v; idffpjtu
j'i.j>fct ¦ . viw'" ^}
.jin li $$. xi$mw
Sra&f v&Vft* ?¦$&¦»*"' i® V': f?
'. ¦ ini* *. C5 ¦-, „ t • r' v i C1'"
n ;tS:V- f:,-. ".<.;;^'.C
'p-f5^1'^ i"' " ">':U f ¦7,:' • - •."" • * '-'
.
Report to the
Intemationai Joint Commission
Under the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement
•fij* -ii<«
^w**3wr»«
va'f4§| iii§'-ai^mtcirv /"•*. - • &v&&; jMv- . fit, U
V'3'. ¦ v"rtp ;
(tv ;
•• . -"•' /Va-1'4; :>«SS5
itj.O't ' r>; $;
VO tfK-y- ' ^^7' " gV • *• •• •'
t||g£ £^|m»' ¦¦¦¦
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
lii®. 1 1. I <'i " < Mb • ¦£¦•>#£"• •'*•*•• ?•¦•£¦«"¦• 'b.
X, '' ' (SKI '\.-.\£t. Mk8i(«W .
7f*. . -tt Q!,- ,¦¦ V ¦ , .": , 7F
/• « iX) J:,-1' V-' J
-v.-;'5
Second Report
September 1991
* ftcM"-•'?1 ¦¦'4' ft 1
¦'(oi , H
|ji.;.. npg^idiA, ¦
¦ M*$s >'•-¦ Com; fe"':v ' §;¥¦[
-¦ ' }i u\ ' ,•¦':-•• ? "f •
»:>«,. .,!«0,|)Ji|: "f'
;SSS#$ If/ ¦«
w*
KfH
. . H".;' ¦ r:-.
. . • . " Hi6 < '
HBttf
'• ^.' v: • *-vf..••?.?.•• • ',? i'fcvr.rrA
V>J
.^rr •. ;V% i .rt-T
& -i - 4 4 :? Pipi 1
-------
Report to the
International Joint Commission
Under the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Second Report
September 1991
-------
Table of Contents
Preface
Chapter One; Introduction ..
The Great Lakes
Economy in Historical Perspective
Some Ecological Impacts of Development
Chapter Two: Aspects of Ecosystem Health 1
Persistent Toxic Substances 1
Contaminated Bottom Sediments . .2
Degraded Wetlands 2
Exotic Species 2
Excessive Nutrients . 2
Chapter Three: The Great Lakes Program: A Model, Ecosystem Approach . 3]
A Shared Strategy 3
Identify Priority Problems 3!
Promote Pollution Prevention .. 3:
Geographic Targeting — 3-
Apply Multi-media Tools ..... 3:
Integrated Regulation and Enforcement . * 3<
Engage the Public * • 3<
Measure Progress -.. - 3<
Cooperation with Canada ..3'
Chapter Foun Restoring the Ecosystem: Actions to Implement the Water Quality Agreement 3!
Framework .39
Remedial Action Planning - -. • 40
ARCS Program , — 44
Lakewide Management Planning 46
Phosphorus Load Reduction Plan .47
Chapter Five: Actions By Federal Partners .53
The Army Corps of Engineers 53
The Coast Guard ....... ,i. -.1: .... ... 55
The Fish and Wildlife Service —. — 56
The Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory 59
The Soil Conservation Service ;... .61
Chapter Six: Great Lakes Monitoring .65
Integrated Atmospheric Deposition Network 66
Green Bay Study 67
New Research Vessel 68
System-Wide Surveillance : .. .68
Appendix 71
End Notes and Sources Ill
Glossary * 115
-------
Figures
1-1 The Great Lakes Watershed
1-2 Depth Profile of the Great Lakes and Summaiy of Their Physical Features
1-3 Average Mercury Concentrations in Walleye from Lake St Clair
2-1 Simplified View of the Great Lakes Food Web
2-2 Lake Ontario Food Web Biomagnification
2-3 Contamination in Herring Gull Eggs, Sister Island, Green Bay
2-4 Contaminants in Lake Michigan Bloater Chubs
2-5 Great Lakes Fish Contamination in National Perspective (1984)
2-6 Combined Sewer Overflows Along the Detroit River
2-7 Sediment Contamination in the Lower Detroit River as Suggested by
Impacts on Benthic Macroinvertebrate Communities
2-8 Routes of Releases of Toxic Substances around the Great Lakes according
to the Toxics Release Inventory (1988)
2-9 Releases of Toxic Substances around the Great Lakes by Manufacturing
Industrial Group according to the Toxics Release Inventory (1988) ....
2-10 Releases of Toxic Substances in Great Lakes counties according to the
Toxics Release Inventory (1988)
2-11 Presettlement Extent of the Black Swamp in Northwestern Ohio
2-12 Timing of the Entry of Exotic Species into the Great Lakes
2-13 Entry Routes of Exotic Species .26
2-14 Phosphorus Loading to Lake Erie
2-15 Spring Phosphorus Levels in Lake Erie's Central Basin .28
2-16 Oxygen Depletion Rate for the bottom waters of the Central Basin of Lake Erie .28
4-1 Areas of Concern
4-2 Cropland in the Great Lakes Watershed (1988)
4-3 Conservation Ullage in the Great Lakes Watershed (1988)
5-1 Great Lakes Harbors with the Most Recorded Oil and Chemical Spills, January 1980-September 1989
6-1 Green Bay/Fox River Study Area
6-2 Contaminants in Several Species of Lake Michigan Fish
Tables
2-1 Great Lakes Fish Consumption Advisories (1989)
2-2 Some Key Toxic Contaminants in the Great Lakes
A-l Provision of U.S Remedial Action Plans to the International Joint Commission
A-2 Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern
-------
Preface
Reporting under the Water Quality Agreement
This is the second report by the United States pursuant to its Great Lakes
Water Quality Agreement with Canada. Under provisions added to the Agree-
ment in 1987, each nation agreed to report to the International Joint Commission
(IJC) every two years on their respective progress in relation to six topics. These
topics are:
• Progress in developing and implementing Remedial Action Plans and
Lakewide Management Plans and in restoring beneficial uses of the Great
Lakes (Annex 2, paragraph 7(b)).
• Progress of programs and measures to reduce the generation of con-
taminants, particularly persistent toxic substances (Annex 12, paragraph
8).
• Progress in developing watershed management plans and implementing
programs and measures to control non-point sources of pollution (Annex
13, paragraph 5).
• Progress in identifying the extent and nature of sediment pollution in
the Great Lakes and in developing methods to evaluate both the impact
of polluted sediments on the Great Lakes System, and the technological
capabilities to remedy such pollution (Annex 14, paragraph 4).
• Progress in conducting research, surveillance and monitoring, and in
control of atmospheric pollution for the purpose of reducing deposition
of toxic substances, particularly persistent ones, to the Great Lakes
(Annex 15, paragraph 6).
• Progress in control of contaminated groundwater affecting the Great
Lakes System (Annex 16, paragraph (v)).
A Focus on Actions to Reduce Toxic Loadings
The common thread running through these topics is progress in reducing
toxic loadings to the Lakes. This report, accordingly, emphasizes United States
actions to reduce such loadings. EPA and State environmental agencies have a
comprehensive spectrum of programs to prevent future, reduce ongoing, and
clean-up past, toxicant releases to the environment. The United States is com-
mitted to forceful and successful enforcement of its environmental laws around
the Great Lakes. This report highlights actions that the United States is taking,
through application of these many tools, to protect and restore the Lakes. Many
actions are directed at "Areas of Concern*—areas around the Lakes that the two
nations regard as most degraded and for which they are developing and
implementing restoration plans. This report provides a 37 page appendix that
summarizes problems within U.S. Areas of Concern and cites recent actions
towards restoring them.
Other challenges
This report also addresses additional topics, because the Lakes are con-
fronted by additional challenges, among them diminishing habitat, damage to
indigenous species from the introduction of non-native ones, and excessive
nutrients. Thus, this report presents recent actions to address such challenges
by EPA, States, and partner federal agencies, including the Army Corps of
Engineers, the Coast Guard, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, and the Soil Conservation Service.
i
-------
Organization of this report
An informed public holds the key to much further environmental progress
in choices of lifestyle, purchases of products, and expectations of governments.
Accordingly, this report is intended to be accessible to the public. It is organized
as follows:
• Response to the International loint Commission's Fifth Report: The
United States provides its responses to recommendations found in the
IJC's most recent biennial report.
• Introduction: Chapter One helps to set the stage for discussion of current
Great Lakes environmental issues. It introduces the Lakes, and sketches
their development over the last three centuries and some of the ecological
outcomes of this development.
• Aspects of Ecosystem Health: Chapter Two discusses five general
problems currently facing the Great Lakes ecosystem: toxic contaminants
in fish and wildlife; contaminated bottom sediments; loss of wetlands;
damage to native species from non-native ones; and excessive nutrients.
Substantial progress has been made over the last 20 years in abating
several of these problems, yet challenges remain.
• The Great I.akes Program: Chapter Three describes a model, holistic
approach to ecosystem protection and restoration that EPA and States are
poneering on the Lakes. This approach entails ranking ecological and
numan health risks; promoting pollution prevention as the preferred
means to reduce risks; targeting priority problems and geographic areas;
meeting local needs with a blend of solutions; developing regulations
and enforcing environmental laws in a comprehensive, integrated man-
ner inviting public participation; and evaluating progress using ecologi-
cal indicators. In all these elements, the Agency is taking advantage of
every opportunity for cooperative actions with Canada.
EPA and States have successfully used many elements of this approach
in the past. The fundamental changes now being pioneered on the Great
Lakes are to promote innovative pollution prevention measures, to en-
force environmental laws in a comprehensive way while focusing on
targeted geographic areas, to harness local community participation in
the planning process, and to integrate programs around an ecosystem,
setting goals on the basis of environmental needs and measuring
progress Dy ecological yardsticks.
• Restoring the Ecosystem: Actions to Implement the Water Quality Agree-
ment; Chapter Emir reviews actions that the United States has taken and
plans to take to restore the Lakes. The chapter focuses on the three
principal remedial approaches under the Agreement: Remedial Action
Plans lor Areas of Concern; Lakewide Management Plans for Crititcal
Pollutants; and the Phosphorus Load Reduction Plan. It also focuses on
BPA's demonstration program of innovative technologies for sediment
:ontamination. This ARCS program particularly supports the RAP
process, since all U.S. Areas or Concern nave contaminated bottom sedi-
ments.
• Actions hv Federal Partners: Chapter Five provides highlights from five
federal agencies on their programs relating to the Lakes. These agencies
are the Army Corps of Engineers; the Coast Guard; the Fish and Wildlife.
Service; theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; and the
Soil Conservation Service.
• Ecosystem Monitoring: Chapter Six discusses surveillance of the Great
Lakes system, including 3 EPA initiatives relating to persistent toxic
substances. These are a binational network to monitor atmospheric
deposition; a major study of the sources and fates of several contaminants
in Green Bay; and the outfitting of a new research vessel to monitor
open-lake waters.
-------
Key and Highlights
Though it discusses additional topics, this report addresses those specified
under the Water Quality Agreement as follows:
• Remedial Action Planning is addressed in chapter four. The United States
has completed the first generation of 21 Stage One (problem definition)
RAPs and 12 Stage Two (definition of remedial actions) RAPs. Even as
RAPs are being developed, EPA, States, and other participants concur-
rently take warranted actions to improve Areas of Concern. These include
such measures as regulation of dischargers to water, construction of
improved municipal sewage treatment systems, hazardous waste
management actions, remedies at priority waste sites under the Super-
fund Program, and prevention of agricultural pollution. Highlights of
recent actions towards restoration of each U. S. Area of Concern are
provided in the appendix.
• Lakewide Management Planning is addressed in chapter four. EPA and
States are giving priority to completing Stage One LAMPs for Lakes
Michigan and Ontario in 1991. The objectives of Stage One LAMPs are
to identify key pollutants and their sources, and to schedule reduction
measures. In 1992, Hie Agency and States will begin work on a LAMP for
Lake Superior. LAMPs for Lakes Erie and Huron will follow.
• Restoration of beneficial uses: The RAP and LAMP processes, discussed
in chapter four, are management processes through which the United
States will assess the restoration of beneficial uses oFthe Great Lakes (e.g.,
fishing). Impairments of Areas of Concern are ascertained in Stage One
RAPs and their restoration will be verified in Stage Three RAPs. Over the
last 20 years, there have generally been substantial environmental im-
Erovements in Areas of Concern. For instance, dissolved oxygen levels
ave been restored to the the Cuyahoga River between Akron and
Cleveland, Ohio.
There have been similarly encouraging improvements in the Fox River
and lower Green Bay, Wisconsin. In the early 1970s, low dissolved
oxygen in the Fox made hardy fish such as carp and bullhead the
dominant species. Since that time, the fish community in the river has
returned to a more natural, year-around diversity of species, including
walleye, northern pike, small-mouth bass, and perch. The number of
different bottom-dwelling species in Green Bay doubled in the 10 years
after 1978. Wild celeiy, a favored food of waterfowl and habitat for fish,
has recently begun to reappear in the lower bay after a 20 year absence.
The reproductive success of endangered Forster s terns in Green Bay has
improved. In 1990, the mayfly, Hexagenia, was noted for the first time
since 1939.
• Reducing the generation or contaminants: The United States regards the
prevention ot :ontaminants to be the preferred way to reduce risks to
numan health and the environment. EPA and States are weaving pollu-
tion prevention into the fabric of their programs and are buttressing their
promotion of pollution prevention with strong enforcement of environ-
mental laws, providing incentives for polluters to reduce their potential
liabilities ana response costs.
EPA has launched a national Pollution Prevention strategy, which in-
cludes the 33/50 Program. Under this, EPA has identifieal7 high risk
chemicals that offer strong opportunities for prevention. In February
1991, EPA announced a goal of encouraging firms across the nation to cut
their releases of these substances 33 percent by the end of 1992 and 50
percent by the end of 1995. In April, 1991, EPA and States launched a
pollution prevention plan aimed especially at the Great Lakes, including
an initiative to develop a zero discharge policy for Lake Superior. This
report specifically addresses pollution prevention in chapter three.
• Controlling nonpoint sources of pollution; Over the last 20 years, the
reduction of phosphorus and its related effects in Lake Erie have been a
-------
resounding success. This success has been earned by substituting away
from high phosphate detergents and by huge public and private invest-
ments in pollution treatment. The United States alone has spent over $8
billion on improvement in municipal sewage treatment in the Great
Lakes watershed since 1971. This report cites measures to control urban
and agricultural runoff in Areas of Concern in its appendix. It also
provides, in chapter four, an assessment of progress under the United
States Phosphorus Load Reduction Plan, which relies heavily on reduc-
tion of agricultural runoff.
• Contaminated Sediment; EPA is sponsoring a study and demonstration
program—the Assessment and Remediation of Contaminated Sediments
(ARCS) Program — to assess contaminated Great Lakes bottom sedi-
ments, test remedial technologies, and develop guidance on addressing
such contamination. Five areas are receiving priority consideration: Ash-
tabula River, Ohio; Buffalo River, New York; Grand Calumet River,
Indiana; Saginaw Bay, Michigan; and Sheboygan Harbor, Wisconsin.
ARCS will conduct pilot-scale, field demonstrations in all 5 locations
during FYs 1991-92 ARCS is discussed in chapter four.
In addition, EPA and States are also effecting remedies of contaminated
sediment contamination around the Great Lakes in such locations as the
Black River, Ohio; Sheboygan River, Wisconsin; St Lawrence River, New
York; Waukegan Harbor, Illinois. Highlights of such actions are provided
in the appendix
• Monitoring and control of atmospheric pollution; EPA has established a
master monitoring station near Lake Superior and has purchased equip-
ment for two similar sites to be located near Lakes Michigan and Erie.
These will be operational by the end of 1991. This report addresses
monitoring of atmospheric deposition in chapter six.
Many industrial firms in the United States also report their emissions of
a ranjge of toxic substances under the Community Right to Know Act
This is discussed in chapter two.
The United States has dedicated itself to greatly controlling its sources
of toxic and other air pollutants with the passage of amendments to the
Clean Air Act in 1991.
• Control of contaminated groundwater The United States has various
programs to reduce contamination of groundwater. EPA and New York
State have been focusing on cleanup of groundwater along the Niagara
River for over a decade. Studies have identified the leading sources of
groundwater contamination. The Agency and New York State are target-
ing the 20 most significant sites for remediation and aiming to stop 99
percent of their loadings to the Niagara by the end of 1996. The waste site
sector is regarded to be the principle source to the Niagara of the most
troublesome pollutants.
EPA and States have assessed groundwater at many sites around the
Great Lakes watershed within the United States. Site remedies often
entail treatment of water found to be contaminated. Some recent actions
to restore groundwater in Areas of Concern are cited in the appendix.
-------
Chapter One
Introduction
The Great Lakes region is an area where America's
inventive and productive genius has been amply real-
ized. Early in the last century, steamships and the Erie
Canal helped to open a 2,200 mile waterway into the
heart of a continent. From this corridor, poured forth
timber to build a growing nation, and ores to feed the
successive industrial ages of iron, then steel. America's
first oil refineries were within the Great Lakes basin,
helping to spark the region's automobile industry that
grew into the preeminent industry of 20th century
America. The connection of railroads and canals to the
Lakes contributed to unprecedented agricultural
development in the Midwest and Great Plains.
During the 20th century, fuels and industrial
minerals have been found elsewhere around the world,
and modern means of transportation have made them
widely accessible. With the spread of industrial
economies, the Great Lakes region's disproportionate
share of world manufacturing has inevitably eroded.
Yet, productive industries like forest products, ship-
ping, agriculture, food processing, chemicals, mining,
metals, and heavy manufacturing continue to be impor-
tant Manufacturing remains the largest sector in the
economy of most Great Lakes States.
Before its development, the Great Lakes region was
also one of extraordinary natural abundance—oceans of
freshwater, splendid forests, plentiful animals, rich soil,
immense wetlands, multitudes of waterfowl. Waters
teemed with fish. Sturgeon up to 8 feet long were com-
mon. A fisherman using a hand-held dipnet could reap
many hundreds of whitefish in a day.
Much of the majesty and plenty of the Lakes remain,
although human actions have often changed or
damaged the ecosystem. The blue pike is extinct, Atlan-
tic salmon long gone from Lake Ontario. Surviving stur-
geon are few. Lake trout populations are not
self-sustaining. A top predator, the bald eagle, finds it
relatively more difficult to reproduce along the shores
of the Lakes than inland. The extent of habitat available
to fish and wildlife is much reduced, as are their popula-
tions.
To help place today's Great Lakes environmental
issues in context, this chapter discusses some aspects of
the physical features of the Lakes, their economic
development during the past three centuries, and
ecological outcomes associated with this development
THE GREAT LAKES
By many measures, the five Great Lakes are fresh-
water seas. Formed by the melting retreat of mile-thick
glaciers 10 to 12 thousand years ago, the Great Lakes
water system represents about 18 percent of the world's
surface freshwater and 95 percent of the surface fresh-
water of the United States. If poured over the continen-
tal United States, the 6 quadrillion gallons of the Lakes
would immerse the "lower 48" States to a depth of almost
10 feet The Lakes and their connecting channels have
7,437 miles of shoreline across eight States and the
Province of Ontario. Their 201,000 square mile water-
shed holds nearly 80,000 small lakes—one-third within
the United States—that would collectively cover an area
larger than Lake Erie.
By virtue of their size, the Lakes affect the climate of
their region. Heat stored in the Lakes during the sum-
mer warms adjacent land in the winter. Areas of
Michigan, southern Ontario, and western New York
have warmer winters than some other parts of North
America at similar latitudes. However, these same areas
receive heavy snowfalls as prevailing winds from the
west pick up moisture over the Lakes. In spring and
summer, the Lakes are slow to warm, cooling nearshore
land.
As would be expected across such a large area, the
physical characteristics of the Great Lakes watershed are
varied. In the north, the land is heavily forested/ par-
ticularly by conifers. The soil is generally thin and acidic,
covering an ancient bedrock called the Laurentian
Shield. The climate is cold. Principal industries are tim-
ber, mining, and hydroelectric power. In the south, soils
are deeper,and fertile, rocks sedimentary and nutrient
rich, temperatures warmer, the density of human
population greater. Vast wetlands and deciduous
Introduction 1
-------
forests have generally been replaced by agricultural,
industrial, and residential uses.
By surface area, Lake Superior is the largest fresh-
water lake in the world. It is the second largest in water
volume, trailing only the immensely deep Lake Baikal in
Siberia. Superior holds just over one-half of the water in
the Great Lakes system. About 90 percent of the Superior
watershed is forested. Due to its huge volume, Superior
has a water retention time of 191 years, the longest of the
Lakes. Ifs outlet is the St Mary6 River that flows south-
easterly into Lake Huron.
Lake Michigan is the only Great Lake that lies whol-
ly within the United States. It is the second largest of the
Lakes in water volume, holding about 21 percent of the
water in the system. Lake Michigan has the second
longest water retention time, 99 years. Water from Lake
Michigan primarily flows out through the Straits of
Mackinac into Lake Huron. A much smaller outflow is
artificially diverted into the Mississippi River system via
the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal.
Lake Huron is the second largest of the Great Lakes
in surface area, slightly larger than Lake Michigan in this
regard. Huron holds about 16 percent of the water in the
Great Lakes and has a water retention time of 22 years.
About two-thirds of ifs watershed is forested. Huron's
outlet is the St. Clair River that flows into shallow Lake
St Oair (average depth 11 feet).
Lake Erie is the smallest in water volume, naving an
average depth of only 62 feet. Erie has three distinct
basins that are defined by water depth and underwater
ridges. The western basin is shallow, with an average
depth of 24 feet The central basin is deeper; its waters
stratify by temperature, and its narrow bottom layer is
vulnerable to depletion of dissolved oxygen. The east-
ern basin is the deepest; its bottom layer is thicker and
less vulnerable. Erie has the shortest water retention
time, 2.6 years, making it the Lake most responsive to
both environmental abuse and cleanup.
Erie is the southernmost of the Lakes. Its waters are
warmest in summer and most productive biological-
ly, supporting abundant fisheries. Owing to its shallow-
ness, Erie is the most affected by air temperature. As a
result, it regularly has 95 percent ice cover in the winter,
in contrast to deeper Lake Ontario that has an average
cover of only 15 percent Erie's watershed is the most
agricultural, most urban, and least forested; about two-
thirds of it is used for farming. Erie has the highest rate
of sedimentation, receiving soil particles from the rich
farmlands of its watershed.
Lake Ontario is the smallest in surface area, but
contains more than three times Erie's water volume.
About one-quarter of the Lake Ontario watershed is
used for agriculture. The Canadian population within
Lake Ontario's watershed is about twice that of the
United States and has increased significantly through
the 1970s and 1980s, whereas the U. S. population has
remained stable. Canada's largest industrial region lies
along the western and northwestern shores of Lake
Ontario, and includes Toronto, a metropolitan area of 3
million people.
The major source of water to Lake Ontario is the
Niagara River flowing from Lake Erie. Lake Ontario is
about 325 feet lower in elevation than Erie, causing the
river to cascade spectacularly at the famous Niagara
Falls. Ontario's water retention time is 6 years. Its outlet
is the St Lawrence River, which has an annual flow that
represents less than one-half of 1 percent of the water
volume of the entire Great Lakes system.
This relatively small outflow is a notable charac-
teristic of the Great Lakes. The Lakes are anearly closed
system. Persistent pollutants introduced into the Lakes
are primarily removed from the water column by
sedimentation or induction into the food web. The sys-
tem does not flush contaminants quickly. This attribute
makes the Great Lakes ecosystem sensitive to environ-
mental stresses.
Another important characteristic of the Lakes is
their clarity. Before intense European settlement of the
region began around 1800, the Lakes contained little
phosphorus, were rich in oxygen, and, with the excep-
tion of shallow bays and western Lake Erie, were very
clear. One reason for these phenomena was that
shorelines were rimmed by forests and wetlands, allow-
ing little nutrient runoff to stimulate production of
microscopic plants (Le., phytoplankton, such as algae).
While phytoplankton are the foundation of the Great
Lakes food web, excessive algal growth clouds water.
Today, most of Superior and Huron remain very dear,
as do parts of the northern basin of Lake Michigan.
The most biologically productive areas are Green
Bay, Saginaw Bay, and western Lake Erie, relatively
warm shallow waters that are fed, respectively, by the
Fox, Saginaw, and Maumee Rivers. Green Bay was so
named by early settlers because of the hue imparted by
its abundant algae.
Before 1800, there were about 170 native fish species
in the Lakes. Nearshore species included smallmouth
and largemouth bass, channel catfish, muskellunge,
2 Chapter One
-------
-------
800
600
400
200
Figure 1-2. Depth Profile of the Great Lakes and Summary of Their Physical Features
Elevation (fast)
LAKE
8UPERIOR
ST. MARY'S
RIVER
LAKES
MICHIGAN
AND
HURON
ST. CLAIR
AND
DETROIT
RIVERS
LAKE
ERIE
^ , -
g|$i i
/ LAKE
/ ST. CLAIR
NIAGARA RIVER
/
Sea Level
MAXIMUM DEPTH-
210 FEET
LAKE
ONTARIO
ST. LAWRENCE RIVER
¦ Mi /
i ,¦ j |!tI ft
8aa Laval
-200
-400
-600
-800
\ j; MAXIMUM DEPTHS-
HURON 7SO FEET
MICHIGAN 923 FEET
/
I
I
liiiiH
W
\ / MAXIMUM DEPTH-
I 1330 FEET
MAXIMUM DEPTH-
602 FEET
111 • Lake
Average Depth (feet)
Area Water (equate miles)
Volume (cubic mllee)
Retention Time (years)
Superior
483
31,700
2,900
191
Michigan
279
22,300
1,160
99
Huron
195
23,000
850
22
Erie
62
9,910
116
2.8
Ontario
283
7,340
393
8
Souroa: Army Corps of Engineers, 1974.
northern pike, and sturgeon. Blue pike, freshwater
drum, grayling, lake herring, lake trout, lake whitefish,
sauger, walleye, and white bass inhabited deeper
waters. Sturgeon lived to 150 years, reaching 8 feet in
length and 300 pounds, and lake trout lived to 75 years.
The species mix varied between lakes. A large
population of Atlantic salmon was confined to Lake
Ontario. Eastern Lake Erie supported lake trout,
whereas Erie's warmer, shallower western basin did not.
Atlantic salmon, blue pike, grayling, lake trout, and
whitefish were top predators among fish. These species
were staples in the diet of Native Americans.
The composition of fish populations is very dif-
ferent today. Fish are generally smaller than two cen-
turies ago, and many non-native fish have been
introduced, increasing the number of species to about
190. Fish populations have changed for a variety of
reasons, including alterations to the food web;
4 Chapter One
-------
deliberate introduction of non-native sport-fish; inad-
vertent introduction of non-native species; habitat loss
or disruption; over-fishing; and the effects of pollutants
on fish.
Grayling are no longer present in the Lakes. By 1900,
Atlantic salmon disappeared from Lake Ontario. Blue
pike vanished from Lake Erie, and thus from the world,
in the 1950s. Lake herring, lake trout, and sturgeon
survive in much decreased numbers. Even in relatively
pristine Superior, hatchery-reared lake trout must be
stocked to bolster the population. Populations of wall-
eye and white bass are more robust, and whitefish
populations in Superior and parts of Lakes Michigan
and Huron are sufficient to support commercial fishing.
Stocked, non-native Pacific salmon—coho and
chinook—are the most abundant top predators, except
in western Lake Erie where the top predator is walleye.
The Lakes also sustain a rich diversity of birds and
other wildlife. Following the Atlantic and Mississippi
flyways, an estimated 3 million waterfowl migrate
through the Great Lakes each year, using them for food
and shelter. During their spring and fall migrations, up
to 25,000raptors (birds of prey) can be observed each day
from Whitefish Point in eastern Lake Superior. The
Lakes host multitudes of cormorants, egrets, gulls,
herons, and terns. Native animals include deer, fox,
moose, wolves, and fur-bearing mammals—beaver,
mink, and muskrat— that fueled the early development
of the region by European settlers.
ECONOMY IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
During the past 300 years, various industries have
boomed in the Great Lakes region. Fur trapping, espe-
cially of beavers, thrived from the last half of the 17th
century until the early 19th century. As trapping
depleted beaver populations in the region, the fur trade
expanded westward to California, Oregon, the Arctic
Ocean. Even after trapping had moved west, the Lakes
remained vital to the industry for waterborne transpor-
tation. The Lakes and St. Lawrence River provided a
pathway for canoes laden with animal pelts to reach the
Atlantic coast whence furs were shipped to customers in
Europe. Many early settlements were fur-trading posts,
among them Chicago, Detroit, Duluth, and Green Bay.
Chicago's first non-Indian settler, Jean Baptiste Pointe
du Sable, a Haitian of African and French descent, was
a fur trader who built a cabin beside the Chicago River
in 1779.
As the beaver industry ended because of the scarcity
of beavers and whims of fashion, early settlers began a
massive harvest of trees. There were three principal
types of forests surrounding the Lakes. Spruce and fir
trees grew in the north, on the Laurentian Shield above
Superior and down the eastern shore of Huron. Birch,
hemlock, and pines ranged south of Lake Superior, to
northern Michigan, north of Lake Erie, and encircled
Lake Ontario. South of this region were hardwoods:
ash, oak, maple, and dogwood. The initial deforestation
was by settlers clearing land for agriculture and build-
ings. Commercial logging began in the 1830s after the
opening of the Erie Canal and the advent of steamships
provided access to eastern markets. Logging began in
Michigan and soon extended to Minnesota and Wiscon-
sin. Loggers cut softwoods first, chiefly white pine,
often hundreds of years old and more than 100 feet high.
Softwoods framed homes and ships. Hardwoods be-
came barrels and furniture.
The heyday of lumbering was 1850 to 1900. Grand
Rapids, today Michigan's second largest city, was a saw-
mill boom town in the 1850s; later it became a center for
furniture-making. During the 1890s, there were 100 saw-
mills adjacent to the Saginaw Riven by tonnage shipped,
Saginaw was the largest port on the Lakes. Tugboats
pulled enormous floating trains of trees from Canada to
Saginaw mills. Around Muskegon Lake, beside Lake
Michigan, there were 50 active sawmills in 1900. By 1910,
there were none.
The Great Lakes lumber industry ran out of trees
early in the 20th century. The soils of the North Woods
and the Laurentian Shield are generally not conducive
to farming. With the passage of time, forests have now
returned to much of their former domain in the northern
half of the region, though trees are much younger and
smaller than their predecessors. Today, these woods are
harvested for paper. The paper-making industry, begun
in the 1860s, remains important in both the United States
and Canada. In 1982, the forest industry of Michigan,
Minnesota, and Wisconsin employed about 150,000
people with sales of $15 billion. An additional 80,000
persons were employed in forest recreation.
The mining industry grew concurrently with the
lumber industry and remains important In 1845, rich
iron ore was found in the Marquette Range of
Michigan's upper peninsula. Additional iron ranges
were later discovered in Minnesota and Wisconsin. In
1855, completion of the Sault Canal opened Lake Supe-
rior to shipping and permitted mining of these ranges.
Introduction 5
-------
Iron ore from the mineral-rich Lake Superior water-
shed helped to make the Great Lakes region a center of
iron-making, steel-making, and heavy manufacturing.
Ore was shipped to lakeside cities, such as Buffalo,
Geveland, Detroit, Gary, and, in Canada, Hamilton and
Sault-Sainte Marie. Another key ingredient for steel-
making, limestone, was quarried near the northeast
shore of Michigan's lower peninsula. Coal from Illinois,
Ohio, and Pennsylvania fired industrial hearths.
Oil became another significant industry. The
world's first oil well was tapped in the northwestern
Pennsylvania town of Titusville in 1859. Oil was later
found near the Lakes in such locations as Midland,
Michigan; Toledo, Ohio; and north-east of Lake St.
Clair. Cleveland, Ohio, already an industrial hub in part
owing to being the terminus of a canal that linked the
Lakes to the Ohio River, became the nation's oil-refining
center. In 1863, a 23-year old bookkeeper, John D. Rock-
efeller, invested $4,000 in a Cleveland oil refinery. By
1880, his Standard Oil Company refined 95 percent of
the nation's oil
Owing to the easy confluence of iron ore, limestone,,
coal, oil, and water transportation, the Great Lakes
region became an industrial heartland of both the
United States and Canada. The automotive industry was
born in a Michigan triangle bounded by Lansing, Flint,
and Detroit, supplanting the carriage industry that had
been thriving there. Detroit's population soared by al-
most 400 percent between 1890 to 1920 as Ford Motor
Company began mass production of automobiles. The
Ford, Chrysler, and General Motors corporations were
producing eight million vehicles a year by 1950.
Industries associated with die automotive business,
such as tool and die, machining, aluminum, and rubber,
were drawn to the area. By the 1920s, Akron, Ohio,
where Benjamin Goodrich had opened a rubber factory
in 1871, was processing almost half the world's rubber.
Proximity to the steel industry helped to attract ap-
pliance and agricultural equipment manufacturers.
Proximity to industrial customers helped to attract
chemical manufacturers. Chemical firms were further
encouraged by southeastern Michigan's brine wells. To
draw on these wells, Herbert Dow founded what be-
came one of America's largest chemical firms, Dow
Chemical Company, in Midland, Michigan, in 1891.
During the 1970s and early 1980s, foreign competi-
tion and rising energy costs caused red-ink and job
losses in Great Lakes heavy industry, especially in the
United States. By that time, foreign economies devas-
tated by the Second World War had developed into
strong competitors to Detroit's automobile manufac-
turers. The demand for fuel-efficient cars made lighter
materials, such as plastics and aluminum, desirable alter-
natives to steel. During the 1970s, Detroit lost 20 percent
of its residents. About one million manufacturing jobs
were eliminated in the early 1980s in just five Great
Lakes States.
Yet heavy industries, including mining, steel, and
auto-making, have adjusted, reducing production to
meet demand and investing in new facilities. Today,
manufacturing remains the largest single sector in the
economy of most Great Lakes States. Mining and
manufacturing are likewise major elements in the
economy of the Province of Ontario. The Sudbury area
produces the largest quantity of nickel in the world.
Ontario is a major producer of gold, silver, platinum,
uranium, zinc, iron, copper, salt, and gypsum. The
province produces nearly 50 percent of Canada's
manufactured goods.
Agriculture is another productive element of the
regional economy. During the 19th century, cheap land
blessed with ample top soil, flat terrain, and railroads
that brought crops to distant markets contributed to
extraordinary agricultural productivity in the American
Midwest After 1914, combustion engines supplanted
horses in powering farm machinery. Since 1950, farm
yields have soared further, owing to developments in
biology, chemistry, and engineering. Breeding of plants
has provided varieties with higher yields. Fertilizers,
especially nitrogen, have raised soil productivity, and
pesticides have abated crop losses to weeds, fungi, and
insects. Farm machines have become vastly more effec-
tive.
As a result of these developments, agricultural out-
put within the U. S. Great Lakes watershed has in-
creased over the last 40 years, although farm acreage has
actually shrunk by one-third. Cropland accounts for 18
percent of the lands in the U. S. counties of the water-
shed, predominantly in the south. The largest crop is
com (42 percent of farm acreage), followed by soybeans
(24 percent), and small grains, especially wheat (17 per-
cent). Dairy products, fruits, vegetables, and tobacco are
other important crops.
Convenient waterways have abetted the regional
economy. The Erie Canal was completed in 1825, con-
necting Buffalo to the Hudson River at Albany. At the
same time, Canada constructed the Lachine Canal to
bypass rapids on the St Lawrence and the fiat Welland
6 Chapter One
-------
Canal between Lakes Ontario and Erie to bypass
Niagara Falls. The 27-mile long Welland has been en-
larged a number of times.
The five parallel locks at Sault-Sainte Marie, con-
necting Lakes Superior and Huron, are among the
busiest in the world. In 1990, five thousand vessels car-
ried 90 million tons of cargo (including 50 million tons
of iron ore) through these locks. Many commercial ves-
sels are headed to or from the port of Duluth/Superior,
which ranked 14th in the U.S. by tonnage shipped in
1987, and Thunder Bay, Ontario, the port of embarka-
tion for one-half of Canada's grain production.
The St. Lawrence Seaway connects Lake Ontario to
Montreal and provides the final link in a 2,200 mile
commercial waterway between Duluth and the Atlantic
Ocean. Completed in 1959, the Seaway is 27 feet deep, as
are the shipping channels that cut through the St Marys,
St Clair, and Detroit Rivers, and Lake St Clair. This
inland waterway is navigable by about three-quarters of
the world's saltwater fleet. In 1986, 40 million tons of
cargo passed through the Seaway.
The waters of the Lakes confer other economic
benefits. They provide drinking water to millions. In-
dustries use water in products (as in the beer for which
Milwaukee is famous) and to cool manufacturing
processes. Some rivers are harnessed to generate
electricity; up to one-half of the natural flow of the
Niagara River is diverted to this purpose.
Another large element of the Great Lakes economy
is recreation, including sight-seeing, fishing, boating,
camping, and hiking. In 1987, Michigan had more
registered boat owners than any other State. The Lakes
sustain both sport and commercial fisheries, although
recreational fishing is the more important today. As the
value of recreational fishing has increased, some juris-
dictions have established policies that favor sport fish-
ing. The Great Lakes Fisheries Commission has
estimated that five million sport fisherman on the Great
Lakes spent $2 billion in 1985; during the same year, the
value of the commercial fish catch was just $41 million.
The largest recorded commercial harvests were in 1889
and 1899. By weight, the commercial yield in recent
years has been about two-thirds of these peak years, yet
the value is small since the size and species harvested are
less desirable. The economic potential of Great Lakes
fisheries is much higher than their recent value.
At die onset of the 20th centuiy, the human popula-
tion of the watershed was just over 10 million. According
to 1986census data, the region has 35 million residents—
275 million U.S. citizens and 75 million Canadians. The
Lake Superior and Lake Huron watersheds are sparsely
inhabited. The south and southwestern shoreline of
Lake Michigan, the Canadian shore of Lake Ontario,
and the U.S. side of Lake Erie are heavily populated. The
third and fourth most populated U.S. metropolitan areas
(Chicago and Detroit) and the largest Canadian one
(Toronto) are situated near the Lakes. Among the in-
habitants of the region are Indian Tribes. Five U.S. In-
dian reservations abut the shores of the Great Lakes; 14
do so on the Canadian side.
SOME ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF
DEVELOPMENT
Intense development of the Great Lakes region has
wrought vast changes to its ecosystem. Humans have
altered habitat, introduced exotic (non-native) species,
and cast contaminants into the Lakes.
Some effects have been dramatic Through dis-
charge of raw sewage into the Lakes, cities infected their
water supplies with typhoid and cholera during the late
19th and early 20th centuries. By the mid-1950s, non-na-
tive sea lampreys (parasitic eel-like fish) decimated lake
trout to the extent that commercial catches in Lakes
Huron and Michigan fell to 1 percent of the yield ob-
tained 20 years before. By the 1960s, mate of algae fouled
Lake Erie beaches and water intakes. In 1967, millions of
another exotic fish, alewife, washed up on the Lake
Michigan shore, victims of the combined effects of cold
weather and starvation. Overpopulation, related to the
decline of alewife predators such as lake trout, con-
tributed to the massive die-off. In 1969, a stretch of the
Cuyahoga River in Cleveland was so laden with oil
products, chemicals, and debris that it caught fire. Since
the 1960s, researchers have noted reproductive
problems, probably caused by persistent toxic chemicals,
in birds such as double-crested cormorants, born with
grotesquely crossed beaks.
Many of these once acute problems have abated.
Treatment of both drinking water and sewage ended
water-related epidemics. Application of a toxicant to
spawning grounds has slashed the population of sea
lampreys, though this exotic is firmly established as a
resident of the Lakes. Stocking of lake trout have
bolstered their numbers, though the species generally
continues to be unable to sustain itself. Reductions in
loadings of phosphorus have lessened many problems
associated with nutrient overenrichment, like excessive
algae. Stocking of salmon and trout have controlled
Introduction 7
-------
alewife numbers. Since the passage of the Clean Water
Act in 1972, the reduction in pollutant loadings has
greatly improved overall water quality, allowing fish to
return to harbors from which they had disappeared. The
health of many fish and wildlife populations has im-
proved after their burdens of contaminants have
declined.
Yet the Great Lakes ecosystem has been pervasively
changed in other, less dramatic fashions, many per-
manent. The decline in the beaver population resulted
in fewer beaver dams, which had impeded tributaries
and helped to create wetlands. In their absence, river
flows increased; faster rivers captured and carried more
silt, burying the spawning grounds of fish.
The reaping of forests exposed soil to drying by
direct sunlight and to erosion by wind and water, ad-
ding to the silting of rivers. Forests had provided shade
along tributaries. In their absence, the temperature of
streams increased, further modifying the habitat of fish.
Forest clearance also increased seasonal variation in
tributaiy flow. Low wintertime flow exposed stream-
beds, freezing the eggs of fish.
Agriculture also increased soil erosion. It has been
estimated that by 1910 between a quarter to a half of the
original topsoil of the great Missouri and Mississippi
river drainage basins had been washed away, largely
through profligate agricultural practices. Since 1950,
eroding soil particles and rainfall runoff have carried
agricultural chemicals—pesticides and fertilizers. The
overenrichment of Lake Erie was partly the result of
increased nutrient use by farmers.
The growth of human population has imposed fur-
ther ecological change. Roads and sidewalks, roofs and
parking lots distort natural infiltration of water into the
ground. Rain that would otherwise seep into the soil is
caught by drainage systems and discharged to streams.
As a result, tributaries have become more variable in
their flow and less hospitable to fish.
The Lakes have been extensively altered for ship-
ping and flood control. River mouths, critical habitat for
fish and wildlife, have especially attracted development
Hundreds of them have been dredged and surrounded
by breakwaters. Dredging and the wash from ship
propellers injure organisms in bottom sediments upon
which fish feed. Canals and ships have introduced non-
native species. Unchecked by natural predators, some of
these have profoundly damaged native species.
Wetlands and sand dunes are two other habitats
that humans have modified. Wetlands have vital
ecological functions, serving as nursery, resting, and
breeding habitat for fish and wildlife. Perhaps two-
thirds of region's wetlands have been drained or filled
since 1800. The downtown areas of Milwaukee and
Chicago largely rest on filled-in wetlands. In fact,
Chicago takes its name from an Indian word for the wild
garlic that once grew there in marshlands beside Lake
Michigan.
