UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
March 21, 1973
MEMORANDUM
TO: Director, Effluent Guidelines Division
FROM: Director, Office of Permit Programs
SUBJECT: Effluent Limitation Guidance and Technical Documentation
for the Pulp and Paper Industry
Pursuant to our original agreement and in compliance with Mr. Fri's
March 1, 1973, memorandum, we are herewith transmitting to EGD effluent
guidance for the Pulp and Paper Industry and the required Technical
Support Documentation.
The Technical Support Documentation provides a basis for the
development of effluent limitations for kraft mills integrated with
NSSC, but in keeping with Mr. Fri's memo we defer this development
to EGD.
In our opinion, this guidance together with the supporting technical
documentation meet the requirements of Public Law 92-500, Sections 301(b)
(1)(A) and 304 (b)(2)(B) for BPCTCA and should be promulgated in the
Federal Register via the prescribed procedures as soon as possible.
This guidance and supporting data were developed by David N. Lyons
of the Office of Permit Programs and Thomas Gallagher, NFIC-Denver.
Attachment
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PULP & PAPER INDUSTRY
EFFLUENT LIMITATION GUIDANCE
&
TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION
OFFICE
OF
PERMIT PROGRAMS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Washington, D.C.
March 21, 1973
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section I - Effluent Limitation Guidance
Section II - Technical Documentation
Basis for Guidance Development Page 1
Categorization of the Industry Page 2
Water Use ahd Waste Characteristics Page 9
Existing Control and Treatment Technology .... Page 17
Effects of Alternate Treatment and Control
Technology Upon Non-Water Quality Environmental
Problems Page 36
Economic Considerations Page 40
Best Practical Control Technology
Currently Available Page 43
Considerations for Using Effluent Limits for
Permit Development Page 57
List of References Page 62
APPENDIX
A - Economic Impact Analysis
B - Construction Cost Curves
C - Flow Data Analysis
D - Description of Sub-Categories
E - Support Documentation Summary
F - Listing of United States Pulp and Pap^T Mills
G - Selected References
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EFFLUENT LIMITATION GUIDANCE
for
THE REFUSE ACT PERMIT PROGRAM
PULP AMP PAPER INDUSTRY
June 9, 1972
-------
GENERAL
This guidance for the establishment of effluent limitations for
discharges in the Pulp and Paper industrial category sets forth
numerical limitations based on the application of 'best practicable
control technology currently available.' Schedule A values reflect
the Agency's best technical judgment of the effluent levels which
can be achieved by the application of the highest level of control
technology which is now considered 'practicable' and 'currently
available' for the industry. . Schedule A values are based on
the totality of experience with the technology, including
demonstration projects, pilot plants, and actual use, which
demonstrates that it is technologically and economically
reliable.
In every case of (i) new plants installing pollution abatement
equipment and (ii) existing plants now beginning abatement pro-
grams, you should apply Schedule A values. In some cases,
economic and social factors may affect the practicability of
applying control techniques to achieve these values, and may
require some modification of Schedule A values as to particular
plants. These instances should be kept to an absolute minimum.
Guidance on the economic and social factors which may require
that you consider such modifications, as well as more detailed
explanation of the engineering assumptions underlying the
Schedule A values, will be provided at technical seminars to
be conducted concerning each industrial category.
Schedule B values represent the minimum acceptable effluent
levels for the Pulp and Paper industry. No plant should achieve
less pollution reduction than Schedule B values. Schedule B
values may be applied where a discharger has, at the time the
permit is issued, commenced and made substantial progress on an
abatement program that will be completed within 24 months or less
from the time the discharge permit is issued. If the plant also
has extensive on-going pollution abat.en.ent programs in other areas
such as air pollution the Regional Administrator may modify this
24 month period.
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2
EFFLUENT LIMITS
Production Basis. The average permitted effluent level,
in pounds per day, shall be computed by multiplying the maximum
daily production, in air-dry tons, as determined at the time of
application by the recommended effluent limitations contained
herein.
2. Suspended Solids, Separate A and B Schedules for suspended
solids also are provided. If it is determined that suspended
solids levels can not be applied at this time to this facility,
the permit shall still include the settleable solids limitation
of "no detectable settleable solids" and the permittee instructed
to monitor suspended solids in the discharge for a suitable
period of time with the understanding that evaluation of these
data by EPA could result in the application of a suspended solids
limitation. In this instance, the exact wording of the permit
shall be:
"a. The effluent shall contain no detectable settleable
sol ids.
b. fVfter an analysis of the suspended solids and other
data provided by the permittee for a suitable period
of time as determined by the Regional Administrator,
the District Engineer may, in accordance with
determination of the Regional Administrator, direct
the permittee to reduce his discharge of suspended
solids to appropriate levels from any or all discharge
points covered by this permit. If such action is
taken, a reasonable period of time, of at least six
months, shall be given to accomplish appropriate
reduction of suspended solids/'
NOTE: This condition is only to be used for permits for the
pulp and paper industry and then only for suspended solids.
If it is used, be sure to include a suspended solids monitoring
requirement in the monitoring and reporting condition. Any
modification of the above condition will be included in the
Manual of Permit Conditions.
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Revised Copy
August 4, 1972
Conditions for Application of BOD, Suspended Solids and Settleable Solids
Limitations
a. BOD and Suspended Solids canplicJice will be based on 24-hour composites.
b. Grab sarrples shall be considered as a nonitaring tool and as an indicator
of treatment plant operations. Any grab sample, however, in excess of
150 mg/1 for either five-day BCD or suspended solids shall not be
permitted.
c. The permit will be considered to be violated if:
(1) the average of 24-hour comosite samples collected over any
20 consecutive day operati:tg period exceeds the permitted effluent
limit for five-day BOD, or if specified suspended solids;
*(2) the five-day BCD level in ;my 24-hour composite sample exceeds
by 50% the permitted effluent level;
*(3) in cases where suspended solids limitations are established, the
suspended solids level in ciny 24-hour composite sample exceeds by
100% the permitted effluent level;
(4) there are settleable solids in excess of 0.1 ml/1 in any 24 hour
composite sample.
NOTES
(a) The levels specified above are to be treated as maximum variances
where receiving water quality does not govern effluent quality. Where
receiving water quality requires more stringent limits, the allowable
variances should be adjusted accordingly.
(b) The allowed percent variances be adjusted to reflect operations where
the wastewater in the treatment facility may fall below 10° C. In
these cases, however, the above maximum allowed variances shall still
prevail.
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4. Coliform. This is a significant parameter for mixtures of
industrial wastewater and sewage and may be significant for
industrial wastewater alone. Because of the complex sewering
of most mills, the presence of sewaqe must be established by
dye test, sampling and analysis for fecal coliform organisms.
If sewage is present, the following effluent limit shall be
imposed:
"Organisms isolated in the fecal coliform test and
associated with pathogens shall not exceed 1000
organisms per 100 ml."(T)
(1) Where receiving waters are classified for shellfish
harvesting or contact recreational sports, the effluent
limits shall be reduced to comply with the established
water quality criteria.
The sanitary significance of fecal coliform organisms in
strictly industrial wastewater has not been positively
established and thus monitoring is necessary. Especially where
pulping is part of the production operation, monitoring of effluent
fecal coliform shall be required.
5. Toxic Materials, Oil and Grease. These parameters should
be considered to determine their significance on an individual
basis. If they are determined to be significant, then the
appropriate "Special Conditions" should be applied.
6. pjl. The pH shall be maintained between 6.0 and 8.5 unless
unusual receiving water conditions necessitate a variance (e.g.,
the natural pH is outside this range).
7- Other Limits. The following may be significant parameters
depending on production and receiving water characteristics:
Color
Turbidity
Foam
Phenol
Ammonia
Sulfite Waste Liquor
When deemed necessary, effluent limits applied to these parameters
shall consider receiving water quality and available technology.
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5
RECOMMENDED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
PULP AND PAPER PROCESSING INDUSTRY
PRODUCTION LB. OF FIVE DAY BOD PER TON OF PRODUCT
PROCESS Schedule A Schedule B
I. KRAFT PULPING AND THE
MANUFACTURE OF;
Coarse Paper arid Liner Board 5 6
Npw^nrint ^ .
Bleached & Unbleached Grades 9 10
Bleached Grades ''
II. SULFITE PULPING AND THE
MANUFACTURE OF:
Paper 35 40
~aper\ ¦ 60 80
Dissolving Pulp
III. NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL
GROUNDWOOD
VII. PAPER MANUFACTURE
(From Purchased Pulp)
Coarse
14 25
Unbleached 2.5
Bleached
V. DEINKING MILL 10
VI. PAPERBOARD (No Deinking) 3
2
25
5
Fine ( < 8% filled) 6 o
Book ( > B% filled) 3 6
Tissue 8 8
NOTES: (1) Groups I, II, III, and IV apply to integrated mills (combined
pulping and pftpermaking operations).
{?.) Groups V and VI refer to wastepaper processing plants.
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6
RECOMMENDED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
PULP AND PAPER PROCESSING INDUSTRY
PACTION
PROCESS
I. KRAFT PULPING AND THE
MANUFACTURE OF:
Coarse Paper and Liner Board
Newsprint
Bleached & Unbleached Grades
Bleached Grades
SULFITE PULPING AND THE
MANUFACTURE OF:
Paper
Dissolving Pulp
ijI. NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL
V. GR0UNDW00D
Unbleached
Bleached
v- OEINKING MILL
PAPERBOARD (No Deinking)
^11 PAPER MANUFACTURE
(From Purchased Pulp)
Coarse
Fine ( < 8% filled)
Book ( > 8/o filled)
Tissue
LB- OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS PER TON OF PRODUCT
Schedule A Schedule B
5
6
10
10
20
20
8
5
9
12
3
3
7
4
6
5
6
10
10
20
20
15
9
10
15
5
5
8
15
6
MOTES: (1) Groups I, II, III, and IV apply to in egrated mills (combined pulping and
papennaking operations).
(2) Groups V and VI refer to wastepaper processing plants.
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7
MONITORING.
Frequency. A daily sampling frequency shall be maintained
for BODk, pH, and Suspended Solids and/or Settleable Solids, except
when a lesser frequency is approved by the Administrator or his
designee.
2. Supplemental Information.
a. Total organic carbon and/or chemical oxygen demand analyses may
be performed by the permittee from the same composite sample
as the five-day BOD analyses and at a frequency approved by the
Administrator or his designee.
b. If there is a question as to the applicability of parameters
listed below, then the permittee may be asked to submit
a list of chemicals used as product additives (e.g., phenols)
or for water conditioning (e.g., heavy metals). This list can
then be used as an aid to establish, by mill, effluent limits
and/or monitoring requirements.
Phenol
Color
Heavy Metals
Nutrients (N&P)
Total Dissolved Solids
Toxicity
Turbidity
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RATIONALE USED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
The following is a description of the rationale used in developing
the effluent limits achievable using best practicable pollution
control and treatment technology.
The following production process controls and treatment system
were used as a model in developing the recommended effluent
limitations for the Pulp and Paper Industry as contained in
Schedule A:
1. Heat and/or chemical recovery from pulping liquors,
efficient save-alls within the paper making process
and a high degree of water reuse,
2. primary clarification,
3. biological oxidation using aerated lagoons or activated
sludge,
4. secondary clarification,
5. disinfection, if necessary.
The system described above is a generalized model which is
applicable to the entire industry. This system, however, should
not be specified to a mill as "the way" to abate their pollution
problem, but it can be used as an example. There are many
variations which may be "tailored" to a mill to achieve the
desired results.
The effluent limitations for BOD and suspended solids were based
on concentrations of 30 rng/1 and 35 mg/1, respectively, which are
levels obtainable by a well designed and well operated system as
described above. The BOD concentration level is readily achievable
regardless of the influent concentration unless the wastewater contains
an unusual or restrictive characteristic. Such characteristics
were considered in develoDment of effluent limits for some processes
(e.g., deinking and sulfite pulping).
The treatment model for tissue mills, using purchased pulp, are
based on an expected effluent ciuality from efficient physical -
chemical treatment. The majority of the BOD in this wastewater
is associated with fibrous materials and thus is amenable to this
type of treatment. The ^plication of biological oxidation to this was
water would not significantly lower the effluent BOD. The wastewater
is also nutrient deficient and, therefore, sobsenuont nutrient
additions to supuort a t ^logical system would result in an
additional Ic-idi'so u.-. r?;:eivinj ner.
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9
A unit pollutant load/unit of production was developed using a How
indicative of a production operation or groups of operations as
described in Schedule A. The flow volumes were developed from data
contained in (a) the "Survey of Water Utilization and Waste Control
Practices in the Southern Pulp and Paper Industry"; (b) the "Industrial
Waste Survey of the Pulp and Paper Industry (WfcPORA)"; (c) specific
data ors mills involved in enforcement or R&M investigations. The
effluent limitations are not additive but represent the allowable load
based on the finished product. The "building block" approach was
not used because of insufficient data.
An examination of effluent data presented in the Industrial Waste
Survey for the Pulp and Paper Industry indicates that 50% of the
mills surveyed, having essentially the system described above, are
meeting the requirements for 800 and suspended solids contained in
Schedule A. All mills utilizing activated sludge are meeting the
requirements in Schedule A. It should be emphasized that this
represents only a small fraction of the mills in the industry. It
does, however, demonstrate the practicality and achievabi1ity of the
technology currently available and it represents a substantial
precedent.
Kraft mills which surpass requirements of Schedule A are, for
example: St. Regis Paper Company at Cantonment, Honda, which
is discharging 5,100 pounds of BOD per day at a production of 950
tons; and the Container Corporation of American Plant at Brewton,
Alabama, which discharges 2,200 pounds of BOD per day for a production
of 1,050 tons per day. These plants are utilizing well designed and
well operated technology in their treatment and process control
system. Recent enforcement negotiations with an acid sulfite,
dissolved grade mill indicate that a waste control system resulting
in an effluent of 59 pounds of BOD per ton of pulp is feasible.
The effluent limits given in Schedule B represent a survey
of treatment practices in the pulp and paper industry. These
limits are based on existing facilities and are the levels which
the industry should be achieving today.
Also included for your use are charts of long-term BOD taken on
effluents front two paper mills in Ohio. These charts show the
five-day BOD of inadecuately treated paper mill waste is a very
minute fraction of the total oxygen demand of the waste. This is
another rationale for requiring the maximum amount of practicable
treatment.
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"lo.vco
£S,Oao
-J S. 1 till
30 AO go fcOto W SO
Tl«2
CONTAINED CORP. OP AMERICA
Ccntt'ncJ BOD-(&-/<%) "^CT" C
C-Z « Mbmi R»vC«" DiKf* t^tu?nf 4® Sc-iolo J?.
C~ 3 '• Coo^inj VVo^Cr- EffJycnJ- 4o Se'o+o R,
t C5rcfe*«De, STP £((!«*«!• 4o Sdofo R.
t > » « i « i t » «
«cc? IIo uo »» \w 1(9 no 109 IfQ ZOO
PAYS
-------
J*0.C5<
IZO.CK
mead cokp. discharge:
/^CUMULATED ly-BOD/tk**
U-6
50 60
SO jdO ;io
TltfS - DAYS
-------
-------
Cjf
WcAD CC£R
M-6
DISCHARGE
! i < » ? t » t > j
2J 40 £0 GO "io 23 IC*> \:o do ]3a
TJM£ - DAV'S
t - » 3 ¦» ' «
i-io J5£> l£0 17C «33 <$o
-------
CONTAINER C02P, OF AMERICA
Fron» Cirt!«vlUa STP
/
/o
1. ¦ » 1 I t t t t t . > t
to 20 SO -JO £i> £0 73 £a tC© »M> Ilit-
•N».« » f t*
-------
COMMNER CORP.
