the reproductive capacity
of fish and the stability of exposed masonry, stone, and metal structures
are discussed as they are affected by sulfuric and nitric acid.
17. The Corrosion and Protection of Metals in the Building and Construction
Industries. B. G. Callaghan. J. Oil Color Chemists Assoc., v. 61, No.
11, November 1978, pp. 411-418.
A short review of the mechanism of corrosion by bimetallic action and
by factors in the environment, estimates of the rate of corrosion of
different metals in areas of South Africa, and a summary of the use of
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Fe-39
different metals in building and the methods used to protect them is
given. Effects on steel, low-alloy steels, copper and copper alloys,
aluminum and its alloys, stainless steel, lead and zinc, are included.
18. The Corrosion Prevention History of the Eiffel Tower. H. Rabate.
Applica, v. 85, No. 17, 1978, pp. 12-13.
The important data of anti-corrosive measures between 1892 and 1969
are outlined, including the type of primers and topcoat, whenever
available. Red lead, iron oxide, lead silicochromate, linseed oil and
alkyd resin were featured in the formulations last used.
19. The Influence of SO2 on the Corrosion of Steel. N. G. Vanneberg.
Extended Abstracts, 154th ECS Meeting, Pittsburgh, Pa., v. 78, No. 2,
October 1978, p. 314.
Metal samples were exposed to a test atmosphere with SO2 concentra-
tion (SDC) between 0.01 to 100 ppm and a relative humidity (RH) between 20
to 100 percent at controlled concentrations of other gases, gas flow and
temperature. At RH above 80 percent and SDC of 0.1 ppm, every SO2
molecule which strikes a steel surface is absorbed and converted to
sulfuric acid or sulfates. The further corrosion is determined not only
by the sulfur content in the atmosphere but also by the supply of S02. At
high concentrations of SO2 (above 10 ppm) SO2 acts as an inhibitor.
20. The Influence of Sodium Chloride on the Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel.
R. Ericsson. Werkst. Korros., v. 29, No. 6, 1978, p. 400.*
Mild steel specimens covered with NaCl crystals (8jjgNaCl/cin2) were
exposed to an S02-free atmosphere at different relative humidities. The
combined effect of NaCl crystals on a steel surface and S02 in the
atmosphere were investigated. On exposure of specimens with NaCl in an
SC>2-free atmosphere the extent of corrosion increased with increasing
relative humidity from 58 to 90 percent, interrupted by a sharp min. at
about 87 percent relative humidity. Scanning electron microscopy studies
showed that tower shaped corrosion products were formed at a high relative
humidity while filiform corrosion appeared when the relative humidity was
lowered. At 90 percent relative humidity more corrosion was observed with
clean steel specimens and an SO2 supply of lyg/cm2-h than with NaCl
crystals on the surfaces (8yg NaCl/cm2) in the absence of SC^. In the
combined influence of NaCl on the steel surfaces and S02 in the
atmosphere, a synergistic effect was noticed at 90 percent relative
humidity. At 70 percent relative humidity no influence of an S02 supply
of lug S02/cni2-h on the corrosion of steel specimens with NaCl crystals on
their surfaces could be observed.
21. The Results of a Thirty-Month Exposure Study of Steels and Other Materials
to Airborne Sulfur Pollutants in St. Louis, Missouri. F. Mansfeld.
Corrosion/78, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston,
Texas, Paper No. 88, 1978, 16 pp.
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Samples of galvanized steel, weathering steel, silver, house paints,
marble, and stressed aluminum alloy were exposed at nine sites in St.
Louis, Missouri, for up to 30 months, starting in October 1974, in a study
done by Rockwell International Corporation for the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Atmospheric data were also collected at the same
sites. Samples were evaluated by various techniques, for example, weight
loss and time-to-failure measurements. Significant differences in
corrosion behavior and atmospheric conditions were observed for the
different test sites. The corrosion data are presented and discussed in
detail. In the final report to EPA, the corrosion data will be correlated
with air quality parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, S02,
H2S, particulate sulfate and nitrate, 03, nitrogen oxides, and total
hydrocarbon in order to determine the effects of these parameters on
atmospheric corrosion rates.
22. The Structure of Iron-Carboxy1ic Acid Surface Films. J. C. Wood.
Corrosion, v. 34, No. 2, 1978, pp. 70-72.
Protective films containing a COOH group were formed on iron, and
their merits as corrosion inhibitors compared. Films of benzoic acid and
m-nitrobenzoic acid gave the best protection against S02, while oxalate
films gave some protection. A stearic acid film did not protect against
corrosion by SO2. The bond type between film and metal was studied with
X-ray photo-electron spectroscopy.
1977
1. Aims and Results of the Effect Inventory of North Rhine Westphalia. G.
Scholl, B. Prinz and D. Schwela. Proc. 4th. Intern. Union Air Pollut.
Prev. Assoc., Intern. Clean Air Congr. (Tokyo, Japan, May 16-20, 1977),
1977, pp. 48-51.
Starting in 1972, the effects of air polution were surveyed in North
Rhine Westphalia. Standardized acceptors were exposed on sites which were
distributed systematically, in analogy to a related air pollution survey.
The survey included monitoring of the effects of integrated air pollution
exposure on lichen thalli (hypogymnia physodes) and steel plates, as well
as monitoring of the lead burden of newborn babies and their mothers. The
survey showed that the effects of phytotoxic air pollution are
significantly higher in the Ruhr area than in the boundary zones
(especially the Rhine area outside Duisburg). At least 64% of the spatial
variation in lichen mortality can be attributed to air pollution.
Corrosion rate measurements on steel plates showed that in the area which
extended along the Rhine River from south of Cologne to north of
Leverkusen, the maximum corrosion rate of 2.97 g/sq.m/day was only half
the maximum rate found in the "Ruhr Area West" of 5.43 g/sq.ra/day.
2. Application Properties. The Effect of Climatic and Pollutant Factors on
the Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel. Laboratory Predetermination. J.
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Fe-4 1
Van Muylder and M. Pourbaix. Comm. Eur. Communities (Rep.) EUR 5840,
1977, 53 pp. (French).*
The corrosion of steels Fe 37, Fe 52, a weathering steel, and a
corrosion-resistant marine steel depended on the chloride and sulfur
dioxide contents of the rain water as well as on the metal temperature
during drying. The best protective oxide coatings were obtained by
corroding in 10~2 M NaHSOj nonpolluted-rain, rinsing, and drying at
approximately 60#C.
3. Corrosion Due to the Action of Industrial Emissions on Steel Structures in
the Industrial Region of Ostrava, Czechoslovakia. M. Kulis. Werkst.
Korros., v. 28, No. 2, February 1977, pp. 89-97 (German).
Corrosion was assessed for a number of representative structures,
namely: (1) high-voltage lines; (2) steel railway bridges and underpasses;
(3) gasholders; (4) winding towers; and (5) contact lines and masts.
Regular renewal, steel coating, efficient processes for corrosion
prevention, and control of industrial emissions are required.
4. Corrosion Environment Factors on Automobile Bodies. A. M. Kalson, Jr. SAE
No. 770291, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1977, 4 pp.
The service life of an automobile body is dependent upon several
atmospheric environmental factors. Through surveys and data interpreta-
tion, a comparison of these factors in various areas of the country is
shown. Through the comparison of the survey data from each area, it was
determined that automobile body corrosion is caused by the presence of
such agents as road dust and dirt, salts, gases such as S02, and the
presence of moisture in the form of rain, snow, fog, dew, or high
humidity. Corrosion rates in each region, as measured by perforated body
panels, were dependent upon the amount of the foreign agents present and
the degree and duration of moisture. Also, corrosion rates under dynamic
conditions may greatly differ under static conditions in the same
environment or electrolyte.
5. Effects of Sulphur Dioxide on Materials. S. K. Gajendragadkar. Chem. Age
India, v. 28, No. 8, 1977, pp. 673-677.
A discussion covers metereological factors (humidity, temperature,
sunlight, wind) which influence the effect of atmospheric sulfur dioxide
on materials; the effect of sulfur dioxide on various materials, including
the corrosion of metals, chemical action on marble, limestone, and other
building materials, embrittlement and weakness of paper and leather, and
weakening and disintegration of textiles; corrosion acceleration by
particulate matter which absorbs sulfur dioxide from the atmosphere; and
the principal pollutant and other factors causing damage to metals,
building materials, paints, leather, paper, textiles, dyes, and rubber.
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6. Effects on Economic Materials and Structures. J. E. Yocom and J. B.
Upham. Chapt. 2 in Air Pollution, edited by A. C. Stern, Academic
Press, New York, N.Y., v. 2, 1977, pp. 65-116.
Mechanisms of deterioration in polluted atmospheres are discussed,
including factors that influence atmosphere deterioration. Methods of
measuring atmospheric deterioration are given. Damage to metals, building
materials, protective coatings, leather, paper, textiles, textile dyes,
elastomers, glass and ceramics, works of art, electronic components is
discussed along with the economics of air pollution effects.
7. Evaluation of the Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Structural Steels.
J. L. Pagniez and J. C. Charbonnier. Rev. Metall., v. 74, No. 6, June
1977, pp. 359-365 (French).
Testing methods and experimental results for bare and coated low
carbon steels are described. A technique consisting of field exposure of
samples of thin sheet for short times (3 months) was found sufficient to
judge the comparative aggressivity of different locations or, at a given
location, the aggressivity of different seasons. Some comparisons are
made with accelerated laboratory tests.
8. Evaluation of the Behavior of Structural Steels Exposed to the
Atmosphere—Test Methods and Examples of Experimental Results Concerning
Uncoated Steel or Steel Unprotected by Paint. J. L. Pagniez and J. C.
Charbonnier. Mater. Tech., v. 65, No. 5, May 1977, pp. 253-258
(French).
Test results are presented which make it possible to evaluate the
behavior of certain common structural steels exposed for several years
to the atmosphere at three stations in France—namely, Saint-Germain-
en-Laye (semirural atmosphere), Saint-Denis (industrial atmosphere), and
Biarnitz (maritime atmosphere). An analysis is then made of results
obtained with the aid of accelerated laboratory tests designed to simulate
the behavior of iron and steel products in different types of atmosphere
with the aid of a salt mist and with the aid of immersion-emersion test.
Finally, the results of short-term tests of thin mild steel sheets are
presented with a view to comparing the aggressivity of different sites or
the aggressivity of a single site at different times.
9. Galvanic Corrosion In the Atmosphere. V. Kucera. Rapp.-Korrosionsinst.,
No. 16, 1977, 43 pp. (Swedish).*
The galvanic atmospheric corrosion of 86 selected combinations of
carbon steel, stainless steel Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Al, anodized Al, Sn, Cr, Mg,
and weathering steel was investigated at test sites in rural, urban, and
marine atmospheres using the wire-on-bolt method. The influence of
exposure in a rain-sheltered position and the influence of the distance
from the sea and the position along the Swedish coast were studied with a
restricted number of mflterifll combinations.
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10. Investigation into Atmospheric Corrosion With an Electrochemical Cell.
W. Friehe and W. Schwenk. Stahl Eisen, v. 97, July 1977, pp. 685-686
(German).
An investigation into the possibility of using a corrosion cell
consisting of alternate plates of steel and copper separated by plastic
insulators for the assessment of the likely corrosion behavior of
constructional steels in service showed that such short-term tests were
not indicative of the corrosion behavior of the steels over long times.
The readings from the cell were markedly affected by the weather
conditions and over a fairly long period would provide an overall
assessment of weather factors at a particular site.
11. Physicoraathematical Modeling of Steel Corrosion Under Atmospheric
Conditions. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, V. V. Agafonov, and V. A. San'ko.
Zashch. Met., v. 13, No. 5, 1977, pp. 515-522 (Russian).*
The continuous measurement of the corrosion rate of steel St. 3 wire
for 3 years by a resistivity method, the time of water-phase film
retention on the metal, concentration of SC^, and of total solar radiation
were used in modeling atmospheric steel corrosion in agricultural regions.
The parameters of the model were determined by regressive analysis of
corrosion and meteorological statistical data. Coefficients were obtained
encompassing the effect of temperature and minor S02 concentrations on the
corrosion rate of steels. The strong effect of solar exposure on the rate
of photochemical reaction of SO2 oxidation to SO3 and the activation of
corrosion was observed. The model allows calculation from the known
meteorological data of the expected corrosion rate with ±12 percent
accuracy and 0,95 probability.
12. Short-Term Atmospheric Corrosion of Mild Steel at Two Weather and Pollu-
tion Monitored Sites. J. B. Johnson, P. Elliot, M. A. Winterbottom, and
G. C, Wood. Corrosion Science, v. 17, 1977, pp. 691-700.
Results are recorded of topographical details, weight loss, and cor-
rosion product analysis for short-term atmospheric exposure of mild steel,
in relation to weather and pollutant factors. Various structured
corrosion features, for example, doughnut-1 ike, were noted. The major
corrosion product found by Y~Fe2®3*"^2®» with some Y~fe2®3*^^2® an<^ a~
FeOOH. Wet initial conditions of exposure and subsequent high levels of
humidity were found to have the dominant overriding effect in promot ing
corrosion losses. Smoke was shown to be capable of exerting a very strong
influence upon the effective corrosivity of atmospheric sulfur dioxide.
13. Study of Atmospheric Corrosion Inhibitors on Metal Surfaces by X-Ray
Electron Spectroscopy. A. N. Novitskii, Y. V. Salyn, and V. I.
Nefedov. Zashch. Met., v. 13, No. 2, 1977, pp. 209-212 (Russian).
The corrosion of aluminum alloy D-16, copper, and steel and the
action of corrosion inhibitors were studied by X-ray electron
spectroscopy. Four inhibitors were tested: Akor-1 (p-alkyl
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Fe-44
nitrobenzene), BMP (R-Ph-S02NHC02NH2), G-2 (Hexamethylenimine m-
nitrobenzoate), and Cr-Gu (guanidine chromate). The inhibitors were
adsorbed on oxide films fromed on the metal surfaces. BMP, G-2, and Cr—Gu
were tightly bound to the surface, preventing their evaporation at 10"^
torr.
1976
1. Acid Precipitation. G. E. Likens. Chemical and Engineering News, v. 54,
No. 48, November 22, 1976, pp. 29-44.
The acidity of rain and snow falling on parts of the United States
and Europe has been rising for reasons that are still not entirely clear
and with consequences that have yet to be evaluated. Acidity of
precipitation has increased markedly in the eastern United States and in
Scandinavia during the past two decades.
2. Application of Thin-Layer Electrochemistry to the Study of Atmospheric
Corrosion. C. Fiaud and F. Tirbonod. Met.: Corros.-Ind., v. 51, 1976,
pp. 388-393 (French).*
The method of thin-layer electrochemistry has the advantage of
defining well the electrochemical system under study. The variation of
polarization resistance as a function of the thickness of the thin layer
on Armco iron in 1M Na2S0l+ solution was studied. The polarization
resistance is of the same order of magnitude in the case of
atmospherically condensed water acting as the thin layer. The method was
also applied to the study of a well-known volatile inhibitor, cyclo-
hexylamine carbonate (CCA), for iron and steel. The CCA is predominantly
an anodic inhibitor. The effect was studied of (NH^^CrO^ on the
atmospheric corrosion of the aluminum alloy Au4Gl. The classical
electrochemical methods used for the study of corrosion in solutions
(current-potential curves as polarization resistance) likewise give, in
this case, useful indications concerning both the degree of protection of
the metal surface and knowledge concerning the fundamental processes of
atmospheric corrosion.
3. Atmospheric Attack (Steel Dowels) and Measures Taken. T. Skoulikidos.
Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. Deterior. Building Stones, 1976, pp. 347-349
(French).
The atmospheric corrosion of steel dowels in marble and concrete
structures in Athens due to the subsequent cracking of adjacent concrete
is discussed. Measures for eliminating corrosion are discussed, and it is
concluded that titanium steel alloy dowels containing 4 percent Mn and 40
percent aluminum should be used to replace the corroded dowels.
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Fe-45
4. Effect of Climate on the Formation and Structure of the Protective Layers
on Corrosion-Resistant Steels. H. Baum and K. Roessler. Freiberg.
Forschungsh. B., v. B189, 1976, pp. 81-95 (German).
Properties of rust layers were determined for corrosion-resistant
steels depending on the aggressiveness of the atmosphere, the exposure
time, and composition of the steel. The structure and thickness of the
rust layer were examined metallographically. X-ray analyses were made for
element distribution. Rust growth with moisture absorption and desorption
and sulfate spot distribution were also examined.
5. Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on Materials: A Chamber Study. F. H.
Haynie, J. W. Spence, and J. B. Upham. NTIS Report PB-251580, 1976,
98 pp.
This document describes a comprehensive laboratory study using
specially designed controlled environment exposure chambers to assess the
effects of gaseous air pollutants (S02, N02> and ozone) on a variety of
materials. Materials included weathering steel, galvanized steel,
aluminum alloys, paints, drapery fabrics, white sidewall tire rubber,
vinyl house siding, and marble. The exposure experiment was statistically
designed using a two-level fatorial arrangement to identify the
environmental factors or combination of factors, or both, that cause
materials damage. Over 200 different direct and synergistic effects were
examined. The study revealed that only 22 of the possible effects were
statistically significant at better than a 95 percent confidence level.
Sulfur dioxide, relative humidity and the interaction between them were
the main factors causing effects. A number of empirical functions were
developed that relate materials effects to various factors causing the
effects. An exceptionally good relationship was obtained for the
corrosion of weathering steel. The lack of statistical significance that
was found for the large majority of effects that were studied is equally
as important for the significant effects. As a result a large number of
material-pollutant combinations may be excluded from further detailed
study.
6. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocom and N.
Grappone. Research Corporation of New England, Wethersfield,
Connecticut, NTIS Report PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp.
This study assesses the available knowledge on the effects of air
pollutants on materials with special emphasis on those pollutants emitted
from or related to emissions from fossil fuel power plants. The study
indicates the relative importance of these various effects, summarizes
current research on the material effects of air pollution, and identifies
areas of needed research. The areas of suggested future research include
the effects of atmospheric sulfates on materials, the effects of air
pollutants on concrete, evaluation of the effects of acid smut from
oil-fired boilers, and the development of more accurate estimates of S02
damage costs to materials.
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7. Effects of Sulfur Dioxide and Acid Precipitation on Metals and Anti-Rust
Painted Steel. V. Kucera. Ambio., v. 5, No. 5-6, 1976, pp. 243-248.
Data on the corrosion rates of unprotected C-steel, Zn and galvanized
steel, Ni and Ni-plated steel, Cu, Al, and anti-rust painted steel due to
S02 and acid precipitation in Sweden are reported. Corrosion rates are
significantly higher in polluted urban atmospheres than in rural
atmospheres because of the high concentrations of airborne sulfur
pollutants in urbanized areas. Economic damage is significant in the case
of galvanized, nickel-plated, and painted steel, and painted wood. Damage
in the United States in 1970 is estimated at about $7.10/yr/person while
the corresponding Swedish figure is $4.30/yr/person.
8. Electrical Conductivity Changes in a-FeOOH and g-FeOOH Upon Surface
Dehydration. K. Kaneko and K. Inouye. Bull. Chem. Soc ., Japan, v. 49,
No. 12, 1976, pp. 3689-3690.
The electrical conductivity of a-FeOOH and g-FeOOH, preheated at 100
to 140eC in vacuo, was determined over the temperature range from 0 to
140°C. The conductivity increased considerably with a rise in the
preheating temperature. The increase appears to be due to Fe^+ ions
produced by surface dehydration in the preheating.
9. Electrochemical Monitoring of Atmospheric Corrosion Phenomena, F.
Mansfeld and J. V. Kenkel. Corrosion Science, v. 16, No. 3, 1976, pp.
111-122.
An atmospheric corrosion monitor (ACM) which consists of copper/zinc
or copper/steel couples, has been used to study various aspects of
atmospheric corrosion. Calibration of ACMs is carried out under 1 ml of
distilled water. A detailed study was related to the effect of salt
particles on atmospheric corrosion. While no current flow and no
corrosion occurred on clean surfaces, large increases of the galvanic
current were observed when salt particles were placed on the ACM surface
provided that the relative humidity (RH) in the test cell was higher than
the RH value of a saturated solution of the salt particle applied. The
ACM has also been used to monitor changes in the composition of gaseous
atmospheres (air, N2, N2 plus SO2). Outdoor exposure of the copper/zinc
and copper/steel ACM suggests that this instrument can be used not only to
monitor time-of-wetness, but also the corrosivity of a test environment,
10. Electrolytes for Studying the Electrode Processes on Thin Films During
Atmospheric Corrosion Tests. G. K. Dzhincharadze, V. S. Kemkhadze, S.
N. Mandzhgaladze, and E. V. Glonti. Zashch. Met., v. 12, No. 1, 1976,
pp. 113-115 (Russian).*
The electrode potentials and polarizabilities of St 3 steel were
studied under thin films of rainwater and dew representing inland
conditions and of seawater and 0.1N NaCl representing coastal conditions.
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11. Investigation Into Sulfur Dioxide Corrosion of Iron. A. J. Sprott.
Prepr. Pap., Annu. Conf. Australas. Corros. Assoc., Paper No. 29, 1976,
9 pp.*
The mechanism was studied of atmospheric corrosion of iron in indus-
trial atmospheres containing S02 from the combustion of sulfur-con taining
oil. After weathering for some time the rust components are a- and y-
FeOOH which are separated from the substrate by an FegC^ layer. A clean
iron surface generally contains approximately 0.1 yg H20/cm2 at a relative
humidity of 22 to 97 percent. As the rust film increases, an anodic
reaction occurs at the substrate surface and a cathodic reduction at the
FejO^/FeOOH interface followed by atmospheric oxidation. The electrons
flow through the magnetite layer and the Fe2+ ionic flow occurs via H20
molecules which are retained in the magnetite voids. Sulfur dioxide
becomes involved in the corrosion after oxidation to SO^-2 which
accelerates the corrosion rate because of an increase in Fe2+ transfer at
the iron surface to the FeOOH layer. The only sulfur-containing compound
is FeS0tt»4H20 in long-term corrosion. The S02 uptake by the surface is
irreversible and it becomes chemisorbed until its oxidation to SO^-2. For
the 0.5- to 4-hr test, S02 gas was labeled with sulfur. The S02 uptake
by absorption increased from 1 x 10^ to 38 x 10^ m/s with increasing
relative humidity from 65 to 100 percent.
12. Methods for Determination of Corrosion Losses. M. Kulis. Ochr. Koroz.,
v. 19, No. 9, 1976, pp. 235-237 (Polish).
In a review with two references, the atmospheric corrosion of alloys
(for example, steels), its prevention, and determination of corrosion
losses are discussed.
13. Physical and Economic Damage Functions for Air Pollutants by Receptor.
B. Liu and E. S. Yu. Report No. EPA-600/5-76-011, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, September 1976, 172 pp.
This study is primarily concerned with evaluating regional economic
damages to human health, material, and vegetation, and of soiling
resulting from air pollution. This study represents a step forward in
methodological development of air pollution damage estimation. It
attempts to construct essential frameworks of the physical and economic
damage functions which can be used for calculating comparable regional
damage estimates for the several important receptors—human health,
material, and household soiling—regardless that these damage estimates
may appear to be tentative. More importantly, aggregate economic damage
functions instrumental for transforming the multifarious aspects of the
pollution problem into a single, homogeneous monetary unit are tentatively
derived and illustrated. It is hoped that these results will be of some
use to guide policymakers as they make decisions on the implementation of
programs to achieve "optimal" pollution levels for this country. Given
the experimental nature of the methodological and statistical procedures
and the degree of uncertainty associated with the study results, a great
deal of caution should be exercised in using the products of this
research.
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14. Protection Against Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Translated by J. R.
Duncan, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1976, 194 pp.
This book, discusses the atmosphere as a corrosive environment,
mechanisms and kinetics of atmospheric corrosion, non-uniform and
structural corrosion phenomena, principles of protection against
atmospheric corrosion, and technical and scientific considerations in
atmospheric corrosion protection.
15. Steel from Ferrous Can Scrap. S. D. Cramer and H. V. Makar. 5th Mineral
Waste Utilization Symp., U.S. Bureau of Mines and IIT Research
Institute, April 13-14, 1976, pp. 398-406.
This paper describes a Federal Bureau of Mines' study on the
evaluation of ferrous can scrap as melting stock for steelmaking. Ferrous
can scrap, pretreated in various ways, was melted and cast into 50-pound
and 800-pound ingots. Melt compositions corresponded to carbon steel and
high-strength low-alloy steel products. Rebar and steel plate were rolled
from these ingots. Mechanical properties of the resulting products,
including tensile properties, impact strength, and hardness, were
determined. A comprehensive corrosion study is also being conducted on
the products. Atmospheric weathering data for panels exposed up to 1.5
years at marine, rural, and industrial sites are reported. The
compositions of the corrosion films were determined. Laboratory corrosion
studies, including CASS-spray tests, were also conducted on the steel
products made from ferrous can scrap.
The tensile properties and hardness of the can scrap products were
comparable to those of similar commercial products. Under laboratory
conditions, no difficulties were encountered in hot rolling the can scrap
products, the impact strength of the can scrap carbon steels was not
adversely affected by the residual elements. The atmospheric corrosion
resistance of carbon steels made from incinerated and nonincinerated-
nondetinned can scrap was equivalent to or better than that of a similar
commercial product in marine, rural, and industrial environments.
Residual tin enhanced the corrosion resistance of the scrap carbon steels.
The atmospheric corrosion resistance of can scrap COR-TEN B was unaffected
by the residual elements.
16. Structural Analysis of Monuments. S. Angelides. Chapter in The
Acropolis-Hellenic Republic, Ministry of Culture and Science, Athens,
Greece, 1976, pp. 19-22.
During Balanos' restoration of the Acropolis in 1903, steel
reinforcements were added both inside and between the marble pieces thus
changing the structural foundation .of the monument. The internal and
external cracks in the stone and the discontinuity in the joints are due
in part to the oxidation and inevitable expansion of the steel
reinforcements. Gamma-ray examination has identified the location of the
steel in the marble, the degree of its oxidation, and the location of
internal cracks in the marble. A steel beam was placed in the Erechtheion
of the Acropolis in order to take the weight off the Caryatid statues. It
was found that this beam, placed in 1903, is not serving its intended
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purpose and must be removed. The southern and western walls of the
Erechtheion are unsafe. All parts of the Erechtheion, except the
foundation, need structural reinforcement.
17. The Corrosion of Steel and the Dangerous Chlorides. A. Bresle. Met.
Finish., v. 74, No. 8, 1976, pp. 23-25 and 30.
The role of chloride in the atmospheric corrosion of steel has been
underestimated; sulfur compounds are considered as the leading rust
accelerators. Recent evidence indicates that chloride is present in the
immediate boundary layer between rust and steel, in an appreciable
concentration. Chloride was found to induce corrosion in a concentration
as low as 10 rag Cl/m^ steel surface, even on steel surfaces which have
been cleaned by conventional pickling. Ordinary sand blasting techniques
are not considered to clean rusty steel surfaces sufficiently in the
preliminary step in protective coating.
18. The Effect of Copper (II) on the Formation of y-FeOOH. K. Inouye, K.
Ichimuro, K. Kaneko, and T. Ishikawa. Corrosion Science, v. 16, 1976,
pp. 507-517.
Various y-FeOOH samples have been synthesized by air oxidation of
FeSOl+ solution with or without addition of Cu(ll) (0-46 at. pet. Cu/Fe)
and examined by X-ray diffraction, electron-microscopic observation, BET
surface area determination, infra red absorption, DTA and chemical
analyses. A destructive action of doped Cu(ll) ions on the crystal
formation was apparently recognized and discussed based on the
crystallographic structure. The possible mechanism of crystallization of
y-FeOOH appears to differ between pure and Cu-doped y-FeOOH, particularly
one containing nearly 50 percent Cu.
19. Use of the Method of Polarization Resistance for Studying the Atmospheric
Corrosion of Metals. V. A. Kuznetsov, S. G. Polyakov, Y. S.
Gerasimenko, and Y. G. Kotlov. Zashch. Met., v. 12, No. 6, 1976, pp.
667-670 (Russian).
Corrosion determined by the title method showed good agreement with
the composition of the corrosion products, as found by atomic absorption
spectroscopy. Tests were conducted with copper and steel, first immersed
in an aqueous solution of 0.062-percent MgSOi^Wl^O plus 0.0124-percent
CaCl2 at 20*C and then transferred to a 100-percent relative humidity
chamber, with subsequent introduction of ammonia. The polarization
resistance was found by deducting the ohmic resistance of the electrolyte
film from the combined polarization and ohmic resistances obtained by
usual methods.
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1975
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Carbon Steel in Tokyo. T. Koraeiji, T. Oodaira,
and M. Kadoi. Taiki Osen Kenkyu, v. 9, No. 5, 1975, pp. 677-683
(Japanese).*
The corrosion rates were detd. of JIS G314 steel at 53 sites in
Tokyo. Corrosion was severe in industrial and com. areas, medium in the
surrounding areas, and slight in western suburbs of Tokyo. The degree of
corrosion rates almost coincided with the S0£ distribution. Correlation
anal, of corrosion rates showed that it was mainly affected by temp, and
SO3 and chloride contents of the atm. The effects of environmental
factors on corrosion rates are given by a multiple regression equation.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Stainless Steels. A. Karlsson and J. Olsson.
7th Scand. Corrosion Congress, 1975, pp. 71-86.**
Sheets of Cr, Cr-Mn-Ni, and Cr-Ni, Cr-Ni-Mo stainless steels were
exposed for ten years at five different sites representing marine, city,
inland rural, heavily polluted industrial, and less severely polluted
industrial atmospheres. The effects of the different surface conditions
of the steels, e.g., cold-rolled, hot-rolled, ground, or polished, were
also studied. The rural inland atmosphere had little effect, even on a
13% Cr steel, but the marine atmosphere caused pitting in an 18:8 Cr-Ni
steel and discoloration of the high-alloy steel 2343. The surface
condition is very important in marine environments but has little effect
in industrial atmospheres.
3. Bimetallic Corrosion Effects on Mild Steel in Natural Environments.
K. E. Johnson and J. S. Abbott. NTIS Report PB-243665, 1975, 17 pp.
Corrosion rates of mild steel, when coupled to each of 31 other
metals and alloys, have been determined in 5 natural environments using
disk-type specimens. These environments were industrial, urban/rural and
marine atmospheres, natural water, and sea water. The relative order of
the effect on the corrosion rate of mild steel in each environment is
tabulated. The performance of mild steel in a given couple can differ
appreciably in different environments.
4. Corrosion Behavior of Low-Alloyed Steel. D. Knotkova-Cermakova, A.
Kupilikova, J. Honzak, and J. Vlckova. Korrosion (Dresden), v. 6, No.
2, 1975, pp. 8-22 (German).**
The production and use of steels equivalent to Corten increased in
Czechoslovakia. Under the designation Steel 15,217, five series of
corrosion tests were made on steels without protective coatings in a
variety of atmospheres, including some corrosive industrial locations. In
every case the low-alloy steels were superior to plain-carbon steels.
Modification of the base composition gave similar results. At a chemical
factory the corrosion rate was relatively high. Some exposure tests were
also made with protective coatings of synthetic and polymer systems.
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These resulted in improved protection of low-alloy steels over plain
carbon steels similarly coated. In accelerated laboratory tests in
atmospheres with and without added S02, using coated test pieces, the
superiority of the low-alloy steel and the advantage of coating were
confirmed.
5. Corrosion of Coated Metals. 6. Atmospheric Exposure. J. B. Mohler. Met.
Finish., v. 73, No. 9, 1975, pp. 48-51.
The atmospheric corrosion of steel and zinc-coated steel in various
urban, industrial, marine, and rural areas is described. Recommendations
for outdoor test procedures for obtaining accurate and comparable results
are given.
6. Corrosion of Low-Alloy Steels in Polluted Atmospheres. D. Knotkova-
Cermakova, and V. Marek. Koroze Ochr. Mater., v. 19, No. 3, 1975, pp.
45-48 (Czech).**
The rate of corrosion of bare, low alloy steel panels exposed to the
elements on open racks tends to stabilize over 3 years provided the SC>2
contamination from the atmosphere does not exceed a critical value C,
where C equals 80-90 rag/m2 day. Six years of exposure of Atmofix 52A in
atmospheres of second- and third-degree aggressivity established that the
surface builds up a protective coating of rust. Within a shuttered
enclosure in the same atmosphere, but without the benefit of periodic
rinsing away of soluble corrosion products and periodic drying in the sun,
this equilibrium is not reached. The weight loss in the enclosures was at
least twice as that on the open-weather rack at the same station. The
stabilized rates during the 3- to 5-year period were low and in
atmospheres of low pollution were practically zero. The presence of
chlorides significantly increased corrosion.
7. Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels in the Atmosphere. Evaluation of
the Results of Weathering Tests Up to 10 Year's Duration. R. Ergang and
M. B. Rockel. Werkst. Korros., v. 26, No. 1, 1975, pp. 36-41 (German).
Weathering tests on different stainless steels for 10 years gave
results simliar to exposure for 1 year. An 18-10-2 Cr-Ni-Mo steel can be
used even under the most severe conditions. A steel containing 17 percent
chromium was considerably attacked in industrial and marine atmospheres
and is not suitable for the external parts of buildings. An 18-8
chromium-nickel steel was completely resistant to urban atmospheres. In
all cases, the corrosion resistance of the steels was increased by
electropolishing. The susceptibility to pitting corrosion decreased with
increasing resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
8. Dielectric Behavior of Water Molecules Adsorbed on Iron (ill) Oxide
Hydroxides. K. Kaneko, M. Serizawa, T. Ishikawa, and K. Inouye. Bull.
Chem. Soc., Japan, v. 48, No. 6, 1975, pp. 1764-1769.
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The change in the dielectric constant of ct-FeOOH, (J-FeOOH, and
y-FeOOH with the amount of adsorbed water was examined at 30.0°C in the
frequency range 200 Hz—100 kHz for the purpose of clarifying the
mechanism of water adsorption. The adsorption isotherms belong to the BET
II type. The sample with the adsorbed water shows a particular dispersion
of the dielectric constant with frequency in the low frequency range. The
dispersion was ascribed to the transition between different orientational
directions of the dipole moment of the adsorbed water. The change in the
dielectric constant with the amount of adsorbed water for each iron (III)
oxide hydroxide was interpreted in relation to the surface structure of
predominant faces of crystals, in particular the number and position of
hydroxyls on crystal surfaces. The following adsorption process was
suggested below the monolayer adsorption coverage for each iron (III)
oxide hydroxide. For a-FeOOH, water molecules are adsorbed on the (100)
planes in three successive steps. For g-FeOOH, water molecules are
primarily bound in the tunnels existing in the crystal along a direction
parallel to the c-axis and then are adsorbed on the cracked tunnels
exposing to the outer surface. For y-FeOOH, water molecules are adsorbed
on the (010) planes in two steps.
9. Efficient Protection of Steel Structures from Atmospheric Corrosion. D.
Knotkova-Cermakova, F. Hasil, and K. Barton. Strojirenstvi, v. 25, No.
10, 1975, pp. 597-609 (Czech).*
The corrosion resistance of plain-carbon, copper-alloyed, and
rust-protected low-alloyed structural steel in rural, urban, and
industrial atmospheres is reviewed; data on the performance of metallic,
organic, and combination coatings are tabulated and optimization of
corrosion protection and service-life forecasting are discussed.
Nomographs relate corrosion losses to the sulfur dioxide content and
humidity of the atmosphere.
10. Electrochemical Method for Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Metals.
V. Kucera and E. Mattsson. Proc. 7th Scand. Corrosion Congress, 1975,
pp. 202-217.
The title method consists of a technique for continuous measuring,
recording and integrating of the current produced in cells on the surface
of metals that are corroding in the atmosphere. The electrochemical
cells used were of 2 types: galvanic, with electrodes of Cu and steel;
and electrolytic, with electrodes of only 1 metal e.g. Cu, Zn, or steel.
Exposure of the cells to the atmosphere yields currents of 10~10-10~3A and
these are measured, recorded, and integrated by the herein described
apparatus. There was developed a relation between the cell current and
the corrosion rate. The results are given for Zn-Zn, Fe-Fe, and Cu-Fe
under various atmospheric conditions.
11. Environmental Exposure System for Studying Air Pollution Damage to
Materials. J. W. Spence, F. D. Stump, F. H. Haynie and J. B. Upham.
NTIS Report PB-240615, Environmental Protection Agency, January 1975, 46
pp.
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Design features of a controlled-environment exposure system
consisting of five chambers are described. The purpose of the
environmental system is to provide simulated environments for conducting
statistical experiments for determining pollutant damage to materials.
Design features include independent controls for regulating temperature,
relative humidity, and concentration of gaseous sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, and ozone. To achieve accelerated weathering, the system also
includes a variable dew/light cycle that incorporates chill racks to
produce dew and xenon lamps to simulate sunlight. Before initiating
exposure studies, differences in lighting and pollutant distribution among
the chambers were minimized to below 10 percent variations for 95 percent
of the measurements.
12. Kinetics of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Low-Alloy Steels in an Industrial
Environment, R. A, Legault, and A. G. Preban. Corrosion, v. 31, No.
4, April 1975, pp. 117-122.
It has been demonstrated that the natural atmospheric corrosion
behavior of low-alloy steels in industrial environments can be accurately
described by an equation of the form: AW ¦ Kt^. Thus, reliable
predictions of long-term behavior become possible, and a vehicle is
provided for accurately assessing the effect on atmospheric corrosion
behavior of alloying additions, processing variables, and differences in
exposure environment.
13. Long-Range Transportation of Air Pollutants and Corrosion Effects. S. E.
Haagenrud and B. Ottar. Proc. 7th Scandinavian Corrosion Conference,
1975, pp. 102-105.**
The results of a study of long-range transport of air pollutants in
Europe is presented and is discussed with respect to the atmospheric
corrosion of steels, aluminum, and zinc.
14. New Models of the Mechanism of Iron Oxidation. C. G. Nestler. Technik,
v. 30, No. 7, 1975, pp. 456-457 (German).
The existing theories about the oxidation of iron is discussed, and
it is concluded, that to understand these processes, it is important to
know and to increase the knowledge about Fe^O^ and the oxyhydrate FeOOH.
This involves research on lattice vacancies and transport mechanisms.
15. Properties of Rust on Weathering Resistant Steel After Full-Scale and
Accelerated Testing. A. M. Shlyafirner, G. P. Yakubova, A. L. Golubev
and N. I. Sotskov. Zashch. Met., v. 11, No. 2, 1975, pp. 200-204
(Russian).**
The electrochemical behavior of steels (1) lOKhNDP, (2) lOKhSND, (3)
St 3 sp, and (4) St 2 kp, and the composition of rust formed were
investigated. The contents of Cr, Ni, and Si in the rust were
proportional to those in the base metal, but in the case of silicon it was
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also effected by the dust content of the atmosphere. The copper presence
was not determined, while phosphorus appeared only in the rust layer close
to the metal, and the content of sulfur depended on its presence in the
corrodent. The basic phases of rust were FegO^, FeOOH, and FeSO^, but
Fe3Ol+ was determined only after accelerated tests and only in a small
amount after 3 years full-scale test on lOKhNDP. The polarizing curves
determined in 0.1 N Na2SOI+ after corrosion tests showed that the formation
of rust decelerated the anode process; the completely passive state of
lOKhNDP was reached after a 4 month's accelerated test, when a two-layer
rust, consisting of Fe30t|, was formed.
16. Role of Chlorine in 0-FeOOH on Its Thermal Change and Reactivity to Sulfur
Dioxide. T. Ishikawa and K. Inouye. Bull. Chem. Soc., Japan, v. 48,
No. 5, 1975, pp. 1580-1584.
The state of chloride in g-ferric oxide hydroxide (g-FeOOH) was
examined by X-ray diffraction, IR absorption, chemical analysis, DTA, and
TGA. The adsorption of S0£ was determined as a measure of the surface
activity. No influence of chloride contained in the crystal appeared in
the X-ray diffraction patterns and surface area. The absorption bands at
640 and 840 cm-* in IR spectra showing the deformation vibration of the OH
group diminished with the decrease of chloride content. It was shown that
the path for g-FeOOH to transform into a-Fe203 by heating differentiates
from the sample including more than 11.5 percent chloride/iron to one
including less than 11.5 percent chloride/iron. This critical chloride
content is equal to the amount of chloride when chloride fills up the
characteristic tunnels existing in the g-FeOOH crystal. Chloride in g-
FeOOH interferes both with the transformation into a crFe203 and the
recrystallization of resultant y-Fe203. These effects were explained by
the stabilization of the g-FeOOH structure by chloride in tunnels and the
bonding between chloride and iron. The amount of cheraisorbed SO2 was
lowered by chloride which was adsorbed on outer surfaces.
17. Sulfur Dioxide and Material Damage. D. G. Gillette. J. Air Pollution
Control Assn., v. 25, No. 12, December 1975, pp. 1238-1243.
Whereas most estimates of material damage are based on industrial
surveys, the estimates produced in this study were derived from material
damage experiments and ambient air quality data. Air quality data on
S02 were obtained from 200 or more monitoring sites primarily located in
heavily populated or polluted areas. Material threshold damage function
data were then compared with SO2 levels, and an estimate of losses, as
reflected in increased maintenance and replacement costs, was determined.
Estimates of the total stock of various materials in use were derived from
census and industry data and allocated geographically according to
population. A substantial decrease in the ambient S02 levels,
particularly in larger urban areas, has occurred during the past five
years. From 1968 to 1972, the estimated amount of material damage from
S02 in the U.S. decreased from $900 million/yr to less than $100 million.
During this period, the estimated percentage of man made materials exposed
to S02 levels exceeding the proposed secondary annual average standard (60
pg/m3; and primary annual average standard (80 pg/m3) in the U.S. fell,
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respectively, from 20 percent to less than 5 percent and from more than 10
percent to less than 1 percent. Most of the present loss is attributed to
corrosion damage of metallic surfaces that are normally exposed to the
ambient environment.
18. The Influence of the Sulfur Dioxide Supply and the Relative Humidity on
the Corrosion of Mild Steel. T. Sydberger and R. Ericsson. 7th Scand.
Corrosion Congress, 1975, pp. 87-101.**
Mild steel specimens were exposed to atmospheres contg. S02 1, 10,
and 100 ppra, and having relative humidities of 80-96%. Different flow
rates, corresponding to SO2 flow rates of 0.4-250 ng/cm2h, were used. The
specimens were then exposed to atmospheres having different relative
humidities but contg. no S02» and the resultant corrosion was studied by
means of X-ray diffraction, infra-red spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric
analysis. The main crystalline corrosion product was a-FeOOH, and
magnetite was not formed in detectable amounts. The results indicate the
importance of flow rate with respect to corrosion. A drastic increase in
corrosion rates after spraying the specimens with distilled water was
observed.
19. The Semiconductive Property of Gamma-Ferric Oxyhydroxide. K. Kaneko and
K. Inouye. J. Electrochem. Soc., v. 122, No. 3, 1975, pp. 451-452.
Gamma-ferric oxyhydroxide has a particularly sensitive and mobile
structure. Baking and evacuation result in the formation of oxygen
defects in crystals making the movement of electrons more facile. Changes
in the conductivity of y-FeOOH were almost reversible with increasing and
decreasing temperature.
1974
1. A Study of the Corrosion Effect of Atmospheric Pollution. E. Rothstadter
and L. Halmay. Korrozios Figyelo. XIV evfolyam 1, szam, 1974
(Hungarian).
Data on aggressivity obtained at exposure stations in characteristic
climatic areas—urban, country, and industrial ones—are presented. The
aggressivity of the atmosphere was determined from the weight loss of
carbon steel samples exposed 5 years ago and 14 years ago. The deviation
between the two series of measurements may be related to the change in the
pollution of the atmosphere of the area surrounding the particular
exposure station.
2. Air Pollution Effects on Catastrophic Failure of Metals. J. Gerhard and
F. H. Haynie. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-650/3-74-009,
November 1974, 33 pp.
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The probable contribution of air pollution to the catastrophic
failure of metal structures is a significant problem. Cited examples of
failures and an economic analysis based on those failures indicates that
injury and loss of life accompany between $50 million and $100 million
annually in economic losses for the nation.
Although there is strong evidence that the effect exists, there has
been no research to determine relationships between levels of particular
pollutants and the occurrence of catastrophic failures of metals.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion. H. Eyring, B. Robertson, C. C. Chu, and
T. Anderson. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, v. 71, No. 2, February 1974,
pp. 245-247.
A model of electrolytic corrosion is developed. It is shown that
electrically conducting channels, threading through the oxide layer and
connecting anodic and cathodic areas, obey the equation for a reactant
being catalyzed by its product. The resulting autocatalytic reaction is
compared with available experimental data and found to be widely
applicable and capable of unifying many experimental observations.
4. Analyses of Some Suggested Mechanisms for Atmospheric Corrosion of Iron
in the Presence of Sulfur Dioxide. J. R. Duncan. Werkst. Korros., v.
25, No. 6, 1974, pp. 420-424.**
The current theories of the atmospheric corrosion of Fe in the
presence of S02, that is, the acid regeneration cycle and the
electrochemical model of K. Barton and Z. Bartonova, were examined based
on experimental results. It was shown that no conflict occurs between
these recent results and the electrochemical model as the main corrosion
path.
5. Behavior of Low Alloyed Steel. K. Schwabe and W. D. Arnold. Proc. of the
Fifth International Congress on Metallic Corrosion, Tokyo (Japan),
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, 1974, pp.
760-763.
Experiments conducted show that the anodically formed oxide layers on
copper-alloyed steels are more corrosion protecting than the ones on
unalloyed steel. This is due to an increase of copper and chromium in the
layer. These same results, which were obtained from natural corrosion,
apply to corrosion by SO2 and sulfates.
6. Behavior of Rust and Rusted Steel Surfaces. G. K. Singhania, B. Sanyal
and J. N. Nanda. Proc. of the Fifth International Congress on Metallic
Corrosion, Tokyo (Japan), National Association of Corrosion Engineers,
Houston, TX, 1974, pp. 769-773.
The effects on the character of rust, of the initial weather
conditions, the duration of exposure, and the wetting of metal specimens
with electrolytes are discussed. Results show that the rust layer may be
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protective or may promote corrosion depending on the nature of the rust
rather than its thickness.
7. Correlation Between Corrosion Behavior of Steel and Atmospheric Pollution
Data. F. H. Haynie and J. B. Upham. Corrosion in Natural Environments,
ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1974, pp.
33-51.
An equation is derived from experimental data that relates the
corrosion depth of easily corroded, enameling steel (carbon 0.019 and
copper 0.028 percent) to the exposure time, the average relative humidity,
the nitrate and sulfate in the particulates, and S02. No significant
changes were caused by differences of the average temperature, the average
total suspended particulates, or the average nitrate. The corrosion data
were obtained at 57 National Air Sampling Network sites.
8. Corrosion Aggressivity of Model Regions of Czechoslovakia. D.
Knotkova-Cermakova, B. Bosek, and J. Vlckova. Corrosion in Natural
Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1974, pp. 52-74.
A comprehensive research program was started in Czechoslovakia 5
years ago for a systematic investigation of the corrosion aggressivity of
selected industrial regions. The corrosion tests were performed at 19
corrosion stations in the North-Bohemian model region. Principal
technical metals were tested.
The characteristics of climate and air pollution and also the
combined index of the corrosion aggressivity were suggested and
numerically expressed.
The hyperbolic function has most closely approximated the law of the
time-dependent course of the corrosion process of metals. The regression
analysis was performed with the use of various forms of the climate
characteristics, and the most favorable function was expressed.
A cybernetic model of the atmospheric corrosion process was suggested.
9. Corrosion of Metals in the Atmosphere. W. K. Boyd and F. W. Fink.
MCIC-74-23, Battelle-Columbus Labs., Metals and Ceramics Information
Center, Columbus, OH, August 1974, 77 pp.
The main corrosion characteristics of the commercial metals commonly
employed for external applications are summarized. Some of the factors
that affect metal behavior in general are discussed at the outset, but
since each metal has a characteristic response to the corrosive
constituents in external atmospheres, some of these factors are discussed
again in the sections on the individual metals. Included in this report
are sections dealing with carbon, weathering, and stainless steels,
aluminum alloys, copper alloys, lead and lead coatings, and zinc and
zinc-coated steel.
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10. Design of a Laboratory Experiment to Identify the Effects of Environmental
Pollutants on Materials. J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. Corrosion in
Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 279-291.
This paper describes an environmental system consisting of five
exposure chambers and an experimental design for studying the effects of
gaseous air pollutants (sulfur dioxide (S02), nitrogen dioxide (NC^), and
ozone (03)) on materials. Each chamber has the means for independent
control of six environmental variables (temperature, relative humidity,
etc.) as well as the unique feature of chill racks that regulate the
formation of dew on the test specimens. An accelerated test is achieved
by a dew-light (xenon lamp) cycle to simulate diurnal conditions.
Statistical techniques (analysis of variance) were used to correct for
differences in light and pollutant distribution within the chambers before
initiating a statistically designed environmental experiment. To study
the interactions of pollutants and other environmental variables that are
likely to have significant effects on materials, a two-level factorial
arrangement was selected.
11. Detection of the Extent of Corrosion Under Paint Films. C. G. Nestler.
Technik, v. 29, No. 2, 1974, pp. 98-100 (German).
An ultrasonic technique has been devised for investigating the extent
of rusting below paint films. Steel sheets, covered with 40 ym thick
coatings of clear plastic, were used so that the results obtained could be
compared with visual observation. For specimens >2 mm thick, a direct
transmission method was used to determine the extent of rusting to an
accuracy < = 1 percent. An oblique technique was developed for sheets < 3
mm thick, using a 35° inclined probe head, and measuring the attenuation
of the reflected signal. Agreement with direct observation was within 2
percent. It is not yet known what the effect of fillers and pigments
would be.
12. Effect of Air Pollution on Materials and Technical Equipment. D.
Knotkova-Cermakova, K. Barton, and B. Dolezel. Ochr. Ovzdust., v. 6,
No. 6, June 1974, pp. 75-83 (Czech).
Adverse effects of air pollution on materials are reviewed. Metals
are corroded by sulfur dioxide and solid particles containing salts. Such
metals can be divided into four classes: immune, significantly passive,
those corroded by oxides and hydroxide, and iron in which S02 stimulates
rust. Sulfur dioxide is also a significant corrosive agent for polymers,
either through direct reaction or as a stimulant of photochemical
degradation. Other pollutants which adversely affect polymers are
nitrogen oxides, organic substances which produce photolysis products, and
solid pollutants such as dust and ash which affect physical properties.
Silicate construction materials are subject to extractive corrosion,
chemical corrosion by salts, and decomposition by sulfuric acid. Ceramics
lose their insulating properties due to surface deposits. The effect of
pollution on the quality of metallic protective coatings depends on the
chemical composition of the coating and on electrochemical reactions
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between it and the metal being protected. Paint pigments react with SC>2
which lowers their effectiveness by two to three times in contaminated
areas.
13. Effect of Alloy Composition on the Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of
Steels Based on a Statistical Analysis of the Larrabee-Coburn Data Set.
R. A. Legault and H. P. Leckie. Corrosion in Natural Environments, ASTM
STP 558, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1974, pp. 334-347.
In 1962 C. P. Larrabee and S. K. Coburn published an extensive
collection of atmospheric exposure data showing the effect of variations
in copper, nickel, chromium, silicon, and phosphorus content on the
corrosion resistance of low-alloy steel. Two hundred and seventy steel
alloys of different composition were exposed for 15-1/2 years at three
separate locations representing industrial, semirural, and marine
atmospheres. Among these experimental steel compositions there were five
levels of copper concentration, two levels of nickel concentration, three
levels of chromium concentration, three levels of silicon concentration,
and three levels of phosphorus concentration represented. A statistical
analysis of these data has been conducted and the results of the analysis
are presented and discussed.
14. Effect of Structural and Environmental Factors in the Practical Use of
Low-Alloy Weathering Steel. I. Matsushima, Y. Ishizu, T. Ueno, M.
Kanazashi, and K. Horikawa. Proc. of the Fifth International Congress
on Metallic Corrosion, Tokyo (Japan), National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Houston, TX, 1974, pp. 744-754.
The results of an experiment conducted to study extensively the
effects of the structural factors on atmospheric corrosion are presented.
15. Electrochemical Technique for Determination of the Instantaneous Rate of
Atmospheric Corrosion. V. Kucera and E. Mattsson. Corrosion in Natural
Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1974, pp. 239-260.
The aim of this investigation was to develop a technique and equip-
ment for the measurement of the instantaneous rate of atmospheric
corrosion of metals. An electrochemical method was chosen for this
purpose and a technique was developed for continuous measurement and
recording of the currents generated in models of the electrochemical
corrosion cells which occur on the metal surface when exposed to the
atmosphere. Two types of cells were used, galvanic cells consisting of
steel and copper electrodes and electrolytic cells consisting of only one
type of electrode, namely, steel, zinc, or copper. In the latter type of
cell an external emf was applied. The cell current was found to vary
between 10"10 and 10~3 A in accordance with changes in climatic
conditions, the changes being at least in qualitative agreement with
changes in the rate of atmospheric corrosion as earlier reported in the
literature. An inexpensive electronic integrator was developed for
estimation of the accumulated quantity of cell current over a certain
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period of time. This device integrates separately on two counters the
amount of current during periods with low current and during periods with
high current. A time counter also records the exposure time during which
the current exceeds a chosen value. This time counter also records the
exposure time during which the current exceeds a chosen value. This time
conter can be used to measure the time of surface wetness, that is, that
part of the period of exposure when the corrosion current is of practical
importance. Efforts are now being made to find the quantitative relation
between the cell current and the atmospheric corrosion rate. It is
believed that the technique will prove to be a useful tool for the
investigation of atmospheric corrosion in the laboratory as well as on
test sites out of doors and in industrial applications.
16. Environment and Quality of Life. Literature Study on the Economic
Consequences of the Damages and Annoyances Both in Materials and
Vegetation and in Men and Animals Caused by Sulfur Dioxide Air
Pollution. E. Lahmann. Commission of the European Communities,
Luxembourg, September 1974, 150 pp. (German).
On account of its frequent occurrence in the atmosphere near the
ground and its reactivity, sulphur dioxide (S02) is an essential
contributor to negative effects of air pollution. Frequently economic
damage is caused by SO2, especially to agricultural crops and to forests.
With reference to human health its effects are principally combined with
other air pollutants, especially particulates. The effects upon animals
are of no practical or economic importance. The damage of sulphur dioxide
upon materials has been proved beyond doubt. The economic consequences of
air pollution in general and of SO2 in particular are discussed only
rarely in the relevant European literature. The existing gaps appears to
be due to the uncertain nature of the subject as well as to a delay of
research. Proposals for corresponding research programs are made. Most
studies published on damages caused by air pollution do not refer to
individual components, but to air pollution as a whole. The findings and
estimates of costs incurred by air pollution have their origin mostly in
the USA. Within the European Comraonmarket comprehensive reports were
available only from the UK, France, and Italy, but no one of these reports
gives any estimates on the proportation of costs caused by S02 alone.
Some cost estimates have been made in Sweden on damages caused by S02.
17. Kinetics of the Rusting of Iron in the Atmosphere. K. Barton, Z.
Bartonova and E. Beranek. Werkst. Korros., v. 25, No. 9, 1974, pp.
659-663 (German).
Laboratory experiments using 0.12 percent carbon steel, were
organized to describe the kinetics of active periods of atmospheric
corrosion. It was found that below zero C the corrosion rate is
independent of S02 content and humidity of the atmosphere. Above zero C
it is controlled by reactions leading to formation of "sulfate nests" and
hydrolytic rust. Simultaneous action of higher temperature (above 15 C)
and larger amounts of water (above 100 g m~ ) decreases the accelerating
effect of increasing S02 content. The corrosion rates determined are in
good agreement with data calculated from long-term tests in natural
environments.
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18. Low Alloy Steels for Composite Highway Bridges - Effect of Sheltering on
Corrosion. J. S. Hutchins and M. McKenzie. NTIS Report PB-239906,
1974, 42 pp.
The use in bridge construction of a steel requiring no maintenance
painting becomes increasingly desirable. At seven test sites throughout
the country, the corrosion of a low alloy steel and a special mild steel
have been compared in both open and sheltered conditions over a two-year
period. Meteorological and atmospheric pollution data were also
collected.
19. Mechanism of Formation of Iron Oxide and Oxyhydroxides in Aqueous
Solutions at Room Temperature. T. Misawa, K. Hashimoto, and S.
Shimodaira. Corros. Sci., v. 14, No. 2, 1974, pp. 131-149.
The mechanism of formation of green rusts, FejO^, a-FeOOH, 0-FeOOH,
y-FeOOH, 6-FeOOH, and amorphous FeOOH in aqueous solution at room
temperature was studied to better understand the atmospheric rusting of
iron and steel. The formation processes upon which end-products are
determined are strongly affected by the oxidation rate, pH, and the
structure and composition of the initial and intermediate species of iron.
A systematic diagram of the formation process of the above species is
presented, in which both dissolved and solid compounds of iron are
included.
20. Selecting Testing Conditions Representative of the Atmospheric
Environment. J. F. Stanners. Corrosion in Natural Environments,
American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 558, 1974, pp. 23-
32.
The main environmental factors that affect atmospheric corrosion of
metals are examined and their range and distribution are related to steel
utilization. From the data available, recommendations are made for the
selection of exposure sites in Great Britain likely to be more
representative of conditions in which steel is used than are present
sites. A method is suggested for examining pollution data in this
context. The implications for natural atmospheric exposure testing are
discussed.
21. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution. T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701, 1974, 156 pp.
Air pollution has a variety of effects on materials—the corrosion of
metals, the deterioration of materials and paints, and the fading of dyes.
There have been a number of attempts at estimating the resultant economic
losses due to those detrimental effects of air pollution.
22. The Economics of Clean Air in Perspective. F. H. Haynie. Materials
Protection and Performance, v. 13, No. 4, April 1974, pp. 33-38.
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This paper places the economics of providing cleaner air in
perspective by emphasizing some of the tangible benefits to be received.
The Materials Branch, National Environmental Research Center, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina, has determined damage functions for air
pollution effects on materials and estimated the resulting economic loss
to the nation.
23. The Mode of Initial Reaction of S0£ at a Metal Surface. J. R. Duncann and
D. J. Spedding. Corrosion Science, v. 14, No. 4, 1974, pp. 241-249.
The mode of initial reaction of sulfur dioxide at a metal surface
exposed to the atmosphere can be explained better by a model based on
specific adsorption of the sulfur dioxide at an electrolyte solution/metal
oxide interface than by a model based on reaction with an electrolyte
layer formed at the exposed metal surface. Sulfur dioxide adsorption at
discrete areas of uptake and at freshly cut edges, previously reported on
iron, also occurred on copper, aluminum, and stainless steel samples;
adsorption was found to increase as relative humidity was increased. The
specific adsorption model was found particularly useful in explaining the
differential uptake of sulfur dioxide on metal surfaces; the quantities
necessary to explain the fate of the adsorbed sulfur dioxide; the kinetic
data found for sulfate formation on iron and zinc surfaces.
24. The Relation Between the Corrosion Rate of Steel and the Fallout Rate of
Various Pollutants. S. Luckat. Staub. Reinhalt. Luft, v. 34, No. 6,
June 1974, pp. 209-213 (German).'*
The corrosion rate of DIN 1623 steel was correlated with the measured
ambient concentration of pollutants over a 12-month period. The steel
samples (1 mm sheets, 50 x 100 mm) were exposed for 14 days before
analysis and the pollutants measured over the same period. S02, S03, I^S,
and were analyzed together and reported as S02, F compounds as F and
CI compounds as CI. The corrosion rate correlated closely with the SO2
measured, but not with the other pollutants. During the summer the
corrosion rate was low and virtually independent of the site because of
the lower relative humidity.*
25. The Use of Weather and Climatological Data in Evaluating the Durability of
Building Components and Materials. L. W. Masters and W. C. Wolfe. NTIS
REPORT COM-74-50841/7, August 1974, 102 pp.
The durability of building components and materials is dependent, to
a large extent, on the in-service environment to which they are
subjected in service. Thus, the prediction of durability requires
knowlege of the service environment. Weathering factors, which comprise
one group of environmental factors, are the subject of this report. The
objectives of this report are to indicate how, in the present state of
knowledge, weather and climate data can be used to aid in quantifying
weathering factors so that durability tests for building components and
materials may be designed.
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26. Various Factors Affecting Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels. J. Satake and
T. Moroishi. Proc. of the Fifth Internat. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion,
Tokyo (Japan), National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX,
1974, pp. 744-754.
Atmospheric exposure tests were conducted to investigate the
correlation between atmospheric corrosion behavior of steels,
environmental factors and rust structure. Figures show the effect of
SO2 and sea salt on corrosion loss after a period of exposure of one to
five years. The compactness of the rust layer mainly controls the
atmospheric corrosion rates of the steels. The distribution of alloying
elements and their variations in and out of pits were studied to
investigate the possible influence of those elements on the protectiveness
of the rust layer.
27. Weather Factors Affecting Corrosion of Metals. P. J. Sereda. Corrosion
in Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials,1974, pp. 7-22.
Various weather factors are assessed in relation to corrosion of
metals. Published data are discussed and new results presented to show
that time-of-wetness is a very important factor and that reasonable values
may be obtained from analysis of meteorological records. These are
applicable for predicting long-range corrosion effects. For short-term
corrosion, data must be collected for the particular exposure conditions.
Results are presented to show the effect of orientation on time-of-
wetness, and recommendations are made for increasing this type of study.
A summary of data on pollution by SO2 in major cities of Canada is
presented and the distribution in Metro Toronto given. It indicates that
pollution by S02 has been decreasing in many areas of the world. The
effects of chlorides, corrosion products, and temperature are also
discussed.
1973
1. Accelerated Atmospheric Corrosion Tests in Polluted Air. Influence of
Dew-Cycle on Steel in S02 Environment. S. Yamasaki and Y. Yokoi.
Corrosion Engineering, 1973, v. 22, No. 4.
The similarity between results of dew-cycle corrosion tests and the
results of field exposure has been evaluated by comparing the corrosion
rate of mild steel with that of weathering steel at several dew-cycle
conditions in 20 ppm S02. It was known that both the similarity and
acceleration of tests are, particularly in the case of steel, largely
dependent on the drying process. An attempt was made to convert the
corrosion quantity versus testing time curve, which was generally used,
into the curve of corrosion quantity versus total dewing time, that is,
testing time minus drying time. If Fe(ll) rust, formed during wet or dew
period, is sufficiently oxidized to Fe(lll) rust in the process of drying,
the slope of corrosion quantity versus total dewing time should become
sharper. This is because the reduction of Fe(lll) rust to Fe(ll) during
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the succeeding dew period induces the corrosion of steel. The period 30
minutes of light dewing (temperature of specimen: 35 C; atmosphere: 37 C,
100 percent RH) showed a good similarity between the test results and the
results of field exposure. The corresponding optimum drying period seemed
to exist between 30 and 60 minutes.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Carbon Steels. E. Beranek and K. Barton.
Werkst. Korros., v. 24, No. 5, 1973, pp. 372-378 (German).
The corrosion of steel sheets containing C 0.09, Mn 0.27, Si <0.01, P
0.023, S 0.038, and Cu 0.06 percent in an urban atmosphere (Prague) was
studied during 3 years in the open air and under a shelter against solar
irradiation and rain. A relation was established between meteorological
data and the proces of rusting in the atmosphere. A limit for the S02
absorption was found and the aggressivity of the atmosphere for steel was
determined. It depended on the slope of the accumulated monthly corrosion
versus time curve.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Plain Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels in Marine,
Rural, and Industrial Atmospheres. K. Bohnenkamp, G. Burgmann and W.
Schwenk. Stahl Eisen, v. 93, 1973, pp. 1054-1060 (German).
The corrosion of a number of carbon and low-alloy steels containing
various Cu contents in marine, rural, and industrial atmospheres was
investigated in a series extending more than 8 years. Results are
expressed in log plots of mean integral weight loss in kg/m2-yr as a
function of exposure time and an evaluation of regression curves vt = k
x t~n, where vt is the decrement rate of the weight loss, t is the
time, and n (approximately 0.5) is a coefficient representing the rate-
controlling mass transport through the rust layer. For very short and
very long exposures, a linear time law applies. In long exposures, the
thickness of the rust layer was nearly independent of the steel grade,
location, and time of exposure. The protection by the rust increased with
aging. The rate of the phase-boundary reaction, vo, over a short time
is a constant at the same location and nearly independent of steel
composition, but it increases with the increasing aggressivity of the
atmosphere. For a specimen enameled on one side, the weight-loss rate was
caused by a longer action of moisture, and corrosive sulfates and
chlorides.
4. Behavior of Rust and Rusted Steel Surfaces. G. K. Singhania and B.
Sanyal. Br. Corros. J., v. 8, No. 5, 1973, pp. 224-229.
Mild steel samples, exposed to the atmosphere for 12 months starting
in the dry or wet season of Kanpur, showed different corrosion patterns
but reached the same corrosion rate at the end of 12 months. The weight
loss of dry samples exposed to the atmosphere for 35 days was greater than
that of samples wetted (washed) daily with water and smaller than that of
samples wetted daily with sulfate or chloride solution. The adsoprtion of
sulfur dioxide on rust continued beyond a 96 hour test period, but maximum
corrosion occurred on a sample in contact with rust exposed to sulfur
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dioxide for only 48 hours. Prerusted steel samples resisted attack by
sulfur dioxide to a degree that depended on the length of pretreatment and
not on the thickness of the rust. Corrosion rates of clean and prerusted
samples temporarily exposed to sulfur dioxide showed that the sulfur
dioxide affects the corrosion rate of rusted, but not of clean, samples at
low temperatures (180C) and relative humidities.
5. Bimetallic Corrosion Effects on Mild Steel in Natural Environments. K.
E. Johnson and J. S. Abbott. Brit. Steel Corp., CEL/CH/23/73, 1973,
12 pp.
Corrosion rates were determined for mild steel and various metals and
alloys when mild steel-metal or alloy couples were exposed to industrial,
urban/rural, and marine atmospheres, natural water, and sea water. The
relative order of effect of these metals and alloys on the corrosion rate
of mild steel in each environment is reported.
6. Can Ammonia Injection Into Waste Gas be a Successful Means for Protecting
the Environment? R. Chrusciel. 42nd Internat. Ind. Fair (Posen
6/10-19/73), VDI (Ver-Dtsch. Ing.) Z., v. 115, No. 8, June 1973, pp. 19-
23 (German).
In previously published studies supported by the Polish Ministry of
Mining and the Energy Economy and carried out at various institutions,
guinea pigs, and tops of several plant varieties (for example, clover and
buckwheat), and stainless steel 35 specimens were exposed to atmospheres
containing various concentrations of sulfur dioxide, with and without
neutralization by ammonia. The effectiveness of the ammonia in reducing
the damage to plants, animals, and steel, and the finding that the fallout
of ammonium salts would not be excessive under favorable weather
conditions, led to the construction of pilot-scale and full-scale
industrial powerplants fitted with ammonia injection units on the stacks.
The duration of injection is governed by the weather conditions.
7. Characterization of Bridge Locations by Corrosion and Environmental
Measurements - First Year Results. J. S. Hutchins and M. McKenzie.
Report No. TRRL-LR-550, Transport and Road Research Lab., Crowthorne,
England, 1973, 29 pp.
Climatological and air pollution factors greatly affect the corrosion
damage to steel highway bridges. First results of a program to define
quatitative criteria by which the potential corrosivity of a prospective
bridge location can be assessed are given. At seven sites throughout the
country, the corrosion rates of hot-rolled mild steel, low-alloy steel,
and zinc, are being measured under both open and sheltered exposure.
Meteorological and air pollution data are also being collected. A mobile
test rig was developed which can be easily transported to any prospective
bridge location. From the first year's results, it is apparent that
sheltered test specimens give a much closer indication of the corrosivity
under a bridge deck than open exposure specimens. Of the environmental
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factors, atraospheric chlorides and sulfur compounds are the major cause of
variations in corrosion rate.
8. Concept of "Corrosion Aggressivity" of the Atmosphere With Respect to
Carbon Steels. E. Beranek and K. Barton. Werkst. Korros., v. 24, No.
5, 1973, pp. 372-378 (German).
On the basis of exposure tests on 0.009 percent carbon steel sheet,
it is shown that a relation may be derived between meteorological data and
atmospheric corrosion which shows the controlling effects of the duration
of wet periods and of the intensity of S02 attack. Qualitative conclu-
sions are drawn concerning the effect of S02 concentration during initial
exposure on the protective character of the rust formed, and concerning
the finding that there is a critical concentration of S02 below which its
effect is not important.
9. Corrosion Caused by Perspiration. G. A. Tret'yakova and V. P. Barannik.
Zashch. Metal., v. 9, No. 6, November-December 1973, pp. 715-717
(Russian).
The corrosion of a number of metals (C and stainless steels, Cu, Cu
alloys, Zn, Cd, etc.) as a result of contact with the human hand is
discussed. The perspiration of the hand contains such elements as Na, K,
Ca, Mg, and I, together with urea, amino acids, etc., and hence may
constitute a very corrosive medium, particularly in the hotter months of
the year. The corrosion often appears as almost perfect fingerprints.
Alloys of copper are more susceptible to this corrosion than copper
itself; aluminum alloys corrode slowly with the formation of loose grey
deposits; chromium coatings are very resistant to perspiration but the
latter tends to penetrate through the pores of the chromium and corrodes
the underlying metal.
10. Cost of Air Pollution Damage - A Status Report. L. B. Barrett and T. E.
Waddell. Environmental Protection Agency, NTIS Report PB 222-040, 1973,
85 pp.
Cost estimates of air pollution are developed for effects on human
health, vegetation, materials, and residential property values. Estimates
are not given for damage to animals and to aesthetic aspects of the
environment.
11. Crystalline and Amorphous Primary Products During the Rusting of Metallic
Iron in Sulfur Dioxide-Containing Atmospheres at Different Humidity. E.
D. Franz. Werkst. Korros., v. 24, No. 7, 1973, pp. 598-601 (German).**
The formation of sulfides, sulfites, sulfates, thiosulfates, and S
occurrs in the corrosion of iron in sulfur dioxide-containing atmospheres.
Characteristic differences were dependent on the atmospheric humidity.
The reaction did not take place beyond the FeS stage at 77 percent
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relative humidity and no reaction was observed at 50 percent relative
humidity.
12. Discrete Areas of SO2 Adsorption from the Atmosphere onto Iron.
J. R. Duncan, D. J. Spedding, and E. E. Wheeler. Corros. Sci., v. 13,
No. 1, January 1973, pp. 69-72.*
In an experimental study in which sulfur-35 dioxide was adsorbed from
the atmosphere onto iron surfaces which were not visibly rusted at 70 pet
or 95 pet relative humidity, autoradiographs of the samples showed major
variations in the degree of uptake of sulfur dioxide over the metal
surface, with most of the sulfur dioxide centered in specific areas up to
0.5 ram in diameter. Surface features large enough to cause these
differences were not visible under the electron or light microscope. A
possible reason for the formation of these discrete areas of adsorption
might involve fracture of the oxide layer at a submicroscopic point,
allowing adsorption of the sulfur dioxide at a different type of iron
oxide form from that on the outside surface; and repair of the oxide layer
during normal growth, obscuring the imperfection from microscopic
detect ion.
13. Influence of the Inclination and Direction of Specimen Surface on
Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels. T. Moroishi and J. Satake. Tetsu To
Hagane, v. 59, No. 1, 1973, pp. 125-130 (Japanese).**
The corrosion rate of a steel and the morphology of the rust are
influenced by the inclination and direction of the steel surface exposed
to the atmosphere. Sheets of a C steel and low-alloy steel, one side of
the surfaces of which was coated by resin paint, were positioned at 0, 30,
60, and 90 degrees to the horizontal, facing skywards and groundwards.
Atmospheric exposure tests were carried out for 2 years. Corrosion rate
of steels and the sulfate and retained water content of the rust layer
were studied. The corrosion rates of the groundward surfaces were greater
than those of the skyward surfaces and decreased with increasing degree of
the surfaces. Corrosion rates of the skyward surfaces positioned
horizontally and vertically were greater than those of the inclined
surfaces. The sulfate content of the rust could explain the dependency of
the corrosion rate of the groundward surfaces on the inclinations. The
corrosion of the skyward surfaces related to the water-retaining property
of the rust layer shows the same dependence on the exposure inclinations
as the corrosion rates.
14. Initial Reactions of S02 After Adsorption on to Metals. J. R. Duncan and
D. J. Spedding. Corrosion Science, v. 13, 1973, pp. 881-889.
An electrophoretic method for separation of labeled corrosion
products from metals exposed to atmospheres containing natural
concentrations of ^S02 has been developed. Using this method, it was
found that on iron and zinc such products are exclusively sulphur (IV)
species and sulphate. The conversion of S(IV) to S(VI) on both iron and
zinc was found to have a half-life of approximately 24 hours.
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The implications of these results are discussed with respect to a
different chemistry of surface electrolyte layers from that of bulk
solut ions.
15. Investigations of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Plain Carbon and Low Alloy
Steels in Industry, Country, and Sea Air. K. Bohnenkamp, G. Burgmann,
and W. Schwenk. Stahl Eisen, v. 93, No. 22, 1973, pp. 1054-1060.
Natural corrosion of three steels with 0.10, 0.18, and 0.27 percent
copper was investigated in industry air, on the test stands of the Verein
Deutscher Eisenhuttenleute. Natural corrosion of a high-strength and a
weather-resistant steel and various unalloyed and low alloy steels was
investigated in sea air, country air, and industry air. The results were
evaluated by means of regression analysis. The influences of the
investigational procedure and the corrosion processes are discussed.
16. Mechanisms of Atmospheric Corrosion. A. Bukowiecki. Proc. Coiigr. Int.
Union Electrodeposition Surface Finish. (8th-1972), 1973, pp. 14-21
(German).
The atmospheric corrosion of steel is reviewed. The concept of
critical humidity, deliquescence of salt deposits in relation to
corrosion, and metal attack by acid vapors are discussed.
17. Role of the Alloying Elements at the Steel/Rust Interface. R. Bruno,
A. Tamba and G. Bombara. Corrosion, v. 29, No. 3, March 1973, pp. 95-
99.
Three low alloy steels and an ordinary carbon steel were investigated
as to the distribution of the alloy elements (Cu, Cr, P, Ni) in rust
coverings produced either by weathering or by slight anodic oxidation.
Electron microprobe examinations of rust showed, besides an overall
enrichment in the alloy elements, the presence of sharp concentration
peaks in layers some ten pm wide. The more resistant the steel to
atmospheric corrosion, the higher the rust-to-steel concentration gradient
and the closer the concentration peaks to the steel/rust interface.
Corrosion potential and polarization measurements in 0.1M Na2SO[f on rusted
specimens evidenced a marked effect of the interfacial enrichment in
increasing the anodic polarizability and the tendency to a coverage
passivation. This leads to looking upon the corrosion generated
steel/rust interface as directly contributing, in addition to the rust
itself, to the self protection of low alloy steels during atmospheric
corrosion.
18. Studies of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals and Anticorrosive Coatings
in Japan. Comparison of Observed and Calculated Values. Research Group
on Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures. Corrosion Engineering, v.
22, No. 3, 1973.
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Fe-69
Equations have been proposed which express corrosion rates (Y, radd)
of carbon steel in atmospheres as a function of atmospheric factors, that
is, temperature (T, C°), relative humidity (RH, percent), amount of
rainfall (P, mm) and sulfur dioxide (SD, mdd) and chloride (C, ppm)
content. Data used for multiple regression analysis were based on
atmospheric exposure test results in the first year at 43 locations
carried out by the authors as well as by other investigators. The
equations developed are Y = 4.15 + 0.88 T - 0.073 RH - 0.032 P + 2.193 C +
4.921 SD for inland and industrial atmospheres and Y = 5.61 + 2.754 C +
6.155 SD for marine atmospheres. The results clearly show that while the
SO2 content is the most important factor, the effects of temperature and
relative humidity cannot be neglected in developing corrosion equations.
19. The Effect of Alloying Elements on Atmospheric Corrosion of High Tensile
Strength Steels. T. Moroishi and J. Satake. Journal Iron Steel Inst.,
Japan, v. 59, No. 2, 1973, pp. 293-300.
High tensile strength steels used for outdoor construction require a
good atmospheric corrosion resistance. The specimens of high tensile
strength steels containing various amounts of C, Si, Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo, Ti,
Nb, Zr, B, and Cu were exposed to the atmosphere at Amagasaki and
Kitakyushu up to five years. The effects of the alloying elements on the
atmospheric corrosion resistance of the steels were analyzed by means of
a multiple regression analysis. Corrosion rates of the steels are
expressed by the equation: W = kt/(n+t), where W = corrosion loss (pm) , t
¦ exposure time (year), and k,n = contants. k and n are given by the
following equations:
At Amagasaki:
k(pm) - 182.2-54.7Si-41.6Cr-ll.lNi-87.0Mo-39.8Cu-51.2Nb
n(year) = 2.46-0.98Cr-l,20Mo
At Kitakyushu:
k(prn) ¦ 247.9-106.6Si-28.4Cr-27.5Ni-65.4Mo-41.2Cu-7071B
n(year) - 2.90-1.24Si-0,74Mo-42.50P-77.64B-0,32Cr
where Si, Cr, etc. indicate the contents of the alloying elements in
weight' percent. The effects of the alloying elements on the pitting depth
were also analyzed; Si, Ni, and Cu reduced the depth of pits.
20. The Effect of Relative Humidity on Adsorption of Sulphur Dioxide Onto
Metal Surfaces. J. R. Duncan and D. J. Spedding. Corros. Sci., v. 13,
1973, pp. 993-1001.
The influence of relative humidity and corrosion products on the
uptake of atmospheric sulfur dioxide was studied on the basis of
literature values and new experimental results obtained in the continuous
flow of air at 65-100 percent relative humidity and 50-300 pg/cu m of
sulfur dioxide over 0.012 mm and 0.010 mm thick iron and zinc foils.
Published results showed that a critical humidity of 94 percent at 25°C
exists for the self-dissolution of manganese sulfate, which could account
for both the increased uptake of sulfur dioxide and the acceleration in
uptake rate on iron containing sufficient manganese. Desorption of iron
after its removal from the sulfur dioxide atmosphere was irregular.
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F e- 7 0
21. The Influence of Carbon Particles on the Corrosion of Iron in a Humid,
Sulfur Dioxide-Containing Atmosphere. R. Ericsson, B. 0. Heimler, and
N. G. Vannerberg. Werkst. und Korrosion, v. 24, 1973, p. 207.
Iron samples covered with a thin layer of activated carbon have been
exposed to humid atmospheres containing sulfur dioxide under controlled
conditions. The increase in weight has been determined as a function of
the time of exposure. An increased rate of corrosion of samples covered
with a thin layer of activated carbon, compared with samples without
carbon, has been observed only at low relative humidities only.
22. The Influence of Sulfite Ions on Pitting Corrosion of Stainless Steels.
A. Luffkin. Anti-Corros. Methods Mater., v. 20, No. 7, July 1973,
pp. 3-8.
The influence of sulfite ions on pitting corrosion of stainless
steels was studied by finding the rupture potentials of samples of types
AISI 430, 316, and 304 stainless steels in media containing both sulfites
and chlorides. The actions of sodium hydrosulfite, sodium thiosulfate,
and sulfur dioxide, and sulfuric acid on steel were studied, and the
effects of pH value on the oxygen reduction potential, as well as the
chrono-potentiostatic conditions and comparative rupture potentials, were
also examined. Sulfuric anhydride and the sulfites were found to
intervene in the pitting corrosion of stainless steels by acting as
cathodic depolarizing agents. The experimental results indicate an
initial partial oxidation which forms sulfuric acid, dropping the pH and
thus promoting the reduction of the remaining sulfur dioxide.
Combinations of sodium chloride with sodium hydrosulfite or thiosulfate
were found to be particularly reactive. Molybdenum steels were little
affected by sulfur dioxide. These findings are of interest in relation to
the effects of atmospheric sulfur dioxide on architectural stainless
steel.
23. The Role of Aerobic Bacteria in Metal Corrosion. J. Brison. Corrosion,
Traitements, Protection, Finition, v. 21, No. 4, 1973, pp. 242-247
(French).
Aerobic bacteria that produce acids, NH^, amines, H^S, etc., can
theoretically participate in corrosion as do anaerobic bacteria. In
practice, they inhibit corrosion, and there is a relationship between
protective power and their respiratory activity. If oxygen content is
below a certain level, this protection stops, the anaerobic bacteria take
over, and corrosion rapidly appears.
24. The Role of Coatings in Corrosion Prevention. Future Trends. V. Ashworth
and R. P. M. Proctor. Journal of the Oil and Colour Chemists
Association, v. 56, No. 10, October 1973, pp. 478-489.
The authors describe the complex electrochemical interaction between
a metal and its environment which leads to corrosion, and also the other
factors affecting corrosion (chemical engineering factors: heat and mass
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Fe-7 1
transfer; metallurgical factors: microstructure and alloy composition;
engineering factors: absorption, film growth and environment
composition). The approaches to corrosion prevention: (1) design, (2)
materials selection, (3) environmental control, (4) anodic and cathodic
protection, and (5) protective coatings are outlined to put into
perspective the present role of coatings and paints in corrosion
prevention. The possible future trends in corrosion prevention are
discussed. The authors conclude that metallic coatings will be replaced
by organic and conversion coatings and corrosion inhibitors. Conventional
coatings may be replaced by specially designed systems with better
adhesion, coherence, and heat transfer.
1972
1. A Microscopic Study of Steel Surfaces Exposed to a Humid SC^-Containing
Atmosphere. B. 0. Heimler and N. G. Vannerberg. Corros. Sci., v. 12,
1972, pp. 579-582.
Electropo1ished and etched steel samples were exposed to a humid,
sulphur dioxide-containing atmosphere under controlled conditions. The
surface structure of the samples and the distribution of the points of
attack after exposure were studied with a scanning electron microscope.
2. Analyzing Atmospheric Corrosion. J. B. Mohler. Pollut. Eng., v. 4, No.
7, 1972, pp. 28-29.
The protection of metals from pollution-caused corrosion: rates
determined by the ASTM for the atmospheric corrosion of metals due to
sulfur dioxide; a comparison of the corrosion rates of steel and zinc as'
measured at 45 test sites throughout the world; the corrosion of other
metals; and methods of solving atmospheric corrosion problems are
described.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Steels and Nickel Alloys. T.
E. Evans. Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Metal. Corros. (1969), National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, 1972, pp. 408-418.
Eleven commercial stainless steels and nickel alloys with dull and/or
polished finishes were exposed for 10 years at Birmingham, England. Four
were also tested for 2.5 to 3 years at 14 diverse sites. Corrosion area,
weight loss, and pitting were determined. Type 316 stainless steel
resisted corrosion except in the presence of sea spray or pollution. Type
304 was satisfactory, but type 430 rusted.
4. Atmospheric Corrosion of Iron-Copper Alloys and Copper-Containing Steels.
D. Fyfe, C. E. A. Shanahan, and L. L. Shreir. Proc. 4th Int. Congr.
Metal Corros. (1969), National Association of Corrosion Engineers,
Houston, TX, 1972, pp. 399-407.
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Fe-72
High-purity iron, iron-copper, and iron-copper-steel alloys were used
to study the effect of copper, steel, and copper plus steel on atmospheric
corrosion of iron in industrial, rural, and rural-marine environments.
Mild steel and copper steel were tested to show the effects of copper
addition on common steel compared with iron. Specimens were exposed for
4, 12, 24, 48, and 67 weeks and the total rust, adherent rust, and weight
loss determined. Rust structure studies were carried out by scanning
electron microscopy. Copper additions to pure iron had only a small
beneficial effect compared with that when steel was present in the alloy.
This is explained by the deleterious effect of steel removed by
precipitation of S^~ ions from the rust cell electrolyte as CuS.
5. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels and Their Rust Structure. J. Satake and
T. Moroishi. Sumitomo Kinzoku, v. 24, No. 1, 1972, pp. 39-49
(Japanese).
The distribution of elements in the rust layer formed on low-alloy
steels after several periods of exposure in industrial and rural
atmospheres was investigated by microscopy and electron-probe
microanalysis. The rust layer in large pits contains Cu, P, and Cr.
Chromium and phosphorus concentrate around defects in the rust. The rust
layer on the flat surface surrounding large pits and also the surface
layer above large pits show no evidence of localized concentration of
copper and phosphorus and Little carbon is found in it. Silicon, the main
constituent of the rust, has been found in these parts of the rust, but
none in the pits. It is supposed that Cr, P, and Cu produced by corrosion
presumably form far loss soluble compounds than Fe++ and are likely to
precipitate in the pits, while Fe++ diffuses from the pits and
precipitates on the outer surface. The H20 perraeabi1ity of rust layers
was evaluated by impedance measurement of the rusted-specimen electrode in
0.1M NaB02 aqueous solution. The resistance of the rust layer decreases
with immersion time as the solution penetrates into the rust and finally
attains a steady state. Initial and final values of the resistance and
also the time necessary to reach the steady state increases with
increasing periods of atmospheric exposure and are larger for low-alloy
steels than for carbon steel at the same exposure time. A linear relation
has been confirmed between atmospheric corrosion rates and reciprocals of
the final resistances and in some cases, initial values, which provide a
measure of the porosity of the rust layer. It is supposed that the
corrosion rate depends on the time of wetness, which determines the size
of the area on the steel surface where the water penetrates the pores and
corrosion begins. The paths through which rain water permeates the rust
layer must be clogged by precipitation of compounds of Cr, Cu, and P that
are less soluble than iron compounds.
6. Distribution of Alloying Elements in Rust Layers Formed Naturally on
Corrosion Resistant Low Alloy Structural Weathering Steel.
J. B. Horton, M. M. Goldberg, and K. F. Watterson. Proc. 4th Int.
Congr. on Metal. Corros. (1969), National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Houston, TX, 1972, pp. 385-389.
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Fe-73
Samples of Mayari R steel alloyed with low percents of C, Mn, P, S.
Si, Ni, Cr, and Cu were allowed to weather for 5 yers, some in a severe
marine atmosphere and others in a moderate industrial atmosphere. The
concentrations of the alloying elements were measured using the ion
surface analyzer. The results show that the alloying elements are
distributed nonuniformly throughout the rust layers for samples at both
sites. Those elements which function beneficially in the rust layer to
protect the steel, do so either in the electrolyte at the metal surface or
within the structure of the rust itself.
7. Effect of Weathering on the Electrochemical Behavior of Steels, R. Bruno,
G. Agabio and G. Bombara. Brit. Corros. J., v. 7, May 1972, pp. 122-
125.
A potentiodynamic anodic behavioral study was made of a 0.2 percent
carbon mild steel and variants containing 0.204 percent Cu, 0.278 Cu-0.095
percent phosphorus, and 0 ,6Si-0 .1P-0.375Cu-0.54Cr-0.26 percent Ni in 0.1M
Na2S0^ as regards the protectiveness of early weathering patinas. The
property of slow-rusting steels being able to build up a protective rust,
which ennobles the metal-oxide interface, is significant only on
weathering surfaces. Largely irrespective of the method and the extent of
weathering, it is upon weathering that contributory alloying elements, by
means of selective enrichment at the metal surface, can affect the
thermodynamics and kinetics of the steel electrode during atmospheric
corrosion. Corrosion potential measurements on weathered electrodes can
give useful information about the surface ennoblement and the relative
stability of oxide layers; a more significant differentiation in kinetic
terms, related to coverage passivability, can be derived rapidly from
simple potential sweep techniques. Critical passivation currents,
potentials, and charges thus obtained can provide good relative evaluation
indexes of weatherabi1ity. In view of the apparent consistency of these
data with the results of extended exposure tests, such techniques are a
promising research tool, not indeed for predicting service performance
quantitatively, but for screening developmental alloys for atmospheric
use.
8. Electrochemical Studies on Corrosion of Mild Steel by Sulfur Dioxide. G.
K. Singhania, S. K. Roy, S. N. Pandey and B. Sanyal. Labdev, Part A, v.
10, No. 2, 1972, pp. 82-84.*
Cathodic polarization of mild steel was studied by using the
potentiokinetic method with different concentrations of SO2 solution.
Sulfur dioxide acts as a depolarizer enhancing the corrosion rate. The
effectiveness of the depolarization depends upon the concentration and the
extent of stirring, and is believed to be due to the reduction of sulfur
dioxide rather than the low pH of the solution.
9. Hot-Dip Galvanized Steel Sheet and Its Corrosion Resistance. N. Dreulle
and P. Dreulle. Galvano, v. 41, No. 427, 1972, pp. 867-871 (French).
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Fe-74
The reaction between zinc and iron during the galvanizing process,
the reaction of zinc during atmospheric corrosion, and the effect of the
reaction products on the protection of steel are reviewed. Corrosion
rates in geographical areas of France with varying atmospheric conditions
are given.
10. Influence of Humidity and Contamination by Sulfur Dioxide on the
Corrosiveness of Madrid Atmosphere on Steel. S. Feliu, M. A. Guillen
and P. F. Manzano. Corros., Trait. Prot., Finition, v. 20, No. 7,
November 1972, pp. 474-482 (French).
The part played by relative humidity (RH) in the atmospheric
corrosion of steel is shown. The combined effect of humidity and
contamination by sulfur dioxide on steel corrosion is serious only when a
given monthly contamination level is reached and, simultaneously, the
number of hours per month of RH>70 percent exceeds a minimum given value.
11. Kinetic Influence of Sulfur Dioxide and Humidity in Atmospheric Corrosion
of Steel. K. Barton, J. Honzak and Z. Bartonova. Proceedings 4th Int.
Congr. on Metallic Corros. (1969), National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Houston, TX, 1972, pp. 425-428.*
A mechanism is proposed for the corrosion of iron in the presence of
sulfur dioxide as follows: (1) Fe + H20 Fe (0H~)ads + H+; (2)
Fe(0H~)ads X Fe(0H)ads + e-; (3) Fe(0H)ads + H20 -
FeOOH + OH"; (4) Fe(OH)ads + SOu2" + FeSC\ + OH" + e-; and (5)
FeSO^ + 2H20 -»• FeOOH + SO^ + 3H+ + e-. Reaction (3) is assumed to be
slow; (4) and (5) are rapid. The SO^2- is assumed to be formed by the
rust-catalyzed oxidation of sulfur dioxide. It is assumed that steps (4)
and (5) are the primary corrosion processes above some limiting value of
SO^2" activity.
12. Mechanism of Atmospheric Rusting. U. R. Evans and C. A. J. Taylor.
Corros. Sci., v. 12, No. 3, 1972, pp. 227-246.
Corrosion research conducted at Cambridge and pertaining to the
connection between the electrochemical mechanism of atmospheric corrosion
and that of corrosion under immersed conditions is reported. Iron and
steel samples were used. The results indicate the major role of the
electrochemical cycle mechanism on the corrosion of iron in atmospheres
containing large amounts of sulfur dioxide.
13. Mechanisms of Atmospheric Corrosion. A. Bukowiecki. Oberflaeche-Surface,
v. 13, No. 9, 1972, pp. 219-226 (German).
The results and conclusions of several extensive steel corrosion
studies made by the author and others are summarized and reviewed.
Particular emphasis is given to the concept of critical humidity in
connection with the corrosive action of solid salts and the cause of
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Fe-75
pinhole corrosion. The effect of acids and sulfur dioxide is also
cons idered.
14. Mechanism of Rusting Under Different Conditions. U. R. Evans. Brit.
Corros. J., v. 7, 1972, p. 10.
Rust formed from iron immersed in a salt solution is a secondary
product precipated where the soluble anodic and cathodic products meet.
Being mainly produced at a distance from the metallic surface, it cannot
protect, and the corrosion proceeds at a nearly uniform rate. Only if
either anodic or cathodic product is sparingly soluble will corrosion be
slowed down—the two cases being known as anodic and cathodic inhibition.
The currents passing between anodic and cathodic areas have been measured
and are found to correspond to the corrosion rate in the sense of
Faraday's law. During corrosion by drops of salt solution placed on a
horizontal surface, the current passing between the central anode and the
peripheral cathode has been shown up by a magnetic method due to Blaha.
In these cases the electrochemical mechanism is not in doubt. Atmospheric
corrosion set up by saline dust particles can be explained by a mechanism
like that of drop corrosion. That set up by moist air containing sulphur
dioxide is found to be connected with the formation of ferrous sulphate;
when once this has been produced, the presence of sulphur dioxide in the
gas phase is not needed for the continuation of rusting. Here again there
is evidence of an electrochemical mechanism. The anodic reaction is Fe •
Fe(II) + 2e, whilst the cathodic reaction is the reduction of FeOOH to
FE301+, which is then oxidized by air to give a larger quantity of FeOOH
than previously existed. Since the fresh rust formed at a sensible
distance from the site of anodic attack, the rust, although adherent, is
not protective. This action will continue only if an electrochemical
conducting limb (FeSO^ solution) and an electronically conducting limb
(FejO^) are provided. If the humidity is so low that the FeSO^ solution
dries up, rust-formation by this mechanism will cease, explaining the
principle of critical humidity as developed by Vernon ad Bukowiecki. If
the metal does not form an electronically conducting intermediate oxide, a
mechanism providing rapid atmospheric attack will be impossible; this
explains why zinc, which under immersed conditions is corroded more
quickly than iron, suffers atmospheric attack more slowly. Indeed, a zinc
coating is commonly used to protect iron under atmospheric condition.
15. Protective Rust Layer Formed on Low-Alloy Steels in Atmospheric
Conditions. H. Okada, Y. Hosoi, K. Yukawa and H. Naito. Proc. 4th Int.
Congr. Metal. Corros. (1969), National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Houston, TX, 1972, pp. 392-398.
The corrosion resistance to weathering of steels containing alloying
elements such as Cu, Ni, Cr, and P may be due to the formation of a dense
opticalLy isotropic layer of amorphous spinel-type Fe oxide with an outer
compact layer of optically active FeOOH. An anodic reaction is prevented
by masking of active sites by the oxide layer, preventing penetration of
H2O and O2 to the steel surface. A cathodic reaction may be prevented by
the compactness of the outer FeOOH layer. In carbon steels, the optically
active FeOOH layer is partially mixed with the optically isotropic layer
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Fe-76
adjacent to the steel surface. This may permit crystallization of
F304, causing cracks in the layer and permitting penetration of 02 and
H20, and formation of additional FeOOH at the surface.
16. Reactions of Sulfur Dioxide With Adsorbed Layers of Moisture Under
Conditions of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. P. V. Strekalov, Y. N.
Mikhailovskii. Zashch. Metal., v. 8, No. 5, 1972, pp. 573-576
(Russian).
A large number of researches have been devoted to the investigation
of the effect of sulfur dioxide on the development of the corrosion
process. It has been found that for the series of technically important
metals such as iron, zinc, and others, there is a proportional
relationship between sulfur dioxide content of the air and atmospheric
corrosion. The variation in the kinetics of the corrosion process in the
presence of sulfur dioxide gas is associated with oxidation of the sulfur
dioxide at the metal surface to SOg , acidification of the moisture film,
and the depolarizing function of sulfur dioxide. However, the fact that
the corrosion rate of metals is independent of the sulfur dioxide
concentration in an atmosphere with humidity below the critical value has
so far not received a sufficiently rigorous physicochemical
interpretation. In the present work, we have investigated the adsorption
of sulfur dioxide from the gas phase on metals carrying adsorbed layers of
moisture with various thicknesses, and we have also investigated the
effect of adsorbed sulfur dioxide on the electrophysical and corrosion
characteristics of zinc in a moist atmosphere.
17. Stress-Corrosion Susceptibility of Highway Bridge Construction Steels. C.
S. Carter, M. V. Hyatt and J. E. Cotton. NTIS Report PB-222453/3, April
1972, pp. 301.
A catolog of steels used in highway bridge construction has been
developed. A state-of-the-art survey on the stress-corrosion
susceptibility of these steels has been conducted. The types and
concentrations of corrosives that can be experienced in the highway
environment have been established. It is concluded that carbon steels
(A7, A9, A36, and A373), which have been used predominantly in bridge
construction, are not susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking in the
highway environment. Insufficient information is available to assess the
stress-corrosion resistance of higher strength steels with the required
level of confidence. Fracture mechanics type tests are proposed to
obtained this information.
18. Survey on the Metal Corrosion by Air Pollution: Effect of Glauber's Salt
on Metals. T. Nagano, A. Hattori, T. Nagai, Y. Ukishima, Y. Nakai and
I. Iwasaki. Shizuoka-ken Eisei Kenkyusho Nenpo, No. 16, 1972, pp. 217—
226 (Japanese).
Iron, aluminum, copper, zinc, and silver plates of given sizes were
fixed to a support and exposed to sulfate at 6 locations at Yoshihara of
Toyama City where pollution by sodium sulfate was significant. Sulfur
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Fe-77
dioxide concentrations were measured by the lead peroxide candle method
while particulate concentrations were measured by the deposit cage method.
The metal plates were weighed before and after the exposures. The average
sulfur dioxide concentrations from July 1971 to May 1972 ranged from 0.867
mg SO3/IOO square cm/day at Kashiwara-Arada to 1.202 rag SO3/IOO square
cm/day at the Fujima T-House. The sodium sulfate concentrations in the
air were estimated at 4.29 square km/month at Kashiwara-Arada. The iron
plates showed considerable weight decreases at all the locations. A
correlation coefficient (R) of 0.997 was obtained between the weight
decrease of iron and the estimated Na2S0t+ concentration in the air.
Silver plates showed black-blue spots after exposure.
19. The Care of Old Buildings Today. D. Insall. The Architectural Press,
London, 1972, 197 pp.
The causes of deterioration of lead, masonry, iron, tile, copper,
wood, thatched roofs, and paintings in old buildings are discussed. Some
of the causes are rain, atmospheric pollution, corrosion, dry rot,
condensation, pests, wind, fungi, etc. Methods of restoration and
preventative measures that can be taken are discussed.
20. The Effect of Copper (II) on the Crystallization of a-FeOOH. K. Inouye,
S. Ishii, K. Kaneko and T. Ishikawa. Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem., v. 391,
1972, pp. 86-96.
Various a-FeOOH samples have been prepared with or without addition
of Cu(II) (0-5% Cu/Fe) and examined by X-ray diffraction. BET surface
area determination, electron-microscopical observation and DTA
measurements were made. Doping with Cu in suitable amount impedes
completely the formation of a-FeOOH. The mechanism of growth, based on
the changes of particle size and crystallite dimension, appears to be
different between pure and Cu-doped a-FeOOH. The reason of the remarkable
effect of Cu on the crystallization process of a-FeOOH is discussed. The
effect of Cu is likely relevant to the role of Cu added to anticorrosive
steel used in the atmospheric environment.
21. The Effect of Magnetite on Atmospheric Rusting and Underrusting of Paint
Coats. H. Schwartz. Werkst. Korros., v. 23, No. 8, 1972, pp. 648-663
(German).
The corrosion products formed in the atmospheric rusting of steel can
be converted into magnetite under suitable conditions. Preferably, this
conversion occurred at the FeSO^ nests at which FeOOH was reduced by
metallic iron, increasing considerably the ultimate rusting rate even
below paints. The conversion behavior of natural rust offered an
evaluation of the ultimate rusting susceptibility of a rusted surface.
Rust formed in the atmosphere under natural conditions was stored several
weeks under oxygen-free nitrogen at 97 percent relative humidity and the
amount magnetite formed determined. This amount could increase to more
than 90 percent with increase of the ultimate rusting rate to multiples of
the original value. An oxygen concentration of less than 1 vol-pct was
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Fe-78
sufficient to maintain a high corrosion rate. This method made possible a
better characterization of the substrate layer than the characterizations
by age, layer thickness, and rust origin.
22. The Influence of the Relative Humidity and Corrosion Products on the
Adsorption of Sulfur Dioxide on Metal Surfaces. T. Sydberger and N. G.
Vannerberg. Corros. Sci., v. 12, No. 10, 1972, pp. 775-784.
The adsorption of sulfur dioxide on metal surfaces has been followed
using an S-35 isotope. Experiments have been performed with 1.0 x
10"5 percent SO2 (0.10 ppm) at relative humidities between 50 and 98
percent. The adsorption properties of polished iron, zinc, copper, and
aluminum samples have been compared with those of pre-exposed samples of
these metals. Measurements have shown a pronounced dependence of the
adsorption rate on the humidity. Almost quantitative adsorption of sulfur
dioxide has been obtained on pre-exposed iron samples at relative
humidities of more than 80 percent. Remarkably low adsorption capacities
at relative humidities of less than 90 percent have been found for the
corrosion products of copper and aluminum. Changes in the adsorption rate
with time have been used to study the corrosion initiation on polished
iron surfaces.
23. The Structural Transformation of Ferric Oxyhydroxides and Their Activity
Towards Sulfur Dioxide. T. Ishikawa and K. Inouye. Bull. Chem. Soc.
Japan, v. 45, No. 8, 1972, pp. 2350-2354.
The structural transformation of ferric oxyhydroxides and their
activity towards sulfur dioxide were studied by thermogravimetric analysis
and X-ray diffraction in order to clarify the mechanism of acceleration of
iron corrosion by sulfur dioxide in stack gas and in the atmosphere.
24. Various Factors Affecting Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels. J. Satake and
T. Moroishi. Proc. 5th Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion (Tokyo,
Japan, May 1972), published by National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, 1972, pp. 744-749.
Corrosion tests were conducted at various sites on carbon and
low alloy steels for exposure periods up to 5 years. The corrosion rate
data is correlated with the SO2, Cl~ content of the air and with
rainfall. The tested samples contained more sulfur in the rust film than
was in the metal. However, rain was the only atmospheric constituent that
correlated well with corrosion in the latter stages of the test.
1971
1. Accelerated Atmospheric Corrosion Tests in Polluted Air. Influence of
Dewing on Mild Steel in Sulfur Dioxide Environment. S. Yamasaki and Y.
Yokoi. Corrosion Engineering, v. 20, No. 11/12, 1971, pp. 509-515.
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The influence of the quantity of dewing and interval of dew cycle on
the corrosion of mild steel panel exposed in an atmosphere of 20 ppm
SO2, 95 100 percent relative humidity was investigated and evaluated
from the viewpoint of similarity to field tests, acceleration of test, and
reproducibility of test results. The grade of dewing was classified into
critical dewing (temperature difference (TD) between specimen and
atmosphere = 0), light dewing (TD = 2°C), and heavy dewing (TD = 5°C).
Dewing period (min)/drying period (min) cycles of 15/15, 30/30, 60/60, and
120/120 were selected, besides continuous dewing, for the test period of
24 hours. In heavy dewing, the shortest cycle of 15/15 showed the largest
amount of corrosion, but the similarity to the corrosion pattern of field
tests was weak. The reproducibility under the condition of the cyclic
heavy and light dewing was very good, while that in the cyclic critical
dewing was unstable. Continuous dewing under all but critical conditions
has the tendency to reduce acceleration and similarity. To satisfy
similarity, acceleration and reproducibility in the Laboratory test, the
condition of light dewing and comparatively rapid dew cycle, such as
30/30, was recognized to be optimum.
2. Air Pollution by Sulfur Oxides. Staff Report. National Industrial
Pollution Control Council, Washington, D.C., Feb. 1971, 27 pp.
The report briefly discusses sulfur oxide air pollution. It mentions
the sources of sulfur oxides; the characteristics of sulfur pollutants;
the measurement of atmospheric sulfur oxides; the effects of atmospheric
sulfur oxides on paints, metals, building materials, vegetation, and man
and animals; the combined effects of sulfur oxides and particulate matter;
epidemiological appraisal of sulfur oxides; the methods to reduce sulfur
oxide pollution; and what industry and government are doing to attack the
problem.
3. An Investigation of the Anodic Behavior of Low Alloy Steels. G. Bombara
and G. Agabio. Corrosion, v. 27, No. 1, January 1971, pp. 26-30.
The anodic behavior of three low alloy steels and one mild steel was
evaluated by potentiodynamic polarization measurements in bicarbonate,
sulfate, and bisulfate solutions. Some significant features
differentiated the steels as to their corrosion behavior in these media.
These features were dependent on the alloying elements and were related to
the practical performance of the steels in atmospheric corrosion tests.
The effect of weathering on the anodic behavior of these materials in
sulfate solution was evaluatd by the use of polarization measurements on
specimens artificially weathered by prolonged anodizing treatments at very
low current densities.
4. Atmospheric Corrosion of Galvanized Steel. K. B. Barton. Proc« 9th Int.
Conf. Hot Dip Galvanizing (1970), Ind. Newspapers Ltd., London, 1971,
pp. 199-206.**
Corrosion of iron and zinc surfaces was compared. Two critical
factors for iron are humidity and accelerators such as chloride and S02>
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the latter being effective in very small concentrations. The accelerators
accumulate in the corrosion products at the iron-rust boundary. For zinc,
the corrosion mechanism is passive even in the presence of SO2, the
control taking place at the outer corrosion product/atmospheric boundary.
In an industrial atmosphere, 2 percent SO4 was present in the corrosion
products of iron, 15 percent in those of zinc. The effect of temperature
on the atmospheric corrosion of iron is exponential; that of zinc linear.
The dependence of corrosion rates of iron and zinc by active amounts of
SO2 was charted; the relation is valid only when a minimum concentration
is exceeded. A distinction was made among the 3 periods in the life of a
hot-dipped galvanized product exposed to atmospheric attack: a short time
when the protective layer is formed from the corrosion products; a long
period of corrosion that is directly proportional to the zinc-layer
thickness and indirectly proportional to the aggressiveness of the
atmosphere; and finally the period after most of the zinc coating has been
consumed. Long-term atmospheric corrosion varies linearly with time. The
zinc corrosion rate during wetting periods is a function of the total
amount of accelerator falling on the surface.
5. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. M. Arpaia. Atti Not. Assoc. Ital.
Metall., v. 26, 1971, pp. 363-367 (Italian).
A survey covers the corrosion effects of sulfur dioxide, sulfur
trioxide, particulate ammonium sulfate, and hydrogen sulfide on iron
alloys, copper, nickel, aluminum, zinc, and silver.
6. Atmospheric Tests. S. K. Coburn. Chapt. 17 in Handbook on Corrosion
Testing and Evaluation, edited by W. H. Ailor, Electrochemical Society,
Corrosion Monograph Series, J. Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1971, pp. 475-
505.
The chapter traces the history of atmospheric corrosion testing and
discusses the factors affecting atmospheric corrosion. Corrosin data for
mild steel, stainless steel, zinc, copper, and aluminum are reported for
various exposure sites from around the world.
7. Behavior of Rusted (Mild steel) Surfaces in Sulfur Dioxide Atmosphere. G.
K. Singhania, B. Lai and B. Sanyal. Labdev. Part A, v. 9, No. 3 & 4,
1971, pp. 223-225.**
The presence of rust on mild steel increases its susceptibility to
further corrosion by adsorption of SO2 under conditions of low
temperature and low humidity that are not favorable for corrosion of
freshly prepared samples. Rust films behave differently depending on
their nature. When the film is very thin, it absorbs moisture and results
in more corrosion, but when it becomes compact and nonporous on long
exposure, it acts as a protective film.
8. Breakdown of Passivity in Low-Alloy Steels. L. Giuliani, G. Agabio and G.
Bombara. Corrosion Science, v. 11, 1971, pp. 403-410.
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Fe-8 1
Low-alloy steels can be protected in SO4 solutions through
precipitation of corrosion products. Periodic breakdowns of such a
"coverage passivity" results in current blips, whose shape and frequency
are highly specific of the type of steel. The qualitative classification
which can be drawn from this phenomenon appears to correlate quite well
with the corrosion resistance of steel as determined by atmospheric
exposure tests.
9. Corrosion Induced by SO2 Under Controlled Conditions. B. 0. Heimler, T.
Sydberger and N. G. Vannerberg. Chapt. 27 in Proc. 6th Scandinavian
Corrosion Congr. (Gothenburg, May 24-27, 1971), 1971, 13 pp.
Metal samples have been exposed to humid atmospheres containing
sulfur dioxide under controlled conditions. The surface structure of the
samples has been studied with a scanning electron microscope and an
electron microprobe. The increase in weight, the amount of sulphate
formed and the adsorption of sulfur dioxde has been determined, the last
using the radioactive sulfur isotope S-35. The phase composition of the
corrosion products has been determined by X-ray diffraction and
thermogravimetric analysis.
10. Corrosion of Metals by Sulfur Dioxide. G. K. Singhania, B. Lai and B.
Sanyal. Labdev. Part A, v. 9, No. 3 & 4, 1971, pp. 214-216.
Concentration and aeration influence the corrosion of metals in
aqueous solutions containing < 4.0 g SO2/IOO cra^. Mild steel and Zn
are heavily attacked, while there is slight attack on A1 and none on Cu.
Maximum corrosion was observed in mild steel at 40° at an intermediate
SO2 concentration.
11. Corrosion of Some Steels Under the Atmospheric Conditions of a Damp
Subtropical Sea Climate. F. N. Tavadze, S. N. Mandzhgaladze, V. S.
Kemkhadze, T. Dashniani and G. K. Dzhincharadze. Prot. Steel Struct.
Atmos. Corros., 57th Proc. Event Eur. Fed. Corros. (1970), v. 1, 1971,
pp. 71-83 (German).
The climate of Batum (Georgia, USSR) was found to exert no particular
effect on the corrosion of stainless steels. Steels lKhl8N9T and Khl5AT15
were found to be extremely corrosion resistant. Materials in NaCl
solutions are tabulated and discussed.
12. Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants on the Corrosion Behavior of Steels. F.
H. Haynie and J. B. Upham. Mater. Prot. Performance, v. 10, No. 11,
November 1971, pp. 18-21.
The effects of atmospheric pollutants on the corrosion behavior of
steels was studied experimentally for three types of steel selected on the
basis of their known corrosion behavior by mounting 25 panels, each 16,000
ym thick, of each steel on exposure racks on porcelain insulators facing
south and inclined 30®, at U.S. Public Health Service Continuous Air
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Monitoring Project stations in Chicago, Cincinnati, New Orleans,
Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Washington. These stations record
concentrations of carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur
dioxide, total hydrocarbons, and total oxidants (mainly ozone). Five
replicates of each steel were removed after exposure periods of 4, 8, 16,
32, and 64 months. More than 90 percent of the variability in the
corrosion behavior of the three types of steel could be accounted for by
differences in concentration of two pollutants. Sulfur dioxide increased
corrosion and oxidants decreased corrosion. Because these two effects are
counteracting, the relative rates by which these pollutants are reduced in
the future will strongly affect the corrosion behavior of steels.
13. Effect of Climatic Factors on Metal Corrosion Under Natural Conditions.
G. B. Klark. Prot. Steel Struct. Atmos. Corros., 57th Proc. Event Eur.
Fed. Corros. (1970), v. 1, 1971, pp. 214-229 (German).
Storage tests carried out on steels over 20 years have shown that in
dry climates corrosion increases with the amount of alloyed metal. When
stored uncovered, the rate of corrosion decreases after the first 2 years;
when covered, the rate is constant for 10 years. Salt in the atmosphere
enhances corrosion.
14. Effect of Environmental Factors on the Corrosion of Steels. F. J. Egan.
Australasian Corrosion Eng., v. 15, No. 6, July 1971, pp. 9-16.**
The effect of environmental factors, including rain and atmospheric
pollutants, on exposed steel are examined. The amount of moisture and sea
air are a function of geographical location, but rain, humidity, and sea
salts cause rusting and speed corrosion. Dusts, e.g., carbon smoke,
sulfurous gases, and ammonium salts are additional factors in steel
corrosion. Pollutants dissolved in rainwater increase the pH value and
aggravate corrosive effects. Corrosion will be more severe in an
atmosphere continually saturated with water and containing carbon
particles, chlorides, and sulfates. The effect of alloying steel on
corrosion resistance is discussed.
15. Laboratory Studies of Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Bohnenkamp. Prot. Steel
Struct. Atmos. Corros., 57th Proc. Event Eur. Fed. Corros. (1970), v.
1, 1971, pp. 84-97 (German).
Atmospheric corrosion under laboratory conditions is studied by
differential measurement of the pressure of the consumed oxygen at a
sensitivity of 0.1 g/m2. The effect of single and repeated addition of
S02 on the rate of rusting is studied.
16. Magnetite in Rust as a Corrosion Stimulator. H. Schwartz. Prot. Steel
Struct. Atmos. Corros., 57th Proc. Event Eur. Fed. Corros. (1970), v.
1, 1971, pp. 13-56 (German).
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Fe-83
The changing of rust into magnetite (Fe3C>4) and its stimulating
effect on corrosion was investigated. Three types of rust produced by
exposing prepared ferrous test panels in industrial atmospheres for fixed
periods of time were examined. Magnetite strongly promoted corrosion. On
panels exposed in the Ruhr for 1 year the rusting rate increased from
approximately 650 ym/yr to approximately 1,050 ym/yr when the magnetite
content increased from 6 to 31 perent. On panels exposed in Stuttgart for
10 weeks the initial rusting rate of approximately 330 ym/yr increased to
approximately 930 ym/yr when magnetite content increased from 0 to 97
percent. On panels exposed in Stuttgart for 1 year the rate went from
approximately 70 ym/yr to approximately 390 ym/yr when the magnetite
content went from 0 to 29 percent. The listed corrosion activities are
the rusting rates at 97 percent relative humidity without the addition of
corrosion promoters. The values were obtained by measuring the oxygen
consumption. The magnetite content is based on total oxides determined by
X-ray analysis.
17. Metal Coatings on Steel at Lighthouse Beach, Lagos. J. F. Stanners.
Brit. Corrosion J., v. 6, No. 5, September 1971, pp. 211-215.
Fifty to eighty ym coatings of Zn, Pb, and A1 were applied to plates
of hot-rolled mild steel and were exposed for 8.7 yr at angles of 45°
facing the sea at Lighthouse Beach, Lagos. Daily temperatures were 21-
32°C, relative humidity more than 85 percent, and annual rainfall was
approximately 1,800 mm (mainly between March and October). Sprayed
aluminum and electrodeposited zinc coatings prevented corrosion. Hot-
dipped zinc coatings were quite successful, but sprayed zinc and electro-
deposited lead coatings were unsatisfactory.
The methods of applying the coatings and the breakdown of the
coatings during the test are described.
18. On The Protective Nature of Atmospheric Rust on Low-Alloy Steel. I.
Matsushima and T. Ueno. Corros. Sci., v. 11, No. 3, 1971, pp. 129-140.
Experiments on carbon and low-alloy weathering steels exposed to the
industrial atmospheres of Kawasaki, Japan, showed that the ability of rust
to convert sulfur dioxide to trioxide, and thus the rate of sulfate
formation depends on the steel composition. It is lower for the more
corrosion-resistant steels. The corrosion rates depend on the number of
macroscopic anodic sites, (detected by autoradiography) on the rusted
surfaces.
19. Present Status and Prospects on Air Pollution. U. Bardelli. Ingegneria,
v. 5, 1971, pp. 311-316. (Italian)
This survey covers the effects of air pollutants such as carbon
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ozone, hydrogen chloride, and
nitrogen oxides on various materials, e.g., metals, paints, cloth,
leather, paper, and rubber; and the use of protective wax, paraffin, and
bitumen films.
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20. Role of Sulfur Dioxide in Atmospheric Corrosion. D. J. Spedding. Chem.
Ind. N.Z., v. 6, 1971, pp. 39-41.
The effect of sulfur dioxide on the atmospheric deterioration of
metals, building stone, book paper, and leather is reviewed.
21. State of the Art and Aspects of Surface and Corrosion Protection
Technology. Part 1. W. Burkhardt. Technik (Berlin), v. 26, No. 11,
November 1971, pp. 697-704.**
All corrosion is caused by the effect of the environment on metals,
metal alloys, and metallic protective layers. Two stages can be
distinguished in the process: chemical corrosion in dry, gaseous media
wherein the primary reaction is between the metal and the oxygen of the
air, other corrosive gases being hydrogen, sulfur dioxide, and chlorine;
and the active electrochemical loosening of metal. The influencing
factors of atmospheric corrosion are temperature and temperature changes;
moisture and precipitation; solar radiation; cloudiness; wind; and the
concentration in the atmosphere of oxygen, SO2, CO2, CI, H2S, NH3,
soot, and dust. The corrosive attack is accelerated when the relative
humidity rises above 70X. With relative humidities between 70 and 85% the
type and concentration of pollution has an accelerating influence. The
corrosion speed in microns/annum to the minus first power for iron is 5-60
in rural air, 30-70 in urban air, 40-160 in industrial air, and 60-230 in
marine air; for lead, it is 0.7-1.4 in rural air, 1.3-2.0 in urban air,
and 1.8-3.7 in industrial air.
22. Steels Fit for the Countryside. G. Smith. New Scientist, v. 52, No. 775,
December 23, 1971 pp. 211-213.
Low-alloy "weathering steels" don't rust in the ordinary way, but
form a tough protective coating ranging in colour from a warm, dark
reddish brown to a purple grey. Requiring little maintenance, they are
bound to rival the use of prestressed concrete, aluminum alloys, and
conventional steels in the construction industry.
23. Study of the Rust Structure of Low-Alloy Steel. R. Engelhardt, U.
Rasemann, H. Baum, H. Boudroit and E. Kunze. Neue Huette, v. 16, No.
9/10, Sept.-Oct. 1971, pp. 593-597. (German)
Low-alloy steel samples were exposed to an atmosphere with varying
relative humidity. Sulfur dioxide was added discontinuously. Three steel
types were examined. The exposure of the samples at 76% relative humidity
caused no changes of the diffraction pattern. Corrosion resistant
low-alloy steel, Corten steel, and a comparative none alloyed steel sample
were exposed to the open atmosphere. Examinations of the rust layer after
6, 12, and 18 months revealed a direct influence of the climatic
conditions as well as of the steel composition. The thickness of the rust
fluctuated between 5 and 7 micron. Salt depositions were found both on
the corrosion resistant low-alloy steel as well as on the nonalloyed
steel. They were identified as iron sulfate. The quantity found on the
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Fe-85
steel sample was in relation to the SO2 content of the atmosphere. A 20
to 40% enrichment of sulfur was found in the rust with respect to the
atmospheric SO^ concentration.
24. Sulfates in Rust Formed During Atmospheric Corrosion of Iron. J. Honzak.
Prot. Steel Struct. Atmos. Corros., 57th Proc. Event Eur. Fed. Corros.
(1970), v. 1, 1971, pp. 98-110 (German).
An investigation was made of the properties and composition of rust
layers formed during atmospheric corrosion of iron. The test samples were
exposed in typical industrial, urban, and rural atmospheres. The rust
layers were divided in three sublayers: (1) removed by brushing, (2)
freed by bending the brushed sample, and (3) dissolved by pickling. Iron
(II) and iron (III), the amount of anions, moisture content, and sulfate
content were determined. Different conditions at the test sites led to
rusts of different sublayer compositions. In a model experiment, the
S0^2- couid not affect the corrosion reaction kinetics.
25. Technical-Economic Evaluation of Air-Pollution Corrosion Costs on Metals
in the U.S. F. W. Fink, F. H. Buttner and W. K. Boyd. NTIS Report PB-
198453, February 19, 1971, 160 pp.
A study has been conducted to provide an estimate of the cost to the
nation's economy resulting from the corrosion damage to metals by exposure
to polluted air. More specifically, the major objectives may be stated as
follows: Assess the total economic loss to the nation in dollars
resulting from the increased corrosion damage of externally exposed
structures or systems caused by the presence of man-made pollutants in the
atmosphere. Establish from predicted changes in population, industrial
activity, technology of pollution control, corrosion prevention, external
structures, and air pollution regulations the probable size of this
economic loss in 1980.
26. The Mechanism of Atmospheric Rusting and the Effect of Cu and P on the
Rust Formation of Low Alloy Steels. T. Misawa, T. Kyuno, W. Suetaka and
S. Shimodaira. Corrosion Sci., v. 11, No. 1, January 1971, pp. 35-48.
The oxidation processes of Fe(II) hydroxo-complexes to a-, y-,
and 6-FeOOH and Fe^O , which are important atmospheric products of steels,
and the effect of Cu* + and PO^3 ions on the oxidation of the Fe(II)
hydroxo-complexes in aqueous solutions have been investigated. The
mechanism of atmospheric rusting deduced from the results obtained in the
present investigation has been used to explain the difference in behavior
between ordinary mild steels and low alloy steels during atmospheric
exposure. It is concluded that Fe(II) complexes are transformed to
amorphous 6-FeOOH by the catalytic effect of copper and phosphorus present
in steels. The amorphous 6-FeOOH forms a compact rust layer that enhances
corrosion resistance of the steel.
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Fe-86
27. The Spreading of Sulphate Nests on Steel in Atmospheric Corrosion. K.
Barton, D. Kuchynka, Z. Bartonova and E. Beranek. Corrosion Science, v.
11, 1971, pp. 937-942.
Radiochemical and microscopial investigations of the behavior of
sulphate nests in the course of atmospheric corrosion as well as
dissolution characteristics of sulphate from nests containing rusted steel
leads to a description of the spreading of sulphate nests as a
discontinuous process. Periodic cracking of a membrane surrounding the
nest causes concentrated FeSO^ solution or solid crystal to be expelled
and results in the formation of new corrosion centers. The mechanism of
this process is explained with the assumption of anion permeability of the
membrane.
28. Use of Weather-Resistant RBH 35 Steel for Construction. W. Witte. Prot.
Steel Struct. Atmos. Corros., 57th Proc. Event Eur. Fed. Corros.
(1970), v. 1, 1971, pp. 176-186 (German).
A description of the mechanical properties and resistance to
atmospheric corrosion of steel RHB 35 is given.
29. Weather-Resistant Structural Steels. Corrosion Behavior. F. Wallner, H.
Demmel, F. M. Oberhauser and J. Brandstaetter. Prot. Steel Struct.
Atmos. Corros., 57th Proc. Event Eur. Fed. Corros. (1970), G. V. Akimov
Nat. Res. Inst. Prot. Mater., Prague, Czech., v. 1, 1971, pp. 230-244.
A review is presented on the physical-chemical and kinetic basis of
steel corrosion and the influence of the steel components on corrosion.
Corrosion resistance is ascribed to the formation of protective covering
layers.
1970
1. Accelerated Atmospheric Corrosion Tests in Polluted Air. Mild Steel and
Aluminum in Sulfur Dioxide Environment. S. Yamasaki and Y. Yokoi.
Boshoku Gijutsu, v. 19, 1970, pp. 335-339 (Japanese).
One thousand liter/hr humid air, contaminated with 40 ppm SO2, was
continuously fed to a test chamber (about 115 liter capacity) by
Yamasaki's Constant Volume Gas Pumps. The relation of stationary
concentration of SO2 gas in the chambers and corrosion rate with the
number of specimens of mild steel and aluminum plate respectively were
obtained under the conditions of dew-cycle (25-50#C/60-60 min) and
constant temperature (30°C and 50°C). The corrosion rate in the dew-cycle
test was higher than that in the constant temperature test at the maximum
temperature in the dew-cycle test. The decrease of stationary SO2
concentration in tests with specimens corresponded to the increase in the
corrosion rate. It is important for the reproducibility of an accelerated
test to provide not only the concentration, but the flow rate of the
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Fe-87
contaminated air and the total surface area of the specimens to be
tested.
2. An Isotopic Tracer Method For Studying the Mode of Reaction of Sulfur
Dioxide on Metal Surfaces. N. G. Vannerberg and T. Sydberger. Acta
Chem. Scand., v. 24, No. 3, 1970, pp. 1084-1085.
An apparatus has been designed to study the corrosion initiation of
relatively low concentrations (0.1-1.0 ppm) of sulphur dioxide at room
temperature. In order to be able to analyze the corrosion products
quantitatively, a ^S-labelled sulphur dioxide has been used. Preliminary
measurements indicate a high percentage of sulphate in the corrosion
products.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Fe-Cu Alloys and Cu-Containing Steels. D. Fyfe,
C. E. A. Shanahan and L. L. Shreir. Corrosion Science, v. 10, No. 11,
November 1970, pp. 817-830.
Exposure tests in rural, marine, and industrial environments have
shown that the effect of Cu is small in S-free alloys, but a marked
decrease in the corrosion rate is observed when the alloy contains S.
These results have been explained by assuming that the Cu dissolved from
the alloy reacts with S^- and HS~, which are known to stimulate the
corrosion of Fe, with the formation of insoluble Cu sulfides. Thus the
deleterious action of the sulfide ions, which may be formed from sulfides
in the alloy or from atmospheric pollutants, is nullified with a conse-
quent decrease in the corrosion rate. The mechanism proposed, which has
been developed from studies of pure Fe alloys, should be applicable to
Cu-containing commercial steels, although the behavior of these two types
of alloys has shown certain differences.
4. Atmospheric Pollution and Historic Buildings. A Contemporary Urban
Problem. C. Berindan. Centre Belged'Etude et de Documentation des Eaux
(Tribune de), v. 23, No. 324, November 1970, pp. 498-503 (French).
Discussion of the factors that cause the deterioration of buildings.
These factors can be natural (climatic conditions, catastrophes) or
manmade (atmospheric pollution being the principal cause).
The effects of atmospheric pollution on construction materials are
brought about by a mechanical action (the blackening and staining of
facades, abrasion of finishes) and by a chemical action (primarily due to
sulfur dioxide). The climatic conditions such as relative humidity and
temperature favor certain deterioration reactions.
Solutions are proposed to fight the damage; to protect and restore
buildings in polluted towns, that is, reduction of pollution emissions; to
choose carefully sites for new pollution sources; to utilize extensive
tree plantings in protective perimeters around the buildings; and to use
protective coatings.
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5. Corrosion Behavior of the Major Architectural and Structural Metals in
Canadian Atmospheres. Summary of Ten-Year Results of Group I. E. V.
Gibbons. Nat. Res. Counc. Can., Div. Bldg. Res., Tech. Paper No. 328,
1970, 21. pp.
The atmospheric corrosion behavior of metals in different Canadian
atmospheres was studied. The concentration of SO2 was closely related
to the severity of corrosion. Of the metals tested, the 3 stainless
steels had the best corrosion resistance, showing negligible corrosion at
all sites except the roof of the Halifax Federal building. The aluminum
alloys were next in corrosion resistance followed by rolled zinc. The 3
alloy steels and the magnesium alloys had the highest corrosion rates.
The Halifax roof site was the most corrosive of the sites. York Redoubt,
Montreal, and Trail were similar with respect to atmospheric corrosion
performance. The Ottawa site was next in order of corrosivity followed by
Saskatoon, Esquimalt, and Norman Wells. In general, the rate of corrosion
decreased with time after the first year of exposure. With the exception
of the rolled zinc and the magnesium alloys, the earthward sides of the
specimens were more severely attacked than the skyward sites.
6. Corrosion of Building Materials. A. Valeriana de Seabra and M. Cravo.
Tecnica (Lisbon), v. 32, 1970, pp. 493-512 (Portuguese).
The corrosion of reinforcing steel, Zn, Cu alloys, Al, etc. is
reviewed.
7. Critical Humidity in the Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel. K. Barton and Z.
Bartonova. Werkst. Korros., v. 21, No. 2, 1970, pp. 85-88 (German).
Clean and prerusted specimens of carbon steel were exposed to
atmospheres of 21.5, 35, 60, 72.7, 87, 96, or 100 percent relative
humidity at 25°C. The moisture present in the rust was lower than had
been assumed so far. The sorption properties of the rust had an important
bearing on the amount of H2q present on the surface. The sorption
capacity was improved with SO^2" ions. The amounts of electrolyte at 100
percent relative humidity were 4 and 10 g/m2 at surfaces without and with
SO^2-, respectively. For technical purposes the critical humidity should
be 80 percent.
8. "Deposit Corrosion" of Stainless Steels in Aggressive Atmospheres. G.
Agabio and A. Tamba. Brit. Corros. J., v. 5, No. 3, 1970, pp. 112-116.
**
Laboratory techniques were examined to assess the effect of deposited
matter simulating atmospheric dust deposits on the localized corrosion of
stainless steels of A.I.S.I. types 302, 304, 316, 410, and 430,
Environments included salt-spray cabinet and sulfur-contaminated
atmospheric media with SO2, H2S, etc.; deposits with and without NaCl were
studied, along with carbon-black, activated carbon, granulated graphite,
Si02, etc. Potential measurements were included. Carbon deposits in the
presence of NaCl produced pitting in times of 6-10 days; susceptibility
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Fe-89
to this type of attack decreased in the order A.I.S.I. type 302 > 304 >
316. Potential measurements on dusted specimens under NaCl-spray
indicated that the mechanism of pitting by carbon deposits was related to
the catalytic action of this element on the cathodic reduction of oxygen;
under SiC>2 no attack was observed in any test. H2S produced severe
localized corrosion even in the absence of Cl~ while S02 in the latter
state produced no visible attack in up to 20 days. Corrosion potential
measurements during salt-spray testing is a very promising technique for
the rapid assessment of stainless corrosion in atmospheres.
9. Kinetics of Iron and Zinc Corrosion in a Humid Medium. A. M. Zinevich, E.
I. Sergeeva, Y. N. Mikhailovskii and V. B. Serafimovich. Zashch.
Metal, v. 6, No. 3, 1970, pp. 333-336 (Russian).**
Zinc and iron corrode in a humid atmosphere in a passive state. The
protective properties of the passivating film are determined by the
humidity of the atmosphere and the concentration of the activator in the
air.
10. Properties of Electrolyte Films Formed Through Atmospheric Corrosion. D.
Knotkova-Cermakova and J. Vlckova. Werkst. Korros., v. 21, No. 1, 1970,
pp. 16-21 (German).**
The compositions of electrolyte films formed on glass as well as on
Cu, Zn, and Fe in a 1, 28, or 55 ppm S02~containing atmosphere were
investigated with fresh hard precorroded specimens. The SO2 absorbed in
the solution was very rapidly oxidized to S0^^~ when corrosion
products such as FeSC>4, CUSO4, or FeCl3 were dissolved in the
electrolyte film. The pH value in the electrolyte did not vary as a
function of the SO2 partial pressure.
11. Reaction Between SO2 and Wet Metal Surfaces. N. G. Vannerberg and
T. Sydberger. Corrosion Science, v. 10, 1970, pp. 43-49.
The drastic corrosion of iron in an atmosphere containing sulfur
dioxide has been shown to be due to the catalytic effect of iron oxides
and hydroxides on the formation of H2SO4 from S02» H2O, and O2.
Measurements performed on samples of iron and rust in an atmosphere
containing water vapor, O2 and SO2 at 95#C indicate an almost
quantitative oxidation of adsorbed SO2 to H2SO4. The protons thus
fromed accelerate the corrosion attack on materials containing iron. The
rate of production of protons from samples of copper and aluminum is low
and these metals also show a relatively good resistance to sulfur dioxide.
Despite a low proton production rate, however, samples of zinc are
severely corroded in atmospheres containing sulfur dioxide, which
indicates a corrosion mechanism differing from that proposed for iron.
12. Stimulation of Atmospheric Rusting by Sulfates. K. Barton and Z.
Bartonova. Werkst. Korros., v. 21, No. 1, 1970, pp. 25-27 (German).**
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Fe-90
Steel samples containing carbon 0.12, copper 0.06, phorphorus 0.007,
and sulfur 0.02 percent were cleaned with inhibited HC1. Some of them
were prerusted by HC1 vapor and by storing at 95 percent relative humidity
and room temperature for some months. Both materials were treated with
FeS04 solutions, dried, and stored at 95 percent relative humidity.
Weight measurements showed that the rate of corrosion initially decreased,
following a first order law, and finally became constant. The initial
stage was less pronounced for the prerusted samples. A critical
SO^- activity at the steel-rust interface is discussed above which
the corrosion is accelerated.
13. Systems Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials. R. L.
Salmon. NTIS Report PB-209192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp.
The report describes research concerned with determining the economic
effects of air pollution on materials. The research results constitute an
important first step in providing economic justification for setting air
pollution control standards and for implementing control regulations. The
first three chapters of the report describe the methodology and approach
used in conducting the research. The next three chapters present data on
air pollutants and economically important materials. The following three
chapters are concerned primarily with anaylsis of the data. The final
chapter offers conclusions drawn as a result of the over-all research
program, and identifies areas where further action is warranted.
14. The Importance of Air Pollution in the Corrosion of Stone and Metals. E.
M. Winkler. Eng. Geol., v. 4, No. 4, 1970, pp. 327-334.
Evidence is presented that polluted air not only affects life but
also stone, concrete, and metal as well. Carbon dioxide and the sulfates
are the strongest corrodents. Less strong are the nitrates and
chlorides.
15. The Role of Rust Layers on the Corrosion Process of Steels in the
Atmosphere. H. Okada, Y. Hosoi and H. Naito. Tetsu-to-Hagane (J. Iron
Steel Inst., Japan), v. 56, No. 2, 1970, pp. 277-284 (Japanese).
An electrochemical investigation was made to determine the role of
rust in atmospheric corrosion. The cathodic reaction of the rusted steel
consists mainly of the reduction of FeOOH (brown rust) to Fe30l+ rather
than the reduction of dissolved 0£, and the anodic reaction is the
dissolution of iron. In low-alloy steels for atmospheric corrosion
resistance, both anodic and cathodic reactions are suppressed by the
formation of a protective rust layer after exposure to the atmosphere for
more than 3 to 5 years. Anodic reaction is prevented by the masking of
active sites on the steel surface by the formation of a dense amorphous
iron oxide layer and the cathodic reaction is suppressed by the increasing
difficulty in reducing FeOOH.
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16. The "Rustless" Iron Pillar at Delhi. G. Wranglen. Corrosion Science, v.
10, 1970, pp. 761-770.
The 1,600-year old forge-welded wrought iron pillar at Delhi, India
(approximate average composition: 0.15%C, 0.25%P, 0.005%S, 0.05%Si,
0.02%N, 0.05%Mn, 0.03%Cu, 0.05%Ni, balance Fe) still shows only slight
signs of rusting above ground. While the composition of the material,
particularly its low sulfur and high phosphorus contents, is conducive to
a low corrosion rate in atmospheric environments, the deciding factor is
the dry and unpolluted climate of the area, the large mass of the pillar
being a contributory factor. The part of the pillar which is below ground
is covered by a rust layer, about 1 cm thick, and shows deep pitting.
Above ground, the pillar is coated by a protective oxide film, 50 to 500
ym thick, analyzed by Ghosh as: 67.0%Fe203, 13.1%FeO, 14.8%H20,
1.7%P02, 3.1%Si02. Assuming a parabolic growth rate of the oxide film,
its thickness is in accordance with the present-day corrosion rate of
carbon steel at Delhi, determined by Hudson, and corresponding to the
formation of an oxide film 5 ym thick in the first year.
17. The Weathering and Performance of Building Materials. J. W. Simpson and
P. J. Horrobin, eds., Medical and Technical Publishing Co. Ltd., 1970,
277 pp.
The weathering and performance of concrete, clay products, timber,
plastics, and metals such as aluminum, zinc, copper, lead, and steels is
d iscussed.
18. Use of Environmental Data in Atmospheric Corrosion Studies.
J. F. Stanners. Brit. Corros. J., v. 5, No. 3, 1970, pp. 117-121.
In considering the significance of meteorological and pollution data
in atmospheric exposure trials on metals and alloys, a distinction is
drawn between (a) empirical and (b) theoretical approaches. Under (a)
aspects covered include variation of corrosion rate with atmospheric
temperature, wet exposure time in place of total time, etc.; great
significance is attached to corrosion effects after prolonged exposure
times. Various empirical equations covering these parameters are
suggested for corrosion exposures at Tokyo, Moscow, Sheffield, and Ottawa,
for steel, copper, zinc, etc. Under (b) corrosion rates and mechanisms
are discussed along with the interrelation between the rust film itself
and the water uptake; time lags in establishing equilibrium under
changing environmental conditions can be as significant as the equilibrium
conditions themselves. Kinetics are influenced by many factors including
cathode and anode area, their potiential difference and distance apart,
diffusion paths of cathodic and anodic polarizers and depolarizers,
electrolyte resistance, etc.; cathodic control by 02 depolarization
appears to operate in wet conditions while H2 evolution can play a part
and SO2 can also depolarize the cathode. Anodic passivation can be
rate-controlling in the absence of Cl~, at least when electrolyte films
are thin. Measurement of environmental conditions are detailed.
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19. Weather-Resistant Structural Steels. Corrosion Behavior. F. Wallner, H.
Demmel, F. M. Oberhauser and J. Brandstaetter. Berg-Huettenraaenn.
Monatsh., v. 115, No. 11, 1970, pp. 304-311 (German).
Weatherproofed structural steels
A review on rusting process by direct
indirect oxidation by electrochemical
given. Influence of alloying metals
decrease corrosion.
are low-alloyed nonstainless steels,
oxidation of Fe to FeO and by
process in the presence of water is
in steel is shown. Cr, Mo, Cu, and P
1969
1. Accelerating Effect of Sulfur Dioxide and Water on Atmospheric Corrosion
of Rusty Iron. K. Barton and Z. Bartonova. Werkst. Korros., v. 20, No.
3, March 1969, pp. 216-221 (German).
Laboratory study shows that the dependence of corrosion rate on
humidity, from a critical amount to nearly 100 percent, can be expresed by
rising quadratic parabolic equation; finding that SO2 concentration (1,
10, and 100 ppm) had no influence on corrosion kinetics is attributed to
saturation of rust with SO4 anions; on basis of results, a new theory of
atmospheric corrosion for already rusty steel is proposed.
2. Air Pollution Aspects of Aldehydes. Q. R. Stahl. Litton Systems, Inc.,
Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB 188-081, 1969, 149 pp.
Effects of aldehydes on humans, animals, plants, and materials from
aldehyde production sources are reported.
3. Air Pollution Aspects of Ammonia. S. Miner. Litton Systems, Inc.,
Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB 188-082, 1969, 51 pp.
Effect of ammonia on humans, animals, plants, and materials from
ammonia production sources such as Haber-Bosch process, coke plants, oil
refineries, metallurgical and ceramic plants are reported.
4. Air Pollution Aspects of Arsenic and Its Compounds. R. J. Sullivan.
Litton Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB
188-071, 1969, 72 pp.
Effects of arsenic and its compound on humans, animals, plants, and
materials are reported.
5. Air Pollution Aspects of Asbestos.
Environmental Division, Bethesda,
Effects of asbestos on humans,
reported.
R. J. Sullivan. Litton Systems, Inc.,
Md., NTIS-PB 188-080, 1969, 105 pp.
animals, plants, and materials are
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6. Air Pollution Aspects of Barium and Its Compounds. S. Miner. Litton
Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB, 188-083,
1969, 69 pp.
Effects on humans, animals, plants, and materials from the mining and
milling of barite are reported.
7. Air Pollution Aspects of Beryllium and Its Compounds. N. L. Durocher.
Litton Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB
188-078, 1969, 92 pp.
Effects of beryllium and beryllium compounds on humans, animals,
plants, and materials from beryllium production sources are reported.
8. Air Pollution Aspects of Boron and Its Compounds. N. L. Durocher. Litton
Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB 188-085,
1969, 55 pp.
Effects of boron and boron compounds on humans, animals, plants, and
materials from boron production sources are reported.
9. Air Pollution Aspects of Cadmium and Its Compounds. Y. C.
Athanassiadis. Litton Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda,
Md., NTIS-PB 188-086, 1969, 92 pp.
Effects of cadmium on humans, animals, plants and materials are
reported.
10. Air Pollution Aspects of Chlorine Gas. Q. R. Stahl. Litton Systems,
Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB 188-087, 1969,
90 pp.
Effects of chlorine gas on humans, animals, plants, and materials are
reported.
11. Air Pollution Aspects of Chromium and Its Compounds. R. J. Sullivan.
Litton Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB
188-075, 1969, 86 pp.
Effects of chromium and its compounds on humans, animals, plants, and
materials are reported.
12. Air Pollution Aspects of Ethylene. Q. R. Stahl. Litton Systems, Inc.,
Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB 188-069, 1969, 65 pp.
Effects of ethylene on humans, animals, plants, and materials are
reported.
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13. Air Pollution Aspects of Hydrogen Sulfide. S. Miner. Litton Systems,
Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB 188-068, 1969,
107 pp.
Effects of hydrogen sulfide on humans, animals, plants, and materials
(paint and metals) from hydrogen sulfide production sources such as
tanneries, iron and steel industries, etc, are reported.
14. Air Pollution Aspects of Iron and Its Compounds. R. J. Sullivan. Litton
Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB 188-088,
1969, 106 pp.
Effects of iron and its compounds on humans, animals, plants, and
materials are reported.
15. Air Pollution Aspects of Mercury and Its Compounds. Q. R. Stahl. Litton
Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB 188-074,
1969, 108 pp.
Effects of mercury and its compounds on humans, animals, plants, and
materials are reported.
16. Air Pollution Aspects of Nickel and Its Compounds. R. J. Sullivan.
Litton Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB
188-070, 1969, 76 pp.
Effects of nickel and its compounds on humans, animals, plants, and
materials are reported.
17. Air Pollution Aspects of Phosphorus and Its Compounds. Y. C.
Athanassiadis. Litton Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda,
Md., NTIS-PB 188-073, 1969, 86 pp.
Effects of phosphorus and its compounds on humans, animals, plants,
and materials are reported.
18. Air Pollution Aspects of Selenium and Its Compounds. Q. R. Stahl. Litton
Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB 188-077,
1969, 88 pp.