Before parks were established to preserve the
remainder, sand dunes at the base of Lake Michigan,
home to a rich diversity of wildlife, were mined for glass
production and for railway bed fill. Cheap lakefront
land and a large nearby labor force in Chicago also made
the dunes and adjacent wild rice swamps attractive to
heavy industry. Standard Oil Company (now Amoco)
established a refinery in Whiting, Indiana, in 1889. In-
land Steel Company opened in East Chicago in 1901.
And the city of Gary took its name from the surname of
the chairman of United States Steel when America's first
billion dollar corporation opened a huge works there in
1906. Bethlehem, National, and LTV steel companies
followed. Today, northwestern Indiana is an American
Ruhr of metal, oil, and petrochemical facilities. In places,
large amounts of oil float on the groundwater; during
drought, the sinking water table lowers oil into
municipal drainage systems. Through this region
meanders the Grand Calumet River that receives most
of its waters from industrial and municipal dischargers.
Its river bed holds contaminants of great toxicity.
Manufacturing firms have contributed a broad
range of contaminants to the Lakes. One of the most
injurious is the family of organic chemical compounds
called poly chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs were
widely used from 1929 until banned by EPA in 1977.
They are highly stable, which made them useful as
hydraulic fluids and lubricants in high temperature or
pressure processes. Tests have shown that PCBs may
cause reproductive disorders, birth defects, and cancers
in laboratory animals. The stability that made PCBs
desirable in commercial applications has undesirable
environmental consequences; they magnify up the
Great Lakes food web and do not degrade. PCB con-
tamination is the most frequent grounds for health ad-
visories regarding consumption of Great Lakes fish.
Though the practice ceased in the U.S. during the
1970s, some pulp and paper mills released mercury that
was found in fish from Lake Huron, Lake St Clair,
western Lake Erie, eastern Lake Ontario, and the St
Lawrence River at levels that required closure of some
8 Chapter One
-------
Figure 1-3. Average Mercury Concentrations in
commercial fisheries. In the 1980s, EPA also recognized Walleye collected from Lake St. Clair
that pulp and paper mills, particularly those using the Mercury levels in fish have declined in places where
bleached kraft process, discharge very low concentra- they were most elevated 20 years ago
tions of chlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans
, , , , , , . . Concentrations (ppm)
as byproducts of pulp and paper bleaching with
chlorine. Dioxins and furans represent a family of 210
related chemical compounds. The most infamous of the
dioxin compounds, 2,3,7,8-TCDD, produces a variety of
toxic effects in laboratoiy animals at very low doses.
The pulp and paper industry also continues to be a
significant source of conventional pollutants to the
Lakes, particularly to Lake Superior. According to a 1989
report by the International Joint Commission, pulp and
paper mills in the Province of Ontario generally do not
use secondary (biological) processes to treat their was-
tewater. Secondary treatments, usually practiced by U.
S. mills, decrease both conventional pollutants and 25 to
60 percent of toxic organic byproducts.
Chemical companies have left a toxic heritage in the
ground water, bottom sediments, and soils of the region.
American chemical companies, attracted by
hydroelectric power generated from the Niagara River,
situated near its banks. Canadian chemical companies
similarly clustered along the St Clair River. Waste sites
along the U.S. side of the Niagara have been a major
source of contamination to Lake Ontario. Since its incep-
tion, they have been a major focus of EPA's Superfund
program to cleanup inactive hazardous waste sites, with
the result that their loadings to the Niagara are being
substantially reduced.
Metals-based industries have been a significant
source of pollutants. Many steel-making technologies
that are presently in use generate such byproducts as
ammonia, cyanide, coal tar, zinc, lead, and a range of air
pollutants, including fly ash, sulfur compounds, and the
gases benzene, toluene, and xylene. Steel mills are a
source of benzo(a)pyrene, the most toxic member of the
family of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Like other
PAHs, benzo(a)pyrene is a product of incomplete com-
bustion of fossil fuels and is suspected of causing lip and
liver tumors in bottom-dwelling fish. PAHs are common
in Great Lakes bottom sediments.
The intent of this chapter has not been to attribute
environmental damage solely and simplistically to a few
leading industries. Degradation of the Great Lakes
ecosystem over the past three centuries has been the
collective result of actions throughout society, by in-
dividuals and the governments they elect, as well as by
industry and agriculture. The prominent industries
1.8 -
Yaw
Souror. Ontario Ministry of the Enviroment
mentioned in this chapter, especially productive sectors
like farming, forest products, metals, and manufactur-
ing, have made a vital contribution to our national
standard of living. The future promise of the U.S.
economy will continue to rely on such productive in-
dustries.
Rather it has been the intent of this chapter to sug-
gest, however sketchily, the vastness of changes to the
Great Lakes ecosystem over the last three centuries.
Without a long-term perspective, one has little apprecia-
tion for the magnitude of some damage, such as that to
fish populations, forests, and wetlands. The next chapter
will focus in greater length on some primary current
challenges facing the Great Lakes ecosystem that are the
object of government programs discussed thereafter in
this report
Introduction 9
-------
Chapter Two
Aspects of Ecosystem Health
This chapter discusses five broad problems facing
the Great Lakes ecosystem:
• Contamination of fish and wildlife with persist-
ent toxic substances,
• Contaminated bottom sediments,
• Lost, degraded, and threatened wetlands,
• Damage to native species from exotic ones, and
• Undesirable effects from excessive nutrients.
Substantial progress has been made over the last 20
years in abating several of these problems. Levels of
some targeted contaminants in fish and wildlife are
strikingly lower and continue to ebb. The harm of one
especially troublesome exotic species, sea lamprey, has
been substantially reduced. Levels of the nutrient, phos-
phorus, are also much lower, notably in Lake Erie where
they had been most disruptive.
Yet challenges remain. Public health authorities
continue to issue fish comsumption advisories for
species in each Lake. Though the present rate of habitat
destruction is much less than in the past, various human
activities encroach on remaining wetlands and other
valuable fish and wildlife habitats. The pace of introduc-
tion of exotic species has increased since the opening of
the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1959 permitted more tran-
soceanic shipping. Though much improved, Lake Erie
continues to suffer depletion of dissolved oxygen
during late summer.
The issues discussed in this chapter are by no means
all the ecological or human health challenges to the
region. Future issues of this report will discuss other
challenges.
PERSISTENT TOXIC SUBSTANCES
Persistent toxic substances do not pose a problem
for humans drinking Great Lakes water. Their con-
centrations in the Great Lakes water column are ex-
tremely low, because they tend to quickly bind to
particles — phytoplankton or sediment — and either
enter the food web or fall to the bottom where they are
eventually buried. They also volatilize into the atmos-
phere. Open lake concentrations of contaminants are
measured in parts per billion or trillion. A part per tril-
lion represents a teaspoon in 1.3 billion gallons of water.
A person would have to drink two or three million
gallons of water to be exposed to a quantity of con-
taminants equivalent to that ingested by eating a single
mature lake trout.
However, some persistent toxicants do pose
problems when concentrated in the tissues of predators
such as lake trout At the base of the food web, micro-
scopic floating one-celled plants, called phytoplankton,
use sunlight, dissolved carbon dioxide, and dissolved
mineral nutrients for nourishment. Microscopic
animals, known as zooplankton, feed on such vegeta-
tion and are in turn eaten by fish, tiny sediment-dwell-
ing insects and crustaceans are another source of food
for some small fish. Higher predators, fish and birds,
consume smaller fish. A simplified view of the food web
is shown by Figure 2-1. It does not show the many
different species of phytoplankton, zooplankton, bot-
tom animals, fish, and wildlife that make up the actual
Great Lakes food web, but die figure displays the food
web concept
Phytoplankton, zooplankton, and bottom animals
adsorb and retain contaminants. Fish that graze on
plankton in turn ingest the contaminants that they con-
tain. When fish ingest contaminants faster than they use
or excrete them, they accumulate levels of contaminants
that are higher than those in their forage. The increasing
concentration of contaminan ts at successive levels of the
food web, known as biomagnifi cation, is repeated as
predator fish feed on smaller fish, mammals and birds
feed on fish, and predator birds feed on smaller birds.
Figure 2-2 illustrates biomagnifi cation in the Lake On-
tario food web. High predators such as herring gulls and
lake trout accumulate PCB levels that are, respectively,
51,000 and 5,6000 times greater than those in plankton.
Fish and birds living in or around Lake Michigan
and Lake Ontario tend to have markedly higher levels
of contaminants than those of the other three lakes. The
Aspects of Ecosystem Health 11
-------
Figure 2-1. Simplified View of the Great Lakes Food Web.
art Mm*
Souroe: Adapted from figure by K. Bom In Great Lakes, Great legacy?, 1990.
Figure 2-2. Lake Ontario Food Web Biomagnification
Contaminant levels Increase up the food web
Source: Data from Bishop and Wetloh, 1990.
PCB oonoentatiom (mg/kg wet weight)
12 Chapter Two
-------
Figure 2-3. Contaminants in Herring Gull Eggs, Sister island, Green Bay
Some pollutants have greatly declined In birds
Concentrations (ppm)
Year
Source: Data from Environment Canada, 1990.
relatively low levels in Lake Erie biota are a bit surpris-
ing, since that lake has a high surrounding population
and is known to receive high loadings of toxic substan-
ces. Scientists offer two possible explanations. First,
Erie's relatively high concentration of suspended par-
ticles and high sedimentation rate may adsoib and
remove toxic substances from the water column, making
them less available to the food web. Second, Erie's abun-
dance of phytoplankton may result in a lower con-
taminant concentration at the bottom of the food web
than in Lakes Michigan and Ontario and accordingly in
lower concentrations higher up the web.
There have been striking declines in some targeted
substances over the last two decades. Figures 2-3 and 2-4
show declines in two substances, PCBs and the pesticide
DDT, in Lake Michigan herring gulls and bloater chubs.
Further evidence of the decline in PCBs across several
Lake Michigan fish species is provided in Figure 6-2 in
Chapter 6.
Despite these marked declines, levels of con-
taminants remain unacceptably high. State public health
authorities issue fish consumption advisories for species
in each Lake and in various rivers and bays. These tend
to be based on PCBs, mercury, and the pesticide chlor-
dane. Table 2-1 summarizes advisories issued for 1989.
EPA has no formal role in setting sport fish con-
sumption advisories, although the Agency shares
responsibilities with States, under the Clean Water Act,
to protect the quality of surface waters through estab-
lishment of State Water Quality Standards and the
Contamination of Fish and Wildlife
The Great Lakes food web is contaminated by a
variety of persistent toxic substances, leading to un-
acceptably high levels in certain fish and wildlife. Due
to use restrictions and major investments in pollution
treatment and abatement, levels of some con-
taminants are much lower than in the early 1970s and
continue to decline, but etUI justify the issuance of
public health advisories regarding fish consumption.
Consumption of some fish present risks to human,
health, though the degree of risk is contingent on the
species and location of fish, the amount consumed,
the method of cleaning and cooking, and the gender
and age of the consumer* among other factors. Fish
contamination detracts from thepotential value of
sport and commercial Usheries. Contaminants have
been associated with reproductive and other health
problems in Great Lakes fish and wildlife; however,
with the sharp decline of targeted pollutants, many
species seem to be recovering. Problems persist for
fish and wildlife in certain locations, particularly in
harbors and rivers with highly contaminated sedi-
ments, and for predators high In the food web such as
lake trout, mink, turtles, cormorants, tarns, herring
gulls, and bald eagles. * /
Aspects of Ecosystem Health 13
-------
Figure 2-4. Contaminants in Lake Michigan Bloater Chubs
Some pollutants have greatly declined in fish
Analyses of whole fish-mg/kg wet weight
Year
Source: Data from the Fish and Wildlife Service, National Fisheries Research Center-Great Lakes, 1991.
Are Great Lakes Fish "Safe" to Eat?
Great Lakes fish of different species, locations,
and size, carry different burdens of potential car-
cinogens. Fish that bear the largest burdens tend to
be large, bottom-dwelling, high in the food web, and
high in fat content Modern risk assessment methods
generally assume that the probability of cancer is
proportional to dose, so that there is zero probability
at zero dosage. Because risk is based on cumulative
exposure, high consumption of "low risk" fish can
actually pose greater risk than less consumption of
"high risk" fish. Yet it is valuable to inform the public
about which fish species carry the highest burdens of
contaminants. State health authorities usually follow
this approach when issuing fish advisories (see Table
2-1).
Some clarifications should be made about es-
timates of risk. First, risk assessments have uncertain-
ty in that they are usually based on estimates of
carcinogenic potency obtained by tests on animais;
actual human effects are likely to bedifferent. Second,
assessments produce a range of risk; health
authorities commonly use the high end erf the range.
Third, some methods of cleaning and cookingfiah can
lower the dose of potential carcinogens. Fourth, not
all potential carcinogens may have been detected,
which would cause an assessment to underestimate
risk. And fifth, risk assessments tend to be based on
estimates of cancer incidence and do not consider
other harmful health effects.
This last point is Important, since some research
over the last decade suggests that there may be
non-cancer, transgenerational effects associated with
contaminants found in the tissues of Great Lakes fish.
A series of studies of human health effects from sating
Lake Michigan fish containingPCBsbegan in 1980 (1).
The studies have focused on children whose mothers
had regularly eaten Lake Michigan fish, examining
them at birth, at 7 months, and at 4 years of age. The
studies concluded that infants whose mothers con-
sumed take Michigan fish showed lower birth
weights, smaller head circumference, and dower
responsiveness than Infants whose mothers had not
consumed such fish. At 4 years, these same children
had poorer short-term memory. The deficits noted
were small in magnitude and were not evident outside
the testing situation. There was no indication that the
long-term memory of young children was affected.
Since short-term memory is important In the acquisi-
tion of reading and arithmetic skills, however, the
deficits may augur later Impacts on academic perfor-
mance. One Implication of these studios is that a
woman's lifetime exposure to PCBs may adversely
affect her children. Eliminating exposure during preg-
nancy or lactation may not prevent adverse effects.
Because of the Lake Michigan study and other
research, public health authorities consider chfidren
and women who anticipate bearing children to be the
most vulnerable consumers of Great Lakes fish. Fish
advisories recommend that these populations avoid
eating the fish species cited in Table 2-1.
14 Chapter Two
-------
Table 2-1. Great Lakes Fish Consumption Advisories (1989)*
Location
(Stataa)
Pollutant of
Concern
Raatitefionai**
Do Mot Eat
lake Superior
Michigan
Minnesota
Wisconsin
PCBs (Ml)
Lake Trout 20"-30*
Lake Trout over 30"
Lake Miohigan
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Wisconsin
PCBs (Ml, IL.WI)
Chlordana (IL)
Laka Trout 20"-23"
Coho Salmon over 26"
Chinook Salmon 21 "-32*
Brown Trout over 23*
Lake Trout over 23 "
Chinook Salmon over 32"
Brown Trout over 22"
Carp (any aize)
Catfish (any size)
Laka Huron
Michigan
PCBs (Ml)
Brown Trout up to 21"
Lake Trout
Rainbow Trout
Brown Trout over 21"
Lake Erie
Miohigan
Maw York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
PCBs
(MI.NY.OH, and
PA)
Chlordana (PA)
Carp (any aize)
Catfish (any size)
Laka Ontario
Naw York
PCBs, Mirex,
Chlordana, and
Dioxina (NY)
Carp, White Parch, smaller Coho Salmon, Rainbow
Trout, and Brown Trout
American Eel, Catfish, Lake Trout, Chinook Salmon,
Coho Salmon over 21", Rainbow Trout over 28",
Brown Trout over 20"
Laka 8t Clair
Miohigan
PCBs and
maroury (Ml)
Walleye over 18*. White Baas over 13", Smallmouth
Basa over 18", White Perch over 16", Carp over 22",
Rook Bass over 8", Largemouth Bass over 14",
Biueglll over 8", Freshwater Drum over 14",
Carpsueker over 18", Brown Bullhead over 14*,
Northern Pike over 22"
Muskie (any aize)
Sturgeon (any size)
Catfish (any aize)
Saginaw Bay
Miohigan
PCBs (MO
Rainbow Trout
Brown Trout
Carp (any aize)
Catfish (any aize)
DatrottRtvar
Miohigan
PCBs and
Dioxina (Ml)
Freshwater Drum over 14"
Carp (any size)
St Marya RJw
Miohigan
Maroury (Ml)
Walleye over 10*
Qreen Bay
Miohigan
Wlaoonaln
PCBs (Ml)
Splaka up to 16 "
Rainbow Trout over 22", Chinook over 28", Brawn
Trout over 12", Splaka over 18", Northern Pike over
28", Walleye over 20", White Baas, Carp
Niagara Rhwr
New York
Any fish taken between Hyde Park Lake Dam and the
river mouth
8t Louia River
Minnaaota
Wlaoonaln
PCBsand
Dkucins (MN)
Maroury (Wl)
Allapeoles
Walleye 18"-26*
Walleye over 26"
Inland Lakaa
Michigan
Maroury
Rook Bass, Perah, and Cropple over 9", and any
Largemouth Basa, Smallmouth Bass, Northern Pike,
Muskie, and Walleye
* Adviaoriaa also partaln to Mbutariaa Into which migratory speeieeentor.
•* Nuialnc mother. pragnantwomen. women who anttoipaia bearing ch»dran,*amaleohildfn of any ape, and male children age 18 qr under ahould not ¦* thin Hah.
Preparation and cooMng reoommendaBona: Sport flah can ba prepared and oookad In wayathaHMM reduoe many oonlaiiiliiaiiti In
-------
Figure 2-5. Great Lakes Fish Contamination in
National Perspective (1984)
Levels of contamination In Great Lakes fish are often
among the highest in the nation
Cadmium ImH
DuM ¦¦¦¦
Mlrax pHHB
Endrin PHIHHBHI
DMdrin pmm
coppar
Haptaohlor Epodda
CMordana HHHRHHHBl
PCBa ¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦
Aipha-BHc
Toxaphao* ¦BflBMHHHHHHHHHi
Amanic
Numbar of Qraal Lakaa Sito» in National Top Tan
The Fish and Wildlife Service regularly samples freshwater
fish at 112 sites around the U.S. Twelve sites are in the Great
Lakes. The figure above, using the latest available data (1984),
shows that Great lakes fish are often among the most
contaminated in the nation. For instance, one half of the top
ten national sites where fish are most contaminated with PCBs
lie within the Great Lakes.
Souroa: Adopted from Schmitt at al., 1990, and Schmttt and Brum-
baugh, 1990.
regulation of water dischargers under the National Pol*
lutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). State
standards must protect humans from the risks posed by
consumption of contaminated fish. In 1989, EPA's Office
of Water Regulations and Standards released a guidance
manual, entitled Assessing Human Health Risks from
Chemically Contaminated Fish and Shellfish, which
provides the Agency's recommended procedures for as-
sessing risks related to the consumption of fish.
Effects on Wildlife
Over the last few decades, researchers have ob-
served population declines and health problems in more
than 15 Great Lakes fish and wildlife species that have
seemed to be associated with exposure to various per*
sistent toxic substances. Effects have usually been most
pronounced at the top of the food web and across
generations, as expressed in birth defects. Other
problems that have been noted in fish and wildlife in-
clude: loss of appetite and weight; hormonal changes;
poor reproductive success; tumors; increased suscep-
tibility to disease; and behavioral changes. With the
reduction of many targeted pollutants in the food web,
the populations of affected species generally seem to be
improving.
Since EPA banned and restricted the persistent pes-
ticides DDT and dieldrin in the 1970s, improved bald
eagle reproductive success has led to a recovery in the
national population. However, bald eagles have not
recovered so vigorously along the shores of the Great
Lakes. Researchers have noted that eagles do not
reproduce as successfully along the Lakes as they do
further inland. Great Lakes fish may provide too toxic a
diet for bald eagles to thrive.
During the 1970s, herring gulls around the Great
Lakes were also found to have reproductive problems.
Changes in behavior were a contributing factor to
population decline—herring gulls neglected their nests,
which caused low hatching success. Herring gull
populations have increased as PCBs and pesticides have
decreased in the food web.
Also during the 1970s, scientists observed deform-
ities in various bird species, such as double crested cor-
morants, common terns, Caspian terns, ring-billed terns,
and herring gulls. Birds were found with crossed bills,
jaw defects, and malformed feet and joints. Although the
incidence of these deformities has declined in conjunc-
tion with contaminant levels, problems remain in rela-
tively contaminated areas. One pesticide decay product,
DDE, has also been found to cause the eggshells of
several bird species to be too fragile.
Mink have proved extremely sensitive to a diet of
Great Lakes fish. In the mid-1960s, mink breeders found
that their animals were experiencing high mortality
rates and almost complete reproductive failure. The
ranch animals were being fed fish from Lake Michigan
tributaries. Laboratory toxicology experiments deter-
mined that mink are highly sensitive to PCBs. As with
bald eagles, it is thought that wild mink populations are
larger inland than along the shores of the Great Lakes.
Great Lakes contaminants may also have con-
tributed to a sharp decline since the 19th century in the
population of beluga whales in the St Lawrence estuary.
The whales are burdened by many contaminants, in-
cluding mirex, a persistent toxic substance known to be
present in Lake Ontario. Though beluga do not enter the
i ¦ i ¦ i • i
16 Chapter Two
-------
Table 2-2. Some Key Toxic Contaminant* in the Great Lakes
60UMM
ETitcn
Polyohlorlntated
biphenyte (PCBs)
MiMfCMnisili
PCBs wore widely used in the U.S. from 1929 until 1977
for such uses as hydraulic fluids and lubricants.
Pursuant to the Toxic Substances Control Act, EPA has
prohibited the manufacture, distribution, and uses of
PCBs, other than completely enclosed uses. PCBs are
still used in electrical equipment because of high heat
resistanoe and stability, though such closed uses are
being phased out.
PCBs are highly persistent and bioaccumuiative. All five of
the Lakes have fish consumption advisories based on PCBs.
A series of studies have related'high maternal lifetime
consumption rates of Lake Michigan fish with delays In
physical and cognitive development in infants. PCBs have
been shown to cause canoer in laboratory animals and are
suspected human carcinogens.
Mercury
AM*/
A toxic metal and natural element, meroury was onoe
widely used by the pulp and paper industry and in the
manufacture of chlorine and caustic soda. There are
high accumulations in sediments near old Industrial
discharges. Coal burning power plants and waste
incinerators are among active sources.
Mercury is converted to methylmeroury (the organic form of
mercury) by sediment bacteria under low oxygen conditions
where sulfide levels In sediment are low. Methylmeroury is
highly bioaocumulative and is a known cause of brain
damage and birth defects in humans. Human exposures are
greatest through fish consumption. Fish advisories based
on meroury are in effect for the St. Marys River and Lake St.
Clair, 10,000 inland lakes in Michigan, and 400 others in
Minnesota and Wisoonsin.
Poiychlorlnaled
dlbenzo-
paradloxlne
(PCDDe or dioxlns)
CombiMontnlMatM
Byproduct*
A family of structurally related chemical compounds,
dioxins were present in fungioides and herbicides. Of
particular oonoem was the trace oontamlnant 2,3,7,8-
TCDD. Dioxins are also generated by chlorine
bleaching in pulp and paper manufacture. They are
also a byproduct of combustion of organic material
containing chlorine.
Dioxins are highly persistent and bioaccumulative. 2,3,7,6-
TCDD, the most toxic of a chemical family of 75, is an
extremely potent animal oarcinogen and teratogen. It has
been linked to a skin disease, non-Hodgkins lymphoma,
and some neurological disorders. A reoent epidemiological
study of occupational exposure to dioxin found greater
inoidenoe of soft tissue canoer among highly exposed
persons. EPA launched a new assessment of dioxin's risks
in mid-1991.
Poiychlorlnaled
dlbenzofurane
(PCDFe or furans)
CcmtutUan tnd Mu*tM
B/Product*
A family of structurally related chemical oompounds,
furans are present In chlorophenols and derivative
herbicides, are a byproduct of the combustion of
chlorinated organic matter, and are generated by
chlorine bleaching in pulp and paper manufacture.
Furans were also an inadvertent contaminant to some
PCB products.
2,3,7,8-TCDF is inferred to be one-tenth as toxic as 2,3,7,8-
TCDD, but it has similar toxieolqgical properties and is
present in the environment at much greater oonoentrations.
Other PCDFs show a similar toxlooiogioal relationship to
their PCDD analogs.
Benzo(e)pyrene
B
-------
Table 2-2 (continued). Some Key Toxic Contaminants in the Great Lakes
Pollutant
Sources
Effect
Alkylated ieed
OuoHnMdMMMdhi
Alkylated lead compounds are used as additives for
leaded gasolines and paints. Levels have decreased
sinoe 1981 and continue to decrease as the use of
leaded gasoline deolines. Problem is now concentrated
around Canadian petroleum refineries along the Samia
and St. Lawrence industrial corridors.
Alkylated lead can cause anemia, fatigue, and brain
damage, especially in children. Lead oompounds should
not pose a human health risk as long as fish consumption
advisories are followed.
Dieidrin
Ptttofcto
An insecticide introduced in 1946. was widely used until
banned on a statewide basis by Wisconsin and
Michigan In the late 1960s and by EPA on a national
basis in 1972. Dieidrin is highly persistent, and levels in
soils and sediments have decreased little over time.
Concentrations of Dieidrin in some Lake Michigan fish
species caught commercially in 1985 exceeded USFDA
action levels on occasion. Although most concentrations
are now below action levels, they may still represent an
unacceptable canoer risk to humans under some
consumption scenarios.
Toxaphene
ramoi
Toxaphene was widely used on cotton crops in the
south until the late 1970s; Its production in the U.S. was
banned In 1982 and all uses were prohibited after
Deoember 1986. Lake Superior contains the highest
levels of Toxaphene in fish, apparently due to
atmospheric deposition.
Although below USFDA action levels, concentrations in
some Lake Superior fish species may represent an
unacceptable canoer risk to humans under some
consumption soenarios.
Hexaehlorobenrene
(HCB)
taffoU* and By Product
Originally manufactured as a fungicide, HCB is a by-
product of chlorine and chlorinated alkane/alkene
manufacture as well as pentachloronitrobenzene, a
pesticide In current use, and can also be formed during
the combustion of substances containing chlorine.
HCB Is bioaocumulative. Concentrations in some speoies of
Lake Ontario fish may represent an unacceptable canoer
risk to humans under some consumption soenarios.
Chlordane
fmHoUt
Widely used in a variety of pest control applications,
uses were restricted in 1978 for termite and ant control.
In 1989, manufacturer voluntarily oancelled all
remaining uses of chlordane, with the exoeptlon of fire
ant control in power transformers. Chlordane persists
in soils associated with treated house foundations that
act as a reservoir for slow release baok Into the
environment via runoff and volatilization.
Chlordane is an animal caroinogen and has been
associated with headaches, chronic sinusitis and bronchitis,
and anergic hypersensitization, among other symptoms, In
some epidemiological studies of residents of treated
houses. Chlordane is highly bioaocumulative In fish.
Concentrations in fish from some areas may represent an
unaooeptable human canoer risk under some consumption
scenarios.
Great Lakes, they eat Atlantic eels that migrate from
Lake Ontario and that are suspected to contain mirex.
Another suspected impact of persistent toxic sub-
stances on fish has been noted in bottom-dwelling fish,
such as bullheads and suckers. These fish have been
found to suffer a high incidence of dermal and liver
tumors at a number of Great Lakes locations (2). The
causes of these tumors are difficult to determine because
of the broad range of substances to which these fish are
exposed. However, the incidence of tumors is strongly
correlated with polluted conditions, especially with the
presence of polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) con-
tamination in bottom sediments (3). Several PAH com-
pounds are known or suspected carcinogens. Although
little is known about the significance of tumors on either
the health of fish or on the health of humans who might
eat these fish, visible abnormalities reduce the commer-
cial and recreational value of fish.
Contaminants
EPA has established water quality criteria for about
130 substances that are known or suspected to be harm-
ful to humans, fish, or wildlife. Criteria numerically
define maximum allowable concentrations of a con-
taminant in water and serve as a basis for the develop-
ment of State Water Quality Standards.
EPA and States have identified a set of pollutants
deemed especially injurious and often present in the
Great Lakes ecosystem. Table 2-2 summarizes some
priority pollutants. All pollutants listed in this table tend
to biomagnify up the food web. Several are the most
toxic members of groups of related chemicals.
Pathways
Persistent toxic substances reach the Lakes from a
broad range of human activities. Some sources are readi-
ly visible, such as discharges from sewage systems and
industry and spills from ships and shore. Other sources
are much less obvious: deposition of contaminants from
the atmosphere, movement of contaminants through
18 Chapter Two
-------
groundwater, and urban and agricultural runoff. Even
substances that are no longer in use continue to reach
the Great Lakes, via airborne depostition from incinera-
tion and volatilization of terrestrial contamination. Also,
substances like DDT are still used outside the U.S. and
are borne to the Great Lakes through the atmosphere.
Many older urban areas have combined sewer and
storm water systems that deliver rain runoff as well as
industrial and household effluents to municipal was-
tewater treatment facilities. During rainstorms, water
flow often exceeds the capacity of these systems, leading
to releases of untreated water. The significance of com-
bined sewer overflows (CSOs) varies around the Great
Lakes. Whereas Wisconsin does not consider CSOs to
have a major impact on any of its rivers, Michigan
regards CSOs as a major source of impairment to 317
miles of its rivers, making this the second leading source
of impairments to the State's waters. Michigan estimates
that the 170 CSO outfalls that empty to the Rouge River
release an annual volume of 7.8 billion gallons of un-
treated water. Figure 2-6 shows the locations of another
75 Canadian and U.S. overflow points that discharge
directly to the Detroit River. Overflows from the Detroit
and Windsor sewer systems represent a major continu-
ing source of pollution to the Great Lakes.
Accidental spills can be a significant, temporary
source of toxic substances as well The Coast Guard
recorded 5,003 spills of oil or toxic substances into the
U.S. waters of the Great Lakes from January 1980
through September 1989. About 80 percent of these spills
came from land facilities, such as oil storage tanks and
pipelines; the balance came from ships. Most were (HI
spills of small volume. However, there have been oil
spills up to a million gallons and toxic substance spills
up to 200,000 gallons.
Transport of contaminants by groundwater is
known to be a problem in some places, notably along the
Niagara River, owing to the coincidence of certain
geological features and leaking adjacent landfills. Rain
runoff from farms and urban areas brings with it pes-
ticides and surface contamination.
The atmosphere is another pollutant pathway. Con-
taminants reach the atmosphere from combustion and
volatilization. They exist in the atmosphere attached to
particles, associated with water droplets, and in their
gaseous state. They leave the atmosphere via dry deposi-
tion of particles, rain and snow, and gas exchange to
water.
points
Source: Upper Great Lake* Connecting Channels Study, 1988.
In the late 1970s, studies on Isle Royale, a relatively
isolated island in Lake Superior, reported PCBs, DDT,
and toxaphene in the waters of its lakes. Researchers
theorized that such pollution must have been the result
of deposition from the air. Since toxaphene was prin-
cipally used to reduce insects on cotton crops in the
American south, there was an implication that it had
been transported a great distance through the atmos-
phere.
Researchers have subsequently tried to estimate the
extent of atmospheric deposition of contaminants to the
Great Lakes. Atmospheric deposition may be the largest
path for some contaminants—such as PCBs—to enter
Lake Superior, for instance, because of the Lake's rela-
tive lade of adjacent development and its large surface
area. Yet there are great uncertainties surrounding such
estimates because there has not been lakewide monitor-
ing of airborne deposition of substances such as PCBs.
Recent research in Minnesota and Wisconsin has
concluded that the atmosphere is a significant pathway
for mercury, potentially emitted by garbage incinerators
and coal-burning power plants, among various sources.
In the last several years, Michigan has issued advisories
regarding fish consumption for thousands of its inland
lakes based on levels of mercury, while Minnesota and
Wisconsin have issued advisories for hundreds of such
lakes. The issuance of these advisories is partly a reflec-
tion of expansion of fish monitoring programs. Though
Figure 2-6. Combined Sewer Overflows Along the
Detroit River
Combined sewer overflows are an important
pollutant pathway
Detroit, Michigan
Windsor, Ontario
Aspects of Ecosystem Health 19
-------
there are atmospheric loadings of mercury across the
entire region, differences in water chemistry and bac-
teria between waterbodies causes mercury levels to be
more of a problem in the fish of some lakes than in
others. Mercury levels in walleye and lake trout have
sharply fallen in areas of the Great Lakes where they
were highest two decades ago following the modifica-
tion or closure of pulp and paper mills that were then
the major source of loadings. In general, there are not
indications that mercury levels are rising in Great Lakes
fish, although the evidence of atmospheric loadings to
the region may help account for present levels of this
contaminant in Great Lakes fish and warrants continued
monitoring.
Toxics Release Inventory
Some evidence of the magnitude of contaminants
used, released, and transferred by large U.S. manufac-
turing firms is reported to the public. Since 1987, these
firms have reported annual releases or transfers of more
than 300 toxic substances under the Emergency Plan-
ning and Community Right-to-Know Act. EPA compiles
this information into a data base called the Toxics
Release Inventory (TRI).
As shown in Figure 2-8, during 1988, firms in the
counties of the Great Lakes watershed reported that
they released or transferred more than 1 billion pounds
of toxic substances. Relatively little of this quantity was
directly released to surface waten additional quantities
may reach the Great Lakes indirectly by pathways such
as atmospheric deposition. Many of these substances do
not biomagnify in the food web. Figure 2-9 shows
releases and transfers by industriti groups. The distribu-
tion of releases and transfers is mapped in Figure 2-10.
Several considerations apply to TRI information.
The TRI does not indicate the amounts of toxicants to
which humans or the environment are exposed, nor
does it measure the risks that these substances pose to
either. TRI data do not necessarily indicate regulatory
violations, in part because manufacturers report trans-
fers offsite to authorized disposal facilities. Not all toxic
substances are included under TRI, nor are all sources of
their release to the environment; the TRI does not, for
example, include releases from small manufacturing
firms and from non-manufacturing sources, such as
municipal incinerators, households, and agriculture.
CONTAMINATED BOTTOM SEDIMENTS
Bottom sediments that hojd, such substances as
PCBs and DDT are probably the principal cause of the
continuing contamination of fish and wildlife with
these now banned chemicals. The transfer of sediment-
bound contaminants to the base of the food web takes
place both directly, through accumulation of con-
taminants in bottom-dwelling organisms, and indirect-
ly, through resuspension of contaminants to the water
column and their ensuing adsorption by
phytoplankton. Contaminated sediments are also toxic
to bottom-dwelling organisms, either killing them or
impairing their normal functioning. Sublethal effects
associated with contaminated sediments include tumors
in bottom fish. Brown bullheads, a variety of bottom-
feeding catfish, have been found with a high incidence
of ugly facial tumors in the Buffalo River in New York
and the Black River in Ohio where they are exposed to
contaminated sediments.
Contaminated sediments also impose economic
costs. Special steps are required to dredge and dispose
of contaminated sediments, which increase the cost of
maintaining waterways for navigation. In a number of
locations, including Indiana Harbor, Indiana, Ashtabula
River, Ohio, Sheboygan Harbor, Wisconsin, and
Menominee River, Michigan, navigational dredging has
been delayed for years because of issues surrounding
disposal of dredged sediments. Reduced dredging in-
creases transportation costs because industries must
find alternative transportation methods or reduce their
loading of ships.
Yet, the sedimentation process also covers old sedi-
ments with new. In this way, it may bury past con-
tamination and be an important natural means for the
recovery of the ecosystem. The rate of burial differs from
location to location and lake to lake, with Lake Erie
having a relatively high rate of sedimentation, Lakes
Michigan and Superior low rates.
EPA and States have designated 31 harbors and
rivers in the region, all of which have contaminated
bottom sediments, as Areas of Concern. Bottom sedi-
ments in these areas contain a wide range of con-
taminants, including toxic metals such as copper, lead,
nickel, and zinc as well as chemicals. Figure 2-7 il-
lustrates the geographical zone of highest sediment con-
tamination in one Area of Concern, the Detroit River.
Another indication of the scope of the contaminated
sediment problem is that in recent years, to maintain
navigation channels, the Army Corps of Engineers has
dredged a large volume of sediment from the Lakes that
is too contaminated for open-lake (disposal. As directed
by the Water Resources Development Act, the Corps
20 Chapter Twq
-------
places such material in confined disposal facilities
(CDFs), which are structures designed to hold and iso-
late contaminated dredged materials. There are 38 CDFs,
completed or under construction, in one-third is on
land, two-thirds displace water. The Corps adds about
two million cubic yards of sediments to them annually.
When filled to capacity, the contents of a CDF are
covered by a layer of clean soil.
CDFs are an imperfect solution, although they may
lower the transfer of contaminants to the Great Lakes
food web that would otherwise take place if con-
taminated bottom sediments remained in place. CDFs
encroach on the Lakes and require ongoing monitoring
and periodic maintenance. Some also develop dense
populations of vegetation, insects, and fish communities
that are exposed to contaminants. One CDF at the mouth
of the Buffalo River had a fish population estimated at
20 thousand in an 8 hectare pool during 1988. A survey
of its brown bullhead population found that 89 percent
had external abnormalities such as tumors.
DEGRADED WETLANDS
A wetland is an area such as a marsh, swamp, bog,
or fen. A vital component of the Great Lakes ecosystem,
wetlands serve a variety of important functions, provid-
ing nursery, resting, feeding, and breeding grounds for
a rich diversity of birds, fish, and wildlife. Wetlands
protect a variety of fish species from waves and
predators. Coastal wetlands offer fish warmer tempera-
tures than open lake waters. The submerged plants of
wetlands support bacteria and plankton. Larval and
juvenile fish harbored by wetlands are an important
food source for waterfowl. Ducks consume both plants
that extend above the water and submerged ones, while
geese graze on the former. Wetlands also protect
shorelines from erosion; store flood waters with their
dense vegetation; and trap sediments that can pollute
waterways.
Many of the wetland areas of the Great Lakes water-
shed have been lost over the last two centuries. On the
Canadian side, it is estimated that between 1800 and
1982, more than 60 percent of the wetlands in southern
Ontario were lost. In southwestern Ontario, more than
90 percent have been converted to other uses. Similar
losses have occurred in the U.S. On a statewide basis,
Illinois and Indiana have each lost more than 80 percent
of their original wetland acreage. Ohio is believed to
have lost 90 percent of its wetlands, with the 1,500 square
Figure 2-7. Sediment Contamination in the Lower
Detroit River ae Suggested by impacts on Benthic
Macroinvertebrate Communities
The U.S. side of the lower Detroit River Is an area
with contaminated bottom sediments
Souroe: Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channel* Study, 1988.
mile Black Swamp of northwest Ohio almost entirely
converted to farmland by the 1920s (Figure 2-11).
The most extensive losses took place in the 19th and
early 20th centuries when many wetlands were drained
to become suitable for agriculture. Remaining wetlands
continue to be threatened by such purposes as building
construction, waste disposal, and mining of sand and
gravel. Consumption of groundwater has diminished
recharge of certain wetlands. There are also indications
that wetlands have been disrupted by non-native
plants, such as purple loosestrife, and fish, such as carp.
EXOTIC SPECIES
Over the past two hundred years, humans have
introduced about 100 exotic (non-native) species to the
Great Lakes, many of which have profoundly hurt the
Aspects of Ecosystem Health 21
-------
Figure 2-8. Routes of Releases of Toxic Substances around the Great Lakes according to the Toxics
Release Inventory (1988)
U.S. manufacturing firms around the Great Lakes report the use, release, or transfer of millions of
pounds of toxic substances each year
108 1 s&s 1 ' sfe 1 soo
Million* of Pound* par Year
Land
Public Sewage
Underground
Surface Water
Figure 2-9. Releases of Toxic Substances around the Great Lakes by Manufacturing industrial
Group according to the Toxics Release' Inventory (1988)
Metals and chemical firms use, release, or transfer the largest quantity of reported substances
Primary Metals
Chemicals
Transportation
Fabricated Metal
Rubber arid mastic
Paper
Photographic
Stone, Clay, Glass
Food
Petroleum
Electronic
Machinery
Printing
Other
100
200 too
MNHofw of Pound* per Year
400
BOO
Souroe; Pranckevicius, 1890.
22 Chapter Two
-------
Figure 2-10. Releases of Toxic Substances in Great Lakes Counties according
to the Toxics Release Inventory (1988)
Jit
Sou rot: Prancktvidus and Marine, 1090.
Aspects of Ecosystem Health 23
-------
Figure 2-11. Presettlement Extent of the Black
Swamp in Northwestern Ohio
The Black Swamp was almost entirely converted to
farmland by the 1920s
populations of native species. Exotics damage native
populations through direct competition for food, dis-
placement from physical environments, direct attack,
and through alteration of the chemical or physical con-
ditions needed by other species.
Some introductions have been intentional, such as
those of carp and Pacific salmon. Pacific (chinook and
coho) salmon were introduced to the Lakes in the 1960s
and are regularly stocked by States and the Province of
Ontario in order to provide an additional predator to
control the numbers of smelt and alewife. Salmon also
provide sport fishing alternatives to greatly diminished
lake trout populations. Many other introductions of
exotics have been unintended, such as those of sea
lamprey, alewife, zebra mussel, and smelt.
The pace of the introductions of exotics has ac-
celerated over the last 30 years, as shown by Figure 2-12
Of the exotics introduced to the Lakes since 1810, one
third have appeared since 1960. This increased pace is
largely due to greater transoceanic shipping traffic on
the Great Lakes since completion of the St. Lawrence
Seaway in 1959. Such vessels have often taken-on ballast
water in a distant port that they have later discharged
into the Lakes to compensate for the on or off-loading
of cargo or to allow a vessel to accommodate the 27 foot
maximum draft of Great Lakes navigation channels. Bal-
last water can sustain exotic organisms until it and they
are together released into the Lakes. Thus, ocean-going
vessels have often spanned saltwater barriers to fresh-
water species from other continents.
The frequencies of the routes by which exotic
species are believed to have entered the Great Lakes are
shown in Figure 2-13. More than one-third of exotics
have been stowaways on ships. Organisms that can
survive in ship ballast tanks are frequently very adapt-
able and aggressive; when released to an ecosystem in
which they have few natural predators, they can
proliferate and severely affect the existing balance be-
tween native species. The transfer of exotics through
ballast water can be prevented if ships take on ballast
water at sea before entering the Lakes. Saltwater or-
ganisms are unlikely to survive in the Great Lakes. Ex-
otics have also made their way into the Great Lakes via
canals. Species that had been barred from the upper
Lakes by Niagara Falls were able to enter them after the
Welland Canal was completed or enlarged.