C-Z ' fcvcr DitJi Effluent
» - ' I- ' J '
bO ~IO &0 tOO HO
TfM£~OAYS
»zo
130 HO
ISO
teo *io »ao
*^>u>0
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OFFICE OF r.SFUSE ACT rKOCPAUS
AUG
TO : All Regional refuse Act Program Directors
FRttt : Director, Office of Refuse Act Programs
SUr<.lECT : Definition of Maximum Daily Production - Pulp and
Paper Industry
The Pulp and Paper guideline dated June C, 1972 suggested that
•i!,:.: Production basis for effluent limits be computed based on the
roy/.wr» daily production. It appeals that there is a need for
a further definition of the tern ma::1mun as it applies to this
"isv'M-vry. The following criteria should h-e used. "The maximum
r.!.bo the irichest production lev.?'l sustained for 7 consective
or- •rr*'.':*:ni days of normal production~*
A
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TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION
-------
INTBODGCTIOK
The purpose of this document is to describe the methodology,
scope and technical basis for the affluent guidance dated
June 9, 1S72, distributed to EPA Regional Officaa and State
organizations,
BASS5 FDR GU1PAWCE DEVELOPMENT
The ir.forma.ttoa Eac tfve devala^raant of the guidance came from
the following general areas:
1. Literature review with the major references being
the following:
a. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation
b. Proceedings of the Purdue Industrial Waste
Conference
c. Journal of the Technical Association of the Pulp
and Paper Industry
d. tockwood'a 3ir»etory of the Pelp and ?arar inc stry
®> Textbooks on Wastewater treatment
2. Jteaeareh Information
a. Te
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b. Research reports from EPA's Office of Research and
Monitoring
3. Previous Studies
a. FWQA's "The Cost of Clean Water" Industrial Waste
Profile No. 3
b. "Industrial Waste Profiles Covering the Pulp and
Paper Industry" prepared by WAPORA, Inc.
c. Special Reports published by the National Conference for
Air and Stream Improvements for the Pulp and Paper
Industry
d. "Pollution in the Pulp and Paper Industry" prepared by
the Council of Economic Priorities
4. Permit Application Data
5. Information on File in State Regulatory Agencies
6. Data Supplied By Industry
CATEGORIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY
The Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) has lumped all pulp
and paper manufacturing operations with the exception of building
paper and board into four-digit categories; 2611 (pulp mills), 2621
(paper mills with or without pulping) and 2631 (paperboard mills
with or without pulping) but these do not adequately reflect their
characteristics from a waste generation or a treatment and control
standpoint. Previous studies (1,2) established the basis for
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3.
subcategorizing the industry which generally involved:
1. pulping process such as chemical/ semi-chemical
and mechanical}and within chemical pulping whether
it was sulfate or sulfite
2. whether or not bleaching of pulp was involved
3. paper making - the type of finished product.
There are other reasons which may warrant further subcategorization.
They are raw material utilized (hardwood or softwood), type of
digestion (continuous or batch), size of production, and age of
the production facilities. In order to evaluate these other
factors, a comprehensive survey of the industry was undertaken,
utilizing Lockwood's Directory (3), permit application data (4),
and a study done by the Council of Economic Priorities (5).
This information is included in Table 1 through 5, in terms of
the categories selected previously based on general production
processes. There was no correlation found between the amount of
wastewater generated per ton of product and either the type of
raw material used (hardwood or softwood), the type of digestion
employed (continuous or batch) or in the age of the plant. Of
major concern was the age factor, however, lack of correlation
with age might best be explained by referring to a statement made
in a letter from the Vice President of the Brown Company, Berlin,
New Hampshire, (built in :888) to Regional Administrator of
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TABLE 1
SURVEY OP PULP S PAPER INDUSTRY
Unbleached Kraft
State
Hue s Location
Age
Size (T/D)
Wood
Digestion
water Use
MOT
Hater Use
- -
Hud
Swd
Batch
cont.
gal/ton
Treatment
Ma.
Alabaaa Kraft, Mahr.
900
X
X
10
11.100
c, AL, HL
Ala.
Onion Camp, Montgomery, Ala.
1966
900
X
X
20
16,700
C, HL
Ala.
McMillean Bloedel, Pine Hill
800
X
X
18
22,500
C, AL
Ala.
Gulf States Paper, Tuscalossa
500
80
420
X
12
24,000
(C), (AL)
Ark.
Arkansas Kraft, Morrilton
300
X
X
5
16,700
C
Fla.
Alton Box Board, Jacksonville
600
X
X
8
13,300
C(P)
Fta.
St. Regis, Jacksonville
19S5
1300
X
X
18
13,900
—
Ga.
Georgia Kraft, Krannert
1550
X
X
20
12,900
C, TP, AL
Ga.
Georgia Kraft, Macon
880
X
X
Ga.
Continental Can, Port Wentworth
1948
625
25
600
X
13
20,800
C
Ga.
Owens-Illinois, Valdosta
1953
825
X
X
12
14,600
C, HL
la.
Pineville Kraft, Pineville
750
X
X
14
18,700
C, AL
Hiss.
St. Regis, Monticello
1969
1620
X
X
20
9,900
C, AL
Ore.
IP, Gardiner
1964
545
14
25,700
C
Ore.
Weyerhaeuser, Springfield
1949
1150
X
X
17
17,400
C, AL
Ore.
G. P., Toledo
1960
1000
X
X
X
13
13,000
C, (AL)
S.C.
Westvaco, Charleston
1937
2000
500
1500
X
X
45
22,500
C
S.C.
South Carolina Industries,Florence
650
50
600
X
10.9
16,800
HL
Tenn.
Tennessee River Pulp £ Paper,Counce
900
200
700
X
20
22,200
C, (AL) , (HL)
Texas
Owens-Illinois, Orange
1967
900
X
X
10
11,100
C, AL
Va.
Chesapeake Corp., West Point
1050
100
950
X
X
16.5
15,700
C, HL
Ark..
Weyerhaeuser, Pine Bluff
1957
200
X
X
3.9
19,500
C, AL
Ga.
Interstate Paper, Riceboro
500
X
X
10
20,000
C, CH
La.
Calcasieu F-afer, Elizabeth
300
X
14
46,700
C, HL
Xiss.
I.P., Vicksburg
1967
1200
X
11
9,200
C, AL
J S.C.
Altx rjrle I'aper, Roanoke Rapids
950
120
830
X
20
21,100
C
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TABLE 2
SURVEY OP PULP t PAPER INDUSTRY
Bleached G Unbleached Kraft
Bleached
Wood
Diqestion
Water Use
stats
Naae C Location
Aqe
size(T/D)
*
Rwd
Swd
Batch
Cont.
MGD
gal/ton
Treatment
Ma.
Container Corp, Brewton
19S7
900
39
X
X
36
40,000
C, AL
Ma.
International Paper, Mobile
pre 1929
1200
35
X
34.4
28,700
C
Ala.
Scott Paper, Mobile
1939
1400
X
X
X
63
45,000
C, AS
Ark.
International Paper, Camden
750
X
14
18,700
C
irk.
Georgia Pacific, Crossett
1960
1250
33
810
440
X
41
32,800
C, AL, CH
FlaJ
{Upgraded 1970
Hudson Palp £ Paper, Palatka
950
37
X
X
35
36,800
C, HL
n*.
International Paper, Paoaaa City
1931
1375
47
30
21,800
Fla.
St. Segis, Pensacola
1941, 1955
900
33
X
X
28
31,000
C, HL
Ga.
Gilman Paper, St. Mary's
1938
1000
38
X
X
La.
Crown Zellerbach, St. Fransville
1959
500
X
30
60,000
La.
International Paper, Springhill
1937
1725
58
40
23,200
C, AL, HL
La.
Boise—Southern Co., DeRidder
1969
900
11
X
X
X
22
24,400
Me.
International Paper, Jay
500
80
36
72,000
Or*.
Crovn Zellerbach, Ma una
1969
800 (k)
450 (gw)
59
X
X
X
50
C
Mash.
St. Regis, T&cona
1928, 1960
1100
14
X
X
X
30
27,300
Ore.
Boise Cascade, St. Helens
1926
850
88
X
X
X
40
47,100
c
Va.
Onion Caep, Franklin
1937
(Upgraded 1970}
1400
93
820
580
X
38
27,100
C, AI>, HL
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TABLE 3
fcUKVET OP PULP G PAPER INDUSTRY
Bleached Kraft
Stat*
Naae 6 location
Age
Sire(T/D)
Wood
Digestion
Hater Use
Water Use
cral/ton
Treatment
Hwd
Swd
Batch
Cont.
MGD
Ala.
taerican Can, Butler
1955
900
X
X
X
45
50,000
C, AL
Ala.
Champion Paper, Courtland
1971
500
X
X
20
40,000
C, AL
Ala.
Gulf States Paper, Deappolis
450
60
300
X
16
35,000
C
Ala.
Allied Paper, Jackson
470
X
X
Ala.
Banneiaill, Selaa
1964
500
250
250
X
16
32,000
C, HL
Ark.
Rekoosa Edwards, Ashdown
1967
400
140
260
X
25
62,500
C, AL
Ark.
International Paper, Pine Bluff
1600
1200
42
62,250
C
Calif.
Kisberly-Clark, Anderson
1964
150
X
C, AS, HL
Calif.
Crown Si*pson, Areata
1968
500
X
X
30
60,000
.
Calif.
Georgia Pacific, Samoa
1965
590
X
X
25
42,400
Ga.
Continental Can, Augusta
1960
700
350
350
X
34
48,600
C, HL
Ga.
Brunswick Pulp ( Paper, Brunswick
1938
1200
X
X
60
50,000
C, HL
Idaho
Potlach Forests, Lewiston
1950
80 0
X
X
X
32
40,000
C
kjr.
Western Kraft Corp, Hawesville
250
X
7
28,000
C, HL
*y-
Westvaco, Wickliffe
1970
600
300
300
X
28
46,700
C
La.
Georgia Pacific, Port Hudson
1968
530
75
X
18
34,000
Miss.
International Paper, Moss Point
1913
700
23
32,900
C
M.
International Paper, M. Tonawanda
140
12
85,700
-------
TABLE 4
SURVEY Or PULP 6 PAPER INDUSTRY
NSSC
Stats
Una t location
Ma
Size(T/D)
Bleached
«
Wood
Diges
ion
Recovery
of Burning
Water Use
Treat-or*
HMD
SND
Batch
Cont
MGD
qal/tcn
tod.
¦man Paper, Son Haute
250
X
X
Yes
4
16,000
Km.
Wescor Oup., Bawesville
300
X
X
Yes
2.5
8,300
C, HL
Hsk.
Bmibbt ihltaf) Ontonagon
1956
220
X
X
Yes
5
22.700
IM.*
WuiwImi Corp. , Otsego
335
X
X
Yes
C. Al. C
¦thu
Boaraer IhUorf, St. Paul
1950
300
X
X
8.5
2P.
m.r.
Canrjia FKlfic, lyiri Falls
1900
120
120
X
X
.....
tfcfa
Container Corp. , Cixclevilla
280
X
X
Y«*«
On.
Menasha Coro.. Snr^h l*«M
-------
TABLE S
SURVEY QT PULP fi PAPER INDUSTRY
Kraft and NSSC
State
Name ( Location
Age
Sia
e
HI
P
SWD
Kraft Diaestion
iter Use
Treatnei'
Kraft
NSSC
Kraft
NSSC
Kraft
NSSC
Batch
Cont.
Batch
Cont.
MOD
qal/ton
Calif
Fibreboard Corp, Antcoch
1949
500
250
4
1
X
20
26,700
None |
rla.
Container Corp, Fernandina
(Upgraded 1967)
j
Beach
1500
200
200
1500
X
X
X
24
14,100
C 1
Ga.
Great Northern,Cedar Springs
1963
1700
300
300
1700
X
X
24
12,000
C, AL
6a.
Onion Camp, Savannah
2600
300
300
2600
X
X
X
36
12,400
c :
La.
International Paper, Bastrop
1923X
1945NSSC
1100
600
X
35
20,600
c 1
La.
Crown Zellerbach, Bogalusa
1918
1340
150
X
X
X
X
X
30
20,100
C j
1*.
Continental Can, Hodge
1928
620
200
X
X
X
X
12
14,600
C,HL,CH J
La.
OlinkraEt Inc., ti. Monroe
1085
80
X
X
26
22,300
C,AL,HL
S.C.
International Paper,
i
Georgetown
1750
480
22
9,900
i
B.C.
Weyerhaeuser, Plymouth
1937
1250
30O
200
X
850
X
X
40
25,800
HL j
Cfcla.
Weyerhaeuser, Valiant
1971
1200
400
200
X
X
1
C, AL J
Va.
Westvaco, Covington
1899
1050
300
910
X
X
25
18,500
' !
C f A3 j
Continental Can, Hopewell
(Upgraded 1950)
ifa.
1928
8 SO
150
X
X
X
X
18
18,000
Rash.
Boise Cascade, Wallula
1956
450
190
X
X
X
X
X
7
10,900
j
He.
Georgia Pacific, Woodland
1966
600
600
250
X
X
35
C, CH i
NiCh.
Packaging Corp,, Filer City
200
400
X
X
C
Basil.
Longview Fibre, Longview
1800
300
400
300
X
X
X
62
i
1400
j
i
Ore.
Western Kraft, Albany
570
200
X
X
X
1
1
X
6.2
C, AL )
i
OD
-------
Region I that the production facilities in his mill are
continually being upgraded in order to make his mill
competitive with newly constructed facilities. An exception
to this need to upgrade is the specialty mills; since this
segment of the industry is stagnant from the standpoint of the
number of new mills being constructed and, therefore, their
technology and wastewater management techniques have not been
advanced as quickly as those in the other segments of the industry.
WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
In the pulping and paper making industry there are many factors
that effect the amount of water used and the characteristics
of the wastewater generated. An excellent analysis of these
characteristics and typical waste loading are included in
Table 15 of the WAPORA Study (2). In general, the main sources
of wastewater are the wood preparation, pulping, bleaching and
paper making. Table 15 reveals that in some areas there are
wide ranges in terms of quantity and quality of wastewaters
generated. This reflects primarily the results of in-plant
process changes and water recirculation and reuse. Figures 1
through 5 show the basic production unit operations and the areas
of reuse opportunity, as wall as operatirn from which waste
is generated.
-------
A survey by the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper
Industry (TAPPI) of 244 pulp and paper mills reported that
there is a considerable amount of internal reuse of process
wastewater (6). This is illustrated by the data presented
in Table 6.
-------
Figure 1
WOOD PREPARATION FLOW SHEET
I
I
1 |
Log Flume | , r
j |
J
r_i
Mechanical
Barker
1
Chipper
1
Rejects i
I
I h4
Process Flow
Fresh Water
Reuse Water
Waste
-------
UasKiNr^ £
I
Process Flow
Fresh Water
— — Reuse Water
Waste
PULP MILL FLOW SHEET
Figure 2
-------
—AtaOH
CaosTte E*T***Ttoti
StAgA
—V
Ua_s
J—1
y 1
heftl
I
_J
» Process Flow
¦ i. '» Fresh Hater
-•» Reuse Water
S> Waste
WTPArH PLAMT FLOW SHEET
Figure 3
OJ
-------
I
I
±
Palp
Beater
Refining
Read
Paper
Paoer
Box
Machine
Figure 4
PAPERMAKING FLOWSHEET
¦ Process flow
» Fresh Water
— — ~ Reuse Water
Waste
-------
Fresh Water
To Shower8
Pourdrinier Table
LhmOW,.,. 7-r- —
| \ f lFlat Bo*
-L
Wire Pit
Couch
Fiber
To ¦
Reuse
D
pit
Water
To
Reuse
5-.ve J ell
i
Seal
Pit
T
I
Waste
Waste
WHITE WATER RECOVERY SYSTEM
Figure 5
-------
TABLE 6
PROCESS WATER RECIRCULATED BY PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY (1)
Bleached Unbleached Bleached Deinker
Type of Kraft and Kraft and Sulfite and
Mill Paper Paper and Paper Paper
(1) Fresh Uater Intake 45,000 30,000 60,000 33,000
(gal/ton of product)
(2) Water Reused 144,000 78,000 160,000 57,000
(gal/ton of product)
(3) Reuse factor 320 260 267 172
C3) - (2) x 100(1)
(4) Percent of Mills 92 78 75 80
with Water Reuse
(5) Total Process Water Used 199,000 108,000 220,000 90,000
(5) - (1) + (2)
(6) Percent of the Total 72 72 73 63
Process Water Reused
(6) - (2) x 100/(5)
-------
EXISTING CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
A. Control Technology
As illustrated by the TAPPI survey, water reuse and in-plant
measures are significant means of pollution control being
utilized by the industry, with recirculation of process
water being a prime element. Large quantities of water
are essential in the manufacture of pulp and paper. Water
is not only used throughout production but is also used to
generate power and steam, to cool machinery and to convey
by-products and wastes. Without recirculation, the
tremendous need for water would soon limit production.