Effects of selenium and its compounds on humans, animals, plants, and
materials are reported.
19. Air Pollution Aspects of Vandium and Its Compounds. Y. C. Athanassiadis.
Litton Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB
188-093, 1969, 105 pp.
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Fe-95
Effects of vandium chloride on humans, plants, animals, and
materials are reported.
20. Air Pollution Aspects of Zinc and Its Compounds. Y. C. Athanassiadis.
Litton Systems, Inc., Environmental Division, Bethesda, Md., NTIS-PB
188-072, 1969, 90 pp.
Effects of zinc and its compounds on humans, animals, plants, and
materials are reported.
21. Aluminum Corrosion at Urban and Industrial Locations. W. H. Ailor, Jr.
Proc. American Soc. Civil Engr., Journal of the Structural Division,
October 1969, pp. 2141-2160.
Originally, high-purity aluminum was the common form of the metal.
Because of the relatively low strength of the pure aluminum, the material
was used mostly for exterior sheets, caps, and castings where strength was
not required.
With the coming of the automobile and airplane, alloys of aluminum
were developed having high strength and hardness. These alloys, using
copper and, later, zinc, had reduced corrosion resistance in industrial
and marine environments but could be protected by a higher purity aluminum
cladding which was anodic to the core alloy. Alloys containing manganese,
magnesium, and silicon were also developed for architectural use.
The results reported herein are based on long-term studies being
conducted by the Reynolds Metals Company, Metallurgical Research Division
at a number of test stations. The locations examined here include
Richmond, Virginia; Chicago, Illinois; Phoenix, Arizona; Manila,
Philippine Islands; and Widnes, England. Results include data for
removals at 1 yr, 2 yr, and 7 yr. Test alloys were the following:
1199-H14-99.99% purity aluminum: 3003-H14-aluminum-manganese alloy; 3004-
H36-aluminum manganese alloy; Alclad 3003-H14-alurainum-manganese
alloy clad with 7072 alloy; 5154-H34-aluminum-3-l/2% magnesium alloy;
6061-T6-aluminum-magnesium silicide alloy; and 6063-T5-aluminum magnesium
silicide alloy (less copper than 6061). In addition to these aluminum
alloys, panels of mild steel and pure zinc were tested for reference and
comparison.
22. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. Part VI—Corrosion of Metals at Jodhpur.
M. L. Prajapat, G. K. Singhania and B. Sanyal. Labdev J. Sci. Tech., v.
7-A, 1969, p. 34.
Corrosion rates of mild steel and nonferrous metals have been
determined at Jodhpur representing semi-arid or subtropical type of
climate. It is observed that mild steel specimens exposed during
non-aggressive months show lower yearly corrosion rates than specimens
exposed in more aggressive months. Statistical analysis shows that
corrosion rate depends upon wind velocity and number of rainy days. The
metals studied in the atmospheric conditions of Jodhpur could be arranged
in the following order as regards their proneness to corrosion: mild
steel > zinc > galvanzied iron > copper > brass > aluminum.
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23. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel in Some Tropical Locations in India. K.
S. Rajagopalan, P. L. Annamalai, M. Sundarara and C. Rajagopal. Proc.
3rd Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-
Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4, 1969, pp. 532-541.
Results are presented of outdoor exposure tests carried out for five
years with steel in marine (Mandapam Camp), industrial-marine (Madras),
and rural (Karaikudi) atmospheres.
Good correlation has been obtained at Mandapam Camp between wind
velocity and salinity as well as atmospheric salinity and corrosion rate.
There is also good correspondence at Mandapam Camp between mean
temperature and corrosion rate. No such relationship between SO2
pollution and corrosion rate, nor temperature and corrosion rate has been
observed at Madras (an industrial-marine site). Perhaps the saline
pollution complicates the former. Increase in temperature is accompanied
by decrease in corrosion rate at Karaikudi, showing that other factors
overshadow the effect of temperature at this site. There is also no
relationship between corrosion rate and rainfall in all the three sites.
The months in which the average humidities are higher than 70 percent
relative humidity do not give higher corrosion rates as expected. This
lends support to the view that the determining factor is not the average
humidity but the microclimate and moisture condensation at the location of
the stands.
A very high corrosion rate (25 to 30 mils/year) is obtained at
Mandapam Camp at the shore site. In comparison, the corrosion rate at the
30 m site at Madras is 6 to 7 mils/year and the corrosion rate at
Karaikudi (48 km from the sea) is 0.3 to 0.4 mils/year. The corrosion is
linear with time at the shore site at Mandapam Camp which indicates that
rust formed at this site is not protective. The corrosion rate, as well
as salinity, decrease sharply when the distance from the sea increases up
to a few hundred meters. The yearly rate of corrosion varies with the
month of exposure but no particular relationship between monthly rate of
corrosion and month of exposure can be inferred. Specimens exposed in the
verical position give the highest corrosion rate.
24. Calculation of Moistening and Metallic Corrosion in Atmospheric
Environment. A. L. Golubev and M. K. Kadyrov. Proc. 3rd Intern.
Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeit1inger,
Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4, 1969, pp. 522-531.
The time during which the moisture film stays on the surface of metal
has been ascertained by meteorological indications and a map of the
duration of moistening of the surface in the Soviet Union has been made.
The influence has been shown of various factors—the duration of
moistening of the surface, the thickness of the moisture film, the
aggressiveness of the atmosphere, the films of corrosion products, and the
temperature—on the development of the corrosion processes on basic
metals. Maps of the Soviet Union have been plotted, dealing with the
corrosion of iron, zinc, cadmium, copper, and aluminum for the atmosphere
of a rural locality. It has been demonstrated that it is possible to
calculate the magnitude of metallic corrosion for areas with a different
degree of SO2 and NaCl atmospheric pollution.
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25. Corrosion in the Atmosphere. P. Atterby. iNTIS Report N71-26259, November
1969, 9 pp. (Swedish)
The main principles of atmospheric corrosion are considered.
Examined are: air pollution, exposure to atmosphere, metals and metal
alloys, painting, car corrosion, temporary protection against corrosion
and out-stations for atmospheric exposure. The report concludes with
basic rules for sound common sense about corrosion.
26. Corrosion of Metals in the Tropics. B. Sanyal, G. K. Singhania and J.
N. Nanda. Proc. 3rd Inter. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, Moscow
(1966), Swets-Zeit1inger, Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4, 1969, pp.
542543.
Exposure of mild steel and some nonferrous raetals have been made in
India at a number of sites representing different climatic conditions to
investigate their corrosion behavior. Meteorological data, including
precipitation in the form of rain and dew, amounts of pollutants (for
example, dust, sulphur dioxide and salinity) present in the atmosphere at
each site, have been recorded. An attempt has been made to correlate the
corrosion of metals with meteorological data by subjecting them to
regression analysis. Corrosion rates could not be correlated to any
single factor but a definite relation has been found between the rate of
corrosion and the combined influence of a number of meteorological
factors. The effect of dust, dew, and orientation of specimens has been
investigated. A scheme has been drawn up for the classification of the
country into various climatic zones from the corrosion point of view.
27. Corrosion of Steel. W. Schwenk. Stahl Eisen, v. 89, No. 10, 1969, pp.
535-547 (Gentian).
An extensive literature review is given covering environmental
corrosion of mild steel and low alloy steels, pitting, inter- and
transcrystal1ine stress corrosion cracking of stainless steels and
austenitic Mn steels, and corrosion at high temperatures. A short section
on corrosion prevention is included. The discussion gives a comprehensive
review of the corrosion of welds in chromium-nickel steels, with
reference to heat treatment and y-ferrite contents.
28. Effect of the Atmospheric Corrosion Products on Electrochemical Behaviour
of Metals. G. B. Klark, G. K. Berukshtis and Z. I. Ignatova. Proc.
3rd Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, Moscow (1966),
Swets-Zeit1inger, Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4, 1969, pp. 406-412.
The report sets forth the results of electrochemical investigations
conducted on the specimens of zinc and steel after different periods of
exposure in the open air and under a shed. The effect of the corrosion
products upon the electrochemical characteristic of metals was estimated
by the changes in the capacitance, resistance, cathodic and anodic
polarization, and steady potential in time.
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Fe-98
The mechanism of corrosion inhibition on zinc and steel is different.
The corrosion rate of zinc drops sharply after the first wettings and
remains nearly constant thereafter. Retardation of the corrosion rate of
zinc is caused by the formation of thin layers of a hydroxide film
possessing high insulating properties; the products of zinc corrosion take
no part in the electrochemical process of corrosion. The curve of the
steel, corrosion rate versus time passes through a maximum. The increase
in the corrosion rate after the first wettings is explained by the
depolarizing properties of the products of corrosion of steel. The
process of steel corrosion is retarded only after prolonged exposures in
the open air; under a shed the rate of corrosion remains constant.
Investigations of the electrochemical properties of the corrosion
products directly on metals provides a good explanation of the mechanism
of metal corrosion under a layer of the corrosion products.
29. Effect of Chemical Composition on the Kinetics of Atmospheric Corrosion of
Steel. P. Burda. Werkst. Korros., v. 20, No. 12, 1969, pp. 999-1001
(German).
Atmospheric corrosion tests of 19 low-alloy steels (compositions
given) were made in rural, city, and industrial locations. In general,
phosphorus increased long-time atmospheric corrosion (there were
exceptions to this with some steels in industrial atmospheres) while
sulfate content usually partly offset this. Carbon and copper usually
decreased long-time corrosion, but copper frequently increased short-time
corros ion.
30. Evaluation of Atmospheric Corrosion Tests With Iron, Copper, and Zinc
Extending Over Three Years, at Czechoslovak Testing Stations. K. Barton
and Z. Bartonova. Werkst. Korros., v. 20, No. 2, 1969, pp. 87-93
(German).**
Carbon steel (C 0.10; Cu 0.12; P 0.013; S 0.032), Zn (98.6 percent,
rest Pb, Bi, Fe, Cu, Cd), and Cu (99.5 percent, rest Ca, Ag, Sn) were
exposed for 1050-1063 days at Hurbanovo (A), Usti n. L. (B), and
Prahaletnany (C). The cumulative time of electrolyte film formation
(7083 to 10,502 hrs.) and the average temperature (7.5-8.1°) were
determined from cIimatograms. The cumulative SO2 adsorption in g/m£ was
6.40 at A, 38.11 at B, and 68.66 at C. Steady state corrosion rates in
the presence of electrolyte in g/m^-hr., in the order Fe, Zn, Cu, were at
A: 0.0257, 0.0033, 0.0037; at B: 0.0332, 0.0032, 0.0037; and at C:
0.1110, 0.0108, 0.0105. A critical atmosphere SO2 content can be expected
for zinc and copper which depends on the adsorption equilibrium. The rust
formed on iron chemically binds SO2 up to a limit which then has no
influence on the corrosion rate.
31. Influence of Chromium on the Atmospheric-Corrosion Behavior of Steel. R.
J. Schmitt and C. X. Mullen. ASTM STP 454, American Society for Testing
and Material, 1969, pp. 124-136.
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Fe-99
Specimens of steel containing 0.5 to 28 percent chromium were exposed
to industrial, semirural, moderate marine, and severe marine atmospheres
for up to 8 years. Measurements of weight losses and number and depth of
pits showed that less than 2 percent chromium decreased corrosion
resistance; resistance gradually increased at 2 to 12 percent chromium; no
corrosion occurred at less than or equal to 12 percent chromium in
semirural and industrial atmospheres and at more than 15 percent chromium
in marine atmospheres, although pitting occurred in the latter up to 28
percent chromium.
32. Mechanism of Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel. D. Dasgupta. Br. Corros.
J., v. 4, May 1969, pp. 119-121.
The increased rate of corrosion of steel owing to the presence of
sulphur, ammonia, and chlorine in the atmosphere has been studied by many
investigators throughout the world. This review discusses critically the
existing hypotheses regarding its mechanism and attempts to correlate the
work of various investigators.
33. Minimum Paint Film Thickness for Economical Protection of Hot-Rolled Steel
Against Corrosion. J. D. Keane, W. Wettach and W. Bosch. J. Paint
Technol., v. 41, No. 533, 1969, pp. 372-382*.
A 10-year paint exposure study was conducted to determine whether
there was a minimum or optimum paint film thickness for the economical
protection of hot-rolled steel. Paint types tested included oil, alkyd,
chlorinated rubber, epoxy ester, zinc-free phenolic, and nonchalking
vinyl. Panels were exposed at rural, industrial, and seashore sites.
Each additional mil of paint thickness used was accompanied by an increase
of approximately 20 months in paint life. For each coating and surface
type, there was a minimum initial paint film thickness above which long-
term protection was obtained in each environment for the entire study
period. This minimum effective thickness was lower for more durable
paints and milder environments. The critical thickness was decreased only
slightly by better surface preparation. Relatively little difference
between plates with 1 and 2 mils of primer coating was observed as long as
the proper film thickness of the system was obtained. The initial
application of a sufficiently heavy film was much more economical than
more frequent maintenance painting. The relative economy of various paint
systems is discussed.
34. Painting of Metal Sprayed Structural Steelwork—Report on Conditions of
Specimens after Five Years' Exposure. J. F. Stanners and K. 0. Watkins.
Australasian Corrosion Eng., v. 13, No. 10, October 1969, pp. 7-17.
The performance of steel plates and channels protected by various
composite systems (metal spray plus paint) after five years' exposure to
five natural environments is reported. Industrial, industrial-marine, and
tropical-marine environments, half-tide immersion in seawater and full
immersion in river water were investigated. In marine environments
sprayed aluminum performed better overall than sprayed Zn; in industrial
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Fe-100
environments and in river water little difference was observed in the
metals as a substrate for paint.
35. Protective Coatings for Highway Structural Steels. J. D. Keane. National
Cooperative Highway Research Program, Report 74, Highway Research Board,
1969, 64 pp.
The most generallly accepted method of providing corrosion protection
for the steel members of highway bridges and other structures is painting.
This report contains a current state-of-the-knowledge with regard to
painting of highway structural steel, based on a thorough review of the
literature and current practice, an inspection and evaluation of more than
4,000 paint exposure tests, and the conduct of paint film thickness
measurement studies. Due to the comprehensive nature of the investigation
dealing with factors that influence paint selection, such as performance,
appearance, costs, availability, and air pollution requirements, the
report will be of interest and value to a wide range of highway personnel,
including materials, maintenance, and bridge engineers, and specifications
writers. The specific recommendations are summarized for typical
preferred paint systems (including surface preparation, pretreatment,
application methods, thickness, primer, intermediate coat, and finish
coat) for various environmental exposure conditions, will materially aid
highway agencies in the selection of suitable steel coating systems, and
are sufficiently explicit to permit direct application.
36. Studies on Corrosion of Metals Provoked by Gaseous Pollutants. B. Sanyal,
G. K. Singhania and D. V. Bhadwar. Proc. 3rd. Intern. Congr. on
Metallic Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, Holland,
v. 4, 1969, pp. 454-464.
The corrosion of ferrous and nonferrous metals by air-containing
moisture and sulfur dioxide has been studied under different exposure
conditions with a view towards studying the effect of each factor—
humidity, concentration of sulfur dioxide, surface area, period of
exposure—on corrosion rates. Corrosion of mild steel is affected by the
presence of other metals placed in proximity (not in contact) with steel,
only when sulfur dioxide is present in a limited amount. The influence of
pre-exposure of mild steel to a sulfur dioxide atmosphere on its
subsequent behavior in pollution-free atmosphere has been investigated.
The period of exposure, relative humidity and concentration of sulfur
dioxide during pre-exposure determined the corrosion rates during
subsequent exposures. The effect of other corrosive gases, for example,
ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, has also been studied.
1968
1. A Statistical Evaluation of Atmospheric, In-Service, and Accelerated
Corrosion of Stainless Steel Automotive Trim Material. H. L. Black and
L. W. Lherbier. Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435,
American Society for Testing and Materials, v. 3, 1968, pp. 3-32.
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Stainless steel panels with various surface finishes were exposed to
winter salt and ash conditions on trucks and automobiles, salt atmosphere,
industrial atmosphere, and rural atmosphere for periods of One to four
years. They were also evaluated by six accelerated tests either presently
used by, or proposed by, the automobile industry.
Comparisons of the average results of the multiple specimens were
made in an attempt to determine the relative superiority among the grades
of stainless steel and among the surface finishes in each exposure
environment. Statistical correlation coefficients were calculated to
determine the degree of corrosion resistance correlation among the sites
and to determine the correlation between "in-service" corrosion and the
accelerated tests.
No clear superiority of any grade in all environments could be
determined. With the exception of chromium flash plating, no surface
finish tested was significantly superior to any other. The automobile and
truck exposures showed that the varying weather conditions from one winter
to another could cause unpredictable, conflicting results. The
correlation between corrosion resistance and temperature, snow-fall, and
de-icing agents, was not clear. The statistical correlation analysis
conducted showed that very limited or no correlation exists between
inservice corrosion and accelerated tests. Even among the tests, the
correlation was poor or not existent. This study indicates that none of
the accelerated tests evaluated can be expected to predict stainless steel
corrosion performance in service.
Atmospheric Corrosion of Carbon and Low Alloy Cast Steels. W. Briggs.
Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1968, pp. 271-284.
Nine carbon and low-alloy cast steels cast in panel form, some
machined and other unmachined, were exposed in marine and industrial
atmospheres' for periods of one-, three-, seven-, and 12-years and recorded
as to weight loss information. The weight loss was converted to corrosion
rate in terras of inches penetration per year (ipy) and milligrams lost per
square decimeter per day (mdd). Comparisons were made and cast steels
containing nickel, copper, or chromium as alloying elements have corrosion
resistance superior to carbon cast steels or those containing manganese
when exposed to atmospheric environments. Increasing the nickel and
copper contents of cast steel increases the corrosion resistance in all
three atmospheric environments. Unmachined cast steel surfaces with the
casting "skin" intact, had no significant effect on the corrosion
resistance of cast steels when compared to machined surfaces regardless of
the atmospheric environment.
3. Corrosion of Metals by Aqueous Solutions of the Atmospheric Pollutant
Sulfurous Acid. W. McLeod and R. R. Rogers. Electrochem. Technol., v.
6, No. 7-8, July-August 1968, pp. 231-235.
The corrosion rate of a metal in an acid with a normality between N/1
and N/10,000, such as H2SO3, HNO3, H2SO4, or HC1, was found to
be related to the concentration of the acid in accordance with the
equation: corrosion rate equals a x (acid normality) to the B power,
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where a and B are constant for each combination of acid and metal and
where temperature is 25°C. By determining the values of a and B for a
number of acid-metal combinations, it was possible to compare the
corrosion rates of the various metals in sulfurous acid with those of the
same metals in nitric, sulfuric, and hydrochloric acids, and to determine
the corrosion rate of the metals in sulfurous acid of different
normalities. Data obtained show that nonstainless steel, with or without
nickel, is highly susceptible to sulfurous acid corrosion. However, when
a substantial proportion of chromium is present in an alloy which contains
nickel, steel is free from corrosion by either sulfurous acid or nitric
acid. Copper and chromium are not appreciably susceptible to sulfurous
acid corrosion in solutions lower than N/1.3. Tin corrodes more rapidly
than other nonferrous metals between N/100 and N/1,000, but less than
cadmium and zinc at N/10. Cadmium, and zinc corrode more rapidly in
sulfurous acid than in nitric acid. Lead corrodes less rapidly is
sulfurous acid then nitric acid. Aluminum is rapidly corroded by
hydrochloric acid but less so by nitric or sulfurous acid. The study
concludes that sulfurous acid solutions causing the greatest damage in
urban and industrial areas have normalities between N/1 and N/10,000.
4. Corrosion Rates of Mild Steel in Coastal, Industrial, and Inland Areas of
Northern California. H. E. Thomas and H. N. Alderson. Metal Corrosion
in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1968, pp. 83-94.
The corrosion rate of mild steel specimens was determined at 15 sites
in northern California. Weight loss with time was measured. These sites
included coastal marine, bay, and steam-geyser areas. The methods of
specimen preparation, corrosion product removal, and exposure location
details are covered. The repeatability of the tests was checked and found
to be good at two locations, and the agreement with ASTM results at the
Point Reyes exposure test site was reasonably good.
5. Corrosion Test Results on Fifteen Ferrous Metals After Seven-Years
Atmospheric Exposure. G. B. Mannweiler. Metal Corrosion in the
Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1968, pp. 211-222.
This is a progress report covering findings on the removal of ferrous
corrosion specimens that had been exposed for seven years to the
atmospheres of five different test sites, which included rural, marine,
and industrial environments. The materials employed were ten malleable
and pearlitic malleable iron, two ductile irons', and three rolled steels.
Previous removals of companion sets of specimens had been made after one-
and three-years' exposure. The appearance of the corroded plates and
weight losses were evaluated.
6. Corrosiveness of Various Atmospheric Test Sites as Measured by Specimens
of Steel and Zinc. ASTM Committee G-l. Metal Corrosion in the
Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1968, pp. 360-391.
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Fe-103
During the period 1948 to 1955, specimens of carbon steel and zinc
were used to calibrate the corrosivity of the atmosphere in some 19 sites
in the United States and Canada. In the period of 1960 to 1964 the study
was expanded to include some 46 sites around the world.
As in the earlier study, the results at State College, Pa., were
considered as unity and the corrosivity of the other locations were ranked
in terns of the corrosivity of the atmosphere at State College.
Differences in corrosivity between the two exposure periods were noted in
some instances, while in others the atmosphere appeared to remain constant
in its action on the two test metals.
In a number of instances the corrosivity of the atmosphere toward
steel was greater than its effect toward zinc. In other instances the
reverse situation prevailed. In a substantial number of locations the
atmosphere was equally aggressive towards steel as it was towards zinc.
When the ratio of the two-year losses between steel and zinc were
studied, it was evident that in characteristically industrial locations
the ratio was 20 or less; whereas in predominantly marine locations it
exceeded 20 and ranged as high as 364.
In calibration tests involving the corrosivity of a marine site at
elevations of 60 ft, 30 ft, and ground level, there was little
discrimination between elevations by the zinc specimens, but there was
substantial discrimination by the steel specimens.
7. Effect of Various Factors on the Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel. S. R.
Addanki, K. P. Mukherjee, A. K. Lahiri, and T. Banarjee. Tr.
Mezhdunar. Kongr. Korroz. Metal, 3rd (1966), edited by N. D. Lesteva,
Izd. "Mir", Moscow, USSR, v. 4, 1968, pp. 564-576 (Russian).
Corrosion resistance of mild and low-alloy, low-copper (0.05), and
copper-bearing (0.24 percent) steels were determined at Jamshedpur
(industrial) and Digha, West Bengal (coastal conditions). The corrosion
rate decreased gradually at Jamshedpur indicating that the surface was
protected by the formed rust (oxide film). Corrosion rates were highest
for the horizontally positioned specimens and were lowest for the
vertically positioned ones. The composition of the oxide film varied with
the angle of incline and steel composition. The oxide film formed in the
initial stages was highly porous and held water. On aging the oxide layer
became denser and adhered well to the metal surface, especially if the
corrosion resistance of the base metal was high. The corrosion resistance
of the base metal was improved by increasing its copper content from 0.01
to 0.04 percent; increases beyond 0.04 percent copper had positive effects
but to a lesser degree.
8. Gas-Volumetric Measurement of Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Bohnenkamp.
Werkst. Korros. v. 19, No. 9, 1968, pp. 792-795 (German).**
The rate of corrosion of structural steel blanks at 30 square
centimeter surface area was followed by the consumption of oxygen in a
glass apparatus. By comparison with the weight of corrosion products, the
averge composition was between Fe203 and FejO^. Clean samples in pure
oxygen saturated with H2O at 21*C and 150 torr showed negligible corrosion
in 40 days, even when moisture condensed on the metal. The initial
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Fe-104
addition to the oxygen of 1.05 g S02/sq ra of sample produced a constant
corrosion rate of 10 g Fe/sq m-day and daily additions of 0.21 g S02/sq m
for 5 days gave the same initial rate, decreasing to approximately 4 g
Fe/sq m-day after the SO2 additions were stopped. Similarly, the initial
addition of 1.4 g C02/sq m produced a corrosion rate of 4 g Fe/sq m-day.
Specimens that were exposed to outdoor weather for 2 weeks continued
rusting in the moist oxygen atmosphere without the addition of SO2• At
90 perent relative humidity the corrosion rate was 1/5 that at 100 percent
relative humidity for the same initial addition of S02.
9. High Pressure Electrical Contacts. J. King. Proc. 1968 Electrical
Components Conference, May 8-10, 1968, pp. 454-458.
Satisfactory performance has been achieved with high pressure
contacts of uncoated base metals. These contacts were neither protected
from, nor deliberately exposed to contamination. Variations of both point
and line contact configurations have been evaluated and their performance
falls into predictable patterns. Sufficient test data has been evaluated
and the following conclusions can be drawn: (1) tarnish films on base
metal are penetrable by high pressure contact indentors without resorting
to a wipe motion; (2) line contact chisels and point contact
cones with large included angles are superior to thin knife-like or
needle-like contacts; (3) relative contact hardness is important in that
both indentor and flat contact target must deform to expose base metal or
the resulting interface will consist of one contact with bare metal
exposed and in direct contact with the insulating tarnished surface of the
other contact.
10. Investigations Carried Out in Sweden on the Atmospheric Corrosion of
Stainless Steels. S. Henrikson, A. Karlsson, 0. Steensland and G.
Steenas. Chapt. 21 in Proc. 5th Scandanavian Corrosion Congr.,
Copenhagen, v. 2, 1968.
Specimens of Cr, Cr-Mn-Ni, and Cr-Ni-Mo steels with different surface
finishes have been exposed at test stations with typical rural, city,
industrial, and marine atmospheres. The results of the first five years
of exposure are presented in this paper.
11. Investigations of the Corrosion-Causing Properties of Volatile Acids and
Anhydrous Acids. E. Iaengle. Eidgenoessische Technischen Hochschule,
Zurich, Switzerland. Ph.D. Thesis, 1968, 43 pp. (German).
The corrosion resistance of Fe, Zn, Al, Cu, and Pb to chemical
attacks from hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulfide, formic acid, acetic acid
vapors, and sulfur dioxide atmospheres were studied. Emphasis was placed
on the problems of critical vapor humidity, analytic determination of
corrosion products, and the reaction mechanisms. Metal sample were
briefly exposed to dry or moist acid vapors during the introductory period
and subsequently kept for a longer time in an acid-free atmosphere of
different moisture levels. Results showed that the metal surface was
initially attacked by the formation of a dry or humid saline crust which
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Fe-105
liquefied through atmospheric water absorption and attacked the metal
surface by deoxygenation. Pronounced reactions were observed on iron and
zinc surfaces, but the other metals proved relatively corrosion
res istant.
12. Measurement of Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Metals.
H. Guttman and P. J. Sereda. Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM
STP 435, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1968, pp. 325-
359.
Atmospheric factors, namely, time of wetness of corroding metal
panels, panel temperature, and atmospheric sulfur dioxide and atmospheric
chloride content, were measured at four inland and three coastal North
American test sites while corrosion'data for steel, copper, and zinc were
being developed. Corrosion losses experienced by panels of these metals
which were exposed at different times of the year for similar periods of
time showed considerable variation at all sites.
Statistical analyses show conclusively that the atmospheric factors
measured completely control the rates of corrosion at all sites for at
least the initial month. For longer periods of time, control of the
corrosion process remains with the atmospheric factors in some cases, and
in others it is gradually transferred to factors related to the changing
surface conditions resulting from accumulation of corrosion products and
foreign agents.
At the sites where atmospheric factors control corrosion, the
empirical equations developed enable one to predict the corrosion losses
of steel, copper, and zinc from a knowledge of the atmospheric factors.
They also make it possible to account for variations in observed corrosion
losses experienced by panels exposed at different times of the year.
13. Mechanism and Kinetics of Corrosion in a Moist Atmosphere in the Presence
of Hydrogen Chloride Vapors. K. Barton and Z. Bartonva. Tr.
Mezhdunar. Kongr. Korroz. Metal, 3rd (1966), edited by N.D. Lesteva,
Izd. "Mir," Moscow, USSR, v. 4, 1968, pp. 493-506 (Russian).
Analyses of corrosion products formed on carbon steel (C 0.08, S
0.024, P 0.02, Mn 0.31, and Cu 0.08 percent), Zn (99.9 percent), and Cu
(99.98 percent) in the course of 32 days when exposed to relative
humidities of 70-95 percent at 20, 30, 40, and 50° in static and mobile
atmospheres and HC1 concentrations of 0.0007-0.001 vol. pet. pointed to a
stabilized state in which the corrosion-time relation was linear and the
composition of corrosion products formed was constant. Corrosion of steel
was controlled by the rate of the chemical reactions, and of zinc and
copper by the diffusion of HC1 and H2O to, and adsorption at, the
boundary of corrosion products with the atmosphere, and the transition of
insoluble products into soluble products. Thus, at high temperatures and
humidities, the formation of corrosion products containing high amounts of
oxides and the reduced HC1 adsorption decreased the corrosion rate of
copper and zinc.
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Fe-106
14. Microstructure and Growth of Layers of Rust on SteeLs During Atmospheric
Corrosion J. B. Horton, W. S. Hahn and J. F. Libsch. Tr. Mezhdunar.
Kongr. Korroz. Metal., 3rd (1966), edited by N. D. Lesteva, Izd. "Mir",
Moscow, USSR, v. 4, 1968, pp. 411-417 (Russian).
Investigations (with an optical microscope) were made on the
structure of a corrosion layer formed on steel of Mayari-R type
containing: C 0.08, Mn 0.07, P 0.10, S 0.03, Si 0,28, Ni 0.40, Cr 0.60,
and Cu 0.60 percent, and kept for 17 years in a town atmosphere, as well
as on the same steel and low-carbon steel placed in an industrial
atmosphere for 4 years. It was established that rust has a 2-layer
structure: an external, porous layer with atmospheric dust present, and
an internal (free of dust) which adheres closely to the base. During
rainy weather the fissures and pores filled up, contacting air with fresh
rust which absorbed atmospheric dust. During dry weather, rust forms in
the layer adhering to the steel surfce and does not contain any
atmospheric dust.
15. Patina on Old Metal Objects. J. Lehmann. Monographs of the National
Museum in Pozan, v. 2, 1968, pp. 1-125 (Polish).
This is a mimeographed excerpt from a doctoral thesis on the concept
of patina and its composition and structure. Methods applied for
investigations include: chemical analyses (spectrographic and
colorimetric), microscopic observations, X-ray diffraction, X-ray
defectoscopy, micrometallography and electron microscopy (replica). A
brief summary of kinds of patina on different metal objects is presented.
Gold, silver, bronzes, tin, lead, and iron were considered.
16. Rate of Corrosion of Plain Carbon and Low-Alloy Structural Steels. W.
Schwenk and H. Ternes. Stahl Eisen, v. 88, No. 7, 1968, pp. 318-321
(German).
Corrosion tests of 3 steels containing 0.12 percent carbon and
increasing amounts of copper (0.10 to 0.27 percent) and of a
weather resistant steel containing C 0.09, P 0.13, Cr 0.85, Cu 0.34, and
Ni 0.32 percent were conducted under natural weathering conditions in
industrial air at different locations for a test period of 4 years. The
data obeyed the general rules for the corrosion rate of unalloyed and low-
alloy steels. The rate of rust formation of these steels was essentially
related to the way the rust layers formed, regardless of the test location
used.
17. Role of Copper (II) in the Oxidation of Ferrous Hydroxide Colloid With
Special Reference to the Corrosion of Iron in a S02~Containing
Environment. K. Inouye. J. Cooloid Interface Sci., v. 27, No. 2 June
1963, pp. 171-179.**
Air oxidized ferrous hydroxide colloids doped with Cu^+ at less
than or equal to 6.5 copper-iron wt-pct were studied. At 1 to 3 percent
copper-iron (0.25 to 0.5 percent copper is added to common
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Fe-107
"antiweathering" high-strength steels), sedimentation volume reached a
remarkable minimum, and the dimension of primary colloidal particles
(composed of Fe(OH)2 and minute Fe0Olt crystals) were maximum. The
oxidized colloids swere then dried to form layers of model corrosion
products. Permeability of argon and diffusion of N2 through the oxide
layers indicated that the dried oxides are more compact in the low range
of copper-iron ratios. The mechanism of effect of copper on the oxidation
of Fe(0H)2 colloid and on the formation of a particular secondary
structure is discussed.
18. Stability of Metal Coatings in Corrosive Media. A. Kovachev, N.
Stoyanova, M. Boncheva, S. Simov, S. Avramova, B. Grigorov and B.
Gochev. Elektroprom. Priborostr., v. 3, 1968, pp. 105-107.
The following electroplated (except as indicated) metal coating were
were tested: Zn (30 ym); Cd (30 ym); Cu + Ni +Cr (20 + 10 ~ 0.5 ym);
chemically plated Ni (10 pm); Sn (30 ym); Ag (20 ym); nitrided steel.
These materials were tested in S02, HC1, Cl2, S03, N2O3, and NH3 gaseous
media. The cadmium and silver coatings withstood the HC1 media. Only the
nitrided steel failed in SO3, and only the cadmium coating failed in
NH3. The silver was the only satisfactory coating in CI2.
19. Survey of Corrosion and Atmospheric Pollution in and Around Sheffield. K.
A. Chandler and M. B. Kilcullen. Brit. Corros. J., v; 3, 1968, pp. 80-
84.
The nature and extent of the relationships between the corrosion of
two mild steels of different copper content, and atmospheric pollution
were investigated at 22 selected sites in the Sheffield area. This was
part of a general investigation into atmospheric corrosion of ferrous
metals. The results confirmed that there was an important relationship
between the corrosion of steel and the atmospheric pollution by smoke and
sulfur dioxide. However, only about 50 percent of the variations in
corrosion rates at different sites could be attributed to sulfur dioxide
measured in this investigation by the Volumetric Method. Smoke intensity
had an influence on the corrosion rate of steel similar to that of sulfur
dioxide but the correlation between sulfur dioxide and smoke was high, so
that their effect on the corrosion rate could not be considered as
independent. There combined effect was only slightly greater than their
individual effects. The corrosion rate could not be accurately predicted
from a knowledge of the quantity of these two types of atmospheric
pollution present in the atmosphere.
1967
1. Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance of Low-Alloy Steels. H. K. Moss.
Australasian corrosion Eng., v. 11, No. 12, Dec. 1967, pp. 19-24.
Susceptibility of low-alloy steels to atmospheric corrosion is
discussed. The mechanism of atmospheric corrosion depends on chemical
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Fe-108
compounds formed between steel and environment which affect both physical
and chemical properties of rust films. The results of investigational
work are shown graphically. Paint durability, mechanical properties,
welding, and economics of low-ally steels are discussed.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Studies in Two Metropolitan Areas. J. B. Upham. J.
Air Pollution Control Assn., v. 17, No. 6, June 1967, pp. 398-402.
Atmospheric corrosion studies using established air monitoring
network sites were conducted in metropolitan St, Louis and Chicago to
obtain information on the quantitative relation between mean pollution
levels and corrosion losses on ferrous metals. Studies are described and
data are presented showing good correlation found between corrosion losses
and sulfur-related pollutants, and insignificant effect of dustfall and
suspended particulate matter.
3. Bridging With Steel. J. A. Cran and I. M. Park. Engineering J., February
1967, pp. 18-25.
The first iron bridge was built across England's Severn River in
1779. Since the erection of this 100-foot arch, bridge technology has
been continually advancing. This progress has been greatly assisted by
the iron and steel industry. For example, the advent of high-strength
. steel with Excellent weldability has contributed to better bridges. In
addition, the metallurgical properties of steel are continually being
investigated. Unfortunately, the results of these investigations are
highly metallurgical in form and it is difficult for a designer to relate
them to his practical problem. The main purpose of this paper is to apply
such results to bridge design.
The first portion of the paper has three areas of discussion: (1)
corosion protection; (2) fatigue behavior; and (3) notch toughness and
brittle fracture. The principles outlined in the first portion of the
paper are incorporated in a unique series of charts. These charts
categorized bridges. Specific steel grades are then suggested for each
type of bridge. It is hoped that these charts will greatly assist bridge
designer in the selection of a steel.
4. Corrosion by Air Pollution. J. R. Goss. Proc. Annu. Conf., Nat. Soc.
Clean Air, No. 34, 1967, pp. 75-92.
A literature review is given on the chemical and physical effects of
air pollution on the corrosion of stonework and building materials, metals
(Al, Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn, Au, Ag), textiles, leather, paper rubber, and paint.
A short section on the costs of corrosion is also included.
5. Corrosion Properties of Iron and Steel. H. J. Cleary and N. D. Greene.
Corrosion Science, v. 7, No. 12, Dec. 1967, pp. 821-831.
Multiple correlation analysis has yielded results which permit
prediction of the corrosion rate of alloy steel as function of its minor
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Fe-109
element content. Phosphorus and carbon are particularly detrimental to
corrosion resistance, as is manganese when present in large amounts.
Silicon also lowers resistance, while copper is mildly beneficial.
Sulfur, chromium and nickel have no effect on corrosion rate in these low
alloys. Corrosion rate is also dependent on distribution of iron carbide
in microstructure. For example, the dissolution rate is increased
markedly by decreasing average pearlite lamellae spacing in a given alloy.
6. Mechanism of the Corrosion of Fe, Zn and Cu in a Humid Atmosphere
Containing HC1 Vapors. K. Barton and Z. Bartonova. Collect. Czech.
Chetn. Commun., v. 32, No. 7, 1967, pp. 2431-2438 (German).
During the corrosion of Fe, Zn, and Cu in an atmosphere of over-
critical humidity and of the HC1 concentration of 7 x 10"^ to 2 x
10~3 volume percent, a steady state is slowly established which is
characterized by the constant composition of the corrosion products and by
the linear dependence of corrosion versus time. With iron, the kinetics
is controlled by the chemical HC1 regeneration in the rust formation and
by the subsequent HC1 action. With zinc, the rate-controlling process is
the reaction of the corrosion products (hydroxide and basic chloride) with
HC1 under formation of the solution ZnCl2. With copper, the decisive
step is the destruction of the CuCl layer which is on the CU2O layer
under formation of a solution product. In both last cases, the rate
controlling process is affected by the transport of gaseous HCl to the
product-atmosphere boundary, by the HCl adsorpotion, and by the
composition of the product. In the last named case, Cu2(OH)3Cl is
formed. At higher temperatures and comparable relative humidities,
products with higher hydroxide content are formed, and the HCl adsorption
and the corrosion rate decreases, especially with zinc and copper.
7. Soiling and Materials-Damage Studies. Chapt. 4 in Economic Costs of Air
Pollution. R. G. Ridker. F. A. Praeger, New York, N.Y., 1967, pp. 57-
89.
There is little doubt that air pollution can and has caused
substantial losses due to soiling and deterioration of materials. Its
role is well documented in experiments with test panels and experience
gathered from major episodes. But estimates of the costs associated with
materials damage due to normal levels of air pollution are very poor, and
marginal cost estimates are virtually nonexistent. Furthermore, nothing
is known about how firms and households adjust—whether, for example, they
clean more frequently or more intensively, or simply suffer the additional
dirt. The chapter reports on a number of attempts to develop such
information in typical urban settings.
8. Tests Show Performance of Low Alloy Steels in Chemical Plant Environments.
R. J. Schmitt and W. L. Mathay. Materials Protection, v. 6, No. 9,
1967, pp. 37-41.
The corrosion factors and economic aspects of two high-strength
low-alloy steels as materials of construction for chemical plant
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Fe-1 10
structures are discussed. The steels are compared in various chemical
plant environments with carbon steel, a common material for these
structures. The higher cost and better corrosion resistance of the
high-strength low-alloy steels are explained in an economic context.
1966
1. Accelerated Atmospheric Corrosion—A Laboratory Test. I. Geld and F. J.
D'Oria. Mater. Protect., v. 5, No. 3, 1966, pp. 16-19.
Atmospheric corrosion was accelerated approximately 26 times the
normal rate in New York Harbor by using a concentration of SO2 of
approximately 4 yg/1. This was obtained by passing air at a measured rate
through two flasks containing "SO2 generating solution" and by using the
solution in the desiccator in which specimens were exposed. The flasks
and desiccator were maintained at 95 + 1° F. The "SO2 generating
solution" consisted of 50 g Na2S2C>5 and 110 g Na2HP0^ in 500 ml
distilled water. The pH was adjusted to 6.45 by addition of small amounts
of one or the other components. The equilibrium concentration of SO2
was about 10 yg/1 with no specimens present, but this fell to
approximately 4 yg/1 when the pickled and washed mild steel specimens were
exposed. After 20 hours, specimens were unspotted and uniformly coated
with an adherent rust film (thinner at lower coupon edges). The rust was
dark brown and sufficiently adherent to prevent transfer when rubbed
lightly. The extent of rusting was approximately 14 mg/in^ of surface,
approximately equal to the amount of rust formed in 22 days shed exposure.
This type and degree of rusting are considered adequate to evaluate
differences in effect of various rust-preventive treatments. The theory
of corrosion in the presence of SO2 is discussed, as well as the
reactions involved in the "SO2 generating solution."
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. N. D. Tomashov. Chapt. 14 in Theory of
Corrosion and Protection of Metals, MacMillan, 1966, pp. 367-396.
The different forms of atmospheric corrosion are classified by the
degree of dampness of the corroding surface. Thus, three types can be
distinguished: wet, moist, and dry atmospheric corrosion. Those three
types proceed by significantly different mechanisms which are described.
There are three types of condensation of moisture on corroding metal
surfaces at a relative humidity less than 100 percent: the capillary
condensation, the adsorption condensation, and the chemical condensation.
An apparatus is designed to simulate the atmospheric corrosion and
experimentally confirms that this proceeds by an electrochemical
mechanism. The basic factors which determine the rates of atmospheric
corrosion are listed. Wet and moist atmospheric corrosion are controlled
primarily by cathodic and anodic processes. The various factors which
determine the corrosivity of the atmosphere are: its composition (sulfur
dioxide, dust, hydrogen peroxide, ammonia, etc.), humidity and
temperature. Corrosion inhibitors and the methods of corrosion protection
of metals are cited.
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Fe-11 1
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals at Bhavnagar. V. S. Rao. Indian J.
Technol., v. 4, No. 5, 1966, pp. 159-161.
Monthly rates of corrosion of mild steel, zinc, copper, and aluminum
were determined at Bhavnagar, representing a tropical marine site, during
the 12 month period August 1961 to July 1962, under both open and
sheltered exposure conditions. The data obtained were compared with those
available for other places in India. In general, corrosion is lower
during November to April than during May to October. No definite
correlation has been observed between salinity and corrosion rate,
indicating that factors like relative humidity and rainfall have a more
pronounced effect than salinity on the corrosion rate at Bhavnagar.
4. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel, Zinc, Cadmium, Copper, and Aluminum in
Different Coastal and Continental Regions. G. K. Berukshtis and G. B.
Klark. Corrosion of Metals and Alloys, Collection No. 2, Israel Program
for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1966, pp. 281-297.**
In attempting to find a more precise mathematical relationship
between the rate of atmospheric corrosion of metals and the external
conditions, the authors conducted tests which lasted for five years. This
paper was based on the results of the first year. The rate of corrosion
was expressed as a function of the temperature, the sulfur dioxide
concentration, duration of exposure, and conditions of exposure.
5. Corrosion Behavior of Salt Powder Towards Various Metal. A. Bukowiecki
and B. G. Joshi. Schweiz. Arch. Angew. Wiss. Tech., v. 32, No. 2, 1966,
pp. 42-54.
Clean metal strips (75 x 20 x 1mm) of steel, Zn, Al, and Cu were
exposed to 2 piles of salts, one at each end of the strip. The salts used
were various chlorides, sulfates, carbonates, benzoates, phosphates, and
nitrates. The specimens were placed in a desiccator at 20° for 7-days.
Corrosion occurs if all H2O is not excluded from the desiccator. A true
solution need not be formed. A thin film of liquid suffices to induce
corrosion.
6. Corrosion Behavior of Some Metallic Materials in Liquid Sulfur Dioxide.
L. Rivola, T. Bazzan, M. Piro and G. Bombara. Proc. 2nd Intern. Congr.
Metal. Corrosion, New York (1963), National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Houston, TX, 1966, pp. 418-423.
After a conductometrie investigation on various electrolytes in
liquid SC>2, (CH3)4NC104 was selected as the electrolyte for
studying the corrosion behavior of metals in SO2 because of its good
conductance and the stability of its anion. A preliminary report is given
on static corrosion tests in 1 g/1 (CI^^NCIO^ in liquid SO2 at
60°C. One series of tests were run anhydrous; in the other, humid air
was bubbled through the cell to add some moisture to the SO2• Corrosion
was greater under humid conditions. The metals employed were Mg, Zn, Al,
Sn, steel, Pb, Ni, Cu, brass, bronze, stainless steel, Ag, Ti, Ta, W, Zr,
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Fe-1 12
Au, and Pt. Weight loss is given in mg/sq dm-day in tabular form. Anodic
corrosion tests were made on the same metals at 35° C. The anodic
polarization curves are plotted. It is suggested that these data might
serve as the starting point for a rigorous and extensive study of each
individual metal in SO2.
7. How Atmospheric Conditions Can Corrode Refinery Equipment. P. W.
Sherwood. Erodel Kohle (Hamburg), v. 19, No. 4, April 1966, pp. 289-290
(German).
Atmospheric corrosion of refinery equipment from the effects of
humidity, dusts, and electrolytes is reviewed. Effect of humidity:
Although water vapor contributes to the mechanism of atmospheric
corrosion, the principal offender is water which precipitates in liquid
form from saturated or near-saturated air. An oxidation-reduction
potential may be built up between two surfaces which promotes corrosion.
Electrolytes dissolved in the water will increase corrosive action.
Enclosed storage and humidity control are two approaches which can be used
to counteract some of these situations. Effects of dust: These are
probably not significant unless the dust consists of a salt or other kind
of electrolyte. Effects of oxidants and electrolytes: Oxidants cause
serious corrosion only in the presence of water. Acidic materials are
seen to be the worst corrosive agents in the atmosphere. Salts are strong
electrolytes and in the presence of water they will contribute to rusting
of materials. Alkalies are not considered a serious problem in
atmospheric corrosion; strong alkalies deposited in the presence of water
can cause deterioration of aluminum or zinc.
8. Role of Ammonia in the Atmospheric Corrosion of Mild Steel. T. K. Ross
and B. G. Callaghan. Nature, v. 211, July 2, 1966, pp. 25-26.
Considerations of surface tension of the catholyte resulting from
electrochemical corrosion in the presence of ammonium salts and
observations on the high ammonia content of the adherent rust in the
initial stages of corrosion suggest that the ammonium ion has an effect
on the atmospheric corrosion of mild steel. The principal effect of the
ammonium ion is the promotion of surface wetting and hence, the
involvement of greater areas of metal in the corrosion process,
particularly during it initial stages.
9. Rusting in Air-Characteristic Properties of Natural Rusts. K. A. Chandler
and J. E. Stanners. Proc. 2nd Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, New
York (1963), National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX,
1966, pp. 325-331 (Discussion 331-333).
The work described is the first stage of an investigation into the
mechanism and kinetics of rusting. Mild steel panels were exposed in
London in a vertical position, and were examined at intervals of 2 months.
A series of layers of oxide is formed and hydrated. These layers break
away. Some adhere but may be removed with a wire brush. Corrosion is not
uniform. Pits form to a limiting depth of 50 ym, then the surrounding
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Fe-113
steel is attacked at fresh places. The rust in the pits cannot be removed
by brushing. Such rust often contains large salt crystals. Rusts contain
sulfates, chlorides, NH4 salts, and moisture. Moisture amounts to
approximately 7 percent of the rust. Painting of steel that has rusted is
not recommended, even after brushing or scraping, since the adherent layer
still retains salts and moisture. It is suggested that for steel that is
to be used bare a modification of the rusting mechanism to produce a
strongly adherent form is in order. For steel that is to be painted, an
easily removed rust is desirable.
10. Study of Corrosion of Iron and its Alloys in Chlorine and Sulfur Dioxide
by the Thermographic Method. J. K. Tovmas'yan, B. S. Shevchenko and N.
M. Gontmakher. Zashchita Metal., v. 2, No. 2, 1966, pp. 194-200
(Russ ian) .
Armco iron containing 0.025 percent carbon and cast iron containing
3.52 percent carbon were subjected to corrosion in gaseous chloride at 50"
C, and U10A steel containing 1.04 percent carbon was subjected to
corrosion in sulfur dioxide at 25.8°C, and rate of their corrosion was
evaluated by measuring the temperature gradient, A t, between specimen and
the thermostat bath. As humidity of chlorine increased from 0.06 to 0.08
and 0.10 percent, the time of attaining maximum A t for Armco iron and the
cast iron diminished, and the corrosion rate of Armco iron increased by
4.7 and 7.7 times, respectively. The corrosion rate of the cast iron
increased by a factor of 3 when the humidity of chlorine increased from
below 0.06 and 0.08 percent. The time of attaining maximum A t for U10A
steel in SO2 passed through a minimum in the humidity intermediate
between 13.7 and 24.0 g/m->.
11. Sulfurous Acid Corrosion of Low Carbon Steel at Ordinary Temperatures-I.
Its Nature. W. McLeod and R. R. Rogers. Corrosion, v. 22, No. 5, 1966,
pp. 143-146.
Corrosion rate data are presented for low carbon steel in (1) a
combination of sulfur dioxide, water vapor and air, and (2) aqueous
solutions of sulfurous acid in the absence of air, at ordinary
temperatures. Information as to the nature of the corrosion products is
presented and it is shown that this depends on the place in which the
corrosion takes place to an important extent.
12. The Influence of Salts in Rusts on the Corrosion of the Underlying Steel.
K. A. Chandler. Brit. Corros. J., v. 1, No. 7, 1966, pp. 264-266.
A series of synthetic rusts was prepared with a range of sulphate
and chloride contents. The samples were placed on steel specimens and
after a test period of 30 days at different relative humidities, the
corrosion of the underlying steel was measured. The presence of salts
caused increased corrosion of the steel and this increased with the amount
of salt in the rust. Corrosion was inappreciable below a relative
humidity of about 40 percent.
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Fe-114
13. The Seasonal Distribution of Ferrous Sulphate Formed During the
Atmospheric Rusting of Mild Steel. T. K. Ross and B. G. Callaghan.
Corrosion Sci., v. 6, No. 7, 1966, pp. 337-343.
An electron micro-probe analysis of rust formed by atmospheric
corrosion of mild steel in an industrial atmosphere was carried out to
study the effects of the time of year, with special attention to the
effects of SC>2 • Summer-exposed specimens contained a low overall sulfur
content at the metal surface while winter-exposed material had a high
sulfur content with sulfur bonding. Under spring conditions sulfur moved
through the oxide to the latter's surface and formed "nest" structures.
SC>2 and water provide a source of electrochemical activity to allow
sulfate, formed at anodic areas, to remain close to these areas. In the
absence of such activity, sulfate diffused through the rust under
concentration gradient forces.
1965
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Important Systems of Base Metals and Metallic
Coatings. K. Muller. Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 64-68 (German).**
The electrochemical nature of the atmospheric corrosion of metallic
systems is reviewed. Quantitative data with respect to atmospheric
components are tabulated and equations for the electrolytic reaction in
the metal/solution, metali/meta^/solut ion are presented. Two metals
in conductive contact represent a galvanic couple and their relative
corrosion is determined by their respective corrosion currents. If the
less noble metal is the base and the nobler metal forms the coating, the
base metal protection depends on a continuous protective layer free of
defects and porosity. A less noble metal applied as a protective coating
will protect the nobler base metal even with a discontinuous film
formation but will be sacrificed in the process.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels Related to Meteorological Factors in
Japan. II. Multiple Correlation of Meteorological and Atmospheric
Pollution Substances on Corrosion of Steel. K. Oma, T. Sugano, T. Ueki
and Y. Hirai. Boshoku Gijutsu, v. 14, No. 1, 1965, pp. 16-19
(Japanese).
The atmospheric corrosion rates of steels were measured in an
industrial district (Kuto-Ku) of Tokyo. The correlations between
corrosion rates and meteorological factors or atmospheric pollution
substances were studied statistically. The corrosion rate was expressed
by y = -136.91 + 0.05xj + 2.56x2 + O.I2X3 + 3.60x4 - 24.63x5 + 2.0xg
- 14.37x7 + 13.43xg + 3.65xq - 1351.99xiq, where y is the
corrosion rate in mg/day-dm^, xj 58 temperature, X2 = relative humidity
in percent, X3 = precipitation in mm, X4 3 SO2 gas in mg/day-dm^,
X5 = sea salt particles in mg/dm^, xg ¦ wind velocity in m/sec, and
X7, xg, X9, and xio are the amounts, respectively, of soluble
substances, insoluble substances, sulfate, and tar substances expressed in
g-
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Fe-115
3. Atmospheric Corrosion Products of Some Commercial Metals. H. J. Meyer.
Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 44-52 (German).**
The chemical composition and phase structure of corrosion layers
formed on Fe, Cu, Zn, and A1 under normal atmospheric conditions is
reviewed. Most layers consist of several crystalline phases and are
frequently found in mixture with amorphous materials. A distinction must
be made between primary and secondary films. Tabular data of the
composition and and crystalline orientation of primary layers present the
most important crystallographic characteristics of minerals such as
oxides, hydroxides, sulfides, carbonates, chlorides, and nitrates and of
corrosion products not yet identified as naturally occurring minerals.
Corrosion products formed on Fe, Cu, Zn, and A1 are discussed in detail
with respect to formation, composition, crystallography and protective
propert ies.
4. Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels. Experience in
Germany. K. Janssen and R. Moser. Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 94-98
(German).*
Stainless steels containing 17% Cr, 18% Cr-8% Ni, and 18% Cr-10% Ni-2%
Mo were exposed to rural, urban, industrial, and marine atmospheres. The
17% Cr stainless steel is not suited to exposed architectural
applications. In rural and urban atmospheres 18/8 stainless steel was
unaffected during one-year exposure but in strongly contaminated
industrial atmospheres frequent cleaning is required or slight corrosion
in the form of surface dulling must be accepted. Smooth surfaces are
advantageous in particularly corrosive atmospheres.
5. Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels. Experience in Great
Britain and the United States. T. E. Evans. Korrosion, No. 17, 1965,
pp. 87-93 (Germany).**
Thirty years' experience in the USA has proved 18/8 and 17/7 Cr-Ni
stainless steels outstandingly corrosion resistant in urban, industrial
and rural environments. In marine atmospheres 18/8 stainless steel is
satisfactory if cleaned frequently; however, 18/8 stainless steel
containing Mo is more resistant. In strongly contaminated industrial
atmospheres of Great Britain, Cr-Ni stainless steels with 18% Cr, 10 to
12% Ni, and 2.5% Mo have proved more satisfactory than those without Mo in
locations where regular cleaning is difficult. Earlier indications that
urban industrial atmospheres in Great Britain are more destructive to
certain grades of stainless steels than similar locations in the USA were
fully confirmed. Data are presented regarding locations, steel grades,
manufacturing history, heat treatment, specimen preparation, and
comparative corrosion resistance.
6. Compares the Results of Electrochemical Measurements on Low-Alloy Steel
With Their Behavior in Rusting. G. Becker. Archiv fur das
Eisenhuttenwesen, v. 36, No. 7, 1965, p. 489 (German).
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Fe-1 16
This paper compares the results of electrochemical measurements on
low-alloy steels with their behavior in rusting. Electrochemical
parameters of low-alloy steels were measured to determine a relationship
with the results obtained from natural rusting tests. The relation
between the degree of rust and steady and activation potentials is
discussed.
7. Corrosion Rate of Plain Carbon Steels in Land, Sea, and Industrial
Atmospheres. E. Brauns and U. Kalla. Stahl Eisen, v. 85, No. 7, 1965,
pp. 406-412 (German).*
The corrosion rates of shipbuilding plain C rimmed steels, steels
killed with Si, and those killed with Si and Al, manufactured by various
sorts of melting, were determined in field tests in land, sea, and
industrial atmospheres over a test period of 7 years. The composition of
7 steels tested was as follows: C 0.05-0.20, Si 0-0.25, Mn 0.35-0.65, P
0.015-0.074, S 0.016-0.041, Al 0-0.15, Cr 0.04-0.09, Cu 0.05-0.20, and Ni
0-0.09 wt. percent. The effect of Cu amount in steel was significant in
the industrial atmosphere, the corrosion losses declining with the
increase in Cu amount. In land and sea atmospheres the effect of Cu was
negligible. An increase in Cu over 0.1% is almost without effect on
corrosion rate. The increase of Cu from 0.05 to 0.20% decreased the
corrosion rate by only 25%. The steels killed with Si showed a smaller
corrosion rate than the rimmed steels with the same or even higher Cu in
sea and especially the industrial atmospheres. The data of the corrosion
rate showed that the corrosion behavior of all investigated steels was
constant after 5 years of exposure. Samples brushed or pickled before
weighing and testing corroded in the same way, though a thick layer of
rust was left on the brushed samples.
8. Distribution of Sulphur in Corrosion Products Formed by Sulphur Dioxide on
Mild Steel. T. K. Ross. Corrosion Science, v. 5, No. 4, April 1965,
pp. 327-330.
The range of scales formed upon steel in variety of environments
containing sulfur dioxide was examined using electron-probe micro-
analysis. The most striking feature which these scales exhibit in common
is that their sulfur content is not, as might be supposed, uniformly
distributed throughout their cross section, but is located in narrow bands
parallel to the surface. The composition of the bands is such that sulfur
in excess of that corresponding to FeS is present.
9. Effect of Copper Content of Carbon Steel on Corrosion in Sulfuric Acid.
E. Williams and M. E. Komp. Corrosion, v. 21, No. 1, January 1965, pp.
9-14.
Difference in corrosion rates observed for various steel samples was
associated with differences in copper content. Surface condition and
microstructure had an appreciable effect, whereas copper content of
steel was the controlling factor determining corrosion rate. Electro-
-------
Fe-1 17
chemical measurements indicated that copper dissolved in steel decreases
the exchange current of the cathodic reaction in sulfuric acid
solutions, thereby dereasing the corrosion rate.
10. Effect of Small Additions of Copper on Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance
of Mild Steel. H. K. Moss. Australasian Corrosion Eng., v. 9, No. 1,
Jan. 1965, pp. 19-23.
The mechanism of corrosion and the effect of painting and
galvanizing on this mechanism is reported. Several high-strength low-
alloy steels containing varying percentages of Cu, Ni, Cr, P, and Si
showed extremely good resistance to atmospheric corrosion, with the
presence of copper alone producing by far the greatest single benefit.
The effect of copper on the strength of mild steel and the weldability
of copper-bearing steels is discussed.
11. Electrochemical Mechanism of Atmospheric Rusting. U. R. Evans. Nature,
v. 206, June 1965, pp. 980-982.
The experiments described here were made on specimens of mild steel,
and relatively pure iron electrodeposited on steel, nickel, or copper
substrate, and on unplated nickel. The samples were introduced dry into
moist (95 percent relative humidity) unsaturated air containing 0.2
percent sulfur dioxide. Once FeSO^ has appeared, rust-formation
continues even though the sample is placed in moist air containing no
sulfur dioxide. Oxidation and hydrolysis of the FeS04 produce H2SO4
which attacks more metal. The reaction is considered electrochemical in
that Fe+2 is oxidized at the anode and O2 or SO2 is reduced at the
cathode. The anodic attack proceeds in crevices, the cathodic reduction
of O2 to OH" allows formation of Fe(OH)2 in the crevices. The
Fe(0H)2 is quickly oxidized to the ferro-ferric and ferric condition
and, thus, the formation of strong, adherent rust. The ferro-ferric
matter is further oxidized to the ferric state and, thus, the ferric rust
thickens by pick up of Fe+^ at the anode and O2 at the cathode.
12. Electron and Microscopic Observations of Corrosion from Air-Borne Dust.
R. Meldau. Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 37-43 (German).**
Various forms of the effect of dust on wear and corrosion are
discussed. The crystallographic behavior of dust particles under elevated
pressure and temperature with respect to their corrosive influence is
reviewed. Particles studied include clay, limestone, dolomite, cement,
silicate, coke, quartz, Zn, Fe, Cu, iron oxide and hydroxide, lead
carbonate and others. Data concerning a conducive environment for dust
corrosion show this corrosion beginning in the fine structure of metallic
surfaces and favored by any deviation from an atomically smooth surface.
It is likely that very small particles of graphite lubricants also become
corrosion dust particles through recrystallization. A convergence of
corrosive and wear effects is shown by the fact that very small dust
particles adhere to metallic surfaces by sorption involving the hydrogen
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Fe-118
bond. The breaking away of such particles leaves a series of small
craters and this renders the surface susceptible to corrosion.
13. Gamma-Ferric Oxide (y-Fe203) and the Passivity of Iron. M. C. Bloom
and L. Goldenberg. Corrosion Science, v. 5, 1965, pp. 623-630.
In the past few years a large amount of evidence has been obtained
indicating that passivity in the system Fe-O-I^O at room temperature is
associated with the presence of a thin protective film having a modified
form of the spinel structure of magnetite ^6304). It seems to have
been fairly well established that this protective film comprises
two layers, namely a conductive film usually specified as Fe304, in
direct contact with the unoxidized metal, covered in turn by an
electrically insulating film of what has been called "Y~Fe2 3." This
Y~Fe203 has been visualized as a spinel structure containing
vacanc ies.
In this study, the authors have brought together and correlated a
substantial mass of existing data. The results of the study led to the
conclusion that such protective films cannot be merely spinel structures
containing vacancies but are modifications of the Fe304 structure in
which protons are substituted for some of the ferrous iron and that
Y~Fe203 is the end result of such a substitution when all ferrous iron
has disappeared.
14. Materials Deterioration and Air Pollution. J. B. Upham. J. Air Pollution
Control Association, v. 15, No. 6, June 1965, p. 265.
The present status of the Public Health Service program to assess the
degratation of air pollution on materials in outlined. Dealing
essentially with atmospheric corrosion, four major individual studies are
described. These include the Five-Year, Eight City Corrosion Program, a
project to study the relationship between air pollution and the
atmospheric corrosion behavior of several metals in a number of selected
American cities; and three small studies in St. Louis-East St. Louis
metropolitan area; Chicago, Illinois; and Birmingham, Alabama. These
latter three are of shorter exposure duration (one or two years) and are
calculated to give a corrosion fingerprint of each area. Also discussed
is a cotton textile exposure program being carried out in St. Louis in
cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture. For each
study, objectives, methodology, and preliminary data are presented.
15. Significance of Corrosion Testing Process With Special Consideration of
the SO2 Test According to DIN 50018. W. Kesternich. Werkst.
Korrosion, v. 16, 1965, pp. 193-201 (German).*
In condensed water with the addition of SO2 (DIN 50018), steel
corrosion increased as opposed to pure condensed water. Metals such as
Cd, Ni, and Zn were corroded as much, in an S02~containing atmosphere as
low-alloy steels. Cd shows poorer results in corrosion than Zn and Ni;
Sn, Al, and Cu show much better results. Data are given for the
evaluation of corrosion testing and weathering experiments.
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Fe-119
16. Systematic Corrosion Tests with Galvanic Coatings in a Sulfur Dioxide
Atmosphere. A. Kutzelnigg. Werkst. Korros., v. 16, No. 9, 1965, pp.
750-754.
The change in weight in the Testor apparatus with a SC>2 atmosphere
in 1, 3, and 5 cycles was determined for sheet steel coated with Ni, Zn,
and Cd and for bare sheet steel. Experimental conditions were varied.
Additions of CO2 and variation of temperature over the range 40-50° C
had little effect on the results. Periods of drying at room temperature
were without significant effect. The most essential factor was the amount
of SO2 supplied. Since the attack is quite strong on nickel with the
usual SC>2 concentration (0.66 vol-pct), nickel coatings should be
compared at 1 to 10 pet. of this concentration. The usual addition of
SO2 (2 liter) was maintained with the other coatings. Unprotected steel
rusted 6-9 times as fast as nickel-coated steel.
17. The Effect of Initial Conditions of Exposure on the Subsequent Corrosion
of Mild Steel. B. Sanyal, G. K. Singhania and V. K. Nigam. Labdev., v.
3, No. 2, 1965, pp. 104-106.
Mild steel panels were degreased with S-free toluene and methyl
alcohol and were dried and kept in a desiccator for 24 hours before
exposure. The panels were exposed to air containing 0.33, 0.50, 1.0, 1.5,
and 2.0 percent by volume SO2 at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 89, and
94 percent relative humidity for periods of 5 minutes to 24 hours. They
were then transferred to pollution-free humid air. Corrosion during
exposure for short periods in SO2 atmosphere was negligible, but became
severe when exposed to humid air. There was a decrease in corrosion rate
when the exposed panels were kept in a desiccator for 8 hours or exposed
to a stream of nitrogen or air at 40 and 80" prior to exposure over H2O.
The probable mechanism of corrosion involves the adsorption of SO2 on
the metal surface and the formation of a primary reaction film during pre-
exposure and the formation of the final corrosion product due to
hydrolytic reaction during the subsequent exposure over H2O.
18. The Influence of Corrosion Products on the Progress of Atmospheric
Corrosion. K. Barton and D. Knotkova-Cermakova. Korrosion, No. 17,
1965, pp, 53-57 (German).**
A general theory on the kinetics of long-range atmospheric corrosion
is evolved from research data and the practical applicability of obtained
results is suggested. A literature review covers qualitative works, the
electrochemistry of atmospheric corrosion, the chemical reaction of
atmospheric impurities, the effect of hygroscopic properties of solid
corrosion products, quantitative experiments in long-range atmospheric
corrosion, classification of partial reactions in atmospheric corrosion,
formation of the electrolyte film, destruction of the primary oxide film,
reactions of the formation of solid products, corrosion in the presence of
solid corrosion products, the stationary state in atmospheric corrosion,
improvement of the atmospheric corrosion resistance of steel, corrosion
protection of rusted steel surfaces, and accelerated corrosion-testing
methods.
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Fe-120
19. The Rate of Corrosion of Carbon Steels in Land, Marine, and Industrial
Atmospheres. E. Brauns and U. Kalla. Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp.
81-86 (German).**
The oxidation rate of various melted rimming, Si- and Al-killed ship
plate steels with 0.05 to 0.20% C and traces of other alloying elements
was investigated in land, marine, and industrial atmospheres. Results
were obtained in 7-year exposures. In addition to the known effect of Cu,
the mode of deoxidation had an explicit influence on corrosion resistance.
Si-killed steels exhibited a distinctly lower oxidation rate in marine and
particularly in industrial atmospheres than steels with identical or
somewhat higher Cu content. After an approximate 5-year exposure, the
corrosion process became stationary for all steels under investigation.
Specimens brushed with a fiber brush prior to weighing showed the same
corrosion behavior as those prepared by acid pickling with the addition of
inhibitors, although considerable scale remained in the first case. After
the sixth and seventh years, the oxide layers had the same weight and
thickness regardless of the corrosion rate and atmosphere.
20. The Significance of Sulfur Dioxide in the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
G. Schikorr. Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 27-34 (German).**
The effect of SO2 content on atmospheric corrosion in land areas is
discussed and the relationship with local condition^ and seasonal factors
is reviewed. In the atmospheric corrosion of Zn a SO2 content of 1.1
g/m^ per day corresponds to a corrosion rate of 0.07 g/m^ per day and
results generally in the formation of ZnSC>4. In summer the corrosion
products contain zinc oxides and basic zinc carbonates. A similar effect
is valid for Cd and Ni. Cu and Pb presumably form a protective layer of
basic sulfates and A1 is somewhat protected by its oxide film.
S02~affected corrosion of Fe in the atmosphere has three stages: the
uptake of SO2 by the rusty Fe, the formation of Fe(II) sulfate and the
oxidation of the sulfate to rust and free sulfuric acid, the latter having
a continuous corroding effect. The continuing corrosion is strongly
dependent on temperature and relative humidity.
21. The Rusting of Low Alloy Steels in the Atmosphere. J. B. Horton. San
Francisco Regional Technical Meeting of the American Iron and Steel
Institute, San Francisco, CA, November 18, 1965, pub. as Regional
Technical Meeting, American Iron and Steel Institute, pp. 171-195.
In complex corrosion-resistant, low-alloy steels, the order of
effectiveness of alloying elements for improving atmospheric corrosion
resistance are P, Cu (up to 0.3 percent), Cr, Si, and Ni. Copper above
0.3 percent and manganese have little effect. Sulfur is harmful.
Examination of 17 year-old rust layers on low-alloy steel by X-ray
diffraction, spectrographic, and chemical analysis did not explain how
alloying elements improve atmospheric corrosion resistance. The rust
layers are primarily a- and y-FeOOH containing atmospheric dusts as well
as sulfate, carbonate, and carbon. They also contain significant amounts
of alloying elements from the corroded steel. The rust layers were found
to have an outer layer in which the rust has enveloped atmospheric dust
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Fe-121
and an inner layer free of such dust. The rust Layers apparently grow by
the diffusion of iron ions outward through the rust layer to precipitate
as rust at the air interface, enveloping dusts within the fresh rust.
Periodic wetting and drying of Vust layers may vary where rust formation
occurs in the rust layer, and thereby contribute to forming rust layers
which are more impermeable to corrodants.
22. Theoretical Interpretation of the Ferrous(II) Sulfate Concentrations in
Atmospheric Corrosion. H. Schwartz. Werkst. Korros., v. 16, No. 3,
1965, pp. 208-212 (German).
Rust eruptions from atmospheric corrosion involve the electrolytic
separation of FeS04.xH20 on anodic corrosion elements. Electrical
condition of iron oxides plays an important role in the corrosion process.
At the cathodic element, FeS04.xH20 reacts with 0H~ (formed by the
reaction: 2e + 1/202 + H2° = 20H~), to produce Fe hydroxy 1
compounds that are oxidized to FeOOH.
1964
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels Related to Meteorological Factors in
Japan. I. Meteorological Factors in Japan. K. Oma, T. Sugano, T. Ueki
and Y. Hirai. Boshoku Gijutsu, v. 13, No. 1, 1964, pp. 15-22 .
(Japanese).
Atmospheric corrosion rates of steels were measured every month
between April 1962 and March 1963 at 19 typical districts in Japan
selected from a meteorological viewpoint. The averages were as follows:
industrial districts 55.3, Pacific coastal districts 20. 4. Japan Sea
coastal districts 18.8, and inland districts 5.1 mg/day-dnr. Among the
selected factors such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, etc., the
temperature effect was most important to the atmospheric corrosion of
steels, even though SC>2 and CI ions could sometimes become decisive in
conjuction with meterological factors.
2. Corrosion of Iron and Steel in NH4NO3—NH3—H2O Solutions. G.
Schick and H. H. Uhlig. J. Electrochem Soc., v. Ill, No. 11, 1964, pp.
1211-1215.
Iron corrodes in aqueous NH4NO3—NH3 solutions at high rates
(>2 in. per year) depending on NH3 concentration and on certain
metallurgical factors. The corrosion product, by analysis, is found to be
[Fe (NH3)g](NO3)2 in the presence of NH3, and Fe3C>4 in its
absence. Cold-rolled iron corrodes more rapidly than annealed or quenched
iron. The cause is related to orientation during rolling of the (001)
face of iron parallel to the surface. This face is one that apparently
corrodes most rapidely. Orientation is partially destroyed by annealing
or quenching. Such effects are marked only when rate of complex formation
is controlling; when other reactions control, the effect of cold work is
not pronounced. The corrosion rate is sensitive to alloyed N but not to
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F e - 1 2 2
alloyed C. Zone-refined iron corrodes at a rate comparable to that of
annealed mild steel. Iron containing 0.04 percent N corrodes at a lower
rate or about 1/4 that of zone-refined iron. Inhibitors such as SCN
appear to interfere with the cathodic reduction of NO3 to NH3.
3. Investigation of Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Selected Nickel Alloys.
H. R. Copson and E. A. Tice. Werkst. Korros., v. 15, No. 8, August
1964, pp. 642-652 (German).
Data collected in exposure tests for 23 years in industrial
atmosphere of Bayonne, N.J. and 15 years in marine atmosphere of Kure
Beach, N.C., are presented and discussed. Metals exposed include
commercial Ni, Ni-Cu and Ni-Cr alloys, preciptiation hardenable stainless
steels, wrought ferrous alloys with 3 to 30 percent nickel, cast iron with
35 percent nickel, copper- and manganese-base alloys, and others.
4. The Influence of Sulphur Dioxide on the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
G. Schikorr. Werkst. Korros., v. 15, No. 5, 1964, pp. 457-463.
The paper provides a synopsis of present-day knowledge of the
subject. With zinc, nickel and cadmium, the atmospheric corrosion is
roughly equivalent to the quantity of SO2 absorbed from the air, and
sulphates are formed. Low air humidity reduces the absorption of SO2,
and thus the corrosion of these metals. With iron, on the other hand, a
simple mechanism causes the sulphur dioxide to have a catalytic effect,
and oxides are formed. A high relative humidity of the air promotes
these processes; a low humidity reduces them but does not affect the SO2
absorption. Due to the formation of protective layers containing
sulphates, lead and copper have a particularly high weather resistance.
The high weather resistance of aluminum is due to protective layers of
aluminum oxides and their low capacity of absorbing SO2.
1963
1. Atmospheric Corrosion. R. K. Swandby. Corrosion Resistance of Metals
and Alloys, edited by F. L. Laque and H. R. Copson, Reinhold
Publishing, New York, 2nd edition, 1963, pp. 45-47.
Humidity and oxygen are the basic corrosive agents of the
atmosphere. In addition, sulfur compounds in form of hydrogen sulfide or
sulfur dioxide are the most active in industrial atmospheres. Chlorides
are more corrosive than sulfur compounds in marine atmospheres.
2. Atmospheric Exposure of Aluminum Alloys for Three Years in Nigeria. K. G.
Latimer and F. F. Booth. Metallurgia, v. 67, 1963, pp. 73-79.
Atmospheric exposure tests were made at marine, desert, town and
iungle sites. Specimens in a wide range of Al alloys, Al-Mn, Al-Mg, Al-
Mg-Si, Al-Cu, and Al-Zn-Mg in the form of sheet and angle were exposed
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together with mild steel and galvanized mild steel. The examination
dealt with appearance, tensile properties, and depth of attack after 1,
2, and 3 years." Tropical atmospheres which are not heavily polluted are
no more corrosive to aluminum than temperate ones. Aluminum is much
superior to mild steel and galvanized mild steel. The N6 alloy containing
5 percent magnesium is prone to grain-boundary pptn. of the 3~ phase after
tropical exposure. This indicates susceptibility to stress corrosion. A
simple zinc chromate paint has a satisfactory life in a tropical marine
atmosphere.
Corrosion Resistance of Cast Irons. H. H. Collins. BCIRA J., v. 11, No.
5, Sept. 1963, pp. 589-595.
This paper reviews work carried out on comparative corrosion rates
and resistance of various cast irons to soil, seawater, acids and
alkalis, and atmospheric corrosion.
Influence of Atmospheric Contaminants on Corrosion - Literature Report.
H. C. Muffley. DDC Report AD-420118, Rock Island Arsenal, 111., June
13, 1963, 23 pp.
The influence of atmospheric contaminant gases and particulate matter
upon the corrosion rates of ferrous and nonferrous metals is investigated.
Various means of protection from, or elimination of, such corrosive
environment as are reviewed. Variations in the rate of corrosion coincide
with the severity of atmospheric pollution in different locations where
average humidity is approximately the same. Because of this interaction
of the various pollutants and moisture, and the fact that these vary
independently, it is difficult to predict the corrosion behavior of a
location. It has been observed that the corrosiveness of a given
atmosphere is not constant, but varies with the weather conditions. Some
areas will show a difference in the corrosion of specimens put out at
different seasons of the year. Data from the tests in both industrial and
marine atmospheres, reveal that very great difference in corrosivity can
exist at locations only a few miles apart, or, in some extreme cases, only
a few 100 feet apart. The corrosion rates of various metals or alloys for
various environmental conditions are given. Corrosion of metals can be
overcome 1) by eliminating the contaminants that cause corrosion of metal
parts, 2) by preventing the contaminants from coming in contact with the
metal surface, and 3) by using a metal finish that will be resistant to
the specific atmosphere.
Mechanism of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Iron. G. Schikorr. Werkst.
Korros., v. 14, No. 2, February 1963, pp. 69-80.
The mechanism of atmospheric corrosion of iron involves the
following steps: adsorption of SO2 by iron (no corrosion in this step),
Fe + SO2 + O2 * FeSO^, 4 FeSO^, +02+6 H2O ¦ 4 FeOOH + 4
H2SO4, and 4 H2SO4 + 4 Fe + 2 O2 - 4 FeSC>4 + 4 H2O.
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Fe-124
6. Remote Protection Effect of Zinc and Cadmium for Steel Exposed to the
Atmosphere. G. Schikorr. Galvanotechnik, v. 54, No. 3, 1963, pp.
122-126.
Steel rods, zinc or cadmium coated, were wound with an iron wire and
exposed to atmospheric conditions and S02~ and acetic acid-containing
media. Weight losses of the iron wire were tabulated for the various
conditions. Scratch tests were applied in the SO2 atmosphere whereas
plots of i versus acetric acid concentration were used for the acid
atmosphere. These tests can also be used to determine porosity in
electrodeposits of zinc and cadmium.
7. What Price Maintenance-Free Structures? J. C. Pohlman. Electrical World,
v. 159, 1963, pp. 72-74.
Traditionally, transmission towers and substation structures have
been made from galvanized steel. After the galvanized coating has
weathered away, it is customary to paint the structure to maintain the
integrity of the base metal. The increase of painting costs has spurred
engineers to consider "maintenance-free" materials. The question then
arises: How much premium can be justified for the "maintenance-free"
structure to eliminate painting?
1962
1. Aluminum Alloys Corrosion Behavior in an Industrial Environment.
F. F. Booth and K. G. Latimer. Corrosion Technology, v. 9, No. 11,
1962, pp. 315-320.
In 1948, as part of a comprehensive long-term investigation of the
corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys, atmospheric exposure tests were
undertaken by Aluminum Laboratories Ltd., Banbury, at a number of
corrosion sites. This paper deals with the examination of strips cut at
various times from sheet panels that were exposed in an industrial area at
Stratford, London. The panels included most of the standard production
aluminum alloys, mild steel, galvanized steel, and 18-8 stainless steel.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion by Electrolyte Nuclei. B. Sanyal and D. V. Bhadwar.
J. Sci. Industr. Res., v. 21D, 1962, p. 243.
The atmospheric corrosion of mild steel, aluminum, copper, zinc,
brass, tinplate, galvanized iron and lead, representing common engineering
metals, by nuclei of selected electrolytes representing the corrosive
constituents of metal treatment materials likely to be left as residues on
metal surfaces has been investigated under controlled conditions. A new
technique has been developed for innoculating the metal surfaces with the
electrolyte nuclei which consists in depositing a definite quantity of the
electrolyte on the metal surface by immersing metal specimens in aqueous
solutions of the electrolytes for a few seconds and drying in vacuum and
at 100° C. The corrosion rates of the different metals have been, in
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Fe-125
general, found to be in the following descending order: raiLd steel,
galvanized iron, zinc, copper, brass, tinplate, lead, aluminum; of these
metals, only the first four undergo appreciable corrosion. The chlorides
are more corrosive than the sulphates. Corrosion rates increase with
increase in humidity, temperature, period of exposure and concentration of
electrolyte on the metal surface. Corrosion is also influenced by the pH
of the solution used for inoculating the metal surfaces. In the case of
mixtures of electrolytes, the corrosive effect of one electrolyte is not
influenced by the presence of other electrolytes and the total effect is
additive. Corrosion under immersed conditions is much lower than that due
to atmospheric corrosion by nuclei of electrolytes, but aeration of the
electrolyte solution under immersed condition causes a rapid increase in
the rate of corrosion, which finally approaches that under atmospheric
exposure.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. Some Questions of Theory.
I. L. Rosenfel'd. Proc. 1st Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion,
London (1961), Hutterworth, London, 1962, pp. 243-248.
The paper describes the electrochemical methods of investigation that
have been developed for studying atmospheric corrosion in thin electrolyte
layers. Some theoretical aspects of atmospheric corrosion, resulting from
the data obtained, with the aid of the methods mentioned, are considered
and some new views on atmospheric corrosion mechanisms are suggested.
The rate of oxygen depolarization in thin electrolyte layers beginning
with h = 3 x 10~2 cm increases according to the hyperbolic law. The
dependence of the oxygen reduction rate on the thickness of the diffusion
layer is determined by the equation i6 = 0.190 x 10~5. In the case of
many industrial metals (iron, steel, zinc, magnesium) the anodic reaction
of metal ionization proceeds very slowly in thin layers. The oxygen
depolarization rate increases markedly in the course of electrolyte
evaporation from the metal surface. Owing to the surface-tension changes,
thin electrolyte layers self-mix and exhibit convection oxygen transfer.
The thickness of the diffusion layer in thin films is much below the
values assumed for such layers when relatively large electrolyte volumes
with natural convection are considered. Under thermostat controlled
conditions ClO.05*) 6 = 3 to 15 x 10"^ cm. The work of microcells
in thin electrolyte layers is controlled by polarization, and not by
resistance. The basic controlling factor is the cathodic process (70-90
percent). Thin electrolyte layers show a change in current distribution
in the direction of the growth of current density at the interface. The
equation of current density distribution is given. A new kind of cathodic
depolarization has been observed which is due to the reaction of sulphur
dioxide reduction. The mechanism of enhancement of metal corrosion in
industrial districts polluted with sulphur dioxide is associated with this
react ion.
4. Corrosion of Metals in an Atmosphere of Sulfur Dioxide. V. G. Gleim, G.
F. Potemkin, E. M. Lavrova and S. G. Tereshchenko. Tr. Vses. Mezhvuz.
Nauchn. Konf. po Vopr. Bor'by s Kotroziei, Azerb. Inst. Nefti i Khim. ,
1962, pp. 287-290 (Russian).
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Fe-126
The corrosion of cast iron and bronze, dry or coated with diesel oil,
in 5 and 100 percent SO2, with and without additions of 5, 10, and 20
percent NH3 was investigated at 20° and 500°. The gain in weight over 6
hours was determined by approximately hourly weighings. Similar
determinations were made in a special apparatus with diesel exhaust
gases, with and without additions of SO2 and NH3 Results are presented
as curves showing weight gain in grams versus time in minutes (sample
sizes are not shown). NH3 lowers the corrosion in all cases, for
example, by approximately 50 percent with cast iron covered with oil in
100 percent SO2 and 20 percent NH3 during 300 minutes at 500".
Additional studies were made with silicone coatings. Best protection was
obtained with lacquer FG-9 (a condensate of ary1-triaIkoxysi1anes)
pigmented with aluminum powder. At 20° the lacquer lowered the corrosion
of cast iron in 10-100 percent SO2 by a factor of 13-15. At 600* the
protection lasted for 10-12 hours. At 700* there was no protection, as
lacquer burned off.
5. Corrosion of Steel. H. Greenblatt and R. Pearlman. Chemistry in Canada,
1962, p. 21.
The effects of some possible atmospheric contaminants on the
corrosion of steel at three different humidities and temperatures were
investigated in a series of simple laboratory tests. The trends observed
confirm trends observed by different workers in outdoor exposures at
different sites and indicate that there is complex interplay between the
effects of contaminants, humidity and temperature.
6. Effects of Air Pollution on the Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Some
Metals and Alloys. E. A. Tice. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., v. 12,
1962, pp. 553-559.
The SO2 content of the air, especially as found in industrial
atmospheres, is the most significant constituent responsible for corrosion
of metals such as steel and zinc and to a lesser extent, alloys containing
copper and nickel. Chromium-nickel stainless steels resist corrosion by
SO2» but darken owing to dirt and soot accumulations and are eventually
attacked owing to the development by carbon of local galvanic corrosion
cells which will perforate the material.
7. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels as Influenced by Changes in Chemical
Composition. C. P. Larrabee and S. K. Coburn. Proc. 1st Intern. Congr.
on Metallic Corrosion, London (1961), Butterworth, London, 1962, pp.
276-285.
The method used for testing steels in the atmosphere is described
and the types and relative corrosivity of different atmospheres compared.
The results of long-time-exposure tests are plotted to show the shapes of
time-corrosion curves of steels with varying resistances.
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Fe-127
The effect on corrosion resistance of steels having variations in
chromium, copper, nickel, phosphorus and silcon is given for each element
and when present in certain combinations. Data are taken from individual
15-year tests in industrial, semi-rural and marine atmospheres. Two
hundred and seventy steels with three variations of chromium content, five
of copper, two of nickel, three of phosphorus, and three of silicon were
tested.
8. The Possibilities of Increasing the Resistance of Steel Against
Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Intern. Symp. Anti-Corrosion
Protect. Bratislava, v. 1, 1962, 8 pp.
Corrosion tests were made in aerated H2O and in moist air with and
without SO2 on plain carbon, steel, plain carbon steel coated with a
cemented copper layer, copper-bearing steel, steel spray-coated with 0.03
mm zinc on prerusted surface, and steel spray coated with 0.03 mm
aluminum on blasted of prerusted surface. Rust binds sulfates or
chlorides in an insoluble form. The influence of alloys on corrosion
resistance is based on the improvement of the protective properties of
rust. Alloys can be simulated by thin porous coatings of zinc.
1961
1. Atmospheric Corrosion. S. Coburn. Metals Handbook, 8th edition, American
Society for Metals, Chapt. in vol. 1 - Properties and Selection of
Metals, 1961, pp. 717-723.
The atmospheric corrosion of carbon steels and high-strength, low-
alloy steels is discussed. The effects of geographic and meteorological
factors, dew, dust, shelter, and alloy composition are described. Data
are presented for the corrosion of steels at different locations.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion. U. R. Evans. Chapt. 8 in The Corrosion and
Oxidation of Metals, Edward Arnold, 1961, pp. 481-535*
Atmospheric corrosion was divided into three types, "dry", "damp",
and "wet". The dry process, being related to high-temperature oxidation
was discussed in another chapter. Some of the topics discussed in the
"Damp Atmospheric Corrosion" section were: The critical humidity, the
effect of volatile acids and alkalis (sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid,
sulpur dioxide, ammonia, etc.) on the damp corrosion of metals, the
fogging of nickel, the attack on copper by air containing SO2 and
moisture, the influence of dust 011 rusting. Some of the topics discussed
in the "Wet Atmosphere Corrosion" section were: effect of air pollution
on outdoor corrosion, effect of copper in steel. A comparison study was
made of the corrosion resistance of different materials. Different
methods for the protection of metals were cited.
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Fe-128
3. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Metals in Canada. E. V. Gibbons.
Corrosion, v. 17, 1961, p. 318t.
The atmospheric corrosion resistance of metals is evaluated after
exposure in a number of differing Canadian environments. Test sites
included rural, industrial, marine-industrial, marine, far northern and
semi-industrial. Metals exposed include three aluminum alloys, aluminum
coupled metals, carbon steel, copper-bearing low carbon steel, low alloy
copper-nickel-bearing steel, three stainless steels, two magnesium alloys,
and rolled zinc. Test exposure periods varied from one to ten years.
4. Atmospheric Corrosion Tests of Electroplated Coatings. T. Biestek. Prace
Inst. Mech. Procyzyjnej, v. 9, No. 31, 1961, pp. 39-49.
Corrosion tests were continued on the low-carbon steel panels covered
with Zn, Cd, or Sn coatings 1 to 30 vim thick in industrial (a), urban (b),
urban-industrial (c), seacoast-industrial (d), and rural (e) atmospheres
in Poland. The average rates of corrosion of zinc coatings, electroplated
from a cyanide or an acid bath, were in (a) 4.5, 6.3; (b) 2, 3.5; (c) 1.3,
2.6; (d) 1.2, 1.8; (e) 0.9, 1.6; and under severe storage conditions 0.6,
0.8 microns/yr, respectively. Zinc coatings deposited from an alkaline
cyanide bath were more resistant than those from an acid bath, which was
attributed to a less uniform and compact structure of the latter. Cadmium
coatings corroded 2 to 3 times as fast as zinc coatings. Tin coatings
were least resistant. A series of new corrosion tests was started on Cr-,
Ni-, Cu-Ni-Cr-, and Zn-Cr- coated steel panels.
5. Corrosion in Buildings. P. J. Sereda. Canadian Builing Digest. Report
No. CBD-20, August 1961, 4 pp.
The document covers the susceptibility of metals used in building
construction to various types of corrosion and discusses possible measures
to reduce or eliminate corrosion.
6. Effect of Nitrogen Tetroxide on Metals and Plastics. C. W. Alley, A. W.
Hayford and H. F. Scott, Jr. Corrosion, v. 17, No. 10, October 1961,
pp. 479t-484t.
The corrosion rates of carbon steel, stainless steel (304-L and PH
15-7 Mo), A1 (5086) and Ti (75A and 6A14V) in dry and wet N2O4 were
determined under static conditions at 9 to 74° C. Carbon steel and
aluminum were attacked in proportion to water concentration and
temperature. Stainless steel 304-L and titanium were unattacked and PH
15-7 molybdenum only slightly attacked. Significant corrosion of
stainless steel (304L) occurred in the presence of Teflon. Corrosion by
dry N2O4 under flow conditions was negligible. Teflon was the most
resistant to N2O4 of any of the plastics.
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Fe-129
7. Some Aspects of the Topochemistry of the Iron Oxides and Hydroxides.
A. L. MacKay. Proc. 4th Intern. Symp. Reactivity Solids, Amsterdam,
Holland, 1961, pp. 571-583.
The crystal structures of the iron oxides and hydroxides are now
largely known. (3-FeOOH has been shown to have the a-Mn02 structure and
some proposals are made for the structure of the "green rusts"—the
intermediate ferrous ferric hydroxysalts which are formed on the attempted
precipitation of Fe(0H)2 in the presence of air. Details of the
superstructures in the Y~Fe2°3 and other spinel phases are still
incomplete but some progress has been made in this direction too. The
data now permit the organization of the observations on the oriented and
non-oriented transformations occurring between the solid phases in this
system in a rational crystal-chemical way. Almost all of these transfor-
mations involve the gain or loss of material to the system and are thus
not simply polymorphic. A number of new observations by X-ray
diffraction, electron diffraction and electron microscopy are reported.
These (and other) transformations can be classified as "topotactic"
(accord between the initial and resulting lattices in three dimensions),
"epitactic" (accord in two dimensions) or "reconstructive" (regrowth from
nuclei), the latter process also occurring by solution and reprecipitation
Some examples of these processes are described in detail. Crystals
undergoing topotactic transformations obey certain orientation
requirements which may be modified by the application of an external
field.
In the system studied, the controlling features appear to be the
close-packed oxygen frameworks in the interstices of which the relatively
mobile iron ions can migrate. The expulsion of water and the condensation
of new layers permit some change in the layer stacking, but otherwise the
hexagonal close-packed, face-centered cubic and body centered cubic
stackings are not readily interconvertible. The mobility of protons in
the lattice plays a vital part in permitting a surface reaction to result
in a homogeneous solid product. Various disordered phases are described
and some physical conse- quences of the disordering are discussed. The
scheme of transformations in this system is summarized in a chart
organized to show crystal-chemical properties.
1960
1. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Steel. P. J. Sereda. Ind.
Eng. Chem., v. 52, No. 2, 1960, pp. 157-160.
Measurement of temperature, sulfur dioxide, and surface moisture has
resulted in systematic evaluation of the atmospheric corrosion of steel
and should provide a basis for the rating of inland exposure sites.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Iron and Steel. T. Berglund.
Teknink-Vetenskaplig Forskning, v. 31, No. 8, 1960, pp. 325-348.*
At Sandviken, Sweden, outdoor corrosion is caused by air humidity
(average temp. 5", average wind speed 2.7 m/sec.) 33%, Fe203, C,
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SiC>2> etc., 4%, natural CI content "in air as NaCl, etc., 0.04%, the rest
63%. The unspecified rest is probably SO2 and traces of pickling
1iquors.
Chemical Resistance to Ammonia of Construction Materials.
A. E. Missan. Trudy Gosudarst. Inst. Priklad. Khim., v. 44, I960,-
pp. 112-127 (Russian).
Tests were made at 16 to 18" and 50° at the equilibrium vapor
pressure of NH3. The NH3 contained <0.038-0.041 percent moisture.
The following materials were completely resistant to liquid and gaseous
NH3 up to 50°: steels 25, 45, 30KhGSA, 50KhFA, 2Khl3, lKhl8N9T,
2Khl8N0, Khl8, 4Khl3, 4Khl4N14V2M; Ni; and Monel. These results are
confirmed by literature data. The following metals are corroded uniformly
at <0.3 g/sq m/hr in both liquid and gaseous NH3 at both 16 to 18" and
50°: copper M3, bronzes Be (BrB2-2-15), Pb-P (BrOF7-012), Al- Fe-Mn
(BrAZhMtsl0-3-l.5), SnPb (BrOS5-25), and regular bronze (BrKhl). With
brass the elimination of zinc was observed. Zinc and cadmium coatings are
unstable under the above mentioned conditions, while chromium coatings
show good stability. Aluminum and aluminum alloys show pitting corrosion
when the iron content exceeds 0.15 percent. High-purity Al AVl(Cu 0.005,
Si 0.050, Fe 0.060 percent) and A00 (Cu <0.01, Si 0.10, Fe 0.15 percent)
do not undergo corrosion in NH3. Less pure aluminum grades show
pitting and considerably more so in liquid NH3 than in gaseous.
Anodizing of aluminum does not protect against corrosion in NH3. All
the above mentioned metals which undergo corrosion in NH3 show less
corrosion when their surfaces are cleaned more thoroughly.
Evaporated Metal Films As Indicators of Atmospheric Pollution.
J. P. Lodge, Jr. and B. R. Havlik. Int. J. Air Pollution, v. 3, No. 4,
I960, pp. 249-252.
A substitute is proposed for present techniques of measuring
atmospheric corrosiveness, namely the use of evaporated metal films a few
hundredths of a micron in thickness. Glass slides covered with films of
aluminium, iron, lead, copper and silver were prepared and exposed in the
Cincinnati area.
Corrosion products were identified by means of X-ray diffraction and
microchemical methods. Corrosion results in an increase in light
transmission by the film, which can be taken as a quantitative measure of
corrosion. Preliminary results showed aluminum to be the most dependable
indicator of general atmospheric corrosiveness, although silver appeared
specifically sensitive to a small group of pollutants, such as halogens,
ozone, and sulfur compounds. Lead corroded so rapidly as to be difficult
to interpret while iron was shown to be responsive primarily to relative
humidity. Fair correlations were obtained with independent measures of
pollution level. Some exploratory work was done on the measurement of the
electrical resistance of the films.
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Fe-131
5. Long-Time Atmospheric Corrosion Tests on Low-Alloy Steels. H. R. Copson.
Proc. American Society for Testing and Materials, v. 60, 1960, pp.
650-665.
Atmospheric corrosion test data are given for a large group of low-
alloy steels through 15.5 years at a marine location at Kure Beach, N.C.,
through 17 years at a marine location at Block Island, R.I., and through
18 years at an industrial location at Bayonne, N.J. In the absence of
alloying elements, corrosion was severe and early failure resulted.
Alloying with copper, phosphorus, nickel, and chromium was beneficial.
Such low-alloy steels quickly developed protective rust coatings, and the
corrosion rates decreased rapidly to low values. During the last half of
the test periods the corrosion rates of many of the better low-alloy
steels ranged from 0.05 to 0.2 mil per year, with the higher rates
applying to the marine locations. The durability of bare, reasonably
thick, boldly exposed specimens of good low-alloy steels is remarkable.
6. The Atmospheric Corrosion Product of Steel. J. B. Harrison and
T. C. K. Tickle. Chem. & Ind. (London), 1960, p. 1383.
Structural steel after atmospheric exposure had a comparatively
high SO^" and Cl~ content in its adherent rust. The debris
removed by wire brushing contained all of the Cl~ contamination, but
only a small portion of the SO^- contamination. Digestion in
diluted HC1 of the wire-brushed surface gave a solution containing the
remainder of the SO^- contamination, with a surprisingly high NH4+
content. The generation of firmly bound contamination on the
surface of the corroding steel was rapid and soon reached 0.01 g/sq.ft.
This rate was not changed markedly with continued exposure. Mill-scaled
steel, as received and before exposure, had an appreciable NH^4"
content. Thus, it is believed that a determining factor, controlling the
atmospheric corrosion of steel and the subsequent behavior of surface
coatings, was a contribution of NH4+-induced corrosion.
7. Theory of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. N. D. Tomashov. Trudy Inst.
Fiz.-Khim., Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R., No. 8, 1960, pp. 14-40 (Russian).*
The following three types of atmospheric corrosion of metals are
distinguished: (I) wet atmospheric corrosion when dropwise condensation
of moisture on the metal surface is visible with the naked eye; (2) humid
atmospheric corrosion, when a very thin, invisible layer of moisture is
present on the metal surface, being condensed on this surface owing to
capillary, adsorption, or chemical action; and (3) dry atmospheric
corrosion, when the metal surface is free of moisture. In practice one
type of corrosion can go over into another. The rate of corrosion depends
largely on the thickness of the moisture layer on the metal surface. With
a very thin ( 10-100 A; not yet continuous) film of moisture, the rate of
corrosion is not much different from that of dry corrosion, that is, the
corrosive action has a purely chemical character. With increased
thickness ( 1 micron) of the moisture film, the rate of corrosion starts
to increase rapidly, because the film starts to act as an electrolyte and
the corrosive action assumes electrochemical character. The latter
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Fe-132
effects take place in the humid atmospheric corrosion range. After
reaching a maximum, the rate of corrosion starts to drop with a further
increase in fiLm thickness (when a visible moisture layer is present on
the metal surface (thickness about 1 mm); this is the range of wet
atmospheric corrosion. Finally, when corroded metal is immersed in the
electrolyte (water), the corrosion assumes a constant rate. Critical
values of relative humidity were determined, at which corrosion rates rise
sharply. These values for copper and iron are as follows: for a copper
surface which was previously corroded in pure air, 87 percent; for a
copper surface which was previously treated with gaseous SO2, 80
percent; for a copper surface which was previously treated with iodine
vapor, 30 to 40 percent; for a clean iron surface in pure air,
approximately 100 percent; for an iron surface which was previously
corroded in 3 percent NaCl, 55 percent. Passive iron will not corrode
even at 100 percent relative humidity, except when Cl~, SO2, or other
activating agents are present. Experiments by Tornashov and others on
corrosion rates, on models on electrochemical characteristics of Cu, Zn,
Fe, and A1 surfaces covered with an adsorption film of moisture, and on
the protective effect of copper on iron corrosion are reviewed.
1959
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel. P. J. Sereda. Ind. Eng. Chem., v. 51,
No. 9, 1959, pp. 79A-80A.*
The following equation is developed for low-C steel: Y = 0.1315X +
0.0180Z + 0.7873, where Y * the log corrosion rate (mg/sq dm/day of
wetness), X ¦ mg S03/sq dm/day and Z = monthly average temperature
during the time-of-wetness (°F).
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Tests. J. C. Hudson. Sixth Report of the Corrosion
Committee, Iron and Steel Institute, 1959, pp. 48-103.
The presentation of the results of the Corrosion Committee's earliest
series of field tests on the atmospheric corrosion of structural irons and
steels is completed. Tests were made on more than twenty different
materials, many of which were exposed in both the bare and painted
conditions. Some information about the meteorological conditions and
atmospheric pollution at the test sites is given. The main results of
some service trials of painting schemes that were applied to the iron and
steel exposure stands are also contained.
3. Corrosion of Metals in Synthetic Atmospheres Containing Sulfur Dioxide.
B. Sanyal and D. V. Bhadwar. J. Sci. and Ind. Research (India), v.
18A, February 1959, pp. 69-74.
The purpose of the experiments was to investigate the resistance of
mild steel, Cu, Zn, and A1 sheets (and galvanic couples) to atmospheric
corrosion under controlled laboratory conditions of relative humidity,
concentration of SO2, temperature, and duration of exposure. When the
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concentration of SO2 is 0.3 percent, aluminum and mild steel required
80 percent and 65 percent relative humidity, respectively, for corrosion
to begin. For copper and zinc corrosion begins at 40 percent relative
humidity (the lowest concentration tested). At 89 percent relative
humidity, corrosion increases with the concentration of SO2. Rise in
temperature increases the corrosion rate up to a maximum beyond which, due
to lower solubility of SO2 in water vapor, it decreases. Couples of
various metals were also tested.
4. Design and Interpretation of Atmospheric Corrosion Tests. H. R. Copson.
Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, October 1959, pp. 533t-541t.
Principles under which atmospheric corrosion tests are made are much
the same as those applicable to other types of testing. Considered, among
other things are uses of accelerated tests, specimen size, location of
test sites, differences in atmospheres, differences in metals and
influence of alloying cons itituents.
Mounting procedures, shape of specimens, drainage, influence of
rainfall, influence of climatic variations, uses of shelters
reproducibility, test duration, evaluation of results are discussed.
5. Deterioration of Materials in Polluted Atmospheres. J. E. Yocum.
Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, October 1959, pp. 541t-545t.
A brief summry of the chemical and physical aspects of polluted
atmospheres is given. More spec ificially it deals with the detrimental
effects of air pollutants on materials other than living tissue. In
addition to corrosion of metallic surfaces, the physical and chemical
principles involved in the damage to such materials as paint, glass,
stone, rubber, and fibers by man-made air contaminants are discussed,
6. Mechanisms by Which Ferrous Metals Corrode in the Atmosphere.
C. P. Larrabee. Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, 1959, pp. 526t-529t.
The electrochemical theory of corrosion, by which the corrosion of
steels in solutions is readily explained, also is used to explain the
start of atmospheric corrosion on ferrous surfaces. Effect of
contaminants both in the atomosphere and on the steel surface. Experiment
Experiments leading to this conclusion are illustrated.
The part played by various alloying elements in retarding atmospheric
corrosion, once a rust film is formed, is discussed. The relative effects
of heavy and light deposits of sea salt on ferrous specimens are shown.
7. Reaction Mechanism for the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals in Damp and
Sulfur Dioxide-Containing Air. K. Barton and E. Beranek. Werkst.
Korros., v. 10, 1959, pp. 377-383.
The rate of oxidation by H2SO3 (SO2 0.3 g/1) was determined in
ultraviolet light and in darkness, alone and with Cu, Cu++, Fe,
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Fe++, Zn, and Zn++. All corrosion experiments with moist SO2 on
Fe, A1, Cu, and Zn are strongly dependent on the SO2 concentration.
Corrosion is determined by concentration of H2SO3 and H2SO4 in the
adsorbed water film, properties of solid and solution reaction products,
rate and mechanism of reaction at metal surface, and the original
resistance of the oxide layer on the metal.
8. Report of Sub-Committee VII, On Corrosiveness of Various Atmospheric Test
Sites as Measured by Specimens of Steel and Zinc. Proc. American
Society for Testing and Materials, v. 59, 1959, pp. 174-201.
Final report of the investigation into the effects of periodic
variation in weather conditions on atmospheric corrosion shows, in some
atmospheres, there are decided differences in relative corrosion rates of
steel and zinc. At marine sites the rate of corrosion of zinc decreased
with time whereas that of steel increased. At least three successive
2-year exposures may be necessary to obtain a relative corrosion index for
zinc at different sites; 1 year's exposure alone is not enough,
especially at marine sites. It is planned to expose a new series of
specimens in 1960.
1958
1. A Polarographic Study of the Corrosion of Iron and Some Ferrous Alloys by
Sulfur Dioxide. F. J. Bowen and A. H. Gropp. Corrosion, v. 14, 1958,
p. 50.
A study was made of the manner in which sulfur dioxide attacks iron
and ferrous alloys. A polarographic method was used to follow the
changes in the sulfur dioxide concentration. Tests were made on one pure
iron and seven low alloy steels exposed to sulfur dioxide over 12 hour
periods. Extensive data are reported on the rate of consumption of sulfur
dioxide by the various test samples. A corrosion mechanism involving the
reduction of sulfurous acid by iron to give the sulfide is discussed.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Iron and the Action of Volatile Inhibitors.
Z. A. Iofa. Vestnik Moskov. Univ., Ser. Mat. Mekhan., Astron., Fiz.
Khim., v. 13, No. 5, 1958, pp. 171-180 (Russian).*
With a decrease in the humidity content of the air, in the region
below a definite critical corrosion threshold, corrosion does not
practically take place even in the presence of corrosive substances or
oxygen. Contrary to humidity, oxygen is not an indispensable factor in
atmospheric corrosion, since the corrosion of iron takes place very
rapidly in an inert gas in the presence of corrosive substances (HCl and
SO2). In an oxygen-free atmosphere, corrosion is possible only through
H depolarization, that is, in a reduction medium, and in that case the
product of corrosion is the hydrated lower oxide of iron with the corre-
sponding oxy-salts as impurities. When, in the initial period, the
corrosion rate is relatively small and the absorption of the corrosive
-------
substance by the humidity condensed on the surface takes place rapidly, it
is possible to establish the relation between the amount of corrosive
substance and iron in the rust formed. For example, in the presence of HI
in the atmosphere, rusting does not take place during the first 1 to 2
hours, and the quantity of HI on the surface of iron increases. After 2
hours, over a solution of N H2SO4-2.7 x 10~8N KI the thickness of
the water film is equal to 0.5 x 10~^ cm and the concentration of HI
in this film reaches 4N. In the case of gaseous HC1, the acid is
apparently formed on the surface and this results in an intense corrosion
of iron. Sulfur dioxide rapidly reacts with iron even at very small
concentrations of H2SO4 in the humid film. FeS appears after 5
minutes when sulfur dioxide is present in the gaseous phase with a partial
pressure of 0.2 mm Hg. The mechanism of the action of the different
corrosive substances is quite varied; it is different even for the
chemically-similar halogen acids. The degree of influence on the
corrosion rate by the same inhibitor depends on the nature of the
corrosive substance, particularly at the initial stage of its development.
For example, amines are effective inhibitors against iron corrosion in the
presence of HI, HBr, and especially sulfur dioxide in the gaseous state,
but is much less effective in the case of HC1. Upon dissolving iron in
H2SO4., H2S, and SO2 in small amounts in the presence of
nitrogen-containing organic bases (for example, tribenzylamine) not only
lose their stimulating properties but increase the retarding action of the
latter. Aldehydes (butyric and propionic) inhibit atmospheric corrosion
in the presence of HX (X = halogen), although to a smaller degree than
amines; however, in the presence of sulfur dioxide, they stimulate
corrosion, even in H2SO4. When volatile inhibitors capable of
stifling the atmospheric corrosion of iron are present in the gaseous
phase, the adsorption of the corrosive substance on the surface of the
metal reasonably decreases.
Corrosivity of Atmospheric Precipitation Contqminated by Harmful
Impurities. A. Kuchkin. Zhilishchno-Kommunal. Khoz., v. 8, No. 2,
1958, pp. 6-8 (Russian).
Rain water and melted snow, collected from the roofs of dwellings in
various districts of Sverdlovsk, Perm, Chelyabinsk, and Nizhni Tagil
were analyzed. The pH of the water was found to be higher than values
previously reported and increased with time. For example, rain water in
the suburbs of Sverdlovsk had a pH of 6.9, snow was 7.2 on the day it
fell, and this increased to 7.5 in 10 days. In general, atmospheric
precipitation in the Ural regions varied in pH between 6.4 and 8.5,
although even higher values were observed in certain industrial regions.
Dust fall in certain unspecified locations in the Urals was reported to be
400 tons/sq km/year and was even higher in industrialized regions. A
chemical analysis of melted snow taken in metropolitan Sverdlovsk varied
as follows (1st value is on day of snowfall and the 2nd is 10 days later):
alkyline 1.04 and 1.23 meq., free CO2 3.3 and 4.1, sulfates 132.5 and
172.7, and total dry solids 288 to 396 mg/liters. Analogous results are
reported for precipitations in other locations. The high pH values are
attributed to the presence of fuel-ash particles. Waters derived from
atmospheric precipitation are corrosive to steel. The following amounts
(mg/24 hours) of steel were etched by the waters listed (rain water first,
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Fe-136
then melted snow) for the following areas in Sverdlovsk: 0.320 and 1.09
in the suburbs; 0.504 and 1.86 in the center of the city; 0.949 and 2.20
in the industrial districts. Samples of sheet steel of varying
composition (obtained from 3 different plants) were subjected to corrosive
attack by filtered and unfiltered melted snow. The latter was
approximately as corrosive as a 3 percent NaCl solution. Suggestions are
made for selecting more resistant steels and for roof design to minimize
the holding of snow.
4. Durability Tests of Structural Sandwich. E. W. Kuenzi and L. W. Wood.
Symposium on Some Approaches to Durability in Structures, ASTM STP 236,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1958, pp. 27-34.
This paper presents the results of tests and a discussion of the
behavior of structural sandwiches having facings of plywood, hardboard,
cement-asbestos board, aluminum, and porcelain enameled, steel-faced
hardboard on cores of resin-treated paper honeycomb. The construction and
behavior of these sandwiches in a structural unit erected 10 years ago are
discussed. Also presented are results of "accelerated aging" exposures
that are of aid in predicting the durability of such constructions.
5. Effect of Production Features on Building Construction of Titanium-
Magnesium Plants. V. N. Romanov. Legkie Metally (Leningrad) Sbornik,
No. 1, 1958, pp. 34-40 (Russian).
Operating experience of U.S.S.R. magnesium plants showed that CI,
HC1, and dust containing KCl and MgCl2, discharged into the atmosphere,
deteriorate concrete, wood, slag blocks, regular steel, and other building
materials. Burned red brick is relatively more resistant. Stray currents
destroy the reinforcement metal of underground reinforced concrete
structures. Application of multilayer protective coatings of
perchlorovinyl paints and lacquers does not provide lasting protection of
structures in the presence of HC1 and high moisture. Such coatings are
preserved suffiently well at normal moisture, protecting structures from
destruction. Recommendations are developed for the construction of
titanium-magnesium plants, providing for the use of red brick mark 100
with cement mortar M-50 with cement plaster for inside surfaces, in
departments where corrosive gases and liquids are liberated. Foundations
in electrolytic departments should be of unreinforced concrete, and should
be coated with bitumen, first as a gasoline solution to fill the pores,
and then with hot bitumen. Departments are classified according to the
corrodibi1ity of the media. A complete set of recommended protective
measures is given.
6. Field and Laboratory Investigations on Resistance of Steel Products to
Atmospheric Corrosion. L. Jassowicz. Prace Inst. Hutnic., v. 10, 1958,
pp. 226-236.
The laboratory methods were based on a salt chamber containing a 3
percent solution of NaCl, or on a humid atmosphere containing SO2. The
resistances against atmospheric corrosion of "Corten" steel, and 2 low-C
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Fe-137
steels were compared. Corten steel contained C 0.12, Mn 0.47, Si 0.58, P
0.180, S 0.021, Cr 0.88, Ni 0.12, and Cu 0.27 percent, the two other
low-carbon steels contained C 0.10 and 0.04, Mn 0.35 and 0.13, Si 0.06, P
0.020 and 0.010, S 0.037 and 0.044, Ni 0.15, and Cu 0.09 and 1.15 percent.
Ten observation stations were located in industrial, urban-industrial, sea
shore, and mine environments. Weight losses were determined at four 10-
month periods for over 3 years. The corrosion test results were
correlated with humidity and rainfall, and coefficients of the relation
between corrosion and atmospheric factors were determined. A considerable
divergency between the results obtained by accelerated laboratory tests,
and in the field was observed. Whereas the accelerated laboratory tests
showed similar resistance against corrosion for all 3 steels, long-time
field tests revealed considerably better properties of Corten steel, as
compared with low-carbon steels. The carbon steels behaved alike in the
open country and industrial atmospheres, but in the sea-shore atmosphere
the steel containing 0.10 percent carbon showed higheF resistance to
corros ion.
7. Influence of Dust and the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. K. Barton.
Werkst. Korros., v. 9, Aug. Sept. 1958, pp. 547-549 (German).
Corrosion tests on unprotected steels, Cu, Zn and A1 in presence and
absence of sulphur dioxide at different humidities were carried out in the
presence of dust. The effects of properties of several natural and
artificial dusts which may influence corrosion processes. Absorption
capacity for water vapor and sulphur dioxide, and the composition of dusts
and their pH-value are discussed.
8. Role of Condensation in Corrosion of Steel by Moisture and Sulfur Dioxide,
B. Sanyal and D. V. Bhadwar. Ind. Research (India), v. 17B, 1958, pp.
287-288.
Heating steel panels in contact with H2O or enclosing them in a
heated cage substantially eliminated corrosion owing to condensation of
moisture on the metal surface. In the absence of condensation, H2O is
not available on the metal surface for dissolving SO2, which causes
corrosion on further oxidation.
9. The Corrosion of Metals and Metal Castings in Industrial Atmospheres. G.
Schikorr. Schweiz. Arch, angew. Wiss. Techn., v. 24, No. 2, 1958, pp.
33-46.
The composition of the atmosphere in different industrial areas is
discussed. The main source of corrosive attack, apart from the oxygen
and moisture contents, is SO2 and SO3 from industrial fuels.
Corrosion is accelerated by the formation of unstable sulphates which
hydrolyse to H2SO4.
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1957
1. Corrosion Research. The British Iron and Steel Research Association.
Part I—Corrosion of Bare Ferrous Metals. J. C. Hudson. Corrosion
Technology, Sept. 1957, pp. 320-324.
The Corrosion Committee, which was constituted in 1928 and is now
under the aegis of the British Iron and Steel Research Association, has
been investigating corrosion problems for nearly 30 years. This article
summarizes the most important results obtained. They relate to
atmospheric corrosion where the resistance to attack can be appreciably
augmented by the use of low-alloy steels, to corrosion by fresh and salt
waters, and to corrosion by soil. Extensive researches have also been
made on the protection of ferrous metals by paints and metal coatings.
2. Corrosion Research. The British Iron and Steel Research Association.
Part II—Protective Measures. J. C. Hudson. Corrosion Technology,
October 1957, pp. 349-362.
In the second part of his paper, J. C. Hudson summarizes the studies
done on atmospheric corrosion protection of ferrous alloys, especially the
use of paints and metallic coatings. He enumerates the conditions
required for an efficient protection by paint.
3. Determination of the Corrosion Power of the Atmosphere.
N. D. Tomashov and G. K. Berukshtis. Trudy Inst. Fiz. Khim., Akad.
Nauk S.S.S.R., No. 6, Novye Metody Fiz. Khim. Issledovanii, No. 2, 1957,
pp. 50-55 (Russian).
The application consists of 30 alternate plates of copper and iron
separated by thin paper saturated with Bakelite. The copper plates were
connected in parallel with the iron plates. The corrosion power of the
atmosphere was determined by the current generated. More consistent
results were obtained with plates coated with the product of oxidation.
4. The Corrosion of Metals Caused by Hygroscopic Solids. A. Bukowiecki.
Schweiz. Arch, angew. Wiss. u Tech., v. 23, 1957, pp. 97-104.
The vapor pressure of the saturated solution of the salt (I) is more
important than the atmospheric H£0 vapor pressure (II) in the corrosion
of metals. About 0.2 grams of finely powdered dry Na2S04•IOH2O,
KC1, NaCl, NaN03, NaN02, NaBr*2H20, NaI*2H20, or LiCl'^O
was placed on clean steel plates in a desiccator at fixed II at 20".
Noticeable corrosion occurred when II exceeded I, with the exceptions of
KC1 and NaCl: if corrosion occurs when II is below I an impurity more
hygroscopic than the salt tested is present. Similar experiments with
washed and unwashed samples of natural and blue-colored silica gel, and
with washed and HCl-containing rust, show that insoluble porous substances
containing large amounts of sorbed H2O have no corrosive action unless a
soluble impurity is present.
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Fe-139
5. The Effects of Air Pollution on Buildings and Metalwork. R. J. Schaffer.
Air Pollution, edited by M. W. Thring, Butterworth Scientific, London,
1957, pp. 58-71.
This paper discusses the effects of sulfur dioxide, chloride,
ammonium and particulate matter on the corrosion and deterioration of
materials. It also presents some historical information of interest in
air pollution.
6. The Mechanism of Atmospheric Iron Corrosion in the Presence of Sulfur
Dioxide as the Aggressor. Z. A. Iofa and G. G. Besproskurnov. Zhur.
Fiz. Khim., v. 31, 1957, pp. 2236-2243.
The corrosion rate of Armco iron was measured on a quartz spring
balance by suspending a piece of foil 0.05 mm thick over H2SO4
solution or 2N H2SO4 + varying amounts of Na2SC>3 (O2 in the
apparatus was previously displaced with H2 or N2). The initial
corrosion rate was increased at higher SO2 concentration in the
atmosphere; a lower humidity reduced the corrosion rate, and at a relative
humidity of 65-70 percent the corrosion was practically absent. After 25-
30 hours of corrosion in moist air, the rust formed retarded further
corrosion and the rust layer was thicker at higher SO2 concentration in
the atmosphere. Corrosion started in moist air containing SO2,
continued in SC^-free moist air, but at a lower rate. An analysis of
the rust made, by using S^5 in the 02~free atmosphere showed that
the Fe:S ratio was 1:0.33, and the ratio did not., change with the corrosion
time. In the presence of O2 the ratio became lower with time. The
corrosion proceeded by an electrochemical process on the iron surface
under a film of H2O. Sulfur dioxide, dissolved in the film, behaved as
an oxidizer, depolarized the cathode reduction, and was reduced to sulfur,
which stimulated the anodic reaction. In the air, O2 depolarized the
cathode process and oxidized Fe^+ to Fe^+; the SO3—apparently
catalyzed the oxidation reaction.
1956
1. A Study of Nonprotective Rust Formation on Auto-Body Sheet Steel.
J. C. Holzworth, R. F. Thomson and A. L. Boegehold. SAE Transactions,
v. 64, 1956, pp. 221-227.
Although average car life has jumped in 30 years from 6-1/2 to 13-1/2
years, improvements in service life of body structures have not kept pace
with increased durability of engines and other mechanical parts. Hence
the growing interest in improving corrosion resistance of the sheet steels
used in auto bodies. This paper reports results obtained in cyclic
humidity accelerated corrosion tests aimed at finding a cheap, easily
formed sheet steel with better resistance against the sheltered corrosion
which causes the most serious body damage. The test produces in 20 days
the same kind of nonprotective rust formed in years of outdoor exposure.
Since high-carbon steels, shown in the tests to be the potent
corrosion reducers, cannot be used in auto bodies because of their poor
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Fe-140
forming characteristics, efforts are now being directed toward finding a
combination of elements that will produce the same results without a cost
or forming penalty.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Some Nickel Alloys. H. R. Copson.
Atmospheric Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1956, pp. 141-158.
The results of the ASTM 20-year atmospheric exposure tests on nickel
alloys are discussed. Nickel and high-nickel alloys are very resistant
to corrosion at marine and rural locations. In severe industrial
locations, the corrosion is more pronounced. For Ni, Ni-Cu alloys and
Ni-Fe alloys high in nickel, the attack is essentially uniform in nature,
and the corrosion rate is constant with time. In alloys containing
appreciable amounts of chromium, the attack is local and of a pitting
type. Sheltered specimens corrode more than boldly exposed specimens, and
screen and wire corrode faster than does sheet. Nickel- copper alloys in
marine locations showed less corrosion of nickel than of copper;
additions of nickel to copper are beneficial. At industrial locations
nickel corroded more than did copper; substantial additions of nickel to
copper increased the corrosion. Monel corroded less than did nickel when
boldly exposed. In the nickel- iron series, additions of up to 20 percent
of iron to nickel decreased the corrosion somewhat at an industrial
location; with larger amounts of iron the corrosion increased. However,
with sufficient iron, adherent rust coatings formed which were protective
and caused the corrosion rates to decrease with time to fairly low values.
Nickel steels form protective rust coatings and corrode much less than do
plain steels. Chromium additions to nickel decreased the corrosion
markedly, but the attack tended to localize and become pitting corrosion
type, especially in sheltered exposure. The addition of iron to nickel-
chromium alloys decreased the pitting and made the rust more uniform.
With stainless steels, chromium content was the most important factor in
determining corrosion behavior on bold exposure; under these conditions
the usual grades of stainless steel were essentially unattacked. In a
sheltered condition only those stainless steels containing molybdenum
remained unattacked. This was especially true of screens.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion by Nuclei. R. St. J. Preston and B. Sanyal.
J. Appl. Chem. (London), v. 6, Pt. 1, 1956, pp. 26-44.
Bare and varnished steel contaminated by nuclei produce, in humid
atmospheres, the type of corrosion characterized by filamental
configuration and known as filiform. With some nuclei, corrosion takes
place at relative humidities below 60 percent. Filiform corrosion is
characteristic of, and the primary phase in, electrolytic corrosion in
atmospheric conditions, but the rate of attack varies from one electrolyte
to another and with the degree of humidity. In several cases, corrosion
attack has been found to be greater at 70 percent relative humidity than
at 99 percent relative humidity. The presence of highly hygroscopic salts
in the atmosphere can initiate corrosion, even at low relative humidities.
Nuclei on the outside of a varnish film will generally start corrosion
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Fe-141
earlier than those beneath the film, especially if water is present on the
surface.
4. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. B. Sanyal and G. K. Singhania.
J. Sci. Ind. Research (India), v. 15B, 1956, pp. 448-455.
Mild steel and zinc were exposed on outdoor unsheltered racks in a
semi-industrial atmosphere. Corrosion rates obtained were: 1869 mg/sq
dm/yr for steel and 27 for zinc.
5. Corrosion of Cast Iron. R. I. Higgins. Brit. Cast Iron Research
Association—J. Research and Development, v. 6, No. 4, Feb. 1956, pp.
165-177.
The behavior and suitability of cast iron in various conditions and
media of corrosion is described. Unalloyed and low alloy cast irons and
high alloy cast irons including austenitic, high silicon and high chromium
cast irons are discussed. Their behavior under varying conditions of acid
and alkali environment. The corrosive action of salt solutions, natural
and industrial waters, atmospheric and soil corrosion is examined.
6. Corrosion Studies. X. The Mechanism of the Atmospheric Corrosion of
Metals in Moist Atmospheres Contaminated With Sulfur Dioxide.
K. Barton and E. Beranek. Chem. Listy, v. 50, 1956, pp. 1388-1398.*
The course of the atmospheric corrosion of Fe, Cu, Zn, and A1 in the
atmosphere contaminated with SO2 is controlled by the hydrolytic
reactions in which solid corrosion products are formed and by the
physical-chemical properties of these products. A reaction mechanism is
suggested.
7. Galvanic-couple Corrosion Studies by Means of the Theaded Bolt and Wire
Test. K. G. Compton and A. Mendizza. Atmospheric Corrosion of
Nonferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1956, pp. 116-125.*
Bolt and wire galvanic couples comprising a variety of dissimilar
metals were exposed by the Bell Telephone Labs, and by the A.S.T.M. The
assembly used a threaded rod 1/2-in. in diara., cleaned in petroleum ether;
the precut wires of various composition were cleaned with abrasive and
petroleum ether and weighted. Wires were wound on bolts and secured;
excess wire was cut off and weighed, and subtracted from the orginal
weight. Specimens were arranged horizontally so that drip from one
specimen did not contaminate another. Manys of the tests used Mg wires;
other tests used Zn, brass, Al, Sn, Pb, and Fe wire. A.S.T.M. specimens
were cleaned in accordance with A.S.T.M. Method B 185, and Bell Telephone
Lab. specimens were cleaned electrolytically after exposure. A table is
given of the average weight loss per 100 days for Mg wires with various
bolt materials; there was least loss with Al and greatest with Fe and Ni.
The reproducibility of the tests appears to be consistent with that of
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Fe-142
other types of atmospheric exposure. Differences in the corrosivity of
the atmospheres at different times and at different seasons must be
considered when tests are of short duration. No very broad
generalizations as to the relative severities of corrosion of dissimilar-
metal galvanic couples can be made; each couple must be considered
individually in a particular environment.
1955
1. Atmospheric Galvanic Couple Corrosion. K. G. Compton, A. Mendizza and W.
W. Bradley. Corrosion, v. 11, No. 9, 1955, pp. 35-44.
Tests designed to provide fundamental information explaining the
behavior of galvanic couples in the atmosphere are reported. The purpose
is to permit prediction of their probable relative behavior.
Measurements of weight losses of couples in a marine, an industrial and a
severe tropical atmosphere are reported. Tests involving thin sheet
electrode material separated by filter paper saturated with electrolyte
are reported. Materials tested include aluminum, magnesium, stainless
steel, copper, cadmium, zinc, nickel, tin, chromium, lead electroplate,
silver, low carbon steel and others. Potential measurements and weight
loss data are given. Specimens exposed to the atmospheres show several
apparent weight loss anomalies. Measurements of corrosion currents
described provide a quick means for determining probable relative
corrosion behavior of couples. Differences between couples "exposed" and
"sheltered" are noted. Quantitative data provided are intended to be
useful to the design engineer.
2. Corrosion Aspects of Air Pollution. L. Greenburg and M. B. Jacobs. Amer.
Paint J., v. 39, No. 43, 1955, pp. 64-78.
This article deals with the corrosive agents carried in the
atmosphere such as: (1) Oxygen and oxidants, (2) Acidic materials, (3)
Salts, and (4) Alkalis. It discusses how the following materials are
attacked: (1) Metals and alloys, (2) Building materials such as stone and
masonry, (3) Textile materials, (4) Leather, (5) Rubber, and (6)
Protective coatings. Hie effect of weather and bacterial deterioration
are also discussed.
3. Destructive Effects of Air Pollution on Materials. A. Parker. Colliery
Guardian, v. 191, No. 4937, October 13, 1955, pp. 447-450.
Main uses of fuels, estimates of pollutants discharged in Great
Britain in 1954, distribution of pollution, pollutants as source of
sulphurous and sulphuric acids, destructive effects on stone, masonary,
iron, steel, leather, and paper are discussed.
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4. Metal Coatings on Steel in Contact With Aluminum Alloys. Some Comparative
Corrosion Tests. S. C. Britton and R. W. de Vere Stacpoole.
Metallurgia, v. 52, 1955, pp. 64-70.
Steel nuts and screws coated with Zn, Cd, or Sn-Zn alloy were
exposed, in contact with 5 aluminum alloys, to suburban and industrial
marine atmospheres, to intermittent immersion in the sea, and to salt
spray in the laboratory. The 5 aluminum alloys were commercial purity
aluminum, 5 percent Mg alloy, Mg-Si-Mn alloy, 4 percent Cu-Mg-Si-Mn alloy,
and HSI5 clad with pure aluminum. None of the 3 coatings gave protection
for more than a few years. Coatings of zinc and cadmium protect both
steel and adjoining aluminum until they are consumed. Thereafter,
corrosion of the aluminum is accelerated, considerably in marine
environments but only slightly inland, and some rusting of the iron
occurs. Tin-zinc is the most useful general purpose coating of the three.
Electrode potentials of single metals in chloride solutions were not very
helpful in predicting the performance of bimetallic couples, but
measurement of the current flow between the two metals gave useful
result s.
5. The Corrosion Resistance of Low-Alloy Steels. J. C. Hudson and
J. F. Stanners. J. Iron Steel Inst., v. 180, July 1955, pp. 271-284.
Sixty steel compositions including those with small percentages of
Ni, Cu, Cr, Al, Mo, V, W, Sb, As, Sn, Cd, Pb, Bi, Ta, Nb, and Be were
studied under atmospheric and sea water exposure. The most useful
alloying elements for increasing corrosion resistance are Cr, Cu, and Ni.
Aluminum and beryllium may also be of value. None of the other alloying
elements tested had a marked effect on the resistance of steel to
atmospheric corrosion. The most resistant low-alloy steels rust during
the first year or two of exposure at only one-third the rate of unalloyed
mild steel. With longer exposure, they have still greater advantage.
When immersed in sea water, low-alloy steels show to less advantage but
under stagnant conditions the addition of 3 percent chromium to mild steel
decreased the corrosion loss over 5 years to about half. High-carbon
steels are less corrodible in the atmosphere, but more so in the sea with
a difference of about 20 percent compared to low-carbon steel. Heat-
treatment is not a major factor in corrosion over long periods of
exposure, but may have an influence in laboratory tests extending over a
few weeks only. There is little difference in the general corrosion of
cast Fe and steel when immersed in sea water. Laboratory tests of the
intermittent spray-type yield only fair correlation with the results of
outdoor exposure. Particularly for atmospheric exposure, marked
improvement in the corrosion resistance of structural steels results from
small additions of suitable alloying elements.
6. The Destructive Effects of Air Pollution on Materials. A. Parker. 6th
Des Voeux Mem. Lecture, Proc. 22nd Annual Conf., Nat. Smoke Abatement
Soc., Bournemouth, England, September 28, 1955, pp. 120-132.
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British experience on the effects of dirt, grit, smoke, and aqueous
acidic materials on brick and stonework, iron, steel, and other metals,
leather, paper, textiles, etc. is reviewed.
1953
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals at Relative Humidities Below 100 Percent.
V. V. Skorchelletti and S. E. Tukachinskii. J, Appl. Chem. USSR,
v. 26, 1955, pp. 27-35.
Films of moisture up to 20 molecular-layers thick were studied on
aluminum, iron, copper, tin, silver, and platinum. Preliminary adsorption
of CCJ2 or SO2 does not change the adsorption of H2O on these
surfaces. At 100 percent relative humidity (RH) the adsorbed water film
behaved like ordinary water in its properties and the solubility of SO2
was proportional to its partial pressure, but at lower RH this was not
true. The critical RH above which iron corrosion rapidly increases was
about 85 to 90 percent. The critical RH was substantially reduced when
the metal surface was covered by corrosion products. There is hysteresis
in the effect on corrosion of increasing and decreasing humidity evidently
due to time lags associated with wetting and drying of the corrosion film.
The critical RH for copper steel is higher than for copper-free types and
is related to the colloid-chemical properties of the rust.
2. Corrosion of Iron and Steel and Its Prevention. J. C. Hudson. Dock &
Harbour Authority, v. 34, No. 392, June 1953, pp. 47-53; No. 393, July
1953, pp. 81-84; No. 394, August 1953, pp. 111-116; No. 395,
September 1953, pp. 143-146.
The theory of atmospheric, aqueous, and microbiological corrosion and
the corrosion of bare ferrous metals under conditions encountered in docks
and harbors is discussed. Available methods for corrosion prevention,
including cathodic protection, use of corrosion resistant materials, and
protective coatings, is surveyed.
3. Corrosion Resistance of High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels as Influenced by
Composition and Environments. C. P. Larrabee. Corrosion, v. 9, No. 8,
1953, pp. 259-271.
The corrosion resistance of several high-strength, low-alloy steels
in various types of atmospheres are compared to those of copper-bearing
steel and carbon steel. Local atmospheric contamination can have an
effect on corrosion rates and accounts for the difference in corrosivity
within a comparative similar area. For example, galvanized steel panes
that had coating weights either of 1.25 oz/ft^ or 150 oz/ft^ and were
exposed in the rural atmosphere of State College, Pennsylvania showed rust
after 14.6 and 17 years, while those exposed in the industrial atmosphere
of Altoona, Pennsylvania showed rust after 2.4 and 3.0 years. Perforation
of the panels occurred at State College and Altoona after 24 and 4.3
years, respectively. Time (month or season of the year) of exposure and
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Fe- 14 5
the weather conditions immediately after exposure affect corrosion rates.
The direction of exposure, the degree of shelter, and relative humidity
also affect the corrosion rate.
Effect of Climate and Atmospheric Pollution on Corrosion. J. C. Hudson
and J. F. Stanners. J. Appl. Chera. (London), v. 3, pt. 2 February 1953,
pp. 86-96.
Routine observations on corrosion of small reference specimens of
ingot iron and of zinc exposed at atmospheric testing stations of the
Corrosion Committee all over world are given. Data which relate to more
than 20 sites and to up to 20 separate annual tests at each site provide
good indication of effect of climatic differences on atmospheric
corros ion.
Effect of Composition of Steel on the Performance of Organic Coatings in
Atmospheric Exposure. F. L. LaQue and J. A. Boylan. Corrosion, v. 9,
No. 7, 1953, pp. 237-241.
Steels showed a 20 to 1 difference in corrosion loss between
exceptionally low copper-content open-hearth iron and a typical low-alloy
high-strength steel. A common automobile paint system was used, a
pigmented baking alkyd primer with pigmented baking urea-modified alkyd
top coats, with and without zinc phosphate (Bonderite) pretreatment.
These panels were exposed 80 and 800 feet from the ocean at Kure Beach,
North Carolina, in an industrial atmosphere at Bayonne, New Jersey, and in
a rural atomosphere at Morenci, Michigan. Principal findings were that
low-alloy steel performed best; copper-steel next. Low-copper-content
open-hearth iron was the worst, painted or bare. Zinc phosphate
pretreatmeot improved performance of all painted steels, the advantage
increasing with severity of the atmosphere and vulnerability of steels.
Best performance was that of low-alloy high-strength steel, zinc phosphate
pretreated. A few weeks' exposure 80 feet from the ocean led to the same
conclusions as exposure for much longer periods elsewhere. Marine
exposure 800 feet from the ocean was less damaging to bare, but more
damaging to painted steel than the Bayonne industrial atmosphere.
1952
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Low-Alloy Steels. H. R. Copson. Am. Soc.
Testing Materials, Preprint No. 70, 1952, 22 pp.
In 1941 five sets of 71 low-alloy steels were exposed to the
industrial atmosphere at Bayonne, N. J., and to the marine atmosphere at
Block Island, R.I. This paper gives the weight losses, pit depths,
thickness measurements, calculated pitting factors, and the weight of the
rust on the specimens through 9 years. Even after 9 years the lowering of
the surface level was only 1 mil or less for all the better steels. Most
of the attack occurred in pits, and pit depths were important. Pit depths
did not rate the steels in the same order as weight losses. For example,
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Fe-146
steels containing chromium tended to have fewer but deeper pits, and
steels containing nickel tended to have more but shallower pits. Alloying
decreased both pit depths and the number of pits, but the beneficial
effect of alloying was more marked in decreasing weight losses than pit
depths. The new data confirmed the beneficial effect of fractional
percentages of copper, of small amounts of phosphorus, and of a percentage
or more of nickel. Nickel additions produced low initial weight losses,
and on long exposure nickel was particularly effective in decreasing pit
depths. Chromium was particularly effective in flattening weight loss
time curves. Chromium and copper additions to complex steels were more
helpful at Bayonne, and manganese was more helpful at Block Island. Pit
depths continued to deepen with time at Block Island, whereas at Bayonne
pits were scarcely any deeper at 9 years than at 5 years. All the time
curves continued to diverge, meaning that the benefit of alloying
increased with time.
2. Corrosion of Different Metals in Liquefied Sulfur Dioxide. J. Bollinger.
Schweiz. Arch, angew. Wiss. u. Tech., v. 18, 1952, pp. 321-342.
A survey is given of the physical and chemical properties of SO2
(gas and liquid). The metals studied are: Fe, Al, Cu, and some of their
alloys; Zn, Ni, Cr, Cd, Pb, and a Mg-Si alloy. The tests show that
corrosion by SO2 is possible only in the presence of water; the presence
of oxygen activates the attack but in most cases corrosion can proceed
without it. The attack is either uniform or nonuniform according to the
type of surface layer generated. Experiments on the efficiency of various
organic inhibitors are recorded.
3. Corrosion of Metals. U. R. Evans. Soc. Chem. Industry (Chern & Industry),
No. 41, October 11, 1952, pp. 986-993.
Corrosion of nonferrous metals and of iron in early times, early
views of electrochemical mechanisms, hydrogen liberation and oxygen
reduction, oxidation, tarnishing and atmospheric corrosion, stress
corrosion, inhibitive water treatments, cathodic protection, and
protective coatings are discussed..
4. Second Report of the Methods-of-Testing (Corrosion) Subcommittee.
J. Hudson and others. J. Iron and Steel Inst. (London), v. 171, 1952,
pp. 255-272.
The A.R.E. test in accordance with Provisional B.S. 1391 (1947) for a
period of 28 days gives a reasonable indication of the service performance
of protective coatings. A new sulfur dioxide corrosion test developed at
the Chemical Research Laboratory, Teddington, consists in exposing
specimens inside a covered beaker containing a dilute solution of SO2.
Moisture is caused to condense on the specimens by use of an electric
heater and a cooling coil. This test gives fair correlation with the
results of outdoor exposure tests and is satisfactorily reproducible in
different labs. Interim results for 5 years exposure in the original
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field test show less correlation with the results of laboratory tests
without SO2 than was found after 1-1/2 years exposure.
5. Some Further Observations on the Painting of Aluminum Alloys.
W. A. EdVards. Light Metals, V. 15, No. 167, 1952, pp. 61-63.
Sixteen specimens of aluminum-alloy sheet, with one each of mild
steel, brass, and copper, were exposed to the atmosphere for 50 months at
an angle of 45 degrees facing south. They were weighted before exposure
and were removed at intervals for reweighing and scrubbed with warm H2O
to remove excess surface dirt. The steel specimens were derusted with
Clarke's solution. The steel rapidly lost weight, but owing to the
impossibility of cleaning the remaining specimens perfectly, no loss of
weight was found. After 50 months, the surface of each was thoroughly
cleaned of dirt and corrosion products by immersion in a solution of
H3PO4 and Cr02 at 80" for 1 minute, followed by a vigorous brushing
under a stream of H2O. The specimens were then dried and weighed. When
the differing original weights are taken into consideration, the losses
expressed as a percentage of these, range from 0.30 percent to 0.53
percent for the aluminum alloys, as compared with 60.2 percent for steel,
0.70 percent for copper and 0.96 percent for brass. This indicates that
the resistance of the various alloys falls into approximately the same
order whether the corrosive environment is salt solution or a mild
industrial atmosphere.
1951
1. Adsorption of Water Vapor on Solid Surfaces. W. H. J. Vernon. Nature,
v. 167, 1951, pp. 1037-1038.*
The adsorption of water vapor by metal surfaces is negligible
provided that both metal surface and the atmosphere are free from
contamination. Iron was particularly susceptible to the presence of
disperse solid particles, for example, traces of Nickel
provided an extreme case of susceptibility to gaseous pollution, for
example, traces of SO2.
2. Corrosion Testing. F. L. LaQue. Proc. American Society for Testing and
Materials, v. 51, 1951, pp. 495-582.
This paper was the 25th Edgar Marburg Lecture and is a comprehensive
discussion of the state of corrosion testing. Separate sections are
devoted to atmospheric corrosion, corrosion in waters, galvanic corrosion,
salt spray tests, immersion tests, plant corrosion tests, and tests of
paint.
3.
Historic Church's Copper Roof Good After 213 Years. A. W. Tracey.
Corrosion, v. 7, No. 11, 1951, pp. 373-375.
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Ah examination of English-made copper sheets taken from the roof of
Christ Church, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania after 213 years' exposure shows
a weathering loss of 0.007-inch at the thinnest areas, equivalent to a
corrosion rate of 0.000033-inch per year. It is believed the essentially
rural character of the atmosphere during early exposure of these sheets
has contributed to their life. Recent corrosion tests on copper sheets in
an industrial atmosphere show somewhat higher rates. Rockwell hardness of
15T 61 to 63 indicated the sheets on the church had been finished with a
slight temper. Screws driven through the center of some sheets twenty
years ago restricted expansion and contraction and caused fatigue cracks.
Some of the 3-inch wrought iron nails originally used to fasten the copper
pans to the roof boards had corroded through at the roof line, possibly as
a result of condensation.
Ohio River Division (U.S. Corps of Engineers) Corrosion Problems.
J. A. Davenport. Corrosion, v. 7, 1951, pp. 42-46.
Cooperative studies and tests on stainless steels, low-alloy steels,
carbon-steels, and aluminum have been conducted. Of the common low-alloy
steels tested, Cor-Ten alone showed any superiority. An apparent anomaly
is the improved performance of both Cor-Ten and structural steel when
welded together in the Monongahela tests. In the ailoy-steel tests, the
only outstanding material is a recently patented chromium-titanium grade
of steel, not yet available commercially. Tests on aluminum have
indicated both corrosion and erosion resistance. Results are given for
different types of painting tests, including varnishes and vinyls. On
some recent contracts for submerged-type surfaces, the use of phenolic
varnish paint for shop coat has been introduced. For atmospheric exposure
only, an oil base paint is used as a shop coat, with field coats of A1 in
phenolic varnish. Earlier tests with vinyl and chlorinated rubber paints
failed, owing to incorapatabiIity between the old and new paint. The old
paint coatings should be removed before applying a wash primer when vinyls
are used as finish coats. For heavy coating, three coats are applied,
with the second sanded.
Rust Formation on the Surface of Steels Under the Atmospheric Conditions
in Japan and Its Prevention. M. Tagaya and S. Isa. Technol. Repts.,
Osaka Univ., v. 1, 1951, ppp. 279-285.
Rust particles formed on the polished surface of steel in the
atmosphere are classified as dotted, granular, threadlike, and lumpy rust.