Fish species are among the best known of the ex-
otics. Yet, numerous other exotics have also been intro-
duced. Plants represent about 40 percent of exotics, fish
20 percent, and algae 18 percent.
Damage to native fish populations from exotic species
More than 100 exotic (non-native) species have
been introduced to the Great Lakes since 1800, one-
third carried by ships. Only about 21 percent of the
exotics have been fish species; the majority have been
plants, plankton, and benthic organisms. The pace of
the introductions of exotic species has steadily ac-
celerated over the past 30 years since the opening of
the St. Lawrence Seaway spurred an increase in tran-
soceanic shipping. Exotics have profoundly damaged
the populations of some desirable native species. The
sea lamprey, a parasitic, eel-like fish, entered the
upper lakes via thB Welland Canal In the 1930s; within
20 years, It decimated lake trout populations that to
this day are not self-sustaining, though a program of
lamprlcide application has reduced the sea lamprey
population. A notable recent invader, likely via the
ballast water of an ocean vessel, Is the zebra mussel.
A prolific breeder, this mollusc forms dense colonies
on hard surfaces like water Intake pipes, imposing
immediate economic costs. Ecological effects of the
zebra mussel are as yet unknown, but potentially
catastrophic. The zebra mussel devours microscopic
plants at the foundation of the food web and may
ultimately threatening top predators like walleye, sal-
mon, and lake trout
24 Chapter Two
-------
Zebra Mussel
Zebra mussels may prove to be the most harmful
exotic yet introduced to the Great Lakes. Named for
their distinctive black and yellow bands, this tiny bar-
nacle-like shellfish (up to 2 inches long) is found
throughout Europe. Zebra mussels are prolific breeders;
female mussels produce as many as 400 surviving off-
spring each year. They were first noted in Lake St. Clair
in 1988.
Since then, they have been found in numerous loca-
tions, from Duluth to the entrance of the St Lawrence
River. They have infested Lake Erie to an astounding
degree and with equally impressive speed, colonizing
nearly every available surface in just two years. It is
expected that the species will occupy most of its suitable
living environments within the Lakes over the next
several years. It also seems inevitable that the zebra
mussel will in time spread through much of America,
through pathways such as the Chicago River to the
Mississippi River system and carried by ships and
recreational boats.
Zebra mussels cement themselves to hard surfaces,
building grape-like clusters six and more inches thick;
densities up to 700,000 to the square meter have been
found in Lake Erie. The lifespan of the species is 3 to 5
years. They favor relatively warm, nutrient-rich, shal-
low water (6 to 30 feet deep). Microscopic mussel larvae
float freely for 10 to 15 days, carried by currents before
finding a suitable hard surface to which to attach them-
selves and mature into the familiar mussel form. The
mobility of the mussel larvae accounts for the rapid
spread of the species through the Great Lakes.
The zebra mussel poses many ecological problems.
One adult mussel filters the suspended phytoplankton
from one liter of water per day. A vast population of
zebra mussels can devour a vast quantity of
phytoplankton, the foundation of the Great Lakes food
web, and may in time create a food shortage for other
phytoplankton grazers and ultimately reduce the food
supply of predators such as lake trout, salmon, walleye,
and bass. Zebra mussels also threaten the spawning sites
of native fish. Many species, such as walleye, prefer
rocky shoals for spawning. Zebra mussels prefer this
habitat for colonization. Zebra mussels also coat crayfish
and clams, making it difficult for them to open or move.
The mussels have economic impacts as well, clog-
ging municipal and industrial water intakes. Many
hundreds of millions of dollars will have to be invested
in construction of new intakes, redesign of present ones
Figure 2-12. Timing of the Entry of Exotic Species
into the Great Lakes
The introduction of exotic species has increased
1810-1839
1840-1869
1870-1899
1900-1929
1930-1959
1960-1990
Percentage of Species
Source: Mill* and L*ach, 1991.
to reduce their vulnerability to mussel fouling, exten-
sion of pipes into deeper water, and periodic mussel
removal The mussels also encrust and slow ships, and
infiltrate and dog their ballast and cooling systems.
Beaches can be fouled by the odor of decaying zebra
mussels and bathers at some beaches will have to wear
foot protection to prevent cuts from the sharp shells of
the mussels. Dead mussels also give off methane gas,
imparting a foul taste and smell to water. The mussel also
attaches to navigational buoys, breakwater rocks, piers,
and fish nets.
Freshwater drum, also known as sheepshead, is a
fish species present in the Lakes that feed on zebra
mussels. Scaup, a diving duck that migrates through the
Great Lakes, is another mussel predator. Yet, scientists
consider that these natural predators will be unable to
curtail the explosive growth in numbers of zebra mus-
sels.
Sea Lamprey
The sea lamprey was one of die first exotic species
to devastate native populations. This small, parasitic,
eel-like fish attaches to larger fish and lives off their
Aspects of Ecosystem Health 25
-------
Figure 2-13. Entry Routes of Exotic Species
Shipping is the leading source of exotic species
¦
/
Rail or Highway
Canals
Deliberate
Unknown
Accidental
Ships
0 10
Number of Species
Source: Mills and L*ach, 1981.
bodily fluids, often killing the host Sea lamprey are
native to the Atlantic Ocean. They may have made their
way into Lake Ontario via the St Lawrence River or the
species may have entered the Lake through the Erie
Canal. By whichever path, sea lamprey were present in
Lake Ontario by the mid-19th century but were barred
from the other Lakes by Niagara Falls. In the 1920s after
enlargement of the Welland Canal, they escaped into the
upper Lakes and over the next three decades spread
throughout them.
Partly as a result of lamprey depredations, lake trout
populations in Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior
collapsed; commercial catches in the 1950s were only 1
percent of those 20 years earlier. Whitefish and burbot
populations were likewise decimated, and walleye and
sucker populations were also attacked. As large prey
disappeared, lamprey turned to smaller fish, virtually
extinguishing several of the larger species of cisco in the
upper three lakes.
The sea lamprey has wreaked less destruction on
Lake Erie fish populations. This may be because Erie is
warmer and the lamprey prefers die cold environment
of the upper Lakes. Or it may be that the lamprey has
lacked spawning areas in Lake Erie.
In 1961, the U. S. and Canada began to apply a
chemical to sea lamprey spawning grounds. This
lampricide application program has slashed numbers of
lampreys by about 90 percent. However, complete
eradication of the lamprey is probably not feasible and
the control program will need to continue indefinitely
to keep the lamprey's predations in check. Today, the
lamprey is concentrated in northern Lakes Huron and
Michigan, and in Lake Superior. The strong currents of
the St. Marys River have lessened the effectiveness of
lampricide application. As a result, a large population of
lampreys live in the river and in nearby reaches of Lake
Huron.
River Ruffe
The river ruffe, a small (typically 6 to 8 inches)
perch-like fish from northern Eurasian fresh waters,
entered Duluth harbor around 1986, probably from the
discharge of ballast water from an ocean-going vessel.
The ruffe is hardy and a rapid breeder. A growing
population has been noted in the relatively warm and
nutrient-rich St. Louis River estuary. In 1989, the ruffe's
population was estimated at 300,000. A year later, its
population was estimated to have doubled.
Scientists doubt that the temperature or food supply
of Lake Superior will be a barrier to the ruffe. They think
the ruffe will spread in time, although its pace will not
rival that of the zebra mussel. If the ruffe spreads, it may
injure desirable native species. It competes for food with
native fish, such as yellow perch, and feeds on the eggs
of whitefish.
As a first attempt to control the ruffe population in
Duluth harbor, fisheries managers stocked walleye and
northern pike. Early indications are that walleye are not
effective in controlling ruffe, if alternative prey is avail-
able. Of400 walleye obtained from Duluth harbor, none
were found to have recently eaten ruffe. Walleye also
have not eaten ruffe in laboratory feeding studies.
Limited sampling of burbot, a voracious member of the
cod family, and northern pike show that some had eaten
ruffe, and further work is underway to assess the poten-
tial of these predators to control the ruffe population.
Spiny Water Flea
Another recent invader to the Great Lakes is the
large zooplankton, Bythotrephes cederstroemii or spiny
water flea. At up to one-half inch in length, it derives its
name from a long spiny tail First noted in Lake Huron
in 1984, the spiny water flea is native to Eurasian fresh-
water.
26 Chapter Two
-------
It is not yet apparent what impacts the spiny water
flea may have on the Great Lakes ecosystem. One con-
cern is that it may not be palatable to potential predators,
which could lead to its unconstrained population
growth. It feeds on a few species of Daphnia, another
form of zooplankton. Daphnia are an important food
source for young fish such as the bloater chub and its
decline might also bring about an increase in algae on
which it feeds. Some recent evidence indicates that
alewife may consume the spiny water flea, providing a
constraint on its population (4).
Alewife
The sardine-like alewife is a 4- to 11-inch long mem-
ber of the herring family. Alewife are native to north-
eastern U.S. salt waters and entered Lake Ontario,
presumably through the Erie Canal, in the mid-1800s.
Alewife spread to the other Lakes during 1931 to 1954,
after enlargement of the Welland Canal allowed the
species a pathway to bypass Niagara Falls.
Alewife have become a favored food of lake trout
and salmon. With the precipitous decline of lake trout
populations, alewife populations exploded. In 1967, mil-
lions of alewife in Lake Michigan died and washed
ashore, owing to the twin effects of cold temperatures
and starvation. Another notable alewife die-off occurred
in southern Lake Huron.
Stocking of salmon and lake trout have sub-
sequently helped to control alewife numbers, and the
species has been harvested commercially for fertilizer
and pet food. Alewife are believed to have damaged the
populations of several native species through competi-
tion for food. Among these are lake herring and emerald
shiner whose numbers have not recovered since the
control of alewife.
EXCESSIVE NUTRIENTS
By the late 1960s, various areas of the Lakes ex-
hibited eutrophic conditions, marked by thick algal
blooms, unpleasant odor from and taste to the water,
and depletion of dissolved oxygen from the water due
to the decay of algae following their seasonal die-off.
These conditions were most pronounced in Lake Erie,
which as the shallowest, wannest, and biologically most
productive lake is most susceptible to nuisance levels of
algae. Lake Erie has also been vulnerable because it
surpasses other lakes in receipt of effluent from sewage
treatment plants and of sediment from the rich farmland
in its watershed. Both effluent and sediment carried
nutrients to the Lake, notably phosphorus, altering its
chemistiy and, as a result, its algae populations. To a
lesser degree, eutrophic conditions were also evident in
Lake Ontario and in shallow, naturally productive em-
bayments including Saginaw Bay, Green Bay, and the
Bay of Quinte.
Over the last two decades, the U.S. and Canada have
generally reduced phosphorus levels across the Great
Lakes. Lake Erie's improvement, in particular, has been
visible and dramatic. Scientists determined that lower-
ing phosphorus concentrations would have the greatest
limiting effect on algal productivity. The U.S. and
Canada passed laws limiting phosphorus content in
household detergents and constructed more effective
municipal sewage treatment plants, cutting their phos-
phorus discharges. As a result, open-lake phosphorus
concentrations have declined.
Phosphorus levels have also declined in Saginaw
Bay and Green Bay. A facility that draws drinking water
from Saginaw Bay has not found taste or odor problems
since 1980. This facility had 56 days of such problems in
1974. Michigan also reports that phosphorus concentra-
tions in the Saginaw River have fallen 73 percent since
1970 (5). During the 1980s, phosphorus levels in lower
Green Bay fell by about 25 percent from the average
during the 1970s (6). Wisconsin has set a goal of reducing
phosphorus levels in Green Bay to under 125
micrograms per liter by the year 2000.
The bottom waters of Lake Erie's central basin con-
tinue to suffer depletion of dissolved oxygen during late
summer. During the summer, the central basin stratifies
Undesirable Effects From Excessive -
Nutrients *
In some shallow waters that receive agricultural
runoff of fertilizers and/or in areas having a high
surrounding population, such as lake Erie, Lake
Ontario, Saginaw Bay, and Green Bay* water Is over-
enriched with nutrients, particularly phosphorus. The
situation has improved since the late 1960s when
Lake Erie was infamously clogged by foul-smelting :
mats of algae that depleted dissolved oxygen from
bottom waters by its seasonal die-off and decay, ;
Nevertheless, the bottom waters of central Lake Erie j
continue to suffer periods of oxygen depletion, Phos-
phorus concentrations In the water column of Lake
Erie are approaching those predicted to achieve <
desired water quality, although this success may be
partly attributable to severed recent years of below
average rainfall. Conservation tillage and other farm-
ing practices that reduce runoff remain important to
achieving desired concentrations of phosphorus.
Aspects of Ecosystem Health 27
-------
Figure 2-14. Estimated Total Phosphorus Loading
To Lake Erie
Phosphorus Loadings Have Bean Cut
Jonnm (X1000)
Sourer Data from UC's Water Quality Board
Figure 2-15. Spring Phosphorus Levels in Lake
Erie's Central Basin
Phosphorus levels In the water column have fallen
8outm: Data from P. Bertram, 1691.
Figure 2-16. Oxygen Depletion Rate for the bot-
tom waters of the Central Basin of Lake Erie
In recent years, the oxygen depletion rate has fallen
by about 25% from that of the 1970s
mg O^L/month
6
Yaw
Sou roe: Makarawlcz and Bertram, 1891.
by temperature, forming a thin bottom layer. When
algae die and sink to the bottom, their decay exhausts
the limited supply of dissolved oxygen in that layer,
creating for several months a zone that cannot support
bottom dwelling fish. However, an indication of Lake
Erie's improved water quality is that the rate of oxygen
depletion in the bottom layer of the central basin has
steadily declined and in 1989 was at its lowest rate in
twenty years (see Figure 2-16). This reduction means
that the bottom layer is, depleted of oxygen later in die
summer and the period of oxygen depletion is shorter
than in the past
Levels of another nutrient, nitrogen, found in the
water as nitrate-plus-nitrite, have been steadily rising
throughout the Great Lakes for many years. The likely
sources of this increase are atmospheric deposition of
combustion byproducts and runoff of nitrogen fer-
tilizers used on farms and lawns. The rise in nitrate-plus-
nitrite concentrations may in time affect phytoplankton
communities, causing unpredictable changes to the
balances between species up the food web.
(there is no page 29 or 30)
28 Chapter Two
-------
Chapter 3
The Great Lakes Program:
A Model, Ecosystem Approach
This chapter presents the holistic approach to
ecosystem protection that EPA launched during FY 1991
to attack Great Lakes environmental problems. Under
this approach, the Agency began to: develop a joint 5
year strategy among the different agencies involved in
protection of the Lakes; rank ecological and human
health risks facing the region; promote pollution
prevention as the preferred means to reduce risks from
contaminants; target priority problems and geographic
areas; meet local needs with a blend of solutions from
across the range of environmental programs; develop
regulations and enforce environmental laws in a com-
prehensive, integrated manner so as to address the over-
all pollution problem at a regulated facility; encourage
public participation; and evaluate progress using
ecological indicators. In all these elements, the Agency
is taking advantage of every opportunity for coopera-
tive actions with Canada.
EPA has successfully used many individual ele-
ments of this approach in the past The fundamental
changes now being pioneered on the Great Lakes are to
promote innovative pollution prevention measures, to
enforce environmental laws in a comprehensive way
while focusing on targeted geographic areas, to harness
local community participation in the remedial planning
process, and to integrate the Agency's programs around
the ecosystem, setting goals on the basis of environmen-
tal needs and measuring progress by ecological
yardsticks.
This innovative approach is consistent with, and
indeed provides enhanced implementation of, the Great
Lakes Water Quality Agreement between the United
States and Canada. Under this agreement, the two na-
tions have dedicated themselves to restore and maintain
the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the
Great Lakes ecosystem by, among various policies,
prohibiting releases of toxic substances in toxic amounts
and virtually eliminating releases of persistent toxic sub-
stances to the Lakes. EPA's new ways of doing business
are aimed at fuller achievement of the Agreement's pur-
pose.
A SHARED STRATEGY
During 1991, EPA in concert with States and partner
Federal agencies developed their first joint five year
strategy for the Lakes to kick-off in FY 1992. Parties to
the plan include the eight States, the Department of
Agriculture, the Army Corps of Engineers, the Coast
Guard, the Forest Service, the Fish and Wildlife Service,
the National Park Sendee, and the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration. The purpose of this
strategy is to set forth a set of common or complimentary
goals and objectives among the various Federal and
State agencies with environmental stewardship respon-
sibilities for the Lakes, as well as milestones for actions
to reach these objectives. The strategy joins environ-
mental protection agencies with natural resource agen-
cies in pursuit of a common agenda. The Agency
envisions that the strategy will be updated each year as
more is learned about challenges facing the Lakes and
as agencies successively target different problems.
The ultimate purpose of the strategy is that of the
Water Quality Agreement—to restore and maintain the
chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Great
Lakes ecosystem. To realize this purpose, the strategy
has three long-term goals:
• Reduce Toxic Loadings: prevent and reduce
releases of toxic pollutants and remedy past con-
tamination, so as to preclude toxic substances in
toxic amounts within the ecosystem.
• Protect and Restore Habitat; protect and restore
wetland, land, and aquatic habitats vital for heal-
thy communities of plants and animals, with an
emphasis on the habitat needs of threatened
species.
• Protect the Health of Human Residents and the
Ecosystem's living Resnunccs: protect the health
of human residents of the region and its plant and
animal communities.
The Great lakes Program 31
-------
The strategy emphasizes the ecosystem approach,
recognizing the interconnectedness of air, land, water,
plants, wildlife, and humans. It promotes pollution
prevention as the preferred means to reduce releases of
toxic substances. While the partners to the strategy
recognize that full attainment of its goals is a long-term
proposition, it spells out many of their practical steps
over the next five years towards these goals. They en-
vision that ultimate attainment of these goals will pro-
vide an ecosystem in which, for example, fish are safe for
human consumption in unlimited quantities and there
are thriving populations of vulnerable species such as
bald eagle and lake trout.
IDENTIFY PRIORITY PROBLEMS
During FY 1991, EPA conducted its first comparative
risk-based characterization of human health and
ecological hazards facing the Great Lakes region. The
study looked at evidence on 23 different types of
problems or their sources, including those addressed by
the Agency's spectrum of air, waste, and water
programs, and other problems specific to the Lakes such
as the introduction of exotic species, changing lake
levels, and contaminated bottom sediments. In charac-
terizing the nature of a broad number of problems across
a large geographic area, there were many gaps or uncer-
tainties in available data. EPA recognizes that this sort
of analysis can neither provide definitive results, nor
alone set the Agency's agenda. Rather this study sug-
gests a ranking of problems, based on available
evidence, so as to help EPA and its Federal and State
partners identify priority problems.
The comparitive risk study concluded that the fol-
lowing posed the greatest ecological risks: persistent
toxic substances that cause health problems for fish and
wildlife in a number of areas; contaminated bottom sedi-
ments that contribute to poisoning the food web; water
Pollution Prevention: Some Whats, Whys, and Hows
Pollution prevention is the adoption of "greener"
technologies or practices. It entails everyday decisions
by Industry, agriculture, governments, universities, in-
dlvlduals—in short, by everyone -that cause the least
environmental harm. Pollution prevention heads-off
environmental injury at its origins.
Pollution prevention takes innumerable forms. In
the manufacturing context, pollution prevention invol-
ves forethought about the ultimate disposal of a
product at the stages of Its conception and design;
Arms prevent pollution by such methods as product
reformulation, changes In processes, and equipment
redesign. Farmers prevent pollution by sound tillage
practices and handling of pesticides and fertilizers.
Universities conduct research on promising preventive
technologies. Individuals hold a key to environmental
progress inthelr purchases of consumer products and
in their lifestyles.
For many manufacturing firms, pollution preven-
tion has compelling attractions. It can reduce worker
exposure to toxic substances* lowering medical and
insurance costs, it can lower the cost of compliance
with environmental regulations regarding treatment,
cleanup, or disposal of hazardous substances. And
can save raw materials wasted as pollutant byproducts
and lower the disposal costs of non-hazardous rub-
bish.
Pollution prevention also adds luster to a firm's
reputation with Its customers, surrounding community,
and employees. Increasingly, consumers stop buying
their generation or disposal, presenting profit oppor-
tunities for firms clever enough to provide green
products. Firms with green records may find it easier
to earn community support for new facilities, and to
recruit and motivate employees,
For such reasons, many U.S. firms have well-es-
tablished pollution prevention programs. This wel-
come development harnesses their innovatory
energies to go beyond EPA's standards for treatment
technologies.
EPA will encourage and assistall sectored society
in preventing pollution and is examining innovative
ways to do so. Hie Agency will continue to release
information on polluters, bringing oompaniesthat need
to prevent pollution to public notice. EPA will support
the sharing of pollution prevention information, and
sponsor research Into preventive technologies. Also,
regulatory barriers to development of cleaner tech'
nologies, if any, will be identified. Other potential
means of fostering prevention are market incentlvesfor
firmsthat reduce their use of virgin materials, theirtoxic
emissions, or energy consumption. Government
standards for advertisements can help consumers
receive accurate green information on which to base
purchases.
EPA also piacesa high priority on encouraging all
sectors of society to prevent pollution. Education is
one vital means to engage the public. The Agency is
providing educational materials on prevention oppor*
tunitles. Educational campaigns can help
homeowners deal with household hazardous products
or help farmers reduce pesticide use.
32 Chapter Three
-------
runoff from urban and agricultural lands that carries
pesticides and other pollutants; industrial and
municipal dischargers to surface water; the possibility of
large accidental spills of toxic substances; introduction
of exotic species; destruction of wildlife habitats; atmos-
pheric deposition of sulfur and nitrogen oxides, and
mercury that affects a large number of inland lakes; and
global climate change.
The study concluded that the following posed the
most significant human health risks: consumption of
Great Lakes sport fish owing to their contamination
with PCBs, chlordane, mercury, dioxins, and mirex; con-
sumption of sport fish from inland lakes due to their
contamination with mercury; accidental spills; and
respiratory exposure to toxic air pollutants. The
metropolitan areas with the most significant sources of
environmental contaminants were found to be Chicago,
Illinois, and Gary, Indiana; Detroit, Michigan; Buffalo
and Niagara Falls, New York; and Cleveland, Ohio.
PROMOTE POLLUTION PREVENTION
EPA sees the Great Lakes as a proving ground for its
pollution prevention efforts. While buttressed by other
Agency activities, pollution prevention is to be the
preferred means to reduce toxic pollutants. EPA is weav-
ing pollution prevention into the fabric of all its Great
Lakes activities and encouraging all sectors of society to
contribute their ideas for reducing the quantity and
harmfulness of resources used to satisfy human needs.
In April 1991, in concert with the eight Governors of
Great Lakes States, EPA launched a Pollution Preven-
tion Action Plan for the Lakes. The Action Plan aug-
ments State pollution prevention programs. During
recent years, States have started various prevention in-
itiatives, involving education, research, technical assis-
tance, and recognition of prevention successes. Some
States are also exploring such ideas as issuing one permit
to cover all the pollutant releases from a facility as a
means to increase pollution prevention; incorporating
pollution prevention into enforcement settlements; and
linking permit fees to the generation of pollution. EPA
will continue to work closely with States in support of
their prevention programs.
The Action Plan also complements EPA's national
Pollution Prevention strategy, which includes the 33/50
Program. EPA has identified 17 high risk chemicals that
offer strong opportunities for prevention. In February
1991, EPA announced a goal of encouraging firms across
the nation to cut their releases of these substances 33
percent by the end of 1992 and 50 percent by the end of
1995. Among the 17 are three metals — cadmium, lead,
and mercury — that can concentrate at upper levels of
an aquatic food web. Lead and mercury can be trans-
formed into alkyl lead and methyl mercury, both of
which tend to concentrate highly. Mercury contamina-
tion is the basis for the issuance of several Great Lakes
fish advisories.
Large manufacturing firms report their annual
releases or transfers of over 300 toxic substances. On a
national basis these firms released or transferred over 1.4
billion pounds of the 17 chemicals in 1988. Under the
33/50 Program, EPA has asked firms who have reported
releases of the target chemicals to voluntarily reduce
these through pollution prevention. Many of the 17
substances will be subject to more stringent regulation
under the recently amended Clean Air Act. Under that
law's "early reductions" provisions, a company may
receive a six-year deferral from meeting a maximum
achievable control technology (MAC!) standard if it
voluntarily reduces its toxic emissions by 90 percent
before a MACT is proposed. EPA also expects
widespread cooperation because pollution prevention
offers economic benefits to firms and is responsible in*
dustrial citizenship.
Pollution Prevention Action Plan
The Pollution Prevention Action Plan entails 5 in-
itiatives dedicated to the Great Lakes and incorporates
prevention into all environmental programs. It is predi-
cated on challenging all sectors of society; focusing on
high risk pollutants, sources, and areas; and measuring
progress. The 5 initiatives are:
• The Challenge: The Governors of the Great Lakes
States, in cooperation with EPA, challenge all
sectors of society to voluntarily reduce releases of
pollutants harmful to the Great Lakes.
• Lake Superior Superior has not experienced sur-
rounding development as intensely as the other
Lakes, and remains relatively pristine. As the
fountainhead of the Great Lakes system, it is im-
portant that it remain so. Among other measures,
EPA and the Lake Superior States are working to:
agree on common procedures to prevent
degradation; agree on Key pollutants; and estab-
lish air deposition sites to monitor loadings of air
pollution to the lake.
• Auto Manufacturing and Related Industries: EPA
and States are working with Chrysler, Ford, and
General Motors to promote prevention of persist-
ent toxic substances that injure the Great Lakes
ecosystem. These companies are joining with EPA
and States to determine the substances of greatest
The Great Lakes Program 33
-------
concern and evaluate which may be used in their
operations. The companies seek to reduce both
their own use of such substances and that by their
suppliers. They are also participating in technol-
ogy transfer forums to share non-proprietaiy in-
formation on prevention techniques.
• llrhan Mnn-point Pollution; EPA and New York
are supporting three pilot programs to prevent
urban non-point source pollution from
households. In conjunction with county and
municipal governments, New York has launched
a consumer education campaign around Buffalo,
Niagara Falls, Rochester, and Watertown, on the
use and disposal of hazardous waste by
households. Also, fact sheets will be used to in-
form the public of the risks associated with lawn
chemicals and suggest lawn care procedures.
• Binarinnal Symposium: In the fallof 1991, EPA
will co-sponsor with Environment Canada a sym-
posium to bring together leaders from govern-
ment, industry, and the environmental
community to snare information on pollution
prevention.
Under the Action Plan, EPA and States are incor-
porating prevention into all their activities, including
permits, enforcement, and educational programs. For
instance, they are attempting to arrange settlements of
enforcement actions under which a polluter will, in lieu
of merely a fine, invest in pollution prevention or clean-
up past contamination. Pollution prevention measures
are also being incorporated into clean-up plans—
Remedial Action and Lakewide Management Plans—for
geographical problem areas.
GEOGRAPHIC TARGETING
A hallmark of the ecosystem approach is to focus on
priority ecological problems and geographic areas. As
problems abate in areas that have been targeted, EPA's
focus will shift to other geographic areas. This targeting
includes Special Geographic Initiatives and the develop-
ment, implementation, and continual improvement of
Remedial Action and Lakewide Management Plans.
Special Geographic Initiatives
During FY 1991, EPA and States especially targeted
two locations, because of their profiles of high ecological
risk and non-compliance with permits and regulations.
Southeast Chicago-Northwest Indiana and the Niagara
River were the focus of EPA and States cleanup, inspec-
tion and enforcement, and prevention activities.
Remedial Action Planning
In 1987, the United States and Canada each formally
committed to develop and implement plans—termed
Remedial Action Plans (RAPs)—to restore the most im-
paired areas around the Great Lakes. In general, these
so called "Areas of Concern" are bays, harbors, and river
mouths .with damaged fish and wildlife populations,
contaminated bottom sediments, and past or continuing
loadings of toxic and bacterial pollution. Including 5
shared with Canada, the U.S. has 31 Areas of Concern.
The Remedial Action Planning process is intended to
define ecological problems, apply appropriate solutions,
and assess progress towards ecological goals. RAPs are
principally developed and implemented by States, with
local community involvement and with EPA support,
consistent with the Federal/State partnership in national
environmental legislation.
One measure of RAP progress is the completion of
editions of these planning documents. States committed
to completing initial versions of 9 Stage One (problem
definition) and 2 Stage Two (remedial action definition)
RAPs during FY 1991. This will bring the cumulative
totals of initial versions of these plans to 21 Stage One
and 12 Stage Two RAPs. These RAPs will be periodically
updated in the future as more is learned about the
problems in Areas of Concern and their sources, and as
the results of preventive and remedial measures war-
rant
Even while RAPs are being developed, EPA and
States concurrently take many warranted actions to
protect and restore Areas of Concern. Such actions to
restore Areas of Concern are both summarized in the
next chapter and presented more extensively in an ap-
pendix to this report
In further support of Remedial Action Plans, EPA is
continuing its ARCS program that has assessed con-
taminated sediment problems and is demonstrating in-
novative treatment technologies in five Areas of
Concern. ARCS will develop guidance on assessment
methods and on remedial alternatives to assist local
decision-makers in addressing the contaminated sedi-
ment situations within Areas of Concern. ARCS is dis-
cussed at greater length in the next chapter
Lakewide Management Planning
In 1987, the United States and Canada committed to
develop and implement so called Lakewide Manage-
ment Plans (LAMPs) to address whole-lake problems
that extend beyond Areas of Concern. While EPA has
the lead responsibility for developing these plans, par-
ticipation by other Federal agencies, States, and local
communities is fundamental to their success. A joint
Federal-State policy committee has been established to
34 Chapter Three
-------
guide the LAMP process and to incorporate participa-
tion by the interested public.
During FY 1991, EPA focused on completing Stage
One LAMPs for the Lakes that have experienced the
greatest contamination—Michigan and Ontario. The
objectives of Stage One LAMPs are to identify key pol-
lutants and their sources, and to schedule reduction
measures. In FY 1992, the Agency will begin work on a
LAMP for Lake Superior; plans for Lakes Erie and Huron
will follow. EPA and State LAMP activities will be
treated more fully in the next chapter.
APPLY MULTI-MEDIA TOOLS
EPA and States are addressing Great Lakes
problems by applying appropriate measures from their
full range of programs across all media—air, waste, and
water. Some of these programs, and how they are ap-
plied to the Great Lakes, are discussed below.
National PoIIntant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES)
Under the Clean Water Act, the discharge of pol-
lutants into the surface waters of the United States is
prohibited unless authorized under a permit issued by
EPA or a State. EPA has delegated NPDES permit
authority to each of the eight Great Lakes States. Such
permits limit discharge of contaminants, establish the
treatment that wastewater must receive prior to dis-
charge, and set a deadline to attain that level of treat-
ment. A permit may require a facility to monitor its
effluent and to report results. Permits have a maximum
duration of five years. Before one expires, a discharger
must apply for a new permit that may set more restrictive
limits based on advances in treatment technology.
Two principles govern NPDES permits. One is that
dischargers meet technology-based standards of perfor-
mance by industrial categoiy. EPA develops these based
on engineering and economic judgments as to efficient
technologies. The second principle is that more strin-
gent limits are imposed to protect water quality where
technology-based limits do not achieve this. States es-
tablish water quality standards and revise these on a
triennial basis. These designate uses of their waters and
set chemical and biological conditions necessary to sus-
tain these uses. To assist States with establishing water
quality standards, EPA prepares criteria to define maxi-
mum concentrations of a pollutant that are safe for
human health and aquatic life, based on scientific
evidence. Where technology-based limits are not suffi-
cient to sustain a designated use, States set more strin-
gent limits on dischargers.
After an NPDES permit is issued, EPA and States
monitor compliance with its conditions and take enfor-
cement actions when appropriate. Permit violations are
usually detected through self-monitoring reports by the
permittee or by inspections. In the event of violations,
EPA or States take administrative or judicial action,
depending on the severity of the the violation and the
past record of the discharger.
There are about 600 major and another 3,000 minor
NPDES dischargers in the Great Lakes watershed. In
general over the last 20 years, regulation of dischargers
has greatly cut pollutant loadings to the Lakes. For
instance, between 1982 and 1987, discharges of pol-
lutants to the Niagara River from the U.S. side declined
by 80 percent
Water Quality Initiative
In view of the unique features of the Great Lakes,
EPA and States consider that in some cases criteria
specific for the Lakes are necessary to fully protect fish
and wildlife, and human health—primarily from fish
consumption risks—on a long-term basis. In FY 1989,
EPA and States began a "Great Lakes Water Quality
Initiative" to develop EPA guidance to States regarding
water quality criteria for the Lakes, implementation pro-
cedures, a Great Lakes antidegradation policy, and pol-
lution prevention measures. EPA is responsible for
developing national water quality criteria that numeri-
cally define maximum allowable concentrations of cer-
tain pollutants in surface waters across the nation. These
criteria are used by States as a basis for their water
quality standards and water quality-based regulation
under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES). EPA expects to publish proposed
guidance, developed under the Initiative, in (lie Federal
Register in early 1992.
The upcoming completion of guidance developed
under the Initiative will fulfill a number of purposes. It
will help ensure that Great Lakes environmental needs
are fully incorporated into State water quality programs,
thereby providing a sound scientific basis for water
quality-based protection of the Great Lakes under the
Clean Water Act. It will support greater consistency
among States in their standards and implementation
procedures for the Great Lakes. It will help to define
water quality objectives for Lakewide Management
Plans. Compliance with standards mil provide an op-
Thc Great lakes Program 35
-------
portunity to adopt pollution prevention technologies
and methods.
Spill Prevention
Pursuant to the Clean Water Act, EPA has promul-
gated non-transportation related oil pollution preven-
tion regulations for onshore and offshore facilities.
These regulations require Spill Control and Counter-
measures Plans (SPCC) by such facilities, which are sub-
ject to EPA inspection. During 1991, EPA conducted 182
SPCC inspections within the Great Lakes watershed, up
from 69 during 1990. The Agency plans 182 inspections
in 1992 as well.
INTEGRATED REGULATION AND
ENFORCEMENT
EPA will increasingly integrate its development and
enforcement of regulations and permits. The pulp and
paper industry is an important source of troublesome
pollutants to the Great Lakes. EPA will develop in-
tegrated regulations for pulp and paper mills so that
technology-based effluent treatment standards under
the Clean Water Act and requirements under the Clean
Air Act are considered together for optimal environmen-
tal results and for incorporation of pollution prevention
opportunities. One aim will be to further reduce the
discharge of dioxins from this industrial sector. Mills
throughout the nation will be required to install the best
available effluent treatment technology by 1995. The
Agency will also establish guidelines for managing
landfills that receive dioxin-contaminated wastewater
treatment sludge from pulp and paper mills.
Another aspect of EPA's integration will be totouow
a"multi-media" enforcement strategy. Traditionally,
EPA has relied on enforcement under a single statute,
addressing a single medium (air, waste, or water). This
may have sometimes had the effect of encouraging a
polluter to transfer an environmental problem from one
medium to another (e.g., soil to air). On a national baas,
EPA will seek to make 25 percent of all enforcement
actions in 1991 "multi-media" cases so as to address the
overall pollution problem at a given facility. During
1989-90, EPA filed several multi-media suits for alleged
violations of environmental permits and regulations In
Northwest Indiana.
ENGAGE THE PUBLIC
EPA and States are encouraging involvement by
interested members of the public in many aspects of their
Great Lakes activities:
• Local community "stakeholders" are strongly in-
volved in the development, and in overseeing the
implementation, of many RAPs. This grass-roots
participation has molded the goals of these plan-
ning efforts, strengthened the sense of local
ownership of both problems and their solutions,
and is helping governments be more responsive
to local concerns.
• Public participation is being encouraged as part
of the LAMP process and in the formation of a
5-year Great Lakes strategy.
• Representatives from environmental groups,
business associations, and municipalities have
been invited to comment during the develop-
ment of water quality guidance under the Water
Quality Initiative. A public record on the Initia-
tive is Deing developed and public hearings will
be held once findings and recommendations are
reached. Proposed guidance will be available in
the Federal Register for public review and com-
ment.
• EPA's ARCS program has held public meetings to
inform residents living near me areas of study
about its activities and results.
MEASURE PROGRESS
A hallmark of EPA's approach to the Great Lakes
will be to set goals and assess progress towards them,
using demonstrable measures. In 1987, EPA, the New
York State Department of Environmental Conservation,
and counterpart Canadian agencies dedicated themsel-
ves to halve loadings of priority toxic chemicals to the
Niagara River by 1996. Progress towards this goal is
ascertained by monitoring water quality at each end of
the river.
EPA and States are acting to assess the health of die
ecosystem by such activities as:
• In 1991, EPA joined States and other Federal
agencies in the first of what will be annual com-
prehensive reviews of research and monitoring
priorities to ensure that scientific work serves
program management needs.
• As part of LAMP processes, ecosystem objectives
will be developed for each of the Lakes.
• EPA is developing a better understanding of the
extent and significance of atmospheric deposition
of contaminants by establishing three master sta-
tions to monitor mis pollutant pathway. When
these are added to two stations that Canada will
establish, each Lake will have one master air
deposition station.
• EPA, the Fish and Wildlife Service, and States are
continuing to monitor contaminant levels in fish
and wildlife species.
36 Chapter Three
-------
• During 1991, EPA began to monitor open lake
concentrations of priority pollutants on Lakes
Ontario and Michigan.
• EPA and Wisconsin are concluding analytic
aspects of their multi-year study of the sources,
paths, and fates of several persistent toxic sub-
stances in Green Bay. Lessons from this study will
be helpful to conducting whole-lake analyses in
support of LAMPs.
COOPERATION WITH CANADA
EPA and States are taking advantage of all oppor-
tunities to work with counterparts in Canada. Canadian
representatives have been invited to ARCS program
meetings so as to keep apprised of U.S. findings regard-
ing technologies to address contaminated sediments.
Canadian observers have also been invited to attend
meetings of Water Quality Initiative work groups. EPA
and States also continue to work with Canadian
counterparts on RAPs for shared Areas of Concern and
on LAMPs for shared lakes. They are also joining with
Canada in sponsoring activities, such as the symposium
on pollution prevention.
-------
Chapter Four
Restoring the Ecosystem: Actions to Implement
the Water Quality Agreement
This chapter reports recent actions by EPA and
States to implement the 3 major approaches of the Water
Quality Agreement with Canada: Remedial Action Plan-
ning, Lakewide Management Planning, and the Phos-
phorus Load Reduction Plan. It also discusses EPA's
ARCS Program that, in particular support to Remedial
Action Planning, will develop guidance on addressing
contaminated bottom sediments.
FRAMEWORK
The United States and Canada have a long history
of cooperation in their joint stewardship of the Lakes. In
1905, the two nations formed an International Water-
ways Commission to advise them about Great Lakes
water levels and flows. Under their Boundary Waters
Treaty of 1909, they created an International Joint Com-
mission (IJC) that superseded the earlier commission
and continues today.
The IJC has sue commissioners, three appointed by
each nation. It has limited authority to approve diver-
sions, obstructions, and uses of the Lakes that affect
water flow or levels across the international boundary.
Since the signing of the Water Quality Agreement in
1972, the IJC has assessed progress under it and reported
findings to the governments and their citizens. The IJC
has two advisory boards. The Water Quality Board,
whose members are drawn from Federal, State, and
Provincial environmental agencies, promotes coordina-
tion of programs and sharing of environmental informa-
tion. The IJC's Science Advisory Board consists of
government and academic scientists. These boards often
meet at the IJC's Regional Office in Windsor, Ontario.
Widespread public concern over the health of the
Lakes led the United States and Canada to sign their first
Water Quality Agreement in 1972. The thrust of the 1972
Agreement was to reduce loadings of phosphorus that
were causing nuisance levels of aquatic plant life. The
two nations also agreed to coordinate their surveillance
of the ecosystem.
In 1978, the two nations revised their Agreement. By
that time, there had been clear progress in reducing
phosphorus. There was also a growing appreciation of
the threat to fish, wildlife, and human health from per-
sistent toxic substances. Some species of fish in many
locations had been found to contain unsafe levels of
contaminants. Therefore, the 1978 Agreement added
commitments to prohibit the discharge of toxic substan-
ces in toxic amounts, virtually eliminate all persistent
toxic substances, and restore the chemical, physical, and
biological integrity of the ecosystem. In 1983, the two
nations further agreed to develop phosphorus reduc-
tion plans to reduce excessive plant life in areas that
remained impaired.
In 1987, the nations revised their Agreement again,
committing to ecosystem cleanup plans for Areas of
Concern and to addressing whole-lake problems as-
sociated with critical pollutants. The two types of plans
were respectively called Remedial Action Hans (RAPs)
and Lakewide Management Plans (LAMPs). The nations
agreed that these would be provided to the IJC for
independent comment at three stages. Under their 1987
revision, the two nations also agreed to meet twice a year
to coordinate their respective work and evaluate
progress. And they agreed to report to the IJC on a
biennial basis concerning progress on certain activities.
To carry out the Water Quality Agreement, Canada
and the United States each control pollution and protect
natural resources through their respective national,
state, and local laws and environmental programs.
Within the United States, most federal environmental
legislation is administered by EPA and States in partner-
ship. They are joined in protecting the Lakes by partner
federal agencies: the Army Corps of Engineers, the Coast
Guard, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Soil
Conservation Service.
Restoring the Ecosystem 39
-------
EPA's Great Lakes National Program Office coor-
dinates within the Agency and with federal, State, and
Tribal governments to implement the Water Quality
Agreement. The Program Office administers a system-
wide surveillance network, with emphasis on the
monitoring of toxic pollutants. In addition, it serves as
liaison with and provides information to the IJC and to
EPA's Canadian counterpart. The Program Office con-
ducts studies pertaining to the Lakes, demonstrates
cleanup technologies, works with States to develop
cleanup plans, and issues reports.
Areas of Concern
Since 1973, the U.S. and Canada have identified
geographic problem areas around the Lakes. Overtime,
they have increased or decreased the number of these
areas as they have learned more about their conditions.
In 1976, they identified 47 "problem areas." In 1981, they
identified 39 "Areas of Concern," grouping them into
two classes: 18 were classified as "significantly
degraded" and 21 others as "exhibiting degradation."
Of the 18 more degraded areas, 13 were wholly in the
United States, 4 were shared by the two nations, and 1
was in Canada. In 1985, the U.S. added 3 Areas of Con-
cern: the Kalamazoo River, Torch Lake, and Deer Lake.
In 1991, the U. S. added Presque Isle Bay. With this
addition, there are presently 43 Areas of Concern, of
which the U.S. has 31 including 5 shared with Canada.