Of course, no one particular recirculation plan can satisfy
the needs of every plant but the information in Table 7
indicates that there are numerous opportunities to
recirculate process water. The following waters are most
frequently recirculated at the present:
1. water from flume and debarkers
2. evaporator condensate from liquor recovery
3. bleach washer filtrate
4. white water from the paper machines
Warner and Miller (7) have reported that it is acceptable
practice to use process wastewater in wood preparation such
as log flumes, hot ponds, hydraulic or wet drum debarkers,
-------
18.
TABLE 7
WATER REUSE IN KRAFT MILLS
Source
Digesting, washing, and screening;
Blow tank vapors condensate
Digester cooling condensate
Turpentine separator underflow
Decker or thickener water
Pulp mill condensates
Condenser cooling water
Paper machine white water
Bleach plant filtrants
Chlorination stage washer
filtrate
Chlorine dioxide washer filtrate
Evaporator:
Evaporator condensates
Causticizing and lime burning:
Scrubbing water from lime kiln
stack
Clarifier effluent from lime
sludge
Recovery furnace:
Scrubber liquor following electro-
static precipitation
Bleaching:
Washer filtrate
Excess washer seal box waters
Paper machine white water
digester condensate
Cooling water
Machine white water and cooling
water
Chlorine dioxide spent liquor
Paper machine:
White water
Power house:
Cooling water
Reuse
Brownstock washing, shower water
Smelt dissolving, dilution, deink-
ing pulping or in woodyard
Shower water in lime mud system
Dilution water prior to screening
and cleaning
Brownstock dilution
Pulp dilution prior to chlorina-
tion
Brownstock dilution
Brownstock washing, dregs washing,
mud washing, mud filtration,
white liquor filter backwashing,
deinking pulpers, hot pond de-
barking, grinders, recovery
furnace gas scrubbing
Recycled
Recycled to kiln scrubber
Recycle or return to dregs or lime
mud washing
Stock dilution
Seal box dilution
Shower water, brownstock dilution
water
Bleaching tower dilution water
Dilution of finished bleached pulp
Replace salt cake
Recycled to machine, brownstock
washing and screening and
grinders
Process water
-------
and in showers prior to chipping. The heated effluents from
evaporators, the bleach plant^and paper machines are preferred
because they add to debarking efficiency. Another widely
used practice is the recirculation of debarker effluent
after grit removal.
In the kraft pulp mill, it is economically essential to
recover the pulping chemicals from the digested pulp.
Such recovery involves the washing of the pulp to remove the
chemicals, with the subsequent wastewater being concentrated
by multi-effect evaporators and burned in special furnaces
to recover sodium and calcium based chemicals. The evaporator
condensate from this operation is a source of reusable
water. McDermott (8) in an excellent evaluation using
material and water balances of kraft pulp mill, reported that
all the condensate can be reused within the process. The
condensate from the first effect is of sufficient quality
that it can be used in the generation of steam.
In the acid sulfite and neutral sulfite semi-chemical pulping
processes, chemical recovery is not essential to the economics
of the process, but the need to reduce the high strength
waste associated with the pulping liquors has made recovery
essential from a treatment economics standpoint. Thus, an
-------
20.
integral part of the pollution control system for these
kinds of mills is the recovery system. A survey (9) of the
practices within the industry indicates that of the 33 acid
sulfite pulp mills existing in the country, 26 have some means
of chemical and/or heat recovery or by-product recovery while
Table 4 shows that of the 16 mills surveyed, 11 had recovery
systeirts. Normally the main benefit from these recovery systems
other than from the treatment standpoint is the recovery
of heat. Large quantities of heat are utilized within the
pulping and paper-making operations and thus, the recovery
system cuts down on the energy requirements needed by an
industry utilizing the recovery system.
The industry has developed a multi-stage vacuum filtration
system for pulp washing. This system utilizes counter-
current type washing for a series of vacuum filters with
the majority of the fresh water being added in the last
washing cycle.
In the bleach plant, large amounts of water are required
to remove residue lignin and wash bleached pulp. This
process! involves delignification of the pulp by chlorination,
caustic treatment for removal of a.1 Valine-soluble chlorolignins,
-------
21.
and one or more bleaching stages using hypochlorite or
chlorine dioxide as oxidizing agents. It is not
uncommon for kraft mills to use five stage bleaching to
achieve a high degree of brightness. Each bleaching
stage is followed by a vacuum washer, and the filtrate from
these washers can be recycled.
The paper machine is a prime source of water that is suitable
for recirculation. This wastewater is referred to as white
water. White water from the Fourdrineir paper machine
results from the dewatering of the slurry (95 percent water)
of pulp and filler material being applied to the traveling
wire table of the machine. Although dewatering of this slurry
is a primary function of the table, considerable amount of
fiber passes through the wire with the water. The percentage
of fiber in white water varies from 5 to 50 percent and depends
primarily on the texture of the fiber and the speed of the
machine. White water is recirculated for four reasons:
1. recover fiber
2. conserve water
3. reduce wastewater volume
4. conserve heat
-------
22.
With good potential for return on its investment, the
industry has devoted considerable effort into developing
systems to recirculate the maximum amount of white water.
A simplified example of a white water recirculation system
is shown in Figure 5. The maximum economic benefit is derived
when the most concentrated white water is segregated and
recirculated within the stock preparation process.
The richest white water, which is caught in the tray and the
wire pit, can be returned to the head box without the need
for filtration. The white water with a lower fiber content
is run through a "saveall" system where the fiber is reclaimed
and the water is recirculated.
Ross (10) reported that such a system of white water reuse
resulted in a 3:1 reduction in fresh water consumption
in a paper mill producing fine paper. Reeves and Ritter (11)
described the white water recirculation system in a 1250 ton/day
kraft mill where white water was also used to replace fresh
water for the Venta-Nip showers. Vacuum pump water was also
recirculated at a rate (if 5800 gpm.
To the environmental engineer, it would appear that the
solution to a pulp and paper mills' water and wastewater
problems is a "closed" system^ The deterrents to this dry
-------
23.
sewer objective will usvally be presented by maintenance
and quality control personnel. Clouse (12) and others (8),
(10), state that the following problems are normally
encountered:
1. Slime buildup clogs equipment, slows drainage, causes
lost production, and makes dirty paper. As slime
increases there mey be residual, undesirable odors and
tastes in the fin .shed product and a drop-off in
color.
2. Increased acidity causes excessive corrosion, results
in sizing and colsr problems, and adversely affects
finished paper strength and aging characteristics.
3. Foam becomes a problem as total solids build up in
the water. Foam affects drainage, contributes to slime
growth, gives undesirable color, affects formation,
and causes aurfaca spots.
4. Pitch and/or beater sizt (depending on the kind of
paper being made) can deposit at the water line and
on wires and rolls as well as build up in the felts of
a paper machine.
-------
5. Starch from reclaimed fiber can interfere with wire
retention, upset saveall operation, and contribute to
slime and foam problems.
6. Color changes add obvious complications.
7. Build-up of paper fines and colloidal particles has
a changing effect on hydration, wire drainage and sheet
characteristics.
8. Changes in product leave a residual of white water which
presents a problem.
9. Temperature increases may be good or bad depending on
the product. Sizing can be a real problem as temperature
increases drastically. Slime is inhibited in some
cases and stimulated in others. The actual temperature
limitations are not known, nor is it known how high
temperatures might climb in a completely closed system.
Treatment Technology
The parameters of concern in the pulp and paper industry
are BOD, COD, Suspended Solids, Set^eable Solids, Color
and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). Present day wastewater
-------
25.
treatment technology has provided the capability to
technically reduce all of these pollutants. Figure €
gives a possible flow sheet for producing a recycleabl#
water from a bleached kraft pulp and paper mill effluent,
Basically the wastewater treatment taclrwology available
can be broken down in the following major catagcries;
Reduction of suapewiad and settleable solids
Seduction of soluble organic material
Reduction of color
Redaction of dissolved inorganic solids
1. Reduction of Suspended and 5ettl«abla Solids (Physical
Treatment)
Ihe waatewater from pulp and paper making operation*
contains sufficient suspended aad aettleable aolida tro
dictate the need for rsduetian. prior t& additional
treatment such aa biological treatment. The waste-
water can be clarified by gravity settling or diaaolved
air flotation vLth gravity aedinentatian being the one
no at vi4eiy ua«d. Sid? practice in the induitry employed
the uae of earthen ba*ina or conical tat&a Sot clarification.
But today, however, mechanically cl«n#d clarifiera are
-------
26.
Figure 6
UNIT FLOW DIAGRAM AND EFFLUENT QUALITY
-------
27.
more widely used because they give a more consistent
effluent. This trend is borne out by recent survey
conducted by the National Council for Air and Stream
Improvement of the Pulp and Paper Industry (NCASI)
(14) which indicates that of the 220 mills reported to
have physical treatment, 44 used earthen basins, 129
used mechanical clarifiers and 47 used both. This
represented 75% of the mills and 74% of the capacity
of mills not discharging to public facilities. The
design range for hydraulic loadings for primary clarifiers
is 600 - 1000 gallcns/day/square foot of surface area;
however, 800 is the most common (1, 15). A clarifier
of this design is chiefly circular and can be expected
to remove from 60 - 90 percent of the suspended solids,
99 percent of the settleable solids and from 20 - 85
percent of the BOD depending on the process wastewater
being treated (15, 16).
2. Biological Treatment
The principal means of removing soluble BOD is through the
use of biological treatment processes. The following unit
treatment operations are available for treatment in the
-------
pulp and paper industry:
Stabilization Ponds (unaerated)
Aerated Lagoons
Trickling Filters
Activated Sludge
Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)
The NCASI Survey (14) showed that 136 mills utilized
biological treatment. This represented 47% of the
mills not discharging to public facilities. The
treatment can be broken down as follows:
Stabilization Ponds - 52 mills
Aerated Lagoons - 65 mills
Activated Sludge - 16 mills
Trickling Filters - 3 mills
Of the 65 mills using aerated lagoons, 26 are reported
to use special methods for clarification prior to
discharge. Most of these consisted of quiescent zones
in the terminal areas of the lagoons located just
prior to the discharge.
As the NCASI Survey reveals, stabilization ponds and
aerated lagoons are the principle means of effecting
-------
29.
soluble organic removal from wastewaters in the
pulp and paper industry. Stabilization ponds were the
first type of biological treatment adopted in this
industry. This concept was first utilized by the kraft
industry in the South, where it is still "the most
prevalent. This method was used because of the availability
of large areas of land in relatively remote locations. It
was also necessitated by the need to store wastewater
for prolonged periods due to the hydrological conditions
of the receiving waters. The stabilization ponds are
also quite temperature dependent and thus, the higher
ambient temperature experienced in the South allowed for
maximum oxidation rates. However, application of this
type of waste treatment has not proved adaptable to the
Northern climates. Detention times have been used
ranging from 20 to over 300 days with BOD removals as
high as 95%. This being restricted to the Southern
climates.
The long period of time required to produce a relatively
high degree of BOD reduction by depending on storage and
natural reaeration can be substantiably reduced by the
addition of artificial aeration. These facilities,
aerated lagoons, are generally designed with five to ten
-------
30.
days retention time which allows the achievement
of effluent BOD levels of 30 mg/1. Several authors
have discussed the design and operating characteristics
and considerations of these facilities (17 - 21). One
of the main concerns addressed by these publications is
the effect of temperature on efficiency of the process.
This has been investigated both in the laboratory and in
the field. The basic findings are that while efficiency
for a given detention time may decrease with temperature,
it is not severe and there are cases where it was
impossible to develop a correlation between effluent quality,
in terms of BOD and suspended s61ids, and temperature as
noted specifically by Adamczyk (18) and Amberg (21). This
is further reinforced by an evaluation of aerated lagoons
in the Canadian Prairie Provinces by Pick et al (22).
They experimented with aerated lagoons utilizing three
types of aeration devices, mechanical surface aerators,
diffused air, and bubble guns, and achieved a discharge
effluent quality of consistently less than 30 mg/1 BOD
and 40 mg/1 suspended solids, even during a period with
ambient air temperatures below zero.
3. Color Removal
Present treatment facilities, while effective in removal
of suspended material and BOD, are not effective in
-------
31.
reducing a concentration of color. The color problem
itself is primarily restricted to the chemical pulping
phases of the industry. Table 21 in the WAPORA Study (2)
gives a range of the relative color problem by production
operations.
The color in pulping and bleaching wastes is due primarily
to biologically refractive organic color bodies; and thus,
appear to be amenable to reduction by chemical precipitation
and/or adsorption.
Several attempts were made by investigators at Virginia
Polytechnic Institute to decolorize the caustic stage
effluent from a kraft bleachery by super-chlorination,
use of coagulants and alum treatment. None of the
efforts resulted in color reduction method acceptable for
commercial development (23).
Smith (24) also conducted laboratory studies utilizing alum
and: ferric chloride coagulation for color reduction of
kraft wastewater. Greater than 85% color reduction was
achieved in utilizing 1 mg/1 of alum per 4.5 units of
color at an optimum pH of 5.3. The ferric chloride-to-
color ratio was 1:5.3 at a pH of 3.9. The resulting
-------
32.
sludge in both cases had a sludge volume index of
greater than 200, indicating its poor settleability.
Experiments were also conducted utilizing foam separation
for the removal of color from pulping and bleaching
wastewater with very poor results (25). The relatively
large quantity of surfactant needed eliminated this
process as being uneconomical.
The use of activated carbon as a decolorizer of wastewater
was studied by McGlasson and Thibodeaux (26). Theiz
results indicate that the most economic use of activated
carbon may be for polishing of a chemical-precipitated
decolorized effluent. St. Regis Paper Company has an
EPA grant to explore the utilization of activated carbon
for color removal. As yet, the results are inconclusive.
The major amount of research and development in decolorizing
is being done with the utilization of lime. NCASI has
patented a color removal process termed the massive
lime treatment. This process utilizes large quantities
of slack lime and obtains 90% reduction by absorption
and chemical reaction on the suiface of the lime. The
resulting lime sludge is precipitated, dewatered and
-------
33.
recalcined. The fact that this can be integrated
into the chemical recovery operation of a kraft mill
makes it appear to be the most feasible.
The NCASI Survey (14) indicated that 11 mills, ten
kraft mills and 1 paper mill are using effluent
color reduction schemes. All except one of the kraft
mills are using lime precipitation of selected process
streams in the bleachery.
4. Dissolved Solids Reduction
Wastewaters from mills utilizing pulping and bleaching
contain large quantities of dissolved inorganic constituents.
Where desired, reduction of these constituents is
technologically feasible. Since these wastewaters have
a mineral content in excess of 1000 mg/1, methods of
desalinization of brackish waters presently being
investigated by the Office of Saline Waters (OSW) appear
to be quite applicable. The most promising are electro-
dialysis^ reverse osmosis and ion exchange (27).
The electrodialysis process has been used in OSW's
325,000 gal/day demonstration plant at Webster, South
Dakota and in South Africa for a 2.8 MGD plant. These
-------
34.
brackish-water conversion plants require several stages
to reduce the TDS concentration from approximately 1500
mg/1 to 500 mg/1. Extensive pretreatment was also required
:o prevent membrane fouling (28 - 31).
Reverse osmosis has been studied in a pilot installation
for the renovation of sewage. Numerous difficulties
were encountered when attempting to treat secondary
effluent. The process was considerably more successful
when the secondary effluent was pretreated by carbon
adsorption (32).
Demineralization with ion exchange has normally been
limited to water having less than 500 mg/1 of dissolved
solids. The limit was economics, because of the reaeneration
cost and the need to use deionized rinse water. However,
a new technique, the Desal* process, based on the use
of two weak electrolytic ion exchange resins,, has been
developed. This process can deionize brackish waters
(500 - 3,000 mg/1) with very little leakage, low regenera-
tion cost, and raw water can be used for rinsing (33).