In these rusts only some of the lumpy rusts grow rapidly and become so-
called "iron rust,." The lumpy rusts are produced by a number of dew drops
condensed on the steel surface. Lumpy rust generally starts in the
pearlite area and not in the ferrite area of steels. Therefore, high-
carbon steels rust more rapidily than low-carbon steeLs. Similarly, the
decarburized high-carbon steels are more resistant to rust. Steel
containing copper above 0.2 percent is resistivee to rust than the one
containing copper below 0.1 percent. Six-tenths percent carbon steel is
quenched from 800' and tempered at lower temperature. Dust adhering to
the steel surface, soluble chlorides, and sulfates have a stron
accelerating action. Fe2C>3 particles also have some accelerating
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Fe-1A 9
action. On the other hand, Si02> AI2O3, and CaO particles show
nearly no action. If the steel surface initially bears a complete oxide
film (invisible) it is more resistant to rust. Therefore, steels finished
by proper electrolytic treatment, held in dry air for a long period, or
immersed in 0.5 percent I^CrjOy, 0.1 percent Na2HP01+ solution showed good
resistivity. The initial flowing current from the surface of steel wire
bearing a complete oxide filme immersed in 1 percent H2SO4 increases
slowly and requires a long time to reach constant current density. The
resistance to rust formation is indicated by measuring the flowing
current. Among the rust-preventive oils, petrolatum and animal oils have
greater protective action than vegetable and mineral oils.
6. The Effect of Copper Undercoats on the Protective Value of Nickel-Chromium
Coatings on Steel. B. B. Knapp and W. A. Wesley. Plating, v. 38, 1951,
pp. 36-38, 45-48, and 53-55.
Atmosphere, salt spray, and hot water tests of plated high-carbon ste
steel panels showed a copper undercoat to be detrimental to corrosion
resistance of the nickel-chromium coatings. Copper and iron corrosion
products were found to accelerate corrosion of nickel-chromium coating.
1950
1. Application of an Accelerated Atmospheric Corrosion Test to the Assessment
of Temporary Corrosion Preventives. R. St. J. Preston and E. G. Stroud.
J. Inst. Petroleum, v. 36, 1950, pp. 457-463.*
An accelerated corrosion test, in which specimens are exposed in a
thermostatically controlled humid atmosphere containing sulfur dioxide,
has been applied in the assessment of temporary corrosion preventives,
including materials ranging from light lubricating oil, through petroleum
jelly, to bitumen. The average order of failure of steel panels coated
with the protectives, exposed in various parts of the United Kingdom in
unheated sheds, approximated to that obtained in the laboratory test of 1
week duration. A plain humid atmosphere was insufficiently aggressive to
break down most of the samples, in spite of a prolonged period of test.
2. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Steel. P. J. Sereda. Ind.
Eng. Chem., v. 52, No. 2, 1950, p. 157.
Measurement of temperature, sulfur dioxide, and surface moisture has
resulted in systematic evaluation of the atmospheric corrosion of steel
and should provide a basis for the rating of inland exposure sites.
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1948
1. A Simple Form of Accelerated Atmospheric Corrosion Test.
R. St. J. Preston. J. Iron Steel Inst. (London), v. 160, 1948,
pp. 286-294.
A condensation-type corrosion test in which specimens are subjected
to corrosion in a warm humid atmosphere containing sulfur dioxide is used
to study plain and phosphated steel with and without paint cover. The
extent of corrosion is estimated either by visual inspection with or
without a 1igh-reflection meter, or by gain of weight. Loss of weight on
removal of corrosion products is a more reliable criterion, especially
with heavy attack. 'An efficient phosphate coating as thick as a thin
paint film has corrosion resistance considerably greater than unprotected
s tee I.
2. Atmospheric Durability of Steels Containing Nickel and Copper—Additional
Exposure Data. N. B, Pilling and W. A. Wesley. Proc. American Society
for Testing and Materials, v. 48, 1948, pp. 610-617.
The prior publication on this subject appeared in 1940 and described
six series of weathering tests designed to evaluate the durability of
sheet specimens of low-alloy steels containing nickel and copper. The
present communication brings up to date the published results of those
exposure tests which were continued beyond 1940. In the oldest series,
observations at the end of 22 year exposure are now made available. In
the series in which large sheet specimens simulate some of the conditions
encountered in roofing service, the advantage of nickel-copper steels over
copper steels is becoming more impressive as the years pass by.
Long-continued tests show that it is more significant to compare steels on
the basis of how long a time is required to arrive at a given unit weight
loss than to compare them on the basis of weight loss suffered in a fixed
period of time.
The beneficial effects of nickel upon the weathering resistance of
steel increases with increasing nickel content. Addition of copper to a
nickel steel improves the life, but the optimum amount is less than the
amount of nickel and remains well below 2 percent even with a 4 percent
nickel content. With long exposure periods, there is evidence that not
only phosphorus but also silicon additions to nickel-copper steels have a
beneficial effect on the behavior in the industrial atmosphere. Effects
of manganese and carbon are unimportant in this type of atmosphere,
3. Climatic Effects on the Corrosion of Steel. J. Dearden. J. of the Iron
and Steel Inst., v. 159, 1948, p. 241.
An attempt was made to correlate the corrosion of steel in a
moderately industrial atmosphere with the hours of rainfall registered by
a recording rain gauge. No such relation was found, as only 35-40 percent
of the total corrosion occurred during the hours when the rainfall was
sufficient to register on the gauge. A further 35 to 40 percent was due
to the effects of humidity, and the balance is presumed to have occurred
during periods of drizzle and when the specimens remained wet after
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Fe-15 1
recordable rainfall had ceased. Measurments were made of the corrosion
rate of previously rusted specimens under various humidities, and a marked
increase in the rate was observed when the relative humidity was over 80
percent. A quantitative estimate of the corrosion due to rainfall and to
various ranges of humidity has been attempted. Observations were made on
the effects of the weather prevailing at the start of exposure, the annual
shedding of rust, the expansion when this cannot occur, and the sulphur
content of rust formed under various conditions.
4. Factors of Importance in the Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Low-Alloy
Steels. H. R. Copson. Proc. American Society for Testing and
Materials, v. 48, 1948, pp. 591-607.
Some applications in the atmospheric corrosion testing of low-alloy
steels are brought out. Data are presented which show that it is unsafe
to draw general conclusions from tests of limited character. The results
obtained depend on the location (whether industrial, marine, or rural), on
the duration of the tests (the benefit of alloying increases with time),
on the manner of exposure (particularly whether sheltered or boldly
exposed), on the method of estimating corrosion (whether weight loss, pit
depth, or time to disintegration), and on the weather (particularly as
regards wetness and pollution). Under all conditions alloying seems of
value, but the magnitude of the benefit and the relative merit of
different steels and alloying elements varies. For example, a few weight
loss versus time curves have been found to cross. In a thin steel, pit
depths become more important than weight losses. Likewise for short
exposures the benefit to be obtained by complex alloying may not be worth
the additional cost. These effects are illustrated chiefly by means of
data obtained through five years of exposure of 71 low-alloy steels at a
marine location at Block Island, Rhode Island, and an industrial location
at Bayonne, New Jersey.
5. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Ferrous Metals and Its Prevention.
J. C. Hudson. Gas World, v. 129, No. 3333, Coking Sect., 1948,
pp. 83-102.
The atmospheric corrosion of ferrous metals is shown to be closely
connected with the relative humidity and pollution of the atmosphere.
Facts regarding its magnitude established by the work of the corrosion
committee are reviewed, and the great practical advantages to be derived
from the increased resistance of low-alloy steels to atmospheric attack
are emphasized. Methods for protection against atmospheric corrosion are
considered, with particular reference to the use of paint and metallic
coat ings.
6. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Iron and Steel Wires. J. C. Hudson. J. Iron
Steel Inst. (London), v. 160, 1948, pp. 276-285.
Nine-inch lengths of wire of eight general materials were exposed at
Sheffield University for periods up to 10 years. The decrease in breaking
load is used to establish the effect of corrosion on the loss in diameter.
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Fe-152
The rate of corrosion did not vary with duration of exposure, but was
greater for thin than for thick wires. The substitution of low-alloy (for
example, 0.6 to 0.9 percent chromium and 0.5 percent copper) steel wire
for mild steel wire is indicated where resistance to atmospheric corrosion
is required.
7. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. G. Schikorr. Arch. Metallkunde, v.
2, 1948, pp. 223-230 (German).*
Corrosion rate is affected by all atmospheric variables, yet
relations are simpler than might be expected and the amount of corrosion
per year varies but little. Data shown indicate but little effect on
yearly corrosion rate of precipitation or temperature, but it is increased
by high humidity and high sulfur content of air. Thus, in winter, high
sulfur content from heating houses increases corrosion. Corrosion is
slowest in the country, faster in city, still faster in an industrial
section, but fastest in sea air. If the sulfur in air comes from
locomotives, ship, etc., seasonal changes are not important. Yearly
average rate of corrosion was found not higher than either the summer or
winter rate, hence the coat formed seems to have a protective action.
Resistance to corrosion is related to position in the electromotive series
of metals and also to formation of protective films. In ordinary
atmospheres, lead and zinc form carbonate films. Against sulfur
corrosion, protective films are formed by Fe, Cu, Pb, Cd, Mg, Ni, and Zn,
but in an ocean climate, where chloride is the cause of most corrosion,
magnesium and iron are more rapidly corroded. Impurities may hasten or
retard corrosion. Tests on a number of metals in the atmosphere showed
the first month Pb, Zn, brass, Cu, Ni, and marble were corroded at about
the same rate owing to sulfur of the air. Presumably this rate would
later slow down for metals such as lead and copper which form protective
films. Tests of iron and zinc, in which water and also dilute H2SO4
were deposited on the metals, showed the iron more corroded by the acid
than was zinc, probably due to a catalytic action of the acid, forming
FeSC>4 which is oxidized by air to the unstable ferric compound. A
decrease in these reactions, owing to low temperature might account for a
comparatively slow rate of corrosion of iron in cold weather.
1946
1. Corrosion of Steels. J. Johnston. Corrosion and Mat. Proc., v. 3, No. 3,
1946, pp. 9-12.
This is an up-to-date discussion of the corrosion of steels,
especially atmospheric corrosion, with a discussion of the value of
certain alloying elements and the use of protective nonmetallic coatings.
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1945
1. A Theory of the Mechanism of Rusting of Low Alloy Steels in the
Atmosphere. H. R. Copson. Am. Soc. Test. Mat. Proceedings, v. 45,
1945, pp. 554-590.
In 1941 exposure tests were started on low-alloy steels in industrial
and marine atmospheres. Analyses of selected rust samples are presented,
along with an examination of weather data and some weight Losses. These
results led to a new theory of the mechanism of rusting.
It is postulated that corrosion rate depends on the quality and
quantity of water reaching the steel surface. Relatively insoluble
corrosion products decrease the amount of soluble contituents in the water
and thereby decrease corrosion. Relatively insoluble corrosion products
do not wash away, and thereby they decrease the porosity of the rust
coating and the quantity of water reaching the steel. As time goes on
pores become plugged and the position of low alloy steels improves.
In industrial atmospheres, copper and nickel in steel render sulfate
corrosion products more insoluble by forming complex basic sulfates. On
mild steel, sulfates in the rust are relatively soluble and promote
corrosion but are washed away by rain. On alloy steels the sulfates are
less soluble so that corrosion is slower, but less sulfate is washed away
and more accumulates in the rust. The percentage of sulfates in the rust
increases as weight loss decreases. At the marine location, severe
corrosion of certain edges was due to soluble chlorides being swept to
these edges by the wash of rain.
Miscellaneous data and references are examined in the Light of this
mechanism. A factor which has been neglected in the literature is the
composition of the film of electrolye on the steel surface. It has been
tacitly assumed that in a given atmosphere each test specimen of steel is
exposed to the same environment. Actually, owing to the influence of
corrosion products, each steel specimen is exposed to a separate
environment.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Laboratory Test for Ordinary Steels With Low-Alloy
Additions. E. Herzog. Metaux, corrosion, usure, v. 20, April 1945,
pp.47-51.
An application is described in which specimens were exposed to a
humid atmosphere so that small drops of HjO condensed on the specimen
and rusting occurred rapidly. Tests were made to determine the scatter of
results with changes in the location of the specimens, the influence of
humidity, of small additions of Cu, Cr, Al, P, and S, and of surface
condition, and the difference between the classification obtained with the
test and that obtained by exposing specimens in an industrial atmosphere.
Results are tabulated.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Iron. C. P. Larrabee. Blast Furnace and Steel
Plant, v. 33, No. 8, August 1945, p. 993.
Under standardized conditions of atmospheric corrosion tests, many
combinations of alloying elements in steel produce rust films which
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Fe-154
improve the corrosion resistance appreciably over that of copper steel.
To reduce corrosion losses below the minimum found for certain low alloy
corrosion resistant steels, it is necessary to add alloying elements in
amounts disproportionate to their value, due to the fact that, a loss of
weight of 6.5 g/sq decimeter of most alloy steels is used up in the
formation of the protective oxide film.
1944
1. The Effect of Specimen Position on Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Steel.
C. P. Larrabee. Trans. Electrochem. Soc., v. 85, 1944, pp. 297-306.
Many methods of exposing atmospheric corrosion test specimens are
described. It is shown that steel specimens, when mounted on racks at an
angle of 30° to the horizontal, corrode less on the surface exposed to the
sky than on the side toward the ground. In applications such as roofs
where the under side of the sheet is not exposed, the expected life might
be two or more times that indicated by tests where both sides are exposed.
1943
1. The Corrosion of Metals in Air. Jubilee Memorial Lecture.
W. H. J. Vernon. Chemistry and Industry, August 1943, pp. 314-318.
This is a review of some researches conducted on the atmospheric
corrosion of different metal alloys. The outstanding promoting factors in
atmospheric corrosion are the sulphurous impurities derived from
combustion processes. Relative humidity is a controlling factor. The
special cases of surface film formation and development on copper and zinc
and of film breakdown on iron were presented.
1940
1. Atmospheric Durability of Steels Containing Nickel and Copper.
N. B. Pilling and W. A. Wesley. Proc. American Society for Testing and
Materials, v. 40, 1940, pp. 643-657.
The results of six series of atmospheric corrosion tests are
presented which evaluate the durability of sheet specimens of low alloy
steels containing nickel and copper. Rural, urban, industrial and marine
atmospheres are represented at the test sites. The commercial
significance of the data is broadened by the multiplicity of compositions
tested. The oldest series of exposures is now in its fifteenth year.
Another series consists of large specimens simulating some of the
conditions to which roofing sheets are exposed in service. The effects of
composition variables are studied in one series and the corrosion- time
relationship in another. The results of a practical railroad coal car
test are also made available.
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Fe-155
A general conclusion from this work is that the beneficial effects of
nickel upon the weathering resistance of steel increase with increasing
nickel content and are enhanced by the addition of optimum amounts of
copper. The superiority of nickel copper steels over copper steels is
particularly pronounced in a marine atmosphere to which the latter do not
respond well. The effects of manganese, silicon and carbon contents do
not appear to be important but the presence of a moderate amount of
phosphorus seems to be beneficial in nickel-copper steels.
1939
1. Effect of Sulfur Compounds in the Air on Various Materials. L. R. Burdick
and J. F. Barkley. U. S. Bureau of Mines, I. C. 7064, April 1939, 9 pp.
This paper presents a review of published investigations dealing with
the importance of sulfur compounds in the deterioratin of materials or
providing some basis for estimating the extent of loss chargeable to such air
pollution. Materials included are cement, stone, metals, paint, leather,
paper, and cloth. The investigations may be divided into two classes, one of
the laboratory type in which the sulfur content and the humidity of the air
were controlled and the other dealing with the exposure of materials to
atmospheres not under control. the first type of work has shown that cement
is subject to deterioration by the action of sulfur dioxide gas. The
experiments with stone indicate that although limestone takes up sulfur
dioxide from the air, moist sulfur dioxide-air mixtures alone cannot be used
for establishing the comparative weathering qualities of the different types
of stone by accelerated test methods. Laboratory tests indicate that sulfur
compounds in the air accelerate the corrosion of iron, steel, zinc, copper,
and nickel at normal air temperatures and at certain relative humidities. It
has also been indicated that certain types of paint are affected by high
sulfur dioxide concetrations, and that paper is attacked by sulfur dioxide in
the atmosphere.
The investigation of the second type show the amoutit or variation of
corrosion in different localities and under different types of exposure. The
investigations during which sulfur determinations were made indicate that
sulfur dioxide is a main controlling factor in the corrosion of iron and steel
but may not be for some non-ferrous metals. In general, the laboratory tests
do not give definite data on the loss due to sulfur compounds at the
concentrations normally found in the air. The data from atmospheric exposures
are not complete from the standpoint of the exact effect of the sulfur
compounds. Damage to materials so exposed is affected by factors such as
other chemical contaminants, humidity, rainfall, solid deposits, and sunlight.
A simple scheme has been devised in Great Britain which is considered to
provide a measure of the attack of sulfur compounds on building materials.
Small cylinders coated with lead peroxide paste are exposed to the atmosphere
for about 1 month, after which the paste is analyzed and the results reported
as millgrams of sulfur trioxide per 100 sq. cm. of cylinder per day.
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Fe-156
1938
1. Influence of Electrolytes on the Atmospheric Corrosion of Zinc, Aluminum,
and Iron. W. S. Patterson and J. H. Wilkinson. J. Soc. Chem. Ind., v.
57, 1938, pp. 445-446.
Finely powdered NaCl and NH4CI were suspended in CCI4 and applied
to sheet specimens of wrought Fe, Zn, and Al. The corrosion of these
specimens in an atmosphere containing 80 percent humidity was determined
at 20° C over periods of up to 100 days by the loss of weight method.
With zinc, NaCl accelerated corrosion much more than NH^Cl, possibly
because of the greater hygroscopicity of the NaCl or because of the role
of the NH^Cl in forming the zinc-ammonia complex which tends to produce
a cathodic reaction. With aluminum and iron, the NH^Cl caused greater
corrosion than the NaCl, possibly because of the low pH of the saturated
NH4CI solution. On aluminum, Na2C03 had a corrosive effect similar
to that of NH4CI. The shape of the corrosion curves indicated the
influence of an initially existing oxide layer on the aluminum and the
retarding influence of the corrosion products formed on both the aluminum
and the iron.
1937
1. Atmospheric Rusting of Iron—II. G. Schikorr. Z. Elektrochem., v. 43,
1937, pp. 697-704.
Parallelism was found between the rate of rusting in the atmosphere
and the sulfur content of the air as determined by the absorption bell
according to Liesegang. Exceptions were observed in months with long
freezing spells. Steel specimens protected against rain rusted at a rate
of 50 to 75 percent of that of specimens exposed to rain. In exposures up
to 2 years, the rust formed on electrolytic iron and on a steel containing
C 0.05, Cu 0.21, Ni 0.05 and Cr 0.03 percent showed definite protective
value. On cast iron, this protective effect was much less. It also
diminished in a pure country atmosphere and was quite low on specimens
protected against rain. Specimens which had been subjected to preliminary
rusting to different atmospheres were subjected afterward to exposure in
closed vessels containing air with 93 percent humidity. The sulfur
content of the preliminary atmosphere had a highly accelerating effect on
the subsequent rusting. Dew formed on rusting iron contained much more
SO2 than that formed on glass plates. Humidity and sulfur compounds in
the air are assumed as the main causes of atmospheric rusting.
2. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. W. H. J. Vernon. Proceedings
Chemical Engineering Group (Soc. Chem. Ind.), v. 19, 1937, pp. 14-22,
Work on the corrosion of copper, nickel, and iron in laboratory and
natural atmospheres is reviewed. The tarnish film on copper, produced
by hydrogen sulphide, consists of CU2S and CU2O, and, after the
formation of the initial film, the growth is parabolic with time and
little affected by changes in the hydrogen sulphide content of the
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Fe-157
atmosphere. In the presence of moisture and sulphur dioxide, such as
occurs on outdoor exposure, copper becomes covered with a green patina.
In rural districts this consists mainly of basic sulphate; in urban
districts there is a greater proportion of basic carbonate, and near the
sea, of chlorides. The "fogging" of nickel, which occurs in polluted
atmospheres when the relative humidity exceeds about 70 percent, consists,
in the early stages, of sulphuric acid with some nickel sulphate, and
later of basic nickel sulphate. Iron will remain bright in atmospheres of
high relative humidity if suspended particles are removed by filtration.
The rate of corrosion is greatly increased by the presence of sulphur
dioxide although carbon dioxide has an inhibiting effect under some
cond it ions.
Attention is directed to the importance of (i) the principle of
critical humidity, (ii) presence of suspended particles, and (iii) the
primary oxide film.
1936
1. Atmospheric Rusting of Iron. G. Schikorr. Z. Elektrochem., v. 42, 1936,
pp. 107-113.
The rusting of iron plates under atmospheric attack was observed by
the loss of weight method during a period of 2 years. No simple relation
between rusting and rain precipitation could be found, but a relation
between the rate of rusting and the average relative humidity was
determined. This relation was explained by the effect of the length of
the raining period, by "dry" rusting in the presence of dust or preformed
rust at a relative humidity of over 70 percent, and by the fact that in
the winter months the relative humidity is related to the H2SO4
content of the air, both being increased at lower temperatures.
Comparison of rust-free and pre-rusted specimens showed that if the effect
due to "wet" rusting is small, the major proportion of the total attack
may be due to "dry" rusting. Owing to the protective action of preformed
rust, which counteracts its rust-promoting action but does not become
distinct until a few months after exposure, an initial acceleration of
rusting was followed by a decreasing rate later. The influence of the
H2SO4 in the air was established by comparison exposures in a rural
(forest) atmosphere. The rust formed in the latter showed less protective
action than that formed in the city atmosphere. The steel used contained
0.14 percent copper, which probably favored the formation of protective
layers.
2. Corrosion Resistance of Metals and Alloys. R. J. McKay and
R. Worthington. Amer. Chem. Soc. Monograph, No. 71, Reinhold
Publishing Corporation, New York, N.Y., 1936, 492 pp.
Part I is about "General and Theoretical" aspects of corrosion.
Rate factors, forms of corrosion, corrosives, metal corrosion properties
are discussed. Part II is about corrosion behavior of specific metal and
alloy groups: Mg, A1, Zn, Fe and steel, Ni, Cu, etc.
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1935
1. Laboratory Study of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. II. Iron—
Primary Oxide Film. W. H. J. Vernon. Trans. Faraday Soc. , v. 3L, 1935 ,
pp. 1668-1678.
Marked differences in properties of oxide films on iron are observed
according to whether the film is produced below or above a critical
temperature 200°. The equation d log W/dt = -Q/RT expresses the relation
between rate of oxidation and temperature, but there is a change of
constant at 200° giving 2 intersecting straight lines with the greater
slope above the critical temperature when log oxidation rate is plotted
against l/T. At higher temperature a parabolic relation (w^ = kt) holds
between oxidation rate and time. Below 200° the expression deviates
(w2»5 = kt approximately). Above 200° the colors produced are
consistent with interference of light in a continuous transparent sheath,
and any given color may be obtained at different temperature by
calculation of the time required to give appropriate thickness. Below
200° the relation between color and film thickness does not hold. The
ill- defined colors ultimately obtained suggest a granular film. At 25° a
point of inflection in the time-oxidation curve below which deviation from
the quadratic parabola is in the reverse direction, at 15 days, is
believed to imply completion of unit lattice of oxide over the whole
surface. A secondary inflection where (w^ = kt) changes to (w2»5«
kt) marks the breakdown of this primary film. Electron diffraction
experiments show a difference in structure of the film above and below
200°. The diffraction patterns for a sample oxidized at 135" indicates a
cubic structure of side 8.4A. This may be due to Y-Fe2C>2 or
Fe304« At higher temperatures a rhombohedral structure ascribed to
ct-Fe2C>3 is obtained. Evidence indicates that the crystals were
oriented on the surface with a 211 plane parallel to the metal surface.
2. Laboratory Study of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. III. Secondary
Product of Rust (Influence of Sulfur Dioxide, Carbon Dioxide and
Suspended Particles on the Rusting of Iron). W. H. J. Vernon. Trans.
Faraday Soc., v. 31, 1935, pp. 1678-1700.
In purified air of high relative humidity (RH) rusting of mild steel
is reduced if the high RH is approached from zero. This is ascribed to
the strengthening of the primary film in the early stages. At constant
RH, just below saturation, time-corrosion curves are convex about the
corrosion axis; under supersaturation conditions they are concave for 70
days, then nearly linear. This is ascribed to changes in primary film.
In the presence of sulfur dioxide at approximately 50 percent RH (primary
critical humidity) there is a marked weight increase followed at a little
higher RH with rust format-ion. At approximately 80 percent RH (secondary
critical humidity) there is a great increase in rate of attack. The
primary critical humidity depends upon a relation between concentrations
of H2O, O2 and SO2 for rusting to begin. Secondary critical
humidity depends upon the properties of the initially formed rust.
Differences in the behavior of iron and zinc depend upon secondary
critical humidity phenomena. The influences of suspended solid particles
depends upon whether (I) they are intrinsically active, for example,
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Fe-159
(NH4)2SC>4; (2) neutral, but capable of adsorbing active gases, for
example, charcoal; (3) neutral with little adsorptive capacity, for
example, SiC>2. Under supersaturated conditions (NH^^SO^
particles greatly increase the rate of attack. S1O2 and charcoal
purified air have little effect, but charcoal has an enormous effect in
presence of traces of SO2 because of local concentration of the gas.
Carbon dioxide has a definite repressive effect on the corrosion of iron
under all conditions investigated, especially marked in the presence of
(NH4)2SC>4 particles.
1931
1. Relation of the Moisture in Rust to the Critical Humidity.
W. S. Patterson and L. Hebbs. Trans. Faraday Soc., v. 27, 1931,
pp. 277-283.
On the assumption that iron rust has a gel structure, the marked
effect that rust has in accelerating corrosion can be explained. In humid
atmospheres, less than 40 percent saturated, water that is present in the
rust is strongly adsorbed by the gel and is held by the considerable force
such that it is not free to further corrosion. If the humidity is above
this critical humidity, the gel fills with water and the forces that hold
the water are lessened at the same time. Though there is but a small
increase in the moisture content of the rust at the critical humidity, a
much larger amount becomes available to further corrosion.
1929
1. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Iron. W. S. Patterson. J. Soc. Chem. Ind.,
v. 49, 1929, pp. 203t-206t.
Strips of mild steel and high-carbon steel were suspended in air over
KOH. After 30 days the rust effect was negligible in both cases.
Similarly over H2SO3 the rusting was severe. Over distilled water the
rust effect was slow at first, then very rapid and finally slower, with
the steel corroding at a greater rate than the iron. Once the strips were
covered with rust they were no longer passive to corrosion over KOH. In
this phase of the attack the corrosion control appeared vested in the
relative humidity rather than in any pollution of the atmosphere. For a
non-homogeneous metal surface, the deposition of H20, either because of
high relative humidity or because of the hygroscopicity of adhering
solids, induces corrosion. Patterson partly attributes the corrosion to
the ferrite present.
2. The Relative Corrodibi1 ities of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys.
Part II—The Results of Seven Years' Exposure to Air at Birmingham. J.
N. Friend. J. Inst. Metals, v. 42, 1929, pp. 149-155.
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Fe-160
Fifty-four bars of ferrous and non-ferrous metals were exposed to air
on the roof of the Birmingham Central Technical College for seven years,
and an account is given of the 17 non-ferrous bars. The metals examined
included tin, lead, nickel, zinc, aluminum, and various coppers and
brasses. All resisted corrosion much more efficiently than the wrought
irons and carbon steels. Nickel proved less resistant than copper.
Aluminum ranked with lead, tin, and stainless steel in offering a very
high resistance to corrosion. The influence of arsenic on copper is
discussed.
1921
1. A Colloid Theory of the corrosion and Passivity of Iron, and of the
Oxidation of Ferrous Salts. J. N. Friend. Trans. J. Chem. Soc.
(London), v. 119, 1921, pp. 932-949.
A theory is suggested that:
1. Iron is "noble" or passive towards distilled water
in the absence of a catalyst and passes into solution,
but only with extreme slowness, owing to the traces of
electrolytes that are present.
2. The dissolved iron is probably at first present in
a more or less completely ionised ferrous condition, but
is rapidly convereted into the sol of ferrois hydroxide.
3. This sol then undergoes oxidation by dissolved
oxygen into the sol of a higher hydroxide, ferric hydrox-
ide sol being formed under the most favourable conditions,
and probably ferroso-ferric hydroxide sol when the supply
of oxygen is limited.
4. The higher hydroxide sol now acts catalytical ly by
oxidising metallic iron with relative rapidity and simul-
taneously undergoing reduction to a lower hydroxide sol,
only to be oxidized again as oxygen from the air diffuses
towards it.
#
The theory is tested by determining whether or not the phenomena of
corrosion are influenced by such factors as affect the formation,
stability, and precipitation of electropositive colloids (e.g., metallic
hydroxide sols).
2. Some Observations on the Mechanism of the Increased Corrosion Resistance
of Steel and Iron Due to Small Copper Contents. D. M. Buck. Trans. Am.
Electrochem. Soc., v. 39, 1921, pp. 109-116.
The evidence presented indicates that the harmful influence of sulfur
in steel on corrosion is controlled in some manner by the addition of
copper. The structure of the rust film formed is a function of the
increased resistance peculiar to copper steel. The difference in
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Fe-161
structure may be due to the slower corrosion rate. The corrosion film
formed apparently acts mechanically as a protector of the underlying
me t a 1.
1920
1. A Review of the Development of Copper Steel. D. M. Buck. Iron Age,
October 28, 1920, pp. 1109-1110.
The more important evidence which proves the remarkable influence of
copper additions to steel and iron in checking the attack of atmospheric
mositure and oxygen is presented. The more general adoption of copper
steel in other sections than sheet metal, to which uses it has largely
been confined up to the present time, is urged. A discussion of the
literature on the effect of copper from the corrosion standpoint is
inc luded.
1919
1. The Influence of Very Low Percentage of Copper in Retarding the Corrosion
of Steel. D. M. Buck. Proc. American Society for Testing and
Materials, v. 19, No. 2, 1919, pp. 224-237.
Previous work by the author indicated that copper in steel in amounts
heretofore considered as only traces, materially influences the
corrosion rate. In order to obtain further information, two heats of
basic open-hearth steel were copperized in varying amounts from
approximately 0.01 percent up to 0.25 percent. Sheets and test specimens
from the various ingots were exposed to the weather for varying lengths of
time, and the paper includes tables of chemical analyses and weight
losses, as well as photographs and charts, showing condition of sheets and
test specimens after exposure.
The following conclusions have been drawn from the results of this
investigation: (1) Very low amounts of copper in steel materially lower
the corrosion rate. (2) Steel with 0.03 percent of copper corrodes only
60 to 70 percent as fast as the same steel with 0.01 percent of copper.
(3) It has been customary to consider a copper content of any amount under
0.05 percent as a trace, and it may be desirable to reinterpret many
corrosion data obtained in work in which the effect of minute amounts of
copper has not been taken into account. (4) In order to leave an ample
factor of safety, steel to resist atmospheric corrosion should contain not
less than 0.15 percent of copper. (5) Copper in amount of 0.12 percent is
sufficient to neutralize the influence of sulfur as high as 0.055 percent.
(6) Copper in amount of 0.15 percent is sufficient to protect steels even
if the sulfur content is considerably higher than normal.
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ALUMINUM ALLOYS
1982
1. A Probe for Monitoring Corrosion In Marine Environments. V. S. Agarwala.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 183-192. (Fe82-1)
2. Accelerated Atmospheric-Corrosion Testing. M. Khobaid, F. C. Chang,
E. E. Keppler, and C. T. Lynch. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals,
edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing
and Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 374-394. (Fe82-2)
3. Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. Hans C.
Martin. Materials Performance, v. 21, No. 1, 1982, pp. 36-39.
(Fe82-3)
4. Aluminum Alloy Performance in Industrial Air-Cooled Applications.
K. R. Wheeler, A. B. Johnson, Jr., and R. P. May. Atmospheric Corrosion
of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society
for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 116-134.
Air-cooled equipment has an impressive record of performance in
industrial cooling applications, particularly in rural-dry environments.
At temperatures below the dew point, however, combinations of moisture and
contaminants (particularly chlorides and some sulfur compounds) promote
severe corrosion on aluminum. Washing the cooling surfaces with some
commercial detergents provides a corrosive environment, particularly on
areas where drainage collects. Coal dust deposits have caused corrosion
of aluminum fins. Marine-humid-industrial locations have caused severe
corrosion problems on aluminum air-cooled equipment, particularly when the
coolers are at ambient temperatures for extended periods. The results of
the domestic survey and available specimens have directed this study
principally to aluminum. However, the foreign survey, which is summarized
here, provided some insights into the behavior of galvanized steel cooling
towers.
5. Atmospheric Corrosion of Bimetallic Structures. V. Kucera and
E. Mattsson. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 561-574. (Fe82-6)
6. Atmospheric Corrosion of Fastener Joints. E. Taylor. Extended Abstracts,
International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion, (October 5-10, 1980,
Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 609-
610. (Fe82-7)
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7. Atmospheric Corrosion of Large Aircraft: Predicting Damage and Maintenance
Requirements, R. Sumraitt and F. T. Fink. Extended Abstracts, Inter-
national Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion (October 5-10, 1980,
Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 603-
604.
Maintenance and operational histories of 500 multi-engine jet
aircraft were anaLyzed to determine relative environmental corrosiveness
of operational airbases and to assess the variability of maintenance
practices. The results were compared with environmental ratings based on
weather and pollutant factors. Improvements were made to the reliability
of maintenance data by means of a special inspection and data collection
program to yield accurate forecasts of corrosion damage and maintenance
requirements.
8. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals Under Moving Conditions. J. D. Talati and
B. M. Patel. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 695-704. (Fe82-10)
9. Atmospheric Corrosion Test Results for Metallic-Coated Steel Panels
Exposed in 1960. D. E. Tonini. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited
by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and
Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 163-185.
Results of an ASTM-sponsored 20-year exposure of corrugated
metallic-coated steel panels at five locations in the United States is
reported. A total of 19 panels was placed at each exposure site including
at least one specimen from each of six types of continuous galvanizing
lines in use when the test was initiated, five sheets galvanized using
equipment similar to that used to prepare specimens for a similar test
series initiated in 1926, one panel coated with pure aluminum, one panel
coated with an aluminum-silicon alloy and one panel coated with terne
metal.
The analysis of the galvanized coatings data suggests the presence of
non-linear effects in the performance of the coatings. However, it was
not possible to establish whether these effects were the result of
non-linearities in the coating performance itself or if they were the
consequence of uncontrollable external factors which occurred during the
exposure period.
The alurainized sheets were found to be essentially without failure at
all test locations. In general, coating degradation beyond minor
pinholing was not found. The terne-coated sheets evidenced rusting at all
except the most aggressive of the test sites. Despite near total coating
depletion, none of the test sheets have perforated.
10. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Brazil. A. C. Dutra, and R. Vienna.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 755-774. (Fe82-16)
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11. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Finland. T. Hakkarainen and S. Ylasaari.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 787-796. (Fe82-17)
12. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing In The Federal Republic of Germany. G.
Oelsner. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York,
N.Y., 1982, pp. 797-806. (Fe82-18)
13. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Aluminum In Italy. F. Gatto and A.
Perrone. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York,
N.Y., 1982, pp. 827-840.
' Results of 5 years exposure tests on aluminum and its alloys in the
Arenzano and Kure Beach (U.S.A.) marine atmospheres, industrial (Novara),
and urban (Milan) environments are reported. It is stated that corrosion
by marine atmospheres is considerably affected by test location. In
addition, the report provides the results of 9 years exposure to marine
and urban atmospheres of alloy 6063 samples having different iron contents
and microstructures (fine and coarse), coated with 6.12 and 24 um anodic
fi1ms.
14. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Japan. T. Fukushima, N. Sato,
Y. Hisamatsu, I. Matsushima, and Y. Aoyama. Atmospheric Corrosion,
edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., '1982, pp. 841-872. (Fe82-
19)
15. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Norway. L. Atteraas and S. Haagenrud.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 873-892. (Fe82-20)
16. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Southern Africa. B. G. Callaghan.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 893-912. (Fe82-21)
17. Colloid and Surface Phenomena in the Corrosion of Metals. E. Matijevic.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 123-138. (Fe82-28)
18. Corrosion Fatigue Testing of Aluminum in Japan. T. Kurobe. Atmospheric
Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 983-
990.
The investigations on the atmospheric-corrosion fatigue of aluminum
in Japan have been reviewed. The studies have revealed that the growth
and propagation of cracks in aluminum by fatiguing was remarkably depen-
dent upon the atmospheric pressure; The detailed examinations on the
fatigue behavior showed that the mode of slip deformation and the fracture
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Al-4
surface appearance were drasticaLly changed in the range of pressure
1CT2 to 10"3 Torr.
19. Economic Assessment of Pollution Related Corrosion Damage. F. H. Haynie.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 3-18. (Fe82-33)
20. Effect of Atmospheric Pollutant Gases on the Formation of Corrosive
Condensate on Aluminum. S. C. Byrne and A. C. Miller, Atmospheric
Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American
Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 359-373.
As part of a program to develop predictive methods to estimate the
long-term durability of aluminum parts, a methodology was developed to
calculate the chemical composition of condensates formed on aluminum
exposed to polluted air.
In this study, it is proposed that the maximum concentrations of
ionic species in a condensate must be limited by the equilibrium condition
established between the dissolved ions and the gases from which they
formed.
21. Electrotopography - A New Tool for Corrosion Research. M. Ensanian.
Extended Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion
(October 5-10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society,
v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 480-482. (Fe82-36)
22. Evaluation of the Effects of Microclimate Differences on Corrosion.
F. H. Haynie. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean,
Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM
STP 767, 1982, pp. 286-308. (Fe82-39)
23. Ion Chromatographic Analysis of Contaminants on Zinc and Aluminum Surfaces
Exposed to a Range of Urban Indoor Environments. G. B. Munier,
L. A. Psota-Kelty and J. D. Sinclair. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by
W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 275-284.
Water soluble contaminants that accumulate on zinc and aluminum
electronic equipment surfaces have been analyzed by ion chromatography.
Chloride, sulfate, nitrate, sodium, ammonium, and potassium concentrations
have been measured. The ranges of accumulation rates observed for
chloride and sulfate are 0.1-1.2 pg chloride/cm^/yr on zinc, 0.03-1.0 yg
chloride/cm^/yr on aluminum, 0.2-2.0 pg sulfate/cm^/yr on zinc, and 0.2-
1.1 wg sulfate/cm2/yr on aluminum. Cities studied include New York,
Cleveland, Houston, Council Bluffs (Iowa), Boulder, Colorado Springs,
Denver, and Minneapolis.
24. Long-Term Atmospheric Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys.
E. W. Skerrey. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 329-352.
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Case histories are citied for the use of unprotected aluminum and
aluminum alloys exposed in severe environments for periods of around
thirty years. Aluminum and aluminum alloys within designation groups 1000
and 3000 to 6000 have performed well in a variety of applications
including welded hulls and superstructures, space frames, and cladding.
Case histories are cited for the use of anodizing and selected paint
systems for long-term aesthetic performance on aluminum.
25. Progress in Atmospheric Corrosion Testing. D. Knotkova, K. Barton and
M. Cemy. Extended Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric
Corrosion (Octber 5-10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical
Society, v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 526-528. (Fe82-44)
26. Rapid Methods for Determining Atmospheric Corrosivity and Corrosion
Resistance. D. P. Doyle and T. E. Wright. Atmospheric Corrosion,
edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 227-244. (Fe82-
45)
27. Resistance of Galvanized, Aluminum-Coated, and 55% Al-Zn-Coated Steels to
Atmospheric Corrosion Involving Standing Water. L. Allegra,
N. S. Berke, and H. E. Townsend. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H.
Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 595-606.
Although most atmospheric testing is conducted under conditions that
allow rapid runoff and drying, many applications such as roofing, gutters
and culverts require resistance to prolonged immersion in trapped water.
Laboratory and atmospheric corrosion tests involving stagnant-water
immersion were used to characterize the performance of steel sheets with
aluminum, zinc, and Al-Zn coatings. The 55% Al-Zn alloy provides the best
protection because it is anodic to steel and resistant to pitting and
general dissolution.
28. Stress Corrosion of Metals in the Atmosphere. A. Gallacio. Extended
Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion (October 5-
10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980,
pp. 581-582. (Fe82-47)
29. The Atmospheric Corrosion Performance of Aluminum-Coated Steels.
H. H. Lawson. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 575-594.
The recognized atmospheric corrosion resistance of aluminum led to a
search for means to apply it to steel as a protective coating. Various
methods, including pack diffusion, elctroplating, vacuum vapor deposition,
and roll cladding have been used, but the application of hot dipping in
the same manner as galvanizing led to economically viable product for
widespread application to industrial and commerical roofing and siding.
Considerable long-term atmospheric testing data on hot dipped aluminum
coated steel will be presented along with actual in-service application
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performance of roofing and siding in a wide variety of atmospheric
exposures.
30. The Interplay of Weather, Climate and the Durability of Materials,
P. W. Brown and L. W. Masters. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H.
Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 31-50. (Fe82-48)
31. The USAF Corrosion Testing Program and a Corrosion Severity Index
Algorithm. R. Summitt and F. T. Fink. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by
W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 245-264.
In a paper presented in March 1980 the authors discussed a U.S. Air
Force program designed to develop an environmental severity classification
for all airbases. Three algorithms were proposed to provide indexes of
corrosion severity for three corrosion related maintenance programs.
Additional analysis of the atmospheric test results has been completed and
a least squares linear regression program has been used to compute slopes.
The slopes have been correlated with AFM 66-1 corrosion maintenance data
and compared with both the initial corrosion factor alogrithm and the
three decision-alogrithms referred to above. Site-by-site comparisons
have been also correlated with other atmospheric test results as reported
in the literature.
32. Theoretical and Engineering Principles of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals,
Yu N. Mikhailovskii. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. pp. 85-109. (Fe82-52)
33. Thirty (30) Year Atmospheric Corrosion of Aluminum Alloys in France. M.
Lashermes, A. Guilhaudis, M. Reboul and G. Trentelivres. Atmospheric
Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 353-
364.
This paper reports the results of long time exposure (15-25 years) of
aluminum alloys in the marine atmosphere at Salin-de-Giraud. There were
three alloy series (lxxx, 2xxx, and 3xxx), and for each series the
influence of composition and metallurgical condition were studied. Only
pitting corrosion was generally observed. The sensitivity of the lxxx
alloys to pitting decreased in the order: annesled, half and fully
hardened. The type 1199 and 3003 alloys showed the best behavior. These
tests indicate that aluminum and some alloys can be used safely for long
times in marine atmosphere without any protection.
34. Weathering of Aluminum and its Alloys. G. Sowinski and D. 0. Sprowls.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 297-328.
The results of an extensive literature search on the weathering
of aluminum alloys are presented in this monograph. Theoretical
mechanisms are reviewed and the familiar "self-stopping" curves are
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described in terras of the relationship D = A <{>B, where D is the measure
of corrosion and tp is exposure time. A and B are alloy and environment
dependent constants. Methods for the investigation of atmospheric
corrosion and the various procedures for the assessment of corrosion
damage are discussed. Long-term atmospheric corrosion test data are
presented for both wrought and cast aluminum alloys. Corrosion rate
comparisons are drawn between aluminum alloys and other metals. Galvanic
corrosion, crevice effects, and the importance of good design practices
also are discussed. Anodized coatings are shown to further enhance the
weatherabi1ity of aluminum alloys.
1981
1. Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. H. C. Martin.
Paper No. 114, Corrosion/81 (Toronto, Canada), National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, April 6-10, 1981, 7 pp. (Fe81-1)
2. Corrosion Fatigue of Anodized Aluminum 7075-T73 in Salt Ladened Humid Air.
A. T. Funke, D. F. Hasson and C.R. Crowe. Report No. EW-1-81, United
States Naval Academy, Division of Engineering and Weapons, Mechanical
Engineering Department, Jan. 1981, 53 pp.
Corrosion fatigue of A17075-T73 anodized by various methods has been
measured in salt laden moist air. Principal results are: (1) anodization
caused a reduction in fatigue life irrespective of the thickness or type
of anodization; (2) a correlation of alumina density with fatigue life was
not found; (3) reduction of fatigue life in the environment is attributed
to crack growth of microcracks both present and/or initiated in the
anodized coating. Details of fatigue environmental chamber and statisti-
cal analysis of the data are given in appendices.
3. Practical Experience with an Electrochemical Technique For Atmospheric
Corrosion Monitoring. V. Kucera and J. Gullman. Electrochemical
Corrosion Testing, ASTM STP 727, edited by F. Mansfeld and U. Bertocci,
American Society For Testing and Materials, 1981, pp. 238-255.
(Fe81-12)
1980
1. A Model of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals Allowing for Meterological and
Aerochemical Characteristics. Yu. N. Mikhailovskii, P. V. Strekalov,
and V. V. Agafonov. Protection of Metals, v. 16, No. 4, 1980, pp. 308-
323. (Fe80-1)
2. A Review of Air Pollutant Damage to Materials. J. E. Yocum and
A. R. Stankunas. Draft Report to Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
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Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, December
1980, 92 pp. (Fe80-2)
3. Corrosion of Metal in Wood Products. A. J. Baker. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G.
Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp 981-993.
(Fe80-7)
4. Critical Review of the Available Physicochemical Material Damage Functions
of Air Pollution. M. Benarie. Report No. EUR-6643, Comm. Eur.
Communities, 1980, 97 pp. (Fe80-8)
5. Pacer Line: An Environmental Corrosion Severity Classification System.
R. Summitt and F. T. Fine. AFWL-TR-80-4102 (Part I), Wright
Aeronocitical Laboratories, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, August 1980,
121 pp. (Fe80-16)
6. Pacer Line: Experimental Determination of Environmental Corrosion
Severity. R. Summitt and F. T. Fine. AFWAL-TR-80-4102 (Part II),
Wright Aeronocitical Laboratories, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio,
June 1980, 28 pp. (Fe80-17)
7. Regional Air Pollution Study: Effects of Airborne Sulfur Pollutants on
Materials. F. Mansfeld. NTIS Report PB81-126351, January 1980, 163 pp.
(Fe80-18)
1979
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metallic Systems. II. Analysis of the
Corrosiveness of a Medium at Atmospheric Testing Stations of Comecon
Countries Based on the Results of Five-Year Tests on Steel, Zinc,
Copper, and Aluminum. K. Barton, D. Knotkova, P. V. Strekalov,
V. Kemkhadze, V. Kozhukharov, and A. Szobor. Zashch Met., v. 15, No. 4,
1979, pp. 408-415 (Russian). (Fe79-1)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance of 55% Aluminum-Zinc Coated Sheet Steel:
13 Year Test Results. H. E. Townsend and J. C. Zoccola. Mater.
Perform., v. 18, No. 10, 1979, pp. 13-20.
Steel sheets coated with Galvalume Al-Zn-Si alloy, Zn, or Al were
exposed 13 years to rural and industrial environments. The Galvalume
coating was several times more durable than conventional zinc coatings.
At long exposure times in industrial and rural environments, corrosion
rates of the Galvalume coating were comparable to those of conventional
aluminum coatings. Only zinc and Galvalume provided edge protection in
rural and industrial environments. Corrosion mechanisms are discussed.
Corrosion products were analyzed.
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1978
1. ASTM Atmospheric Corrosion Testing: 1906 to 1976. W. H. Ailor.
Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM
STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1978, pp. 129-151. (Fe78-2)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Aluminum-Zinc Alloy Coated Steel.
J. C. Zoccola, H. E. Townsend, A. R. Borzillo, and J. B. Horton.
Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals,
ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1978, pp. 165-184.
The influence of the aluminum content of hot-dip aluminum-zinc alloy
coatings on their corrosion behavior was studied by means of salt-spray
and atmospheric corrosion tests. The objective was to develop an improved
aluminum-zinc alloy coating on steel that would be more durable than
galvanized coatings and that would be more protective to cut edges and
areas of mechanical damage than hot-dip aluminum coatings. The optimum
alloy was found to be 55 wt-pct aluminum-zinc. This new alloy coating is
2 to 4 times as corrosion resistant as a galvanized coating of similar
thickness. Furthermore, for the galvanic protection of cut edges of sheet
in some environments, this coating proved to be superior to aluminum
coatings.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion. T. Hakkarainen. Tutkimus Tek., 1978, Nos. 4-5,
pp. 46-54 (Finnish). (Fe78-4)
4. Corrosion Prevention With Thermal-Sprayed Zinc and Aluminum Coatings.
F. N. Longo and G. J. Durmann. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the
Corrosion of Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1978, pp. 97-114.
This paper presents the results of 19 years' testing, undertaken by
the American Welding Society, to evaluate the flame-sprayed zinc and
aluminum coatings, sealed and unsealed, applied to low-carbon steel.
Panels were exposed to seawater at mean tide and below low tide
levels at two different locations. Panels were also exposed to
atmospheric conditions at six different locations including rural,
industrial, salt air, and salt spray environments.
The results indicate that low-carbon steel can be protected from the
corrosive effects of these environments for 19 years or more by the
application of flame-sprayed zinc or aluminum coatings.
5. Deteriorative Effect of Sulfur Pollution on Materials. J. 0. Nriagu.
Sulfur in the Environment, Part II: Ecological Impacts, edited by
J. 0. Nriagu, Wiley, New York, 1978, pp. 1-59. (Fe78-ll)
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6. Effect of Daily Fluctuations of Humidity and Air Temperature on Moisture
Sorption by a Metal Surface and on the Kinetics of Atmospheric
Corrosion. P. V. Strekalov, Y. N. Mikhailovskii, and M. V. Danilova.
Zashch. Met., v. 14, No. 3, 1978, pp. 243-247 (Russian).*
The effect of atmospheric temperature-humidity dynamics on the
thickness of adsorption-moisture film and the corrosion kinetics of
aluminum and magnesium under the film were investigated. Depending on the
relative humidity, the adsorption layer varied (1.5 to 2) x 10
monolayers/24 hr. A relation was established between the corrosion- rate
variations and the changes in the physical-chemical parameters of the
atmosphere. Temperature was not a determining condition for atmospheric
corrosion of metals under the adsorption films of moisture in moderate
c 1 iraat e.
7. The Corrosion and Protection of Metals in the Building and Construction
Industries. B. G. Callaghan. J. Oil Color Chemists Assoc., v. 61,
No. 11, November 1978, pp. 411-418. (Fe78-17)
1977
1. Galvanic Corrosion In the Atmosphere. V. Kucera. Rapp.-Korrosionsinst.
No. 16, 1977, 43 pp. (Swedish). (Fe77-9)
2. Study of Atmospheric Corrosion Inhibitors on Metal Surfaces by X-Ray
Electron Spectroscopy. A. N. Novitskii, Ya. V. Salyn, and
V. I. Nefedov. Zashch. Met., v. 13, No. 2, 1977, pp. 209-212
(Russian). (Fe77-13)
1976
1. Air Pollution Effects on Stress Induced Intergranular Corrosion of 7005-
T53 Aluminum Alloy. F. H. Haynie. Stress Corrosion—New Approaches,
edited by H. L. Craig, Jr., American Society for Testing and Materials,
ASTM STP 610, 1976, pp. 32-43.
Through a statistically designed, controlled environment experiment,
it was found that atmospheric levels of sulfur dioxide induce a type of
stress-accelerated intergranular corrosion in 7005-T53 aluminum alloy
extruded tube material. Varying levels of nitrogen dioxide, ozone,
relative humidity, and their interactions (including those with sulfur
dioxide) did not cause statistically significant damage in this particular
experiment. Some level of stress was necessary to cause this type of
attack.
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2. Corrosion of High-Alloy Aluminum Alloys Under Atmospheric Conditions. V.
D. Kalinin, G. M. Budov, and V. S. Sinyavskii. Zashch. Met., v. 12, No.
5, 1976, pp. 571-575 (Russian).*
Aluminum alloy coupons and clad sheets of D16T and V95T1 were exposed
to atmospheric corrosion for 5 years under rural, industrial, and marine
conditions. Pitting, segregation, and intergranular corrosion were
measured. Pitting corrosion increased with increasing chloride content in
the atmosphere but was not affected by sulfur dioxide.
3. Corrosion of Light Metals and Their Alloys in an Atmosphere Polluted With
Sulfur Dioxide and With Products of Its Neutralization With Ammonia.
B. Mazurkiewicz, J. Banas, K. Bieda, and A. Piotrowski. Zesz. Nauk.
Akad. Gorn.-Hutn. im. Stanislawa Staszica, Mat. Fiz. Chem., v. 27,
1976, pp. 115-126 (Polish).*
Aluminum, magnesium, and their alloys, some containing Si, Zn, and
Cu, were exposed for >400 days to air containing <0.08 vol. percent S02 at
a relative humidity of >90 percent. Aluminum and its alloys were
corrosion resistant due to a protective film of corrosion products.
Magnesium and its alloys were less resistant. Addition of NH3 to the
polluted atmosphere promoted corrosion.
4. Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on Materials: A Chamber Study.
F. H. Haynie, J. W. Spence, and J. B. Upham. NTIS Report PB-251580,
1976, 98 pp. (Fe76-5)
5. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocom and
N. Grappone. Research Corporation of New England, Wethersfield,
Connecticut, NTIS Report PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp. (Fe76-6)
6. Protection Against Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Translated by
J. R. Duncan. Wiley, N.Y., N.Y., 1976, 194 pp. (Fe76-14)
1975
1. Atmospheric Corrosion Investigation of Aluminum-Coated, Zinc-Coated,, and
Copper-Bearing Steel Wire and Wire Products. V. I. Kelley. ASTM STP
585, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1975, 89 pp.
This atmospheric exposure investigation of aluminum-coated and
zinc-coated wire and wire products was conducted by ASTM committee A-5 on
Corrosion of Iron and Steel. The data for the 12 years of exposure in the
United States and 9 years in England were the basis for this paper. Some
of the facts deduced by the data up to 1973 are: (1) The comparison can
only be made on the basis of corrosion rates to initial rusting; (2) for
aluminum, the light weight coating shows an overall life superior to the
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heavy weight of coating; (3) uncoated copper-bearing steel is more
resistant than zinc-coated steel (0.5 oz/ft2).
2. Effects of Graphite Epoxy Composite Materials on the Corrosion Behavior of
Aircraft Alloys, P. Fischer and J. J, DeLuccia. Naval Air Development
Center, Warminster, Pa., Air Vehicle Technology Dept., Report No. NADC-
75031-30, April 1975, 36 pp.
The electrochemical approach was used to show the nature of the
galvanic corrosion when graphite-epoxy composite materials are coupled to
aluminum and titanium alloys. An open-circuit potential difference of one
volt was obtained in 3.5 percent NaCl solution between the composite and
7075-T6, 7075-T651 and 5052-H38 alloys. This potential difference
provides a driving force for corrosion and is cause for concern. The
Ti-6A1-4V showed a difference of about 0.3 volt for the unpolished as
received material. Corrosion current data (zero impedance technique)
indicate that aluminum alloys and cadmium plate are much more reactive
than Ti-6A1-4V when coupled to graphite-epoxy. This technique provides a
means of ranking the severity of this corrosion problem for various
aircraft alloys. Flatwise tensile data indicate significant strength
losses when graphite-epoxy composite sandwich specimens are exposed to 5
percent salt spray and synthetic seawater plus sulfur dioxide spray
environments.
3. Environmental Exposure System for Studying Air Pollution Damage Materials.
J. W. Spence, F. D. Stump, F. H. Haynie, and J. B. Upham. NTIS Report
PB-240615/5ST, 1975, 46 pp. (Fe75-ll)
4. Long-Range Transportation of Air Pollutants and Corrosion Effects.
S. Haagenrud and B. Ottar. Proc. 7th Scandinavian Corrosion Conference,
1975, pp. 102-105. (Fe75-12)
5. Outdoor Corrosion Performance of Anodized and Electrolytically Coloured
Aluminum for Architectural Use. J. Patrie. Trans. Inst. Metal
Finishing, Spring/Conf., v. 53, No. 1, 1975, pp. 28-32.**
The corrosion resistance is reported of A1 sheet and A1 alloy (6063-
AlMgSi) extrusions anodized in I^SO^ and coloured with Cu and Ni salts.
Results indicate that the use of Ni salts provides a bronze colour having
long-term stability whereas Cu salts tend to reduce the corrosion
resistance of the anodic film, especially in dark shades.
6. Some Aspects of the Corrosion Resistance of Aluminum Alloys In a Marine
Atmosphere. A. Guilhaudis. Anti-Corrosion Methods Mat., v. 22, No. 3,
March 1975, pp. 12-16.**
Detailed data are given for a wide range of variously worked and
heat-treated Al alloys exposed for up to 10 years at the Salin-de-Giraud
(Mediterranean) and other marine sites. Al-Mg compositions were highly
resistant to immersion effects and, like the Al-Mg-Si alloys, to salt mist
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Al-13
and spray. In the unwelded states, comparable behaviour was also observed
with Al-Zn-Mg compositions. Cold-worked alloys proved as corrosion-
resistant as annealed specimens. Results for Al-Cu-Mg and cast alloys,
the effects of colour- and orthodox anodizing, and corrosion resistance at
an industrial site are also discussed.
7. Sulfur Dioxide and Material Damage. D. G. Gillette. J. Air Pollution
Control Assn., v.25, No. 12, December 1975, pp 1238-1243. (Fe75-17)
1974
1. Air Pollution Effects on Catastrophic Failure of Metals. J. Gerhard and
F. H. Haynie. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-650/3-74-009,
November 1974, 33 pp. (Fe74-2)
2. Corrosion of Metals in the Atmosphere. W. K. Boyd and F. W. Fink. MCIC
Report 74-23, Battelie-Columbus Labs., Metals and Ceramic Information
Center, Columbus, Ohio, August 1974, 77 pp. (Fe74-9)
3. Design of a Laboratory Experiment to Identify the Effects of Environmental
Pollutants on Materials. J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. Corrosion in
Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, 1974, American Society for Testing
and Materials, 1974, pp. 279-291. (Fe74-10)
4. Exfoliation Corrosion Testing of 7075 and 7178 Aluminum Alloys— Interim
Report on Atmospheric Exposure Tests. D. 0. Sprowls, T. J. Summerson
and F. E. Loftin. Corrosion in Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1974, pp. 99-113.
Atmospheric exposures of 18 to 39 months have been completed at
seacoast and inland industrial locations to determine the resistance to
exfoliation corrosion of specially heat-treated test panels of high-
strength aluminum alloys. Two seacoast locations, one at Point Judith,
Rhode Island, and another at Daytona Beach, Florida, were selected,
together with an industrial location near Chicago, Illinois, to represent
the relatively severe atmospheric conditions to which aluminum alloy
aircraft structures are subjected in service. The purpose of these tests
was to demonstrate the relationship of the performances in the accelerated
exfoliation corrosion tests previously evaluated by this task group with
those in relatively aggressive natural environments.
The exfoliation performance is being evaluated on test panels heat
treated to produce three different metallurgical structures that would be
expected to provide a high, low, and medium resistance to exfoliation of
both a 7075 alloy extrusion and a 7178 alloy rolled plate. Results
obtained thus far are gratifying in that the atmospheric exposures are
ranking the test materials in the same relative order as the new ASTM
Standard Method of Test for Exfoliation Corrosion Susceptibility in 7XXX
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Series Copper Containing Aluminum Alloys (G 34-72, EXCO test). That is,
the materials that showed either a high or a low resistance to exfoliation
in the EXCO test also showed the same performance in the seacoast
atmosphere, and that which showed an intermediate resistance in the EXCO
test showed more spotty and a slower rate of exfoliation in the
atmospheric exposures.
Exfoliation of the most susceptible items initiated more rapidly
(within five months) at the seacoast, but the exfoliation tended to be
more uniform at the industrial site. Other factors, such as the climatic
conditions at the seacoast, location and exposure position of the test
panels are considered.
5. Relationship of Accelerated Test Methods for Exfoliation Resistance in
7XXX Series Aluminum Alloys with Exposure to a Seacoast Atmosphere.
B. W. Lifka and D. 0. Sprowls. Corrosion in Natural Environments,
ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1974, pp. 306-
333.
Accelerated corrosion tests are necessary and an invaluable aid to
research and quality control engineers, provided that the test has
adequate discriminatory ability and the test results relate to
serviceability of the metal. An inherent problem associated with
accelerated exfoliation tests is the definition of different degrees of
susceptibility and the interpretation of borderline performances. The
concern in the present instance is that truly insignificant exfoliation
tendencies may be magnified out of proportion by the very rapid
exfoliation tests now being used in materials specifications for
exfoliation resistant 7XXX-T7 alloy products.
Correlation of accelerated tests with service environments or the
equivalent is necessary, and it is highly desirable that the range of
performances observed in the accelerated test be related to a similar
range of performances under service conditions. This paper contains the
results of relatively long exposures of test panels to the salt atmosphere
at a location about 100 yards from a stony beach at Point Judith, Rhode
Island, where the corrosive conditions are representative of other very
corrosive environments. These extended exposures are of particular
interest because they furnish a basis for evaluating indications of
borderline susceptibility to exfoliation revealed in the accelerated
corrosion tests.
Four- to eight-year exposures to this aggressive seacoast atmosphere
have demonstrated the excellent resistance to exfoliation of 7075-T73 and
T76 and 7178-T76 products, whereas exfoliation susceptible T6 temper
materials displayed considerable exfoliation after short exposures,
sometimes after only three to six months. Both the EXCO immersion test
(ASTM G 34-72) and- the salt spray test (modified ASTM acetic acid salt
intermittent spray) developed the same basic type of corrosion that
occurred in the seacoast atmosphere. It was shown, however, that the
accelerated tests, especially the spray test, tend to magnify slight
indications of susceptibility to exfoliation that are of doubtful
practical consequence. Suggestions are made for determining more
realistic visual acceptance criteria in 7XXX-T7X materials
specifications.
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6. Seven-Year Exposure at Point Reyes, California. W. H. Ailor. Corrosion
in Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 75-81.
This report is concerned with the data obtained from the 7-year Point
Reyes, California removals (second exposure). These exposed panels
included thirty-nine alloys of eight basis metals of the 1957 program.
Previous reports concerning this program may be found in the
Committee B-3 reports in the ASTM Proceedings for 1959, 1961, and 1962,
and in the Committee G-l report (1966 Proceedings).
A number of test panels were lost due to the work of vandals at the
Point Reyes test site during the fall of 1962. A fence subsequently
erected should protect panels still exposed for future years.
Replacements for 7- and 20-year panels for most alloys were exposed on
June 12, 1964. The 7-year panels were removed by task group member
T. J. Summerson on June 6, 1971 after a total of 2,550 exposure days. The
20-year test panels remain on the racks for subsequent removal.
7. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution. T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701, 1974, 156 pp. (Fe74-21)
8. The Mode of Initial Reaction of SO2 at a Metal Surface. J. R. Duncan and
D. J. Spedding. Corros. Sci., v. 14, 1974, pp. 241-249. (Fe74-23)
9. The Use of Weather and Climatological Data in Evaluating the Durability of
Building Components and Materials. L. W. Masters and W. C. Wolfe, NTIS
Report COM-74-50841/7, August 1974, 102 pp. (Fe74-25)
1973
1. Calculation of Atmospheric Corrosion Rate of Aluminum and its Alloys in
Various Climatic Zones According to Meteorological Parameters. Y. N.
Mikhailovskii, G. B. Klark, L. A. Shuvakhina, V. V. Agafonov, and
N. I. Zhuravleva. Protection of Metals, v. 9, 1973, p. 240.
The purpose of the work was to investigate the effect of meteorologi-
cal factors (humidity, air temperature, wetting time of metal surface,
chemical composition of atmosphere) on the corrosion rate of aluminum and
its alloys under natural conditions and to develop engineering methods for
calculating the corrosion effects expected on these materials in any
climatic zone.
2. Corrosion Caused by Perspiration. G. A. Tret'yakova and V. P. Barannik.
Zashch. Metal., v. 9, No. 6, 1973, pp. 715-717 (Russian). (Fe73-9)
3. New Radiofrequency Study of Metal Corrosion in Moist and Dry Gaseous
Media. P. V. Strekalov and Y. N. Mikhailovskii. Nov. Metody Issled.
Korroz. Metal., 1973, pp. 157-166 (Russian).
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Al-16
The method depends on the decrease in resonance frequency of a quartz
platelet with increase in mass. Changes in mass (of the order of
10""® g/cm^) of the metal layer deposited on the quartz film, can be
detected as changes in frequency of the order of 1-2 Hz. The experimental
application is described. Pure (99.9 percent) aluminum was coated on
quartz and adsorption of H2O was studied for different pressures of H2O
vapor (P) above it. Adsorbed H20 increases with P and the rate of
adsorption is maximum in the first L0-15 minutes. From the adsorption
isotherm (frequency shift versus P), the weight of a monolayer is
calculated. This indicates that the actual surface of aluminum is 30
times the apparent geometric surface. In an atmosphere of 93 percent
humidity, Mg adsorbs H20 and also forms oxide. Rate of oxide formation
was high in the first hour, reaching a thickness of 5 A and later becomes
low and approximately constant.
4. The Role of Aerobic Bacteria in Metal Corrosion. J. Brison. Corrosion,
Traitements, Protection, Finition, v. 21, No. 4, 1973, pp. 242-247
(French). (Fe73-23)
5. Weathering Protection of Aluminum by Varnish. Materiaux et Techniques,
v. 61, No. 2, 1973, pp. 46-50 (French).
Various air-drying raethacrylic varnishes are suggested. The surface
preparation of aluminum, varnish application by different methods,
thickness of film and drying are described and results of test in urban
and sea atmospheres are presented.
1972
1. Composition of the Atmospheric Corrosion Products of Aluminum.
I. A. Efimov, B. N. Rybakov, L. A. Knizhenko, G. V, Maslova, and U. Y.
Kharitonov. Zaschita Metallov, v. 8, No. 5, 1972, pp. 580-583
(Russian).
The literature gives much information on the phase composition of the
atmospheric corrosion products of aluminum and its alloys, but in most
cases it is conflicting. This due largely to the fact that field tests
performed in different climatic and meteorological conditions do not take
account of the true length of the corrosion process or the different
degrees of atmospheric pollution by corrosive gase.s. We have made an
attempt to determine the phase composition and thermal stability of the
atmospheric corrosion products of aluminum under various field test condi-
tions. Specimens of A-7 aluminum, obtained by continuous casting were
investigated. The climatic and meterological characteristics of the test
regions were assessed from the wetting times of the metal surfaces. The
atmosphere of the test regions was contaminated by sulfur dioxide, the
concentration of which was measured monthly by the linear-colorimetric
method.
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Al-17
2. Corrosion of Copper, Aluminum, and Zinc Alloys in a Sulfur Dioxide
Atmosphere. S. Kopczynski. Ochrona przed Korozja, v. 15, No. 6, 1972,
pp. 149-154 (Polish).
A general introduction to the influence of atmospheric S02 on the
corrosion of different kinds of metals is followed by the preparation of
samples, their location, and methods of testing (visual effects, micro-
scopic examination). The results of investigations carried out in con-
trolled S02 concentrations were as follows: copper and its alloys are
corroded about 15 to 20 times more than aluminum alloys; zinc alloys are
corr0ded 10 times more than aluminum, but are 2 times better than copper
alloys.
3. Exfoliation Corrosion of Aluminum Alloys. S. J. Ketcham and
I. S. Shaffer. Localized Corrosion—Cause of Metal Failure, ASTM
STP 516, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1972, pp. 3-16.
This paper is a general review of the subject of exfoliation
corrosion of aluminum alloys summarizing both published and unpublished
work. Present thinking on mechanisms is presented. Susceptible alloys
and the corrosive environments in which exfoliation occurs are discussed,
as well as effect of varying degrees of exfoliation on static and dynamic
fatigue strength of 7075-T6 and on life of an actual aircraft structure.
Protective coatings and special heat treatments to minimize exfoliation
are discussed.
4. Kinetic Study of the Uptake of Sulfur Dioxide by Aluminum.
D. J. Spedding. Br. Corros. J., v. 7, No. 6, 1972, pp. 281-284.
The laboratory investigations were of S-35 SO2 in atmospheric
concentrations on UKAEA foil. Uptake was always linear and strongly
dependent on humidity. The humidity dependence was probably related to
the equilibrium between gas-phase water and Al-surface water. The
fraction of sorbed-S(>2 desorbed when the S02 partial-pressure was reduced
and increased with decreasing humidity. Sulfur dioxide in aqueous phase
may be oxidized to sulfate, which produces free protons. This acidic
solution may attack the aluminum protective layer. When the surface is
saturated with water, sorbed SO2 probably moves into the aqueous phase and
is oxidized to sulfate. It is most likely that freshly exposed aluminum
takes up less SO2 than weathered aluminum as corrosion increases the
surface area. This would enable more water to be held and provide
increased sites for S02 sorption. The corrosion rate probably increases
until leveling off when the surface area has become constant.
5. Survey on the Metal Corrosion by Air Pollution: Effect of Glauber's Salt
on Metals. T. Nagano, A. Hattori, T. Nagai, Y. Ukishima, Y. Nakai, and
I. Iwasaki. Shizuoka-ken Eisei Kenkyusho Nenpo, No. 16, 1972, pp. 217—
226 (Japanese). (Fe72-18)
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Al-18
6. The Influence of the Relative Humidity and Corrosion Products on the
Adsorption of Sulfur Dioxide on Metal Surfaces. T. Sydberger and
N. G. Vannerberg. Corrosion Science, v. 12, No. 10, 1972, pp. 775-784.
(Fe72-22)
1971
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. M. Arpaia. Atti Not. Assoc. Ital.
Metall., v. 26, 1971, pp. 363-367 (Italian). (Fe71-5)
2. Atmospheric Tests. S. K. Coburn. Chapt. 17 in Handbook on Corrosion
Testing and Evaluation, edited by W. H. Ailor, Electrochemical Society,
Corrosion Monograph Series, J. Wiley, N.Y., N.Y., 1971, pp. 475-505.
(Fe71-6)
3, Corrosion by Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide. D. J. Spedding. Australasian
Corros Eng., v. 15, No. 8, 1971, pp. 27-36.
Ten-year corrosion data for aluminum and five alloys in rural,
industrial, and marine atmospheres (mils/year penetration and percentage
tensile-strength loss per year) are tabulated. The rate for aluminum in
industrial atmospheres is seven times that in rural conditions.
Laboratory work has shown that SO2 is absorbed on the surface. The total
amount increases markedly with increased humidity. Sulfuric acid is
formed, causing acidic destruction of the protective film. Field tests
have shown a 3.5-fold increase in corrosion rate for relative humidity
greater than 80 percent. Alloying with Mg, Mn, and, to some degree,
silicon reduces the aluminum atmospheric corrosion rate, particularly in a
marine environment, but Cu and Zn increase the corrosion in marine and
industrial atmospheres.
4. Corrosion of Metals by Sulfur Dioxide. G. K. Singhania, B. Lai, and
B. Sanyal. Labdev. Part A, v. 9, No. 3 & 4, 1971, pp. 214-216.
(Fe71-10)
5. Mechanism of Exfoliation (Layer Corrosion) of Aluminum—5% Zinc — 1%
Magnesium. E. Mattsson, L. 0. Gullman, L. Knutsson, R. Sundberg, and
B. Thundal. Brit. Corrosion J., v. 6, No. 2, March 1971, pp. 73-83.
The electrochemical properties of the phases occurring in the alloy
in the naturally-aged and artificially-aged conditions were investigated.
A saturated calomel half-cell was used as a reference electrode and a
platinum sheet as a counter electrode. The working electrode consisted of
a disc of the alloy or the single phase to be studied. The electrolyte
was an aerated aqueous solution of 0.5M NaCl and 10_I+M A.ICI3 using 0.1M
HC1 or 0.1M NaOH for adjustment to pH 3. The open-circuit potential was
measured when the working electrode had been in contact with the
electrolyte for 5 minutes. Polarization runs were performed by changing
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Al-19
the electrode potential step-wise and anodic and cathodic polarization
curves were determined. In the naturally-aged alloy the attack was
confined to lamellar zones caused by galvanic corrosion cells. Increase
in the Fe, Mn, and Si content decreased resistance to exfoliation. In the
artificially-aged condition the alloy was not prone to exfoliation but
showed a type of general attack. The zone next to a weld bead became
resistant to exfoliation on post- weld artificial aging, but this was not
the case for the zone at some distance from the weld bead.
6. Metal Coatings on Steel at Lighthouse Beach, Lagos. J. F. Stanners.
Brit. Corrosion J., v. 6, No. 5, Sept. 1971, pp. 211-215. (Fe71-17)
7. Resistance to Corrosion of Aluminum Coatings in Atmospheric Conditions,
Particularly in Polluted Atmospheres. V. Vesely. Soudage Tech.
Connexes, v. 25, No. 5-6, 1971, pp. 243-246 (French).
Corrosion tests were made on aluminum-coated ferrous metals which had
been exposed to several corrosive atmospheres to which a number of
chemical compounds had been added as pollutants. Of the 7 different
aluminum coatings tested (99.85 percent aluminum; 99.5 percent aluminum;
99.0 percent aluminum; AlMg; AIMn; AlMgMn; AlMgSi) the 99.5 percent
aluminum coating showed maximum corrosion protection at a coating thick-
ness of 150 to 300 pm.
8. Technical-Economic Evaluation of Air-Pollution Corrosion Costs on Metals
in the U.S. F. W. Fink, F. H. Buttner, and W. K. Boyd. NTIS Report
PB-198453, February 19, 1971, 149 pp. (Fe71-25).
1970
1. Accelerated Atmospheric Corrosion Tests in Polluted Air. Mild Steel and
Aluminum in Sulfur Dioxide Environment. S. Yamasaki and Y. Yokoi.
Boshoku Gijutsu, v. 19, 1970, pp. 335-339 (Japanese). (Fe70-1)
2. Corrosion of Building Materials. A. Valeriana de Seabra and M. Cravo.
Tecnica (Lisbon), v. 32, 1970, pp. 493-512 (Portuguese). (Fe70-6)
3. Effect of Chloride and Sulfate Ions on Oxide Film Growth on Aluminum
Immersed in Aqueous Solutions at 25°. H. P. Godard and E. G. Torrible.
Corros. Sci., v. 10, No. 3, 1970, pp. 135-142.**
The surface film growth was studied on 99.98 percent aluminum in
high-purity water containing 0 to 1,000 ppm S02 and 0 to 1,000 ppm Cl~,
either alone or mixed. Film growth in low concentrations of SO,^" was
dependent both on the area of metal exposed and on the SO^2*" concentra-
tion, film growth in the solution being inversely proportional to the
SO^2" concentration per unit surface area; this was expected on the basis
of a simple "selected site" theory for the Al/H20 reaction, the inhibiting
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Al-20
effect of SO^2- being due to its selective adsorption at these sites.
However, the rate decrease and decreased extent of film formation coupled
with increased induction period in the presence of SO2 plus increased pH
on film formation require the amplification of this simple theory. An
exchange hypothesis is used to rationalize the results by assuming that in
high purity water, OH ions substitute for 0^~ in the oxide film lattice,
that film growth is dependent on substitution of 0H~ for 0^~ ions
occurring at "selected sites" on the oxide/H20 interface, and that the
substitution or exchange of ions is slow and hence rate determining.
Inquiry Into the Economic Effects of Air Pollution on Electrical Contacts.
R. C. Robbins. SRI Project PSU-7345, Final Report, Stanford Research
Institute, April 1970, 39 pp.
A significant part of the total cost of air pollution is directly
related to the effects of air pollution on materials. The National Air
Pollution Control Administration wishes to analyze this cost, and one of
the areas of particular interest is the effect of air pollution on
electrical contacts. These devices have a special importance because they
are components of extensive communications, computer, and instrumentation
systems. The highest degree of reliability and performance is required
from electrical contacts to obtain satisfactory overall operation in these
systems.
The specific goal of this study was to survey, identify, and document
problems of economic significance caused by air pollution in the
utilization and operation of electrical contacts and other electrical
devices. If air pollution does cause problems, they were to be determined
and analyzed by searching the literature, by consulting with experts in
the field of electrical contact technology, and by consultation with
electrical engineers, manufacturers of electrical contacts, and users of
electrical devices.
Metallic Coatings for the Protection of Mild Steel From Corrosion at
Ambient Temperatures -2. Aluminum Coatings. C. Davies and N. J.
Hanford. Corrosion-Anti-Corrosion, v. 17, No. 7, 1970, pp. 20-22.
When exposed to the atmosphere, fresh aluminum rapidly forms an
impervious oxide film of aluminum, about 10~6mm thick. An increase in
weight/time curve becomes parallel with the time axis after only a few
days. From comparison of the standard electrode potentials of aluminum
and iron it would be expected that aluminum should exert better
sacrificial protection than zinc. However, in practice the protection of
steel by this mechanism is limited. This can be explained because the
insulating oxide film formed is more noble than aluminum itself, and hence
restricts electrochemical protection of bare steel at cracks and pores in
the coating.
The extent of sacrificial protection depends upon the area of steel
exposed and upon the environment. In atmospheres containing a high
chloride concentration, which destroys the oxide film, appreciable
cathodic protection occurs. In urban and rural areas where the oxide film
is not attacked, practically no galvanic protection occurs.
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Al-21
6. Reaction Between S02 and Wet Metal Surfaces. N. G. Vannerberg and
T. Sydberger. Corrosion Science, v. 10, 1970, pp. 43-49. (Fe70-ll)
7. Systems Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials. R. L.
Salmon. NTIS Report PB-209192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp. (Fe70-13)
8. The Weathering and Performance of Building Materials. J. W. Simpson and
P. J. Horrobin, eds, Medical and Technical Publishing Co. Ltd., 1970,
277 pp. (Fe70-17)
1969
1. A Study of Atmospheric Corrosion of Semifinished Products Made from
Aluminum Alloys. G. M. Budov. Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. on Metallic
Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeit 1inger, Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4,
1969, pp. 445-453.
Investigations have been conducted into the behavior of eight
aluminum alloys in five typical atmospheric zones of the USSR. The most
corrosive atmospheres proved to be those of the North Sea and the
industrial atmospheres characterized by the highest content of halogen
ions. Concentration of corrosive contaminants in the air proves to be
more important than the duration of the period the film of moisture stays
on the surface of the specimens. The high-alloyed aluminum alloys (AK6T1,
B95T1, and others) have displayed a tendency towards corrosion cracking
while some of them have also been characterized by exfoliation corrosion.
2. Aluminum Corrosion at Urban and Industrial Locations. W. H. Ailor, Jr.
Proc. American Soc. Civil Engr., Journal of the Structural Division,
October 1969, pp 2141-2160. (Fe69-21)
3. Calculation of Moistening and Metallic Corrosion in Atmospheric
Environment. A. I. Golubev and M. Kh. Kadyrov. Proc. 3rd Intern.
Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeitlinger,
Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4, 1969, pp. 522-531. (Fe69-24)
4. Corrosion of Aluminum Alloys in Corrosive Media. M. I. Subbotkin,
I. A. Efimov, and N. G. Smetanina. Zashch. Korroz. Stroit. Konstr,
Povysh. Ikh Dolgovechnosti, 1969, pp. 133-145.**
The endurance of the alloys was considered for more intense corrosive
atmospheres, viz. S02, HC1, NO2» C^j NH3, CS2, and H2S, as well as for
industrial construction. Alloys tested were representative of the Mg, Mn,
Mg-Si, and Cu systems not containing >5-7 percent of the principal alloy
constituent. The differential penetration speed dP/dT(10-tt mm) gave
similar results against initial times of 6-12 months, indicative of
progressive linear increase of protective effect by the corroded layer,
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Al-22
further modified by a horizontal or vertical orientation of the sample.
Exception was shown in corrosion speed by S02 after 18 months, but
especially by HC1 + Cl2 after 6 months, with higher initial rates of 500-
2000 units; in the latter case a multiplication of microcathodes and
disruption of protective layers has been suggested. With individual alloy
variance, the corrosion resistance increased in the systems Al-Cu-Mg, Al-
Mg-Si, A1-Mti, and Al-Mg. Clearly it became important to specify an alloy
type according to the atmospheric conditions, and especially with large
amounts of S02 or HC1, to guard against possible condensation.
5. Corrosion in the Atmosphere. P. Atterby. NTIS Report N71-26259 November
1969, 9 pp (Swedish). (Fe69-25)
6. Corrosion of Aluminum and Its Alloys in Air, Gases, and in Liquids. R.
B. Mears, M. Cigdemoglu. Demir Celik, v. 18, No. 11, 1969, pp. 323-328
and No. 12, 1969, pp. 354-357 (Turkish).**
Corrosion of pure and alloyed aluminum in liquids, air, and gases is
studied. Results obtained in liquids show that the oxygen concentration
has no influence on aluminum alloys which are more sensitive to the
temperature of the media, the maximum rate of reaction being observed at
70 to 80°. This rate does not depend on the pH, but highly on the types
of ions present. For example, aluminum alloys are slightly attacked by
weak solutions of HC1, I^SO^ and HNOg. Alloys without copper resist sea
and condensed water and generally organic acids at room temperature. But
the corrosion rate is very high with NaOH or K0H of concentration >0.01
percent. Inorganic salt solutions with a pH of 5-8.5 have no effect on
aluminum alloys, which are, however, attacked by chloride or mercury ions.
Aluminum is anodic in many solutions. Therefore, contact with copper or
copper alloys causes an intense galvanic effect. Aluminum is not attacked
by fused salts under normal conditions or organic solutions without
chloride or metallic ions. Corrosion resistance of underground aluminum
alloys depends on the climate and the earth composition. These alloys,
except those containing copper, are highly resistant to atmospheric
corros ion.
7. Painting of Metal Sprayed Structural Steelwork—Report on Conditions
Specimens after Five Years' Exposure. J. F. Stanners and
K. 0. Watkins. Australasian Corrosion Eng., v. 13, No. 10, October
1969, pp. 7-17. (Fe69-34)
8. Protection of Steel in the Atmosphere by Sprayed Metallic Coatings.
S. Klemantaski and J. F. Stanners. Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. on Metallic
Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4,
1969, pp. 509-521.
As part of a wide research on the protection of steel by metallic
coatings, the performance of the two main classes of sprayed coatings,
aluminum and zinc has been evaluated by exposure testing of flat
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Al-23
specimens. The coating thickness on both faces was nominally 3 mils and
specimens were exposed at 45° to the vertical, facing south.
For the aluminum coatings the exposure atmospheres were urban-
industrial and semi-rural and the effects studied included aluminum
purity, alloying with 5 percent zinc, method of deposition, atmosphere in
which deposition was carried out and the presence of gaps of two widths in
the coating. For the zinc coatings, only an urban-industrial exposure
atmosphere was used, and the effects studied included alloying with 5
percent aluminum and the presence of gaps of two widths in the coating.
In addition to the usual methods of inspection, the scanning electron
microanalyzer has been used.
The main general conclusion for the range of conditions covered in
the investigation is that aluminum coatings last well in both rural and
urban-industrial atmospheres. The coatings last better on exposed rather
than sheltered surfaces (in contrast to zinc), and are not greatly
influenced by the purity of the aluminum or the method of its
applicat ion.
9. Rapid Determination of Corrosivity of an Atmosphere to Aluminum.
D. P. Doyle and H. P. Godard. Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. on Metallic
Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4,
1969, pp. 429-437.
The paper deals with the use of the wire-on-bolt test method for
rapid determination of corrosivity of an atmosphere to aluminum. Results
are obtained in only three months and the specimens require little time
and materials to prepare and examine.
Atmospheric corrosivity indices (for aluminum) were measured at 39
locations in 10 countries in marine, industrial and rural atmospheres.
The variation in atmospheric corrosivity with season of the year was
determined at four locations. The influence of distance from the sea on
marine atmospheric corrosivity was determined at three widely separated
parts of the world.
Finally, corrosion experience obtained with actual and test lines of
steel-cored aluminum electrical power cables, in a number of marine
locations, is correlated with atmospheric corrosivity indices determine at
the same locations by the wire-on-bolt method.
1968
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Aluminum and Its Alloys: Results of Six-Year
Exposure Tests. V. E. Carter. Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM
STP 435, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1968, p. 257-270.
Results of atmospheric corrosion tests on four aluminum alloys at
five sites in Great Britain showed that corrosion, in the form of pitting,
increased with atmospheric pollution. Corrosion/time curves became
parallel to the time axis within two years at mild sites but at polluted
industrial sites had not done so in six years. Aluminum alloys were more
heavily attacked than high-purity aluminum, and a pure aluminum cladding
gave considerable protection to an aluminum-copper-magnesium alloy.
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Al-24
2. Atmospheric Exposure of Light Metals. S. M. Brandt and L. H. Adam. Metal
Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American Society for Testing
and Materials, 1968, pp. 95-128.
An evaluation is given of the effects of exposure on the tensile
strength of specimens of cast, wrought, and clad aluminum alloys and cast
and wrought magnesium alloys exposed at 5 different sites over the United
States for a period of 10 years. Aluminum casting alloys, whether sand or
permanent mold cast, show the greatest loss in tensile strength when
exposed to marine atmospheres. Aluminum cast alloys containing 3 to 5
percent copper showed the greatest loss in tensile strength, most of the
loss occurring in the first 3 years. Alloys with 6 percent zinc showed
little loss of tensile strength while inclusion of magnesium leads to
easier corrosion. Wrought aluminum alloy sheet panels, including one of
them containing 6 percent zinc showed a loss in tensile strength. Both
riveted sheet panel and unriveted sheet panel aluminum alloys undergo
similar effects. Wrought magnesium alloys showed a loss of tensile
strength for all exposure sites, the greatest loss being in the New York
site. Plate and extended bar specimens with increased section thickness
resist corrosion to a greater extent. Magnesium alloys, cast and wrought,
showed greater resistance to loss in tensile strength than aluminum
al loys.
3. Atmospheric Exposure of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys—Aluminum: Seven
Year Data. F. L. McGeary, T. J. Summerson, and W. H. Ailor, Jr. Metal
Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American Society for Testing
and Materials, 1968, pp. 141-173.
This report describes the results of weathering tests on 34 wrought
aluminum alloys exposed seven years at four ASTM sites in the United
States. Also included, for comparison, are data on three additional
aluminum alloys exposed six years at five sites in England.
The British industrial atmosphere exposures at Sheffield and London
were found to produce the most corrosion, particularly on the sheltered
sides of these panels which were exposed at an angle of 30 degrees from
the horizontal. The self-limiting corrosion characteristics were observed
on weather surfaces at all test sites in both countries.
The test will be continued and again reported after twenty years, as
was the case in a previous ASTM B-3 test (ASTM STP 175) on older aluminum
alloys.
4. Atmospheric Stress Corrosion Testing of Aluminum Alloys. H. B. Romans and
H. L. Craig, Jr. Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1968, pp. 61-82.
Results are given for stress corrosion studies carried out on a
number of aluminum alloys. Testing was done at Aruba, Netherlands
Antilles, Kure Beach, North Carolina, and Richmond, Virginia. These sites
provided environments that ranged from tropical marine to mild industrial.
Failure times are compared with laboratory and service results. One aim
was to study the effect of prolonged aging at ambient temperatures. In
aluminum-magnesium alloys this aging may produce a metallurgical structure
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Al-25
which makes these alloys subject to stress corrosion cracking. Specimens
aged at higher temperatures do show this response in laboratory and
atmospheric tests. From these accelerated data Arrhenius plots predict
these alloys should become susceptible within two to five years if aged at
ambient temperatures. However, test results do not bear this out. It is
possible to draw erroneous conclusions from only one type of test. For at
least one alloy, the rate of failure is much more rapid in the atmosphere
than in an accelerated laboratory test. This has been attributed to an
interaction between specimens tested in a communal solution. In
conclusion, either a laboratory or an atmospheric test is, in itself,
insufficient to characterize the stress corrosion behavior of an
engineering material. These two tests give data that are complimentary
instead of supplementary. Both types are necessary to evaluate the
potential hazards of a material having some degree of stress corrosion
suscept ibi1ity.
5. Corrosion of Metals by Aqueous Solutions of the Atmospheric Pollutant
Sulfurous Acid. W. McLeod and R. R. Rogers. Electrochem. Technol.,
v. 6, No. 7-8, July-August 1968, pp. 231-235. (Fe68-3)
6. Increased Connector Contact Reliability. M. Ball, F. H. Hardie and E. J.
Struckus, The Electronic Engineer, March 1968, pp. 82-85.
One of the penalties of modularizing a digital system is that more
external connectors are needed, since every module requires its own
connector. These connectors severely limit the attainable reliability.
Recently, we conducted environmental tests to determine which
properties of electrical contact materials could adversely affect
reliability. The tests were performed for over a year at several test
sites. Relative humidity at these sites varied from around 10% to over
80%. Measured airborne contaminants included various amounts of N022, RF,
NHo, SO2, Og. CI2 and H£S. Ambient temperatures varied over a range from
60^ to 100'F.
7. Investigations of the Corrosion-Causing Properties of Volatile Acids and
Anhydrous Acids. E. Iaengle. Eidgenoessische Technischen Hochschule,
Zurich, Switzerland. Ph.D. Thesis, 1968, 43 pp. (German). (Fe68-ll)
8. Performance of Aluminum Alloys at Other Test Sites. W. H. Ailor, Jr.
Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1968, pp. 285-307.
Data covering a 7-year period are presented on the corrosion behavior
of 11 aluminum alloys at 4 test sites. A decrease in corrosion rate
occurred for all alloys after the second year. Depth of pitting decreased
with time, and slight increases in depth were noted between the second and
seventh years. The industrial site was most corrosive, followed by the
moderate industrial, coast marine, and rural marine atmosphere in the
order of decreasing severity. The value of cladding basic alloys such as
3003 and 6861 was demonstrated. Maximum pit depth were 14.7 mils for the
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Al-26
aluminum-copper alloy, 10 mils for the aluminum-magnesium alloy, 5.2 mils
for the aluminum-magnesium-Si alloy, and 6.3 mils for high-purity
aluminum.
9. Resistance of Aluminum in Polluted Atmospheres. E. Mattsson. Tekn.
Tidskr., v. 96, No. 38, October 1968, pp. 767-770.
The increasing atmospheric pollution with sulfur compounds in Western
Europe is discussed and the advantages of aluminum in resisting
atmospheric corrosion are illustrated under various atmospheric conditions
in different countries.
10. The Effect of Initial Weather Conditions on the Atmospheric Corrosion of
Aluminum and Its Alloys. V. E. Carter and H. S. Campbell. Metal
Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American Society for Testing
and Materials, 1968, pp. 39-42.
Weight losses for specimens of aluminum alloys exposed for one year
to moderately severe industrial and marine atmospheres were similar for
groups of specimens put out initially in winter or summer. The depth of
pitting on those put out in the winter was, however, from 1-1/2 to 2-1/2
times as great as on those put out in the summer. The difference is
explained by the specimens exposed in winter remaining covered with a film
of moisture for a greater proportion of the time during their first few
weeks or months on test. It is recommended that, when comparing the
atmospheric corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys, tests should be
started both in summer and in winter.
1967
1. Corrosion by Air Pollution. J. R. Goss. Proc. Annu. Conf., Nat. Soc.
Clean Air, No. 34, 1967, pp. 75-92. (Fe67-4)
2. The Sulfur Dioxide-Repellent Action of Aluminum Exposed to the Influence
of the Atmosphere. G. Schikorr. Aluminum, v. 43, No. 2, 1967, pp.
108-110.**
Aluminum sheets (area 100 cm2), exposed to the natural atmosphere
for 0.5 to 2 years lost 1.6 to 5.4 mg in weight, and less than 1 mg of
sulfur dioxide was absorbed by the metal surface. Steel under similar
conditions lost 1.1 to 4.1 g in weight and absorbed 22 to 55 mg of
sulfur dioxide. The resistance of aluminum is due to its low sulfur
dioxide absorption, probably because the oxide or hydroxide coating on
its surface is only weakly alkaline.
3. Weathering of Aluminum—Atmospheric Testing of Aluminum Alloys.
F. L. McGeary, E. T. Englehart, and P. J. Ging. Mat Is. Protection,
v. 6, No. 6, June 1967, pp. 33-38.
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Performance data on aluminum alloys exposed to the atmosphere for
30 years at Point Judith, Rhode Island and New Kensington, Pennsylvania
are presented. Eighty years of service data from points throughout world
are reported. This paper updates previous papers on performance of
aluminum in various atmospheric conditions.
1966
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals at Bhavnagar. V. S. Rao. Indian
J. Technol., v. 4, No. 5, 1966, pp. 159-161. (Fe66-3)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel, Zinc, Cadmium, Copper, and Aluminum in
Different Coastal and Continental Regions. G. K. Berukshtis and G. B.
Klark. Corrosion of Metals and Alloys, Collection No. 2, Israel Program
for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1966, pp. 281-297. (Fe66-4)
3. Corrosion Behavior of Salt Powder Towards Various Metals. A. Bukowiecki
and B. G. Joshi. Schweiz. Arch. Angew. Wiss. Tech., v. 32, No. 2, 1966,
pp. 42-54. (Fe66-5)
4. How Atmospheric_Condit ions Can Corrode Refinery Equipment.
P. W. Sherwood. Erode 1 Kohle (Hamburg), v. 19, No. 4, April 1966,
pp. 289-290 (German). (Fe66-7)
1965
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels Related to Meteorological Factors in
Japan. III. Results of Weathering Tests Conducted on Metallic Coatings
for 3 Years. K. Oma, T. Sugano, T. Ueki, and Y. Hirai. Boshoku
Gijutsu, v. 14, No. 3, 1965, pp. 103-108 (Japanese).
Weathering tests on metallic coatings were made for 3 years in 7
typical districts. The specimens were mild steel plates coated with
various metals by electroplating, metallizing, or hot dipping, and were
exposed to the atmosphere. Their corrosion resistances were compared
under the environmental peculiarities of those districts. The following
metallic coatings were particularly resistant to weathering in all the
districts. Electroplating with zinc, zinc with chromate treatment, or
cadmium metallizing with zinc or aluminum; hot-dipping with zinc or
aluminum.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Products of Some Commercial Metals. H. J. Meyer.
Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 44-52 (German). (Fe65-3).
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3. The Significance of Sulfur Dioxide in the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
G. Schikorr. Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 27-34 (German). (Fe65-20)
1964
1. The Influence of Sulphur Dioxide on the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
G. Schikorr. Werkst. Korro., v. 15, No. 5, 1964, pp. 457-463.
1963
1. Galvanic Corrosion Behavior of Aluminum in the Atmosphere. H. P. Godard.
Materials Protection, v. 2, No. 6, 1963, p. 38.
Wire-on-bolt test assemblies were used to determine galvanic
corrosion behavior of aluminum in contact with eight other metals when
exposed to various atmospheres. Test procedure and environments at sites
are given. The paper describes method of determining corrosion loss due
to galvanic corrosion. Tabular data summarizes test results. Results
also are given on crevice corrosion behavior of aluminum in the
atmosphere.
2. Ten-Year Weathering Data on Aluminum Alloys. W. H. Ailor, Jr. and
F. M. Reinhart. Mater. Protect., v. 2, No. 6, 1963, pp. 30-31, 33, a
36.
The procedure used to evaluate corrosion resistance of various
aluminum alloys to urban and marine atmospheric exposures is outlined.
Effects of corrosion on mechanical properties of the alloys are discussed,
as well as pit depths. Corrosion rates on aluminum level off after about
2 years exposure and remain relatively constant. Corrosion resistances of
various tempers of the same alloy showed little variation.
1962
1. Aluminum Alloys Corrosion Behavior in an Industrial Environment.
F. F. Booth and K. G. Latimer. Corrosion Technology, v. 9, No. 11,
1962, pp. 315-320. (Fe62-1)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion by Electrolyte Nuclei. B. Sanyal and D. V. Bhadwar.
J. Sci. Industr. Res., v. 21D, 1962, p. 243. (Fe62-2)
3. The Possibilities of Increasing the Resistance of Steel Against
Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Intern. Symp. Anti-Corrosion
Protect. Bratislava, v. 1, 1962, 8 pp. (Fe62-8)
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1961
r
1. Corrosion in Buildings. P. J. Sereda. Caradiar Building Digest, Report
No. CBO-20, August 1961, 4 pp. (Fe61-5)
2. Effect of Nitrogen Tetroxide on Metals and Plastics. C. W. Alley,
A. W. Hayford, and H. F. Scott, Jr. Corrosion, v. 17, No. 10, October
1961, pp. 479t-484t. (Fe61-6)
3. The Resistance of Aluminum Alloys to Corrosion. E. H. Dix, Jr., R. H
Brown and W. W. Binger. Metals Handbook, v. 1, 8th edition, American
Society for Metals, 1961, pp. 916-935.
The topics discussed include: contact between dissimilar metals;
stress corrosion; atmospheric weathering; resistance to waters; alumin
alloys for the chemical industry. The final section of the paper
describes the performance of aluminum with specific chemicals.
1960
1. Evaporated Metal Films As Indicators of Atmospheric Pollution. J. P.
Lodge, Jr., and B. R. Havlik. Int. J. Air Pollution, v. 3, No. 4, 1960,
pp. 249-252. (Fe60-4)
1959
1. Corrosion of Metals in Synthetic Atmospheres Containing Sulfur Dioxide.
B. Sanyal and D. V. Bhadwar. J. Sci. and Ind. Research (India), v. 18A,
February 1959, pp. 69-74. (Fe59-3)
2. Deterioration of Materials in Polluted Atmospheres. J. E. Yocum.
Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, October 1959, pp. 541t-545t. (Fe59-5)
3. Mechanism by Which Nonferrous Metals Corrode in the Atmosphere. P. M.
Aziz and H. P. Goddard. Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, 1959, pp. 529t-533t.
Literature dealing with the mechanism by which nonferrous metals
corrode in the atmosphere is reviewed, particular emphasis being given to
the important series of papers published by W. H. J. Vernon and his
co-workers in the period extending from 1923 to the present. The
influence of the common atmospheric constituents is discussed and related
to the chemical composition and properties of the corrosion product film
formed. The influence of these on the atmospheric corrosion rate is also
discussed in relation to the nature of the corrosive atmosphere. The
atmospheric corrosion of nickel, copper, zinc, aluminum, and magnesium is
discussed.
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4. Reaction Mechanism for the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals in Damp an
Sulfur Dioxide-Containing Air. K. Barton and E. Beranek. Werkstaffe u.
Korros., v. 10, 1959, pp. 377-383. (Fe59-7)
1958
1. Durability Tests of Structural Sandwich. E. W. Kuenzi and L. W. Wood.
Symposium on Some Approaches to Durability in Structures, ASTM STP 236,
American Society for Testing Materials, 1958, pp 27-34. (Fe58-4)
2. Influence of Dust and the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. K. Barton.
Werks. Korr. , v. 9, Aug-Sept 1958, pp. 547-549 (German). (Fe58-7)
3. Investigation of Effects of Atmospheric Corrosion on Fatigue Life of
Aluminum Alloys. H. A. Leybold, H. F. Hardrath, and R. L. Moore.
NACA—Tech Note 4331, September 1958, 17 pp.
Corrosion fatigue tests were conducted outdoors at Langley
Aeronautical Laboratory on 2024-T3 and 7075-T6 specimens in bare and clad
forms. Cyclic loads were applied to 25 specimens 4,000 times in 10 minute
periods each working day. For comparison, 24 specimens of each material
were tested indoors. Fatigue lifetimes of all materials tested, except
2024 T3 clad, were significantly reduced by atmospheric corrosion.
1957
1. The Corrosion of Aluminum for Building Purposes and Its Prevention.
F. Podbreznik. Zastita Materijala, v. 5, 1957, pp. 389-394.
The corrosive damages of N^Cl, asphalt, concrete, fume gases, rubber,
lime, NaHCOj, Na2C0j, varnishes, water, wax, wastes, and sea water were
determined on aluminum and aluminum alloys. Prevention and cleaning
methods are discussed.
2. The Effects of Air Pollution on Buildings and Metalwork. R. J. Schaffer.
Air Pollution, edited by M. W. Thring Ed. Butterworth Scientific,
London, 1957, pp. 58-71. (Fe57-5)
1956
1. Corrosion Studies. X. The Mechanism of the Atmospheric Corrosion of
Metals in Moist Atmospheres Contaminated With Sulfur Dioxide. K. Barton
and E. Beranek. Chem. Listy, v. 50, 1956, pp. 1388-1398. (Fe56-6)
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Al-31
2. Effect of 20-Year Marine Atmosphere Exposure on Some Aluminum Alloys. F.
M. Reinhart and G. A. Ellinger. Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous
Metals, ASTM STP 175, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1956,
p. 47.
In 1932, specimens of all commercially available structural aluminum
alloys, as well as some experimental alloys, were exposed for Long-time
weather exposure tests at Coco Solo, Canal Zone, Norfolk, Virginia, and
Washington, D.C. The order of merit with regard to corrosion resistance
of these alloys was the same for all localities, although the urban
atmosphere at Washington was considerably less corrosive than either of
the marine atmospheres. Examination after approximately 20 years of
exposure revealed that all of the non-heat-treatable alloys containing
less than 4 percent of magnesium and one containing about 1 percent of
manganese were very resistant to corrosion of the non-heat-treatable
alloys, the clad varieties and one alloyed with about 2 percent of cadmium
were quite corrosion reistant, while those containing copper, silicon, and
manganese were the least resistant. Aluminum-copper alloys were very
susceptible to intergranular corrosion and rapid disintegration when
improperly quenched or artificially aged unless they were adequately
protected. Anodically formed surface films increased the corrosion
resistance of the alloys more than did the film formed by immersion in
chemical solutions. The most protective paints were those pigmented with
zinc chromate and, to a lesser extent, those with aluminum powder. Almost
complete protection was afforded by anodically-formed surface films coated
with paints pigmented with zinc chromate or aluminum powder or both.
3. Galvanic-couple Corrosion Studies by Means of the Threaded Bolt and Wire
Test. K. G. Compton and A. Mendizza. Atmospheric Corrosion of
Nonferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1956, pp. 116-125. (Fe56-7)
4. Report of Subcommittee on Atmospheric Corrosion. H. R. Copson.
Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1956, pp. 3-19.*
The 20-yr. results on corrosion rate, change in tensile strength, and
ductility on 24 nonferrous metals and alloys which were exposed to the
atmosphere at 7 locations are tabulated in this report. This test is now
concluded. No attempt has been made to analyze the data or compare the
materials.
5. Resistance of Aluminized Steel to Atmospheric Corrosion. J. C. Merritt
and W. E. McFee. Iron Age, v. 178, No. 26, 1956, pp. 60-61.
Aluminum-coated sheet steel is well suited to resist atmospheric
corrosion. It stands up well in industrial atmosphere and has good
fabricating properties. The coating life of this material is at least 3
times that of commercial-weight zinc coatings in normal or mild indus-
trial atmospheres. Samples have withstood an exposure test now more than
17 years, while zinc coatings on the same exposure test had failed in 12
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Al-32
years. Underwater exposure characteristics are poor. Aluminized steel
has a low coefficient of expansion and still has half its normal strength
at 900° F. Thickness for thickness, a cost saving of 29 to 45 percent can
be expected when aluminized steel is used instead of aluminum. The
initial cost is higher than for galvanized steel, but is less than
galvanized steel plus one field coat of paint. Painting aluminized steel
is unnecessary.
6. Resistance of Aluminum-Base Alloys to 20-Year Atmospheric Exposure. C.
J. Walton and W. King. Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals,
ASTH STP 175, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1956, p. 21
This paper comprises a discussion of the 20-year atmospheric
weathering data obtained on wrought aluminum-base alloys included in an
investigation on non-ferrous raetals sponsored by Committee B-3 of the
American Society for Testing Materials. The pertinent data obtained after
exposure periods of 1, 3, 6, 10 and 20 years have been tabulated and also
arranged graphically to illustrate characteristics of specific interest,
such as (1) effect of natural aging on the tensile strength of specimens
stored indoors for 20 years; (2) rating of the corrosivity of the seven
atmospheric conditions employed; and (3) the rate of weathering of the
five aluminum alloys. These important data have been further enhanced by
correlating them with equally long-time data obtained by the Aluminum
Research Laboratories on similar alloys in other atmospheric environments,
and on newer aluminum alloys which now complement or supersede the alloys
which had been in the ASTM investigation.
1955
1. Atmospheric Galvanic Couple Corrosion. K. G. Compton, A. Mendizza, and W.
W. Bradley. Corrosion, v. 11, No. 9, 1955, pp. 35-44. (Fe55-1)
2. Metal Coatings on Steel in Contact With Aluminum Alloys. Some Comparative
Corrosion Tests. S. C. Britton and R. W. de Vere Stacpoole.
Metallurgia, v. 52, 1955, pp. 64-70. (Fe55-4)
3. The Corrosion Behavior of Aluminum. H. P. Godard. Corrosion, v. 11,
No., 12, 1955, pp. 542-552.
The practical corrosion behavior of aluminum is reviewed for the
non-specialist. Included is a discussion of the following topics: the
relative nature of corrosion resistance, resistance criteria, factors
influencing corrosion rates, common corrosion problems, how to choose a
alloy, and galvanic, deposition, crevice and pitting corrosion. Specif
information is given on corrosion in six major environments. Other topics
considered include corrosion of brazed and welded joints, atmospheric
performance of anodized aluminum and preventive measures.
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Al-33
1953
1. Corrosion Resistance of Aluminum and Its Alloys in Industrial Atmosphere
G. Luft and A. Perrone. Alluminio, v. 22, 1953, pp. 256-269.
Aluminum and its alloys, and unprotected and surface-protected
ferrous materials were exposed to industrial atmospheres. In the vicinity
of the S. Giuseppe di Cairo plant of Montecatini S.A. the atmosphere is
more corrosive (because of NO, N02, S02, C02, CaCNC^^j and sometimes S03)
than that of Larderello near the fumaroles of boric acid (containing
H3BO3, NH3, H2S, and C02). Twelve months' exposure in the first location
caused considerable corrosion whereas no corrosion occurred in the second
location after 24 months. Aluminum alloys with proper surface treatment
are more resistant than are ferrous materials to corrosion in industrial
atmospheres.
2. Resistance of Aluminum Alloys to Weathering. C. J. Walton, D. 0.
Sprowls, and J. A. Nock, Jr. Corrosion, v 9, No. 10, October 1953, pp.
345-358.
Extensive data were selected from tests of thousands of specimens of
aluminum alloys, exposed in natural atmosphere for periods as long as 20
years. The effects of weathering were evaluated by measurement of
change in strength and depth of attack. The rate of attack was found to
decrease to very low values after initial exposure period.
3. Resistance of Aluminum to Chemically Contaminated Atmospheres.
W. W. Binger, R. H. Wagner, and R. H. Brown. Corrosion, v. 4, No. 12
December 1953, pp. 440-447.
Tests at Research Laboratories of Aluminum Co. of America reported
effect of chemical dusts on aluminum surface; practical examples of
resistance to chemical atmospheres of aluminum roofing and siding;
corrosion resistance of aluminum tank roofs. Good results were obtained
in the use of aluminum for heat exchangers, piping and tubing.
1952
1. Aluminum. R. L. Horst. Chem. Eng., v. 59, No. 5, May 1952, pp. 300-316.
This paper summarized information on the corrosion resistance of
aluminum and its alloys to over 100 common corrosives with data on
applications, composition, etc; on types of aluminum equipment used in
process industries; and on typical mechanical properties of aluminum
alloys.
2. Some Further Observations on the Painting of Aluminum Alloys.
W. A. Edwards. Light Metals, v. 15, No. 167, 1952, pp. 61-63. (Fe52-5)
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Al-34
1951
1. Corrosion of Copper, Aluminum, and Magnesium and Their Alloys. M. Orraan
and E. Zalesinski. Hutnik, v. 18, 1951, pp. 96-101 (Polish).
A description of different types of corrosion of copper and copper
alloys is given. The most frequent types of corrosion are characterized
as uniform, local, and strain corrosion. Such factors as the influence of
chemical composition and protective coatings are discussed. A review of
different aluminum, magnesium alloys is given. The properties of these
all tabulated and the corrosion of the other light alloys is discussed.
1950
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metallic Materials in Closed Spaces.
G. Schikorr. Feinmech. u. Prazis, v. 54, 1950, pp. 3-8.
The effect of various gases in the atmosphere on the corrosion of A1,
Pb, Cu, Cr, and Ag is reported.
1949
I. The Effect of Atmospheric Exposures on the Stress Corrosion of Aluminum
Alloys. G. Schikorr and G. Wassermann. Z. Metallkunde, v. 40, 1949,
pp. 201-205.
Results of 6-year exposure tests of bent and riveted sheets of
aluminum-magnesium, aluminum-copper-magnesium, and aluminum-zinc-
magnesium alloys in rural, urban, industrial, and marine atmospheres at 17
German locations are summarized in comparison with laboratory tests in 3
percent NaCl solutions at 70®.
1929
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals—3rd Report to the Atmospheric Corrosion
Research Committee. J. C. Hudson. Trans. Faraday Soc., v. 25, 1929
pp. 177-252.
Of 16 non-ferrous metals and alloys, most were but slightly subject
to atmospheric corrosion. Changes in appearance might influence the us of
one or the other if used for decorative purposes. No definite conclusions
are presented regarding the rate of corrosion versus time. However, it is
believed that there is a direct proportionality between the two. Films of
corrosion products may limit further corrosion, depending upon the
solubility and chemical composition of the resulting film. For example,
arsenical copper is more resistant than high-conductivity copper. Samples
fully exposed to the atmosphere show higher rates than those under
Stevenson screens. The changes in tensile strength and in electrical
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A1—35
resistance agree closely except for brass, indicating the absence of
pitting or intercrystallization corrosion. There is considerable
difference between weight loss, the weight increment and the resistance
tests. The discrepancies are attributed to wind shelter, to penetration
of the metal at crystallization boundaries in weight-loss tests and to
local action due to H2O droplets. Dezincification of bras causes
appreciable losses in strength (more for 60/40 brass than for 70/30
brass). The indices of corrodibility outdoors for rural, suburban urban,
marine and industrial atmospheres are, respectively, 1.0, 1.6, 2.8, 2.1,
and 2.3 with 1, 2.1, 5.8, 2.2, and 2.8 when under Stevenson screens. The
corrosion rates in continuous tests show a decrease with time over the
periods investigated. Copper, Cd-Cu, As-Cu, Sn-bronze an Al-bronze gave
the lowest increments in weight, probably due to the formation of
insoluble corrosion products. Evidence is given to show that the
existence of critical humidities for the various metals all being below
saturation except for aluminum and copper. Nickel is liable to attack
without much loss in tensile strength in atmospheres high in sulfur
compounds. Resistance methods consistently give higher results than
weight-loss tests, because weight-loss measurements are necessarily
minimum values.
2. The Relative Corrodibi1 ities of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys.
Part II—The Results of Seven Years' Exposure to Air at Birmingham.
J. N. Friend. J. Inst. Metals, v. 42, 1929, pp. 149-155. (Fe29-2)
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Cu-1
COPPER ALLOYS
1982
1. A Probe for Monitoring Corrosion In Marine Environments. V. S. Agarwala.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 183-192. (Fe82-1)
2. Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. Hans C. Martin.
Materials Performance, v. 21, No. 1, 1982, pp. 36-39. (Fe82-3)
3. Atmospheric Active Pollutant Indicator. S. P. Carbone and E. Corl.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 179-182.
Atmospheric contamination detection has been demonstrated with an
integrating pollutant sensor. A thin layer of polyethylene glycol 400
placed between adjacent d-c biased copper electrodes was subjected to two
environments containing differing levels of sulfur dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, nitrogen dioxide, and chlorine at 25°C and 70% RH. Sensors were
also placed in two additional rooms, ambient and 25°C/70% RH environments.
Failure rates, as measured by the electrical "shorting" time from the
"bridged" metal growth, significantly varied with the pollutant
concentration. Elemental microprobe analysis of metal dendritic growth
between conductors revealed the presence of sulfur and chlorine. These
elements are typically present in atmospheric gases.
4. Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper Alloys Exposed for 15 to 20 years. L. P.
Costas. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and
E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP, 1982,
pp. 106-115.
Copper alloys were exposed for 15 to 20 years at two marine, one
industrial, and one rural location. Based on average corrosion rates for
13 alloys, the industrial corrosion rate was 1.4 ym/year whereas the rate
for the other sites was approximately 0.7 ym/year. As expected, alloying
agents affected the corrosion rates by a factor of 2 to 3.
General attack was the predominant form of corrosion. Dezincifica-
tion was positively identified in C260 alloy and intergranular attack was
noted in C642. Pitting was not a factor for any alloy.
5. Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper and its Alloys, E. Mattsson and R. Holm.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 365-382.
A thin invisible oxide coating is formed in dry atmospheres at
ambient temperature. Stationary water or hygroscopic impurities on the
surface may cause staining. A darkish oxide coating is formed outdoors,
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Cu-2
and Later on, under favorabLe conditions, a green patina of basic copper
salts. General corrosion (0.5 to 2pm/y) is the dominating corrosion type.
Brasses, especially (a + 3)~brasses, may also suffer dezincification.
Brass structures under mechanical tension sometimes fail due to stress
corrosion cracking.
6. Atmospheric Corrosion Tests of Copper and Copper Alloys in Sweden - 16
Year Results. R. Holm and E. Mattsson. Atmospheric Corrosion of
Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society for
Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767 , 1982, pp. 85-105.
In 1958, exposure tests were started in rural, marine, and urban
atmospheres in Sweden, covering 36 copper alloys in sheet or rod form.
Test results after two and seven years' exposure have been reported
earlier. This is the concluding report of the tests as completed after 16
years' exposure.
Greenish coatings had developed on most of the materials after six to
seven years at the urban and marine sites. At the rural site, however, no
distinct green coating had developed on any material after 16 years, only
different shades of black or brown. The amount of patina retained
increased substantially from 7 to 16 years of exposure. The patina was
found to be more protective in the marine and rural atmospheres than in
the urban one. The patina was also examined by X-ray analysis and
scanning electron microscopy-EDX.
The average penetration (determined gravimetrically during 16 years
of exposure had stabilized at the following levels:
0.3 to 0.5 vim/year in rural atmosphere
0.5 to 0.9 yra/year in marine atmosphere
0.9 to 1.3 pm/year in urban atmosphere
The dezincification rate of brass had decreased somewhat during the
period from 7 to 16 years. It was highest for brasses with an (a + $)-
phase structure. The maximum dezincification depth measured metallogra-
phically after 16 years was 90 to 215 ym. The loss in ultimate tensile
strength was 5 to 15 percent and the reduction in elongation ranged up to
30 percent.
7. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Australasia. J. F. Moresby, F. M. Reeves
and D. J. Spedding. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 745-754. (Fe82-15)
8. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Brazil. A. C. Dutra and R. Vianna.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. ^H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 755-774. (Fe82-16)
9. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Finland. T. Hakkarainen and S. Ylasaari.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 787-796. (Fe82-17)
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14
15
16
17
18
19
20,
Cu-3
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing In the Federal Republic of Germany. G.
Oelsner. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York,
N.Y., 1982, pp. 797-806. (Fe82-18)
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Southern Africa. B. G. Callaghan.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 893-912. (Fe82-21)
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Spain. S. Feliu and M. Morcillo.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.
1982, pp. 913-922. (Fe82-22)
Atmospheric Corrosion Tests in the USSR. Y. N. Mikhailovskii and P.V.
Strekalov. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 923-942. (Fe82-23)
Atmospheric Weather Factors in Corrosion Testing. H. Guttman.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 51-68. (Fe82-25)
Colloid and Surface Phenomena in the Corrosion of Metals. E. Matijevic,
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 123-138. (Fe82-28)
Economic Assessment of Pollution Related Corrosion Damage. F. H. Haynie.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 3-18. (Fe82-33)
Electrotopography - A New Tool for Corrosion Research. M. Ensanian.
Extended Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion
(October 5-10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v.
80-2, 1980, pp. 480-482. (Fe82-36)
Environment, Microenvironment, and the Durability of Building Materials.
P. J. Sereda and H. E. Ashton. J. Durability of Building Materials,
v. 1, No. 1, 1982, pp. 49-66. (Fe82-37)
Evaluation of the Effects of Microclimate Differences on Corrosion. F. H.
Haynie. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and
E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767,
1982, pp. 286-308. (Fe82-39)
General, Localized, and Stress-Corrosion Resistance of a Series of Copper
Alloys in Natural Atmospheres. A. P. Castillo and J. M. Popplewell.
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Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr. and
E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767,
1982, pp. 60-84.
The general, localized, and stress-corrosion performance of a series
of copper-base alloys exposed to marine, urban-industrial, and heavy in-
dustrial environments is described after 12 years' exposure. The effect
of alloying additions, test environment, and test parameters are reported
versus corrosion susceptibility.
21. Indoor Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Cobalt and Iron.
D. W. Rice, R. J. Cappell, P. B. P. Phipps, and P. J. Peterson.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 651-666.
The current understanding of the indoor corrosion of copper, silver,
nickel, cobalt, and iron is discussed as a subset of the broad problem of
atmospheric corrosion. The quantitative importance of water vapor and
certain pollutants is presented followed by a discussion of the magnitude
of indoor corrosion, statistical aspects of indoor corrosion, indoor at-
mospheric parameters, and a comparison to outdoor pollutant and rate data.
22. Passivation of Copper: Role of Some Anions in the Mechanism of Film
Formation and Breakdown. F. M. Al-Kharafi and Y. A. El-Tantawy. Corr.
Sci., v. 22, No. 1, 1982, pp. 1-12.
The effect of SO^"^, Cl~ and I" ions on the anodic currents of the
successive passivating processes that take place in alkaline phosphate
solutions, on the above has been studied using potentiodynamic,
galvanodynamic and open circuit potential measurements. Additions of I"
resulted in the largest current increase followed by Cl~. Additions of
SOi^- showed an initial anodic current decrease, a trend that was reversed
with the progress of cycle number. While the current increase, of Cu(l)
oxide, with increasing halide additions, follows closely:
(a[x~])
Ai «
(B + m[x~])
that of the Cu(II) oxide process obeyed
Ai * A[X_]
where Ai is the increase in peak current and [x~] the halide concentration
added. A mechanism involving adsorption of the halide ions on the
electrode surface and/or exchange with 0H~ attached to the soluble metal
ion is discussed.
23. Progress in Atmospheric Corrosion Testing. D. Knotkova, K. Barton and M.
Cerny. Extended Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric
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Corrosion (October 5-10, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society,
v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 526-528. (Fe82-44)
24. Rapid Methods for Determining Atmospheric Corrosivity and Corrosion
Resistance. D. P. Doyle and T. E. Wright. Atmospheric Corrosion,
edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 227-244. (Fe82-
45)
25. Reproducibility of Electrochemical Measurements of Atmospheric Corrosion
Phenomena. F. Mansfeld, S. Tsai, S. Jeanjaquet, E. Meyer, K. Fertig and
C. Ogden. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr.,
and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP
767, 1982, pp. 309-338. (Fe82-46)
26. Stress Corrosion of Metals in the Atmosphere. A. Gallacio. Extended
Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion (October 5-
10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980,
pp. 581-582. (Fe82-47)
27. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Tin and Tin Alloys. M. E. Warwick and
W. B. Hampshire. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley,
New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 509-528.
The atmospheric corrosion of tin and the formation and nature of
oxide films in various environments is discussed. The effect of various
gases and organic vapors in the atmosphere and of minor additions of other
metals to tin are considered. The atmospheric corrosion of solders and
bronzes is reviewed. Tin alloy coatings are of major importance and their
resistance to atmospheric corrosion is assessed. The most important tin
alloy coatings include tinplate, tin-lead, tin-copper, tin-zinc, tin-
cadmium, tin-nickel, and tin-cobalt.
28. The Interplay of Weather, Climate and the Durability of Materials. P. W.
Brown and L. W. Masters. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 31-50. (Fe82-48)
29. The Sulfiding of Copper by Trace Amounts of Hydrogen Sulfide.
J. P. Franey, T. E. Graedel, and G. W. Kammlott. Atmospheric Corrosion,
edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 583-592.
The kinetics and morphology of copper sulfide film growth have been
explored over a wide range of H2S concentrations, relative humidities, and
temperatures, with the aim of specifying in some detail the mechanisms of
copper sulfidation. The calibrated growth curves confirm and augment
previous suggestions of nonlinear growth of the tarnish films,
particularly in the early stages of formation. SEM analyses of these
films indicates that the spatial inhomogeneity of the film growth is
involved in this nonlinear behavior.
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30. Theoretical and Engineering Principles of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
Y. N. Mikhailovskii. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 85-106. (Fe82-52)
Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. H. C. Martin.
Paper No. 114, Corrosion/ 81, Toronto, Canada, National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, April 6-10, 1981, 7 pp. (Fe81-1)
2. An American Tragedy. R. H. Boyle. Sports Illustrated, v. 55, No. 13,
September 21, 1981, pp. 68-82. (Fe81-2)
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper and Silver. D. W. Rice, P. J. Peterson,
E. B. Rigby, P. B. P. Phipps, R. J. Cappell, and R. Tremoureux.
J. Electrochem. Soc., v. 128, No. 2, 1981, pp. 275-284.
The corrosion rate of copper in laboratory tests is shown to be a
sensitive function of relative humidity and sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sul-
fide, ozone, hydrogen chloride, and chlorine concentrations. Observed
indoor corrosion rates obey log normal statistics over the field popula-
tion of this study. Also, the observed indoor rates correlate reasonably
well with the measured reduced sulfur concentrations (H2S, S28) . The
corrosion rate of silver is shown not to be humidity dependent. Hydrogen
sulfide, ozone, chlorine, and hydrogen chloride concentrations substan-
tially influence its corrosion rate. The observed indoor rates obey log
normal statistics and correlate well with the reduced sulfur gas concen-
tration. In contrast to copper, where indoor rates are 1 percent of
outdoor values, silver often corrodes faster indoors than outdoors. Its
sensitivity to sulfur gases and insensitivity to relative humidity is pro-
posed as a plausible explanation for these findings. It is proposed that
metallic silver is stable in polluted acidic atmospheric environments and
therefore is the dominant surface species while Cu20 is present on the
surface of copper. The thermochemistry and kinetics of these two surfaces
will control the stability of silver and copper, respectively, in the pre
sence of pollutants.
4. Carbonyl Sulfide: Potential Agent of Atmospheric Sulfur Corrosion. T. E.
Graedel, G. W. Kammlott, and J. P. Franey. Science, v. 212, May 8,
1981, pp. 663-665.
Laboratory exposure experiments demonstrate that carbonyl sulfide in
wet air corrodes copper at 22#C at a rate that is approximately linear
with total exposure (the product of exposure time and carbonyl sulfide
concentration). The corrosion rate is similar to that of hydrogen sul-
fide, a widely recognized corrodant. The much greater average atmospheric
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abundance of carbonyl sulfide compared with that of hydrogen sulfide or
sulfur dioxide suggests that carbonyl sulfide may be a major agent of
atmospheric sulfur corrosion.
5. Determination of the Corrosivity of Atmospheres with Electrochemical Tech-
niques. F. Mansfeld. Extended Abstracts, Fall Meeting, Electrochemical
Society, Denver, Colorado, v. 81-2, October 11-16, 1981, pp. 444-445.
(Fe81-7)
6. Evaluation of Electrochemical Techniques for Monitoring of Atmospheric
Corrosion Phenomena. F. Mansfeld. Electrochemical Corrosion Testing,
ASTM STP 727, edited by F. Mansfeld and TJ. Bertocci, American Society
For Testing and Materials, 1981, pp. 215-237. (Fe81-9)
7. How Menacing is Acid Rain? A. LaBastille. National Geographic, v. 160,
No. 5, November 1981, p. 652-681.
Fishless lakes in North America and Scandinavia raise concern about
the chemical showers that observe no boundaries and pose many questions.
Among the environmental damages attributed to acid rain are stone damage
on Canadian Parliament buildings, the Acropolis, Egypts' temples at
Karnak, the U.S. Capitol, and corrosion damage to the Statue of Liberty.
8. Practical Experience with an Electrochemical Technique for Atmospheric
Corrosion Monitoring. V. Kucera and J. Gullman. Electrochemical
Corrosion Testing, ASTM STP 727, edited by F. Mansfeld and U. Bertocci,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981, pp. 238-255. (Fe81-12)
1980
1. A Model of Atomspheric Corrosion of Metals Allowing for Meteorological and
Aerochemical Characteristics. Yu. N. Mikhailbvskii, P. V. Strekalov,
and V. V. Agafonov. Protection of Metals, v. 16, No. 4, 1980, pp. 308-
323. (Fe80-1)
2. A Review of Air Pollutant Damage to Materials. J. E. Yocum and
A. R. Stankunas. Draft report to Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, December 1980,
92 pp. (Fe80-2)
3. Background and Principles of Long-Term Performance of Building Materials.
S. E. Pihlajavaara. Durability of Building Materials and Components,
ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 5-16. (Fe80-4)
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Cu-8
4. Corrosion and Preservation of Bronze Artifacts. R. Walker. J. Chera., v.
57, No. 4, April 1980, pp. 277-280.
The historical background for compositions of artifacts is given as
well as the mechanisms by which they corrode. Protection methods are also
discussed.
5. Corrosion of Metal in Wood Products. A. J. Baker. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G.
Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 981-993.
(Fe80-7)
6. Critical Review of the Available Physico-Chemical Material Damage
Functions of Air Pollution. M. Benarie. Report EUR 6643 Commission on
the European Communities, 1980, 97 pp. (Fe80-8)
7. Indoor Corrosion of Metals. D. W. Rice, R. J. Cappell, W. Kinsolving, and
J. J. Laskowski. J. of Electrochem. Soc., v. 127, No. 4, 1980,
pp. 891-901. (Fe80-ll)
8. Metals in America's Historic Buildings. M. Gayle, D. W. Look, and
J. G. Waite. U.S. Department of the Interior, Heritage Conservation and
Recreation Service, Washington, D.C., 1980, 170 pp.
(Fe80-14)
1979
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metallic Systems. II. Analysis of the
Corrosiveness of a Medium at Atmospheric Testing Stations of Comecon
Countries Based on the Results of Five-Year Tests on Steel, Zinc,
Copper, and Aluminum. K. Barton, D. Knotkova, P. V. Strekalov,
V. Kemkhadze, V. Kozhukharov, and A. Szobor. Zashch Met., v. 15,
No. 4, 1979, pp. 408-415 (Russian). (Fe79-1)
2. Electrochemical Studies of Atmospheric Corrosion. F. B. Mansfield.
NTIS Report AD-A063922, January 1979, 135 pp. (Fe79-6)
3. On the Conservation of the Baptistery Doors in Florence. G. Alessandrini,
G. Dassu, P. Pedeferri, and G. Re. Studies in Conservation, v. 24,
1979, pp. 108-124.
The causes of deterioration of the gilded bronze doors of the
Batistery in Florence have been examined and the mechanism of corrosion
discussed. An apparatus for thermal conditioning has been proposed and
tested either on the north door of the Baptister, or on samples exposed to
the urban atomosphere in Milan and by laboratory tests on an electro-
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Cu-9
chemical model. The effectiveness of the proposed apparatus has been
verified by weight losses, assessing soluble salts, by visual
observations, by local chemical microanalyses, by morphological
examinations with a scanning electron microscope equipped with an X-
spectrometer and by X-ray diffraction.
4. Statistical Assessment of the Effect of Fluctuations in the Atmospheric
Concentration of Sulfur Dioxide on the Corrosion Rate of Metals. Yu N.
Mikhailovskii and A. P. San'ko. Zashch. Met., v. 15, No. 4, 1979, pp.
432-437 (Russian). (Fe79-8)
5. Studies on Air Dusts and Cultural Property. II. Examination of Deposits
on Copper Plated Roofs with Scanning Microscope and X-ray
Microanalyzer. T. Kadokura, Y. Suzuki, and S. Nishiate. Conservation
for Science, No. 18, 1979, pp. 19-25 (Japanese).
In recent years, the verdigris color of copper plated roofs in
Japanese urban areas has changed to a brownish color. The authors
investigated the cause of this color change using a scanning electron
microscope and X-ray microanalyzer.
The authors compared a verdigris colored copper plate (Sample A) and
a brown colored copper plate (Sample B) taken from the roof of the
Hyokeikan, a building in the Tokyo National Museum which was built in
1901. Secondary electron images revealed the following features.
Sample A: the verdigris surface of the plate shows innumerable
indentations, 5-20gm in width, clustered closely together.
Sample B: brown tarnish deposits cover the verdigris surface of the
copper plate like a thin film. This film easily fakes off together with
the underlying layer of copper rust. The results of X-ray microanalyzer
tests on the surfaces of Sample A and B are shown.
Cross sectional X-ray microprobe images of the test samples revealed
that rust thickness was about 40pm thick on Sample A and about 110 pm on
Sample B. As for the distribution of elements in the rust, Sample B was
characterized by high concentrations of iron and phosphorus.
From the above measurements the authors concluded that the cause of
the color change was due to the adherence of layers of iron to the
verdigris surface. These layers of iron were probably formed when iron
particles, produced by the wearing of railroad tracks and motor vehicle
engines, combined with wind blown dust containing pigeon dung or organic
insecticides and then settled on the verdigris copper plate.
6. The Effect of Atmospheric Corrosion on the Reliability of Electronic
Parts. B. Henzlik. Koroze Ochr. Mater., v. 5, 1979, pp. 90-91
(Czech).
The effect of atmospheric corrosion on electronic parts is examined.
A system of atmospheric tests is proposed as an alternative to classical
methods of corrosion resistance testing.
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Cu-10
7. The Effect of Soil Conditions on Long-Term Corrosion of Buried Tin-
Bronzes and Copper. R. F. Tylecote. Journal of Archaeological Science,
v. 6, No. 4, 1979, pp. 345-368.
The principal factor in the corrosion of buried bronze and copper
objects is the pH. Acid soils are aggressive while alkaline soils are
benign. In spite of its acidity, peat preserves well, probably due to the
presence of polyphenols. No involvement of sulfate-reducing bacteria was
found.
1978
1. A New Composition of Patina From the Roof of the Wawel Cathedral.
E. M. Nosek. ICOM Committee for Conservation, 5th, Zagreb, Nos. 23-26,
1978, 6 pp.
Results are presented of chemical and X-ray diffraction analyses of
samples of corrosion products taken from the gilded objects on the surface
of the Sigismund chapel cupola and the roof of the Wawel Cathedral
in Cracow. This research has established the origin of this corrosion of
bronze objects and identified the composition of the corrosion products,
as well as determined the influence of the atmospheric pollution on the
patina.
2. An Accelerated Atmospheric Corrosion Test (AACT). R. D. Smith. Atmos-
pheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP
646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1978, pp. 160-164.
A laboratory test method for accelerated atmospheric corrosion test-
ing has been developed. Copper alloys were the main subject of testing,
and the principal atmospheric simulation was urban-industrial. The test
method has been very useful in ranking experimental copper alloys relative
to commercial alloys and is believed to be adaptable to other alloy
systems and environments. Representative reproducible oxide films can be
generated for film study work and kinetics of film formation can be fol-
lowed easily.
3. ASTM Atmospheric Corrosion Testing: 1906 to 1976. W. J. Ailor. Atmos-
pheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP
646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1978, pp. 129-151. (Fe78-2)
4. Atmospheric Corrosion. M. G. Fontana and N. D. Greene. Chapt. 8 in Cor-
rosion Engineering, McGraw-Hill Company, 2nd ed., 1978, pp. 265-268.
(Fe78-3)
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Cu-11
5. Atmospheric Corrosion of Electroplated Zinc Alloy Die Castings. J. H.
Payer and W. H. Safranek. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion
of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1978, pp. 115-128.
The effect of electroplating variables on atmospheric corrosion of
copper, nickel, and chromium electroplates on zinc alloy die castings
was investigated at mobile and stationary test sites. More than 3,000
electroplated die castings were exposed on Detroit, Michigan, trucks;
Youngstown, Ohio, trucks; New York City tugboats; Detroit, Michigan, roof
tops; and at Kure Beach, North Carolina, 245-m (800-ft) lot, for periods
of up to 10 years. Exposure to mobile test sites provided a valuable
supplement to the more conventional stationary test site. The
application of microdiscontinuous chromium proved to be the most influen-
tial factor for improved corrosion resistance.
6. Atmospheric Corrosion of Laminar Composites Consisting of Copper on Stain-
less Steel. R. Baboian, G. Haynes, and P. Sexton. Atmospheric Factors
Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by
S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978,
pp. 185-203. (Fe78-6).
7. Atmospheric Laboratory Bench. Yu. N. Mikhailovskii, V. A. San'ko,
N. A. Sokolov, and P. N. Kudnyavtsev. Zashch. Met., v. 14, No. 4,
1978, pp. 515-517 (Russian). (Fe78-7)
8. Corrosion Investigations at Panama Canal Zone. M. A. Pelensky,
J. J. Jaworski, and A. Gallaccio. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the
Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978, pp. 58—73. (Fe78-9)
9. Deteriorative Effect of Sulfur Pollution on Materials. J. 0. Nriagu.
Chapt. 1 in Sulfur in the Environment, Part II: Ecological Impacts,
edited by J. 0. Nriagu, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1978, pp. 1-59. (Fe78-
11)
10. Protection of Copper Metals from Atmospheric Corrosion. L. D. Fitzgerald.
Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM
STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1978, pp. 152-159.
The development of a synthetic patina process for copper metals is
described. The chemistry of the process essentially parallels the natural
atmospheric corrosion of copper. Various stages of the patination system
are illustrated via scanning electron microscopy photographs.
The development of organic resin-based coating systems are described,
including passivation systems, solvent selection and resin screening
techniques. An accelerated weathering test program for evaluation of
clear coatings is detailed. Field evaluaiton at various test sites are
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Cu-12
correlated with coating properties. They illustrate the effect of
atmospheric contaminants, sea spray contamination, and high ultraviolet
intensity exposure effects as they pertain to coating life.
Field tests of the inorganic patina and of both an organic lacquer
and a shop-applied film coating system are described indicating the
potential durability of the system.
11. Recent Developments in the Conservation of Outdoor Bronze Monuments.
P. Gaspar, L. Gulbransen, and P. D. Weil. 5th ICOM Committee for
Conservation, Zagreb, 1978, 78/23/12/1-7.
Cleaning procedures, by glass bead peening, of two bronze statues in
St. Louis are described. The amount of loss by corrosion is noted as well
as the safety of the cleaning procedure. Mention is made of both
comparative conditions of other bronze statues and corrosion tests which
the authors are undertaking on two bronze alloys.
12. The Bioaggression on St. Mark's Horses. A. Paleni, E. E. Staffeldt, and
S. B. Curri. Poligrafico Artioli Editore, Modena, Italy, 1978, 8 pp.
Professor Staffeldt, professor of biology at New Mexico State Univer-
sity, suggests an interpretation of corrosion phenomena on the surface of
the St. Mark's Horses. Alunno-Rossetti and Marabelli (Studies in Conser-
vation, v. 21, pp. 161-170 (1976)) considered the same problem with quite
different conclusions. Staffeldt feels the oxalic acid on the surface of
the horses is a product of microbial life. Rossetti considers this to be
a hypothesis, and feels that the acid is caused by oxidation of hydrocar-
bons in smog. The debate is reviewed in detail.
13. The Corrosion and Protection of Metals in the Building and Construction
Industries. B. G. Callaghan. J. Oil Color Chemists Assoc., v. 61, No.
11, November 1978, pp. 411-418. (Fe78-17)
1977
1. Corrosion Products Formed on Copper Exposed to Humid Sulfur Dioxide-Con-
taining Atmospheres. R. Ericsson and T. Sydberger. Werkst. Korros.,
v. 28, No. 11, 1977, pp. 755-757.
Exposure of 99.9 pet. Cu specimens to humid atmospheres containing
10-100 ppra S02 resulted in the formation of patina consisting of CuS0l+*5H20
and Cu(I)2Cu(II)(S03)2«2H20. When the S02 supply was interrupted, Cu20 was
formed. The sulfate and the sulfite were converted into unidentified
compounds. On continued exposure, the compound was converted into
CuSO^*2Cu(0H)2. During prolonged exposures, CuS04.3Cu(OH)2 was also formed.
Intermediate wetting of specimens preexposed to S02 containing atmospheres
resulted in formation of CuS0lt»3Cu(0H)2*2H20 in addition to other corrosion
products.
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Cu-13
2. Estimation of Pollutants Concentration in Atmosphere by Measuring Corro-
sion Rates of Several Metals. II. Correlation Between Reflectances of
Exposed Metals and Deterioration of Exposed Rubber. G. Takao, and
M. Masakasu, Taiki Osen Kenkyu, v. 11, No. 6, 1977, pp. 452-455
(Japanese).
Rubber deterioration depends on the atmospheric corrosion of metals
or on atmospheric pollution by the relation between corrosion of Ag, Cu,
and Zn and their reflectances of red or blue lights was determined. The
ratio of the deterioration of exposed rubber to that of unexposed rubber
was calculated for samples taken at 5 different zones. The relation
between this ratio and the reflectance of metals was obtained. Oxidants
or peroxides are atmospheric pollutants on metals.
3. Galvanic Corrosion In the Atmosphere. V. Kucera. Rapp. -
Korrosionsinst., No. 16, 1977, 43 pp. (Swedish). (Fe77-9)
4. Radiochemical Study of the Use of Benzotriazole for the Protection of
Copper Exposed to the Attack of Sulfur Dioxide. R. Ferrari,
M. Marabelli, M. Serra, and G. Starace. British Corrosion Journal,
v. 12, No. 2, 1977, pp. 118-121.
Radiochemical studies indicate that the quantity of sulfur dioxide
adsorbed by the t.reated samples is always less than bare copper. This may
infer that BTA provides some protection. Almost total oxidation of sulfur
dioxide occurs, however, for the treated samples under all experimental
conditions employed.
5. Study of Atmospheric Corrosion Inhibitors on Metal Surfaces by X-Ray Elec-
tron Spectroscopy. A. M. Novitskii, Ya. V. Salyn, and V. I. Nefedov.
Zashch. Met., v. 13, No. 2, 1977, pp. 209-212 (Russian). (Fe77-13)
1976
1. Analyses of the Patinas of a Gilded Horse of St. Mark's Basilica in
Venice: Corrosion Mechanisms and Conservation Problems. V, Alunno-
Rossetti and M. Marabelli. Studies in Conservation, v. 21, 1976,
pp. 161-170.
An extensive sampling has been carried out of corrosion products and
encrustations on the surface of a gilded horse of St. Mark's Basilica in
Venice. Physical and chemical analyses have allowed us to identify typi-
cal compounds, propose mechanisms of deterioration, and define some con-
servation problems of the statues in outdoor exposure.
2. Conservation of Outdoor Bronze Sculpture. P. D. Weil. National Sculpture
Review, v. 25, No. 5, Fall 1976, pp. 26-30.
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Cu-14
The Center for Archaeometry was established in 1975, at the
University of Washington in St. Louis to determine the causes and
mechanics of deterioration of outdoor bronze sculpture, and to investigate
and carry out methods for their restoration and preservation.
The process of corrosion is recounted to show that the green patina
is neither attractive nor protective, but is disfiguring and destructive.
Further Ms. Weil indicates that although the fairly recently-developed
artificial patinas are sometimes applied to hide casting flaws, they are
also used to imitate the corroded surfaces, mistakenly believed to be
original, on ancient bronzes.
Treatment methods tested by the Center and used successfully on
many outdoor bronzes in St. Louis, include the removal of the corrosion
product by cleaning with glass beads, and the application of a
protective coating of Incralac, an acrylic resin with benzotriazole, a
corrosion inhibitor, in it.
3. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocom and
N. Grappone. Research Corporation of New England, Wethersfield,
Connecticut, NTIS Report PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp. (Fe76-6)
4. Electrochemical Monitoring of Atmospheric Corrosion Phenomena. F. Mansfeld
and J. V. Kenkel. Corrosion Science, v. 16, No. 3, 1976, pp. 111-122.
(Fe76-9)
5. How Environmental Pollutants Diminish Contact Reliability, C. A. Russell.
Insulation/Circuits, v. 22, No. 10, 1976, pp. 43-46.
Environmental damage to electrical contacts by airborne particles and
aerosols is discussed. Particulate deposition, tarnishing, organic or
carbon film formation, and accelerated contact were among the damages
observed resulting in high contact resistance or noise.
6. Problems of Conservation of the Doors of the Battistero in Florence. G.
Dassu, G. Piazzesi, and G. Alessandrini. Conservazione dei Monumenti,
1976, pp. 155-165 (Italian).
The deterioration causes of the three doors of Battistero are
examined and a brief history of the doors is given together with a
description of the mechanism of corrosion. An experimental equipment for
thermal conditioning installed at the back of the north door is described
and the results obtained are reported.
7. Protecting Electronics From Atmospheric Corrision. D. V. Couden.
Materials Engineering, May 1976, pp. 22-25.
The electronics industry losses million of dollars each year to
atmospheric corrosion. Even if urban air pollution were decreased 50 pet.
by 1983, the effect on corrosion failures would be virtually mil.
However, there are several alternative ways by which these lost dollars
can be saved.
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8. Protection Against Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Translated by J. R.
Duncan. J. Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1976, 194 pp. (Fe76-l4)
9. Use of the Method of Polarization Resistance for Studying the Atmospheric
Corrosion of Metals. V. A. Kuznetsov, S. G. Polyakov,
Yu. S. Gerasimenko, and Yu. G. Kotlov. Zashch. Met., v. 12, No. 6,
1976, pp. 667-670 (Russian). (Fe76-19)
1975
1. Electrochemical Method for Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Metals. V.
Kucera and E. Mattsoon. Proc. 7th Scand. Corrosion Congress, 1975, pp.