Figure 4-1 shows their locations.
Although the U.S. has identified Areas of Concern
for over a decade, it should be noted that there have
generally been substantial environmental improve-
ments in these areas during the same period. For in-
stance, as one result of a $15 to $2 billion investment in
water pollution abatement along the Cuyahoga River,
dissolved oxygen levels have been restored to the 30
mile stretch of river between Akron and Cleveland,
Ohio. Though deep bottom sediments of the lower Ash-
tabula River in Ohio are highly contaminated, a 1990
survey found that the upper layer of sediments is not
contaminated, indicating that the contamination source
ceased years before and that past contamination has
been covered by the natural sedimentation process.
An Area of Concern where there have been en-
couraging biological responses to improved water
quality is the Fox River and lower Green Bay, Wisconsin.
In the early 1970s, low dissolved oxygen in the Fox made
hardy fish such as carp and bullhead the dominant
species. Since that time, the fish community in the river
has returned to a more natural, year-around diversity of
species, including walleye, northern pike, small-mouth
bass, and perch. A recent report on the area also noted
that the number of different bottom-dwelling species in
Green Bay doubled in the 10 years after 1978. Wild
celeiy, a favored food of waterfowl and habitat for fish,
began to reappear in the lower bay after a 20 year ab-
sence. The reproductive success of endangered Forster's
terns in Green Bay improved during the 1980s, and the
number of nesting pairs increased about 500 percent
from 1986 through 1988 to nearly 600 pairs. In 1990, the
mayfly, Hexagenia, was noted for the first time since
1939.
REMEDIAL ACTION PLANNING
The U.S. and Canada formally agreed to prepare
RAPs in 1987. They recognized that many problems
originate in certain nearshore areas, so that addressing
these through RAPs would also reduce lakewide impair-
ments. One of the Agreement's general principles
regarding RAPs is use of an ecosystem approach. Each
RAP is to identify the nature and causes of problems and
to indicate remedial actions. RAPs are provided to the
IJC for independent comment at three stages—Stage 1,
after problems have been defined; Stage 2, after ap-
propriate remedial measures have been developed; and
Stage 3, after monitoring indicates that impairments
have ended.
Another provision of the Agreement is that the
public, particularly from communities adjacent to the
Area of Concern, be involved in RAP planning and
implementation. The two nations realize that cleanup of
many Areas of Concern will be a lengthy, costly process.
Continuing public interest is integral to its success.
RAPs are developed and implemented by States,
consistent with the Federal/State partnership in national
environmental legislation. To supplement State fund-
ing, EPA provides grants to States for administering
delegated national water, waste, and air programs.
These programs are applied to Areas of Concern. In
addition, EPA issues grants specifically for RAP
development and provides technical assistance. EPA has
joined States in supporting a series of major studies on
a number of Areas of Concern, including the Niagara
River (completed 1985); the St Marys, St. Clair, and
Detroit Rivers (completed 1988); and Green Bay On
progress). The Agency is also conducting a major study
of contaminated sediments in five Areas of Concern. All
40 Chapter Four
-------
Figure 4-1. Areas of Concern
-------
these studies have enhanced understanding of condi-
tions in Areas of Concern.
Development of Plans
A measure of RAP progress is completion of editions
of these planning documents. Through FY 1991, States
had developed 21 Stage One (problem definition) and
12 Stage Two (proposal of remedial actions) RAPs. Other
RAPs are under initial development. Table A-l, an ap-
pendix to this report, shows RAP development status in
terms of provision of plans to the IJC.
RAPs will be continually improved as more is
learned about Areas of Concern, and as warranted by
the results of preventive and remedial actions. EPA and
States view Remedial Action Planning as a valuable,
ongoing management process to identify priority en-
vironmental problems, steps needed to solve these, and
resulting progress.
Actions to Restore Areas of Concern
Even as RAPs are being developed, EPA, States, and
other participants take warranted actions to improve
Areas of Concern. Appendix A-2 provides some recent
accomplishments and planned activities for each U.S.
Area of Concern. Some summary highlights of recent
actions are:
• InriKfifi*1 TWWers: Over the last 20 years,
regulation of dischargers to surface water has
greatly reduced pollutant loadings to the Lakes.
EPA took enforcement actions under the Clean
Water Act against industrial dischargers in 3
Areas of Concern—Black River, Grana Calumet
River, and Manistique River.
• Combined Sewer Overflows fCSOl; U.S. urban
areas are required to eliminate or treat their CSO
discharges of untreated waste water. Multi-year
programs to eliminate CS06 are underway in
many U.S. communities around the Lakes. CSO
correction activities are of importance to 10 Areas
of Concern—Clinton River, Detroit River,
Maumee River, Menominee River, Milwaukee
Harbor, Rochester Embayment, Rouge River,
Saginaw River, St. Clair River, and St. Marys
River. CSO improvements often represent a major
infrastructure investment. The CSO plan tor
Rochester, New York, for instance, is estimated to
cost $475 million.
• Municipal Sewage Treatment Plants: Major in-
vestments in municipal waste water treatment
plants have improved water quality in many
Areas of Concern. Between 1972 ana 1991, EPA
and States invested $8 billion in sewage system
improvements around the Great Lakes water-
shed. Upgrades have recently been completed or
are in progress in 4 Areas erf Concern—Black
River, Cuyahoga River, Green Bay, and Mil-
waukee Harbor.
• Industrial Pretreatment: Of 314 major U.S.
municipal dischargers in the Great Lakes water-
shed, over 65 percent are required to have in-
dustrial pretreatment programs. EPA and States
took actions to enforce the pretreatment of in-
dustrial effluent in three Areas of Concern—
Detroit River, Niagara River, and Rouge River.
• Superfund Cleanups: The cleanup pmcess k enn-
tinuing at 14 Superfund sites which are integral
to restoring 7 Areas of Concern—Ashtabula
River, Kalamazoo River, Niagara River, St.
Lawrence River, Sheboygan River, Torch Lake,
and Waukegan Harbor. Tne Superfund program
is also addressing another 11 sites that are sig-
nificant, though generally to a lesser degree, to
restoring 7 other Areas of Concern—Clinton
River, Grand Calumet River, Green Bay, Oswego
River, St. Louis River, St. Marys Kiver, and
Saginaw River (its Shiawasee tributary). Over
these multi-year cleanups, hundreds otmillions
of dollars will be invested, by potentially respon-
sible parties and EPA together. The estimated cost
to the Potentially Responsible Party for the
cleanup of one site on the St. Lawrence River, for
instance, is $120 million.
• Hazardous Waste Management Programs: EPA
and States have taken actions relating to five
Areas of Concern—Menominee River, Niagara
River, Grand Calumet River, River Raisin, ana St
Lawrence River.
• Nonpoint Source Programs; Agricultural non-
point pollution controlmeasures are focusing on
live Areas of Concern—Green Bay, Maumee
River, Milwaukee River, Saginaw River, and
Sheboygan River.
RAP Process Lessons
Some successes of the RAP process to date:
• Local community "stakeholder" groups are
strongly involved in many RAPs. This grass roots
participation has moldea the goals of RAPs and
strengthened the sense of local "ownership" of
both problems and their solutions.
• Stakeholder participation has helped to increase
public awareness or environmental Issues.
• Stakeholder groups have provided an oppor-
tunity for local industry to join in restoration
planning and to identify opportunities to prevent
pollution.
• The development of some RAPs has brought
together nearby municipalities in addressing
regional problems (e.g., Green Bay, Rouge, ana
Maumee RAPs).
• RAPs developed to date represent an impressive
assemblage of information on environmental
problems and solutions. They serve to inform the
public, guide government actions, and justify in-
42 Chapter Four
-------
Actions to Restore Areas of Concern
Lake Michigan
Contamination of sport fish with PCBs is the prin-
cipal basis for the issuance of health advisories regard-
ing Great Lakes fish. Various actions ringing Lake
Michigan attack this priority problem.
Lakes is Waukegan Harbor. Under a Superfund
remedial plan bang carried out through 1993,99
percent of the PCBs in the harbor will be removed.
• Another important source of PCBs has been the
Sheboygan River; it is the subject of a Superfund
remedial investigation and feasibility study. On
the eastern side of the lake, the Kalamazoo River
has PCB-contaminated bottom sediments, in
1989, EPA and Michigan proposed a 35 mile
stretch of the river as a Superfund site and a
remedial investigation is beginning in 1991.
• The Fox River and Green Bay have suffered high
levels of PCBs; EPA and Wisconsin are studying
the sources and fates of PCBs in this area
• At the base of Lake Michigan, various enforce-
ment actions have been taken and the area
remains the focus of EPA and State activities.
Under a recent innovative settlement, USX Cor-
poration Witidredge sediments from a stretch of
contaminants, including PCBs, to the lake.
The Niagara River
The other most contaminated lake is Ontario. The
U.S. aide of the Niagara River; which after World War
li attracted a cluster of chemical companies, has been
a leading source of toxic pollutants, including 10 of the
15 most troublesome in the Lake Ontario food web.
Studies indicate that non-point loadings, such as
ieachate and runoff from waste sites, arethe dominant
source of priority pollutants to the Niagara. There are
many hazardous waste sites near the river, the most
infamous of which may be a former landfill called Love
Canal which became a residential area.
The Niagara Frontier has been a sustained em-
phasis of EPA and New York over many years. A major
binational study of the river was completed in 1985. In
1987, EPA and the State joined Canadian counterparts
in a declaration dedicated to halving toxic loadings to
the Niagara by 1996. They have taken many actions
related to remediating waste sites, including five Su-
perfund sites and others addressed by the State's
waste program. Some of the residential areas near
Love Canal that were once deemed unsafe have
recently been judged to be habitable. EPA and the
State have announced schedules to remediate, by
1996, the 20 waste sites considered responsible lor 99
percent of U.S. waste site loadings to the Niagara.
The St Lawrence River
EPA and State actions are also aimed at profound
local problems. One of the most pressing is the St.
Lawrence River Area of Concern. Largely during the
1960s and 1970s, U.S. and Canadian industries poured
wastes including PCBs and mercury into riverside
landfills, even the St Lawrence River itself. Aluminum
smelters emitted fluoride into the air. This pollution
damaged the traditional fishing, farming, and hunting
economy of Mohawks living on the Akwesasne Indian
Reservation in New York State. Fish, ducks, and
turtles, long principal sources of protein for the
Mohawks, became contaminated with PCBs or mer-
cury.
In 1983, EPA added a General Motors site on the
St. Lawrence to its Superfund NPL list In 1990, EPA
selected a remedial plan for part of this site that is
estimated to cost $76 million. In 1991, EPA also Issued
Superfund Administrative Orders to the Aluminum
Company of America (ALCOA) and the Reynolds Metal
Company to perform remedial investigations, designs,
and cleanups of PCB-contaminated bottom sediments
in the St Lawrence River system.
vestments in Great Lakes restoration (e.g., the
Great Lakes Governors launched a $100 million
Great Lakes protection fund in 1988).
• RAPs have called upon a broad range of environ-
mental programs to meet ecological needs. For
instance, they rely on nonpoint source measures
(Saginaw and Green Bays), industrial pretreat-
ment (Rouge River), groundwater cleanup
(Niagara River), better sewage treatment, and
wetlands restoration (Green Bay), among other
measures.
Some general lessons that have been learned from
the Remedial Action Planning process:
• The development of a strong RAP can be complex
and protracted. The Rouge River RAP took 3 years
to develop and grew into 7 separate volumes.
• Some RAP development efforts encounter a host
of questions about the extent and causes of
ecosystem impairments. Establishing "causality*
between known sources of pollution and im-
paired fish and wildlife may entail years of study.
• The RAP process is iterative and incremental. The
first generation of the Rouge River RAP, for in-
stance, is a superb achievement, resulting from
exemplary involvement by many communities. It
addresses the most immediate problems of the
Area of Concern—overflows from combined
Restoring the Ecosystem 43
-------
sewers and bacteria problems. In the future, the
Rouge River RAP will be updated to address the
problem of toxic substances.
• There is considerable asymmetry of information
available to different RAF teams. Sometimes there
is extensive information about an Area of Con-
cern upon which the RAP may draw (e.g., Green
Bay). In other cases, the development effort must
include analyses of water, fish, and sediment
samples to fully define use impairments and their
causes (e.g., Cuyahoga and Maumee Rivers).
• Some communities have citizens with a strong
knowledge of local environmental conditions
that has helped their stakeholder groups (e.g.,
Duluth, Green Bay, and Milwaukee).
• The RAP development process can be greatly
helped by information provided by potentially
responsible parties pursuant to enforcement ac-
tions (e.g., Ashtabula, Kalama20o, and
Sheboygan).
• Major investments are required to restore some
Areas of Concern. Large sewage system and treat-
ment facility improvements are underway or will
be needed in many Areas of Concern (e.g.,
Maumee, Rouge, and Detroit Rivers, and Mil-
waukee Harbor). Michigan estimates that the
total cost of all improvements for CSOs that dis-
charge into the Rouge River to be $1 billion and
for those that discharge into the Detroit River to
be $2.6 billion.
• It is often unclear how to address the common
problem of contaminated bottom sediments in
rivers and harbors. EPA is testing technologies
and will develop guidance to assist local decision-
makers.
ARCS PROGRAM
EPA continued its sponsorship of a study and
demonstration program — the Assessment and
Remediation of Contaminated Sediments (ARCS) Pro-
gram — to assess contaminated Great Lakes bottom
sediments, test remedial technologies, and develop
guidance on addressing such contamination. Five areas
are receiving priority consideration: Ashtabula River,
Ohio; Buffalo River, New York; Grand Calumet River,
Indiana; Saginaw Bay, Michigan; and Sheboygan Har-
bor, Wisconsin. EPA is joined in the ARCS program by
federal and State agencies, including the Army Corps of
Engineers; Bureau of Mines; Fish and Wildlife Service;
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; In-
diana Department of Environmental Management;
Michigan Department of Natural Resources; New York
State Department of Environmental Conservation; Ohio
Environmental Protection Agency; Wisconsin Depart-
ment of Natural Resources; and a number of univer-
sities.
All 31 U. S. Areas of Concern, including the 5 given
priority by ARCS, have contaminated bottom sediments.
Developing scientific grounds and improved tech-
nologies for addressing contaminated sediments will be
critical to restoring the Great Lakes ecosystem. Many
existing technologies for removing contaminated sedi-
ments have unwanted environmental side effects. Many
present methods of dredging bottom sediments, for in-
stance, release and resuspend some contaminants from
sediments.
The ARCS program assesses the scope and nature of
contamination in die study areas, assesses human and
ecological health impacts of the contamination and of
alternative remedial measures, and tests the efficacy of
innovative remedial technologies. Another aspect of
ARCS is to inform and solicit comments from interested
citizens in communities adjacent to the study areas
about the intent and findings of the program. A final
report on the ARCS program will be available in Decem-
ber 1993. It will include guidance on how to assess
freshwater contaminated sediment problems (i.e.,
models and risk assessment tools), and guidance on
remedial alternatives.
Assessment
During FYs 1989-90, the ARCS program sampled
bottom sediments at different depths in the Indiana
Harbor/Grand Calumet River, Buffalo River, and
Saginaw River. ARCS started analyses of sample
chemistiy, toxicity (both acute and chronic) to aquatic
organisms exposed to the sediment, and identification
of benthic organisms. These analyses will be completed
in 1991, and three-dimensional maps of the extent and
nature of contamination will be prepared.
Preliminary data from Indiana Harbor samples indi-
cate their acute toxicity to test organisms; they are
among the most toxic Great Lakes sediments ever
analyzed. Since this is true of samples horn the surface
of bottom sediment, there is the implication that con-
tamination is continuing from sources in the area. In the
Grand Calumet River, surface sediments were also
found to be highly toxic Preliminary analytic results of
surface samples from the Buffalo River indicate their
toxicity was generally lower than those of samples from
Indiana, though sediments from one Buffalo River site
were found to be acutely toxic to some organisms. In
1989, ARCS took surficial samples in the Saginaw River.
44 Chapter Four
-------
Preliminary analysis of these generally indicates less
toxicity than in the Buffalo River, though two Saginaw
sites had notably higher toxicity than others.
Benthic organisms found living in the Indiana Har-
bor Canal were mainly pollution tolerant species,
whereas more pollution sensitive species were found in
the Saginaw and Buffalo Rivers. The Fish and Wildlife
Service surveyed fish (bullheads) for tumors and abnor-
malities in the Ashtabula, Saginaw, Grand Calumet, and
Buffalo Rivers. No bullheads or white suckers could be
found in the Grand Calumet. The Service also began
studying, in the Saginaw and Buffalo Rivers, the transfer
of contaminants from sediment to fish.
ARCS is drawing on Superfund activities in the
Ashtabula River to obtain samples and chemical
analyses, both surficial and with depth. Sheboygan Har-
bor also contains a Superfund site, allowing ARCS to
obtain its bioassays and chemistry analyses.
Hazard Evaluation
As contaminants in sediments are identified, the
ARCS study is evaluating the risks from them under
current conditions and under various remedial alterna-
tives. During FYs 1989-90, ARCS continued to assess
human and ecological health impacts of sediment con-
tamination and of remedial alternatives. ARCS con-
tinued evaluations of current hazards at each of the five
priority locations.
In the Buffalo and Saginaw Rivers, ARCS began
comprehensive hazard evaluations to assess risks under
various remedial alternatives. Many industrial firms
along the Buffalo River have closed since the 1970s or
directed their discharges to municipal treatment
facilities; thus, the Buffalo River analysis may prove to
be less complex than that of the Saginaw River, which
contains a larger watershed and likely a greater number
of current sources of pollutants.
An aspect of these comprehensive evaluations is to
study the sources and fates of contaminants in the Buf-
falo and Saginaw Rivers over a six week time span.
Water column, fish, and sediment samples will be col-
lected to analyze for selected pollutants. Contaminants
being studied in the Buffalo River are PCBs, DDT,
dieldrin, chlordane, lead, copper, benzo(a)anthracene,
benzo(a)pyrene, benz(b/k)fluoranthene, and chrysene.
Contaminants being studied in the Saginaw River are
PCBs, zinc, copper, and lead.
Once models of the sources and fates of these pol-
lutants are refined, ARCS will predict risks under
various remedial alternatives, including: the no-action
alternative or leaving sediments undisturbed; dredging
only the two or three worst hot spots; capping stretches
of river with clean material rather than dredging them;
and complete removal of contaminated sediment ARCS
is looking at the complete picture of risks associated with
each option, including dredging, treatment, and ul-
timate disposal of contaminated sediments.
Technology Evaluation
During FYs 1989-90, ARCS conducted small-scale
laboratory tests of treatment technologies on sediments
from the 5 study locations. These tests used between a
few grams to a few kilograms of sediment. The
laboratory tests provided information to help the study
team select promising technologies to demonstrate in
the field. ARCS also sponsored a binational research
conference on biological treatment of sediments con-
taminated by PCBs, PAHs, and some metals.
ARCS has chosen 16 technologies as candidates for
pilot-scale, field demonstrations in the 5 study locations.
Each was selected based on a number of criteria, includ-
ing effectiveness and cost, the latter an important con-
sideration given the large volume of contaminated
sediments across the Lakes. Technologies fall into five
general categories: thermal technologies (including in-
cineration, but more often the use of Tugh temperatures
short of combustion to vaporize contaminants and water
from sediment); chemical destruction (using chemical
reactions to break down contaminants); biological treat-
ment (using bacteria to break down contaminants); ex-
traction technologies (using solvents to separate
contaminants from sediments); and immobilization
(such as processes that mix cement with sediments to
reduce the availability of contaminants to the food web).
ARCS will conduct pilot-scale, field demonstrations
in all 5 priority locations during FYs 1991-92:
• On the Ashtabula River, ARCS will demonstrate
a thermal stripping process to vaporize organic
contaminants from sediment
• On the Buffalo River, ARCS will demonstrate a
thermal extraction process similar to that used at
Ashtabula, but tailored to the needs of the Buffalo
sediment
• On the Grand Calumet River/Indiana Harbor,
ARCS will demonstrate the application of a sol-
vent extraction process to separate organic con-
taminants.
• On the Saginaw River, ARCS will separate sedi-
ments by particle size, using a hyarocyclone.
Since contaminants tend to adhere to a certain
Restoring the Ecosystem 45
-------
size of sediment particle, this demonstration is
expected to reduce the volume of heavily con-
taminated sediment by separating coarse grained
sediment that bears relatively less contamination
from fine grain particles tnat hold more con-
taminants. Thereafter, ARCS will demonstrate
bioremediation of the fine grain particles in the
Confined Disposal Facility in Saginaw. Native
bacteria will be used; the study team will manipu-
late add nutrients to stimulate the growth of bac-
teria and vaiy the amount of oxygen available to
the bacteria to tiy to increase the effectiveness of
the bioremediation.
• On the Sheboygan River, ARCS will provide tech-
nical assistance to Superfund cleanup activities,
through EPA's Environmental Research
Laboratory-Athens. This will entail a scientific
review of the Sheboygan bioremediation pilot
project already underway, including design and
statistical recommendations.
Public Communication
During FYs 1989-90, a work group including citizens
living near the study areas was formed to promote in-
formation exchange with the public. The work group
established repositories in libraries near each of the five
areas. ARCS also developed a slide-show presentation
and sponsored public meetings to inform residents
living near the priority areas about program activities
and results.
LAKE WIDE MANAGEMENT PLANNING
The second major remedial approach under the
Water Quality Agreement is the development of
Lakewide Management Plans (LAMPs) for critical pol-
lutants to address whole-lake problems that extend
beyond Areas of Concern. As with the RAP process,
LAMPs are intended to follow a comprehensive ecosys-
tem approach, drawing on the full range of federal,
State, and local environmental programs, as needed.
Again as with the RAP process, EPA and States view
Lakewide Management Planning as an ongoing
management process to identify priority environmental
problems, the steps needed to solve these, and ecological
outcomes.
EPA and States are giving priority to completing
Stage One LAMPs for Lakes Michigan and Ontario in
FY 1991. The objectives of Stage One LAMPs are to
identify key pollutants and their sources, and to
schedule reduction measures. In FY 1992, the Agency
will begin work on a LAMP for Lake Superior. LAMPs
for Lakes Erie and Huron will follow.
EPA will invite public participation in the LAMP
process. The Agency will notify the public of proposed
LAMPs through the Federal Register and conduct public
meetings on these plans.
Lake Ontario
The LAMP wjll build upon the existing Lake On-
tario Toxics Management Plan. In 1987, EPA, the New
York State Department of Environmental Conservation
(NYSDEC), and counterpart agencies in Canada (En-
vironment Canada and the Ontario Ministry of the En-
vironment) agreed to develop such a plan. Its first
generation was adopted in Februaiy 1989. The goal of
the Toxics Management Plan is a lake that provides
drinking water and fish safe for unlimited human con-
sumption and that allows natural reproduction of the
most sensitive native species, such as bald eagles,
ospreys, mink, and otters.
Under the plan, the four agencies have compared
concentrations of toxic substances in fish and in water
with water quality standards. They found no exceedan-
ces of drinking water standards. However, fish tissue
concentrations exceeded human health protection
levels for such substances as dioxin, PCBs, chlordane,
mirex, mercury, dieldrin, DDT and its metabolites, oc-
tachlorostyrene, and hexachlorobertzene. DDT and its
metabolites, hexachlorobenzene, and dieldrin were also
found in the water column at levels above EPA guidance
values for the protection of human health from fish
consumption.
The plan uses four approaches to address these ex-
ceedances. First, it relies on reduction of toxic inputs by
regulation of industrial and municipal dischargers.
Second, it calls for further reductions through special
focus on 3 New York Areas of Concern and 2 others
shared with the Province of Ontario. Third, it seeks
future reductions based on lakewide analyses of pol-
lutant fate to provide grounds for water quality-based
regulation. Fourth, the plan calls for zero discharge of
toxic substances into Lake Ontario.
During FY 1989, the four agencies completed initial
characterization of toxics in Lake Ontario. Differences
in chemical-specific standards were identified and com-
mitments made for their resolution. Ontario Ministry of
the Environment and Enviroment Canada committed to
work with Health and Welfare Canada to develop
Canada's first water quality criteria for the protection of
human health from contaminants in fish. During FY
1990, work continued on a model of steady-state ex-
posure and bioaccumulation for toxic chemicals in Lake
Ontario, including development of a time-response
46 Chapter Four
-------
model of exposure and bioaccumulation of toxic sub-
stances. FY 1991 activities included a comprehensive
estimation of loadings from groundwater, air, and sedi-
ment to test the bioaccumulation model. Also in 1991,
EPA and NYSDEC started to incorporate pollution
prevention measures into their lakewide efforts. Such
measures included: targeting the Rochester and Buffalo
areas for urban non-point source prevention; targeting
facilities that emit any of the priority lakewide pol-
lutants; and implementation of a New York regulation
for 50 percent reduction of fugitive air emissions.
During FY 1990, a team from EPA, NYSDEC, New
York State Department of Health, Fish and Wildlife
Service, and counterpart Canadian agencies developed
ecosystem objectives for Lake Ontario. In 1991, the team
continued to develop measurable ecosystem objectives
for nearshore and open-lake water quality (trophic con-
dition), human health, wildlife health, and habitat
Lake Michigan
During 1991, EPA worked with the States of Illinois,
Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin to develop a Stage
One LAMP for Lake Michigan. This entails identifica-
tion of critical pollutants, their sources, and the schedul-
ing of reduction measures. The two broad objectives of
the Lake Michigan plan are:
• to reduce pollutant loadings and to isolate, treat,
or remove contaminated sediments to levels that
provide: water quality and sediments capable of
sustaining the most sensitive living resources;
and drinking water and fish that present minimal
risk for human and wildlife consumption.
• to eliminate the use or release of persistent, toxic,
and bioaccumulative pollutants.
EPA will model loadings of target pollutants based
on evidence of their levels in the water column and in
fish and wildlife. The Agency will also join States and
other Federal agencies in a review of Great Lakes ecosys-
tem monitoring needs and programs. This will support
starting whole-lake sampling for critical Lake Michigan
pollutants in FY 1992.
PHOSPHORUS LOAD REDUCTION PLAN
By the 1960s, eutrophic conditions in the lower
Lakes provoked public concern. Erie in particular suf-
fered thick blooms of algae that caused unpleasant odor
and taste in water supplies, declines in desirable fish
species, and depletion of dissolved oxygen. It was the
first of the Lakes to exhibit eutrophic conditions, be-
cause it is the shallowest, warmest, and most biologically
productive. Its drainage basin contains intense agricul-
tural and urban uses. About one-third of the Great Lakes
watershed population lives within Erie's watershed,
and Erie surpasses other Lakes in receipt of effluent from
sewage treatment plants.
Loadings of phosphorus were the primary cause of
eutrophic conditions. The U.S. and Canada sub-
sequently acted to reduce phosphorus. EPA and States
have invested over $8 billion in sewage system improve-
ments in the Great Lakes watershed since 1970. All States
now limit the phosphorus content of laundry detergents
sold within the Great Lakes watershed to 0.5 percent.
(According to a 1989 report by the IJC's Water Quality
Board, Ontario's detergent phosphorus limit is 2.2 per-
cent) As a result of such actions, EPA and States have
estimated that phosphorus loadings to Lake Erie from
U.S. municipal dischargers have fallen from 14,000 tons
in 1972 to 2/400 tons in 1986, a drop of over 80 percent
In 1983, the U.S. and Canada agreed to develop and
implement "Phosphorus Load Reduction Plans" to
reduce phosphorus levels in areas that remained im-
paired. The U.S. Phosphorus Load Reduction Plan,
begun in 1986, sought to reduce phosphorus loadings by
2,000 tons for Lake Erie, 430 tons for Lake Ontario, and
220 tons for Saginaw Bay. These reductions were calcu-
lated from an estimate of loadings during 1982. They
represented about a 15 percent reduction in total load-
ings to Lake Erie and a 6 percent reduction in Lake
Ontario loadings. It was estimated that such reductions
would achieve phosphorus levels below 15 micrograms
per liter (or parts per billion) in the western basin of Lake
Erie and in Saginaw Bay, and 10 micrograms per liter in
the deeper waters of Lake Ontario and the central and
eastern basins of Lake Erie.
Agricultural runoff is a major source of phosphorus
to the Great Lakes. The Phosphorus Load Reduction
Plan relied on programs aimed at increasing the practice
of conservation tillage, better management of livestock
waste, and better management of nutrients used in crop
production. Many of these programs are administered
by Soil and Water Conservation Districts, with support
from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and
States.
Progress
The U.S. Great Lakes Phosphorus Task Force, in-
cluding members from EPA, USDA (i.e., Soil Conserva-
tion Service, Agricultural Stabilization and
Conservation Service, and Cooperative Extension Ser-
Restoring the Ecosystem 47
-------
Figure 4-2. Cropland in the Great Lakes Watershed (1988)
Cropland accounts for over 18 percent of the Great Lakes watershed. The most
concentrated farming area is Northwest Ohio.
Souroa: Pranckavlclus and Manna, 1989, from CTIC data.
48 Chapter Four
-------
Figure 4-3. Conservation Tillage in the Great Lakes Watershed (1988)
In 1988, areas with high concentrations of farmland often made relatively less use of conservation tillage than
other areas around the Great Lakes
Source: Pranckoviclus and Manne, 1989, from CTIC data.
Restoring the Ecosystem 49
-------
vice), and agricultural and environmental agencies in
Indiana, Michigan, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania,
evaluated plan implementation through 1988. Methods
of estimating phosphorus reductions vaiy by State. In
most cases, estimates of agricultural loadings were
derived from assessments of conservation tillage adop-
tion, fertilizer and animal waste management practices,
and structural improvements (e.g., drainage systems and
fertilizer storage facilities).
The Task Force considered that substantial progress
had been made in reducing nonpoint phosphorus loads
to Saginaw Bay and Lake Ontario. It estimated that 78
percent of the target reduction had been reached for
Saginaw Bay and 46 percent of the target for Lake On-
tario. It also estimated that Indiana had exceeded its
target reduction for Lake Erie. However, similar success
for the whole of Lake Erie had not been achieved from
the agricultural sector in Michigan and Ohio. The Task
Force estimated that 24 percent of the phosphorus load
reduction target for Lake Erie had been achieved.
Yet, the Task Force also noted a partially offsetting
reduction in phosphorus loadings from municipal was-
tewater treatment facilities. It estimated that in 1987
municipal dischargers reduced phosphorus discharge to
Lake Erie by 502 tons and to Lake Ontario by 216 tons
from 1982 levels.
Conservation Tillage
Conservation tillage entails reduced plowing and
leaving crop residue on the surface of fields, thus reduc-
ing soil erosion and nutrient movement by water and
wind. There are four main types of conservation tillage
practices: no till, mulch till, ridge till, and strip till These
differ in degree of soil disturbance. No till is the most
effective in preventing erosion, as it eliminates mechani-
cal cultivation. The tillage system selected by a farmer
depends on physical circumstances, including soil type,
crops, availability of equipment, and upon his/her un-
derstanding of the benefits of conservation tillage.
Estimates of farm acreage under conservation tillage
are an important basis for evaluating progress under the
Phosphorus Reduction Plan. Figures 4-2 and 4-3 il-
lustrate, as of 1988, the distribution of farmlands within
the Great Lakes watershed and the distribution of con-
servation tillage. Cropland accounts for 18 percent of the
area of counties lying fully or partly within the Great
Lakes watershed. Major farming areas are northwest
Ohio, west-central Wisconsin, and adjacent to Saginaw
River and Bay. Corn is the largest crop (4 percent of farm
acres), followed by soybeans (24 percent) and small
grains, especially wheat (17 percent). About 30 to 50
percent of the corn and soybean acreage are in a
corn/soybean rotation. Major corn-growing areas are
located in east-central and south-east Michigan,
northwest Ohio, and central Wisconsin.
Conventional tillage is much more common than
conservation tillage, which is used on 21.6 percent of
cropland. Mulch till is the most frequently used method
of conservation tillage, accounting for 68 percent of all
conservation tillage acres. No till practices are used on
24 percent of conservation tillage acres. Farmers who
grow com use conservation tillage more than those who
grow other crops. Conservation tillage is used for about
38 percent of the corn, 21 percent of the soybean, and 16
percent of the small grain crops.
In corn production areas, conservation tillage is
most prevalent in northwest Indiana, central Wisconsin,
and central Michigan. In 1988, LaPorte and Porter Coun-
ties in northwest Indiana had the two highest rates of
conservation tillage in corn production, averaging 92
percent of acres producing com. However, the top 11
counties in the Great Lakes watershed having the
highest proportion of cropland devoted to com, all in
northwest Ohio, have relatively low rates of conserva-
tion tillage, averaging about 23.7 percent in 1988.
Higher rates of conservation tillage have sub-
sequently been reported from 5 . Ohio counties par-
ticipating in USDA's Conservation Action Project(CAP).
This program involves fanners, agricultural suppliers,
and company representatives in a joint effort to improve
water quality by promoting conservation tillage. CAP
sponsors field days, seminars, demonstrations, field
comparisons, tours, and other educational and informa-
tion opportunities. In 1990, two CAP counties, Defiance
and Fulton, reported an average of 40.5 percent of their
corn acreage under conservation tillage.
Varying rates of conservation tillage are partly at-
tributable to differences in soil types. Some clay soils
limit conservation tillage, since the soil becomes too
tight to permit drainage, thereby drowning seed or
denying sufficient moisture to near surface soiL During
the early 1980s, EPA helped to support demonstrations
of conservation tillage in part of the Maumee River
watershed. One outcome of these studies was to show
that high farm yields were obtainable under conserva-
tion tillage in certain high clay soils, given sufficient
drainage systems. Construction of such systems (e.g.,
parallel tile outlet terraces) is expensive, however, and
50 Chapter Four
-------
the drainage systems require the availability of outlet
streams. Although Figure 4-3 does not adjust for soil
types, it is useful for displaying the absolute rates of
conservation tillage among counties.
Outlook
In summary, over the past 20 years, the U.S. and
Canada have significantly decreased phosphorus levels
where they had been excessive. Partly as a result, the
walleye population of Lake Erie has increased, and the
numbers of plankton-grazing fish like alewife have
diminished. Erie also has a much reduced mass of algae,
and the mix between types of algae has improved. In
1989, the rate of depletion of dissolved oxygen in the
bottom waters of the central basin of Lake Erie was at a
20-year low, and the duration of the period of oxygen
depletion in these waters was shorter than in the mid-
1980s.
Scientific models suggest that elimination of low
dissolved oxygen in the bottom waters of Lake Erie will
take up to 5 years beyond the attainment of targeted
levels of phosphorus. EPA will continue to assess if
further reductions in phosphorus concentrations are
warranted.
Phosphorus concentrations are significantly af-
fected by both weather and agricultural land use. Low
rainfall during 1985-87 contributed to reduced runoff of
phosphorus to Lake Erie from agriculture. Without im-
proved agricultural land use as sought under the Phos-
phorus Load Reduction Plan, Erie's phosphorus levels
may rise with higher rainfall.
In addition to conservation tillage, improved fer-
tilizer management, restoration of wetlands, programs
that pay landusers not to farm highly erodible land, to
establish vegetative filter-strips along stream and ditch
banks, and to reduce direct access to streams by live-
stock, all help to prevent phosphorus loadings. Better
agricultural land use practices offer the most promise for
protection of waters that are vulnerable to overenrich-
ment.
-------
Chapter Five
Actions By Federal Partners
This chapter presents FY 1989 and 1990 accomplish-
ments and FY 1991 plans pertaining to the Great Lakes,
as reported by 5 Federal agencies: the Army Corps of
Engineers, the Coast Guard, the Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice, the Great Lakes Environmental Research
Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), and the Soil Conservation Ser-
vice.
THE ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS
Under the Rivers and Harbors and Flood Control
Acts, the Corps maintains navigational channels in
authorized harbors and rivers of the Great Lakes, neces-
sitating periodic dredging of bottom sediments. In
recent years, the Corps has dredged four million cubic
yards of sediments annually from the Great Lakes. Since
half of this volume is contaminated and unsuitable for
disposal in open-lake waters, the Corps builds confined
disposal facilities (CDFs), manmade islands designed to
hold and isolate these sediments. There are 38 CDFs,
completed or under construction, within the Great
Lakes.
The following Corps activities also relate to the
Great Lakes:
• Administration of the Federal program under the
Clean Water Act that regulates the discharge of
dredge or fill materials into U.S. waters, including
most wetlands
• Flood control and shoreline erosion projects
• Technical support to EPA and States on Super-
fund site cleanups
• Technical support to EPA and States in construc-
tion of municipal wastewater treatment plants
• Technical support to environmental agencies on
Great Lakes Remedial Action Plans (RAPs)
• Technical support to EPA's Assessment and
Remediation of Contaminated Sediments (ARCS)
program
• Cleanup of hazardous materials at formerly used
defense sites, through the Defense Environmen-
tal Restoration Program (DERP)
• Participation on various Internationa] Joint Com-
mission boards that regulate lake water levels
FY 1989 Accomplishments
• The Corps administered the dredge and fill per-
mit program. Applications were reviewed in
cooperation witn Federal and State agencies,
public comments were reviewed, environmental
impacts assessed, and mitigation requirements
determined.
• The Corps analyzed bottom sediments at 19
navigational protects in the Great Lakes: Ash-
tabula, Cleveland, and West Harbors in Ohio; the
Saginaw, Rouge, and St Clair Rivers, Manistique
Harbor, Keweenaw Waterway, and Lake St Clair
in Michigan; Buffalo and Olcott Harbors in New
York; Chicago River and Waukegan Harbor in
Illinois; Erie Harbor in Pennsylvania; Indiana
Harbor in Indiana; Milwaukee and Sheboygan
Harbors, and Green Bay in Wisconsin; and
Duluth/Superior Harbor in Minnesota-Wiscon-
sin. Sediment analyses included physical, chemi-
cal, and biological testing. The results of Corps'
sediment analyses represent the largest data base
of its kind on the Great Lakes. Results have been
made available to Federal and State agencies, and
have been widely used for Remedial Action Plan-
ning (RAP). These analyses are applicable to a
wide range of water quality issues, including
bench-top investigations of advanced treatment
technologies for contaminated sediments at In-
diana Harbor, studies of microbiological
degradation of polynuclear aromatic hydrocar-
bons (PAHs) in sediments, and comparative
analysis of sediment bioassays.
• Navigational dredging and confined disposal
removed nearly two million cubic yards of pol-
luted sediments from the Great Lakes. Naviga-
tion projects where polluted sediments were
removed and placed in a CDF included the
Calumet River and Harbor in Illinois; Cleveland
and Toledo Haibors in Ohio; the Rouge and
Saginaw Rivers, Monroe Harbor, and Keweenaw
Waterway in Michigan; Milwaukee and Green
Bay Harbors in Wisconsin; and Duluth/Superior
Harbor in Minnesota-Wisconsin.
• A new CDF was completed at Clinton River,
Michigan.
• The Corps participated in the development of
RAPs for several Areas of Concern, including
Reports By Federal Partners 53
-------
Ashtabula, Buffalo, Cleveland, Grand Calumet
River, and Milwaukee.
FY 1990 Accomplishments
• The Corps continued to administer the dredge
and fill permit program. Approximately 6,500per-
mits were issued and 343 enforcement actions
were taken by Corps districts within the Great
Lakes watershed.
• The Corps analyzed bottom sediments from 19
Great Lakes navigation projects: Waukegan Har-
bor in Illinois; Cleveland, Conneaut, anaSandus-
ky Harbors, and Rocky River in Ohio; Grand
Traverse Bay, Manistique, and Ontonagon Har-
bors, and the Saginaw and Black Rivers in
Michigan; Ashland, Bayfield, Cornucopia, La-
Pointe, Manitowoc, ana Milwaukee Harbors in
Wisconsin; Duluth-Superior Harbor in Min-
nesota/Wisconsin; Oswego Harbor and
Rochester Harbor in New York.
• Navigational dredging removed about 4.1 million
cubic yards of bottom sediments. About 2 million
cubic yards were determined to be unsuitable for
open-water disposal and were placed in CDFs.
Dredging projects were conducted in Buffalo
Harbor, New York; Cleveland, Huron, Lorain,
and Toledo Harbors in Ohio; the Detroit River,
Saginaw, and St Clair Rivers, Keweenaw Water-
way, and Holland and Monroe Harbors in
Michigan; Duluth-Superior Harbor in Min-
nesota/Wisconsin; ana Green Bay and Mil-
waukee Harbors in Wisconsin. These projects
included CDF operation, maintenance, and water
quality monitoring.
• Support was provided to EPA's ARCS program.
The Corps provided technical support, bench-
scale testing of treatment technologies, develop-
ment of pians for pilot-scale demonstrations,
development of procedures for estimating con-
taminant losses, development of concept plans
for full-scale remediation, and participation in
five ARCS work groups.
• The Corps assessed contaminant loss and bioac-
cumulation in fish at the Saginaw CDF, and
polychlorinated biphenyls (PcB} bioaccumula-
tion and volatilization at the Chicago CDF. No
biologically significant amounts oFPCBs were
founa to be leaving the Saginaw CDF.
• Construction of the Maumee Bay Shoreline
Erosion and Beach Restoration and Reno Beach-
Howard Farms Flood control projects were
started in Ohio.
• The Corps began a study of sediment and water
quality in Onondaga Lake, Syracuse, New York.
• Construction of two major flood damage reduc-
tion projects was started. The Chicagoland Un-
derflow Plan is the reservoir portion of Chicago's
Tunnel and Reservoir Project (TARP). The TARP
will reduce the backflow of stormwater and
sewage from Chicago area rivers into Lake
Michigan. Construction was also started on the
Little Calumet River Flood Protection and
Recreation Project in northwest Indiana. This
project includes significant wetland mitigation
ana enhancement and will provide a recreational
corridor along the river.
• The Corps removed underground storage tanks
and transformers from a site near Sault St. Marie,
Michigan under the DERP program. Remedial
investigations and feasibility studies are ongoing
at this and other sites.
• Water level impacts on wetlands along the St
Marys River were evaluated in support of the IJC
Levels of Reference Study.
• The Corps provided technical support to EPA's
Superfund project at the Sinclair Oil Site in
Wellsville, New York.
• Technical review of a sediment sampling plan
was conducted for the Fields Brook Superfund
site in Ashtabula, Ohio.
• Technical review of remediation designs was con-
ducted for the Superfund site at Waukegan, Il-
linois.
• The Corps provided support to Wisconsin in the
development of management alternatives for
contaminated sediments.
• The Corps studied wetland mitigation, restora-
tionprojects, and environmental management of
CDFs for the State of Michigan.