Thihxfdeaux and Berger (34) conducted laboratory studies on
*Rohm and Haas
-------
carbon-adsorption treated bleached kraft mill wastes
with this process and concluded that it was technically
feasible even to the extent of complete deionization.
-------
36.
EFFECTS OF ALTERNATE TREATMENT AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGY UPON
NON-WATER QUALITY ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS.
the removal and reduction of the principal pollutants, BOD, and suspended
and settleable solids, have impact of one degree or another on
other environmental considerations, particularly solid
waste, air pollution, and land use.
Solid Waste
The reduction of suspended solids and BOD generates a disposal
problem. Table 8 is a reasonable indication of the quantity of
solids that could be expected for the application of primary
clarification and activated sludge treatment for various waste-
waters in the subcategories of the pulp and paper industry. This
Table was developed using the WAPORA Study (2) to describe the raw
waste loadings and the proposed effluent levels used to describe
best practical control technology currently available. Activated
sludge treatment was used because it generates the largest quantity
of biological sludge, although it can be seen from the Table this is
normally less than 30% of the total solids generated. The excess
biological sludge figure was based on reduction of the soluble
BOD to 30% less than the limit and a sludge yield factor of
0.3 pounds of solids per pound of BOD removed. It should also be
noted that all the quantities are in terms -*f pounds of dry solids
pet ton of production. For sludge going to land disposal, the
-------
TABLE 8
SOLID WASTE GENERATED
Activated Sludge Treatment of Pulp £ Paper Wastewater
Raw BOOS
Removed Primary
Limit
Excess
Biological
Raw
Suspended
solids
Removed Primary
Limit
Removed
Secondary
Clarifier
Total feludge
(lb/ton)
«
lb/ton
lb/ton
Sludge
(lb/ton)
*
lb/ton
(lb/ton)
(lb/ton)
(lb/ton)
Kraft Pulping £ Manufacturing Of
Coarse Paper £ Linerboard
Newsprint
Bleached & Unbleached Paper
Bleached Paper
35
40
60
80
15
18
20
20
5.25
7.2
12
16
5
5
9
11
10
11.1
15.6
21.2
30
70
75
80
85
90
85
82
25.5
63
63.8
65.6
5
6
10
10
25
64
65
70
35
75.1
80.6
91.2
MSEC
125
15
19.75
14
36.9
95
85
80.75
8
87
123.9
Groundwood Pulping £ Manufacturing Of
L'nbleached Paper
Bleached Paper
25
35
18
18
4.5
6.3
2.5
4.5
7.2
9.7
70
135
90
90
63
121. S
5
9
65
126
72.2
135.7
DairJcing
100
40
40
10
20
600
68
408
12
588
608
Waste Paperboard
25
30
7.5
3
5.8
57
85
48.5
3
54
59.8
P.jpemaving From Purchased Pulp
Coarse Paper
10
30
3
2
2
10
92
9.2
3
7
9
Fine Paper
40
60
24
6
4
40
B7
34.8
7
33
37
3.;ck Pzper
40
40
16
3
8.4
90
85
76.5
4
86
94.4
Tissue Paper
35
90
32.5
8
45
90
40
6
40
40
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38.
volume can best be approximated by considering that the sludge
will only be approximately 30% solids by weight, based on the
common dewatering operations employed in the industry.
The dewatering of the sludge can be economically accomplished by
these methods:
vacuum filtration
centri fuga tio n
drying beds
lagoons
The NCASI report (14) listed the following types of dewatering
facilities being utilized within the industry:
vacuum filters - 37 mills
centrifuges - 34 mills
sludge drying beds - 73 mills
sludge lagoons - 85 mills
sludge presses - 23 mills
This study also indicated that not all waste treatment sludges
became a solid waste disposal problem. This study indicated that
377 tons per day of waste treatment sludges were returned to
process and 174 tons per day were reported to be used in by-products.
The final disposition of waste treatment sludges is reported in
the NCASI study to be primarily sanitary land fill and other land
disposal methods with 117 mills utilizing this method and only
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39.
23 utilizing incineration.
Air Pollution
The treatment technology envisioned to meet best practical control
technology currently available is aerobic and therefore treatment
facilities do not create a direct air pollution (odor) problem.
Control facilities, primarily for the chemical pulping operations,
may produce air pollution problems but they do not create a new
problem but rather just increase the magnitude of the problems
associated with digester blow stacks. The recovery of heat and/or
chemicals from chemical pulping liquors involves evaporators and
recovery furnaces. Since a major chemical constituent in all
chemical pulping liquors is sulfur, this of course creates a sulfur
dioxide and particulate matter problem. The control of these
emissions is quite compatible with the control of similar emissions
from the pulping operations.
Land Use
Since technology exists to achieve best practical limits by either
stabilization ponds, aerated lagoons or activated sludge, this
allows for a decision on the amount of land to be devoted to
wastewater treatment. The use of activated sludge may require
less than 10% of the land needed for aerated lagoons and 1-5%
of the land required for stabilization ponds to achieve the same
degree of wastewater treatment.
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40.
VII. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
"Best practical"implies that the effluent levels will be economically
as well as technically achievable. To determine the impact of the
proposed effluent guidelines, EPA's Office of Planning and Evaluation
conducted a study to determine that impact on various segments of
the pulp and paper industry. A copy of that memorandum and cost
benefit ratio is contained in Appendix A. The study's basic con-
clusions were that size may be a basis for subcategories due to
economic reasons and it was concluded that there would be a major
economic impact on the following industrial segments:
Category Maximum Capacity
Acid Sulfite (paper grade) Less than 200 tons per day
Waste Paper Board Less than 100 tons per day
Tissue from Purchased Pulp Less than 50 tons per day
Fine Paper from Purchased Pulp Less than 200 tons per day
Appendix B also contains a packet of capital cost curves which
were used to make relative economic determinations for best
practical from the standpoint of unit treatment operations.
Usinc these curves it was determined that color removal by
chemxcal precipitation was outside the definition of practicality.
Figure 7 depicts the cost versus effluent quality for a 500 ton/day
bleach kraft mill. An analysis of operating cost indicated that
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41.
color reduction would increase the total operating costs by greater
than 11$ a thousand gallons. This is significant when considering
that an aerated lagoon treatment system preceded by primary treat-
ment would cost 8.5 cents cer thousand gallons and activated sludge
would cost IOC per thousand gallons. Other relative costs were
carbon absorption, additional IOC per thousand gallons and ion
exchange an additional 35$ per thousand gallons.
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FIGURE 7
42,
BOD
284
227
30 20
15
10
2
COD
1600
1440
700 410
400
10
SS
440
88
20
1
Color
2000
200
10
TDS
1450
1200
0
250
COST VS EFTLl'r.NT CHARACTERISTICS
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43.
VIII. BEST PRACTICAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
This level of technology is to describe what must be achieved by
all plants within the various categories of the industry not later
than July 1, 1977; best practical has been further defined
to mean the technology of demonstrated reliability whose cost is
low enough to allow general use in the industry by the target date
of July 1, 1977.
Specific Pactors Taken into Consideration
In establishing best practical control technology levels the
primary factors considered were (1) production processes currently
employed, (2) the engineering aspects of the application of
various types of control and treatnent techniquest (3) non-water
quality environmental impact, (4) economic impact of environmental
control and treatment technology.
Applicability
These effluent limits should not be applied in the following areas
until a more thorough economic impact analysis can be performed.
Category
Maximum Capacity
Acid Sulfite (paper grade)
Less than 200 tons per day
Waste Paper Board
Less than 100 tons per day
Tissue from Purchased Pulp
Less than SO tons per dav
Pine Paper from Purchased Pulp Less than 200 tons per day
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44.
These ef£luent limits are also not applicable to specialty mills
which, due to their very nature, make it impossible and impractical
to develop separate subcategories. It is recommended that permits
in this category be developed on an individual basis with consideration
being given to the treatment and control technology factors developed
previously.
Abatement Model
Using the above criteria and based on the information developed on
in-plant control and external treatment, the following model was
used to describe this technology level, typified by schedule A
of the June 6, 1972, effluent guidance:
1. Heat and/or chemical recovery from pulping liquors;
2. Efficient save-alls within the paper making process
3. A high degree of water reuse
4. Primary clarification
5. Biological oxidation using aerated lagoons or activated
sludge
6. Secondary clarification
7. Disinfection, if necessary
Using the above model, the following methodology was used in
developing the effluent limitation values proposed in the June 9,
1972, guidance to Regional and State personnel for the preparation
of permits in the pulp and paper industry.
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45.
Effluent Limitation Values - BOD and Suspended Solids, Schedule A
The pounds/unit of production for BOD and suspended solids was
based on:
1. Concentration values achievable with the application
of best practicable external treatment and
2. Flow values which were selected either statistically or
by experience and judgment to be indicative of good in-plant
control.
This approach was chosen since the biological removal of BOD is
a concentration-dependent reaction (35/36) and the quality values
were known to be at the lower practicable limit. (18-21). Flow
was used because it is a measurement that is least subject to error
because it is a physical measurement. In addition, most industries
know their water use. The unit flow per unit of production in the
paper industry does not increase or decrease significantly even
though the production rate may change substantially. Differences
in flow values are more a function of the machinery and management
practices. The flow values used represent only process wastewater
since in the normal practice of designing a wastewater treatment
facility it is most advantageous to separate non-contaminated cooling
water and utility waters, in general, the flow base was determined
by a statistical probability plot of flow data (Appendix C) for
visual analysis. There was in most cases no attempt to draw a
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46.
statistical line, but rather this method was used to evaluate the
data to see where there were any radical fluctuations from the
normal. Then an attempt was made to determine why variations
existed. The majority of these data came from the initial unpublished
WAPORA (37) report which contained not only flow but production data?
the production data being eliminated from further publication of
that report. The chosen flow data was also evaluated against several
other publications (3,5,38-41). A listing of flow base values
chosen is presented in Table 9 . a detailed description of the
subcategories is contained in Appendix D. The following is a
discussion of the basis for the effluent limitations for the sub-
categories:
A. Kraft Pulping and the Manufacture of:
1. Coarse Paper and Liner Board
Coarse paper and liner board were combined since the production
processes are not significantly different in volume of waste-
water or the wastewater characteristics. These types of mills
are located primarily in the south. The North Carolina State
study (38) reported an average flow of 18,500 gallons per ton.
A plot of the WAPORA data (Appendix C) showed this to be the
70% flow figure with 50% being 16,200 gallons. The WAPORA
data gave fairly uniform distribution with only two radical
points on each end of the plot. The 3" mg/1 of BOD is readily
attainable, and this is well shown in the WAPORA data. Table 32
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47.
Table 9
FLOW BASE - PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
Gallons Per Ton of Product
I. KRAFT PULPING AND THE
MANUFACTURE OF:
Coarse Paper and Liner Board
Newsprint
Bleached & Unbleached Grades
Bleached Grades
II. SULFITE PULPING AND THE
MANUFACTURE OF:
Paper
Dissolving Pulp
[II. NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL
IV. GROUNDWOOD
Unbleached
Bleached
V. DEINKING MILL
VI. PAPERBOARD (No Deinking}
II. PAPER MANUFACTURE
(From Purchased Pulp)
Coarse
Fine ( < 8% filled)
Book ( > 8* filled)
Tissue
18,500
20,200
35,000
41,200
50,000
75,000
20,000
10,000
17,000
32,000
10,000
7,500
25,000
12,500
25,000
notes: (1) Groups I, II, III, and IV apply to integrated mills
(combined pulping and papermaking operations).
(2) Groups v and vi refer to wastepaper processing plants.
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48.
of the WAPORA Report (37) shows that eight of the 13 plants
reported meeting A guidelines on a pound per ton basis. A
survey of the permit applications on file with the Agency shows
that 12 of the 38 liner board mills representing approximately
50% of the production of this category are meeting "A" levels
on a pounds per ton basis.
2. Newsprint
There are only five pieces of flow data available in each of
the sources and there is a considerable amount of scatter.
However, a plot of the WAPORA data (Appendix C) gives a 50%
value of 20,200 gallons/ton while the North Carolina State
study give 23,200. After discussion with the industrial people
20,200 gallons/ton was agreed upon. Here again 30 mg/1 is
the attainable concentration. Table 30 of the WAPORA Report
(37) indicates that normal treatment for this wastewater is
activated sludge, aerated lagoon or holding lagoons; with
activated sludge readily achieving the A levels in terms of
pounds per ton of product. Permit applications and p
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49.
less than 30,000 gallons/ton. The flow basis chosen was
based on discussions with individuals familiar with the
industry; a review of the North Carolina State data; and on
personal experience and judgment. The scatter of the data is
primarily due to the percent of bleaching done at a plant.
Bleaching is the largest wastewater producer in the integrated
facility and provides least opportunity for water reuse.
Table 34 of the WAPORA Report (2) shows that most of the industry
utilizes activated sludge treatment, with 50% presently meeting
or exceeding the "A" level in terms of pounds per ton. Data
from permit applications confirm 4 mills are meeting "A" levels
in terms of pounds per ton.
4. Bleached Grades
There are 9 pieces of flow data available from the WAPORA
Report (37) with a 50% figure being 41,200 gallons/ton. A
plot of the data suggests a higher tendency than this chosen
figure but a review of the North Carolina State data indicates
an average 38,000 gallons/ton based on 5 pieces of data.
Data from permit applications and self reported data on file
with State regulatory agencies confirm 9 mills are meeting
"A" levels for BOD and 7 for suspended solids in terms of
pounds per ton.
B. Sulfite pulping
1. Paper Grade
A plot of the WAPORA (2) data for acid sulfite pulp-and-paper
making mills produced what was in essence two families of curves.
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50.
In an attempt to establish a basis for this, the data was
further plotted as those systems having chemical recovery and
those not having recovery. This analysis did not provide a clear
explanation for the differential. The difference, it was
discovered, was that the higher flow values were from larger
northwestern sulfite mills. The eastern (New York and Wisconsin)
mills are smaller but use less water per ton of product. In
the meeting with the industrial review committee for the sulfite
pulp and paper industry on March 16, 1972, this point was
discussed with the industry to discern if there was any dif-
ference between the processes used in the northwest and those
used in the eastern mills. The only reason offered for the
difference in water use was that more water was available
for the northwestern mills and, therefore, it was used. Thus,
the lower curve was used as an indicator of good in-plant
management in terms of water reuse. The concentration base for
this number was 80 mg/1 BOD and is based primarily on the
EPA demonstration project of aerated lagoon treatment of sul-
fite pulp and paper mill effluent performed by Crown Zellerbach
in Lebanon, Oregon (42). An integral part of the pollution
control system for this kind of mill is chemical recovery and
of the 33 mills presently utilizing the acid sulfite pulping
process, 27 have some means of chemical and/or heat recovery.
The literature and permit applications indicate that four mills
have operating treatment facilities that are meetina or exceed-
ing "A" levels in terms of pounds per ton.
mf-Simdt
44o-b2£>
h/J)
TjbfiGOihb
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51.
2. Dissolving Grade
This is basically the same pulping process with the exception
that a much higher quality pulp is being produced, therefore,
a lower yield is achieved in the pulping process. This low
pulp yield results in a much larger generation of wastewater
and waste materials. The flow figure for this was developed
in conversation with the Industry and Region X personnel
(where the majority of the dissolving-grade sulfite mills
are located) who have first-hand knowledge in this phase of
the industry. No treatment has been applied to wastewater
from this type of mill, but there is no technical reason why
the biological system utilized by the acid sulfite paper
grade mills could not be applied to this wastewater with
comparable resulting quality.
C. Neutral Sulfite Semi-Chemical
There is very little treatment data available on wastewater
from this type of facility since there are few in the country
that are operating independently. The majority of the neutral
sulfite semi-chemical facilities operate in conjunctic... with
kraft mills, where their pulping liquors can be utilized in
the recovery system for the kraft operation. This value was
developed primarily after discussions with industrial personnel
and EPA staff. A survey of published literature and permit
applications indicates that 3 non-integrated NSSC mills are
meeting or exceeding "A" levels in pounds pex ton.