202-217. (Fe75-10)
2. Environmental Exposure System for Studying Air Pollution Damage to
Materials. J. W. Spence, F. 0. Stump, F. H. Hayne and J. B. Uphank.
NT IS Report PB-240615, 1975, 46 pp. (Fe-75-H)
3. Studies on Metal Corrosion Caused by Air Pollutants. II. Analysis of
Copper Plate Surface in Atmospheres such as S02 and N0X by Auger
Electron Spectroscopy. S. Suzuki, K. Matsumoto, and H. Sato. Chiba
Daigaku Kenkyu Hokoku, No. 2, 1975, pp. 59-68 (Japanese).
A copper plate (1 by 1 by 0.1 cm) was treated with concentrated
nitric acid and the surfaces were thoroughly cleaned with distilled water.
The plate was placed in a 100 ml tube reactor which was connected to a
vacuum line. After drying at 5 x 10"3 torr for 0.1 to 1.0 hours, water
was injected through a silicon rubber stopper. The water was evaporated
and nitrogen dioxide or sulfur dioxide was introduced with a syringe.
After exposure, the pressure was reduced to 10~^torr and the Auger
spectrum was recorded. Argon gas was then added to create a pressure of
10"6 torr and the Auger spectrum was again recorded. Elements including
oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, silver, chlorine, and carbon were detected on
the copper surface. Corrosion was detected before argon was introduced.
Nitrogen and S disappeared after argon etching occurred.
4. Sulfur Dioxide and Material Damage. D. G. Gillette. J. Air Pollution
Control Assn., v. 25, no. 12, December 1975, pp. 1238-1243. (Fe75-17)
5. The Approximate Two-Year Lifetime of Incralac on Outdoor Bronze Sculpture.
P. D. Weil. IC0M Committee for Conservation, 4th Triennial Meeting,
Venice, October 1975, Int. Council of Museums, Paris, 1975, No. 22-2, 4
pp.
This paper reports empirical observations of five outdoor bronzes
that received a coating of Incralac in April and May of 1972. Incralac is
an acrylic solvent-type coating plus corrosion-inhibitor formulated by the
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Cu-16
International Copper Research Association primarily for industrial and
architectural application in the maintenance of unpatinated bronze and
copper. The need for a durable protective coating on outdoor bronze
sculpture has been amply demonstrated. Incralac provided good protection
to the five bronzes over a two-year period exposed to an outdoor urban
environment. On bronzes that received an additional coating of
microcrystal1ine wax, periodically reapplied, the Incralac coating lasted
for almost three years. The coating lasted least well on a patina that
showed the most degradation prior to application. The coating retarded
but did not stop the condition of exudation of core material on two of the
bronzes. Efforts presently being made in adapting the use of Incralac to
the special case of fountain sculpture will be discussed, including:
application, removal, and combination with additional films for gloss
adjustment, increased durability, and resistance to moisture in the
special case of fountain sculpture.
6. The Outdoor Corrosion Performance of Plated ABS Plastics. V. E. Carter.
Trans. Inst. Metal Finishing, Spring/Conf., v. 53, No. 1, 1975, pp. 61-
64.**
ABS platics plated with Cu-Ni-Cr coatings give satisfactory perfor-
mance in mobile outdoor service for up to 3 1/2 years. Little difference
is experienced in performance with duplex Ni instead of bright Ni.
Superior performance is achieved with microporous Cr rather than regular
Cr.
1974
1. Air Pollution Effects on Catastrophic Failure of Metals. J. Gerhard and
F. H. Haynie. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-650/3-74-009,
November 1974, 33 pp. (Fe74-2)
2. Corrosion Aggressivity of Model Regions of Czechslovakia. D. Knotkova-
Cermakova, B. Bosek, and J. Vlckova. Corrosion in Natural Environments,
ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1974, pp.
52-74. (Fe74-8)
3. Corrosion of Metals in the Atmosphere. W. K. Boyd and F. W. Fink. MCIC-
74-23, Battelle-Columbus Labs., Metals and Ceramic Information Center,
Columbus, Ohio, August 1974, 77 pp. (Fe74-9)
4. Electrochemical Technique for Determination of the Instantaneous Rate of
Atmospheric Corrosion. V. Kucera and E. Mattsson. Corrosion in Natural
Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1974, pp. 239-260. (Fe74-15)
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Cu-17
5. Pollution Damage to Works of Art. J. Riederer. Chapt. in New Concepts in
Air Pollution Research, Birkhauser Verlag, Basel und Stuttgart, 1974,
pp. 73-85.
The influence of air pollution on works of art and the research in
Germany on this subject are described. The influence of air pollution on
stone is not considered to be of practical importance, since natural wea-
thering is more pronounced. Bronzes are threatened by air pollution,
particularly if they are cast with alloys rich in lead. Modern bronzes
which contain tin, zinc, and small amounts of lead are resistant to air
pollution. There is little scientific research in Germany concerning
glass windows; Newton's opinion that the decay of painted windows is a
natural hydration process is accepted. Wall paintings suffer from layers
of soot which are deposited on their surface. Paintings in the interior
of museums should be covered with glass to protect them from dirt.
6. Problems of Preservation of Outdoor Bronze Sculpture: Examination and
Treatment of The Meeting of the Waters in St. Louis, Missouri.
P. D. Weil. Bull. AIC, v. 14, No. 2, 1974, pp. 84-92.
The study presents the unusual preservation problems of the nineteen
bronzes comprising the large fountain entitled The Meeting of the Waters
by Carl Milles in St. Louis, Missouri. Samples of incrustation were
studied by microchemical analysis, in cross-sections, by X-ray diffraction
analysis, and with a stereoscan electron microscope with electron
microprobe. Removal of the incrustations is described.
The remains of the original matte, blue-green patina were thin, and
in many areas had been worn away. The most surprising characteristic of
the revealed patina was that it became transparent when wet.
Looking toward the future maintenance of the sculpture, there seemed
to be two choices: (1) treatment of the water including deionization and
heating so that the fountain could be running the year round, or (2)
providing a coating which periodically could be removed, together with any
accretions which may have accumulated, and then renewed. "Incralac" was
chosen as the most suitable coating material for the bronzes. The
treatment was about half way completed at the time of writing.
7. Rapid Electrochemical Procedure to Measure the Atmospheric Corrosion
Resistance. E. Erdos. Galvano-Organo, No. 443, April 1974,
pp. 382-385 (French).
A new testing method has been elaborated to determine in some hours
the resistance of metals and alloys and inorganic non-metals against
atmospheric corrosion. Tests were done with certain metals and alloys as
Zn, Cd, Sn, and Cu/Ni/Cr. An advantageous side effect of this method is
that, during the process, a "copy-contact" formed which reflects
faithfully the picture of the deterioration. Above all this, in the case
of multilayers, the method can determine exactly the depth of penetration
of corrosion. Since oxygen is the most corrosive agent, it was chosen to
start with. To accelerate the corrosion process, atomic oxygen was used
instead of molecular oxygen.
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Cu-18
8. Seven-Year Exposure at Point Reyes, California. W. H. Ailor. Corrosion
in Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 75-81. (A174-6)
9. Short-Term Atmospheric Corrosion of Various Copper-Base Alloys: Two-and
Four-Year Results. R. S. Herman, and A. P. Castillo. Corrosion in
Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 82-96.
Corrosion data pertaining to a variety of copper-base alloys after
two- and four-year exposure to natural environments at New Haven,
Connecticut, Brooklyn, New York, and Daytona Beach, Florida are presented.
High zinc alloys, cartridge brass alloy B36(260) and nickel silver alloy
B122(770) experienced substantial decreases in mechanical properties due
to "plug type" dezincification and pitting. In addition, the rate of
attack on high zinc containing alloys was environment specific. Alloy
(619), a copper-aluminum-iron alloy, displayed substantial increases in
mechanical properties with time. This is attributed to a long-term low-
temperature order-disorder mechanism. The degree of patination was alloy,
time, and environment specific. To avoid ambiguity, it is suggested that
instantaneous corrosion rate rather than changes in absolute weight loss
be used as the criterion for duration of atmospheric testing of copper-
base alloys.
10. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution. T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701, 1974, 156 pp. (Fe74-21)
11. The Mode of Initial Reaction of SO2 at a Metal Surface. J. R. Duncann
and D. J. Spedding. Corrosion Science, v. 14, No. 4, 1974, pp.
241-249. (Fe74-23)
12. The Use of Weather and Climatalogical Data in Evaluating the Durability of
Building Components and Materials. L. W. Masters and W. C. Wolfe. NTIS
Report C0M-74-50841/7 August 1974, 102 pp. (Fe74-25)
13. Weather Factors Affecting Corrosion of Metals. P. J. Sereda. Corrosion
in Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 7-22. (Fe74-27)
1973
1. Corrosion Caused by Perspiration. G. A. Tret'yakova and V. P. Barannik.
Zashch. Metal., v. 9, No. 6, 1973, pp. 715-717 (Russian). (Fe73-9)
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Cu-19
2. Economic Effects of Air Pollution on Electrical Contacts. R. C. Robbins.
Holm Seminar on Electrical Contact Phenomena, 19th Annual Proceedings,
Illinois Inst, of Technology, Chicago, 111., October 15-18, 1973,
pp. 80-86.
Prevention of contact failure in low voltage contacts is the largest
problem area in which air pollution effects on electrical contacts are
involved. Millions of low voltage contacts are used in computer and
instrumentation circuits, and provision must be made to ensure their
reliable and continued operation. The sulfur gases are primarily respon-
sible for the deleterious effect of air pollution on these contacts. More
money is spent in the protection of low voltage contacts against the
effects of sulfur gases than in all the other problem areas combined.
Protection of low voltage contacts against sulfur gases is accomplished in
two general ways: the plating of contacts with precious metal and the use
of air conditioning and air purification equipment.
3. The Damaging Effects of Air Pollution on Works of Art. J. Riederer.
Proc. 3rd Intern. Union Air Pollut. Prev. Assoc. - VDI-Koram.
Reinhaltung Luft Int. Clean Air Congr. (Duesseldorf, October 8-12,
1973), 1973, pp. A86-A89 (German).
The effects of air pollution are discussed on a number of works of
art which are exposed to weathering or kept in museums. The effect of air
pollution on stone, bronze and glass is much exaggerated, while on the
other hand, little is known about the reactions of air pollutants with
organic materials on museum objects also need more attention.
4. The Main Determinants of Atmospheric Patina Growth Rate and Quality Found
on Copper and Copper Alloy Monuments. M. K. Kalish. Soobshcheniya, v.
28, 1973, pp. 274-319 (Russian).
The process of atmospheric patina growth is described for outdoor
monuments made of copper and copper alloys. The influence of atmospheric
moisture, corrosive impurities in the air, humidity, solid particles, and
wind temperature is investigated as well as the influence of storage
conditions, structure and composition of the alloy or metal, defects,
surface quality and decorative treatment, construction features, and
foreign materials.
5. The Role of Aerobic Bacteria in Metal Corrosion. J. Brison. Corrosion,
Traitements, Protection, Finition, v. 21, No. 4, 1973, pp. 242-247
(French). (Fe73-23)
1972
1. Corrosion Damage on the Broze Sculptures of the Residenz at Munich. J.
Riederer. Deutsche Kunst- und Denkmalpflege, 1972, pp. 49-56 (German).
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Cu-20
More than 50 bronze sculptures from the 16th century of the Residenz
at Munich are exposed to weathering and accelerated by the action of air
polluting gases. The metal from 32 sculptures was analyzed and it was
found that bronzes rich in lead were the most extensively corroded.
Various compounds of the patina were identified with X-ray diffraction
techniques. The corrosion phenomena were studied with the metallographic
microscope. Methods for cleaning and preservation are proposed.
2. Corrosion Damage to Bronze Sculpture. J. Riederer. Werkst. Korros.,
v. 23, No. 12, 1972, pp. 1097-1100 (German).
In Germany more than 100 pre-19th century bronzes are still in the
open, exposed to weathering and the action of the aggressive components
of the air. To investigate the effect of air pollution on outdoor
bronzes, about 200 bronze sculptures were analyzed, in order to find out
if the intensity of corrosion depends on the composition of the metal. It
was found that lead-bronzes are attacked rapidly while Cu-Sn-Zn alloys
(which have been used since the 19th century) are more resistant. The
corrosion products were identified by X-ray diffraction techniques. With
a metallographic study of cross sections through the layers of dirt, the
corrosion products, and the metal, the course of corrosion could be de-
duced. To find efficient methods for protection, 90 bronze bars were
covered with different lacquers, waxes, oils, and fats, and exposed to
weathering in the center of Munich. The resistance of these coatings is
tested continuously.
3. Corrosion of Copper, Aluminum, and Zinc Alloys in a Sulfur Dioxide Atmos-
phere. S. Kopczynski. Ochrona przed Korozja, v. 15, No. 6, 1972,
pp. 149-154 (Polish). (A172-2)
4. Corrosion of Historical Monuments Made of Copper and it Alloys in
Out-Of-Doors Exposition. J. Lehmann and W. Wolski. Osrodek
Dokumentacji Zabytkow, Warszawa, 1972, pp. 95-117.
The Chemical Laboratory, National Museum in Poznan and the Institute
of Magnetochemistry, Mickiewicz University, proceeded to an investigation
of the corrosion of copper and copper alloys in out of doors exposure.
This study was promoted by the Centre of Documentation of Relicts of the
Ministry of Culture and Art. The experiments comprised microscopic
metallographic, spectrographical, chemical, X-ray and diffractometric
analyses. The specimens analyzed were chosen among copper, bronze and
brass relicts in four localities in Poland, namely Poznan, Gdansk, Krakow
and Lancut. The relics were from thirty to over four hundred years old.
Three were of copper, one of brass and one of bronze.
The experimental results were compared with data from literature.
Informations concerning results of metallographic, physical and chemical,
conservation and technical investigations were taken into account.
Information and opinions concerning the corrosion of relicts
consisting of copper and its alloys in out-of-doors exposure can be found
in literature from very ancient times. Among the opions dating back to"
antiquity, those of Plinius and Vitruvius were taken into account and
cited.
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Cu-21
Scientific investigation of the corrosion of copper and its alloys
began in the third decade of the XlX-th century. Initially, it dealt only
with the external aspects of the problem. Corrosion products on the
surface of copper and copper alloy relics were identified with the green
sediments of the corrosion products occurring on copper utensils in use at
that time. Both the former and the latter were known as verdigris and
refered to by the term "aerugo", mentioned by Plinius and Vitruvius.
The contemporary identification of "aerugo" based on Vitruvius
description concerning its production from metallic copper and vinegar
raises no doubts. Investigations carried out in the latter half of the
XlX-century showed the identification of corrosion products of copper and
its alloys in out doors exposure, termed "patina" and verdigris, to be
incorrect. On the basis of chemical amd mineralogical analyses, the
corrosion products i.e. patina were identified with basic cupric carbonate
and refered to the minerals malachite and azurite. The mineralogical
identification of the corrosion products with the minerals malachite,
azurite and, later with cuprite, tenorite, covellite, atacamite,
brochantite, antlerite, etc. was based on the similarity of outer features
as well as on the content of characteric elements or groups of elements.
The performing of accurate determinations exceeded the possibilities
then available. To identify a mineral, it is necessary to obtain the
exact stoichiometric proportions of its components, or to analyse a well
grown crystal by optical methods. The corrosion products of copper and
copper alloy antiquities always present mixtures of chemical compounds and
therefore it is not possible to obtain a precise stoichiometric result.
The latter could be obtained only accidentally. It is also impossdible to
find in the corrosion products sUch well grown crystals as could be used
in a microscopic crystallographic identification.
5. Survey on the Metal Corrosion by Air Pollution: Effect of Glauber's Salt
on Metals. T. Nagano, A. Hattori, T. Nagai, Y. Ukishima, Y. Nakai, and
I. Iwasaki. Shizuoka-ken Eisei Kenkyusho Nenpo, No. 16, 1972, pp. 217—
226 (Japanese). (Fe72-17)
6. The Deterioration of Metallic Works of Art by Atmospheric Corrosion.
M. Leone. Metallurgia Italiana, No. 6, 1972, pp. 1-3.
The chemical composition of six well known Italian bronze monuments
are tabulated as follows:
Cu %
Sn %
Pb %
Zn %
Grifo del Palazzo dei
Piori di Perugia
. 88.15
10.23
0.44
-
Leone del Palazzo dei
Priori di Perugia
. 91.34
7.54
0.77
-
Porta di San Zeno - Verona
Formelle 1° Maestro
. 90.86
6.49
2.49
-
Formelle 11° Maestro
. 79.83
0.07
6.31
13.56
Cavalli di San Marcon -Venezia..
. 97.22
1.22
1.04
-
Ghiberti - Porta del Paradiso
del Battistero di Firenze
. 93.7
2.2
1.3
1.8
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Cu-22
7. The Influence of the Relative Humidity and Corrosion Products on the
Adsorption of Sulfur Dioxide on Metal Surfaces. T. Sydberger and
N. G. Vannerberg. Corrosion Science, v. 12, No. 10, 1972, pp. 775-784.
(Fe72-22)
1971
1. A Survey and Economic Assessment of the Effect of Air Pollutants on
Electrical Components. ITT Electrophysics Laboratory, Columbia, MD.,
NTIS Report PB-204183, August 1971, 89 pp.
An assessment was made of the economic impact of air pollution on
electronic components. To begin the study, electronic components were
divided into eleven different categories as defined by the Department of
Commerce. The manner and amount of damage from air pollutants that might
have been expected in each of these component categories was assessed by
surveying the literature describing pollutant material damage mechanisms.
The expected effects were compared with the actual experience of major
manufacturing companies which appeared to account for most of the sales in
each category. Where the literature survey indicated that gaseous sulfur
compounds, notably sulfur dioxide, should be expected to account for most
of the damage to electronic components, interviews with manufacturers
revealed that particulate matter actually was responsible for most of the
electronic component and equipment malfunctions currently being experi-
enced. The economic effects, which were represented by three cost cate-
gories, were applied to each component category and then summed to arrive
at a total cost of about 15.5 million.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. M. Arpaia. Atti Not. Assoc. Ital.
Metal 1., v. 26, 1971, pp. 363-367 (Italian). (Fe71-5)
3. Atmospheric Tests. S. K. Coburn. Chapt. 17 in Handbook on Corrosion
Testing and Evaluation, edited by W. H. Ailor, Electrochemical Society,
Corrosion Monograph Series, J. Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1971, pp. 475-505.
(Fe71-6)
4. Corrosion of Copper, Tin, and Their Alloys. H. Leidheiser, Jr. Chapter
1, John Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1971, pp. 3-27.
The corrosion of copper is dependent on the relative humidity, with
sulfur dioxide being the major promoting factor under outdoor
conditions. Indoors, or under sheltered conditions, the influence of
H2S or S02 may predominate. Corrosion of copper is dependent on how the
initial film is formed; if formed in pure air it will resist corrosion in
sulfide containing atmospheres. Copper panels exposed many hundred of
years ago showed less corrosion than those exposed more recently.
Analysis of the older films showed them to be predominantly copper
sulfate. Corrosion data is presented for copper and its alloys exposed at
various locations around the world.
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Cu-23
5. Corrosion of Metals by Sulfur Dioxide. G. K. Singhania, B. Lai, and B.
Sanyal. Labdev. Part A, v. 9, No. 3 & 4, 1971, pp. 214-216. (Fe71-10)
6. Corrosion Resistance of Electrically Polished Copper and Brass.
M. Parlapanski, R. Miteva, and S. Chilov. Zashch. Metal., v. 7, No. 4,
1971, pp. 478-481 (Russian).
The stability of electrolytic Cu (97.83 percent) and brass
(Cu 61.94, Zn 37.76, and Pb + Fe + Sn 0.3 percent) was examined in HC1
H^SO^, HOAc, citric acid, and corrosive gas atmospheres. Specimens
with a working surface of 15 cm2 were polished, etched in 10 percent HC1,
rinsed, and electrolytically polished in H2P0lt at 20° and 1.5 V for 20
minutes. The relative humidity of the corrosive gas atmospheres was kept
at 98 percent, whereas the concentration of CI, H2S, S02, NH3, NO and HCl
varied from 0 to 20 percent. The results point to an increased resistance
of polished specimens when exposed to liquid corrosive media regardless of
their nature. This effect is especially pronounced in the case of l^SO^
and citric acid. Similar results are found for corrosion in gaseous
media, the only exception being the corrosion of brass in atmospheres
containing 3-20 percent SO2.
7. Evaluation of Atmospheric Factors by Analyses of Corrosion Products and
Surface Deposits on Copper Plates. H. Abe, Y. Ishii, and H. Kato.
Quarterly Reports, Railways Technical Research Institute, v. 12, no. 3,
.1971, pp. 170-174.
With the purpose of investigating atmospheric pollutants by physical
and chemical analysis of corrosion products and deposits on the surface of
metals, exposure tests of copper specimens have been carried out for two
years at different contaminated sites. As a result of measurements,
corrosion products in the atmosphere could be successfully grouped:
sulfide-, basic sulfate-, and basic chloride-group. Sulfide is most
detrimental to copper alloys. Principal deposits on the specimens are
soil, ferric oxide particles, and sodium chloride. The ratio of weight
loss due to corrosion to weight difference between before and after the
exposure could be a measure of contamination rate.
8. Relation of Airborne Nitrate to Telephone Equipment Damage.
H. W. Hermance, C. A. Russell, E. J. Bauer, T. F. Egan, and H. V.
Wadlow. Environmental Science and Technology, v. 5, No. 9, 1971,
pp. 781-789.
Airborne nitrates cause stress corrosion cracking of nickel-brass
telephone parts—particularly relay wire springs in the Los Angeles area.
A survey of nitrate accumulation on equipment was made in California and
other locations. Nitrate deposits were transferred to paper disks and
determined spectrophotometrically with chromotropic acid. Nitrate deposi-
tion correlated with relay failure and a rating was established to
estimate the degree of danger to equipment. A correspondence to the
general patterns of smog and air pollution existing in California was
indicated. Several eastern locations are marginal and some nitrate-caused
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Cu-24
component problems have occurred, but no relay failures. Air filtration
and humidity control provide protection against the nitrate-caused
failures.
9. Technical-Economic Evaluation of Air-Pollution Corrosion Costs on Metals
in the U.S. F. W. Fink, F. H. Buttner, and W. K. Boyd. NTIS Report
PB-198453, February 19, 1971, 160 pp. (Fe71-25)
10. The Destruction of Works of Art by Air Pollution. J. Riederer. Schonere
Heimat, v. 60, 1971, pp. 44-47 (German).
Works of art, exposed outdoors, which consist of stone, glass or
metal are seriously damaged or already destroyed by air pollution. The
decay of stone and glass, which also suffer from natural weathering,
proceeds so rapidly that conservation using available, although not yet
entirely convincing methods, should perhaps wait until better techniques
are developed. In addition to stone conservation, the Doerner-Institute
also investigates damages to bronze by air pollution, in order to develop
restoration-methods for the great number of bronzes of the 16th century
which are still outdoors in many German towns. For the protection of
modern bronzes, coatings of wax or synthetic materials are tested.
1970
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper and Copper-Base Alloys During Twenty
Years' Exposure in a Marine and an Industrial Environment.
I. R. Scholes and W. R. Jacob. J. Inst. Metals, v. 98, 1970,
pp. 272-280.
To assess the long-term behavior of copper and copper alloys during
atmospheric exposure, panels of twenty-one different materials have been
exposed in a marine atmosphere at Ardeer on the West Coast of Scotland and
in an industrial atmosphere at Witton, Birmingham. Panels were examined
visually during exposure and detailed examinations for nature and extent
of patina formed, corrosion effects, and change in mechanical properties
were carried out after twenty years' exposure. Duplicate panels of ten
materials were examined for weathering and localized corrosion effects
after five years' exposure. Results of these examinations have shown that
the most uniform patina was formed on copper and, with the exception of
95/5 phosphor bronze, the presence of alloying elements had a deleterious
effect. The rate of penetration was least for unalloyed copper and the
industrial atmosphere was about twice as aggressive as the marine
environment, but stifling had occurred in both environments. Generally,
changes in mechanical properties were small and there was some correlation
between reductioh in ductility and localized corrosion effects,
2. Atmospheric Pollution and Historic Buildings. A Contemporary Urban
Problem. C. Berindan. Centre Belged'Etude et de Documentation des Eaux
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Cu-25
(Tribune de), v. 23, No. 324, November 1970, pp. 498-503 (French).
(Fe70-4)
3. Corrosion Behavior of the Major Architectural and Structural Metals in
Canadian Atmospheres. Summary of Ten-Year Results of Group I.
E. V. Gibbons. Nat. Res. Counc. Can., Div. 6ldg. Res., Tech. Paper, No.
328, 1970, 21 pp. (Fe70-5)
4. Corrosion of Building Materials. A. Valeriana de Seabra and M. Cravo.
Tecnica (Lisbon), v. 32, 1970, pp. 493-512 (Portuguese). (Fe70-6)
5. Design and Monitoring of Multiple and Varying Pollutant Concentration.
E. Bassett, H. Frankel and R. Grenley. Preprint (Presented at the
American Chemical Society Meeting, Division of Water, Air and Waste
Chemistry, Chicago, 111., September 13-18, 1970), Div. of Water, Air and
Waste Chemistry, American Chemical Society, Washington, D. C., 1970,
pp. 93-98.
A variety of environments were simulated to study their effects on
the reliability of electronic components. The atmospheres ranged from the
reducing atmosphere of the northeast to the oxidizing atmosphere of Los
Angeles. Industrial atmospheres using such corrosive gases as chlorine
and easily decomposed gases (such as hydrogen sulfide) were also
simulated. A major component of the simulation system was a gas
chromatograph, while the environmental chambers were analyzed by a vacuum
technique that maintains a continuous flow of gas for sampling.
6. Inquiry Into the Economic Effects of Air Pollution on Electrical Contacts.
R. C. Robbins. SRI Project PSU-7345, Final Report, Stanford Research
Institute, April 1970, 39 pp. (A170-4)
7. Natural Patination of Copper. M. Schmidt. J. Inst. Metals, v. 98, 1970,
p. 238.
Atmospheric tests (1962-1969) on common copper showed that neither
the type of copper, not its hardness, nor its surface roughness signifi-
cantly affected the rate of natural patination. This depends primarily on
the total time of exposure to corrosive water. Inclined surfaces dry more
slowly than vertical surfaces after rain, and are also subjected to attack
by dew. The composition of the corrosion products on the inclined samples
fitted CuS0tt*6Cu(0H)2. The rainwater collected in Copenhagen in 1965 had
a pH at 4 to 5, owing to the increased atmospheric pollution with sulfur
dioxide. This accelerated natural patination 3 to 4-fold in comparison
with the rate in the 1930's when rainwater pH was 6 to 8.
8. Properties of Electrolyte Films Formed Through Atmospheric Corrosion.
D. Knotkova-Cermakova and J. Vlckova. Werkst. Korros., v. 21, No. 1,
1970, pp. 16-21 (German). (Fe70-10)
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Cu-26
9. Reaction Between S02 and Wet Metal Surfaces. N. G. Vannerberg and
T. Sydberger. Corrosion Science, v. 10, 1970, pp. 43-49. (Fe70-ll)
10. Relation of Air-Borne Nitrate to Telephone Equipment Damage.
H. W. Hermance, C. A. Russell, E. J. Bauer, T. F. Egan and H. V. Wadlow.
Preprint (Presented at the American Chemical Society, Division of Water,
Air and Waste Chemistry, Chicago, Illinois, September 13-18, 1970),
Division of Water, Air and Waste Chemistry, American Chemical Society,
pp. 113-117.
In 1959, nickel brass wire springs supporting contacts on telephone
relays began breaking off in the Los Angeles area. This breakage was
found to be due to a stress corrosion cracking when the wire spring was
anodic because of nitrates present in dusts deposited by the surrounding
air. Laboratory tests showed that the crack growth was very slow at
relative humidities of less than 50%. It was therefore decided to
maintain humidities below this level in susceptible locations and to
install 95% National Bureau of Standards rated filters to combat further
dust accumulation. Nitrate deposition was measured. Representative
relays were sampled in the various central offices in the Los Angeles
area. The offices were then given a nitrate rating based on the average
accumulated nitrates per unit area with a factor to adjust for the length
of exposure in service. Nitrate accumulations in several other cities
with known dust and pollution problems were measured. Other types of
equipment using nickel-brass components were also affected.
11. Systems Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials.
R. L. Salmon. NTIS Report PB-209192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp. (Fe70-
13)
12. The Corrosion of Copper, Tin, and Their Alloys—Part I. H. Leidheiser,
Jr. J. Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1970, pp. 3-27.
The controlling factor for corrosion of copper in the atmosphere is
moisture (relative humidity), while the promoting factor is sulfur diox-
ide. Preoxidation of copper in pure air tends to reduce tarnishing in
sulfide-containing atmospheres. Corrosion rates for copper and copper
alloys are reported for varied locations around the world, and the rela-
tive corrosivity of 25 test sites are also reported. In addition, methods
for protecting copper in the atmosphere and controlling bronze disease are
given.
13. The Weathering and Performance of Building Materials. J. W. Simpson and
P. J. Horrobin. Medical and Technical Publishing Co., Ltd, 1970, 277
pp. (Fe70-17)
14. Use of Environmental Data in Atmospheric Corrosion Studies.
J. F. Stanners. Brit. Corros. J., v. 5, No. 3, 1970, pp. 117-121.
(Fe70-18)
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Cu-27
1969
1. Calculation of Moistening and Metallic Corrosion in Atmospheric
Environment. A. I. Golubev and M. Kh. Kadyrov. Proc. 3rd Intern.
Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeitlinger,
Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4, 1969, pp. 522-531. (Fe69-24)
2. Corrosion in the Atmosphere. P. Atterby. NTIS Report N71-26259, November
1969, 9 pp. (Swedish). (Fe69-25)
3. Corrosion of Metals in the Tropics. B. Sanyal, G. K. Singhania, and
J. N. Nanda, Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, Moscow
(1966), Swets-Zeit1inger, Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4, 1969, pp. 542-543.
(Fe69-26)
4, Evaluation of Atmospheric Corrosion Tests With Iron, Copper, and Zinc
Extending Over Three Years, at Czechoslovak Testing Stations. K. Barton
and Z. Bartonova. Werkst. Korros., v. 20, No. 2, 1969, pp. 87-93.
(German). (Fe69-30)
5. Studies on Corrosion of Metals Provoked by Gaseous Pollutants. B. Sanyal,
G. K. Singhania, and D. V. Bhadwar. Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. on
Metallic Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, Holland,
v. 4, 1969, pp. 454-464. (Fe69-36)
1968
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper Alloys. D. H. Thompson. Metal Corrosion
in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1968, pp. 129-140.
Specimens of 18 copper metals were exposed outdoors in four locations
for periods of two and seven years. Corrosion damage was assessed by mea-
surement of loss in weight, loss in mechanical properties, and depth of
pitting. Weight loss is shown to be the best measure of uniform corro-
sion. The mean corrosion rate was on the order of 0.05 mils per year
(mpy) (1.3 mm/year). Greatest corrosion occurred at the industrial site,
followed by east coast marine, west coast marine, and the rural site.
Nickel improved the atmospheric corrosion resistance of the copper alloys
tested. Results are comparable to those obtained in other similar tests.
2. Copper and Copper Alloys. E. Mattsson and R. Holm. Metal Corrosion in
the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1968, pp. 187-210.
In 1958, exposure tests were started in Sweden to gain knowledge of
the natural patination and the corrosion behavior of copper and copper
alloys when used outdoors. The investigation covered 36 alloys in sheet
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Cu-28
or rod form: 5 coppers, 20 brasses, 5 phosphor bronzes, 1 silicon bronze,
1 aluminum bronze, 1 cadmium bronze, 2 nickel-silvers, and 1 free-cutting
phosphor bronze. Specimens were exposed in rural, marine, and urban
atmospheres. After two- and seven-years' exposure, specimens were
examined.
During the first years of atmospheric exposure, the copper and copper
alloys acquired a dark surface coating consisting mainly of copper oxide
(Cu20). In urban and marine atmospheres, signs of green patina appeared
on copper after about six to seven years; the basic copper salt causing
the green color being sulfate in the urban, chloride and sulfate in the
marine atmosphere. The average penetration as calculated from the weight
loss during 7-years* exposure was: in rural atmosphere 0.2 to 0.6 ym per
year, in marine atmosphere 0.6 to 1.1 pm per year, in urban atmosphere 0.9
to 2.2 um per year. The corrosion rate decreased with the time of
exposure. The losses in mechanical properties were in most cases of
negligible importance.
The dezincification of brass was of significant degree only in g-
brass and in certain (a + (J)-brasses when exposed to the urban or the
marine atmosphere. Dezincification was observed also in a-brass, even
with as high copper content as 92 percent, although the depth of attack
was not very great. It should also be mentioned that arsenic was
consistently effective as a dezincification inhibitor for a-brass only in
the marine atmosphere. This indicates that the mechanism of
dezincification is different in the presence and in the absence of
chloride.
The tests described here are continued and further examinations
will be carried out after 20 years of exposure.
3. Corrosion of Metals by Aqueous Solutions of the Atmospheric Pollutant
Sulfurous Acid. W. McLeod and R. R. Rogers. Electrochem. Technol.,
v. 6, No. 7-8, July-August 1968, pp. 231-235. (Fe68-3)
4. High Pressure Electrical Contacts. J. King, Proc. 1968 Electrical
Components Conference, May 8-10, 1968, pp. 454-458. (Fe68-9)
Increased Connector Contact Reliability. M. Ball, F. H. Hardie and
E. J. Struckus. The Electronic Engineer, March 196.8, pp. 82-85.
(A168-6)
6. Investigations of the Corrosion-Causing Properties of Volatile Acids and
Anhydrous Acids. E. laengle. Eidgenoessische Technischen Hochschule,
Zurich, Switzerland. Ph.D. Thesis, 1968, 43 pp. (German). (Fe68-ll)
7. Measurement of Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Metals.
H. Guttman and P. J. Sereda. Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM
STP 435, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1968, pp. 325-359.
(Fe68-12)
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Cu-29
8. Mechanism and Kinetics of Corrosion in a Moist Atmosphere in the Presence
of Hydrogen Chloride Vapors. K. Barton and Z. Bartonva. Tr.
Mezhdunar. Kongr. Korroz. Metal., 3rd (1966), edited by N. D. Lesteva,
Izd. "Mir," Moscow, USSR, v. 4, 1968, pp. 493-506 (Russian). (Fe68-13)
9. Patina on Old Metal Objects. J. Lehraann. Monographs of the National
Museum in Pozan, v. 2, 1968, pp. 1-125 (Polish). (Fe68-15)
10. Tarnishing and Contamination of Metals. W. E. Campbell and U. B. Thomas.
Proc. Engineering Seminar on Electrical Contact Phenomena, Illinois
Inst. Technology, Chicago, 111., November 11-15, 1968, pp. 233-265.
If the voltage across a contact at make or break is less than the
lowest fritting voltages which have been encountered experimentally, that
is, less than 0.03 volts, problems in reliability are greatly increased.
Contacts operating in this manner are the concern of this report. Under
these conditions it is possible for insulating films to build up to a
thickness sufficient to cause serious contact noise as well as to cause
failure by open circuit. The contaminants which are found on electrical
contacts are of many kinds.
11. The Composition and Structure of Natural Patinas. Part 1 - Copper and
Copper Alloys. Section B - 1930 to 1967. S. Z. Lewin and
S. M. Alexander. Art Arch. Tech. Abst., v. 7, No. 1, 1968, pp. 277-370.
A comprehensive collection of abstracts for papers published from
1930 through 1967 on the composition and structure of natural patinas on
copper and copper alloys is presented.
1967
1. Corrosion by Air Pollution. J. R. Goss. Proc. Annu. Conf., Nat. Soc.
Clean Air, No. 34, 1967, pp. 75-92. (Fe67-4)
2. Ingress-Limited Corrosion of Contacting Surfaces. R. F. Snowball,
J. B. P. Williamson, and R. C. Hack. IEEE Transactions, v. PMP-3,
No. 3, September 1967, pp. 82-88.
The most pressing problem in electric contact testing is to define
the modes by which contacts fail. Until we understand why and by what
mechanism contact spots stop passing electricity between the mating mem-
bers, it will be impossible to devise relevant life-testing procedures.
This paper describes an experimental technique whereby interfaces can be
observed during exposure to moist, polluted air and the degradation of
contact spots studied in situ. The reactions that occur are analyzed in
terms of the physical effects of the ingress of reactants into contact
joints, and the resistance changes observed. The main experimental tool
was metallography, including macro- and micro-cinephotography. The dis-
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Cu-30
tinction between ingress-limited corrosion and reaction-limited corrosion
is introduced, and the death of contact spots is observed under the micro-
scope. This technique makes possible the direct observation of the pro-
gressive corrosion of an array of contact spots, and reveals in detail how
the conducting area of each spot is eroded by the chemical action.
3. Mechanism of the Corrosion of Fe, Zn, and Cu in a Humid Atmosphere Con-
taining HC1 Vapors. K. Barton and Z. Bartonova. Collect. Czech.
Chem. Commun., v. 32, No. 7, 1967, pp. 2431-2438 (German). (Fe67-6)
4. Surface Properties Key to Contact Selection. J. C. Chaston. Mat. Eng.,
v. 66, No. 8, 1967, pp. 76-77.
In light-duty electrical contact applications metals that do not
tarnish are preferred therefore only gold, platinum and rhodium plating
used. With traces of sulfur in the air silver readily tarnishes and
silver sulfate is an excellent insulator at low voltages. Also at low
voltages organic vapors tend to form polymers in the presence of metals,
except gold and platinum. At slightly higher voltages, the contacts
become self cleaning and silver and copper can be used. Under medium
voltages where welding is the problem, palladium and its alloys, platinum
alloys, tungsten, nickel-silver, and silver-cadmium oxide have to be used.
Under heavy duty conditions where the contacts are air-cooled tungsten-
silver should be used.
5. The Composition and Structure of Natural Patinas: Part 1 - Copper and
Copper Alloys. Section A - Antiquity to 1929. S. Z. Lewin and
S. M. Alexander. Art Arch. Tech. Abst., v. 6, No. 4, 1967, pp. 199-
283.
A comprehensive collection of abstracts for papers published to 1929
on the composition and structure of natural patinas on copper and copper
alloys is presented.
1966
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals at Bhavnagar. V. S. Rao. Indian J.
Technol., v. 4, No. 5, 1966, pp. 159-161. (Fe66-3)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel, Zinc, Cadmium, Copper, and Aluminum in
Different Coastal and Continental Regions. G. K. Berukshtis and
G. B. Klark. Corrosion of Metals and Alloys, Collection No. 2, Israel
Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1966, pp. 281-297.
(Fe66-4)
3. Combating the Effects of Smog on Wire Spring Relays. H. W. Hermance.
Bell Laboratory Record, February 1966, pp. 48-52.
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Cu-31
For many years, nickel brass (an alloy of copper, zinc, and nickel)
has been used with excellent results in wire-spring relays and other
switching equipment in central offices all over the country. Some time
ago, however, central offices in the Los Angeles area reported that the
nickel brass wire springs in some relays had developed stress-corrosion
cracking, apparently because of a combination of physical stress and
chemical corrosion. The problem appeared to be unique to California and
especially to Los Angeles—there was no record of it having happened in
any other part of the country.
4. Corrosion Behavior of Salt Powder Towards Various Metals. A. Bukowiecki
and B. G. Joshi. Schweiz. Arch. Angew. Wiss. Tech., v. 32, No. 2, 1966,
pp. 42-54. (Fe66-5)
5. Corrosion Behavior of Some Metallic Materials in Liquid Sulfur Dioxide.
L. Rivola, T. Bazzan, M. Piro, and G. Bombara. Proc. 2nd Intern. Congr.
Metal. Corrosion, New York, (1963), National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Houston, TX, 1966, pp. 418-423. (Fe66-6)
6. Cracking Tendency and Mechanical Properties of Silicon Brasses. A. V.
Bobylev and Y. P. Manzienko. Tsvet. Metal., v. 39, No. 9, 1966, pp. 82-
86 (Russian).
The cracking corrosion resistance of ordinary brass containing,
Cu 63 and 68 percent, and of Si brass containing Cu 68-85 and Si 0.5-2.1
percent was examined by exposure to ordinary, Nl^-containing, and SC>2_
containing atmosphere, and to Cu(N0g)2 solution. Addition of Si 2 and
increasing the Cu content to 85 percent enhanced markedly the cracking
corrosion resistance, and addition of A1 to the Si brass impaired it in
NHg-containing atmosphere. The Si brass had higher mechanical strength,
ductility, and hardness than the ordinary brass even after annealing at
300°.
7. Current Ideas in the Philosophy of Testing Electrical Contacts. H.B. Ulsh.
IEEE International Convention Record, v. 14, No. 9, 1966, pp. 35-38.
The test methods and procedures discussed in this paper may appear to
be elaborate and expensive, but in computer equipment, the number of
connector type contacts alone require a very reliable component. Also,
since contact failures are generally intermittent, they are difficult to
troubleshoot and service.
With the continued advancement in contact technology in the areas of
physics and chemistry of surfaces, in cause-effect relationships of air
pollution on contact materials, and in the understanding of failure
mechanisms, better test methods should develop.
8. Tarnish Films on Electric Contact Materials. R. V. Chiarenzel li. Proc.
Third Intern. Research Symposium on Electrical Contact Phenomena,
June 6-10, 1966, pp. 85-93.
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Cu-32
The paper describes accelerated laboratory and field tests conducted
on copper, nickel, gold, and silver to determine the effects of
atmospheric weathering on the formation of tarnish films. Data on film
thickness and contact resistivity are given.
9. The Effects of Air Pollution on Elect
R. V. Chiarenzelli and F. L. Joba.
v. 18, No. 3, 1966, pp. 123-127.
A long-term field and laboratory
air pollutants on electrical contact
ical Contact Materials.
J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
program for testing the effects of
materials is reported.
1965
1. Alarm for the Bronze Horses of St. Marks in Venice. P. Rotondi. 1st
Centrale de Restauro, Boll., 1965, pp. 6-20.
The author calls to the attention of competent authorities the
progressive corrosion of the four famous bronze horses, as revealed by
examination of cross-sections. The gilded metal surfaces are covered with
crystals of basic copper sulfate resulting from atmospheric corrosion and
intensified by air pollution due to the industrialization of the Porto
Marghera district and to the spreading of domestic heating with kerosene
in Venice. The paper is illustrated by photographs of corrosion products
and cross-sections. Different types of corrosion appearing in various
areas of sculptures are shown.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Products of Some Commerical Metals. H. J. Meyer.
Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 44-52 (German). (Fe65-3)
3. Significance of Corrosion Testing Process with Special Consideration of
the SC>2 Test According to DIN 50018. W Kesternich. Werkst. Korrosion,
v. 16, 1965, pp. 193-201 (German). (Fe65-15)
4. The Significance of Sulfur Dioxide in the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
G. Schikorr. Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 27-34 (German). (Fe65-20)
1964
1. An Electrical Resistance Method for Measuring Rates of Corrosion of
Electrodeposited Metals in Laboratory Tests. F. Enrico, V. Riccio, and
B. Martini. Product Finishing, v. 17, No. 5, May 1964, pp. 74-79.
The rates of corrosion of detached foils of electrodeposited nickel,
copper, zinc and cadmium in sulfur dioxide and salt spray tests have been
obtained by measurement of changes in the electrical resistance of the
-------
Cu-33
test-pieces. The method has been found to be of practical value and is
very sensitive but it has the disadvantage that at its present state of
development it can only be applied to detached coatings and any effects
associated with a basis metal are therefore not revealed. The results
obtained have been consistent with those previously found in other ways
for the coatings and corrosive environments studied. Dull and semi-bright
nickel were corroded faster than bright high-sulfur nickel. Cadmium
behaved better than zinc.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper and Copper Alloys. W. Wiederholt.
Werkst. Korros., v. 15, No. 8, August 1964, pp. 633-644 (German).
The atmospheric corrosion of copper and copper alloys is summarized
on the basis of the literature. This includes the formation of protective
coatings, particularly patina, in dry and wet atmospheres, the composition
of corrosion products, the effect of material-based variables on
corrosion, and the artificial production of patina.
3. Atmospheric Effects on Friction and Wear. W. E. Campbell. Machine
Design, August 27, 1964, pp. 186-192.
Friction and wear of metals are greatly influenced by interaction at
the rubbing interface with constituents of the air. Interations of
principal interest are:
1. Adsorption and reaction of oxygen.
2. Adsorption and reaction of water.
3. Adsorption and reaction of products of combustion.
4. Two or more of these interactions combined.
Friction and wear, under conditions generally prevailing in bearing
operation, result to a large extent from the making and shearing of
adhesion bonds between surface atoms. The bond-shearing results in a
temperature increase at the surface which increases the oxidation rate of
the virgin metal thus exposed.
These interactions can also influence friction and wear by other
processes dependent on these primary actions. For example, electron
emission accompanies disruption of oxide films on base-metal surfaces.
Also, a catalytic process causes modification of adsorbed organic films to
produce solid polymeric films on the surface.
All these reactions are factors in boundary lubrication and in
friction wear. This article reviews some of the important effects.
4. The Influence of Sulphur Dioxide on the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
G. Schikorr. Werkst. Korros., v. 15, No. 5, 1964, pp. 457-463. (Fe64-
4)
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Cu-34
1963
1. Coloring and Finishing of Copper Metals. D. H. Osborne and J. M. Foehl.
Construction Specifier, October 1963, pp. 50-55.
The color spectrum afforded by the architectural alloys of copper
both in the natural and weathered states is discussed. Research and
development projects provide new and improved methods for the preservation
of the natural colors of the metals as well as simpler, more reliable
means for accelerating the development of both the statuary colors and the
patinated effects.
1962
1. Atmospheric Corrosion by Electrolyte Nuclei. B. Sanyal and D. V. Bhadwar.
J. Sci. Industr. Res., v. 21D, 1962, p. 243. (Fe62-2)
2. Corrosion of Copper Alloys in Ozone-Containing Air. R. G. Malkina.
Vestn. Tekhn. i Ekon. Inform. Nauchn.-Issled. Inq. Tekhn.-Ekon. Issled,
Gos. Kom. Sov. Min. SSSR po Khim., v. 5, 1962, pp. 44-45 (Russian).
Results of a study of corrosion of alloys of copper-7 percent
aluminum and copper-5 and 9 percent tin are given. The ozone content of
the air was 1-1.2 percent by volume. The copper-tin alloy with 5 percent
tin was the least corrosion resistant. Corrosion of copper-tin alloys
slows down, and that of copper-aluminum alloys increases with time.
3. Corrosion of Metals in an Atmosphere of Sulfur Dioxide. V. G. Gleim,
G. F. Potemkin, E. M. Lavrova, and S. G. Tereshchenko. Inst. Nefti
Khim., 1962, pp. 287-290 (Russian). (Fe62-4)
4. Electrical Contact Materials: Properties and Selection. E. Freudiger.
Electro-Technology, v. 69, 1962, pp. 72-78.
The degree of electrical resistance or, conversely, conduction
between two surfaces designed to make or break an electrical circuit is
limited by the mechanical qualities and resistivities of the materials.
Basically, in a contact system, there are three controlling factors or
condit ions:
1. Bare metallic contacts where the continuity of current flow is
assured by the nature of the material.
2. Contacts between surfaces covered with an adsorbed layer in the
magnitude of a few molecular diameters, where electrical flow may be
slightly limited due to the impurity adsorbed.
3. Coherent foreign films or individual large particles, both
consisting either of insulators (oil, plastics, fibers) or semiconductors
(oxides, sulfides) which act as limiting factors in conduction.
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Cu-35
5. Improving Contact Reliability in Low-Level Circuits. J. J. McManus.
Electro-technology, v. 69, 1962, pp. 98-101.
Methods used in telephone and telegraph circuits, particularly where
low-level transistor switching is involved, may have wider application.
They include choice of nonfilm-forining contact materials and use of
supplementary "wetting" voltages to break down high resistance films.
6. The Possibilities of Increasing the Resistance of Steel Against
Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Intern. Symp. Anti-Corrosion
Protect. Bratislava, v. 1, 1962, 8 pp. (Fe62-8)
1961
1. Atmospheric Corrosion. U. R. Evans. Chapt. 8 in The Corrosion and
Oxidation of Metals, Edward Arnold, 1961, pp. 481-535. (Fe61-2)
2. Corrosion in Buildings, P. J. Sereda. Canadian Building Digest, Report No
CBD-20, August 1961, 4 pp. (Fe61-5)
3. Effects of Atmospheric Contamination on Switiching Noise. J. Bloomberg
and W. E. Campbell. Proc. Engineering Seminar on Electrical Contacts,
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa, June 11-15, 1961,
pp. 95-107.
This report is based on work carried out for the purpose of under-
standing the cause and developing a simple palliative for infrequent but
objectionable noise or voltage fluctuations originating in the contacts of
a specific switch. Because of the statistical nature of the phenomenon
and the developmental character of the problem, the data are not always as
logical and complete as might be desired. In spite of some inconsisten-
cies, they give a picture of sliding base-metal contact behavior that
accords with published information on other switching systems and with
limited field studies on the subject switch. They also afford new infor-
mation on noise and wear behavior which is believed to advance general
understanding. The results discussed here are representative of the
important principles established.
1960
1. Chemical Resistance to Ammonia of Construction Materials. A. E. Missan.
Trudy Gosudarst. Inst. Priklad. Khim., v. 44, 1960, pp. 112-127
(Russian). (Fe60-3)
2. Corrosion of Copper in Ozonated Air. R. G. Malkina. Trudy Moskov. Inst.
Khim. Mashinostroeniya, v. 22, 1960, pp. 51-62 (Russian).
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Cu-36
Corrosion products which formed on polished copper during exposure
to a stream of ozonated air were weighed and were identified by X-ray
diffraction. Rates of corrosion increased with O3 content, temperature,
and moisture in the air. At -40 to -30* little reaction occurred. Weight
gain (y, mg/sq.cra) in dry ozonated air followed a parabolic law with time
(t, hrs). At 0°, y ¦ O.OlSt0*^4 for 1.1-1.3 percent 03, and
y ¦ 0.015t(^,l+[' for 0.5-0.7 percent O3. Data scattered more at room
temperature, where y = 0.02t°»7lf and y = O^St0*1*5 for 1.1-1.3 and 0.5-0.7
percent O3, respectively. In the presence of moisture, corrosion at room
temperature followed, respectively, exponential laws y ¦ 0.023exp(0,23t)
and y ¦ 0.0lexp(0 .381), when H20 vapor was 6 and 12-15 rag/1 in air
containing 1.1-1.4 percent O3. At 60" with 1.1-1.2 percent O3 and 6 mg
H20/1, y = 0.02exp(0.20t). Rise of O3 content to 1.4 percent resulted in
formation of CuO along with Cu20, even at 0° and room temperature.
Hydrated CuO formed when the air was saturated with moisture.
3. Evaporated Metal Films As Indicators of Atmospheric Pollution. J. P.
Lodge, Jr., and B. R. Havlik. Int. J. Air Pollution, v. 3, No. 4, 1960,
pp. 249-252. (Fe60-4)
4, Theory of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. N. D. Tomashov. Trudy Inst.
Fiz.-Khim., Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R., No. 8, 1960, pp. 14-40 (Russian).
(Fe60-7)
1959
1. Corrosion of Metals in Synthetic Atmospheres Containing Sulfur Dioxide.
B. Sanyal and D. V. Bhadwar. J. Sci. and Ind. Research (India), v. 18A,
February 1959, pp. 69-74. (Fe59-3)
2. Design and Interpretation of Atmospheric Corrosion Tests. H. R. Copson.
Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, October 1959, pp. 533t-541t. (Fe59-4)
3. Deterioration of Materials in Polluted Atmospheres. J. E. Yocum.
Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, October 1959, pp. 541t-545t. (Fe59-5)
4. Mechanism by Which Non ferrous Metals Corrode in the Atmosphere.
P. M. Aziz and H. P. Goddard. Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, 1959,
pp. 529t-533t. (A159-3)
5. Reaction Mechanism for the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals in Damp and
Sulfur Dioxide-Containing Air. K. Barton and E. Beranek. Werkst.
Korros., v. 10, 1959, pp. 377-383. (Fe59-7)
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Cu-37
1958
1. Copper Alloys for Corrosion Resistance. R. V. L. Hall. Chem. Eng.
Progr., v. 54, 1958, pp. 51-55.
A review of corrosion rates, dezincification, stress corrosion,
cracking, and fatigue related to Cu alloys.
2. Influence of Dust and the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. K. Barton.
Werkst. Korres., v. 9, Aug-Sept 1958, pp. 547-549 (German). (Fe58-7)
3. Staining of Copper and Brass. E. Mattsson. Corrosion, v. 14, 1958,
pp. 88t-92t.
Copper alloys are known for their fine luster and high resistance to
corrosion, but they tarnish under certain conditions. A surface oxidation
of the metals normally occurs under the influence of the atmosphere. At
elevated temperatures this process may result in colored, so-called-temper
films; in the presence of such films may occur at room temperature.
When copper alloys are exposed to the outdoor atmosphere a black film will
soon form on the surface, usually changing to a pleasing green patina
after some years. Ugly dark stains (water stains) are formed when copper-
base material is left in contact with stationary water for a lengthy
period. Such water damage may be caused by rain or condensed moisture in
transit or in storage. A similar staining is caused by hygroscopic
surface impurities. Typical examples are chlorides from tap water that
has evaporated on the metal surface, solder (flux) residues, hand
perspiration, l^SO^, and dust. Copper alloys can be protected from
corrosion by passivating inhibitors, slushing compounds, lacquers, or
proper packaging.
4. The Corrosion of Metals and Metal Castings in Industrial Atmospheres.
G. Schikorr. Schweiz. Arch, angew. Wiss. Techn., v. 24, No. 2, 1958,
pp. 33-46. (Fe59-9)
1957
1. Atmosphere Affects the Stress-Corrosion Failure of High Brass.
C. H. Hannon. Corrosion, v. 13, 1957, pp. 417t-418t.
Observed failures of high brass parts (70-30 yellow brass) after
prolonged service as arcing gap electrodes in electrical appliances led
to a laboratory investigation. Failure of the electrodes was evidenced by
disintegration, embrittlement, cracking, and obvious oxidation. In
laboratory tests of highly stressed specimens, rapid failure occurred in
NHj atmospheres but not in mixtures of NH3 and 03, or 03 alone. No
evidence of cracking was observed in either O3 or ^0.
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Cu-38
2. Determination of the Corrosion Power of the Atmosphere.
N. D. Tomashov and G. K. Berukshtis. Trudy Inst. Fiz. Khim., Akad.
Nauk S.S.S.R., No. 6, Novye Metody Fiz. Khim. Issledovanii, No. 2, 1957,
pp. 50-55 (Russian). (Fe57-3)
3. The Effects of Air Pollution on Buildings and Metalwork. R. J. Schaffer.
Air Pollution, edited by M. W. Thring, Butterworth Scientific, London,
1957, pp. 58-71.
This paper discusses the effects of sulfur dioxide, chloride, ammoni-
um and particulate matter on the corrosion and deterioration of materials.
It also presents some historical information of interest on air pollu-
tion.
1956
1. Corrosion Studies. X. The Mechanism of the Atmospheric Corrosion of
Metals in Moist Atmospheres Contaminated With Sulfur Dioxide.
K. Barton and E. Beranek. Chem. Listy, v. 50, 1956, pp. 1388-1398.
(Fe56-6)
2. Effect of Natural Atmospheres on Copper Alloys, 20-Year Test.
A. W. Tracy. Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1956, pp. 67-76.
The ASTM Committee B-3 tests of 11 copper alloys exposed at industri-
al, marine, and rural sites for periods up to 20 years are discussed. In
most atmospheres, copper and its alloys form a thin, adherent, stable film
corrosion products which eventually limits the rate of corrosion to the
rate of solution of the film. Certain copper- zinc alloys undergo
dezincification corrosion; the metal is dissolved as alloy and copper
replated. Brasses containing about 15 percent or less of zinc are highly
resistant to dezincification. Tin in admiralty metal probably has some
inhibiting effect on dezincification, but not enough for many corrosive
conditions. As, Sb, or P in amounts of approximately 0.04 percent are now
added to admiralty metal and effectively inhibit dezincification. Of the
copper alloys, the high-zinc brasses are most subject to stress-corrosion
cracking in the presence of NH3 and moist air. Residual stress, remaining
from cold-working operations, should be eliminated by heating of formed
parts to a temperature just below that of the recrystaliization point of
the metal to reduce stress corrosion. The rate of pitting corrosion was
negligible. Corrosion rates were higher in industrial atmospheres
(average less than 0.1 mil per year) and least in rural atmospheres
(average less than 0.025 mil per year).
3. Galvanic-couple Corrosion Studies by Means of the Threaded Bolt and Wire
Test. K. G. Compton and A. Mendizza. Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-Fer-
rous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1956, pp. 116-125. (Fe56-7)
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Cu-39
4. Report of Subcommittee on Atmospheric Corrosion. H. R. Copson. Atmos-
pheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1956, pp. 3-19. (A156-4)
5. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper — Result of 20-year tests. D. H.
Thompson, A. W. Tracy, and J. R. Freeman, Jr. Atmospheric Corrosion of
Non—Ferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1956, p. 77-88.
Eleven brands of copper, in the form of sheet and wire, have been
exposed for 20 years to four outdoor atmospheres in Connecticut. The
effect of corrosion has been evaluated by loss in weight, loss in
strength, and gain in electrical resistance. Some of the results have
been examined by applying an analysis of variance. The mean corrosion
rate was found to be on the order of 50 x 10"^ in per year. While the
differences were of no practical significance, the purest coppers corroded
least, and the arsenical coppers corroded most.
1955
1. Atmospheric Galvanic Couple Corrosion. K. G. Compton, A. Mendizza, and
W. W. Bradley. Corrosion, v. 11, No. 9, 1955, pp. 35-44. (Fe55-1)
2. Oxidation of Copper in a Sulfur Dioxide Medium. L. T. Kleimenova. Tekh.
Inform. Resul'tat. Nauch.-Issledovatel Rabot Leningrad. Lesotekh.
Akad., No. 27, 1955, pp. 14-15.*
A method was developed for oxidation of metals in a sulfur dioxide
medium. It was found that the rate of oxidation of copper in a sulfur
dioxide medium is lower than in air and that it depends on the temperature
and on the time of exposure.
1953
1. Effects of Aluminum and Manganese on Resistance Against Atmospheric
Corrosion of Some Copper Alloys, G. P. Chatterjee. Indian Inst.
Metals—Trans, v. 7, 1953, pp. 211-221.
The basic mechanism by which elements may impart resistance to alloys
against atmospheric corrosion is discussed. Film growth is governed by
the physical properties of film formed, diffusion of atoms or ions
concerned, the temperature and environment.
2. The Behavior of Metallic Contacts at Low Voltages in Adverse Environments.
A. Fairweather. Proc. I.E.E.E, v. 100, pt.l, 1953, pp. 174-182.
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Cu-40
The surfaces of electrical contacts are usually contaminated by
foreign layers. Such layers may consist of dust or grease, or of films
producted by adsorption, tarnishing or corrosion. The applied voltage is
regarded as "low" when it is too small to initiate conduction by any pro-
cess analogous to breakdown. The problem in such circumstances is to
obtain a metal-to-metal contact mechanically. An attempt is made, for the
first time, to describe the behaviour of a closed contact subjected to
corrosion, and the closure processes for a corroded contact, both with and
without "wipe." The principles outlined provide some theoretical basis
for design and testing techniques. Attention is also given to sliding
contacts and, in particular, to the exposed intermittently-operating type:
some new approaches to the problems involved are suggested, perhaps the
most important being the development of a new technique for the continuous
dry lubrication of sliding contacts in mechanical and electrical systems.
1952
1. Corrosion of Different Metals in Liquefied Sulfur Dioxide. J. Bollinger.
Schweiz. Arch, angew. Wiss. u. Tech., v. 18, 1952, pp. 321-342. (Fe52-2)
2. Corrosion of Metals. U. R. Evans. Soc. Chem. Industry (Chem & Industry),
No. 41, October 11, 1952, pp. 986-993. (Fe52-3)
3. Some Further Observations on the Painting of Aluminum Alloys.
W. A. Edwards. Light Metals, v. 15, No. 167, 1952, pp. 61-63. (Fe52-5)
1951
1. Corrosion of Copper, Aluminum, and Magnesium and Their Alloys. M. Orman
and E. Zalesinski. Hutnik, v. 18, 1951, pp. 96-101 (Polish). (A151-1)
2. Corrosion Products of An Ancient Chinese Bronze. R. J. Gettens. J. Chem.
Ed., v. 28, 1951, pp. 67-71.
The corrosion products on a Chou period bronze vessel containing
about 21 percent tin and 4.5 percent lead occur in unusually well defined
layered structures. From the interior the order is: unattacked metal
core; residual dendritic metal structure in which a mixture of cupric and
stannic oxides have replaced the eutectic part of the duplex cast
structure; CuCl; redeposited Cu; CU2O and Sn02 mixture; mixture of basic
chloride and carbonate of copper. A series of chemical step reactions is
proposed to explain the complex corrosion process.
3. Historic Church's Copper Roof Good After 213 Years. A. W. Tracey.
Corrosion, v. 7, No. 11, 1951, pp. 373-375. (Fe51-3)
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Cu-41
1950
1. A Few Extraordinary Cases of Brass Corrosion in an Atmosphere Containing
Sulfurous Gases and Investigation of Such Cases. A. Domony. Banyasz.
Kohasz. Lapok, v. 5, No. 83, 1950, pp. 421-425.
When brass samples containing 70, 63, or 58 percent copper were kept
2 hours in an atmosphere saturated with S02 and steam and then stored for
week, the highest weight losses were observed in brasses with the highest
copper contents. When similar brass samples were treated in an atmosphere
containing S02 1 or H2S 2 percent at 450°, or in an atmosphere containing
S02 1 percent at 600°, the film formed on the surface of the brass
contained Cu 70 and Zn 30, Cu 68 and Zn 32, Cu 10 and Z 90, respectively,
for brass containing Cu 70 and Zn 30; the film contained Cu 36 and Zn 64,
Cu 36 and Zn 64, or Cu 2 and Zn 98, respectively, for brass containing
Cu 63 and Zn 37; the film contained Cu 16 and Zn 85, Cu 30 and Zn 70, or
Cu 0.0 and Zn 100, respectively, for brass containing Cu 68 and Zn 42
percent. When similar brass samples were kept at 20° in artificial sea
water 3 weeks, the most severe corrosion occurred on the surface of brass
containing 58 percent copper. The experiments show that the copper
content of brass alone is not the most important factor in corrosion
resistance. Corrosion seems to depend on the quality of the protective
coating formed under corrosive conditions. Brass is generally more
resistant owing to its homogeneous structure. Since, however, strongly
adhesive ZnO films are not readily formed on the surface of a-brasses,
they are sometimes corroded more easily than brasses of the (a + B)~
structure. Two opposing processes take place in brass corrosion.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metallic Materials in Closed Spaces. Schikorr.
Feinmech. u. Prazis, v. 54, 1950, pp. 3-8. (A150-1)
3. Suppression of Corrosion of Copper and its Alloys. E. Q. Camp. U.S.
Patent 2,522,430, September 12, 1950.
The corrosion of copper and copper alloys, when exposed to a fluid
containing a compound from the group of NH^OH and NH3, is eliminated by
incorporating a sulfur-containing compound in the fluid. The sulfur
compounds include H2S, CS2, mercaptans, S02 and SO^, and their
concentration may be varied over a wide range. The mercaptan
concentration may be 0.002-6 mole percent of the compound if the fluid is
a liquid and 0.02-2 mole percent of the compound if the fluid is a gaseous
medium. A sample of Admiralty metal containing copper 69, zinc 29, and
tin 1 percent and immersed for 48 hours in a 10 percent by weight solution
of NH^OH at room temperature corroded at a rate of 0.14 in. per year.
When 0.8 percent of Bu mercaptan was added in an identical test, the
corrosion rate was 0.0009 in. per year. In another test, the stressed
metal failed in 3 hours as a result of stress-corrosion cracking in an
atmosphere containing NH^. When 3 percent by weight of Bu mercaptan was
added to the NH^OH solution over which the stressed Admiralty metal was
suspended, there was no evidence of failure after 194 hours of exposure.
-------
Cu-42
1948
1. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. G. Schikorr. Arch. Hetallkunde,
v. 2, 1948, pp. 223-230 (German). (Fe48-7)
1943
1. The Corrosion of Metals in Air. Jubilee Memorial Lecture.
W. H. J. Vernon. Chemistry and Industry, August 1943, pp. 314-318.
(Fe43-1)
1939
1. Effect of Sulfur Compounds in the Atmosphere on Various Materials. L. R.
Burdick and J. F. Barkley. U.S. Bureau of Mines, I.C. 7064, April 1939,
9 pp. (Fe 39-1)
1937
1. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. W. H. J. Vernon. Proc. Chemical
Engineering Group (Soc. Chem. Ind.), v. 19, 1937, pp. 14-22. (Fe37-2)
1936
1. Corrosion Resistance of Metals and Alloys. R. J. McKay and
R. Worthington. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, N.Y., 1936.
(Fe36-2)
1935
1. The Effect of Five Years' Atmospheric Exposure on the Breaking Load and
the Electrical Resistance of Non-Ferrous Wires. J. C. Hudson.
J. Inst. Metals, v. 56, 1935, pp. 91-102.
This paper gives the results of atmospheric corrosion tests in which
various non-ferrous wires were exposed to an urban atmosphere for 5 years;
the extent of corrosion was measured both by determination of the extent
to which the breaking load of the wires had been decreased by exposure and
by measurements of the increase in the electrical resistance of the wire.
The results of the two series of tests are in reasonable agreement both
with each other and with those of earlier tests. In general, the rate of
corrosion observed was small, that of copper being, for instance, on the
order of 0.0002 in. per annum; the rate was definitely higher for nickel,
nickel-copper alloys with high nickel contents, zinc, and brass, the
-------
Cu-43
breaking load of the last material being appreciably impaired by the
effects of "copper redeposition." The most corroded material of all was
galvanized iron wire, which failed rapidly when the zinc coating had
corroded. Comparison of the present results with those of similar tests
over shorter periods points to the conclusion that in many cases, such as
those of copper and high-copper bearing alloys, the rate of corrosion
decreases with time of exposure.
1930
1. The Effects of Two Years' Atmospheric Exposure on the Breaking Load of
Hard-Drawn Non-Ferrous Wires. J. C. Hudson. J. Inst. Metals, v. 44,
1930, pp. 409-431.
Details are given of tests on a number of hard-drawn non-ferrous
wires, in which determinations of the breaking load were made before and
after exposure to the South Kensington atmosphere for two years. Owing to
the fact that appreciable changes took place in the strength of the unex-
posed wires, it is not possible to arrange the materials in a definite
order of merit as regards resistance to atmospheric corrosion. The losses
in strength after two years' exposure were, however, very small, and the
observations confirm the results of earlier work in showing that under
straight forward conditions the majority of non-ferrous materials are very
resistant to atmospheric corrosion. Brass is an exception to this
statement, as its strength is adversely affected by the copper
redeposition that accompanies atmospheric corrosion. A few remarks ar'e
made on the atmospheric corrosion of copper-nickel alloys.
1929
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals-3rd Report to the Atmospheric Corrosion
Research Committee. J. C. Hudson. Trans. Faraday Soc., v. 25, 1929,
pp. 177-252. (A129-1)
2. Open-Air Corrosion of Copper. Chemical Study of the Surface Patina.
W. H. J. Vernon and L. Whitby. J. Inst. Metals, Advance copy No. 511,
1929.
The green patina found on copper exposed to weathering conditions
consists essentially of basic copper sulfate. Basic carbonate exists only
in small quantities. Lead in the copper tends to cause the formation of
black patinas. In most cases the patina passes through a black stage
followed by subsequent changes to green. In marine atmospheres the
patinas are usually composed of basic chlorides. Sulfur compounds are
particularly effective in the developments of patinas. Impurities other
than lead do not, as a rule, impart characteristic colors to the patina.
The process of changing from black to green usually takes many years.
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Cu-44
3. The Relative Corrodibilities of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys.
Part II—The Results of Seven Years' Exposure to Air at Birmingham.
J. N. Friend. J. Inst. Metals, v. 42, 1929, pp. 149-155. (Fe29-2)
1927
1, Second Experimental Report to the Atmospheric Corrosion Research Committee
(British Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association). W. H. J. Vernon.
Trans. Faraday Soc., v. 23, 1927, pp. 113-179.
The report is concerned with the behavior of typical metals and
alloys on exposure to the atmosphere; it is divided into two parts,
dealing respectively with "indoor" and "open-air" exposure tests, the
former including associated laboratory experiments. It is shown that
conclusions which hold good for a given set of conditions do not
necessarily apply when those conditions are changed; this is exemplified
by the influence of "impurities" in copper. Indoors, under conditions
such that only tarnishing has to be considered, a given element exercises
an effect which is either neglible, or in simple proportion to the amount
of element present. Exposed to the open air however, the same element may
exert an effect out of all proportion to its concentration. It would
appear that protection against indoor tarnishing should be sought by
methods other than modification of composition alone; promising results
have been obtained in connection with the formation of protective surface
films.
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Ni-1
NICKEL ALLOYS
1982
1. Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. H. C. Martin.
Materials Performance, v. 21, No. 1, January 1982, pp. 36-39. (Fe82-3)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Electrodeposited Coatings in Tropical
China. T. Biestek. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley,
New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 775-786.
Atmospheric corrosion testing of electroplated coatings were carried
out in China in humid tropical (Canton), marine-tropical (Ju-Lin, Hainan
island), and subtropical-industrial (Shanghai) atmospheres for four years.
Zinc and cadmium (unchromated and chromated), tin, nickel, and three-
layers copper-nickel-chromium coatings deposited on steel, tin, silver,
passivated silver coatings on copper, and chromium coatings on brass were
included in the test program. Durability of the above coatings was
determined taking into account their thicknesses. Conclusions on the
field of application of these coatings in tropical climate were drawn.
3. Colloid and Surface Phenomena in the Corrosion of Metals. E. Matijevic.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 123-138. (Fe82-28)
4. Comments on the Corrosion Performance of Decorative Nickel-Ion Coatings .
R. J. Clauss. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean,
Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM
STP 767, 1982 pp. 214-221.
The durability of decorative nickel-iron coating in various types of
exposure is discussed in detail. It has been determined that these
coatings, as part of a specific multiple deposit system, perform accept-
ably for exterior automotive applications. It is necessary that a micro-
discontinuous chromium be present in the composite coating to achieve
optimum results, and it is desirable to sue a copper underlayer to the
nickel-iron electrodeposits. Corrosion test results are also reported
which establish that static tests cannot be relied upon to predict actual
mobile service performance.
5. Corrosion Performance of Decorative Electrodeposited Nickel and Nickel-
Iron Alloy Coatings. G. A. DiBari, G. Hawks, and E. A. Baker. Comments
on the Corrosion Performance of Decorative Nickel-Ion Coatings. R. J.
Clauss. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and
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Ni-2
E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767 ,
1932, pp. 186-213.
The corrosion performance of chromium-electroplated, decorative
nickel and nickel-iron alloy electrodeposits has been studied in marine
and industrial atmospheres and by means of copper-accelerated acetic acid-
salt spray testing (CASS). Decorative nickel coatings, 15 and 30 pm
thick, gave better overall corrosion performance than comparable
decorative nickel-iron alloy coatings. Because of the rapid staining that
occurs in marine and industrial atmospheres, nickel-iron alloy deposits
are not suitable for decorative applications involving moderate and severe
corrosion service. Decorative nickel-iron alloy deposits, 7.6 pm thick,
appear suitable for mild corrosion service on the basis of CASS test
results, but results were affected by iron content and type of
electrodeposited chromium. The relatively good performance of thin alloy
deposits accounts for established applications in mildly corrosive
environments.
The performance of the decorative electrodeposited nickel coatings
was influenced by the activity of bright nickel. Low-activity
single-layer bright nickel (15 pm) performed better than high-activity
bright nickel when used with raicroporous or microcracked chromium.
High-activity double-layer nickel (30 urn) protected low-current-density
areas of contoured steel panels better than low-activity double-layer
nickel, either with microporous or microcracked chromium. Microporous
chromium was more effective in this program; microcracked chromium was
more effective in a previous study.
Economic Assessment of Pollution Related Corrosion Damage. F. H. Haynie.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 3-18. (Fe82-33)
Electrochemical Behavior of Atmospheric Pollutants in Thin Liqiud Layers
Related to Atmospheric Corrosion. C. Fiaud. Atmospheric Corrosion,
edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 161-166.
The influence of sulfur dioxide as gaseous atmospheric pollutant has
been examined for its effect on the electrochemical behavior of metals
under thin layers of moisture present on their surfact. The concentration
of sulfur dioxide was comprised between 4 and 100 ppm by volume. The
investigated metals were platinum and nickel. Under these conditions,
oxidation and reduction of sulfur dioxide were investigated, and
adsorption of the molecule of the dissolved species was shown to play an
important role in the extent of the electrochemical reactions occurring at
the surfaces.
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Ni-3
8.. E1 ec t rot opography - A New Tool for Corrosion Research. M. Ensanian.
Extended Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion
(October 5-10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Societv, v.
80-2, 1980, pp. 480-482. (Fe82-36)
9. Evaluation of the Effects of Microclimate Differences on Corrosion. F. H.
Havnie. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and
E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767,
STP 767, 1982, pp. 286-308. (Fe82-39).
10. Indoor Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Cobalt and Iron.
D. W. Rice, P. B. P. Phipps, P. J. Peterson and R. J. Cappell.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wilev, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 651-666. (Cu82-21)
11. Indoor Corrosion Testing. W. 0. Freitag. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited
by W.H, Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 265-274, (Fe82-40)
1981
1. Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. H. C. Martin.
Paper No. 114, Corrosion/til (Toronto, Canada), National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, April 6-10, 1981, 7 pp. (Fe81-1)
1980
1. Corrosion of Metal in Wood Products. A. J. Baker. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G.
Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 981-993.
(Fe80-7)
2. Critical Review of the Available Physicochemical Material Damage Functions
of Air Pollution. M. Benarie. Report No. EUR-6643, Commission on the
Europen Communities, 1980, 97 pp. (Fe80-81)
3. Indoor Corrosion of Metals. D. W. Rice, R. J. Cappell, W. Kinsolving, and
J. J. Laskowski. J. of Electrochem. Soc., v. 127, No. 4, 1980, pp. 891-
902. (Fe80-il)
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Ni-4
1979
1. The Effect of Atmospheric Corrosion on the Reliability of Electronic
Parts. B. Henzlik. Koroze Ochr. Hater., v. 5, 1974, pp. 90-91 (Czech).
(Cu79-6)
1978
I. ASTM Atmospheric Corrosion Testing: 1906 to 1976. W. H. Ailor.
Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM
STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1978, pp. 129-151. (Fe78-2)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Electroplated Zinc Alloy Die Castings.
J. H. Payer and W. H. Safranek. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the
Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978, pp. 115-128. (Cu76-5)
3. Atmospheric Laboratory Bench. Yu. N. Mikhai1ovskii, V. A. San'ko,
N. A. Sokolov, and P. N. Kudryavtsev. Zashch. Met., v. 14, No. 4, 1978,
pp. 515-517 (Russian). (Fe78-7)
1977
1. Galvanic Corrosion In The Atmosphere. V. Kucera. Rapp.-Korrosionsinst.
No. 16, 1977, 43 pp. (Swedish). (Fe77-9)
1976
1. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocom and N.
Grappone, Research Corporation of New England, WethersfieId,
Connecticut, NTIS Report PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp. (Fe76-6)
2. How Environmental Pollutants Diminish Contact Reliability. C. A. Russell.
Insulation/Circuits, v. 22, No. 10, September 1976, pp. 43-46. (Cu76-5)
3. Protection Against Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Translated by
J. R. Duncan, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1976, 194 pp. (Fe76-14)
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1975
1. Environmental Exposure System for Studying Air Pollution Damage to
Materials. J. W. Spence, F. D. Stump, F. H. Haynie, and J. B. Upham.
NTIS Report PB-240615/5ST, January 1975, 40 pp. (Fe75-ll)
2. Sulfur Dioxide and Material Damage. D.G. Gillette. J. Air Pollution
Control Assn., v. 25, No. 12, December 1975, pp. 1238-1243. (Fe75-17)
3. The Outdoor Corrosion Performance of Plated ABS Plastics. V. E. Carter.
Trans. Inst. Metal Finishing, Spring/Conf., v. 53, No. 1, 1975, pp. 61-
64. (Cu75-6)
1974
1. Air Pollution Effects on Catastrophic Failure of Metals. J. Gerhard and
F. H. Haynie. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-650/3-74-009,
November 1974, 33 pp. (Fe74-2)
2. Seven-Year Exposure at Point Reyes, California. W. H. Ailor. Corrosion
in Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials,1974, pp. 75-81. (A174-6)
3. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution. T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701, 1974, 156 pp. (Fe74-21)
4. The Use of Weather and CIimatological Data in Evaluating the Durability of
Building Components and Materials. L. W. Masters and W. C. Wolfe.
NTIS Report COM-74-50841/7, August 1974, 102 pp. (Fe74-25)
1973
1. Economic Effects of Air Pollution on Electrical Contacts. R. C. Robbins.
Holm Seminar on Electrical Contact Phenomena, 19th Annual Proceedings,
Illinois Inst, of Technology, Chicago, 111., October 15-18, 1973,
pp. 80-86. (Cu73-2)
1972
1. Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Steels and Nickel Alloys.
T. E. Evans. Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Metal. Corros. (1969), National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, 1972, pp. 408-418.
(Fe72-3)
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1971
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. M. Arpaia. Atti Not. Assoc. Ital.
Metall., v. 26, 1971, pp. 363-367 (Italian). (Fe71-5)
2. Technical-Economic Evaluation of Air-Pollution Corrosion Costs on Metals
in the U.S. F. W. Fink, E. H. Buttner and W. K. Boyd. NTIS Report PB-
198453, February 19, 1971, 160 pp. (Fe71-25)
1970
1. Systems Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials. R. L.
Salmon. NTIS Report PB-209192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp. (Fe70-13)
1969
1. Corrosion in the Atmosphere P. Atterby. NTIS Report N71—26259, November
1969, 9 pp. (Swedish). (Fe69-25)
1968
1. Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Some Nickel Alloys. D. Van Rooyen and
H. R. Copson. Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1968, pp. 175-186.
Nickel, nickel-copper, and nickel-chromium-iron alloys were included
in an atmospheric corrosion test series in industrial, marine, and rural
sites. Pit depths, losses in weight, and losses in mechanical properties
were extremely small after a seven-year period of exposure. The nickel-
iron-chromium materials had the lowest corrosion rates, about 0.01
milligrams per square decimeter per day (about 0.002 mils per year). The
corrosion rates of the nickel-iron-chromium alloys appear to have
decreased substantially with exposure time, while the nickel and nickel-
copper alloy specimens follow approximately linear rates. Long time
durability data have also been obtained for a number of nickel-copper-
iron alloys. These were boldly exposed at Bayonne, N.J. for almost 40
years. Data led to the construction of isograms connecting compositions
of equal durability on the nickel-iron-copper ternary diagram. Effects of
exposure under shelter are also discussed.
2. Corrosion of Me'tals by Aqueous Solutions of the Atmospheric Pollutant
Sulfurous Acid. W. McLeod and R. R. Rogers. Electrochem. Technol.,
v. 6, No. 7-8, July-August 1968, pp. 231-235. (Fe68-3)
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Ni-7
3. High Pressure Electrical Contacts. J. King. Proc. 1968 Electrical
Components Conference, May 8-10, 1968, pp. 454-458. (Fe68-9)
4. Increased Connector Contact Reliability. M. Ball, F. H. Hardie and E. J
Struckus, The Electronic Engineer, March 1968, pp. 82-85. (A168-6)
5. Tarnishing and Contamination of Metals. W. E. Campbell and U. B. Thomas
Proc. Engineering Seminar on Electrical Contact Phenomena, Illinois
Inst. Technology, Chicago, 111., November 11-15, 1968, pp. 233-265.
(Cu68-10)
1967
1. Surfact Properties Key to Contact Selection. J. C. Chaston. Mat. Eng.,
v, 66, No. 8, 1967, pp. 76-77. (Cu67-4)
1966
1. Corrosion Behavior of Some Metallic Materials in Liquid Sulfur Dioxide.
Rivola, T. Bazzan, M. Piro, and G. Bombara. Proc. 2nd Intern. Congr.
Metal. Corrosion, New York, (1963), National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Houston, TX, 1966, pp. 418-423. (Fe66-6)
2. Tarnish Films on Electric Contact Materials. R. V. Chiarenze11i. Proc.
Third Intern. Research Symposium on Electrical Contact Phenomena,
June 6-10, 1966, pp. 85-93. (Cu66-8)
1965
1. Significance of Corrosion Testing Process with Special Consideration of
the SO^ Test According to DIN 50018. W. Kesternich. Werkst.
Korrosion, v. 16, 1965, pp. 193-201 (German). (Fe65-15)
2. The Signifiance of Sulfur Dioxide in the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals
G. Schikorr. Korrosion , No. 17, 1965, pp. 27-34 (German). (Fe65-20)
1964
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Bright Nickel and Polished Dead Nickel Coatings
G. Schikorr. Metal 1, v. 18, 1964, pp. 594-596.
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Ni-8
Tests were conducted both in the laboratory and in the atmosphere in
the Stuttgart region. In the atmosphere, polished bright nickel specimens
showed about 50 percent greater attack than polished dead nickel samples.
This difference is attributed to the fact that bright nickel absorbs more
SO2 from the air and is, therefore, more reactive than polished dead
nickel. Bright nickel also shows greater reactivity in laboratory tests.
2. Investigation of Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Selected Nickel Allovs.
H. R. Copson and E. A. Tice. Werkst. Korros., v. 15, No. 8, August
1964, pp. 642-652 (German). (Fe64-3)
3. The Influence of Sulphur Dioxide on the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
G. Schikorr. Werkst. Korros., v. 15, No. 5, 1964, pp. 457-463.
(Fe64-4)
1961
1. Atmospheric Corrosion. U. K. Evans. Chapt. 8 in The Corrosion and
Oxidation of Metals, Edward Arnold, 1961, pp. 481-535. (Fe61-2)
2. Corrosion In Buildings. P. J. Sereda. Canadian Building Digest. Report
No. CBD-20, August 1961, 4 pp. (Fe61-5)
3. Equivalence of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Zinc and Nickel to That of
Sulfur Dioxide Absorbed From the Air. G. Schikorr. Metall, v. 15,
1961, pp. 981-987.
After a 1-year exposure to atmospheric corrosion at Stuttgart, the
metal surfaces at most absorbed only one-third to one-half the amount of
S02 absorbed by alkaline surfaces of the same magnitude, consisting of
K2C03-impregnated filter paper. Rain has little effect on the amount of
corrosion. In cold months the corrosion on zinc, nickel is about equal.
In hot months, during which corrosion is considerably less, zinc is
somewhat more severely attacked than nickel. Zinc, in the presence of 70
to 80 percent humidity, takes -up more S02 from the air than nickel, and
corrodes more severely then nickel owing to the formation of basic salts.
This condition would prevail to a greater extent during the warm months.
1959
1. Corrosion of Metals in Synthetic Atmospheres Containing Sulfur Dioxide.
B. Sanyal and D. V. Bhadwar. J. Sci. Industr, Res., v. 18A, February
1959, pp. 69-74. (Fe59-3)
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Ni-9
2. Design and Interpretation of Atmospheric Corrosion Tests. H. R. Copson.
Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, October 1959, pp. 533t-541t. (Fe59-4)
3. Mechanism by Which Nonferrous Metals Corrode in the Atmosphere. M. Aziz
and H. P. Godaard. Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, 1959, pp. 529t-533t.
(A159—3)
1957
1. The Effects of Air Pollution on Buildings and Metalwork. R. J. Schaffer.
Air Pollution, edited by M. W. Thring, Butterworth Scientific, London,
1957, pp. 58-71. (Fe57-5)
1956
1. Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Some Nickel Alloys. H. R. Copson.
Atmospheric Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1956, pp. 141-158. (Fe56-2)
2. Report of Subcommittee on Atmospheric Corrosion. H. R. Copson.
Atmopheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American
Society of Testing and Materials, 1956, pp. 3-19. (A156-4)
1955
1. Atmospheric Galvanic Couple Corrosion, K, G, Compton, A, Mendizza, and
W. W. Bradley. Corrosion, v. 11, No.9, 1955, pp. 35-44. (Fe55-1)
1953
1. The Behavior of Metallic Contacts at Low Voltages in Adverse
Environments. A. Fairweather. Proc. I.E.E.E., v. 100, pt.1, 1953, pp.
174-182. (Cu53-2)
1952
1. Corrosion of Different Metals in Liquefied Sulfur Dioxide. J. Bollinger.
Schweiz. Arch, angew. Wiss. u. Tech., v. 18, 1952, pp. 321-342.
(Fe52-2)
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1948
1. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. G. Schikorr. Arch. Met a 1lkunde,
v. 2, 1948, pp. 223-230 (German). (Fe48-7)
1939
1. Effect of Sulfur Compounds; in the Atmosphere on Various Materials.
L. R. Burdick and J. F. Barklev. U.S. Bureau of Mines I.C. 7064, April
1939, 9 pp. (Fe39-1)
1937
The Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. W. H. J. Vernon. Procedings
Chemical Engineering Group (Soc. Chem. Ind.), v. 19, 1937 , pp. 14-22
(Fe37-2)
1936
1. Corrosion Resistance of Metals and Alloys. R. J. McKay and
R. Worthington. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, N.Y., 1936.
(Fe36-2)
1935
1. The Effect of Five Years' Atmospheric Exposure on the Breaking Load and
the Electrical Resistance of Non-Ferrous Wires. J. C. Hudson. J. Inst.
Metals, v. 56, 1935, pp. 91-102. (Cu35-1)
1930
The Effects of Two Years' Atmospheric Exposure on the Breaking Load of
Hard-Drawn Non-Ferrous Wires. J. C. Hudson. J. Inst. Metals, v. 44,
1930, pp. 409-431. (Cu30-1)
1929
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals—3rd Report to The Atmospheric Corrosion
Research Committee. J. C. Hudson. Trans. Faraday Soc., v. 25, 1929,
pp. 177-252. (At 29—1)
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Ni-11
2. The Relative Corrodibi1ities of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys.
Part II—The Results of Seven Years' Exposure to Air at Birmingham.
J. N. Friend. J. Inst. Metals, v. 42, 1929, pp. 149-155. (Fe29-2)
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Zn-1
ZINC AND GALVANIZED STEEL
1982
1. Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Enviroment. H. C. Martin.
Materials Performance, v. 21, No. 1, January 1982, pp. 36-39. (Fe82-3)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Galvanized Steel. R. A. Legault. Atmospheric
Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 607-
614.
It has previously been demonstrated that the natural atmospheric
corrosion behavior of galvanized steel can be accurately described by
equations of a simple form. Such equations are used to demonstrate that
differences in the behavior of galvanized steel can be easily and
accurately assessed. Examples are given of differences in behavior which
result from variations in coating composition as well as from variations
in exposure environment. Comparisons are also shown of the behavior of
galvanized steel to that of other materials.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals Under Moving Conditions. J. D. Talati and
B. M. Patel. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 695-704. (Fe82-10)
4. Atmospheric Corrosion of Zinc and its Alloys. S. R. Dunbar, and
W. Showak. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wilev, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 529-552.
Zinc corrosion rates are influenced by their environment. Alloy
composition has little influence on corrosion rates but may control
surface texture. Corrosion rates are lowest in rural environments. The
corrosion products formed are basic and relatively insoluble which form a
protective film and reduce the corrosion rate. Corrosion rates are high-
est in industrial atmospheres where moisture is acidic and corrosion
products are soluble, allowing corrosion to proceed at a linear rate. In
marine environments, corrosion rates depend on the amount of contact with
salt spray. Atmospheric conditions during the first weeks of exposure may
influence the corrosion rate of zinc during the entire exposure period.
Zinc weight loss determinations appear to be the most suitable method for
determining corrosion rates. The value of tension tests as a means of
determining corrosion rates has been explored. To be useful, a means of
separately evaluating the aging effects is needed.
5. Atmospheric Corrosion Test Results for Metallic-Coated Steel Panels
Exposed in 1960. D. E. Tonini. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited
by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and
Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 163-185. (A182-9)
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6 .
7.
8.
9.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Zn-2
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing by Electrolytic Cells in Norway and Sweden.
S. Haagenrud, V. (Cucera, and J. Gullman. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited
by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 669-694. (Fe82-14)
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Australasia. J. F. Moresby, F. M. Reeves
and D. J. Spedding. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 745-754. (Fe82-15)
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Brazil. A. C. Dutra and R. Vianna,
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 755-774. (Fe82-16)
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Finland, T. Hakkarainen and S. Ylasaari.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 787-796. (Fe82-17)
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing In The Federal Republic of Germany. G.
Oelsner. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York,
N.Y., 1982, pp. 797-806. (Fe82-18)
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Norway. L. Atteraas and S. Haagenrud.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 873-892. (Fe82-20)
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Southern Africa. B. G, Callaghan.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H, Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 893-912. (Fe82-21)
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Spain. S. Feliu and M. Morcillo.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 913-922. (Fe82-22)
Atmospheric Corrosion Tests in the USSR. Yu. N. Mikhailovskii and
P. V. Strekalov. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley,
New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 923-942. (Fe82-23)
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Electrodeposited Coatings in Tropical
China. T. Biestek. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 775-786. (Ni82-1)
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Electrodeposited Zinc and Cadmium
Coatings. T. Biestek. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 631-644.
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Zn-3
In light of examinations being carried out in various countries, the
results of the more than ten years of atmospheric corrosion testing of
electroplated zinc and cadmium coatings, 1-30 ym thick, on steel are
discussed. Examinations were carried out in following natural
atmospheres: industrial, urban-industrial, urban-coastal, and rural.
Chromate layers on zinc coatings were tested. The results obtained were
the basis to compare the protective properties of zinc and cadmium
coatings, to determine the corrosion rate and durability of zinc coatings
and to establish the relation and correlation between the results of
laboratory (accelerated) and natural atmospheric testing.
17. Atmospheric and Weather Factors in Corrosion Testing. H. Guttman.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 51-68. (Fe82-25)
18. Calibration of Atmospheric Corrosion Test Sites. E. A. Baker and T. S.
Lee. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E.
C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767 , 1982,
pp. 250-266. (Fe82-27)
19. Cobalt and Nickel Cations as Corrosion Inhibitors for Galvanized Steel.
H. Leidheiser, Jr., and I. Suzuki. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.
H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 615-630.
Gravimetric measurements on galvanized steel and cathodic
polarization curves indicate that corrosion of zinc in 3% NaCl is
inhibited by a low concentration of cobalt ions in solution or by simple
predipping the zinc in 0.05 or 0.1M solutions of CoCl2. Corrosion
inhibition is also obtained when zinc is predipped in a nickel acetate
solution and nickel ions are present in the NaCl solution. The corrosion
inhibition is attributed to electron traps (cobalt or nickel atoms) in the
zinc oxide on the surface of zinc which lead to inhibition of the cathodic
reaction, H20 + 1/2 0£ + 2e~ ¦ 20H~. When the concentration of elemental
cobalt or nickel in or on the oxide becomes too great, the cathodic
reaction, 2H+ + 2e~ ¦ H2, is catalyzed and corrosion activation occurs.
20. Economic Assessment of Pollution Related Corrosion Damage. F. H. Haynie.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 3-18. (Fe82-33)
21. Effect of 1 Percent Copper Addition on Atmospheric Corrosion of Rolled
Zinc After 20 Years' Exposure. W. Showak and S. R. Dunbar. Atmospheric
Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American
Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 135-162.
The atmospheric corrosion characteristics of a commercial rolled zinc
alloy containing 1 percent copper and an unalloyed grade have been
evaluated after 20 years' exposure under ASTM Committee B-3 (now G
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Zn-4
01.04.04) 1957 test program on atmospheric corrosion of non-ferrous
metals. Corrosion damage was assessed by measurement of loss in weight,
loss in mechanical properties, and depth of pitting. The 20-year
corrosion rates are analyzed with respect to previous 2- and 7-year
results. Comparisons are also made with the behavior of three unalloyed
grades of rolled zinc investigated in the 20-year 1931 program by
Committee B-3 using weight loss and tension test methods.
The weight loss method appears to be the most reliable way of
determining the corrosion rates of zinc. Corrosion rates found for zinc
in the 1931 and 1957 test programs are in good agreement. The corrosion
rate of zinc is not significantly affected by variations in compositions
invest igated.
Local galvanic action is probably responsible for the pitting which
occurs in the copper-containing zinc alloy. Pitting is most severe in the
marine atmosphere in direct contact with salt spray. The pit-depth/total-
penetration ratio tends to decrease with increasing total penetration.
The net change in tensile strength after 20 years' exposure at all four
test sites is equal to or less than that expected due to weight loss.
Tensile elongation is found to be more sensitive to corrosion effects than
tensile strength, although both alloys still possess considerable
ductility after 20 years.
A better way of compensating for aging in zinc is needed if tension
test results are to be useful in evaluating corrosion damage.
22. Electrotopography - A New Tool for Corrosion Research. M. Ensanian.
Extended Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion
(October 5-10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society,
v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 480-482. (Fe82-36)
23. Evaluation of the Effects of Microclimate Differences on Corrosion. F. H.
Haynie. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and
E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767,
1982, pp. 286-308. (Fe82-39)
24. Ion Chromatographic Analysis of Contaminants on Zinc and Aluminum Surfaces
Exposed to a Range of Urban Indoor Environments. G. B. Munier, L. A.
Psota-Kelty, and J. D. Sinclair. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H.
Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 275-284. (A182-23)
25. Progress in Atmospheric Corrosion Testing. D. Knotkova, K. Barton and M.
Cerny. Extended Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric
Corrosion (October 5-10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical
Society, v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 526-528. (Fe82-44)
26. Resistance of Galvanized, Aluminum-Coated, and 55% Al-Zn-Coated Steels to
Atmospheric Corrosion Involving Standing Water. L. Allegra, N. S.
Berke, and H. E. Townsend. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H.
Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 595-606. (A182-27)
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Zn-5
27. Service Evaluation of Zinc Thermal. Spraying Systems. K. Altorfer.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 645-650.
Rising costs suggest that longer lasting corrosion-prevention systems
be developed. Reduction in consumption of zinc by the automotive industry
makes it economically attractive for other applications. Zinc
metallizing, providing up to 40 year life in Europe, is in its infancy in
the United States. Texasgulf is now testing zinc metallizing for its
railroad fleet, new construction and maintenance. Analysis indicates a
favorable cost picture for zinc metallizing vs. conventional paint over a
20-40 year life span.
28. The Interplay of Weather, Climate and the Durability of Materials.
P. W. Brown and L. W. Masters. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H.
Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 31-50. (Fe82-48)
1981
1. Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. H. C. Martin.
Paper No. 114, Corrosion/81 (Toronto, Canada), National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, April 6-10, 1981, 7 pp. (Fe81-1)
2. Corrosion Resistance of Zinc Coatings Produced in Modern Electrolytic
Baths. T. Johnsson. Rapp.-Korrosions inst. (Stockholm), No. 3, 1981,
27 pp. (Swedish).*
Zn electrodeposites from acid chloride, alkali noncyanide, low-
cyanide, neutral, and conventional high-cyanide baths were field-tested
for 4 yr, in rural, urban, and marine atms. Two accelerated tests were
also carried out. No significant differences in anticorrosion efficiency
were observed. Some differences were found in the bendability and
ductility of the plates.
3. Determination of the Corrosivity of Atmospheres with Electrochemical
Techniques. F. Mansfeld. Extended Abstracts, Fall Meeting,
Electrochemical Society, Denver, CO., v. 81-2, October 11-16, 1981, pp.
444-445.
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Zn-6
1980
1. A Model of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals Allowing for Meterorological
and Aerochemical Characteristics. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, P. V.
Strekalov, and V. V. Agafonov. Protection of Metals, v. 16, No.4, 1980,
pp. 308-323. (Fe80-1)
2. A Review of Air Pollutant Damage to Materials. J. E. Yocum and A. R.
Stankunas. Draft Report to Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, December
1980, 92 pp. (Fe80-2)
3. Corrosion of Metal in Wood Products. A. J. Baker. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G.
Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 981-993.
(Fe80-7)
4. Critical Review of the Available Physicochemical Material Damage Functions
of Air Pollution. M. Benarie. Report No. EUR-6643, Commission on the
European Communities, 1980, 97 pp. (Fe80-8)
5. Examination of Durability Test Methods for Building Materials Based on
Performance Evaluation. T. Nireki. Durability of Building Materials
and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 119-130.
One of the vital approachs to quantifying the performance of
materials over time is to use performance concept. This paper provides a
methodology for evaluating durability test methods for building materials,
components, and elements according to performance evaluation criteria. It
discusses various sources of data (field survey, outdoor exposure and
accelerated aging test) and includes 5-year application program for
durability assessment of industrialized dwellings.
6. Laboratory Studies of Atmospheric Corrosion—I. Weight Loss and
Electrochemical Measurements. F. Mansfeld and S. Tsai. Corrosion
Science, v. 20, 1980, pp. 853-872. (Fe80-13)
7. Mechanism of S02 and I^SO^ Aerosol Zinc Corrosion. A. B. Harker,
F. Mansfeld, D. R. Strauss, and D. D. Landis. Report to the Environ
mental Protection Agency, Contract No. 68-02-2944, January 1980.
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Zn-7
A twelve-month experimental study has been conducted to establish the
physical variables controlling the S02 (gas) and (aerosol) induced
corrosion of zinc. The study was carried out using a 6.6 meter aerosol
flow reactor in which relative humidity, temperature, air flow velocity,
flow turbulence, aerosol size range, and pollutant concentration were
controlled. Corrosion measurements were made through the use of an
atmospheric corrosion monitor previously developed in this laboratory.
The results of the study showed that the principal factors controlling
pollutant induced corrosion are relative humidity (time of surface
wetness), the rate of pollutant flux to the surface, and the chemical form
of the pollutant. Temperature was not observed to be a controlling factor
within the experimental range (12 to 20C). Sulfur dioxide was observed to
induce a higher corrosion rate in the zinc than I^SO^ on a molecule for
molecule basis. Flow dynamic measurements provided bulk and size detailed
deposition velocities for two different accumulation mode I^SO^ aerosol
size distributions as a function of frictional velocity, and a deposition
velocity for SO2 gas. The overall results indicate that under most
ambient conditions SO2 induced corrosion damage will dominate over
H2S01+ effects. This study demonstrated the capability of the experimental
technique to observe the physical and chemical processes controlling
pollutant induced corrosion and offers a means of quantitatively
describing these effects through further investigation.
8. Metals in America's Historic Buildings. M. Gayle, D. W. Look, and
J. G. Waite. U.S. Department of the Interior, Heritage Conservation and
Recreation Service, Washington, D.C., 1980, 170 pp.
(Fe80-14)
9. Regional Air Pollution Study: Effects of Airborne Sulfur Pollutants on
Materials. F. Mansfeld. NTIS Report PB81—126351, January 1980, 163 pp.
(Fe80-18)
10. Theoretical Air Pollution and Climate Effects on Materials Confirmed by
Zinc Corrosion Data. F. H. Haynie. Durability of Building Materials
and Components, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American
Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 691, 1980 pp. 157-175.
Observed effects of pollution level, relative humidity, temperature,
wind velocity, and surface geometry are explained using diffusion theory
and thermodynamics. Many materials readily react with pollutants, thus,
the rate controlling step is the flux of pollutants to the surface. In
such cases, dose-response damage coefficients can be calculated from
turbulent diffusion theory. Electrochemical corrosion of metals occurs
when the surfaces are wet. A surface will become wet when the relative
humidity adjacent to the surface exceeds a value in equilibrium with a
saturated solution of a corrosion product or contaminant on the surface.
Based on these considerations, the consistency of predictions with
observed effects suggests that air pollution damage functions can be
calculated for a variety of material surfaces for which data are not
available.
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Zn-8
1979
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metallic Systems. II. Analysis of the
Corrosiveness of a Medium at Atmospheric Testing Stations of Comecon
Countries Based on the Results of Five Year Tests on Steel, Zinc,
Copper, and Aluminum. K. Barton, D. Knotkova, P. V. Strekalov, V.
Kemkhadze, V. Kozhukharov, and A. Szobor. Zashch. Met., v. 15, No, 4,
1979, pp. 408-415 (Russian). (Fe79-1)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance of 55% Aluminum-Zinc Coated Sheet Steel:
13 Year Test Results. H. E. Townsend and J. C. Zoccola. Mater.
Perform., v. 18, No. 10, 1979, pp. 13-20. (A179-2)
3. Electrochemical Studies of Atmospheric Corrosion. F. B. Mansfeld.
NTIS Report AD-A063922, January 1979, 135 pp. (Fe79-6)
4. Results of 30 Months Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in St. Louis, MO,
U.S.A. F.. Mansfeld. Reliability of Materials for Solar Energy Workshop
Proceedings, CONF-781228, v. 2, pt. 1, October 1979, pp. 627-657.
(Fe79-7)
5. Statistical Assessment of the Effect of Fluctuations in the Atmospheric
Concentration of Sulfur Dioxide on the Corrosion Rate of Metals.
Yu. N. Mikhailovskii and A. P. San'ko. Zashch. Met., v. 15, No. 4,
1979, pp. 432-437 (Russian). (Fe79-8)
1978
1. ASTM Atmospheric Corrosion Testing: 1906 to 1976. W. H. Ailor.
Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM
STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1978, pp. 129-151. (Fe78-2)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Aluminum-Zinc Alloy Coated Steel.
J. C. Zoccola, H. E. Townsend, A. R. Borzillo, and J. B. Horton.
Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals,
ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1978, pp. 165-184. (A178-2)
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Electroplated Zinc Alloy Die Castings.
J. H. Payer and W. H. Safranek. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the
Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978, pp. 115-128. (Cu78-5)
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4. Atmospheric Laboratory Bench. Yu. N. Mikhailovskii, V. A. San'ko,
N. A. Sokolov, and P. N. Kudryavtsev. Zashch. Met., v. 14, No. 4,
1978, pp. 515-517 (Russian). (Fe78-7)
5. Behavior of Zinc-Coated Steel in Highway Environments. G. German.
Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM
STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and
Materials, L978, pp. 74-82.
Results of 3 to 7 year exposure periods for galvanized steel
specimens in Ontario and Quebec highway environments are reported.
Continuous hot-dip, batch hot-dip, and electrogalvanized materials were
used. Results indicated that a coating life of five years per mil of
coating can be expected in urban environments, and 10 to 20 percent longer
protection in rural environments. The method of zinc application appeared
to have no significant influence.
6. Corrosion Investigations at Panama Canal Zone. M. A. Pelensky,
J. J. Jaworski, and A. Gallaccio. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the
Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978, pp. 58-73. (Fe78-9)
7. Corrosion Prevention with Thermal-Sprayed Zinc and Aluminum Coatings.
F. N. Longo and G. J. Durmann. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the
Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978, pp. 97-114. (A178-4)
8. Deteriorative Effect of Sulfur Pollution on Materials. J. 0. Nriagu.
Chapt. 1 in Sulfur in the Environment, Part II: Ecological Impacts,
edited by J. 0. Nriagu, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1978, pp. 1-59 (Fe78-ll)
9. Effects of Air Pollutants on Weathering Steel and Galvanized Steel: A
Chamber S.tudy, F. H. Haynie, J. W. Spence and J. B. Upham.
Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Materials,
ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1978, pp. 30-47. (Fe78-12)
10. Kinetics of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Galvanized Steel. R. A. Legault
and V. P. Pearson. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of
Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1978, pp. 83-96.
Atmospheric corrosion behavior was evaluated separately on skyward
and groundward surfaces of galvanized steel test panels exposed in both
industrial and marine environments. The behavior in every case can be
accurately described by the same general kinetic relationship, AW «¦ Kt^,
where the empirically determined coefficients, K and N, can be used to
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Zn-10
separate the tendency for a corrosion product to form from the effect of
that corrosion product on the subsequent reaction. The specific kinetic
equations which apply in each case can be used to reliably predict
long-term atmospheric corrosion behavior.
11. The Corrosion and Protection of Metals in the Building and Construction
Industries. B. G. Callaghan. J. Oil Color Chemists Assoc., v. 61, No.
11, November 1978, pp. 411-418. (Fe78-17)
1977
1. Corrosion Behavior of Galvanized Sheet in Relation to Variation in Coating
Thickness. C. E. Bird. Materials Prot. Perform., v. 16, No. 4, 1977,
pp. 14-16.
Appearance of 5 percent red rust on common galvanized steel at times
shorter than the theoretical life of an equivalent thickness of zinc was
the result of coating-thickness variations. The average thickness of 20 g
Zn/yd2 was 20.3 ym. On 5 percent of the surface, the coating thickness
was less than 11.0 ym. Tests at 7 of the sites having widely varying
aggressiveness indicated there was no significant difference in the
atmospheric corrosion rate of galvanized steel compared to that of zinc.
Thickness variations probably increased with increasing coating thickness.
2. Corrosion Behavior of Sheet Zinc Alloys in the Atmosphere and in the Steam
Test. E. Pelzel. Metall., v. 31, No. 9, September 1977, pp. 978-981
(German).
Considering the present degree of air pollution, the corrosion
mechanism and corrosion resistance of zinc in rural, marine, and
industrial atmospheres is summarized on the basis of the literature and
new experimental data.
3. Estimation of Pollutants Concentration in Atmosphere by Measuring
Corrosion Rates of Several Metals. II. Correlation Between
Reflectances of Exposed Metals and Deterioration of Exposed Rubber.
G. Takao, and M. Masakasu. Taiki Osen Kenkyu, v. 11, No. 6, 1977, pp.
452-455 (Japanese). (Cu77-2)
4. Galvanic Corrosion In the Atmosphere. V. Kucera. Rapp.-Korrosionsinst.,
No. 16, 1977, 43 pp. (Swedish). (Fe77-9)
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1976
1. Air Pollution Damage Functions. A. Hershaft. Environmental Science and
Technology, v. 10, No. 10, October 1976, pp. 992-995.
In spite of the large amount of effort that has been devoted to
development of air polllution damage functions for, among other effects,
materials damage, and compilation of air quality trends, this new and
promising area of investigation has been barely breached. The additional
effort needed has been outlined in the introductory discussion.
Illustrative examples include the effect of S02 on the corrosion of zinc.
Damage functions will provide public officials with an effective
tool for efficiently allocating limited resources among the many
conflicting demands for pollution control and other aspects of the social
we1 fare.
2. Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on Materials: A Chamber Study.
F. H. Haynie, J. W. Spence, and J. B. Upham. NTIS Report PB-251580,
1976, 98 pp. (Fe76-5)
3. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocom and
N. Grappone. Research Corporation of New England, Wethersfield,
Connecticut, NTIS Report PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp. (Fe76-6)
4. Electrochemical Monitoring of Atmospheric Corrosion Phenomena.
F. Mansfeld and J. V. Kenkel. Corrosion Science, v. 16, No. 3, 1976,
pp. 111-122. (Fe76-9)
5. Initial Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals in Humid Air Above and
Below the Freezing Point. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, P. V. Strekalov, and
T. S. Balandina. Zashch. Met., v. 12, No. 5, 1976, pp. 513-518
(Russian).
The adsorption kinetics of water (gases) on vapor-deposited Ag. Cd.
and Zn films on quartz was investigated at -20 to 20° C. A reaction model
was proposed.
6. Physical and Economic Damage Functions for Air Pollutants by Receptor.
B. Liu and E. S. Yu. Report No. EPA 600/5-76-011, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, September 1976, 172 pp. (Fe 76-13)
7. Pitting of Galvanized Steel in Controlled Clean Air Environments.
J. W, Spence and F. H. Haynie. Galvanic and Pitting Corrosion—Field
and Laboratory Studies, ASTM STP 576, 1976, pp. 132-146.
Specimens of galvanized steel sheet were exposed to polluted and
clean air in controlled environmental chambers having the capability to
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Zn-12
simulate diurnal conditions. Corrosion of the zinc films was essentially
a linear function of time for each exposure condition. The range of
weight losses for the polluted and clean air environments were
approximately the same. However, uniform corrosion of the zinc occurred
in the polluted exposures whereas pitting corrosion of the zinc was
observed in the clean air exposures.
Scanning electron microscopy microprobe analysis of the galvanized
zinc surface was used to study the mechanism of initiation and propagation
of pitting corrosion. Corrosion products were observed to localize and
form a barrier that could accentuate an acidic condition within the pit.
Pitting corrosion is thus accelerated by the difference in pH within and
outside the pit. During the pollutant exposures, however, pitting
corrosion is prevented because the drastic difference in pH within and
outside the pit did not occur.
8. Protecting Electronics From Atmospheric Corrosion. D. V. Couden.
Materials Engineering, May 1976, pp. 22-25. (Cu76-7)
9. Protection Against Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Translated by
J. R. Duncan, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1976, 194 pp. (Fe76-14)
1975
1. Atmospheric Corrosion Investigation of Aluminum-Coated, Zinc-Coated, and
Copper-Bearing Steel Wire and Wire Products. V. I. Kelley. ASTM STP
585, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1975, 89 pp. (A175-1)
2. Corrosion of Coated Metals. 6. Atmospheric Exposure. J. B. Mohler. Met.
Finish., v. 73, No. 9, 1975, pp. 48-51. (Fe75-5)
3. Electrochemical Method for Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Metals.
V. Kucera and E. Mattsson. Proc. 7th Scand. Corrosion Congress, 1975,
pp. 202-217. (Fe75-10)
4. Environmental Exposure System for Studying Air Pollution Damage to
Materials. J. W. Spence, F. D. Stump, F. H. Haynie and J. B. Upham.
NTIS Report PB-240615/5ST, January 1975, 46 pp. (Fe75—11)
5. Long Range Transportation of Air Pollutants and Corrosion Effects.
S. Haagenrud and B. Ottar. Proc. 7th Scandinavian Corrosion Conference,
1975, pp. 102-105. (Fe75-13)
6. Sulfur Dioxide and Material Damage. D. G. Gillette. J. Air Pollution
Control Assn., v. 25, No. 12, December 1975, pp. 1238-1243. (Fe75-17)
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Zn-13
1974
1. Atmospheric Corrosion. H. Eyring, B. Robertson, C. C. Chu, and
T. Andersen. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, v. 71, No. 2, February 1974,
pp. 245-247. (Fe74-3)
2. Corrosion Aggressivity of Model Regions of Czechoslovakia. D. Knotkova-
Cermakova, B. Bosek, and J. Vlckova. Corrosion in Natural Environments,
ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1974,
pp. 52-74. (Fe74-8)
3. Corrosion of Metals in the Atmosphere. W. K. Boyd and F. W. Fink. MCIC
Report 74-23, Battelle-Columbus Labs., Metals and Ceramics Information
Center, Columbus, Ohio, August 1974, 77 pp. (Fe74-9)
4. Corrosivity of the Atmosphere. J. B. Hohler. Plating, v. 61, No. 1,
1974, pp. 62-65.
Corrosion of zinc and cadmium-coated steel panels exposed to the
atmosphere was determined at various locations in the State of
Washington.
5. Design of a Laboratory Experiment to Identify the Effects of Environmental
Pollutants on Materials. J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. Corrosion in
National Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 279-291. (Fe74-10)
6. Effect of Sodium Chloride on the Absorption of Water Vapor and Kinetics of
the Atmospheric Corrosion of Zinc. P. V. Strekalov, Y. N.
Mikhailovskii, and T. S. Balandina. Zashch. Metal., v. 10, No. 3, 1974,
pp. 284-288 (Russian).
(The adsorption of water vapor on pure and NaCl-activated surfaces of
Ag and zinc and the corrosion of zinc were investigated. For activation,
quartz crystals covered with a thin layer of metal were immersed into a
0.06N NaCl solution, leaving 14 dry mg NaCl/m2. The amounts of water
adsorbed on pure Ag and on Ag having NaCl particles on it were practically
the same; they increased with increasing relative pressure of water vapor.
The kinetics of the adsorption of water from the gas phase on Ag are
logarithmic. On zinc at a relative water content of 15 percent the
amounts of water adsorbed were about the same on pure and on activated
surfaces. But, at a relative water content >30 percent, the activated
surface adsorbed more water than the pure surface. At 15 percent water,
the surface of zinc carrying NaCl particles accumulated 1 to 2 molecular
layers of water; with 75 percent water 12 to 14 were layers collected.
The corrosion of zinc increased with increasing water-vapor pressure. The
kinetics of interaction of water and NaCl with zinc are logarithmic.
During 15 minutes exposure at a relative water content of 75 percent,
corrosion of an activated zinc surface was 5 to 6 times as high as that of
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Zn-14
the pure surface. The assumed reaction of zinc with chloride ion
occurring in the adsorbed water layers are described.
7. Electrochemical Technique for Determination of the Instantaneous Rate of
Atmospheric Corrosion. V. Kucera and E. Mattsson. Corrosion in Natural
Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1974, pp. 239-260. (Fe74-15)
8. Examples On The Acid-Smut Fallout. M. Oyama, A. Moriyama, H. Miyazato,
and H. Sakugawa. Okinawa-ken Kogai Eisei Kenhyusho-ho (Okinawa Prefect.
Res. Inst. Pollut. Health), No. 8, 1974, pp. 32-33.
The acid-smut fallout that occured in October 1974 in Okinawa
Prefecture is described. The leaves of plants at the accident site showed
2 to 3 mm hoLes whose edges indicated the ashed condition, a typical
observation after the sulfuric acid mist accident. Several corrosion
spots were also observed on galvanized iron roofs. The suspected source
was the main chimney of the Okinawa Petroleum Co., emitting sulfur dioxide
at the rate of 420 N cu m/hr (12 ton/hr.). The damage was observed at the
western side of the main chimney. Following the reported damage, the
cleaning of the main chimney was done, yielding more than 10 drums full of
acid-smut, more than 66% of which had particle sizes greater than 149
micron. The collected acid-smut was analyzed. The sulfuric acid content
in the acid-smut was 30%. There was 6% iron and 60 ppm nickel in the
acid-smut, as well as vanadium and copper (II).
9. Rapid Electrochemical Procedure to Measure the Atmospheric Corrosion
Resistance. E. Erdos. Galvano-Organo, No. 443, April 1974,
pp. 382-385 (French). (Cu74-7)
10. Seven-Year Exposure at Point Reyes, California. W. H. Ailor, Corrosion in
Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 75-81. (A174-6)
11. Short-Term Atmospheric Corrosion of Various Copper-Base Alloys: Two and
Four-Year Results. R. S. Herman, and A. P. Castillo. Corrosion in
Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 82-96. (Cu74-9)
12. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution. T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701, 1974, 156 pp. (Fe74-21)
13. The Economics of Clean Air In Perspective. F. H. Haynie. Materials
Protection and Performance, v. 13, No. 4, April 1974, pp. 33-38.
(Fe74-22)
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Zn-15
14. The Mode of Initial Reaction of SO2 at a Metal Surface. J. R. Duncan
and D. J. Spedding. Corros. Sci., v. 14, No. 4, 1974, pp. 241-249.
(Fe74-23)
15. The Rust Preventing Mechanism of Zinc Dust Paints. F. Theiler. Corros.
Sci., v. 14, No. 7, 1974, pp. 405-414.
In atmospheric weathering the rust preventing mechanism of zinc dust
paints is dominated by the sealing action of the zinc corrosion products
on the paint surface. Under immersed conditions the time of cathodic
protection of bare steel is dependent on the zinc content of the paints.
An optimum zinc content has been found for all of the tested binders:
polystyrene, vinyl copolymer and chlorinated rubber. Differences in the
optimum zinc content arise mainly due to the different wetting of the
pigment by the binders.
16. The Use of Weather and CIimatological Data in Evaluating the Durability of
Building Components and Materials. L. W. Masters and W. C. Wolfe.
NTIS Report COM-74-50841/7, August 1974, 102 pp. (Fe74-25)
17. Weather Factors Affecting Corrosion of Metals. P. J. Sereda. Corrosion
in Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 7-22. (Fe74-27)
1973
1. Accelerated Testing of Zinc and Cadmium for Atmospheric Corrosion in
Climatic Chambers. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, L. A. Shuvakhina, and
C. T'chi Hong Wang. Protection of Metals, v. 9, 1973, p. 135.
This article describes a method of determining corrosion constants by
testing the metals in artificial-climate chambers. Results of a forecast
of the corrosion of zinc and cadmium in various climatic regions are
presented.
2. An Assessment of the Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance of Hot-Dipped
Galvanized Steel After Five Years1 Exposure. R. M. Evans. British
Steel Corp. (England), Report No. BISRA-SM/569/C, April 1973, 19 pp.
The corrosion of hot-dipped galvanized steel has been assessed after
five years at four sites. Corrosion rates and coating lives have been
assessed for skyward and groundward facing aspects and for samples exposed
in louvred boxes. At the two severest sites the loss of coating with time
displayed rectilinear kinetics - indicative that the frequency of film
repairing was sufficient only to maintain the 'status quo'. At the
remaining sites the 'loss of coating-time' curves showed varying degrees
of flattening - indicative of the establishment of protective films. The
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Zn-16
influence of both environment and exposure condition on the corrosion of
the zinc coating has been examined in the light of operative mechanisms.
3. Characterization of Bridge Locations by Corrosion and Environmental
Measurements - First Year Results. J. S. Hutchins and M. McKenzie.
Report No. TRRL-LR-550, Transport and Road Research Lab., Crowthorne,
England, 1973, 29 pp. (Fe73-7)
4. Corrosion Caused by Perspiration. G. A. Tret'yakova and V. P. Barannik.
Zashch. Metall., v. 9, No. 6, 1973, pp. 715-717 (Russian). (Fe73-9)
5 Initial Reactions of SC>2 After Adsorption on to Metals. J. R. Duncan
and D. J. Spedding. Corros. Sci., v. 13, 1973, pp. 881-889. (Fe73-14)
6. Relation Between Environmental Pollution and Corrosion of Zinc and
Galvanized Steel. N. Dreulle and P. Dreulle. Metall., v. 27, No. 10,
October 1973, pp. 366-369 (German).*
Experimental data are cited to demonstrate that zinc and galvanized
metal are susceptible to corrosion by sulfur dioxide in the air and that
relatively high humidity of the air aggravates the effect. On the other
hand, galvanizing of steel provides protection against corrosion by the
salts used for de-icing of streets and in marine atmosphere.
7. Relation Between Environmental Pollution and the Corrosion of Zinc and Hot
Galvanized Steel. N. Dreulle and P. Dreulle. Metall., v. 27, No. 6,
1973, pp. 626-628 (German).
Corrosion of zinc by air-containing sulfur dioxide was studied using
samples of zinc roofs from industrial sections of various French cities.
Galvanized steel protected by a paint coat was resistant to corrosion.
8. Relation Between Environmental Pollution and Corrosion of Zinc and Hot-
Dip Galvanized Steel. N. Dreulle and P. Dreulle. Corros., v. 21,
No. 2, 1973, pp. 114-119 (French).
This paper is a review with 10 references.
1972
1. Analyzing Atmospheric Corrosion. J. B. Mohler. Pollut. Eng., v. 4,
No. 7, 1972, pp. 28-29. (Fe72-2)
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Zn-17
2. Corrosion of Copper, Aluminum, and Zinc Alloys in a Sulfur Dioxide
Atmosphere. St. Kopczynski. Ochrona przed korozja, v. 15, No. 6, 1972,
pp. 149-154 (Polish). (A172-2)
3. Hot-Dip Galvanized Steel Sheet and Its Corrosion Resistance. N. Dreulle
and P. Dreulle. Galvano, v. 41, No. 427, 1972, pp. 867-871 (French).
The reaction between zinc and iron during the galvanizing process,
the reaction of zinc during atmospheric corrosion, and the effect of the
reaction products on the protection of steel are reviewed. Corrosion
rates in geographical areas of France with varying atmospheric conditions
are given.
4. Interaction of Sulfur Dioxide with Moisture Adsorption Layers During
Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. P. V. Strekalov and Y. N.
Mikhailovskii. Zashch. Metal., v. 8, No. 5, 1972, pp. 573-576
(Russian).*
At <100% humidity S02 adsorbs on zinc as monolayers, but at >100%
humidity a stable S02»7H20 clathrate is formed. Partial ionization of the
hydrated S02 crystallohydrates which promote further corrosion.
5. Kinetics of Initial Stages of the Oxidation of Zinc in a Medium of Oxygen
and Moist Air. Y. N. Mikhailovskii and P. V. Strekalov. Zashch.
Metal., v. 8, No. 2, 1972, pp. 146-151 (Russian),*
A microweighing technique was used to study the kinetics of Zn
oxidation and the adsorption of H20 on fresh and oxidized Zn surfaces.
Specimens were prepared by vacuum deposition of thin Zn films (~700A) on
quartz substrates (the film surface being determined by the adsorption of
octane). Freshly deposited films were oxidized in dry 0 at 0.17-210 torr
and the number of ZnO layers formed calculated from the weight increment.
The results show that even at pressures as low as 0.17 torr, the increment
exceeds the amount corresponding to a monolayer of chemisorbed oxygen.
Periodic degassing showed that the amount of physically adsorbed oxygen
was negligible. At PQ < 10 torr and up to t ¦ 600 sec, the growth of the
oxide layer follows a logarithmic law, but at >10 torr, the slope of the n
¦ a + b log t curves is steeper in the initial period of oxidation,
indicating the potential existence of several oxidation mechanisms. The
kinetics of physical adsorption of H20 obeys the logarithmic law over the
entire range of pressures examined. If the surface area occupied by mole
of H20 is assumed to be 10 A^, it is evident that the thickness of the
physically-adsorbed film does not exceed 10-11 monolayers even at 100%
humidity. The amount of chemisorbed and physically adsorbed H20 does not
change with the state of the Zn surface and the regularities observed for
fresh nonoxidized Zn are entirely preserved when adsorbing H20 on the
surface of preliminary oxidized Zn. Chemisorbed H20 hinders the oxidation
of Zn in air. It is possible that the adsorption of H2O is accompanied by
its dissociation, the OH ions reacting with Zn to give ZnOH and Zn(OH)2.
This inhibiting layer of OH ions hinders the formation of atomic oxygen
and consequently the oxidation of Zn.
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Zn-18
6. Mechanism of Rusting Under Different Conditions. U. R. Evans. Brit.
Corros. J., v. 7, 1972, p. 10. (Fe72-14)
7. Reactions of Sulfur Dioxide With Adsorbed Layers of Moisture Under
Conditions of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. P. V. Strekalov, and
Y. N. Mikhailovskii. Zashch. Metall., v. 8, No. 5, 1972, pp. 573-576
(Russian). (Fe72-16)
8. Survey on the Metal Corrosion by Air Pollution: Effect of Glauber's Salt
on Metals. T. Nagano, A. Hattori, T. Nagai, Y. Ukishima, Y. Nakai, and
I. Iwasaki. Shizuoka-ken Eisei Kenkyusho Nenpo, No. 16, 1972,
pp. 217-226 (Japanese). (Fe72-18)
9. The Influence of the Relative Humidity and Corrosion Products on the
Adsorption of Sulfur Dioxide on Metal Surfaces. T. Sydberger and
N. G. Vannerberg. Corros. Sci., v. 12, No. 10, 1972, pp. 775-784.
(Fe72-22)
1971
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Galvanized Steel. K. B. Barton. Proc. 9th Int.
Conf. Hot Dip Galvanizing (1970), Ind. Newspapers Ltd., London, 1971,
pp. 199-206. (Fe71-4)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. M. Arpaia. Atti Not. Assoc. Ital.
Metall., v. 26, 1971, pp. 363-367 (Italian). (Fe71-5)
3. Atmospheric Tests. S. K. Coburn. Chapt. 17 in Handbook on Corrosion
Testing and Evaluation, edited by W. H. Ailor, Electrochemical Society,
Corrosion Monograph Series, J. Wiley, N.Y., N.Y., 1971, pp. 475-505.
(Fe71-6)
4. Calculation of the Rate of Atmospheric Corrosion of Zinc and Cadmium
Coatings in Various Climatic Regions. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, G. B. Klark,
L. A. Shuvakhina, A. P. San'ko, Y. P. Gladkikh, and V. V. Agafonov.
Zashch. Metal., v. 7, No. 5, 1971, pp. 534-539 (Russian).**
The effect was studied of various meteorological factors (such as
humidity, air temperature, duration of wetting of the metal by various
forms of moisture, etc.) on the atmospheric corrosion rate of zinc and
cadmium in various climatic regions of the USSR. Corrosion data were
obtained by using a system of monitoring units which permitted
uninterrupted recording of the corrosion. Corrosion was a function of the
attack due to adsorbed electrolyte and various phases of moisture (rain,
dew, etc). The corrosion rate of zinc due to an adsorbed film and that
due to a film phase was 8.3 x 10-lt and 4.0 x 10"^ g/m^hr, respectively,
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Zn-19
and for cadmium it was 1.2 x L0~3 and 6.0 x 10~3 g/m2hr, respectively. A
linear dependence was observed between the corrosion rate of zinc or
cadmium and the time of wetting of the metal by adsorbed or by various
phases of moisture. The effect of a mixture of sulfur dioxide and Cl~ is
given. A new method for calculating the atmospheric corrosion rates of
zinc and cadmium is suggested.
5. Corrosion of Metals by Sulfur Dioxide. G. K. Singhania, B. Lai, and B.
Sanyal. Labdev. Part A, v. 9, No. 3 & 4, 1971, pp. 214-216. (Fe71-
10)
6. Corrosion of Zinc. J. F. H. Von Eijnsbergen. Korrosion och Ytskydd,
v. 6, No. 12, 1971, pp. 18-21 (Swedish).
The correlation between climate and corrosion of zinc by SO2 has been
investigated and the mechanism of corrosion of zinc and of zinc plus paint
coatings is discussed.
7. Metal Coatings on Steel at Lighthouse Beach, Lagos. J. F. Stanners.
Brit. Corrosion J., v. 6, No. 5, Sept. 1971, pp. 211-215. (Fe71-17)
8. Technical-Economic Evaluation of Air-Pollution Corrosion Costs on Metals
in the U.S. F. W. Fink, F. H. Buttner, and W. K. Boyd. NTIS Report
PB-198453, February 19, 1971, 160 pp. (Fe71-25)
1970
1. Corrosion Behavior of the Major Architectural and Structural Metals in
Canadian Atmospheres. Summary of Ten-Year Results of Group I.
E, V. Gibbons. Nat. Res. Counc. Can., Div. Bldg. Res., Tech, Paper
No. 328, 1970, 21 pp. (Fe70-5)
2. Determination of Microclimates as Atmospheric Corrosion Factors.
Atmospheric Corrosion of Zinc. R. Deswaef. Trib. CEBEDEAU, v. 23
No. 314, 1970, pp. 24-28 (French).**
The microclimates which were factors in the corrosion of zinc
included: relative humidity; precipitation; wind velocity and frequency;
the concentration of S02, CO2, H2S, and Cl~ in the air; and the amount,
size, morphology, and composition of deposited dusts. All of these
parameters were determined at the Lighthouse and Jetty at Ostend, Eupen,
and Liege in winter and summer. The values at Ostend were lower except
for Cl~ and sand than at Eupen or the steel center of Liege. The
corrosion of zinc was the result of a balance of the protective action of
a layer of basic carbonate formed in moist air and the deleterious effects
of SO21 H2S and Cl~.
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Zn-20
3. Effects of Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide on the Corrosion of Zinc.
F. H. Haynie and J. B. Uphara. Materials Prot. Perform., v. 9, No. 8,
1970, p. 35.*
The amount of sulfur dioxide in the air is the major factor in
determining the rate of corrosion of zinc. Because little, if any, zinc
corrosion would occur in a nonmarine environment if sulfur dioxide were
not present, the reduced life of galvanized products can be directly
attributed to air pollution.
4. Kinetics of Iron and Zinc Corrosion in a Humid Medium. A. M. Zinevich,
E. I. Sergeeva, Yu N. Mikhailovskii, and V. B. Serafimovich. Zashch.
Metal, v. 6, No. 3, 1970, pp. 333-336 (Russian). (Fe70-9)
5. Metallic Coatings for the Protection of Mild Steel From Corrosion at
Ambient Temperatures - 1. Introduction and Zinc Coatings. C. Davies and
N. J. Hanford. Corrosion - Anticorrosion, v. 17, No. 6, 1970, pp. 11-
16.
The performance of coated steel articles depends upon the thickness
of the coating and not upon the technique used for deposition. Five
different zinc coatings processes are complementary to each other rather
than in competition, and it is rare that more than two processes can be
seriously considered as the best choice for a particular application.
Hot-dip galvanizing has the advantage that the work-piece is throughly
covered and can produce a thick coating of 550-680/gm2. It is also the
most economical process for large production of coated strip and lends
itself easily to a continuous process. Many modifications have been made
over the years to increase efficiency.
6. Properties of Electrolyte Films Formed Through Atmospheric Corrosion.
D. Knotkova-Cermakova and J. Vlckova. Werkst. Korros., v. 21, No. 1,
1970, pp. 16-21 (German). (Fe70-10)
7. Reaction between S02 and Wet Metal Surfaces. N. G. Vannerberg and
T. Sydberger. Corros. Sci., v. 10, 1970, pp. 43-49. (Fe70-ll)
8. Systems Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials.
R. L. Salmon. NTIS Report PB-209192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp.
(Fe70-13)
9. The Weathering and Performance of Building Materials. J. W. Simpson and
P. J. Horrobin, eds., Medical and Technical Publishing Co. Ltd., 1970,
277 pp. (Fe70-17)
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Zn-21
10. Use of Environmental Data in Atmospheric Corrosion Studies.
J. F. Stanners. Brit. Corros. J., v. 5, No. 3, 1970, pp. 117-121.
(Fe70-18)
11. What to Consider in Specifying Zinc Coatings. E. W. Horvick. Metal
Progress, v. 97, No. 6, 1970, pp. 125-134.
Two major points are the function of the product and its intended
service life. The product should be designed with the efficient and
economical application of a corrosion-resistant zinc coating in mind.
1969
1. Aluminum Corrosion at Urban and Industrial Locaiton. W. H. Ailor, Jr.
Proc. American Soc. Cilvil Enger., Journal of the Structural Division,
October 1969, pp 2141-2160. (Fe69-21)
2. Calculation of Moistening and Metallic Corrosion in Atmospheric
Environment. A. I. Golubev and M. Kh. Kadyrov. Proc. 3rd Intern.
Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeitlinger,
Amsterdam, Holand, v. 4, 1969, pp. 522-531. (Fe69-24)
3. Corrosion of the Atmosphere. P. Atterby. NTIS Report N71-26259, November
1969, 9 pp. (Swedish). (Fe69-25)
4. Corrosion of Metals in the Tropics. B. Sanyal, G. K. Singhania, and
J. N. Handa. Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, Moscow
(1966), Swets-Zeit1inger, Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4, 1969, pp. 542-543.
(Fe69-26)
5. Effect of the Atmospheric Corrosion Products on Electrochemical Behaviour
of Metals. G. B. Clark, G. K. Berukshtis, and Z. I. Ignatova. Proc.
3rd Intern. Congr, Metallic Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeitlinger,
Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4, 1969, pp. 406-412. (Fe69-28)
6. Evaluation of Atmospheric Corrosion Tests With Iron, Copper, and Zinc
Extending Over Three Years, at Czechoslovak Testing Stations. K. Barton
and Z. Bartonova. Werkst. Korros., v. 20, No. 2, 1969, pp. 87-93
(German). (Fe69-30)
7. Painting of Metal Sprayed Structural Steelwork—Report on Conditions of
Specimens after Five Years' Exposure. J. F. Stanners and K. 0.
Watkins. Australasian Corrosion Eng., v. 13, No. 10, October 1969,
pp. 7-17. (Fe69-34)
-------
Zn-22
8. Protection of Steel in the Atmosphere by Sprayed Metallic Coatings.
S. Klemantaski and J. F. Stanners. Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. on Metallic
Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeit1inger, Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4,
1969, pp. 509-521. (A169-8)
1968
1. Composition and Structure of Natural Patinas. II. Zinc and Zinc Alloys.
1872 to 1965. S. Z. Lewin and S. M. Alexander. Art Archaeol. Tech.
Abstracts, v. 7, No. 2, 1968, pp. 151-171.*
The initial Zn-containing product that forms as a result of the
attack of air and water in the combination on Zn or brass is Zn(OH)2.
This product, when formed under nearly neutral conditions (e.g. in natural
corrosion of buried or exposed objects) is an amorphous, flocculent
material that changes readily into other forms, e.g. crystallographic
varieties of Zn(OH)2, ZnO, or any of a number of hydroxy salts of Zn.
There is greater diversity among the products formed on Zn and brass
surfaces by corrosion under laboratory conditions or natural exposure
conditions than has so far been shown to exist in the form of natural
minerals in nature. Additional research employing modern instrumental
techniques of phase analysis and identification is necessary before the
determination of compositions and textures of patinas on Zn or brass
artifacts is to become a useful tool in the elucidation of their age,
history, or authenticity.
2. Corrosion of Metals by Aqueous Solutions of the Atmospheric Pollutant
Sulfurous Acid. W. McLeod and R. R. Rogers. Electrochem. Techno!.,
v. 6, No. 7-8, July-August 1968, pp. 231-235. (Fe68-3)
3. Effect of One Percent Copper Addition on the Atmospheric Corrosion of
Rolled Zinc. S. R. Dunbar. Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM
STP 435, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1968, pp. 308-325.
The corrosion characteristics of a common zinc alloy containing
1 percent copper and an unalloyed grade were evaluated after 2 and 7 years
of exposure in industrial, marine, and rural atmospheres. The usefulness
of tension tests for determining corrosion rates was explored. Zinc
composition did not significantly influence corrosion rates. Pitting
occurred in the copper-bearing alloy, presumably as a result of galvanic
action. Tensile properties of the zinc alloy were not significantly
affected after the 7 years of exposure. The corrosion rates were highest
in the industrial atmosphere and lowest in the rural atmosphere. Tension
test data indicated that aging effects prevent a correlation of tensile
strength and elongation with corrosion rates.
-------
Zn-23
4. Effects of Atmospheric Factors on the Corrosion of Rolled Zinc.
H. Guttraan. Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 435, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1968, pp. 223-239.
A long-term exposure program has been carried out at Birchbank, B.C.,
wherein rolled zinc corrosion data and certain atmospheric factor data
were developed. Zinc is sensitive to variations in climatic and
atmospheric pollution conditions, and as a result panels exposed on
different dates for a specific period of time can corrode at different
rates. An empirical equation has been developed for Birchbank which
relates corrosion of zinc to the time of wetness of exposed panels and the
average atmospheric sulfur dioxide content during the time panels are wet.
The equation accounts for most of the observed variation in corrosion
losses and is valid for exposure periods of up to 256-weeks1 duration.
This paper also presents information concerning the relative corrosion
rates of the skyward and groundward surfaces of zinc panels, the relation-
ship between atmospheric sulfur dioxide as measured by a Thomas autometer
and by the lead peroxide method.
5. Increased Connector Contact Reliability. M. Ball, F. H. Hardie and
E. J. Struckus, The Electronic Engineer, March 1968, pp. 82-85.
(A168-6)
6. Investigations of the Corrosion-Causing Properties of Volatile Acids and
Anhydrous Acids. E. Iaengle. Eidgenoessische Technischen Hochschule,
Zurich, Switzerland. Ph.D. Thesis, 1968, 43 pp. (German). (Fe68-ll)
7. Measurement of Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Metals.
H. Guttman and P. J. Sereda. Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM
STP 435, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1968, pp. 325-359
(Fe68-12)
8. Mechanism and Kinetics of Corrosion in a Moist Atmosphere in the Presence
of Hydrogen Chloride Vapors. K. Barton and Z. Bartonva. Tr.
Mezhdunar. Kongr. Korroz. Metal., 3rd (1966), edited by N. D. Lesteva,
Izd. "Mir", Moscow, USSR, v. 4, 1968, pp. 493-506 (Russian). (Fe68-13)
9. Stability of Metal Coatings in Corrosive Media. A. Kovachev,
N. Stoyanova, M. Boncheva, S. Simov, S. Avramova, B. Grigorov, and
B. Gochev. Elektroprom. Priborostr., v. 3, No. 3, 1968, pp. 105-107.
(Fe68-18)
1967
1. Bridging with Steel. J. A. Cran and I. M. Park. Engineering J., February
1967, pp. 18-25. (Fe67-3)
-------
Zn-24
2. Corrosion by Air Pollution. J. R. Goss. Proc. Annu. Conf., Nat. Soc.
Clean Air, No. 34, 1967, pp. 75-92. (Fe67-4)
3. Mechanism of the Corrosion of Fe, Zn, and Cu in a Humid Atmosphere
Containing HC1 Vapors. K. Barton and Z. Bartonova. Collect. Czech.
Chem. Coramun., v. 32, No. 7, 1967, pp. 2431-2438 (German). (Fe67-6)
4. The Hot Dip Galvanizing Industry. F. C. Porter. Metallurgia, v. 75,
No. 6, 1967, pp. 241-247.
In this survey of the hot dip galvanizing industry, the author begins
with a brief history of the process and then proceeds to an account of the
development of sheet, wire, tube and general galvanizing before discussing
the fabrication of galvanized steel, painted galvanized sheet and the
economic case for galvanizing. He concludes with a series of
characteristic examples of the use of galvanizing in the constructional
and transport industries.
1966
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals At Bhavnagar. V. S. Rao. Indian
J. Technol., v. 4, No. 5, 1966, pp. 159-161. (Fe66-3)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel, Zinc, Cadmium, Copper, and Aluminum in
Different Coastal and Continental Regions. G. K. Berukshtis and
G. B. Klark. Corrosion of Metals and Alloys, Collection No. 2, Israel
Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1966, pp. 281-297.
(Fe66-4)
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Zinc- and Cadmium-Coated Steel and the
Coefficients for Recalculating the Results of Accelerated Corrosion
Tests Into Data for Service Conditions. P. V. Strekalov and
G. K. Berukshtis. Corrosion of Metals and Alloys, Collection No. 2,
pp. 221-233.
In this article, the authors compare the results of prolonged
atmospheric corrosion tests on zinc and cadmium plates with the results of
accelerated corrosion tests on these deposits in three chambers:
(1) "heat and moisture," (2) "sulfurous gas," and (3) "sea mist." The
approximate coefficients for comparing the results of accelerated tests
with those of field tests were determined.
4. Corrosion Behavior of Salt Powder Towards Various Metals. a. Bukowiecki
and B. G. Joshi. Schweiz. Arch. Angew. Wiss. Tech., v. 32, No. 2, 1966,
pp, 42-54. (Fe66-5)
-------
Zn-25
5. Corrosion Behavior of Some Metallic Materials in Liquid Sulfur Dioxide.
L. Rivola, T. Bazzan, M. Piro, and G. Bombara. Proc. 2nd Intern. Congr.
Metal. Corrosion, New York, (1963), National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Houstion, TX 1966, pp. 418-423. (Fe66-6)
6. How Atmospheric Conditions Can Corrode Refinery Equipment.
P. W. Sherwood. Enodel Kohle (Hamburg), v. 19, No. 4, April 1966, pp.
289-290 (German). (Fe66-7)
1965
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels Related to Meteorological Factors in
Japan. Ill, Results of Weathering Tests Conducted on Metallic Coatings
for 3 Years. K. Oma, T. Sugamo, T. Ueki, and Y. hirai. Boshoku
Gijutsu, v. 14, No. 1, 1965, pp. 16-19 (Japanese). (Fe65-2)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Products of Some Commercial Metals. H. J. Meyer.
Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 44-52 (German). (Fe65-3)
3. Materials Deterioration and Air Pollution. J. B. Upham. J. Air Pollution
Control Association, v. 15, No. 6, June 1965, p. 265. (Fe65-14)
4. Significance of Corrosion Testing Process with Special Consideration of
the S0£ Test According to DIN 50018. W. Kesternich. Werkst.
Korrosion, v. 16, 1965, pp. 193-201 (German). (Fe65-15)
5. Systematic Corrosion Tests With Galvanic Coatings in a Sulfur Dioxide
Atmosphere. A. Kutzelnigg. Werkst. Korros., v. 16, No. 9, 1965,
pp. 750-754 (German). (Fe65-16)
6. The Significance of Sulfur Dioxide in the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
G. Schikorr. Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 27-34. (Fe65-20)
1964
1. An Electrical Resistance Method for Measuring Rates of Corrosion of
Electrodeposited Metals in Laboratory Tests. F. Enrico, V. Riccio, and
B. Martini. Product Finishing, v. 17, No. 5, May i964, pp. 74-79.
(Cu64-1)
2. Corrosion Behavior of Zinc and Zinc Coatings Exposed to the Atmosphere.
G. Schikorr. Werkst. Korros., v. 15, No. 7, 1964, pp. 537-543.
-------
Zn-26
The corrosion behavior of zinc in the atmosphere is generally
satisfactory except under conditions of high humidity, and when high
humidity is combined with sulfur oxides.