• The Corps assisted States in the development and
implementation of RAPs at a number of the Areas
of Concern of the Great Lakes (e.gv Milwaukee,
St Louis River, and Manistique).
• A study of the movement of dredged material
Blaced m Sandusky Bay, Ohio was started under
le Dredging Research Program.
FY 1991 Plans
• The Corps will continue to administer tite dredge
and fill permit program.
• A EPA/Corps task group on Clean Water Act Sec-
tion 404(b)(1) implementation will meet to
develop guidance on dredged material testing
and decision-making.
• Continuing support to the ARCS program, the
Corps will demonstrate pilot-scale sediment
remediation technologies, and support an EPA
project to remove contaminated sediments from
the Buffalo River.
• Testing of bottom sediment will be conducted at
21 navigation projects: Arcadia, Au Sable,
Caseville, Holland, Lexington, Ludington,
Manistee, Manistique, and Port Sanilac Hanxjrs,
and the Detroit ana St Clair Rivers in Michigan;
Waukegan Harbor in Illinois; Burns Waterway
and Michigan City Harbors in Indiana; Dunkirk
54 Chapter Five
-------
Harbor in New York; Erie Harbor in Pennsyl-
vania; Fairport, Huron, Port Clinton, and West
Harbors in Ohio; and Sheboygan Harbor in Wis-
consin.
• Dredging of polluted sediments and confined
disposal is planned for the following sites: the
Clinton, Detroit, Rouee, and Saginaw Rivers, and
Lake St. Clair and Bolles Harbor in Michigan;
Buffalo Harbor in New York; Cleveland, Huron,
Lorain, and Toledo Harbors in Ohio; Duluth-Su-
gerior Harbor in Minnesota/Wisconsin; Green
ay and Manitowoc Harbors in Wisconsin.
• The Corps will construct new CDFs, offloading
facilities, or major modifications to existing con-
fined disposal facilities are planned at: Erie Har-
bor in Pennsylvania; Dulutn-Superior Harbor in
Minnesota/Wisconsin; Green Bay Harbor and
Sturgeon Bay in Wisconsin; St. Joseph Harbor in
Michigan; and Toledo Haibor in Ohio. Routine
maintenance and water quality monitoring will
be performed at other CDFs.
• The Corps will start construction of small boat
harbors in Buffalo, New York, and in Little
Calumet River, Indiana, and continue the
Chicagoland Underflow Plan flood damage
reduction project.
• The Corps will continue to identify and
remediate hazardous wastes at former defense
sites. An analysis of a sample of barrels from more
than 1400 dumped into Luce Superior more than
30 years ago will be completed.
• Through participation on boards and committees,
the Corps will continue to support the IJC.
• The Corps will continue support to EPA and State
wastewater treatment plant and Superfund ac-
tivities.
• The Corps will participate in a Fish and Wildlife
Service assessment of the management and res-
toration needs of Great Lakes fisheries resources.
• The Corps will finish its assistance to Wisconsin
in the development of management alternatives
for contaminated sediments.
• The Corps will make grants to States for programs
aimed at reducing zebra mussels at public
facilities.
THECOAST GUARD
Through promulgation of regulations and marine
safety and law enforcement inspections, the Coast
Guanl promotes prevention of pollution from vessels.
The Coast Guard is also responsible for responding to
spills of oil and hazardous substances into the Great
Lakes. As the Federal On-Scene Coordinator for spills
from ships, the Coast Guard monitors cleanup activities
and conducts the cleanup when responsible parties do
not do so effectively. The Coast Guard operates 9 marine
safety units on the Great Lakes to perform pollution
response and investigation functions. A further Coast
Guard activity that is important to the Great Lakes
ecosystem is prevention of the introduction of exotic
species from ships.
Recent Accomplishments
• In May 1989, the Coast Guard collaborated with
the Canadian Coast Guard to establish voluntary
guidelines to protect the Great Lakes from further
introduction of exotic species through discharge
of ship ballast water. Under these guidelines,
ships scheduled to enter the Great Lalkes system
are advised to exchange their ballast water
beyond the continental shelf, or if this is not
possible, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. These
Biidelines were distributed bv the International
aritime Organization to its 133 member govern-
ments and organizations. The St. Lawrence
Seaway Authority is monitoring compliance with
the guidelines, and the Canadian Coast Guard
plans to evaluate the effectiveness of the
gjidelines, with assistance from the U.S. Coast
uard as necessary. The Authority reported 85
percent compliance with the guidelines during
the 1989 shipping season. Ballast water was not
sampled to verify that it had been exchanged.
• In April 1989, the Coast Guard promulgated
regulations to implement Annex V of the Interna-
tional Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships (MARPOL 73/78). These regulations
prohibit the discharge of garbage into the
navigable waters of the united States, and apply
to all ships, including recreational boats.
• In May 1990, these regulations were amended to
require maintenance of waste management plans
ana display of MARPOL Annex V placards on all
oceangoing vessels greater than 26 feet in length.
This amendment is to ensure that all persons on
board are aware of garbage pollution laws and to
promote proper disposal.
• The Coast Guard continued to verify pollution
incidents in the U.S. waters of the Great Lakes.
During calendar year 1989, the Coast Guard
recorded 262 sucn incidents. Of these, 13 in-
volved hazardous materials, the remainder in-
volved oil. The Federal government funded
cleanups for 17 incidents.
• The U.S.-Canada Joint Marine Pollution Contin-
gency Plan (JCP) was amended to include
Erevisions for periodic meetings and exercises of
le Joint Response Team ana On-Scene Coor-
dinator organizations. A binational exercise of
the JCP took place at St Catherine's, Ontario, in
February 1989.
• The Coast Guard reviewed all its oil contingency
plans, including those for the Great Lakes. In
conducting the review, Coast Guard on-scene
coordinators considered preparedness to
respond to the average, largest, ana most complex
Reports By Federal Partners 55
-------
Figure 5-1. Great Lakes Harbors with Most Recorded Oil and Chemical Spills, January 1980-September 1989
Most spills occur In port areas
Number of Spill*
Source: Coast Guard report to U.S. Senate OGM Committee
oil spills that have occurred in their zones. In
addition, they considered the most catastrophic
potential incidents, given shipping patterns and
cargos. The on-scene coordinators nave amended
their local contingency plans accordingly.
TOE FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
The Fish and Wildlife Service maintains fish and
wildlife resources and provides access to them for the
public The Service collects and interprets diverse infor-
mation on fish and wildlife species, populations, and
habitats to assist resource managers in making decisions
about die protection and restoration of the Great Lakes
ecosystem. The Service's activities generally fall into five
functional categories: fisheries, refuges and wildlife, law
enforcement, fish and wildlife enhancement, and public
affairs. Major activities include permit review; land ac-
quisition and habitat management; management of
migratory birds, anadromous fish (fish that spend their
adult life in the sea but swim up rivers to reproduce) and
endangered species; and research. As part of the permit
review process, the Service reviews Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission hydroelectric projects, Army
Corps of Engineers dredge and fill permits, Farm Bill
habitat easements, and wetland restorations. The
Service's research activities address both needs of the
Service and, when feasible, the needs of other Federal
agencies, Indian tribes, State agencies, and international
groups, such as the IJC and the Great Lakes Fisheries
Commission.
The Service manages the National Fishery Center-
Great Lakes; five National Fish Hatcheries that support
Great Lakes lake trout restoration efforts; and six Na-
tional Wildlife Refuges within the Great Lakes water-
shed—Iroquois and Montezuma in New York, Erie in
Pennsylvania, Ottawa in Ohio, and Seney and Shiawas-
see in Michigan. In addition, the Service conducts sur-
veys of wetlands to support the National Wetlands
Inventory Program.
Some recent accomplishments and FY 1991 plans are
provided below by functional area.
Fisheries
FY 1989 Accomplishments
• The Service stocked the Great Lakes with about
6.4 million lake trout This native species serves as
a valuable biological indicator of water quality,
because of its need for clean water and long life
span.
• An offshore stocking vessel (the M/V Togue) was
used to stock fish overtraditional offshore spawn-
ing reefs to enhance fish survival.
• The Service continued monitoring bloater chubs
from Lake Michigan. The National Fisheries Re-
search Center-Great Lakes has analyzed Lake
Michigan bloater chubs for DDT congeners and
dieldnn since 1969 and added analysis for PCBs
in 1972 and for chlordane in 1982.
56 Chapter Five
-------
• As part of its sea lamprey control program, the
Service applied lampricides to 31 Great Lakes
tributaries.rarasitic and spawning adult popula-
tions, larval populations, and non-target or-
ganism populations were also evaluated.
Operational fishery research was conducted on
alternate control techniques, registration of
lampricides, and special problems encountered
by field crews.
• Fishery assistance biologists continued to study
exotic aquatic organisms that appear in the Great
Lakes.
FY 1990 Accomplishments
• The Service stocked the Great Lakes with 3.4 mil-
lion lake trout. More than 2 million were stocked
by ship over traditional off-shore spawning reefs
to increase their survival rate. Also, more than 300
thousand were stocked by airplane.
• The Service applied lampricides to 28 Great Lakes
tributaries.
• The Service developed an interactive computer
program ("expert system") that uses the structure
of an organic molecule to predict acute toxicity to
aquatic life. The system is being used to estimate
toxicity of chemicals before starting bioassays.
FY 1991 Plans
• The Service will implement the Great Lakes Fish
and Wildlife Restoration Act of 1990, signed into
law in November, that calls for the Service to
conduct a comprehensive fishery resources study
through FY 1994.
• The Service will continue the lake trout stocking
program.
• The Service will apply lampricides to 39 Great
Lakes tributaries.
• The Service will continue monitoring bloater
chubs from Lake Michigan. In addition, archived
fish samples will be analyzed by PCB and chlor-
dane congeners to see historical trends in these
contaminants by congener.
• The Service will increase activities with State and
Tribal cooperators to assess Great Lakes fish
populations.
Refuges and Wildlife
FY 1989 Accomplishments
• The Service increased wetland acreage in the
Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge as part of
the North American Waterfowl Management
Plan, a cooperative effort between the Service and
the Forest Service to preserve waterfowl habitats.
• Under the Waterfowl Management Plan, the Ser-
vice conducted a waterfowl weeding survey and
developed a plan for Fort Drum, New York, that
has 12,000 acres of wetlands.
• The Service funded 3 studies that assessed the
impacts of contaminants on Great Lakes wildlife.
The first study, on St. Lawrence River con-
taminants, analyzed water and bird eggs for
levels of PAHs. The others studied contaminants
in two bird species: the double-crested cormorant
and black-crowned night heron.
• Samples of water, sediment, and biota were col-
lected in 5 national refuges for analysis of chemi-
cal contamination.
• Substantial pump, levee, and dike restorations
were made at the Ottawa and Shiawassee Refuges
to repair flood damage.
FY 1990 Accomplishments
• The staff of 2 refuges supported wetland restora-
tions through cooperative agreements with land-
owners. A total of 971 acres of wetlands were
restored, including 109 acres in counties adjacent
to Lake Erie.
• The Service began a preliminary study to identify
lands within 10 miles of Lake Erie that have
potential for wildlife habitat and public recrea-
tion, and that have unique natural, historic, or
scenic features.
• The Service continued to assist the Ohio Depart-
ment of Natural Resources (ODNR) in monitor-
ing reproductive success of bald eagles nesting
near Lake Erie. Over the previous 8 years, active
nests have risen from 2 to 16.
• The Service continued to support a survey of
colonial waterbirds of the Great Lakes. This 3-
year study, begun in 1989, will indicate where the
Service should direct future management ac-
tivities.
• The Service began a study of the physioecology
of black ducks in Ohio's Lake Erie marshes. This
study should provide information on black duck
habitat use, movements, and temporal survival in
this critical migration area.
FY 1991 Plans
• In cooperation with Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,
Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin, the Service will
begin to implement the Upper Mississippi River
and Great Lakes Region Joint Venture.
• The Service will continue reintroducing common
terns at Ottawa Refuge.
• The Service will continue funding the restoration
of wetlands on private lands through challenge
grants to landowners.
• The Service will continue to monitor black ducks
on Lake Erie and bald eagles.
• The Service will complete its preliminary Lake
Erie shoreline study.
Reports By Federal Partners 57
-------
Fish and Wildlife Enhancement
FY 1989 Accomplishments
• The Service participated in the IJC's water levels
study that evaluated wetland changes and result-
ing ecosystem effects during low and high water-
level years from 1979 to 1988. The Service
examined Kakagon Slough, Wisconsin, on Lake
Superior; Cecil Day Marsh, Michigan, on Lake
Michigan; Fish Point, Michigan, on Lake Huron;
Dickinson Island, Michigan, on Lake St Clair;
and the St. Lawrence River, Sage Creek, and
Campbell marshes, New York.
• Working with EPA, the Service began to develop
water quality criteria for wildlife as put of the
Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative.
• The Service prepared natural resource damage
surveys for two superfund sites (General Motors
Central Foundry located along tne St Lawrence
River and Hooker Chemical along the Niagara
River) and reviewed a report concerning tumors
in fish at the 102 Street site on the Niagara River.
• To support EPA's ARCS program, the Service con-
ducted surveys of fish (bullheads) and sediments
in Saginaw, Grand Calumet, and Buffalo River for
tumors and abnormalities. The sediment col-
lected will be used to study bioaccumulation of
chemicals in fish collected at these three locations.
• In New York, the Service participated in the
licensing effort for 23 hydroelectric projects,
recommending changes in operation or shut-
down of 3 projects and minimum flow require-
ments at 6 plants because the projects were
causing adverse effects on fish populations. Ap-
proximately 26 projects were reviewed by the East
Lansing Field Office.
• Also in New York, the Service reviewed about 300
dredge and fill permits, requesting modifications
to approximately 100 projects to reduce habitat
impacts and recommending denial of 10 projects
due to unacceptable impacts.
• Under its Farm Bill activities, in New York the
Service obtained easements on about 700 acres of
wildlife habitat, transfers of approximately 500
acres of wetlands, and a wetland restoration
project on a former farm. In the East Lansing
Office, conservation easements were staked for 36
proposals. Twenty-one restorations under the
Conservation Reserve Program were inspected—
all are filled with water, and wildlife have been
observed on most
• Endangered spedes consultations were con-
ducted under Section 7 of the Endangered
Species Act on about 30 projects in New York.
• The Service began an effort with the Forest Ser-
vice to reduce beaver pond destruction and to
develop small forest ponds to improve black duck
breeding habitat.
• The Service supported the development and
review of RAPs for the Sheboygan, Marinette,
Milwaukee, Oswego, Niagara, and St Lawrence
Rivers, Duluth-Superior Harbor, and Saginaw
Bay.
FY 1990 Accomplishments
• The Service reviewed bald eagle population and
productivity data as a review of the species' en-
dangered status.
• In cooperation with States and duck hunter or-
ganizations, the Service continued efforts to re-
store beds of wild celery along the Great Lakes.
Wild celery provides foraging opportunities for
fish and the vegetation is eaten by waterfowL In
the spring of 1988, celery was planted at 2 loca-
tions in tne lower Detroit River. While the celery
failed at one site, about 5,000 plants took hold at
the other. This work indicates that restoration of
wild celery in the lower Detroit River is possible
under proper conditions.
• The Service completed a recovery plan for the
lakeside daisy, found only in Ottawa and Erie
counties, Ohio, and in Ontario.
• The Service continued involvement in Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission hydroelectric
projects, Clean Water Act dredge ana fill permits,
Farm Bill habitat easements ana wetland restora-
tions, EPA's ARCS program, and EPA's initiative
to develop water quality criteria for wildlife. In
New York, the Service participated in the licens-
ing effort for 12 hydroelectric projects, and
reported about 30 dredge and fill permit viola-
tions to the Corps.
• The Service worked with EPA on a wetlands in-
ventory in the Green Bay watershed. This will be
available to planning and regulatory agencies to
assist them in decisions on permit issuance,
zoning, etc
• The Service continued a pre-assessment of
natural resource damages for waukegan Harbor,
Illinois. The Service began a natural resources
damage assessment for Saginaw Bay.
• The Service continued to work with ODNR, Ohio
EPA, EPA, and the Army Corps of Engineers on
the proposed sitingof a CDF for Toledo Harbor
dreagea materials. The proposed CDF would oc-
cupy 176 acres of productive shallow water
habitat in Maumee Bay.
• The Service studied gulls and bald eagles around
the Torch Lake, Michigan, Area of Concern to
determine if the high copper level in the lake was
hurting their reproductive success. Initial indica-
tions were that die productivity of the species
was normaL A companion study looked at yellow
perch reproduction in Torch Lake, finding im-
paired hatchability of perch eggs.
• The Service continued to support Remedial Ac-
tion Planning for the Cuyahoga, Grand Calumet,
58 Chapter Vive
-------
Menominee, and Maumee Rivers, and Mil-
waukee Harbor.
FY 1991 Plans
• The Service will complete recoveiy plans for
Houghton's goldenroa and Pitcher's thistle. Both
exclusively inhabit the Great Lakes watershed,
primarily in sand dunes and beaches. The Service
also will complete a revision to the Eastern Tim-
ber Wolf Recoveiy Plan that addressees wolf
populations in Minnesota, northern Wisconsin,
and the upper peninsula of Michigan.
• The Service plans to propose the Lake Erie water
snake for threatened status and Hungerford's
crawling water beetle for endangered status. The
snake is found only on several Ohio and Ontario
islands, while the beetle is found in only 2
Michigan sites and 1 in Ontario.
• The Service will support the advanced identifica-
tion of important wetland resources in northwest
Ohio (Erie, Lucas, Ottawa, and Sandusky coun-
ties) tnat are unsuitable for the discharge of
dredged or filled materials. This is a joint activity
with cPA, OEPA, Ohio DNR, and the Army Corps
of Engineers. The Service will also continue to
support a similar advanced identification of wet-
lands near Green Bay.
• The Service will continue its support to Remedial
Action Planning.
• The Service will begin a natural resource damage
assessment for the Indiana Harbor and Grand
Calumet River Area of Concern.
Public Affairs
FY 1991 Plans
The Service will develop a volunteer wetland watch
program. In addition, the Service will start a public
information program to inform the agricultural com-
munity and the general public about the fish and
wildlife benefits to be derived from the Farm BilL
GREAT LAKES ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
LABORATORY
The Laboratory conducts research on Great Lakes
ecosystem dynamics and physical processes, conducting
integrated, interdisciplinary research in support of
resource management and environmental services in
coastal and estuarine waters, with special emphasis on
the Great Lakes. This program includes both basic and
applied studies and combines experimental, theoretical,
and empirical approaches. Field, analytical, and
laboratory investigations are performed to improve un-
derstanding and prediction of environmental inter-
dependencies between atmosphere, land, water, and
sediments. The Laboratoiy emphasizes a systems ap-
proach to environmental problems and the develop-
ment of environmental service tools to assist resource
managers and others in the application of scientific find-
ings to specific resource management problems. The
Laboratory's work is discussed below under the topics:
persistent toxic substances, ecological processes, and
benthic populations.
Persistent Toxic Substances
The Laboratoiy works with EPA, the Fish and
Wildlife Service, and various Canadian agencies to im-
prove understanding of the processes that control the
distribution, cycling, and fate of organic contaminants,
their toxicology, and the kinetics of transfer. A major
focus is the association of toxic organics with suspended
and deposited sediments. The adsorption of organic
contaminants onto sediment particles, followed by set-
tling and eventual burial, commonly controls the
residence time and concentration of these compounds
in the water column. Understanding the interactions
between different types of suspended matter and dis-
solved organic contaminants is critical to modeling the
behavior of such contaminants in the environment
Resuspension of bottom sediments in the Great Lakes is
a primary process that introduces nutrients and con-
taminants into the water. Direct exchanges between
bottom sediments and overlying water are also impor-
tant processes, but are poorly understood.
The Laboratory uses radiotracers to identify and
model sediment transport processes because of their
relative ease of measurement and dating. These meas-
urements are used to discriminate between resuspended
and fresh materials and to study horizontal sediment
transport and the movement of sediments into ultimate
depositional zones, the seasonal resuspension of sedi-
ments, and geochemical changes to sediments over time.
The Laboratoiy has collected and analyzed sedi-
ment cores from all of the Great Lakes during the past
15 years and has deployed sediment traps to obtain
samples of suspended sediments from the water column.
Sediment traps have been deployed for 10 years,
primarily in Lake Michigan and to a lesser extent in
Lakes Superior and Huron.
Extensive resuspension of sediments has been
found in all three lakes, especially during winter
months. Data are being integrated with data obtained
by Canada in Lakes Erie and Ontario that will permit a
comprehensive view of Great Lakes sediment resuspen-
sion.
Reports By Federal Partners 59
-------
The Laboratory's various sediment projects provide
understanding that can be applied in the development
of mass balance models and Remedial Action and
Lakewide Management Planning. Better understanding
of the physics, toxicology, and availability of Great
Lakes sediments can be used to help define the assimila-
tive capacity of the lakes for certain pollutants, the
hazards that the reservoir of contaminated sediments
pose to aquatic life, and the effects of alternative ways
of dealing with sediments. The effects of possible con-
taminated sediment remediation measures are poorly
understood and are one of the fundamental unresolved
issues to long-term restoration of the Great Lakes.
FY 1989 Accomplishments
During FY 1989, some of the Laboratory's projects
in the area of toxic organics focused on:
• The sediment resuspension process, using
radiotracers to identify fundamental sediment
transport processes.
• The physics of the bottom 25 meters of the Lake
Michigan water column, with focus on bottom
currents and resuspension of sediments.
• The toxicology and bioavailability of con-
taminated Great Lakes sediments.
• A 28-day mortality bioassay using a benthic or-
ganism to assess the presence of toxic organic
compounds.
• Testing of a gamma scan system to measure the
porosity of sediments in a nondestructive man-
ner.
• The development of tolerances to toxic substan-
ces by exposing benthic worms collected from
offshore sites in Lake Michigan near Grand
Haven and Benton Harbor to sediments collected
from these two sites. The Benton Harbor sedi-
ments were toxic to the organisms from Grand
Haven, whereas the same type of organisms from
Benton Harbor were unaffected by Grand Haven
sediments. These results indicated, but seldom
demonstrated, that organisms collected off Ben-
ton Harbor have developed tolerance to the
generally higher concentrations of contaminants
round in their habitat
In addition, the Laboratory conducted three
projects that contribute to the major interagency study
of Green Bay, each of which was partially funded by
EPA's Great Lakes National Program Office. These
projects focused on:
• Water volume movement through the bay and
between the bay and Lake Michigan
• The food web of fish in Green Bay to increase
understanding of the relative importance of the
various food and water pathways of PCB ac-
cumulation by fish
• The relationship between current velocity and
sediment resuspension in Green Bay.
FY 1990 Accomplishments
• The Laboratory completed the initial examina-
tions of major variables that could affect the
bioavailability of sediment associated toxicants to
the food chain.
• The Laboratory measured the water volume ex-
change between the upper and lower parts of
Green Bay.
• The Laboratory quantified the seasonal flux of
resuspended sediments and estimated particulate
and rOC settling velocities within Green Bay.
FY 1991 Plans
During FY 1991, the Laboratory plans to analyze
trap samples for organic carbon and PCBs; develop em-
pirical sediment resuspension models for Green Bay;
and complete projects in support of EPA's Green Bay
Study.
Ecological Processes
In addition to physical processes, the Laboratory
research focuses on ecological processes and
mechanisms. In general, knowledge of many ecosystem
processes is at an early stage. Food web processes have
a dominant influence on the transfer of energy and
contaminants throughout the ecosystem, yet predictive
and simulation models of these processes are rudimen-
tary. The Laboratory conducts research on both pelagic
(i.e., water column) and benthic ecosystem dynamics to
advance understanding of the flow of materials and
energy within the food web.
FY 1989 Accomplishments
• A project on the effects of contaminants on the
fisheries and water quality of Lake St Clair. Lake
St. Clair food web models indicate that the ben-
thic food chain is twice as important to fish
productivity as the pelagic grazing food chain
and that four times more caroon is available for
aquatic food chains from external particulate
sources as from aquatic vegetation ana algae.
• A study of the interactions between phosphorus,
ph vtoplankton, and bacteria in Lake Michigan to
nelp develop a better understanding of the
seasonal succession of algae.
• A project that studied the feeding dynamics of
zooplankton to better understand the seasonal
succession of plankton.
• A project addressing benthic ecology and sedi-
ment nutrient/energy transformations. Benthic
60 Chapter Five
-------
invertebrates feed on material settled from the
water column and are in turn consumed by most
species of Great Lakes fish.
FY 1990 Accomplishments
• Analysis of two non-indigenous species to the
Great Lakes ecosystem: the zebra mussel and the
spiny water flea
• A study of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and
benthic populations in Saginaw Bay to determine
the impact of the zebra mussel on the lower food
web
• A study of the seasonal oxygen consumption and
nitrogen (ammonia) excretion of zebra mussels
collected from Lake St. Clair
• A study, using aquaria and fish-holding tanks, to
demonstrate the development of aversion con-
ditioning in perch to attacking the spiny water
flea
• Initial analysis of the results of in situ feeding
experiments performed during the past 2 years on
the selectivity and predation rates of the spiny
water flea on zooplankton in Great Lakes, ana
determination of tne effect of the spiny water flea
on the food web structure
• Initial observations of ecosystem components to
demonstrate the variability in time ana space and
to improve predictions of food web dynamics that
support the Great Lakes salmonid fishery.
FY 1991 Plans
During FY 1991, the Laboratory will continue many
studies started in FY 1990, including the identification
of causes of ecosystem variability and continued
seasonal research on oxygen consumption, nitrogen ex-
cretion, and lipid content in zebra mussels of Lake St
Clair and Saginaw Bay. New projects will include ex-
amination of toxicokinetics and bioaccumulation
analysis of organic contaminants in the zebra mussel
and examination of nutrient changes in zebra mussels
and the development of eutroohication models.
Benthic Populations
A third area of research by the Laboratory is long-
term trends in benthic populations and the relation of
these to water quality. Benthic communities are excel-
lent indicators of trophic trends in the Great Lakes.
Because of their limited mobility and relatively long life
(compared to plankton), benthic fauna form stable com-
munities that reflect the effects of environmental condi-
tions over long periods of time.
FY 1990 Accomplishments
• Identified benthic organisms collected from
Saginaw Bay during lv89. Identification of the
organisms collected showed a two-fold increase
in pollution-tolerant worms since the early 1970s
that may be evidence of a degraded habitat since
that time.
• Collected additional benthic samples from inside
and outside fish enclosures placed in Lake Supe-
rior during FY 1986.
• Completed a study of long-term trends in mussel
abundance over the past three decades in western
Lake Erie.
• Assembled and began to use of a personal com-
puter-based microscope/digitizer system that al-
lows for rapid and reliable completion of body
length measurements needed to estimate the
energy budget in Great Lakes amphipods.
FY 1991 Plans
During FY 1991, the Laboratory will study whether
nutrient sufficient cells are preferred as food by
copepods over nutrient deficient cells at high algae con-
centrations. In addition, the Laboratory plans to observe
feeding mechanisms of tethered copepods to make
generalizations about appendage use patterns and sen-
sory clues.
THE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
The Soil Conservation Service of the Department of
Agriculture (USDA) provides technical and financial as-
sistance to land users, including farmers, ranchers, and
foresters, and to other government agencies on a variety
of natural resource issues. The Service contributes to
conserving the Nation's soil, water, plant, and animal
resources by informing land users of best management
practices and resource management systems that control
erosion, protect the quality of surface water, and reduce
the contamination of groundwater by agricultural
chemicals.
Through its nationwide network of conservation
specialists, the Service provides assistance on topics
such as pesticide and nutrient management, reduced
tillage practices, fish and wildlife habitat development,
soil mapping and interpretation, and watershed protec-
tion. It also conducts natural resource inventories and
maintains extensive data on soil erosion, land use and
cover, conservation practices, and land treatment needs.
To assist land users in protecting natural resources, the
USDA (through the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
servation Service) also administers cost-sharing
programs to pay land users for following certain conser-
vation practices, protecting wetlands, and improving
water quality. The Service is working with States in their
Reports By Federal Partners 61
-------
development of Nonpoint Source Management Plans
pursuant to Section 319 of the Clean Water Act.
The Service is participating in 10 major USDA
projects that are currently underway or planned in the
Great Lakes watershed. Five of these projects are Water
Quality Special Projects (WQSP): Cattaraugus Creek,
New York; LaGrange County Lake Enhancement Pro-
gram, Indiana; Vermillion River and the West Branch of
the Black River, Ohio; and the Clam River, Michigan.
These projects seek to cut agricultural loadings of
nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) and of sediments
to surface waters.
USDA is also conducting two demonstration
projects in the Basin. The East River Watershed project
in Wisconsin, which affects the Green Bay Area of Con-
cern, seeks to demonstrate crop management systems
that reduce the quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
pesticides required to produce acceptable crop yields.
The goals of theprqject are to prevent excessive loadings
to surface water and groundwater and enhance farm
incomes. The 10-year, $50 million project will provide
landowners up to 70 percent cost-sharing for installing
land management improvements. The Saginaw Bay
project in Michigan will not only focus on nutrients and
sediment, but will also seek to implement Integrated
Pest Management practices to prevent groundwater
contamination.
In the Saline Valley Rural Clean Water Project, the
emphasis is on reducing the amount of phosphorus
entering Lake Erie from southeastern Michigan. Final
evaluation of the project, including an analysis of prac-
tices to reduce phosphorus in runoff, is underway. A
hydrologic unit project related to Sycamore
Creek>fichigan, is using fertilizer, pesticide, and crop
management techniques to reduce agricultural pes-
ticides and sediment from entering surface waters.
Another hydrologic unit project, in the Wolf Creek
watershed, is working to protect Lake Adrian from sedi-
ment, phosphorus, and pesticides.
FY 1989 Accomplishments
In FY 1989, the Service contributed to the RAP
development process in Ohio (Maumee and Cuyahoga --
Rivers), Minnesota (St. Louis River), Wisconsin
(Menominee River and Green Bay), New York
(Rochester Embayment, Oswego River, St Lawrence
River, and Buffalo River), and Michigan (multiple sites).
The Service assigned one staff person to EPA's Great
Lakes National Program Office and another to the IJC's
Regional Office in Canada to work on Great Lakes en-
vironmental issues. Service personnel also evaluated
progress under the Great Lakes Phosphorus Load
Reduction Plan. Additional Service accomplishments in-
cluded:
• Completed transect tillage surveys in the
Saginaw Bay and Lake Erie watersheds
• Developed conservation plans for250,000 acres of
highly erodible lands in Wisconsin
• Designed and installed 68 animal waste manage-
ment systems in Wisconsin
• Completed the first phase of a direct drainage
study of Lake Ontario
• Completed inventories of Indiana wetlands
within the Great Lakes basin and in 13 Michigan
counties
• Completed a stream bank erosion survey for the
Au Sable River, Michigan
• Contributed to a Saginaw Bay drainage project to
assess the effects of crop production on surface
water and groundwater
• Participated in the Lost Creek Experimental
Watershed Project in Ohio with Defiance Soil and
Water Conservation District and Heidelberg Col-
lege, that assessed the movement of pesticides,
nutrients, and sediments
• Worked with Ottawa County, Ohio, to measure
effects of tillage practices on water quality.
FY 1990 Accomplishments
During FY 1990, the Service continued to emphasize
water quality benefits in all program deliveiy elements.
All initiatives begun in FY 1989 continued into FY 1990.
The Service assigned one staff person to the Michigan
Department of Natural Resources for two years to assist
in the prioritization of nonpoint source pollution im-
pacted watersheds. Significant accomplishments in-
clude the development of standards and specifications
for nutrient and pest management, and revision of the
standard and specification for waste utilization. Addi-
tional Service accomplishments included:
• Completed wetland inventories in five Michigan
counties;
• Started a new river basin study for the
Menominee River Basin in the Western Upper
Peninsula of Michigan and Northeastern Wis-
consin
• Started a streambank erosion inventoiy on the
Rifle River in north-central Michigan
• Started implementation of the South Branch
Kawkawlin River Watershed Work Flan
62 Chapter Fit*
-------
• Prepared a watershed work plan for Mud Creek
in Barry County, a highly intensified agricultural
area with identified sediment and nutrient load-
ings
• Participated in the preparation and implementa-
tion of four non-point source watershed
demonstration projects.
FY 1991 Plans
The Service will continue to participate in the 10
major IJSDA projects in the Great Lakes watershed. It
will also increasingly emphasize Integrated Crop
Management in all its programs to reduce agricultural
use of nutrients and pesticides to improve water quality.
Reports By Federal Partners 63
-------
Chapter Six
Great Lakes Monitoring
This chapter discusses U.S. surveillance of the Great
Lakes system, including three EPA initiatives on persist-
ent toxic substances:
• Establishment of a binational Integrated Atmos-
pheric Deposition Network (IADN) that will
monitor airborne deposition of trace organics on
a routine basis
• A multiagencv study of the sources and fates of
several persistent toxic substances in Green Bay
• Conversion and outfitting of a new ship to estab-
lish a capability to monitor trace organics in open-
lake waters on a routine basis.
The chapter also discusses accomplishments and
plans relating to system-wide surveillance programs,
including chemical and biological open-lake limnology,
fish monitoring programs, and the Great Lakes Atmos-
pheric Deposition (GLAD) network.
Background
There are three primary elements to the Great Lakes
National Program Office's surveillance efforts: open-
lake surveys of ambient water quality, monitoring of
toxicant levels in fish tissues, and monitoring of atmos-
pheric deposition. The Program Office has conducted
open-lake spring and summer surveys of ambient water
quality in Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie since 1983,
and in Lake Ontario since 1986. Prior to these routine
surveys, each of the lakes was surveyed intensively in
turn. EPA does not survey Superior annually because it
does not exhibit e'utrophic conditions and its great
volume precludes rapid changes in its conditions. The
current program includes nutrients (phosphorus,
nitrogen, silica), conservative ions, alkalinity (alkali and
alkaline earth metals), biological structure
(phytoplankton and zooplankton), chlorophyll a, and
physical parameters* Surveys measure conditions and
trends in the open-waters of the lakes. These waters best
indicate long-term trends, because they are less in-
fluenced by local discharges of pollutants titan shal-
lower, nearshore waters. The productivity measures
obtained under the open-lake program enable EPA to
assess the response of the lakes to nutrient control
measures and trends in plankton populations.
Since 1977, the Program Office, State, and other
Federal agencies have monitored toxic organics in the
Great Lakes through analyses of chemical residues in
fish tissues. Fish are excellent indicators of water quality
and ecosystem health because they tend to accumulate
many persistent toxic substances, whereas open-water
concentrations of toxic organics are generally so low
that it is difficult to monitor them directly on a routine
basis.
With lake-to-lake variations in the number of collec-
tion sites and periodicity, States collect adult resident
fish and spot-tail shiners from harbors and tributaries on
a 5-to-10-year cycle and open-lake salmon as part of a
game fish-monitoring program. The Food and Drug Ad-
ministration provides analysis of the fish samples. The
Fish and Wildlife Service also collects open-lake whole-
fish samples of lake trout (walleye on Lake Erie) and
smelt on a biennial basis for analysis by EPA. The Service
has also analyzed Lake Michigan bloater chubs for DDT
and dieldrin since 1968, for PCBs since 1972, and for
chlordane since 1982. States conduct additional fish-
monitoring programs that are directed towards protect-
ing human health by issuance of fish consumption
health advisories.
The third primaiy element of the Program Office's
surveillance activities, also a joint Federal/State en-
deavor, is monitoring of atmospheric deposition. The
United States operates a 20 station Great Lakes Atmos-
pheric Deposition (GLAD) network. GLAD presently
addresses nutrients and metals, including lead, cad-
mium, nitrate/nitrite, and phosphorus, among about 35
parameters.
In addition, States and the U.S. Geological Survey
monitor Great Lakes tributaries for pollutants on an
ongoing basis, since tributaries are major conveyore of
pollutants from both nonpoint and point sources.
Great Lakes Monitoring 65
-------
Figure 6-1. Green Bay/Fox River Study Area
Souroa: Institute for Land and Water StudiM, University of Wlaoontin-OrMn Bay
INTEGRATED ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION
NETWORK
Since the late 1970s, the Great Lakes scientific com-
munity has been aware of the potential significance of
the atmosphere as a pollution pathway. Studies of Isle
Royale, a relatively isolated island in Lake Superior,
revealed levels of PCBs, toxaphene, and other persistent
toxic substances in its lakes. Researchers theorized that
such pollutants could only have been the result of
deposition from the air.
Since the Isle Royale findings, the Program Office
has promoted ways of assessing the absolute and rela-
tive magnitude of atmospheric loadings of toxic sub-
stances. The Program Office supported conferences in
1980,1986, and 1987 to assess the state of knowledge of
the airborne deposition problem, and developed a
strategy in 1987 to monitor these substances. In recogni-
66 Chapter Six
-------
tion of the potential importance of air deposition to the
Great Lakes, the United States and Canada agreed in
1987 to establish an Integrated Atmospheric Deposition
Network (IADN) to monitor both wet and dry atmos-
pheric loadings of toxic substances to the Great Lakes.
It should be noted that the concentrations of toxic
organics in precipitation are very minute and, therefore,
difficult to collect and analyze. Scientists are developing
methods to do this routinely, and it is likely that the
feasibility of monitoring atmospheric deposition will
differ from parameter to parameter The Program Office
implemented its first master station and two satellite
stations for monitoring airt>orne PCBs and dieldrin in
fall 1988. These are located around Green Bay. The two
nations plan to build on the experience gained from the
Green Bay master station and an initial Canadian site on
Lake Ontario in order to design a basin-wide network.
During FYs 1989 and 1990, the United States and
Canada coordinated various management, parameter,
siting, and methods issues pertaining to establishment
of a network to monitor atmospheric deposition of per-
sistent toxic substances. During FYs 1991-1992, the two
nations will establish one IADN master station on each
of the Great Lakes. The United States will establish
master stations on Lake Superior, Lake Erie, and Lake
Michigan, while Canada will establish one on Lake
Huron to complement the station already on Lake On-
tario. Data will be shared by each nation, and the United
States will be able to co-locate equipment at the Ontario
site. Also in FY 1992, the Program Office will begin to
establish six satellite stations, one on each international
lake and two on Lake Michigan, while Canada will
begin to establish five satellite stations. In FY 1994, based
on data obtained to that point, the two nations will
consider the need for establishing up to 11 additional
satellite stations.
GREEN BAY STUDY
This special study, begun in FY 1987and to continue
through FY 1991, will help EPA develop an under-
standing of the sources, pathways, and fates of certain
pollutants (i.e., cadmium, lead, PCBs, and the pesticide
dieldrin) within a large wateibody.
One objective of the Green Bay study is to deter-
mine the feasibility of a "mass balance* analysis on one
of the Great Lakes. Therefore, the Green Bay study is an
important precursor to the surveillance aspects of
Lakewide Management Plans. The Wisconsin Depart-
ment of Natural Resources and EPA's Great Lakes Na-
tional Program Office are the major sponsors of the
study, with aspects supported by EPA's Environmental
Research Laboratory-Duluth, Minnesota, and its Large
Lakes Research Station at Grosse lie, Michigan; the
Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory and
Wisconsin Sea Grant of the National Oceanic and At-
mospheric Administration; the U.S. Geological Survey;
the Michigan Department of Natural Resources; the U.S.
Coast Guard; the Illinois State Water Survey; and a
number of universities.
Numerous Green Bay Study activities were under-
taken during FYs 1989 and 1990. EPA's research vessel,
the Roger Simons, conducted a field sampling
shakedown cruise on Green Bay in October 1988 and
conducted five sampling cruises in May, June, July, Sep-
tember, and October 1989. A winter survey was con-
ducted from a U.S. Coast Guard helicopter in February
1989. Another winter survey and a spring survey were
conducted in FY 1990. In cooperation with the Wiscon-
sin Department of Natural Resources and the U.S.
Geological Survey, tributary monitoring was performed
on all important tributaries to Green Bay. Wisconsin also
collected fish samples. A master and two routine
monitoring stations collected air deposition samples.
Other studies underway include water/land/air vapor
flux of contaminants, groundwater loadings, and sedi-
ment contamination.
The study has refined laboratory methods for han-
dling a large number of samples that must be analyzed
for trace organics (i.e., PCB and dieldrin). Detection of
these trace contaminants in the water column requires
the sampling of large volumes of water. Previously, such
analyses were, in essence, small-scale research activities.
However, the Green Bay study has developed methods
that can be employed on a more routine basis.
The study team is beginning to obtain the results of
laboratory analyses on initial samples. Preliminary PCB
data indicate, as expected, a gradient in total PCBs, with
higher concentrations in the Fox River and southern
Green Bay sampling stations. Preliminary results for
PCBs in plankton samples show a similar trend, with
higher concentrations in the Fox River and southern
Green Bay, and a two- to three-fold decrease in northern
Green Bay. These data will be used in developing
models of contaminant transport and levels in fish.
Dieldrin results do not follow the PCB trend. The
highest dieldrin concentrations in plankton occur near
the Door Peninsula and may reflect the past use of
dieldrin in the agricultural practices of that region; con-
Great Lakes Monitoring 67
-------
centrations there are higher than those in both the
northern and southern portions of the Bay.
In FY 1991, the study team will complete analysis of
samples, compile data, and calibrate existing models. A
study report will be prepared in FY 1992.
NEW RESEARCH VESSEL
Early in 1990, EPA concluded negotiations with the
U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Ad-
ministration for purchase of a vessel that is being con-
verted into a replacement research vessel for open-lake
water quality monitoring. This vessel was needed be-
cause of the age (now more than 50 years old) and size
of the current ship, and to expand the capability for
routine monitoring of persistent toxic substances in
open-lake waters. The larger replacement vessel will
have much more space for analytic facilities that will
prepare samples for analysis on-board and in land-based
laboratories.
The new vessel, which will be christened the lake
Guardian, underwent shipyard conversion during the
second half of 1990. It will be outfitted with onboard
laboratory equipment during FY 1991.
SYSTEM-WIDE SURVEILLANCE
EPA's planned spring 1989 surveys for Lakes Erie,
Huron, and Ontario were prevented due to vessel
breakdown. The Program Office accomplished all sum-
mer 1989 open-lake water quality sampling that was
planned for Lakes Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Ontario.
During the summer survey in Lake Erie, EPA sampled
for 33 parameters at 20 sites. In Lake Huron, EPA
sampled for 33 parameters at 20 locations. EPA sampled
for 33 parameters at 11 Lake Michigan sites and for 33
parameters at 8 Lake Ontario sites. Spring and summer
cruises were also completed in 1990 and are planned
during 1991.