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52.
Groundwood
1. Unbleached
The flow selected was the mid-range value contained in ground-
wood production and coarse paper making which most probably
follows. The effluent quality is 30 mg/1 BOD5 with the suspended
solids deviating from the normal 35 mg/1 to a level of 60 mg/1.
This deviation in suspended solids quality is due to the large
amount of dispersants in the wastewater. This would cause
subsequent problems in the operation of the aerated lagoon
which is the model treatment. Groundwood operations are normally
integrated with kraft operations in the manufaoture of news-
print and do not normally exist as non-integrated facilities.
The selection of the effluent limit is based more on judgment
and discussions with people knowledgeable in this area than
on hard statistical data.
2. Bleached
This follows the same general basis as described above for
unbleached except that bleached groundwood is quite often
produced in conjunction with tissue making operations. Very
few bleached groundwood operations are in existence.
Deinking Mill
The distribution plot of the flow data in the WAPORA Report
(37) shows two distinct families of curves with the low set
of values being between 28,000 and S^.OOO gallons/ton and the
high set between 42,000 and 64,000 gallons/ton. Further
evaluation of the data revels that the lower numbers reflect
treatment or the imposition of some degree of regulatory action.
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53.
The upper limit of the lower level, 32,000 gallons/ton, was
chosen. A concentration of 40 rog/1 BOD was chosen because
there are materials removed from waste paper in the deinking
process which inhibit biological degradation down to 30 mg/1
on a consistent basis. The treatment data for this particular
subcategory is sparse since there are only three facilities
reported treating wastewater from this type of mill, with only
one of them meeting A levels. Because of the large amount of
dispersants in the wastewater from this type of still the
suspended solids level was set at 60 rog/1.
F. Paperboard (No Deinking)
There are 40 pieces of flow data available on this type of
installation, which makes paperboard primarily from waste
paper. The data plot (Appendix C) shows a normal distribution.
The majority of the data is clustered about a 50% value of
10,000 gallons/ton, thus, this value was chosen. Experience
with several aerated lagoons treating board mill wastes shows
that 30 mg/1 is achievable with good design and oper tion and
this is demonstrated by Adamczyk's paper (18). The data base
for this subcategory is excellent. The water reuse potential
in this mill is excellent and by 1985 this phase of industry
should be able to have zero discharge of pollutants. Permit
applications and data on file in state agencies indicate 7 mills
meeting or exceeding "A" levels with several experimenting with
complete recycle.
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54.
G. Paper Manufacturing from Purchased Pulp
1. coarse Paper
The flow was the mid-range from the WAPORA Report Table 15
(2) which had data from 71 installations. The 30 mg/1 for
BOD and 35 mg/1 for suspended solids were the selected
concentrations. Hiere are no technical limitations preventing
the achievement of these values. In a range of flow where the
minimum is 2,000 gallons/ton of production there is ample room
for flow reduction. There is presently no documentation of
mills in this category meeting "A" levels, but this is
attributable more to lack of regulatory pressure than available
and practicable technology.
2. Fine Paper (less than 8% filled)
This subcategory, designated by the amount of filler or coating,
was suggested by members of the pulp and paper industrial review
committee. The 25,000 gallons/ton is the mid-range value from
the WAPORA Report Table 15. (2) The concentrations of 30 mg/1
of BOD and 35 mg/1 suspended solids are technically achieveable.
This type of pap6r uses large amounts of water in order to
obtain the characteristics needed for good writing paper
such as bond. Permit application data confirms that four
mills are presently meeting or exceeding "A" levels.
3. Book Paper (greater than 8% filled)
This category was also suggested by *-he members of the industrial
review committee. The flow is the mid-range value from Table 15
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55.
of the WAPORA Report (2)/ with the resulting BOD and suspended
solids concentrations of 30 and 35 mg/1 respectively being
technically obtainable. This type of paper contains a large
amount of clays and other filler materials which produce a
very turbid effluent. However, the material is so fine that
it passes through the filters normally used in "Standard
Methods" suspended solids test, and therefore does not result
in a higher effluent value. If the methods of measuring
suspended solids are changed to include finer filters then
this number should be modified upward.
4. Tissue
The flow was based on the 50% value for 20 pieces of data.
Distribution of this data (Appendix C) was normal with good
central tendencies toward the value selected. Also, personal
experience with this phase of the industry is that this flow
value is indicative of good water-reuse and fiber-recovery
practices. The treatment model for this waste is changed to
physical-chemical because of the characteristics of le waste-
water coming froqi this operation. The majority of the BOD from
this wastewater is tied up in suspended solids. Thus, efficient
physical and/or physical-chemical treatment will produce an
effluent of 40 mg/1 BOD and 30 mg/1 suspended solids without
the inherent problem of nutrients which must be added in order
to achieve these levels by biological treatment. Experience
with tissue facilities in New York State indicates tha
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56.
technical achievability of these levels by such a
treatment facility. (43)
Support Documentation for Effluent Limits
To insure that the methodology used in developing effluent limits
were attainable, all sources of available information were surveyed.
A summary of the support documentation by parameter and industrial
subcategory is listed in Appendix E. Also contained in this
Appendix are a list of plants identified as presently meeting or
exceeding Schedule A effluent limitations in terms of pounds per
unit of production.
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57.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR USING EFFLUENT LIMITS FOR PERMIT DEVELOPMENT
In order to ensure the consistency required for national effluent
limits, the application of the limits must be uniform. The following
are the bases for translating of the BOD and suspended solids effluent
limits developed in Section VIII into permit conditions. Also
included is a discussion of that rationale for limits on coliform
organisms, pH, toxic materials, and oil and grease.
1. Production Basis
Maximum daily production was chosen as the basis of computing
the effluent limits in order to reflect the maximum pollution
potential of a mill. These limits can be evaluated against
stream standards, to see which are most stringent. The
method for determining the maximum was specifically defined
in an August 3, 1972, memorandum to the RAPP Regional
Directors as "the highest production level sustained for
seven consecutive operating days". This time period was
chosen, after discussion with a person knowledaable in this
industry (44), to insure the elimination of nontypical
maximum production periods.
2. Suspended Solids Limit (optional)
This option for regional use may be needed to control discharges
containing excessive amounts of suspended solids since
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58.
suspended solids have a long terra deleterious e££ect
on receiving water. The levels developed for the
guidelines are achievable and nay be used. This
parameter may be omitted if adequate control is provided
by a BOD limitation as may be the case if- there is an
aerated lagoon meeting Schedule A BOD limits.
3. Conditions for Application of BOD, Suspended Solids and
Settleable Solids Limitations
a. Composite samples (by volume) were chosen as the
only meaningful sampling method for the above
parameters and the flow characteristics from this
industry.
b. Grab samples (taken in less than a minute) are not
meaningful for control or evaluation of treatment or
production plant operations# but thev are useful
for identifying dumps or spills and would be useful
tools for either EPA or interested citizens. The
maximum concentration of 150 ma/1 was chosen because
such wastewater concentrations, if not efficiently
introduced into a receiving water, would cause
violations of water quality standards at the point of
discharge.
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59.
c Daily variances wars based on actual operating data
for aerated lagoons treating wastewater from this
industry, (18, 45) Also, values outside this range
are moit probably an indication that the system is
out-of-control. While temperature changes may be
somewhat responsible for variations in effluent
duality, proper design will maintain such variations
within the limits specified (18 » 21).
4. Qollform
Hhf effluent limit of 1,000 organisms per 100 ml is the
level recommended in "Water Quality Criteria" (green book)
for water not used for shellfish harvesting or contact
aeareational sports. This limit and language were reviewed
with the Aaency's microbiologists at a meeting in Denver
an May 4 and 5. 1972, and generally found acceptable to
them. (Ehey are however, concerned about the presence of
Klebsiella pneumonia in pulp mill effluents and are attempting
to establish a need for its control even thouoh aewage is
act present. The disinfection of wastewater with chlorine
would have serious implications for the aguatic environment
beeause of the formation of chlorinated compound* which have
a deleterious effect on fish life. The dilemma of disinfection
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60.
may be solved by maintaining effluent qualities less
than 30 mg/1 BOD^ thus limiting the growth or regrowth
potential in the stream.
5. Toxic Materials, Oil and Grease
This guidance was incorporated to highlight possible
problems in individual cases. Toxic materials, such
as zinc, have been detected as contaminants in a raw
material for bleaching, and oil and grease are found in
many effluents due to leakage in equipment, but in
general these are not the problem in this industry. The
analysis specified for oil and grease should consider
that some pulping wastes give a positive reading to the
hexane extraction method but do not contain compounds
which cause a sheen that is attributable to oil and grease
or petroleum type compounds.
6. £H
The majority of wastewater treated by biological methods
must be within these limits in order to meet the BOD
and suspended solids limitations.
7. Other Limits
The parameters specified in this section are those which
are not common to all subcategories within this industry
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61.
or whose treatment and removal do not fall within the
"best practicable control technology currently available"
boundaries.
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62.
LIST OF REFERENCES
1. "The Cost of Clean Water," U. S. Dept. of the Interior,
F.W.P.C.A. Industrial Waste Profile No. 3, 1967
2. "Industrial Waste Study of Paper and Allied Products Industry,"
Prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency, prepared by
WAPORA, Inc.
3. "Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and Allied Trades," 96th Edition,
Lockwood Publishing Co, Inc., New York, 1971
4. Applications for the Refuse Act Permit Program on file in E. P. A.
Regional Offices
5. "Pollution in the Pulp and Paper Industry," prepared by The Council
on Economic Priorities, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1972
6. "Progress Report on Water Reuse" TAPPI, Unpublished, (Results of
a questionnaire)
7. Warner, H. L. and Miller, B. C., "Water Pollution Control by
In-Plant Measures", TAPPI, Vol. 46, April 1963
8. McDermott, G. N. "Sources of Wastes from Kraft Pulping and
Theoretical Possibilities of Reuse of Condensates" Third
Southern Municipal and Industrial ;Jaste Conference, 1954
9. Blosser, R. 0. and Gellman, I., "Characteristics of Sulfite Pulping
Effluents and Available Alternative Treatment Methods," presented
at 1972 CPPA-TAPPI International Sulfite Pulping and Recovery
Conference, Boston, Mass., 1972
10. Ross, Edward N., "Re-Use and Reduction of Paper Mill Water,"
TAPPI, Vol. 47; Jan. 1964
11. Reeves, J. R. Jr. and Ritter, L. B., "Conserving Water ot Paper
Machines", TAPPI. Vol. 51, November 1968
12. Clouse, John L. "Need for Water Re-Use," TAPPI, Vol. 47; Jan. 1964
14. "A Survey of Pulp and Paper Industry Environmental Protection
Expenditures and Accomplishments - 1971", National Council for Air
and Stream Improvement Special Report No. 73-01, January 1973
15. "Manual of Practice for Sludge Handling in the Pulp and Paper
Industry", National Council for Stream Improvement Technical
Bulletin No. 190. 1966
-------
63.
16. Chow, C. S., Malina, J. F. and Eckenfelder, W. W., "Effluent
Quality and Treatment Economics," Technical Report EHE 07-6801,
CRWR 28, Center for Research in Water Resources, University of Texas
at Austin, 1968
17. Eckenfelder, W. W., "Design and Performance of Aerated Lagoons for
Pulp and Papermill Waste Treatment," Proceedings of the 16th
Industrial Waste Conference of Purdue University, 1961
18. Adamczyk, A. F., "Aerated Lagoon - Pilot Data vs. Operating Performance,"
Presented at tjie New York Water Pollution Control Association,
January, 1972
19. Edde, H., "A Manual of Practice for Biological Waste Treatment in
the Pulp and Paper Industry," NCASI Technical Bulletin #214, 1968
20. Gellman, I., "Aerated Stabilization Treatment of Mill Effluents,"
TAPPI, 48, 106A, 1965
21. Amberg, H. R. et. al., "Aerated Lagoon Treatment of Sulfite Pulp
and Paper Mill Effluents," TAPPI, 54, 1968, October, 1971
22. Pick, A. R. et. al., "Evaluation of Aerated Lagoons as a Sewage
Treatment Facility in The Canadian Prairie Provinces,"
International Symposium on Water Pollution Control in Cold Climates,
E. P. A. Water Pollution Control Research Series 16100 EXH,
November 1971
23. Jfarphy, N. F. and Gregory, D. R., "Removal of Color from Sulfate
Pulp Wash Liquors", Proceedings of the 19th Industrial Waste
Conference of Purdue University, 1964
24. Smith, S. E., "Coagulation of Pulping Waste for the Removal of
Color", Master's Thesis, University of Washington, 1967
25. Berger, H. F. "Color Removal and BOD Reduction in Kraft Effluents by
Foam Separation", National Council for Stream Improvement Technical
Bulletin No. 177, 1964
26. McGlasson, W. G. and Thibodeux, L. J., "Potential Uses of Activated
Carbon for Wastewater Renovation", TAPPI, Vol. 49, Dec. 1966
27. Dykstra, D. I., "Status of Office of Saline Developments in
Brackish Water Conversion", Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium
Series No. 90, Vol. 64, AICHE, 1968
28. Anon, 'Waters Supply-Treatment-Disposal-Recovery", Chemical
Engineering, Vol. 70, Dec. 1963
29. Volckman, O. B., "Operating Experience on Large Scale Electrodialysis
Demineralization Plant", American Chemical Society Advances in Chemistry
Series 38, 1963
-------
64.
30. Lacey, R. E. et al, "Economics of Demineralization by
Electrolysis", American Chemical Society Advances in Chemistry
Series 38, 1963
31. Furukawa, D. A., "Specific Problems in Electrodialysis Desalting
of Brackish Water", Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium
Series No. 90, Vol. 64, A1CHE, 1968
32. Parkhurst, J. D. et al, "Practical Applications for Reuse of
Wastewater", Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium Series No. 90,
Vol. 64, AICHE, 1968
33. Kunin, R. et al, "Desal Process-Economic Exchange System for
Treating Brackish and Acid Mine Drainage Waters and Sewage
Waste Effluents", Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium Series
No. 90, Vol. 64, AICHE, 1968
34. Waters, V. F., "Characteristics of Water" in 'Vater Technology for
Pulp and Paper Industry", TAPPI Nomograph #18, 1957
35. 0"Connor, D. J. and Eckenfelder, W. W., "Biological Waste Treatment,
Permagon Press, 1961
I
36. McKinney, R. E., "Design of Aerated Lagoons", Presented at 7th Great
Plains Sewage Works Design Conference, March, 1963
37. "Preliminary Report No. 2 - Industrial "Waste Profiles Covering the
Pulp and Paper Industry," Prepared for Office of Water Quality -
E. P. A. by WAPORA, Inc., April 9, 1971
38. Kleppe, P. J. and Rodgers, C. N., "Survey of Water Utilization
and Waste Control-Practices in the Southern Pulp and Paper Industry,"
Water Resources Research Institute of the Univ. of North Carolina,
Report No. 35, June 1970
39. "White Water Waste from Paper and Paperboard Mills," Prepared for
New England Water Pollution Control Commission by Wesleyan Univ.
December 1963
40. Lund, H. F. editor, "Industrial Pollution Control Handbook,"
McGraw Hill, 1971
41. Gurnham, C. F. editor, "Industrial Wastewater Control," Academic
Press, 1965
42. "Aerated Lagojon Treatment of Sulfite Pulping Effluent", EPA Water
Pollution Control Research Series 12040 EIW, December 1971
1 'I "i i i
43. "In-plant Control and Treatment of New Yc*-k Tissue Mills", Unpublished
da'ta from reports on file with New York State Dept. of Environmental
Conservation, May 1971
-------
65.
44. Gehm, H. W. personal communication, February 22, 1972
45. Emery, H. R., Manager - Environmental Engineering, St. Regis Paper
Co., Letter to Murray Stein, March 30, 1972
46. "Water Quality Criteria", U. S. Dept. of the Interior, F.W.P.C.A.
April, 1968
-------
APPENDIX A
Economic Impact Analysis
-------
APPENDIX A
Economic Impact Analysis
-------
ENVIRON MENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
DATE:
RAPP Economic Guidance Pulp and
Paper Industry
John R. Quarles, Jr.