3. The Influence of Sulphur Dioxide on the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
G. Schikorr. Werkst. Korros., v. 15, No. 5, 1964, pp. 457-463
(German). (Fe64-4)
1963
1. What Price Maintenance-Free Structures? J. C. Pohlman. Electrical World,
v. 159, 1963, pp. 72-74. (Fe63-7)
1962
1. Aluminum Alloys Corrosion Behavior in an Industrial Environment.
F. F. Booth and K. G. Latimer. Corrosion Technology, v. 9, No. 11,
1962, pp. 315-320 (Fe62-1)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion by Electrolyte Nuclei. B. Sanyal and D. V. Bhadwar.
J. Sci. Industr. Res., v. 21D, 1962, p. 243. (Fe62-2)
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. Some Questions of Theory.
X. L. Rosenfel'd. Proc. 1st Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion,
London (1961), Butterworth, London, 1962, pp. 243-248. (Fe62-3)
4. Comparative Outdoor Exposure Tests of Electrodeposited Zinc and Cadmium
Coatings on Steel in a Natural Industrial Atmosphere. T. Biestek.
Proc. 1st Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, London (1961),
Butterworth, London, 1962, pp. 269-274.
The corrosion resistance of electrodeposited zinc coatings on steel
(obtained both from a cyanide and from a sulphate bath) and of cadmium
coatings, in a natural industrial atmosphere was tested. The thickness of
the tested coatings deposited on flat steel test panels was 1, 2, 4, 7, 15
and 30 microns. A visual inspection rating was used.
The zinc coatings obtained from the cyanide bath showed twice the
service life of cadmium coatings of corresponding thickness, and showed a
longer service life than those from the sulphate bath.
The rates of corrosion for the particular exposure location, in
microns per year were different for each kind of coating; for zinc
coatings deposited from a cyanide bath 4 to 6 microns, for zinc coatings
deposited from a sulphate bath 6 to 9 microns, and for cadmium coatings 9
to 12 microns per year.
The results of outdoor exposure tests were compared with those of
three accelerated tests (spray with 3 percent NaCl solution, spray of a
-------
Zn-27
solution containing four different salts including ammonium sulphate and
ammonium chloride and an artificial industrial atmosphere test) and some
effort has been made to establish the approximate correlation factors
between the results of field tests and individual accelerated tests. The
calculated correlation factors were different for each accelerated test
and for each kind of coating. The deviations of extreme values of these
factors from the mean value did not exceed 25 percent and were on average
about +10 percent.
The corrosion-time curves of zinc and cadmium electrodeposited
coatings showed that the protective properties are approximately
proportional to the thickness.
5. Corrosion Evaluation of Improved Wrought Zinc Alloy. E. L. White,
P. D. Miller, and W. K. Boyd. Materials Protection, v. 1, No. 1,
January 1962, pp. 56-58.
This paper reports on of laboratory studies to determine corrosion
resistance of new wrought Zn-Cu-Ti alloy, called Hydro-T-Metal, developed
for use in architectural and structural applications. Relative humidity,
air- sulfur dioxide and alternate immersion experiments are described.
These accelerated laboratory tests indicate that corrosion resistance of
the new alloy is equal or slightly superior to that of rolled zinc and
galvanized steel.
1961
1. Atmospheric Corrosion. U. R. Evans. Chapt. 8 in The Corrosion and
Oxidation of Metals, Edward Arnold Ltd, 1961, pp. 481-535. (Fe61-2)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion Tests of Electroplated Coatings. T. Biestek. Prace
Inst. Mech. Procyzyjnej, v. 9, No. 31, 1961, pp. 39-49. (Fe61-4)
3. Corrosion In Buildings. P. J. Sereda. Canadian Building Digest. Report
No. CBD-20, August 1961, 4 pp. (Fe61-5)
4. Equivalence of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Zinc and Nickel to that of
Sulfur Dioxide Absorbed from the Air. G. Schikorr. Metall, v. 15, 1961,
pp. 981-987. (Ni61-3)
1960
I, Chemical Resistance to Ammonia of Construction Materials. A. E. Missan.
Trudy Gosudarst. Inst. Priklad. Khim., v. 44, 1960, pp. 112-127
(Russian). (Fe60-3)
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Zn-28
2. Theory of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. N. D. Tomashov. Trudy Inst.
Fiz-Khim., Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R., No. 8, 1960, pp. 14-40 (Russian).
(Fe60-7)
1959
1. Corrosion of Metals in Synthetic Atmospheres Containing Sulfur Dioxide.
B. Sanyal and D. V. Bhadwar. J. Sci. and Ind. Research (India), v. 18A,
February 1959, pp. 69-74. (Fe59-3)
2. Design and Interpretation of Atmospheric Corrosion Tests. H. R. Copson.
Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, October 1959, pp. 533t-541t. (Fe59-4)
3. Measurement of Surface Moisture. P. J. Sereda. ASTM Bulletin No. 238,
1959, pp. 61-63.
A cell of Pt and Zn was used to measure the surface moisture on metal
panels exposed to outdoor conditions. It was used to determine the period
of wetness for metal corrosion studies.
4. Mechanisms by Which Nonferrous Metals Corrode in the Atmosphere.
P. M. Aziz and H. P. Goddard. Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, 1959, pp.
529t-533t. (A159-3)
5. Reaction Mechanism for the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals in Damp and
Sulfur Dioxide-Containing Air. K. Barton and E. Beranek. Werkst.
Korros., v. 10, 1959, pp. 377-383. (Fe59-7)
6. Report of Sub-Committee VII, On Corrosiveness of Various Atmospheric Test
Sites as Measured by Specimens of Steel and Zinc. Proc. American
Society for Testing and Materials, v. 59, 1959, pp. 174-201. (Fe59-8)
1958
1. Corrosion of Zinc Plated Steel. R. H. Wolff. Metal Finishing, v. 56,
No. 6, June 1958, pp. 46-52.
Corrosion behavior was studied by determining weight changes of
coated specimens exposed to conditions of 20 percent salt fog and outdoor
exposure in semi-industrial area. The weight change of untreated zinc
increase to maximum at uniform rate, dependent upon ambient conditons, and
decrease after maximum at same approximate rate. The weight change of
chromated zinc varied slightly during the period of maximum weight of
untreated zinc, and then decrease at the same rate as latter.
-------
Zn-29
2. Influence of Dust and the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. K. Barton.
Werkst. Korros., v. 9, Aug.-Sept. 1958, pp. 547-549 (German).
(Fe58-7)
1957
1. The Effects of Air Pollution on Buildings and Metalwork. R. J. Schaffer.
Air Pollution, edited by M. W. Thring, Butterworth Scientific, London,
1957, pp. 58-71. (Fe57-5)
1956
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. B. Sanyal and G. K. Singhania. J. Sci
Ind. Research (India), v. 15B, 1956, pp. 448-455. (Fe56-4)
2. Corrosion Studies. X. The Mechanism of the Atmospheric Corrosion of
Metals in Moist Atmospheres Contaminated With Sulfur Dioxide. K. Barton
and E. Beranek. Chem. Listy, v. 50, 19563 pp. 1388-1398. (Fe56-6)
3. Galvanic-couple Corrosion Studies by Means of the Threaded Bolt and Wire
Test. K. G. Compton and A. Mendizza. Atmospheric Corrosion of
Nonferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1956, pp. 116-125. (Fe56-7)
4. Report of Subcommittee on Atmospheric Corrosion. H. R. Copson.
Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1956, pp. 3-19, (A156-4)
5. Resistance of Aluminized Steel to Atmospheric Corrosion. J. C. Merritt
and W. E. McFee. Iron Age, v. 178, No. 26, 1956, pp. 60-61. (A156-5)
6. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Rolled Zinc. E. A. Anderson. Atmospheric
Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American Society for
and Materials, 1956, p. 126.
The corrosion of zinc in the atmosphere is controlled by three
principal factors: (1) the frequency of rain and dewfall, (2) the acidity
of the moisture, and (3) the rate of drying. The corrosion rate is a
maximum in industrial locations which combine acidic atmospheric
contamination with prevalence of heavy mists and dew. The composition of
zinc has only a minor bearing on the corrosion rate. Corollary data are
presented which explain the findings in exposure tests conducted by
Subcommittee VI (on Atmospheric Corrosion) of Committee B-3 on Corrosion
of Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys.
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Zn-30
1955
1. Atmospheric Galvanic Couple Corrosion. K. G. Compton, A. Mendizza, and
W. W. Bradley. Corrosion, v. 11, No. 9, 1955, pp. 35-44. (Fe55-1)
2. Metal Coatings on Steel in Contact With Aluminum Alloys. Some Comparative
Corrosion Tests. S. C. Britton and R. W. de Vere Stacpoole.
Metallurgia, v. 52, 1955, pp. 64-70. (Fe55-4)
1953
1. Effect of Climate and Atmospheric Pollution on Corrosion. J. C. Hudson
and J. F. Stanners. J. Applied Chemistry (London), v. 3, pt. 2,
February 1953, pp. 86-96. (Fe53-4)
2. Effect of Impurities in Metal on Rate of Corrosion of Zinc and Galvanized
Coatings in Atmosphere. P. T. Gilbert. J. Applied Chemistry, v. 3,
pt. 4, April 1953, pp. 174-181.
Atmospheric exposure tests are summarized under two headings: effect
of additions to galvanizing bath on corrosion resistance of hot dipped
coatings, and behavior of rolled zinc sheets of differing purity.
1952
I. Corrosion of Different Metals in Liquefied Sulfur Dioxide. J. Bollinger.
Schweiz. Arch, angew. Wiss. u. Tech., v, 18, 1952, pp. 321-342.
(Fe52-2)
1949
1. Effect of Weather on the Initial Corrosion Rate of Sheet Zinc.
0. B. Ellis. Proc. Am. Soc. Testing Materials, v. 49, 1949,
pp. 152-167, discussion, pp. 168-170.
The loss of weight of zinc sheet specimens exposed for 28 days in a
mild industrial atmosphere was correlated with weather variations during
that period. The number of hours of rainfall and of a relative humidity
near 100 percent during the first five days of exposure had a significant
effect upon the total loss of weight. After the first five days, the
influence of these factors was much less. Samples of high initial
corrosion also showed a higher corrosion rate after 12-month exposure. On
samples of low-copper iron sheets no such influence of initial weather
conditions was observed.
-------
Zn-31
1948
1. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. G. Schikorr. Arch. Metallkunde,
v. 2, 1948, pp. 223-230 (German). (Fe48-7)
1943
1. The Corrosion of Metals in Air. Jubilee Memorial Lecture.
W. H. J. Vernon. Chemistry and Industry, August 1943, pp. 314-318.
(Fe43-1)
1939
Effects of Sulfur Compounds in the Atmosphere on Various Materials.
L. R. Burdick and J. F. Barkley. U.S. Bureau of Mines, I. C. 7064,
April 1939, 9 pp. (Fe39-1)
1936
1. Corrosion Resistance of Metals and Alloys, r. J. McKay and
R. Worthington. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1936.
(Fe36-2)
1935
1. The Effect of Five Years' Atmospheric Exposure on the Breaking Load and
the Electrical Resistance of Non-Ferrous Wires. J. C. Hudson. J. Inst.
Metals, v. 56, 1935, pp. 91-102. (Cu35-1)
1929
1. The Relative Corrodibiiities of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys.
Part II—The Results of Seven Years' Exposure to air at Birmingham.
J. N. Friend. J. Inst. Metals, v. 42, 1929, pp. 149-155. (Fe29-2)
-------
OM-1
OTHER METALS
1982
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Fastener Joints. E. Taylor. Extended Abstracts,
International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion (October 5-10, 1980,
Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 609-
610. (Fe82-7)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Large Aircraft: Predicting Damage and
Maintenance Requirements. R. Summitt and F. T. Fink. Extended
Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion (October 5-
10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980,
pp. 603-604. (A182-7)
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Lead and Its Alloys. A. R. Cook and R. Smith.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 393-404.
The performance of lead exposed to the atmosphere is shown to be
outstanding. Instances are cited of satisfactory service for hundreds of
years with performance improving under industrial conditions due to
formation of a protective barrier coating of lead sulfate. The results of
long-term ASTM tests are given to demonstrate this performance. The
behavior of lead and lead-tin alloy coatings on steel, both hot dip and
electroplated, is described as dependent on the initial integrity of the
coating. Results of exposure tests are provided showing outstanding
performance under a variety of conditions of very thin pore-free
electroplated coatings.
4. Atmospheric Corrosion of Magnesium and its Alloys in the Tropics.
L. L. Gruss, F. Pearlstein, and L. Teitel. Atmospheric Corrosion,
edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 405-414.
Magnesium specimens were exposed at several exposure sites (marine,
open-field, and rain forest) in the Panama Canal Zone and corrosion weight
losses determined. These studies include four year exposures of bare
AZ31b alloy, effect of environmental factors, effect of soil burial,
effect of chroraating magnesium, groundward vs. skyward corrosion,
corrosion of magnesium alloys (cast AZ91b and LA142 vs. AZ31b), and the
effect of various inorganic and organic paint systems applied to the
highly corrodible AZ91b cast magnesium. The results of the above studies
are interpreted and discussed.
5. Atmospheric Corrosion of the Less Common Metals. J. E. Castle. Extended
Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion (October 5-
10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980,
p. 500.
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Our understanding of the atmospheric corrosion of metals is at a
turning point as new surface analytical methods come to be applied to this
problem. The analytical information complements the kinetic data
available from weathering trials and generally reveals the presence of
oxy-hydroxide surface layers. There has been much less study of the
surfaces of the less common metals after atmospheric exposure than after
exposure to pure oxygen atmospheres. The trend, again, is to the
formation of hydrated surfaces.
6. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Electrodeposited Coatings in Tropical
China. T. Biestek. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 775-786. (Ni82-2)
7. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing of Electrodeposited Zinc and Cadmium
Coatings. T. Biestek. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 631-644. (Zn82-16)
8. Colloid and Surface Phenomena in the Corrosion of Metals. E. Matijevic.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 123-138. (Fe82-28)
9. Corrosion Aggressivity of Atmospheres (Derivative and Classification).
D. Knotkova-Cermakova and K. Barton. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals,
edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing
and Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 225-249.
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12. Economic Assessment of Pollution Related Corrosion Damage. F. H. Haynie.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 3-18. (Fe82-33)
13. Electrochemical Behavior of Atmospheric Pollutants in Thin Liquid Layers
Related to Atmospheric Corrosion. C. Fiaud. Atmospheric Corrosion,
edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 161-166. (Ni82-
7)
14. Electrotopography - A New Tool for Corrosion Research. M. Ensanian.
Extended Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion
(October 5-10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society,
v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 480-482. (Fe82-36)
15. Evaluation of the Effects of Microclimate Differences on Corrosion.
F. H. Haynie. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals, edited by
S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American Society for Testing and
Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 286-308. (Fe82-39)
16. Indoor Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Cobalt and Iron.
D. W. Rice, R. J. Cappel, P. B. P. Phipps, and P. J. Peterson.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 651-666. (Cu82-21)
17. Stress Corrosion of Metals in the Atmosphere. A. Gallacio. Extended
Abstracts, International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion (October 5
10, 1980, Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980,
pp. 581-582. (Fe82-47)
18. Tarnishing of Silver by Organic Sulfur Vapors: Rates and Film
Characteristics. J. D. Sinclair. J. Electrochem. Soc., v. 129, No. 1,
1982, pp. 33-40.
The rate of formation of tarnish films on silver coupons by vapors
generated from organic sulfur compounds, especially dimethyIdisuIfide, has
been measured at room temperature at both high and low relative humidity.
The results for freshly cleaned silver coupons, as determined by cathodic
reduction methods, indicate that atmospheres generated by organic sulfides
rapidly tarnish silver. The rate increases with sulfur chain length and
with the flux of u,v. light of wavelength greater than 2900A. A mechanism
involving the formation of free radicals is proposed. The tarnish
composition is essentially identical to the sulfide films formed by
hydrogen sulfide or by vapors from flowers of sulfur. Sulfide film
morphology, as analyzed by SEM, tends to be more like field tarnished
films than the highly structured tarnish films generated by flowers of
sulfur vapor. Dimethyldisulfide has been used as a rapid, convenient life
test gas for room temperature studies.
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19. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Tin and Tin Alloys. M. E. Warwick and
W. B. Hampshire. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley,
New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 509-528. (Cu82-27)
20. The USAF Corrosion Testing Program and a Corrosion Severity Index
Algorithm. R. Summitt and F. T. Fink. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by
W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 545-564. (A182-31)
21. Theoretical and Engineering Principles of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
Y. N. Mikhailovskii. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 85-106. (Fe82-52)
1981
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper and Silver. D. W. Rice, P. J. Peterson,
E. B. Rigby, P. B. P. Phipps, R. J. Cappell, and R. Tremoureux. J.
Electrochem. Soc., v. 128, No. 2, 1981, pp. 275-284. (Cu81-3)
2. Poland - The Most Polluted Country in the World. L. Timberlake. New
Scientist, v. 92, No. 1276, October 22, 1981, pp. 248-250. (Fe81-ll)
3. Protective Coatings for Silvered Reflectors in Solar Applications.
S. M. Wong. Extended Abstracts, Fall Meeting, Electrochemical Society,
Denver, Co., v. 81-2, October 11-16, 1981, p. 535.
Research on silvered relectors is important for concentrator
applications in solar energy conversion systems. Silver, generally
deposited in thin layers onto a substrate, possesses the highest solar
reflectance among all metals. However, a protective overcoat needs to be
applied to the silver layer to prevent agglomeration, corrosion,
degradation, delamination, etc., that leads to silver's ultimate loss of
reflectance under environmental exposure.
The protective coatings selected for this study include sputtered
chromium, copper, Hastelloy, Inconel-600, Inconel-700, molybdenum,
stainless steel 304, titanium, wet chemically processed copper, and
paint.
In this paper, data will be presented on the performance and time to
failure of silvered mirrors with the above mentioned protective coatings
after they have been subjected to accelerated tests which simulate
stresses encountered in solar applications. These tests include salt
spray, HC1 vapor, and WeatherOmeter tests. The effects of salt, acid,
relative humidity, temperature cycling, solar UV, pollutants, and
mechanical stresses on the specimens are evaluated. In addition, dark
field microscopy, SEM, and diffuse and specular reflectance measurements
were used at different stages of the tests; the reflectance measurements
were made using a He-Ne laser as well as a spectrophotometer. These
measurements are used to correlate test results and help define the
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relative merit of each test. Mechanisms of silver degradation and, hence,
methods of its prevention will be discussed.
4. Resistance of Titanium to Atmospheric Corrosion. L. C. Covington and
R. W. Shutz. Paper No. 113, Corrosion/81, Toronto, Canada, National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, April 6-10, 1981, 7 pp.
Ten different alloys of titanium were evaluated after 20 years
exposure at five sites. Some of the specimens were discolored and covered
with a heavy layer of dirt, but no evidence of corrosion of any
significance was found.
1980
1. A Model of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals Allowing for Meteorological and
Aerochemical Characteristics. Y. N. Mikhailovikii, P. V. Strekalov and
V. V. Agafonov. Protection of Metals, v. 16, No. 4, 1980, pp. 308-323.
(Fe80-1)
2. A Review of Air Pollutant Damage to Materials. J. E. Yocum and
A. R. Stankunas. Draft report to Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, December
1980, 92 pp. (Fe80-2)
3. Background and Principles of Long-Term Performance of Building Materials.
S. E. Pihlajavaara. Durability of Building Materials and Components,
ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 5-16. (Fe80-4)
4. Corrosion of Metal in Wood Products. A. J. Baker. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and
G. G. Litvan, 1980, pp. 981-993. (Fe80-7)
5. Critical Review of the Available Physicochemical Material Damage Functions
of Air Pollution. M. Benarie. Report No. EUR-6643, Commission on the
European Communities, 1980, 97 pp. (Fe80-8)
6. Durability of Some Common Building Materials. W. H. Gutt and
L. H. Everett. Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM
STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 131-144. (Fe80-10)
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7. Indoor Corrosion of Metals. D. W. Rice, R. J. Cappell, W. Kinsolving and
J. J. Laskowski. J. Electrochem. Soc., v. 127, No. 4, 1980,
pp. 891-901. (Fe80-ll)
8. Pacer Line: An Environmental Corrosion Serverity Classification System.
R. Summitt and F. T. Fink. AFWAL-TR-80-4102 (Part I), Wright
Aeronautical Laboratories, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, August 1980, 121
pp. (Fe80-16)
9. Pacer Line: Experimental Determination of Environmental Corrosion
Severity. R. Summitt and F. T. Fink. AFWAL-TR-80-4102 (Part 2), Wright
Aeronautical Laboratories, Wright-Patterson. AFB, Ohio, June 1980, 28 pp.
(Fe80-17)
10. Regional Air Pollution Study: Effects of Airborn Sulfur Pollutants on
Materials. F. Mansfeld. NTIS Report PB81 — 126351, January 1980, 163 pp.
(Fe80-18)
1979
L. Atmospheric Corrosion of Cobalt. D. W. Rice, P. B. P. Phipps and
R. Tremoureux. J. Electrochem. Soc., v. 126, No. 9, 1979,
pp. 1459-1466.
Cobalt atmospheric corrosion is discussed, ranging from nucleation of
water to observed indoor corrosion rates. The air-exposed surfaces of
cobalt are shown to be complex oxyhydroxides. Significant quantities
of water are adsorbed on this surface. The initial stage of corrosion in
a polluted environment is shown to be very heterogeneous. Corrosion
kinetics for cobalt are linear and are exponentially dependent on relative
humidity. The partial pressures of S02, Cl2 and NH3 significantly
influence cobalt corrosion while N02, and 0^ show little effect.
Cobalt corrodes in indoor environments at rates similar to nickel and
follows log normal statistics over the field site population studied.
2. Results of 30 Months Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in St. Louis, MO,
U.S.A. F. Mansfeld. Reliability of Materials for Solar Energy—
Workshop Proceedings, CONF-781228, v. 2, Pt. 1, October 1979, pp. 627-
657. (Fe79-7)
3. Statistical Assessment of the Effect of Fluctuations in the Atmospheric
Concentration of Sulfur Dioxide on the Corrosion Rate of Metals.
Yu. N. Mikhailovskii and V. A. San'ko. Zashch. Met., v. 15, No. 4,
1979, pp. 432-437 (Russian). (Fe79-8)
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4. The Effect of Atmospheric Corrosion on the Reliability of Electronic
Parts. B. Henzlik. Koroze Ochr. Mater., v. 5, 1979, pp. 90-91 (Czech).
(Cu79-6)
5. Use of Building Surfaces in the Passive Abatement of Gaseous Air
Pollutants. H. S. Judeikis. J. Architectural Research, v. 7, No. 1,
March 1979, pp. 28-33. (Fe79-10)
1978
1. Adsorption of Sulfur Dioxide on Metals and Mechanism of Its Effect on
Atmospheric Corrosion. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, P. V. Strekalov and
T, S. Balandina. Zashch. Met., v. 14, No. 3, 1978, pp. 248-252
(Russ ian).
The kinetics of the mass changes on freshly formed cadmium and silver
layers due to adsorption and corrosion of their surface by the gaseous
S02, water vapor, water vapor + S02, and water vapor + S02 + S02 was
studied experimentally by the piezoelectric quartz microweighing method at
-30 to 20*. The amount of S02 adsorbed increased with increasing S02
partial pressure and decreasing temperature. In the early stage of the
corrosion process, the S02 adsorbed in the thin H20 layer does not affect
the stability of the cheraisorbed H20 layer responsible for the metal
passivity. The net increment to the metal mass due to the corrosion by
H20 + S02 mixture, after the vacuum desorption of the H20 + S02 from the
surface, is comparable to that caused by the treatment with pure H20
vapor. If SO3 is present in the gaseous medium to which the freshly
formed metal surface is exposed, the irreversible increment to the metal
mass rapidly increases and during the H^O sorption-vacuum desorption
cycles the amount of H20 adsorbed steadily increases. This effect is not
observed if S03 is absent. After the metal surface was once in contact
with SO3, the secondarily adsorbed H20 layers increase the rate of metal
dissolution even if the contact with sulfur oxides was stopped and the
increment to cadmium mass is by an order of magnitude higher than that in
the atmosphere of S02 + H20. A catalytic oxidation of S02 on the
partially oxidized metal surface is assumed. After the resulting
S03*nH20 reaches a critical concentration, the formation begins of the
SO^"2 ions activating the metal surface. If only pure H20, or H20
containing S02, is adsorbed on the metal surface, the active centers are
to some extent blocked .and the corrosion process is inhibited. The
presence of SO3 then affects in a deciding way the rate of accumulation of
the local active sulfate centers and thus the corrosion rate of cadmium.
2. ASTM Atmospheric Corrosion Testing: 1906 to 1976. W. H. Ailor.
Atmospheric Factors Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM
STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1978, pp. 129-151. (Fe78-2)
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Atmospheric Corrosion. M. G. Fontana and N. D. Greene. Chapt. 8 in
Corrosion Engineering, McGraw Hill Company, 2nd ed., 1978, pp. 265-268.
(Fe78-3)
Atmospheric Corrosion. T. Hakkarainen. Tutkimus Tek., 1978, Nos. 4-5,
pp. 46-54 (Finnish). (Fe78-4)
Atmospheric Laboratory Bench. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, V. A. San'ko,
N. A. Sokolov and P. N. Kudryavtsev. Zashch. Met., v. 14, No. 4, 1978,
pp. 515-517 (Russian). (Fe78-7)
Corrosion Investigations at Panama Canal Zone. M. A. Pelensky,
J. J. Jaworski and A. Gallaccio. Atmospheric Factors Affecting the
Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by S. K. Coburn,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978, pp. 58-73. (Fe78-9)
Deteriorative Effect of Sulfur Pollution on Materials. J. 0. Nriagu.
Chapt. 1 in Sulfur in the Environment, Part II: Ecological Impacts,
edited by J. 0. Nriagu, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1978, pp. 1-59.
(Fe78-ll)
Effect of Daily Fluctuations of Humidity and Air Temperature on Moisture
Sorption by a Metal Surface and on the Kinetics of Atmospheric
Corrosion. P. V. Strekalov, Y. N. Mikhailovskii and M. V. Danilova.
Zashch. Met., v. 14, No. 3, 1978, pp. 243-247 (Russian). (A178-6)
Final Report on the ASTM Study: Atmospheric Galvanic Corrosion of
Magnesium Coupled to Other Metals. A. Baboian. Atmospheric Factors
Affecting the Corrosion of Engineering Metals, ASTM STP 646, edited by
S. K. Coburn, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978,
pp. 17-29.
In 1949 a study was initiated by H. 0. Teeple sponsored by
Subcommittee VIII (Galvanic and Electrolytic Corrosion) of the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Committee B-3 (Corrosion of
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys). This study covered the atmospheric
galvanic corrosion of magnesium coupled to a number of dissimilar metals
and alloys. Previously, results were reported for two and one half years
exposure at State College and Kure Beach. This report, sponsored by
Subcommittee VII (Galvanic Corrosion) of ASTM Committee G-l ( Corrosion of
Metals), presents the final data from this study after an approximate
22-year exposure at these test sites.
Metal Corrosion Due to Sulfur Dioxide Effect. S. Filz. VDI Ber., v. 314,
1978, pp. 103-107 (German).
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The relation between metal corrosion and S02 content of air, critical
humidity, corrosion mechanism, corrosion rates of various metals, effect
of dust, and critical SO2 concentration are discussed.
11. Studies of Lead 15 wt% Tin Alloy Corrosion in an Industrial Environment.
J. S. Bullock. Report No. Y2132, Oak Ridge Y-12 plant, Oak Ridge, TN
(USA), October 1978, 28 pp.
The corrosion properties of a lead-15 wt-pct tin alloy in aqueous
solutions having a pH from 2 to 6 were studied as a function of
contamination by sulfur dioxide, chloride ion, fluoride ion, and carbon
dioxide. Electrochemical methods were used. Higher acidity caused higher
corrosion rates. Sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide were found to inhibit
corrosion, the chloride ion to have a mild aggressive effect, and the
fluoride ion to have a noticeable aggressive effect. Semiquantitative
estimates of the effects were made.
12. The Corrosion and Protection of Metals in the Buildings and Construction
Industries. B. G. Callaghan. J. Oil Color Chemists Assoc., v. 61,
No. 11, November 1978, pp. 411-418. (Fe78-17)
1977
1. Effects of Sulphur Dioxide on Materials. S. K. Gajendragadkar. Chem. Age
India, v. 28, No. 8, 1977, pp. 673-677. (Fe77-5)
2. Effects of the Environment. G. Thomson. Conservation in Australia, 1977,
pp. 46-53.
The effects of ultra-violet radiation, humidity and air pollution on
the deterioration of materials is discussed with particular reference to
the Australian environment.
3. Effects on Economic Materials and Structures. J. E. Yocum and
J. B. Upham. Chapt. 2 in Air Pollution, edited by A. C. Stern,
Academic Press, New York, N.Y., v. 2, 1977, pp. 65-116. (Fe77-6)
4. Estimation of Pollutants Concentration in Atmosphere by Measuring
Corrosion Rates of Several Metals. II. Correlation Between
Reflectances of Exposed Metals and Deterioration of Exposed Rubber.
G. Takao, and M. Masakasu. Taiki Osen Kenkyu, v. 11, No. 6, 1977,
pp. 452-455 (Japanese). (Cu77-2)
5. Galvanic Corrosion IN the Atmosphere. V. Kucera. Rapp.-Korrosionsinst.,
No. 16, 1977, 43 pp. (Swedish). (Fe77-9)
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6. Nitrogen Oxides. National Research Council Staff. Environmental Effects
Research series, Contract EPA-68-02-1226, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., February 1977, 503 pp.
This report is a review of current knowledge of the environmental
health basis for control of manmade sources of nitrogen oxide emissions.
The literature review covered the period through 1974. The principal
subject areas considered in the report include: sources and control of
atmospheric nitrogen oxides; analytical methodology; concentrations and
chemical reactions in the atmosphere; and the effects of nitrogen oxides
on human health, materials, vegetation, light transmission, and natural
ecosystems. Emphasis is primarily on nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (N02), designated by the composite formula N0X for nitrogen
oxides. The major manmade source is the combustion of fossil fuel.
Highest atmospheric concentrations are found in heavily populated,
industrialized urban areas. Both acute and chronic health effects
resulting from short-term and long-term exposures, are discussed in the
report. Effects range from slight increases in airway resistance to death
depending upon exposure concentrations.
7. Pollution and the Deterioration of Materials. S. H. H. Chaston.
Conversation in Australia, 1977, pp. 54-59.
The atmospheric pollutants that cause the deterioration of materials
are considered under three main headings: (i) air pollutants; (ii)
oxidants associated with photochemical smog, and (iii) airborne particles.
The sources of these pollutants and the damage they cause to materials are
discussed.
1976
1. Acid Precipitation. G. E. Likens. Chem. Eng. News, v. 54, No. 48,
November 22, 1976, pp. 29-44. (Fe76-1)
2. Air Pollutants and Possible Effects on Artistic and Archaeological
Materials. F. Guidobaldi. Conservazione dei Monumenti, 1976,
pp. 14-48 (Italian).
Data on chemical compounds present in polluted air are reported and
the possible effects on artistic and archaeological materials are
discussed. Details are given on the effects of acid rain, carbon dioxide
and sulfur oxides. Principal sources of pollution and pollutants emitted
by different sources are also summarized.
3. Air Pollution Damage Functions. A. Hershaft. Environmental Science and
Technology, v. 10, No. 10, October 1976, pp. 992-995. (Zn76-1)
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4. Conservation of Monuments. Proceedings of the 2nd Session of the 29th
National Congress of the Assoc. Termotecnica Italiana, Florence
(September 25-27, 1974), Antonio Barbieri, Viale Premuda 2, Milano,
1976, 252 pp. (Italian).
Papers are collected in five sections: atmospheric pollution and
climate, stone, metal, mural and panel paintings, glass, wood and
textiles.
5. Corrosion of Light Metals and Their Alloys in an Atmosphere Polluted With
Sulfur Dioxide and With Products of Its Neutralization With Ammonia.
B. Mazurkiewicz, J. Banas, K. Bieda and A. Piotrowski. Zesz. Nauk.
Akad. Gorn.-Hutn. im. Stanislawa Staszica, Mat. Fiz. Chem., v. 27,
1976, pp. 115-126 (Polish). (A176-3)
6. Corrosion of Metals in Tropical Environments: Final Report of 16-Year
Exposures. C. R. Southwell. Materials Performance, v. 15, No. 7, July
1976, pp. 9-25.
The results of 16-year corrosion tests performed by the Naval
Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C., on 52 metals and alloys in tropical
seawater and freshwater environments are presented.
7. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocom and
N. Grappone. Research Corporation of New England, Wethersfield,
Connecticut, NTIS Report PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp. (Fe76-6)
8. Fundamentals of Atmospheric Corrosion. G. Oelsner and W. Hoepfner.
Werkst. Korros., v. 27, No. 5, 1976, p. 354.
Fundamentals of atmospheric corrosion and the effects of carbon
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, particulates, and chlorinated
and ammoniated compounds on construction materials are discussed.
9. How Environmental Pollutants Diminish Contact Reliability. C. A. Russell.
Insulation/Circuits, v. 22, No. 10, 1976, pp. 43-46. (Cu76-5)
10. Initial Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals in Humid Air Above and
Below the Freezing Point. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, P. V. Strekalov and
T. S. Balandina. Zashch. Met., v. 12, No. 5, 1976, pp. 513-518
(Russian). (Zn76-5)
11. Material Changes by Ozone. U. Arndt and H. Ross. VDI-Ber., v. 270, 1976,
pp. 197-210 (German).*
Alteration of materials such as rubbers, dyes, and metals by ozone is
reviewed.
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12. Methods for the Determination of Corrosion Losses. M. Kulis. Ochr.
Koroz., v. 19, No. 9, France 1976, pp. 235-237 (Polish). (Fe76-12)
13. Outdoor Weathering: Its Objectives and Limits. F. Rosendahl. Proc. 13th
FATIPEC Congress, Cannes, France, 1976, pp. 563-567 (German).
Difficulties in assessing outdoor weathering results, for example, to
check the performance of artificial weathering cycles, are discussed. A
particular problem is the alternation of active and inactive weathering
periods, which distorts the time scale. Statistical procedures for
designing exposure test series and evaluating the results should be
applied.
14. Patination of Lead. An Infra-red Spectroscopic Study. G. C. Tranter.
British Corrosion Journal, v. 11, No. 4, 1976, pp. 222-224.
This paper reports an examination by infrared spectroscopy of the
corrosion products from lead sheets exposed under test conditions and
from lead cladding in rural and urban buildings up to an age of 129 years.
The results indicate that on weathering a progressively more resistant
film of corrosion products is formed, the sequence reflecting the relative
atmospheric abundance and acidity of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and
sulfur trioxide. Thus, the corrosion product formation is observed to be
basic lead carbonate production followed by normal lead sulfite and normal
lead sulfate. The formation of orthorhombic lead monoxide was observed
and it is suggested that this may be a precursor of basic lead carbonate.
15. Possibilities for the Determination of Electrolyte Formation on Surfaces
by Condensation and Moisture Particle Impact. I. Kokoska and J. Prusek.
Werkst. Korros., v. 27, No. 1, 1976, pp. 16-20 (German).
To control the presence of electrolyte films on metal surfaces,
measuring probes (or sensors) are attached to the object to be studied,
and the change of the electric resistance of the probes is measured.
These probes are passive dipoles and form a system of metallic area
electrodes separated from each other by a crevice of defined dimensions
(geometrical shape and size are adjusted to the particular problem). The
electrodes are applied to a support combining high insulation resistance,
water resistance, low weight, and good thermal conductivity. The probes
are connected to an electronic system recording the signals from the
individual probes, so that the duration and the frequency of moisture film
formation can be determined. The recording strip also differentiates
between condensation (dew formation) and direct impact of liquid
part icles.
16. Protecting Electronics From Atmospheric Corrosion. D. V. Couden.
Materials Engineering, May 1976, pp. 22-25. (Cu76-7)
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17. Protection Against Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Translated by
J. R. Duncan, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1976, 194 pp. (Fe76-14)
18. Protection by Cleaning and Conservation. J. Riederer. Das
Gebaudereiniger-Handwerk, No. 2, 1976, pp. 14-15 (German).
One of the main reasons for the decay of monuments and sculptures in
the open is poor maintenance, A regular removal of dirt and soot as well
as water repellent treatment would prevent the attack of most of the
destructive agents of stone as well as on metals and glass.
19. Replacement of Steel Connectors by Titanium Alloy. S. Angelides. Chapter
in The Acropolis, Hellenic Republic, Ministry of Culture and Science,
Athens, Greece, 1976, pp. 95-96.
The proposal for the Portico of the Erechtheion consists of
dismantling it, transferring the Caryatid statues indoors, and replacing
all steel parts with titanium alloys. One of the advantages of using
titanium is that its thermal expansion factor is approximately the same as
that of marble. The replacement of the steel beam over the heads of the
Caryatid statues with a titanium beam is proposed to obtain minimal
flexibility since the overlying architrave is weak. A life-size model of
the Portico has been constructed in order to determine the deflections in
the proposed reinforced structure and to train personnel for the
dismantling of the Portico. The plan of action for the Portico is
reversible; once the air pollution has been controlled, the Caryatid
statues may be returned to their original places on the monument.
20. Use of Computing-Decision Devices for the Construction of Statistical
Models for Interpretation of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
Y. N. Mikhailovskii, E. I. Sergeeva, V. A. San'ko and V. V. Agafonov.
Prot. Met., v. 12, No. 1, January-February 1976, pp. 102-105.
The complex dependence of the rate of atmospheric corrosion on
meteorological factors which vary in time with a daily or seasonable
periodicity hinders an accurate prediction of the corrosion of metals in
different climatic regions. The calculation of the expected corrosion
from averaged values of the meteorological parameters using the method of
correlation analysis can be regarded as a first approximation. More
rigorous is the method of taking account of statistical data on the
meteorological factors characterizing the climate of a given zone, above
all obtained from multiyear observations of the repeatability of the
values of the moisture content of the air (or the presence of a phase film
of moisture on the surface of the metal) in discrete temperature
intervals. The statistical data on the corrosion of the base metals under
adsorbed and phase layers of moisture at different temperatures,
calculated by this method, are used for regionalizing the corrosion
aggressiveness of the atmosphere in different climatic zones of the USSR.
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1975
1. Air Pollution and Possible Effects on Archaeological Objects Buried in the
Ground. B. Ottar and S. E. Haagenrud. Conservation in Archaeology and
the Applied Arts, IIC, Stockholm Congress, 1975, pp. 199-206.
Information is needed concerning the emission, the atmospheric
dispersion, and the deposition of the pollutants in the various
geographical areas. Further, one has to identify the aggressive chemical
components which may possibly be present in sufficient amounts to have an
effect on the archaeological samples. Finally, the extent of such effects
will depend on the type of specimens and how deep in the ground and in
what type of soil they are buried.
2. Bimetallic Corrosion Effects on Mild Steel in Natural Environments.
K. E. Johnson and J. S. Abbott. NTIS Report PB-243665, 1975, 17 pp.
(Fe75-3)
3. Conservation—The Regional Climate and Natural Conditions. 0. P. Agrawal.
Museum, v. 27, No. 4, 1975, pp. 161-165.
The tropical climatic conditions prevailing in South and Southeast
Asia are extreme. Temperature and relative humidity in countries like
Bangladish, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia are very
high throughout the year. Western parts of India, Afghanistan and Iran
have a dry climate. In most parts of India, there is the monsoon type of
climate, that is, alternating dry and wet seasons. Such conditions
accelerate the damage caused to cultural property.
Light which is very intense in the tropical countries is another
factor. Danger due to atmospheric pollution is increasing because of
rapid industrialization. Most countries in this part cannot afford to
have air-condition buildings for their museums. Research programs are
needed which can solve some of these special problems.
4. Corrosion of Coated Metals. 5. Corrosion Testing. J. B. Mohler. Met.
Finishing, v. 73, No. 8, 1975, pp. 48-50.
Methods for the evaluation of corrosion in outdoor exposures,
immersion in water or water vapor, and salt spray are discussed.
5. Effects of Graphite Epoxy Composite Materials on the Corrosion Behavior of
Aircraft Alloys. P. Fischer and J. DeLuccia. Naval Air Development
Center, Warminster, PA, Vehicle Technology Dept. Report
No. NADC-75031-30, April 1975, 36 pp. (A175-2)
6. Environmental Exposure System for Studying Air Pollution Damage to
Materials. J. W. Spence, F. D. Stump, F. H. Haynie, and J. B. Upham.
NTIS Report PB-240615, 1975, 46 pp. (Fe75-ll)
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7. Metal Protection by Vapor Phase Inhibitors. B. A. Miksic. Anti- Corros.
Methods Mater., v. 22, No. 3, 1975, pp. 5-8.
The use of vapor phase inhibitors to reduce atmospheric corrosion of
metallic structures is discussed. Vapor phase inhibitors obtain the same
preventative effect as conventional methods by the simple introduction of
the inhibitor device into the metal enclosure. Vapor phase inhibitors
also provide positive protection under conditions where traditional
coatings, wraps, and silica gel fail or cannot be used. Successful
applications of vapor phase inhibitors include high humidity environments,
marine environments with high salt concentrations, and industrial
environments with sulfur dioxide levels ranging up to 0.15 wt pet.
8. Sulfates and the Environment-A Review. R. S. Greeley, R. P. Ouellette, J.
T. Stone and S. Wilcox. Mitre Corp., McLean, Va., Report No. MTR-6895,
March 1975, 155 pp.
This report has been prepared to review existing information on
sulfates and their environmental effects. It covers the following topics:
Origin and amounts of sulfates in the atmosphere (Sulfur flow through the
ecosystem, Reactivity of sulfur compounds in the atmosphere, Fallout of
sulfates, Emission sources); Atmospheric concentrations (Global
concentrations, Sulfur concentrations over the United States, Relationship
of sulfur dioxide to sulfates, Point source averages, Transport of sulfur
dioxide in plumes, Acid rain, Concentrations due to mobile sources);
Effects of sulfates (Human health effects of sulfates in the ambient air,
Effects on animals, Effects on vegetation, Material effects, Standards);
Measurement techniques (Filtering methods, Method for differentiating
between sulfuric acid and sulfate salts, Direct methods for sulfuric acid
in ambient air); Control technology (Naturally low sulfur fuels, Fuel
desulfurization, Flue gas desulfurization, Sulfur dioxide control with
tall stacks and/or intermittent control systems); Economics; and Status or
regulat ions.
9. Sulfur Dioxide and Material Damage. D. G. Gillette. J. Air Pollution
Control Association, v. 25, No. 12, December 1975, pp. 1238-1243.
(Fe75-17)
10. The Outdoor Corrosion Performance of Plated ABS Plastics. V. E. Carter.
Trans. Inst. Metal Finishing, Spring/Conf., v. 53, No. 1, 1975,
pp. 61-64. (Cu75-6)
11. Universal Accelerated Weathering Cabinet for Weathering Tests of Metals
and Protective Coatings. D. Knotkova-Cermakova, J. Kosobud, J. Vlckova
and J. Honzak. Werkst. Korros., v. 26, No. 2, 1975, pp. 118-123
(German).
The development and construction features of a cabinet testing the
atmospheric corrosion of metals and many kinds of protective coatings are
discussed. The vertical cylindrical vessel is made of glass and has a
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removable cover. On the bottom of the vessel is a smaller cylinder, the
test vessel, with a perforated mantel through which the air with known
humidity and impurity content is fed. A platinum wire attached to an arm
of an analytical balance passes through a hole in the cover. A specimen-
holding cage is fastened to the end of the wire. Two opposite openings
are provided in the test vessel for spraying onto both sides of the
specimen. The systems for preparing the contaminated air (sulfur dioxide)
with known humidity and aerosol spraying are described.
1974
I. Air Pollution Effects on Catastrophic Failure of Metals. J. Gerhard and
F. H. Haynie. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-650/3-74-009,
November 1974, 33 pp. (Fe74-2)
2. An Evaluation of Titanium Panels After Seven Years' Exposure in a Marine
Atmosphere. L. C. Covington. Corrosion in Natural Environments, ASTM
STP 558, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1974, pp. 97-98.
An evaluation was made of test panels of four titanium alloys that
were exposed to a marine atmosphere for seven years at Point Reyes,
California, as part of the ASTM B-3V1 1957 test program. No evidence of
corrosion or significant change in physical properties was found. It was
concluded that titanium is virtually immune to corrosion under most
atmospheric exposure conditions.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion. H. Laub. Galvanotechnik, v. 65, No. 3, 1974,
pp. 209-221 (German).
The basic causes of atmospheric corrosion, its electrochemical
aspects, factors which influence it, its evaluation, and the difficulty of
predicting such corrosion are reviewed.
4. Corrosion Aggressivity of Model Regions of Czechoslovakia. D. Knotkova-
Cermakova, B. Bosek and J. Vlckova. Corrosion in Natural Environments,
ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1974,
pp. 52-74. (Fe74-8)
5. Corrosion of Metals in the Atmosphere. W. K. Boyd and F. W. Fink.
MCIC-74-23, Battelle-Columbus Labs., Metals and Ceramics Information
Center, Columbus, Ohio, August 1974, 77 pp. (Fe74-9)
6. Design of a Laboratory Experiment to Identify the Effects of Environmental
Pollutants on Materials. J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. Corrosion in
Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 279-291. (Fe74-10)
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OM-17
7. Effect of Air PolLution on Materials and Technical Equipment.
D. Knotkova-Cermakova, K. Barton and B. Dolezel. Ochr. Ovzdust., v. 6,
No. 6, June 1974, pp. 75-83 (Czech). (Fe74-12)
8. Environment and Quality of Life. Literature Study on the Economic
Consequences of the Damages and Annoyances Both in Materials and
Vegetation and in Men and Animals Caused by Sulfur Dioxide Air
Pollution. E. Lahmann. Commission of the European Communities,
Luxembourg, September 1974, 150 pp. (German). (Fe74-16)
9. Factors Affecting the Adsorption of Atmospheric SO2 on to Lead Surfaces.
J. R. Duncan and D. J. Spedding. Corros. Sci., v. 14, No. 10, 1974,
pp. 607-610.
The mean velocity of deposition (the mass of sulfur dioxide adsorbed
per unit area divided by the mean atmospheric sulfur dioxide concentration
times the time of exposure) of sulfur dioxide on lead foil, in a relative
humidity range of 45 to 99 percent, was quite small (0.14 to 0.28 mm/sec)
and varied widely from sample to sample. The relative humidity and the
sulfur dioxide concentration had no effect on the velocity of deposition.
No desorption was observed upon exposure to air free of sulfur dioxide.
The results support the conclusion that sulfur dioxide adsorption occurs
upon specific sites, probably involving surface oxide or hydroxide. In
this case the dark spots of high adsorptivity observed upon some samples
may be lead (IV) dioxide.
10. Petroleum and the Environment, Rome - EUR (April 11-14). Poligrafico
Artioli Editore, Modena, Italy, 1974.
The publication concerns topics discussed at the third international
congress on petroleum. Both the negative and the positive aspects of the
production of petroleum derivatives are described and much documentation
is given.
Contents include: "Use of petroleura-based products in conservation
of works of art," by A. E. Werner, and "Action of sulfur dioxide and some
other pollutants on works of art," by G. Thomson. Other articles consider
stone deterioration and microscopy.
11. Rapid Electrochemical Procedure to Measure the Atmospheric Corrosion
Resistance. E. Erdos. Galvano-Organo, No. 443, April 1974,
pp. 382-385 (French). (Cu74-7)
12. Seven-Year Exposure at Point Reyes, California. W. H. Ailor. Corrosion
in Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 75-81. (A174-6)
13. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution. T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701 , 1974, 156 pp. (Fe74-21)
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14. The Economics of Clean Air in Perspective. F. H. Haynie. Materials Prot,
and Perf., v. 13, No. 4, April 1974, pp. 33-38. (Fe74-22)
15. The Environment and Collections. G. W. Rogers. Canadian Conservation
Institute Newsletter, No. 4, August 1974, pp. 5*-6.
The influence of moisture, temperature, light and air pollutants on
works of art are discussed. The author states that environmental factors
can be divided into three types: gases, such as sulfur oxides, hydrogen
sulfide, nitrogen oxides, ammonia and ozone; aerosols, in the form of
suspensions in air of acidic droplets; and dirt usually coated with tarry
organic material.
16. The Environment and Collections (Part 2). G. W. Rogers. Canadian
Conservation Institute Newsletter, No. 5, November 1974, pp. 2-3.
Pollutants that concern the museum world are divided into two types:
gases (for example, SO2> l^S, N0X, NH^, O3), and aerosols (suspensions
in air of acidic droplets) and dirt, usually coated with tarry organic
materials. Sulfur compounds are the most damaging; they can be converted
to sulphuric acid which can destroy the basic structure of materials like
paper, textiles, wood. Corrosion of most alloys has been found to be
almost linear with S0£ concentration in a 10-year study done across
Canada. The best method of dealing with these pollutants is their removal
at the source.
17. The Use of Weather and Climatological Data in Evaluating the Durability of
Building Components and Materials. L. W. Masters and C. W. Wolfe.
NTIS Report COM-74-50841/7, August 1974, 102 pp. (Fe74-25)
18. Weather Factors Affecting Corrosion of Metals. P. J. Sereda. Corrosion
in Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 7-22. (Fe74-27)
1973
1. Air Pollution: Air Quality Criteria for Nitrogen Oxides. NATO Committee
on the Challenges of Modern Society, Brussels, Belgium. Report
No. NATO/CCMS-15, January 1973, 231 pp.
This report discusses: Properties of nitrogen oxides and physical
effects on light transmission; Sources and control of atmospheric
nitrogen oxides; Methods for measurement of nitrogen oxides; Atmospheric
levels of nitrogen oxides; Chemical interactions of nitrogen oxides in the
atmosphere; Effects of nitrogen oxides on materials; Effects of nitrogen
oxides on vegetation; Toxicological effects of nitrogen oxides;
Epidemiological appraisal of nitrogen oxides.
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2. Concentrations, Decay Rates, and Removal of Ozone and Their Relation to
Establishing Clean Indoor Air. R. H. Sabersky, D. A. Sinema and
F. H. Shair. Environ. Sci. Technol., v. 7, No. 4, 1973, pp. 347-353.
Transitory concentrations of ozone within typical buildings located
in photochemical smoggy areas, were found to lag in time and to be only a
little less in value as compared to corresponding outdoor concentrations.
The ozone decomposition within buildings involved a heterogeneous
mechanism. Decomposition rate constants for several common surfaces were
found to range in value from approximately 10-* to 10"^ ft^/ft^-min.
Rubber, fabrics, and plastics appeared to decompose ozone much more
rapidly than metals and glass. All materials demonstrated a reduction in
the rate constant in extended use. One material, plywood, showed some
recovery after a 2-day exposure to an ozone-free atmosphere. Experiments
indicated that certain filters, especially activated charcoal, can be used
to reduce indoor levels of ozone well below the maximum acceptable limits.
Calculations, based upon a "stirred-tank" reactor model, yielded results
similar to those observed with respect to transitory indoor versus outdoor
concentrations of ozone.
3. Corrosion Caused by Perspiration. G. A. Tret'yakova and V. P. Barannik.
Zashch. Metal, v. 9, No. 6, November-December 1973, pp. 715-715
(Russian). (Fe73-9)
4. Economic Effects of Air Pollution on Electrical Contacts. R. C. Robbins.
Holm Seminar on Electrical Contact Phenomena, 19th Annual Proceedings,
Illinois Inst, of Technology, Chicago, III., October 15-18, 1973,
pp. 80-85. (Cu73-2)
5. Investigation of Damages (On Cultural Properties) Caused by Air Pollution.
T. Kadokura. Science for Conservation, No. 11, 1973, pp. 69-85
(Japanese).
A detailed questionnaire was sent to fifty-two museums in Japan to
investigate the effects of air pollution on the museum objects exhibited
inside and outside museums. Out of forty responses, damages were reported
for nine objects and eight buildings.
6. The Damaging Effects of Air Pollution on Works of Art. J. Riederer.
Proc. 3rd Int. Union Air Pollut. Prev. Assoc. - VDI-Komm. Reinhaltung
Luft Int. Clean Air Congr. (Duesseldorf, October 8-12, 1973), 1973,
pp. A86-A89 (German). (Cu73-3)
7. The Role of Coatings in Corrosion Prevention. Future Trends.
V. Ashworth and R. P. M. Procter. Journal of the Oil and Colour
Chemists Association, v. 56, No. 10, October 1973, pp. 478-489.
(Fe73-24)
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1972
1. Phase Composition and Thermal Stability of Products From Atmospheric
Corrosion of Lead. I. A. Efimov, B. N. Rybakov, G. V. Maslova and U.
Y. Kharitonov. Zashch. Metal., v. 8, No. 6, 1972, pp. 711-712
(Russian).
Specimens of lead of grade SO according to GOST 3778-65, obtained by
semicontinuous casting, were subjected to natural corrosion tests. The
climatic conditions of the tests were evaluated according to the duration
of the wetting of the metal surface, which amounted to 1,700, 1,250, and
2,000 hr/year for regions A, B, and C, respectively. The atmosphere was
contaminated with sulfur dioxide, the concentration of which was measured
by a linear-coloristic method. The average sulfur dioxide content of
regions A and B amounted to 0.25 and 0.13 mg/ra2, respectively; in region
C, there were traces of sulfur dioxide (with relative fluctuations of 10
to 20 percent). The phase composition and thermal stability of the
powdery corrosion products was determined two years after the beginning of
the tests. The composition and proportions of the components .were
determined by X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy and refined
thermographically on the Kurnakov pyrometer designed at the Institute of
General and Organic Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the USSR. The
content of products subjected to thermal decomposition was determined from
the loss in weight at the corresponding temperature effects, and the PbO
content was determined by difference. The results from spectral and X-ray
analysis and the temperature effects on the thermograms agree well with
each other and with the published data for basic lead carbonates and
sulfates.
2. Reactions of Sulfur Dioxide With Adsorbed Layers of Moisture Under
Conditions of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. P. V. Strekalov,
Yu. N. Mikhailovskii. Zashch. Metal., v. 8, No. 5, 1972, pp. 573-576
(Russian). (Fe72-16)
3. Survey on the Metal Corrosion by Air Pollution: Effect of Glauber's Salt
on Metals. T. Nagano, A. Hattori, T. Nagai, Y. Ukishima,
Y. Nakai, and I. Iwasaki. Shizuoka-ken Eisei Kenkyusho Nenpo, No. 16,
1972, pp. 217-226 (Japanese). (Fe72-18)
1971
1. A Survey and Economic Assessment of the Effect of Air Pollutants on
Electrical Components. ITT Electrophysis Laboratory, Columbia, MD, NTIS
Report PB-204183, August 1971, 89 pp. (Cu71-1)
2. Air Pollution by Sulfur Dioxides. Staff Report. National Industrial
Pollution Control Council, Washington, D.C., February 1971, 27 pp.
(Fe71-2)
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3. Air Quality Criteria for Nitrogen Oxides. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C., Air Pollution Control Office. Report NAPCA-
Pub-Ap-84, January 1971, 181 pp.
This publication reviews the chemical and physical characteristics of
the nitrogen oxides and considers the relative merit of various analytical
methods for measuring them in the atmosphere. It also discusses their
effect on visibility, vegetation, and materialstheir toxicological
effects on animals and on man; and epidemiological studies that assess the
general population dose response and the specific response of children to
nitrogen oxides.
4. Atmospheric Corrosion of Silver. J. A. Lorenzen. Inst. Environ. Sci.,
Proc. 17th Annual Tech. Meet., Living in Our Environment, Los Angeles,
California, April 26-30, 1971, pp. 110-116.**
The corrosion of silver in hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, and sulfur
dioxide atmospheres has been studied, and the effects of the important
environmental factors are now known. By understanding the process, one
can design to control or inhibit corrosion. The results can also be used
for accelerated testing of silver compounds.
5. Calculation of the Rate of Atmospheric Corrosion of Zinc and Cadmium
Coatings in Various Climatic Regions. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, G. B. Klark,
L. A. Shuvakhina, A. P. San'ko, Y. P. Gladkikh and V. V. Agafonov.
Zashch. Metal., v. 7, No. 5, 1971, pp. 534-539 (Russian). (Zn71-4)
6. Corrosion Induced by SO2 Under Controlled Conditions. B. Heimler,
T. Sydberger, N. Vannerberg. Chapt. 27 in Proc. 6th Scandinavian
Corrosion Congr., (Gothenburg, May 24-27, 1971), 1971, 13 pp. (Fe71-9)
7. Deterioration of Electrical Equipment in Adverse Environments. M.
Rychtera. Daniel Davay & Co., Inc., 946 Asylum Ave., Hartford, Conn.,
January 1971, 190 pp.
A revised version of a book first published in Czech. The influence
of the atmosphere on the performance and durability of a wide variety of
materials used for electrical equipment is described. The author bases
many of his criteria on statistical data accumulated from a number of test
sites, especially in the tropics, where electrical materials have been
exposed for periods of years to a wide range of atmospheres and
conditions. Numerous test data are reported also based on laboratory
experiments. The book is divided into four parts: analysis of climatic
action, classification, modeling, and prognosis. The first of these
considers the interrelationships of such factors as temperature and its
fluctuations, relative and absolute humidities, sunlight, air circulation
and bacterial attack. He proposes criteria of criticality and alternation
against effects of the various destructive elements in the atmosphere. In
part two, he establishes criteria of classification of climatic action so
that topographic maps may be constructed depicting favorable and
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unfavorable regions with respect to the criteria. These are used in
tables which propose to permit prediction of probable atmospheric attack.
In part 3, he conth respect to the criteria. These are used in
tables which propose to permit prediction of probable atmospheric attack.
In part 3, he constructs models of climatic action involving consideration
of atmospheric tests, complex and simple climatic models, indirect testing
and laboratory tests. Part ^ defines a method of predicting probable
attack which involves establishing a numerical gradient depicting danger
degrees. These degrees are then applied to rate probabilities of
deterioration through excessive cooling, temperature variations, heat
aging, water absorption and desorption, corrosion, photochemical action,
microbial action, dust, rain and thunderstorms. Using these factors,
tables of probabilities are presented covering the continents of Africa,
Australia, new Zealand and Indonesia, Europe and Asia, North and South
America. Located zones are by coordinate grid system of the areas
covered. These is a subject and geographical index, numerous tabular and
graphed data as well as black and white and colored figures showing
various aspects of materials discussed in the book. References are
substantially from Communist bloc sources, but are indicative of the vast
accumulation of data on which the book is based.
8. How Materials Stand Up to Corrosion and Chemical Attack, R. J. Fabian and
J. A. Vaccari. Mater. Eng., v. 73, No. 2, 1971, pp. 36-59.
A review is given of the corrosion resistance to waters, acids, bases
and salts, solvents and cleaners, oils, fuels, petrochemcial fluids,
conventional chemicals, and to the atmosphere of construction materials.
9. Metal Coatings on Steel at Lighthouse Beach, Lagos. J. F. Stanners.
Brit. Corrosion J., v. 6, No. 5, Sept. 1971, pp. 211-215. (Fe71-17)
10. Method for Investigating the Effect of Climatic Parameters on the Rate of
Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. Y. N. Mikhailovskii, L. A.
Shuvalkhina, G. B. Klark and V. V. Agafonov. Protection of Metals, v.
7, 1971, p. 125.
The authors propose a method for the continuous recording of the rate
of atmospheric corrosion of metals. It is based on the measurement of the
electric resistnace of a thin metal layer (a vacuum condensate or a thin
foil) during the corrosion process.
11. Present Status and Prospects on Air Pollution. U. Bardelli. Ingegneria,
v. 5, 1971, pp. 311-316. (Fe71-19)
12. Role of Sulfur Dioxide in Atmospheric Corrosion. D. J. Spedding. Chem.
Ind. N.Z., v. 6, 1971, pp. 39-41. (Fe71-20)
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13. Technical-Economic Evaluation of Air-Pollution Corrosion Costs on Metals
in the U.S. F. W. Fink, F. H. Buttner and W. K. Boyd. NTIS Report PB-
198453, February 19, 1971, 160 pp. (Fe71-25)
14. The Corrosion of Copper, Tin, and Their Alloys. H. Leidheiser, Jr.
Chapter 12, J. Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1971, pp. 261-273.
Pure tin has excellent resistance to corrosion in most environments.
However, alloys of tin tend to have slightly less resistance than pure
tin. Also, if care is not taken in electroplating tin to steel, failures
can occur rather rapidly. Corrosion data for tin and some of tis alloys
are reported for various locations around the world.
1970
1. Corrosion Behavior of the Major Architectural and Structural Metals in
Canadian Atmospheres. Summary of Ten-Year Results of Group I. E. V.
Gibbons. Nat. Res. Counc. Can., Div. Bldg. Res., Tech. Pap. No. 328,
1970, 21 pp. (Fe70-5)
2. Design and Monitoring of Multiple and Varying Pollutant Concentration.
E. Bassett, H. Frankel and R. Grenley. Preprint (Presented at the
American Chemical Society Meeting, Division of Water, Air and Waste
Chemistry, Chicago, 111., September 13-18, 1970), Div. of Water, Air and
Waste Chemistry, American Chemcial Society, Washington, D.C., 1970, pp.
93-98. (Cu70-5)
3. Importance of Air Pollution in the Corrosion of Stone and Metals.
E. M. Winkler. Eng. Geol., v. 4, No. 4, October 1970, pp. 327-334.
Evidence is presented that the ionic increase almost doubled in the
Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River drainage basin, whereby about 20 to 50
percent of the ions are contributed from polluted atmospheres surrounding
the lakes. Study indicated that improvement of automotive combustion will
eliminate toxic CO and smog-producing unburned hydrocarbons, but will
augment CO2 and N0£ to such a high level that the corrosion of stone and
metals will increase rapidly.
4. Inquiry Into the Economic Effects of Air Pollution on Electrical Contacts.
R. C. Robbins. SRI Project PSU-7345, Final Report, Stanford Research
Institute, April 1970, 39 pp. (A170-4)
5. Interstate Surveillance Network - 1969 Data. Division of Air Quality and
Emission Data. Report NAPCA/APTD 70-3, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, May 1970, 203 pp.
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Raw data are tabulated on air pollution effects on materials at 274
stations throughout the United States and in Ontario, Canada, for
calendar year 1969. The tables are titled: Station and Area Type Code;
Effects Stations Identification List; Cumulative Frequency Distributions;
Metal Corrosion; Dyed Fabrics; Silver Tarnishing; Lead Plates; Dustfall;
Nylon Deterioration; Rubber Cracking; Sticky Paper (Wind Blown
particulates); and Station Index (Alphabetized by State).
6. Systems Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials.
R. L. Salmon. NTIS Report PB-209192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp.
(Fe70-13)
7. The Weathering and Performance of Building Materials. J. W. Simpson and
P. J. Horrobin, eds. Medical and Technical Publishing Co. Ltd., 1970,
277 pp. (Fe70-17)
8. Use of Environmental Data in Atmospheric Corrosion Studies.
J. F. Stanners. Brit. Corros. J., v. 5, No. 3, 1970, pp. 117-121.
(Fe70-18)
1969
1. Calculation of Moistening and Metallic Corrosion in Atmospheric
Environment. A. I. Golubev and M. K. Kadyrov. Proc. 34d Intern.
Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeitlinger,
Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4, 1969, pp. 522-531. (Fe69-24)
2. Corrosion in the Atmosphere. P. Atterby. NTIS Report N71-26259, November
1969, 9 pp. (Swedish). (Fe69-25)
3. Corrosion of Metals in the Tropics. B. Sanyal, G. K. Singhania and
J. N. Nanda. Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. on Metallic Ccirrosion, Moscow
(1966), Swets-Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4, 1969, pp. 542-543.
(Fe69-26)
4. Studies on Corrosion of Metals Provoked by Gaseous Pollutants. B. Sanyal,
G. K. Singhania and D. V. Bhadwar. Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. on Metallic
Corrosion, Moscow (1966), Swets-Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, Holland, v. 4,
1969, pp. 454-464. (Fe69-36)
1968
1. Atmospheric Exposure of Light Metals. S. Brandt and L. H. Adam. Metal
Corrosion in the Atmosphere, astm STP 435, American Society for Testing
and Materials, 1968, pp. 95-128. (A168-2)
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OM-25
2. Composition and Structure of Natural Patinas. III. Tin, Lead, and Their
Alloys. 1873 to 1964. S. Z. Lewin and S. M. Alexander. Art Archaeol.
Tech. Abst., v. 7, No. 2, 1968, pp. 173-190.*
A collection of abstracts of work from 1873 to 1964 is reported.
The corrosion chemistry of Sn appears to be relatively simple, for the
only Sn compounds that have been identified on the metal or its alloys,
even after prolonged exposure under the widest diversity of conditions,
are SnO, Sn02d SnS. The tin compounds are under all ordinary conditions
among the most insoluble substances in the realm of metal oxides, and this
accounts for their great stability and persistence. They form an adherent
and coherent coating on the surface that protects the underlying metal
from progressive attack and resists the action of other reagents. Pb, on
the other hand, appears to be capable of yielding as rich a variety of
corrosion products as Zn. Corrosion products that have been identified on
Pb include the carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, sulfide, chloride,
hydroxice, mono and dioxide, nitrate, and superoxide. Futher studies of
the corrosion chemistry of Pb (using x-ray diffraction instead of simple
chemical analysis, for example) as well as the composition of naturally
occuring patinas on Pb artifacts, are necessary before such information
can begin to provide any useful archaeological historical information.
3. Corrosion of Metals by Aqueous Solutions of the Atmospheric Pollutant
Sulfurous Acid. W. McLeod and R. R. Rogers. Electrochemical
Technology, v. 6, No. 7-8, July-August 1968, pp. 231-235. (Fe68-3)
4. High Pressure Electrical Contacts. J. King. Proc. 1968 Electrical
Components Conference, May 8-10, 1968, pp. 454-458. (Fe68-9)
5. Investigations of the Corrosion-Causing Properties of Volatile Acids and
Anhydrous Acids. E. Iaengle. Eidgenoessische Technischen Hochschule,
Zurich, Switzerland. Ph.D. Thesis, 1968, 43 pp. (German). (Fe68-ll)
6. Patina On Old Metal Objects. J. Lehmann. Monographs of the National
Museum in Pozan. v. 2, 1968, pp. 1-125 (Polish). (Fe68-15)
7. Resistance of Titanium-Base Alloys to Atmospheric Corrosion.
M. L. Grenlee and L. F. Plock. Metal Corrosion in the Atmosphere, ASTM
STP 435, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1968, pp. 33-38.
Eight titanium alloys were included in the 1957 ASTM Committee G-l
(formerly B-3) program to determine the atmospheric corrosion behavior of
nonferrous metals and alloys. Representative alloys of the alpha,
alpha-beta, and beta type were evaluated. Based upon results of weight
change measurements and tension tests, two- and seven-year exposures at
four prominent ASTM test sites resulted in no significant corrosion.
Slight staining was observed, but there was no appreciable weight change.
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OM-26
Tarnishing and Contamination of Metals. W. E. Campbell and U. B. Thomas.
Proc. Engineering Seminar on Electrical Contact Phenomena, Illinois
Inst. Technology, Chicago, 111., November 11-15, 1968, pp. 233-265.
(Cu68-10)
1967
1. Bridging with Steel. J. A. Cran and I. M. Park. Engineering J., February
1967, pp. 18-25. (Fe67-3)
2. Corrosion Products Forming on Cadmium in Natural and Artificial Corrosion
Environments. T. Biestek and J. Niemiec. Pr. Inst. Mech. Precyz.,
v. 15, No. 1, 1967, pp. 42-46.**
Corrosion products on steel specimens coated with electrodeposited
cadmium in the bath containing Cd 26, NaOH 55, NaCN 90, and NiS0H 1.5 g/1,
at room temperature and current density of 1.5 amp/dm2 were studied. The
investigations were conducted in an industrial atmosphere containing on
the average I.0 mg SO2 and 1200 dust particles/cc. of air and in the
coastal and rural atmosphere. Moreover, the tests were carried out in a
60-liter chamber, into which 2-liter S02 and C02 were introduced every
day. The chamber temperature was 37 + 0.5° and the relative humidity
>95 percent. The specimens were exposed to the natural environments for 9
years. The specimens tested in the artificial environment were kept in
the chamber for 5 hours and then were dried for 10 hours in the room
environment. The corrosion products were examined by X-ray diffraction
using Cu Ka radiation. The components of the products varied with
corrosion medium: in the industrial environment, these were CdS0lt*.H20J
CdS, and CdCl^H^O; in coastal, CdC03, 2CdC03 • 3Cd(OH),, and CdCl,; in
rural, CdC03; and in the artificial environment, Cd(0HJ2, CdCC>3, CdS,
and CdSO^'I^O.
1966
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. N. D< Tomashov. Chapt. 14 in Theory of
Corrosion and Protection of Metals, MacMillan, 1966, pp. 367-396.
(Fe66-2)
Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel, Zinc, Cadmium, Copper, and Aluminuum In
Different Coastal and Continental Regions. G. K. Berukshtis and
G. B. Klark. Corrosion of Metals and Alloys, Collection No. 2, Israel
Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1966, pp. 281-297.
(Fe66-4)
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Zinc- and Cadmium-Coated Steel and the
Coefficients for Recalculating the Results of Accelerated Corrosion
Tests Into Data for Service Conditions. P. V. Strekalov and G. K.
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OM-27
Berukshtis. Corrosion of Metals and Alloys, Collection No. 2, Israel
Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1966, pp. 221-233.
(Zn66-3)
4. Corrosion Behavior of Some Metallic Materials In Liquid Sulfur Dioxide.
L. Rivola, T. Bazzan, M. Piro and G. Bombara. Proc. 2nd Intern. Congr.
Metal. Corrosion, New York (1963), National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Houston, TX, 1966, pp. 418-423. (Fe66-6)
5. Current Ideas in the Philosophy of Testing Electrical Contacts.
H. B. Ulsh. IEEE International Convention Record, v. 14, No. 9, 1966,
pp. 35-38. (Cu66-7)
6. Tarnish Films on Electric Contact Materials. R. V. Chiarenze11i. Proc.
Third Intern. Research Symposium on Telectrical Contact Phenomena, June
6-10, 1966, pp. 85-93. (Cu66-8)
7. The Action of Environment on Museum Objects. Part I. Humidity,
Temperature, Atmosphere Pollution. N. Stolow. Curator, v. 9, 1966,
pp. 175-185.
The author surveys the effects of uncontrolled humidity, temperature
and pollution levels on various materials in museums, and discusses a
"safe" atmosphere for art objects. Psychrometers, which may be handily
used to measure relative humidity throughout a museum, are available at
various prices and should be used to help establish humidity control.
8. The Effects of Air Pollution on Electrical Contact Materials.
R. V. Chiarenzelli and F. L. Joba. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
v. 18, No. 3, 1966, pp. 123-127. (Cu66-9)
1965
1. Atmospheric Corrosion. G. T. Bakhvalov and A. V. Turkovskaya. Chapt. in
Corrosion and Protection of Metals, translated and edited by G.
Isserlis, Pergamon, New York, N.Y., 1965, p. 55.
A description of the atmospheric corrosion of metals is given.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels Related to Meteorological Factors in Japan
III. Results of Weathering Tests Conducted on Metallic Coatings for 3
Years. K. Oma, T. Sugano, T. Ueki and Y. Hirai. Boshoku Gijutsu, v.
14, No. 3', 1965, pp. 103-108 (Japanese). (A165-1)
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OM-28
3. Significance of Corrosion Testing Process with Special Consideration of
the SC>2 Test According to DIN 50018. W. Kesternich. Werkst.
Korrosion, v. 16, 1965, pp. 193-201 (German). (Fe65-15)
4. The Significance of Sulfur Dioxide in the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
G. Schikorr. Korrosion, No. 17, 1965, pp. 27-34. (Fe65-20)
1964
1. An Electrical Resistance Method for Measuring Rates of Corrosion of
Electrodeposited Metals in Laboratory Tests. F. Enrico, V. Riccio and
B. Martini. Product Finishing, v. 17, No. 5, May 1964, pp. 74-79.
(Cu64-1)
2. Atmospheric Effects on Friction and Wear. W. E. Campbell. Machine
Design, August 27, 1964, pp. 186-192. (Cu64-3)
3. Electrochemical Characteristics of Atmospheric Corrosion. H. Kaesche.
Werkst. Korros., v. 15, No. 5, 1964, pp. 379-390.
Formation of corrosive electrolytes under the influence of water
adsorption and other atmospheric impurities on metallic surfaces are
discussed. Kinetics of electrolytic corrosion is assessed on the basis of
corrosion with evolution of hydrogen, corrosion with reduction of
dissolved oxygen, and corrosion with reduction of dissolved sulfur
dioxide. In connection with nonuniform corrosion, conditions for the
appearance of various types of differential aeration ceils are discussed
on the basis of nonuniform corrosion with emphasis on oxide-coated metals,
4. New Method of Determining the Aggressiveness of Different Atmospheres
Toward Metals. A. Hache. Rev. de Metallurgie, v. 61, No. 4, April
1964, pp. 395-397 (French).
Chlorides settling on specially shaped specimen are caught in a glass
flask. The purpose is to determine whether a simple relation exists
between the severity of corrosion by marine atmospheres and the quantity
of salt collected on a specimen. If so, the method will be helpful in
avoiding especially aggressive microclimates.
5. The Effect of Climate on Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. J. C. Hudson,
Werkst. Korros., v. 15, No. 5, 1964, pp. 363-370.
The effect of climate on atmospheric corrosion of metals is discussed
and the importance of relative humidity stressed. Other factors are
gaseous and solid contaminants in the atmosphere, temperature, mass and
shape of the metal, orientation of the metal with respect to soil and sky,
and air velocity.
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OM-29
6. The Influence of Corrosion Products on the Long-Term Progress of
Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton and D. Knotkova-Cermakova. Werkst.
Korros., v. 15, No. 5, 1964, pp. 374-378.
The long-term progress of atmospheric corrosion of metals is a
function of the mechanism of formation of the corrosion products and their
properties. The bonding type of the corrosion stimulator (for example,
SO2) in the corrosion products and theiT capacity to absorb K2O are
significant. Long-term corrosion is brought about in 4 steps: formation
of an electrolytic layer, destruction of the primary oxide layer,
formation of solid corrosion products, and corrosion in the presence of a
layer of solid corrosion products. In assessing long-term corrosion,
corrosion protection of metals by alloying and by coatings is discussed.
7. The Influence of Sulphur Dioxide on the Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals.
G. Schikorr. Werkst. Korros., v. 15, No. 5, 1964, pp. 457-463.
(Fe64-4)
1963
1. Atmospheric Corrosion. R. K. Swandby. Corrosion Resistance of Metals and
Alloys, edited by F. L. Laque and H. R. Copson, Reinhold Publishing,
New York, 2nd ed., 1963, pp. 45-47. (Fe63-1)
2. Rapid Method For Determining Corrosivity of Atmosphere at Any Location. D.
P. Doyle and H. P. Godard. Nature, v. 200, No. 4912, 1963,
pp. 1167-1168
In using the wire-on-bolt test to measure galvanic corrosion of
metals it is indicated how to provide numerical assessment of corrosivity
of the atmosphere in periods as short as 3 months, as compared with
several years required in conventional atmospheric exposure tests.
1962
1. Atmospheric Corrosion by Electrolyte Nuclei. B. Sanyal and D. V. Bhadwar.
J. Sci. Industr. Res., v. 21D, 1962, p. 243. (Fe62-2)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. Some Questions of Theory.
I. L. Rosenfeld. Proc. 1st Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, London
(1961), Butterworth, London, 1962, pp. 243-248. (Fe62-3)
3. Comparative Outdoor Exposure Tests of Electrodeposited Zinc and Cadmium
Coatings on Steel in a Natural Industrial Atmosphere. T. Biestek.
Proc. 1st Intern. Congr. Metallic Corrosion, London (1961),
Butterworth, London, 1962, pp. 269-274. (Zn62-4)
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OM-30
4. Effects of Air Pollution on the Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Some
Metals and Alloys. E. A. Tice. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., v. 12,
1962, pp. 553-559. (Fe62-6)
5. Electrical Contact Materials: Properties and Selection. E. Freudiger.
Electro-Technology, v. 69, 1962, pp. 72-78. (Cu62-4)
6. Improving Contact Reliability in Low-Level Circuits. J. J. McManus.
Electro-Technology, v. 69, 1962, pp. 98-101. (Cu62-5)
1961
1. Atmospheric Corrosion. U. R. Evans. Chapt. 8 in The Corrosion and
Oxidation of Metals, Edward Arnold Ltd., 1961, pp. 481-535. (Fe61-2)
2. Corrosion In Buildings. P. J. Sereda. Canadian Building Digest, Report
No. CBD-20, August 1961, 4 pp. (Fe61-5)
3. Effects of Atmospheric Contamination on Switching Noise. J. Bloomberg and
W. E. Campbell. Proc. Engineering Seminar on Electrical Contacts,
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, June 11-15, 1961,
pp. 95-107. (Cu61-3)
4. Effect of Nitrogen Tetroxide on Metals and Plastics. C. W. Alley,
A. W. Hayford and H. F. Scott, Jr. Corrosion, v. 17, No. 10, October
1961, pp. 479t-484t. (Fe61-6)
5. The Resistance of Aluminum Alloys to Corrosion. E. H. Dix,-Jr.,
R. H. Brown and W. W. Binger. Metals Handbook, v. 1, 8th edition,
Amercan Society for Metals, 1961, pp. 916-935. (A161-3)
1960
1. Chemical Resistance to Ammonia of Construction Materials. A. E. Missan.
Trudy Gosudarst. Inst. Priklad. Khim., v. 44, 1960, pp. 112-127
(Russian). (Fe60-3)
2. Evaporated Metal Films As Indicators of Atmospheric Pollution.
J. P. Lodge, Jr. and B. R. Havlik. Int. J. Air Pollution, v. 3, No. 4,
1960, pp. 249-252. (Fe60-4)
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OM-31
3. Investigation of Surface Contamination of Fine Silver Contacts.
E. Freudiger. Proc. Engineering Seminar on Electrical Contacts,
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, June 5-10, I960,
pp. 45-51.
Surface contamination influences in a complex manner the performance
of electrical contacts. Despite the fundamental work by Holm, Bell Labo-
ratories, Chaikin, and many others, it is often difficult to correlate
increased contact resistance or variation in welding or erosion
characteristics with the presence of certain contaminants. Malfunction of
the contacts can occur although no foreign substance can be detected
(which does not mean that it is not present), and sometimes when the
presence of contamination is well established the contacts continue to
work satisfactorily.
This points out the necessity of (a) determining the source of the
contaminating matter and the manner of deposition or formation of the
foreign material on the contact surface, and (b) measuring the influence
of the contaminants on contact resistance, welding tendency, or contact
eros ion.
4. Measurement of Surface Moisture and Sulfur Dioxide Activity at Corrosion
Sites. P. J. Sereda. ASTM Bull. No. 246, 1960, pp. 47-48.*
A dew detector amplifier is used to detect surface moisture on
corrosion specimens. The amplifier actuates a temperature recorder.
Temperature, time-of-wetness, and sulfur dioxide concentration correlate
with corrosion rates. Sulfur dioxide is determined by the lead peroxide
method.
1959
1. Deterioration of Materials in Polluted Atmospheres. J. E. Yocum.
Corrosion, v. 15, No 10, October 1959, pp. 541t-545t. (Fe59-5)
2. Electrochemical Study of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. N. D. Tomashov
and A. A. Lokotilov. Korroziya i Zashchita Stalei, 1959, pp. 158-170
(Russ ian).*
The procedure for electrochemical investigation of atmospheric
corrosion is presented and results are discussed. The appraisal is
described. The method proved that all processes of corrosion in the
atmosphere are electrochemical in nature. By applying this method it is
possible to appraise the corrosive atmospheric conditions and to define
the effects of different factors (water, sulfur dioxide, and volatile
retarders of corrosion) on the rate of atmospheric corrosion.
3. Measurement of Surface Moisture. P. J. Sereda. ASTM Bulletin, No. 238,
1959, pp. 61-63. (Zn59-3)
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OM-32
4. Mechanism by Which Nonferrous Metals Corrode in the Atmosphere.
P. M. Aziz and H. P. Godard. Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, 1959,
pp. 529t-533t. (A159-3)
1958
1. Measures for the Prevention of Corrosion by Preparation of the Atmosphere.
A. Kutzelnigg. Korrosion X, Ber. Korrosionstag. Koln (1957), 1958,
pp. 7-13 (German).
Atmospheric corrosion is attributed to oxygen, water, electrolytes,
dust, formation of elements, and formation of protective coatings.
Experimental data are presented for the various impurities as determined
at various locations. It is recommended that the relative humidity be
kept below certain limits and that the condensation of moisture be
prevented. Purification of the atmosphere is suggested by absorption,
catalytic oxidation, and filtration. The passivation of metals by contact
with inhibitor-coated papers is recommended.
1957
1. The Effects of Air Pollution on Buildings and Metalwork. R. J. Schaffer.
Air Pollution, edited by M. W. Thring, Butterworth Scientific, London,
1957, pp. 58-71. (Fe57-5)
1956
1. Atmospheric Exposure (Tests) of Electroplated Lead Coatings on Steel.
A. H. Durose. Symposium on Electroplated Metallic Coatings, ASTM
STP 197, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1956, pp. 97-104.
(discussion pp. 105-106).
Outdoor corrosion tests to determine the protection given by Pb
coatings deposited from fluoborate and sulphamate solutions are
summarized.
2. Atmospheric Galvanic Corrosion of Magnesium Coupled to Other Metals.
H. 0. Teeple. Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals, ASTM STP
175, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1956, pp. 89-111.
Magnesium is studied in the forms of two alloys: AZ31X and Mi.
These magnesium alloys were coupled respectively with a number of metals
and alloys. The data presented in this paper are the results of the
evaluation of the first of three sets of specimens exposed at four
different locations. Those represent either/or a combination of marine,
industrial or rural atmospheres.
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OM-33
3. Galvanic-coupLe Corrosion Studies by Means of the Threaded Bolt and Wire
Test. K. G. Corapton and A. Mendizza. Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-
ferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1956, pp. 116-125. (Fe56-7)
4. Report of Subcommittee on Atmospheric Corrosion. H. R. Copson.
Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1956, pp. 3-19. (A156-4)
5. The Use of Lead and Tin Outdoors. G. 0. Hiers and E. J. Minarcik.
Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals, ASTM STP 175, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1956, pp. 135-140.
This paper is a partial summary of the 20-year atmospheric tests
conducted by Subcommittee VI (Atmospheric Corrosion) of ASTM Committee
B-3 on Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys. The metals with which
this section is concerned are: chemical lead, L-percent antimonial lead
and commercial tin. The data show that chemical lead and antimonial lead
are reraarkbly durable in all of the test site exposures.
1955
1. Atmospheric Galvanic Couple Corrosion. K. G. Compton, A. Mendizza, and
W. W. Bradley. Corrosion, v. 11, No. 9, 1955, pp. 35-44. (Fe55-1)
'2. Corrosion Aspects of Air Pollution. L. Greenburg and M. B. Jacobs. Amer.
Paint J., v. 39, No. 43, 1955, pp. 64-78. (Fe55-2)
3. Metal Coatings on Steel in Contact With Aluminum Alloys. Some Comparative
Corrosion Tests. S. C. Britton and R. W. de Vere Stacpoole.
Metallurgia, v. 52, 1955, pp. 64-70. (Fe55-4)
4. The Destructive Effects of Air Pollution on Materials. A. Parker. 6th
Des Voeux Mem. Lecture, Proc. 22nd Annual Conf., Nat. Smoke Abatement
Soc., Bournemouth, England, September 28, 1955, pp. 120-132. (Fe55-6)
1954
1. Deterioration of Materials - Causes and Preventive Techniques.
G. A. Greathouse and C. J. Wessel. Reinhold Publishing, New York, N.Y.,
1954, 835 pp.
Part I discusses the factors causing deterioration: climate,
chemical and physical agents, biological agents. Part II is about
"Materials and Their Preservation": metals, wood and wood products,
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OM-34
paper, textiLes and cordage, leather, plastics and rubber, paints,
varnishes, enamels and lacquers. Part III is about "Some Assembled Units
and Their Preservation": electrical and electronic equipment, optical
instruments and photographic equipment. Part IV presents "Some Special
Aspect of Preservation": dehumidification, packaging, toxicological
evaluation of preservatives.
1953
1. The Behavior of Metallic Contacts at Low Voltages in Adverse Environments.
A. Fairweather. Proc. I.E.E.E., v. 100, pt. 1, 1953, pp. 174-182.
(Cu53-2)
1952
1. Corrosion of Different Metals in Liquefied Sulfur Dioxide. J. Bollinger.
Schweiz. Arch, angew. Wiss. u. Tech., v. 18, 1952, pp. 321-342 (German)
(Fe52-2).
2. Corrosion of Metals. U. R. Evans. Soc. Chem. Industry (Chem & Industry),
No. 41, October 11, 1952, pp. 986-993. (Fe52-3)
1951
1. Corrosion of Copper, Aluminum, and Magnesium and Their Alloys. M. Orman
and E. Zalesinski. Hutnik, v. 18, 1951, pp. 96-101 (Polish). (A151-1)
1950
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metallic Materials in Closed Spaces.
G. Schikorr. Feinmech. u. Prazis, v. 54, 1950, pp. 3-8. (A150-1)
1948
1. The Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals. G. Schikorr. Arch. Metallkunde,
v. 2, 1948, pp. 223-230 (German). (Fe48-7)
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OM-35
1936
1. Corrosion Resistance of Metals and Alloys. R. J. McKay and
R. Worthington. Amer. Chem. Soc. Monograph No. 71, Reinhold Publishing,
New York, N. Y., 1936, 492 pp. (Fe36-2)
1929
1. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals—3rd Report to the Atmospheric Corrosion
Research Committee. J. C. Hudson. Trans. Faraday Soc., v. 25, 1929,
pp. 177-252. {A129-1)
2. The Relative Corrodibi1ities of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys.
Part II—The Results of Seven Years' Exposure to Air at Birmingham. J.
N. Friend. J. Inst. Metals, v. 42, 1929, pp. 149-155. (Fe29-2)
1927
1. Second Experimental Report to the Atmospheric Corrosion Research
Committee. (British Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association).
W. H. J. Vernon. Trans. Faraday Soc., v. 23, 1927, pp. 113-179.
This report is concerned with the behavior of typical metals and
alloys on exposure to the atmosphere. It is divided into two parts,
dealing respectively with "indoor" and "open-air" exposure tests, the
former including associated laboratory experiments. It has shown that
conclusions which hold good for a given set of conditions do not
necessarily apply when those conditions are changed. This is exemplified
by the influence of "impurities" in copper. Indoors, under conditions
such that only tarnishing has to be considered, a given element exercises
an effect which is either neglible, or in simple proportion to the amount
of element present. Exposed to the open air however, the same element may
exert an effect out of all proportion to its concentration. It would
appear that protection against indoor tarnishing should be sought by
methods other than modification of composition alone. Promising results
have been obtained in connection with the formation of protective surface
films.
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MASONRY, STONE, AND CERAMICS
MS C-l
1982
1. Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. H. C. Martin.
Materials Performance, v. 21, January 1982, pp. 36-39. (Fe82-3)
2. Analytical Methods Related to Building and Monument Preservation.
I. Adler, S.E. Sommer, R. Gershon, and J.I. Trorabka. chapt. in
Conservation of Historic Stone Buildings and Monuments, National
Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1982, pp. 163-182.
The most visible products of the weathering of stone materials are a
consequence of the physical breakdown, i.e. the fragmentation and
disintegration of mineral components. Somewhat less obvious are the
dissolution of these minerals and subsequent formation of new compounds,
frequently in the interstices as a result of the action of chemical and
biological agents.
An early phenomenon that lends itself to study is the disruption of
chemical bonds during physical and chemical disintegration and the
formation of highly reactive surfaces. These reactions may include
oxidation-reduction, disordering of the mineral structure and ion exchange
processes with the eventual formation of microlayers of poorly crystalline
materials and microsystems of cracks and fractures with precipitated
coatings, cements and possible phase transformations as complicating
factors.
The examination of these veneers present problems that are well
matched by the techniques utilized in bulk characterization such as atomic
absorption, X-ray fluorescence and optical emission spectroscopy. With
regard to surfaces and near surfaces (defined as 10 A to a few micrometers
in depth) one may consider a variety of techniques some of which can be
utilized in-situ offering the advantage of rapid and non-destructive
analysis. The use of neutron, gamma and reflection spectrophotometry will
be described as an example. Some of the other techniques which are
applied in the laboratory, which also require minimal sampling, are
electron spectroscopy, electron microprobe analysis, electron microscopy,
and X-ray diffraction analysis. This paper examines the use of a number
of these techniques pointing out where a given method or combination of
methods is most applicable and the way in which the results may be related
to the weathering processes that are occurring.
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of the Concrete Reinforcements and of Limestones and
Marbles. T. Skoulikidis. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H.
Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., pp. 807-826.
By weight loss measurements of the reinforcements of concrete from
demolished buildings and dismantled ancient monuments, the Wagner's
parabolic law for the corrosion progress is valid till 75 years. Using
our kinetic data for the sulfation of CaC03 powder and marble thin
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MSC-2
sections, a linear rate law is valid for progress of the reaction for
gypsum films up to 300 A in thickness. A parabolic law applies for
greater thickness. The solid state diffusion of Ca^+ was located as the
rate-determining step.
4. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing In the Federal Republic of Germany. G.
Oelsner. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York,
N.Y., 1982, pp. 797-806. (Fe82-18)
5. Characterization of Bricks and Their Resistance to Deterioration
Mechanisms. G, C. Robinson. Chapter in Conservation of Historic Stone
Buildings and Monuments, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.,
1982, pp. 145-162.
Brick and mortar are building materials of excellent durability.
Nevertheless, they are subject to deterioration processes that can reduce
their effectiveness. The rate of deterioration is a function of
composition, pore structure, manufacturing procedure, structural design
and cleaning procedure. An appreciation of this relationship can assist
in selecting restoration procedures for predicting future life of masonry
walls.
Deterioration of masonry results from several mechanisms including
freezing and thawing, salt crystallization, chemical attack by water and
other substances, moisture expansion, other internal expansive reactions,
and mismatch in dimensional characteristics of wall components.
The susceptibility of brick to each mechanism is determined by pore
structure and composition. The glassy and amorphous phases are key items
of composition. Illustrations are presented of the significance of glass
phase composition.
The manufacturing procedure, structural design and cleaning procedure
can exert additional influence on deterioration mechanisms and rates. The
danger of waterproof coatings is presented.
6. Environment, Microenvironment, and the Durability of Building Materials.
P. J. Sereda and H. E. Ashton. J. Durability of Building Materials,
v.l, No. 1, 1982, pp. 49-66. (Fe82-37)
7. Measurement of Local Climatological and Air Pollution Factors Affecting
Stone Decay. I. Tombach, Chapter in Conservation of Historic Stone
Buildings and Monuments, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.,
1982, pp. 197-210.
The atmosphere is one of the prime contributors to the decay of
stone in historical buildings. The atmospheric factors causing such
decay range from the natural consequences of rainfall, wind, frost, and
heat to the more complicated chemical and biological processes resulting
from pollution of the atmosphere. A list of such factors, can be broken
down into groups depending on:
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(1) The available mositure (rain, fog, humidity),
(2) The temperature of the air,
(3) The cooling and heating of surfaces (by wind and radiation) and the
evaporation and condensation of moisture on them,
(4) The motion of the air (wind),
(5) The presence of air constituents and contaminants (gaseous and
aerosol).
The behavior of these factors depends on the time of day and season
of the year, as well as on large-scale meterological phenomena and human
act ivit ies.
Techniques for measuring parameters within each group have been well-
developed in the fields of meteorology, aerodynamics, and air pollution.
These methods can be applied to assist in research on stone perservation
and can also provide data for developing strategies to protect specific
structures.
8. Photographing Architectural Decay. S. Z. Lewin and M. E. Dunn. Technical
Photography, August 1982, pp. 18-20.
Photographing the condition of building facade on sculptured surface
is an essential tool in preserving and restoring historic structures.
Acid rain, freeze-thaw cycling, salt crystallization, microbiological
activity, and water-leaching are among the factors that damage stone and
masonary. It is possible through long distance macrophotograph to
quickly, easily, and inexpensively undertake investigations and solve
problems of stone and masonary damage that would otherwise not be
practicable.
9. The Arch of Peace in Milan. 1. Researches on Stone Deterioration. G.
Alessandrini, G. Sala, G. Biscontin, and L. Lazzarini. Studies in
Conversation, v. 27, 1982, pp. 8-18.
Chemical, mineralogical, petrographical, physical and structural
analyses were performed on marble samples from the Arch to study chemical
weathering, variations in physical properties, role of microorganisms, and
thermohygrometric parameters, including air pollution at the monument.
The environmental data show that the monument is particularly exposed
to winds, remarkable thermal fluctuations, and frequent frost periods
(mostly 1855-1955). Unlike the historic center of Milan, the SO2 levels
at the Arch are low thanks to the lack of surrounding buildings and to the
continous ventilation. In fact, sulfates were rarely found in the
degraded surface. In addition, the marked schistosity and remarkable
impurity of the marbles favor preferential attacks with different
alterations along the same schistosity planes. The deterioration of the
marbles is related mainly to the seasonal thermal fluctuations.
10. The Mechanism of Masonry Decay through Crystallization. S. Z. Lewin.
Chapter in Conservation of Historic Stone Buildings and Monuments,
National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C., 1982, pp. 120-144.
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One of the most ubiquitous and extensive sources of the deterioration
of stone, brick, mortar, plaster and concrete is the channels and cracks
at and near exposed surfaces. Liquid water containing dissolved matter
deposits its burden of solute wherever evaporation can occur. The site of
this crystallization is determined by the dynamic balance between the rate
of escape of water from the surface and the rate of resupply of solution
to that site. The former is a function of temperature, air humidity, and
local air currents. The latter is controlled by surface tension, pore
radii, viscosity, and the path length from the source of the solution to
the site of the evaporation.
The detailed nature of this balance determines the form that the
decay will take. If the rate of resupply of solution to the surface is
sufficient to keep pace with the rate of evaporation, the solute deposits
on the external surface and is characterized as an efflorescence. If the
rate of migration of solution through the pores of the masonry does not
bring fresh liquid to the surface as rapidly as the vapor departs, a dry
zone develops just beneath the surface. Solute is then deposited within
the stone, at the boundary between the wet and dry regions. The
consequence of this type of crystallization is the generation of a spall,
flake, or blister.
The site of crystal deposition can be predicted by application of the
physical chemical laws governing capillarity, viscous flow, and diffusion.
These considerations disclose the quantitative relationship between the
porosity of the masonry and the dimensions of the flakes, blisters, or
spalls that develop, as well as the manner in which the decay progresses.
Data stemming from controlled experiments in .which salt decay is
induced in laboratory specimens, together with measurements on examples of
salt decay found in buildings and monuments in a variety of environments,
confirm the validity of these insights.
Wet and Dry Surface Depositon of Air Pollutants and Their Modeling.
B. B. Hicks. Chapter in Conservation of Historic Stone Buildings and
Monuments, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1982, pp.
183-196.
The net rate of delivery of trace gases to receptor surfaces is
largely determined by the chemical affinity of surface materials for the
gas in question; if molecules of the gas are captured efficiently or react
quickly upon contact with the surface, then high surface flux densities
can be expected. Large particles are deposited by gravitational settling
and by inertial impaction; the efficiency of their capture depends on
their shape and the structure of the surface at the point of impact.
Small, sub-micron particles have difficulty penetrating the quasi-laminar
air layer adjacent to smooth surfaces, but once they contact the surface
they are efficiently retained by van der Waals forces. All particles are
susceptible to electrostatic forces that will encourage deposition if
either the particles or the receptor surfaces carry an electrical charge.
The presence of temperature and humidity gradients near the surface can
also promote or hinder the deposition of particles. Most of these matters
have been investigated in studies of deposition to relatively uniform
surfaces of pipes or plates in wind tunnels. Extrapolation to the real
world case of complicated surface shapes is sufficiently uncertain that
quantitative statements cannot be made. The role of rainfall and other
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kinds of atmospheric precipitation is equally complicated. Current
ecological concern about the acidity of rain has fo'cused attention on
adverse effects associated with precipated chemistry, but it must be
recoginzed that rainfall provides a natural cleansing mechanism in many
instances. In highly polluted areas, it is possible that the major effect
of rainfall will be to remove some previously deposited pollutants from
exposed surfaces and promote the subsequent deposition of soluble gases
and small particles to those areas (such as crevices) which remain moist.
1981
1. Acid Rain and Material Damage in Stone. N. S. Baer and S. M. Berman.
Final Report to EPA-NADP Acid Precipitation Program, North Carolina
State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, June 1, 1981, 55 pp.
The use of marble headstones in National Cemeteries as a statistical
universe for materials damage effects on stone is reviewed. A plan of
work including sampling methods, physical measurements, record
verification, and statistical analysis is described. Results are
presented for ten National Cemeteries: four in New York State (Bath,
Cypress Hills, Long Island, Woodlawn), and five in other areas (Arlington,
Virginia; Fort Logan, Colorado; Golden Gate and San Francisco, California;
Santa Fe, New Mexico; Soldier's Home, Washington, D.C.). Illustrations of
hypothesis testing and regression analysis are given.
2. Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. H. C. Martin.
Paper No. 114, Corrosion/81 (Toronto, Canada), National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX., April 6-10, 1981, 7 pp. (Fe81-1)
3. Airborne Carbon Particles and Marble Deterioration. M. del Monte,
C. Sabbioni, and 0. Vittori. Atmospheric Environment, v. 15, No. 5,
1981, pp. 645-652.
Oil-fired carbonaceous particles are consistently found inside gypsum
calcite layers covering some marbles located in northern Italy urban
areas. A series of analyses performed on the particles and on thin
sections of sulfated layers show that these particles are probably the
most important, if not the determinant, agents of the observed
deterioration. Some observations seem also to indicate the way they act.
The present results, combined with the origin of these particles, as
indicated by their nature, support the hypothesis that the reported marble
deteriorations affecting our artistic heritage actually started after the
last war.
4. An Air Pollution Survey Inside the Basilica of Torcello in Relation to the
Deterioration of Mosaics. V. Fassina, A. Bonarrigo, and A. Ongaro.
The Conservations of Stone.II. Contributions to the International Symp.
(October 27-30, 1981), edited by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1981, pp. 401-415.
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The state of conservation of the mosaics of the Basilica of S.Maria
Assunta of Torcello is not very good. A stethoscopic survey pointed out
that a widespread detachment of the mosaic is more frequently present in
the lower parts. This is probably due to the migration of soluble salts
rising in the walls, which during the evaporation phase crystallize under
the surface. A thermovision survey showed the presence of cold zones in
the lower parts (probably due to rising damp) where greater detachment of
the mosaics was observed. On these colder zones gaseous and particulate
pollutants can be removed from the atmosphere by the condensation of water
vapour and as they remain in contact with the surface during the whole
condensation phase may react with the lime mortar binding the tesserae.
Late winter periods are the most dangerous because the condensation
processes are more frequent and are associated with the higher sulfur
dioxide and sulfuric acid concentrations.
5. Dissolution of Carbonatic Grain Cement of Sandstones by Sulfuric Acid
Attack. R. Snethlage. Conservation of Stone. II. Contributions to the
International Symp. (October 27-30, 1981), edited by R. Rossi -
Manaresi, 1981, p. 25.
The experiments were carried out with Bauraberger Sandstein,
Regensburger Grunsandstein and were compared with pure Dolomite using 0.1,
0.01 and 0.001 m sulfuric acid for dissolution. The experimental
conditions were 1) excess of acid, 2) excess of powdered rock, 3)
percolation of sulfuric acid through small disks of Regensburger
Grunsandstein. The reaction between the carbonates and the sulfuric acid
is very fast. The curves show a nearly parabolic slope. The end of the
reaction is determined either by the complete dissolution of the
carbonatic cement or by the consumption of the acid. Dolomite is
dissolved congruently. In a wide range, the velocity constants of the
reactions are equal for calcite and dolomite.
6. Poland - The Most Polluted Country in the World. L. Timberlake. New
Scientist, v. 92, No. 1276, October 22, 1981, pp. 248-250. (Fe81-ll)
7. Pollutant Effects on Stone Monuments. K. L. Gauri and G. C. Holden.
Environmental Science and Technology, v. 15, No. 4, 1981, pp. 386-390,
An oil refinery is being built nearly 30 km upwind from the Taj Mahal
in Agra, India. This refinery is expected to emit 25-30 tons of sulfur
dioxide daily, which is likely to travel towards the Taj Mahal from
October to March due to the prevailing northwesterly winds. Such SO2
emissions are expected to corrode the marble at the Taj Mahal in the same
fashion that air pollution has contributed to the corrosion of marble at
the nearly 70 year-old Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago.
8. Quantitative Study of the effect of Air Pollution on the Corrosion of
Stone. S. Luckat. Staub,-Reinhalt. Luft, v. 41, No. 11, 1981, pp.
440-442 (German).
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The annual means of immission rate for Cl~ and SC>2 in various
locations, in Germany, are less than 26.5 and 6.6-126.0 mg/m2 day,
respectively. The corrosion effect of air pollution by S02 is evidenced
by the mear correlation between the immission rate and the corresponding
SC>2 contents on the exposed stone surface in the same measuring
stations. The effect of Cl~ on stone corrosion is less pronounced.
9. The Air Pollution Contribution to Stone Deterioration: Investigating the
Weathering of the Bowling Green Custom House, New York City. R. A.
Livingston. Technology and Conservation, v. 6, No. 2 (Summer), 1981,
pp. 36-39.
As part of an extensive program to evaluate the influence of
atmospheric contaminants on stone deterioration, an air pollution
monitoring project was undertaken at the Old Custom House. The building
was instrumented to detect gaseous pollutants and solid particulates.
Also included in the study was an evaluation of a specialized air
pollution monitor from Germany.
10. The Weathering of the Limestone of Trani Cathedral. U. Zezza. Conservat-
ion of Stone. II. Contributions to the International Symp. (October 27-
30, 1981), edited by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1981, p. 315.
The limestone (Trani stone) of the internal surface of the masonry of
the Cathedral of Trani, among the most important monuments of Romanesque
in Apulia (Italy), is suffering a rapid process of weathering which takes
place in connection with the principal constituents of the rock (grains
and matrix) or of the organic structures (fossils) and the inorganic ones
(stylolites, recemented cracks, laminations, dessiccation cracks and sheet
cracks). The weathered stone, principally represented by calcarenites,
comes into contact with condensation waters which show an enrichment in
ions Ca2+, Na+, Cl~, HC03~ and, subordinately in ions Mg2+ and SO-2. The
saline content of the condensation waters is higher than the saline
content of the rain waters that fall down outside. On the weathered
limestone of the internal surface of the masonry calcite, trona, halite
and gypsum precipitate. On the external surface of the masonry the rain
water continually washes away the exposed surfaces.
11. Weathering Rates on Marble Tombstones at a Sydney Cemetery. D. Dragovich.
ICCM Bulletin, v. 7, No. 1, 1981, pp. 27 -31.
On most natural rock outcrops, and the majority of stone used for
building or monumental purposes, the measurement of surface loss by
weathering over specified time periods is frequently not possible, because
the condition of the original surface of the stone is unknown. Marble
tombstones have several advantages for the study of weathering rates: a
temporal benchmark for the commencement of weathering in fresh rock is
provided by the inscription date, and lead lettering - which persists in a
virtually unaltered state - indicates the position of the original
polished stone surface. (When tombstones are cut, the surface is
polished, letters are carved into the polished surface, and customarily
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the carved letters are filled with lead flush with the polished surface).
The amount of surface loss by weathering over known time spans can thus be
established by measuring the height to which lead lettering currently
stands above the marble surface.
The adverse effects of sulphur dioxide on marble monuments in cities
has been well documented, but the possible accelerating effects of salt
weathering on surface loss of marble has not received attention. Within
the Sydney metropolitan area, a cliff-top cemetery was chosen to
investigate whether the action of salts in a nearshore environment
hastened the weathering of marble and this interim report discussess the
progress of this work. Field measurements have been completed, but
aerosol data and chemical analysis of calcite grains and other loose rock
fragments are not yet available.
Marble weathers principally by solution and, although rates of
surface reduction over different decades were not uniform in the
tombstones studied, there was a general absolute increase in weathering
loss with increasing age. On tombstones exposed for less than 45 years,
surface reduction was greater between larger lead lettering than between
smaller letters; the protection afforded by small lead lettering was not
evident on tombstones erected more than 80 years ago. The measurements
made did not support the hypothesis that the presence of sea-spray drift
accelerated weathering loss from marble, and irregular rates of surface
reduction on individual tombstones resulted from impurities present in the
stone.
12. Workers Use Space-Age Technology to Restore Acropolis. L. B. Fleming.
Los Angeles Times, November 1, 1981, Part I-A, pp. 1-3.
Spurred by a Greek chemist's discoveries, engineers and scientists
are applying space-age materials and technologies in a new effort to
preserve what is left of the marvels of the Acropolis.
The discoveries are:
1. Washing stone antiquities does great harm, for it removes the
gypsum that crusts the surface and preserves some of the shape of
the original. An alternative technique for consolidating the
gypsum and preserving the surface is proposed.
2. Coating antiquities with plastic and other protective surfaces,
widely practiced on commercial buildings, accelerates the
deterioration in an irreversible way.
1980
1. Ailing Treasures. J. Hansen. Science 80, September 1980, pp. 58-61.
European researchers have discovered that certain bacteria are
devouring the Greek Parthenon, Egypt's Temple of Karnak and scores of
other famous buildings and sculptures. These bacteria belong to several
families: the most dangerous one is the Thiobacillus thioparus which
converts through its metabolic system the gas sulfur dioxide in air into
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sulfuric acid, the latter serving as their digestive fluid; other bacteri
generate nitric acids or organic acids. Curri, the scientist who
discovered these bacteria, and his colleagues have evolved a method of
treatment which is to spray the marble with antibiotics. This helps, but
the microbial illness afflicting the many ancient monuments and art work
grows more grave day by day.
A Review of Air Pollutant Damage to Materials. J. E. Yocum and
A. R. Stankunas. Draft Report to Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, December
1980, 92 pp. (Fe80-2)
Arivederci, Roma. Acid Rains on the Eternal City. Canadian Heritage,
October 1980, p. 34.
The effect auto emissions are having on the historical treasures of
Rome and the actions being taken to remedy these effects is discussed.
Background and Principles of Long-Term Performance of Building Materials.
S. E. Pihlajavaara. Durability of Building Materials and Components,
ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 5-16. (Fe80-4)
Buildings and Acid Rain. M. E. Weaver. Canadian Heritage, Heritage
Canada Foundation, Toronto, October 1980, pp. 53-55.
The major victims of acid rains and the associated pollution product
are, tragically enough, the very building stones which have become the
byword of permanence in innumerable societies since the ancient Egyptians
first built "for eternity." There is no magic plastic coating or "snake
oil" to prevent this destruction of our heritage stonework. The only
remedy is to stop the pollution.
Concrete Overlays for the Protection of Reinforced Concrete Against
Corrosion. D. G. Manning and B. Chojnacki. Duribility of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and
G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 193
205.
Portland cement and modified port land cement concrete overlays were
placed on reinforced concrete base slabs containing differing quantities
of added chlorides. The specimens were ponded intermittently with sodium
chloride solution. Concrete overlays were effective in retarding the
penetration of chloride ions. Resistance to chloride penetration was
improved by decreasing the water/cement ratio of the concrete and by the
use of a latex modifier or internally sealing with wax. Initially high
concentrations of chloride ions within the base concrete were
redistributed within the base and the overlay. The concrete overlays
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caused a decrease in corrosion activity of reinforcing
steel embedded in concrete containing more chloride than the chloride
content corrosion threshold. Cracks accelerated the onset of corrosion of
intercepted reinforcing bars.
7. Critical Review of the Available PhysicochemicaI Material Damage Function
of Air Pollution. M. Benarie. Report No. EUR-6643, Commison on the
European Communities, 1980, 97 pp. (Fe80-8)
8. Design Determines Durability. G. K. Garden. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and
G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980
pp. 31-37.
Durability of a material cannot be considered rationally except in
the context of that material in service and the environment in which it
must function, since it is the interaction of elements of the environment
with a material that determines it durability. By analysis of numerous
examples it will be demonstrated that the relative position of materials
comprising any building element, in conjunction with the boundary
conditions, determines both the functions each material will perform and
the environmental conditions to which each material will be subjected in
service. Design, being the process of deciding upon what material to use
and where, determines durability.
9. Determination of the Source of Surface Deterioration on Tombstones at the
Jewish Cemetery in Prague. J. Sramek. Studies in Conservation, v. 25,
1980, pp. 47-52.
Mass spectrometry of the calcium sulfate alteration product on the
surface of the calcareous tombstones of the Old Jewish Cemetery in Prague
has proved that it originates primarily from the sulfur pollution of the
atmosphere.
10. Durability of Cement Mortars and Concretes. U. Ludwig. Durability of
Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda
and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp.
269-281.
This paper presents the results of theoretical and experimental
studies concerning the durability of cement mortars and concretes. The
behavior of different cements in mortars and concretes which are exposed
to attack by carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, sulfate ions or the alkali
silica reaction (ASR) is described. The principal results which have been
obtained during the past 10 to 15 years, also are summarized.
Carbonation of cement mortars and concretes follows re 1 at ion.
The increasing total lime content of mortars and concretes with port land
cement together with the compaction of the microstructure due to
carbonation leads to better durability of this type of cement as compared
with cements of lower lime content.
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The attack of sulfate solutions causes the initial cracking by
topochemical ettringite formation which is followed by the formation of
gypsum as a secondary reaction. The latter explains the often observed
interim rehealing.
The alkali silica reaction (ASR) is considered as the result of
dynamic osmosis equilibrium. The minimum relative humidity necessary for
ASR is 80 < x < 85 percent. The delayed ASR leads to an increased
deterioration of the structure. Water repellent agents are suitable to
prevent the ASR. Pozzolans and blast furnace slags in cements reduce or
prevent the ASR. The maximum expansion forces are observed to be 1.7
N/rnm^. The damages on buildings can be determined on drill-core
s amp1e s.
11. Durability of Composite Materials as Influenced by Different Coefficients
of Thermal Expansion of Components. S. D. Venecanin. Durability of
Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda
and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp.
179-192.
Composite materials such as concrete usually are not composed of
materials of the same coefficient of thermal expansion, and, therefore,
temperature changes cause stresses in their components. In the paper, two
simple equations are derived-one for tensile stress in binding material,
and the other for tensile stress in aggregate. If coefficients of thermal
expansion of aggregate and binder differ too much, large diurnal or
seasonal temperature changes cause in port land cement concrete excessive
tensile stresses in hardened cement paste, and in polymer concrete
excessive tensile stresses in aggregate. So, for certain climatic
conditions, and with known elastic and thermal properties of components,
by using derived equations, it is possible to calculate tensile stresses
in binder or aggregate, and estimate if they affect durability of concrete
or some other material with two components. Typical applications of the
derived equations are in the cases of the Middle East concretes or polymer
concretes.
12. Durability of Materials and Construction. J. H. Keyser. Durability of
Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda
and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp.
38-55. (Fe80-9)
13. Durability Studies at the Portland Cement Association. P. Kliegar.
Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by
P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1980, pp. 282-300.
Durability studies at the Portland Cement Association over the years
have included both laboratory accelerated tests and field exposure to
service conditions in a variety of environments. Laboratory accelerated
tests have included: freezing and thawing in water; resistance to
application of de-icing chemicals during exposure to freezing and thawing;
resistance to aggressive chemicals such as sulfates; alkali-aggregate
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reactions; and corrosion of reinforcing steel. Field exposures have
included: full-scale concrete pavements subjected to traffic and exposure
to severe weather and deicers; simulated bridgedeck sections in outdoor
exposure; concretes in sulfate soils; and concrete piles and other
specimens in seawater. Some highlights of these studies are presented.
14. High Humidity Buildings in Cold Climates - A Case History. R. G. Brand.
Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by
P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1980, pp. 231-238.
The masonry envelope over a steel structure in a 10-story building
failed and had to be replaced after 17 years of service because of severe
deterioration of some materials within the masonry walls. The building
was designed for use as an office block but it was used for the display,
servicing, and storage of art treasures for which the inside atmosphere
was maintained at a temperature of 21°C (70'F) and 50 percent relative
humidity the year round. The highly humidified air, in escaping through
leakage paths in the building envelope, lost moisture by condensation
which accumulated in and on the building materials. This led to the
degradation of mortar, deterioration of masonry by frost action, and cor-
rosion of metal ties and fasteners.
15. Is the Taj Mahal Doomed? Time, November 3, 1980, p. 99.
The Taj Mahal is another beautiful monument threatened with destruc-
tion by industrial pollution. Coal dust and sulfur dioxide fumes are the
main destructive agents of the marble. No workable solution has been
found yet.
16. Polluted Rain. Deterioration of Architectural Structures and Monuments.
K. L. Gauri. Environ. Sci. Res., v. 17, 1980, pp. 125-145.
Weathering of carbonate and silicate minerals, essential constituents
of natural stone, concrete, and mortar, which are the common materials
exposed on the facades of architectural structures, has increased at an
alarming rate in industrial countries because on NO2 and SO2 emiss-
i ons.
17. Regional Air Pollution Study: Effects of Airborne Sulfur Pollutants on
Materials. F. Mansfeld. NTIS Report PB81-126351, January 1980, 163 pp.
(Fe80-18)
18. Rock Weathering at Archaeological Sites In Yucatan, Mexico. D. Dragovich.
ICCM Bulletin, v. 6, No.l, 1980, pp.43-50.
In tropical lowland Yucatan, numerous sites reLating to Mayan
civilisation are being investigated and reconstructed by archaeologists.
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All structures, stele and carved objects and decorations in the region
have been made from locally-obtained limestone, which could be expected to
weather principally by solution. Observations were made on the nature of
weathering at three sites in Northern Yucatan and information was also
sought on rates of weathering. Partly because of dating problems for
individual structures or parts of structures, only isolated and incomplete
evidence was obtained for weathering rates.
19. The Meaning of Durability and Durability Prediction. G. Frohnsdorff and
L. W. Masters. Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM
STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 17-30. (Fe80-19)
20. Urban Pollution is Turning the Glory That Was Rome to Dust. H. Tanner.
New York Times, March 16, 1980, p. 53.
Pollution and vibration from auto traffic are seriously damaging
Rome's most famous monuments. Chemical reactions among rain water, auto
exhaust fumes, and emissions from the city's heating plant are producing
sulfuric acid that changes the calcium carbonate marble surfaces into
calcium sulphate plaster. Damage to such monuments as the Column of
Marcus Aurelius in the Piazza Colonna and the Arch of Constantine are
reported. At the present rate of decay, virtually all the sculpture on
these monuments will disappear within 20 years. Plans to reduce traffic
in Rome are discussed.
21. Weather and the Deterioration of Building Materials. D. W. Boyd. Dura-
bility of Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by
P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1980, pp. 145-156.
Early attempts to predict the effects of the weather on the
deterioration of building materials were often little more than
speculation. The inadequacy of the results is discussed using freeze-thaw
cycles and the annual driving rain index as examples. More precise
empirical relationships will have to be based on laboratory or test-site
observations and may require special weather analyses such as the humidity
tables prepared for a study of corrosion of metals. More complex
relationships are being found and the analysis of the weather often will
involve the study of the coincident values of two or more elements. The
research scientist should be aware of the weather data now generally
available and the types of analyses that could be provided.
1979
1. Air Pollution Damage to Buildings on the Acropolis. J. E. Yocum. J.
Air Pollut. Control Assoc., v. 29, No. 4, 1979, pp. 333-338.
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The damage to the historical buildings in the Acropolis was surveyed
The damage was due to abrasion and chemical attack from air pollutants
( SC>2 and SO3 ) .
2. Air Quality Related Values Study At Chaco Canyon National Monument. W.O.
Herriman, B. Moore, M. C. Hugh, and K, A. Yarborough. 2nd Conference on
Scientific Research in the National Parks, San Francisco, California,
Novermber 26-30, 1979, p. 134.
Chaco Canyon is an internationally significant area in which the
National Park Service is preserving the ruins of the Pre-Columbian Chacoan
culture. A detailed study has been undertaken to provide protection of
the significant cultural and natural resources of Chaco Canyon.
3. Atmospheric Pollution and Biological Damage to Art Monuments.
Methodological Proposals. S. B. Curri. Acqua Aria, No. 4, 1979,
pp. 309-314 (Italian).
The biological factors, that is, microorganisms and biological
molecules, and their interation with physicochemical factors of the
environment which affect works of art are enumerated and briefly
discussed.
4. Biocide Testing and Enzymological Studies on Damaged Stone and Fresco
Surfaces. Preparation of Antibiograms. S. B. Curri. Biochem. Exp.
Biol., v. 15, No. 1, 1979, pp. 97-104.
Samples of stone artifacts and fresco surfaces damaged from microbial
attack were studied. To evaluate the microbial damaging process on the
basis of biochemical analyses, the following areas were studied: 1) the
relation between the entity of the microbial attack and enzymic activities
inside the damaged substrate; 2) biochemical methods to evaluate the stone
pollution; and 3) preparation of antibiograms to evaluate the action of
some biocides.
5. Buildings Threatened by Air Pollution—Contribution of Material Research
to the Preservation of Monuments. K. Niesel. GIT—Fachzeitschrift fuer
das Laboratorium, v. 23, No. 2, 1979, pp. 105-109 (German).
By means of the X-ray scanning electron microscope the distribution
of sulfur on the surface of building stones was analyzed. It was found
that sulfur is only concentrated on the utmost surface, where a reaction
with the calcium of the stone occurs. Laboratory techniques have been
developed to simulate weathering in urban atmospheres and to study the
behavior of weathered stone.
6. Corrosion Problems in Greece and the Contributions to Their Solution by
the Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Applied Electrochemistry of the
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National Technical University of Athens, T. Skoulikidis. British
Corrosion Journal, v. 14, No. 2, 1979, pp. 61-68.
The highly polluted and salt-laden atmosphere of Greece is discussed,
in relation to damaging effects on metals, ancient monuments and statues
The marble statues are crusted with gypsum (CaS04•2H20) if sheltered or
pitted and cracked if exposed to rain. Bacteria and deposits of colloidal
particles further destroy the marble and gypsum. Steel reinforcements,
now corroded, are causing cracks in stonework, and titanium replacements
are recommended. Chemical methods of converting gypsum to CaCOj are being
developed; one employing CC^ at eight atmospheres and 70" C is successful,
provided the statues may be transported. Thirty types of protective
coating were tried and rejected. Acetone-soluble biocides can be used but
the particulate deposits cannot yet be removed.
7. Deterioration of Building Materials Due to Air Pollution and Soluble
Salts. P. Berti. Proc. of the Symposium, Cini Foundation,
(October 22-23, 1979), pp. 153-161 (Italian). (See MAC79-12 for
symposium (proceedings).
The damages caused by atmospheric pollutants: sulfates, nitrates,
and chlorides is studied.
8. Effect of Acid Rain on Structures. K. L. Gauri. Symp. on Acid Rain,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Preprint 3598, 1979, pp. 55-75.
The effect of acid rain on structures has been illustrated by the
example of the deterioration of the exterior of the Field Museum of
Natural History, Chicago. The field survey reveaLed that the marble
cornices, etc., protected from the direct impact of rain has developed
black crust. The unprotected areas, however, are clean due to perpetual
dissociation of calcite grains; Fractures in marble blocks were found
along dark bands which terminated at joints with polymeric caulking.
Atomic absorption spectrophotometry, scanning electron microscopy,
and X-ray diffraction of samples from the museum revealed that the black
crust consisted of gypsum which had formed due to SO2 attack on calcit
The gypsum was absent at the naturally cleaned surface. By comparing
these findings with the deterioration of marble at other antique
structures, it has been concluded that the protected regions shall
eventually suffer greater deterioration.
The conservation technology is yet in its incipient state. It is
perhaps more economical to clean the air and save less deteriorated
structures from meeting the fate that has visited the ancient marvels of
architecture.
9. Efflorescences on Building Stones~SEM in the Characterization and
Elucidation of the Mechanisms of Formation. A. E. Charola and
S. Z. Lewin. Scanning Electron Microscopy, v. 1, 1979, pp. 378-386.
The mineral composition, texture, and structure of efflorescences on
surfaces from a variety of sources are given. The seeping of water along
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internal concrete or mortar surfaces produces deposits of calcite.
Percolation of rain water through the bulk volume produces deposits which
may contain trona, aphthitalite, gypsum, and epsomite. Migration of salts
from adjacent materials yields efflorescences of alkali sulfates, gypsum,
and sodium chloride.
Scanning electron microscopic studies of the structure of
efflorescent encrustations shows that crystal growth tends to occur
preferentially at the substrate-to-efflorescences interface, with new
crystals extruding previously formed crystals outward.
Some implications of the composition of efflorescences for the
conservation and preservation of building stone are discussed.
10. Empirical Atmospheric Parameters - A Survey. T.A. McMahon and P.J.
Denison. Atmos. Env., v. 13, 1979, pp. 571-585.
Based on an extensive Literature search, the following atmospheric
deposition parameters have been collated and, where possible, generalized
values have been noted: deposition velocity of particles, deposition
veLocity of gases, surface resistance to gaseous deposition,
scavenging coefficient of particles, scavenging ratio and scavenging
coefficient of gases.
11. On the Weathering of Building Materials in Atmospheres Containing Sulfur
Oxides—A Literature Discussion. K. Niesel. Fortschr. Miner., v. 57,
No. 1, 1979, pp. 68-124 (German).
Numerous papers deal with the weathering of lime-containing building
stones exposed to atmospherical sulfur oxides. The presences of such air
pollutants is closely connected to the consumption of fossil fuels. Up to
now it has only been possible to bring partial light upon aspects of the
processes taking place during this type of action. Difficulties often
result from the shortage of suitable methods to characterize
quantitatively a rock and the changes in it by means of physical
characteristic values, and also from the lack of a standard to which the
data obtained may be compared. Of interest too is the question of how far
artificial weathering results correspond to the actual behavior of the
exposed rock on the outside of a building, and the question of how useful
and reliable preservation measures are. Moreover, the role of media
acting physically and chemically in the pore space are disscussed, along
with the phenomenological particularities of "weathering profiles"
formed in the surface zone of the building stone as a result of attack by
S02. In this paper, an attempt is made to give as complete as possible a
state-of-the-art report in this field, evaluating literature and using
personal jugement in order to provide a basis for further investigations.
12. The Bricks of Venice. Status of Technical and Scientific Knowledge.
Proceedings of the Symposium, Cini Foundation (October 22-23, 1979).
Laboratorio per lo Studio Delia Dinamica Delle Grandi Masse Del C.N.R.
Venezia, 1979, 462 pp. (Italian).
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The 33 papers presented at the symposium are presented in this
preprinted edition. The main topics are: the brick material (history and
technology), the deterioration processes, and the different conservation
methods.
13. Two Cases of Sulfate Attack on Concrete. Y. Houst. Chantiers, No. 2,
February 1979, pp. 15-18 (French).
The deterioration of concrete due to water and salts is briefly
described. The resistance of various kinds of concrete and methods of
mixing concrete that are resistant to the environment are discussed.
14. Use of Building Surfaces in the Passive Abatement of Gasous Pollutants.
H. S. Judeikis. J. Architectural Research, v. 7, No. 1, March 1979, pp.
28-33. (Fe79-10)
1978
1. A Methodological Approach to the Study of the Deterioration of
the Statues in Boboli Garden (Pitti Palace - Florence) I. Analysis of
Weather Variables. P. Frediani, C. Manganelli Del Fa, U. Matteoli,
P. Tiano, and G. Galli, Proc. Int. Syrap. on the Deterioration and
Protection of Stone Monuments, Paris (June 1978), published by UNESCO and
RILEM, No. 7-4, 1978, 24 pp.
In this research the effect of the treatment with a water repellent
on a series of statues placed in the Boboli garden has been investigated.
Temperature, relative humidity, wind direction and intensity, and sulfur
dioxide concentration were measured at statues in three different
exposures: a) sheltered in a grotto or in a niche; b)surrounded by
vegetation; c) completely in the open.
In order to follow the efficiency of treatment, physical,
mineralogical, microbiological, and chemical analyses before and after the
treatment were performed. The results obtained seem to show the
efficiency of this treatment in decreasing the humidity and
microbiological contaminations of the surface of the statues. The
decrease of efficiency of the treatment with time depends on the kind of
stone and climatic variables.
2. A Review: The Lichen Role in Roct Art - Dating Deterioration and Control.
M. L. E. Florian. Conservation of Rock Art, edited by C. Pearson.
ICCM, 1978, pp. 95-98.
The role of lichens in rock art, including the deterioration they
cause and the question of their removal with reference to damage of rock
surface, aesthetic considerations, and the type of lichen attachment is
described. The possible use of lichenometry for dating rock art is also
discussed.
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3. A Survey on Air Pollution and Deterioration of Stonework, in Venice.
V. Fassina. Atmos. Environ., v. 12, No. 11, 1978, pp. 2205-2211.*
The effects of atmospheric pollutants on the deterioration of
stonework in Venice was studied during 1972-74 by measuring aerosol
composition and HC1 and S02 concentrations. Aerosol acidity, sulfate
particulate matter, and SC^ concentrations showed seasonal variations;
that of SO2 being the most significant due to variations in
meteorological conditions and urban and industrial output. Microscopic
and microchemica1 analysis of the stonework showed crack formation to
occur by two processes; penetration by H2S04~containing solutions and
by NaCl and crystallization of soluble salts.
4. Acid Precipitation in the Netherlands. A. J. Vermeulen. Environ. Sci.
Tech., v. 12, No. 9, September 1978, pp. 1017-1021. (Fe78-1)
5. Acid Rain Fallout: Pollution and Politics. J. Gannon. National Parks
and Conservation, v. 52, No. 10, October 1978, pp. 17-22.
Acid rain kills fish, stunts plants, and corrodes buildings. Acid
rain has wiped out commercial salmon fishing in Norway and Sweden and has
destroyed sport fishing in parts of Canada, the United States, and
Scandinavia. The burning of fossil fuels and the smelting of ores
produces sulfur and nitrogen oxides, which are converted to acids in the
atmosphere. The problem of acid rain is transnational and transcontinen-
tal. There is a high correlation between acid levels in lakes and mercury
levels in fish. Acid rain, mercury pollution, and the construction of a
new coal-fired power plant threaten the existence of an Ojibway Indian
fishing village on Lac la Croix in Quebec, Ontario. Governmental efforts
to control acid rain are insufficient.
6. An Experience From the Restoration of the Exposed Stone, Palace Madame
of Turin. M. G. Cerri. Proc. Int. Symp. in the Deterioration and
Protection of Stone Monuments, Paris (June 1978), published by UNESCO
and RILEM, No. 7-2, 1978, 27 pp.
The history of the monument is first presented to demonstrate its
value. The researches have shown that the main cause of degradation is
the sulfation due to sulfur dioxide present at very high concentrations in
the atmosphere, in connection with the high humidity of the cold season.
Cleaning by water or by jets of vapors at low pressure to dissolve surface
salts has brought the stone to optimal condition for application of
protective siliconic resins.
7. Atmospheric Pollution in Venice, Italy, as Indicated by Isotopic Analyse
A. Longinelli and M. Bartelloni. Water, Air, Soil Pollut., v. 10,
No. 3, 1978, pp. 335-341.*
Rainwater samples collected in Venice over a period of about 1 year
were studied along with stone samples collected from buildings and
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monuments. Isotopic measurements of oxygen, sulfur, and carbon were
carried out on rainwater, rainwater dissolved sulfate, carbonate in stone
and sulfate present in altered limestone, with the purpose of proving that
atmospheric pollution is mainly reponsible for the deterioration of
monuments and buildings. Atmospheric sulfate in Venice is basically tie
to the emission of anthropogenic SO2 and only minor contributions can be
expected from seawater spray and aerosols. The measurements carried out
on stone samples clearly indicate that stonework is damaged by the
interaction between limestone and sulfur-bearing atmospheric pollutants.
8. Characteristics and Decay of Stone Materials Used in Ca1 Granda (The Old
Hospital of Milan Building). R. Peruzzi, G. Giambelli, L. De Capitani
G. Alessandrini, and G. Liborio. Proc. Int. Symp. on the Deterioratio
and Protection of Stone Monuments, Paris (June 1978), published by
UNESCO and RILEM, No. 1-5, 1978, 20 pp.
The characteristics and the caues of decay of three types of stones
taken from "Ca1 Granda" in Milan have been examined before undertaking a
study of their conservation. Chemical, mineralogical, petrographical,
physical, and structural analyses have been performed on samples taken
from the monument and from the quarry. The characteristics of the stones
have been compared and then correlated with their state of conservation.
The alteration products (crusts, efflorecences) have also been analyzed
and measurements have been taken of the environmental temperature and
relative humidity, the surface temperature of the monument, the ambient
concentration of SO2, and the SO^-2, N0g~ and pH of rain samples.
9. Corrosion Protection of Ancient Marble. G. M. Schwab. VDI-Ber., v. 314,
1978, p. 101 (German).
The corrosion of ancient marble in Athens has been greatly
accelerated by the increased levels of sulfur compounds in the modern
atmosphere, thereby increasing the damaging effects of rainfall. In
addition to surface breakdown, pollution increases the rusting of iron
supports and reinforcements which can result in further breakup of the
marble. A number of measures have been suggested, including the placing
of objects in museums, restrictions on atmospheric levels of sulfur
compounds, investigations of surface treatments, and replacement of iron
reinforcements with titanium ones.
10. Decay and Protection of Stones in Historical Buildings of the University
of Pavia (Italy): V. Riganti, R. Rossetti, F. Soggetti, F. Veniale, and
U. Zezza. Proc. Int. Symp. on the Deterioration and Protection of Stone
Monuments, Paris (June 1978), published by UNESCO and RILEM, No. 7-20,
1978, 10 pp.
The state of degradation of materials (granites of Baveno and
Montorfano; marble of Candoglia, Irnavasso and Crevola, rocks of Angera,
Viggiu and M. Anzolo), of lithic structures (columns, balustrades, portals
and more important pronaos) realized from the 15th to the 19th century in
two historical monuments of the University of Pavia: the main palace of
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the atheneum and the ensemble of buildings of the old convent of San
Felice. The predominant alteration of the lithic carbonaceous materials
(calcitic and dolomitic marble, dolomite, oolitic limestone) and of the
limestone with calcitic cement, is due to the gradual transformation of
carbonates into gypsum which, because of the correlative multiplication,
caused the desegregation and separation of degraded parts under the action
of sulfurous gas present in urban atmosphere. It is observed in the
granites an alteration due mostly to humidity and which develops on the
"rift" surface. Remedies for protection have been proposed.
11. Descriptive Characterization of the Grain Textures, Mineralogy, Density
and Structures of Ornamental and Building Stones Such as Carrara Marble,
Istrian Stone, Greek Marble, Valpolicella Stones, San Giulian Marble
(Pisa), and Their Reactivity With Sulfur Dioxide. R. D. Harve
International Biodegradation Research Group, Autumn Meeting, Winchester
(October 18-20, 1977), Editore Poligrafico Artioli, Modena, Italy,
1978, 10 pp.
Describes methods and research concerning building stone listed in
the title. Source, rock type, color, petrography and mineralogy,
including bulk density and porosity for each stone tested, are given. The
source o at least some of the sulfur that is so damaging to works of art
is the limestone itself.
12. Deteriorative Effect of Sulfur Pollution on Materials. J. 0. Nriagu.
Sulfur in the Environment, Part II: Ecological Impacts, edited by
J. 0. Nriagu, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1978, pp. 1-59. (Fe78-ll)
13. Inspection of Bioaggression on a Statue of Carrara Marble of 700(A.D.)
From the Hill Country. A. Paleni, S. B. Curri, and R. Benassi.
International Biodegradation Research Group, Autumn Meeting, Winchester
(October 18-20, 1977), Editore Poligrafico Artioli, Modena, Italy, 1978,
21 pp. (Italian).
Bioaggression occurred on a statue of Carrara marble (700 A.D.)
placed in a garden at the top of a hill by the sea. Photo enlargements
show lichens covering part of the surface. Placodium, xanthoria
parietina, vitellina, physcia grisea, and lecydia were identified in the
lichenic tissue, as were bacteria up to 2,000,000 colonies per gram,
fungi up to 1,000,000 per gram, yeast up to 800,000 colonies per gram.
Thioxidans and thioparus to 1,000,000 colonies per gram were identified
on the surface of the statue, which was seemingly undamaged. Photos
show the surface of the statue; micromorphology of marble grain
texture, mineralogy, and petrography are reported. Incipient formation
of a black crust is described. Thin layer chromatography identified
some lipids on the surface of the statue as alpha and beta
monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides and sterol-ester of
bacterial origin. Estimates are given on future bioaggression.
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14. Investigation of Weathering Crusts on Salzburg Stone Monuments. E. Hoke
Studies in Conservation, v. 23, 1978, pp. 118-126.
A series of corroded stone specimens from Salzburg monuments was
examined by electron-probe microanalysis. The crusts arose from
environmental effects, in the case of marble primarily from SO2.
Deterioration phenomena can be correlated with stone surface features.
15. Laboratory Measurements of Nitric Oxide and Nitrogen Dioxide Depositions
Onto Soil and Cement Surfaces. H. S. Judeikis and A. G. Wren. Atmos.
Environ., v. 12, No. 12, 1978, pp. 2315-2319.
The deposition rates of NO and NO2 onto soil and cement surfaces
were approximately 0.1 to 0.2 and approximately 0.3 to 0.8 cm/s
respectively. Deposition was irreversible and decreased with time.
However, surface activity was restored by precipitation washing away
solution surface reaction products or, for N02~saturated surfaces, by
interaction with NH3. Nitrogen dioxide deposiion on ground level
surfaces is the predominant mechanism for NO + NO2 removal from the
atmosphere in both urban and remote areas.
16. Microecology, Mineralogy and Alteration of Works of Art: St. Mark's of
Venice and The Cene of Milan. C. Jeanson. Proc. Int. Symp. on the
Deterioration and Protection of Stone Monuments, Paris (June 1978),
published by UNESCO and RILEM, No. 5-4, 1978, 15 pp. (French).
The crystals in formation on the altered surface of the crest of the
facade of St. Mark's are compared with those at the base of a wall
painting named "La Cene" by Leonardo De Vinci. Studies with the EMA and
by SEM EXORA permit identifications of sulfates and carbonates. Evidence
of The relation between these salts and microorganisms is presented.
Recent mineralizations, weathering crusts, are put in a microecologic
context.
17. Microorganisms and Weathering of a Sandstone Monument. F. E. W. Eckhardt.
Environ. Biogechem. Geomicrobiol., Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. (1977),
edited by W. E. Krumbein, Ann Arbor Sci., Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1978,
v. 2, pp. 675-686.
Weathering of a sandstone monument in Kiel, Federal Republic of
Germany, was affected by microorganisms which enhanced the deterioration
of both cementing material and the aluminum silicates by producing organic
acids, for example, oxalic acid and citric acid. Fungi were the
predominant microorganisms found on the stone.
18. Progress and Problems in Rock Weathering Related to Stone Decay.
W. D. Keller. Decay and Preservation of Stone: Engineering Geology
Case Histories, No. 11, edited by E. M. Winkler, Geological Soc. of
America, 1978, pp. 37-45.
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This survey article describes weathering phenomenon in general. Also
discussed are the effect of aqueous solutions, CO2, O2, temperature, etc.
on chemical weathering, especially of aluminum silicate minerals and
carbonate rocks such as limestone, dolomite and carbonate cemented clastic
rocks.
19. Proof of the Activity of the Thiobacillus in the Alterations of Stones
at Rome. Identification of Certain Sources. L. Barce1lona-Vero. Proc.
Int. Symp. on the Deterioration and Protection of Stone Monuments, Paris
(June 1978), published by UNESCO and RILEM, No. 4-1, 1978, 13 pp.
Microbiological analysis of stone sample from six monuments in Rome
(marble, traventine, tufa) are reported. Nitrogen bacteria were found in
half the samples; sulfur reducing bacteria were absent, thiobacillus
strains were present in most of the samples. Research points out the
necessity of prepairing cultures for both sulfur and thiosulfate
bacteria.
20. Recent Experience in Conservation of Stone Objects. J. Lehmann. Proc.
5th Meeting ICOM Committee for Conservation, Zagreb, 1978, pp. 1-6.
At its 4th Triennial Meeting in Venice-1975, the Working Group
"Stone" has accepted the modified program developing activities in the
conservation of stone objects in museums, collections, and from
excavations. Consideration is also devoted to preserve outdoor objects
and to consolidate decayed stone.
The activities and accomplishments of the Working Group "Stone" are
reported on the background of international developments in stone
conservation during past three years. They are concerned mainly with
complex conservation of valuable artistic and historic stone objects,
consolidation of decayed stone, desirable characteristics of chemicals
used in conservation of stone objects, protection of stone by means of
water-repellency and organic surface layers, polymer coatings used for
cleaning of dirty and stained surfaces of stone, mathematical models for
computation and the device for measurement of weathering rates of stone as
well as documentation and inspection of treated stone objects.
21. Research on Surface-Conservation of Corroded Pentelich Marble of the
Acropolis in Athens. D. D. Klemm and R. Snethlage. Proc. Int. Symp.
on the Deterioration and Protection of Stone Monuments, Paris (June
1978), published by UNESCO and RILEM, 1978, p. 9.
Investigations of deteriorated Pentelich marble show a typical type
of corrosion, by which the crystals themselves are dissolved to skeltons,
whereas the intergranular spaces are only slightly widened. Corrosion
tests on impregnated Pentelich marble samples show that the methacrylic
resin used does not prevent the growth of gypsum after the sulfuric acid
attack.
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22. Researches on the Deterioration of Stonework. VI. The Donatello Pulpit.
R. Franchi, G. Galli, and C. Manganelli Del Fa. Studies in Conserva-
tion, v. 23, February 1978, pp. 23-37.
The state of deterioration of Donatello's Pulpit at Prato Cathedral
was studied. Analytical data obtained show that its present condition is
due both to natural causes of alteration which affect a sculpture standing
for a long time in the open and to products used for restoration and
conservation in fairly recent times. These products have caused reactions
with the stone material and formed new mineralogical species which have
been detected at moderate depths. They have also been a determining
factor contributing to decohesion of the granules of the stone and hence
to an increase in the specific surface, with consequent acceleration of
the phenomena of alteration.
23. Rock Weathering on the Molecular Level. P. P. Hudec. Decay and
Preservation of Stone: Engineering Geology Case Histories, No. 11,
edited by E. M. Winkler, Geological Soc. of America, 1978, pp. 47-50.
Based on measured physical properties and internal surface area of 26
rock specimens, internal surface area and average pore size have been
shown to be directly correlatable to the response of a rock to weathering.
The weathering action begins at the surface of the rock pore by the
adherance of the water molecule (and other ions of salts) to the surface.
The water becomes polarized by the surface, similar to the polarization of
water around a clay particle, which is well documented in literature on
soil-water interaction. The water is physicallly rigid and tends to exert
pressure against the pore walls. Bacause of the polarization of the water
and the high concentration of hydrogen ions at the surface, the surface
becomes hydrolyzed, and the internal rock surface is chemically attacked.
Large surface area promotes rapid rock deterioration. The Physical
breakdown of rocks with large internal surface area predominates in cooler
climates because of the pressures generated by the rigid water films. In
the more tropical regions, hydrolysis is probably the principal process
that is aided by the physical breakdown.
24. Scanning Electron Microscopy in the Diagnosis of "Diseased" Stone.
S. Z. Lewin and A. E. Charola. Scanning Electron Microscopy, v. I,
1978, pp. 695-704.
Exposed stone and masonry deteriorate in a variety of ways, depending
upon the chemical reactivity, gain size and texture, porosity, and degree
of induration. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), employed in
conjunction with X-ray diffraction, optical microscopy, and chemistry,
discloses the internal structure and texture of the stone, as well as the
presence of adventitious substances and, hence, is effective in
elucidating the susceptibility to, and state, of decay and its causes in
specific cases.
Limestones and marbles show significant direct solubility in
environmental water, as well as enhanced solubility due to chemical
reaction with air pollutants. Water-soluble materials either produced in
the stone or carried into it from adjacent sources deposit in cracks and
pores at the surface as the stone dries and generate pressures that break
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down intergranular attachments and cause the stone to crumble, crack and
exfoliate.
Quartzite and arkosic sandstones deteriorate principally under the
influence of the stresses accompanying freeze-thaw and wet-to-dry cycling.
Slates suffer delamination; zeolitic stone is subject in addition to
specific effects of a chemical nature.
Synthetic resin-powdered stone composites used as a replacement for
decayed natural stone tend to fail because of the crystallization effects
that occur along shrinkage crevices in the resin layer.
The micrographs presented show the application of SEM in characterizing
the type of stone present and its condition in specific monuments, as well
as in identifying the principal mechanism responsible for the
manifestations of decay.
25. Some Problems Raised by the Study of the Weathering of Igneous Rocks.
J. D. Rodrigues. Proc. Int. Symp. on the Deterioration and protection
of Stone Monuments, Paris (June 1978), published by UNESCO and RILEM,
1978, 16 pp.