During 1989, the Program Office continued studies
to examine whether water from certain municipal drink-
ing water intakes is representative of open-lake waters
of Lakes Michigan and Ontario and could be used in
selected areas in lieu of sampling by ship. Results indi-
cate that the composition of samples collected from in-
take pipes is generally similar to that of samples collected
from offshore waters. Storms and other weather events
can affect nearshore water quality, requiring careful
analysis of data before they can be used reliably.
Through an agreement with the Fish and Wildlife
Service, the Program Office supports an annual
monitoring program for dissolved oxygen in Lake Erie.
Dissolved oxygen is measured from June through Sep-
tember at 10 stations in the central basin of Lake Erie.
Oxygen depletion rates in Lake Erie's central basin were
lower in 1988 and 1989 than at any time in the last 20
years. In 1989, the bottom waters did not become anoxic
until mid-September, an encouraging sign that phos-
phorus load reductions may be achieving their desired
effect. In several previous years, anoxic conditions
developed about mid-August. This monitoring program
will continue in 1991 in order to collect data to further
evaluate long-term responses of central basin water
quality to reductions in nutrient enrichment
EPA, States, and the Fish and Wildlife Service con-
tinued fish surveillance programs during FYs 1989 and
1990; this activity is planned to continue during FY 1991.
In 1989,1 Lake Michigan site was sampled for 14 organic
parameters in lake trout and smelt, and States sampled
chinook salmon at 8 sites for 21 organic parameters. On
Lake Erie, the Fish and Wildlife Service sampled smelt
and walleye at one site for 11 parameters and States
sampled rainbow trout at 3 sites for 21 organic
parameters. On Lake Huron, the Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice sampled lake trout and smelt at 1 site for 7
parameters, and States sampled chinook salmon at 2 sites
for 21 organic parameters. On Lake Ontario, the Fish and
Wildlife Service sampled lake trout and smelt at 1 site for
11 parameters, and States sampled chinook salmon at 3
sites for 11 parameters. Figure 6-2 shows some of the
results of this monitoring program over time. The figure
depicts average concentrations of PCBs and DDT in
Lake Michigan lake trout, chub, coho, and smelt
States and EPA continued their joint support of a
basin-wide 20-station atmospheric deposition network
during FYs 1989 and 1990; this activity is planned to
continue during FY 1991. The sampling stations monitor
nutrients, metals, and acidity in precipitation, including
lead, cadmium, nitrate/nitrite, mercury, and phos-
phorus, among about 35 parameters. States and univer-
sities operate the sampling stations and provide samples
to EPA on a weekly basis, provided sufficient precipita-
tion occurred.
The States and the U.S. Geological Survey conduct
tributaiy monitoring. The Program Office's activities
have centered on development of sampling strategies to
obtain data adequate for estimating chemical loadings
to the Great Lakes and on dissemination of these
strategies to States. During FY 1989, research carried out
under Program Office grants led to the development of
enhanced (high-flow) strategies for seven Great Lakes
68 Chapter Six
-------
Figure 6-2. Contaminants in Several Species of Lake Michigan Fish
DDT and PCB levels have sharply fallen across different fish species
Lake Trout Chub* Coho
DOT (mg/kg)
PCB (mg/kg)
25
20
15
10
J I | I I
I • »
70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86
Year
Source: Data from U.S. EPA, 1991; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Servioe, National Fisheries Center-Great Lakes, 1991.
tributaries in Michigan. In addition, Heidelberg Col*
lege, Ohio, has developed event-responsiveness ratings
for all major Great Lakes tributaries that will help EPA,
States, and Canada to assess which tributaries require
the most monitoring.
With a few exceptions, present tributaiy monitoring
methods are inadequate for calculating loadings of toxic
contaminants. Estimates of loads for these parameters
will require the development of innovative sampling
technologies. One attempt at such innovation is a pilot
monitoring station that the New York Department of
Environmental Conservation is developing for use on
the Buffalo River.
The U.S. Geological Survey maintains sampling sta-
tions on most major Great Lakes tributaries. In FY 1990,
as part of the Green Bay Mass Balance Study, the Survey
conducted tributaiy sampling that will help to develop
sampling methods for trace contaminants. This activity
also addresses methods and instrumentation for
monitoring tributaries at or near their mouths, which is
necessary for estimating tributary loadings of trace con-
taminants.
Great Lakes Monitoring 69
-------
Table A-1. Provision of U.S. Remedial Action Plans to the International Joint Commission
FY 1988
FY 1909
FY 1990
FY 1981 1 FY 1992
FY 1993 Q
Aim of Concern
Stage
1
Stage
2
Stage
1
Stage
2
Stage
1
Stage
2
Stage
1
Stage 1 Stage
2 1 1
Stage
2
Stage
1
Stage 8
2 |
Mmfe
Waufcegan Harbor
X
X
Jndfana
Grand Caiumet Fiver/Indiana Harbor
Canal
~
X
Michigan
Cfinton Fiver
~
~
Omt Lake/Carp Hver/Carp Creek
~
~
I
Kalamazoo Bver
X
X |
Mantstjque Fiver
/
/
Muskegon Lake
~
~
Hver Raisin
~
~
Rouge Hm
~
~
Saginaw Ftvw/Saginaw Bay
~
~
Torch Lak»
~
~
White Lake
~
~
Michigan/Ontario
Detroit River
~
1
X |
SL CWrRver
1 *
X |
SL Marys Rtver
X
X I
kBmesata/Vflsconski
St Louis Fiver/Bay
X
X
Keys
/ = Actual Provision
x = Projected
-------
Table A-1. Provision of U.S. Remedial Action Plans to the International Joint Commission
——11 " 111 " 1 _ _ ———- ———. ' ' a
FY 1988
FY 1989
FY 1990 § FY 1991
FY 1992
FY 1993 8
\MofOonom
Sage
1
Stoge
2
Sage
1
Stage
Stage
1
Stage
2
Stage
1
Stage
Stage
1
Stage
2
Stage
1
Stage 1
2 |
New York
Buffalo RKer
~
~
Bghtaen tfle Creek
1
X
X
OewegoHver
~
1
~
1
Rocheater Embayment
J
¦
X
1
New York/Ontario
Magan fiver
—
X
X 1
St Lawrence Hvw
~
X
J
Ohio
Ashtabula nver
X
X
BtacfcFVver
X
X 1
Cuyahoga Fiver
X
X 1
Maumee fiver
~
1
X
I
Permsyhania
r
Preaque We Bay
Wbcon^n/HMchfgm
Menominee Rhier
/
X
Uf, . „ y
wnsconsui
Fox Hver/Qreen Bay
~
~
MHwaukee Estuary
~
X
Sheboygan Harbor
~
X
(out of 30 poeeMa)
7
7
10
10
13
11
21
12
28
22
31
31
CmmiMm tawt Stfmfttad (%>
22
22
31
31
41
35
67
38
90
70
100
100
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern
Am of Conom/Eridonoe 1 Background
of ImpakmntB 1
| RacaJ Year 1991 1 Umg-TsnnAgenda
Activities in AOC | Activities in AOC |
Lake Superior
SL Louis fiber/Bay
AOC includes Dututh (Min-
nesota)/Superior (Wiscon-
sin) Harbor, upstream past
town of Ctoquet, and south-
western Lake Superior. Sedi-
ments moderately to heavily
polluted with metals; some
are also contaminated with
PAHs, PC8s, mercury and
dioxin; fish consumption
advisories for walleye;
dredging delays over selec-
tion of disposal sites for
polluted sediments; habitat
loss; introduction of exotic
species (e.g., zebra mus-
sels, and river ruffe).
Western Lake Superior Sanitary District WWTPwas
formed in 1978, replacing nine smaller community
systems. It constructed an advanced wastewater
treatment facility, greatly Improving St Louis River
water quality and fisheries.
In 1984, EPA designated two areas on the St.
Louis River as one Superfund NPL site called the
St Louis Rtor site. One area is the former loca-
tion of U.S. ShdMiOi works between 1915 and
its closure in 1979. This area has coke and tar
contamination. Four miles downstream from USS-
DuMh and 4 miles upstream from Lake Superior,
the Meitate area abuts the north bank of the St.
Louis River. Site contamination includes tar seep-
age at the ground surface, a residue of coking and
other industrial activities that started in the late
1800s and continued to 1960. MPCA began F8/FS
of Meriake in 1987.
1988:
MPCA selected remedy for U.S. Steel
area, including incineration of PCS liquids
and excavation of tar contaminated soil.
Minnesota developing RAP with Wiscon-
sin. Active citizens advisory group with
five technical committees.
About 150 people are involved in various
committees.
1990;
Stage 1 draft RAP provided to EPA for
comment.
MPCA completed RI/FS for kitertake area.
The proposed remediation will include
excavation of tar seeps for use off-site as
fuel.
MPCA to provide
Stage 1 RAP to
UC.
Monitoring to fur-
ther define the
extent and causes
of problems.
EPA support to ur-
ban nonpoint con-
trol project in Du-
luth and the Min-
nesota side of
Nemadji River
basin.
MPCA to provide
Stage 2 RAP to UC In
FY 1992.
EPA and MPCA to im-
plement Superfund
site remediation.
Kay:
ACOE
Army Corps of Engineers
PAH
Poiyaromatic Hydrocarbons
AOC
Area of Concern
PCS
Poiychlorinated Biphenyls
ARCS
Assessment and Remediation of Contaminated Sediments
PRP
Potentially Responsible Party
BMP
Best Management Practice
RAP
Remedial Action Plan
CSO
Combined Sewer Overflow
RCRA
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
IDEM
Indiana Department of Environmental Management
RFA
RCRA Facility Assessment
UC
International Joint Commission
RFI
RCRA Facility Investigation
MDNR
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
RI/FS
Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study
MDPH
Michigan Department cA Public Health
ROD
Record of Decision
MPCA
Mfoneaota Pollution Control Agency
SCS
Soil Conservation Service
NQAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
USDA
U.S. Department of Agriculture
NPDES
National PoButant Discharge Elimination System
USGS
U.S. Geological Survey
NPL
National Priorities List
WDNR
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
NYSDEC
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
WWTP
Wastewater Treatment Plant
OMOE
Ontario MMstiy of the Environment
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Ana of Goncam/Eridsnca
of hnpainnenls
Years 1989-1900
MMHninAOC
Hacal Year 1991
tin AOC
Long-Term Agenda
Torch Lake
This AOC is located In Mtoh-
higan s Keweenaw Peninsula.
About 200 flnHHon tons of
copper mine takings ware
dumped into 2,718 acre
Torch Lake between 1868
and 1968, fitting 20% of the
lake's original volume.
Sediments are highly
contaminated with copper; in
late 1970s, tumors were
found in mature waBeye and
sauger, fish consumption
advisories for walleye,
sauger, and larger smaH-
mouth bass in effect due to
low levels of mercury.
EPA designated lake as a NPL
sits in 1984, began search for
PRPs in 1985 and concluded
negotiations with three in 1968.
The site Is large, encompassing
Torch Lake, the northern half of
Portage Lake, tributaries, and the
northern half of the Keewenaw
Waterway. K is divided into three
"Operable Units.'
MDNR provided initial RAP to UC
in October 1967.
1989:
EPA and MDNR began RI/FS on
operable unit 1 (surface tailings
on western shore of Torch Lake).
MDNR completed analyses of
fish Mien from Lake in 1988.
Tumors were not found and con-
taminant levels in fish were very
lew.
1990c
EPA and MONR oontlnued RI/FS
for operable unit 1. EPA started
RI/FS for operable units 2 (Torch
Lake) and 3 (Keweenaw Water-
way). Field investigations com-
pleted December 1990.
FWS completed studies of bald
eagle and guN reproductive suc-
cess, finding normal functioning.
A companion study found im-
paired hatchability of yellow
perch eggs held in Torch Lake
but no Impacts on perch popula-
tion are apparent
EPA to issue an ROD for operable
unit 1 in September.
Implement Superfund remedl-
ations.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Aim of Oonoam/BManM 1 nafhgmieiri
of knpaimwnls 1
Fiscal Yean 196&-1990
Activities in AOC
Fiscal Year 1991
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda
Deer Lafce/Carp Ftaar/Carp
Qmk
This AOC hi Mtehigan's Up-
per Peninsula includes 907
acre Deer Lake and 20 mites
of Cup Hver to lake Superi-
or. Sediments in Deer Lake
are highly contaminated with
mercury; fish consumption
advisories tor aft fish species
since 1981.
Sources of mercury eliminated in
early 1960s. Consent Agreement
between State and Cleveland
Cliffs iron Company signed In
1964 under which monitoring of
mercury in fish wM be conducted
for 10 years.
Lake drawn down and contami-
nated fish were kffled with rate-
none in 1965/1966.
Lake restocked with walleye and
perch in 1967.
In 1965, a new regional WWTP
with secondary treatment re-
placed three primary WWTPs
that previously discharged to
Deer Lake via Carp Creek.
MDNR provided initial RAP to UC
in October 1967.
1969
MDNR conducted fish tissue,
water quality, bottom sediment,
and sedimentation rate studies
to monitor recovery.
1990
MDNR designated Deer Lake as
a catch and release fishery until
1996 to limit consumption of
contaminated fish, levels of
mercury in northern pike have
fallen by one-half since 1967.
Skrritarty, mercury levels in
surfleial sediment have
decreased by half since 1965.
Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company
will continue monitoring mercury
in fish.
Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company
and MDNR will continue to mon-
itor concentrations of mercury in
fish tissues through 1996.
a
-------
3
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Amtoi Conoam/Eridano*
of fcnpakmenls
Background
Fiscal Yaara 1980-1900 | Fiscal Year 1991 I txxv-Term Agenda
Activities In AOC | Activities in AOC |
Lake Michigan
AOC is the lower 1.7 miles of
Rtosr flowing into northern
MteMgan from Michigan's
Upper Peninsula. Adjacent
town: Manistique (McMgan).
Sediments heavfly pofluted
with PC8s and metals; fish
consumption advisories for
carp.
Manistique WWTP was upgraded
to secondary treatment in 1977.
In 1966, Manistique Papers In-
corporated placed a temporary
erosion barrier over soils sus-
pected to be a source of PCBs to
the river and upgraded its waste-
water treatment. Result is greatly
reduced oxygen demand and
toxic substance loads to the riv-
•r,
and the return of a diverse fish
community.
MDNR provided Stages 1 and 2
RAP to UC in FY 1968.
1989c
MDNR analysis of channel cat-
fish from Manistique harbor
found PCS levels less than half
those that would Justify a fish
consumption advisory by MDPH.
1990c
MDNR and COE conducted sedi-
ment contamination characteriza-
tion of river.
MteMgan Water Resources Com-
mission approved a new 5-year
NPDES permit for Manistique
Papers with stricter limits on
zinc, copper, and silver.
MDNR conducted 28-day caged-
fish study to determine uptake of
PCBs. Results expected in Sep-
tember, 1991.
In October 1990, COE sampled
sediment to ascertain disposal
needs for sediment to be
removed by navigational
dredging program.
Study feasibility of dredging
contaminated sediments In
harbor.
Characterize benthlc organisms
and the river bottom within the
lower Harbor. Evaluate the ef-
fects of sawdust and other con-
tamination on benthlc popula-
tions.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
An* of Concern/Evidence of
Fiscal Y<
1989-1990
h/UC
Racal Year 1991
Activities in AOC
Long-TemiAoandi
AOC is the lower 3 miles of
river flowing into Green Bay
and the area of Green Bay
within 3 mfles of the Hver
mouth. The River forms the
boundary between Wisconsin
and the Upper Peninsula of
Mchigan. Adjacent towns:
Menominee (Mchigan) and
Marinette (Wscortsin). Ground-
water grossly contaminated
with arsenic near Ansul Com-
pany, sediments in river hiQhty
contaminated with arsenic and
to a lesser degree with mercu-
ry and PCBs; fish consumption
advisories for smaHmouth
bass, perch, while baas, white
sucker, buflhead, carp, trout,
waNeye, salmon and pike;
dredging to deepen the chan-
nel has been delayed due to
concerns over disposal of
poluted moments; bacterio-
logical contamination caused
by CSOs; loss of fish and wiid-
«-
NVO nUnUm
Under a Consent Order
Ansul Company treated
arsenic contaminated
groundwater between
1981 and 1986.
1989c
Wastewater connection from Men-
ominee Paper to the Menominee
WWTP eliminated. Menominee Paper
started enhanced wastewater
treatment at its facility.
Oty of Menominee signed EPA Con-
sent Order, agreeing to submit plan
for the elimination of CSOs.
Wisconsin developed RAP with support
from Mchigan. Active citizens advisory
group, with three technical subcommit-
1990c
EPA and WDNR issued RCRA Consent
Order to Ansul Company regarding ar-
senic contamination
Menominee Paper paid $2.1 million
penalty for Clean Water Act violations
under Consent Decree.
Wisconsin designated Green island as
a State Natural Area to provide addi-
tional wildlife protection.
City of Menominee Marina improved
water circulation within the Marina.
Subsequent monitoring indicates that
there are no longer any exceedences
of water standards.
WDNR provided Stage 1 RAP to
UC in October 1990. Continue
Stage 2 RAP preparation. Citizens
advisory group meets monthly or
bi-monthly. Analytical work to sup-
port RAP Includes: fish contami-
nants, sediment and water quality
monitoring; and toxicity testing of
bottom waters.
COE conducted sediment quality
reconnaissance to assess feasibil-
ity of deepening the harbor chan-
nel.
Ansul Company to conduct RCRA
facility investigation with correc-
tive measures study under Con-
sent Agreement with State of
Wisconsin and EPA.
Paint sludge from a site owned by
a Michigan company called Flan-
ders industries covers bottom
sediments in areas of Green Bay
and washes ashore in the form of
nodules. MDNR is working with
company under State Provisions
of State Act 307 to submit plan to
remediate sites containing sludge
and metal. A cleanup plan is due
before end of FY 96.
Delta Menominee Health Depart-
ment monitoring bacterial levels
within Oty of Menominee Marina.
WDNR and MDNR plan to pro-
vide Stage 2 RAP to UC in
FY 1992.
Upgrade municipal sewer sys-
tems by correcting combined
sewer overflows.
Determine source of mercury.
Remediate arsenic-
contaminated sediments.
Remediate paint sludge
contamination.
MDNR/WDNR develop fisheries
management plan.
Monitor fish contamination and
air quality.
Manage Seagull Bar and Green
Island for wildlife protection.
Implement stormwatar permit
program.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Ana Of Qonoem/Evidenoe of
Background
Fiacal Yam 1988-1900
MMtoainAOC
Racal Yaar 1991
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda
MDNR to provide the City of
Menominee a Sofld Waste Alterna-
tives Program grant for its Land
All Closure Project The grant will
pay (or construction no later than
18 months after the effective date
of the grant contract A purge welt
system to remediate a plume of
contaminated groundwater from
the iandfM to be installed by No-
vember 1,1991.
Upgrades to Marinette and Men-
ominee WWTPs completed.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Area of Concern/Evidence of
Background
Fiscal Yean 1989-1990
Activities in AOC
T
Fiscal Year 1991
tktAOC
Long-Term Agenda
Fok Fiver/Lower Green Bay
This AOC includes the lower 7
miles of the Fox Wver and the
south end of the Bay (about
20 sq. mfles). The Bay earned
Hs name from its natural
abundance of algae. One of
the largest concentrations of
puip and paper firms in the
world adjoins this AOC.
Sediments pofluted with met-
als, ol and grease, and PCBs;
degraded benthos; tumor
Incidence in some fish;
deformities and reproductive
impairments In fish-eating
birds; eutropNc conditions
and undesirable algae In low-
er bay; bacterial contamina-
tion has forced closure of Bay
Beach to swimmers for 50
years; fish consumption advi-
sories for smaMmouth bass,
perch, white bass, white suck-
er, buttiead, drum, channel
catfish, carp, trout, walleye,
slake, salmon and pike; con-
cerns over polluted sediments
have made siting of dredged
material disposal facility prob-
lematic.
Citizens advisory group met
monthly from 1966 to 1968 to as-
sist in RAP development. WDNR
provided Stages 1 and 2 RAP to
UC in FY 1988.
During 1967-88. WDNR and EPA,
Joined by universities and other
agencies, designed a major study
of the sources and fates of four
pollutants (PCBs, cadmium, lead,
and dieldrin) in Green Bay.
EPA proposed Fort Howard Paper
Company sludge lagoons hi city
of Green Bay as Superfund NPL
site In 1968. Lagoons contain
heavy metals and PC8 contami-
nation In sludge, in 1986 Ft
Howard installed a slurry waN to
prevent migration of contami-
nants through groundwater.
In 1988, Wisconsin established
new water quality standards to
limit toxic discharges, and began
implementing new standards
through permit reissuance. Total
PCB discharges to the area are
down 95% from the 1970*8.
in 1988, USOA began Priority Wa-
tershed Project for East Rver (221
sq. miles). This will share costs
with landowners for land manage-
ment improvements. Estimated
cost over 10 years is $32 million.
1989:
WDNR and local governments
began Priority Watershed Pro-
ject for Lake Wtnnebago-East
Watershed (85 sq. miles), and
continued East Rh/er project.
Green Bay Mass Balance Study
field work began.
Three WWTPs (Green Bay, Nee-
nah, DePere) pledge to reduce
phosphorus discharge to 0.5
ppm.
Barrier to sea lamprey mi-
gration up Fox Rfrer complet-
ed.
1990:
Green Bay Mass Balance Study
field work finished and analysis
of samples continued.
WDNR identified a 34 acre hot
spot of PCB contaminated bot-
tom sediments in Little Lake
Butte des Mods near Appleton,
Wisconsin, that is estimated to
be the origin of about 1/3 of
PCB loadings to the lower Fox
flVWi
City of DePere and WDNR con-
structed 2 spawning beds tor
walleye on Fox fiver.
Ft Howard Paper Co. began
RI/FS at Superfund NPL site.
EPA, WDNR, and partners contin-
ue Green Bay Mass Balance
Study.
USD A, WDNR and local govern-
ments continue priority water-
shed projects for Winnebago
Lake,Arrowhead-DaggetsCreek8,
and the East Rfcer.
Green Bay, Oshkosh, Heart-of-
the-Valley, and Appleton WWTPs
are constructing improvements to
reduce ammonia, chlorine, and
bacteria discharges; estimated In-
vestment of $150 million.
WDNR to stock musky to re-est-
ablish this native predator fish.
WDNR to study remedial alterna-
tives for Little Lake Butte des
Morts sediment contamination.
WDNR's 1991 fish surveys found
increased numbers of golden
shiners in the bay and lake stur-
geon In its northern tributaries.
Oty of DePere urban runoff de-
tention ponds completed.
5 local governments (Brown City,
Green Bay, DePere, Howard, and
Ashwaubenon) are implementing
erosion control ordinances for
construction.
Develop approaches for dealing
with contaminated sediments.
Other emphases are rural and
urban nonpoint sources, fish
and wildlife habitat, and public
access to the shoreline.
In the early 1970s, low dissolved
oxygen in the Fox River during
half of the year made hardy fish
like carp and bullhead the domi-
nant species. Since that time,
the fish community has returned
to a more natural, year-around
diversity of species, including
walleyes, northern pike, small-
mouth bass, and perch. Other
biological indications of better
health include:
• A doubling of benthic or-
ganisms (1978-68).
• Improved growth of wild
celery.
• Improved reproductive suc-
cess of endangered
Forster's terns and growth
In their population.
• Average summer phospho-
rus levels In bay are down
29* from 1970'8.
• During 1990-91, the mayfly,
Hexaoenla. has been noted
in Fox Rftrer and Green Bay
for the first time since
1939.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Aim of Goncent/EMdence
—
Fiscal Yearn 1989-1900
* - — "« - ¦ ^ AMA
MVMH VI AM#
Hecal Yeer 1991
AcflvMee in A0C
Long-Term Agenda
Foot Hwar/Gnan Bay (oonL)
1990 foont)
EPA and WDNR began a Wet-
lands Inventory to map critical
coastal wetlands and to advise
pubUo of areas where dredging
or filling wHI not be permitted.
U.W.-Greeri Bay issued a report
on the environmental condition
of Green Bay. The report draws
on more than two decades of
bay research and Is accessible to
Hie public. It lists 14 impaired
uses of the bay, 9 of which can
be tied to nutrients and
sediments.
WDNR and local governments
began Priority Watershed Project
of Arrowhead-Daggets Creeks
(135 sq. miles) and continued 2
other similar projects.
18,400 acres of farmland in S
counties were enrolled in USDA's
Conservation Reserve Program
to reduce soft erosion and
protect stream banks.
RAP implementation committee I
has been meeting regularly since I
mid-1988 and published two 1
progress reports.
Nearly 1/2 Broom County farmers
enrolled in Farmland Preservation
Program and have fenced live-
stock from streams (60,000 ft. of
fencing installed In 1969).
Zebra mussels were noted on
hard bay bottom structures and
at a water intake.
During RAP development and
Implementation, 197 people have
been involved. There are 3 citi-
zens advisory committees, one
which addresses technical Issues,
another public education. Public
Involvement has helped: set prior-
ities; promote local ordinances
for erosion control; promote
clean-up days; publish annual
report; and sponsor "Clean Bay
Backer* awards for citizens,
businesses, and governments.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Are* of Concern/Evidence of
Impairment*
^
Background
Fiscal Years 1980-1990
Activities in AOC
Hscai Year 1991 I
Activities ki AOC
Long-Term Agenda
Sheboygan FKer and Harbor
The AOC includes Sheboygan
Haibor and about 12 miles of
river up to Sheboygan Fails.
Sediments heavily polluted with
PCBs and metals; fish con-
sumption advisories for
bkiegiN, crappie, rock bass,
carp, smaRmouth bass, wall-
eye, pike, trout, catfish and
salmon; waterfowl consumption
advisory; bacterial contamina-
tion in water column-, naviga-
tional dredging discontinued in
1969 due to lack of acceptable
disposal site for polluted sedi-
ments.
EPA designated the Kohler
Company landfill, which ap-
proaches within 300 feet of
river, as a Superfund NPL site
In 1964. RI/FS begun In 1966.
Site is a potential source of
metals to river.
EPA designated 14 miles of
river and harbor as •
Superfund NPL site in 1985. in
April 1966. EPA and WDNR
signed Consent Order with
Tecumseh Products Company,
a PRP, to conduct the RI/FS for
the Superfund site. Company
plant is potential source of PCB
contamination in river.
WDNR began drafting RAP in
June 1987.
1989:
WDNR held public meetings and
hearings to obtain public comment
on draft RAP.
Tecumseh Products continued RI/FS
of river and harbor.
1990c
WDNR provided Stage 1 RAP to UC.
As part of RI/FS for river and harbor,
about 2,700 cubic yards of sedi-
ments were removed from the upper
river in December 1969. These were
placed in a confined treatment
facHKy for biodegradation studies
that win use bacteria to try to
decompose PCBs in the sediments.
An additional 1500 square yards
were armored In place. The RI/FS
also continued to study other
remedial alternatives.
Kohler Landfill RI/FS continued.
WDNR stocked Sheboygan River
with 40,000 steelhead trout for study
of PCB uptake.
Continue RI/FS of two Super- I
fund NPL sites. I
WDNR stocked Sheboygan Riv- I
er with 70,000 steelhead trout I
during 2nd year of PCB uptake I
study. I
Re-establish Sheboygan County I
Water Quality Task Force as citi-
zen advisory committee and es-
tablish committee structure to
work towards Stage 2 RAP.
WDNR completed Sheboygan
Ffiver Priority Watershed Plan to
address nonpoint sources of
pollution. WDNR continued
Onion River Priority Watershed
Project.
WDNR plans to provide Stage
2 RAP to UC in FY 1992.
Three public and technical
advisory committees are de-
veloping remedial recommen-
dations.
Proposed cleanup plan of
Sheboygan Harbor/River NPL
site due in 1993.
Clean up sediments; protect
wetlands; improve sewage
systems to reduce bacterial
contamination; control
sources
of toxics.
EPA ARCS Program to test
remedial technology for con-
taminated sediments in FY
1992.
-------
Table A-2, Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
of Oonoam/BMance of
Background
Hscai Years 19KM990
Activities in AOC |
Fiscal Year 1991
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda
ftHwsuhM} HMbor
Water and sediment contamina-
tion with conventional pollutants;
sediments heavily polluted with
metals, PAHs, PCBs, and pesti-
cides; eutropNc conditions; fish
consumption advisories for crap-
pie, perch, carp, northern pike,
small-mouth bass, redhorse
sucker, while sucker and rock
bass; waterfowl consumption ad-
visories; dredging restrictions;
absence of desirable fish and aq-
uatic species; loss of fish habitat;
beach closings; excessive nutri-
ent levels.
Over $500 million in Milwau-
kee sewage system upgrades
have been made since 1972.
ultimate cost estimated at
$2.2 billion.
Moss-American site, a source
of PAHs to Little Menominee
River, was designated a
Superfund NPL site in 1983.
RI/FS begun in 1967.
1989c
Major combined sewer overflow abatement I
project and upgrade of WWTP by Milwau-
kee Metropolitan Sewage District (MMSD)
underway.
WDNR and local governments implement-
ing five priority watershed nonpoint source
control projects in the basin for East-West
Branch; North Branch; Cedar Creek; Meno-
minee River, and Milwaukee River-South.
Corps of Engineers conducted harbor sedi-
ment sampling program, Including chem-
ical and bioassay testing.
The City of Milwaukee began a "Clean
Sweep" program to annually set up drop-off
points for collection of residential hazard-
ous wastes.
1990c
WDNR provided Stage 1 draft RAP to EPA
for comment. Public meeting held in June
to obtain comments.
MMSD continued sewage system improv-
ements.
Study of causes of contaminant levels In
resident waterfowl underway.
UW-MUwaukee, MMSD, and Wisconsin Coa-
stal Mgt. Program started study of contami-
nants in harbor sediments.
WDNR provided Stage 1 RAP
toUC.
MMSD continued improve-
ments to sewage system.
Technical Advisory Committee
to develop a monitoring strate-
gy
EPA support to monitoring of
Milwaukee River Priority Wa-
tershed.
Continuation of harbor sedim-
ents study.
Priority watershed projects con-
tinue with about 1200 land us-
ers participating.
Six RAP advisory committees
are very broad based, including
scientists and representatives
from governments, businesses,
neighborhood, recreation, and
environmental groups. Briefings
are regularly given to the Mil-
waukee Association of Com-
merce, the Greater Milwaukee
Committee, business groups,
and local public officials.
Schools are engaged through a
water quality testing program.
WDNR plans to pro- |
vide Stage 2 RAP to
UC in FY 1993.
Start-up of deep tunnel
to increase MMSD's
wet weather treatment
capacity expected in
1993. WWTP upgrade
to be completed in
1996.
Corps of Engineers
may develop a second
confined disposal fa-
cility for dredged ma-
terial from the harbor.
WDNR plans priority
watershed project for
Kinnickinnic FSver to
start in 1993.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Aim of Oonowi/BiMwoi
of knpainnanii
Yean 1969-1990
Activities in AOC
Hani Year 1991
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda
Waukegan is located on the
wast shore of Lake Mtehigan,
about 40 miles north of Chi-
cago, Minois. Gross PCS
contamination of sediments;
fish consumption advisories
for al fish species; dredging
delayed by problems in sit-
ing disposal facflity for pollut-
ed sediments.
EPA designated Outboard Ma-
rine Corporation (OMC) sMa on
original Superfund NPL in 1981.
EPA conduced RI/FSand issued
initial ROD in 1984.
1989:
OMC entered into Consent Decree
with EPA and the State of llinois
that stipulated K would clean up
(under EPA supervision) areas of
Waukegan Harbor and of OMC
property containing PCB contami-
nation. Cleanup plans call for
dredging parts of the harbor, con-
structing containment ceils for
less contaminated soil and sedi-
ment, and extracting PCBs from
soil and sediment for incineration.
More than 97% of the mass of
PCBs in tie harbor will be re-
moved and either confined or
destroyed. The cleanup to esti-
mated to cost $20 million.
1990:
OMC continued cleanup plan im-
plementation. Construction of a
new slip was delayed by discovery
of unrelated site of PAH contami-
nation near intended location of
new sflp.
A Citizens Advisory Group was
formed to advise IEPA on RAP
development and implementation.
OMC continues cleanup activities.
Waukegan Tar Pit - Residues from an
old coal gas facility were dumped in
an area adjacent to the Harbor water-
shed. Responsible parties are currently
negotiating with USEPA on a scope of
work for monitoring and remediation of
the site.
Larsen Marine - Four underground
storage tanks were found to be leaking
at this marine service facility located in
the Harbor. These tanks have been
removed along with approximately 600
cubic yards of contaminated soil for
proper disposal.
Waukegan Paint and Laquer - Thirty
drums of hazardous materials had
been improperly dumped on this site.
The drums have now been staged to
prevent further contamination of land
and water and IEPA is developing an
approach to remove and dispose of
the material. Cost of removal is
estimated to be $80K - $100K.
Alloy Engineering and Costing Co. -
Soil borings on this rite, which Is
adjacent to the Hartxx area, identified
hazardous constituents which include
gases and liquid organic chemicals.
This site Is being investigated and
considered for NPL designation.
Cleanup actions by OMC
to be completed during
1993.
Illinois EPA plans to pro-
vide Stage 1 and 2 RAPs
to UC in 1992.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Ana of Gonoam/BMano* of
Yam 1989-1980
Activities in AOC
Fiscal Year 1991
/fcMfaskiAOC
Long-Term jtgaivh
Grand Criumat (War/ M-
ana Halw Canal
AOC is 13 mites long. The
Hvar flows into the southern-
most part of Lake Michigan.
Sediments heavily contami-
nated with metals, conven-
tional pollutants, PCBs, and
PAHs; water quality problems
due to conventional pollut-
ants; fish tumors and fin rot
found; fish consumption advi-
sory for all fish species; dred-
ging delayed over problems
in siting disposal facility for
polluted sediments.
Settlement of Federal suit against U.S.
Steel provides for pollution control im-
provements at Gary Works, civil penalties
of almost $3 million, and $750 thousand
for environmental studies (1977).
EPA developed a master remedial plan
for Grand Calumet in 1985.
EPA and IDEM completed N.W. Indiana
Environmental Action Plan In 1987.
EPA enters Consent Decree requiring
Gary Sanitary District to comply with
NPDES permit (1983). EPA files motion
to enforce consent judgment (1984) and
revises consent agreement (1967) to re-
quire compliance with Toxic Substances
Control Act.
EPA files suit against Hammond Sanitary
District for alleged NPDES permit viola-
tions and failure to implement a pretreat-
ment program (1983). HSD agrees to a
Consent Decree (1986). EPA files suit lor
alleged violation of Consent Decree (19-
88).
EPA, Indiana, and Mnois file suit against
East Chicago Sanitary District tar alleged
NPDES permit violations (1982). Con-
sent Decree filed in 1988. ECSD began
to operate new advanced treatment plant
in July 1988.
1989;
USGS completed study of
groundwater flow in the area.
EPA ARCS study sampled
contaminated sediments.
Federal suit filed against USX
for alleged violations of pre-
treatment and NPDES permit
requirements at Gary Works.
1990c
Settlement of 1989 Federal |
suit against USX. Consent
Order calls for USX to pay
penalty of $1.6 million, under-
take a sediment study ($2.5
million), remediate sediments
($5 million), and invest $25
million in environmental im-
provements.
The State of Indiana filed suit
against LTV Corporation for
alleged NPDES violations.
EPA ARCS study sampling
continued.
EPA issued administrative or-
ders to PRPs to cleanup
Mdco I and II Superfund NPL
sites In accordance with their
RODs, at an estimated cost of
$33 mHtion.
IDEM provided Stage 1 RAP to
UC.
USX to begin stream charac-
terization study for 13 miles of
Grand Calumet.
ACOE to draft Environmental
Impact Statement on dredging
of Federal navigation channel.
IDEM negotiated Agreed Order
with City of East Chicago and
Atlantic Richfield Corporation
for recovery of petroleum from
underlying ground water be-
neath the former Energy Co-
operative site.
EPA reached agreement with
East Chicago Sanitary District
to pay $30 thousand in penal-
ties for violations of 1988 Con-
sent Decree.
EPA to continue enforcement
actions against Gary and
Hammond Sanitary Districts.
IDEM plans to provide Stage
2 RAP to UC in FY 1992.
Address problems posed by
large quantity of highly toxic
sediments and by combined
sewer overflows during rain
storms.
IDEM/EPA implement NW
Indiana Action plan. Its 6
elements:
(1) Assist COE dredging
Federal navigation chan-
nel
(2) Ensure high levels of
compliance with Federal
environmental laws
(3) Address petroleum dis-
tillate contaminated gr-
oundwater
(4) Complete Remedial Ac-
tion Plan
(5) Communicate to public
on environmental issues
(6) Incorporate pollution
prevention measures.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Area of Concern/Evidence of
Impairments
Background Q Fiscal Years 1989^990 | Fiscal Year 1991 1 Long-Term Agenda 1
| Activities In A0C | Activities in AOC |
Grand Calumet Hw/ hdm
Habor Canal (sort.)
EPA enters Consent Decree (1983) requir- 9 Federal suit filed against in-
ing Energy Cooperative, inc. facility to 1 land Steel under Clean Water
property store hazardous waste, including 1 Act, Clean Air Act, Safe Drink-
PCBs. Company declared bankruptcy 1 Ing Water Act, and RCRA.
(1984). 1
H Federal suit filed against Beth-
EPA filed civil action against Inland Steel lehem Steel RCRA and Safe
for alleged Improper sampling and analy- Drinking Water Act.
ses under its NPDES permit (1988). Con-
sent order filed to correct monitoring pro- EPA files suit against Gary
cedures and company started improved Sanitary District for allegedly
wastewater treatment for control of phe- violating Consent Decree,
nob and ammonia (1968).
Settlement between EPA and
EPA files civil action and Indiana files 8 USS Lead Refining under
I administrative action against USS Lead | which company will cover
Refining seeking control of contaminated 1 hazardous waste piles and
runoff. 1 conduct no further operations
I 1 without permits. |
Cn
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Ami of Oonoont/IEvftilGnDO
of tapafcmnlB
Badgraund
Fiscal Yean 1989-1990
Activities in AOC
Fiscal Year 1991 1 Long-Term Agenda
Activities in AOC |
Kalamazoo ffesr
AOC is the lower 35 miles of
river that flows into south-
eastern Lake Michigan. Sedi-
ments heavily polluted with
PCBs; fish consumption
advisories for all fish species.
MDNR finished a MfcMgan Act
307 Ri/FS of the Kalamazoo
Hver in 1966- This study recom-
mended remedial actions at Bry-
ant Mill Pond and at three im-
poundments (Plairtwefl, Otsego,
and Trowbridge), and further
study of Otsego City and Allegan
Impoundments, as wett as of
lake Allegan. The RI/FS found
PCB contamination of a 3-mile
stretch of Portage Creek where
the creek joins the river and of
35 miles of the Kalamazoo Ffiver.
Contamination starts where Al-
lied Paper Bryant MM Pond dis-
charges to Portage Creek. Allied
Paper has operated paper milts
at an 80 acre sits since 1925.
Second draft of RAP completed
in December 1987.
1980c
EPA proposed Allied Paper Inc/
Portage Creek/Kalamazoo River
for Superfund NPL. RAP deferred
due to legal actions. Three PRPs
identified: Allied Paper Incorpo-
rated, Georgia Pacific Corpora-
tion, and Simpson Plainwell
Paper Company.
1990c
MDNR completed studies on
sediment burial, partition coef-
ficients, and erosion rates for
Otsego City Impoundment,
Allegan City Impoundment, and
Lake Allegan. Three PRPs
agreed to conduct RI/FS for
Kalamazoo Rivef NPL site.
PRPs to begin Superfund RI/FS 1 Complete RAP with results from
under EPA and MDNR super- 1 Superfund RI/FS. RI/FS will take
vision. 1 3 to 5 years to complete. While
I Superfund RI/FS is underway,
Georgia Pacific Corporation to I public will be consulted pursuant
complete Investigation of PCB H to the Superfund process,
disposal site "A". Georgia Pacific n
to submit proposed remedial ac- 1
Hon at the Willow site and to 1
complete investigation of PCB I
disposal sits at Kings Hghway. 8
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Ana of Concern/Evidence
ov mpamviem
BadcQMsund
Fiscal Yean 1969-1990
Activities in AOC
Hacai Year 1901
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda
MuAogon l injur
Laka is 4,150 acres In size
located along east shore of
Lake Michigan north of City
of Muskegon. Some
shoreline sediments heavily
polluted with metals;
elevated levels of PCB in
carp, elevated levels of
mercury in walleye and
largemouth bass.
Note: There are no fish con-
sumotion advisories
Diversion of municipal and In-
dustrial wastewater discharges
from the lake and its tributaries
to the Muskegon County Waste-
water Treatment System in the
mid-1970*8 and implementation
of an industrial pretreatment pro-
gram have almost eliminated
waste loads to the lake and im-
proved water quality.
MDNR provided initial RAP to UC
in October 1987.
The RAP recommended contin-
ued implementation of ongoing
programs and studies of
stormwater runoff effects on
Ryerson and Ruddiman creeks,
Division Street stormwater dis-
charge, sediment and benthic
health, and fish tissues.
MDNR collected fish from Lake I
Michigan several miles off the
mouth of Muskegon take in
1968. These fish were also found
with unacceptable levels o1 PCBs
and mercury, which may indicate
a regional phenomenon like at-
mospheric deposition of
contaminants rather than one
localized to Muskegon Lake.
Average spring phosphorus con-
centrations are below desired
maximum level.
EPA completed FS at the Ott/
Story/Cordova Chemical Co.
site.
MDNR to complete analyses of
sediment and benthic samples.
aooHcable onlv to Muskeoon
Lake.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Hlghligtits o! Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Araaof Concem/Evidanoe
Background
Fiscal Y<
1989-1980
fciAOC
HacaJ Year 1991
MMNesktAOC
Long-Term Agenda
White Lafca
White Lake is 2,570 acres in
•in located along east shore
of Lake Michigan near the
communities of Montague
and Whitehall. Groundwater
contaminated with organic
solvents; some lake sedi-
ments are heavily polluted
with chromium; fish
consumption advisory for
carp due to PCBs and
cMordane.
Diversion of municipal and in-
dustrial wastewater discharges
from the lake and Its tributaries to
the Muskegon County Wastewater
Treatment System by mkf-1970's
and Implementation of an Indus-
trial pretreatment program have
almost eliminated waste loads to
the lake and improved water
quality.