Assistant Administrator for
Enforcement and General Counsel
The following memorandum presents the economic
guidance prepared by Planning and Management in conjunction
with ORAP to accompany the effluent limitation guidance for
the pulp and paper industry.
Our methodology has been as follows:
A. Identify the economically critical segments
in the industry.
B. Examine the cost/effectiveness alternatives
and the economic sensitivity of those segments,
^ t l/y V J. twUttUU^. A A UXVtU JaO X J Uv> VA J, 4* JT V 4.
selectively applying the guidance to plants
in the critical industry segments.
Each of these issues is discussed below.
Critical Segments
Planning and Management anticipates that the majority
of the plants in the pulp and paper industry should be able
to meet the requirements of the RAEP guidance as currently
written.
In certain industry segments, however, some smaller
and older plants would be forced to close if required to
conform with the RAPP guidance. Typically, these wou3.d be
marginal plants with limited economic lives regardless of
pollution control considerations. Many of these plants
would be likely to close within 5-10 years, even in the
absence of pollution control requirements.
-------
- 2 -
Planning and Management has identified those industry
segments in which a significant number of plant closings
are expected as a result of pollution control requirements.
These are as follows:
Industry Segment Maximum Mill Capacity
(Tons per day)
Acid Sulfite Pulp 200
Tissue Paper 50
Fine Paper (printing
and writing) 200
Paperboard 100
Planning and Management has not identified any other
industry segment as critical. However, a few closings
might be expected among the smaller mills which produce
glassine, newsprint, or corrugated medium (with neutral
sulfite semi-chemical pulp). In addition, two acid sulfite
' *—> " « ' " » v» ^ "i i"*' O n v\ o v ^ v v..*r» i m* ¦ P « O »
W* (Ml A A. W W £* W VttAJ «-•-•»»-» —- w » » ——-W- _ _ — «»w •
as possible closings.
Although specific guidance has not been issued for
special industrial paper, Planning and Management also
anticipates a few closings in this segment among mills of
less than 50 tons per day capacity.
These segments have been derived from in~house analysis,
from information supplied to us by Arthur D. Little, Inc.
from their report Economic Impact of Anticipated Paper Industry
Pollution Abatement Costs, and from information currently being
developed by ADL as part of a follow-up study for the Economic
Development Administration.
For each critical industry segment, the number and
capacity of mills whose closings are rated by ADL as
being highly probable have been identified. These are
summarized in Table 1. Although the identity of individual
mills has been reported to EDA, this information is not yet
available to us. We will provide you with these specific
identities as soon as possible.
-------
- 3 -
Cost/Effectiveness Alternatives
For each of the critical industry segments identified
above, Planning and Management has developed cost/effective-
ness curves. These are presented in Exhibit 1.*
For most paper mills the relevant treatment alternatives
are as follows: primary clarification, clarification with
aerated lagoons, clarification with activated sludge, and
joint municipal treatment. For sulfite pulp mills, a liquor
recovery process is necessary before any other treatment
can be effective. Additional levels of treatment, such as
sand filtration and carbon.absorption, are possible but have
not been included in this analysis because they are not
called for by the RAPP guidance.
ORAP has stated that the guidance for this industry
can be met with the installation of biological treatment
systems, either aerated lagoons or activated sludge. For
the purposes of this report, we have assumed such effective-
ness will be possible.
Given the above, it appears that the cost/effectiveness
alternatives for the pulp and paper industry are limited.
In general, aerated lagoons can be installed at 3-5 times
the cost of primary clarifiers. These will result in BOD
concentrations approximately 1/3-to 1/5 of those from the
clarification units.
If sufficient land is not available for aerated lagoons,
or if higher efficiencies are required, activated sludge units
can be installed at a cost 50% to 100% greater than that for
the lagoons. The resultant BOD concentration will be approx-
imately 30% to 50% less than from aerated lagoons.
* Because a different scale is used for each of the mills
in Exhibit 1, Exhibits 2 and 3 are presented for comparison.
Also for comparative purposes, estimates for coarse paper
mills have been included. These exhibits indicate that
although the sulfite paper mills must invest ten to twenty
times as much as the other mills per ton of product, their
investment is up to fifteen times more effective per pound
of BOD removed.
-------
- 4 -
In most cases, an alternative preferable to both of
these will be for the mills to make use of a municipal
treatment system. Where this is possible, the requirements
of the RAPP guidance can be met more economically. Sharing
the capital and operating costs with municipal systems will
nevertheless be financially infeasible for marly of the mills
identified as probable closures.
Economic Sensitivity
For each of the critical segments in this industry,
Planning and Management has estimated the probable closings
to be expected from the RAPP guidance (biological treatment),
and from requiring physical treatment only. These are presented
in Table 1.
The following sections discuss the economic sensitivity
of each of the critical industry segments to alternative
treatment requirements.
Acid Sulfite Pulp
As indicated in Table 1, relaxing the guidance
for acid sulfite pulp mills to require only physical treatment
would not have any effect upon those mills identified as
highly probable closings. This is because the initial costs
of installing liquor recovery systems are so high that the
additional costs of biological treatment are not economically
significant.
Thus, the only alternative for altering the guidance
for these mills would be to requirte no treatment. If this
were done, it is likely that the closing of all except one mill
in this critical industry segment could be prevented. This
would represent approximately 12% of the total production
capacity for this product. Because of the extremely high
pollution loads from these mills, the water quality would
be seriously reduced.
Tissue Paper
For tissue paper mills, there is only one relevant
treatment alternative, physical treatment. The only alternative
for relaxing the guidance for this sector, therefore, would be
-------
- 5 -
to require no treatment. Most tissue mills already have
a physical treatment system installed, however. Thus,
requiring no treatment would effect only a small number
of the mills rated as highly probable closings (8% of the
critical industry segment and 1% of total production capacity
for this product). Consequently, the reduction in the number
of plant closings that might be expected from relaxing the
guidance would not be significant.
Fine Paper
Cost reductions of 70% to 85% could be realized for
fine paper mills, if the guidance were relaxed to permit
physical treatment only. This would result in the removal
of 9 of 14 mills from the list of highly probable closings.
Remaining on this list, then, would be 3% instead of 12% of
the capacity in this critical industry segment, and 1% instead
of 5% of the total production capacity for this product. The
percent BOD reduction would thereby be decreased from approx-
imately 30% to approximately 60%. There would be no decrease
iri total suspended solids removed.
? ape j. board
As with fine paper mills, substantial cost reductions
(approximately 75%-85%) would result if the guidance were
relaxed to permit physical treatment only for paperboard
mills. These savings would result in the removal of 11 of 15
mills from the list of highly probable closings. Remaining
would be 8% instead of 25% of the capacity in this critical
industry segment, and 2% instead of 6% of the total production
capacity for this product.
The percent BOD reduction achieved for this segment
by physical treatment is much less than for fine paper, 30%
instead of 90%. The total suspended solids removed are
also lower, 60% instead of 85%.
Other Products
The above considerations apply similarly to those mills
identified as possible closings in the other industry segments
The three glassine paper mills that have been rated as highly
-------
- 6 -
probable closings, for example, could be removed from that
list if only physical treatment were required. Similarly,
the two acid sulfite pulp mills identified as moderately
probable closings, would not be in jeopardy if no treatment
were required.
Re commc n d a t i o ns
The above analysis has identified the critical segments
in the pulp and paper industry, and has examined their
economic sensitivity to possible cost/effectiveness alter-
natives. On the basis of this analysis, the following mod-
ifications in guidance are possible:
Acid Sulfite Pulp ( <200 TPDJ
Alternative 1: No change in quidance.
Pro: Effluent quality as in guidance.
Con: Seven mills, 47% of segment capacity,
j.cjnjl^ •
Alternative 2: Relax guidance so that only
physical treatment is necessary.
(230 lbs BOD/ton product)
Pro: None, 7 closings still highly probable.
Con: Effluent quality of 17 mills reduced.
Alternative 3: Relax guidance so that no treatment
is necessary.
(950 lbs.BOD/ton product)
Pro: Number of highly probable mill closings
reduced from 7 to 1, from 47% of segment's
capacity to 8%.
Con: Effluent quality of 17 mills considerably
reduced.
Rccommondtition: No change in guidance.
- These mills are among the worst polluters in
the nation.
-------
- 7 -
It is unlikely that Congress intended that
best practicable technology would be no
treatment.
- As long as any treatment is required, the
economic sensitivity is such that no standard
less than the RAPP guidance would significantly
alter the economic impact.
Tissue Paper (< 50 TPD)
Alternative It No change in guidance.
Pro: Effluent quality as in guidance.
Cont Six mills, 8% of segment's capacity, highly
probable closings.
Alternative 2: Relax guidance so that no treatment
is necessary.
(40 lbs BOD/ton product)
Pro: None, most of the six mills still likely
to close.
Con: Effluent quality of 41 mills reduced.
Recommendation: No change in guidance.
Fine Paper ( <.200 TPD)
Alternative It No change in guidance.
Pro: Effluent quality as in guidance.
Con: Fourteen mills, 12% of segment's capacity,
highly probable closings.
Alternative 2: Relax guidance so that only physical
treatment is necessary.
(20 lbs BOD/ton product)
Pro: Highly probable plant closings reduced to
5, 3% of segment's capacity.
Con: Effluent quality of 93 mills reduced approx-
imately 30%.
-------
- 8 -
Alternative 3: Relax guidance so that no treat-
ment is necessary.
(40 lbs BOD/ton product)
Pro: None, no significant reduction in plant
closings.
Con: Effluent quality of 9 3 mills considerably
reduced.
Alternative 4: Relax guidance for selected mills
only. (Those identified as highly probable closings.)
Pro: Plant closings reduced. Effluent quality of
most mills not reduced.
Con: Effluent quality of 14 mills reduced.
Recommendation: Relax guidance to 20 lbs BOD/ton
for selected mills only.
- Relaxing the guidance for the entire segment
v/oulv. reduce effluent •-reality of ??
mills that would be able to meet the RAPP guidance.
- The probable mill closings could be prevented with
a slight reduction in effluent quality (except
where water quality consideration are prohibitive)
- Planning and Management will work with ORAP to
identify the appropriate mills.
Paperboard ( < 100 TPD)
t
Alternative 1: No chancre in guidance.
Pro: Effluent quality as in guidance.
Con: Sixteen mills, 25% of segment's capacity, highly
probable closings.
Alternative 2: Relax guidance so that only physical
treatment is necessary.
(15 lbs BOD/ton product)
Pro: Number of highly probable closings reduced
to 5, 8% of segmsnt's capacity.
Con: Effluent quality reduced.
-------
- 9 -
Alternative 3: Relax guidance so that no treatment
is necessary.
(20 lbs BOD/ton product)
Pro: None, no significant reduction in probable
mill closings.
Con: Effluent quality further reduced.
Alternative 4: Relax guidance for selected mills
only (those identified as highly probable closings)
Pro: Plant closings reduced. Effluent quality
of most mills not reduced.
Con: Effluent quality of 16 mills reduced.
Recommendation: Relax guidance to 15 lbs BOD/ton
for selected mills only.
TiiOiiiaei E. Cai'i'Olx
Assistant Administrator
for Planning and Management
Attachment
-------
TABLE 1
PROBABLE PLANT CLOSINGS
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
Highly Probable
Plant Closings
^•fitical Industry
Total
Secrment
RAPP
Guidance
Phyc
ical Trcat-
Capacity
% of Total
meant Only
Segment
No..
(TPD)
Product
Capacity
No.
% Segment
Cap acitv
No.
% Segment
Capacity
Sulfite Pulp
< < 200 TPD)
17
2,455
25%
7
47%
7
47%
^Ssue Paper
'<•50 TPD)
41
1,680
16%
6
8%
6
8%
Pi26 PaPer (<200
(Printing
Hd Writing)
93
13, 250
45%
14
12%
5
3%
rbo -> v/Si
*<100 TPD)
73
5, 600
23%
16
25%
5
8%
ba probabilities were determined by Arthur D. Little, Inc., on the
g ®^s of their work for the Environmental Protection Agency and the
tatn0m^c Devel°Pm©nt Administration. The probability of closing was
01 f high if it was judged that the mill has a 75% probability of
te°a^n9 because its profit potential is not sufficient to support
^ired pollution control expenditures.
-------
EXHIBIT 1-A
CO ST/ F.F F E CT T. V F.b? ess alternatives
SULFITE PUT.P AND PAPER .MILL
lSO'TONS PER d"Ay~ WITHOUT RECOVERY)
6,000
4, 500
il
jj-ti
oodj"
3,000 -1
feital
%>enrlT,
500
950
20%
750
Primary^
Liquor Recovery
Schedule
,— 1 >
40% 60%
Percent BOD Removed
Activated
Sludge
Aerated
Lagoon
Clarification
<*\
Schedule "A"
570
380
190
100%
0
FFLUENT QUALITY
(BOD-lbe/TON)
-------
EXHIBIT 1-B
COST/EFFECT IVEI3ESS ALTER Is AT IVES
UlSUip PAPE"^ MILL
50 TGN~J PER DAY"
120
Capital
penditures
fsi nnm
Schedule "A" and HB
40% 60% 86%
Percent BOD Removed
24
Effluent Quality
(BOD - lbs/ton)
-------
EXHIBIT 1-C
CO ST'/EFFEC.TIN VESS ALT ERNATIVE S
FINE PAPER KTTjL
100 TONS PER DAY
100 0
800
600 -
; >ital
xnditures
1000)
»-v *\ «~
<-0 \J
0
40
20%
32
Pr imary
Clarification
40%
—i—
60%
Act lVdJ; c
Sludge
Aerated
I^agoon
"A" and "B'
O- _ . -I
Percent. BOD Removed
24 16
EFFLUENT QUANTITY
(BOD - lbs. TON)
—,—
80%
3
1
100%
0
-------
EXHIBIT 1-D
cost/hpfrctt-'r:i nss at.,t^1 \''Tati y e s
PAPKK»bJj
-------
EXHIBIT 2
TOTAL CAPITAL EXPENDITURES
PER DAILY TON OF PRODUCT
A = Sulfite Pulp and Paper
B = Tissue Paper
C = Paperfcoard
D = Fine Paper
E - Coarse Paper
50
40 -
A
Capital
Expenditures
($1000/
TON)30 -
A
A
20 .
10 ..
D
D
C
E
C
E
Tr|c IDlm
Primary
Clarification
Aerated
Lagoons
Activated
Sludge
-------
700
600 -
500 -
400 -
-apital
Expenditure
day)
300 *
200
100 "
-------
APPENDIX B
Construction Cost Curves
-------
APPENDIX B
Construction Cost Curves
-------
TREATMENT COSTS
The following is a packet of capital cost curves for
unit operations which are applicable for the treat-
ment of wastewater from the pulp and paper industry.
These curves were developed from data presented in the
attached list of references# The costs are based on
the July 1969 Engineering News Record Construction
Index.
These curves were given to Regional personnel, at the
Pulp and Paper Workshop on May 51, 1972, for evaluating
the relative cost for increasing levels of treatment.
Figure 10 was developed for a 500 ton per day bleached
kraft pulp and paper mill and was used to illustrate
"the treatment cost should localoconditions warrant
the application of color, turbidity or total dissolved
solids limits.
-------
100 1000 10,000
Surface Area (square feet)
COST VS SURFACE AREA OP PRIMARY CLARIFIER
Figure 1
-------
1 10 100 1000
Voluae of Lagoon (MG)
COST VS VOLUME OF AERATED LAGOON
(EXCLUSIVE OF LAND COST)
Figure 2
-------
10000
COST VS VOLUME OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE
BASIN - INCLUDING AERATORS
Figure 5
-------
1000
ioo r
1,000 10,000
Surface Area (square feet)
COST VS SURFACE AXEA OF FINAL CLARIFIER
Figure 4
-------
' ' ' 1 '
5 XO 15 20 25
Daslgn Capacity (in MGD)
CAPITAL COST RELATIONSHIP FOR
MASSIVE LIME - AFTER HEBERT
Figtire 5
-------
D«aign Capacity (in MGD)
CAPITAL COST RELATIONSHIP
SAND FILTERS
Figure 6
-------
Dteljgn Capacity (MG ae 1000 ag/1 CaC*^)
COST V8 CAPACITY OF ION EXCHANGE
Figaro 7
-------
o
o
o
c
U
n
o
o
-------
0
1 2 3 A
Filter.Area (la 100 sauare feet)
5
CAPITAL COST RELATIONSHIP
VACUUM FILTERS
Figure 9
-------
REFERENCES - TREATMENT COST
~y% "The Cost of Clean Water," U. S. Dept. of the Interior, F.W.P.C.A.