The weathering of rocks used for buildings of historical or artistic
interest has prompted numerous studies on the weathering mechanisms and on
the methods of stone conservation. Analysis of papers published shows
that non-igneous rocks are those most referred to by researchers. In the
present work some considerations are made about the use of the different
types of rocks for study and research in the domain of stone weathering
and conservation. Important differences of composition and behaviour
between sedimentary and igneous rocks are pointed out, and some relevant
and specific aspects of the study of the latter rocks are described.
Emphasis is laid upon the need for this type of rock to be systematically
used in comparative studies of test methods and conservation treatments.
26. Stone Decay in Tropical Conditions—Treatment of Monuments at Khajuraho,
M.P., India. B, R. N. Sharma. Proc. Int. Symp. on the Deterioration
and Protection of Stone Monuments, Paris (June 1978), Published by
UNESCO and RILEM, 1978, No. 7-19, 11 pp.
This paper describes the stone decay as observed by the author in
India during the last 25 years. The monuments of stone (of various
compositions) have been exposed to differing climatic conditions aod the
decay is described. Heavy industrialization has polluted the
environmental condition of some monuments and the consequent decay
has been shown. The phenomena of biodeterioration on the monuments has
been explained. The last part describes the chemical treatment of
monuments at Khajuraho and the problems tackled are explained.
27. Stone Decay in Urban Atmospheres. E. M. Winkler. Decay and Preservation
of Stone: Engineering Geology Case Histories, No. 11, edited by
E. M. Winkler, Geological Soc. of America, 1978, pp. 53-58.
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There is evidence that damage to stone by different types of
weathering is much more severe in urban environments than in rural.
Action by moisture and salt in urban areas resembles conditions found on
desert floors, the most destructive type of weathering. The elimination
of street salting in cities, especially near masonry walls and monuments,
and the sealing of potential travel routes for moisture would reduce most
of the urban weathering to about the same as the weathering in rural
areas. However, the present rate of increase of sulfate and CO2 in the
atmosphere is expected to accelerate weathering rates, urban and rural
alike, especially dissolution, regardless of precautions taken in the
future by conservators of historic buildings and monuments.
28. Stone Preservation of Cologne Cathedral. A. Wolff. Naturwiss. Rundsch,
v. 31, No. 12, 1978, pp. 449-503 (German).
Many different types of stone were used during the long construction
of the Cologne Cathedral, with the result that greatly differing degrees
of weathering are apparent in the structure. The damage varies from
simple color changes to severe deterioration of the stone. The effects of
air pollution (especially sulfur compounds) on this destruction are
discussed, as are recent attempts to preserve the stones of the
cathedral.
29. Stone Weathering: A Literature Review. E. M. Winkler. Decay and
Preservation of Stone, Engineering Geology Case Histories, No. 11,
edited by E. M. Winkler, Geological Society of America, 1978, pp. 59-61.
The decay of building and decorative stone has caused concern for
centuries. Frost, solar radiation and the presence of salts are
instrumental in the mechanical destruction of rock and stone. The
processes of chemical weathering consist of the relatively simple
dissolution of carbonates and the very complex solubilization of silicate
minerals. The penetration of hydrogen ions into the crystal lattice
appears to be the most destructive factor in the weathering of the
feldspars. Microbial life often invades masonry and is a significant
deteriorating factor.
30. Study of the Absorptive Properties of Atmospheric S02 on Limestone
Materials. P. Degranges, J. Greffard and J. M. Prevosteau. Proc.
Int. Symp. on the Deterioration and Protection of Stone Monuments,
Paris (June 1978), published by UNESCO and RILEM, 1978, 19 pp.
(French).
Laboratory simulation of agressive atmospheres to study the sorption
process of marble showed that*some SO2 is sorbed at an elevated energy
state. The relationship established between sorption properties and
porosity indicates that marbles of low porosity will withstand urban
envi ronments.
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31. Study of the Reactions Between Gaseous Sulfur Dioxide and Calcium
Carbonate. M. Serra and G. Starace. Proc. Int. Symp. on the
Deterioration and Protection of Stone Monuments, Paris (June 1978),
published by UNESCO and RILEM, No. 3-7, 1978, 19 pp.
A study was made of the reactivity of sulfur dioxide with calcium
carbonate in a heterogeneous phase. The results show that the quantity of
sulfur d ioxide absorbed and transformed in the oxidized phase is dependent
upon the relative humidity and the characteristics of the surfaces
t ested.
A chamber study of the reactivity of sulfur dioxide with calcium
carbonate indicates that S02 is not only absorbed in relatively high
quantities by the CaCOj , but that it reacts partially and/or totally with
the CaC03, being transformed into calcium sulfate. The rate of absorption
and transformation to an oxidized state depends on the relative humidity
and on the characteristics of the surfaces tested. The oxidation
catalysis is show to be strictly dependent on the presence of water. On
the other hanci the characteristics of the surface play an important role
as they accelerate the processes of absorption and oxidation under the
same condit ions of relative humidity.
The mechanism described is essentially concerned with the surface
aspects of the reaction which, under real conditions, can be the cause of
corrosion even in deeper layers of the materials by diffusion of S02
throu;m fractures and pores. Although the calcium sulfate which has been
formed is inert with regard to SC>2, it has no protective action as it does
not form a uniform and coherent layer with the underlying; CaC03, and in
the presence of water it dissolves.
The relative importance of the direct reaction of S0£ with CaCO^ in
comparision to the reaction by SO2 in an aqueous solution obviously
varies according to the climatic conditions and more precisely according
to the microclimate around the exposed material. This reaction
represents, however, the predominant mechanism in the absence of rain and
when environmental humidities do not permit surface condensation.
32. Tests on Limestone Weathering. E. Orcsik, M. Zador, and T. Varga. Proc.
Int. Symp. on the Deterioration and Protection of Stone Monuments,
Paris (June 1978), published by UNESCO and RILEM, No. 1-4, 1978, 15 pp.
The weathering of limestone had been tested under different
environmental (physical and chemical) conditions and in different
biological expositions. The weathering process has been evaluated by
scanning electron microscopy, by electron microprobe analysis and by
infrared spectroscopy. Morphological and chemical tests showed the
purely physiochemica1 weathering process to be qualitatively identical
under different atmospheric pollutions, featured essentially by the
transformation of calcite to gypsum. The atmospheric sulfur dioxide
differing by orders of magnitude .01 mg/m^ ^and 0.10 mjj/m^ causes
quantitative differences partly in the weathered thickness, partly in
the percentage rate of surface sulfation. Presence of biological agents
alters the weathering process, manifested partly by the different
crystalline water modification of gypsum and partly by the increased
rate of metabolites (chlorine, magnesium, potassium) in the surface
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layers of stone, contributing to the degradation process. According to
the element analysis, the stone surface incorporates significant
quantities of magnesium, potassium and chlorine under the moss, while
nothing but chlorine was found under the algae. No stone surface
underlying any biological agent contained sulfur.
33. The Changing Chemistry of Precipitation and Its Effects on Vegetation
and Materials. E. B. Cowling and L. S. Bochinger. Control and
Dispersion of Air Pollutants, Emphasis on N0X and Particulate
Ennnisions, edited by R. L. Byer, D. W. Cooper, and W. Light. American
Institute of Chemical Engineering Symposium, v. 74, No. 175 September
1978, pp. 134-142. 2 showed that calcium carbonate is transformed into sulfate by
two different mechanisms, strongly dependent on the stone water content.
36. The Preservation of Stone. K. L. Gauri. Scientific American, v. 238,
No. 6, 1978, pp. 128-136.
Various building materials and the effects of urban pollutants and
methods of preserving building materials are discussed.
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37. The Problem of the Erosion of Stone and Methods for Its Evaluation.
0. L. Katsitadze and T. V. Iakashvili. Proc. 5th Meeting ICOM Committee
for Conservation, Zagreb, 1978, 78/10/9, pp. 1-8.
Experiments in the theoretical mathematical investigation of stone
erosion using many variables and statistical methods are described. Among
the variables considered are acoustic wave velocity, air speed, air
temperature, relative humidity of the air, precipitation, barometric
pressure, duration of exposure, latitude, frequency of seismic
oscillations, amplitude of seismic oscillations, duration of seismic
events, elastic wave speed in the material, duration of erosion, material
surface slope in relation to horizon, surface azimuth in relation to
ground, yield stress of the material, ultimate resistance of the material,
biological corrosion indices, chemical corrosion indices.
38. Warning for Wiligelmo Sculpture at Modena Cathedral of Xlth Century.
A. Paleni and S. B. Curri. Int. Biodegradation Research Group, Autum
Meeting. Winchester (October 18-20, 1977), Editore Poligrafico Artioli,
Modena, Italy, 1978, 14 pp. (Italian).
The presence of Thiobacillus thioparus on the surface of Wiligelmo
sculptures at Modena Cathedral (1,000,000 colonies per gram of stone) is
shown.
39. Weathering and Preservation of Stone Monuments Under Tropical Conditions:
Some Case Histories. B. Lai. Proc. Int. Symp. on Deterioration and
Protection of Stone Monuments, Paris (June 1978), published by UNESCO
and RILEM, No. 7-8, 1978, 36 pp.
The problems of weathering and preservation of selected stone
monuments situated in different regions of the Indian Sub-Continent have
been discussed. The study of physcial parameters, meteorolgical data,
petrographical examination and chemical analysis of fresh and weathered
rock samples have given some insight into the mechanism of degradation of
such stone structural monuments and historical buildings as the Sun temple
at Konark, the Shere Temple at Mahabolipuram, temples at Belvr and
Halebid, and the temples at Veraval and Dwarka. The rock-cut cave temples
at Ajanta, Ellora, Elephanta, Jogeshwari, Karla and Bhaja have been
subjected to detailed investigations for understanding the causes of their
deterioration. Both physical disintegration and chemical weathering are
in progress. Some of the chemical processes causing deterioration of
stone monuments are: hydrolysis, carbonation, oxidation, and solution.
Kaolinization, 1 imonitization, gypsumization, chloritization, and
Lateritization have been found to be proceeding in situ under the ambient
environmental conditions. Destructive effects of sea-salts, sand-blasting
action of dust-laden winds, and the degrading influence of cryptogamic
growths have been recognized. In the absence of data on the bacterial
degradation of stone in India, the role of bacteria in rock weathering
remains unelucidated.
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40. Weathering in Sandstone Shelters in the Sydney Basin and the Survival of
Rock Art. P. J. Hughes. Conservation of Rock Art, edited by C.
Pearson, ICCM, 1978,*pp. 36-41.
Reports on some of the findings of a recently completed study of the
geomorphologica1 histories of a number of sandstone shelter archaeological
sites in Southern New South Wales. Average natural rates of cavernous
weathering in these shelters was demonstrated to have been slow, on the
order of 0.1 to 0.5 mm per 100 years, with granular disintegration and
small-scale flaking being the main process at work. Man was shown to have
greatly accelerated cavernous weathering and roof-fall by dislodging
weathered rock and hence exposing fresh rock surfaces to further
weathering, and by influencing the shelter environment through changes in
temperature and humidity. Since abandonment, crusts of weathered rock
have again formed on the roof and walls of most shelters and contemporary
rates of weatherng and roof-fall are again slow. The significance of
cavernous weathering of such sandstone shelters for the age of
deterioration of rock art are considered and plans to monitor sandstone
weathering in a range of environments over a long time-span are outlined.
1977
1. A Series of Temporal Measurements of Particulates and Sulfur Dioxide in
Venice. V. Fassina. Inquinamento, v. 19, No. 4, 1977, pp. 35-41
(Italian).
The amounts of SO2, Cl~, S04~^ and of particulate matter,
the causes of the destruction of Venice's architecture, were studied from
January 1972, to December 1973. In most cases pollution is higher in
winter than in summer.
2. Acropolis: Threat of Destruction. Time, January 31, 1977, p. 55.
The Acropolis, having resisted erosion and human assailants for 2,400
years is treatened to be destroyed by industrial air pollutants,
especially sulfur dioxide which rapidly corrodes the marble. Several
plans will be carried out to save the magnificent monument.
3. Alteration of Structural Stones in Venice: Action of Atmospheric Sulfur
on Carbonate Rocks. A. Altieri, R. Funiciello, E. L. Palmieri,
E. Lupia, and G. M. Zuppi. Ann. 1st Super. Sanita., v. 13, No. 1-2,
1977, pp. 331-342 (Italian).
Weathering of the facades on the Papadopoli Palace in Venice, which
was built with a calcareous stone, was studied. Isotopic analyses
showed the presence of several forms of CaSO^. Sulfur originated from
the sulfates in seawater, S02 from the combustion of hydrocarbons, and
H2S evolved by organic substances that foul the canals. Climatic
conditions play a significant role in the alteration of the stone,
especially in the autumn and in the winter.
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4. Causes fur Corrosion and Methods for Hardening Sedimentary Rocks.
J. Zelinger and P. Kotlik. Chemicke Listy, v. 71, No. 8, 1977,
pp. 838-863. (Czech)
The causes of corrosion of sedimentary rocks, especially of
sandstone, are discussed. The problem of marble and arenaceous marl is
also briefly mentioned.
5. Conference on Concrete in Aggressive Environments. Concrete Society of
Southern Africa, Pretoria, South Africa, (October 18-19, 1977),
Concrete Society of Southern African, Johannesburg, 1977.
Subjects discussed include concretes, reinforced concrete, corrosion,
water corrosion resistance, corrosion protection, heating, cooling,
surface finishing, cracks, stresses, strains.
6. Effects of Sulfur Dioxide on Materials. S. K. Gajendragadkar. Chem. Age
India, v. 28, No. 8, 1977, pp. 673-677. (Fe77-5)
7. Effects on Economic Materials and Structures. J. E. Yocon. and
J. B. Upham. Chapter 2 in Air Pollution, edited by A.C. Stern, Academic
Press, New York, N.Y., v. 2, 1977, pp. 65-116. (Fe77-6)
8. Guide to Durable Concrete. Committee Report. Committee 201, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, No. 74-53, December 1977, 37 pp.
Chapter 2, "Aggressive Chemical Exposure", summarizes research on
sulfate attacks and acid attack. There are apparently two chemical
reactions involved in sulfate attack on concrete.
1. Combination of sulfate with free calcium hydroxide (hvdrated
lime) liberated during the hydration of the cement, to form
calcium sulfate (gypsum).
2. Combination of gypsum and hyrated calcium aluminate to form
calcium su1foa1uminate (et t ri ng it e ).
Both of these reactions result in an increase in solid volume. The latter
is generally blamed for most of the expansion and disruption of concretes
caused by sulfate solutions.
In addition to the chemicals reactions, Tuthill and Reading cite
evidence that a purely physical action (not involving the cement),
crystallization of sulfate salts in the pores of the concrete, can
account for considerable damage. Reading also found that where heavy
sections are exposed to a strong sulfate solution on the backside, most
of the damage is confined to the outer surface adjacent to leaking
joints and cracks.
In general, port land cement does not have good resistance to acid
attack, although weak acids can be tolerated. The deterioration of
concrete by acids is primarily the result of reaction between these
chemicals and the calcium hydroxide of the hydrated port land cement. In
most cases the chemical reaction results in the formation of water-soluble
calcium compounds which are then leached away by the aqueous solutions.
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Oxalic and phospnoric acid are exceptions, because the resulting calcium
salts are insoluble in water and are not readily removed from the concrete
surface.
9. How the Acropolis Can Be Saved. C. Bouras. UNESCO Courier, v. 30, Oct.
1977, pp. 4-11.
The increase in stone deterioration, that has occured at the
Acropolis over the last forty years and the actions being taken to reduce
deterioration are discussed.
10. Measurement of Some Atmospheric Pollutants Taken in Venice Between Two
Stations on a Vertical Scale. V. Fassina. Inquinamento, v. 19, No. 6,
1977, pp. 53-58 (Italian).*
Sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sulfate, and chloride atmospheric
pollutants caused deterioration of building stone in Venice, Italy.
11. Reactivity of Treated and Untreated Marble in Carbon Dioxide Atmospheres.
K. L. Gauri, P. Tanjaruphan, M, A. Rao and T. Lipscomb. Trans.
Kentucky Academy of Science, v. 38, 1977, pp. 38-44.
Marble specimens were impregnated with certain epoxies and
f luorocarbon-acry1ic copolymers. The treated and untreated specimens
were exposed to, while immersed in deionized water, 0.983, 6.2, 8.23,
and 11.02 percent pC02 at 20°C in a dynamic system. The concentration of
leached Ca2+ in the water was determined by EDTA titrations and atomic
absorption. The values obtained by those methods were nearly identical.
The rate of reaction was based on the increment in Ca2"*" concentration as
a function of time. The equilibrium constant K, calculated from the
experimental data, had a value of 1.49 X 10""^, and compared well with
the value of 1.53 X 10~6 given by Garrels and McKenzie. Specimens
treated with fiuorocarbon-acry1ic compounds revealed only one-half
reactivity relative to untreated specimens in the initial phases of
reaction. Certain epoxies provided protection, other
epoxies actually enhanced the rate of reation. It is proposed that
pertinent data generated in t t.e course of this study be used as a basis
for quantitative performance criteria for stone and concrete
preservative treatments.
12. Research on Atmospheric Pollution in the City of Prato and on the
Degradation of Stone Materials. A. Desideri and E. Piccardi.
Inquinamento, v. 19, No, 5, 1977, pp. 41-44. (Italian)*
Air samples were taken daily from December 1975 through April 1976 in
various sections of the historic center of Prato, Italy, to measure
concentrations of HC1, SO2, and nitrogen oxides. Values for HC1 variea
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from 0.2 to 0.5 mg/m^ in all sections during the period while SO2
concentrations averaged 0.02 to 0.2 mg/m^. Analyses also were made of
stone building materials from the facade of St. Francis1 church to
determine Cl~ and SO^-^ content with a view to establishing a
possible relation between deterioration of the building and presence of
HCl and SO2 in the atmosphere.
13. Stone Deterioration at the Cologne Cathedral and Other Monuments Due to
Action of Air Pollutants. S. Luckat. Proc. 4th Int. Clean Air Congr.,
1977, pp. 128-130.
Air pollutants, especially SO2, contribute extensively to stone
damage on the Cologne Cathedral. Sulfur dioxide uptake rates are higher
in winter and increase with increasing elevation and wind speed. Stone
damage correlates well with SO2 uptake.
14. Stone Preservatives: Methods of Laboratory Testing and Preliminary
Performance Criteria. G. A. Sleater. NBS Tech. Note, v. 941, 1977, pp.
1-74.*
To evaluate preservatives for stone in historic buildings and
monuments a laboratory research program of accelerated simulated stone
decay was used to obtain data on over 50 materials used as stone
preservatives and to suggest criteria for their selection. Tests to
simulate stone decay were of 2 types: (1) exposure to combined
weathering factors using a special test chamber for accelerated decay,
in which chemical attack, salt and water action, and thermal effects
were simulated in one operation; and (2) exposure to single causes of
stone decay using H2SO3 fog, NaCl fog, water condensation/evaporation
cycling, NagSO^ penetration and crystallization, and IIV irradiation.
Methods for measuring the effects of the exposures are given together
with the test data; these have been used to set limits of acceptable
performance in preliminary performance criteria for the selection of
stone preservatives. The behavior of each stone preservative tested in
meeting these criteria is given.
15. The Acropolis in Danger. A. M. Bow. UNESCO Courier, v. 30, Feb. 1977,
pp. 4-6.
After resisting the onslaughts of weather and human assailants for
2,400 years, this magnificent monument, on which Ictinos and Phidias
left the imprint of their genius, is threatened with destruction as a
result of the damage which industrial civilization has increasingly
inflicted on it for a number of years.
16. The Crystallization and Efflorescence of Salts and Their Deteriorating
Effect on the Building Material. J. Sramek. Technicko-ekonomicke
Informace PSO, Nos. 5-6, 1977, pp. 27-35 (Czech).
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The physical and chemical interaction of water from ground seepage,
precipitation, or condensation on the walls is the main factor in
mobilization of soluble salts. The pressures produced during crystalliza-
tion are then comparable with those during freezing of water within the
pores. Because crystallization cycles (and hydration-dehydration cycles)
are much more probable in comparison with freezing-thawing cycles in the
Middle European climate, the salts seem to be the principal cause of decay
of monuments.
17. The Decay of Building Stones: A Literature Review. E. M. Winkler.
Bulletin, Association for Preservation Technology, v. 9, No. 4, 1977,
pp. 53-61.
The decay of building and decorative stone has caused concern for
centuries. Frost, solar radiation and the presence of salts are
instrumental in the mechanical destruction of rock and stone. The
processes of chemical weathering consist of the relatively simple
dissolution of carbonates and the very complex solubilization of
silicate minerals. The penetration of hydrogen ions into the crystal
lattice appears to be the most destructive factor in the weathering of
the feldspars. Microbial life often invades masonry and is a
significant deteriorating factor.
18. The Effect of Air Pollution on Buildings. J. Riederer. Handbuch des
Umweltschutzes, 1977, pp. T2.63.l-4 (German).
Recent investigations proved that increasing levels of sulfates in
the walls of historic buildings are due to mortars used in the 19th and
early 20th century, when cements with high amounts of sulfates were
used. On the the other hand, dark incrustations, which absorb SO2 and
transform it to sulfuric acid because of high amounts of catalytic
agents, may be highly corrosive for stone.
19. The Maintenance of Ancient Monuments in Greece. J. Riederer. Berl.
Beitr. Archaeom., v. 2, 1977, pp. 146-159 (German).
Ancient monuments in Greece are threatened by weathering. Soft
limestones decay rapidly; marbles are more resistant. Various forces of
natural weathering cause the decomposition of building stones, in
concert with ground moisture and efflorescence of salts. According to
the author, air pollution has no influence on the decay of stone even in
Athens. Biological attack may be very strong; lichen attack on marble
can frequently be observed. Visitors cause deterioration if they are
allowed to walk on ancient walls. Treatments are discussed.
20. Two Methods for Characterizing Weathering Processes of Inorganic Building
Materials. K. Niesel and P. Schimmelwitz. Materialpruefung, v. 19, No.
8, August 1977, pp. 310-314 (German).**
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This paper deals with two methods contributing to a better
understanding of the weathering processes of inorganic building
materials, especially under the effect of sulfurous air pollutants.
Both have been developed at the German Federal Republic's Institute of
Testing Materials. The weathering conditions at the building are
simulated by a device in which the specimens are subjected to a
continuous air flow with a given SO2 concentration (15 ppm) and at
alternative humidities for a longer time. As for most of these methods,
the time factor has to be replaced by intensifying the other influences.
In order to characterize layers of different mechanical strength running
parallel with the material surface, as found in the outer zone of
weathered building stones, their abrasion behavior may be used. This is
made possible by an apparatus in which loose abrasives are conducted
over the even surface of the specimen by a polished disk. The loss in
thickness per stress cycle serves as a measure for the abrasion
resistance of the material. The method is especially suitable for
testing medium hard to soft samples.
21. Weathering and Preservation of Ancient Building Material. B. Lai.
Studies in Museology, v. XII, 1976-77, pp. 28-43.
In this paper, the author has enumerated the different types of
stones used in the construction of monuments in the different parts of
India and has reviewed in general terms the effect on stone of various
factors like atmospheric impurities, water, plants and animals and human
vandalism and the various methods of treatment for conserving such
monuments and objects. Finally he details the different synthetic
preservatives for stone and their properties and application.
1976
1. A Recent Survey on Air Pollution in Venice in Relation to the
Deterioration of Marble and Stone. V. Fassina. Lithoclastia, v. 2,
No. 2, 1976, pp. 33-43.*
Atmospheric pollution by HC1 and S compounds, for example, S02,
sulfates, and l^SO^, deteriorated exposed marble and other stones.
Scanning electron microscopy of internal fracture surfaces in the
decayed layers showed abundant NaCl and CaSO^ crystals. The mechanism
of deterioration is discussed.
2. Accelerated Weathering Test for the Study of Stone Treatments. V. Furlan
and F. Girardet. The Conservation of Stone, Proc. of the Int. Syrap.,
Bologna (June 19-21, 1975), edited by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp.
713-729 (French).
Test samples are placed to form a wall between two chambers whose
atmosphere may be regulated to simulate external and internal air
conditions. Humidity and temperature cycles show that a surface
treatment may increase frost damage.
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3. Acid Precipitation. G. E. Likens. Chem. Eng. News, v. 54, No. 48, 1976,
pp. 29-31, 35-37, 42-44. (Fe76-1)
4. Air Pollution: A Select Bibliography. G. Marsh. ICCM Bulletin, v. 2,
No. 4, December 1976, pp. 21-24.
An annotated bibliography of articles, books, and indexes on the
subject of air pollution with particular reference to the conservation of
cultural materials.
5. Artificial Aging System of Stones Using Ammonium Bisulfate Solutions.
M. Marabelli, P. Rossi-Doria, and M. Tabasso-Laurenzi. The Conservation
of Stone, Proc. Int. Symp., Bologna (June 19-21, 1975), edited by
R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 763-776 (French).
Solutions of NH4HSO4 (2 to 5 percent) were used as artificial
aging systems for marble to simulate the attack on stone monuments and
buildings by a polluted atmosphere. The NH4HSO4 system caused a
loss in weight, absorption of water, and increased porosity in the
marble samples. This artificial aging system was compared with other
types of aging systems, such as freezing-thawing, and crystallization
with Na2SC>4.
6. Atmospheric Attack (Marbles) and Measures to Take. T. Skoulikidis,
D. Charalambous, P. Papakonstantinou. Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on the
Deterioration of Building Stones, Athens, 1976, pp. 327-345 (French).
The authors studied the effects of atmospheric attack on the surfaces
of the Acropolis sculptures. Three types of attack were identified:
sulfation, corrosion, and cracking with associated danger of detachment.
Photographs of the sculptures indicate the areas of each form of
deterioration. Gypsum layers 0 - 5mm thick are found in areas washed by
rain. Ruptures in the sulfate crust accelerates the attack of marble
beneath through zones of preferential topochemical action. Black areas
where colloidal deposits of soot are associated with sulfates crusts in
areas not washed by rain, and were the polish has worn away.
7. Behavior of Some Soluble Salts in Stone Deterioration. A. Arnold. Proc.
2nd Int. Symp. on the Deterioration of Building Stones, Athens, 1976,
pp. 27-35.
Analytical experiments wer conducted for 2 years at a number of
buildings in restoration, to study, the composition, behavior and origin
and observations (on the most common soluble salts which are the
chlorides, nitrates, carbonates, sulfates and their behavior on building
materials) are presented and discussed.
8. Brick, Adobe, Stone, and Architectural Ceramics: Deterioration Processes
and Conservation Practices. G. Torraca. Preprint from Preservation and
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Conservation: Principles and Practices, edited i>y Sharon Timnoris, The
Preservation Press, 1976, pp. 143-165.
The following subjects are discussed: deterioration processes of
hard masonry materials (porosity and water; chemical processes, access of
water (by rain, or directly through air); wind, mechanical stresses and
thermal cycles; biological action; study and diagnosis of deterioration
processes); conservation practices of hard masonry materials:
(conservation of stone, plastic, architectural ceramics); and
deterioration processes and conservation of soft masonry materials such as
c 1 ay.
Chemoautrophic Microorganisms in Semi-Insulated Environment.
L. Barcellona-Vero, C. Bettini, and M. Monte-Si la. Proc. 2nd Int. Symp.
on the Deterioration of Building Stones, Athens, 1976, pp. 61-65.
Researches were carried out at the two Estrucan tombs to:
(I) ascertain the spreading of sulfur and nitrogen cycle bacteria on
stone materials of this specific environment in relation to those of open
air environments; (2) to establish the relationship between heterophobic
and autotrophic microflora; (3) to correlate the kind of biological
colonization to the pecularities of the tombs (structure, tine of opening,
etc . ) .
Climatic Chamber for Laboratory Experiments on the System Sulfur
Dioxide--Wet Marble—Airborne Particles. S. Fuzzi and 0. Vittori. The
Conservation of Stone, Proc. Int. Symp., Rologna (June 19-21, 1975),
edited by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 651-661.
A climatic chamber was constructed for laboratory evaluation of the
chemical and physical parameters of atmospheric SC^-wet marble—air-
borne particles system. In the chamber, both fixed climatic conditions
(temperature, humidity, etc.) and realistic pollution (SO2 and particles)
levels can be easily obtained. Moreover, thermodynamic runs, reproducing
those assumed to occur in nature, can allow long-term damages to marble
samples to be visualized in a short series of experiments. The nicroscale
pattern of marble deterioration can be observed in detail by usin s, 35S0
Conservation of Monuments. 2nd Session of the 24th National Congress of
the Assoc. Termotecnica Italiana, Florence (September 25-27, 1974).
Antonio Barbieri, Viale Premuda 2, Milano, 1976, 252 pp. (Italian).
(OM7b-4)
Conservation of Natural Stone. L. Arnold, D. B. Iloneyborne, and C. A.
Price. Chemistry and Industry (London), v. 8, April 17, 1976,
pp. 345-347.
To preserve stone, the major destructive agent which should be
excluded is water. Limestones react with sulfur dioxide dissolved in rain
water to form calcium sulphate which decays the stone by repeated
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crystallization. The crystallization of ice is another decay mechanism.
The more promising materials being used to impregnate stone are alkoxy
silanes, low molecular weight epoxy resins and waxes. Those treatments
serve to restore or increase the tensile strength of the stone and thus
making them more resistant to crystallization forces or to make the salts
inaccessible to water.
Contribution to the Study of the Alteration of Buildings of the Acropolis.
P. De Henau and M. Dupas. Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on the Deterioration of
Building Stones, Athens, 1976, pp. 319-325 (French).
Samples from Athenian marble monuments, namely, the Parthenon, Agora,
Poseidon temple, and Delphi were examined to determine to causes of
deterioration and alteration for conservation purposes. The samples
contained soluble salts, as SO4"2, NO3", N02~, CI", Ca, Na, and
Mg, the levels of Cl~ and NO3 being <0.5 percent in nearly all
samples. Sample surfaces also exhibited mosses and dark brown and
greenish brown algae. The acidity of rainwater, enhanced by industrial
air pollutants, appeared to have an effect on marble corrosion.
Photomicrographs of the samples are presented.
Control of Moss, Lichen and Algae on Stone. B. A. Richardson. The
Conservation of Stone, Proc. of the Intern. Symp., Bologna (June 19-21,
1975), edited by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 225-231.
The growth of moss, algae and lichen depends on the nature of stone,
the climatic conditions and the degree of pollution. Polluted atmospheres
prevent the growth, but the biological activity is still present. On the
basis of some tests, two formulations are recommended for the prevention
of growth of moss, algae and lichen.
Decay of Pietra Serena and Pietraforte, Florentine Building Stones. V.
Relationships Between Mineralogical-Petrographic and Chemical Analyses.
A. Bencini, P. G. Malesani, and S. A. Vannucci. Conservazione dei
Monumenti, 1976, pp. 121-124 (Italian).
The deterioration processes of two sandstones widely used in Florence
have been studied by mineralogical-petrographical techniques and X-ray
diffraction. Carbonates are dissolved and precipitated in the outer
zone of the stone. Sulfates may be the products of the metabolic
activity of sulfur-bacteria.
Effects of Air Pollution on Building Materials in Monuments. G. Torraca.
Conservazione dei Monumenti, 1976, pp. 7-13 (Italian).
Air pollution causes a modification of deterioration processes
resulting in an increased rate of attack or in deterioration of materials
which are weather-resistant in non-polluted environments. Present
conservation processes are rather efficient but their results are
ephemeral if treated materials remain exposed to an aggressive
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environment. The safety of cultural property exposed to environment a 1
deterioration depends upon the operation of protection systems and
maintenance services.
17. Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants on the Composition of Ulack Crusts
Deposited on Venetian Marbles and Stones. V. Fassina, L. Lazzarini,
and G. Priscondin. Proc. 2nd Int. Synp. on the Deterioration of
Building Stones, Athens, 1976, pp. 201-211.
In this paper, the concentration of trace elements present in air and
in black crusts have been taken into consideration in order to identify
their role in the corrosion processes. Moreover, the authors looked to
correlate the analyses of atmospheric pollutants, total soluble sulfate
and chlorides, with those of black crusts deposited on the surfaces of
monuments. Attention was focused on secondary pollutants because the
authors believed that the aerosol particles play an important role.
18. Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on Materials: A Chamber Study.
F. ii, Hayoie, J. W. Spence, and J. B. Upham. isTIS Report Ptt-251580,
1976, 98 pp. (Fe76-5)
19. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocori and
N. Grappone. Research Corporation of New England, Wet hersfie1d,
Connecticut, NTIS Report PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp. (Fe76-b)
20. Effects of Pollutants on the Deterioration of Objects of Art in Stone—
State of the Researches at the Secteur Sauvegarue1 at Bordeaux. J. G.
Faugere, F. Inffau, B. Salineres, and J. Sufori. Proc. 2nd Int. Syrnp.
on the Deterioration of Building Stones, Athens, 1976, pp. 111-115
(French).
The paper presents the results obtained from a study which has five
main objectives: (1) study of the facades of stones; (2) study of the
geology and hydro-geology of the underground; (3) study of the
atmospheric pollution from 1969-1975 by S0X, N0X, particulates
and pH; (4) study of the rocks, the formation of black deposits, and
procedures of cleaning, and (5) study in the laboratory—special
researches (efforts of the deposits and the migrations of pollutants).
21. Frequency, Forms, and Causes of Deterioration of Greek Marbles and Stones
in Venice. L. Lazzarini and R. Begolli. Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on the
Deterioration of Building Stones, Athens, 1976, pp. 249-255.
The first part of this paper cites the different types of marbles and
stones in Venice. The second part describes the forms and causes of the
deterioration, and the degree of resistance of each kind of marble and
stone.
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22. Fundamentals of Atmospheric Corrosion. G. Oelsner and W. Hoepfner.
Werkst. Korros., v. 27, No. 5, 1976, p. 354. (OM76-8)
23. Honeycomb weathering—Conditions for Onset and Evolution. J. P. Pauly.
The Conservation of Stone, Proc. of the Int. Symp., Bologna (June 19-
21, 1975), edited by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 55-80 (French).
Maladie alveolaire is a type of stone deterioration characterized by
localized powdering and is connected to two principal factors:
hygroscopic salts and hygrometric variations. Areas of facade
associated with higher wind turbulence are also areas with greater
honeycomb weathering. In laboratory experiments, the form of weathering
is dependent upon hygrometric conditions and provide the basis for
explaining observed differences in weathering as a function of exposure
to rain.
24. Influence of Sulfur Bacteria on the Deterioration of the Stones of Some
Historical Buildings in France. P. Tiano and R. Bianchi. Conservazione
dei. Monumenti, 1976, pp. 133-135 (Italian).
The possibility of a connection between the presence of sulfur
bacteria and of gypsum on decayed stones is studied. A statistical
analysis of the results obtained seems to support such a possibility. A
technique is suggested to confirm these results.
25. Inquiry and Study on the Cologne Cathedral and Its Building Material. S.
Luckat. Schrift. Lik, v. 37, 1976, pp. 112-122 (German).*
During six centuries, a variety of natural rock types have been used
in the construction and maintenance of the cathedral, and pollutants in
the surrounding atmosphere have caused varying degrees of damage. In
1972-5 the extent and nature of such damage was evaluated systematically
at various locations and at elevations >100 meters. Protective measures
for the cathedral against the pollutants (SO2, F~, and Cl~) are
suggested.
26. Interaction of Sulfur Dioxide With Lime Plasters. D. Hoffmann,
P. Schimmelwitz, and H. Rooss. Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on the
Deterioration of Building Stones, Athens, 1976, pp. 37-42.
Plasters are artificially weathered at a 15 ppm concentration of
SO2 but at a concentration of CO2 similar to the one in nature and
at a constant temperature of 20° C and changing relative humidities
(from 50 to 100 percent). Gypsum and calcium are identified as
weathering products of lime plasters. For other varieties of plasters
other weathering products are correspondingly formed. The mechanisms of
the actions of gypsum and magnesium sulfite or magnesium sulfate on lime
plasters are presented and discussed. The results show that those
mechanisms are very complex. Furthermore, the artificial weathering
does not give comparable results with those of natural weathering.
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Therefore, more laboratory tests must be carried out and the observation
of naturally weathered plasters has to be elaborated.
27. Investigations on the Decay of Candoglia Marble Used in the Milan Duomo.
G. Alessandrini, R. Peruzzi, and L. De Capitani. The Conservation of
Stone, Proc. of the Intern. Symp., Bologna (June 19-21, 1975), edited by
R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 137-167.
Marble samples taken from different parts of the Duomo have been
first examined from the mineralogical-petrological point of view. Their
structural and physical characteristics were determined. To complete
the study, an investigation was conducted of the historical
environmental trends from the mid 1800's to 1973. The final result
shows that the degradation of Candoglia marble undergoes both physical
and chemical decay which depends mainly on its structural
characteristics and secondarily on its physical properties.
28. Isolation of Various Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria From Stone Monuments.
L. Barcellona-Vero and M. Monte-Sila. The Conservation of Stone, Proc.
of the Intern. Symp., Bologna (June 19-21, 1975), edited by
R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 233-244.
Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria were isolated in pure cultures from marble,
travertine and tufa monuments located in urban and rural environments.
Differences in the behavior of various strains of bacteria are shown.
29. Laboratory Measurement of Sulfur Dioxide Deposition Velocities on Selected
Building Materials and Soils. H. S. Judeikis and T. B. Stewart. Atmos.
Environ., v. 10, No. 9, 1976, pp. 769-776.*
Sulfur dioxide deposition velocities on cements, stuccos, soils, and
asphalt were measured in the laboratory using a cylindrical flow
reactor. The data were analyzed using models that specifically account
for diffusive transport in the system. The values range from 0.04
cm/sec for asphalt to 2.5 cm/sec for cement and were independent of
SO2 and oxygen concentrations, relative humidity, and total pressure.
Overall capacities increased significantly at moderate relative
humidities yielding values of 0.4 to 2.8 g S02/m^ of solid in moist
systems. The reactivity of a solid subjected to prolonged SO2
exposures could be restored by washing the surface with distilled water
or exposing the spent solid to NH3.
30. Microprobe Investigations on Incrusted as Weil as Cleaned Marble
Specimens. E. Hoke. Proc. 2nd. Int. Symp. on the Deterioration of
Building Stones, Athens, 1976, pp. 119-126.
Microprobe analysis is used to study crusts on marble samples to
determine appropriate cleaning and restoration processes. Untreated
samples and samples impregnated with silicone esters were exposed to
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S02 at a flow rate of 3ra/sec for one week in wet and dry conditions.
The mechanisms of corrosion and crust formation are described.
31. Natural Dust and Acid Rain. E. M. Winkler. Water and Soil Pollution,
v. 6, 1976, pp. 295-302.
Atmospheric dust originates from three sources: terrestrial airborne
matter, volcanic, and cosmic. Terrestrial natural dust makes up the
main bulk reflecting the soil composition up to 150 miles away. Soil
erosion from flood plains, plowed fields and construction sites is the
main source. Quartz, feldspar, the carbonates in the atmosphere
interact with rainwater converting the carbonates to benign gypsum
(CaSO^^^O). Naturally leached soils produce less calcite than
unweathered sediments on flood plains and construction sites, and in
granitic and crystalline rocks less than in limestone areas.
Heavy industrialization associated with high emission of C0£ and
S02 on the one hand, and excess production of dust on the other, appears
to counteract man's interference with natural ecosystems in the opposite
direction.
32. Outdoor Weathering: Its Objectives and Limits. F. Rosendahl. Proc. 13th
FATIPEC Congress, Cannes, 1976, pp. 563-567 (German). (OM76-13).
33. Physical and Economic Damage Functions for Air Pollutants by Receptors.
B. Liu and E. S. Yu. Report No. EPA-600/5-76-011, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, September 1976, 172 pp. (Fe76-13)
34. Present State of the Research Carried Out in France on Hydrophobic
Materials. J. Taralon and G. Orial. The Conservation of Stone, Proc.
of the Intern. Symp., Bologna (June 19-21, 1975), edited by R. Rossi-
Manaresi, 1976, pp. 455-476 (French).
The study of ten hydrophobic products tested on two types of stone,
sandtone and limestone, is reported. Test methods include: depth of
penetration, artificial weathering cycles (ultraviolet and acid
atmosphere), freeze-thaw cycles, air permeability, evaporation, natural
aging, and crystallization of sulfates.
35. Protection by Cleaning and Conservation. J. Riederer. Das
Gebaudereiniger-Handwerk, No. 2, 1976, pp. 14-15 (German).
(OM76-18)
36. Reaction of Sulfur Dioxide With Limestone and the Grain Model. M. Hartman
and R. W. Coughlin. Amer. Inst. Chem. Engr. J., v. 22, No. 3, 1976, pp.
490-498.*
Experimental measurements of the reaction of S02 and oxygen with
limestones have demonstrated substantial influence of the geological
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origin of the stone, its porosity and particle size, gaseous concentration
of SO2 and temperature on the course of reaction, and the conversion (that
is, the degree of utilization of the limestone content of the particles as
a solvent for SO2). A mathematical model including intraparticle
transport and chemical reaction within the particles (grain theory) was
developed to simulate this S02 sorption reaction.
37. Relations Between Corrosion of Sandstones and Uptake Rates of Air
Pollutants at the Cologne Cathedral. Y. Efes and S. Luckat. Proc. 2nd.
Int. Symp. on the Deterioration of Building Stones, Athens, 1976,
pp. 193-200.*
A correlation exists between the high uptake rates of SO2 and the
SO^-2 content in the corrosion layers of the stones. A considerable
increase in the S02 content in the corrosion layers from the interior to
the exterior point was observed at a significant participation of
l^SO^ for the formation of corrosion products. Mean values of the
uptake of CI, S02, and F are given. Non-siliceous cement, that is,
dolomite and calcite, influenced the corrosion.
38. Replacement of Steel Connectors by Titanium Alloys. S. Angel ides.
Chapter in The Acropolis - Hellenic Republic, Ministry of Culture and
Science, Athens, Greece, 1976, pp. 95-96. (OM76-19)
39. Restoration of Ancient Deteriorated Marble Art Objects: Reversal of
Sulfation-Utilization of Calcium Sulfate Dihydrate and Transformation
of Calcium Carbonate. T. Skoulikidis, P. Papakonstantinou, and
D. Charalambous. Proc. 2nd. Int. Symp. on the Deterioration of Building
Stones, Athens, 1976, pp. 171-178 (French).
The reversal of the sulfation of surfaces of ancient marble art
objects on which gypsum formed was described. This reversal utilizes
the reaction CaSO^HjO + C02 * CaC03 + S03 + H20 using a C02 pressure
of 1 atm and a temperature of 25* C. Differential thermal analysis is
used to measure the amount of CaCOg formed. Applications of the method
on Acropolis statues and monuments are discussed.
40. Rock Alteration in a Natural Environment in Understanding Degradation of
Monuments. R. Pellizzer and G. Sabatini. The Conservation of Stone,
Proc. of the Intern. Symp., Bologna (June 19-21, 1975), edited by
R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 3-22.
Weathering processes of silicate rocks are outlined in some detail.
The author points out the weakest point in our knowledge concerns not
the mechanism but the rate of mineral alteration.
41. Seasonal Conditions Influence Sulfur Bacteria Development on Monuments
Exposed to the Open Air. L. Barcellona-Vero and M. Monte-Sila.
Conservazione Dei Monumenti, 1976, pp. 12 128 (Italian).
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By microbiological analyses on samples drawn from various monuments
in Rome, a presence of oxidative sulfur bacteria as thiobacillus and
reducing sulfur bacteria as desulfur has been noticed.
42. Soluble Salts and Stone Weathering. A. Arnold. The Conservation of
Stone. Proc. of the Intern. Symp., Bolongna (June 19-21, 1975), edited
by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 133-135.
The observations on the efflorescences of soluble salts from 50
samples summerized as follows:
1. The presence and nature of soluble salts are independent from the
kind of stone. They are found on different rock types as well as on
mortars and plasters.
2. The efflorescences appear preferentially in winter time and they
tend to disappear in summer time.
3. Hie efflorescences are concentrated on certain parts of the
buildings such as: the upper zone of rising water, the zones below
terraces, cornices and roofs which are not tight, the zones beside
defective gutters and zones adjacent to tight basal stones.
4. The soluble salts migrate with the water in and out of the stone as
well as along the surfaces of the stone. Small amounts distributed
over a large surface may be concentrated by rain water on small
areas where they give rise to accelerated deterioration. It can
also be observed that the salts migrate during and after each period
of rain.
43. Stones and Marbles in Venice and their Decay. L. Lazzarini. The
Conservation of Stone, Proc. of the Intern. Symp., Bologna (June 19-21,
X975), edited by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 169-187.
The paper discusses a recording program, identifying the varieties of
stone used in Venetion monuments, both exterior and interior and the dates
of their erection. Tabulations of deterioration by date, locations, and
stone type are presented.
44. Stone Deterioration at the Cologne Cathedral Due to Air Pollution.
S. Luckat. The Conservation of Stone, Proc. of the Intern. Symp.,
Bologna (June 19-21, 1975), edited by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 37-43*
The immission rate measuring apparatus (IRMA) has been used to
determine the amount of SO2, CI and F absorbed by the stone of the
Cologne Cathedral. The monitoring equipment and locations are
described. First year data, compared with iron corrosion, are
reported.
45. Structural Analysis of Monuments. S. Angelides. Chapter in the
Acropolis, Hellenic Republic, Ministry of Culture and Science, Athens
Greece, 1976, pp. 19-22. (Fe76-16)
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46. Surface Reactivity of Marble and Stone: Quarry and Altered Samples.
B. Badan, G. Bacelle, and L. Marchesini. The Conservation of Stone,
Proc. of the Intern. Symp., Bologna (June 19-21, 1975), edited by
R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 89-101.
The reasons why two types of limestones, Carrara marble and Istrian
stone, show different behaviour in the presence of oxygenated compounds
of sulfur are clarified.
Samples both from the quarry or artificially alterated or left in the
open air for long periods were exposed to sulfuric acid attack either in
solution or in aerosol form; the formation of gypsum was followed with
the aid of a scanning electornic microscopy.
The growth of crystals mainly of acicular form in the alterated areas
was observed, while in the other areas of crystals had a lamellar aspect.
47. Tests on the Effectiveness of a Treatment to Conserve Milan Cathedral. G.
Alessandrini and R. Peruzzi. Lithoclastia, v. 2, No. 2, 1976, pp. 17-
31.
Specimens of Candoglia marble taken from the quarry and the Cathedral
were treated with the acrylic resin employed on the Cathedral facade.
Structural, chemical and physical analyses were carried out by scanning
electron microscope, X-ray spectrometer, X-ray diffractor, and
porosimeter. Treated and untreated samples were subjected to artificial
weathering to check their behavior. The artificial weathering was
obtained through exposure to freeze/thaw cycles (-10® C/+20" C) alternated
with exposure to a controlled atmosphere of SO2 (80 ppm) in a dynamic
system. The decay was monitored by structural, chemical and physical
analyses.
48. The Cologne Cathedral—Stone Deterioration, Atmospheric Pollution and
Protective Treatment. S. Luckat. Nachrichten aus Cheroie und Technik,
v. 24, No. 13, 1976, pp. 283-285 (German).
A summary account of the many kinds of stone used in the Cologne
Cathedral since 1248 A.D., the effects of atmospheric pollution
(principally sulfur dioxide) on these stones, and the conservation
measures now being taken.
49. The Corrosive Action of Salts. T. Stambolov. Lithoclastia, v. 2, No. 1,
1976, pp. 3-8 (French).
The corrosive mechanisms of salts in a brick wall are reviewed.
50. The Deterioration and Conservation of Porous Building Materials in
Monuments: A Review of the Literature. T. Stambolov and J. R. J. Van
Asperen de Boer. ICROM, Rome, 2nd editor, 1976, 70 pp.
A critical review of literature on such topics as weathering by moisture
and salts, moisture in porous building materials, frost damage, wind
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erosion, insulation, deterioration by biological agents, fire damage,
remedial measures against moisture, cleaning, consolidation and protection
is presented.
51. The Flow of a Thin Layer of Warm Air Induces a "Wind-Shield Effect" Which
Combats Deterioration, Caused by Air Pollution, of Internal Wall
Decoration of Churches. G. Massari and I. Massari. The Conservation of
Stone, Proc. of the Intern. Symp., Bologna (June 19-21, 1975), edited by
R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 421-428.
Humidity in buildings can be controlled in two ways: insertion of
damp-proof-courses in the walls to combat rising humidity, and modifica-
tion of the climate by heating the air which is in contact with the
walls. Experiments show that the relative humidity near the wall may be
reduced by about 5 percent by means of a heating wire (50 calories/hour
per meter length) embedded in the floor near the wall. Reduction of
surface relative humidity should reduce deposition of pollutants and
water-related deterioration processes.
52. The Ideal of the Ideal Environment. G. W. Rogers. J. Intern. Institute
Conserv. - Canadian Group, v. 2, No. 1, Autumn 1976, pp. 34-39.
Various workers have, in the past, proposed constant levels of
temperature, humidity, light and pollution which would constitute such an
ideal environment for many types of materials. These levels are examined,
the practical problems of creating and maintaining some of them are
discussed and an attempt is made to evaluate the feasibility of a constant
environment in the light of Canadian construction and climatic
restrictions. From this study, control based on maximum and minimum
acceptable levels appears feasible and these levels could form a basic set
of environmental control guidelines for museums, galleries and archives in
Canada.
53. The Importance of Preliminary Research Into Biological Factors Before
Restoration of Works of Art. S. B. Curri. Atti Convegno Di Studi Sul
Restauro Delle Opere D'Arte a Dieci Anni Dal 1'A1luvione, v. i, No. I,
November 2-7, 1976 (Italian).
Biological and biochemical action co-operate to degrade marble, sand-
stone, carbonate and silicate rocks. Methods of research are described
for the diagnosis of stone disease. Complete and correct disinfection
must precede all treatment of consolidation, cleaning and restoration to
avoid costly and difficult recovery.
54. The Limestone of Touraine and Its Alteration. J. Cautru. The
Conservation of Stone, Proc. of the Intern. Symp., Bologna (June 19-21,
1975), edited by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 103-131 (French).
A comparative petrographic study was made of deteriorated and non-
deteriorated stone. In decayed samples two main alterations are
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described: surface granular alteration and exfoliation. It seems that
frost, crystallization of the calcium sulfate, and dissolution of the
carbonates by acid water are not sufficient to explain the decay.
Perhaps the dissolution of silica is responsible for the loss of the
cohesion of this material.
55. Weathered Stone: Proposals for the Standardization of Surface Sample
taking and analysis. F. Guidobaldi and G. Santariga. The Conservation
of stone, Proceed. International Symp., Bologna (June 19-21, 1975),
edited by, R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976 pp. 777-789.
The results of anslyses carried out on weathered stone by various
researchers are often not comparable owing to the different methods of
taking samples and analyses.
To standardize these methods, we have designed an instrument for
taking samples from monument surfaces to controlled depth and we have
studied the repeatibility of some methods of analysis applied to the
decay compounds that can be found more frequently in stone.
The results obtained are discussed.
56. Weathering Rates of Stone in Urban Atmospheres. E. M. Winkler. The
Conservation of Stone, Proc. Int. Symp., Bologna (June 19-21, 1975),
edited by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976, pp. 27-36.*
The decay rate of stone in urban areas is discussed. Corrosive CO2
SO2, and other ingredients in the air, temperature, fog, decreased
wind speed, soluble salts and other factors accelerate the decay rate.
Urban weather conditions and compared to desert climates.
1975
1. A Suggested Model for SO2 - Wet Marble-Airborne Particles Atmospheric
System. 0. Vittori and S. Fuzzi. ICOM Committee for Conservation, 4th
Triennial Meeting, Venice (October 1975), Int. Council of Museums, Paris
No. 5-7, 1975, 3 pp.
A model for computing the SO^-2 formed by catalytic oxidation of
SO2 contained in water condensed upon marble surfaces is presented. It
derives from a model, tested both in the laboratory and in the field,
which describes SO2 transformation in haze and fog droplets.
Studies on the S02-NH3~liquid water system, both in the laboratory
and in natural environments, show that atmospheric particles play an
important role in the chemical transformation of atmospheric S02 in hazes
and fogs.
2. Analysis of SOg/CaCOg Reaction on the Marble Surfaces of Venice Buildings
by Radiochemical and Optical Methods. A. Breccia, S. Fuzzi, and 0.
Vittori. ICOM Committee for Conservation, 4th Triennial Meeting, Venice
(October 1975), Int. Council of Museums, Paris, No. 4-2, 1975, 11 pp.
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On the basis of a theoretical model suggested by 0. Vittori and his
co-workers, the oxidation of S02 in CaSO^ on Venice marble surfaces has
been investigated by non-destructive techniques (radiotracers and
optical methods). Samples of Venice marble have been subjected in the
chamber to cycles of heating and cooling in 35S02 atmosphere with high
relative humidity. Other samples have been taken in wet conditions to
compare them to the previous ones. Some sample surfaces were partially
covered by Venice air particles and FeCl2 as S02 oxidation catalysers.
This kind of "stone sickness", that is, the S02 transformation in
stable CaS04, seems mainly to be caused by the pollution particles as
well as the effect of atmospheric conditions, that is, heating and
cooling of Venice stone and marble surfaces.
3. Belgian Research on the Weathering of Externally Exposed Calcareous
Stones. M. Kupper. Lithoclastia, v. 1, No. 2, 1975, pp. 9-18.
An account is given of the determination of the rates of erosion of
calcareous stones when exposed to various environments. The influence
of such factors as orientation, biological growths, height above ground,
and the proximity of industrial sites is considered. The minimum
average dissolution velcocity of "petit granite" exposed in the open in
the Liege region is 0.25 mm/century.
4. Envirnomental Exposure System of Studying Air Pollution Damage to
Materials. J. W. Spence, F. D. Stump, F. H. Haynie, and J. B. Upham.
NTIS Report PB - 240615, 1975, 46 pp. (Fe75-ll)
5. Exfoliation of Stone Sculptures: Review of Researches Carried Out on
Italian Monuments With Particular Regard to the Reliefs by Wiligelmo on
the Cathedral of Modena. R. Rossi-Manaresi. ICOM Committee for
Conservation, 4th Triennial Meeting, Venice (October 1975), Int.
Council of Museums, Paris, No. 5-3, 1975, 24 pp.
Experimental researches carried out on sandstones and marble showing
decay by exfoliation, demonstrated that the alteration mechanism mainly
consists of the dissolving of calcitic cement, or of the edges of the
calcite granoblasts, made by acid water, followed by crystallization
near the surface of the newly formed salts. The repetition of the
process leads to the formation of a hard surface skin with loss of
cohesion of the underneath stone; the skin loses its support and
exfoliation begins.
Carbon dioxide was sufficient, as an acid agent, in the past, to
bring about an advanced decay by exfoliation in bad quality stones such
as the sandstones studied. This type of decay was only observed in
marbles that at the beginning of the industrial pollution had already
endured centuries of natural weathering. Marbles that were new around
that time and marble that before that time were placed in a museum still
show a compact surface.
The phenomenon of the exfoliation can however also be observed in
stones in a good state of preservation. Treatments carried out, perhaps
last century, with mixtures based on calcium hydroxide, formed hard
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skins on carved surfaces which today, before analysis, were taken for an
indication of decay. The skins formed by those treatments contain, in
general, 50 to 70 percent gypsum; in cross section they appear clearly
superimposed on the stone, still compact and with its surface perfectly
outlined. On the contrary, surface skins formed by decay are not
sharply divided from the underlying stone, since the stone structure is
changing gradually from the inner to the outer zone. Moreover the decay
skins were found to contain at the most 25 percent gypsum, in the worst
condit ion.
6. Soiling of Building Materials. N. J. Beloin and F. H. Haynie. J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., v. 25, 1975, pp. 399-403.
Building materials (painted cedar siding, concrete block, brick,
limestone, asphalt, shingles, and window glass) were exposed at five
sites in Birmingham, Alabama to determine the rate of soiling by
different levels of suspended particulates.
7. Stone: Properties and durability in Man's Environment. E. M. Winkler.
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1975, 230 pp.
Stone is the primary building material of the earth's crust; in its
basic function it has appealed to man's most primitive needs and has
stimulated his artistic sense since the dawn of civilization. Obelisks,
pyramids and colossal stone sculptures of early cultures reached
astonishing perfection both in excellence of workmanship and in
technique of stone transport.
Despite its antiquity, stone is regaining great popularity as a
building material through a revolution in the art of quarrying and
finishing. Unlimited combinations of stone textures and colors offer
the architect a wide range of applications. Stone: Properties and
Durability in Man's Environment, surveys the scientific principles
regarding the important stone properties pertinent to the architect's,
the engineer's and the stone producer's needs.
Our attention to lasting stone beauty and proper maintenance has
increased in recent years in proportion to the acceleration in visible
damage to stone exposed to polluted urban air and waters. Time-lapse
pictures underscore this theme: they show, since the beginning of
industrialization, near-exponential acceleration of stone decay on a
statue in the heavily industrialized Rhein-Ruhr area of northwestern
Germany. The study of stone in its manifold interactions with a complex
and hostile environment can only be understood if all components are
explored, including the nature of weathering agents themselves. The
information is as applicable to concrete aggregate stone as to building
stones and ornamental stones.
8. Study of Some Gaseous and Particulate Pollutants in the Atmosphere of
Venice (1972-1973) and Their Effect on the Deterioration of Istrian
Stone. M. A. Bertolaccini, A. C. Monteriolo, V. Fassina, and G.
Torraca. ICROM, 1975, 45 pp.
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This is the first report of one of the three groups who joined the
International Center for the Conservation of Cultural Property to
conduct a study on atmospheric pollution in Venice and its effect on the
stone of monuments. The present report gives data on gaseous and
particulate pollutant concentrations over a period of two years and the
mechanism of transport of pollutants on stone. Besides SO2, the
concentration of secondary pollutants such as sulfates, chlorides, and
total acidity, were also monitored. The aerosol compositions were also
stud ied.
9. Sulfur Dioxide and Material Damage. D. G. Gillette. J. Air Pollution
Control Assn., v. 25, No. 12, December 1975, pp. 1238-1243. (Fe75-17)
10. The Deterioration and Conservation of Porous Building Materials In
Monuments. T. Stambolov and J. R. J. van Asperen de Boen. ICOM
Committee for Conservation, 4th Triennial Meeting, Venice (October
1975), Int. Council of Museums, Paris, No. 5-8, 1975, 14 pp.
The most relevant literature published since 1969 is briefly
reviewed. The evidence for air pollution as a factor in stone decay is
d iscussed.
11. The Effects of Air Pollution on the Building Fabric of the Cologne
Cathedral. III. S. Luckat. Kolner Dombladt, v. 40, 1975, pp. 75-108
(German).
Testing of fifteen proprietary stone consolidants is reported,
carried out on triplicate samples of the seven types of stone found in
the Cologne cathedral: four types of sandstone, trachyte, basalt, and a
fossiliferous limestone.
12. Types of Weathering of the Stone at the Cathedral in Cologne. A. Wolff.
Arbeitsblatter fur Restauratoren, No. 1, Group 6, 1975, pp. 52-63
(German).
The architect of the cathedral in Cologne discusses weathering of the
various stones that were used for a 700 year period. Only basaltic lava
was found to be absolutely stable. The content of hydrochloric acid,
sulfur dioxide and hydrofluoric acid in the air is primarily responsible
for the destruction, as was determined by exact measurements.
Deteriorated parts of the cathedral are replaced by new stones; weak
areas are hardened with a silicic acid ester.
1974
1. Artificial Weathering—Is It a Useful Method? W. Papenroth. Defazet—
Deutsche Farben-Z, v. 28, No. 6, 1974, pp. 282-284.
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The actual state of the art in artificial weathering and the use of
different weathering and radiation devices are discussed on the basis of
recent results. It is demonstrated that well defined weathering
conditions should only be applied to different samples and model
substances. Care has to be taken in testing numerous parameters
s imultaneously.
Atmospheric Pollution in the Historic Center of Venice. V. Fassina.
Inquinamento, v. 16, No. 1, 1974, pp. 21-27 (Italian).*
Sulfur dioxide and hydrochloric acid, suspected to be directly or
indirectly responsible for the rapid deterioration of stone in monuments
and objects of art, were measured in Venice; 24-hour samples of air were
collected almost daily between June, 1972 and May, 1973. The average
monthly concentration of SC>2 was 0.037 mg/m^ in June to 0.258
mg/m-* in November. Higher levels were consistently found in the
winter months. Hydrochloric acid concentrations were 0.019 to 0.050
mg/m^, with no seasonal changes. The environmental data support the
hypothesis that SO2 and HC1 are involved in the destruction of stone
monuments.
Current State of Knowledge of Stone Alterations. Causes and Methods of
Treatment. G. Torraca. Mater. Constr. (Paris), v. 7, No. 42, 1974,
pp. 375-386 (French).
Stone deterioration is reviewed.
Decay and Its Prevention in Natural Stone. K. L. Gauri. Trans.
Kentucky. Acad. Sci., v. 35, No. 1-2, 1974, pp. 29-36.
Two basic types of weathering were studied. Highly compact rocks
such as marble and granite develop a zone of weathering which is quite
distinct relative to the texture of the parent rock, and is
characterized by reduced specific gravity and augmented capillarity. In
less compact rocks such as limestone and sandstone, the pore space in
the zone of weathering becomes plugged due to recrystallization of salts
obtained by the solution of the parent rock. Two approaches for the
preservation of stone are: (1) changing the chemistry of the stone so
that the resulting substance is more resistant to atmospheric attack;
and (2) providing a protective coating and a cement between dislodged
grains by means of impregnation with synthetic organic materials.
Water-repellant materials successfully protect the stone from chemical
attack and also from mechanical stresses. Protective treatments were
determined and tested by laboratory techniques. Proper selection and
application of preservatives will prolong the life of architectural and
sculptural materials.
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5. Decay of Pietra Serena and Pietraforte, Florentine Building Stones:
Petrographic Observations. P. Malesani and S. A. Vannucci. Studies in
Conservation, v. 19, No. 1, 1974, pp. 36-50.
Pietra Serena and Pietraforte, the two stones most frequently used in
Florentine architecture, have been considered in this study. Through
mineralogical-petrographical study and by determining the physical
properties of these materials it has been possible to show clearly that
the principal factors of their decay are seepage of water and changes of
temperature. The simultaneous appearance of these two factors seems to
induce the decay with different characteristics in the two stones.
Gypsum, thought by some authors to be one of the main factors in the decay
of stones, has been detected in materials already deteriorated; it is a
product of decay apparently brought on by natura may take
part in a process which accelerates the decay.
6. Decay of Stone Without Smog. J. Riederer. Unwelt, No. 1, 1974, pp. 42-43
(German).
This article is a reply to the opinion that the decay of stone on the
Cathedral of Cologne is due to air pollution. From the history of
conservation of this building it is obvious that natural weathering,
primarily frost action, is responsible for the decay. There are numerous
documents from the Middle Ages to the 18th century about extensive repairs
on the facade. The cathedral was in such bad condition in 1800, that it
was proposed it be pulled down. (Only the argument that the Cathedral of
Cologne is a national monument prevented these plans.) Schinkel, a famous
German architect, had to investigate the condition of the stonework, and
in a detailed report in 1816, he describes all phenomena of natural
weathering. In the middle of the 19th century, the work on the cathedral
was continued; large parts of the completely weathered facades had to be
broken down. If there is rapid decay now, this is due to the inferior
stones used in the 19th and 20th century, to the high amount of sulfates
(now attributed to air pollution) which was actually caused by the
extensive use of concrete in the walls, and finally by the questionable
restoration techniques of the architects responsible, who used stones
which are resistant to air pollution but not to natural weathering.
7. Design of a Laboratory Experiment to Identify the Effects of Environmental
Pollutants on Materials. J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. Corrosion in
Natural Environments, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM
STP 558, 1974, pp. 279-291. (Fe74-10)
8. Effect of Air Pollution on Materials and Technical Equipment.
D. Knotkova, K. Barton, and B. Dolezel. Ochr. Ovzdust., v. 6, No. 6,
June 1974, pp. 75-83 (Czech). (Fe74-12)
9. Efficiency of Epoxy Resins as Stone Preservatives. K. L. Gauri. Studies
in Conservation, v. 19, No. 2, 1974, pp. 100-101.
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A stone-preserving epoxy resin, Epi-Rez (manufactured by the Celanese
Coating Co.), was evaluated on calcite in a S02~enriched atmosphere for
its preservability. Epi-Rez 504, a mixture of Epi-Rez 510 (bisphenol-A
diglycidal ether) plus 503 (aliphatic diglycidal ether), was more reactive
than 510 alone; thus, the reactivity due to the aliphatic group (Epi-Rez
502) was tested. Epi-Rez 502 treated stone was five-fold more reactive in
a SO2 atmosphere than an untreated one.
10. Speed of Erosion of Paleozoic Calcareous Rocks in Belgium Exposed to
Environmental Air and Water. M. Kupper and A. Pissart. AbhandLungen
der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Gottingen-Mathematisch-
Physikalische, v. Ill, No. 29, 1974, pp. 39-50 (French).
Measurements of the weathering rate have been made on tombstone of
"petit granite" (Lower Carboniferous limestone), by determining the amount
of relief developed on the polished or sawn surface after exposure to
atmospheric processes for a period of between 5 and 120 years. The
results give a mean value of erosion of 0.25 mm a century for all stone
studied. Erosion due to the flow of water over limestone blocks forming
the top of the Ourthe and Soor dams has also been measured.
11. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution. T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701, 1974, 156 pp. (Fe74-21)
12. The pH of Rain and the Destruction of Alkaline Stone. G. Thompson and
R. White. Studies in Conservation, v. 19, 1974, pp. 190-191.
Experiments done on powdered chalk and marble chips showed that a
small change in the pH of a solution has a great effect on the corrosion
rate of the stones. The results obtained were: the ratio of the
corrosion rate for solution at pH 5.25 and pH 4 was about 1/75 and the
ratio for pH 5.25 and pH 4.5 was about 1/40 for chalk. Marble chips took
a great deal longer to dissolve, but the ratio for pH 3.1 and pH 4.0
appears similar to that for chalk.
13. The use of Weather and Climatological Data in Evaluating the Durability of
Building Components and Materials. L. W. Masters and W. C. Wolfe. NTIS
Report COM-74-50841/7, August 1974, 102 pp. (Fe74-25)
1973
1. A Radiochemical Method for the Study of the Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide
Absorbed on Limestone. M. Serra and G. Starace. Problemi di Conserva-
zione, 1973, pp. 387-393 (Italian).
An experimental method is described to determine the oxidized
fraction of sulfur dioxide absorbed by limestone from an atmosphere
containing 35S labeled sulfur dioxide.
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2. A Review of Natural Stone Preservation. G. A. Sleater. National Bureau
of Standards, Washington, D.C, Center for Building Technology
Preliminary Report, Report No. NBS IR-74-444, 1973, 41 pp.
With increased interest in stone preservation, it is desirable to
know what causes stone to decay, and what materials can be used to
preserve stone. This review covers the following topics: causes of stone
decay, including faults in the stone, salts, natural weathering factors,
air pollution, living organisms, and most importantly, water action;
various materials that have been used to preserve stone, including paints,
waxes, oils, inorganic chemical surface treatments and impregnants,
silicones, silicates, and synthetic organic polymers; methods of
evaluating stone preservatives. Field and laboratory procedures for
testing stone preservatives, the cleaning of stone, a glossary, and a
bibliography are given in appendices.
3. Bibliography of German Literature About the Weathering and Preservation of
Natural Stone. J. Riederer. Deutsche Kunst und Denkmalpflege,
v. 31, No. 1-2, 1973, pp. 106-118 (German).
About 500 titles of German publications concerning decay of natural
stone on monuments and various techniques for the preservation of stone
are listed.
4. Distribution of Calcium Oxalates 03020^*1120 and 08020^, *2.25 H20 on
External Deteriorated Surfaces of Stones in Monuments. V. A. Rossetti
and M. Tabasso-Laurenzi. Probletni di Conservazione, 1973, pp. 375-386
(Italian).
Samples from several monuments were analyzed using X-ray diffraction
and thin layer chromatography to investigate the origin of oxalates and
their possible role in the deterioration of stone. An appendix by L.
Barcellona-Vero reports the results of microbiological analysis of the
same samples.
5. Effect of Air Pollutants on Stone Weathering. S. Luckat.
Staub-Reinhalt Luft, v. 33, No. 7, July 1973, pp, 283-285.**
Investigation of weathering in monuments, measurement of sulfate
content, and comparison with SO2 emissions, show clearly that air
pollution is the cause of accelerated deterioration of the stone.
Comparison of photographs over 90 years show that the severe effects start
with this century, and increase in their attack with each decade. This
attack is independent of the length of the previous exposure to the
atmosphere. Experiments on Cologne Cathedral with its many varieties of
stone show that sulfation is not only superficial, but penetrates deep
into all of the stones.
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6. Influence of Air Pollution on the Conservation of Limestone Monuments. S.
Barcellona, L. Barce1lona—Vero, and F. Guidobaldi. Problemi di
Conservazione, 1973, pp. 427-437 (Italian).
A report is made on the analysis of the facade of S. Giacomo Degli
Incurabili in Roma. The type and distribution of organic components of
the weathering crusts were studied in detail. Results show the presence
of large quantities of calcium sulfate, and several organic compounds from
soot or from the metabolism of micro-organisms were identified.
7. Influence of Thiobacteria on Stone Deterioration Processes.
L. Barcellona-Vero, M. Monte-Sila, and A. Silveri. Problemi de
Conservasione, 1973, pp. 439-451 (Italian).
Samples of deteriorated stone from three monuments in Aquila (Italy)
were analyzed. Both sulfur-oxidizing and sulfur-reducing bacteria were
identified and their activity evaluated. The influence of temperature and
humidity on the development of Th. Thioxidans. Th. Thioparus, and D.
Desulfuricans was studied. At optimal relative humidity values these
micro-organisms were found to be resistant to the maximum ambient
temperature.
8. Marble. Stone. M. Tabasso-Laurenzi and G. Torraca. Problemi di
Conservazione, 1973, pp. 49-62 (Italian).
Stone structure, composition and mechanical properties, deterioration
processes and influence of microclimate are studied. A discussion of
stone conservation includes: cleaning, consolidation and protection, and
the testing of conservation processes.
9. Reactivity of Treated and Untreated Marble Specimens in an SO2
Atmosphere. K. L. Gauri and A. C. Sarma. Studies in Conservaiton,
v. 18, No. 1, February 1973, pp. 25-35.
Marble specimens were impregnated with epoxy resins by first soaking the
specimens in a solvent and then treating them, in steps, with increasing
concentrations of the resin in the resin-solvent mixture. This resulted
in impregnation to several centimenters depth into the specimen. Both
impregnated and non-impregnated specimens were subjected to 3,000 ppm
S02 atmospheres in a dynamic system. X-Ray diffraction and fluorescence
studies to determine the deterioration quantitatively, revealed that
transformation of the outer layer of non-impregnated marble into primarily
calcium sulfite stopped after a maximum of 15 mole percent conversion
under normal conditions of humidity. While certain impregnated marble
specimens showed significant protection from S02 attack, other impregnated
specimens revealed more reactivity than the controls. A partial
explanation of this has been obtained by scanning electron microscopy
which showed that the resin films on the surface were perforated.
Coatings of certain acrylics provided some additional protection to
impregnated specimens.
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10. Salt Action on Stone in Urban Buildings. E. M. Winkler. Application of
Science in Examination of Works of Art, edited by W. J. Young, Museum
of Fine Arts, Boston, 1973, pp. 139-153.
Salts may derive from ground moisture, stone weathering and polluted
air, they may travel in stone by diffusion and capillarity. Relation of
solute concentration to osmotic pressure at various temperatures is given
for MgSO^, Na2SOl+, MgCl2 and NaCl. The development of high pressures by
efflorescences is discussed, and the hydration pressures of some common
salts is tabulated. The process of damage due to moisture, with or
without the presence of salts, is extremely complex.
11. Stone Conservation in Bavaria. J. Riederer. Jahrbuch Bayer, Landesamt
fur Denkmalpflege, v. 28, 1973, pp. 264-283 (German).
About 200 stone objects, which were treated during the last few years
in Bavaria, are listed. The various causes of the decay are explained.
Natural weathering is the main destructive force, but the decay which is
due to harmful methods of cleaning and consolidating stone is also
notable. Although the Bavarian monuments are seriously threatened by
stone decay, no dangerous signs of the effect of air pollution could be
found. The application of synthetic resins is the dominant method of
treatment; waterglass is still in use, but has largely been replaced by
the silicate esters. Other methods were applied for only a few objects.
12. Stone Decomposition and Conservation in Westphalia-Lippe. K. Schmidt-
Thomsen. 3d Int. Union Air Pollut. Prev. Assoc.-VDI-Komm. Reinhaltung
pp. A93-A97 (German).
The discussion covers the effect of air pollution and other
environmental factors on the sandstone and limestone monuments and
statues in Westphalia as illustrated by some photographs taken at the
beginning of the century and recently, and the use of ethyl polysilicate
to restore or protect these works of art.
13. Studies of the Effect of Air Pollution on the Construction Materials of
the Cologne Cathedral. A. Wolff and S. Luckat. 3rd Int. Union Air
Pollut. Prev. Assoc.-VDI-Komm. Reinhaltung Luft Int. Clean Air Congr.
Proc., 1973, pp. A90-A91 (German).
The lower of sulfur dioxide levels in the atmosphere as a result of
train electrification was follwed by even faster deterioration of the
cathedral exterior. The uptake by the cathedral of sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen chloride, the hydrogen fluoride was about twice as great at a
height of 65 m as at 20 m. Uptake of sulfur dioxide was much greater in
the winter, indicating sources such as power plants. Hydrogen chloride
and hydrogen fluoride uptake rates showed strong fluctuations but no
recognizable tendency. About 50 dirrerent types of stone were used in
the construction. The Cologne atmosphere also contains hydrogen sulfide
and nitric oxide. The present and anticipated deterioration of the
most important stones used in constructing the cathedral is briefly
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described as well as the scheme for monitoring the atmosphere at
different Locations of the cathedral for composition and corrosion.
14. The Damaging Effects of Air Pollution on Works of Art. J. Riederer. 3rd
Int. Union Air Pollut. Prev. Assoc.-VDI-Komm. Reinhaltung Luft Int.
Clean Air Congr. Proc., 1973, pp. A86-A89 (German). (Cu73-3)
15. The Relatively Negligible Effect of Air Pollution on Stone Deterioration.
J. Riederer. Staub-Reinhaltung der Luft, v. 33, No. 1, 1973, pp. 15-
19 (German).
The contribution of air pollution to the decay of stone is
unimportant compared with the action of climatic and bilolgical forces.
Limestone, which theroretically should be attacked by aggressive rain,
is always in good condition, considerable damage occurs on standstones,
but their decay is not due to air pollution for most sandstones do not
contain compounds which react with SO2, and there are no sulfates as
reaction products. The argument that sulfates are removed by the rain
is wrong, for sulfates coming from the ground moisture or the action of
bacteria are never removed. For most of the great sandstone objects
there are accounts of preservative treatments from former centuries,
which show that the decay is not a phenomenon of our time. On buildings
far away from industrial and urban areas the decay is not less than in
polluted areas. The deposits of gypsum on stone are not reaction
products due to air pollution, but deposits of solid material, for the
same crusts are found on calcium-free sandstones and metals, too. This
transformation of the urban dust, which is rich in calcium compounds of
the soot. The waste gases of automobiles do not contain compounds which
have any influence on stone.
16. The Sandstone of the Basilica of San Michele in Pavia. Studies on
Deterioration and Effects of Preservative Treatment. F. Aguzzi,
A. Fiumara, A. Peroni, R. Ponci, V. Riganti, R. Rossetti, and
F. Soggetti. Atti. Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., v. 114, No. 4, 1973,
pp. 403-464 (Italian).
A petrographic, climatologic and microbiological study was made of
deterioration of sandstone in one monument. The combined action of air
pollution and meteorological factors were seen as the major cause of
decay. Bacteria of the sulfur cycle appeared to be absent. Effects of
stone treatment by fluorosilicates and ethyl silicate were studied and
compared.
1972
1. Causes of Deterioration of Stones Exposed to the Environment and Methods
of Intervention. G. P. Guidetti. Atti Del 11Academia Delle Scienze Di
Ferrara, v. 49, 1971-72, pp. 37-59 (Italian).
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A general discussion is given of causes of deterioration of stone
and consolidation techniques.
Conservation of Stone: Causes of Decay. W. H. Dukes. The Architect's J.
Information Library, v. 23, August 1972, pp. 429-432.
The factors which cause stone to decay are discussed. These include
atmospheric pollutants (S02, S03, C02), soluble salts, frost, thermal
stress, algae, fungi, lichens and mosses.
Environmental Deterioration and Evaluation for Dimension Stone.
M. Sengupta and A. A. de Gast. Canadian Mining and Metallurgical
Bulletin, v. 65, 1972, pp. 54-58.
With rapid deterioration in the urban environment caused by air
pollution, the possibility of chemical reaction between dimension stone
and the industrial waste gases present in the ambient atmosphere remains.
The chemical reaction can cause expensive damage to building stone; it is
essential that a stone evaluation for use in construction should assess
the possibility of this type of decay.
This paper endeavours to develop testing procedures for evaluating
stone decay in polluted environments. Such tests can accompany other
standard tests used in dimension-stone evaluation.
Investigations Concerning the Protection Against Air Pollutants of Objects
of Natural Stone. S. Luckat. Staub-Reinhaltung der Luft, v. 32, No.
5, May 1972, pp. 30-33.
Air pollutants play a more or less important role in the corrosion of
most diverse materials, and they constitute an important factor in the
destruction of objects of certain natural stones.
An acute problem has emerged, and is being dealt with in the
framework of investigations undertaken by this author, namely the rapidly
increasing deterioration, over the last decades, of art objects, found in
the State of North-Westphalia in great numbers, which are subjected to the
direct effect of the atmosphere. These objects include, e.g., castles,
water-surrounded palaces, sculptures mounted on these or other buildings
or standing by themselves and, last but not least, the Dome of Cologne.
An investigation program was therefore set up, in cooperation with
the two Monument Authorities of the State of North Westphalia, for the
protection of these irreplaceable objects. This paper deals with certain
aspects of this program and with already available results.
No Destruction of Stone By Air Pollution. J. Riederer. 1st Colloque
International sur la Deterioration des Pierres en Oeuvre, 1972,
pp. 119-124.
The contribution of air pollution to the decay of building stones is
unimportant compared with the effect of climatic and biological forces.
This is confirmed by the following arguments: (1) limestone, which
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theoretically ought to be attacked by the corrosive components of rain,
does not show serious damage in Germany; (2) deepest decay occurs on
sandstones and this decay is not due to air pollution because most
sandstones do not contain components which could react with pollutants;
(3) there is no sulfate formation, except that which is apparently due
other influences; (4) the decay of sandstone by natural weathering has
been thoroughly investigated since the 19th century and there is no
difference between these early observations and our own; (5) objects which
show the greatest deterioration today were treated extensively in the
past; (6) damage in rural areas is as serious as that noted in urban
areas; (7) crusts of gypsum, which are thought to be reaction products of
polluted air and stone, occur on intact limestones and bronzes.
Properties of Carbonate Rocks Related to Sulfur Dioxide Reactivity.
R. H. Borgwardt and R. D. Harvey. Environ. Sci. Tech., v. 6, No. 4,
1972, pp. 350-360.
Petrographic examination and grain size-distribution measurements
were made on 11 specimens representing a broad spectrum of limestones and
dolomites. The S02 reaction kinetics of calcines prepared from each rock
type were determined at 980°C. Stones of various geological types yield
calcines of distinctly different physical structures that show
correspondingly large differences in both rate of reaction and capacity
for S02 sorption. Pore size and particle size together determine the
extent to which the interiors of individuals particles react. Particles
smaller than 0.01 cm with pores larger than 0.1 ym react throughout their
internal pore structure at a rate directly proportional to the BET
surface. The rate decays exponentially as sulfation proceeds until the
pores are filled with reaction product. The ultimate capacity of small
particles is determined by the pore volume available for product
accumulation, which is generally equivalent to about 50% conversion of the
CaO in limestones. Variations in effectiveness of carbonate rocks for
flue gas desulfurization are explained by the physical properties of their
calcines, which are related to the crystal structure of the original rock.
The high reaction rates achieved in the limestone injection process
apparently result from the large surface area existing for short periods
immediately following the dissociation of CaC03.
Protection of Materials Made of Natural Stone From Air Pollution.
S. Luckat. Staub-Reinhaltung der Luft, v. 32, No. 5, 1972, pp. 217-220
(German).
An accelerated test method was used for evaluation of the protection
against the corrosive effects of atmospheric pollutants rendered by 5
treatments applied to five types of stones representative of materials
from which art objects (sculptures, monuments, etc.) are made. The
following protective compositions were tested: Keim-Fixative (a potassium
-water glass composition), Sikovin (a hydrophobic agent based on
silicone), Tegovakon (a hydrophobic agent-silicate mixture), Krautol 1312
(an acrylic resin), and MOS GR (unknown composition). The protective
effect depended on the composition and the type of stone. Only Tegovakon
gave satisfactory results in all cases.
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8. Studies on the Physical-Chemical Deterioration of Some Monuments in Siena
and on Possible Criteria for Protection and Consolidation. L. Falciai,
R. Pellizzer, R. Rossi-Manaresi, and G. Sabatini. Atti Del 11Academia
Delle Scienze Di Ferrara, v. 49, 1971-72, pp. 83-102 (Italian).
From analyses of marble sculptures variously exposed to the
environment or transferred inside in 1858, an hypothesis is formulated on
the deterioration process. Wetting-drying cycles determined by rain or
condensation and accelerated by air pollution are considered.
9. Use of Silicones in Conservation of Monuments. Dr. Bosh. 1st Int. Symp.
on the Deterioration of Building Stones (September 11-16, 1972), Les
Imprimeries Reunies de Chawbery, France, 1972, pp. 21-26.
Art monuments of stone are especially affected by rain water polluted
by CO2, S02, and nitrous fumes emitted by industry. Impregnation
represents an efficient protection against the damages. Silicone is
outstandingly suitable for the impregnation; it is water repellent, dirt
repellent, highly permeable to gas, and prevents moss growth. But, if a
stone is strongly decomposed, it should be strengthened first (silicic
acid is best suited for this purpose). The latter procedure is
described.
1971
1. Air Pollution by Sulfur Oxides. Staff Report. National Industrial
Pollution Control Council, Washington, D.C., Report No. A2402F4,
February 1971, 27 pp. (Fe71-2)
2. Atmospheric Pollution. S. Kups. Double Liaison, v. 18, 1971, pp. 825-828
(French).
A review covers the effects of solid (cement and metal), liquid, and
gaseous (hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, ozone, and hydrocarbons)
pollutants on humans, plants, painted surfaces, and masonry.
3. Concrete in Sulfate Environments. E. G. Swenson. Canadian Building
Digest, No. 136, 1971, 4 pp.
The rate and degree of sulfate attack depend on the concent ration of
sulfate present, the type and availability of sulfate ion, the
accessibility of water, and the type of cement and quality of concrete.
Preventive measures include the following: use of sulfate-resisting
cement, low water-cement ratio, minimum cement content air-entrainment,
waterproof coatings, drainage features, and special attention to
reinforceing cover.
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4. Conservation of Stone. T, Stambolov. Conservation of Stone and Wooden
Objects, 2nd Ed., edited by G. Thomson, Intern. Inst, for Conservation
of Historic and Artistic Works, v. 1, 1971, pp. 119-123.
The methods for cleaning and preserving stone are discussed.
5. Decay of Stone. E. M. Winkler. Conservation of Stone and Wooden Objects,
2nd Ed., edited by G. Thomson, Intern. Inst, for Conservation of
Historic and Artistic Works, v. 1, 1971, pp. 1-14.
The sources of air pollutants, such as CO2, SO2, SO3, NH3,
NO3, and CI- and the effects of soot and dust in neutralizing acid
rain are discussed. Plants and animals, bacteria, etc. are also
discussed. The mechanism by which stones decay and the effects of the
various pollutants on this decay are discussed.
6. Notes on the Deterioration of Donatello's Marble Figure of St. Mark on
the Church of Orsan Michele in Florence. U. Plahter and
L. E. Plahter. Studies in Conservation, v. 16, 1971, pp. 114-118.
Chemical analyses of the surface crust found on the marble was
calcium sulfate, carbon black and iron oxide. X-ray diffraction analyses
showed the presence of gypsum, calcium oxalate hydrate, some quartz and
possibly hematite. The crust is most probably a corrosive later formed on
the statue under the influence of dust, water and sulfur dioxide.
7. Role of SO2 in Atmospheric Corrosion. D. J. Spedding. Chem. Ind.,
v. 2, No. 6, 1971, pp. 39-41. (Fe71-20)
8. Stone Preservation in Germany. J. Riederer. Conservation of Stone and
Wooden Objects, 2nd. Ed., edited by G. Thomson, Intern. Inst, for
Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, v. 1, 1971, pp. 125-134.
This paper discusses the relationship between damage and the type of
stone. The cause of damage such as freezing, rising damp, rain, bacteria,
sulfates, chlorides and nitrates are also discussed. Methods for removing
damaged material and preservation are covered in some detail.
9. The Conservation of German Stone Monuments. J. Riederer. Proc. of the
Meeting of the Joint Committee for the Conservation of Stone, Bologna,
1971, pp. 105-138.
This paper is designed to convey a general idea of how the stone
conservation problem is being tackled in Germany. By means of accurate
preliminary studies of the decaying stone, the crystallizing salts, the
amount of humidity, and the action of bacteria, the deterioration forces
can be recognized. The prevention of the action of these deteriorating
forces is essential for the success of the conservation. Natural
weathering, crystallizing salts from the ground moisture, and the action
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of bacteria are the most frequent causes of the decay of stone. Air
pollution does not considerably influence the decay of stone, especially
compared with the effect of natural weathering. For the conservation of
stone, synthetic resins and waterglass were first used. Now the
application of silicate esters, which have proved to be much more
effective, has increased notably.
10. The Destruction of Works of Art by Air Pollution. J. Riederer.
Schonere Heimat, v. 60, 1971, pp. 44-47 (German). (Cu71-10)
11. The Stone Features in the Palace of Lazienki, Their Present State and
Preservation Problems. B. Penkala and K. Paczek. Rocznik Muzeum
Narodowego w Warszawie, v. 15, Pt. 2, 1971, pp. 405-444 (Polish).
A general description of stone features in the King's summer palace
of Lazienki (Warsaw) is followed by a description of the properties of the
particular kinds of stone: macro- and micro-structure, and physical and
mechanical characteristics. The present condition of the stones, causes
of deterioration, and protection against further corrosion are
cons idered.
12. The Weathering of Tombstones And Its Relationship to the Topography of New
England. P. H. Rahn. J. Geological Education, v. 19, No. 3, 1971,
pp. 112-118.
Students divided tombstones in the West Willington, Connecticut,
cemetery into six weathering classes. Analysis of the data, corrected to
a common tombstone age of 100 years old, shows that: (1) granite is
virtually unweathered, (2) schist is usually only slightly weathered, (3)
marble weathers rapidly and uniformly, and (4) red (Triassic) sandstone
weathers fastest.
1970
1. Atmospheric Pollution and Historic Buildings. A Contemporary Urban
Problem. C. Berindan. Centre Belged'Etude et de Documentation des Eaux
(Tribune de), v. 23, No. 324, November 1970, pp. 498-503 (French).
(Fe70-4).
2. Effects of Aggressive Solutions on Ordinary Portland, Sulfate-Resisting
Portland, and Frodingham Supersulfated Cement Concretes.
G. H. Thomas. NTIS Report PB-188759, 1970, 13 pp.*
Results of 10 years of tests to assess the comparative resistance of
ordinary portland cement, sulfate-resisting portland cement, and
Frodingham supersulfated cement concretes to a wide range of aggressive
solutions are recorded. Both the sulfate-resisting portland cement and
the slag based supersulfated cement showed good resistance to most of the
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solutions. Concrete specimens made from the supersulfated cement gave the
best overall performance, displaying a particular advantage over both
Portland cements in weak H2SO4 and strong Na2S0^ solutions.
3. Effect of Corrosive Solutions on Adhesion of Acid-Resistant Mortars.
S. Pawlikowski, I. Polio, and M. Starczewski. Zesz. Nauk. Politech.
Slask., Chem., No. 50, 1970, pp. 241-243 (Polish).
Ceramic slabs were bound with three kinds of mortars by using
quartzite flour, water glass, and Na2SiFg. After 21 days of setting
the specimens were placed for 42 days in different corrosive media. The
adhesiveness of the mortars fell to 0 in flowing water, to 5.4-8.3
kg/cm^ in stagnant distilled water, to 1-5 kg/cm^ in 20-92 percent
H2SO4, and 2.5-7.3 kg/cm^ in 30 percent H3PO4. The destructive
effect of aqueous HNO3, HC1, and NH4NO3 was much weaker.
4. Removal of Atmospheric Sulfur by Building Stones. R. C. Braun and
M. J. G. Wilson. Atmos. Environ., v. 4, No. 4, 1970, pp. 371-378.**
Measurements were made of the amounts of sulfur absorbed by limestone
from outdoor air and from S02~air mixtures in the laboratory. A lime-
stone, which had been exposed for 5 centuries, could still absorb sulfur
as fast as a new sample of the same kind of stone. The distribution of
sulfur in old stones suggested that their activity had been maintained by
rain washing. The results are used to discuss the effect of absorption in
cleaning city air.
5. Stone Preservation in Germany. J. Riederer. Conservation of Stone and
Wooden Objects, Contributions to the New York Conference, June 1970,
pp. 125-133.
The first part of this paper is a detailed investigation of the
nature of the damage. The factors which were considered to affect
corrosion are: the grain size of the stone, the salt distribution in
rocks, the moisture content. The second part investigates the causes of
the damage which were cited as: the salts (especially the nitrates),
sulfur dioxide, bacteria, sulfate ions, temperature, wind, mosses. The
third part is about how to remove the damage: use of preservatives and
determination of their usefulness.
6. Studies on the Deterioration of Sandstones of Some Monumental Buildings in
Bologna. R. Rossi-Manaresi. Atti Academia Fisiocritic, v. 54, No. 2,
1970, pp. 285-305 (Italian).
The extensive chemical analysis of the soluble fractions of surface
crust, incoherent sub-surface and internal stone on the sandstones of
several monumental buildings in Bologna is reported. X-ray diffractograms
are also discussed and an interpretation of the deterioration process is
presented.
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7. Sulfate Resistance of Concrete. F. Jung. Cement (Zagreb), v. 14, No. 3,
1970, pp. 125-130 (Croatian).**
The sulfate resistance of concrete is reviewed.
8. Systems Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials.
R. L. Salmon. NTIS Report PB-209 192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp.
(Fe70-13)
9. Testing and Estimation of the Resistance of Cements to Sulfate Attack. H.
Steinegger. Zem-Kalk-Gips, v. 23, No. 2, February 1970, pp. 67-71.
To estimate the serviceability of the rapid testing method using
small prismatic specimens, as described in the article, long-term tests on
concrete were performed in paralled with the rapid tests. The two test
series gave good agreement in the estimation of the cements. With the
rapid testing method, it is possible to arrive at an assessment of the
sulfate resistance of a cement after 77 days.
10. The Importance of Air Pollution in the Corrosion of Stone and Metals.
E. M. Winkler. Eng. Geol. (Amsterdam), v. 4, No. 4, October 1970, pp.
327-334. (Fe70-14)
11. The Weathering and Performance of Building Materials. J. W. Simpson and
P. J. Horrobin, eds., Medical and Technical Publishing Co. Ltd., 1970,
277 pp. (Fe70-17)
1969
1. Determination of the Sulfate and Acid Resistance of Concretes by Field
Experiments. I. Medgyesi and G. Toroczkay. Durability Concrete, Int.
Symp., Prelim. Rep., v. 2, 1969, pp. C283-C299.**
Hungarian concrete was examined after prolonged immersion in
natural water, water polluted by industrial waste, and acidic waste water.
The conclusions are: natural water with up to 8,000 mg sulfate/1 is
destructive after 2 years. Samples show more resistance with higher
cement content. A high slag content concrete has less resistance.
Residual water permeating on acidic soil destroys reference samples in 2
years. Acidic water flowing in concrete ducts degrades samples in 6 to 8
months.
2. Effects of Sample Volume: Solution Volume Ratio on the Determination of
the Resistance of Mortars to Sulfate Corrosion. C, Solacolu and
A. Vasiliu. Rev. Mater. Constr. Taruv. Pub., v. 21, No. 9, 1969,
pp. 490-492 (Romanian).
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Mortar samples (2x2 x 12cm) of Romanian cement RIM 250 were
prepared with 87.8 kg/cm2 flexural tensile stress, 515 kg/cm2 compression
strength at 28 days, and 11.4 percent water absorption. Tests were
carried out at sample volume/5 percent sulfate solution volume ratios of
1:2, 1:10, and 1:20. Readings of mechanical strengths were made monthly
for 12 months; the characteristics of the sulfate corrosion did not change
and the lesser the sample volume/solution volume ratio, the faster its
effect.
3. Immersion Tests on the Sulfate Resistance of Concrete. B. Steele and
W. Harrison. Durability Concrete, Int. Symp., Prelim. Rep., v. 2, 1969,
pp. C163-C186.**
Several laboratories are cooperating in a 20-year program of tests to
assess the sulfate resistance of 100 mm concrete cubes after immersion
in various sulfate solutions. The rate of deterioration of the concrete
specimens is assessed by comparison of the compressive strength of the
cubes compared with that of a similar water-stored cube of the same age.
The program also includes the visual assessment of concrete columns half
immersed in the solutions. The position at the end of the first five
years of the program is presented, and the detailed results obtained from
the tests carried out after 5-year immersion are discussed.
4. Sulfur Dioxide Uptake By Limestone. D. J. Spedding. Atmos. Environ.,
v. 3, No. 6, 1969, p. 683.**
A comparison of a photograph of a limestone surface with a number of
fossil inclusions with an autoradiograph of the surface after exposure to
100 ug of S02/m^ in air for 1 hour at 70 to 80 percent relative humidity
indicated that the S02 was taken up by the limestone matrix and not by the
fossils. The solution and erosion of the matrix as CaSO^ left the fossil
area raised and the matrix exposed to further attack. A laser microprobe
showed the chemical nature of the fossils and the matrix to be identical
and the differential uptake of the SO2 to be based on the physical
differences of the fossil and the matrix surfaces. Autoradiographs of
oolitic limestone at 79 to 81 percent relative humidity exposed to 100 to
370 ijg of S02/m3 showed 4 times the uptake of S02 as with 11 percent
relative humidity. Freshly exposed matrix surface could saturate at
normal atmospheric humidities and the erosion associated with the
formation of CaSO^ would be virtually continuous for the matrix.
1968
1. Decay of Plaster, Paintings, and Wall Material of the Interior of
Buildings via Microbial Activity. W. E. Krumbein and C. Lange.
Chapt. in Biodeterioration of, Materials: The Terrestrial Environment,
edited by A. H. Walters and E. H. Hueck-Van der Plas, v. 2, Halsted
Press Division, John Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1968, pp. 687-697.
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Early in the period of the Industrial Revolution and technical
civilization, in terms of the high energy consuming western European and
North American technology, it was stated that in contrast to any other
technology prior to the present one the increased rate of decay of
cultural treasures is a still growing danger. Kieslinger, Winkler, and
Weber have stressed that decay of building stones is a natural phenomenon
which has always endangered human stone constructions, objects of art and
mineral paints. This can be shown by early reports by Moses and
Herodatus. On the other hand there is no doubt that the industrial
revolution, with its deep influence on biogeochemical cycles and
georaicrobiological processes, has accelerated stone decay and added new
dimensions to the problem.
2. Durability of Concrete Construction. H. Woods. American Concrete
Institute, Monograph No. 4, Detroit, 1968, 167 pp.
Chapter 8, "Chemical Effects on Concrete", discusses sulfate attack
on concrete in both gaseous and aqueous environments and the effect of
various pH levels of soils and ground water on durability. Results of
several long-term exposure testing programs are reported.
3. Effect of Sulfur Pollution on Building Materials. T. Stambolov. Proc.
1967 London Conference on Museum Climatology, published by IIC, 1968,
pp. 15-22.
The aggressiveness of air pollution, particularly gaseous SO2, and
its various mechanisms are discussed in reference to some of the
deteriorations observed on the walls of museums, churches and monuments.
The effects of in situ hydration of various sulfates on calcareous and
other materials is also discussed.
4. Microorganisms and Weathering of a Sandstone Monument. F. E. W. Eckhardt.
Biodeterioration of Materials: The Terrestrial Environment, edited by
A. H. Walters and E. H. Hueck-Van der Plas, v. 2, Halsted Press
Division, John Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1968, pp. 675-685.
Weathering of stone in buildings and monuments will proceed more or
less quickly due to such well know environmental agencies as temperature,
humidity or salt concentration. In addition, the microbial population of
the stone may also contribute to its decay. The presence of
microorganisms, even in great numbers, on weathered material does not
necessarily imply that these organisms have caused the damage observed;
however, these populations may be involved in enhancing abiotic processes.
Since the activities of microorganisms are suspected to be an important
factor in the weathering of building stones, the present work was
undertaken to find out whether the decay of a 150-year-old sandstone
obelisk could be related to activity of its microbial population.
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1967
1. Corrosive Action of Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide on Concrete Treated in an
Autoclave. Y. M. Butt, K. K. Kuatbaev, and P. A. Roizman. Wiss.
Z. Hochsch., Bauw., Leipzig, v. 13, No. 4, 1967, pp. 13-18 (German).*
Experimental work is given that involved the determination of the
effect of NH3 on the promotion of carbonization of concrete building
components hardened by autoclaving. Various types of concretes were
examined. Their compositions are given. The conclusion is that concrete
of the type 2Ca0-Si02~H20 (C2SH(A)) carbonizes rapidly in the
presence of NH3. The presence of NH3 in the surrounding media causes
the formation of NH4 silicate and aluminate gels, causing a lowering of
the strength of cellular concretes. The instability of carbonized
cellular concretes is increased by storage in an NH3 containing
atmosphere. When erecting concrete structures in an NH3 containing
atmosphere, no material should be used that could form C2SH(A). In
order to lessen the deleterious effect of NH3 on autoclave hardened
concrete components, they should be nonporous or protected by vapor
barriers.
2. Corrosion by Air Pollution. J. R. Goss. Proc. Annu. Conf., Nat. Soc.
Clean Air, No. 34, 1967, pp. 75-92. (Fe67-4)
3. Weathering Rates of Portland Arkose Tombstones. G. F. Matthias. J.
Geological Education, v. 15, No. 4, 1967, pp. 140-144.
Old cemeteries offer fertile ground for studies in weathering rates
of stone materials. Portland arkose, a Triassic sandstone, was widely
used in central Connecticut as a material for gravestones during the 18th
and 19th centuries. The depth of inscription on these stones was used to
measure the extent of weathering. Examination indicates that the
tombstones have been weathering at an average rate greater than 2/64th
inch over a 145-year period but that there has been a three-fold increase
in the rate of weathering since the turn of the century. Weather informa-
tion suggests an increase in the annual temperature since 1900 which,
along with the increase in CO2 content of the atmosphere, is probably
responsible for the increase in rate.
1966
1. Corrosion Rates of Carbonate Rocks for Construction. E. M. Winkler. Eng.
Geol. (Sacramento), v. 3, No. 1, 1966, pp. 52-58.
Carbonate equilibria in waters is reviewed. The Langelier saturation
index and the Baylis saturation curve are compared. The latter is more
convenient to use.
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2. Important Agents of Weathering for Building and Monumental Stone.
E. M. Winkler. Eng. Geol. (Amsterdam), v. 1, No. 5, 1966, pp. 381-400.
The atmosphere has little corrosive effect on stone without the
presence of water. Washout of aggressive ingredients from the atmosphere
by rainwater, however, increases corrosion and solution of stone.
Dissolved CO2, SO2, SO3, and CI are the most effective corrodants.
The urban atmosphere supplied much more CO2 and sulfates through the
combustion of fossil fuels than the atmosphere of rural areas; this
accelerates stone decay in urban areas very much. Water with few ions in
solution may be as corrosive as CO2 and SO/,, charged water, as it must
eventually reach the equilibrium condition with the stone it contacts.
Silicate rocks can resist exposure to rainwater successfully for a long
time. Exposure of facing stone and concrete aggregate to soft or acid
running water or lake waters causes damage primarily to carbonate rocks.
Resistant silicate rocks should be selected.
Primitive animals and plants may inhabit bare stone surfaces paving
the way to more extensive destruction through the production of organic
acids along the root system. All rocks are subject to attack by the lower
animals. Boring sponges, sea shells, and sea urchins may develop a dense
network of pock marks near the waterline in different rock types; This
occasionally happens also in concrete.
3. The Preservation of Natural Stone, 1839-1965. S. Z. Lewin. Art Arch.
Tech. Abst., v. 6, No. 1, 1966, pp. 183-277.
Despite more than a century of experimentation, investigation and
field testing, the problem of inhibiting, arresting or preventing the
deterioration of natural stone remains largely unresolved. This is
perhaps to be expected for the classification "stone" embraces a range of
materials manifesting very diverse physical and chemical properties, and
the deterioration of stone occurs through a variety of mechanisms which
may proceed independently, consecutively, simultaneously, or
cooperatively.
Among the factors to which attention has been called as playing an
important role in stone decay are: (a) the mechanical action of wind-
borne particles, of thermal cycling, of freezing of imbibed water, of
crystallization of salts, and of the growth of plants; (b) the chemical
action of liquid water or salt solutions, of acidic constituents in the
atmosphere, and of the metabolic processes of lichens, algae and bacteria;
and (c) the inherent defects associated with faulty construction,
incorrect orientation of bedding planes relative to the loading direction,
and inappropriate combinations of materials.
There is much disagreement in the literature as to the relative
importance of these various factors under actual field conditions. Some
authorities declare that air-borne sulfur dioxide is the principal cause
of the decay of limestone; others assert that this is of minor
significance, but that carbon dioxide dissolved in rain water is the chief
culprit. Bacteria and algae and lichens are claimed by some to play the
dominant role whereas others maintain that the presence of these organisms
is either irrelevant to, or only a secondary result of, stone decay. The
mechanical effect of frost is considered to by the driving force leading
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to all the other manifestations of stone decay be certain writers whereas
other focus attention on the leaching and mass transport effects of liquid
water or on the mechanical stresses accompanying the formation of salt
efflorescences. Abstracts of available literature from 1865-1965 are
included.
1965
1. The Weathering, Preservation and Maintenance of Natural Stone Masonry,
Part I. Building Research Station Digest, No. 20, July 1950, revised
March 1965, 7 pp.
The surface deposits on sandstones and granites are very hard and,
being insoluble in water, are extremely difficult to remove, whereas the
surface films on limestones, though hard and intractable in the dry
condition, can be softened and removed with water.
Calcium sulfate tends to form a hard, glossy skin on limestone
wherever the stone is not freely washed by rain. This sulfate skin tends
to be harmful rather than protective. Some varieties of stone offer a
good resistance; with others, skin formation leads to a spontaneous
blistering and scaling of the surfaces. Cracks develop at the arrises and
active centres of decay make themselves apparent where the surfaces are
broken. Elsewhere, the hard surface may be found to overlie a layer of
friable stone. Sometimes scabby protuberances appear, even on
well-exposed surfaces. Calcareous sandstones are subject to similar
defects. The precise mechanism by which this form of decay occurs is
still not fully understood, but the signs are unmistakable. It may be
taken as axiomatic that contamination of porous building stones with
soluble salts of any kind is liable to cause damage to the stone.
1964
1. Atmospheric Microorganisms in the Shosoin at Nara With Special Reference
to the Filamentous Fungi. E. Yoshikadzu. Science for Conservation
(Tokyo), No. 1, 1964, pp. 7-22 (Japanese, with English summary).
The writer conducted an investigation on fungi at six locations near
the Shosoin in conjunction with other investigations on air pollution, by
sampling, making cultures and identifying species. Investigation was also
made of the dust at eight locations in the East Treasury which is made of
concrete, and at six locations in the Shosoin treasury. Fifty-seven
species were identified though there were many others that could not be
identified because they did not show generative organs. Penicillium- and
Aspergi1lus-spp. were predominant while Cladosporium herbarium and
Cladosporium spp. were also found. The latter two are dangerous because
they leave black spots. Seasonally, April and November are the most
dangerous months for fungus growth.
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1963
1. Corrosion of Cements in Sulfuric Acid. T. A. Atakuziev and
I. S. Kantsepol'skii. Nekotorye Vopr. Khim. Tekhnol., i Fiz-Khim.
Analiza Neorgan. Sistem. Akad. Nauk Uz. SSR, Otd. Khim. Nauk, 1963,
pp. 5-13 (Russian).*
Sulfuric acid (0.1N solution) corroded porous cement solutions after
28 days; complete destruction of cements appeared after 6 months.
Corrosion of cements with active mineral additives was quicker than
corrosion of additive-free portland cement. Considerable corrosion in
0.0IN H2SO4 was found only after 1 year. A bending test revealed that
in 0. IN H2SO4. solution samples were corroded mainly in the first
28 days, and then the corrosion rate decreased considerably; in 0.01N
H2SO4 solution, samples hardened in the same way as in distilled
water. The process of corrosion, studied by means of differential thermal
analysis (DTA) (CaS04*2H20 served as the standard sample), showed
that after 1 year leaching in 0.5N H2SO4 solution the acid penetrated
to a depth of 7 mm in the case of cement sand and to a depth of 3 mm in
the case of dense cement stone, the resulting sediment and surface crust
being formed by hydrated gypsum as proved by DTA, X-ray analysis, and
chemical and petrographic analyses.
2. Corrosion of Concrete Reinforcing Subjected to Corrosive Action.
V. Moldovan. Rev. Mater. Construct. Taruv. Pub., No. 570, 1963, pp. 98-
99 (French).
The effect of variables, other than concrete cover thickness, on the
resistance of steel bars to corrosive waters was studied. The bars were
12, 20, and 30 mm in diameter in cylindrical concrete specimens of uniform
concrete cover thickness of 15-40 mm. The aggregate was of continuous
grain size distribution, maximum grain 15 mm, except for a few
monogranular specimens 3-7 mm. Concretes were of plastic consistency
except for a few fluid concretes. Additives of clay (2-6 weight-percent
aggregate, as films on grains or as powder plasticizers), humic acids
(0.35, 0.7, and 1.5 Percent of the cement), surfactants (Calignosulfonate,
Na butylnaphthalene sulfonate, and Vuzal from Czechoslovakia), and CaCl2
were tested. Specimens were stored 1 day in molds, 6 days in water, 83 in
air, then either in 2 percent NaCl solution (to 3/4 their depth) or in a
moist NH3 atmosphere. After 12 months exposure, specimens with fissures
less than 0.5 mm showed no ruts, but after 24 months, NaCl corroded the
reinforcing in all fissured specimens. Ammonia corroded the most fissured
specimens and those nonfissured ones containing clay or only a thin cover.
All plastic concretes with 380 kg cement/m3 protected the reinforcing
bars; those with 240 kg required a 20-mm (in minimum) cover for
protection. Humic acids and surfactants were favorable, causing a
reduction in the watei;-cenient ratio. Fluid concretes, insufficiently
compacted plastic concretes, and concretes without sand gave no
protection.
3. Effect of Air Pollution Upon Cultural Property. E. Yoshimichi. Sci.
Papers Japan. Antiques, No. 17, 1963, pp. 23-31.
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With the rapid development of industry in Japan, the problem of air
pollution calls for an urgent solution. This article is a commentary on
types of pollutants, their effects on art objects, and methods for
protecting them. Examples are given of damage caused by air pollution in
Japan.
4. Leaching of the Cement Portion During Weathering of Concrete.
G. Larsen. Nord. Betong., v. 7, 1963, pp. 203-220 (Danish).
Weathering of concrete was caused predominantly by the leaching of
the cement portion by the entry of water. The reaction between alkalies
and silicide acid caused cracks, accelerating the leaching process. The
Ca(OH)2 formed CaC03 in air; with sea water it reacted to form
Mg(0H)2 and caused blooming. Sulfur dioxide from air and from sea water
caused the formation of Calcium sulfoaluminate. Freezing and thawing
cycles accelerated the leaching.
5. Scientific Preservative Methods for Cultural Properties. V. Air
Pollution. I. Tomokichi. Museum (Tokyo), No. 143, 1963, pp. 28-29.
Effects of smog, dust, and toxic gases like sulfur dioxide are
d iscussed.
6. Ten-Year Test Results on the Sulfate Resistance of Concrete. R. Nagano.
Semento Gijutsu Nempo, v. 17, 1963, pp. 400-410 (Japanese).**
Tests were made on concrete specimens containing various types of
Portland cements OCaO'A^Og 5-12 percent) and blended cements containing
slag, fly ash, and diatomaceous earth, with or without air-entraining
agents. After curing in H£0 for 7 days, the specimens were immersed in 10
percent Na2SOlf or Na2S04 + MgSO^ (2:1) solutions. Rich-mix concrete
containing SCaO'A^Oj-less port land cement and blended cements were
resistant. The addition of air-entraining agents was not so effective,
and some agents decreased the resistance, so the selection of the agents
is important.
1962
1. Behavior of Hydrated Cement Minerals Under the Action of Corrosive Types
of Water, Considered With Reference to Concrete Corrosion.
A. Kjennerud. Nord. Betong., v. 6, No. 3, 1962, pp. 223-234
(Danish).
The present paper deals with the behavior of hydrated cement minerals
under the action of CO^ corrosive aqueous solutions. The solutions were
synthesized on the basis of analyses of ground water from areas where
damage to concrete had been observed. The hydrated cement minerals were
synthesized from the pure clinker minerals. After about 30 days the
products were investigated by means of X-rays to identify the phases.
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Microscopical examination was undertaken to determine the texture of the
mineral aggregates. The hydrated minerals were separately subjected to
repeated extraction by the CC^-corrosive solutions. The extraction curves
show that the aluminates are considerably more resistant than the
silicates at a moderate content of corrosive C02 and a low concentration
of sulfate.
2. Chemistry in the Service of Archaeology, Building Technique and Monuments
Conservation. J. A. Hedvall. Akademiforlaget-Gumperts, Goteborg, 1962,
226 pp. (German).**
Hedvall considers the natural sources of degradation of materials and
emphasizes the use of all available instrumentation to learn chemistry,
petrography, physical properties, and geological origin of building
materials. Information is given on natural and manmade building stone,
pottery, glass, precious natural and manmade stone concerning chemistry,
mineralogy, crystallography and texture. Natural causes of degradation
are listed and analyzed including: air pollution weathering, wind
erosion, radiation, water table, humus acids, carbon dioxide, bacteria and
fungi; corrosion due to contact of different materials such as granite or
marble and steel; frost and frost-bite, or fire; errors of construction;
and plant attack by algae and Lichens.
3. Corrosion of Ceramic Products by Gases Containing Sulfur. C. Bardin.
Ind. Ceram., No. 544, 1962, pp. 341-347 (French).
The problems of efflorescence, attack on glazes, and the corrosion of
ceramic installations by gaseous SO2, SO3, and H2SO4 are reviewed.
Knowledge of the dew points of the gases permits corrective action to
minimize the corrosion.
4. Durability of Concrete in Service. Committee Report. Committee 201,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, No. 59-57, 1962, 44 pp.
Chapter 3 discusses aggressive chemical agents. Most corrosive
chemicals, to produce significant attack on concrete, must be in solution
form and above some minimum concentration. Concrete is rarly, if ever,
directly attacked by solid, dry chemicals. Concrete which is subjected
to aggressive solutions under pressure on one side is more vulnerable
than otherwise because the pressures tend to force the aggressive
solution into the concrete. When free evaporation can also take place
from an exposed face, dissolved salts may accumulate at that face, thus
increasing their concentration and possibly resulting in mechanical
damage from spalling in addition to chemical attack.
It is recognized that no port land cement concrete, regardless of what
may be its other ingredients, will long withstand water of high acid
concentration. Where strong acid crrosion is indicated, an appropriate
surface covering or treatment must be used.
Two different conditions must be recognized.
1. Those in which proper attention to the concrete itself will
provide immunity or an acceptably low rate of attack, and
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2. Those in which it is necessary to prevent contact between the
aggressive chemical and the concrete by means of a protective
coating. For specific recommendations concerning protective
coatings where needed, consult report of ACI Committee 616,
"Coatings for Concrete," in preparation. Also consult Portland
Cement Association Publication "Effect of Various Substances on
Concrete and Protective Treatments, Where Required."
The Weathering, Preservation and Maintenance of Natural Stone Masonry,
Part III. Building Research Station Digest, No. 21, August 1950,
reprinted 1961, 8 pp.
Lichens and mosses are found on building stones in country districts
where the level of atmospheric pollution is not high enough to inhibit
their growth. Only occasionally are they found to cause any perceptible
harm to the surfaces on which they grow. Ivy sends out aerial roots which
cause severe damage if they secure a foothold in the joints. Virginia
Creeper, which attaches itself by means of suckers, causes no appreciable
harm unless it is allowed to grow into gutters and roof tiling.
There is as yet no proof that nitrifying bacteria or sulphur bacteria
play any significant part in the processes of decay in building stones.
There has centainly been no demonstration that antiseptic treatment of the
stone will preserve it from decay. Although there has been a long-
standing demand for some form of treatment that will improve the
weathering behaviour of the less durable kinds of stone without detracting
from their appearance, experience in the use of such treatments, extending
over the past 100-200 years, has been disappointing. Some tend to
disappear without causing any apparent effect, good or bad; some hold soot
and dirt, causing the stone to become discoloured and shabby; some will
harden and consolidate friable surfaces, but the depth of penetration that
can be secured by a surface application is always limited and there is
then a risk that the consolidated face may scale off, leaving the stone in
a worse condition than before.
The Weather Stability of Lime-Ash Cements. Y. M. Butt, B. G. Varshal,
and A. A. Maier. Sb. Tr., Resp. Nauchn.-Issled. Inst. Mestnykh Stroit.
Materialov, No. 20, 1961, pp. 3-17 (Russian).
At ordinary temperatures in lime-shale ash or lime-brown coal ash
mixtures (for example, 80:20) in the presence of gypsum (5%) are formed
3Ca0*Al203*3CaS0tf»31H20, or in the absence of gypsum, 4Ca0*Al203•13H20.
Calcium hydrosilicates and CaC03 appear in the process of later setting.
Teaming causes the formation of 3Ca0«Al203*6H20 or, in the presence of
gypsum, the solid solution 4Ca0*Al20^* 13H20-3Ca0»Al203*CaS0lt* 12H20, and in
addition, calcium hydrosilicates. With autoclave treatment, calcium
hydrosilicates of the type of the hydrogarnet 3Ca0*Al203»nSi02(6-2n)H20
appear and hydrosilicates of the group in which Si02 is in part replaced
by A1203. The weather stability of the newly-formed hydrates is
determined by their resistance to moist C02, which is satisfactorily
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attained by autoclaving. Alternate wetting and drying do not lower the
strength of lime-ash products. A sharp change in the phase composition of
the hardened material due to the reorganization of the crystal lattice of
the newly-formed substances is coincident with a drop in strength. If an
isomorphic exchange with calcite occurs, the strength does not decrease
but may even rise. In the case of weather-resistant lime-tripoli cements,
it is essential that the tripoli shall enter into complete combination
with the newly-formed substances since the unbound tripoli, with alternate
wetting and drying, changes volume so greatly as to cause disintegration
of the structure. Fine grinding promotes such interaction.
1960
1. Building Corrosion in the Nonferrous Industry. N. P. Shalamov. Prom.
Stroite1., v. 38, No. 2, 1960, pp. 5-12 (Russian).
Contamination of the atmosphere was studied in plants for A1 and Mg
reduction, Ti chlorination, and Cu smelting, both for summer and winter
operation, at different levels of the buildings. The effect of F, HF, CI,
HC1, and S02 on concrete is examined.
2. Corrosion and Protection of Limestone Monuments. J. Kauffmann. Corrosion
AntiCorrosion, v. 8, I960, pp. 87-95.*
The purpose of the investigation was to determine the mechanism of
destruction of limestone monuments and to find a method for their
protection. It was found that destruction is due to the attack by HNO3
generated by nitrifying bacteria, and the protection therefore consists of
providing conditions unfavorable for the development of bacteria.
3. Research on the Performance of High-Voltage Insulators in Polluted
Atmospheres. J. S. Forrest, P. J. Lambeth, and D. F. Oakeshott. Proc.
I.E.E.E., v. 107, pt. A, 1960, pp. 172-187.
The paper describes the work which has been carried out at the
Croydon Insulator Testing Station during the last 15 years on the
performance of insulators in humid and polluted atmospheres. Various
types of line and substation insulators have been investigated, and the
results obtained with insulators for working voltages of up to 380kV are
presented. Methods of surface treatment to improve insulators performance
are also discussed. Work on experimental insulators made from plastics is
described. An account is given of recent work on insulators for
high-voltage d.c. operation. The use of artificial salt-pollution tests
to simulate service conditions is also discussed.
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1959
1. A Method for the Identification of Sulfates and Their Dispersion in
Weathered Natural Building Stones. H. Galle. Wissenschaft1iche
Zeitschrift der Hochschule fur Bauwesen Cottbus, v. 2, 1958/1959,
pp. 129-131 (German).
The presence of sulfates and their dispersion is proven by the color
reaction in stone slides tested with barium rhodizonate.
2. Deterioration of Materials in Polluted Atmospheres. J. E. Yocum.
Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, October 1959, pp. 541t-545t. (Fe59-5)
3. Technical Examinations of the Stones Used in the Monument Commemorating
the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig, With Special Consideration of
General and Local Influences. H. Galle. Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift
der Hochschule fur Bauwesen Cottbus, v. 2, 1958/1959, pp. 15-26
(German).
The monument was completed in 1913 of pyroxene-granite-porphyry and
concrete. Examinations were made of this building which is still in the
early stages of weathering. The results show that urban influences are
preponderant. However, further elaborations show that special climatic
influences of the same stones will lead to varying weathering
manifestations on various parts of the building.
4. The Resistance of Ferritic Portland Cement to Sulfates. P. E. Shevyakov
and I. S. Kantsepol1skii. Uzbek. Khim. Zhur., No. 2, 1959, pp. 76-83
(Russian).**
A ferritic port land cement was prepared, having the following
composition: Si02 21.94; A1203 0.85; Fe203 11.75; CaO 62.99; MgO 0.32;
SC>2 0.36; free CaO 0.80; insol. 0.38 percent. Three percent of CaSO^*
2H20 was introduced. Testing specimens in the form of prisms having the
ratio 1:3.5 cement to sand and dimensions 1x1x3 cm were formed and
immersed in 3 percent Na2S0lt solution. The strength of the specimens as
compared to those immersed in water after 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, 45, 60, 120,
and 180 days was determined. For comparison purposes, tests with
aluminate and alumoferritic cements were run. It was confirmed that the
sulfate aggression of the cements containing Ca aluminates is caused by
the crystallization of Ca hydrosulfoaluminate. The crystallization of
gypsum causes much smaller internal deformations. Gypsum (20 percent) was
crystallized and more than 20 percent lime was leached out from the
ferritic cement by the 3 percent solution of Na2S0^. Nevertheless, the
ferritic cement retained a greater stabililty than the alumina cement,
which is quickly destroyed by adding 8 to 9 percent gypsum to calcium
hydrosulfoaluminate.
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5. Use and Durability of Natural Building Stones on Buildings in Leipzig.
H. Galle. WissenschaftIiche Zeitschrift der Hochschule fur Bauwesen
Cottbus, v. 2, 1958/1959, pp. 133-146 (German).
Several building periods were identified by various building stones.
The first phase of local materials of technically minor value was followed
by the widespread use of tufaceous porphyry from Rochlitz. Since the
middle of the 19th century, sandstone from Saxony, shell limestone,
travertine and others were used. Comprehensive weathering studies of the
materials, considering the local conditions, show excellent wear, besides
the indestructible hard rocks, of shell limestone and travertine, and good
durability of the tufaceous porphyry, but variable conditions among the
sandstones, even within their various types.
1958
1. Chemical Damage of Concrete and Its Prevention. H. Schaffler. Gas u.
Wasserfach 99, 1958, pp. 1001-1005 (German).
A review is given of concrete damage by water and solutions, with
photographs of several types of damage. Methods of preventing such damage
are evaluated.
2. Durability Tests of Structural Sandwich. E. W. Kuenzi and L. W. Wood.
Symposium on Some Approaches to Durability in Structures, American
Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 236, 1958, pp. 27-34.
(Fe58-4)
3. Effect of Production Features on Building Construction of Titanium-
Magnesium Plants. V, N. Romanov. Legkie Metally (Leningrad) Shornik,
No. 1, 1958, pp. 34-40 (Russian). (Fe58-5)
4. Effect of the Atmosphere on Masonry and Related Materials.
J. W. McBurney. Symposium on Some Approaches to Durability in
Structures, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 236,
1958, pp. 45-56.
Except for corrosion of metals, rather little attention has been
given to air as a possible factor in disintegration of structural
materials. The common assumption has been that all the deleterious
substances which in time produce disintegration or excessive volume change
in masonry were present originally in the units or in the mortar
ingredients as delivered and used. This paper considers the effect on
masonry of such components of the air as carbon dioxide, alkali and
alkaline earth salts, usually sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium
compounds, sulfur dioxide, and moisture as vapor expressed as relative
humidity.
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5. Laboratory Testing and the Durability of Concrete. T. B. Kennedy.
Symposium on Some Approaches to Durability in Structures, American
Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 236, 1958, pp. 14-26.
Concrete structures cannot be constructed and subjected to full-scale
tests for durability in a manner analogous to load tests. It therefore is
necessary to estimate the durability of concrete structures by combining
information gained from a study of service yielded by existing structures,
controlled exposure tests of specimens, laboratory simulated-service
tests, and tests and analyses of concrete and concrete materials. None of
these sources of information provide a basis for adequately evaluating the
effect on durability of workmanship, honesty, and intelligence that may or
may not be employed in all stages of the operation from production of
concrete materials to maintenance of the completed structure.
Durability of concrete structures is determined by materials,
workmanship, design, and exposure. Petrographic examination of
aggregates, X-ray diffraction studies of cement, freezing-and-thawing
tests of concrete both in the laboratory and at field exposure stations,
ultrasonic pulse velocity tests of specimens and structures, are
recommended means of improving knowledge of durability of concrete and
concrete structures.
6. Some Factors Affecting Durability of Structural Clay Products Masonry.
P. V. Johnson and H. C. Plummer. Symposium on Some Approaches to
Durability in Structures, American Society for Testing and Materials,
ASTM STP 236, 1958, pp. 3-13.
Moisture penetration is a big factor in considering the surface
disintegration, or decay, of masonry materials, regardless of the exact
source or character of this decay. In consequence of this every means
must be taken for preventing the penetration of moisture into the body of
masonry from any source whatsoever, quite regardless of the charcter and
durability of material employed.
1957
1. Corrosion of Concrete. T. Sneck. Nord. Betong., v. 1, 1957, pp. 117-127
(Danish).
The chemical and physical influences are discussed which produce the
corrosion of concrete. Factors having an effect are the chemical
composition, the quality of the starting material, and external factors.
Heavy damage is caused by C0£ and SO2 from the atmosphere, especially from
combustion gases. Water dissolves concrete, the substances dissolved in
the water react with concrete, and impurities sometimes have a mechanical
effect. The effect of pure water, and of water containing C02, humus, and
sulfate is discussed in detail. Swamp water, brackish, and salt water are
especially dangerous. The effect of the soil with regard to its acidity
is treated separately, and also some accessory constituents, such as
organic acids, biological factors, and flora and fauna.
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2. Corrosion of Concrete in Different Aqueous Media. M. Gruner. Gospodarka
Wodna, No. 1, 1957, pp. 15-18 (Polish).
Very soft water containing free acids, soft water saturated with
CO2, water containing sulfates of Ca, Mg, Na, or similar salts, or water
containing several of the components referred to, causes corrosion owing
to solution and gradual washing out of concrete components or to the
formation of new chemical compounds which alter the structure of concrete.
Factors determining the resistance of concrete to corrosion are chemical
compost ion of cement (containing minute amounts of SCaO'A^O^), coarseness
of cement (finely ground cement yields concrete of greater porosity and
thus facilitates corrosion), and quality of concrete production, since all
faults in production give access to the inside of concrete structures.
3. The Effects of Air Pollution on Buildings and Metalwork. R. J. Schaffer.
Air Pollution, edited by M. W. Thring, Butterworth Scientific, London,
1957, pp. 58-71. (Fe57-5)
1955
1. Corrosion Aspects of Air Pollution. L. Greenburg and M. B. Jacobs. Amer.
Paint J., v. 39, No. 43, 1955, pp. 64-78. (Fe55-2)
2. Destructive Effects of Air Pollution on Materials. A. Parker. Colliery
Guardian, v. 191, No. 4937, October 13, 1955, pp. 447-450. (Fe55-3)
1954
L. Chemical Aspects of the Durability of Cement Products. T. Thorvaldson.
Proc. Int. Symposium Chem. Cement, 3rd Symposium, London, (1952), 1954,
pp. 436-484.
The available evidence concerning the effects of the compounds which
may be present in port land cement on the resistance of mortars and
concretes to the action of natural waters, particularly those waters
containing sulfates, is summarized and discussed. The effects of
pozzolans are also considered. Data are presented on the effect of
sulfate solutions on the tensile strength and expansion of lean mortars
made of ASTM type 1 and 5 cements. It is concluded that lean mortars are
useful for determining the relative stability of cements, although they
must be used with caution because of their variability between different
experimenters. The addition of less than 2.5 percent of crystallized
tricalcium aluminate to a sulfate-resistant cement destroyed its
stability. The results of exposure of mortars to sulfate solutions for
periods up to 22 years are given. Data on the effects on the long-time
tests of steam-curing and of the substitution of active Si02 for part of
the cement are presented and discussed.
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2. Microstructure of Corroded Cement Solutions. B. S. Lysin and
Y. E. Kornilovich. Dopovidi Akad. Nauk Ukr. S.S.R., No. 2, 1954,
pp. 123-127 (Russian).
Sulfates and CO2 considerably decreased the mechanical strength of
cement solutions. Microstructures of the corroded cements for each
corrosive agents are specific. The cementographic method can be used for
the investigations of different questions of corrosion of the cement
solutions and concretes.
1953
1. Contaminated Fogs. N. Pilpel. Research (London), v. 6, 1953,
pp. 481-485.
The physicochemical nature of fog is discussed as a colloidal
phenomenon. Methods of fog dispersal are described, including the use of
surface-active agents. An illustration is shown of pollution damage to
stone at Westminster Abbey.
2. Protection of Massive and Reinforced Concrete Structures from Acids.
P. Lippold. Die Technik, v. 8, 1953, pp. 691-700 (German).
The most important chemical agents attacking concrete structures are
HC1, H2S04, H2S03, HN03, CI, tannic, fatty, and fruit acids. With
Ca(0H)2> present to some extent in all concretes, these acids form soluble
salts, which can be washed out; this may destroy the structure.
Protective coatings and linings for use in different industries are
described.
1952
1. Role of Nitrifying Bacteria in the Alteration of the Calcareous Stone of
Monuments. J. Kaufmann. Compt. Rend., Acad, Sci., Inst, de France,
v. 234, 1952, pp. 2395-2397.
In addition to the sulfur-oxidizing bacteria of Pochon, it is proposed
that some forms of stone decay are due to the activity of "nitrifying"
bacteria. These bacteria convert atmospheric ammonia into nitrite and
nitrate salts, which form efflorescences on the stone. The presence of
these bacteria was demonstrated in specimens from Notre Dame, the church
of Saint-Severin in Paris, and the cathedrals of Vienne and Romans (in the
Rhone valley).
2. The Corrosion of Concrete. A. Nicol. Silicates Ind., v. 17, 1952,
pp. 208-213, 252-254.
A review is given discussing the corrosion of concrete.
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1951
1. Conservation of Ancient Marble Monuments. A. J. Sofianopoulos.
J. Chera. Education, v. 28, 1951, pp. 79-81.
The chief cause of deterioration of weather-exposed marble is a layer
of dust containing clay SiOj, soot, and vegetable matter in areas
protected from driving rain. This colloidal layer adsorbs SO2 and
oxides of nitrogen to form acids which attack the marble. Deterioration
is not caused by oxidation of ferrous iron or from CC>2 in water, as is
commonly supposed, because the action is always local. The best means of
conservation is periodic washing. Ancient Greek lime mortars in which
colloidal organic matter was incorporated have shown outstanding
permanence.
1950
1. Bibliographic Summary on the Agents and the Causes of the Corrosion of
Concrete. A. Nicol. Rev. Materiaux Construction Taruv. Pub., No. 415,
1950, pp. 111-126 (French).*
The effects of C02, S02, H2S, bacteria, organic acids, vegetable and
animal oils and fats, gLycerol, mineral oils, sugar, molasses, beer, ink,
and wine on concrete and mortars are reviewed. Means of preserving
concrete against corrosive agents and the use of Na silicates, Na2SiFltS,
phenolic and furan resins, and silcones are also discussed. The use of
slag cements, high-alumina cements, fused cements, and pozuolana is
recommended.
2. Chemical Corrosion of Concrete and Materials in General. G. Batta.
Chimie & Industrie, v. 63, 1950, pp. 502-511 (French).
A review of the physicochemical phenomena of corrosion by dissolution
is given. Disintegration of cement by expansion and the action of
sulfates are discussed. The NaCl in sea water retards the expanding
action of sulfates in portland cement.
1949
1. Aggressive Action of Waters on Portland-Cement Concrete.
E. D. Rozhdestvenski. Gidrotekh. Stroitel, v. 18, No. 4, 1949,
pp. 17-20 (Russian).
Concrete is attacked by water even in the absence of dissolved C02.
Soluble sulfates are harmful through precipitation of CaSO^. Analyses of
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partly loosened concrete showed increased contents of MgO, SO3, and
chloride. Accumulation of CaSOl+ to the extent of 9 percent lowers its
strength distinctly; with 13 percent CaSO^, the concrete loses its
strength completely. Microscopic examination of such concrete showed
complete absence of spherolites of calcium sulfoaluminate, only CaSO^.
Chlorides attack concrete both through exchange reactions and through
formation of compounds of the type 3Ca0*Al2O3«2CaCl2*10H20 or
3Ca(0H)2.CaCl2.13H20.
2. Weathering of Concrete. Causes of Efflorescence. E. Propst.
Bethonstein-Zrg, 1949, pp. 81-82, 102-103 (German).
The various kinds of concrete efflorescences and their many causes
are discussed. Water present as a constituent of the cement or mortar, in
any paint coat, or simply as free external water may dissolve the solution
constituents of the concrete and even part of the difficulty soluble
constituents and thus cause weathering. The most troublesome constituents
are the sulfates; sulfides are also subject to the action of atmospheric
moisture. If the concrete is not sufficiently tight such action may
penetrate into the interior, with new compounds being formed from the
solutions of old ones. In slowly setting concretes, newly formed Ca
sulfoaluminates may appear simply as efflorescence on the surface but may
cause rupture of the interior structure. The possible origin of sulfates
in various admixtures used in concrete, such as slags, ashes, or crushed
brick, is discussed. Less troublesome efflorescence may be due to lime
set free from the cement as hydrate, to CI compounds from soil water, sea
water, sea sand, etc., to Fe and Mn, etc. Paints to be used on concrete
should be carefully chosen. The presence of gypsum, spar, chalk, etc., in
the paint may cause efflorescence.
1948
1. Role of Sulfur Bacteria in the Disintegration of Building Stone.
J. Pochon and Y. Tchan. Comp. Rend., Acad. Sci., Inst, de France, v.
226, 1948, pp. 2188-2189. (French).
Bacteria present in damaged stone are shown to be capable of
oxidizing hydrogen sulfide to sulfurous and sulfuric acid.
1946
1. Role of Microorganisms in the Alteration (called stone disease) of Paris
Monuments. J. Pochon and Y. Tchan. Corapt. Rend., Acad. Sci,, Inst, de
France, v. 223, 1946, pp. 695-696.
Decayed stone from the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris was found to
contain bacteria that convert H2S to sulfate. It is suggested that
these play a role in the decay of the stone, utilizing sulfur from iron
sulfide in the stone, or from atmospheric H2S.
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1945
1. Study of the Stones of Brussels' Monuments; Effects of Air Pollution.
C. Carmerman. Soc. Beige. Geol. Paleontol. et d'Hydrol., Bull., v. 54,
1945, pp. 133-139 (French).
A series of case studies showing differential weathering of a variety
of stone types in both urban, rural, and coastal environments are cited.
1940
1. Physical, Mineralogical, and Durability Studies on the Building and
Monumental Granites of the United States. D. W. Kessler,
H. Insley, and W. H. Sligh. Journal of Research of the National Bureau
of Standards, v. 25, 1940, pp. 161-206.
Tests on 116 samples of granite (including the "black granites") from
the principal producing districts of the United States gave values for
various physical properties. In compression, granite is indicated to be
stronger than other types of masonry materials except for some quartzites,
whereas slate and some of the serpentines are stronger than granite in
flexure. The porosity of granite is of the same order as that of the
marbles, slates, and quartzites, but much lower than that of most other
masonry materials. Although granite ranks as a heavy masonry material,
the unit weight of a normal granite is somewhat less than that of marble,
slate, and serpentine.
Inspections of granite structures have shown several cases in which
the granite scaled to a depth of a few hundredths of an inch over a
portion of the surface. Chemical and microscopic studies showed that
calcium sulfate was present in the decayed granite but not in newly
quarried granite. Experiments were made to determine if calcium sulfate,
leached into the granite from external sources or formed in the granite by
the action of sulfuric acid on calcite ingredients, would produce scaling.
Leaching with a 10-percent solution of sulfuric acid caused some granites
to disintegrate within 30 days, but leaching with a saturated solution of
calcium sulfate produced no decay in 3 years. It was concluded that the
conversion of calcite ingredients to calcium sulfate by sulfuric acid is
the probable cause of scaling.
2. Tests of 106 Commercial Cements for Sulfate Resistance. D. G. Miller and
P. W. Manson. Proceedings, American Society for Testing and Materials,
v. 40, 1940, pp. 988-1001.
Results of 5-yr sulfate resistance tests of 5724 concrete cylinders,
2 by 4 in, made of 106 commercial cements from 74 mills are recorded in
this report. Some of the cylinders were continuously stored in the
laboratory in 1 percent solutions of magnesium sulfate (MgSOtf), some in
1 percent solutions of sodium sulfate (Na2S0t+), and some in the water
of Medicine Lake, S. Dak. During the 5-yr period, the water of this lake
averaged 12 percent total salts, of which two-thirds were magnesium
sulfate and one-fourth sodium sulfate. Resistance of the specimens stored
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in the laboratory solutions was determined by length changes while
resistance of the Medicine Lake cylinders was determined by strength
ratios calculated from compression tests at 1 and 5 yr of the Medicine
Lake cylinders and cylinders stored in tap water in the laboratory.
The many test and chemical analyses indicate close correlation
between sulfate resistance of the cements and the percentage of the
compound tricalcium-aluminate.
1939
1. Effect of Sulfur Compounds in the Air on various Materials. L. R. Burdick
and J. F. Bark ley. U. S. Bureau of Mines, I.C. 7064, April 1939, 9 pp.
(Fe39-1)
1937
1. Limestones, Their Origins, Distribution, and Uses. F. J. North. The
Weathering of Building Stones, Thomas Murby and Co., London, 1937,
pp. 375-380.
Agencies tending to the destruction of limestone, including the role
of rain washing, frost actio.n, lichens and mosses, and ammonia, chlorides,
and sulfates in the atmosphere are discussed.
1934
1. The Decay of Building Stones through Soot. R. Warnes. Sands, Clays and
Minerals, v. 2, 1934, pp. 17-18.
A typical specimen of soot contains 0.25-5.0% free sulfuric acid,
2.8% ammonium sulfate, and 4.6% ammonium chloride. All of these are
aggressive agents of decay; the physical properties of soot promote the
decay by the tenacity with which water is held in the deposit.
2. The Stone Industries. 0. Bowles. Deterioration of Stone, McGraw-Hill New
York, N.Y., 1934. pp. 348-360.
Agents of stone deterioration are discussed including: chemical
weathering by dissolved S02, C02 and ammonium salts; alteration and
replacement of minerals; weathering by thermal expansion, frost action,
abrasion, and settlements; deterioration due to plant growth and marine
borers; and faults in accessory materials and workmanship.
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1932
1. Deterioration of Stone Structures, Causes and Prevention. A. Kieslinger.
Published by Franz Denticke, Leipzig and Wein, 1932, 346 pp.,
(German).
The battle against weathering is almost always primarily a battle
against moisture, which is the agent of all weathering phenomena. We have
also shown that smoke gases (at least with respect to our Austrian stones)
have no specific effect, but they accelerate and even multiply the usual
weathering phenomena in quite characteristic ways. Thanks to the advances
of modern heating techniques, we no longer have to consider this
tremendous enemy of our buildings and monuments as irresistible; rather,
its effects can be extensively limited, though only if these efforts are
supported by the full weight of the authorities, as is, for example,
typical of the situation in Vienna. This combatting of immediate sources
represents an ideal which can often only be approached. However, the
consequences of the action of smoke also can be markedly diminished
through appropriate care of the endangered structures. Coatings of dirt
are not only ugly, they are also harmful. The surface crusts of the
stone monuments and structures studied by Kieslinger are stated to be
composed of calcium carbonate in the form of small concretions called
"sinter" or "drip stones."
2. Physical Properties and Weathering Characteristics of Slate.
D. W. Kessler and W. H. Sligh. Journal of Research of the National
Bureau of Standards, v. 9, 1932, pp. 378-411.
The examination of 343 samples of slate shingles which had been in
service for periods varying from 12 to 130 years indicated that slate
deteriorates mainly from a combination of chemical and physical causes.
Slates containing both pyrite and calcite in appreciable amounts
are subject to decay due to the conversion of a part of the calcite to
gypsum. The increase in molecular volume causes scaling of the surface.
Slate shingles exposed on the roof decay more rapidly on the downward
surface, which is probably due to the leaching and concentration of
gypsum. A similar type of decay can be produced by alternately soaking
and drying the slate. The slates which are more subject to this type of
weathering can be disintegrated by 40 or 50 cycles of this treatment.
Frost may cause deterioration, but the rate of this action is very
slow. Aside from chipping off the scales near the edges already loosened
in the trimming process, frost plays a very minor part in slate
weathering. However, the freezing of water between shingles which are
nailed down tightly may cause breakage.
3. The Weathering of Natural Building Stones. R. J. Schaffer. Building
Research Establishment Special Report No, 18, published by His Majesty's
Stationery Office, London, 1932, 139 pp. (Reprinted in 1972)
This report contains sections on: classification of natural building
stones; classification of the causes of weathering; atmospheric pollution
in relation to weathering; chemical phenomena associated with weathering
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(action of acid gases as CO, SO2); physical phenomena associated with
weathering; soluble salts as agents of decay; living organisms as agents
of decay; preventive and remedial measures.
1931
1. Notes on the Weathering of Natural Building Stones. G. F. Loughlin.
Symposium on the Weathering of Masonry Materials, Proc. ASTM 3, II,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1931, pp. 759-767.
Rather than present a thorough outline on the weathering of building
stone certain factors of critical importance are discussed. The majority
of these factors are important only as affecting superficial details
rather than as affecting the ultimate durability of stone in structures of
different kinds, but superficial details are likely to attract the most
attention and therefore to assume great importance in the selection of
stone.
The weathering of stone depends primarily upon its mineral
composition, texture, and structure, and secondarily on the conditions
under which it is used. Some minerals are very stable under all ordinary
conditions of use, but others are very unstable and a small percentage of
them in a stone may be sufficient to affect seriously both superficial
detail and even ultimate durability; again a stone may consist entirely of
stable minerals but its cohesive strength may have been originally low or
it may have been seriously decreased by microscopic fracturing of natural
or artificial origin.
2. The Weathering of Slate. C. H. Behre, Jr. Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing
Materials (preprint), v. 66, 1931, pp. 37-43.
The oldest roofing slate in America has been exposed 190 yrs. and the
buildings on which it was successively placed have been torn down twice.
Spalling due to alternate heating and cooling is known to occur very
rarely. Slates are highly resistant to frost action and generally to
chemical action, although chemical decay of some slates takes place.
Those with lowest resistance contain Ca, Mg or Fe carbonates, or their
isomorphous mixtures. Practically all slates lose part of their luster
upon prolonged exposure.
3. Weathering of Aggregates. L. 0. Hanson. Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing
Materials (preprint), v. 66, 1931, pp. 44-57.
Accelerated weathering tests of 5 cycles caused disintegration
roughly comparable with that of Wisconsin limestones. A very severe
accelerated weathering test caused a weakening of 18 mortar mixes
inversely proportional to their 28-day strengths. Cross-bending tests are
the most satisfactory criteria of the destructive effects of weathering
tests on mortars.
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1929
1. Contributions to the Study of Fluorescence. W. A. Mclntyre and
R. J. Schaffer. Transactions of the British Ceramic Society, v. 28,
1928-1929, pp. 363-380.