A 1979 Consent Judgement be-
tween Hooker Chemical Company
and the Stale of McMgan
required company to halt How erf
contaminated groundwater to the
lake. Hooker Chemical's facility
closed in 1979. Company Installed
purge wells and a carbon absorp-
tion treatment system. In 1985, the
State fled to enforce provisions of
the Consent Judgement to force
company to improve its purge wefl
system.
MDNR provided initial RAP to UC
in October 1987.
1989
Hooker Chemical Company contin-
ued treatment of contaminated
groundwater.
MDNR collected fish (carp) from
Lake Michigan. These fish also
contained unacceptable levels of
PCB and chkxdane which may
indicate a regional rather than local
phenomenon.
1990
System of duster wells was installed
to monitor static water levels and to
ensure the contaminant plume did
not reach the lake. Data collected
from March 1987 to January 1990 for
the purge-wed system indicated that
the plume Is being captured.
MDNR to complete analyses of
sediment and benthic samp-
les.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Am of Qoncem/Evktence
BBCfl(QPDUNCf
Fiscal Yam 1909-1990
Activates in AOC
Fiscal Year 1991
Activities In AOC
Long-Term Agenda
Lake Huron
Bay Is 1,143 square mfles,
with an 8,709 square mile
drainage basin, the largest in
MKRiflin, wswc comammai-
ed wttft metals and PCBs;
sediments moderately to
heavily polluted with metals,
dkudn and PCBs; eutrophlc
cotKfiliona; apparent repro-
ductive impairments and
-* - ¦ - <«'- - »_ «—_ -t>_ _
(woimiMi in nun suing
birds; fish consumption ad-
visories for trout, carp and
catfish in the bay and for afl
species in the river; dredging
in upper river delayed over
problems in siting disposal
facffity for polluted sedi-
ments; bacterial con-
tamination.
Ban on the use of high phosphate
detergents in 1977 and
wastewater treatment improve-
ments have greatly reduced
phosphorus loads to the river and
bay.
Saginaw Basin Natural Resources
Steering Committee formed in
1967 to advise MDNR on RAP
development RAP was completed
In September 1968 and identified
101 actions over a 10-year period
that should be taken to address
environmental problems.
Surveys of benthic macro-
invertebrate communities by
NOAAand MDNR (1986-69).
1967 ongoing: MDNR has pur-<
chased $7 mMion worth of land In
the Saginaw Bay area for the pres-
ervation of habitat and to improve
recreational access.
Shiawasee Hver (a tributary to the
Saginaw River) designated
SuperfundNPL site in 1983. Cast
Forge Company cleaned up PCB-
contaminated soil and sediment
from its property. In 1982,1 mHe
of the south branch of the Shi-
awasee dredged, removing 2,600
lbs of PCBs. As of 1989, there
were 12 other Superfund t&L
sites in the Saginaw Bay
Watershed.
1980:
MDNR provided initial RAP to IX
in October 1988.
MDNR and U. of Michigan con-
tinued extensive sediment sam-
pling in the river and bay to as-
sess the impacts of the severe
flood in 1986 on the distribution
of sediment contamination
(196893).
MDNR began stocking mayfly
eggs in Saginaw Bay to re-estab-
lish this native benthic macro-
invertebrate (1969-ongoing).
General Motors Grey Iron facility
ended direct discharge to Sag-
inaw Rver and began waste-
water pretreatment before deliv-
ery to Saginaw WWTP.
Saginaw Basin Alliance, a non-
profit organization, Incorporated.
1990:
MDNR/U. of Michigan
interpreted results of sediment
survey of river and bay conduct-
ed previous year.
EPA ARCS study collected Sag-
inaw Bay sediment samples for
their chemistry, biological tox-
icity, and berHhic community
structure.
As part of ARCS study, EPA to
sample water, fish tissues, and
Saginaw River sediments over a
6-weei< period as part of a com-
prehensive evaluation of the ha-
zards of sediment contamina-
tion.
EPA Saginaw Bay Watershed
Project to characterize aquatic
biota impacts from impaired
streams and formulate remedial
strategies.
EPA, USOA, and MDNR to im-
plement non point source control
measures in the Saginaw Bay
watershed, Including BMPs for
agricultural nonpoint pollution
control, urban storm water man-
agement, and sedimentation
control (1991-ongoing).
USDA wiO also begin a 5-year
program to encourage agribusi-
nesses to use BMPs to decrease
phosphorus, nitrate and pesti-
cide runoff.
Saginaw Township to construct
retention basin to control CSOs.
MDNR, with EPA assistance, to
complete n of Shiawasee River §
NPL site.
Develop approaches to address
contaminated sediment prob-
Continued Implementation of
non point source BMPs.
Construct retention basins for
CSOs.
-------
s
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
of bnpohvninli
tii i i ¦ j
UmQRMIQ
Hacai Yean 198^1990
AcMMsein AOC |
Fiscal Year 1991 I
AcMMsein AOC |
Long-Term Agenda
tMNfciimQ
1967 ongoing: At Its Engine DM-
sion site, General Motors has
constructed a 65-41 deep aiurry-
waN to stop PCB migration Into
the Saginaw Hver via groundwa-
ter flow. Contaminated sedi-
ments have been removed from
facttty sewers.
EPA study of Saginaw Bay oon-
flned dispose faciSty assessed
whether contaminant transport
through d&e walls posed ecolog-
ical risk. Results Indicated that
transport could not be demon-
strated (1967-69).
Saginaw township constructed
newWWTPIn 196&
MDNR ana U.ofMchigan began
surveys to evaluMe walleye natu-
ral reproduction.
1SB0 (Dontfnued)
The U.S. Fish and Midlife Ser-
vice began to survey fish (bull-
heads) for tumors.
City of Saginaw's new discharge
permit mandates construction of
six retention basins tor CSOs at
a cost of $81 mWon. Two to be
completed by 1992.
neatoddng of benthlc macro-
InvBflntiraliMi In aohirlerl Sagi-
naw Bay locations.
NOMA'S Sea Grant Program
opened Saginaw Bay Research
Institute at Saginaw VlaHey State.
NQAA began a multi-year study
to characterize the Saginaw Bay
plankton community before and
after the expected invasion of
zebra mussels.
DOW Chemical Company is 1
conducting additional studies to |
reduce dkndn discharge. I
MDNR wlH continue Investigation 1
of the Act 307 landfill site on
Middle Ground Wand, 2 miles
upstream from Saginaw Bay. Bay
City, a PRP, is cooperating.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Area of Conoam/Evidence
ov npanram
Background 1 Fiscal Yean 1989-1990
I Activities in AOC
Fiscal Year 1991
Activities in AOC
I
Long-Term Agenda |
Lake Erie
CMohRmt
The Clinton Fiver flows north
of Detroit and empties into
Lake St. Clair. Sediments are
moderately to heavily pollut-
ed with PCBs, metals, 08
and grease; eutrophication
and bacterial problems in
water column; fish
consumption advisory for
carp due to PCBs.
EPA placed 6 & H LwkM, ad-
joining the CNnton River near LW-
ca, Michigan, on the Superfund
NPL in 1963. EPA and MDNR
began RJ/FS in 1963.
EPA and MDNR conducted an
W/FS of the nearby UqukHXe-
poaaf NPL site from 1984-87.
This property is one-quarter mHe
from the Clinton River and was
the site of an industrial waste in-
cinerator from 1967 until closed
by EPA In 1982. EPA conducted
four removal actions between
1982 and 1985 to end immediate
threats to human health. EPA
issued ROD for the Liquid-Dis-
posal site cleanup in 1987.
Improvements to WWTPs of
seven towns made during the
1960s have greatly reduced con-
ventional pollutant and bacterial
contamination.
1988:
MDNR provided initial RAP to UC in
November 1988.
MDNR conducted caged-fish study to
evaluate PCB uptake at the mouth of
the Clinton River. Results expected in
1991.
EPA and MDNR continued Ri/FS for G
& H LancMB site.
500 PRPs agreed to sign Consent
Oecree for completion of the remedy
at Liquid Disposal, Inc. site. Remedial
action valued at $22 million.
MDNR reissued NPDES permits for
ML Clemens, Warren, and Rochester
WWTPs, including provisions for treat-
ment or elimination of CSOs.
1900;
EPA and MDNR proposed cleanup
plan for G & H Laodfii site; the reme-
dy is valued at $40 million.
Macomb County Public Works Com-
mission dredged sediment deposits
from behind the spilling weir.
Armada and ML Clemens WWTPs
I completed upgrades to reduce the
I discharge of both conventional and
I toxic pollutants at a cost of $4.2 and
1 $12.7 million.
MDNR to investigate the sourc-
es of PCBs to the Clinton Rh/er
from ML Clemens to its mouth.
This river segment is desig- 1
naked an Act 307 site. Clinton I
River Watershed Council,
through a grant from MDNR, to
determine BMPs to control
nonpoint sources of pollution
to Gallagher Creek.
Army Corps of Engineers plans
dredging project in navigation
channel.
Complete remedial design and
begin its implementation at
Liquid-Disposal site.
Correction of combined sewer
overflows and stormwater
controls will improve quality
of Red Run drain and the
Clinton River.
|
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
AtMof Canoam/BManm 1
«n mpMrnam i
DBCHQrounQ
Fiscal Yean 1960-1990
Activities in AOC
Hecal Year 1991
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda 1
Rouge Pfeer
The Rouge Rhier watershed
it the longest and most
densely populated and in-
dustrialized area in south-
eastern Michigan. About 40
ndles of rtver flowing through
metropolitan Detroit do not
meet water quality stan-
dards. Some eutropMcation
problems in the water col-
umn; bacteriological contam-
ination of water column;
sediments heavily polluted
with metals, PCBs, and other
organics; fish consumption
advisories for carp, pike,
largemouth bass, white suck-
ers, and catfish.
Like many other urban areas,
Detroit has combined ctormwater
and sewer systems that deliver
rain runoff as wed as household
and industrial effluents to
municipal wastewater treatment
plants. During rainstorms,
waterflow often exceeds system
capacity, leading to combined
sewer overflows. MDNR esti-
mates that 170 CSO outfalls
release an annual volume of 7.8
billion gallons of untreated water
to the Rouge.
Development of RAP (1965-1968)
with assistance of Southeast
Michigan Councfl of Govern-
ments.
Rouge Basin Committee started
In 1966, drawing members from
local communities, governments,
and interest groups. There was
extensive public involvement in
RAP development.
In 1966, an annual day of dtlzen
cleanup of the river was started.
These Rouge Bver Rescues have
removed tons of garbage.
1960;
MDNR provided Stages 1 and 2
RAPtoUC.
Since 1988, local, State, and
Federal governments have
agreed to fund over $450 million
in sewer improvements.
Wayne County Health Depart-
ment began to investigate illegal
discharges via storm sewers.
1990:
EPA awarded $400 thousand for
studies of Rouge River combined
sewer overflow/stormwater.
Studies of Rouge indicate water
column toxicity follows rain-
storms, Indicating that CSOs,
storm water, and non point runoff
are major sources of problems.
MDNR issued CSO permits td all
Rouge Rfeer municipalities with
CSOs. All are being contested in
court
SCS to implement BMPs in a
three county area, including the
Lower Branch of the Rouge River.
Town of Farmington to complete
separation of combined sewers.
Continuation of Evergreen-
Farmington and North Huron
Valley /Rouge River Valley sewer
projects.
Improvements completed on
Walled Lake/Nov! WWTP.
Construction started on Amy
relief drain sewer system.
Continuation of Rouge Hver Res-
cue.
Continuation of annual water
quality sampling by high school
students on Rouge.
Continuation of U of Michigan
teaching seminar about Rouge
River for Rouge Basin teachers.
PCB contamination appears to 1
be the result of discontinued |
discharges, spills, and CSOs. |
CSOs and nonpolnt source I
stormwater runoff are the largest
sources of pollutants to the river.
Large long-term sewer system
Improvements needed to reduce
combined sewer overflow loads
to river. State has estimated cost
of these improvements at $1
billion.
MDNR plans annual updates of |
RAP executive summary.
Development of a regional geo-
graphic information system.
Correction of raw sewage dis-
charges in village of Franklin.
Correction of sewage problems
in western townships utility au-
thority area.
Sediment sampling for heavy
metals by Detroit area high
school students.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas o! Concern (continued)
Ana of Qonoom/EvkSanoe
of frnpainnentt
Background
Fiscal Yean 1989-1990
ActMBee in AOC
Rscal Year 1991 1 Long-Term Agenda 1
Activities in AOC | |
WMf IOTI
AOC is the lower 2.6 miles of
river and exterxfing one-half
mile into western Lake Erie.
Numerous landfills and In-
dustrial sites border the river.
Metals and PCS contamina-
tion of water column; sedi-
ments heavily polluted with
metals and PCBs; fish con-
sumption advisories for carp
and targe white bass.
MDNR provided initial RAP to UC in
October 1987.
McNgan designated the lower por-
tion of the river an Act 307 site in
August 1966.
MDNR removed 300 PCB-contaro-
inatsd barrels and transformers
from Consolidated Packaging site.
MDNR completed Phase One of n
of east side of he Port of Monroe
landfill
MONR conducted sediment samp-
ling of river. Cleanups pending at
live waste sites along river: Port of
Monroe landfill, Ford Motor Com-
pany property, Consolidated Pack-
aging-South Plant, Detroit Edison
property, and City of Monroe land-
fill. AH have possible overland and
suspected groundwater routes for
movement of metals and toxic or-
ganics (PCBs).
Sediment sampling in 1988-89
showed the most impacted area
to be from the turning basin to the
mouth. Caged-flsh studies
showed River Raisin fish to have
PCS uptake rales greater than the
Kalamazoo or Saginaw Rivers.
Caged catfish study to be 1
completed in River. I
MDNR to begin Rl of the west 1
side of the Port of Monroe
landfill scheduled for spring,
and Rl to begin for entire
Consolidated Packaging
Plant
Ford Motor Company Is de-
veloping cleanup plan for its
hazardous waste she.
Reduce loadings from waste
and industrial sites along the
river.
Held studies to determine the
lateral and vertical extent of
sediment contamination and
routes of contaminant transport
from shore to the river, Plume
Creek and Lake Erie.
Conduct RIs of Detroit Edison
property, City of Monroe
landfill, and Sterling State Park
CDF (Confined Disposal |
Facility). 1
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Aim of Conosm/Biidanoe
Background
Racai Yean 1980-1990
tin AOC
Hani Year 1991
tin AOC
Long-Term Agenda
AOC Is tha lowar 22.8 miles
of river and Maumae Bay.
Tha Maumae River is the
largest tributary source of
phosphorus to Lake Erie and
it carries about 1.2 miHion
cubic yards of sediment
each year, eroded from
farmland in its watershed.
Water quality problems due
to ammonia, metals,
pesticides, arsenic, low
dissolved oxygen, nitrates,
and bacteria; sediments
moderately to heavily
poMutad with metals, PCBs,
and PAHs; fish advisories for
carp and catfish in Lake Erie;
fish advisory for afl species
due to PCBs in lower 5.7
miles of Ottawa Ffiver, which
empties Into north Maumee
Bay, restrictions on swim-
ming; Duck, Swan, and Otter
Creeks have poor water
quality; impaired fish and
wildlife populations • among
fish species that have drasti-
cally declined in the last
century include sturgeon,
northern pike, whHefish, and
muskeilunge, owing to
habitat change and loss.
In 1984, Maumee began a 4 phase
program to separate its combined
sewers by 1996 at an estimated
cost of $6 million. Toledo, which
has 34 CSO points, began a 9-
phase abatement program in 1965,
to be completed fat 1996 at an esti-
mated cost of $48 miHion.
Perrysburg plans to expand its
treatment plant and abate CSOs.
Toledo dredged lime sludge from
Duck Creek (87-68).
The King Road landfill (owned by
Lucas Conty) and the Dura and
Stickney landfills (owned by
Toledo) are potential sources of
pollution to the Ottawa River. The
jurisdictions began remedial
investigations.
Ohio EPA contracted with Toledo
Metropolitan Area Council of Gov-
ernments to provide assistance with
public involvement in RAP process
(196&ongoing).
Dura and Stickney landfills were in-
vestigated and cleanup begun in
1986.
Upgrades of Toledo WWTP com-
pleted In 1968.
1968:
Ubbey Owens Ford (LOF)
installed collection system to
capture leachate from its plant #6
and has eliminated previous
discharge of arsenic to the
Maumee River.
LOF diverted Otter Creek so it
does not flow under a contaminat-
ed lagoon at its plants #4 & 8,
and is de-watering this lagoon.
The village of Whitehouse con-
nected to the Lucas County sew-
age system in order to provide
improved treatment
1990c
Ohio EPA continued RAP devel-
opment activities. Stage 1 RAP
drafted. The Maumee River RAP
Advisory Committee (RAPAC) has
9 subcommittees.
Continued WWTP Improvements
and combined sewer overflows
projects.
Ohio EPA provided Stage 1
RAP to IX.
EPA/Ohio EPA/ODNR/SCS
non point source project to
educate local land users on
how to prevent pollution.
COE to dredge contaminated
sediments from Toledo Har-
bor for confined disposal.
State, FWS, EPA, and COE to
negotiate plan for long-term
disposal of dredged materi-
als, including siting of a new
CDF.
Perrysburg completed a 5-
year upgrade to its WWTP,
doubling treatment capacity.
Toledo continued
construction of 2 downtown
tunnels to store stormwater at
a cost of $12.5 million
(phases 1 & 2 of CSO plan).
Smaller tunnels will be built
along Swan Creek In phases
3 & 4.
RAPAC published 4th quarter-
ly newsletter.
Swan Creek day draws public
volunteers to cleanup litter.
Upgrade various municipal
WWTPs at an estimated cost of
$27 million.
Correct CSOs at an estimated
investment of $420 million.
Abatement of agricultural and
urban nonpoint source
pollution in watershed. This will
include investigation and
remediation of waste sites that
contribute loadings to surface
waters. The RAP targets 50
landfills and lagoons in the
metropolitan Toledo area,
many located In flood plains
along the Maumee and Ottawa
Wvers and Swan and Otter
Creeks. The RAP will also rely
on increased adoption of
agricultural best management
practices.
Address contaminated
sediment problems In Swan
Creek, Ottawa FSver, and
Maumee River.
Preserve Maumee Bay from
further filling.
Protect wetlands and restore
lost wetlands.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Aim of Goncam/BMance
OttdcQfound
Fiscal Yeera 1989-1980
Activities in AOC
I Year 1991
Activities in AOC
Long-Tann Agenda
This AOC Is tentatively identi-
fied as Lorain Harbor and the
stretch of river up to the city
of Byria. Water quality prob-
lems due to metals, ammo-
nia, phenol, bacteria, and
cyanide; sediments heavily
polluted with metals, oi and
grease, and PAHs; fish con-
sumption advisories for aH
fish nrmrkir bidifiolooicd
viw a n^w«v| tiOTr^i wwunMi
contamination of water col-
umn; low dissolved oxygen.
In 1979, EPA sued USX for al-
leged Clean Water Act violations
at Ha Lorain facility. In 1960,
EPA and USX filed a consent
decree under which USX was to
spend $4 mflHon over 4 years to
suppress dust.
In 1965, EPA and USX filed an
amendment to the 1960 consent
decree wider which USX agreed
to dredge sediment
contaminated with PAHs and
cadmium from the Black Wver
around a USX outfall; reduce
nitrogen oxide emissions; reduce
thermal poHutfoh to the Black
Rver, and pay a $200 thousand
penalty.
1988c
New westside Lorain WWTP put
into operation to relieve the over-
loaded eastside plant. The cost
of the new plant was $28 million.
Lorain also completed upgrades
to old eastside plant and has
developed plan to eliminate all
sewage system overflows by
2004.
The city of Byria completed $33
million upgrade to WWTP pursu-
ant to consent decree filed by
EPA and the city.
1990c
USX/Lorain began dredging
about 32,000 cubic meters of
contaminated sediments
pursuant to 1985 agreement at a
cost of $1.5 million to USX. The
dredged material will be placed
in a containment cell on USX
property.
Ohio EPA to establish a local
advisory board and begin public
involvement process.
Oberlin College to receive a grant
from the Nord Family Foundation
to produce public Information
materials and to begin compiling
available data for the Phase I
draft
USX completed dredging in De-
cember 1990. Fbilow-up sampling
indicated that polluted material
was removed.
OEPA set interim levels for cya-
nide, cadmium, and copper dis-
charges from Byria WWTP. Final
limits will be set in 1992.
Ohio EPA plans to provide Stage
1 RAP to UC in FY 1992.
Ohio EPA plans to provide Stage
2 RAP to UC in FY 1993.
Ohio EPA plans to conduct an
intensive survey of the river in
1992.
Completion of relief sewers for
Byria scheduled for 1993. Com-
pletion of Lorain sewage system
Improvements by 2004.
Jo
tn
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
km of Qoncem/Etfdenoe
Hani Yam 1980-1900
Activities in AOC
Hacal Year 1991
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda
Cuyahoga Hwf
The Cuyahoga Rhrer water-
shed it heavily populated
and industriaRied; the river
flow* by Akron and through
Cleveland. Since
industrialization of the area
in the mid-19th century,
stretches of the river have
often had severe pollution
problems. The volume of
point source discharges far
exceeds the natural flow of
the river, making it
dependent on the quality of
effluent. Serious water
quality problems remain in
the 5-mile navigation channel
through Cleveland and
nearahore.
Water quality problems due
to metals, cyanide, ammo-
nia, phenol, and bacteria;
se
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
A*ee of Concern/Evidence
^ m m - . *¦
01 mpannera
Background
Fiscal Yaws 1969-1990
Activities in AOC
Racal Year 1991
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda
The AOC includes the lower
2 miles of the river, the har-
bor, adjacent shore, and
Fields Brook, a tributary.
Water quality problem* due
to metals; sediments heavily
polluted with metals and
PCBs; fish consumption
advisories tor aH species; fish
with tumors; loss of habitat;
degraded benthic communi-
ties; dredging delayed due
to issues about siting
disposal facility for polluted
sediments, cost, and
responsibility for dredging.
FSver has not been dredged
since 1964.
There are 20 NPDES dischargers to the
Ashtabula AOC, 13 of which have had
toxic substances in their discharge. Of
these 13, 12 are now required to
biomonitor their effluents. Due to the
NPDES program, water quality has
significantly improved. OEPA has found
that the biological community of the
Rver is the most improved among aH
major Ohio tributaries to take Erie.
Nearshore water has become more
dear and contaminants have declined
tot fish. Since 1985, recreational boat
dockage has increased from 175 to
1300.
Fields Brook designated a Superfund
NPLsite in 1961.
In 1983-1986, EPA conducted an Rl/FS
of Fields Brook, a tributary to the fiver.
EPA issued an ROD in 1966, including
removal of contaminated sediments
from Fields Brook, incineration of secB-
ment bearing high risk organic contam-
inants, solidifying sediment containing
lower risk contaminants, landfilling all
treated material, and studies to deter-
mine the extent and sources of
contamination in the River.
RAP Advisory Council and subcommit-
tees were formed (ongoing since 1968).
Meetings are held bi-monthly, providing
a forum for local government, industry,
citizens, OEPA, ACOE, and businesses
to discuss river problems. A newsletter
it Issued quarterly.
198ft
Biological study of river conducted
by Ohio EPA as part of natural
resource damage assessment of the
river, harbor, nearshore, and Fields
Brook.
EPA issued Administrative Order for
PRPs at Fields Brook Superfund site
to conduct studies to determine im-
pacts from the site on the river and a
drinking water intake in Lake Erie.
Other studies conducted to further
assess cleanup needs.
City of Ashtabula levied a boat dock
tax to obtain revenue to improve the
river (est $2SK per year).
1990:
Fields Brook PRPs continue studies
of River.
Preliminary results indicate no con-
taminants are present in the upper
layer of sediments, which would
allow tome interim dredging. This
also indicates that there are not
current sources of PCBs and other
troublesome contaminants. PCS
concentrations were found in deep
sediments with the highest levels
generally upstream from the 5th St
bridge, (6 samples were greater than
50 mg/kg), requiring disposal under
Toxic Substances Control Act
Ohio EPA to provide Stage 1
RAP to UC.
COE to conduct interim
dredging of non toxic sedi-
ment to relieve navigation
problem if disposal site is
found.
Continuing Investigation on
Fields Brook.
PRPs start demonstration of
solvent stripping technology.
If the demonstration proves
successful, adoption of this
technology could shorten the
cleanup process.
Preliminary survey findings of
FWS under EPA's ARCS
program indicate high inci-
dence of skin liver tumors in
brown bullheads in river.
Oxychem Corp. completed
project to collect storm water
runoff and groundwater and
to treat these prior to
discharge to Fields Brook.
Estimated cost was $3.5
million. Oxychem also
contributed $7.5 thousand to
RAP process.
Ohio EPA to provide
Stage 2 RAP to UC in
FY 1992.
Dredging and disposal of
contaminated river sedi-
ments. Siting of CDF to
contain dredged material.
Remediation of Fields
Brook NPL site. Final
cleanup is due to be com-
pleted in 1994.
ARCS study to conduct
pilot scale field demon-
stration of a thermal strip-
ping process on contami-
nated sediments (FY
1992}.
-------
is
00
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Aim of Gonoam/BMenM
of tmpafcimnts
Bickgnund
Hacal Yarn 19B9-1990
Activities in A0C |
Hacal Year 1981
Activities in AOC
|
Long-Term Agenda 1
Ashtabula Rfcer (continued)
1980 {oonNnuad)
State of Ohio appropriated $7 mil-
Uon towards removal and disposal
of contaminated Ashtabula River
sediments contingent on matching
Federal funds.
Detrex Chemical company
constructed system to collect
and treat runoff from their
property.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Area of Concern/Evidence
of Impairments
Background 1
Fiscal Yean 1900-1980 I
Activities in AOC |
Fiscal Year 1991
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda 1
ouno ivmi
The river is 6 miles long and
has 3 major tributaries: the
Cuyuga, Caxanmia, and
Buffalo Creeks. Water quality
problems with metals, diei-
drin, BHC, chlordane, and
low dissolved oxygen; sedi-
ments heavily polluted with
metals, oH and grease,
PCBs, PAHs, and pesticides;
fish consumption advisory
for carp; poor fish and
wikttfe habitat; fish with
tumors and lesions have
been found.
NYSOEC assembled citizens
committee to aid RAP develop-
ment in 1967.
Improved municipal wastewater
treatment and regulation of
industrial dischargers has
improved water quality a great
deal since the 1960s.
1989;
EPA ARCS study sampled sedi-
ments In Buffalo Rver.
NYSOEC drafted RAP in March
1969 and revised H to reflect
public comments received at 2
hearings in May 1989.
1990c
NYSOEC provided RAP to UC.
FWS surveyed Buffalo FSver fish
for tumors.
City of Buffalo passed ordinance
prohibiting new development
within 25 teet of the river.
NYSOEC issued first annual
progress report
NYSOEC sampled water to study
low dissolved oxygen problem.
There are 32 inactive potentially
hazardous waste sites in the river
watershed. Some may affect the
river. NYSOEC completed Phase
1 investigations of 6.
As part of ARCS study, EPA to
sample water, fish tissues, and
sediments over a 6-week period
to evaluate hazards posed by
sediment contamination.
NYSOEC to assess the causes of
low dissolved oxygen, and to
monitor water quality during high
flow for pesticides, PCBs, PAHs,
and metals.
•
NYSOEC to continue Phase H
investigations at 7 waste sites.
NYSOEC Issued second annual
progress report In June 1991.
Fedco Automotive agreed to pay
$21,000 penalty for failing to re-
port under the Community-FSght-
to-Know Act.
Annual RAP implementation 1
updates will be prepared and I
investigations win be conducted 1
where data gaps exist. 1
Elements of RAP are to:
(1) Monitor water quality.
(2) Address contaminated
sediments.
(3) Prevent potential loadings
from Inactive hazardous
waste sites.
(4) Prevent other non point
loadings.
(5) Prevent loadings from
CSOs.
(6) Restore fish and wildlife
habitat.
I
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Am off Gonoam/BMsfto*
-m ¦ —¦ ¦
ov mpmmmnm
Background
Fiscal Years 1989-1980
Activities in AOC |
Fiscal Year 1991
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda
Lake Ontario
BgMeen Mb C»ek
The creek tons norti from
tha city of Locfcport to Join
Lake Ontario near tha town
of OtcotL Water quafity prob-
lems due to metals, DOT,
(Mdrin, and tricMorofluo-
romathana; aediments
moderately to heavily
pollutad with mataia.
Treatment upgrades by numer-
ous municipal and industrial dis-
chargers.
NYSDEC plans to provide Stag-
es 1 and 2 RAP to UC in
FY 1993.
AOC ia Lake Ontario near to
Rochester, NY, and including
tha Genessee River and
IrondequoH Creek. Water
quality problems due to am-
monia at mouth of Genessee
River; sediments moderately
to heavily polluted with met-
als and cyanide; fish con-
sumption advisory for carp
from hondequoit Bay.
Rochester began combined sew-
er overflows abatement program
in 1977.
Sewage from numerous small
WWTPs In the basin was con-
solidated and conveyed to the
trondequoit Bay Pure Waters Dis-
trict from 1977 to 19S7.
Kodak ia reconstructing bulk
chemical storage at Rochester
facility at cost of $250 million.
The system will exceed State
and federal regulations for back-
up systems and provide added
protection against spills.
NYSDEC began RAP develop-
ment process in 1968 with Mon-
roe County.
.
NYSDEC plans to provide Stage
1 RAPtoUC.
EPA and NYSDEC to begin Inten-
sive consumer education cam-
paign on use of household
hazardous wates.
RAP stakeholders are preparing a
Lake Ontario fish consumption
advisory pamphlet.
Tel-Tru Mfg. signed Consent
Agreement with EPA to settle
alleged violations of reporting
requirements of tha Communlty-
Rtoht-to-Khow Act Under Agree-
ment, firm will prevent pollution
by adopting a new cleaning
method.
NYSDEC plans to provide Stage
2 RAPtoUC in FY 1992.
City of Rochester combined
sewer overflows abatement pro-
gram to be completed in mid- H
1990s at an estimated total cost H
of $475 million. 1
I
-------
TabU
i A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Am of Concern/Evidence
of bnpakmenls
Fiscal Years 1909-1990
Activities in AOC |
Fiscal Year 1991
Activities in AOC |
Long-Term Agenda
Oswego Hw
AOC is lower 2 miles of river.
The Oswego Kver drains a
5,000 square mile watershed
which has 1.2 mMon Inhabit-
ants. Water quality problems
due to metals; sediments are
contaminated with mkex and
moderately to heavily pollut-
ed with metals; fish con-
sumption advisory for chan-
nel catfish; fish
contamination with PC8s
and dioxtn. The river is esti-
mated to provide 40% of
New York's phosphorus load
to Lake Ontario.
Water quality in Oswego harbor has Improved
since the 1960s when raw sewage was evident
Construction of sewage treatment plants and
regulation of dischargers have been the princi-
pal reasons for the improvement
Onondaga Lake, a 4.5 square mile lake near
Syracuse, drains to the Seneca River, a tribu-
tary of the Oswego. The lake has low disso-
lved oxygen and is grossly polluted. A facility
operated by Allied Chemical from the 1940s to
1979 and by LCP until doting in 1968 was a
major source of mercury to the lake. The public
and private sectors have together invested
$280 mflUon environmental Improvements for
the lake over the last decade.
Mbex was used near Fulton, Hew York In the
1960s and released into the Oswego; it is
present In bottom secMments and In 2 adjacent
lancHMs that have been capped.
Rve hazardous waste sites are IHtely sources of
PCBs. Three of these are Superiund rites:
Ctotirier Hspussl is a IS acre site through
which a creek flows to the Oswego Hvar.
EPA nominated site tor NPL in 1984. In
1986, PRPs signed a consent order to
remove drums of waste.
1989:
Annheuser-Busch Inc. signed
Consent Order to reduce
loading of phosphorus to the
Seneca (Vver.
New York State filed suit
against Allied Chemical,
LCP, and other PPRs for
cleanup of mercury contami-
nation In Onondaga Lake
and restoration of its natural
resources.
AUied Chemical signed a
Consent Order to prepare
RI/FS for cleanup of tar beds
adjacent to Onondaga Lake.
Chy of Fulton completed
upgrade to sewage
treatment plant that has cut
phosphorus discharge by
about 96 percent.
All major municipal
treatment plants have
industrial pretreatment
programs.
1990:
NYSDEC provided Stage 1
RAP to DC.
NYSDEC plans to provide 1
Stage 2 RAP to UC and has 1
formed a Remedial Action
Committee to guide imple-
mentation.
Annual RAP implementa-
tion updates will be pre- |
pared and investigations 1
will be conducted where I
data gaps exist.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
AMdfGbMMiyGiidinM
of InpflkiMnli
Fiscal Yaora 1980-1990
Activities In AOC
fiscal Year 1991 I Long-Term Agenda 1
Activities in AQC | |
Own jo Rhsr (confcimd)
Fuhn Twminali to a 1.5 acre afta within SO
feet of ihe Oswego Hver. EPA proposed
•He for NPL in 1962 and conducted
removal action In 1986 to prevent runoff
from entering river. PRPs began design of
the remedy in 199a
• VUney ImH is a 58 acre site that EPA
proposed tor NPL in 1984. Oswego County
signed a Cooperative Agreement with New
York State in 1984 to cleanup the Landfill.
The site has been capped and a selected
cleanup plan is expected in 1992.
NYSDEC formed a citizens advisory committee
to develop RAP to 1987.
In 1967, NYSDEC modified water quality moni-
toring program to rotate Intensive monitoring
between major drainage basins.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Avsa at Concern/Evidence of 1
vnpamwnn i
I
Fiscal Yean 1989-1990
Activities in A0C
Fiscal Yew 1991 I
Activities in AOC [
Long-Term Agenda
L.|jn ... |.|||,.. n |
nemmona
Connecting Channels
8L Marys fiber
TMs 70 mile long river connects
Lakes Superior and Huron. Water
quality problems due to phenols,
iron, phosphorus, PAHs, cyanide,
ammonia, and bacteria; sediments
In some aims am contaminated
with ofl and grease, PAHs,
nutrients, and metals; fish
consumption advisories tar large
waleye, white suckers, longnose
suckers, northern pike, and lake
trout, due to levels of mercury;
undesirable algae indicative of
eutrophic conditions; body contact
advisories due to bacteria; off
slicks and floating debris;
_ m— _ j « a
ngnmcam loss or ran wiq wkmw
haMtfit- tnrktonrff of Hue
tumors In brown buflheads;
damaged poptiiaBona of native
fish species and the river is a
principal habitat for see lamprey.
Water quality and sediment prob-
lems are most pronounced along
the Ontario shoreline downstream
of Ontario cRscharges. Sediments
are also heavHy polluted with
metals, Including chromium, lead,
arsenic, and iron near the old
CanneHon Tannery in Michigan.
Since 1970, Algoma Steel (Canada) has re-
duced its loadings of ammonia, cyanide,
and phenols. St. Marys Paper (Canada) has
reduced loadings of suspended solids.
Municipal wastewater treatment plants have
improved removal of phosphorus,
suspended soffds, and organic matter.
Sautt Ste. Marie, Mtehigan, completed an
upgrade to tis WVVPT In 1966. Sault Ste.
Marie, Ontario completed a new West End
WWTP the same year.
As a result of such actions, the extent of
zones of impaired benthic organisms have
decreased, as have levels of phenols,
ammonia, cyanide, and some metals in the
water column.
Between 1684-88, EPA, MDNR, and
counterpart Canatfian agencies conducted a
major study of environmental conditions In
the St. Maiys River. It found zones of
degradation along the Canadian shoreline,
particularly downstream of Algoma Steel, St.
Marys Paper, and the East End WWTP.
In 1968, B'A proposed Canneiton Industries
site be added to Superfund NPL. The she
borders the St Marys fiver in the City of
Sautt Ste. Marie, Michigan. From 1900 to
1958, a tannery operated at the she.
EPA, MONR, and other agencies In U.S. and
Canada joined in an extensive study of the
St Marys Hver and biota in 1906-87.
1969
EPA began RI/FS and
removal action at
Canneiton Industries site.
Algoma Steel began Investi-
gations of possible
seepage of toxics into river
via groundwater from
Algoma slag plies.
1980
Algoma Steel completed
wastewater treatment plant
at a cost of $34 million.
MDNR and Province of |
Ontario to provide Stage 1 |
RAPto UC.
The City of Sault Ste. I
Marie, Michigan, is
developing a plan to treat
discharges from CSOs.
This will be completed by
1993.
EPA to start remedial
actions at the Canneiton
industries tannery waste
site. Short-term remedial
actions include building a
dike along the river and
installing sprinklers to
contain (ires caused by
spontaneous combustion.
Michigan DNRand EPA to
continue RI/FS.
MCnlQflfi
Eliminate or treat CSOs 1
and cleanup Canneiton 1
Industries site. 1
Ontario
Abate CSOs and Industrial
discharges.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
tai of Goncem/Eridsnoe
of Impairments
1
nnegrouno i
Fiscal Years 1989-1990
Activities in A0C |
Fiscal Yaw 1991 I
Activities in A0C {
Long-Term Agenda
9L CWrfVvar
This 40 mile long river con-
nects Lake Huron and Lake
St. Clair. The river's wetlands
concentrated at its delta are
among the most important in
Ate Great Lakes. The largest
petrochemical complex in
Canada is located along the
eastern shore of the upper
river. The bentMc fauna
along the Canadian shore in
tfie Sarnia area are impaired,
whereas the Mfchlgan shore-
flne has good bentMc health.
Exceedences of water quality
objectives or standards for
metais, organic solvents, and
bacteria; sediments contami-
nated with metais, PCBs,
and other organlcs; State fish
consumption advisories for
carp, large gizzard shad, and
freshwater drum; loss of fish
and wMBfs habitat; beach
closings on Ontario aide due
to conform bacteria levels;
periodic closures of water
treatment plants due to up-
stream chemical spiBs.
Loadings from petrochemical
industries In Sarnia area have
diminished. The zone of
impaired bottom fife along the
Sarnia shore decreased from 13
miles in 1977 to 7.5 mites by
1985.
A study has associated reduced
numbers of marsh-dwelling
waterfowl in the St Clair delta
with loss of wetlands. Numbers
of watefowl declined by 79* In
spring and 41% in tall between
1966-82.
Ontario and Mtehigan agreed to
undertake a Joint RAP in 1985.
Binational PubHc Advisory Com-
mittee formed in 1908.
EPA, MDNR. and other Federal
agendescompieted an extensive
study of the St CMr fiver and
its biota In 1906-87.
Investigations following a large
spM of perehkmethytone in 1965
from Dow Chemical (Canada)
disclosed additional sources
requiring abatement
Binational RAP team began
drafting RAP In 1989.
Actions to reduce CSOs in Ma-
rine City, Marysville, St Clair,
and Port Huron, Michigan, are
ongoing.
Dow Chemical (Canada) pledged
to invest $10 million on environ-
mental improvements at its Sa-
rnia facility.
Shed (Canada) invested $37
million on sewer upgrades at its
Sarnia facility.
OMOE conducted benthic
survey.
MDNR to continue fish contami-
nant trend monitoring.
1
Mfchigan
Eliminate or treat CSOs.
MDNR and Province of Ontario
plan to provide Stage 1 RAP to
UC in FY 92.
Ontario
Reduce industrial and municipal
loadings to river.
Complete and implement the
Municipal Industrial Strategy for
Abatement, a regulatory
program for point source
dischargers.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Am of Qoncem/Evidence
of ¦npavmras
Background
Fiscal Yean 1969-1990
Activities in AOC
1
Fiscal Year 1991 1 Long-Term Agenda
Activities in AOC |
Detail Hw
TMs 32 mMe long river con-
nects Lake St Clair to Lake
Erie. Water quaHty problems
due to phosphorus,
ammonia, oH and grease,
phenols, pesticides,
chlorides, lead, mercury,
PAHs and PCBs; sediments
in some nearshore areas are
heavNy polluted with metals,
PCBs, and other organics;
fish consumption advisories
for carp, Iwge freshwater
drum, wafieye, and rock
baas; elevated Incidence of
Bver tumors in five fish spe-
cies (walleye, bowfin,
bufihead, redhorse sucker,
and white sucker); degraded
benthfo communities along
mO MCvHQBffl SnOfOHfNI ff(Mil
the Rouge Rfcer to Lake Brie;
restricSons on dredging; loss
of fish and wHdfife habitat;
impaired benthic communi-
ties; beech closings because
oi iNyii conTonn pwcna.
Oi/er the last two decades, controls on point dischargers
through the NPDES program have significantly cut
loadings of oil, grease, chlorides, ammonia, phenols,
mercury, and nutrients to the Detroit River. Over $500
million have been spent in Michigan since 1972 to
upgrade municipal WWTPs along the Detroit Rhrer.
Municipal WWTPs in Windsor have improved removal of
phosphorus. However, the Detroit-Windsor metropoRtan
area is an urban and industrial center and this AOC
continues to suffer severe environmental quality
problems.
Between 1964-88, EPA, MDNR, ana counterpart Canadi-
an agencies conducted a major study of environmental
conditions In the Detroit Fiver. I found sediment
contamination in the lower river along the McMgan
shore, with highest contamination downstream of the
Rouge Rvier. Other tributaries of concern were the
Monguagon Creek (highest levels of PCBs and PAHs in
sediment), Comers and Turkey Creeks, and Little Hver.
Major municipal dischargers of contaminants were the
Detroit, Wlayne County-Wyandotte, and CRy of Trenton
WWTPs; major Industrial dischargers: Rouge Steel, Ford
Canada, VWckes Mfg., McLouth Steel-Trenton, General
Chemical-AmherBtburg, and Great Lakes Steel-Ccorse
and 80" mOL The study recommended investigation of
sites with potential groundwater contamination and
noted large loacSngs from Detroit and Windsor CSOs.
MDNR has monitored river water quality since 1966, and
monitored Detroit River fish in 1885,1986, and 1990.
U.S. and Canada started RAP development to 1986,
forming btoaMonal Public Advisory Committee In 1968,
and began drafting RAP in 1969.
MDNR began native fish
contaminant monitoring
in 1990.
Department of Justice
filed civil suit against the
City o< Detroit for alleged
failure to implement pre-
treatment program for in-
dustrial discharges to
WWTPs.
MDNR provided Stage 1 Long-term sewer Im-
RAP to DC. provements needed to
reduce combined sewer
MDNR conducted bioiogi- overflows to river. State |
cal assessments on two has estimated cost of
Detoit River tributaries. B this improvement at $2.6
billion.