Industrial Waste Profile No. 3, 1967
2. Herbert, A. J., "A Process for Removal of Color From Bleach Kraft
Effluents Through Modification of the Chemical Recovery System",
National Council for Stream Improvement Technical Bulletin No. 157,
1962, U. S. Patent No. 3, 120, 464
3. McGlasson, W. G. "Treatment of Pulp Mill Effluents with Activated
Carbon", National Council for Stream Improvement Technical Bulletin
No. 199, 1967
4. Kunin, R. et al, "Desal Process-Economic Exchange System for
Treating Brackish and Acid Mine Drainage Waters and Sewage Waste
Effluents", Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium Series No. 90,
Vol. 64, AICHE, 1968
5. Manual of Practice for Sludge Handling in the Pulp and Paper Industry",
National Council for Stream Improvement Technical Bulletin No. 190, 1966
6. Chow, C. S,, Malina, J. F. and Eckenfelder, W. W., "Effluent Quality
and Treatment Economics," Technical Report EHE 07-6801, CRWR 28,
Center for Research in Water Resources, University of Texas at Austin, 1968
7. Kunin, R. "Deionization of High Solids Water", Industrial Water
^.Engineering, July 1965
8. Barnard, J. L., "Treatment Cost Relationship for Wastes from the
Organic Chemical Industry", Master's Thesis, University of Texas
at Austin, June 1969
9. Eckenfelder, W. W., "Effluent Quality and Treatment Economics for
Industrial Wastewaters", Report prepared for Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, 1967
10. Smith, R., "Cost of Conventional and Advanced Treatment of Wastewater,"
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 40, Sept* 1968
11. Levendusky, J. A., "Continuous Countercurrent Ion Exchange, A Proven-Low
Cost Process", Presented at the International Water Conference of The
Engineer's Society of Western Pennsylvania, Oct. 20-22, 1965
12. Quirk, T. P., "Application of Computerized Analysis to Comparative Costs
of Sludge Ddwatering by Vacuum Filter and Centrifuge", Quirk, Lawler, and
Matusky Engineering Report
-------
APPENDIX C
Flow Data Analysis
-------
-------
1 0.5 C.J 0.1
-------
6o
56
52
Jf8
bk
40
36
32
28
24
20
16
>3
91.9 95.8 59.9 95 51
95
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1 0.5 0.2 P.I f.''
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VVA.OTTy'VATER FI.QVi PROBABILITY PIAC^A"
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Source: WAPORA
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-------
nnr»CRT no. 33
SURVEY OF WATER UTILIZATION AND
WASTE CONTROL PRACTICES IN THE
SOUTHERN PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
BY
PEDER J. KLEPPE
CHARLES N. ROGERS
JUNE, 1970
v''
^ ;«*• v, v.. v
A
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m^r
iJfji li
UliUJ
nijiJ !«•-
J.|U«;; (:y^i •;: IP-P^
m lHHSMdJisUl OT©
few
Unn-Jinru.
"77s
n*
I In
rp
* !•*
Liu
«
a'i)i
ill]
fl
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA
r\
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>
* • *..» ' y . '
m n
~ *"* **•
r*
r\
j *
North CcroRna State University at R.?.!elnh * University of North Carolina et Chapel Hill
'"
-------
Table 2.
3
Classification of the surveyed mills
Group of
Mills
No. of
Type of Product Mills
S ize of Mi Us, Tons
of Product per Day
A
Unbleached Kraft pulp & paper
15
250 - 1870
B
Bleached Kraft pulp & paper
5
700 - 1400
C
Unbleached and bleached. Kraft
pulp & paper
7
160 - 1100
c-g
Unbleached and bleached Kraft
and groundwood pulp & paper
5
590 - 1465
0
NSSC & waste-based pulp & paper
1
800
E
Unbleached Kraft & NSSC pulp
t paper
5
725 - 2500
F
Bleached Kraft & NSSC pulp
& paper
1
1250
G
Unbleached and bleached Kraft
& NSSC pu1p-& paper
2
1300 - 1450
H
Unbleached Kraft pulp & paper
(10%)
1
860
1
Bleached pulp (highly purified)
2
570 - 1100
J
Board from waste paper
2
110 - 120
Table 3.
Fresh water demand In puto and/or paper mills, producing
different kinds of orodutfts
Group of
Mills8
No* of Average Water Demand
Mi lis gal/ttfn Product
Range of Water Demand
qal/tcn Product
A
B
C
c-g
D
E
F
6
H
1
J
13 24,000
5 46,000
6 35,000
5 31.000
1 29,600
5 23,200
1 28.300
2 25,900
1 13,400
2 65,400
.2 2.150
14,000 - 36,000
34,000 - 65,000
25,500 - 42,500
23,000 - 51,000
(29,600)
15,000 - 40,000
(28,300)
21,800 - 30,000
(13,400)
52,500 - 88,000
1.200 - 3.'00
aThe classification of the mil}--, is «;iven in Table 2.
-------
APPENDIX D - Description
of Sub-Categories
-------
APPENDIX D
Description of Sub-Categories
-------
Definitions of Production Process
Categories
Broad Categories of Pulp Manufacturing
1. Unbleached Kraft
Pulp produced by the sulfate pulping process, using an alkaline solution
of caustic soda and sodium sulfide, with yield in the range of 45 to 60%.
This process is most commonly applied to soft woods but has seen
applications in hard wood pulping.
2. Bleached Kraft
Kraft pulp bieached by multi-stages to a high brightness level.
3. Sulfite (Acid)
Pulp produced by the acid sulfite process used an aqueous solution
containing bisulfite and an excess of sulfur dioxide. The pulping
base may be either calcium, magnesium, ammonia, or sodium bisulfite.
The yield range is less than 50%.
4. Sulfite-Dissolving Grade
This 1s the same pulping process as the sulfite (acid) but with a
much lower yield and is used to make a higher quality paper.
5. Bleached Sulfite
Acid sulfite pulp bleached by multl-stages to a high brightness
level.
6. Neutral Sulfite Semi-Chemical (NSSC)
This pulping process was-developed primarily for reason of wood
utilization and cost reduction. This process is often used for pulping
hard woods. The cooking liquor is composed of sodium sulfite buffered
with sodium carbonate, bicarbonate or* kraft green liquor. Because
of the chemical makeup of'the cooking liquor this process is often
integrated into pulp mills utilizing the kraft pulping process. The
yield for semi-chemical pulps range between 65% and 85%.
-------
7. Groundwood
This process includes no chemical treatment of the pulp. The
pulp is produced by mechanical action of grind stone or refiners.
Water is used to cool the heat of friction and to float the
fiber away. Yields are in access of 90%.
8. Bleached Groundwood
Groundwood pulp bleached in one or more stages to a brightness
in excess of 65 pt.
9. Deinking Pulp
A pulping process, which reclaims fiber from waste paper, using
chemical treatment and filtration to remove inks, fillers and
other contaminers from the waste paper.
10. Soda Process
Soda pulp manufacture is very slmiliar to the kraft process.
Sodium carbonate Is used instead of sodium sulfate in the
cook liquor.
11. Rag Pulp
Rags are cooked in an aqueous solution of lime, caustic soda,
or a mixture of caustic lime and soda ash. This fiber is
used primarily in the manufacture of fine paper.
12. Chemi-Mechanical Pulping
This is another term for part chemical and part mechancial
process which is used primarily on hard woods. The major
processes under this category are*the cold-soda process,
where wood chips are treated with sodium hydroxide at room
temperature and are fiberized in a dish refiner and
chemigroundwood in which the logs are thoroughly impregnated with
a hot chemical solution before grinding. These processes
in the range of 85% to 9556.
Broad Categories of Paper Manufacturing
1. Paperboard
Grade made predominantly from waste or recycle paper, and
exclusive of those grades precede by deinking. Examples:
folding cartons, paste board, chip board.
2. Coarse Paper
These grades are essentially 100* fibers with' a minimum of
additives and are often referred to as uncofcted or unfilled
papers. Examples: liner board, bag paper, wraplng paper.
-------
shipping bags, glassine paper.
3. Fine Paper
These grades are lightly filled or coated with a pigment level
less than 8%. Example: form paper, uncoated printing paper,
writing tablets.
4. Book Paper
These grades are highly filled or coated with pigment levels
greater than 8%. Examples: filled-uncoated printing paper,
coated printing papers, bristols.
5. Tissue
This grade is extremely light weight with little or no
filler added. Examples: facial tissue, toliet tissue, napkins,
toweli ng.
6. Specialties
This is a non-homogeneous category with no common effluent
characteristic. .Each production item requires separate
consideration. Examples: saturating grades, mica paper,
electrical paper, filter paper, carbon filled papers,
synthetic and inorganic papers.
-------
APPENDIX E
Support Documentation Summary
-------
APPENDIX E
Support Documentation Summary
-------
SUPPORT DOCUMENT SUMMARY
EFFLUENT LIMITATION GUIDANCE
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
-------
Status of Existing Facilities Meeting "
Pulp and Paper Industry
Total Number Number of Hills
Class Mills Meeting A (%)
I. Kraft Linerboard 38 12 (32)
Kraft Newsprint 32 2
Kraft Bleached &
Unbleached 4
Kraft Bleached 7
KRAFT TOTAL 120 25 (21)
IX. Sulfite
Paper Grade 28 4 (14)
Dissolving Pulp 6
III. NSSC 41 3 (7)
IV. Paper 6 Board 351 15 (4)
Making From
Purchase Pulp
or Wastepaper
Guidelines
Production Production
Total (T/D) Meeting A (%)
24,850 12,393 (50)
14,800 1,773
5.093
7.094
82,300 26,353 (32)
6,850 1,034 (14)
2,450
12,200 989 (8)
15,760
2,234
(14)
-------
REFERENCE SUMMARY FOR DOCUMENTATION OF "A" GUIDELINES
Industry Pulp s Paper Date December 4, 1972
DOCUMENTATION
SOURCES
Limitation
111 US
surveys &
State
Engrd
Ind
Ref. File
arameter
Subcategory
1b/ton
Pits
Permits
Lit
Plant Visits.
Studies
Judq'ipt
Info
Other
Tab No.
300
Kraft Pulping & the
Manufact. Of:
A. Coarse Paper &
1
Liner Board
5
12
X
X
X
c
B. Newsprint
5
2
X
X
X
C. Bleached &
Q
Unbleached Grades
9
4
X
X
X
A
D. Bleached Grades
11
9
X
X
X
X
SULFITE PULPING &
THE MANUFACTURE OF:
A. Paper
35
4
X
X
X
5
B. Dissolving Pulp
60
—
X
X
X
NEUTRAL SULFITE
6
SEMI-CHEMICAL
14
3
X
X
X
GROUNDWOOD
7
A. Unbleached
2.5
2
X
X
X
/
B. Bleached
4.5
X
X
X
-------
REFERENCE SUMMARY FOR DOCUMENTATION OF ,:A" GUIDELINES
Industry frilp & Paper Date December 4. 1972
DOCUMENT" AT
I 0 N
SOURCES
rameter
Subcategory
Limitation
lb/ton
Illus
Pits
Permits
Lit
surveys &
Plant Visits.
State
Studies
Engrd
Judq'mt
Ind
Info.
Other
Ref. File
Tab No.
P°s
DEINKXHG MILL
10
1
<
X
X
X
X
PAPERBQAKD
3
7
X
X
X
X
8
PAPER MANUFACTURE
(Pimm Purchased
Pulp)
Coarse
Fine ( < 8% filled)
Book, ( > 8% filled)
Tissue
2
6
3
8
4
1
4
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
9
10
-------
REFERENCE SUMMARY FOR DOCUMENTATION OF "A" GUIDELINES
Industry PulP & PaPer Date December 41 1972
DOCUMENTAT
I 0 N
SOURCES
i
Limitation
Illus
surveys &
State
Erigrd
Ind
Ref. File
krameter
Subcateqory
1b/ton
Pits
Permits
Lit
Plant Visits
Studies
Judq'Tflt
Info
Other
Tab No.
suspended
Solids
DEINKING MILL
12
-
X
X
X
X
PAPERBOABD
3
8
X
X
X
X
8
PAPER MANUFACTURE
(From Purchased
Pulp)
Coarse
3
_
X
X
X
Fine ( 4 8% filled)
7
4
X
X
X
X
9
Book { > 8% filled)
4
1
X
X
X
Tissue
6
4
X
X
X
X
10
-------
REFERENCE SUMMARY FOR DOCUMENTATION OF "A" GUIDELINES
Industry Pulp & Paper Date December 4, 1972
DOC
U M E N T A T
I 0 N
SOURCES
Limitation
IllUS
surveys &
State
Engrd
Ind
Other
Ref. File
irameter
Subcateqory
1b/ton
Pits
Permits
Lit
Plant Visits.
Studies
Judq' rpt
Info
Tab No.
uspended
KRAFT PULPING AND
{Solids
THE MANUFACTURE OF:
;
A. Coarse Paper s
1
j
Liner Board
5
12
X
X
X
1
j
B. Newsprint
6
3
X
X
X
2
C. Bleached &
i
Unbleached
10
3
X
X
X
3
Grades
D. Bleached Grades
10
7
X
X
X
X
4
SULFITE PULPING &
THE MANUFACTURE OF:
A. PAPER
20
4
X
X
X
5
i
;
B. DISSOLVING PULP
20
—
X
X
X
NEUTRAL SULFITE
!
SEMI-CHEMICAL-
8
3
X
X
X
6
1
GROUNDWOOD
A. Unbleached
5
1
X
X
X
7
B. Bleached
9
X
X
X
-------
Ref. Pile
Tab. No. 1
Pulp & Paper Mills Meeting "A" Guidelines
Kraft Linerboard
Name
S.c. Industries, Inc.
Alabama Kraft Co.
Union Camp Corp.
Interstate Paper
Tennessee River
Pulp i Paper
Olin Kraft
Pineville Kraft
Owens Illinois
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Location
Florence, S.C.
Phoenix City, Ala.
Montgomery, Ala.
Riceboro, Ga.
Counce, Tenn.
Productions
(Tons Per Day)
650
1008
911
450
940
Monroe, La.. 1320
Alexandria, La. 1000
Orange, Texas 900
Springfield, Oregon 1150
Type of
Treatment
HL
C, AL, HL
C, HL
C. CH, HL
C. AL, HL
C, AL, HL
C, AL, HL
C, AL
Kraft Linerboard Integrated with NSSC
Name
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Western Kraft
Location
Valiant, Okla.
Albany, Oregon
Productions
(Tons Per Day)
1600
550
Type of
Treatment
C, AL
-------
Ref. File
Tab No. 2
Pulp & Paper MHU Meeting "A" Guidelines
Kraft Wewiprlnt
Production Type of
Heme Locettona (Tons Per Day) Treatment
Southland Paper Company Luftkln, Texas 1000 C, AS
Southland Paper Company Sheldon, Texas 363 C, AS
-------
Pulp & Paper Mills Meeting "A" Guidelines
Bleached and Unbleached Kraft
Ref. File
Tab. No. 3
Name
St. Regis Paper Co.
Union Camp Corp.
Container Corp.
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Location
Courtland, Ala.
Franklin, Va.
Brewton, Ala.
Plymouth, N.C.
Production
(Tons Per Day)
625
1300
1050
1464
Type of
Treatment
C, AL, HL
C, AL, HL
C, AL, HL
C, AL, HL
-------
Ref. File
Tab No. 4
Pulp & Paper Mills Meeting "A" Guidelines
Bleached Kraft
Name
Location
Production
{Tons Per Day)
Type of
Treatment
U. S. Plywood, Champion
Courtland, Ala
625
c,
AL, HL
International Paper Co.