The nature and sources of salts found on the surface of brick work,
terra cotta, and stone are discussed. It is contended that
crystallization pressure of soluble salts within pores is the most
important factor in the decay process. Sulfates from neighboring
materials can cause similar decay in non-calcareous materials, such as
siliceous sandstones.
2. Factors Governing the Durability of Clay Building Materials. W. A.
Mclntyre. Transactions of the British Ceramic Society, v. 28, 1928—
1929, pp. 101-123.
Biological, physical, and chemical factors affecting the durability
of brick, roofing tiles, and structural terra cotta are discussed.
The results of accelerated weathering tests performed by the Building
Research Station on wet specimens with a mixture of 5% C(>2 and S are
reviewed. One of the main factors in the weathering of clay building
materials is the texture of the original material. Crystallization of
soluble salts, especially alkalai sulfates in the body of the material is
cited as the major cause of decay. Sodium sulfates tend to be more
prevalent in effloresence than potassium sulfates despite a dominance of
K2O over Na£0 in the original material. Calcium sulfates are surprisingly
absent from the effloresences tested. Sources of salts are discussed:
soil, mortar, original material, atmospheric gases. Results indicate no
direct relation between clay composition and attack by atmospheric gases,
except for a rough proportionality between calcium content and gas action.
Field observations indicate that differential weathering is related to
exposure to rain wash. Absence of alkalai salts on roofing tiles is
attributed to rain wash preventing crystallization of these salts.
1926
1. Building Stones, Their Properties, Decay, and Preservation. A. R. Warnes.
Published by Ernest Benn Limited, London, 1926, 260 pp.
In the opinion of the author, the action of bacteria in causing decay
of stone is doubtful, and even if it does occur in isolated cases, the
amount of decay produced by the nitric acid formed is very little when
compared with that caused by deleterious substances in the atmosphere and
in rainwater. The mechanisms of attack on stone by SO^, C02, NH^, CI, and
(NH1+)2 SO^ is discussed. The discussion of weathering agents include
wind, diurnal temperature variation, clay content, cleavage planes, and
the variety of soluble salts in commonly used mortars.
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1925
1. Some Aspects of Stone Decay. J. J. Fox and T. W. Harrison. Soc. Chem.
Ind., v. 44, 1925, pp. 145T-149T.
Seeing that water is the chief agent and vehicle of corrosive
substances as well as the weathering agent, it might prove the most
desirable course in the long run to get the stone into as dry a condition
as possible and then render it impermeable so that neither water nor gases
could gain admittance. We conclude that the most serious agent of stone
decay in towns, apart from natural weathering, mechanical defects, and
faulty stone, is atmospheric sulfurous or sulfuric acid; bacterial action,
if it is found to occur generally, may be of importance, but our
information on this part of the subject does not convince us that it is
usually a serious factor. The selection of a universal stone preservative
is difficult, if not impossible, and the best hitherto suggested still
need investigation on a large scale and in conditions as natural as
possible.
2. Stone Decay and the Preservation of Buildings. A. P. Laurie. J. Soc.
Chem. Ind., v. 44, 1925, pp. 86T-92T.
Investigations of the deterioration of Lincoln Cathedral, Elgin
Cathedral, Durham Cathedral, and Ely Cathedral, including analysis of
surface incrustations, particularly the depth of penetration of
sulfates into the stone are dicussed. The author considers rain to be a
deliverer of S02 and a remover of CaSO^ prior to the harmful effects of
its hydration.
1917
1. Building Stones and Clays. C. H. Richardson. Chapter 2 in Physical
Properties and Weathering of Building Stones, published by C. H.
Richardson, Syracuse, New York, 1917,pp. 15-37.
The phenoraona of mineral solution and hydration by agents dissolved
in rain water, C02j S02» HNO3, HCl, and NH^ are discussed. The effect of
NaCl in sea air increases the solvent action of H2O and the effect of
deposited smoke in attracting other depositions. A study of pure rain
dissolving Solentisten limestone at a rate of .85 mm per century is
c ited.
1914
1. Big-City Patina. 0. W. Fischer. Weiner Bauindustrie Zeitung, v. 31,
No. 24, 1914, pp. 151-153 (German).
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Marble sculpture is more susceptible to the disfiguring effect of
soot and dirt, when the size of the crystallites composing the stone is
finer. In the case of fine-grained marble, the dirt works its way below
the surface, after which cleaning no longer serves to restore the
appearance. Regular, frequent washing is the only means of preserving the
surface of such sculpture.
1910
1. The Weathering of Our Large Monuments. V. Manikonsky. Die Denkmalpflege,
v. 12, No. 7, 1910, pp. 51-54 (German).
According to Building Supervisor Frische in Lowen, examination of
monuments that have suffered decay shows that the areas of limestone where
decay is absent or slight are rich in silica, whereas the severely
weathered areas contain only traces of silica. Hence it follows that
defects in the chemical composition of the stone, particularly the lack of
silica, is as often the source of decay as is the effect of chemical
agents in the atmosphere.
According to the geologist Delesse, the decay of the stone of West-
minster Palace, London, is due to its content of magnesia, which reacts
with the sulfur and ammonia in the air, producing salts that destroy the
stone. In the past, every attempt at preservation has failed, and the
only effective means of obtaining a durable strucutre has been the
selection of a good stone in the beginning.
Louis Guicciardini (1567) has said in his description of the Lowen
town hall (1448-1459): "Unfortunately this easily worked stone has the
defect of being porous and of exfoliating when imbibed water freezes in
it, and it does not harden in the air as other stones do. For this
reason, the policy was adopted of painting it with oil." This practice
was observed until its first restoration in 1829, and it is probable that
the sculpture and the finely detailed ornamentation of the 15th century
survived only because of this precautionary measure. Indeed, it can be
shown through other examples that mere whitewashing of stones with slaked
lime has a preservative effect. Most stones, granites, sandstones, and
limestones carry a greater or lesser number of the seeds of deterioration
within themselves, of which the worst are the salts that develop in the
interior and on the surface due to the effects of the atmosphere, acids,
dampness, and nitrogenous matter in the soil. The artisans of the Middle
Ages, knowing that even the densest stone tends to take up some water,
oiled the stones, and took the most painstaking measures to insure their
dryness. Perhaps it was for this reason that the stone of the Cologne
Cathedral has lasted for seven centuries.
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1908
1. The Testing of Natural Building Stones and Their Resistance to Weather.
J. Hirschwald. Published by Wilhelm Ernst and Sohn Verlag, Berlin,
1908, 675 pp.
Extensive tabulations of the properties and weathering
characteristics of the stone present in many monuments and historic
buildings in Germany and neighboring regions are contained.
The weathering of limestones stems, in general, from the following
factors: a) defective crystal growth resulting from discontinuous crystal
formation, pelitomorphic consititution of the calcium carbonate, or
presence of foreign substances, particularly argillaceous, bituminous or
carbonaceous inclusions; b) the effect of frost; c) substantial content of
iron bisulfide.
The weathering of those limestones which are not affected by frost is
principally due to the gradual loosening of the binding of the
crystallites resulting from the solvent effect of carbonic acid-containing
water. This is shown by the fact that dense, microcrystalline limestones,
which show no trace of penetration of a dye solution into fresh surfaces.
1903
1. Stones for Building and Decoration. G. P. Merrill. The Weathering of
Building Stone, John Wiley and Sons, London, 1903, pp. 418-446.
Physical and chemical agencies of building stone deterioration are
discussed, including: heat and cold, friction, growing organisms,
composition of the atmosphere and the resultant processes of oxidation,
deoxidation, solution; induration of stone on exposure; and weathering
properties of various classes of stone.
1883
1. The Decay of Building Stones of New York City. A. A. Julien.
Transactions of the New York Academy of Science, 1883, pp. 67-78,
120-138.
This report was also published as part of the 1880 census (MSC 1880-
2) .
1880
1. Rock Weathering as Illustrated in Edinburgh Church Yards. A. Geikie.
Proc. Royal Soc., Edinburgh, 1879/1880, pp. 518-532.
Observations on the weathering of limestone, granite, marble and
sandstone grave markers in a "large town, with a moist climate and plenty
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MSC-89
of coal smoke" are recorded. The weathering rate of marble was computed
to be 9 mm/century and that of granite to be 0.85 mm/century.
2. The Durability of Building Stones in New York City and Vicinity.
A. A. Julien. Chapt. 8 in Building Stones and the Quarry Industry,
U.S. Tenth Census, v. 10, 1880, pp. 364-384.
From the commercial relations of New York to the quarries of this
country and of foreign countries, and from the enormous amount of
construction on which the practical value of building materials is tested
in that city, this chapter, though local in title, forms the best
availabily summary upon the durability of building stone for the United
States.
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ELASTOMERS
1980
1. A Review of Air Pollutant Damage to Materials. J. E. Yocum and A. R.
Stankunas. Draft Report to Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, December
1980, 92 pp. (Fe80-2)
2. Collector Sealants and Breathing. M. A. Mendelsohn, R. M. Luck,
F. A. Yeoman, and F. W. Navish, Jr. Westinghouse Electric Corp.,
Pittsburgh, PA (USA), Research and Development Center, NTIS PC
A09/MF-A01 February 1980, 278 pp.
The objectives of this program were: (1) to investigate the
pertinent properties of a variety of possible sealants for solar
collectors and identify the most promising candidates, and (2) to study
the effect of breathing in flat-plate, thermal solar collector units. The
study involved two types of sealants, class PS which includes preformed
seals or gaskets, and Class SC which includes sealing compounds or caulks.
It was the intent of the study to obtain data regarding initial properties
of candidate elastomers from manufacturers and from the technical
literature and to use those sources to provide data pertaining to
endurance of these materials under environmental service conditions.
Where necessary, these data were augmented by experimental measurements.
Environmental stresses evaluated by these measurements included elevated
temperatures, moisture, ultraviolet light, ozone and oxygen, and fungus.
The second major area of the work involved a study of the effects of
materials and design on the durability of solar collectors. Factors such
as design, fabrication, materials of construction, seals and sealing
techniques, and absorber plate coatings were observed on actual field
units removed from service. Such phenomena as leakage, corrosion, and the
formation of deposits on glazing and the absorber plate were noted. An
evaluation of the properties of several desiccants was made in order to
provide means to mitigate the deleterious effects of water on collector
life. Adsorbents for organic degradation products of sealants were also
investigated in order to protect the glazing and absorber plate from
deposited coatings. Since adsorbents and desiccants in general tend to
take up both water and organic decomposition products, relative affinities
of a number of these agents for water and for organic compounds were
determined. Results are presented in detail.
3. Critical Review of the Available Physico-Chemical Material Damage
Functions of Air Pollution. M. Benarie. Report EUR-6643, Commission on
the European Communities, 1980, 97 pp. (Fe80-8)
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E-2
1979
1. Degradation of Adhesion of Coated Tire Cords to Rubber by Atmospheric
Pollutants. R. E. Hartz and H. T. Adams. Tire Performance and
Reinforcement, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 694,
1979, pp. 139-152.
The effects were studied of nitrogen oxides, SO.,, ultraviolet light,
and air on adhesion of glass-coated steel cords and of resorc i no 1 -HCHO-
latex (RFL) adhesive-coated nylon 66, polyester, and rayon tire cords to
rubber compounds. RFL-dipped nylon and polyester tire cords lost adhesion
to rubber stocks on exposure to 0^ and 0,-ultravio let light; other
degradants, such and NO, N02, S02, heat, and air, had less effect on
adhesion loss. Adhesion degradation was caused by attack on double bonds
of the butadiene component of the rubber latex and subsequent reduction of
sites for cure with rubber formulations. Addition of N, N'-ethv lenebis
(stearamide) wax to the RFL dip provided protection from adhesion loss
during exposure (by blooming) to the surface of the dip on the cord.
Brass-coated steel rapidly lost adhesion on exposure to NO2 and SO2',
humidity and heat did not effect adhesion loss. Corrosion of metals bv
acidic pollutants eliminated sites for cure to sulfur adducts of adhesion
st ocks.
2. Glovebox Deterioration in the Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory
Fuel Fabrication Facility. W. 0. Greenhalgh, R. C. Smith, and D. L.
Powell. NTIS Report PC-A03/MF-A01, July 1979, 44 pp.
Neoprene glovebox gloves have been found susceptible to periodic
rapid deterioration under normal operating conditions in fuel fabrication
facilities. Examinations of glove failure histories and measurements of
the atmospheres in inert atmosphere dry-boxes indicated ozone at low
concentrations of 100 to 500 ppb was probably the most important factor in
rapid glove deterioration. Testing of a variety of new glove deteriora-
tion. Testing of a variety of new glove materials indicated that hvpalon
and ethylene-propylene-diamine monomer (EDPM) gloves have greater than 30
times the longevity of neoprene in low-level ozone concentration atmos-
pheres. Comparative tests over a 30-month period have also confirmed that
the two glove candidates have a significantly longer operating life.
1978
1. The Effect of the Polluted Urban Atmosphere on Degradation of Polymers.
F. Flajsman. Chem., Kunstst.-Aktuel1 (1977), 1978, pp. 21-23.
Pronounced oxidative degradation of 5BR and isoprene rubber was
observed when exposed to various degrees of air pollution in an urban
environment. No changes in polymer structure were observed where
pollution was absent. Mechanisms of oxidation of the unsaturated polymers
were discussed.
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E-3
1977
1. Effects of Sulphur Dioxide on Materials. S. K, Gajendragadkar. Chero.
Age India, v. 28, No. 8, 1977, pp. 673-677 (Fe77-5)
2. Effects on Economic Materials and Structures. J. E. Yocom and J. B.
Upham. Chapter 2 in Air Pollution, edited by A. C. Stern, Academic
Press, New York, N.Y., v. 2, 1977, pp. 65-116. (Fe77-6)
3. Estimation of Pollutants Concentration in Atmosphere by Measuring
Corrosion Rates of Several Metals. II. Correlation 3etween Reflec-
tances of Exposed Metals and Deterioration of Exposed Rubber. G. Takao
and M. Masakasu. Taiki Osen Kenkyu, v. 11, No. 6, 1977, pp. 452-455
(Japanese). (Cu77-2)
1976
1. Air Pollution and Aspects of Polymer Degradation. I. Cook. ICCM
Bulletin, v. 2, No. 4, December 1976, pp. 4-20.
Air pollution and its effects on the chemical structure of polymer
materials is discussed. Pollutants are first defined and the general
characteristics of air pollution reviewed. Then the author covers the
effects of the sulfur compounds, especially sulfur dioxide, ozone, and
nitrogen dioxide on paper, textiles, and other polymer materials.
2. Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on Materials: A Chamber Study.
F. H. Haynie, J. W. Soence, and J. B. Upham. NTIS Report PB-251580,
1976, 98' pp. (Fe76-5)
3. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocom and N.
Grappone. Research Corporation of New England, WethersfieId,
Connecticut, NTIS Report PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp. (Fe76-6)
4. Material Changes by Ozone. U. Arndt and H. Ross. VDI-Ber., v. 270, 1976,
pp. 197-210 (German). (OM76-11)
5. Physical and Economic Damage Functions for Air Pollutants by Receptors.
B. Lui and E. S. Yu. Report No. EPA-600/5-76-011 , Environmental
Protection Agency, September 1976, 172 pp. (Fe76-13)
6. Protection Against Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Translated by
J. R. Duncan, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1976, 194 pp. (Fe76-14)
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E-4
1975
1. Environmental Exposure System for Studying Air Pollution Damage to
Materials. J. W. Spence, F. D. Stump, F. H. Haynie, and J. B. Upham.
NTIS Report P3-240615/5ST, 1975, 46 pp. (Fe75-ll)
2. Sulfur Dioxide and Material Damage. D. G. Gillette. J. Air Pollution
Control Association, v. 25, No. 12, December 1975, pp. 1238-1243.
(Fe75-17)
1974
1. Design of a Laboratory Experiment to Identify the Effects of Environmental
Pollutants on Materials. J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. Corrosion in
Natural Environments, American Societv for Testing and Materials, ASTM
STP 558, 1974, pp. 279-291. (Fe74-10)*
2. Effect of Air Pollution on Materials and Technical Equipment.
D. Knotkova, K. Barton, and 3. Dolezel. Ochr. Ovzdust., v. 6, No. 6,
June 1974, pp. 75-83 (Czech). (Fe74-12)
3. Effect of Oxidative Components of Air Pollutants on the Degradation of
Polymers. F. Flajsman, Kern, Ind., v. 23, No. 2, 1974, pp. 96-100
(Croat ian) .*
The effects of NO2 and S02 on polyethylene, polypropylene, poly
sterene, poly(methyl methacrylate), PVC, polyacry1 on itrLle, nylon 66,
butyl rubber, polyisoprene, and polybutadiene were examined. Films
approximately 20 ym thick were cast from solutions and exposed to *102 at
35 C and S02 at 25* C and mixtures of these gases with 02 and air, with
or without U.V. irradiation. Changes in limiting viscosity and I.R.
spectra were determined.
4. How Rubbers Compare in Weathering Resistance. J. A. Vaccari. Mater.
Eng., v. 79, No. 4, April 1974, pp. 58-59.*
Weathering degrades all rubbers, but some rubbers are much more
resistant than others to atmospheric attack. Oxygen, ozone and ultravio-
let irradiation are some of the major causes for the weathering of rub-
bers. Antioxidants are primarily of two types: (1) those which cause
staining such as phenyl-beta-naphthylamine (PBNA) and (2) those which are
nonstaining such as phenolics and alkylated phenol phosphite. Ozone
attack has become a problem of considerable concern in high smog areas.
Use of an ozone resistant rubber such as butyl, choloroprene, ethylene-
propylenediene, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, epichlorohydrin,
polyarylate, fluorocarbon and silicone is an obvious solution. However,
the ozone resistance of natural rubber, butadiene and styrene-butadiene
can be improved chemically by compounding with protective additives
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E-5
(antiozonants) such as phenylene-diamines and other compounds. Similarly,
photochemical degradation of rubbers from ultraviolet rays in sunlight can
be reduced by protective additives which screen out the harmful energy.
In general, saturated rubbers such as chlorosulfonated polyethylene,
ethylene-propylene, flourocarbon and silicone are more resistant to UV
degradation than natural rubber and styrene-butadiene. Few if any rubbers
meet the "outstanding" weathering resistance of silicone rubber.
Ethylene-propvlene-diene is noted for its overall weathering resistance,
including color stability.
5. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution. T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701, 1974, 156 pp. (Fe74-21)
6. The Economics of Clean Air In Perspective. F. U. Haynie. Materials
Performance, v. 13, no. 4, April 1974, pp. 33-33. (Fe74-22)
1973
1. Concentrations, Decay Rates, and Removal of Ozone and Their Relation to
Establishing Clean Indoor Air. R. H. Sabersky, D. A. Sinema, and F. H.
Shair. Environ. Sci. Technol., v. 7, No. 4, 1973, pp. 347-353. (OM73-2)
1971
Present Status and Prospects on Air Pollution. U. Bardelii. Ingegneria,
v. 5, 1971, pp. 311-316 (Italian). (Fe71-19)
1970
1. Effects of Ozone on Deterioration of Rubbers (Blooming Theory). T. S.
Huh. Kongyon Rebyu, v. 12, No. 3, 1970, pp. 7-9 (Korean).
Ozone deterioration of rubbers is reviewed.
2. Interstate Surveillance Network—1969 Data. Division of Air Quality and
Emission Data, Report NAPCA/APTD 70-3, U.S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare, May 1970, 203 pp. (OM70-5)
3. Systems Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials. R. L.
Salmon. NTIS Report PB-209192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp. (Fe70-13)
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1969
1. Combined Effects of Deformation and Ozone on Molecular Bond Rupture in
Rubber. L. K. De Vries, E. R. Simonson, and M. L. Williams. Polym.
Prepr., Amer. Chera. Soc., Div. Polym. Chem., v. 10, No. 2, 1969, pp.
1190-1197.
Electron paramagnetic resonance spectra of ozone-treated and deformed
rubbers showed that the free radical formation threshold occurs below vis-
ible cracking, the bond rupture rate increases monatomically with strain
above the strain threshold, and bond scission increases linearly witn
ozone concentration. EPR spectra of nylon 66, polyethylene, and
polypropylene at various temperatures showed that the number of bonds
broken is independent of temperature below the glass-transition
temperature, above which the number drops off rapidly. In the rubbers no
bond rupture occurred below the strain threshold.
2. Minimum Paint Film Thickness for Economical Protection of Hot-Rolled Steel
Against Corrosion. J. D. Keane, W. Wettach, and W. Bosch. J. Paint
Techno 1., v. 41, No. 533, 1969, pp. 372-382. (Fe69-33)
1967
1. Corrosion by Air Pollution. J. R. Goss, Proc. Annu. Conf., Nat. Soc.
Clean Air, No. 34, 1967, pp. 75-92. (Fe67-4)
2. Fundamental Degradation Processes Relevant to Outdoor Exposure of
Polymers. H. H. G. Jellinek. Applied Polymer Symposia, No. 4, 1967,
pp. 41-59.
A survey is presented of fundamental reactions which can take place
when polymers are exposed, separately, to light and oxygen. The kinetics
of chain scissioning and crosslinking is presented in some detail. Oxida-
tion is discussed on basis on Holland's mechanism. A number of examples
to illustrate discussion are given. The simultaneous effect of light and
oxygen is illustrated oy considering poly(ethyl acrylate). The effect of
ozone and air pollutants is briefly discussed.
3. The Effects of Photochemical Oxidants on Materials. L. S. Jaffe. J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., v. 17, No. 6, 1967, pp. 375-378.
The excessive cracking of rubber products is one of the earliest
indications of the presence of atmospheric photochemical oxidants.
Excessive cracking is caused by atmospheric ozone formed in the
photochemical smog formation process. Ozone effects on textiles, dyes and
other materials are also addressed.
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1966
1. Ozone Aging of Rubber. Y. S. Zuev. Zh. Vsev. Khim. Obschesta im.
D. I. Mendeleeva, v. 11, No. 3, 1966, pp. 288-293 (Russian).
The nature of attack by ozone on rubber products, effects of
environment and methods of its prevention, including amines used as
antiozone agents, is discussed.
1963
1. Mechanism of Ozone Cracking of Rubber, P. Y. Inagaki, T. Shiga, and T.
Arai. Nippon Gorau Kyokaishi, v. 36, 1963, pp. 613-619 (Japanese).
The relation between theoretical considerations of the mechanism of
Oj cracking of rubber surfaces and experimental results is discussed. The
surface changes of unstrained and strained rubber exposed to ozonized air
are observed by the electron microscope. The process in which the surface
of unstrained rubber becomes covered with a stable oxidized film and also
the process in which ozone cracks grow on the surface of strained rubber
are discussed. Visual inspection revealed that migration to the
antiozonants between rubber surfaces is related to Oj resistance. To
explain the variation of the shapes of 03 cracks, the theory proposed in
the previous report is sufficiently valid if the concept of stress
relaxation of rubber surfaces is introduced. Results such as the relation
between elongation ratio and the time until cracks occurred, the effects
of softeners, and the effects of concentration of Oj and antiozonants
agree with theoretical considerations.
1962
1. Physical and Chemical Mechanisms of the Deterioration of Rubbers Under the
Action of Ozone. D. Jaroszynska. Poliraery, v. 7, No. 11, 1962, pp.
406-410 (Polish).
Chemical reactions of atmospheric ozone with rubbers containing
double bonds, rearrangements of the ozonides formed, and the mechanism of
ozone cracking of rubber, as well as the factors influencing the
cracking-rate, are discussed.
1958
1. Accelerated Ozone Aging. W. L. Dunkel, and R. R, Pheian. Rubber Age, v.
83, No. 2, May 1958, pp. 281-286.
The investigation of the ozone concentration range of 25 pphm to 0.8
vol-pct to obtain an accelerated ozone test which could predict, fairly
accurately, weathering performance of one polymer compared to another is
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reported. Compounding variables affecting ozone resistance of butyl
rubber vulcanizates were determined. These included cure state, degree of
unsatration in polymer, filler loading, plasticizer content, and
contaminat ion.
2. Ozone Resistance of Butyl Rubber. R. F. Grossman and A. C. Bluestein.
Rubber Age, v. 84, No. 3, December 1958, pp. 440-448.
The mechanism of ozone attack on butyl rubber vulcanizates was
studied. Ozone failure time is shown to be dependent upon applied stress
only when reorientation of polymer chains is possible. Second order
dependence upon ozone concentration in cracking indicates a more
complicated process than simple ozonolysis of double bonds. A mechanism
of simultaneous ozonolysis and oxidation is proposed. Ozone attack before
visible cracking is shown to be a surface process.
1956
1. Aging Accelerated by Ozone and a Testing Apparatus. C. Thelamon. Rev.
Gen. Caoutchouc, v. 33, 1956, pp. 247-252 (French).
A simple apparatus is described and illustrated in which test speci-
mens are exposed under stress to air containing a known concentration of
03. The apparatus is constructed only of materials which are impervious
to attack by Oj. Most tests with this apparatus were made with an 03
concentration of 2.7 cc/m3 of air, which gives reproducible results.
Deterioration is judged by comparing the resulting cracks with a series of
photographs of standard samples. After a simple series of tests of sever-
al elastomers, the protection of natural rubber (I) was studied in more
detail. Photomicrographs show the cracking of (I), GR-S(II), "cold"
butadiene-styrene copolymer (III), butadiene-acrylonitrile copolymer (IV),
Neoprene (V). Butyl rubber (VI), Hypalon (VII), and Silicone rubber
(VIII) also were tested. Cracks appeared first on (III), then on (I) and
(II), and finally on (IV). No cracks appeared on (V), (VI), (VII), or
(VIII) during 24 hours. Parallel results were obtained by outdoor expos-
ure, With (I), physical methods of protection are ineffective when
samples are under stress. Among protective agents, Ni
dibutyldithiocarbamate is effective against cracking but makes
vulcanizates poorer in heat aging. Favorable results are obtained by the
joint effects of a protective wax and an O3 inhibitor, and by the addition
of (V) or (VII), but not of (VI), to (I).
2. Ozone Cracking of Natural and Synthetic Rubbers. J. E. Gaughan. Rubber
World, v. 133, 1956, pp. 803-808.
Recent developments and present knowledge of the subject are
reviewed.
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1955
1. Corrosion Aspects of Air Pollution. L. Greenburg and M. B. Jacobs. Amer.
Paint J., v. 39, No. 43, 1955, pp. 64-78. (Fe55-2)
1954
1. Deterioration of Materials - Causes and Preventive Techniques.
G. A. Greathouse and C. J. Wessel. Reinhold Publishing, New York, N.Y.,
1954, 835 pp. (QM54-1)
1953
1. Cracking of Stressed Rubber by Free Radicals. J. Crabtree and
B. S. Biggs. J. Polymer Sci., v. 11, 1953, pp. 280-281.*
A cracking of rubber, indistinguishable from that produced by Oj,
occurs on exposure of stressed rubber to vapors of volatile peroxides and
ultra-violet irradiation. The reaction occurs in an atmosphere of
nitrogen and apparently results from the action of free radicals liberated
from the peroxides. N02 accelerates the cracking by catalyzing the
peroxide photolysis. Cracking by tert-Bu, Ph, Bz, Ac, and OH radicals is
observed.
2. Deterioration of Stretched Rubbers Under the Influence of Ozone.
Y. S. Zuev and A. S. Kuz'minskii. Doklady Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R, v. 89,
1953, pp. 325-328.*
The work described examines the mechanism of this cracking after
reviewing the mechanisms previously reported in the literature, and
disagrees with the activation theory. Necessary fundamental conditions
promoting cracking are: (1) presence of reactive sites (double bonds) and
(2) presence of a stretching force. Compressive force is shown to be
inactive. The chemical reaction of rubbers with O3 is specific, proceeds
by the rupture of the hydrocarbon chains or the surface of the rubber
through formation of brittle ozonides, and is characterized by the absence
of diffusion of 03 into the body of the sample. Cracking by 03 is
regarded as a combination of chemical and physical processes.
3. Ozone Cracking—A Cinematographic Study. D. M. Smith and V. E. Gough.
Trans. Inst. Rubber Ind., v. 29, 1953, pp. 219-237.*
The cracking of strained rubber exposed to 03 was followed as a
dynamic process by means of time-lapse photomicrography. The rate of
crack formation is a normal logarithmic function of time. The pattern of
initial cracks is randomly distributed over the sampLe. The number of
cracks is of the order of 1 per 109 to 1015 double bonds. The initiation
of cracking probably involves the simultaneous attack by O3 of several
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adjacent double bonds in different molecules. The rate of crack growth is
linear with time except as altered by interference between neighboring
cracks.
1952
1. The Ozone Cracking of Rubber. C. H. Leigh-Dugmore. Rubber Age and
Synthetics, v. 33, 1952, pp. 398-400.
Experimental observations and explanations of cracking based on
physics and on critical elongation are reviewed and discussed.
1951
1. A Study of the Factors Affecting the leathering of Rubberlike Materials.
E. W. Ford and L. V. Cooper. India Rubber World, v. 124, pp. 696-693,
and v. 125, pp. 55-60, 1951.*
Recent literature on the weathering of vulcanized rubber and also new
laboratory work described in the present ^>aper lead to the conclusion
that Oj is the only agent which alone produces visible weathering effects
on vulcanizates of Hevea rubber, GR-S, Neoprene, and Butyl rubber. The
other important factors (light, humidity, and heat) influence the rate of
attack by 03 but do not themselves cause visible deterioration. A newly
designed weathering apparatus is described and illustrated. Test
specimens can be exposed while elongated either statically or dynamically.
The Oj concentration is controllable within the range of 0.05 to 4500 ppm,
the temperature from -40° to 100° C, and the relative humidity from 0 to
100 percent at any temperature. A system of lights and filters makes
possible coverage of the entire spectrum from 2200 to 800 A, in bands
approximately 500 A wide. Control of 03 is based on continuous titration
of iodine liberated from aqueous KI by passage of a constant flow of air
containing 03. Variation in the condition of the solution controls the
operation of the Oj generator and maintains the concentration at a value
governed by the rate of injection of aqueous Na2S203. The temperature is
regulated thermostatically and cooling is by solid CO2. The source of
light is specially designed with filters. Representative results are
given to show the reproducibility of data, the relative weathering of
different polymers, and the effects of 03, stretching, heat, light, and
humidity, individually and in combination. Butyl rubber vulcanizates
(unloaded, black, and white) showed extremely high resistance to 03>
Corresponding Neoprene vulcanizates showed nearly as high resistance,
Hevea rubber vulcanizates showed slightly better resistance than did
similar GR-S vulcanizates, but both were much inferior to Neoprene
vulcanizates. Exposure to light in the absence of C>3 caused little change
under the particular conditions. Exposure to light before or concurrently
with exposure to O3 reduced to a small extent the rate of attack by 0~.
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2. Aging of Rubbers and Resins by the Action of Light, Ozone, and Other
Factors. Y. S. Zuev. Vsesoyuz. Khim. Obshchestvo im. D. I.
Mendeleeva, Vysokomolekul. Soedineniya, No. 11, 1951, pp. 40-50
(Russian).
This review covers the effects of light and oxygen on aging of
rubber, the mechanism of the oxygen reaction under the influence of light,
the action of Og and activators for light on aging, sensitization,
inhibitors of aging, and changes of structure on aging.
3. Deterioration of Organic Polymers. B. S. Biggs. Bell System Tech. J,
v. 30, 1951, pp. 1078-1101; and Bell Telephone System Tech. Pubs.,
Monograph No. 1913, 1951, 25 pp.
Organic polymers suffer from exposure (weathering) owing to attack by
H20, 02, and 03 as principal agents. Water attack may cause failure of
the type in which surface effects are pronounced and in which electrical
properties deteriorate. The attack of Og is most effective where
unsaturation exists. Ozonides form which subsequently decompose with a
rupture of the molecular chain. Rubber is rapidly attacked by 03. Oxygen
is involved in reactions which contain free radical mechanisms activated
by light. Cleavage of single or double carbon bonds results in smaller
molecular aggregates causing a serious loss of physical properties. It is
clear, in the case of polymers whose molecular weights are in the
thousands, a very small weight percentage of oxygen (relatively large
number of oxygen atoms compared to the number of polymer molecules) can
cause very drastic effects. Once some free radicals are formed, chain
reactions are set up at increasing rates that cause rapid failure; that is
why a given amount of antioxidant is much more effective initially than if
incorporated after partial degradation. Carbon black is an effective
inhibitor of the chain reactions, and in some cases phenylsalicy late is
also effective, in that they absorb actinic radiant energy which activate
free radical mechanisms.
1950
I. The Influence of Ozone on Paint Vehicles and Some Macromolecular Products.
F. J. Hermann, H. W. Talen, and G. J. Scheffer. Central Inst.
Materiaal Onderzoek Afdel. Verf, Circ. No. 68, 1950, 25 pp.*
Films of stand oil-phenolic varnish (I), tung oil-phenolic varnish
(II)i alkyd varnish, nitrocellulose-containing maleicresin, castor oil
and 0,^(0021^) 3, rubber (III), Neoprene (IV), hydrochlorinated rubber
(samples containing 5 percent of the original double bonds) (V), and fully
saturated chlorinated rubber, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride-acetate
were stretched and exposed to 03 . Ill, IV, and V developed cracks; the
other materials did not. 03 treatment increased the tensile strength of I
and II. The relation among stress, strain, and time were determined for
the untreated materials, which were then classified according to their
rhelogical behavior. 03 caused cracks only in those stretched samples
which possessed elastic properties and carbon double bonds.
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1946
1. Weathering of Soft Vulcanized Rubber. J. Crabtree and A. R. Kemp. Ind.
Eng. Chem., v. 38, 1946, pp. 278-296."
The investigation is concerned with the weathering of vulcanized rub-
ber, and includes an extensive study of the effects of light, 0^, and 03
on vulcanizates of various types under different conditions of strain,
temperature, concentration of 0V , intensity of light, humidity, state of
cure, etc. The results confirm previously published work by Newton which
shows that 2 important phenomena must be distinguished, viz., cracking
caused by 03 where the samples is strained and surface checking, crazing,
or hardening resulting from oxidation induced by light. The most
important evidence that cracking is caused by is that: (1) in its
absence, light and air do not crack vulcanized rubber stretched up to 50%
elongation; (2) stretched rubber cracks out-of-doors just as rapidly at
night as in daytime and just as quickly in shade as when completely
exposed; (3) artificially generated O3 at the same concentration as in
atmospheric air has exactly the same cracking effect as does out-door
exposure in shade, and (4) no other component of the atmosphere causes
cracking at the same rate and of a similar character. Even at
concentrations of 1-5%, 0^ has no evident effect on vulcanized rubber
which is relaxed, whereas even at 2% elongation, attack by 03 is rapid.
Attack by O3 induced by light can be retarded best by fillers which impart
a high degree of reflectance to the vulcanizate; TiC^ is the best; carbon
black and Fe203 are very effective. The effects of blooming waxes on
cracking by 03 are discussed. They depend on the type of wax, the
temperature the degree of strain, the concentration of wax, other
ingredients in the compound etc., and offer a complicated problem. In
general, GR-S vulcanizates are less susceptible to oxidation induced by
light and more susceptible to attack by 03 than corresponding natural
rubber vulcanizates. Protective waxes have relatively greater effects in
GR-S but, as with natural-rubber vulcanizates, they are useless when
dynamic flexing is involved. Some results with Butyl, butadiene-acryloni-
trile polymer, and Neoprenes are mentioned briefly.
1940
1. Action of Ozone on Rubber. F. J, Norton. The Rubber Age, v. 47, No. 2,
1940, pp. 87-90.
In this investigation the action of ozone on rubber compositions, not
exposed to direct light but under tension and compressions, was studied.
It was concluded that, in order to specify the life of a rubber
composition, the mechanical stress as well as the ozone concentration in
the surrounding atomsphere must be known,
2. Action of Ozone on Rubber and Other Materials. F. J. Norton. Gen. Elect.
Rev., v. 43, 1940, pp. 93-95.*
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Tests were made of the action of 03 on rubber mixtures mostly
ordinary rubber insulating tape (70% rubber bv vol.), not exposed to
direct light but under tension and compression. The results indicate that
the time for rupture to occur depends both on the stress and on the con-
centration of 03. Corona-resisting rubber was the most resistant. Alkyd,
phenolic and vinyl resins and cellulose acetate showed no evidence of Oj
attack, either when stressed or not unstressed. During exposure to
contrated 03 (44.5 mg./l.) the temperature of the stressed rubber
increased from 32" to 39". The deterioration of rubber insulation by
corona discharge and light is probably related to O3 formation.
1931
1. The Appearance of Atmospheric Cracks in Stretched Rubber. A. Van Rossem
and H. W. Talen. Kautschuk, v. 7, 1931, pp. 79-86 and 115-117.*
The experiments show that "sun-cracking" is not caused by sunlight
but by at atmospheric O3, and takes place only when the rubber is under
tension. Vulcanizates of different compounds under various degrees of
elongation exposed to air and light showed maximum cracking at 10-20%
elongation, and this cracking occurred at the same rate and was of the
same nature when the experiments were repeated in darkness. The tena
sun-cracking should therefore be abolished in favor of atmospheric
cracking. There was no cracking when the vulcanizates were not stretched.
Exposure to air containing O3 also caused cracking (again only when the
samples were stretched), so that ultra-violet light is not necessary , and
the explanation of Kearsley is untenable. There was no cracking on
exposure in air containing nitrogen oxides, SO2 and CI. The formation of
cracks by Og suggests a sensitive specific reaction for Oj. Cracking does
not depend upon the type of rubber, its degreee of mastication, the
coefficient of vulcanization, the particular filler or pigment or the
particular accelerator, whereas the character of the stress-strain curves
(modulus) has a determinant influence on the size and extent of cracking.
No softener or organic diluent of numerous ones tested was of benefit when
the O3 concentration was above 0.003%, but below this concentration those
which formed a surface bloom, e.g., paraffin, had a protective action. Fe
applied in various forms to the surface (ink, rust, etc.) had no influence
on cracking. A repetition of Williams' experiments on the prevention of
cracking by CuC12 on the surface failed to confirm his results.
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FABRICS
1981
1. Measurements of the Ageing of Linen Canvas. S. H. Hackney and G. Hedley.
Studies in Conservation, v. 26, 1981, pp. 1-14.
Samples of linen canvas prepared in 1956 and kept in the Tate Gallery
for 24 years were tested for tensile strength, acidity, reflectance and
sulphur content. The samples included both unimpregnated linen and
wax/resin impregnated linen. They were arranged so that some had been
exposed to light and some protected from it. In addition a number of
pieces within each sample were stored in a sealed Perspex-frooted
container. Significant among the findings was that enclosing canvas in
sealed containers had provided considerable protection against
deterioration. Wax/resin impregnation of the samples aged in the open
afforded similar protection, but there was also a small weakening effect
in the same samples when they were enclosed.
1980
1. A Review of Air Pollutant Damage to Materials. J. E. Yocum and
A. R. Stankunas. Draft Report to Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, December
1980, 92 pp. (Fe80-2)
2. Background and Principles of Long-Term Performance of Building Materials.
S. E. Pihlajavaara. Durability of Building Materials and Components,
ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 5-16. (Fe80-4)
3. Critical Review of the Available Physicochemical Material Damage Functions
of Air Pollution. M. Benarie. Report No. EUR-6643, Commission on the
European Communities, 1980, 97 pp. (Fe80-8)
4. Design Determines Durability. G. K. Garden. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and
G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980,
pp. 31-37. (MSC80-8)
5. Regional Air Pollution Study: Effects of Airborne Sulfur Pollutants on
Materials. F. Mansfeld. NTIS Report PB81-126351, January 1980, 163 pp.
(Fe80-18)
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1979
1. The Effects of Weathering and Atmospheric Pollutants on Cotton Fabric and
Cotton Fabric Treated With Selected Flame Setardants. I. Physical,
Chemical, and Flammability Properties. B. L. Slaten, S. M. Spivak, and
B. F. Smith. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., v. 23, No. 3, 1979, pp. 695-717.*
The effects of weathering and atmospheric pollutants on the physical,
chemical, and flammability properties of cotton fabric treates with
Pyrovatex 3805 (I) and with THPON-NHj flame retardant finished and
untreated controls were determined. The fabrics were exposed to S02, N02 ,
and 03, singly and in combination, for 50, 100, and 150 hours in a 2500 W
xenon arc Weather-Ometer using gas controls with and without light at 35°
and relative humidity 90 percent. Excessive strength losses and large
changes in d.p. for the untreated control occurred under all exposure
conditions after 150 hours. Changes in the physical and chemical
properties of the treated fabric were moderated by the finishes, with (I)
providing better protection than THP0N-NH3. Elemental analysis and oxygen
index measurements indicated that the (I) finish was severely degraded
under these exposure conditions, with a resultant loss in flammability
properties of the treated fabric after weathering. The THPON-NHj finish
was not appreciably affected by these exposure conditions and the treated
fabric retained most of its flammability properties after weathering.
2. The Effects of Weathering and Atmospheric Pollutants on Cotton Fabric and
Cotton Fabric Treated With Selected Flame Retardants. II.
Spectroscopic Studies. B. L. Slaten and B. F. Smith. J. Appl. Polym.
Sci., v. 23, No. 2, 1979, pp. 367-380.*
The effect of weathering (exposure to Xe arc light and low
concentreations of SO^, NO2, and 0^) on Pyrovatex 3805 or THPOH-NH^
fireproofing finishes on cotton were determined spectroscopically and were
minimal. Solvent extraction of the finishes followed by infrared
analysis using an internal reflectance procedure showed that the finishes
removed from the fabric by the solvent were identical spectroscopically to
the original finishes. The Fourier transform spectroscopy of the finishes
on the fabric indicated that, with two exceptions, the weathering of the
fabric and finishes caused no significant change in the structure of the
flame-retardant finishes. The Fourier transform spectroscopy of Pyrovatex
3805 exposed to the combined weathering indicated a possible change in the
phosphono structure of the finish.
1978
1. Deteriorative Effect of Sulfur Pollution on Materials. J. 0. Nriagu.
Chapt. 1 in Sulfur in the Environment, Part II: Ecological Impacts,
edited by J. 0. Nriagu, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1978, pp. 1-59.
(Fe78-ll)
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F-3
1977
1. Effects of Sulphur Dioxide on Materials. S. K. Gajendragadkar. Chera. Age
India, v. 28, No. 8, 1977, pp. 673-677. (Fe77-5).
2. Effects on Economic Materials and Structures. J. E. Yocum and
J. B. Upham, Chapt. 2 in Air Pollution, edited by A. C. Stern, Academic
Press, New York, N.Y., v. 2, 1977, pp. 65-116. (Fe77-6)
3. Sorption of Sulfur Dioxide by Typical Indoor Surfaces Including Wool
Carpets, Wallpaper, and Paint. M. Walsh, A. Black, A. Morgan, and
G. H. Crawshaw. Atmos. Environ, v. 11, No. 11, 1977, pp. 1107-1111.*
The sorption of SC>2 from air by wool carpets, wallpapers, and painted
surfaces was determined at a concentration of 100 to 200 yg/nr. The
deposition velocities for carpets were 0.02 to 0.07 cm/s and were lower
for carpets with an acid pH than for those which were neutral or alkaline;
the sorption was irreversible. Preexposing carpets to stable SO2
equivalent to 27 years at 30 pg/m^ reduced the amount of SO2 taken up in a
subsequent exposure by a factor of 3. Fresh emulsion paint had the
highest (0.128) and vinyl wallpaper the lowest (0.007) deposition
velocities of the other surfaces examined. Lower levels of SO2 within
buildings compared with outside are due to its sorption by furnishings.
1976
1. Air Pollution and Aspects of Polymer Degradation. I. Cook. ICCM
Bulletin, v. 2, No. 4, December 1976, pp. 4-20. (E76-1)
2. Colorfastness to Light and Atmospheric Contaminants. J. E. Hemphill,
J. E. Norton, 0. A. Ofjord and R. L. Stone. Text. Chem. Color, v. 8,
No. 4, 1976, pp. 60-62.*
A few dye-fiber combinations are adversely affected by the addition
of atmospheric contaminants to lightfastness exposures. Synergistic
effects are observed when 3 contaminants are used simultaneously which
vary significantly from exposures of each component singly at the same
concentration.
3. Conservation of Monuments. 2nd Session of the 29th National Congress of
the Assoc. Termotecnica Italiana, Florence (September 25-27, 1974),
Antonio Barbieri, Viale Premuda 2, Milano, 1976, 252 pp. (Italian).
(0M76-4)
4. Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on Materials: A Chamber Study.
F. H. Haynie, J. W. Spence, and J. B. Upham. NTIS Report PB-251580,
1976, 98 pp. (Fe76-5)
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5. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocom and
N. Grappone. Research Corporation of New England, WethersfieId,
Connecticut, NTIS Report PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp.
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Experimental and conventional cotton awning fabrics exposed at six
different sites in New York State for 2 years showed that in areas of
relatively unpolluted air the fabrics lost less strength then when exposed
to high levels of S02 and airborne soiling contaminants. CO and
photochemical oxidants in the air did not significantly accelerate
degradation of the fabrics. Fabrics treated with experimental
Zn0-Cu(B02)2 finishes degraded at somewhat lower rates than did untreated
controls, but when used in conjunction with standard vinyl coatings
appeared to adversely affect durability. Conventionally treated vinyl-
coated awning fabrics were most resistant to degradation.
3. Effects of Air Pollutants on Textile Fibers and Dyes. J. B. Upham and V.
S. Salvin. NTIS Report PB-241507, February 1975, 88 pp.
This document presents: (l)a comprehensive survey of the damaging
effects of air pollutants (particulates, S0X, and ozone) on textile
fibers and dyes, and (2) the results and assessment of a public opinion
survey to primarily measure consumer awareness of the detrimental effects
of air pollution on household textile products. The survey found that air
pollution represents a significant problem area for the textile industry
and many consumers. The public opinion survey revealed that consumer
awareness of the major air pollution effects on household textile products
is poorly established and generally lacking.
4. Environmental Exposure System for Studying Air Pollution Damage to
Materials. J. W. Spence, F. D. Stump, F. H. Haynie, and J. B. Upham.
NTIS Report PB-240615/5ST, 1975, 46 pp. (Fe75-ll)
5. Sulfur Dioxide and Material Damage. D. G. Gillette. J. Air Pollution
Control Assn., v. 25, No. 12, December 1975, pp. 1238-1243. (Fe75-17)
1974
1. Design of a Laboratory Experiment to Identify the Effects of Environmental
Pollutants on Materials. J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. Corrosion in
Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 279-291. (Fe74-10)
2. Effects of Oxidative Components of Air Pollutants on the Degradation of
Polymers. F. Flajsman. Kem. Ind., v. 23, No. 2, 1974, pp. 96-100
(Croatian). (E74-3)
3. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution. T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701, 1974, 156 pp. (Fe74-21)
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F-6
4. The Economics of Clean Air In Perspective. F. H. Haynie. Materials
Protection and Performance, v. 13, No. 4, April 1974, pp. 33-38.
(Fe74-22)
5. The Environment and Collections (Part 2). G. W. Rogers. Canadian
Conservation Institute Newsletter, No. 5, November 1974, pp. 2-3.
(OM74-16)
1973
1. Concentrations, Decay Rates, and Removal of Ozone and Their Relation to
Establishing Clean Indoor Air. R. H. Sabersky, D. A. Sinema, and
F. H. Shair. Environ. Sci. Technol., v. 7, No. 4, 1973, pp. 347-353.
(OM73-2)
2. Fading of Dyed Fabrics Exposed to Air Pollutants. N. J. Beloin. Text.
Chem. Color., v. 5, No. 7, 1973, pp. 123-133.**
Nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and to a lesser extent sulfur dioxide caused
fading on dyed fabrics, while nitric oxide had little effect. High
temperature and relative humidity increased the degree of fading, and the
rate of fading was nonlinear. Fabric samples woven from natural and
synthetic fibers were dyed with common direct acid, basic, reactive,
disperse, azo, and vat dyes. These fabrics were exposed 12 weeks to low
and high concentrations of the pollutants corresponding to average urban
atmospheres at high and low temperatures and relative humidity in the
abundance of light.
3. Study of Some Factors Affecting the Photodegradation of Textile Yarns. I.
The Spectral Distribution of Sun-Sky and Xenon-Arc Radiation.
L. M. Lock, G. C. Frank, and J. R. Stevens. Textile Res. J., v, 43,
No. 8, 1973, pp. 483-488.
A detailed study was made of the relative spectral distribution of
sun-sky radiation at several times of day under various sky conditions
from June to October 1971, A sufficient number of spectra were recorded
to provide a statistically viable sample. Average spectral distributions
for three daily time periods and four classes of sky conditions within
four approximately monthly periods were calculated and compared.
1972
I. Fading of Dyed Fabrics by Air Pollution. N. J. Beloin. Text. Chem.
Color., v. 4, No. 3, 1972, pp. 77-82.**
Evaluation of the colorfastness of 67 dye-fabric combinations exposed
to atmospheric gases in the absence of sunlight yielded fading in t>4
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F-7
percent of the cases. Comparison of parallel urban-rural area samples by
analyses of variance showed significantly greater fading in the urban
areas and multiple regression analysis of pollutant concentrations
indicated that sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone are primary
causes of fabric fading. Analyses were based on 6,000 color difference
measurements of samples exposed for 3-month periods.
1971
1. Present Status and Prospects on Air Pollution. U. Bardelli. Ingegneria,
v. 5, 1971, pp. 311-316 (Italian). (Fe71-19)
1970
1. Interstate Surveillance Network—1969 Data. Division of Air Quality and
Emission Data, Report No. NAPCA/APTD 70-3, by U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, May 1970, 203 pp. (OM70-5)
2. Reaction of Cellulosic Fabrics to Air Contaminated With Sulfur Dioxide.
S. H. Zeronian. Text. Res. J., v. 40, 1970, pp. 695-698.
Cotton, viscose rayon, and high-wet-modulus rayon fabrics exposed to
air containing 0.1 ppra of sulfur dioxide and simultaneously to light from
a xenon arc lamp showed an additional loss in the breaking strength cycle
compared with the loss in air and light alone. The treated fabrics were
compared with similar samples degraded by hydrolysis in dilute sulfuric
acid. Durable press-finish cotton showed no loss in yarn strength when
exposed to light plus air or to light plus air containing sulfur dioxide.
3. Reaction of Fabrics Made From Synthetic Fibers to Air Contaminated With
Nitrogen Dioxide, Ozone, or Sulfur Dioxide. S. H. Zeronian,
K. W. Alger, and S. T. Omaye. 2d Int. Union Air Pollut. Prev. Ass. Int.
Clean Air Congr. (Washington), Paper CP-25E, December 6-11, 1970, 28 pp.
In an experimental study, the breaking load, rupture energy, and
breaking extension of nylon yarn were markedly reduced by the presence of
sulfur dioxide during light exposure in the Weather-Ometer. The results
showed that sulfur dioxide can attack nylon without the presence of
particulate matter and that degradation is not due to acid hydrolysis
following conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid. Modacrylic and
polyester fabrics were not affected by sulfur dioxide; acrylics, nylon,
and polyster fabrics may be somewhat affected by nitrogen dioxide and
ozone.
4. Systems Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials.
R. L. Salmon. NTIS Report PB-209192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp.
(Fe70-13)
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1969
1. Mechanisms of Sulfur Dioxide Absorption by Natural and Synthetic Textile
Fibers. C. J. Gregory and R. M. Manganelli. Air Pollution Control
Assn, 62nd Annual Meeting, Paper 69-200, June 22-26, 1969, 25 pp.
Laboratory studies were conducted to determine the mechanism of
atmospheric sulfur dioxide removal by undyed fibers of wool, viscose
rayon, nylon and cotton. Textile fibers removed atmospheric sulfur
dioxide at rates directly proportional to their moisture contents when
these moisture values were less than the saturation values. The sulfur
dioxide removal capacity of textile fibers, based on the rate and extent
of gas absorption, was largest for wool and smallest for nylon.
Comparisons were made between sulfur dioxide absorption rates for water
and suspensions of fibers in water.
2. Testing Atmospheric Fading of Dyed Cotton and Rayon. V. S. Salvin. Amer.
Dyestuff Reporter, v. 58, No. 21, October 20, 1969, pp. 28-29.
Although the fading of dyed cellulose acetate, nylon and polyester
fabrics by atmospheric contaminants is well known and the subject of vast
volumes of research work, similar fading of dyed cellulose and viscose
rayon fabrics is not recognized as such when complaints are registered.
The reasons for this information gap are threefold:
(1) The published finding on this phenomenon are relatively recent.
(2) The fading complaints are falsely attributed to the effect of sun-
light.
(3) The AATCC test methods for fading caused by oxides of nitrogen (gas
fading) do not show the fading changes experienced in actual
service.
Complaints of atmospheric fading on fabrics and garments in
warehouses and on retailers shelves have been reported for cottons and
rayons involving (a) cellulosic direct dyes, (b) vat dyes, (c) sulfur
dyes, and (d) reactive dyes.
1968
1. Durability of Cotton Textiles: Effects of Exposure in Contaminated
Atmospheres. R. J. Brysson, B. J. Trask, and A. S. Cooper, Jr. Amer.
Dyest. Rep., v. 57, No. 14, 1968, pp. 512-517
A direct correlation was shown between air pollution and accelerated
degradation of exposed cotton fabrics. In contaminated areas, the
degradation rate was several tiroes that of the less polluted areas. In
laboratory studies, acid-impregnated fabrics exposed to an artificial
light source showed an accelerated rate of degradation. When laboratory
samples were additionally contaminated with artificial soot (lampblack),
the rate of degradation was further accelerated.
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L 967
1. Corrosion by Air Pollution. J. R. Goss. Proc. Anriu. Conf., Nat. Soc.
Clean Air, No. 34, 1967, pp. 75-92. (Fe67-4)
2. Effects of Air Pollution on Exposed Cotton Fabrics. R. J. Brysson,
B. J. Trask, J. B. Upham, and S. G. Booras. J. Air Pollution Control
Association, v. 17, No. 5, May 1967, pp. 294-298.
This report covers results of 1 year exposure studies of cotton
fabrics exposed at different environmental sites in metropolitan St.
Louis, Missouri and Chicago, Illinois areas. Twelve sites, ranging from
heavy industrial to essentially rural, were used. Data presented
establish relationship between air pollution and accelerated degradation
of fabrics. This data includes strength retention of several cotton
fabrics and air pollution data, as determined by periodic measurements of
dustfall, suspended particulate matter, sulfation, and sulfur dioxide.
3. Effects of Air Pollution on the Fading of Dyed Fabrics. R. L. Ajax, C. J.
Conlee, and J. B. Upham. J. Air Pollut. Contr. Assoc., v. 17, No. 4,
April 1967, pp. 220-224.**
Experiments with 69 fabric-dye combinations exposed for 6 days in the
absence of light to auto exhaust, uv-irradiated auto exhaust, uv-
irradiated auto exhaust plus SO2, or clean air plus SO2, for 9 hrs/day,
indicated that uv-irradiated auto exhaust caused fading in 16 of the
combinations, and uv-irradiated auto exhaust plus SO^ caused fading in 20
of the combinations. Unirradiated auto exhaust or clean air plus SO2
caused no appreciable fading in any sample. The 69 combinations were
exposed for 3 months in spring and summer in the absence of light to the
atmosphere of Los Angeles and Santa Paula, California, Chicago and
Argonne, Illinois, Washington, D.C, and Poolesville, Maryland, Tacoma and
Purdy, Washington, Sarasota, Phoenix, and Cincinnati. Fading was
pronounced for 17 of the combinations, particularly at Los Angeles,
Chicago, and Washington, D.C. There was little fading at Purdy, Phoenix,
and Sarasota, indicating that concentration of air pollutants, rather than
differences in temperature and humidity, determine degree of fading.
Fading was highest in Chicago in the spring and in Los Angeles in the
summer, seasons in which air pollution is greatest for these cities. For
the 17 combinations which exhibited pronounced fading, fading was greater
at urban sites than at corresponding rural sites. Fading was measured by
using a Hunter Association Model D25A color difference meter and results
were expressed in D. B. Judd units.
4. The Weathering of Cotton, Nylon, and Terylene Fabrics in the United
Kingdom. A. H. Little and H. L. Parsons. J. Text. Inst., v. 58, 1967,
pp. 449-462.
Fabrics were exposed at eight sites in the United Kingdom where
various degrees of air quality existed. Meteorological conditions were
recorded at each site.
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5. The Effects of Photochemical Oxidants on Materials. L. S. Jaffe. J. Air
Pollution Control Association, v. 17, No. 6, 1967, pp. 375-378. (E67-3)
1966
1. The Effects of Atmospheric Conditions on Specific Cotton Fabrics.
M. A. Morris, California Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 823,
1966, 29 pp.
In all outdoor and many indoor uses of cotton textiles the aggregate
effect of atmospheric conditions is destructive. These conditions, often
called "weathering", include such environmental factors as sunlight,
atmospheric pollutants, moisture, and wind. When cotton is exposed to
these elements, it deteriorates in strength and appearance until
ultimately replacement becomes necessary.
The degradation of cotton by various atmospheric conditions is of
interest to consumers and technologists. Because of the many end-uses,
cotton fabrics are subjected to a wide range of weather conditions. In
addition, cotton is the principal fiber used in outdoor fabrics. Even for
fabrics used indoors, atmospheric conditions can affect serviceability.
Within the western portion of the United States extreme differences
in atmospheric conditions exist because of variations in the amount and
intensity of sunlight, in the amount and distrbution of precipitation,
altitude, and other factors. The western states are therefore in a unique
position, through cooperative research, to study the deleterious effect of
outdoor exposure on cotton fabrics.
In this study cotton fabrics were exposed outdoors to natural
weathering and in the laboratory to artificial weathering conditions. The
cotton was exposed, up to four months, outdoors at six locations differing
widely in geographic and climatic conditions. Laboratory exposures to
selected components of weathering, i.e. light, heat and humidity, ozone,
and air movement, were made for periods up to 900 or 1,100 hours.
1965
1. Fading of CoLoring Matters. C. H. Giles. J. Appl. Chem., v. 15, No. 12,
1965, pp. 541-550.*
Influences which affect the permanence of dyed textiles, films, etc.,
were described, but for making practical suggestions to prolong the life
of museum specimens little can be added to Kussel and Abneys recommenda-
tions (Report to the Science and Art Dept. of the Committee of Council on
Education, London: H.M.S.O., 1888) made 77 years ago.
2.
Materials Deterioration and Air Pollution. J. B. Upham.
Control Associations, v. 15, No. 6, June 1965, p. 265.
J. Air Pollut ion
(Fe65-14)
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1964
1. Relation of Atmospheric Contaminants and Ozone to Lighfastness.
V. S. Salvin. Am. Dyestuff Reporter, v. 53, No. 1, January 6, 1964,
pp. 33-41.
The effect of atmospheric contaminants—oxides of nitrogen, sulfur
dioxide and ozone—in causing dye fading is shown for various dyes on
cotton, rayon, nylon, acetate, polyester, acrylics, and wool. Data are
given for exposures in various parts of United States. Potential
contribution of atmospheric contaminants as variables in 1ightfastness
testing is shown in series of dyes exposed simultaneously in the presence
and absence of sunlight. Three recommendations or test procedures are
inc luded.
1963
1. Effect of Air Pollutants on Dyed Fabrics. V. S. Salvin. J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., v. 13, No. 9, 1963, pp. 416-422.
The results of exposure of a range of dyes on various fibers in Los
Angeles, Chicago, Phoenix, and Sarasota can be correlated with the
contaminants present. The results correlate closely with results of
laboratory test methods used to predict performance. Exposure in the
air-pollution area of Los Angeles shows fading on dyes vulnerable to
nitrogen oxides and 03. In Chicago, the presence of SO2, which results in
greater absorbed acidity, and the low 03 content gives fading differences.
In Sarasota, only 03 fading is noted. The high humidity is responsible
for greater changes than observed in Phoenix. Exposure to irradiated auto
exhaust gases under controlled conditions gives fading results which are
equivalent to service exposure in Los Angeles.
1959
Deterioration of Materials in Polluted Atmospheres. J. E. Yocum.
Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, October 1959, pp. 541t-545t. (Fe59-5)
1957
1. The Effects of Air Pollution on Buildings and Metalwork. R. J. Schaffer.
Air Pollution, edited by M. W. Thring, Butterworth Scientific, London,
1957, pp 58-71. (Fe57-5)
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1955
1. Action of Acids on Cotton and Rayon. H. Baier. Melliand Textilber,
v. 36, 1955, pp. 261-265.
The glucosidic linkage of cellulose is in its acetal form, which is
particularly sensitive to acid degradation. In this degradation H2O is
added, causing an increase in reducing power of the formed "hydroce1lu-
lose" and a decrease in fiber strength. The influence of time,
temperature, addition of neutral salts and the concentration, and strength
and dissociation constant of the acid on the degree of degradation is
discussed. Determination of the KMnO^ number is simpler and faster than
that of the polymerization value. Increase of that number by 14.7
indicates that 1 percent cellulose has been degraded. Values that
indicate 1 percent or more of degradation are signs of danger.
2. Corrosion Aspects of Air Pollution. L. Greenburg and M. B. Jacobs. Amer.
Paint J., v. 39, No. 43, 1955, pp. 64-78. (Fe55-2)
3. The Destructive Effects of Air Pollution on Materials. A. Parker. 6th
Des Voeux Mem. Lecture, Proc. 22nd Annual Conf., Nat. Smoke Abatement
Soc., Bournemouth, England, September 28, 1955, pp. 120-132. (Fe55-6)
1954
1. Deterioration of Materials—Causes and Preventi.ve Techniques.
G. A. Greathouse and C. J. Wessel. Reinhold Publishing, New York, N.Y.,
1954, 835 pp. (0M54-1)
1952
1. The Oxidation of Cellulose by Ozone in Small Concentrations. H. Bogaty,
K. S. Campbell and W. D. Appel. Textile Research J., v. 22, 1952,
pp. 81-83.*
Ozone in amounts likely to occur in air at the earth's surface (up to
0.06 ppm) deteriorates cotton textiles when wet. The deterioration is
slight when compared with "weathering" elements such as light, heat,
wetting and drying, and microorganisms. Fifty-day exposure to air con-
taining 0.02-0.06 ppm of 03 reduces the breaking strength of wet print
cloth 20% and increases the fluidity in cupraramonium solution from 8 to 16
rhes. When exposed dry, the cloth underwent little or no change in these
characteristics. Increased ozone content causes increases in cellulose
deteriorat ion.
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1950
1. Ease of Soiling of Fabrics. J. Henno and R. Jouhet. Bull. Inst. Textile
France, No. 17, 1950, pp. 63-65.
Soiling by air-borne dust is accomplished under controlled
conditions. An air blower carries a weighed sample of soil from a metal
screen to a pad of the fabric under evaluation, at a measured air
pressure. After shaking to remove surface accumulation, retained soil is
evaluated photometrically.
1940
1. Atmospheric (Gas) Fading of Colored Cellulose Acetate. C. A. Seibert.
Am. Dyestuff Reptr., v. 29, No. 15, 1940, pp. P363-P374.
Color destruction is established as caused by the presence in the
atmosphere of oxides of nitrogen. Experimental procedures are outlined
and the use of inhibitors is discussed. Dyes which are diazotized and
developed after application to the acetate fibers exhibit the best
resistance to atmospheric fading. Next best are the azo dyes, many of
which are water-soluble and applicable in a 1-bath operation. The most
sensitive, in general, is aminoanthraquinones, which are applied in a
dispersed form. There are very few dyes which, after application to the
acetate fiber, are definitely not affected by prolonged exposure in an
atmosphere containing dxides of nitrogen.
1939
1. Effect of Sulfur Compounds in the Air on Various Materials. L. R. Burdick
and J. F. Barkley. U.S. Bureau of Mines, I.C. 7064, April 1939, 9 pp.
(Fe39-1)
1937
1. The Fading of Dyeings on Cellulose Acetate Rayon. F. M. Rowe and
K. A. J. Chamberlain. J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, v. 53, 1937,
pp. 268-278.*
It is probable that the decomposition that occurs in "fading" may be
due primarily to diazotization, nitrosation, or oxidation of the coloring
matters or their salts on the fiber. Subsequent decomposition of the
resulting products may then proceed in various directions under the
influence of light, moisture or acids. Oxides of nitrogen, S02, i^SO^,
oxygen and water may all be involved in the ultimate decomposition of
cellulose acetate-rayon dyes by burnt gas fumes with the nitrogen oxides
present in the fumes. The experiments were carried out on 18
anthraquinoid dyes. Conclusions: The combustion of coal gas or other
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F-14
fuel, or the use of electric heating elements or other red hot materials,
in air produces oxides of nitrogen by oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrogen oxides accelerate the oxidation of SO2 to SO3 in the presence of
water vapor. Conditions should be standardized for determining the
fastness of dyeings to actual burnt gas fumes. SO2 alone has little
effect but is capable of modifying the action of oxides of nitrogen on the
dyes considerably. Thus, the action of controlled quantities of NaN02,
NaHS03 and on cellulose acetate rayon approaches the effect produced
by burnt gas fumes. A test based on the use of these reagents is outlined
and may be employed as a rapid preliminary method for evaluting the
fastness of new dyes to burnt gas fumes with subsequent confirmation by
the use of actual burnt gas fumes.
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PAINTS
1982
1. Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. H. C. Martin.
Materials Performance, v. 21, No. 1, January 1982, pp. 36-39. (Fe82-3)
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Fastener Joints. E. Taylor. Extended Abstracts,
International Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion (October 5-10, 1980,
Hollywood, Florida), Electrochemical Society, v. 80-2, 1980, pp. 609-
610. (Fe82-7)
3. Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals Under Moving Conditions. J. D. Talati and
B. M. Patel. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 695-704. (Fe82-10)
4. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Australasia. J. F. Moresby, F. M. Reeves
and D. J. Spedding. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor,
Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 745-754. (Fe82-15)
5. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Brazil. A. C. Dutra and R. Vianna.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 755-774. (Fe82-16)
6. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing In The Federal Republic Of Germany. G.
Oelsner. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New York,
N.Y., 1982, pp. 797-806. (Fe82-18)
7. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Norway. L. Atteraas and S. Haagenrud.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 873-892. (Fe82-20)
8. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Southern Africa. B. G. Callaghan.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 893-912. (Fe82-21)
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9. Automotive Corrosion in Indai. G. V. Ramanaiah, S. D. Chirputkar and B.
L. Dhar. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wilev, New York,
N.Y., 1982, pp. 711-716. (Fe82-26)
10. Economic Assessment of Pollution Related Corrosion Damage. F. H. Haynie.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W. H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 3-18. (Fe82-33)
11. Rapid Methods for Determining Atmospheric Corrosivity and Corrosion Resis-
tance. D. P. Doyle and T. E. Wright. Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by
W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1982, pp. 227-244. (Fe82-45)
1981
1. Acid Rain: Impacts on the Natural and Human Environment. H. C. Martin.
Paper No. 114, Corrosion/81 (Toronto, Canada), National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, April 6-10, 1981, 7 pp. (Fe81-1)
1980
1. A Review of Air Pollutant Damage to Materials. J. E. Yocum and
A. R. Stankunas. Draft Report to Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, December 1980, 92
pp. (Fe80-2)
2. Alteration in Properties of Organic Coatings for Buildings Due to the
Leaching Process. D. Y. Perera and D. V. Eynde. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G.
Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 698-710.
Changes in water transport mechanism and in mechanical properties of
organic coating for buildings due to the leaching process are discussed.
The water transport mechanism was investigated by measuring vapor and
liquid water permeation and absorption-desorption. Mechanical properties,
namely stiffness and the values of strain and stress at yield point and at
break, were determined by stress-strain tests. Six different types of
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Pa-3
organic coatings were investigated, namely, two emulsion paints, a vinyl
toluene acrylic, a polyurethane, a vinyl, and a textured paint. As a
result of the leaching process, mechanical properties and properties des-
cribing the material characteristics with respect to moisture were affect-
ed. These changes were more pronounced in the case of water-borne paints.
This means that tlie results obtained with freshly made paints have to be
interpreted cautiously, especially if the aim is to predict the paint
durability in practice. In order to make laboratory measurements as rele-
vant as possible to environmental conditions, a number of conditions are
proposed.
3. Background and Principles of Long-Term Performance of Building Materials.
S. E. Pihlajavaara. Durability of Building Materials and Components,
ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 5-16. (Fe80-4)
4. Critical Review of the Available Phvsicochenical Material Damage Functions
of Air Pollution. tl. Benarie. Report No. KUH-6643, Commission on ttie
European Communities, 1980, 97 pp. (Fe80-S)
5. Design Determines Durability. G. K. Garden. Durability of Huilding
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G.
Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 31-37.
(MSC80-8)
6. Durability of Colorants for Plastic Building Products. T. P.. Reeve.
Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited ov
P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materi-
als, 1930, pp. 731-737.
Colorants are used widely in a variety of today's building materials,
or in coatings applied thereon, to protect or decorate the finished pro-
duct. Durability is a frequent requirement of the colorant, but few
appreciate the many considerations that enter into its selection for this
purpose.
This paper describes aspects of durability that may be important to
the appearance and long-tern life of the product, and the many factors of
formulation and use that influence performance. Means of determining dur-
ability, including common pitfalls of accelerated testing, are discussed,
and typical performance of commonly used colorants are reviewed.
7, Durability of Some Common Building Materials. W. H. Gutt and L. H.
Everett. Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691,
edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing
and Materials, 1980, pp. 131-144. (Fe80-10)
8. Emulsion-Based Paint Systems For Wood. 0. C. Vorster. Durability of
rtuilding Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda
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and G. G. Litvan, American Societv for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp.
711-720.
The paper deals with the durability of experimental emulsion-based
systems on wood exposed to weathering for a period of 3 years. A number
of oleo-resinous and emulsion-based primers were applied to two different
types of timber and overcoated with both conventional oleoresinous and
emulsion-based topcoats. Four different exposure sites representing four
differenct climatic regions were chosen to allow a study of the influence
of the following on the durability of the coating systems: the
composition of the paint system, the primer formulation, the topcoat
formulation, and the climatic conditions. It was found that
emulsion-based systems could be more durable than the more conventional
sys terns.
9. Examination of Durability Test Methods for Building Materials Based on
Permormance Evaluation. T. N'ireki. Durability of Building Materials
and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1930, pp. 119-130. (2n80-5)
10. Regional Air Pollution Study: Effects of Airborne Sulfur Pollutants on
Materials. F. Mansfeld. NTIS Report PBtil-12635I, January 1980, 163 pp.
(Fe80-18)
11. Selection of Paints and Coatings Used in Civil Engineering and For Road
Safety. A. M. Serres. Durability of Building Materials and Components,
ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 721-730.
In the field of the anti-corrosion protection of metal structures
(bridges, lock gates, lamp posts, etc.) and the painting of concrete,
artificial aging tests are employed in an attempt to select products and
systems of products that can ensure the desired service life (generally at
least ten years). While great care must be taken in performing these
tests, in particular where their reproducibility is concerned, it is their
interpretation that is the most tricky task; they must be interpreted
prudently, with the aid of mechanical tests and in the light of experience
on the actual site.
Where the marking of pavements is concerned, this type of test has
had to be abandoned, for it is not possible to reproduce properly in the
laboratory the simultaneous effect of mechanical wear due to traffic and
the effect of weathering. The rating obtained in the laboratory is
different from that obtained on the road, especially in view of the wide
diversity of products employed. So at the present time a road test of
quality is being used for these products in France. A study also is being
made of the use of a circular test track.
12. The Meaning of Durability and Durability Prediction. G. Frohnsdorff and
L. W. Masters. Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM
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STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda arid G. G. Litvan, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 17-30. (Fe80-19)
1979
1. Damage to Painted Objects in Swedish Churches—A Report on the Situation.
Restoration Principles. P. Tangeberg. Fornvannen, No. 74, 1979,
pp. 113-125 (Swedish).
The Central Board of National Antiquities carried out a survey of the
damage to paintings and painted and gilded objects in fifty-five Swedish
churches. Almost 90 percent of all older objects painted on wood were in
need of conservation. Causes of damage are identified; particularly
modern heating systems and inadequate restoration (Sweden lacks both con-
servation training programs and organized conservation activities).
2. Polymeric Facade Paints for Restoration of Historic Objects, Prague Inst,
of Chem. Tech., Prague, Czechoslovakia, 1979, 38 pp. (Czech).
Proceedings of the seminar "Polymeric Facade Paints for Restoration
of Historic Objects" organized by the Artistic Works Restoration Pvesearch
Laboratory, Prague Institute of Chenical Technology in Prague, 1979. The
book contains six papers dealing with cotnpositiqn and properties of
polymeric facade paints, testing methods for these materials, and the
effect of air pollution on plasters with polymeric cements. Properties of
natural lime are also briefly mentioned.
3. Results of 30 Months Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in St. Louis, Mo., USA.
F. Mansfeld. Reliability of Materials for Solar Energy—Workshop
Proceedings, CONF-781228, v. 2, Pt. 1, October 1979, pp. 627-657.
(Fe79-7)
1978
1. Anti-Graffiti Coatings. M. A. Post, M. Godette, and P. G. Campbell
Modern Paint Coatings, v. 68, No. 2, 1978, pp. 28-35.
Previous experience in the use of anti-graffiti paints is briefly
reviewed and used to determine the properties required of these systems.
Forty-seven acrylate, urethane, epoxy, silicone, polyester and vinyl
graffiti-resistant coatings were analyzed for resin type to determine if
any correlation between resin type and performance existed, but none was
apparent. Further tests were conducted on the paints' resistance to
ultraviolet, moisture, abrasion, graffiti removers and spray paint. The
flexibility of the paint was also considered in terms of the substrate to
be painted.
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2. Certain Epoxies, FLuorocarbon-Acry1ics, and Silicones as Stone
Preservatives. K. L. Gauri and M. A. Rao. Decay and Preservation of
Stone: Engineering Geology Case Histories, No. 11, edited by
E. M. Winkler, Geological Soc. of America, 1978, pp. 73-79.
Marble and limestone specimens were treated (surface coatings and
in-depth impregnations) with selected polymers and tested for their
chemical resistance to attack by gaseous C02 and S02 and carbonic and
sulfurous acids. They were also tested for their mechanical soundness
using sodium sulfate test. Epoxy impregnated specimens having
fluoropolymer surface coatings produced the best results.
3. Deteriorative Effect of Sulfur Pollution on Materials. J. 0. Nriagu.
Chap. 1 in Sulfur in the Environment, Part II: Ecological Impacts,
edited by J. 0. Nriagu, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1978, pp. 1-59.
(Fe78-11)
4. Polyvinyl Acetates for the Protection, Treatment, and Conservation of
Historical Objects of Stone and Other Materials (Research Work and
Examples of Application). R. J. Bilinski and B. Penkala. Proc. 5th
ICOM Committee for Conservation, Zagreb, 1978, pp. 1-8.
The aim of the investigation was the synthesis in poly(vinyl
acetate)s specially intended for the conservation and protective coating
of historical objects made of stone and other materials. Poly(vinyl
acetate)s were used as preservatives for test samples of the materials
collected from historical objects, which were next exposed to rough
atmospheric conditions. Important examples of the treatment and the
effects of the conservation work accomplished are presented.
5. The Results of a Thirty-Month Exposure Study of Steels and Other Materials
to Airborne Sulfur Pollutants in St. Louis, Missouri. F. Mansfeld.
Corrosion/78, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, Tx.,
Paper No. 88, 1978, 16 pp. (Fe78-21)
6. Water Vapor Permeation Through Clear Coatings. M. Yaseen and
E. E. Ashton. J. of Coating Tech., v. 50, No. 645, 1978, pp. 50-59.
Permeability of resin coatings to water vapor is discussed in terms
of composition and molecular structure of the coating material, as well
as in relation to the effects of relative humidity and temperature. The
resins studied are clear phenolic and alkyd coatings. A general
description of the theory of permeation is presented.
1977 .
1. Effects of Sulfur Dioxide on Materials. S. K. Gajendragadkar. Chem. Age
India, v. 28, No. 8, 1977, pp. 673-677. (Fe77-5)
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2. Examination of a New Method for the Cleaning and Conservation of Medieval
Glass Paintings Used in Chartres. J. C. Ferrazzini. Maltechnik/
Restauro, v. 83, No. 3, 1977, pp. 145-154 (German).
The new process of preserving medieval glass paintings with a
protective coating of Viacryl has some grave shortcomings. For one,
cleaning glass with ion-selective agents injures the substratum and makes
it more vulnerable to corrosion. For another, coatings of Viacryl are
permeable to water and sulfur dioxide, and thus do not provide adequate
protection against corrosion. However, it is extraordinarily resistant to
weather.
Removal of the protective coating is very difficult and hazardous,
and therefore the treatment must be considered practically irreversible.
When Viacryl is applied in thin layers, it is exceptionally fire resistant
and possesses good pyrotechnical properties. A new prophylactic measure
is introduced here as an alternative method for preserving medieval glass
paintings. Research on this new method is continuing.
3. Rapid Weathering of Wood and Paintings Under the Additional Influence of
SC>2. A. Uwe and G. Uwe. Staub Reinhalt Luft , v. 37, No. 2, February
1977, pp. 53-55 (German).
For research of working mechanisms and possible protections within
the scope of air pollution control, a weathering device is described
which was altered for additional application. As experiments on wood and
vehicle body work surfaces show, this modified Gardner wheel allows fumi-
gations which, in a short time, make facts about the effects of air
pollution known. Sulfur dioxide caused changes in color and gloss of the
materials examined.
4. Relation Between Mass Wear of Organic Protective Coatings and Meteorologi-
cal Data. W. D. Kaiser- Korrosion (Dresden), v. 8, No. 1, 1977, pp.
3-15 (German).
Although atmospheric conditions (that is, pollution, particularly
SO^, duration of sunlight, precipitation, temperature) have a pronounced
effect on the corrosion of unprotected steel, they have no sucti marked
effect on the wear of protective coatings. Wear, as measured by film
thickness, is affected by duration of sunlight, precipitation, and
temperature in decreasing order of importance. Wear of paints containing
either binders or pigments, which are converted by SC>2 to readily soluble
products, are affected by S02 concentration.
5. Sorption of Sulfur Dioxide by Typical Indoor Surfaces Including Wool
Carpets, Wallpaper, and Paint. M. Walsh, A. Black, A. Morgan, and
G. H. Crawshaw. Atmos. Environ., v. 11, No. 11, 1977, pp. 1107-1111.
(F77-3)
6. Surface Coatings for Long-Term Protection. J. E. Fowles-Smith. Bull.
Inst. Corrosion Sci. and Tech., London, England, Mo. 66, 1977, pp. 2-6,
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Some causes of the premature failure of long-life coatings are
discussed, together with the use of paints on galvanized substrates.
7. Technique for the Investigation of Biodeterioration of Paints Developed at
CSIRO, Australia. E. Hoffman. J. Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc., v. 60,
No. 4, 1977, pp. 121-126.
The author describes the technique for testing a chemical compound
for fungicidal activity and determining its persistence in an organic
coating under different climatic conditions. When formulations had passed
these tests thoy were subjected to field trials in houses which had a
history of mold growth and in a brewery over a bottle washing machine.
Paints containing copper 8-hvdroxy-quinolate and those containing
tetramethyl thiurain disulfide showed good results; zinc oxide was not
effective in these field trials nor was N-trich1oromethy1thiophthalinide
as a fungicide. The author lists 4 ways in which fungicide can disappear
from a paint film: (l) by reacting with components of the paint or the
atmosphere (for example, H2S), (2) by evaporation if the compound is
volatile, (3) by decomposition due to solar radiation, and (4) by leaching
out in rain or dew.
8. Weatherablity of Acrylic Coatings. R. E. Harren, A. Mercurio, and
J. D. Scott. Australian Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc. Proc. and ;4ews,
v. 14, No. 10, 1977, pp. 17-23.
The influence of polymer or copolymer composition, Tg, vehicle
molecular weight, adhesion, polymer heterogeneity, latex particle size,
extenders, volume solids, coalescing solvents and oleoresinous modifiers
on the durability of acrylic latex paints is discussed and the potential
for maximizing the performance of these paints assessed.
9. Vinyl Coatings for Resistance to Atmospheric Corrosion. D. H. Gelfer and
K. B. Tator. Mat. Prot., v. 16, No. 12, 1977, pp. 9-13.
The properties of vinyl coatings and their resistance to water,
organic and inorganic acids, oxidizing agents, alkalis, salt solutions,
solvents, oils, fats and gases are reviewed, together with application
data. The precautions for handling these systems are briefly considered.
1976
1. Accelerated Weathering. C. A. Grey. Proc. 2nd Organic Coatings Symp.
(1975), Materials Research Laboratories, Australia, Report MRL-R-671,
1976, pp. 11-20.
Comparison of the performance of several paint systems in three
enclosed carbon arc artificial weathering instruments with that on
natural weathering showed that there was no general correlation. However,
with paints of similar type (olive drab alkyd enamels or epoxy/polyamide
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Pa-9
paints) comparative ratings by natural and artificial weathering were
similar. Performance of some varnishes on wood on natural exposure agreed
with that indicated by tensile measurements after artificial weathering.
2. Conservation of Monuments. Proceedings of the 2nd Session of the 29th
National Congress of the Assoc. Tennotecnica Italians, Florence
(September 25-27, 1974), Antonio Barbieri, Viale Premuda 2, Milano,
1976, 252 pp. (Italian). (OM76-4)
3. Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on Materials: A Chamber Study.
F. H. Haynie, J. W. Spence, and J. B. Uphatn. NTIS Report PB-2515S0,
1976, 98 pp. (Fe76-5)
4. Effects of pH on the Hardening of Japanese Lacquer Films. T. Kenjo.
Science of Conservation, No. 15, March 1976, pp. 1-8 (Japanese).
The effect of several electrolytes on the hardening of Japanese
lacquer was studied through infrared spectroscopy. A definite amount of
electrolyte was nixed with raw lacquer which, after pH measurement, was
applied on a polyethylene sheet to make a lacquer film. The electrolytes
tested were NaCl, Na2C0g, HC1, H^PO^, and (COOH^ and the amount of each
electrolyte added varied from 0.025 to 2.0 percent. The results are as
follows: (1) the ratio of the absorbance at 993 era"' to that 985 cm*'
serves as an indicator of hardening. For all the films investigated, it
was found that they were in the tack-free state when the ratio was equal
to, or above, 12. Therefore, the hardening time has been defined to be
the point when the above ratio becomes 12; (2) no significant correlation
was observed between the hardening time and the kind of anions added; (3)
the pH dependence of hardening was observed. Assuming that the hardening
time acceptable for practical use is less than 24 hours, the optimum pH
for the hardening of lacquer was found to be from 4.5 to 6.
5. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocom and N.
Grappone. Research Corporation of New England, WethersfieId,
Connecticut, NTIS Keport PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp. (Fe76-6)
6. Effects of Sulfur Dioxide and Acid Precipitation on Metals and Anti-Rust
Painted Steel. V. Kucera. Ambio., v.5, No. 5-6, 1976, pp. 243-248.
(Fe76-7)
7. Improving Results of Artificial Weathering. E. Preininger and B. Zindy.
Proc. 13th FATIPEC Congress, Cannes, 1976, pp. 518-523 (German).
The constancy of the light source is an important factor, as far as
reliability of resulting color changes is concerned, in testing the
weather fastness of colored paint films. Recently-introduced apparatus
makes it possible to examine the behavior of the lamps when in use. In
the course of working with 200 6 kilowatt xenon lamps, considerable varia-
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Pa-10
tions of light intensity were encountered both initially and during age-
ing. Weather-fastness tests conducted in a pre-set time period may lead
to varied results. It is preferable, as shown by several examples, to
conduct tests up to a defined limit of irradiation instead of time. A
procedure which has been used for several years in a laboratory equipped
with a large number of weather testing machines is described. It is pos-
sible to improve significantly the reproducibility of results of acceler-
ated weathering tests. The method allows for comparison of individual
apparatus and prevents fluctuations which previously passed unnoticed.
8. Investigation Into a New Method for the Cleaning and Conservation of
Medieval Stained Glass Recently Applied in Chartres (France).
J. C. Ferrazzini. CV News Letter, No. 23, December 3, 1976, pp. 4-9.
The article describes drawbacks of a method applied to stained glass
at Chartres. The method includes cleaning with ion-selective agents
(EDTA) and impregnation of the weathering crust with a two-component resin
solution based on an acrylic resin "Viacryl VC 363 (SM 564)" capable of
forming polyisocyanate crosslinks upon reaction with "Desmodur N" (alipha-
tic isocyanate). The protective coating obtained shows excellent weather-
ing resistance, yet its permeability to water and sulfur dioxide appears
to be too high to prevent corrosion over a long period of time. However,
the use of ion-selective agents can affect the healthy glass and make it
susceptible to corrosion. In the author's laboratory a new prophylactic
method has been worked out and is now being tested. It will be published
shortly.
9. New Developments in Wood Preservatives and Finishes. Deutsche Malerblatt,
v. 47, No. 10, 1976, pp. 633-636 (German).
The performance of various types of wood finishes, for example,
glazes or pigmented coatings, is discussed. A table summarizes their per-
formance on three types of wood under three artificial weathering cycles.
10. On the Problematics of the Colored Coating of Facades. A. Novak. Pamatky
a Priroda, No. 9, 1976, pp. 530-532 (Czech).
First, the main reasons for the poor adherence of color coating of
the plaster on historical buildings is examined (unsaturated old surface,
old surface adsorbing the medium of the new film, over-saturation of the
medium in the new film). A case is being made for the utilization of
frescoed colored surfaces or for immediately preceding saturation of the
old plaster with lime water. The pleasing visual effect of radiant color
is thus achieved which is superior to the heavy dullness of paints
containing white fillers. Except in the adverse situation of a high
sulfur content in the air in the industrial areas, the frescoed coating is
more economical in terms of amount of pigments utilized and optically more
sat isfactory.
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11. Physical and Economic Damage Functions For Air Pollutants by Receptor.
B. Liu and E. Yu. Report No. EPA-600/5-76-011, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, September 1976, 172 pp. (Fe76-13)
12. Protection Against Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Translated by
J. R. Duncan, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1976, 194 pp. (Fe76-14)
13. Scientific Analysis and Conservation of Paintings. >'. Honrs. Office du
Livre Fribourg (Suisse), 1976, 128 pp. (French).
Scientific analysis of paintings contributes to the prolongation of
life expectancy of najor art works through better understanding of the
phenomena of change. Information gained through the use of visible light
(natural light, and monochromatic sodium), ultraviolet, infrared, and X-
ray is detailed. Information furnished by microscony, chromatography and
spectrography carried out at the Research Laboratories of the Museums of
France is also listed. Dating methods still in the experimental stage are
also given. The scientific analysis also includes study of the influence
of the climate, pollution, vibration and lighting.
14. The Microbiological Deterioration of Paints. A. K. Kempson. Australian
Oil and Colour Chem.' Assoc. Proc. and News, v. 13, No. 2, November 1976 ,
pp. 5-14.
The deterioration of paint by micro-organisms is covered, both "in-
can" spoilage and the damage done to paint films. The types of micro-
organisms involved, the mechanisms of their actions, and their control are
covered.
1975
1. Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on Paints: A Chamber Study. J. W. Spence,
F. H. Haynie, and J. B. Upham. J. Paint Technol., v. 47, No. 609, 1975,
pp. 57-63.*
A controlled environment chamber study, conducted to statistically
identify the significant direct and synergistic effects of 3 air
pollutants (SO2, NO2, and 0g) on oil-base house paint, acrylic latex house
paint, vinyl coil coating, and acrylic coil coating, showed that the oil-
base house paint experienced the highest erosion rates. The exposure
chamber simultaneously controlled temperature, relative humidity, and
concentrations of the 3 pollutants, and also featured a dew/light cycle to-
simulate diurnal conditions. Regression analysis showed that S02
concentration and relative humidity accounted for 61 percent of the
variability. Vinyl and acrylic coil coatings experienced very low erosion
rates, whereas the erosion rates for latex house paint were invalid
because S0£ reacted with the substrate. Neither relative humidity nor
temperature had a significant effect on the erosion rate for clean air
exposure conditions.
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2. Environmental Exposure System for Studying Air Pollution Damage to
Materials. J. W. Spence, F. D. Stump, F. H. Havnie, and J. B. Upham.
NTIS Report PB-240615, 1975, 46 pp. (Fe75-ll)
3. Evaluation of Structural Steel Coatings in Relation to Industrial
Atmospheric Conditions. J. C. Moore and J. R. O'Leary. NTIS Report
PB-248604/1ST, January 1975, 78 pp.
Project No. 23 has supplied added technical information on the
durability of coatings applied to structural steel and exposed to the
atmosphere plus chemical fumes from nearby industrial plants. The amount
and nature of those chemical fumes were recorded and averaged extablished
for later use in the accelerated testing program. The coating system was
designated failing when the degree of rusting of the steel had reached 10%
on the ASTM D-610 pictorial standards. Sets of steel panels were
blast-cleaned to commercial and to white metal and one set was pre-rusted
and then cleaned by wire brushing. Paints were applied by brush and
spray. Some one coat primed applied panels were exposed. The general
types of available primers and some recommended top coats were included.
The most important result of this project is the economy of blast-cleaning
the structural steel to at least the Commercial Standard prior to coating.
Vinyl top coats show some checking. Aluminum top coats are satisfactory.
4. Medieval Stained Glass Painting. Report on the 9th Colloquium of Corpus
Vitrearum in Paris. E. Frodl-Kraft. Oesterr. Zeitschrift fur Kunst und
DenkmaIpflege, v. 29, No. 3-4, 1975, pp. 154-158 (German).
Administrative problems of the International Corpus Vitrearum are
discussed. The conservation methods, especially with the epoxy resin
Viacryl, are reviewed in connection with the present condition of the
famous glass windows of Chart res cathedral.
5. Prediction of the Corrosion Protective Properties of Paint Films by
Permeability Data. H. Haagan and W. Funke. J. of the Oil and Colour
Chemists Association, v. 58, No. 10, October 1975, pp. 359-362.
The authors consider the permeability of coatings to water, oxvgne,
ions, chloride, sulfate, hydroxy 1 and iron and find that in general the
permeability of coatings to water is sufficient to permit corrosion of the
substance to occur but the oxygen permeation rate may be lower than that
needed for the process of corrosion. The permeability of anions such as
chlorides and sulfates is very low, so low that corrosion of the substance
by such ions must be due to contamination before the coating was applied,
not to duffusion. It is concluded that the behavior of a coating in
preventing corrosion might be predicted by measuring the permeability rate
for water and oxygen under selected conditions of humidity and
temperature.
6. Sulfur Dioxide and Material Damage. D, G. Gillette. J. Air Pollution
Control Assn., v. 25, No. 12, December 1975, pp. 1238-1243. (Fe75-17)
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1974
1. Accelerated Testing of Durable Coatings. E. Oakley and J. J. Marron.
J. Oil and Color C'nem. Assoc., v. 57, No. 1, January 1974, pp. 22-29.
This paper presents research into the correlation between various
accelerated weathering cycles and conventional weathering tests at
Florida, when used to test the durability of high performance
aery Iic/me 1anine systems.
2, An Appraisal of Artificial Weathering Methods for Assessment of the
Durability of Paint Fibers. C. E. Hoev and H. A. Hipwood. Journal of
the Oil and Colour Chemists Association, v. 57, No. 5, May 1974,
pp. 151-160.
Comparative tests on paint fibers of different types: air drying
alkyd, stored alkyd, epoxy polvamide, polyurethane, epoxy ester, vinyl-
toluene, alkyd, chlorinated rubber, oIeoresinous, oil-based, storing
amino/epoxy and acrylics and emulsion paint exposed to six different types
of artificial weathering cycles and the same paints exposed under natural
conditions were carried out. The artificial weathering methods were "BS
3900 Part F3," "ASTM E42 Type E," "Dew Cycle," "Xerotest," "Climatest" and
"Enunagna apparatus," Exterior durability tests were carried out in the
U.K. (temperate climate rural), Australia (tropical wet rural and topical
dry rural), Singapore (equatorial wet industrial marine) and U.S.A. (hot
dry). The authors give details of the results and compare the different
methods of accelerated weathering. They do not conclude that any one
cycle is better than another entirely, but explain the particular
advantages and disadvantages of each both separately and in comparison
with each other.
3. Assessing Air Pollution Damage to Coatings. G. G. Campbell, G. C. Schurr,
D. E. Salwikowski, and J. 'A, Spence. J. Paint Technol., v. 46, t'o. 593,
June 1974, pp. 59-71.**
Common atmospheric pollutants (S0£ and O3) exert an adverse effect on
the durability of certain exterior organic coatings. Erosion rate studies
(supported by, infrared by attenuated total reflectance and by scanning
electron microscopy analyses of exposures in a Xe Arc Weather-Ometer and
at exterior sites with various levels of pollutants) substantiate this.
The Weather-Ometer exposures provide the most direct evidence because
those factors that influence erosion rates of exterior coatings (uv
radiation intensity, moisture content, and temperature changes) can be
controlled. Coatings that contained extender pigments, especially
CaC03, showed the greatest effect from SO2 as a pollutant. Coatings
exposed to uv light irradiation showed the greatest effect from O3.
4. Colorfastness to Atmospheric Contaminants. V. S. Salvin. Textile Chemist
and Colorist, v. 6, No. 7, 1974, pp. 164-166 and No. 8, 1974,
pp. 185-139.
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Pa-14
Methods for the assessment of the colorfastness of dyes to
atmospheric contaminants are reviewed. Colorfastness to oxides of
nitrogen, and the chemistry of moist and dry ozone fading are discussed.
AATCC test methods are compared with other methods.
5. Design of a Laboratory Experiment to Identify the Effects of Environmental
Pollutants on Materials. J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. Corrosion in
Natural Environments, ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials,
STP 558, 1974, pp. 279-291. (Fe74-10)
6. Effect of Air Pollution on Materials and Technical Equipment.
D. Knotkova, K. Barton, and B. Dolezel. Ochr. Ovzdust., v. 6, No. 6,
June 1974, pp. 75-83 (Czech), (Fe74-12)
7. Pollution Damage to Works of Art. J. Riederer. Chapt. in Mew Concepts in
Air Pollution Research, Birkhauser Verlag, Basel und Stuttgart, 1974,
pp. 73-85. (Cu74-5)
8. Science Finds Way to Restore the Art Damage in Florence. D. J. Hamblin.
Smithsonian, v. 4, No. 11, 1974, pp. 26-35.
Following the 1966 flood in Florence, Italy, art conservators and
scientists gathered to rescue many damaged works of art. Among the treat-
ments developed at that time is a way to reverse the degradation of
frescoes in which calcium carbonate has turned into calcium sulfate. The
method used to reverse this change involved ammonium carbonate which
attacks the gypsum crystals and turns them into CaCOg. Conservators
defeated microorganisms with Nystatin. Frescoes saturated with water were
sealed with tributylphosphate which prevented the frescoes from being
washed away as the water evaparated.
9. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution. T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701, 1974, 156 pp. (Fe74-21)
10. The Economics of Clean Air In Perspective. F. H. Haynie. Materials
Performance and Protection, v. 13, No. 4, April 1974, pp. 33-38.
(Fe74-22)
1973
I. Effect of Pigments on the Penetration of Sulfur Dioxide in Coatings.
M. Svoboda, B. Knepek, and II. Klicova. J. Oil Colour Chem. Assoc.,
v. 56, No. 4, 1973, pp. 172-174.
Pigments decreased the sulfur dioxide penetration rate 50-70 percent
depending on the type of pigwent compared with the penetration rate
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Pa-15
through unpigmented lacquer film. Alkyd resin films pigmented with zinc
oxide, titanium dioxide, or lead powder and films based on chlorinated
rubber pigmented with Pb were used in the tests.
2. Sulfur Reducing Bacteria, Surface Coatings, and Corrosion.
M. E. Williams, R. A. King, and J. D. A. Miller. J. Oil and Colour
Chem. Assoc., v. 56, No. 8, August 1973, pp. 363-368.
The way in which sulfate-reducing bacteria cause corrosion of steel
is reviewed. A number of biocides were incorporated into a standard
coating (polyamide cured pitch-epoxy system) and their effectiveness in
preventing bacterial corrosion was measured in similated conditions. The
authors have devised a method of simulating in the laboratory the
conditions under which bacterial corrosion occurs, and intend to devise a
more rapid method for determining the effect of the bacteria on a
protective coating and the actual mechanism of coating failure. Visual
examination of the exposed samples was compared with potentiokinetic and
potential/time techniques, which appear to be useful in improving
knowledge of the fundamental aspects of corrosion of steel.
3. The Damaging Effects of Air Pollution on Works of Art. J. Riederer.
Proc. 3rd Intern Union Air Pollut. Prev. Assoc. - VDI-Komm. Reinhaltung
Luft Int. Clean Air Congr. (Duesseldorf, October 8-12, 1973), 1973,
pp. A86-A89 (German). (Cu73-3)
1972
1. A Study to Evaluate Techniques of Assessing Air Pollution Damage to
Paints. G. C. Campbell, G. C. Schurr, and D. E. Salwikowski. Sherwin-
Williams Co., Chicago, 111., Research Center, Final Report to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-68-02-0030, 1972, 99 pp.
Erosion rate studies supported by attenuated total infrared
reflectance measurements and scanning electron microscopy analyses provide
a definitive technique for determining the effect of atmospheric
pollutants on the performance of exterior coatings. This technique is
based on the use of a gas controlled, Xenon Arc type Weather-Ometer. The
other methods of testing that were investigated— tensile strength, gloss
or sheen, and surface roughness-provided considerably less consistent
trends in data for either the "short term" exterior exposure or the
Weather-Ometer studies. Atmospheric pollutants at levels representative
of a highly polluted industrial site (1.0 ppm S02 or O3) were shown in
Weather-Ometer studies to exert a significant adverse effect on the
performance of specific coatings compared to the zero pollutant condition.
The ranking of a coating in terms of erosion rates was also shown to be
virtually independent of exposure to a pollutant type or level. Four
paints were studied—oil house paint, latex and coil coatings, alkyld
industrial paint, and automotive refinish.
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2. Chemical and Physical Effects of Sulphur Dioxide on Inorganic Pigments and
Paints. S. Torlaschi, L. Caggiati, and G. Zorzella. Proc. 11th FATIPEC
Congress, Florence, 1972, pp. 207-215.
The behavior of t hie more important inorganic pigments contained in
paints has been studied with regard to an SO2 atmosphere. This report
represents the physical effects and chemical reactions affecting
properties such as colour and gloss of paints obtained, in particular,
with chrome yellows and chrome molybdate reds. These pigments have proved
to be the most sensitive towards the action of S02. Appropriate surface
treatments, the formulation in paints with other pigments, and the use of
certain vehicles have a positive effect on the stability of the paint
film.
3. Chemical Attack and Economic Assessment of Air Pollutants on Exterior
Paints. J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. J. Paint Tech., v. 44, No. 574,
1972, p. 70-74.
This preliminary report investigates the deterioration of exterior
paints by sulfur dioxide and particulate matter, and the associated
potential economic loss to manufacturers and consumers. Crucial dose-
response data are lacking in the published studies surveyed for these
pollutants. The potential cost to the consumer due to pollutant attack of
four classes of exterior paints is estimated at $700 million annually, and
pollutant damage to household paints represents over 75 percent of that
total. A new study involving field and laboratory exposures has been
initiated to determine dose-response data from which the economic loss for
certain paint classes may be better formulated.
4. Indian Murals. Technique and Conservation. B. Lai. The International
Centre for the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural Property,
February 7-16, 1972, pp. 1-19.
Indian wall paintings have suffered extensive damage and
deterioration caused by adverse environmental conditions, high tempera-
ture, high relative humidity and air pollution. Chemical action of light
has also led to drastic changes in colors. A comprehensive survey is
given of the condition of Indian murals, their structure, grounds,
pigments and binders, and conservation methods which have proved
successful.
5. Paint Technology and Air Pollution: A Survey and Economic Assessment.
J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. NTIS Report PB-210736 , February 1972,
49 pp.
The objectives were to survey the technical developments occurring
within the paint industry, to identify the characteristics of pollutant
attacks on exterior paints, and to estimate the annual cost of air
pollutant damage to such paints. New paint formulations and new
application techniques are emerging within the paint industry. The
chemical attack of certain air pollutants on exterior finishes is
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reviewed. mi economic assessment was made of the chemical damage of air
pollutants on four classes of exterior paints: household, automotive
refinishing, coil coating, and maintenance. The total estimated cost at
the consumer level is given.
1971
1. Air Pollution by Sulfur Oxides. National Industrial Pollution Control
Council, Washington, D.C., Feb. 1971, 27 pp. (Fe71-2)
2. Present Status and Prospects on Air Pollution. U. Rardelli. Tngegneria,
v. 5, 1971, pp. 311-316 (Italian). (Fe71-19)
3. Peeling of Paints on Metropolitan Highways. K. Tsuno, M. Shinagava, and
K. Tachikawa. Toso To Toryo, No. 193, 1971, pp. 57-67 (Japanese).
Factors affecting the peeling of paints from the structural steel of
the highway system were analyzed bv collecting solid materials from the
painted surfaces and analyzing for pH, CI, S03, and NO3 concentration.
The data obtained strongly indicate the effect of polluted air on the
paint durability, especially in industrial areas.
4. Technical-Economic Evaluation of Air-Pollution Corrosion Costs on Metals
in the U.S. F. W. Fink, F. H. Buttner, and W. K. liovd. NTIS Report
PB-19R453, Feburarv 19, 1971, 160 pp. (Fe71-25)
1970
1. Systems Analysis
R. L. Salmon.
(Fe70-13)
1969
1. Corrosion in the Atmosphere. P. Atterbv. NTIS Report N71-26259, November
1969, 9 pp. (Fe69-25)
2. Minimum Paint Film Thickness for Economical Protection of Hot-rolled Steel
Against Corrosion. J. D. Keane, W. Vettach, and W. Bosch. J. Paint
Technology, v. 41, No. 553, 1969, pp. 372-382. (Fe69-33)
of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials.
NTIS Report PB-209192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp.
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3. Protective Coatings for Highway Structural Steels. J. D.Keane. National
Cooperative Highway Research Program, Report 74, Highway Research Board,
1969, 64 pp. (Fe69-35)
1968
Decay of Plaster, Paintings, and Wall Material of the Interior of
Buildings via Microbial Activity. W. E. Krumbein and C. Lange. Chapt.
55 in Biodeterioration of Materials: The Terrestrial Environment,
edited by A. H. Walters and E. H. Hueck-Van der Plas, v. 2, Halstea
Press Division, John Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1968, pp. 687-697.
(MSC68-1)
1967
1. Corrosion by Air Pollution. J. R. Goss. Proc. Annu. Conf., Nat. Soc.
Clean Air, No. 34, 1967, pp. 75-92. (Feb7-4)
2. Cost Comparison of Protective Coatings for Steel. C. V. Brouillette,
Report R-501, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port iluemene, CA,
November 1967, 9 pp.
Cost of protecting steel in three types of marine atmospheric
environments are tabulated for 15 protective coating systems which were
shown to have superior protective properties in KCEL Technical Report
R-501. The types of environment vary from severe tropical, which contains
continuous, vind-blown ocean salt spray to mild subtropical, which contain
light intermittent wind-blown ocean salt spray. For the more severe
environment, minimum costs of $0.06 (or less) to $0,12 per square foot per
year of protection are reported.
3, Deterioration of Coated Films of Japanese Lacquer. K. Toishi and
T. Kenjo. Shikizai Kyokaishi (Color Material), v. 40, No. 2, 1967,
pp. 92-93 (Japanese).
The effects of ultraviolet radiation or increased temperature on
Japanese lacquer were studied by infrared spectroscopy. The spectra of
0.01 mm samples which had been irradiated (2,000 lux for 1,116 hours),
kept at 80" C or stored in the dark were compared. The alpha-, beta-
diketone content of lacquer increased during irradiation while the
contents of peroxide, alkyl groups and hydroxy groups decreased. Similar
but less marked effects were observed with the lacquer kept at 80° C.
These results are attributed to the oxidation of an oil in the lacquer;
low molecular weight compounds are also formed, as shown by the decrease
in weight of the sample. The color of the lacquer decreased during
irradiat ion.
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4. Soiling and Materials-Damage Studies. Chapt. 4 in Economic Costs of Air
Pollution. R. G. Ridker. F. A. Praeger, New York, N.Y., 1967,
pp. 57-89. (Fe67-7)
The Effects of Photochemical Oxidants on Material. L. S. Jaffe. J. Air
Pollution Control Association, v. 17, No. 6, 1967, pp. 375-378. (E67-3)
The Hot Dip Galvanizing Industry. F. C. Porter. Metallurgia, v. 75,
No. 6, 1967, pp. 241-247. (Zn67-4)
1966
1. Hydrogen Sulfide Darkening of Exterior Paint. H. C. Wohlers and
M. Felstein. J. Air Pollution Control Association, v. 16, 1966,
pp. 619-621.
Hydrogen sulfide reacts with heavy metal salts in exterior paints to
form a precipitate which discolors the paint.
1965
1. Art in the Laboratory. M. Richter. Neues Rheinland, N'o. 47, January
1965, pp. 2-5.
The organization and potentialities for modern restoration, and of
the activities of the institutes at Bonn, Cologne and Dusseldorf are
surveyed. Attention is given to the special problems for conservation
arising from air pollution in the Rhineland-Westphalia region.
2. Atmospheric Corrosion of Painted Steel. A. V. filom. Korrosion, No. 17,
1965, pp. 58-63.**
The phase range between a metal surface and the paint film, fundamen-
tal rusting reactions, and measures to achieve corrosion resistance are
reviewed. Rust formation at the interface of the surface and the paint
film is caused fundamentally by the potential difference between the
surface oxide film and the free metal and by the presence of oxygen and
water in the paint film.
Methods of cleaning the metallic surface to be painted to eliminate
adsorbed water are summarized. Rusting under the paint is the result of
electrolytic reactions made possible by the adsorbed aqueous layer between
the surface and the paint film and of purely chemical reactions activated
by corrosion accelerators admitted by permeability and porosity of the
paint film. Protection against the corrosion of painted metallic surfaces
is achieved by inhibition of ion formation by physical or chemical
inhibitors in the paint, elimination of water from the critical interface,
sealing off of corrosive substances originating in the environment by
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2. Influence of Atmospheric Contaminants on Corrosion - Literature Report.
H. C. Muff ley. Rock Island Arsenal, Rock Island, Illinois, Report
Mo. 63-2041, June 13, 1963.
Corrosion preventive coatings are currently designed to prevent
moisture from coming in contact with the metal surfaces. Corrosion due to
moisture alone is very slow, however, the interaction of moisture and
atmospheric contaminants accelerates the rate of corrosion. The fact that
moisture and atmospheric contaminants vary independently makes it
difficult to predict the corrosion behavior.
3. Performance of Coating on Metal in an Industrial Atmosphere.
V. B. Volkening. 56th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Associa-
tion, Detroit, Michigan, (June 9-13, 1963), Paper NTo. 63-86, 1963.
The reason and methods of procedure for a protective coating testing
program are discussed. Results based on fifteen years operation of such a
program in a chemical plant on the Gulf Coast are described in some
detail. Atmospheric contaminants (from high humidity and moisture of
condensation to chlorine and hydrochloric acid) were encountered. A
method for calibrating the atmosphere is outlined. Differences in the
performance of several generic types of coating resins are presented.
4. Scientific Preservative Methods for Cultural Properties. V. Air
Pollution. I. Tomokichi. Museum (Tokyo), No. 143, 1963, pp. 23-29
(Japanese).
The effects of smog, dust, and toxic gases like sulfur dioxide are
discussed.
5. What Price Maintenance-Free Structures? J. C. Pohlman, Electrical World.
v. 159, 1963, pp. 72-74. (Fe63-7)
1962
1. Atmospheric Pollution: Its Measurement and Some Effects on Paints.
G. L. Holbrow. J. Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc., v. 45, 1962,
pp. 701-713.
Standard methods of measuring pollution are described. Sulfur
dioxide, one of
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2. Influence of Atmospheric Contaminants on Corrosion - Literature Report.
H. C. Muffley. Rock Island Arsenal, Rock Island, Illinois, Report
No. 63-2041, June 13, 1963.
Corrosion preventive coatings are currently designed to prevent
moisture from coming in contact with the metal surfaces. Corrosion due to
moisture alone is very slow, however, the interaction of moisture and
atmospheric contaminants accelerates the rate of corrosion. The fact that
moisture and atmospheric contaminants vary independently makes it
difficult to predict the corrosion behavior.
3. Performance of Coating on Metal in an Industrial Atmosphere.
V. B. Volkening. 56th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Associa-
tion, Detroit, Michigan, (June 9-13, 1963), Paper No. 63-86, 1963.
The reason and methods of procedure for a protective coating testing
program are discussed. Results based on fifteen years operation of such a
program in a chemical plant on the Gulf Coast are described in some
detail. Atmospheric contaminants (from high humidity and moisture of
condensation to chlorine and hydrochloric acid) were encountered. A
method for calibrating the atmosphere is outlined. Differences in the
performance of several generic types of coating resins are presented.
4. Scientific Preservative Methods for Cultural Properties. V. Air
Pollution. I. Tomokichi. Museum (Tokyo), No. 143, 1963, pp. 28-29
(Japanese).
The effects of smog, dust, and toxic gases like sulfur dioxide are
d iscussed.
5. What Price Maintenance-Free Structures? J. C. Pohlman. Electrical World.
v. 159, 1963, pp. 72-74. (Fe63-7)
1962
1. Atmospheric Pollution: Its Measurement and Some Effects on Paints.
G. L. Holbrow. J. Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc., v. 45, 1962,
pp. 701-718.
Standard methods of measuring pollution are described. Sulfur
dioxide, one of the chief polluting agents, affects only young paint
films, chiefly by delaying drying. The concentration of SO2 in the
London area in winter is typically 0.1 to 0.2 ppm by volume. In the smog
of December 1952 it reached 1.4 ppm, which can be considered as an upper
Iimit.
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2. Scientific Preservation Methods for Cultural Properties. III.
Preservation of Paintings. I. Tomokichi. Museum (Tokyo), No. 141,
1962, pp. 23-25 (Japanese).
Damage by insects and air pollution should be considered in the pre-
servation of paintings. To prevent falling off of pigments, plastic
materials like polyvinyl alcohol and acrylic resin were used with good
results. Maintenance of paintings after repair is also important.
1961
1. Corrosion In Buildings. P. J. Sereda. Canadian Building Digest, Report
No. CBD-20, August 1961, 4 pp. (Fe61-5)
1959
1. Atmospheric Corrosion Tests. J. C. Hudson. Sixth Report of the Corrosion
Committee, Iron and Steel Institute, 1959, pp. 48-103. (Fe59-2)
2. Deterioration of Materials in Polluted Atmospheres. J. E. Yocum.
Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, October 1959, pp. 541t-545t. (Fe-5)
1957
1. Automobile Paint Damaged by Airborne Iron Particles. E. G. Fochtman and
G. L. Langer. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., v. 6, 1957, p. 243.
Paint damage in a parking lot located in an industrial region where
strong attachment of particles to car finishes has occurred was studied.
Results indicate that particles were from a nearby factory. When in
contact with the car finish and moisture, the particles forned ferrous
hydroxide which penetrated the paint and converted to iron oxide.
1955
1. The Destructive Effects of Air Pollution on Materials. A. Parker. 6th
Des Voeux Mem. Lecture, Proc. 22nd Annual Conf., National Sinoke
Abatement Soc., Bournemouth, England, September 28, 1955, pp. 120-132.
(Fe55-6) . ..
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1954
1. Deterioration of Materials—Causes and Preventive Techniques.
G. A. Greathouse and C. J. Wessel. Reinhold Pub 1 i sh in;;, New York, N.Y.,
1954, 835 pp. (OM54-1)
2. Paints, Varnishs, Enamals and Lacquers. J. E. Cowling and M. E. Roberts.
Chapt. 10 in Deterioration of Materials—Causes and Preventive
Techniques, edited by G. A. Greathouse and C. J. Wessel, Reinhold
Publishing Corp., New York, N.Y., 1954, pp. 596-645.
The classifications and components of organic coatings are given.
The effect of sunlight, temperature, moisture, dirt, atmospheric
conditions and biological organisms on the deterioration of organic
coatings is discussed.
3. Selection of Paints and Application In Combating Atmospheric Corrosion.
F. T. Kadecke. API Proc., v. 34, Section 3, 1954, pp. 37-49.
Industrial plants incur extensive loss annually because of the
ravages of atmospheric corrosion. Metal loss rates vary with severitv of
environment. The petroleum industry, in particular, can be considered to
have serious atmospheric-corrosion problems. The major portion of the
refineries (consisting of steel structures and equipment) is constantly
under attack from crude-oil components and from treating chemicals in the
forms of spills, leaks, and atmospheric effluents. Cooling water-tower
condensate, humid climates, and waste materials used as fuels greatly
increase the surface-corrosion potential.
The most common method of protection is to apply coatings of paint on
exterior steel surfaces. The more important aspects of painting are types
of surface preparation, paint selection based on environmental severity,
the number of coats to be applied, and dry-film thickness. The best
combination of these factors must be determined by the engineer to afford
adequate protection within the limits of economic practicability. Shell
Oil Company's engineers have established a number of basic coating
practices and have developed specification paints for use in the
refineries. Improved methods in the field, in conjunction with specifica-
tion materials, have achieved satisfactory surface protection at
reasonable cost.
1953
1. Economic Factors of Atmospheric Corrosion vs. Protection. C. C. Harvey,
API Proceedings, v. 33, Section 3, 1953, pp. 286-290.
Economic appraisal of atmospheric corrosion loss of metal
demonstrates that, in most environments, painting is not justifiable
solely from the protection standpoint. More economical protection can be
provided by the use of an exterior corrosion allowance. However, painting
is indicated to be justified when both the decorative and protective
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Pa-24
functions are considered. For most large industries the decorative
function of paint plays a more important role in maintaining good employee
and community relations than is normally recognized.
Graphic analysis of long-term paint economics indicates that
maintenance of coatings in their best condition usually costs less than
allowing them to deteriorate before repainting. On-site atmospheric
corrosion data and careful analyses of painting practices are recommended
as maintenance dollar savers.
1952
1. Economics of Industrial Maintenance Painting. R. R. Pierce. Corrosion,
v. 8, 1952, pp. 178-182.*
Over 60% of the established industrial maintenance paint compositions
will fail rapidly when used for maintenance in a chem.-industrial atmos-
phere Surface preparation by blasting will increase the protective life of
the maintenance paint system from 2 to 4 times over that applied to wire-
brushed, corroded surfaces. Maintenance paint system thicknesses below 5
mils are undependable in aggressive chem.-industria1 atmospheres. Regualr
schedules of paint inspection and repair can reduce cost of plant protec-
tion to about 5<| per sq. ft. per year even in aggressive chen.-industrial
atms.
2. Key to Savings in Painting Costs. R. R. Pierce. Chem. Eng., v. 5S,
No. 5, 1952, pp. 149-153.*
A comprehensive evaluation of costs for protective coatings in
industrial plants is presented. It is concluded that a three-coat
painting system resulting in a 5-rail minimum total thickness gives the
most economical required corrosion protection.
1951
1. Fading of a Dye Cellulose Acetate
Text. Res. J., v. 21, 1951, pp.
Cellulose acetate fabric was
the chemical reactions which occu
by Light and Gas Fumes. M. Couper.
720-725.
exposed to nitrogen oxides to determine
during dye fading.
1939
1. Effect of Sulfur Compounds in the Air on Various Materials. L. R. Burdick
and J. F. Barkley. U.S. Bureau of Mines, I.C. 7064, April 1939, 9 Dp.
(Fe39-1)
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PLASTICS
1982
1. Atmospheric Corrosion Testing in Norway. L. Atteraas and S. Haagenrud.
Atmospheric Corrosion, edited by W.H. Ailor, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
1982, pp. 873-892. (Fe82-20).
2. Measurement of the Time-of-Wetness by Moisture Sensors and Their
Calibration. P. J. Sereda, S. G. Croll and H. F. Slade. Atmospheric
Corrosion of Metals, edited by S. W. Dean, Jr., and E. C. Rhea, American
Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 767, 1982, pp. 267-285.
(Fe82-42)
1981
1. Organic Matrix Structural Composites: Quality Assurance and
Reproducibility. Committee on Characterization of Organic Matrix
Composites. Report No. NMAB-365, National Materials Advisory Board,
1981, 156 pp.
The use of organic matrix advanced composites as primary (system
critical) structures has increased rapidly. As a consequence of this
rapid growth there has not been the opportunity to develop either the
broad experience or technology base to use these composites with the same
degree of confidence as with metallic alloys.
The first objective of this study was to survey and assess the state
of the art of organic matrix structural composites technology. The second
goal was to formulate a set of recommendations to:
(1) Assure by prior specification that fabricated structures will
meet performance requirements;
(2) Predict lifetime behavior through analysis and accelerated test
methods for ultra-violet and gamma radiation, ozone, oxygen,
solvents, temperature, moisture, and sustained loading; and
(3) Provide verification methods for both, thus assuring product
specification and early indication of failure.
1980
1. A Review of Air Pollutant Damage to Materials. J. E. Yocum and
A. R. Stankunas. Draft Report to Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, December
1980, 92 pp. (Fe80-2)
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P-2
2. Accelerated Weathering Tests for Glass-Fiber Reinforced Polyester (GRP)
Sheets. R. S. Yaraasaki and A. Blaga. Durability of Building Materials
and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 874-889.
With the development of GRP's of improved durability to weathering it
has become necessary to devise accelerated weathering tests that permit
assessment of their performance and durability within a reasonable time.
The new artificial weathering procedure subjects GRP materials to a cycle
of 2 hour xenon arc radiation (twice the intensity used in the previously
reported cycle of 4 hour radiation and 4 hour cold water spray) and 0.67
hour cold water spray. Exposure of fire-retardant, non-gel-coated, and
conventional GRP sheets induced surface degradation similar to that
produced by both the 4-4 cycle and outdoor exposure in a considerably
shorter time. The acceleration rate was 2.0 to 3.5 (compared with the 4-4
cycle) and 5 to 30 (compared with outdoors).
3. An Assessment of the Degradation Effects of South African Weather Condi-
tions on Organic Building Materials. R. E. Cromarty, H. W. Ahrens, G.
S. Van Eeden and B. Zahradnik. Durability of Building Materials and
Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1930, pp 890-903.
The variations in outdoor weather conditions in Southern Africa are
related to the geography of the country and the influence of these differ-
ent conditions on organic materials is discussed. The visual changes in a
series of organic building materials that have been exposed to different
climates for 6 years are recorded and commented on without attempting to
elucidate the mechanism of degradation. The physical changes that occur
as a result of exposure in polychloroprene rubber sheets, that originally
conformed to standard specifications, are detailed and discussed. The
effectiveness of various ultraviolet absorbers on the rate of degradation
of polypropylene under conditions of natural and accelerated articial
exposure is discussed. The overall suitability of organic building
materials for use under South African conditions are discussed and
recommendations are made.
4. Appraisal of Durability of Organic Materials and Components—The Australi-
an View. K. G. Martin.* Durability of Building Materials and Compo-
nents, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 106-118.
The performance concept is used as a basis for discussing the
limitations of artificial "weather" chambers as devices to assess the
durability of organic building materials. Problems of prediction are
shown to be inherent owing to the relations between the climatic factors
and the rate processes involved in most weathering degradation. The
increased use of outdoors exposure testing is advocated with attention to
specimen type, whether commercial product or prototype, and the use of
results whether for compliance or guide for design as expounded in
Australian Standards.
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P-3
A new quantitative description of climate as it relates to photo-oxi-
dation of organic building materials is described in terms of a "solar
weathering index" for use in research and development. The role of simple
quality control tests, as complimentary to outdoors exposure tests, is
outlined. The results with a simple ultraviolet lamp test are reported
and proposals for a simple chalking test are described.
5. Background and Principles of Long-Term Performance of Building Materials.
S. E. Pihlajavaara. Durability fo Building Materials and Components,
ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 5-16. (Fe80-4)
6. Deterioration Mechanisms in Weathering of Plastic Materials. A. Blaga.
Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by
P. J, Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1980, pp. 827-837.
Deterioration of most plastic materials starts at the outer surface
and may take the form of discoloration, pitting, exudation of ingredients,
fiber prominence, and microcracking. The deleterious effects of weather-
ing consist of a complex set of processes in which the combined action of
ultraviolet (UV) light and oxygen are predominant. When the energy of an
excited group or segment of a molecule cannot be released through a
photophysical process, it causes the dissociation of a chemical bond to
produce free radicals. This event, with or without the participation of
oxygen, can lead subsequently to one or more chemical changes.
Light-initiated degradation makes the plastic more susceptible to fracture
by stress fatigue induced by changes in humidity and temperature; the
resulting surface microcracks cause a loss in mechanical properties.
Fiber prominence can be produced by stress fatigue alone, but its
formation is accelerated by UV irradiation.
7. Development of Testing Techniques for Aging Plastics in Buildings Due to
Natural and Artificial Weathering. H. Pfeifer. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and
G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp.
863-873.
The characteristics of plastics, compared with the time-dependent
classical building materials, may be subjected to considerably greater
changes due to weathering. These have defied exact specification so far
and are a decisive handicap in their use.
The report gives a critical review of the development of test methods
for the determination of natural and artificial weatherings and formulates
suggestions for generally acceptable testing methods. Weathering and test
methods are proposed that provide for the use of plastics in building
construct ions.
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P-4
8. Durability Studies on Polymer Materials Used Externally in Building.
P. Eurin, R. Cope, J. C. Marechal and G. Roux. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G.
Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 838-852.
There is evidence that no one form of artificial weathering test will
make it possible to forecast with accuracy the durability of all te poly-
mer materials used externally in building. Methods that take account of
the mechanism of degradation of individual materials are required. Glass-
fiber reinforced polyesters (GRP) break down by weakening of the bond
between the glass-fibers and the resin. An indication of durability can
be obtained from measurements of the modulus of dynamic torsion before and
after degradation in boiling water and the comparison of these results
with the results for other GRPs of known durability. The durability of
opaque rigid poLy(vinyl chloride) (PVC) depends on the presence of a
thermal stabilizer to inhibit a chain reaction characterized by the
elimination of hydrogen chloride and the formation of conjugated double
bonds. This process is accompanied by progressive embrittlement. A
dehydrochlorination (DHC) test enables the minimum life of a PVC material
to be estimated. It seems probable that a constant-speed perforation
test, used in conjunction with the DHC test, will improve the estimates of
durability for these materials.
9. Effects of Ti02 on the Weatherabi1ity of Thermoplastic Polymers.
G. Irick, J. S. Zannucci, J. C. Ownby and R. H. S. Wang. Durability of
Building Materials and Components, ASTM 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and
G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980,
pp. 853-862.
Titanium dioxide is used widely as an opacifying agent for paper,
fibers, coatings, and plastics. Our data show that this white pigment
functions as either a weathering stabilizer or sensitizer, depending on
its concentration or treatment during manufacture and use. Lifetimes of
oxidizable polymers, such as polypropylene, and cellulose esters, can be
reduced greatly by the presence of photoactive titanium dioxides; oxida-
tion-resistant polymers, such as poly(tetramethylene terephthalate), are
affected to a much lesser extent. The undesirable effects of titanium
dioxides can be reduced greatly by the presence of certain additives. The
large effects of temperature on the lifetimes of certain polymers indicate
that considerable care must be exercised in the design of accelerated test
methods.
10. Exponential Aging of Certain Plastics. F. R. Landi. Durability of
Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda
and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp.
904-909.
Natural aging tests suffer greatly from the long time period required
for completion; testing time is of the same order of magnitude as the
lifetime. Correlation of the results of the natural aging test with that
of the accelerated test is difficult. With certain materials, such as
plastics and organic coatings, some progress has been made. Plastics,
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P-5
when exposed to ultraviolet radiation or when irradiated and heated,
undergo a deterioration process which can be described by the exponential
relation of the type E = E0*e(-Yt). It appears to be possible to
establish performance criteria of aging from the parameters of the
exponential term which depend on the nature and shape of the material
tested. Also, for the decay caused by other factors, for example, change
in temperature and humidity, the same relationship may be applicable.
11. Some Aspects of the Durability of Plastics in Building. J. R. Crowder.
Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by
P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1980, pp. 811-826.
The requirements for durability of building products is discussed
with particular reference to plastics. The processes of deterioration are
considered as well as their significance in relation to performance. Met-
hods of following change must be realistic in relation to use, and the
factors involved are discussed, notably UV radiation as the basis of labo-
ratory assessment procedures. There is need for better understanding of
deterioration to aid in total appraisal of building products.
1979
1. Glovebox Glove Deterioration in the Hanford Engineering Development
Laboratory Fuel Fabrication Facility. W. 0. Greenhalgh, R. C. Smith,
and D. L. Powell. NTIS Report PC-A03/MF-A01, July 1979, 44 pp. (E79-2)
1978
1. Notes on the Development of Damages in Materials. H. H. Kausch and
G. G. Amoroso. Materiaux et Techniques, No. 3, March 1978, pp. 79-84
(French).
The mechanical and chemical damages found in compound materials of
polymer and stone are described.
2. Reaction of Polymers With Pollutant Gases. H. H. G. Jellinek. Aspec
Degradation Stab. Polym., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1978, pp. 431-499.
Reactions of polymers with pollutant gases are reviewed.
3. The Effect of the Polluted Urban Atmosphere on Degradation of Polymers.
F. Flajsman. Chem., Kunstst.-Aktuel1 (1977), 1978, pp. 21-23.
(E78-1)
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1977
1. Natural Aging of Plastic Materials Used in the Construction Industry.
L. Rechner. Cashiers Centre Sci. Tech. Batiraent, Mo. 181, 1977, 48 pp.
(French).
Results are given of a comprehensive study involving the natural
exposure of the fifteen main classes of plastics materials at several
sites of different climatic environment in France for a period of ten
years. Changes in color, gloss and occurrence of film degradation
(cracking, etc.) are recorded. An aging profile has been constructed for
each class of plastics material.
2. Photo-Oxidative Degradation of Polymer Coatings. P. L. Zubov and
E. A. Kanevskaya. DAN SSSR, v. 233, No. 1, 1977, pp. 148-151
(Russian).
A detailed study was made of light aging processes in polymeric
coatings (copolymers of butyl methacrylate with 5 percent methacrylic
acid on an aluminum foil substrate) with particular reference to the
effect of internal stresses on these processes. The light aging
performance can be improved by reducing the internal stresses.
1976
I. Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on Materials: A Chamber Study.
F. H. Haynie, J. W. Spence, and J. B. Upham. NTIS Report PB-251580,
1976, 98 pp. (Fe76-5)
2. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocom and
N. Grappone. Research Corporation of New England, Wethersfield,
Connecticut, NTIS Report PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp. (Fe76-6)
3. Physical and Economic Damage Functions for Air Pollutants by Receptor.
B. Liu and E. S. Yu. Report No. EPA-600/5-76-011, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, September 1976, 172 pp. (Fe76-13)
4. Protecting Electronics From Atmospheric Corrosion. D. V. Couden.
Materials Engineering, May 1976, pp. 22-25. (Cu76-7)
5. Protection Against Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Translated by
J. R. Duncan, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1976', 194 pp. (Fe76-14)
6.
Protection of Stained-Glass Windows Against Atmospheric Agents. Study of
Synthetic Resin Films. J. M. Bettembourg. Verres Refract., v. 30,
No. 1, 1976, pp. 87-91 (French).
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Epoxy and polyurethane resins for the protection of ancient stained-
glass windows were assessed. The glass was washed with Na2EDTA and
NaHC03, and then thin films of Viacryl VC 363 + Desmodur N75, Neocolle DE
874, or Araldite AY epoxy 103 + HY 956 were applied. Atmospheric
weathering agents included UV light and S02. Weathering caused a
yellowing and diminished transparency of glass coated with Necolle, but
had no effect on the Viacryl + Desmodur-coated glass. Weathering also
diminished the adherence of Araldite to the glass.
7. Study of the Effect of Some Climatic Factors on the Aging of Polystyrene.
B. Dolezel and L. Adamirova. Donaulaendergespraech, 9th, v. 2, 1976,
pp. 194-203 (German).*
Photo-oxidative weathering degradation of polystyrene is retarded by
humidity and accelerated by N02 . Sulfur dioxide also inhibits photode
gradation and diminishes the catalytic effect of N02.
1975
1. Environmental Exposure System for Studying Air Pollution Damage to
Materials. J. W. Spence, F. D. Stump, F. H. Haynie and J. B. Upham,
NTIS Report PB-240615/5ST, January 1975, 46 pp. (Fe75-ll)
2. The Effects of Nitrogen Oxides on Plastics. H. Huber and F. Goerg.
Staub-Reinhalt Luft, v. 35, No. 5, 1975, pp. 184-187 (German).
Tensile tests and scanning electron microscope examination of 35 pm
thick polyamide and polyester fibers, 35 ym thick polyamide film
containing 5 percent of low pressure polyethylene, 40 ym thick
polyethylene-terephthalate film containing 2 percent of polypropylene, and
90 ym thick polyethylene-terephthalate film containing 5 percent of low
pressure polyethylene, after exposure to 100 ppm of nitrogen oxides for 17
to 48 days, showed considerable deterioration of the polyamide and hardly
any change in the polyester. Changes in the polyamide could have been
cause by depolymerization, change of electrical forces between adjacent
molecules, and reactions of oligomers.
1974
1. Degradation of Polymers at Low Temperatures by Nitrogen Dioxide, Ozone,
and Near-UV Radiation. H. H. G. Jellinek. NTIS Report AD-782950/0GA,
1974, 31 pp.**
A tensile strength, and a static and a dynamic stiffness tester have
been constructed for measuring mechanical properties of polymers as a
function of temperature, environmental conditions (that is, air plus
N02, 03, etc. or the pollutants alone), exposure time, and pollutant
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concentration. The dynamic stiffness tester is especially sensitive to
onset of cracking due to Oj. Tensile strength of linear polyurethane was
affected by t\02 alone and also by N02 in the presence of air. Chain
scission, cross-linking, evolution of C02 and other low molecular weight
compounds, and formation of nitro and nitroso groups along the polymer
backbone occurred. Preliminary selection of polymeric skirting materials
for surface effect vehicles was made on the basis of results as functions
of temperature.
2. Design of a Laboratory Experiment to Identify the Effects of Environmental
Pollutants on Materials. J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. Corrosion in
Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 279-291. (Fe74-10)
3. Effect of Air Pollutants on Aging of Plastic Materials: Protection
Methods. J. Verdu. Trib. CEBEDEAU, v. 27, No. 369-370, August-
September 1974, pp. 360-365 (French).*
Air ppllutants accelerate the aging of plastic materials by direct
reaction, by the formation of photochemical active species which
accelerated chain oxidation, and by intervention in the polymer
degradation mechanism. Ozone reacted with the double bonds to cause
degradation. Sulfur dioxide formed photochemical active species and
increased the cleavage rate in polymer chains. Known methods of chemical
and physical stabilization were not always effective against the aging
effects of atmospheric pollutants.
4. Effect of Air Pollution on Materials and Technical Equipment.
D. Knotkova, K. Barton, and B. Dolezel. Ochr, Ovzdust., v. 6, No. 6,
June 1974, pp. 75-83 (Czech). (Fe74-12)
5. Effect of Oxidative Components of Air Pollutants on the Degradation of
Polymers. F. Flajsinan. Kem. Ind., v. 23, No. 2, 1974, pp. 96-100
(Croation). (E74-3)
6. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution. T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701, 1974, 156 pp. (Fe74-21)
7. The Use of Weather and CIimatological Data in Evaluating the Durability of
Building Components and Materials. L. W. Masters and W. C. Wolfe. NTIS
Report COM-74-50841/7, August 1974, 102 pp. (Fe74-25)
1973
1. Concentrations, Decay Rates, and Removal of Ozone and Their Relation to
Establishing Clean Indoor Air. R. H. Sabersky, D. A. Sinema, and
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F. H. Shair. Environ. Sci. Technol., v. 7, Mo. 4, 1973, pp. 347-353.
(OM73-2)
2. Effect of Sulfur Dioxide on the Chemical and Physical Properties of Mylon
66. S. H. Zeronian. Textile Research Journal, v. 43, No. 4, 1973, pp.
22S-237.
The degradation of nylon 66 fabrics by exposure to 1 i^ht and air is
increased if the air is contaminated with sulfur dioxide. The effect of
degradation by light and air contaminated with sulfur dioxide (0.2 pptn) ,
by hydrolysis with sulfuric acid, or by irradiation with light in the pre-
sence of sulfuric acid on the surface of nylon fibers and on the thermal
behavior of nylon was examined and the node of degradation is discussed.
1971
1. Chain Scission of Butyl Rubber by Nitrogen Dioxide. II. Photo-oxidation
as a Function of Nitrogen Dioxide, Oxygen Pressure, and Temperature.
H. H. G. Jellinek and P. Hrdlovic. J. Polymer Sci., Part A-l, v. 9,
No.5, 1971, pp. 1219-33.**
The degradation mechanism of butyl rubber was studied as a function
of temperature, pressure of oxygen and nitrogen dioxide, and the effect of
near UV radiation. N0£ retarded chain scission in the presence of near UV
light. Arrhenius equations for the photooxidation mechanism are
d iscussed.
2. Degradation of Polymers and Morphology: Photo-oxidative Degradation of
Isotactic Polystyrene in the Presence of Sulfur Dioxide as a Function of
Crystal 1inity. P. Hrdlovic, J. Pavlinec, and H. H. G. Jellinek. J.
Polymer Sci., Part A-l, v. 9, No. 5, 1971, pp. 1235-45.**
In a study of the photooxidative degradation of polystyrene (isotac-
tic) films (prepared in a variety of ways producing different degrees of
crystal 1inity) in the presence of S02 and NO2, pronounced effects of
crystal 1inity on the rates of degradation were observed. In the presence
of S02, the rate of chain scission increased with the extent of
crystal 1inity and was assumed to be faster due to strain in and near the
folds in the crystalline areas. In the presence of NO2, chain scission
increased up to 3% crystal Iinity but then became constant. The diffusion
rates of oxygen and N02 into the films decreased with increasing
crystal 1inity. The diffusion and chain scission rates compensated each
other after an 8% degree of crysta11 inity was reached.
1970
1. Chain Scission of Polymers by Small Concentrations (1 to 5 ppm) of Sulfur
Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide, Respectively, in the Presence of Air and
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Near Ultraviolet Radiation. H. H. G. Jellinek. J. Air Pollut. Contr.
Assoc., v. 20, No. 10, 1970, pp. 672-674.**
The extent of chain scission (cross1 inking) suffered by various poly-
mers exposed to 1 atm air and near UV light {\ > 2800 A) in the presence
and absence of nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone, respectively,
at 1 to 5 ppm was determined. Vinyl polymers are scarcely affected by S02
and N02» respectively; however, nylon and elastomers are quite sensitive
toward these gases. These conclusions agree with observations, found in
the literature, on tensile tests, elongations, flexibilities and ir
measurements in the presence of sulfur dioxide under similar conditions.
2. Effect of Ozone on the Strength of a Polystyrene Film. S. A. Abasov,
M. A. Bagirov, T. I. Guseinov, and U. A. Kabulov. Izu. Al 2800 A) at temperatures from 30 to 57*. The chains suffered
random scission according to a random mechanism and the energy of
activation for a combination of secondary reactions was 4.5 kcal/mole.
4. Photolytic Oxidation of Isotactic Polystyrene in the Presence of Sulfur
Dioxide. II. Photolysis Reaction as a Function of Light Intensity, and
Sulfur Dioxide, and Oxygen Pressure. H. H. G. Jellinek and J. Pavlinec.
Proc. Symp. Photochem. Maromol. (1969), edited by R. F. Reinisch,
Plenum, New York, N.Y., 1970, pp. 91-104.*
The chain scission reaction of polystyrene (isotactic) in SO2 and
O2 and near UV radiation (A > 2800 A) as a function of gas pressure and
light intensity allowed the formulation of a mechanism for the photolysis
reaction based on a type of Bollard mechanism for oxidative degradation
degradation in conjunction with the pronounced synergistic action of S02.
This reaction was accounted for by a mechanism where chain scission
proceeded via the formation of hydroperoxide groups. The ratio of chain
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scission quantum yields ($) (number of chain scissions/number of quanta
absorbed) due to SO2 and 02, respectively, was very large, i.e.,
<:S02<};02 ¦ 143. This clearly shows the great effect SO2 has, even at low
pressure, on this chain scission reaction.
5. Systems Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials.
R. L. Salmon. NTIS Report PB-209192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp.
(Fe70-13)
6. The Weathering and Performance of Building Materials. J. W. Simpson and
P. J. Horrobin, eds., Medical and Technical Publishing Co. Ltd., 1970,
277 pp. (Fe70-17)
1969
1. Combined Effects of Deformation and Ozone on Molecular Bond Rupture in
Rubber. L. K. De Vries, E. R. Simonson, and M. L. Williams. Polym.
Prepr., Amer. Chem. Soc., Div. Polyra. Chem., v. 10, No. 2, 1969
pp. 1190-1197. (E69-1)
2. Reaction of Nitrogen Dioxide with Polystyrene Films, H. H. G. Jellinek
and F. Flajsnan. J. Polymer Sci., Part A-l, v. 7, No. 4, 1969,
pp. 1153-1168.*
The reaction of N02 with thin polystyrene films was investigated at
35° with different partial pressures of N02 (0.1, 2, 15, 30, and 60 cm.
Hg) and at several temps. (25, 35, 45 and 55°). The films were thin
enough (approx. 20 pin) so that the reaction was independent of the
diffusion of gas into the polymer. The expermental results can be
represented by a chain mechanism. The whole degradation process is
controlled by the diffusion of polymer radicals out of cages. This
diffusion, in turn, is affected by the decrease in viscosity or decrease
in weight-average molecular weight as degradation proceeds. This leads to
an acceleration of the degradation process. A straight-line relation
between the logarithm of the reciprocal weight-average molecular weight
and the logarithm of a reaction-time function was found. The dependence
on the rate was substantiated by degrading polymer fractions. The energy
of activation for the process is small, in agreement with a diffusion
process for chain scission. Nitro and nitrite groups are incorporated
along the backbone of polystyrene during exposure. The number of these
polar side groups appears to pass through a maximum with time, as is
evidenced by aggregation of polymer molecules in benzene solution only
during the middle stage of the degradation. The final stage of the
process is slowed down by a retarder being produced. This retarder can be
removed by reprecipitat ion of exposed polymer films. Degradation in
solution is similar to that of films. Isotactic polystyrene shows less
irregularly in its degradation curve than the atactic polymer. This is,
presumably, due to its more homogeneous morphology, large molecular
weight, and broader molecular size distribution. The plot of the degree
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of degradation versus time for the isotactic polymer can be satisfactorily-
approximated by a straight line.
3. Reaction of Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide with Polymers.
H. H. G. Jellinek, F. Flajsman and F. J. Kryman. J. Appl. Polymer Sci.,
v. 13, No. 1, 1969, pp. 107-116.*
Polymers were exposed to S02, nitrous oxide and to mixtures of these
with oxygen under ultraviolet irradiation. All polymers suffered some
deterioration (chain scission and/or cross I inking), and the deterioration
was considerable with exposure over long periods of time. Elastomers were
more susceptible to these gases than saturated polymers, but the effects
were not quite so drastic as those caused by Og. The polymers studied
included: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, poly (Me
methacrylate), poly(vinyl chloride), polyacrylonitrite, nylon,
polybutadiene, butyl rubber, and polyisoprene.
1967
1. Fundamental Degradation Processes Relevant to Outdoor Exposure of
Polymers. H. H. G. Jellinek. Applied Polymer Symposia, No. 4, 1967,
pp. 41-59. (E67-2)
1965
1. Stability of Some Plastics in Corrosive Media. N. A. Kolesnik,
0. A. Fridman, I. M. Brods'ka, and A. A. Degtyar'ova. Khim. Prom.,
Inform. Nauk-Tekhn. Zb., v. 2, 1965, pp. 11-14 (Ukrain).
Moldings from glass-reinforced plastic AG-4C, copolymer MSN,
polycaprolactam, and polyethylene were treated with inorganic acids and
bases and organic solvents. Changes in mechanical properties and weight
of the moldings were evaluated. t^SO^, HCl, HNO3, NH3, and NaOH as
aqueous solutions, and acetone, benzene, dichloroethane, CCl^, PhCl, and
cyclohexane were used as liquids at room temperature; HCl, HNO3, NH3,
acetone, CCl^, PhCl were used as gases at 30 to 60® C.
2. Fading of Coloring Matters. C. H. Giles. J. Appl. Chem., v. 15, No. 12,
1965, pp. 541-550. (F65-1)
1961
1. Effect of Nitrogen Tetroxide on Metals and Plastics. C. W. Alley,
A. W. Hayford, and H. F. Scott, Jr. Corrosion, v. 17, No. 10, October
1961, pp. 479t-484t. (Fe61-6)
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1958
1. Relation Between Actual and Artificial Weathering of Organic Materials.
F. M. Reinhart. Symposium of Some Approaches to Durability in Struc-
tures, American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 236, 1958,
pp. 57-66.
Laboratory tests can be controlled fairly well. However, outdoor
exposure tests are at the mercy of the weather. The temperature, rela-
tive humidity, sunshine, and rain vary not only from one geographical
location to another but also at the same location from month to month and
from year to year. These variations are of sufficient magnitude so that
actual outdoor exposure tests made in one particular year and in only one
or two localities cannot be considered as a standard for rating the
performance of laboratory simulated (artificial) weathering tests.