MDNR and OMOE work
with BPAC on Stage 2 A sediment contamina-
RAP. tion dynamics model to B
assess the extent that 1
Public concerns raised at contamination Is due to 1
a RAP meeting helped past or continuing sourc- |
identify Maonguagon | es. |
Creek (a Detroit Wver 1 1
tributary) as a potential 1 Additional investigation 1
threat to public health Q of sediment contamina- 1
because of Its | tion to Identify remedial 1
contaminated sediments. Q options. I
MDNR asked Potentially 1 [
Responsible Parties to | 1
fence off access to the 1 1
creek and to conduct a | [
RI/FS. 1
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
of Oonoam/BManoa
Background
Rscal Yam 1980-1990
tin AOC
Fiscal Year 1901
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda
This 37 mito long river con-
nects Lake Erie and Lake
Ontario. Water quality prob-
lems due to metals and org-
anics: sediments in some
nearshore areas and at the
river mouth in Lake Ontario
ape contaminated with met-
als and PC8s; fish consump-
tion advisories for carp,
smalmouth bass, American
eel, channel catfish, lake
trout, large salmon, and rain-
bow and brown trout.
Magara Rhrer Toxics Study by EPA, New York
State, Ontario MMstry of Environment, and
Environment Canada concluded in 1984.
EPA and New York State estimate that point
source loadings to the Magara Rhier have de-
cflned by 80 percent from 1982 to 1987.
In 1987, EPA, New York Stale, Ontario, and
Environment Canada signed a "Declaration of
Intent" to cut in half 1987 loadings of priority
toxic chemicals to the Niagara river by 1996.
There are many U.S. waste sites near the
Niagara. Monitoring indicates that nonpoint
loadings (Including runoff and leachate from
waste sites) is the major pathway for priority
pollutants. Many sites are being addressed
by EPA and New York State under RCRA and
State authorities. 5 sites are on the Super-
fund NPL:
Love Canal Is 16 acre sits 1/4 mite from
Magara; used as a landfill between 1942-52,
later developed as a residential area. Con-
tamination included dloxlna, PAHs, arsenic,
pesticides. EPA placed Love Canal on the
Superfund NPL in 1981. Attar contamination
was discovered in 1978, 950 residents ware
evacuated. New York State installed a leac-
hate collection system and the landfiH was
covered and lanced in 1979. In 1985, New
York State completed landfill containment,
covering 3 acres with a ciay cap and improv-
ing leachate collection. In 1965, EPA selected
a remedy for sewers and creeks and in 1987
for incineration of their dioxin contaminated
sediments. In 1988, EPA selected a remedy
for the 93rd SL school portion of the site.
I960:
Pursuant to the 1987 Agree-
ment, the agencies developed
a joint Magara River Toxics
Management Plan.
EPA and New York State
completed study that ranked
loadings from waste sites to
the Niagara. The study esti-
mated that 684 lbs of
toxicants migrated from U.S.
wastesites to the Niagara each
day. The agencies announced
schedules to remediate, by
1996, the top 20 sites which
are believed responsible for
99 percent of U.S. waste site
loadings to the Niagara.
Under an Administrative Con-
sent Order filed by EPA in
March 1989,13 PRPs will con-
duct Ri/FS of Magara County
Refuse site by December
1991.
EPA and New York State is-
sued an Administrative Con-
sent Order to Dupont under
CERCLA to undertake RI/FS
of Neoco Park hazardous
waste site. This site plus sur-
rounding CECOS site, are
estimated to provide 9% of
wastesHe loadings to Magara.
EPA and NYSOEC approved
RR workpian for CECOS site.
EPA and New York State to
begin intensive consumer
education program on use of
household hazardous wastes
with local governments.
OCC to complete RR of Buf-
falo Ave. site.
PRP began RI/FS of Neoco
Parti site and is treating con-
taminated groundwater.
PRP is conducting RR of
CECOS site.
A study of dioxin
bioaccumuiation in Lake On-
tario was completed as part
of Hyde Parte cleanup. The
Hyde Park perimeter was
capped and a drainage sys-
tem installed, the effective-
ness of which is monitored
quarterly at off-site wells.
NYSOEC and EPA continued
to refine estimates of ground-
water loadings to the
Niagara. The U.S. Geological
Survey used a radar to locate
faults in bedrock. This
knowledge will be helpful in
remedial designs and In
refining estimates of loads to
the Niagara.
NYSOEC to provide Stag-
es 1 and 2 RAP to UC in
FY 1993.
EPA's target date to begin
cleanup of 102nd SL site
Is late 1992.
EPA plans ROD on Maga-
ra CHy Refute in early
1992.
OCC to cap or excavate
Bloody Run Creek as part
of Hyde Park cleanup in
19 9 2
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress In U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Araa of Concern/Evidence of
impairments
BichQiound I
Fiscal Yean 1989-1990
Activities in AOC |
Fiscal Year 1991 j
Activities in AOC [
Long-Term Agenda
Magara Pfear (continued)
102nd Street is 22 acres adjacent to the Niag-
ara used as a landfill from 1943-71. Contami-
nation includes dioxins and furans; arsenic,
mercury, and cadmium; and pesticides. Fed-
eral suit filed against OCC and OHn Corp. In
1979. EPA placed site on Superfund NR. In
1982. Under Consent Decree filed In 1984,
OHn and OCC agreed to conduct RI/FS. Site
is estimated to provide 4% of waste site
loadings to Magara.
Hyde Parte is a 15 acre landfill 2000 feet from
the Niagara that operated from 1953-75.
Contamination includes dioxin. EPA placed
site on Superfund NPL in 1982. Under a
Consent Decree filed in 1962, OCC agreed to
conduct RI/FS. EPA issued ROD In 1965. The
selected cleanup includes purge weds and
treatment of groundwater. Site is estimated to
provide 5% of waste site loadings to Niagara.
S-Area is 8 acres used as a landfill from 1947-
75 that Res on land reclaimed from the
Magara. Federal suit filed against OCC in
1979. EPA placed it on the Superfund NPL in
1982. A Settlement Agreement between EPA,
New York State, OCC, and the City of Maga-
ra Falls was reached tot 1984. Site is estimat-
ed to provide 2% of waste site loadings to
Magara.
199ft
OHn and OCC completed
lOand St RI/FS in May
1990. EPA issued ROD in
September 1990.
At the Hyde Park site, OCC:
completed construction of a
(•achate storage and treat-
ment system; began Inciner-
ation of concentrated liquid
organic chemicals; began
installation of source control
extraction weds; and com-
pleted construction of con-
tainment collection systems.
New York State completed a j
habitabiNty study of Love Ca-
nal, finding 4 areas suitable
for residential use and 3
more for commercial use.
An amended Settlement Ag-
reement for the S-Area was
filed in September 1990 for
an expanded onsite remedy,
an offsite remedy, and a new
water treatment plant for the
City of Magara Falls.
-------
00
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Ana of GDnoMn/EvManoa of
Impairments
^ 1
Fiscal Years 1980-1900
Activities in AOC
Fiscal Year 1991 1
Activities in AOC
Long-Term Agenda |
M^n Hmt (i I'lnWriim-rl)
Nagara County Muse is SO acres used as a
landfill from 1968-76. The site includes the
headwaters of a creek that flows into the
Niagara. Contamination includes heavy met-
als, PAHs, and low levels of PCBs. EPA
placed site on Superfund NPL tn 1961. Site is
estimated to provide 13% of waste site load-
ings to Niagara
EPA and NYSOEC estimate that OCCs
BufMo Awe. plant is considered the major site
currently loading to the Magara (49% of
waste she loadings). The 100 acre site along
the river has 10 priority toxics including
mirex, DOT, PC8s, and mercury. The plant
operates under a RCRA permit issued in June
1968 that requires corrective measures.
PRPs bagan RI/FS of Maga-
ra Oounty Hafuse.
EPA/NYSDEC approved RFI
worfcplana for Be> Aerospace
site (2.7% of loadings), BTL
Rsaina site (2.2%), and
OaWehsm SM site; and
RFA for Buffalo Color sits.
PRP completed RI/FS for
102nd St Landfli and EPA
issued ROD.
NYSOEC issued ROD for
OuBont Buffalo Avenue Plant
and PRP completed a
Remedial Design.
NYSOEC completed a Phase
1 investigation of SKW Aloys
site (estimated to provide
12% of waste the loadings
to Ntagara).
NYSOEC completed RI/FS of
GraMck Park site.
-------
Table A-2. Selected Highlights of Progress in U.S. Areas of Concern (continued)
Mm of Conoam/Eridanoe
off tmfMnmenti
Darliqround
—I 1
fiscal Years 1989-1990 1 Fiscal Year 1991 | Long-Term Agenda
Activities in AOC | Activities in AOC |
SL Lawrence flfcer
This AOC includes the Corn-
wall, take St. Francis, and
Maitland areas In Canada,
Massena, New York, and the
Akwesnasne Indian Reser-
vation. Water quality pro-
blems due to metals, bac-
teria, phenols, pesticides,
and PCBs; sediments In
some areas are heavily pol-
luted with metals and PCBs;
fish consumption advisories
for American eel, channel
catfish, lake trout, large sal-
mon, and rainbow and
brown trout. Because of con-
tamination, the Akwasasne
Mohawk Tribe has had to cut
back on fish and waterfowl
which had traditionary been
important parts of their diet
Mercury loadings to river from
Cornwall (Canada) chloratkaH
plant of C1L, Incorporated, and
pulp and paper plant of Domtar
Fine Papers Limited (Canada)
were substantially reduced by
1970.
From 1959-74, a General Motors
facility adjacent to the river used
PCBs in a die casting process.
EPA proposed the GM site for
the Supetfund NPL in 1983. EPA
and GM entered an Admin-
istrative Order on Consent in
1965 for GM Id perform a RI/FS.
GM submitted the FS to EPA in
November 1969.
Two nearby facilities owned by
Reynolds Metal and Aluminum
Corporation of America (ALCOA)
have contributed to PCB
contamination of the area.
In 1990, EPA proposed a remedi- NYSDEC provided Stage 1 RAP I
a) action for the first portions of to UC.
the GM site that includes dredg-
ing about 62,000 cubic yards of EPA issued Superfund Admin-
PCB contaminated bottom aedi- istrative orders to the Aluminum
ments from the St. Lawrence Company of America (ALCOA)
and Raquette Rivers, excavating and the Reynolds Metal Com-
and treatment of contaminated pany to perform remedial inves-
soN, and recovery and treatment ligations, designs, and cleanups
of contaminated groundwater. of PCB contaminated sediments
in the St. Lawrence River system.
Reynolds Metal Improved the
treatment of its effkient so that In December, 1990, EPA selected
any discharge of PCBs Is be- a remedy for the first portion of
neath present detection capabili- the GM site. The estimated total
ties. The company has also re- rest of the remedy is $78 million,
moved sediment below 2 outfalls
at a cost of $2.25 million. In May 1991, EPA proposed a
remedy for the second portions
ALCOA has removed PCB con- of the GM site, including a mix of
taminated sediment from two treatment and containment of
locations at a cost of $7 million. contaminated soil. The estimated
cost of the remedy is $33 to $47
miHon.
In July 1991, Aluminum Corpora-
tion of America (ALCOA) agreed
to pay New York State $7.5 mil-
lion in penalties for violations of
environmental laws at its Mass-
em facility.
NYSDEC to provide Stage 2 RAP
toUC.
Annual RAP implementation
updates will be prepared and
Investigations will be conducted
where data gaps exist.
-------
End Notes and Sources
Chapter One
Figure 1-1: The Great Lakes Watershed
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environment Canada, Brock University, and Northwestern University, "The Great Lakes: An En-
vironmental Atlas and Resource Book,"1987.
Figure 1-2: Depth Profile of the Great Lakes and Summaiy of Their Physical Features
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "The Laurentian Great Lakes, Miscellaneous Facts and Figures," Draft Environmental Impact Statement,
Lake Level Regulation Plan, SO-901,1974.
Figure 1-3: Average Mercury Concentrations in Walleye from Lake St Clair
Ontario Ministry of the Environment from the report entitled, Toxic Chemicals in the Great Lakes and Associated Effects, by Environment
Canada, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, and Health and Welfare Canada, 1991.
Chapter Two
1. Fein, G.G., J.L. Jacobson, S.W. Jacobson, P.M. Schwartz, and J.K. Dowler, "Prenatal Exposure to Polychlorinated Biphenyls: Effects on
Birth Size and Gestational Age," Journal of Pediatrics, 105 no. 2,1984, pp. 315-320; S. Jacobson et al.. "Intrauterine Exposure of Human
Newborns to PCBs: Measures of Exposure," chapter 22 in F.M. D'ltri and M.A. Kamrin, eds., PCBs: Human and Environmental Hazards
(Ann Arbor, Michigan: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, 1983, pp. 311-343; Jacobson J.L., S.W. Jacobson, G.G. Fein, P.M. Schwartz, and J.K.
Dowler, "Prenatal Exposure to Environmental Toxin: A Test of the Multiple Effects Model," Development Psychology 20 no. 4,1984, pp.
523-32; P. Schwartz et al., "Lake Michigan Fish Consumption as a Source of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Human Cord Serum, Maternal
Serum, and Milk," American Journal of Public Health 73, no. 3,1983, pp. 293-96.
2. Baumann, P.C, W.D. Smith, and M. Ribick, "Hepatic Tumor Rates and Potynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons Levels in Two Populations
of Brown Bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus)," Poiynuciear Aromatic Hydrocarbons; Physical and Biological Chemistry, ed. M. Cooke, AJ. Den-
nis and G.L. Fisher, pp 93-102, Battelle Press, Columbus, Ohio, 1982.
3. Baumann et al, 1982; Black, JJ-, "Field and Laboratory Studies of Environmental Carcinogenesis in Niagara River Fish,"/. Great Lakes
Res. 9(2):326-334, International Association for Great Lakes Research, 1983.
4. Keilty, TJ., "Evidence for Alewife Predation of the European Cladoceran Bythotrephes Cederstroemii in Northern Lake Michigan,"/.
Great Lakes Res. 16(2):279-287, International Association for Great Lakes Research, 1990.
5. Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Surface Water Quality Division, "Michigan 305(b) Report, Volume 11," 1990.
6. Harris, H J., and C. Holden, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, The Institute for Land and Water Studies, "The State of the Bay," 1990.
Figure 2-1: Simplified View of the Great Lakes Food Web
Colborn, T.E., A. Davidson, S.N. Green, R.A. Hodge, CI. Jackson, and RA. Liroff, Great Lakes, Great Legacy?, Conservation Foundation
(Washington, D.C) and the Institute for Research on Public Policy (Ottawa, Ontario), 1990, p. 18.
Figure 2-2: Lake Ontario Food Web Biomagniflcation
Bishop, C and D.V. Weseloh, "Contaminants in Herring Gulls from the Great Lakes," Environment Canada, Catalogue No. EN1-12/90-
2E, 1990, p. 3.
Figure 2-3: Contaminants in Herring Gull Eggs, Sister Island, Green Bay
Bishop and Weseloh, 1990, p. 6 & 7.
Figure 2-4: Contaminants in Lake Michigan Bloater Chubs
Data provided by R J. Hesselberg, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, National Fisheries Center - Great Lakes,
Ann Arbor, MI, 1991.
Table 2-1: Great Lakes Fish Consumption Advisories (1989)
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Water Pollution Control, "Illinois Water Quality Report, 1988-1989," April 1990.
Indiana Department of Environmental Management, "1986-87 305(b) Report."
Report to the International Joint Commission 111
-------
Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Surface Water Quality Division, "Michigan 305(b) Report, Volume 11,"1990.
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, "The 1990 Report to the Congress of the United States of America by the State of Minnesota Pur-
suant to Section 305(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Act," April 1990.
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Bureau of Monitoring & Assessment Division of Water, "New York State
Water Quality 1990," April 1990.
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Water Quality Planning & Assessment, "Ohio Water Resource Inventory," 1990.
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, Bureau of Water Quality Management, "Water Quality Assessment (305(b)
Report)," April 1990.
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, "Wisconsin Water Quality Assessment Report to Congress 1990," June 1990.
Figure 2-5: Great Lakes Fish Contamination in National Perspective (1984)
Srhmirt, CJ., JX. Zajicek, and P.H. Peterman, "National Contaminant Bioonitoring Program: Residues of Organochlorine Chemicals in
U.S. Freshwater Fish, 1976-1984," Arch. Environ. Contam. ToxicoL 19:731-747,1990.
Schmitt, CJ. and W.G. Brumbaugh, "National Contaminant Biomonitoring Program: Concentrations of Arsenic, Copper, Lead, Mercury,
Selenium, and Zinc in U.S. Fish, 1976-1984,1"Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 19:731-747,1990.
Table 2-2: Some Key Toxic Contaminants in the Great Lakes
Environment Canada Department of Fisheries and Oceans, and Health and Welfare Canada, "Toxic Chemicals in the Great Lakes, and As-
sociated Effects," 1991.
Colborn et al- 1990, pp. 22-23.
Figure 2-6: Combined Sewer Overflows Along the Detroit River.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environment Canada, Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Ontario Ministry of the En-
vironment, Final Report of the Great Lakes Connecting Channels Study, Volume II, December 1988, p. 518.
Figure 2-7: « Contamination in the Lower Detroit River as Suggested by Impacts on Benthic Macro invertebrate Communities
Hiornley, S. "Macrobenthos of the Detroit and St. Clair Rivers with Comparisons to Neighboring Waters,"/. Great Lakes Research. 11:290-
296,1985.
Figure 2-8: Routes of Releases of Toxic Substances around the Great Lakes according to the Toxics Release Inventory (198S)
Figure provided by P. Pranckevicius, U.S EPA Great Lakes National Program Office, using data of 1988 from the U.S. EPA Toxics Release
Inventory.
Figure 2-9: RfNif of Toxic Substances around the Great Lakes by Manufacturing Industrial Group according to the Toxics Release
Inventory (1988)
Figure provided by P. Pranckevicius, U.S. EPA Great Lakes National Program Office, using data of 1988 from the U.S. EPA Toxics
Release Inventory.
Figure 2-10: Btlw«w of Toxic Substances in Great Lakes Counties according to the Toxics Release Inventory (1988)
Figure provided by P. Pranckevicius and B. Manne, U.S. EPA Great Lakes National Program Office, using data of 1988 from the U.S. EPA
Toxics Release Inventory.
Figure 2-11: Prasettlement Extent of the Black Swamp in Northwestern Ohio
Colborn et si-1990, p. 144; from Forsyth, J.L., The Black Swamp, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geological Survey,
I960; in Herdcndorf, The Ecology of the Coastal Marches of Lake Erie: A Community Profile, Biological Report 85(7.9), Washington,
D.C U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1987, p. 140.
Figure 2-12: Timing of the Entry of Exotic Species into the Great Lakes
Mills, E. and J. Leach, unpublished data on exotic species, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, National Fisheries
Center - Great Lakes, 1991.
Figure 2-13: Entry Routes of Exotic S pedes
Mills and Leach, 1991.
Figure 2-14: Phosphorus Loading to Lake Erie
1988 and 1989 data provided by D. Dalan,IJCs Great Lakes Regional Office. Earlier data from LIC's Water Quality Board Report cm
Great Tuire Water Quality, 1987. The data is originally developed by U.S. and Canadian monitoring programs.
Figure 2-15: Spring Phosphorus Levels in Lake Erie's Central Basin
Data provided byP. Bertram, U.S. EPA-Great Lakes National Program Office, 1991.
112
-------
Figure 2-16: Oxygen Depletion Rate for the bottom waters of the Central Basin of Lake Erie
Makarewicz, J.C. and P. Bertram, "Evidence for the Restoration of the Lake Erie Ecosystem," Bioscience, Vol. 41, No. 4,1991, pp. 216 -
223.
Chapter Four
Figure 4-1: Areas of Concern
International Joint Commission, Great Lakes Water Quality Board, 1987 Report on Great Lakes Water Quality., p. 38.
Figure 4-2: Cropland in the Great Lakes Watershed (1988)
Figure provided by P. Pranckevicius and B. Manne, U.S. EPA Great Lakes National Program Office, using data of 1988 provided by the Na-
tional Association of Conservation Districts, Conservation Technology Information Center.
Figure 4-3: Conservation Tillage in the Great Lakes Watershed (1988)
Figure provided by P. Pranckevicius and B. Manne, U.S. EPA Great Lakes National Program Office, using data of 1988 provided by the Na-
tional Association of Conservation Districts, Conservation Technology Information Center.
Chapter Five
Figure 5-1: Great Lakes Harbors with the Most Recorded Oil and Chemical Spills, January 1980 • September 1989
U.S. Coast Guard Report to U.S. Senate Oversight Government Management Subcommittee, April 1990.
Chapter Six
Figure 6-1: Green Bay/Fox River Study Area
Figure provided by the Institute for Land and Water Studies, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay.
Figure 6-2: Contaminants in Several Species of Lake Michigan Fish
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes National Program Office, 1991.
Hesselberg, RJ., J.P. Hickey, D-A. Nortrup, and WA Willford, "Contaminant Residues in the Bloater (Coregonus Hpyi) of Lake
Michigan, 1969-1986,"/. Great Lakes Res. 16(1): 121-129, International Association Great Lakes Res., 1990.
End Notes and Sources 113
-------
Glossary
A
Acute Toxicity; The ability of a substance to cause poisonous effects resulting in severe biological harm or death soon after a single exposure or dose. (See chronic
toxicity, toxicity.)
Administrative Order: A legal document signed by EPA directing an individual, business, or other entity to take corrective action or refrain from an activity. The
order describes the violations and actions to be taken and can be enforced in court. Such orders may be issued, for example, as a result of an administrative
complaint whereby the respondent is ordered to pay a penalty for violations of a statute.
Adsorption: The adhesion of molecules of gas, liquid or dissolved solids to a surface.
Advanced Wastewater Treatment: Any treatment of sewage that goes beyond the secondary or biological water treatment stage and includes the removal of
nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, and a high percentage of suspended solids. (See Primary, Secondary Treatment)
Advisory: A nonregulatory document that communicates risk information.
Agricultural Foliation: The liquid and solid wastes from forming, including runoff and leaching of pesticides and fertilizers, erosion and dust from plowing, and
animal manure.
Airborne Particulates: Total suspended matter found in the atmosphere as solid particles or liquid droplets. Airborne particulates include windblown dust,
emissions from industrial processes, smoke from the burning of wood and coal, and the exhaust of motor vehicles.
Air Pollutant: Any substance in air that could, if in high enough concentration, harm man, other animals, vegetation, or material.
Algae: Simple rootless plants that grow in sunlit waters in relative proportion to the amounts of light and nutrients available. They are food for fish and small
aquatic animals.
Ambient Air or Water Air or water which is qualitatively representative of that found across an area (e.g., the ambient air of metropolitan Chicago; the ambient
water quality of Lake Superior).
Anoxia: The absence of oxygen necessary for sustaining most life. In aquatic ecosystems, this refers to the absence of dissolved oxygen in water.
Anti-Degradation Policies: Part of Federal air quality and water quality requirements prohibiting environmental deterioration.
Aquifer: An underground geological formation, or group of formations, containing ground water that can supply wells and spring*.
Areas of Concern: A geographic area that fails to meet the General or Specific Objectives of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement where such failure has
caused or is likely to cause impairment of beneficial use or of the area's ability to support aquatic life. In general, these are bays, harbors, and river mouths with
damaged fish and wildlife populations, contaminated bottom sediments, and past or continuing loadings of toxic and bacterid pollutants.
Atmosphere: [an] (the) The whole mass of air surrounding the earth, composed largely of oxygen and nitrogen.
Atmospheric Deposition: Pollution from the atmosphere associated with diy deposition in the form of dust, wet deposition in the form of rain and snow, or as
a result of vapor exchanges.
B
Bacteria: A group of universally distributed, rigid, essentially unicellular microscopic organisms lacking chlorophyll. Some bacteria can aid in pollution control
by consuming or breaking down organic matter in sewage, or by similarly acting on oil spills or other water pollutants. Bacteria in soil, water, or air can also
cause human, animal, and plant health problems.
Bacteria, collform group: A group of bacteria, predominantly inhabitants of the intestine of man or animals.
Benthk Organism (Benthos): A form of aquatic plant or animal life that is found near the bottom of a stream, lake, or ocean. Besthic populations are often
indicative of sediment quality. The benthos comprise:
1. sessile animals such as sponges, some worms and many attached algae;
Z creeping forms such as snails and flatworms; and
3. burrowing forms which include most clams, worms, mayflies and midges.
Benthic Region: The bottom layer of a body of water.
Bioaccumulative Substances: Substances that increase in concentration in living organisms (that are vety sJowfy metabolized or excreted) a* they breathe
contaminated air or water, drink contaminated water, or eat contaminated food. (See biological magnification.)
Bioasaay: Using organisms to measure the effect of a substance, factor, or condition by comparing before- and after- data.
Biological Magnification: Refers to the process whereby certain substances become more concentrated in tissues at each successive stage up the food web. (See
bioaccumulative.)
Biomasa: All the living material in a given area: often refers to vegetation. Algal biomass is often indicative of the trophic status of a water body.
Bog: A type of wetland that accumulates appreciable peat deposits. Bog* depend primarily on precipitation for their water source and are usually acidic and rich
in plant residue with a conspicuous mat of living green moss.
Byproduct: Material, other than the principal product, that is generated as a consequence of an industrial process.
Report to the International Joint Commission 115
-------
c
Cap: A Layer of clay, or other highly impermeable material, installed over the top of a closed landfill to prevent entiy of rainwater and to minimize movement of
leachate.
Carcinogen: Any substance that can cause or contribute to the production of cancer.
n.urin.1^1 Hydrocarbons: These include a «•<— of persistent insecticides that linger in the environment and accumulate in the food chain, including DOT,
aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, chlordane, lindane, endrin, mire*, hexachloride, and toxaphene. Otherexamples include TCE, which is used as an industrial solvent,
and PCBs, formerly used as a hydraulic fluid.
Chlorophyll-*: The photosynthetic pigment found in most algae. ChlorophyU-a is used to measure the rate of photosynthesis in a body of water.
Chronic Toxicity: The capacity of a substance to cause poisonous effects in an organism after long-term exposure. (See acute toxicity.)
Cleanup: Actions taken to remedy a past release of a hazardous substance.
Clear Cot: The harvesting of all the trees in an area. Under certain soil and slope conditions, it can permit soil erosion.
Containment Cells: Enclosures which confine contaminants.
rj.mM.MMi Sewers: A sewer system that carries both sewage and stormwater runoff. Normally, its entire flow goes to a waste treatment plant, but during a heavy
storm, the stormwater volume may be so great as to cause overflows (combined sewer overflow). When this happens, untreated mixtures of stormwater and
sewage may flow into receiving waters. Stormwater runoff may also cany toxic chemicals from industrial areas or streets into the sewer system.
Consent Decree: A legal document, approved by a judge, that formalizes an agreement reached between EPA and Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs) through
which PRPs will conduct all of part of a cleanup action at a Superfund site, cease or correct actions or processes that are polluting the environment, or otheiwise
comply with regulations where the PRP's failure to comply caused EPA to initiate regulatory enforcement actions. The consent decree describes the actions
PRPs will take and may be subject to a public comment period.
Contaminant: Any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance or matter that has an advene effect on air, water, or soil.
Conventional Pollutants: Such contaminants as organic waste, sediment, add, bacteria and viruses, nutrients, oil and grease, or heat
D
Decay: The breakdown of organic matter by bacteria and fungi.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO): The oxygen freely available in water. Dissolved oxygen is vital to fish and other aquatic life. Traditionally, the level of dissolved oxygen
has been accepted as the single most important indicator of a water body's ability to support desirable aquatic life.
Drainage Basin: A water body and the land area drained by it.
Dredging: Removal of sediment from the bottom of a water body.
E
Ecosystem: The interacting system of a biological community and its environmental surroundings.
Effluent! Wastewater ^treated or untreated—that flows from a treatment plant, sewer, or industrial outfall. Generally refer* to discharges into surface waters.
Fin lit Inn- Discharges into the atmosphere from such sources as smokestacks, residential chimneys, motor vehicles, locomotives, and aircraft.
Enrichments The addition of nutrients ( e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon compounds) to a water body. This fertilization process greatly increases the growth
of aquatic plants. Common nutrient sources are sewage and agricultural runoff.
Epidemiology: The study of diseases as they affect population, including the distribution of disease, or other health-related states in human populations, the
factors (e.g. age, sex, occupation, economic status) that influence this distribution, and the application of this study to control health problems.
Erosion: The wearing away of land surface by wind or water. Erosion occuis naturally but can be worsened by Cuming, residential or industrial development,
mining, or timber-cutting.
Estuary: Regions of interaction between rivers and oceans where tidal action and river flow create a mixing of freshwater and saltwater, including bays, mouths
of rivers, salt marshes, and lagoons. These brackish water ecosystems shelter and feed marine life, birds, and wildlife. (See wetlands.)
Eutrophkation: The process of fertilization that causes high productivity and biomass in an aquatic ecosystem. Eutrophication can be a natural process or it can
be a cultural process accelerated by an increase of nutrient loading to a lake by human activity.
Exotic Species: Species that are not native to the Great Lakes, and that have been intentionally introduced to, or have inadvertently infiltrated, the system. Exotics
prey upon native species and compete with them for food or habitat.
F
Feasibility Study (FS): Analysis of the practicability of a proposal (e.g., a description and analysis of the potential cleanup alternatives for a site on the National
Priorities List). The feasibility study usually recommends selection of a cost-effective alternative. It usually starts as soon as the remedial investigation is
underway; together, they ate commonly referred to as the "RI/FS". The term can apply to a variety of proposed corrective or regulatory actions.
Feu A type of wetland that accumulates peat deposits. Pens are less acidic than bogs, deriving moat of their water from ground water rich in calcium and
magnesium. (See wetlands.)
Fertilizer: Materials, including nitrogen and phosphorus, that provide nutrients for plants.
116
-------
Food Chain: A sequence of organisms, each of which uses the next, lower member of the sequence as a food source. Members of a chain are interdependent so
that a disturbance to one species can disrupt the entire hierarchy.
Food Web: Hie complex feeding network occurring within and between food chains in an ecosystem, whereby members of one food chain may belong to one or
more other food chains.
G
Game Fish: Fish species caught for sport, such as trout, salmon, or bass.
Ground Water; The supply of fresh or saline water found beneath the Earth's surface, usually in aquifers, often supplying wells and springs.
H
Habitat: The place where a population (e.g., human, animal, plant, micro-organism) lives and its surroundings.
Hazard Ranking System: The principle screening tool used by EPA to evaluate risks to public health and the environment associated with inactive hazardous
waste sites. The HRS calculates a score based on the risks posed by the site. This score is the primary factor in deciding if the site should be placed on the
National Priorities List and addressed by the Superfund program.
Hazardous Waste: Substances that can pose a substantial or potential hazard to human health and/or the environment Waste is classified as hazardous if it
possesses at least one of four characteristics (ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity) or appears on special EPA lists.
Heavy Metals: Metallic elements with high atomic weights (e.g., mercury, chromium, cadmium, arsenic, and lead). They tend to be toxic and bioaccumulate.
Herbicide: A chemical pesticide designed to control or destroy plants, weeds, or grasses.
/
Indicator An organism, species, or community whose characteristics show the presence of specific environmental conditions.
Insecticide: A chemical specifically used to kill or control the growth of insects.
International Joint Commission (UC): A binational Commission, established by the 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty, with responsibility for derisions regarding
obstruction or diversion of U.SVCanadian boundary waters. In 1972 the Commission was given responsibility for monitoring implementation of the Great Lakes
Water Quality Agreement.
J,KfL
Lunpridde: A chemical used to kill sea lamprey.
landfills: 1. Land disposal sites for nonhazaidous solid wastes at which the waste is spread in layers, compacted to the smallest practical volume, and covered
with material applied at the end of each operating day. 2. Secure chemical landfills for hazardous waste. They are designed to minimize the chance of release
of hazardous substances into the environment
Larva: the early, free-living form of any animal that changes structurally when it becomes an adult, usually by a complex metamorphosis.
Leachate: A liquid that results torn water collecting contaminants as it trickles through wastes, agricultural pesticides or fertilizers. Leaching may occur in farming
areas, feed lots, and landfills and may result in hazardous substances entering surface water, ground water, or soil.
Leaded Gasoline: Gasoline to which lead has been added to raise the octane level.
Liner: A relatively impermeable barrier designed to prevent leachate from leaking torn a landfill. Liner materials include plastic and dense clay.
Loading: The addition of a substance to a water body.
M
Marsh; A type of wetland that does not accumulate appreciable peat deposits and is dominated by herbaceous vegetation. Marshes may be either freshwater or
saltwater and tidal or nontidal. (See wetlands.)
Mass Balance Approach: An analytic method, based on conservation of mass, used to assess the quantity and cycling of contaminants throughout a water system.
Metabolite: A substance, derived from a chemical, produced by biological processes.
Modeling: A theory or a mathematical or physical representation of a system that accounts for all or some of its known properties. Models are often used to test
the effect of changes of system components on the overall performance of the system.
Monitoring: A scientifically designed system of continuing standardized measurements and observations and the evaluation thereof.
Mulch: A layer of material (e.g., wood chips, straw, leaves) placed around plants to hold moisture, prevent weed growth, protect the plants, and hold the soil.
N
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): The national program for controlling discharges of pollutants from point sources (e.g^ municipal
sewage treatment plants, industrial facilities) into the waters of the United States.
Glossary 117
-------
National Priorities list (NFL): EPA's list of the most serious uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites identified for long-term remedial action under
Superfund. A site must be on the NPL to receive money from the Trust Fund for remedial action. This list is based primarily on the score a site receives from
the Hazard Ranking System. EPA updates the NPL at least once a year.
Navigable Waters: Waters sufficiently deep and wide for navigation by all or by specified sizes of vessels. Maintenance of navigation is a Federal responsibility
carried out by the Army Corps of Engineers.
Nitrate: A compound containing nitrogen and oxygen that can exist in the atmosphere or in water and that can have harmful effects on humans and animals at
high concentrations.
Nonpoint Source Pollution sources that are diffuse and do not have a single point of origin or are not introduced into a receiving stream from a specific outlet.
The pollutants are generally carried off land by stonnwater runoff. Commonly used categories for nonpoint sources are agriculture, forestry, urban, mining,
construction, dams and channels, and land disposal.
Nntrient: Any substance assimilated by living organisms that promotes growth. The term is generally applied to nitrogen and phosphorous, but is also applied
to other essential trace elements.
o
Open-Lake: Those waters in a lake unaffected by physical and chemical processes resulting from the adjacent land mass.
Organic ChemicaWCompounds: Animal- or plant-produced substances containing mainly carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Organism: Any living plant or animal.
Organochlorine: An organic compound containing chlorine.
P>Q
Parasitic; Any organism that lives on or in an organism of another species from which it derives sustenance or protection without benefit to, and usually with
harmful effects on, the host.
Permit: An authorization, license, or equivalent control document issued by EPA or a State agency to implement the requirements of an environmental regulation
(e.g., a permit to operate a wastewater treatment plant or to operate a facility that may generate harmful emissions).
Persistent Pesticides: Pesticides that do not break down chemically or that degrade very slowly.
Persistent Toxic Substance: Any toxic substance with a half-life in water of greater than eight weeks.
Pesticide: A substance intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest Also, any substance or mixture of substances intended for use as a
plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant.
Phosphorus: An essential chemical food element that can contribute to the eutrophication of lakes and other water bodies.
Photosynthesis: A process occurring in the cells of green plants and some micro-organisms in which solar energy it transformed into stored chemical energy.
Phytoplankton: That portion of the plankton community comprising tiny plants (e.g., algae, diatoms).
Plankton: Microscopic plants and animals that live in water.
Point Sonne: A stationary facility from which pollutants are discharged or emitted. Also, any single identifiable source of pollution (e.g., a pipe, ditch, ship, ore
pit, factory smokestack).
Pollutant: Any substance introduced into the environment that adversely affects the usefulness of a resource.
Pollution Prevention: Measures taken to reduce the generation of a substance that could be harmful to living organisms if released to the environment. Pollution
prevention can be achieved in many ways.
Potentially Responsible Party (PRP): Any individual or company including owners, operators, transporters, or generators potentially responsible for, or
contributing to, the contamination problems at a Superfund site. Whenever possible, EPA requires PRPs, through administrative and legal actions, to dean up
hazardous waste sites that they may have created.
Predator Any organism that lives by capturing and feeding on another animal
Pre treatment: Processes used to reduce, eliminate, or alter pollutants from non-residential sources before they are discharged into publicly owned sewage
treatment systems.
Primary Waste Treatment: This treatment consists of the first steps in wastewater treatment during which screens and sedimentation tanks are used to remove
most materials that float or will settle. Primary treatment results in the removal of about 30 percent of carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand from domestic
sewage.
Productivity: Refers to the efficiency with which an ecosystem generates life.
Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTWs): A waste-treatment facility owned by a State, unit of local government, or Indian tribe.
R
Radiotracers: A radioactive substance, usually an isotope, used to mark the progress of a process (e.g., the physical movement of sediment).
Record of Decision (ROD): A public document that explains which cleanup altemative(s) will be used at Superfund National Priorities List sites.
Remedial Action Plans (RAPs): Environmental plans aimed at restoring all beneficial uses to Great Lakes Areas of Concern.
118
-------
Remedial Design: A phase of remedial action that follows the remedial investigation/feasibility study and includes development of engineering drawings and
specifications for a site cleanup.
Remedial Investigation: An in-depth study designed to gather the data necessary to determine the nature and extent of contamination at a Superfund site,
establish criteria for cleaning up the site, identify preliminary alternatives for remedial actions, and support the technical and cost analyses of the alternatives.
The remedial investigation is usually conducted with the feasibility study; together, they are usually referred to as an "RI/FS".
Removal Action: Quick remedies taken to address immediate hazards at contaminated waste sites.
Research: Development, interpretation, and demonstration of advanced scientific knowledge for the resolution of issues. It does not include monitoring and
surveillance of water or air quality.
Resnspenslon (of sediment): The remixing of sediment particles and pollutants back into the water by storms, currents, organisms, and human activities, such
as dredging.
Retention Time: The time it takes for the volume of water in a lake to exit through its outlet (i.e., Total volume/outlet flow - Retention time).
Risk Assessment: A qualitative and quantitative evaluation to define the hazards posed to human health and/or the environment.
Run-Oft: That part of precipitation, snow melt, or irrigation water that drains off land into surface water. It can cany sediments and pollutants into the receiving
waters.
5
Secondary Waste Treatment: The second step in most waste treatment systems in which bacteria consume the organic parts of the waste. It is accomplished by
bringing together waste, bacteria, and oxygen in trickling filters or in the activated sludge process. This removes floating and settleable solids and about 90
percent of the oxygen-demanding substances and suspended solids. Disinfection is the final stage of secondary treatment. (See primaiy, tertiary treatment.)
Sediments: Soil, sand, and minerals eroded from land by water or air. Sediments settle to the bottom of surface water.
Sewage: The waste and wastewater discharged into sewers from homes and industry.
Sewer A channel or conduit that carries wastewater and stormwater runoff from its source to a treatment plant or receiving stream. Sanitary sewers carry
household, industrial, and commercial waste; storm sewers cany runoff from rain or snow; and combined sewers cany both.
Sill: Fine particles of soil, sand or rock; sediment
Site Inspection: The collection of information from a Superfund site to determine the extent and severity of hazards posed by the site, including information to
score the site, using the Hazard Ranking System, and to determine if the site presents an immediate threat that requires prompt removal. It follows and is more
extensive than a preliminary assessment.
Stratification (or layering): The tendency in deep water bodies for distinct layers of water to form as a result of vertical change in temperature and therefore in
the density of water. During stratification, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and other parameters of water chemistry do not mix well between layers, establishing
chemical as well as thermal gradients.
SoperfuiKl: The program under the legislative authority of CERCLA and SARA that carries out EPA's solid waste emergency and long-term remedial activities.
These activities include establishing a National Priorities List of the nation's most hazardous inactive waste sites and conducting remedial actions. Sites are
cleaned up by potentially responsible parties whenever this can be arranged.
Surface Water All water open to the atmosphere (e.g., riven, lakes, reservoirs, streams, impoundments, seas, estuaries) and all springs, wells, or other collector*
that are directly influenced by surface water.
Surveillance: Specific observations and measurements related to control or management.
Swamp: A type of wetland that is dominated by woody vegetation and that does not accumulate appreciable peat deposits. Swamps may be freshwater or saltwater
and tidal or nontidal. (See wetlands.)
T
Tailing*: Residue of raw materials or waste separated out during the processing of crops or mineral ores.
Technology-Based Standards: Limits on contaminants in effluent that EPA sets by industry and treatment technology.
Tertiary Waste Treatment: Advanced cleaning of wastewater that goes beyond the secondary or biological stage and removes nutrients, such as phosphorous
and nitrogen, and most biological oxygen demand and suspended solids.
Toxic: Poisonous to living organisms.
Toxic Substance (or Toxicant): A substance that can cause death, disease, behavioral abnormalities, cancer, genetic mutations, physiological or reproductive
malfunctions, or physical deformities in any organism or its offspring. The quantities and length of exposure necessary to cause these effects can vaiy widely.
Trophic Status: A measure of the biological productivity in a body of water. Aquatic ecosystems are characterized as oligotrophy (low productivity), mesotrophic
(medium productivity), or eutiophic (high productivity).
u
Urban Runoff: Stormwater from city streets and adjacent domestic or commercial properties that may pickup terrestrial contamination and cany pollutants of
various kinds into sewer systems and/or receiving waters.
Glossary 119
-------
V
Vaporization: The change of a substance from a liquid to a gas.
Volatile Substance: A substance that evaporates readily.
w
Waste Treatment Plant: A facility containing a series of tanks, screens, filters, and other processes by which pollutants are removed from water.
Wastewater: The spent or used water from individual homes, a community, a farm, or an industry that often contains dissolved or suspended matter.
Watershed: The land area that drains into a river, stream, or lake.
Water Table: Hie level of ground water.
Water Quality Standards: State-adopted and EPA-approved standards for water bodies. Standards are developed considering the uses of the water body and
the water quality criteria that must be met to protect the designated uses.
Wetland: An area that is regularly saturated by surface water or ground water and is characterized by a prevalence of vegetation that is adapted for life in saturated
soil conditions (e.g., swamps, bogs, fens, marches, and estuaries).
Wildlife Refuge: An area designated for the protection of wild animals, within which hunting and fishing are either prohibited or strictly controlled.
X,Y,Z
Zooplankton: Microscopic aquatic animals.
120
-------
------- |