Outdoor exposure tests intended for evaluating the reliability of
artificial weathering tests should be made over several years in several
local it ies.
1956
I. Weathering of Plastics. J. J. Gouza and V. F. Bartoe. Modern Plastics,
v. 33, No. 9, May 1956, pp. 157-158, 160, 162, 244-245.
The procedures for studying surface deterioration, crazing, and cree
deformation of plastics subjected to stress during outdoor exposure are
discussed. Considered are critical creep strain, threshold crazing
stress, permanent set, and predicted service life. The data show the
possibility of failure of test results obtained in laboratory atmospheres
to predict outdoor service characteristics.
1954
1. Deterioration of Materials - Causes and Preventive Techniques.
G. A. Greathouse, and C. J. Wessel. Reinhold Publishing, New York, N.Y.
1954, 835 pp. (0M54-1)
2. Three Years' Outdoor Weather Aging of Plastics Under Various CIimatologi-
cal Conditions. S. E. Yustein, R. R. Winans and H. J. Stark. ASTM Bui
letin No. 196, 1954, pp. 29-38.
The effects of outdoor weather aging under widely different climates
are investigated for various types of plastic materials. Five climatolog
ical regions are represented in the program which provides for outdoor
exposures on sites located in (1) Panama Canal Zone (tropical); (2) New
Mexico (dry desert); (3) New York (temperate); (4) Fort Churchill, Canada
(subarctic); and (5) Point Barrow, Alaska (arctic). The materials inves-
tigated include five types of clear transparent sheet plastics, six types
of laminated materials, and five types of molded terminal bars. Various
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exposure periods from 1 to 36 months were employed, and various
mechanical, electrical, and optical properties were evaluated. On the
basis of the extensive data accumulated, it is possible to deduce the
occurrence of a wide variety of effects that appear to be related to
differences in the climatic and environmental conditions and in the
exposure periods.
1951
Deterioration of Organic Polymers. B. S. Biggs. Bell System Tech. J.,
v. 30, 1951, pp. 1078-1101; Bell Telephone System Tech. Pubs., Monograph
No. 1913, 1951, 25 pp. (E51-3)
1950
1. The Influence of Ozone on Paint Vehicles and Some Macromolecular Products.
F. J. lifermann, H. W. Talen, and G. J. Scheffer. Central Inst.
Materiaal Onderzoek Afdel. Verf, Circ. No. 68, 1950, 25 pp. (E50-1)
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OTHER NONMETALS
1981
1. Organic Matrix Structural Composites: Quality Assurance and
Reproducibility. Committee on Characterization of Organic Matrix
Composites. Report No. NMAB-365 National Materials Advisory Board,
1981, 156 pp. (P8-1)
1980
1. A Review of Air Pollutant Damage to Materials. J. E. Yocum and
A. R. Stankunas. Draft Report to Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, December
1980, 92 pp. (Fe80-2)
2. Background and Principles of Long-Term Performance of Building Materials.
S. E. Pihlajavaara. Durability of Building Materials and Components,
ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 5-16. (Fe80-4)
3. Corrosion of Metal in Wood Products. A. J. Baker. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and
G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980,
pp. 981-993. (Fe80-7)
4. Critical Review of the Available Physico-Chemical Material Damage
Functions of Air Pollution. M. Benarie. Report No. EUR-6643,
Commission on the European Communities, 1980, 97 pp. (Fe80-8)
5. Design Determines Durability. G. K. Garden. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and
G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980,
pp. 31-37. (MSC80-8)
6. Durability of Materials and Construction. J. H. Keyser. Durability of
Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda
and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980,
pp. 38-55. (Fe80-9)
7. Durability of Some Common Building Materials. W. H. Gutt and
L. H. Everett. Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM
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ONM-2
STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 131-144. (Fe80-10)
8. Durability of Structural Particleboard Evaluated by Repetitive Loading
Tests. M. Okuma, T. H. Lin, and S. Onuki. Durability of Building
Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and
G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980,
pp. 935-945.
A new test method was developed to evaluate the durability of
partic1eboard - a repetitive bending test on air dried and wetted
specimen. The durability of three types of particleboard (phenolic, urea-
melamin and urea resin bonded board) was discussed by (a) number of the
mechanical cycles until failure, (b) increase in deflection with cycles,
and (c) residual strength at various stages of mechanical cycles.
It was recognized that the effect of moisture was most critical for
urea and urea-melamin board. The superiority of phenolic board came in
evidence by this repetitive loading test. From the results of this
fatigue test, it also was attempted to derive "degradation coefficient"
for allowable stress of particleboard.
9. Effect of Accelerated Aging on Tensile Perpendicular-to-Glueline Strength
of Glue-Laminated Beams. M. D. Sandoe, F. J. Keenan, F. C. Beall and
S. P. Fox. Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP
691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 924-934.
Several glued-1aminated beams of both conventional and "hot-press"
manufacture were removed from service and exposed to several cycles of
alternating high (85 percent) and low (35 percent) relative humidities at
50#C in an attempt to predict long-term durability of the gluebonds.
Residual glueline strength, as measured by a flexural specimen loaded to
induce tensile stress perpendicular to the glueline, was more variable and
significantly lower for hot-press material. Residual strength of
hot-press gluebonds varied with longitudinal position in the beam, with
minimum strengths found in the region where maximum bending under
in-service loads occurred. The tension perpendicular-to-glueline flexure
specimen is suggested as a more sensitive indicator of gluebond integrity
than the standard shear-block specimen.
10. Effects of a Cold Dip Treatment on Natural Durability of Wood-Base
Building Materials Against Decay and Dimensional Change. R. Chow and
J. W. Gerdemann. Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM
STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 959-971.
A standard ASTM method was used for evaluation of decay resistance
and dimensional durability on 13 commercial wood-base building materials.
Both treated and untreated specimens were exposed in decay chambers to
Lenzites trabea and Poria monticola for 16 weeks. The results of the
average decay resistance of untreated specimens indicate the importance of
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ONM-3
wood species and board composition rather than board type. All treated
specimens exhibited excellent decay resistance and dimensional stability.
However, the preservative treatment failed to retard the thickness
swelling of particleboards. Phenol-formaldehyde bonded particleboards
were dimensiona1ly stabler than urea-bonded particleboards in the decay
chamber. Due to the inherent absorbability, specimens of fiberboards,
particle boards, and plywoods appear to be more suitable for cold-dip
treatment than those of lumber to protect from decay. However the decay
resistance, dimensional changes, and absorption of solution all depend on
the wood species, fiber structure, adhesives, panel construction, and
specific gravity that made up the wood-base materials.
11. Precision of Rate Process Method for Predicting Durability of Adhesive
Bonds. M. A. Millett, R. H. Gillespie and A. J. Baker. Durability of
Building Materials and Components, ASTM STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda
and G. G. Litvan, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1930,
pp. 913-923.
The influence of such experimental variables as time, temperature,
adhesive type, specimen heterogeneity, and mositure conditions on life-
expectancy forecasts was explored under two environmental moisture
extremes-dry and water-soaked. The data indicated that there could be a
rather broad error band associated with these projections. Use of the
lower 95 percent confidence limits, however, provides a positive means for
estimating minimum bondline durabilities. With proper attention to
experiment design, the rate-process method can provide durability fore-
casts will within the needs of most applications. Maximum sensitivity is
attained under wet aging conditions.
12. Prelaid Particleboard Flooring in New Zealand. J. I. Fry and
R. S. Whitney. Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM
STP 691, edited by P. J. Sereda and G. G. Litvan, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1980, pp. 946-958.
The prelaying of urea formaldehyde particleboard floors, as a working
platform before the erection of the walls, has been practiced in New
Zealand for the past 12 years. Approximately 80 percent of all new houses
are constructed in his manner. Little is published about the extent of
deterioration of particleboard that occurs during the exposure to the
weather before houses are closed in. This paper reports the results of
changes in physical and mechanical properties of particleboard exposed to
the weather for periods of up to 6 months. The changes were measured both
before and after the particleboard had been sanded back to a clean
surface. After 3 months weathering and subsequent sanding, the
particleboard tested met standard criteria for bending strength. Lack of
a suitable surface for clear finishing may determine the amount of
weathering the flooring can be subjected to before the houses are closed
in.
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1979
1. A Study of the Weathering Behavior of Medieval Glass From York Minster.
G. A. Cox, 0. S. Heavens, R. G. Newton, and A. M. Pollard. Journal of
Glass Studies, v. 21, 1979, pp. 54-75.
Two hundred glass specimens were analyzed by X-ray fluorescence.
Surface corrosion is slight in those samples containing over 60 mol
percent silica. Crusting and pitting in various degrees is evident when
the silica content is less. Those containing over 6 mol percent magnesia
are greatly deteriorated.
2. Fundamentals of Glass Weathering Problems. L. L. Hench and D. E. Clark.
Reliability of Materials for Solar Energy: Workshop Proceedings, C0NF-
781228, v. 2, Pt. 2, October 1979, pp. 251-265.
The primary emphasis of this study is on weathering of high
durability glass compositions. Some composition-dependent results are
presented that should be generally applicable to understanding and
preventing deterioration of specialty and historical glasses. The
experiments described show that the mechanism of weathering is a
near-surface process and is strongly influenced by glass composition,
percent relative humidity, temperature,.surface treatments, geometric
effects such as orientation and distance of separation of glass surfaces,
and affinity of the glass surface for water.
3. Use of Building Surfaces in the Passive Abatement of Gaseous Air
Pollutants. H. S. Judeikis. Journal of Architectural Research, v. 7,
No. 1, March 1979, pp. 28-33. (Fe79-10)
1978
1. Deteriorative Effect of Sulfur Pollution on Materials. J. 0. Nriagu.
Chapt. 1 in Sulfur in the Environment, Part ll: Ecological Impacts,
edited bv J. 0. Nriagu, Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1978, pp. 1-59. (Fe78-
11)
2. Effects of Oxygen-Containing Sulfur Compounds on Organic Materials.
H. Ross. VDI-Ber., v. 314, 1978, pp. 109-118 (German).
The detrimental effects of atmospheric sulfur dioxide on textiles,
plastics, wood and leather are reviewed.
3. Effects of Weathering on Impregnated Charcoal Performance. Research
Annual Report, October 1, 1976^September 30, 1977, edited by V. R.
Deitz, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C., NTIS Report
PB-278536, February 1978, 68 pp.
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ONM-5
The use of activated and impregnated charcoals by the nuclear
industry for periods of 2 to 3 years without regeneration is an adsorbent
application with new and undefined maintenance problems. These relate to
the effect of atmospheric contaminants on the useful life of the charcoal.
There is a need for the nuclear industry to know which air pollutants
degrade the efficiency of charcoals and the long-range influence of these
pollutants. Commercial activated charcoals have been exposed to known
contaminants under controlled laboratory conditions and also to large
volumes of outdoor air; each sample was then evaluated for methyl iodide
penetration. The laboratory air mixtures studied were water vapor, water
vapor and sulfur dioxide, water vapor and ozone, and water vapor and
carbon monoxide. The charcoal in each of the four 0.5-inch layers making
up the two-inch test bed was degraded by the contaminants, but the first
layer was influenced most. The cumulative effect during 1, 2, and 3
months of weathering the same charcoal with out-door air led to a
progressive increase in methyl iodide penetration.
4. The 12th Century Stained Glass. I. W. Thompson. Environment, v. 20,
No. 3, April 1978, p. 24.
The 18th century stained glass of Canterbury Cathedral in London is
being steadily eroded by acids in polluted air. According to
I. W. Thompson, the dean of Canterbury, as reported in the Washington Post
(2/3/79), "The deterioration of much of the early glass is far advanced
and it will take all the resources of scientific skill and equipment to
save it." A glass workshop has been set up inside the cathedral area to
store and treat the most endangered glass.
1977
1. Chartres: Through a Glass Darkly. Time, January 31, 1977, pp. 54-55.
The stained-glass windows of the Chartres Cathedral, having been
submitted to natural damage for years were restored in 1976 and given a
protective coating of Viacryl resin. This has caused an avalanche of
protests because the resin has destroyed the optical effect of the glass;
moreover, a physicist claims that the resin renders the glass twice as
susceptible to renewed corrosion and he has done tests which suggest that
the resin is not impermeable to molecules of water and sulfur dioxide.
The restorers have replied that Viacryl was perfectly safe and so the
restoration project will continue.
2. Deterioration in Leather Bookbindings—Our Present State of Knowledge.
B. M. Haines. British Library Journal, v. 3, No. 1, Spring 1977,
pp. 59-70.
This investigation was prompted by the realization (made as early as
t850) that old leather bookbindings deteriorate less quickly than new
bindings. The author compares the pre-1850 binding techniques with those
used after 1850, from the tanning process to the dangers of air pollution.
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ONM-6
The mechanism of decay is discussed, and the effects of sulfur dioxide,
acid conditions, and oxidation considered.
3. Effects of the Environment. G. Thomson. Conservation in Australia, 1977,
pp. 46-53. (OM77-2)
4. Effects of Sulfur Dioxide on Materials. S. K. Gajendragadkar. Chem. Age
India, v. 28, No. 8, August 1977, pp. 673-677. (Fe77-5)
5. Effects on Economic Materials and Structures. J. E. Yocum and
J. B. Upham. Chapt. 2 in Air Pollution, edited by A. C. Stern, Academic
Press, New York, N.Y., v. 2, 1977, pp. 65-116. (Fe77-6)
6. Nitrogen Oxides. National Research Council Staff Environmental Effects
Research Series, Contract EPA-68-02-1226, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., February 1977, 503 pp. (OM77-6)
7. Pollution and the Deterioration of Matertials. S. H. H. Chaston.
Conservation in Australia, 1977, pp. 54-59. (OM77-7)
8. Rapid Weathering of Wood and Paintings Under the Additional Influence of
Sulfur Dioxide. A. Uwe and G. Uwe. Staub Reinhalt Luft, v. 37, No. 2,
February 1977, pp. 53-55 (German). (Pa77-3)
9. Relation Between Mass Wear of Organic Protective Coatings and
Meteorological Data. W. D. Kaiser. Korrosion (Dresden), v. 8, No. 1,
1977, pp. 3-15 (German). (Pa77-4)
10. Sorption of Sulfur Dioxide by Typical Indoor Surfaces Including Wool
Carpets, Wallpaper, and Paint. M. Walsh, A. Black, A. Morgan, and
G. H. Crawshaw, Atmos, Environ., v. 11, No. 11, 1977, pp. 1107-1111.
(Pa77-5)
1976
1. Air Pollution and Aspects of Polymer Degradation. I. Cook. ICCM
Bulletin, v. 2, No. 4, December 1976, pp. 4-20. (E76-1)
2. Air Pollutants and Possible Effects on Artistic and Archaeological
Materials. F. Guidobaldi. Conservazione dei Monumenti, 1976, pp. 14-48
(Italian). (OM76-2)
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3. Air Pollution Damage Functions. A. Hershaft. Environmental Science and
Technology, v. 10, No. 10, October 1976, pp. 992-995. (Zn76-1)
4. An Improved Method for Vacuum Consolidation of Decayed Stone Sculpture.
K. F. B. Hampel. 2nd International Symposium on the Deterioration of
Building Stone, Athens, 1976, pp. 163-166.
The author discusses impregnation of stone sculpture with a "silane
monomer," apparently Rhone-Poulenc X54-802. Eight centimeters is reported
to be the maximum depth of penetration achieved by brush application, but
with the use of the Balvac vacuum process it is reported to be 15-30
centimeters for marble and 2.5 centimeters for dense limestone. The
control of polymerization afforded by isolation from atmospheric humidity
is said to eliminate shiny surface patches. Use of the undiluted product
is possible. As a result, it is said that longer time before
polymerization affects greater absorption and that excess resin can be re-
used, making the process economical. The new method is illustrated with
photographs of the treatment of a Veronese limestone sculpture (14th
century). A modification of the process is described for use on very weak
stone.
5. Colorfastness to Light and Atmospheric Contaminants. J. E. Hemphill,
J. E. Norton, 0. A. Ofjord and R. L. Stone. Text. Chem. Color., v. 8,
No. 4, 1976, pp. 60-62. (F76-2)
6. Composition and Weathering of Ancient Stained Glass Windows.
J. M. Bettembourg. Verres Refract., v. 30, No. 1, 1976, pp. 36-42
(French).
Stained glass windows from the Middle Ages were studied with respect
to composition in relation to atmospheric weathering.
7. Conservation Of Monuments. Proceedings of the 2nd Session of the 29th
National Congress of the Assoc. Termotecnica Italiana, Florence
(September 25-27, 1974), Antonio Barbieri, Viale Premuda 2, Milano,
1976, 252 pp. (Italian). (OM76-4)
8. Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on Materials: A Chamber Study.
F. H. Haynie, J. W. Spence, and J. B. Upham. NTIS Report PB-251580,
1976, 98 pp. (Fe76-5)
9. Effects of Power Plant Emissions on Materials. J. E. Yocom and
N. Grappone. Research Corporation of New England, Wethersfield,
Connecticut, NTIS Report PB-257539, July 1976, 85 pp. (Fe76-6)
10. Further Progress in German Stone Conservation. J. Riederer. Chapter in
The Conservation of Stone 1, edited by R. Rossi-Manaresi, 1976,
pp. 369-374.
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In this report for the years 1972-1975, the use of "ethyl silicates"
for stone consolidation is said to have increased to 38% of all treatments
(193 total) in Germany, accompanied by a decrease in the use of soluble
silicates and synthetic polymers. "Ethyl silicate" is said to penetrate
"ordinary" sandstone about 4 centimeters.
11. Laboratory Measurement of Sulfur Dioxide Deposition Velocities on Selected
Building Materials and Soils. H. S. Judeikis and T. B. Stewart. Atmos.
Environ., v. 10, No. 9, 1976, pp. 769-776. (MSC76-29)
12. Manufacturing and Environmental Factors Affecting the Permanence of Paper.
A. J. Watson. Archives and Manuscripts, v. 6, No. 7, August 1976,
pp. 285-291.
A general article covers the major aspects of the composition of
papers, modern paper manufacture, environmental factors affecting the
permanence of paper (light, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pollutants
and handling), the testing of papers, and major works in the literature of
paper testing.
13. Measurement of the Effects of Air Pollution on Paper Documents.
W. H. Langwell. J. of the Society of Archivists, v. 5, No. 6,
October 1976, pp. 372-373.
The process of paper deterioration caused by sulfur dioxide is
reviewed and a description is given of a simple test using strips of
filter paper impregnated with dark brown colloidal manganese dioxide which
become bleached in the presence of atmospheric sulfur dioxide. The rate
of bleaching is proportional to the amount of sulfur dioxide to which the
strips are exposed.
14. Measurements of Air Pollution Effects on Lumber in the Framework of an
Effects-Monitoring System for the Ruhr Area. U. Arndt and U. Gross.
Staub - Reinhalt. Luft, v. 36, No. 10, October 1976, pp. 405-410
(German).
Unprotected lumber samples were exposed at 42 sites in the western
Ruhr area in the period May-November 1972, and at 37 sites in the eastern
Ruhr area a year later. The weight loss per gram of original weight and
changes in reflection and color of the wood were chosen as effects
criteria. After six months of exposure, all wood pieces showed remarkable
changes which could be traced to air pollution effects. The main effect
was by sedimenting dust which changed the "normal" weight loss and the
color, and thus the aesthetic value of the wood. The influence of the
dust was so strong that any effects of gaseous pollutants, such as sulfur
dioxide, were not detectable. Thus the question of the effects of sulfur
dioxide, in concentrations found in polluted areas, remains open.
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15. Microprobe Investigations on the Incrusted as Well as Cleaned Marble
Specimens. E. Hoke. Proc. 2nd International Symposium on the
Deterioration of Building Stones, Athens, 1976, pp. 119-126. (MSC76-30)
16. Outdoor Weathering: Its Objectives and Limits. F. Rosendahl. Proc. 13th
FATIPEC Congress, Cannes, France, 1976, pp. 563-567 (German). (OM76-
13)
17. Protection Against Atmospheric Corrosion. K. Barton. Translated by
J. R. Duncan. J. Wiley, New York, N.Y., 1976, 194 pp. (Fe76-14)
18. Protection by Cleaning and Conservation. J. Riederer. Das
Gebaudere in iger-Iiandwerk, No. 2, 1976, pp. 14-15 (German). (OM76-18)
19. Protection of Stained-Glass Windows Against Atmospheric Agents.
J. M. Bettembourg. Verres Refract., v. 30, No. 1, 1976, pp. 87-91
(French).
Epoxy and polyurethane resins for the protection of ancient stained-
glass windows were assessed. The glass was washed with Na£EDTA and NaHCO^
and then thin films of Viacryl VC 363 plus Desmodur N75, Neocolle DE 874,
or Araldite AY epoxy 103 plus HY 956 were applied; atmospheric weathering
agents included ultra-violet light and S02. Weathering caused a yellowing
and diminished transparency of glass coated with Neocolle, but had no
effect on Viacryl plus Desmodur-coated glass. Weathering diminished the
adherence of Araldite to the glass.
20. Reations of Lignin and Lignin Model Compounds With Ozone. K. Kratzl,
P. Claus, and G. Reichel. TAPPI, v. 59, No. 11, November 1976,
pp. 86-87.
An investigation was made of the reactions resulting from treatment
of Kraft lignin and lignin model compounds with ozone. Ozonolysis of
aromatic compounds usually results in ring opening and formation of
carboxyl groups. While destruction of lignin chromophores occurs during
oxidation, because of the specificity of the reaction of lignin with
ozone, the conclusion is drawn that less damage occurs to the lignin
macrostructure during ozonolysis than during oxygen bleaching processes.
21. Scanning Electron Microscope Studies on the Corrosion of Medieval and
Roman Glasses. G. Nauer, E. Kny, and H. Sorantin. Ber. Oesterr.
Studienges. Atomenerg., SGAE BER No. 2646, 1976, 17 pp. (German).
The composition and distribution of elements were investigated for
ancient and medieval sodium and potassium glasses. Correlations between
corrosion and distribution of trace elements were indicated by X-ray
spectra. For all glasses, calcium and potassium content decreased in the
corrosion layer as iron and manganese increased. These studies are also
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ONM-IO
useful in the restoration and conservation of old glass, such as stained
glass windows.
22. The Conservation of Tandu. D. J. Vandyke-Lee. Studies in Conservation,
v. 21, No. 2, 1976, pp. 74-78.
Collections of ethnographical leatherwork from West Africa contain
many different utility objects. There is one group which is not strictly
leather and is made from the stomach membrane of camels and parts of cow
skin. These articles made by the Hausa people of Northern Nigeria are
know as "Tandu". Vessels are made by molding the wet membrane around a
shaped, air-dried clay mold. On drying, the clay is removed to leave a
strong but light utility vessel or container. There are many reasons for
the deterioration of the Tandu vessels; these include damage by mold or
fungi due to unsuitable temperatures and relative humidities, ultra-violet
light and strong illumination that produce fading and eventual break-down
of the protein, insect attack, and air pollution. Remedies for these
problems are suggested, together with the practical treatment in a
laboratory.
23. The Effect of Corrosion on the Decomposition Rate of Glass from the Middle
Ages. J. C. Ferrazzini. Verres Refract., v. 30, No. 1, 1976, pp. 26-29
(French).
The effect of corrosion on the speed of decomposition of blue stained
glass from the 14th century A.D. was discussed.
24. The Treatment of Deteriorating Stone with Synthetic Resins. A. Monclief.
Proc. 2nd International Symposium on the Deterioration of Building
Stone, Athens, 1976, pp. 167-169.
Satisfactory results of exposure testing of X54-802 (Rhone-Poulenc)
and other alkoxysilanes are reported. An interesting test method used on
deteriorated Portland limestone at St. Paul's Cathedral is only described
in this article: line grids were inscribed to a depth of 1 mm on a
horizontal and vertical surface of each stone; after three years the grids
on the horizontal surfaces of the controls were totally obliterated and
nearly obliterated on the vertical surfaces, while the impregnated samples
remained unchanged. The author notes that an insufficient percentage of
solids seems to be a problem for most "silicon ester" consolidants
other than the X54-802; hence, they are said to be ineffective on very
deteriorated stone. This is attributed to the fact that they do not cure
fast enough to yield a good concentration in the stone, much of the
consolidant being lost through evaporation. Strengthener H (Wacker) is
said to produce good results on very deteriorated marble, but only after
time-consuming application.
For filling X54-802-consolidated stone, the author rules out the use
of other synthetic resins as binders, because they display poor adhesion
to (or weather differently from) the consolidated stone. In the case of
Carrara marble, Doulting stone, and red Verona, the author reports that
the filler is too flat or dark when the original stone is ground for use
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ONM-11
as the aggregate. It is suggested that flatness may be ameliorated by the
use of large particles of white glass or quartz; success is reported with
hand grinding quartz, avoiding the use of steel mills which may contribute
undesirable iron particles. Putties made with X54-802 are said to be
difficult to use because the material must be allowed to partially cure to
achieve a usable (higher) viscosity, and the working time is short.
Furthermore, when silica is mixed with"X54-802, the fills are said to be
very hard and difficult to rub down, especially after complete
polymerization. Curing problems are noted with the use of very finely
ground aggregates. Bubbles formed during mixing are said to cause
problems after weathering because the voids tend to trap dirt and water.
To avoid this, use of a range of aggregate sizes for tight packing is
suggested, or application of the fills prior to consolidation of the
stone, so that the voids are filled during consolidation. The author
mentions promising experimentation with a commercial substance (unnamed),
consisting of solid silicone dissolved in "silane" to produce a liquid of
medium viscosity, and with a water-repellent used for stone.
Air Pollution and Possible Effects on Archaeological Objects Buried in the
Ground. B. Ottar and S. E. Haagenrud. Conservation in Archaeology and
the Applied Arts, IIC, Stockholm Congress, 1975, pp. 199-206. (OM75-1)
Analysis of Weathered Glass From York Minster. R. G. Newton and
R. E. M. Hedges. Archaeometry, v. 16, Pt. 2, 1975, pp. 244-245.
Analysis was made of the cleaned surface of eight pieces of glass
from a late twelfth-century panel from York Minster. Samples were also
taken from one piece of green glass and one piece of pink glass for wet
chemical analysis. Differences in the resistance to weathering of the
pink and green glasses were attributed to variations in the proportions of
potassium and calcium.
Conservation—The Regional Climatic and Natural Conditions.
0. P. Agrawal. Museum, v. 27, No. 4, 1975, pp. 161-165. (OM75-3)
Environmental Exposure System for Studying Air Pollution Damage to
Materials. J.W. Spence, F.D. Stumps, F.H. Haynie and J.B. Upham. NTIS
Report PB240615/5ST, January 1975, 46 pp. (Fe75-ll)
Environmental Protection of Books and Related Materials. Second
Preservation Leaflet, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., 1975, 4 pp.
This leaflet is an outline/summary of environmental causes, and
prevention, of deterioration in paper. There are paragraphs on
temperature and humidity, mold, atmospheric pollutants, light, insects and
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ONM-12
rodents. An appendix lists sources of hygrothermographs and
thermohygrometers, and acid-free mounting and matting board.
6. Keeping a Cathedral Alive. K. Spence. Country Life, v. 158, No. 4070,
July 3, 1975, pp. 6-8.
This article describes the restoration work being done in the walls
and windows of Canterbury Cathedral. The Caen stone walls, consisting of
two stone skins with a filling of rubble in between, have been adversely
affected by weathering on the outside—rain, frost, and. fumes—and by the
heating system and the effluvia of thousands of visitors, on the inside.
The stonework is being cleaned and,* where necessary, replaced with Lepine
stone. The stained glass windows have also been affected by the
environment. The restoration process includes removing the windows and
transporting them in 2 by 4 foot panels to a studio. Here the lead is
removed, melted down, and extruded. Each piece of glass is cleaned first
by ultrasonics for 6 minutes in a bath of ammonia and water, by which the
worst encrustations are removed. Using an airbrasive and glass beads, the
scale is cleaned out of the surface pits in the glass. Finally, the glass
is acid polished to complete the cleaning process and bring out the color.
Broken pieces of glass are stuck together with epoxy resin. Any piece of
glass that is in too bad a condition is backed with a new piece of glass
which is molded to it. Any inpainting that has to be done is done on the
backing glass.
7. Medieval Stained Glass. Corrosion-Conservation-Restoration.
E. Frobl-Kraft. Conservation in Archaeology and the Applied Arts,
Stockholm Congress, Part lie, 1975, pp. 105-110.
The chemistry of weathering and^ corrosion of stained glass is
considered. Protective methods are compared and methods of repair are
discussed.
8. Medieval Stained Glass Painting. Report on the 9th Colloquium of Corpus
Vitrearum in Paris. E. Frodl-Kraft. Oesterr. Zeitschrift fur Kunst und
Denkmalpflege, v. 29, No. 3-4, 1975, pp. 154-158 (German).
Administrative problems of the International Corpus Vitrearum are
discussed. The conservation methods, especially with the epoxy resin
Viacryl, are reviewed in connection with the present condition of the
famous glass windows of Chartres Cathedral.
9. Reaction Mechanism of Corrosion of Medieval Glass. J. C. Ferrazzini.
Conservation in Archaeology and the Applied Arts, Stockholm Congress,
Part lie, 1975, p. 135.
Variations from manufacturing methods are discussed, as are other
factors which make a glass susceptible to corrosion. The actual
mechanisms of corrosion are then considered.
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ONM-13
10. Sulfates and the Environment-A Review. R. S. Greeley, R. P. Ouellette, J.
T. Stone arid S. Wilcox. Mitre Corporation, McLean, Virginia, Report
No. MTR-6895, March 1975, 155 pp. (OM75-8)
11. Sulfur Dioxide and Material Damage. D.G. Gillette. J. Air Pollut.
Control Assoc., v. 25, No. 12, December 1975, pp. 1238-1243. (Fe 75-17)
12. The Weathering of Medieval Window Glass. R. G. Newton. J. of Glass
Studies, v. 17, 1975, pp. 161-168.
Chemical analyses of glass fragments found together in a single
burial deposit showed that durability is enhanced by a sufficiently high
silica content and an optimum total proportion of lime and magnesia. A
simulated medieval glass of poor durability was prepared and subjected to
various kinds of exposure. Atmospheres of various kinds are less
destructive than burial in the ground. Contrary to the opinion of many,
atmospheric sulfur dioxide is not an important cause of the deterioration
of medieval stained glass windows.
1974
1. Cathedral Chemistry: Conserving the Stained Glass. R. G. Newton.
Chemistry in Britain, v. 10, No. 3, March 1974, pp. 89-91.
Early medieval glass in Britain, expecially that at Canterbury and at
York, is a potash glass which is high in alkali (18 per cent) and lime (20
per cent). This type of glass deteriorates in a moist atmosphere because
it has a relatively low silica content (55 per cent or less by weight) and
too much lime. Not only is it hydrolysed by moisture but the
decomposition products form opaque crusts. Thus, the way to reduce
deterioration is to wash the windows regularly, thereby removing the
alkali carbonates, or to exclude water completely.
Our understanding of the way glass has deteriorated through the
centuries is growing, but so far the only methods for halting the damage
are (i) the laminating procedure, as used at Cologne Cathedral and (ii)
the isothermal glazing system, which is known to be satisfactory when used
in heated buildings. But much more research is needed before proper
advice can be given to those who have the task of looking after these
ancient glass treasures.
2. Design of a Laboratory Experiment to Identify the Effects of Environmental
Pollutants on Materials. J. W. Spence and F. H. Haynie. Corrosion in
Natural Environments, ASTM STP 558, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1974, pp. 279-291. (Fe74-10)
3. Environment and Quality of Life. Literature Study on the Economic
Consequences of the Damages and Annoyances Both in Materials and
Vegetation and in Men and Animals Caused by Sulfur Dioxide Air
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Pollution. E. Lahmann. Commission of the Europen Communities,
Luxemborg, September 1974, 150 pp. (German). (Fe74-16)
4. Long-Term Air Pollution Effects on Unprotected Lumber. U. Arndt and
U. Gross. Staub-ReinhaIt. Luft, v. 34, No. 6, June 1974, pp. 225-227
(German).
Long-term air pollution effects on unprotected lumber were studied
over a one-year period in four different locations in the North Rhine-
Westphalia region. Four types of wood samples were examined after an
exposure of one year for weight and color modifications as well as for
accumulations of pollutant elements such as sulfur and lead. Pollutant
fallout rates were measured over a forty-day period for dust, sulfur
dioxide, and fluorine. The exposure changed the color, luster, and weight
of the wood samples, which greatly lowered their aesthetic value, but the
technical and physical properties were not changed so strongly.
5. Petroleum and the Environment, Rome - EUR (April 11-14). Poligrafico
Artioli Editore, Modena, Italy, 1974. (OM74-10)
6. Problems Arising from the Weathering of Poorly-Durable Glasses.
R. G. Newton. 10th Intern. Congress Glass, Ceramic Soc. Japan, Tokyo,
Japan, v. 9, 1974, pp. 49-54.**
Protective methods for the poorly durable glass in medieval windows
from weathering were given. Resin coatings like Vycoat ACA 60, Acrylek,
Bedacryl 122X, Bedacryl 123 AH, and SC28 were found unsatisfactory for
long-term protection of poorly durable glass.
7. Remarks on Forms of Corrosion and Conservation Work on Medieval
Stained-Glass Paintings. E. Frodl-Kraft. Oesterr. Zeitschrift fur
Kunst und Denkmalpflege, v. 28, No. 4, 1974, pp. 200-209 (German).
The corrosion of a stained glass window at Kremsmunster, Upper-
Austria, could be documented in situ within the last 30 years. The
appearance of the painting was destroyed by air pollution. Documentation
is given for the last 10 years of alteration of other important stained-
glass windows of medieval origin in Austria (Judenburg, St. Walpurgis,
Kreuzenstein) and the results of protection by a double window are shown.
8. The Deterioration and Conservation of Painted Glass: A Critical
Bibliography and Three Research Papers. R. G. Newton. Oxford
University Press, New York, 1974, 93 pp.
The contents include: bibliography, recovery of lost or faded
decoration on painted glass; a study on cleaning painted and enamelled
glass in an ultrasonic bath; and use of the "isoprobe" for studying the
chemical composition of some 12th-century glass form York Minster. A
fairly comprehensive coverage of the most important papers in the
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ONM-15
literature concerned with the conservation of painted glass is given. The
detailed introduction is in itself and overview of the subject.
9. The Economic Damages of Air Pollution, T. E. Waddell. NTIS Report
PB-235701, 1974, 156 pp. (Fe74-21)
10. The Environment and Collections. G. W. Rogers. Canadian Conservation
Institute Newsletter, No. 4, August 1974, pp. 5-6. (OM74-15)
11. The Environment and Collections (Part 2). G. W. Rogers. Canadian
Conservation Institute Newsletter, No. 5, November 1974, pp. 2-3.
(OM74-16)
1973
Bibiography of Studies on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stained
Glass. R. G. Newton. Art Arch. Tech. Abst., v. 10, No. 2, 1973, pp.
132-178.
This bibliography attempts to cover most of the important papers in
the literature which have a bearing on the conservation of painted glass.
Subjects covered include the deterioVation of painted glass, cleaning of
painted glass, restoration, consolidation and chemical analyses of
medieval glasses.
Concentrations, Decay Rates, and Removal of Ozone and Their Relation to
Establishing Clean Indoor Air. R. H. Sabersky, D. A. Sinema, and
F. H. Shair. Environ. Sci. Technol., v. 7, No. 4, 1973, pp. 347-353.
(OM73-2)
3. Investigation of Damages (On Cultural Properties) Caused by Air Pollution,
T. Kadokura. Science for Conservation, No. 11, 1973, pp. 69-85
(Japanese). (OM73-5)
4. Recent Evidence of Decomposition of Stained Glass of the Middle Ages.
G. Frenzel. Proc. 3rd Int. Union Air Pollut. Prev. Assoc.-VDI-Koram.
Reinhaltung Luft Int. Clean Air Congr. (Duesseldorf, October 8-12,
1973), 1973, pp. A82-A85 (German).
The' processes by which carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and sulfuric
acid have accelerated the weathering of these stained glass windows are
discussed, including the effect of glass composition.
5. The Damaging Effects of Air Pollution on Works of Art. J. Riederer.
Proc. 3rd Intern. Union Air Pollut. Prev. Assoc .-VDI-Kotran.
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ReinhaLtung Luft Int. Clean Air Congr. (Duesseldorf, October 8-12,
1973), 1973, pp. A86-A89 (German). (Cu73-3)
1972
1. Deterioration of Library Materials. C. J. Wessel. Encyclopedia of
Library and Information Science, Marcel Dekker, New York, v. 7, 1972,
pp. 69-120.
Historical and economic factors in the increasing rate of
deterioration of library materials are discussed, along with some proposed
national plans for controlling deterioration. Permanence and durability
are defined, and fundamental mechanisms of the deterioration of materials
are presented. Environmental factors, including pollutants, temperature
and humidity, light and biological agents are discussed, along with the
interrelationships of these factors. The role of inherent instability in
book and photographic materials is emphasized. Finally, environmental
parameters for minimizing deterioration, taken from the literature, are
recommended.
2. Sorption of Sulfur Dioxide by Indoor Surfaces—IV. Flooring Materials.
D. J. Spedding. J. Appl. Chem. Biotechnol., v. 22, No. 1, 1972, pp. 1-
8.
The sorption of S02 by a number of carpet and solid flooring material
samples was investigated at a concentration of 50 to 60 yg/m3 using 3->S-
labeled S02. The amount of S02 sorbed by the samples varied little with
their chemical composition and was of such a magnitude as to suggest a low
affinity of the surfaces for S02. The sorption of S02 by artificial fiber
carpet pile was shown to be significantly reduced by the application of
dyes.
1971
1. A Climate Index for Estimating Potential for Decay in Wood Structures
Above Ground. T. C. Scheffer. Forest Products Journal, v. 21, No. 10,
October 1971, pp. 25-31.
Decay of wood is considerably affected by climatic conditions, hence
the relative needs in different climates of protective measures for wood
may vary considerably. To estimate these needs a quantitative measure of
the relative potential of a climate to promote decay of above-ground wood
structures exposed to the weather was developed.
2. Air Quality Criteria for Nitrogen Oxides. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C., Air Pollution Control Office, Report
NAPCA-Pub-Ap-84, January 1971, 181 pp. (OM71-3)
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3. Deterioration of Electrical Equipment in Adverse Environments.
M. Rychtera. Daniel Davay & Co., Inc., 946 Asylum Avenue, Hartford,
Conn., January 1971, 190 pp. (OM71-7)
4. How Materials Stand Up to Corrosion and Chemical Attack. R. J. Fabian,
J. A. Vaccari. Mater. Eng., v. 73, No. 2, 1971, pp. 36-59. (OM71-8)
5. Role of Sulfur Dioxide in Atmospheric Corrosion. D. J. Spedding. Chem.
Ind. N.Z., v. 6, 1971, pp. 39-41. (Fe71-20)
6. Sorption of Sulfur Dioxide by Indoor Surfaces—III. Leather.
D. J. Spedding, R. P. Rowlands, and J. E. Taylor. J. Appl. Chem.
Biotechnol., v. 21, No. 3, 1971, pp. 68-70.*
The sorption of SO2 by leathers was examined at SO2 concentrations of
approximately 100 ug/m^. Sulfur dioxide was sorbed evenly over the
surfaces, the sorbed sulfur being water soluble. The position on the hide
from which the leather was taken had no effect on the amount of S02
sorbed. The uptake of gas was reduced by the application of a finish and
by dyeing. The penetration of S02 into the samples was influenced by the
organic retanning process used, condensed tannins leading primarily to
surface sorption. Leather greases also reduce penetration of SO2. The
degradation of leathers by atmospheric SO2 was discussed.
7. The Destruction of Works of Art by Air Pollution. J. Riederer. Schonere
Heimat, v. 60, 1971, pp. 44-47 (German). (Cu71-10)
8. The Enigma of the Layered Crusts on Some Weathered Glasses — A
Chronological Account of the Investigations. R. G. Newton.
Archaeometry, v. 13, No. 1, 1971, pp. 1-9.*
The beautiful iridescent appearance of many ancient glasses was shown
by D. Brewster's studies to be due to diffraction effects arising from
thin layers in a weathered crust. Of the factors that affect weathering,
four stand out: (1) composition of the glass, (2) composition
(particularly pH) of the moisture on the glass surface, (3) temperature,
and (4) time. This paper discusses the formation of the weathered crust
on glass and layer-counting as a dating technique for glass.
1970
1. Interstate Surveillance Network-1969 Data. Division of Air Quality and
Emission Data. Report NAPCA/APTD 70-3, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, May 1970, 203 pp. (OM70-5)
-------
ONM-18
2. Sorption of Sulfur Dioxide by Indoor Surfaces—I. Wallpapers.
D. J. Spedding and R. P. Rowlands. J. Appl. Chem., v. 20, No. 5, 1970
pp. 143-146.
The sorption of S02 by PVC wall coverings and conventional wallpaper
samples was measured at a maximum S0^ concentration of 150 ug/m^ by use of
^S02. The sorption was influenced by the surface finish and design
pattern of the wallpapers. Sweat deposits on the samples also influenced
the pattern of uptake. The conventional wallpapers showed a greater
uptake than did PVC wall coverings in all cases.
3. Sorption of Sulfur Dioxide by Indoor Surfaces—II. Wood. D. J. Spedding.
J. Appl. Chem., v. 20, No. 7, 1970, pp. 226-228.
The sorption of SO2 by untreated wood samples has been investigated
at a concentration of 90 Mg/m^ by use of ^S02> Altered material was
found in the outermost 0.05 mn of each sample and a large portion of it
was water-soluble. The possibLe role of SO2 in the weathering of wood is
discussed.
4. Systems Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Materials.
R. L. Salmon. NTIS Report PB-209192, January 15, 1970, 196 pp. (Fe70-
13)
5. The Weathering and Performance of Building Materials. J. W. Simpson and
P. J. Horrobin, eds., Medical and Technical Publishing Co. Ltd., 1970,
277 pp. (Fe70-17)
1969
1. Effect of Ozone and Laundering on Vat-dyed Cotton Fabric. N. Kerr,
M, A. Morris, and S. H. Zeronian, Am. Dyestuff Reporter, v. 58, No, 1,
January 13, 1969, pp. 34-36.**
The color of cotton fabric dyed with C. I. Vat Blue 29 decreased in
depth and the hue tended toward red. Washing appeared to reduce the rate
of fading. Fabric was reduced in strength by exposure to ozone. The
largest strength loss was found for samples washed between exposures. The
copper number and carboxyl group determinations indicated that chemical
modification to cellulose was small.
2. Ozone Fading of Dyes. V. S. Salvin. Text. Chem. Color., v. 1, No. 11,
1969, pp. 245-251.
The fading of disperse dyes on cellulose acetate (I), nylon, and
polyster-cotton substrates in atmospheres containing ozone was examined
and related to ozone concentration, its absorption by the substrate, and
the dye sensitivity. Ozone was bubbled through solutions of blue dyes;
-------
ONM-19
the fading appeared to be oxidation accompanied by hydrolysis and the
reaction depended on the solubility and rate of diffusion of ozone in the
fabric fiber. Accelerated fading tests were conducted by using 0.05-0.2
ppm ozone concentration at 30-40 percent humidity. The fading of Disperse
Blue 27 occurred at 2-5 on the international gray fading scale on
cellulose acetate, cellulose triacetate before and after heat treatment,
cellulose triacetate with a saponified surface, polyester dyed with and
without a carrier, Orion, and nylon 66. Fading was also examined at 85-90
percent humidity; it was more rapid, thus accounting for the fading of
nylon carpets in humid climates. Ozone fading on permanent-press fabrics
resulted from the reaction of the disperse dye, which had migrated from
the fibers to the finish.
1968
1. Sorption of Sulfur Dioxide by Paper. C. J. Edwards, F. L. Hudson, and
J. A. Hockey. J. Appl. Chem., v. 18, 1968, pp. 146-148.
Sulfur dioxide is absorbed by paper and slowly converted to sulfuric
acid. The presence of this acid severely reduces the useful life of
paper. The absorption of sulfur dioxide has been investigated for a
representative range of papers for exposures lasting many months. The
concentration of sulfur dioxide approached those found in urban
atmospheres.
1967
1. Corrosion by Air Pollution. J, R. Goss. Proc. Annu. Conf., Nat. Soc.
Clean Air, No. 34, 1967, pp. 75-92. (Fe67-4)
2. Cost Comparison of Protective Coatings for Steel. C. V. Brouillette,
Report No. R-5015, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, CA,
November 1967, 9 pp. (Pa67-2)
3. The Action of Environment on Museum Objects. Part I. Humidity,
Temperature, Atmosphere Pollution. N. Stolow. Curator, v. 9, 1966,
pp. 175-185.
The author surveys the effects of uncontrolled humidity, temperature
and pollution levels on various materials in museums, and discusses a
"safe" atmosphere for art objects. Psychrometers, which may be handily
used to measure relative humidity throughout a museum, are available at
various prices, and should be used to help establish humidity control.
-------
0NM-20
1965
1. Fading of Coloring Matters. C. H. Giles. J. Appl. Chem., v. 15, No. 12,
1965, pp. 541-550. (F65-1)
2. Materials Deterioration and Air Pollution. J. B. Upham. J. Air Pollution
Control Association, v. 15, No. 6, June 1965, p. 265. (Fe65-14)
3. Oxides of Nitrogen as a Factor in Color Changes of Used and Laundered
Cotton Articles. V. McLendon and F. Richardson. Am. Dyestuff Reporter,
v. 54, No. 9, April 26, 1965, pp. 15-21.
Oxides of nitrogen were found in drums of gas-fired household dryers
in concentrations believed to be sufficiently high to produce color
changes observed in certain dyed cottons as well as yellowing of used and
laundered white cotton sheets and T-shirts that had been dried repeatedly
in these dryers. Test procedures are described and such aspects as origin
of nitrogenous compounds are discussed.
1961
1. Atmospheric Sulfur and the Durability of Paper. F. L. Hudson and
W. D. Milner, J. of the Society of Archivists (London), v. 2, 1961,
pp. 166-167.
This note on the tendencies of papers to pick up sulfur, using
radioactive sulfur in tiny but known quantities as a tracer, states that
it is possible, in exposing paper to atmospheres containing 0.5 percent
sulfur dioxide by volume, to detect and measure the sulfur after 2 hours
using standard counting methods for radioactive materials. The method
proved more sensitive than measurement of change in acidity. A summary of
results on various types of paper is given and the authors conclude that
damage occurs owing to acidity included in paper when it is made, or
picked up later from acid atmospheres. The rate of deterioration seemed
dependent also on temperature.
1960
1. The Extent of the Paper Problem in Large Research Collections and the
Comparative Costs of Available Solutions. R. E. Kingery. Summary of a
Conference Sponsored by the American Library Association and the
Virginia State Library (Washington, D.C.), Publication No. 16, Virginia
State Library, September 16, 1960, pp. 36-41.
For many years, librarians of large research libraries have been
aware that their collections were deteriorating at an alartning rate, Such
deterioration is primarily due to the formation of sulfuric acid in the
paper by the combined action of' sulfur dioxide and humidity. Other acids
from the atmosphere may also contribute to such deterioration. The
-------
ONM-21
available conservation techniques are: conservation of original material
and reproduction of original material. The development of a permanent
durable book paper is recommended.
1959
1. Deterioration of Materials in Polluted Atmospheres. J. E. Yocum.
Corrosion, v. 15, No. 10, October 1959, pp. 541t-545t. (Fe59-5)
1958
1. Durability Tests of Structural Sandwich. E. W. Kuenzi and L. W. Wood.
Symposium on Some Approaches to Durability in Structures, ASTM STP 236,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1958, pp. 27-34.
(Fe58-4)
2. Effect of Production Features on Building Construction of Titanium-
Magnesium Plants. V. N. Romanov. Legkie Metally (Leningrad) Sbornik,
No. 1, 1958, pp. 34-40 (Russian). (Fe58-5)
3. How Does Air Pollution Affect Books and Paper. W. H. Langwell. Proc.
Roy. Inst. Great Brit., v. 37, Pt.'II, No. 166, 1958, p. 210.
Sulfur dioxide effects on paper can cause serious damage to any type
of paper (for example, brittleness of paper). Storing and treatment
methods to prevent the damage are suggested.
4. Relation Between Actual and Artificial Weathering of Organic Materials.
F. W. Reinhart. Symposium on Some Approaches to Durability in
Structures, American Society for Testing Materials, ASTM STP 236, 1958,
pp. 57-66. (P58-1)
1957
1. The Effects of Air Pollution on Buildings and Metalwork. R. J. Schaffer.
Air Pollution, Edited by M. W. Thring Ed. Butterworth Scientific,
London, 1957, pp. 58-71. (Fe57-5)
1956
1. A Comparison of Gas Chamber Tests of Bookbinding Leather With a Long-Time
Atmospheric Exposure. C. W. Beebe, R. W. Frey, and. M. V. Hannigan. J.
Amer. Leather Chem. Assoc., v. 51, 1956, pp. 20-31.
-------
ONM-22
Samples of bookbinding leathers, tanned in different ways, were
exposed as bookbindings to atmospheric pollution for 12-19 years.
Physical and chemical tests made after exposure correlated with
gas-chamber tests made on the leather before exposure.
1955
1. Corrosion Aspects of Air Pollution. L. Greenburg and M. B. Jacobs. Amer.
Paint J., v. 39, No. 43, 1955, pp. 64-78. (Fe55-2)
2. Service Fading of Disperse Dyes by Chemical Agents Other Than the Oxides
of Nitrogen. V. S. Salvin and R. A. Walker. Textile Research J.,
v. 25, 1955, pp. 571-585.**
An extensive trial of acetate drapery fabrics dyed with new Gas-fast
blues shows the active agents in the atmosphere as well as the oxides of
nitrogen can cause fading in service. The fading is oxidative and
designated as "0-fading." O-fading takes place on Dacron, acetate, and
Arnel. A heat-treatment insures a marked increase in resistance to this
fading. All disperse blue and some of the reds and yellows are subject to
O-fading which may be inhibited by antioxidants such as diphenylethylene
diamine and the nongas-fading inhibitor p-octyl phenol. Optimum
resistance to atmospheric fading of Arnel is obtained by the use of
inhibitor plus heat treatment. No blue disperse dye for acetate, Arnel,
or Dacron is resistant to O-fading as well as to light and gas fading.
3. The Destructive Effects of Air Pollution on Materials. A. Parker. 6th
Des Voeux Mem. Lecture, Proc. 22nd Annual Conf., Nat. Smoke Abatement
Soc., Bournemouth, England, September 28, 1955, pp. 120-132. (Fe55-6)
4. The Permanence of Paper. IV. W. H. Langwell. Brit. Paper and Board
Makers' Assoc., Proc. Tech. Sect., v. 36, 1955, pp. 199-207.
A wide range of British commercial writing and printing papers were
tested for liability of damage by atmospheric S02, and a suggested
standard accelerated aging test was devised in which the dampened papers
are exposed to 0.5 percent SO2 for 1 week. A practical and effective
inhibitor solution (1 percent Na2H2P2°7 an<* 0*1 percent K^FeCCNjg) was
found applicable to the whole range of sample papers.
1954
1. Deterioration of Materials—Causes and Preventive Techniques.
G. A. Greathouse and C. J. Wessel. Reinhold Publishing, New York,
N.Y., 1954, 835 pp. (OM54-1)
-------
ONM-23
2. Paper. C. J. Wessel. Chapt. 6 in Deterioration of Materials — Causes
and Preventive Techniques., edited by G. A. Greathouse and C. J.
Wessel, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, N.Y., 1954, pp. 355-402.
The compositon and manufacture of paper and its deterioration by
chemical and biological agents as well as light, heat, and moisture is
discussed.
1940
1. Atmospheric (Gas) Fading of Colored Cellulose Acetate. C. A. Seibert.
Am. Dyestuff Reptr., v. 29, No. 15, 1940, pp. P363-P374. (F40-1)
1939
1. Effect of Sulfur Compounds in the Air on Various Materials. L. R. Burdick
and J. F. Barkley. U.S. Bureau of Mines, I.C. 7064, April 1939, 9 pp.
(Fe39-1)
1937
1. The Fading of Dyeings on Cellulose Acetate Rayon. F. M. Rowe and
K. A. J. Chamberlain, J, Soc. Dyers Colourists, v. 53, 1937,
pp. 268-278. (F37-1)
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
A-l
Abasov, S.A.
P: 70-2
Abbott, J.S.
Fe: 75-3; 73-5
Abe, H.
Cu: 71-7
Adam, L.H,
Al: 68-2
Adamirova, L.
P: 76-7
Aguzzi, F.
MSC: 73-16
Ahrens, H.W.
P: 80-3
Ailor, W.H., Jr.
Fe: 78-2; 69-2
Al: 74-6; 68-3, 8;
63-2
Aiax, R.L.
F: 67-3
Akimov, G.V.
Fe: 81-5
Alley, C.W.
Fe: 61-6
Altieri, A.
MSC: 77-3
Altorfer, K.
Zn: 82-27
Alunno-Rossetti, V.
Cu: 76-1
American Concrete
Institute
MSC: 77-8; 62-4
Adams, H.T.
E: 79-1
Alderson, H.N.
Fe: 68-4
Amoroso, G.G.
P: 78-1
Addanki, S.R.
Fe: 68-7
Adler, I.
MSC: 82-2
Agabio, G.
Fe: 72-7; 71-3, 8;
70-8
Alessandrini, G.
Cu: 79-3; 76-6
MSC: 82-9; 78-8; 76-
27, 47
Alexander, S.M.
Cu: 68-11; 67-5
Zn: 68-1
OM: 68-2
Anderson, E.A.
Zn: 56-6
Anderson, T.
Fe: 74-3
Angelides, S.
Fe: 76-16
OM: 76-19
Agafonov, V.V.
Fe: 80-1; 77-11
Al: 73-1
Zn: 71-4
OM: 76-20; 71-10
Alger, K.W.
F: 70-3
Al-Kharafi, F.M.
Cu: 82-22
Annamalai, P.L.
Fe: 69-23
Aoyama, Y.
Fe: 82-19
Agarawal, O.P.
0M: 75-3
Allegra, L.
Al: 82-27
Appel, W.D.
F: 52-1
Agarvala, V.S.
Fe: 82-1
Allen, J.R.
Fe: 78-15
Arai, T.
E: 63-1
-------
A-2
A (continued)
Arndt, U.
OM: 76-11
ONM: 76-14; 74-4
Arnold, A.
MSC: 76-7, 42
Arnold, W.D.
' Fe: 74-5
Arnold, L,
MSC: 76-12
Arpaia, M.
Fe: 71-5
Ashton, E.E.
Pa: 78-6
Ashton, H.E.
Fe: 82-37
Ashworth, V.
Fe: 73-24
ASTM Conmittee Report
Fe: 68-6; 59-8
Atakuziev, T.A.
MSC: 63-1
Athanassiadis, Y.C.
Fe: 69-9, 17, 19, 20
Atteraas, L.
Fe: 82-20
Avramova, S.
Fe: 68-18
Ayllon, E.S.
Fe: 82-24, 30, 53;
81-10; 80-5
Aziz, P.M.
Al: 59-3
B
Baboian, A.
Fe: 78-6
OM: 78-9
Bacelle, G.
MSC: 76-46
Baden, B.
MSC: 76-46
Baer, N.S.
MSC: 81-1
Baqirov, M.A.
P: 70-2
Baier, H.
F: 55-1
Baker, A.J.
Fe: 80-7
GNM: 80-11
Baker, E.A.
Fe: 82-27
Ni: 82-5
Balandina, T.S.
Zn: 76-5; 74-6
OM: 78-1
Balga, A.
P: 80-2, 6
Ball, M.
Al: 68-6
Banas, J.
Al: 76-3
Banarjee, T.
Fe: 68-7
Barannik, V.P.
Fe: 73-9
Barcellona, S.
MSC: 73-6
Barcellona-Vero, L.
MSC: 78-19; 76-9, 28,
41; 73-6, 7
Bardelli, U.
Fe: 71-19
Bardin, C.
MSC: 62-3
Barkley, J.F.
Fe: 39-1
Barrett, L.B.
Fe: 73-10
Atterby, P.
Fe: 69-25
Bakhvalov, G.T.
OM: 65-1
Bartelloni, M.
MSC: 78-7
-------
A-3
B (Continued)
Bartoe, W.F.
P: 56-1
Barton, K. .
Fe: 82-31, 44; 79-1;
76-14; 75-9; 74-
12, 17; 73-2, 8;
72-11; 71-4, 27;
70-7, 12; 69-1,
30; 68-13; 67-6;
65-18; 62-8; 59-7;
58-7; 56-6
OM: 64-6
Bartonova, Z.
Fe: 74-17; 72-11; 71-
27; 70-7, 12; 69-
1, 30; 68-13;
67-6
Bassett, E.
Cu: 70-5
Bastidas, J.M.
Fe: 81-6
Batta, G.
MSC: 50-2
Bauer, E.J.
Cu: 71-8; 70-10
Baum, H.
Fe: 76-4; 71-23
Bastidas, J.M.
Fe: 81-6
Bazzan, T.
Fe: 66-6
Becker, G.
Fe: 65-6
Bedlove, I.A.
Fe: 81-16
Begolli, R.
MSC: 76-21
Behre, C.H., Jr.
MSC: 31-2
Beloin, N.J.
MSC: 75-6
F: 73-2; 72-1
Benarie, M.
Fe: 80-8
Benassi, R.
MSC: 78-13
Bencini, A.
MSC: 76-15
Beranek, E.
Fe: 74-17; 73-2,8; 71-
27; 59-7; 56-6
Berglund, T.
Fe: 60-2
Berke, N.S.
Al: 82-27
Berman, S.M.
MSC: 81-1
Berti, P.
MSC: 79-7
Berindan, C.
Fe: 70-4
Berukshtis, G.K.
Fe: 69-28; 66-4; 57-3
Zn: 66-3
Besproskurnov, G.G.
Fe: 57-6
Bettembourg, J.M.
P: 76-6
ONM: 76-6, 19
Bettin, C.
MSC: 76-9
Bhadwar, D.V.
Fe: 69-36; 62-2; 59-
3; 58-8
Bianchi, R.
MSC: 76-24
Bieda, K.
Al: 76-3
Biefer, G.J.
Fe: 81-4
Biestek, T.
Fe: 61-4
Ni: 82-2
Zn: 82-16; 62-4
OM: 67-2
Biggs, B.S.
E: 53-1; 51-3
Bilinski, R.J.
Pa: 78-4
Beall, F.C.
ONM: 80-9
-------
A-4
_B (Continued)
Binger, W. W.
Al: 61-3; 53-3
Bird, C.E.
Zn: 77-1
Biscontin, G.
MSC: 82-9
Black, A.
F: 77-3
Black, H.L.
Fe: 68-1
Blaga, A.
P: 80-2,6
Blom, A.V.
Pa: 65-2
Bloom, M.C.
Fe: 65-13
Bloomberg, J.
Cu: 61-3
Bluestein, A.C.
E: 58-2
Bobylev, A.V.
Cu: 66-6
Bochingerj L.S.
Fe: 78-16
MSC: 78-33
Boegehold, A.L.
Fe: 56-1
Boden, P.J.
Fe: 81-17
Bogaty, H.
F: 52-1
Bohnenkamp, K.
Fe: 73-3, 15; 71-15;
68-8
Bohni, H.
Fe: 82-41
Bollinger, J.
Fe: 52-2
Bombara, G.
Fe: 73-17; 72-7; 7J-
3, 8; 66-6
Bonard, R.T,
Fe: 81-10
Bonarrigo, A.
MSC: 81-4
Boncheva, M.
Fe: 68-18
Bonnnarens, H.E.
Fe: 82-43
Booras, S.G.
F: 67-2
Booth, F.F.
Fe: 63-2; 62-1
Borgwardt, R.H.
MSC: 72-6
Borzillo, A.R.
Al: 78-2
Bosch, W.
Fe: 69-33
Bosek, B.
Fe: 74-8
Bosh, Dr.
MSC:.72-9
Boudroit, H.
Fe: 71-23
Bouras, C.
MSC: 77-9
Bow, A.M.
MSC: 77-15
Bowen, F.J.
Fe: 58-1
Bowles, 0.
MSC: 34-2
Boyd, D.W.
MSC: 80-21
Boyd, W.K.
Fe: 74-9; 71-25
Zn: 62-5
Boylan, J.A.
Fe: 53-5
Boyle, R.H.
Fe: 81-2
-------
A-5
B (continued)
Bradley, W.W.
Fe: 55-1
Bragard, A. A.
Fe: 82-43
Brand, R.G.
MSC: 80-14
Brandstaetter, J.
Fe: 71-29; 70-19
Brandt, S.M.
Al: 68-2
Braun, R.C.
MSC: 70-4
Brauns, E.
Fe: 65-7, 19
Breccia, A.
MSC: 75-2
Bresle, A.
Fe: 76-17
Briggs, W.
Fe: 68-2
Brision, J.
Fe: 73-23
Britten, S.C.
Fe: 55-4
Brods-Ka, I.M.
Ps 65-1
Brouillette, C.V.
Pa: 67-2
Brown, C.W.
Fe: 82-49
Brown, P.W.
Fe: 82-48
Brown, R.H.
Al: 61-3; 53-3
Bruno, R.
Fe: 73-17; 72-7
Brysson, R.J.
F: 75-2; 68-1; 67-2
Buck, D.M.
Fe: 21-2; 20-1; 19-1
Budov, G.M.
Al: 76-2; 69-1
Building Research
Station Digest
MSC: 65-1; 61-2
Bukowiecki, A.
Fe: 73-16; 72-13; 66-
5; 57-4
Bullock, J.S.
OM: 78-11
Bultman, J.O.
Fe: 82-9
Burda, P.
Fe: 69-29
Burdick, L.R.
Fe: 39-1
Burgmann, G.
Fe: 73-3, 15
Burkhardt, W.
Fe: 71-21
Burkowiecki, A.
Fe: 73-16; 72-13
Butt, Y.M.
MSC: 67-M; 61-2
Buttner, F.H.
Fe: 71-25
Byrne, S.C.
Al: 82-20
Caggiati, L.
Pa: 72-2
Calabrese, C.
Fe: 78-15
Callagttan, B.G.
Fe: 82-21; 78-17; 66-
8, 13
Camp, E.g.
Cu: 50-3
Campbell, G.G.
Pa: 74-3; 72-1
-------
A-6
C (continued)
Campbell, P.G.
Pa: 78-1
Campbell, H.S.
Al: 68-10
Campbell, K.S.
F: 52-1
Campbell, W.E.
Cu: 68-10; 64-3; 61-3
Canadian Heritage
MSC: 80-3
Cappell, R.J.
Fe: 80-11
Cu: 82-21; 81-3
Cautru, J.
MSC: 76-54
Cerny, M.
Fe: 82-44
Cerri, M.G.
MSC: 78-6
Chamberlain, K.A.J.
F: 37-1
Chandler, K.A.
Fe: 68-19; 66-9, 12
Chang, F.C.
Fe: 82-2
Charalmbous, D.
MSC: 76-6, 39
Chiarenzelli, R.V.
Cu: 66-8, 9
Chilov, S.
Cu: 71-6
Chirputkar, S.D.
Fe: 82-26
Chojnacka-Kalinowska, G.
Fe: 82-38
Chojnacki, B.
MSC: 80-6
Chow, R.
ONM: 80-10
Chrusciel, R.
Fe: 73-6
Carbone, S.P.
Cu: 82-3
Charbonnier, J.C,
Fe: 77-7, 8
Chu, C.C.
Fe: 74-3
Carmerman, C.
MSC: 45-1
Charlton, F.R.
Pa: 65-6
Cigdemoglu, M.
Al: 69-6
Carter, C.S.
Fe: 72—17;71—23
Charola, A.E.
MSC: 79-9; 78-24
CINI Foundation
MSC: 79-12
Carter, J.P.
Fe: 80-3; 79-2
Chaston, J.C.
Cu: 67-4
Clark, D.E.
ONM: 79-2
Carter, V.E.
Al: 68-1, 10
Cu: 75-6
Chaston, S.H.H.
OM: 77-7
Claus, P.
ONM: 76-20
Castillo, A.P,
Cu: 82-20; 74-9
Chatterjee, G.P.
Cu: 53-1
Clauss, R.J.
Ni: 82-4
Castle, J.E.
OM: 82-5
Cleary, H.J.
Fe: 67-5
-------
A-7
C (continued)
Coburn, S.K.
Fe: 71-6; 62-7; 61-1
Collins, H.H.
Fe: 63-3
Compton, K.G.
Fe: 56-7; 55-1
Conlee, C.J.
F: 67-3
Cook, A.R.
OM: 82-3
Cook, I.
E: 76-1
Cooper, A.S., Jr.
F: 75-2; 68-1
Cooper, L.V.
E: 51-1
Cotton, J.E.
Fe: 72-17; 71-23
Couden, D.V.
Cu: 76-7
Coughlin, R.W.
MSC: 76-36
Couper, M.
Pa: 51-1
Covington, L.C.
OM: 81-4; 74-2
Covino, B.S., Jr.
Fe: 80-3; 79-2
Cowling, E.B,
Ee: 78-16
MSC: 78-33
Cowling, J.E.
Pa: 54-2
Cran, J.A.
Fe: 67-3
Cravo, M.
Fe: 70-6
Crawshaw, G.H,
F: 77-3
Croll, S.G.
Fe: 82-42
Cromarty, R.E.
P: 80-3
Crowder, J.R.
P: 80-11
Crowe, C.R.
Al: 81-2
Curri, S.B.
Cu: 78-12
MSC: 79-3,4; 78-13, 38;
76-53
Cope, R.
P: 80-8
Cox, G.A.
ONM: 79-1
Cwynar, B.
Fe: 78-13
Copson, H.R.
Fe: 64-3; 60-5; 59-4;
56-2; 52-1; 48-4;
45-1
Al: 56-4
Ni: 68-1
Crabtree, J.
E: 53-1; 46-1
Craig, H.L.
Al: 68-4
Dalai, J.G.
Fe: 82-51
Corl, E.
Cu: 82-3
Craig, I.H.
Fe: 82-32
Danilova, M.V.
Al: 78-6
Costas, L.P.
Cu: 82-4
Cramer, S.D.
Fe: 80-3; 79-2; 76-15
Dasgupta, D.
Fe: 69-32
-------
A-8
D (continued)
Dashniani, T.
Fe: 71-11
Dassu, G.
Cu: 79-3? 76-6
Davenport, J.A.
Fe: 51-4
Davies, C.
Al: 70-5
Zn: 70-5
Deardon, J.
Fe: 48-3
De Capitani, L.
MSC: 78-8; 76-27
de Gast, A.A.
MSC: 72-3
de Graaf, A.J.
F: 75-1
De Granges, P.
MSC: 78-30
Degtyar'ova, A.A.
P: 65-1
De Henau, P.
MSC: 76-13
Deitz, V.R.
GNM: 78-3
del Monte, M.
MSC: 81-3
Deluccia, J.J.
Al: 75-2
D'Oria, F.J.
Fe: 66-1
Demeny, L.
F: 75-1
Deranel, H.
Fe: 71-29; 70-19
Denison, P.J.
MSC: 79-10
Desideri, A.
MSC: 77-12
Deswaef, R.
Zn: 70-2
Doyle, D.P.
Fe: 82-45
Al: 69-9
OM: 63-2
Dragovich, D.
MSC: 81-11; 80-18
Dreulle, N.
Fe: 72-9
Zn: 73-6, 7, 8; 72-3
Dreulle, P.
Fe: 72-9
Zn: 73-6, 7, 8; 72-3
de Vere, R.W. Dukes, W.H.
Fe: 55-4 MSC: 72-2
De Vties, L.K. Dunbar, S.R.
E: 69-1 Zn: 82-4, 21; 68-3
Dhar, B.L. Duncan, J.R.
Fe: 82-26 Fe: 74-4, 23; 73-12,
Di Bari, G.A.
Ni: 82-5
Dix, E.H., Jr.
Al: 61-3
14, 20
OM: 74-9
Dunkel, W.L.
E: 58-1
Dunn, M.E.
MSC: 82-8
Dolezel, B.
Fes 74-12
Pi 76-7 Dupas, M.
MSC: 76-13
Doroony, A.
Cu: 50-1 Durmann, G.J.
Al: 78-4
-------
A-9
D (continued)
Durose, A.H.
OM: 56-1
Durocher, N.L.
Fe: 69-7,8
Dutra, A.C.
Fe: 82-16
Dzhincharadze, G.K.
Fe: 76-10; 71-11
L
Eckhardt, F.E.W.
MSC: 78-17; 68-4
Edwards, C.J.
ONM: 68-1
Edwards, W.A.
Fe: 52-5
Efes, Y.
MSC: 76-37
Efimov, I.A.
Al: 72-1; 69-4
OM: 72-1
Egan, F.J.
Fe: 71-14
Ellinger, G.A.
Al: 56-2
Elliot, P.
Fe: 77-12
Ellis, O.B.
Zn: 49-1
El-Tantawy, Y.A.
Cu: 82-23
Engelhardt, R.
Fe: 71-23
Englehart, E.T.
Al: 67-3
Enrico, F.
Cu: 64-1
Enaanian, M.
Fe: 82-36
Erdos, E.
Cu: 74-7
Ergang, R.
Fe: 75-7
Ericsson, R.
Fe: 80-12; 78-14; 20;
75-18; 73-21
Cu: 77—1
Evans, T.E.
Fe: 72-3; 65-5
Evans, U.R.
Fe: 72-12; 14; 65-11;
61-2; 52-3
Everett, L.H.
Fe: 80-10
Eynde, D.V.
Pa: 80-2
Eyring, H.
Fe: 74-3
Fabin, R.J.
OM: 71-8
Fairweather, A.
Cu: 53-2
Falciai, L.
MSC: 72-8
Fassina, V.
MSC: 81-4; 78-3; 77-1,
10; 76-1, 17; 75-
8; 74-2
Faugere, J.G.
MSC: 76-20
Egan, T.F.
Cu: 71-8; 70-10
Elema, R.J.
F: 75-1
Eurin, P.
P: 80-8
Evans, R.M.
Zn: 73-2
Feliu, S.
Fe: 82-22; 81-6; 72-10
Felstein, M.
Pa: 66-1
Ferrari, R,
Cu: 77-4
-------
A-10
F (continued)
Ferrazzini, J.C.
Pa: 77-2; 76-8
ONM: 76-23; 75-9
Florian, M.L.E.
MSC: 78-2
Fochtman, E.G.
Pa: 57-1
Franz, E.D.
Fe: 73-11
Frediani, P.
MSC: 78-1
Fertig, K.
Fe: 82-46
Foehl, J.M.
Cu: 63-1
Freeman, J.R.
Cu: 56-5
Fiaud, C.
Fe: 76-2
Ni: 82-7
Fontana, M.G.
Fe: 78-3
Freitag, W.O.
Fe: 82-40
Filz, S.
OM: 78-10
Ford, E.W.
E: 51-1
Frenzel, G.
ONM: 73-4
Fink, F.T.
Fe: 80-16, 17
Al: 82-7, 31
Forrest, J.S.
MSC: 60-3
Freudiger, E.
Cu: 62-4
OM: 60-3
Fink, F.W.
Fe: 74-9; 71-25
Fowles-Smith, J.E.
Pa: 77-6
Frey, R.W.
ONM: 56-1
Fischer, O.W.
MSC: 14-1
Fox, J.J.
MSC: 25-1
Fridman, O.A.
P: 65-1
Fischer, P.
Al: 75-2
Fox, S.P.
ONM: 80-9
Friehe, W.
Fe: 77-10
Fitzgerald, L.D.
Cu: 78-10
Franchi, R.
MSC: 78-22
Friend, J.N.
Fe: 29-2; 21-1
Fiumara, A.
MSC: 73-16
Flajsman, F.
E: 78-1; 74-3
P: 69-2, 3
Fleming, L.B.
MSC: 81-12
Franey, J.P.
Cu: 82-29; 81-4
Frank, G.C.
F: 73-3
Frankel, H.
Cu: 70-5
Frodl-Kraft, E.
Pa: 75-4
ONM: 75-7, 8; 74-7
Frohnsdorff, G.
Fe: 80-19
Fry, J.I.
ONM: 80-12
-------
A-11
F (continued)
Fukushima, T.
Fe: 82-19
Funiciello, R.
MSC: 77-3
Funke, A.T.
Fe: 81-2
Funke, W.
Pa: 75-5
Furlan, V.
MSC: 76-2
Fuzzi, S.
MSC: 76-10; 75-1, 2
Fyfe, D.
Fe: 72-4; 70-3
Gajendragadkar, S.K.
Fe: 77-5
Gallaccio, A.
Fe: 82-47; 78-9
Galle, H.
MSC: 59-1, 3, 5
Galli, G« .
MSC: 78-1, 22
Gannon, J.
MSC: 78-5
Garden, G.K.
MSC: 80-8
Gaspar, P.
Cu: 78-11
Gatto, F.
Al: 82-13
Gaughan, J.E,
E: 56-2
Gauri, K.L.
MSC: 81-7; 80-16; 79-
8; 78-36; 77-11;
74-4,9; 73-9
Pa: 78-2
Gayle, M.
Fe: 80-14
Geikie, A.
MSC: 1880-1
Geld, I.
Fe: 66-1
Gelfer, D.H.
Pa: 77-9
Gerasimenko, Y.S.
Fe: 76-19
Gerdemann, J.W.
ONM: 80-10
Gerhard, J.
Fe: 74-2
German, G.
Zn: 78-5
Gershon, R.
MSC: 82-2
Gettens, R.J.
Cu: 51-2
Giambelli, G.
MSC: 78-8
Gibbons, E.v.
Fe: 70-5; 61-3
Gilbert, P.T.
Zn: 53-2
Giles, C.H.
F: 65-1
Gillespie, R.H.
ONM: 80-11
Gillette, D.G.
Fe: 75-17
Ging, P.J.
Al: 67-3
Girardet, F.
MSC: 76-2
Giuliani, L.
Fe: 71-8
Gladkikh, Y.P.
Zn: 71-4
Gleim, V.C.
Fe: 62-4
Glonti, E.V.
Fe: 76-10
Gnanomoorthy, J.B.
Fe: 82*13
-------
G (continued)
Gochev, B.
Fe: 68-18
Godard, H.P.
Al: 70-3; 69-9; 63-1;
59-3; 55-3
OM: 63-2
Godette, M.
Pa; 78-1
Goerg, F.
P: 75-2
Goldberg, M.M.,
Fe; 72-6
Goldenberg, L.
Fe: 65-13
Goldspiel, S.
Fe; 82-8
Golubev, A.L.
Fe; 75-15; 69-24
Gontmakher, N.M.
Fe: 66-10
Gonzalez, J .A.
Fe: 81-6
Goss, J
Fe: 67-4
Gough, V.E.
E: 53-3
Graedel, T.E.
Cu: 82-29; 81-4
Granese, S.L.
Fe: 81-10
Grappone, N.
Fe: 76-6
Greathouse, G.A.
CM: 54-1
Greeley, R.S.
OM: 75-8
Greenblatt, H.
Fe: 62-5
Greenburg, L.
Fe: 52-2
Greene, N.D.
Fe: 78-3; 67-5
Greenhalgh, W.O.
E: 79-2
Greffard, J.
MSC: 78-30
Gregory, C.J.
F: 69-1
Grenlee, M.L.
OM: 68-7
Grenley, R.
Cu: 70-5
A-12
Grey, C.A.
Pa: 76-1
Grigorov, B.
Fe: 68-18
Gropp, A.H.
Fe: 58-1
Gross, U.
ONM: 76-14; 74-4
Grossman, R.F.
E: 58-2
Gruner, M.
MSC: 57-2
Gruss, L.L.
OM: 82-4
Guidetti, G.P.
MSC: 72-1
Guidobaldi, F.
OM: 76-2
MSC: 76-55; 73-6
Guilhaudis, A.
Al: 82-33; 75-6
Guillen, M.A.
Fe: 72-10
Gulbransen, L.
Cu: 78-11
Gullman, J.
Fe: 82-14; 81-12
Gouza, J.J.
P: 56-1
-------
A-13
G (continued) Hakkarainen, T.
~ Fe: 82-17; 78-4
Gullman, L.O.
Al: 71-5
Hall, R.V.L.
Cu: 58-1
Guseinov, T.I.
P: 70-2
Halmay, L.
Fe: 74-1
Gutfreund, K.
Pai 65-3
Hamblin, D.J.
Pa: 74-8
Gutt, W.H.
Fe: 80-10
Hanpel, K.F.B.
ONM: 76-4
Guttman, H.
Fe: 82-25; 68-12
Zn: 68-4 Hampshire, W.B.
Cu: 82-27
H Hanford, N.J.
Al: 70-5
Haagan, H. Zn: 70-5
Pa: 75-5
Hannigan, M.V.
Haagenrud, S.E. ONM: 56-1
Fe: 82-14, 20; 75-13
OM: 75-1
Hannon, C.H.
Cu: 57-1
Hach, A.
OM: 64-4
Hansen, J.
MSC: 80-1
Hack, R*C«
Cu: 67-2
Hanson, L.O.
MSC: 31-3
Hackney, S.H.
F: 81-1
Hardie, F.H.
Al: 68-6
Hahn, W.S.
Fe: 68-14
Hardrath, H.F,
Al: 58-3
Haines, B.M.
ONM: 77-2
Harker, A.B.
Zn: 80-7
Harren, R.E.
Pa: 77-8
Harrison, J.B.
Fe: 60-6
Harrison, T.W.
MSC: 25-1
Harrison, W.
MSC: 69-3
Hartman, M.
MSC: 76-36
Hartz, R.E.
E: 79-1
Harvey, C.C.
Pa: 53-1
Harvey, R.D.
MSC: 78-11; 72-6
Hashimoto, K.
Fe: 74-19
Hasil, F.
Fe: 75-9
Hasson, D.F.
Al: 81-2
Hattori, A.
Fe: 72-18
Havlik, B.R.
Fe: 60-4
-------
A-14
H (continued)
Hawks, G.
Ni: 82-5
Hayford, A.W.
Fe: 61-6
Haynes, G.
Fe: 78-6
Haynie, F.H.
Fe: 82-33, 39; 78-12;
76-5; 75-11; 74-
2, 7, 10, 22; 71-
12
Al: 76-1
Zn: 80-10; 76-7; 70-3
MSC: 75-6
F: 76-6
Pa: 75-1; 72-3, 5
Heavens, O.S.
ONM: 79-1
Hebbs, L.
Fe: 31-1
Hedges, R.E.M.
ONM: 75-2
Hedley, G.
F: 81-1
Hedvall, J.A.
MSC: 62-2
Heidersbach, R.A.
Fe; 82-49
Heimler, B.O.
Fe: 73-21; 72-1; 71-9
Hernphill, J.E.
F: 76-2
Hench, L.L.
ONM: 79-2
Henna, J.
F: 50-1
Henrikson, S.
Fe: 68-10
Henzlik, B.
Cu: 79-6
Herman, R.S.
Cu: 74-9
Hermance, H.W.
Cu: 71-8; 70-10; 66-3
Hermann, F.J.
E: 50-1
Herriman, W.O.
MSC: 79-2
Hershaft, A.
Zn: 76-1
Herzog, E.
Fe: 45-2
Hicks, B.B.
MSC: 82-11
Hiers, G.O.
OM: 56-5
Higgins, R.I.
Fe: 56-5
Hipwood, H.A.
Pa: 74-2
Hirai, Y.
Fe: 65-2; 64-1
Al: 65-1
Hirschwald, J.
MSC: 08-1
Hisamatsu, Y.
Fe: 82-19; 80-15
5
Hockey, J.A.
ONM: 68-1
Hoepfner, W.
OM: 76-8
Hoey, C.E.
Pa: 74-2
Hoffman, E.
Pa: 77-7
Hoffmann, D.
MSC: 76-26
Hohler, J.B.
Zn: 74-4
Hoke, E.
MSC: 78-14; 76-30
Holbrow, G.L.
Pa: 62-1
Holden, G.C.
MSC: 81-7
-------
A-15
Bi (continued)
Holler, P.
Fe: 81-15
Holm, R.
Cu: 82-5, 6,; 68-2
Holzworth, J.C.
Fe: 56-1
Honeyborne, D.B.
MSC: 76-12
Honzak, J.
Fe: 82-12: 75-4;
72-11; 71-24
OM: 75-11
Horikawa, K.
Fe: 74-14
Horrobin, P.J.
Fe: 70-17
Horst, R.L.
A1: 52-1
Horton, J.B.
Fe: 72-6; 68-14; 65-
21
Al: 78-2
Horvick, E.W.
Zn: 70-11
Hosoi, Y.
Fe: 72-15; 70-15
Hours, M.
Pa: 76-13
Houst, y.
MSC: 79-13
Hrdlovic, P.
P: 71-1, 2
Huber, H.
P: 75-2
Hudson, F.L.
ONM: 68-1; 61-1
Hudson
, J.C.
Fe:
59-2;
57-1,
2;
55-5;
53-2,
4;
52-4;
48-5
r 6
Al:
29-1
Cu:
35-1;
30-1
OM:
64-5
Hudec, P.P.
MSC: 78-23
Hugh, M.C.
MSC: 79-2
Hughes, P.J.
MSC: 78-40
Huh, T.S.
E: 70-1
Hunter, D.C.
F: 75-2
Hutchins, J.S.
Fe: 74-18; 73-7
Hyatt, M.V.
Fe: 72-17; 71-23
Hyne, J.B.
Fe: 78-10
I
Iaengle, E.
Fe: 68-11
Iakashvili, T.V.
MSC: 78-37
Ichimuro, K.
Fe: 76-18
Ignatova, Z.I.
Fe: 69-28
Ikeha, J.L.
Fe: 81-10
Inaqaki, P.y.
E: 63-1
Inffau, F.
MSC: 76-20
Inouye, K.
Fe: 76-8, 18; 75-8,
16, 19; 72-20,
23; 68-17
Insall, D.
Fe: 72-19
Insley, H.
MSC: 40-1
Iofa, Z.A»
Fe: 58-2; 57-6
-------
A-16
I (continued)
Irick, G.
P: 80-9
Isa, S.
Fe: 51-5
Ishii, S,
Fe: 72-20
Ishii, Y.
Cu: 71-7
Ishikawa, T.
Fe: 76-18; 75-8, 16;
72-20,.23
Ishizu, Y.
Fe: 74-14
Jaroszynska, D.
E: 62-1
Jassowicz, L.
Fe: 58-6
Jaworski, J.J,
Fe: 78-9
Jeanjaquet, S.
Fe: 82-46
Jeanson, C.
MSC: 78-16
Jellinek, H.H.G.
E: 67-2
P: 78-2; 74-1; 71-1,
2; 70-1, 3, 4;
69-2, 3
Johnsson, T.
Zn: 81-2
Johnston, J.
Fe: 46-1
Joshi, B.G.
Fe: 66-5
Jouhet, R.
F: 50-1
Judeikis, H.S.
Fe: 79-10
MSC: 78-15; 76-29
Julien, A.A.
MSC: 1883-1; 1880-2
Jung, F.
MSC: 70-7
ITT Electrophysics Lab.
Cu: 71-1
Jirovsky, I.
Fe: 82-50
K
Iwasaki, I.
Fe: 72-18
Joba, F.L.
Cu: 66-9
Kabulov, U.A.
P: 70-2
Johnson, A.B., Jr.
A1: 82-4
Kadoi, M.
Fe: 75-1
Jacob, W.R.
Cu: 70-1
Jacobs, M.B.
Fe: 55-2
Jaffe, L.6.
E: 67-3
Janssen, K.
Fe: 65-4
Johnson, J.B,
Fe: 77-12
Johnson, K.E.
Fe: 82-4; 75-3; 73-5
Johnson, M.J.
Fe: 82-11
Johnson, P.V.
MSC: 58-6
Kadokura, T.
Cu: 79-5
OM: 73-5
Kadyrov, M.K.
Fe: 69-24
Kaesche, H.
0M: 64-3
-------
A-17
K (continued)
Kaiser, W.D.
Pa: 77-4
Kalinin, V.D.
Al: 76-2
Kalish, M.K.
Gu: 73-4
Kalla, U.
Fe: 65-7, 19
Kalson, A.M., Jr.
Fe: 77-4
Kammlott, G.W.
Cu: 82-29; 81-4
Kanazashi, M.
Fe: 74-14
Kaneko, K.
Fe: 76-8, 18; 75-8,
19; 72-20
Kanevskaya, E.A.
P: 77-2
Kantsepol'skii, I.S.
MSC: 63-1; 59-4
Karlsson, A.
Fe: 75-2; 68-10
Kato, H.
Cu: 71-7
Katoh, F.
Fe: 81-8
Katsitadze, O.L.
MSC: 78-37
Kauffmann, J.
MSC: 60-2; 52-1
Kausch, H.H.
P: 78-1
Keane, J.D.
Fe: 69-33, 35
Keenan, F.J.
ONM: 80-9
Reiser, J.T.
Fe: 82-49
Keller, W.D.
MSC: 78-18
Kelley, V.I.
Al: 75-1
Kemkhadze, V.S.
Fe: 79-1; 76-10; 71-
11
Kemp, A.R.
E: 46-1
Kempson, A.K.
Pa: 76-14
Kenjo, T.
Pa: 76-4; 67-3
Kenkel, J.V.
Fe: 76-9
Kenkyu, T.O.
Cu: 77-2
Kennedy, T.B.
MSC: 58-5
Keppler, E.E.
Fe: 82-2
Kerr, N.
ONM: 69-1
Kessler, D.W.
MSC: 40-1; 32-2
Kesternich, W.
Fe: 65-15
Ketcham, S.J.
Al: 72-3
Keyser, J.H.
Fe: 80-9
Khanna, A.S.
Fe: 82-13
Kharitoraov, U.Y.
Al: 72-1
OM: 72-1
Khobaid, M.
Fe: 82-2
Kieslinger, A.
MSC: 32-1
Kilcullen, M.B.
Fe: 68-19
-------
A-18
K (continued)
King, J.
Fe: 68-9
King, R.A.
Pa: 73-2
King, W.
Al: 56-6
Kingery, R.E.
ONM: 60-1
Kinsolving, w.
Fe: 80-11
Kjennerud, A.
MSC: 62-1
Klark, G.B.
Fe: 71-13; 69-28; 66-
4
Al: 73-1
Zn: 71-4
OM: 71-10
Kleimenova, L.T.
Cu: 55-2
Klemantaski, S.
Al: 69-8
Knapp, B.B.
Fe: 51-6
Knepek, B.
Pa: 73-1
Knizhenko, L.A.
Al: 72-1
Knotkova-Cermakova, D.
Fe: 82-12, 31, 44,
50; 81-5, 15; 79-
1; 75-4, 6, 9;
74-8, 12; 70-10
65-18
OM: 75-11; 64-6
Knutsson, L.
Al: 71-5
Kny, E.
ONM: 76-21
Kokoska, I.
Fe: 82-50
OM: 76-15
Kolesnik, N.A.
P: 65-1
Komeiji, T.
Fe: 75-1
Kosobud, J.
OM: 75-11
Kotlik, P.
MSC: 77-4
Kotlov, Y.G.
Fe: 76-19
Kovachev, A.
Fe: 68-18
Kozhukharov, V.
Fe: 79-1
Kratzl, K.
ONM: 76-20
Krumbein, W.E.
MSC: 68-1
Kryman, F.J.
P: 70-3; 69-3
Kuathaev, K.K.
MSC: 67-1
Kucera, V.
Fe: 82-6, 14; 81-12;
77-9; 76-7; 75-10
74-15
Klenrn, D.D.
MSC: 78-21
Komp, M.E.
Fe: 65-9
Kuchkin, A.
Fe: 58-3
Klicova, Hf.
Pa: 73-1
Kc^czynski, S.
Al: 72-2
Kuchynka, D.
Fe: 71-27
Klieged, P.
MSC: 80-13
Kornilovich, Y.E.
MSC: 54-2
Kudryavtsev, P.N.
Fe: 78-7
-------
A-19
K (continued)
Kuenzi, E.W.
Fe: 58-4
ONM: 58-1
Lahiri, A.K.
Fe: 68-7
Lahmann, E.
Fe: 74-16
Laskowski, J.J.
Fe: 80-11
Latimer, K.G.
Fe: 63-2; 62-1
Kunze, E.
Fe: 71-23
Kulis, M.
Fe: 77-3; 76-12
Kupilikova, A.
Fe: 75-4
Kupper, M.
MSC: 75-3; 74-10
Kups, S.
MSC: 71-2
Kurobe, T.
Al: 82-18
Kutzelnigg, A.
Fe: 65-16
OM: 58-1
Kuz'minskii, A.S.
E: 53-2
Kuznetsov, V.A.
Fe: 76-19
Kyuno, T.
Fe: 71-26
Lai, B.
Fe: 71-7, 10
MSC: 78-39; 77-21
Pa: 72-4
Lambeth, P. J.
MSC: 60-3
Landi, F.R.
P: 80-10
Landis, D.D.
Zn: 80-7
Lange, C.
MSC: 68-1
Langer, G.L.
Pa: 57-1
Langwell, W.H.
ONM: 76-13; 58-3; 55-4
LaQue, F.L.
Fe: 53-5;
Larrabee, C.P.
Fej 62-7; 59-6; 53-3;
45-3; 44-1
Larsen, G.
MSC: 63-4
Laub, H.
OM: 74-3
Laurie, A.P.
MSC: 25-2
Lavrova, E.M.
Fe: 62-4
Lawson, H.H.
Al: 82-28
Lazzarini, L.
MSC: 82-9; 76-17, 21,
43
Leckie, H.P.
Fe: 74-13
Lecerca, M.
Fe: 81-13
Lee, T.S.
Fe: 82-27
Leene, J.E.
F: 75-1
LeGault, S.A.
Fe: 82-51; 78-5; 75-
12j 74-13
Zn: 82-2j 78-10
LaBastille, A.
Cu: 81-7
Lashermes, J.
Al: 82-32
Lehmann, J.
Fe: 68-15
Cu: 72-4
MSC: 78-*20
-------
A-20
Ij (continued)
Leidheiser, H.
Cu: 71-4; 70-12
Zn: 82-19
OM: 71-14
Leigh-Dugmore, C.H.
E: 52-1
Leone, M.
Cu: 72-6
Lewin, S.Z.
Cu: 68-11; 67-5
Zn: 68-1
OM: 68-2
MSC: 82-8, 10; 79-9;
78-24; 66-3
Leybold, H.A.
Al: 58-3
Lhereier, L.W.
Fe: 68-1
Liborio, G.
MSC: 78-8
Libsch, J.F.
Fe: 68-14
Lifka, B.W.
Al: 74-5
Likens, G.E,
Fe: 76-1
Lin, T.H.
ONM: 80-8
Lippold, P.
MSC: 53-2
Lipscomb, T.
MSC: 77-11
Little, A.H.
F: 67r4
Liu, B.
Fe: 76-13
Livingston, R.A.
MSC: 81-9
Lock, I.L.M.
F: 73-3
Lodge, J.P.
Fe: 60-4
Loftin, F.E.
Al: 74-4
Lokotilov, A.A.
OM: 59-2
Longinelli, A.
MSC: 78-7
Longo, F.N.
Al: 78-4
Look, D.W.
Fe: 80-14
Lorenzen, J.A.
OM: 71-4
Lough1in, G.F.
MSC: 31-1
Luck, R.M.
E: 80-2
Luckat, S.
Fe: 74-24
MSC: 81-8; 77—5, 13;
25, 37, 4
75-11; 73
72-4, 7
Ludwig, U.
MSC: 80-10
Luffkin, A.
Fe: 73-22
Luft, G.
Al: 53-1
Lupia, E.
MSC: 77-3
Lynch, C.T.
Fe: 82-2
Lysin, B.S.
MSC: 54-2
M
MacDonald, D.D.
Fe: 78-10
MacKay, A.L.
Fe: 61-7
Maier, A.A.
MSC: 61-2
Makar, H.V.
Fe: 76-15
-------
A-21
M (continued)
Maldonado, S.B.
Fe: 81-17
Malesani, P.G.
MSC: 76-15; 74-5
Manzienko, Y.P.
Cu: 66-6
Marabelli, M.
Cu: 77-4? 76-1
MSC: 76-5
Masters, L.W.
Fe: 82-48; 80-19;
74-25
Masuko, N.
Fe: 80-15; 79-5
Makina, R.G.
Cu: 62-2; 60-2
Marchesini, L.
MSC: 76-46
Mathay, W.L.
Fe: 67-8
Mandzhgaladze, S.N.
Fe: 76-10; 71-11
Manganelli, R.M.
F: 69-1
Marechal, J.C.
P: 80-8
Marek, V.
Fe: 75-6
Matijevic, E.
Fe: 82-28; 80-6
Matsumoto, K.
Cu: 75-3
Manganelli Del Fa, C.
MSC: 78-1; 22
Manikonsky, V.
MSC: 10-1
Manning, D.G.
MSC: 80-6
Mannweiler, G.B.
Fe: 68-5
Mansfeld, F.
Fe: 82-35, 46; 81-7,
9; 80-13, 18;
79-3,6,7;
78-21; 76-9
Zn: 80-7
Manson, P.W.
MSC: 40-2
Manzano, P.F.
Fe: 72-10
Marron, J.J.
Pa: 74-1
Marsh, G.
MSC: 76-4
Martin, H.C.
Fe: 82-3: 81-1
Martin, K.G.
P: 80-4
Martini, B.
Cu: 64-1
Masakasu, M.
Cu: 77-2
Maslova, G.V.
Al: 72-1
QM: 72-1
Massari, G.
MSC: 76-51
Massari, I.
MSC: 76-51
Matsushima, I.
Fe: 82-19; 74-14;
71-18
Matteoli, U.
MSC: 78-1
Matthias, G.F.
MSC: 67-3
Mattsson, E.
Fe: 82-6; 75-10; 74-15
Al: 71-5 68-9
Cu: 82-5, 6; 68-2; 58-
3
May, R.P.
Al: 82-4
Mazurkiewicz, B.
Al: 76-3
McBumey, J.W.
MSC: 58-4
-------
A-22
M (continued)
McCaul, C.
Fe: 82-8
McFee, W.E.
Al: 56-5
McGeary, F.L.
Al: 68-3; 67-3
Melntyre, W.A.
MSC: 29-1r 2
McKay, R.J.
Fe: 36-2
McKenzie, M.
Fe: 74-18; 73-7
McLendon, V.
ONM: 65-3
McLeod, W.
Fe: 68-3; 66-11
McMahon, T.A.
MSC: 79-10
McManus, J.J.
Cu: 62-5
Mears, R.B.
Al: 69-6
Mendelsoln, M.A.
E: 80-2
Mendizza, A.
Fe: 56-7; 55-1
Mercurio, A.
Pa: 77-8
Merrill, G.P.
MSC: 03-1
Merritt, J.C.
Al: 56-5
Meybaum, B.R.
Fe: 82-24, 30, 53;
81-10; 80-5
Meyer, E.
Fe: 82-46
Meyer, H.J.
Fe: 65-3
Mikhailovskii, Y.N.
Fe: 82-23, 52; 80-
1; 79-8; 78-7;
77-11; 72-16; 70-9
Al: 78-6; 73-1,3
Zn: 76-5; 74-6; 73-1;
72-4, 5; 71-4
OM: 78-1; 76-20; 71-10
Miksic, B.A.
CM: 75-7
Miller, J.D.A,
Pa: 73-2
Miller, P.D.
Zn: 62-5
Millett, M.A.
ONM: 80-1
Milner, W.D.
ONM: 61-1
Minarcik, E.J.
OM: 56-5
Miner, S.
Fe: 69-3, 6, 13
Misawa, T.
Fe: 74-19; 71-26
Missan, A.E.
Fe; 60-3
Miteva, R.
Cu: 71-6
Miyazato, H.
Zn: 74-8
Mohler, J.B.
Fe: 75-5; 72-2
OM: 75-4
Medgyesi, I.
MSC: 69-1
Meldau, R.
Fe: 65-12
Miller, A.C.
Al: 82-20
Miller, D.G.
MSC: 40-2
Moldovan, V.
MSC: 63-2
Monclief, A.
ONM: 76-24
-------
A-23
M (continued)
Monteriolo, A.C.
MSC: 75-8
Monte-Sila, M.
MSC: 76-9/ 28, 41;
73-7
Moss, H.K.
Fe: 67-1; 65-10
Muffley, H.C.
Fe': 63-4
Pa: 63-2
Nanda, J.N.
Fe: 74-6; 69-26
National Industrial
Pollution Control
Council
Fe: 71-2
Moore, B.
MSC: 79-2
Mukherjee, K.P.
Fe; 68-7
National Materials
Advisory Board
P: 81-1
Moore, J.C.
Pa: 75-3
Moore, R.L.
Al: 58-3
Moresby, J.F.
Fe: 82-15
Mullen, C.X.
Fe: 69-31
Muller, K.
Fe: 65-1
Munier, G.B.
Al: 82-23
National Research
Council Staff
OM: 77-6
NATO Gommittee on the
Challenges of Modern
Society
OM: 73-1
Morgan, A.
F: 77-3
N
Nauer, G.
CNM: 76-21
Moricillo, M.
Fe: 82-22
Nagai, T.
Fe: 72-18
Naumann, F.K,
Fe: 78-8
Moriyama, A.
Zn: 74-8
Nagano, R.
MSC: 63-6
Navish, F.W., Jr.
E: 80-2
Moroishi, T.
Fe: 74-26; 73-13, 19;
72-5, 24
Morris, M.A.
F: 66-1
CNM: 69-1
Nagano, T.
Fe: 72-17
Nagelberg, A.S.
OM: 82-10
Naito, H.
Fe: 72-15; 70-15
Nefedov, V.I.
Fe: 77-13
Newton, R.G.
Cm: 79-1; 75-2, 12
1, 6, 8; 73-1;
8
Moser, R.
Fe: 65-4
Nakai, Y.
Fe: 72-18
Nestler, C.G.
Fe: 75-14; 74-11
-------
A-24
N (continued)
Nicol, A.
MSC: 52-2; 50-1
Niesel, K.
MSC: 79-5, 11; 77-20
Niemiec, J.
OM: 67-2
Nigam, V.K.
Fe: 65-17
Nireki, T.
Zn: 80-5
Nishiate, S.
Cu: 79-5
Nishimura, H.
Fe: 81-8
Nock, J.A., Jr.
Al: 53-2
North, F.J.
MSC: 37-1
Norton, F.J.
E: 40-1, 2
Norton, J.E.
F: 76-2
Nosek, ET.M.
Cu: 78-1
Novaitskii, A.N.
Fe: 77-13
Novak, A.
Pa: 76-10
Nriagu, J.O.
Fe: 78-11
Oakeshott, D.F.
MSC: 60-3
Oakley, E.
Pa: 74-1
Oberhauser, F.M.
Fe: 71-29; 70-19
Oelsner, G.
Fe: 82-18
OM: 76-8
Ofjord, O.A.
F: 76-2
Ogden, C.
Fe: 82-46
Okada, H.
Fe: 72-15; 70-15
Okuma, M.
ONM: 80-8
O'Leary, J.R.
Pa: 75-3
Olsson, J.
Fe: 75-2
Oma, K.
Fe: 65-2; 64-1
Al: 65-1
Omaye, S.T.
F: 70-3
Ongaro, A.
MSC: 81-4
Onuki, S.
ONM: 80-8
Oodaira, T.
Fe: 75-1
Orcsik, E.
MSC: 78-32
Orial, G.
MSC: 76-34
Orman, M.
Al: 51-1
Osborne, D.H.
Cu: 63-1
Ottar, B.
Fe: 75-13
OM: 75-1
Ottesen, D.K.
OM: 82-10
Ouellette, R.P.
OM: 75-8
Ownby, J.C.
P: 80-9
-------
A-25
0 (continued)
Oyama, M. Parsons, H.L. Pelensky, M.A,
Zn: 74-8 F: 67-4 Fe: 78-9
Patel, B.M.
Fe; 82-10
Pellizzer, R.
MSC: 76-40; 72-8
Paczek, K.
MSC: 71-11
Pagniez, J.L.
Fe: 77-7, 8
Paleni, A.
Cu: 78-12
MSC: 78-13, 38
Patrie, J.
Al: 75-5
Patterson, W.S.
Fe: 38-1; 31-1; 29-1
Pauly, J.P.
MSC: 76-23
Pelzel, E.
Zn: 77-2
Penkala, B.
MSC: 71-11
Pa: 78-4
Perera, D.Y.
Pa: 80-2
Palmer, J.D.
Fe: 82-5
Palmieri, E.L.
MSC: 77-3
Pandey, S.N.
Fe: 72-8
Papakonstantinou, P.
MSC: 76-6, 39
Papenroth, W.
MSC: 74-1
Park, I.M.
Fe: 67-3
Pavlic, P.J.
Fe: 82-11
Pavlinec, J.
P: 71-2; 70-4
Pawlikowski, S.
MSC: 70-3
Payer, J.H.
Cu: 78-5
Pearlman, R.
Fe: 62-5
Pearlstein, F,
CM: 82-4
Perkins, R.N.
Fe: 82-32
Peroni, A.
MSC: 73-16
Perrone, A.
Al: 82-13; 53-1
Peruzzi, R.
MSC: 78-8? 76-27,
Peterson, P.J.
Cu: 82-21; 81-3
Pfeifer, H.
P: 80-7
Parker, A.
Fe: 55-3, 6
Parlapanski, M.
Cu: 71-6
Pearson, V.P.
Fe: 78-5
Zn: 78-10
Pedeferri, P.
Cu: 79-3
Phelan, r.r.
Es 58-1
Phipps, P.B.P.
Cu: 82-21; 81-3
OM: 79-1
-------
A-26
P (continued)
Piazzesi, G. Pochon, J.
Cu: 76-6 MSC: 48-1; 46-1
Piccardie, E.
MSC: 77-12
Podbreznik, F.
Al: 57-1
Pierce, R.R.
Pa: 52-1, 2
Pohlman, J.C.
Fe: 63-7
Pihlajavaara, S.E.
Fe: 80-4
Pollard, A.M.
ONM: 79-1
Pilling, N.B.
Fe: 48-2; 40-1
Polio, X.
MSC: 70-3
Pilpel, N.
MSC: 53-1
Polyakov, S.G.
Fe: 76-19
Piotrowski, A.
Al: 76-3
Ponci, R.
MSC: 73-16
Piro, M.
Fe: 66-6
Popplewell, J.M.
Cu: 82-20
Pissart, A.
MSC: 74-10
Plahter, L.E.
MSC: 71-6
Plahter, U.
MSC: 71-6
Plock, L.F.
OM: 68-7
Plumer, H.C.
MSC: 58-6
Porter, F.C.
Zn: 67-4
Post, M.A.
Pa: 78-1
Potemkin, G.F.
Fe: 62-4
Pourbaix, A.
Fe: 81-3
Pourbaix, M.
Fe: 81-3; 77-2
Prajapat, M.L.
Fe: 69-22
Preban, A.G.
Fe: 75-12
Preininger, E.
Pa: 76-7
Preston, R. St. J.
Fe: 56-3; 50-1; 48-1
Prevosteau, J.M.
MSC: 78-30
Price, C.A.
MSC: 76-12
Prinz, B.
Fe: 77-1
Priscondin, G.
MSC: 76-17
Powell, D.L.
E: 79-2
Proctor, R.P. M.
Fe: 73-24
Propst, E.
MSC: 49-2
Prusek, J.
Fes 82-50
OM; 76-15
Psota-Kelty, L.A.
Al; 82-23
-------
A-27
R
Rabate, H.
Fe: 78-18
Radecke, F.T.
Pa: 54-3
Rahn, P.H.
MSC: 71-12
Rajagopal, C.
Fe: 69—23
Rajagopalan, K.S.
Fe: 69-23
Ramanaiah, G.V.
Fe: 82-26
Rao, M.A.
MSC: 77-11
Pa: 78-2
Rao, V.S.
Fe: 66-3
Rasemann, u.
Fe: 71-23
Re, G.
Cu: 79-3
Reboul, M.
Al: 82-33
Rechner, L.
P: 77-1
Reeves, F.M.
Fe: 82-15
Reichel, G.
CMM: 76-20
Reinhart, F.M.
Al: 63-2; 56-2
P: 58-1
Research Group on Corro-
sion Protection of Steel
Structures
Fe: 73-18
Riccio, V.
Cu: 64-1
Rice, D.W.
Fe: 80-11
Cu: 82-21; 81-3
OM: 79-1
Richardson, B.A.
MSC: 76-14
Richardson, C.H.
MSC: 17-1
Richardson, F.
ONM: 65-3
Richter, M.
Pa: 65-1
Ridker, R.G.
Fe: 67-7
Riederer, J.
Cu: 74-5; 73-3; 72-1,
2; 71-10
OM: 76-18
MSC: 77-18, 19; 74-6;
73-3, 11, 14,15; 72-
5; 71-8, 9; 70-5
ONM: 76-10
Riganti, V.
MSC: 78-10; 73-16
Rigby, E.B.
Cu: 81-3
Rivola, L.
Fe: 66-6
Robbins, R.C.
Al: 70-4
Cu: 73-2
Roberts, B.
Fe: 78-10
Roberts, M.E.
Pa: 54-2
Robertson, B.
Fe: 74-3
Robinson, G.C.
MSC: 82-5
Rockel, M.B.
Fe: 75-7
Rodrigues, J.D.
MSC: 78-25
Reeve, T.B.
Pa: 80-6
Roessler, K.
Fe: 76-4
-------
A-28
R (continued)
Rogers, G.W.
OM: 74-15, 16
MSC: 76-52
Rossetti, V.A.
MSC: 73-4
Itychtera, M.
OM; 71-7
Rogers, R.R.
Fe: 68-3; 66-11
Roizman, P.A.
MSC: 67-1
Romanov, V.N.
Fe: 58-5
Romans, H.B.
A1: 68-4
Rooss, H.
MSC: 76-26
Rosendahl, F.
OM: 76-13
Rosenfel'd, I.L.
Fe: 62-3
Ross, F.F.
Fe: 82-29
Ross, H.
OM: 76-11
ONM: 78-2
ROSS, T.K.
Fe: 66-8, 13; 65-8
Rossetti, R.
MSC: 78-10; 73-16
Rossi-Doria, P.
MSC: 76-5
Rossi-Manaresi, R.
MSC: 75-5; 72-8; 70-6
Rothstadter, E.
Fe: 74-1
Rotondi, P.
Cu: 65-1
Roux, G.
P: 80-8
Rowe, F.M,
F: 37-1
Rowlands, R.P.
ONM: 71-6; 70-2
Roy, S.K.
Fe: 72-8
Rozhdestvenski, E.D.
MSC: 49-1
Rozlivka, L.
Fe: 81-5
Russell, C.A.
Cu: 76-5; 71-8; 70-10
Itybakov, B.N.
Al: 72-1
OM: 72-1
Sabatini, G.
MSC: 76-40;72-8
Sabbioni, C.
MSC: 81-3
Sabersky, R.H.
OM: 73-2
Safranek, W.H.
Cu: 78-5
Sakugawa, H,
Zn: 74-8
Sala, G.
MSC: 82-9
Salmon, R.L.
Fe: 70-13
Salineres, B.
MSC: 76-20
Salvin, V.S.
F: 75-3; 69-2; 64-1
Pa: 74-4
ONM: 69-2; 55-2
Salwikoski, D.E.
Pa: 74-3; 72-1
Salyn, Y.V.
Fe: 77-13
-------
A-29
S (continued)
Sandoe, M.D.
ONM: 80-9
Scheffer, G.J.
E: 50-1
Schwartz, H.
Fes 72-21? 71-16; 65-
22
Santariga, G.
MSC: 76-55
Schick, G.
Fe: 64-2
Schwela, D.
Fe: 77-1
Sanyal, B.
Fe: 74-6; 73-4; 72-8;
71-7, 10; 69-22,
26, 36; 65-17;
62-2; 59-3; 58-
8; 56-3, 4
San'ko, V.A.
Fe: 79-8; 78-7; 77-11
Zn: 71-4
OM: 76-20
Schikorr, G.
Fe: 65-20; 64-4; 63-
5, 6; 58-9; 48-7;
37-1; 36-1
67-2; 64-1; 50-1;
Al:
Ni:
Zn:
49-1
64-1;
64-2
61-3
Schimmelwitz, P.
MSC: 77-20; 76-26
Schwenk, W.
Fe: 77-10; 73-3, 15;
69-27; 68-16
Schwitter, H.
Fe: 82-41
Scott, H.F., Jr.
Fe: 61-6
Sarraa, A.C.
MSC: 73-9
Schmidt, M.
Cu: 70-7
Scott, J.D.
Pa: 77-8
Satake, J.
Fe: 74-26; 73-13, 19;
72-5, 24
Sato, H.
Cu: 75-3
Sato, N.
Fe: 82-19
Schmidt-Thomsen, K.
MSC: 73-12
Schmitt, R.J.
Fe; 69-31; 67-8
Scholes, I.R.
Cu: 70-1
Seibert, C.A.
F: 40-1
Sengupta, M.
MSC: 72-3
Serafimovich, V.B.
Fe: 70-9
Schaeffer, T.C.
ONM: 71-1
Schaffer, R.J.
Fe: 57-5
Cu: 57-3
MSC: 32-3; 29-1
Schaffler, H.
MSC: 58-1
Scholl, G.
Fe: 77-1
Schurr, G.C.
Pa: 74-3; 72-1
Schwab, G.M,
MSC: 78-9
Schwabe, K.
Fe: 74-5
Sereda, P.J.
Fe: 82-37, 42; 74-27;
68-12; 61-5, 60-
1; 59-1; 50-2
Zn: 59-3
OM: 60-4
Sergeeva, E.I.
Fe: 70-9
OM: 76-20
-------
A-30
S (continued)
Serizawa, M. Shiga, T. Sinema, D.A.
Fe: 75-8 E: 63-1 CM: 73-2
Serra, M.
Cu: 77-4
MSC: 78-31, 73-1
Serres, A.M.
Pa: 80-11
Sexton, P.
Fe: 78-6
Shaffer, I.S.
Al: 72-3
Shair, F.H.
OM: 73-2
Shalamov, N.P.
MSC: 60-1
Shimodaira, S.
Fe: 74-19; 71-26
Shinagawa, M.
Pa: 71-3
Shlyafirner, A.M.
Fe: 75-15
Showak, W.
Zn: 82-4, 21
Shreir, L.L.
Fe: 72-4; 70-3
Shutz, R.W.
OM: 81-4
Singhania, G.K.
Fe: 74-6; 73-4; 72-8;
71-7, 10; 69-22,
26, 36; 65-17;
56-4
Sinyavskii, V.S.
Al: 76-2
Skerrey, E.W.
Al: 82-24
Skorchelletti, V.B.
Fe: 53-1
Skoulikidos, T.
Fe: 76-3
MSC: 82-3, 79-6, 76-6,
39
Shanahan, C.E.A.
Fe: 72-4; 70-3
Shuvakhina, L.A.
Al: 73-1
Zn: 73-1; 71-4
OM: 71-10
Slade, H.F.
Fe: 82-42
Sharma, B.R.N.
MSC: 78-26
Silveri, A.
MSC: 73-7
Slaten, B.L.
F: 79-1, 2
Shaw, T.P.
Fe: 82-29
Siitonson, E.R.
E: 69-1
Sleater, G.A.
MSC: 77-14; 73-2
Sherwood, P.W.
Fe: 66-7
Simov, S.
Fe: 68-18
Sligh, W.H.
MSC: 40-1; 32-2
Shevchenko, D.S.
Fes 66-10
Siicpson, J.W.
Fe: 70-17
Smetania, N.G.
Als 69-4
Shevyakov, P.E.
MSC: 59-4
Sinclair, J.D.
Al: 82-23
OM: 82-18
Smith, B.F.
F: 79-1, 2
-------
A-31
S (continued)
Smith, D.I.
MSC: 78-34
Smith, D.M.
E: 53-3
Smith, G.
Fe: 71-22
Smith, R.
OM: 82-3
Smith, R.C.
E: 79-2
Smith, R.D.
Cu: 78-2
Sneck, T.
MSC: 57-1
Snethlage, R.
MSC: 81-5; 78-21
Snowball, R.F.
Cu: 67-2
Sofianopoulas, A.J.
MSC: 51-1
Soggetti, F.
MSC: 78-10; 73-16
Sokolov, N.A.
Fe: 78-7
Solacolu, C.
MSC: 69-2
Sommer, S.E.
MSC: 82-2
Sorantin, H.
ONM: 76-21
Sotskov, N.I.
Fe: 75-15
Southwell, C.R.
Fe: 82-9
OM: 76-6
Sowinski, G.
Al: 82-34
Spedding, D.J.
Fe: 82-15; 81-14; 74-
23; 73-12, 14,
20? 71-20
Al: 72-4; 71-3
OM: 74-9
MSC: 69-4
ONM: 72-2; 71-6; 70-2,
3
Spence, J.W.
Fe: 78-12; 76-5; 75-
11; 74-10
Zn: 76-7
Fj 76-6
Pa: 75-1; 74-3; 72-3,
5
Spence, R.
ONMj 75-6
Spivak, S.M.
F: 79-1
Sprott, A.J.
Fe: 81-14; 76-11
Sprowls, D.O.
Al: 82-34; 74-4, 5;
53-2
Sramek, J.
MSC: 80-9; 78-35; 77-16
Staffeldt, E.E.
Cu: 78-12
Stahl, Q.R.
Fe: 69-2, 10, 12, 15,
18
Stambolov, T.
MSC: 76-49, 50; 75-10;
71-4; 68-3
Stankunas, A.R.
Fe: 80-2
Stanners, J.F.
Fe: 74-20; 71-17; 70-
18; 69-34; 66-9;
55-5; 53-4
Al: 69-8
Starace, G.
Cu: 77-4
MSC: 78-31; 73-1
Starczewski, M.
MSC: 70-3
Stark, H.J.
P: 54-2
Steele, B.
MSC: 69-3
-------
A-32
S (continued)
Steenas, G.
Fe: 68-10
Struckus, E.J.
Al: 68-6
Suzuki, I.
Fe: 80-15? 79-5
Zn: 82-19
Steensland, 0.
Fe: 68-10
Stunp, F.D.
Fe: 75-11
Suzuki, S.
Cu: 75-3
Steinegger, H.
MSC: 70-9
Subbotkin, M.I.
Al: 69-4
Suzuki, Y.
Cu: 79-5
Stevens, J.R.
F: 73-3
Suetaka, W.
Fe: 71-26
Svoboda, M.
Pa: 73-1
Stewart, T.B.
MSC: 76-29
Sufori, J.
MSC: 76-20
Swandby, R.K.
Fe: 63-1
Stolow, N.
OM: 66-7
CNM: 67-3
Sugano, T.
Fe: 65-2; 64-1
Al: 65-1
Swenson, E.G.
MSC: 71-3
Stone, J.T.
OM: 75-8
Stone, R.L>
F: 76-2
Stoyanova, N.
Fe: 68-18
Strauss, D.R.
Zn: 80-7
Strekalov, P.V.
Fe: 82-23; 80-1; 79-
1; 72-16
Al: 78-6; 73-3
Zn: 76-5; 74-6; 72-4,
5; 66-3
OM: 78-1
Sullivan, R.J.
Fe: 69-4, 5, 11, 14,
16
Sumnerson, T.J.
Al: 74-4; 68-3
Sunmitt, R.
Fe: 80-16, 17
Al: 82-7, 31
Sundaram, M.
Fe: 69-23
Sundberg, R.
Al: 71-5
Surtel, J.J.
F: 75-1
Sydberger, T.
Fe: 80-12; 78-14; 75-
18; 72-22; 71-9;
70-2, 11
Cu: 77-1
Szobor, A.
Fe: 79-1
Tabasso-Laurenzi, M.
MSC: 76-5; 73-4, 8
Tachikawa, K.
Pa: 71-3
Tagaya, M.
Fe: 51-5
Stroud, E.G.
Fe: 50-1
-------
A-33
Takao, G.
Cu: 77-2
T'chi Hang Wang, C.
Zn: 73-1
Thompson, R.F.
Fe: 56-1
Talati, J.D.
Fe: 82-10
Teeple, H.O.
CM: 56-2
Thomson, G.
OM: 77-2
Talen, H.W.
E: 50-1? 31-1
Teitel, L.
OM: 82-4
Thorvaldson, T.
MSC: 54-1
Tamba, A.
Fe: 73-17? 70-8
Tereschchenko, S.G.
Fe: 62-4
Thundal, B.
Al: 71-5
Tangeberg, P.
Pa: 79-1
Ternes, H.
Fe: 68-16
Tiano, P.
MSC: 78-1? 76-24
Tanjaruphan, P..
MSC: 77-11
The Concrete Society of
South Africa
MSC: 77-5
Tice, E.A.
Fe: 64-3? 62-6
Tanner, H.
MSC: 80-20
Theiler, F.
Zn: 74-15
Tickle, T.C.K.
Fe: 60-6
Taralon, J.
MSC: 76-34
Tator, K.B.
Pa: 77-9
Thelaxnon, C.
E: 56-1
Thomas, G.H,
MSC: 70-2
Timberlake, L.
Fe: 81-11
Time Magazine
MSC: 80-15? 77-2
CNM: 77-1
Taylor, C.A.J.
Fe: 72-12
Thomas, H.E.
Fes 68-4
Tirbonod, F.
Fe: 76-2
Taylor, E.
Fe: 82-7
Taylor, J.E.
CNM: 71-6
Tavadze, F.N.
Fe: 71-11
Tchan, Y.
MSC: 48-1? 46-1
Thomas, U.B.
Cu: 68-10
Thompson, D.H.
Cu: 68-1? 56-5
Thompson, G.
MSC: 74-12
Thompson, I.W.
CNM: 78-4
Toishi, K.
Pa: 67-3
Tomashov, N.D.
Fe: 66-2? 60-7? 57-3
OM: 59-2
Tombach, I.
MSC: 82-7
-------
A-34
T (continued)
Tomokichi, I.
MSC: 63-5
Pa: 63-4; 62-2
Tonini, D.E.
Al: 82-9
Torlaschi, S.
Pa: 72-2
Toroczkay, G.
MSC: 69-1
Trentelevres, G.
Al: 82-33
Tret'yakova, G.A.
Fe: 73-9
Trombka, J.I.
MSC: 82-2
Trout, H.E.
Fe: 79-4
Truman, J.E.
Fe: 79-9
Ukishima, Y.
Fe: 72-18
Ulsh, H. B.
Cu: 66-7
(Jpham, J. B.
Fe: 78-12; 77-6; 76-
5; 75-11; 74-7;
71-12; 67-2; 65-
14
Zn: 70-3
F: 76-6; 75-3; 67-
2, 3
Pa: 75-1
Torraca, G.
MSC: 76-8; 16, 75-8
74-3; 73-8
Torrible, E.G.
Al: 70-3
Tsai, S.
Fe: 82-46; 80-13
Tsuno, K.
Pa: 71-3
Uwe, A.
Pa: 77-3
Uwe, G.
Pa: 77-3
Tovmas'yan, J.K.
Fe: 66-10
Townsend, H.E.
Fe: 82-34
Al: 82-27; 79-2; 78-2
Tracey, A.W.
Fe: 51-3
Cu: 56-2, 5
Tranter, G.C.
OM: 76-14
Trask, B.J.
F: 68-1; 67-2
Tremoureux, R.
Cu: 81-3
OM: 79-1
Tukachinskii, S.E.
Fe: 53-1
Turkovskaya, A.V.
OM: 65-1
Tyleoote, R.F.
Cu: 79-7
U
Ueki, T.
Fe: 65-2; 64-1
Al: 65-1
Ueno, T.
Fe: 74-14; 71-18
Uhlig, H. H.
Fe: 64-2
Vaccari, J.A.
OM: 71-8
E: 74-4
Valeriana de Seabra, A.
Fe: 70-6
Van Asperen de Boen,
J . R.J.
MSC: 76-50; 75-10
Van dyke-Lee, D.J.
ONM: 76-22
Van Eeden, G.S.
P: 80-3
Van Muylder, J.
Fe: 77-2
-------
A-35
Vannerberg/ N.G.
Fe: 78-19; 73-21; 72-
1, 22; 71-9; 70-
2, 11
Vannucci, S.A.
MSCs 76-15; 74-5
Van Rooyen, D.
Ni: 68-1
Van Rossem, A.
E: 31-1
Varga, T.
MSC: 78-32
Varhoshkov, A.E.
Fe: 81-16
Varshal, B.G.
MSC: 61-2
Vasiliu, A.
MSC: 69-2
Venecanin, S.D.
MSC: 80-11
Veniale, F.
MSC: 78-10
Verdu, J.
P: 74-3
Vermeulen, A.J.
Fe: 78-1
Vernon, W.H.J.
Fe: 51-1; 43-1; 37-2;
35-1, 2
Cu: 29-2; 27-1
OM: 27-1
Vesely, V.
Al: 71-7
Vianna, R.
Fe: 82-16
Vittori, 0.
MSC: 81-3; 76-10; 75-
1, 2
Vlickova, J.
Fe: 82-12; 81-5, 15;
75-4; 74-8; 70-10
OM: 75-11
Volkening, V.B.
Pa: 63-3
Von Eijnsbergen, J.F.H.
Zn: 71—6
Vorster, O.C.
Pa: 80-8
W
Waddell, T.E.
Fe: 74-21; 73-10
Wadlow, H.V.
Cu: 71-8; 70-10
Wagner, R.H.
Al: 53-3
Waite, J.G.
Fe: 80-14
Walker, A.M.
F: 75-2
Walker, R.
Cu: 80-4
Walker, R.A.
ONM: 55-2
Wallner, F.
Fe: 71-29; 70-19
Walsh, M.
F: 77-3
Walton, C.J.
Al: 56-6; 53-2
Wang, R.H.S.
P: 80-9
Wames, R.
MSC: 34-1; 26-1
Warwick, M.E.
Cu: 82-27
Wassermann, G.
Al: 49-1
Watson, A.J.
CNM: 76-12
Watterson, K.F.
Fe: 72-6
Watkins, K.O.
Fe: 69-34
Weaver, M.E.
MSC: 80-5
Weil, P.D.
Cu: 78-11; 76-2;
5; 74-6
-------
A-36
W (continued)
Wesley, W.A.
Fe: 51-6? 48-2; 40-1
Wessel, C.J.
OM: 54-1
ONM: 72-1? 54-2
Wettach, W.
Fe: 69-33
Williams, M.E.
Pa: 73-2
Williams, M.L.
E: 69-1
Williamson, J.B.P.
Cu: 67-2
Wilson, M.J.G.
MSC: 70-4
Wolski, W.
Cu: 72-4
Wong, S.M.
OM: 81-3
Wood, G.C.
Fe: 77-12
Wood, J.C.
Fe: 78-22
Wheeler, E.E.
Fe: 73-12
Wheeler, K.R.
Al: 82-4
Whitby, L.
Cu: 29-2
White, E.L.
Zn: 62-5
White, R.
MSC: 74-12
Whitney, R.S.
ONM: 80-12
Wiederholt, W.
Cu: 64-2
Wilcox, S.
OM: 75-8
Wilkinson, J.H-
Fe: 38-1
Williams, E.
Fe: 65-9
Winans, R.R.
P: 54-2
Winkler, E.M.
Fe: 70-14
OM: 70-3
MSC: 78-27, 29; 77-17;
76-31, 56; 75-7?
73-10; 71-5; 66-
1/ 2
Winterbottom, M.A.
Fe: 77-12
Witte, W.
Fe: 71-28
Wbhlers, H.C.
Pa: 66-1
Wblfe, W.C.
Fe: 74-25
Wolff, A.
MSC: 78-28; 75-12; 73-
13
W&lff, R.H.
Zn: 58-1
Wood, L.W.
Fe: 58-4
ONM: 58-1
Woods, H.
MSC: 68-2
Wbrthington, R.
Fe: 36-2
Wtanglen, G.
Fe: 70-16
Wren, A.G.
MSC: 78-15
Wright, T.E.
Fe: 82-45
Yakubova, G.P,
Fe: 75-15
Yamasaki, R.S.
P: 80-2
-------
A-37
Yarborough, K.A.
MSC: 79-2
Yaseen, M.
Pa: 78-6
Yasuda, M.
Fe: 81-8
Yasukawa, S.
Fe: 81-8
Yeoman, F.A.
E: 80-2
Ylasaari, S.
Fe: 82-17
Z
Zador, M.
MSC: 78-32
Zahradnik, B.
P: 80-3
Zak, T.
Fe: 82-38
Zalensinski, G.
AI: 51-1
Zannucci, J.S.
P: 80-9
Yocum, J.E.
Fe: 80-2; 77-6; 76-6;
59-5
MSC: 79-1
Yokoi, Y.
Fe: 73-1? 71-1; 70-1
Zellinger, J.
MSC: 77-4
Zeronian, S.H.
F: 70-2, 3
P: 73-2
ONM: 69-1
Yoshikadzu, E.
MSC: 64-1
Yoshimichi, E.
MSC: 63-3
Pa: 63-1
Yu, E.S.
Fe: 76-13
Yukawa, K.
Fes 72-15
Yustein, S.E.
P: 54-2
Zezza, U.
MSC: 81-10; 78-10
Zhuravleva, N.X.
AI: 73-1
Zindy, B.
Pa: 76-7
Zinevich, A.M.
Fe: 70-9
Zoccola, J.C.
Fe: 82-34
AI: 79-2; 78-2
Zorzella, G.
Pa: 72-2
Zudov, P.L.
P: 77-2
Zuev, Y.S.
E: 66-1; 53-2; 51-2
Zuppi, G.M.
MSC: 77-3
-------
CMB-1
CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLES INDEX
I. Chemical Variables
A. Organic compounds
1)
Fe:
80-18; 79-7; 78-21; 74-12; 73-9; 71-12; 69-2,12; 68-11; 67-8
63-6; 58-2
2)
Al:
75-2; 69-4; 57-1
3)
Cu:
82-27; 81-4; 79-5; 78-12; 76-5; 71-6; 67-4; 64-3; 50-3
4)
Ni:
None
5)
Zn:
None
6)
OM:
82-18; 74-15,16; 70-3
7)
MSC:
78-17; 77-8; 73-4,6,15; 71-2; 57-1; 53-2; 50-1
8)
E:
53-1
9)
F:
None
10)
Pa:
77-9; 76-4; 54-3
11)
P:
None
12)
ONM:
None
B. Inorganic compounds
1. Halogens
a. Chlorine
1) Fe: 82-1,4,13,15,20,21,22,24,30,34,45,52; 81-3,4,8,11;
80-1,13; 79-1,3,4; 78-2,5,9,16,20; 77-2,4,8,9; 76-
10,15, 17,19; 75-2,3,5,17; 74-24,26; 73-
3,4,5,9,15,18,22; 72-3,4,6,24; 71-4,11,14,17,19,21;
70-8,10,12,14,18; 69-10,23,24,26,31,33,34; 68-
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,10,12,13,18; 67-6,8; 66-7,10,12; 65-
2,3,4,5,7,19; 64-1,3; 63-1,2,4; 62-2,7,8; 61-2,3,4;
60-2,4,5,6,7; 59-7; 58-2,5,6; 57-1,2,4,5; 56-2; 55-
1,2,4,5; 53-5; 52-1,5; 51-2,5,6; 48-1,7; 45-1; 40-1;
38-1; 37-1
2) Al: 82-4; 80-13,23; 81-2; 78-4; 75-6; 74-4,5,6; 71-3,5;
70-3,5; 69-1,4,9; 68-2,6,8; 67-3; 63-2; 57-1; 56-2
3) Cu: 82-3,6,20,22; 81-3; 78-5,10; 71-6,7; 70-1,5; 68-1,2;
58-3; 57-3; 56-2; 50-1; 29-2
-------
CBM-2
4)
Ni:
82-2,5; 68-1
5)
Zn:
82-4,16,19,21;
70-2; 68-3; 66-
6)
OM:
82-4; 81-3; 79-
2,5; 67-2; 64
7)
MSC:
81-8,10,11; 80-i
77-1,10,12,14;
75-10,13; 71-5,
2; 49-1,2; 37-1
8)
E:
31-1
9)
F:
None
10)
Pa:
77-9; 76-4; 75-
11)
P:
None
12)
ONM:
None
b. Other halogens
1) Fe: 74-24; 73-9; 60'
2)
Al:
69-1; 68-6
3)
Cu:
82-22
4)
Ni:
None
5)
Zn:
None
6)
OM:
78-11
7)
MSC:
76-25,37,44; 75-
8)
E:
None
9)
F:
None
10)
Pa:
None
11)
P:
None
12)
ONM:
74-4
Nitrogen compounds
a. Nitrogen oxides
1) .Fe: 82-39,40; 81-11; 80-2,18; 79-7,10; 78-12,21;- 76-5;
75-11; 74-10,12; 71-12; 70-14; 68-3,18; 65-3; 64-2;
61-5
-------
CBM-3
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
b. Ammonia
Al: 76-1; 69-4; 68-6; 53-1
Cu: 82-3; 75-3; 71-6,8; 70-10; 57-1
Ni: None
Zn: None
OM: 82-10; 79-1; 77-6; 74-15,16; 73-1; 71-3,7; 70-1,3,5
MSC: 80-13,16,20; 79-7; 78-8,15; 77-13; 76-13,20; 73-13;
72-9; 71-5,8; 70-3; 60-2; 53-2; 17-1
E: 79-1; 78-1; 76-1; 74-3; 67-3; 53-1; 31-1
F: 79-1,2; 76-6; 73-2; 72-1; 70-3; 69-2; 64-1; 63-1;
40-1; 37-1
Pa: 77-9; 75-1; 74-4; 71-3; 63-4; 51-1
P: 78-2; 76-7; 75-2; 74-1; 71-1,2; 70-1
ONM: 65-3; 55-2
Fe: 82-4; 80-11; 76-19; 73-6; 71-14,21; 69-3,36; 68-18;
66-2,8; 64-2; 62-4; 60-3,6; 51-1; 38-1; 35-2
Al: 76-3; 69-4; 68-6; 53-1
Cu: 71-6; 66-6; 57-1,3; 56-2; 50-3
Ni: None
Zn: 62-4
OM: 79-1; 76-8; 74-15,16
MSC: 78-15; 76-5; 75-1; 71-5; 70-3; 67-1; 63-2; 37-1;
34-1; 26-1; 17-1; 10-1
8)
E:
None
9)
F:
None
10)
Pa:
None
11)
P:
65-1
12)
ONM:
None
c. Other
1) Fe: 81-16; 76-9; 68-17
-------
CBM-4
3. Ozone
2)
Al:
69-1; 68-6
3)
Cu:
82-22
4)
Ni:
None
5)
Zn:
None
6)
ONM:
None
7)
MSC:
58-4
8)
E:
None
9)
F:
None
10)
Pa:
None
11)
P:
None
12)
ONM:
None
1)
Fe:
82-52; 80-2,18; 79-7,10; 78-12,21; 76-5; 75-11;
74-10; 71-12; 60-4; 55-2
2)
Al:
76-1; 68-6
3)
Cu:
81-3; 77-2; 62-2; 60-2; 57-1
4)
Ni:
None
5)
Zn:
None
6)
OM:
79-1; 77-7; 74-15,16; 73-2; 71-7; 70-5
7)
MSC:
71-2
8)
E:
80-2; 79-1,2; 78-1; 76-1; 74-4; 69-1; 67-2,3; 66-1;
62-1; 58-1,2; 56-1,2; 53-1,2,3; 52-1; 51-1,2,3; 50
40-1,2; 31-1
9)
F:
79-1,-2; 76-6; 75-3; 73-2; 72-1; 70-3; 67-3; 66-1;
64-1; 63-1; 52-1
10)
Pa:
77-9; 75-1; 74-3,4;. 73-1; 65-3
11)
P:
81-1; 78-2; 74-1,3; 70-1,2; 69-3
12)
ONM:
78-3; 76-20; 69-1,2; 55-2
-------
CBM-5
Carbon dioxide
1
Fe: 80-2; 71-12,19,21; 70-14; 68-8; 65-3,16; 58-3; 53-1;
38-1; 37-2; 35-2
Al: 53-1
3)
Cu:
None
4)
Ni:
None
5)
Zn:
70-2;
6)
OM:
78-11; 76-
7)
MSC:
80-10; 78-
71-5; 67-1
34-2; 29-2
8)
E:
None
9)
F:
None
10)
Pa:
78-2; 77-9
11)
P:
None
12)
ONM:
73-4
Carbon Monoxide
1) Fe: 71-12
2)
Al:
None
3)
Cu:
None
4)
Ni:
None
5)
Zn:
None
6)
OM:
70-1
7)
MSC:
71-2; 32-3
8)
E:
None
9)
F:
75-2; 67-3
10)
Pa:
None
11)
P:
None
12)
ONM:
78-3
-------
CBM-6
6. Heavy metals
1
8. 0
1
Fe: 82-4; 69-6,7,9,11,14,15,16,19,20
2)
Al:
None
3)
Cu:
None
4)
Ni:
None
5)
Zn:
82-19; 74.-8; 72-3
6)
0M:
None
7)
MSC:
None
8)
E:
None
9)
F:
None
10)
Pa:
75-5; 57-1
U)
P:
None
12)
ONM:
None
Hydrogen
1) Fe:
sulfide
80-1; 79-7; 78-21; 71-5,21; 70-8; 69-36
2)
Al:
69-4; 68-6; 53-1
3)
Cu:
82-3,29; 81-3; 71-6; 76-6; 70-5; 58-3; 50
4)
Ni:
None
5)
Zn:
70-2
6)
OM:
82-18; 79-1; 76-8; 74-15,16; 71-4
7)
MSC:
77-3; 73-13; 71-2; 50-1; 48-1; 46-1
8)
E:
None
9)
F:
None
10)
Pa:
77-7
U)
P:
None
12)
ONM:
None
her compounds
Fe: 69-4,5,8,17,18; 66-2; 29-1
-------
CBM-7
2) Al: 53-1
3) Cu: 74-7; 50-3
4) Ni: None
5) Zn: None
6) OM: None
7) MSC: 77-8; 76-13; 56; 75-2; 72-2; 70-3,5; 49-2; 29-2
8) E: None
9) F: 55-1
10) Pa: 77-9; 76-4; 75-5
11) P: None
12) ONM: None
B. Particulates
1. Soiling
1) Fe: 80-2; 79-4; 77-4; 75-15; 74-12; 71-2,14,21; 69-26;
68-14, 19; 67-2; 66-7; 65-2; 62-6; 61-2; 58-3,7;
55-6; 51-5; 37-2
2) Al: None
3) Cu: 74-5
4) Ni: None
5) Zn: 70-2
6) OM: 74-15,16; 70-5; 67-2; 64-5; 58-1
7) MSC: 82-11; 81-3,9; 80-15; 79-6,10; 78-39; 77-1; 76-17,20; 76-
31; 75-6; 14-1
8) E: None
9) F: 75-2,3; 50-1
10) Pa: 63-4; 62-1; 54-2
11) P: None
12) ONM: 76-14; 74-4
-------
CBM-8
2. Other
Fe: 82-4,17; 77-4; 73-21; 72-13; 71-5,21; 70-8; 68-1; 65-12;
62-6; 58-5; 35-2
2) Al: None
3) Cu: 79-5; 76-5; 73-4; 71-1,7; 70-10; 58-3; 57-3; 53-2
4) Ni: None
5) Zn: 74-8
6) OM: 78-10; 77-7; 76-8,18; 71-7; 70-5
7) MSC: 82-11; 81-3,4,9; 80-20; 79-1,6,10; 78-3,39; 77-1; 76-
10,20,31; 75-2,6; 73-6,15; 71-5,6; 66-3; 63-5; 51-1
8) E: 67-3
9) F; 68-1; 67-2,3
10) Pa: 72-3; 63-4; 62-1; 57-1
11) P: None
12) ONM: None
II. Biological
1
Variables
Fe: 73-23; 72-19; 55-2; 53-2
Al: None
3
4
5
6]
7) MSC:
Cu: 78-12
Ni: None
Zn: None
OM: 71-7
82-9; 80-1; 79-3,4,6; 78-1,2,13,16,17,19,29,32,37,38;
77-17,19,21; 76-8,9,13,14,15,24,28,41,53; 75-3; 73-2;
73-4,7; 72-2; 71-5,8; 70-5; 68-4; 66-3; 64-1; 63-2;
62-2; 60-2; 57-1; 52-1; 50-1; 48-1; 46-1; 37-1; 34-2;
32-3; 29-2; 26-3; 25-1; 03-1
8) E: 80-2
9) F: None
10) Pa: 77-7; 76-14; 74-8; 73-2; 62-2; 54-2
-------
CBM-9
11) P: None
12) ONM: 76-22; 72-1; 54-2
III. Meteorological Variables
A. Solar
1) Fe: 82-21,37; 80-2; 78-12; 77-11; 75; 74-18; 73-2,18;
71-21; 59-7
2) A1: None
3) Cu: 78-10
4) Ni: None
5) Zn: None
6) OM: 82-18; 81-3; 77-2; 75-3; 74-15; 71-7; 64-5
7) MSC: 82-7; 78-29,37,39; 77-5,14,17; 76-34,52; 62-2
8) E: 80-2; 79-1; 74-3,4; 53-1; 51-1,2; 46-1; 31-1
9) F: 81-1; 76-2; 75-1; 73-3; 70-2,3; 69-2; 68-1; 67-3;
66-1; 37-1
10) Pa: 78-1; 77-4,7; 76-7,13; 75-1,5; 74-3; 73-1; 72-4;
67-3; 54-2
11) P: 81-1; 80-2,3,4,6,10,11; 77-2; 76-6,7; 74-3; 73-2;
71-1,2; 70-1,3,4; 69-3; 58-1
12) ONM: 80-12; 76-19,22; 75-3,5; 72-1; 54-2
B. Temperature
1) Fe: 82-37,39,46; 81-75; 80-1,18; 79-7; 78-7,14; 77-2;
75-11; 74-11; 73-2,18; 70-4,18; 69-23,24; 68-12;
66-2,4; 65-2,16; 64-1; 62-2,5; 60-2; 59-1,3; 50-2;
48-7; 35-1
2) Al: 78-6; 73-1; 68-6
3) Cu: 60-2; 55-1; 50-1
4) Ni: 61-3
5) Zn: 80-10; 76-5; 71-4; 66-3
6) OM: 81-3; 78-1; 76-20; 74-15; 71-7; 66-8; 64-5; 60-4
-------
CBM-10
7) MSC: 82-5,7,9,10,11; 81-9; 80-13,11,14,21; 78-1,8,18,35;
78-37,39,40; 77-3,5,13,14,16; 76-2,8,34,42,47,51; 76-
52,53,56; 74-5; 73-7,10; 72-2; 70-5; 67-3; 66-3;
26-1; 03-1
8) E: 80-2; 74-3; 69-1; 67-2; 51-1; 46-1
9) F: 75-1; 73-2; 67-3; 66-1; 55-1
10) Pa: 78-6; 77-4; 75-1; 74-3; 72-4; 67-3; 54-2
11) P: 81-1; 80-6,9,10; 74-1; 71-1; 70-3; 69-2; 65-1; 58-1
12) ONM: 80-12
C. Wind
1) Fe: 82-39,46; 80-18; 79-7; 78-14; 74-18; 73-2; 72-19;
69-22,23; 65-2; 60-2
2) Al: None
3) Cu: None
4) Ni: None
5) Zn: 80-7,10; 70-2
6) OM: 71-7; 70-5; 64-5
7) MSC: 82-9,7,10,11; 80-21; 78-1,37,39; 77-13; 76-8,25;
76-51,56; 75-3; 73-13; 70-5; 66-3; 62-2; 26-1
8)
E:.
None
9)
F:
None
10)
Pa:
None
11)
P:
None
12)
ONM:
80-12
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITUE AND SUBTITLE
ACIDIC DEPOSITION AND THE CORROSION AND DETERIORATION
OF MATERIALS IN THE ATMOSPHERE: A Bibliography, 1880
1982
S. REPORT DATE
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
D. Flinn, S. Cramer, J. Carter, P. Lee and S. Sherwood
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines/Avondale Research Center
Avondale, Maryland 20782
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
CCVN1A-03/3024 (FY83)
11. C6NTRACT/GRANT no.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory - RTP, NC
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/09
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
Materials exposed to the atmosphere are subjected to a wide variety of stressing
agents such as wind, solar radiation, temperature, biological species, many forms of
water, and chemical agencies including pollutant gases, particulate matter, and com-
ponents of rainfall, dew, snow, sleet, fog, and aerosols. This bibliography contains
more than 1300 article citations and abstracts on the effects of acidic deposition,
air pollutants, and biological and meteorological factors on the corrosion and deterio-
ration of materials in the atmosphere. The listing includes citations for the years
1950 to 1982, with selected citations for the years 1880 to 1949. The citations are
catalogued by year in six sections for metallic materials--ferrous material, aluminum,
copper, nickel, zinc and galvanized steel, and other metals—and six sections for
non-metallic materials—masonry, stone and ceramics, elastomers, fabrics, paints,
plastics, and other nonmetals. An author index and an index of chemical, biological,
and meteorological variables are provided.
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS
b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
UNCLASSIFIED -
21. NO. OF PAGES
JO. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
I PA form 2220-1 (R«v. 4-77) pncvious coition is omolite
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