Tlconderoga, N.Y.
390
c,-
AS (BOD
only)
Champion International
Canton, N.C.
1398
C,
AS
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Newburn, N.C.
640
C,
AL, HL
Boise Cascade Corp.
Deritter, La.
1150
C,
AL, HL
Eaatex
Orange, Texas
1200
C,
AL
Nekoosa Edwards
Ashdovn, Ark.
550
C,
AL, (BOD
> only)
P.H. Gladtfelter Co.
Spring Grove, Pa.
500
C,
AS (BOD
only)
American Can
Halsey, Oregon
330
C,
AS
Escanaba Paper Co.
Escanaba, Mich.
700
C,
AL, C
-------
Ref. File
Tab No. 5
Name
Channln Paper Co.
Botae Cascade
Publishers Paper
Publishers Paper
Pulp & Paper Mills Meeting "A" Guidelines
Sulfite Pulping and Paper Making
Location
Mehoopanyt Pa.
Salem, Oregon
Newberg, Oregon
Oregon City, Oregon
Production Type of
(Tons Per Day) Treatment
Confidential CR, C, AS
250 CR, C, AL
210 CR, C, AL
189 CR, C, AL
-------
Ref. File
Tab No. 6
Pulp * Paper Mills Meeting "A" Guidelines
Neutral Sulfite Semi-Chemical
Name
Menasha Corp.
Weston Paper Co.
Sonoeo Products Co.
Location
Ostego, Mich.
Terra Haute, Ind.
Hartsville, S, C.
Production
(Tons Per Day)
335
254
400
Type of
Treatment
C, AL, C
C, AL, HL
C, AL
-------
Ref.File
Tab No. 7
Pulp & Paper Mills Meeting "A" Guidelines
Unbleached Groundwood
Production Tvpe of
Name Location (Tons Per Day) Treatment
Diamond National Corp. Red Bluff, Calif. 80 c, AL
Keyes Fibre Wenatchee, Hash. So C, AL
-------
Ref. File
Tab No. 8
Pulp & Paper Mills Meeting "A" Guidelines
Paperboard
Name
Pepperel Paper Co.
Sonoco Products Co.
American Can
Columbia Boxbo-ird Corp
Federal Paperboard
Stone Container
Carotell Paperboard
Location
Lawrence, Mass.
Rockton, 111
Nenorainee, Mich.
Chatham, N.Y.
Richmond, Va.
Mobile, Ala.
Taylors, S.C.
Production
(Tons Per Day)
155
59
270
100
160
125
135
Type of
Treatment
C, AS
C
AL, HL
Complete
Recycle
C, AL
Complete
Recycle Only
Blowdown
-------
Name
Fletcher Paper
Nlcolet Paper
Nlcolet Paper
Nekoosa Edwards
Ref. File
Tab No. 9
Pulp & Paper Mills Meeting "A" Guidelines
Paper Manufacturing from Purchase Pulp - Fine Paper
Location
Alpena, Mich
Plalnville, Mich.
West DePere, Wise.
Potsdam, N.Y.
Production
(Tons Per Day)
65
175
116
100
Type of
Treatment
C, AL, C
C, HL
CH
-------
Name
Kimberly Clark
Hudson Pulp & Paper
Celu-Products
Kimberly Clark
Ref. File
Tab No. 10
Pulp & Paper Mills Meeting "A" Guidelines
Paper Manufacturing from Purchased Pulp - Tissue
Location
Neeneuk, Vise.
Greenwhtch, N.Y.
Patterson, N.C.
Beach Island, S.C.
Production
(Tons Per Day)
190
SO
16
390
Type of
Treatment
C
C
C, AL, HL
KL
-------
APPENDIX F - Listing of
U.S. Pulp and Paper Mills
-------
APPENDIX F
Listing of United States
Pulp and Paper Mills
-------
KRAFT PULP MILLS IN THE UNITED STATES
Alabama
Container Corp. of America, Brewton
Kimberly-Clark Corp., Coosa Pines
U. S. Plywood-Champion Papers, Inc., Courtland
Gulf States Paper Corp., Demopolis
Allied Paper Inc., Jackson
Georgia Kraft Co., Mahrt
International Paper Co., Mobile
Scott Paper Co., Mobile
American Can Co., Xaheola
MacMillan Bloedel-United Inc., Pine Hill
Union Camp Corp., Prattville
Hammermill Paper Co., Selma
Gulf States Paper Corp., Tuscaloosa
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Southwest Forest Industries, Inc. , Snowflake
Nekoosa-Edwards Paper Co., Ashdown
International Paper Co., Camden
Georgia Pacific Corp., Crossett
Arkansas Kraft Corp., Morrilton
International Paper Co., Pine Bluff
Weyerhaeuser Co., Pine Bluff
Kimberly-Clark Corp., Anderson
Fibreboard Corp., Antioch
Crown Simpson. Paper Co., Fairhaven
Georgia Pacific Corp., Samoa
Florida
Container Corp. of America, Fernandina Beach
Buckeye Cellulose Corp., Foley
Alton Box Board Co., Jacksonville
•St. Regis Paper Co. , Jacksonville
Hudson Pulp £c* Paper Corp,, Palatka
International Paper Co., Panama City
St. Regis Paper Co., Pensacola
-------
Kraft, contd.
SSPTRi:
Continental Can Co., Inc., Augusta
Brunswick Pulp & Paper Co., Cedar Springs
ITT Rayonier Inc., Jcsup
Georgia Kraft Co., Macon
Continental Can Co., Inc., Port W'entworth
Interstate Paper Corp., Riceboro
Georgia Kraft Co., Rome
Gilman Paper Co., St. Mary's
Louisiana
Potlatch Forests Inc., Lewiston
Western Kraft & Corrugated Container Co.,
Hawesville
Westvaco Corp., Wickliffe
International Paper Co., Bastrop
Crown Zellerbach Corp., Bogalusa
Boise-Southern Co., DeRidder
Calcasieu Paper Inc., Elizabeth
Continental Can Co., Hodge
Fineville Kraft Corp., Pineville
Georgia Pacific Corp., Port Hudson
Crown Zellerbach Corp., St. Francisville
International Paper Co., Springhill
Maryland
Michigan
Mi
iiiicsota
International Paper Co., Jay
Premoid Corp., Lincoln
Penobscot Co., Old Town
Oxford Paper Co., Rumford
Georgia Pacific Corp., tt'oocuand
Westvaco Corp., Luke
Mead Corp., Fscanaba
Packaging Corp. of America, Filer City
Scott Paper Co., Muskegon
The Northwest Paper Co., Cloquet
Boise Cascade Corp., International Falls
St. Regis Paper Co., Monticello
International Paper Co., Moss Point
International Paper Co., Natchez
International Paper Co., Vicksburg
Montr
ana
Hoerncr Waldorf Corp., Missoula
-------
Kraft, contd.
Kew Hampshire
Kew York
North Carolina
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Brown Co., Berlin
International Paper Co., Ticonderoga
U. S. Plywood-Champion Papers, Inc., Canton
Weyerhaeuser Co., New Bern
Weyerhaeuser Co., Plymouth
Southwest Industries Corp., Riegelwood
Hoerner Waldorf Corp., Roanoke Rapids
Mead Corp., Chillicothe
Weyerhaeuser Co., Craig
Western Kraft Corp., Albany
International Paper Co., Gardiner
American Can Co., Halsey
Boise Cascade Corp., St. Helens
Weyerhaeuser Co., Springfield
Georgia Pacific Corp., Toledo
Crown Zellerbach Corp., Wanna
Pcnntech Papers, Inc., Johnsonburg
Combined Paper Mills, Inc., Roaring Springs
P. H. Glatfelter Co., Spring Grove
Bowaters Carolina Corp., Catawba
Westvaco Corp., Charleston
South Carolina Industries, Florence
International Paper Co., Georgetown
Bowaters Southern Pap.?r Corp., Calhoun
U. S. Plywood-Champion Papers, Inc., Cortland
Packaging Corp. of America, Counce
Southland Paper Mills, Inc., Houston
Southland Paper "Mills, Inc., Lufkin
Cwens"-1 llinois, Inc., Orange
U. S, Plywood-Champion, Pasadena
Eastex Corp., Silsby
International Paper Co., Texarkana
Virginia
Westvaco Corp., Covington
Union Camp Corp., Franklin
Continental Can Co., Hopewell
Chesapeake Corp. of Virginia, West Point
-------
Kraft; contd.
j^shington Crown Zellerbach Corp., Camas
Simpson Lee Paper Co., Everett
Weyerhaeuser Co., Everett
Loncvicw Fibre Co., Longview
Weyerhaeuser Co., Longview
Crown Zellerbach Corp., Port Townsend
St. Regis Paper Co., Tacoma
Boise Cascade Corp., Wallula
Wisconsin Thilmany Pulp & Paper Co., Kaukauna
Mosinee Paper Mills, Mosinee
Kekoosa-Edwards Paper Co., Nekcosa
Consolidated Papers Inc., Wisconsin Rapids
-------
CR01 iN'D'VOOD Fu LP MILLS IN TOE r.VITED STATES
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Georgia
Louisiana
Maine
Mi chi gan
Minnesota
Kimberly-Clark Corp., Coosa Pines
International Paper Co., Mobile
National Gypsum Co., Mobile
ponderosa Paper Products Inc., Flagstaff
Southwest Forest Industries Inc., Snowflake
International Paper Co., pine Bluff
Kimberly-Clark Corp., Anderson
Cox Newsprint, Inc., August
Boise Southern Co., DeRidder
St. Francisville Paper Co., St. Francisville
Statler Tissue Corp., Augusta
Hearst Corp., Brunswick
St. Regis Paper Co., Bucksport
Great Northern Paper Co., East Millinocket
International Paper Co., Jay
International Paper Co., Livermore Falls
Kennebec River Pulp & Paper Co., Madison
Great Northern Paper Co., Millinocket
Oxford Paper Co., Runford
Keyes Fibre Co., Shavmut
Escanaba Paper Co., Escanaba
Manistique Pulp S; Paper Co. , Manistique
Scott Paper Co;, Menominee
Blandin Paper Co,, Grand Rapids
Boise Cascade Corp., International Falls
Henepin Paper Co., Little Falls
St. Regis Paper Co., Sartell
Missouri
Packaging Corp. of America, North Kansas City
-------
SODA PULP MILLS IS TUT UNITED STATES
Massachusetts
Hew York
Tennessee
Oxford Paper Co., Lawrence
International Paper Co., North Tonawanda
Hammcrmill Paper Co., Oswego
Mead Corp., Kingsport
-------
MgO - Magriesiqri
CaO — Calcium
NA - Sodium
N1I3 - Acnonia
ACID SULFITE PULP MILLS IN' THE UNITED STATES
Bose
Alaska Ketchikan Pulp Co., Ketchikan MgO—
" Alirska Lumber fc Pulp Co., Inc., Sitka MgO
Florida ITT Rayonier, Inc., Fernandina CaO
Maine Statler Tissue Co., Augusta NH3
* Groat Northern Paper Co., Millinocket MgO *-
Penobscot Co., Old Town CaO
Scott Paper Co., Winslow
Kev Hampshire Groveton Papers Co., Groveton NH3
Kev York Finch, Pruyn & Co., Jnc., Glen Falls NHg
Oregon MlCoos Head Timber Co., Coos Bay CaO
C^own Zellerbach Corp., Lebanon Nil,
Publisher's Paper Co., Newberg MgO W
Publisher's Paper Co., Oregon City MgO —*
Boise Cascade Corp., Salem NHg
Washington Scott Paper Co., Anacortes NH3
Georgia Pacific Corp., Bellinght CaO
Crown Zellerbach Corp., Camas MgO —
Weyerhaeuser Co., Cosmopolis MgO
Scott Paper Co., Everett NH3
Weyerhaeuser Co., Everett CaO
ITT Rayonier, Inc., Hoquiam Ka
Weyerhaeuser Co., Longview MgO —
Inland Empire Paper Co., Millwood CaO
ITT Rayonier, Inc., Port Angeles CaO
Wisconsin Consolidated Papei*s Inc., Appleton CaO
Wausau"Paper Mills Co., Brokaw MrO
American Can Co., Green Bay CaO
Charmin Paper Products Co., Green Bay ^""3
OAtotA Scott Paper Co., Marinette Ca0
Scott Paper Co., Oconto Falls ^""3
Flambeau Paper Co,, Park Falls CaO
Badger Paper Mills, Inc., Peshtigo CaO
Nekoosa-Edwards Paper Co., Port Edward CaO
American Can Co., Rothschild
-------
NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL
PULP MILLS IN THE UN ITID STATES
California
Fibreboard Corp., Antioch
Georgia
Indiana
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Michigan
Minnesota
New Hampshire
New York
North Carolina
Ohio
OreRon
South Carolina
Tennessee
Great Northern Paper Co., Cedar Springs
Union Camp Corp., Savannah
Weston Paper & Manufacturing Co., Terre Haute
Wescor Corp., Hawesville
International Paper Co., Bastrop
Crown Zellerbrch Corp., Bogalusa
Continental Can Co., Inc., Hodge
Olinkraft, Inc., West Monroe
Georgia Pacific Corp., Woodland
Packaging Corp. of America, Filer City
Hoerner Waldorf Corp., Ontonogon
Menasha Corp., Otsego
Hoerner Waldorf Corp., St. Paul
Brown Co., Berlin
Groveton Papers Co., Groveton
Georgia Pacific Corp., Lyons Falls
Weyerhaeuser Co., Plymouth
Mead Corp., Silva
Container Corp. of America, Circleville
Menasha Corp., North Bend
Sonoco Products Co., Hartsville
Mead Corp., Harriman
Mead Corp., Knoxville
Inland Container Corp., New Johnsonville
-------
NSSC, con td.
Virginia
Owens-Illinois, Inc., Big Island
Yfestvaco Corp., Covington
Continental Can Co.j Inc., Hopewell
Mead Corp., Lynchburg
Washington
Longview Fibre Co., Longview
Weyerhaeuser Co., Longview
Boise Cascade Corp., Wallula
Wisconsin
Green Bay Packaging Inc., Green Bay
Owens-Illinois Inc., Tomahawk
-------
DEINKING MILLS IN THE UNITED STATES
Hew York
Ohio
Crown Zellerbach Corp., Carthage
Newton Fails Paper Mill, lac., Newton Falls
Head Corp., Chillicothe
U. S. Plywood-Champion Papers, Inc., Hamilton
Kimberly-Clark Corp., West Carrellton
Oxford Paper Co., Vest Carrellton
Wisconsin
Bergstrom Paper Co,, Neenah
Riverside Paper Corp., Appleton
California
Illinois
New Jersey
Newsprint De inking Mills
Garden State Paper Co., Inc., Pomona
F.S.C. Paper Co., Alsip
Garden State Pape* Co., Inc., Garfield
-------
WASTE PAPERBOAftD MILLS IN THE UNITED STATES
Alnbana
National Gypsun Co. , Anniston
Stone Container Corp., Mobile
California
Colorado
Fibreboard Corp., Antioch
Sonoco Products Co. , Los Angeles
Continental Can Co., Los Angeles
Los Angeles Paper Box L Board Mills, Los Angeles
Western Kraft Corp., Richmond
Kaiser Gypsum Corp., San Leandro
Container Corp. of America, Santa Clara
Georgia-Pacific Corp., Santa Clara
U. S. Gypsum Co., South Gate
Fibreboard Corp., Stockton
Fibreboard Corp., Vernon
Packaging Corp. oi America, Denver
Connecticut
Colonial Board Co., Manchester
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc., Montville
Robertson Paper Box Co., Inc., Montville
Federal Paper Board Co., New Haven
Simkins Industries, Inc., New Haven
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc., Sprague
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc., Versailles
Continental Can Co., Uncasville
United Paper Products Corp., Windsor Locks
Delaware
Florida
Ceorfti a
Container Corp. of America, Wilmington
Simkins Industries, Inc., Miami
Sonoco Products Co., Atlanta
Austell Box Board Corp., Austell
Illinois
Alton Box Board Co., Alton
Alton Box Board Co., Carlyle
Container Corp. of America, Chicago
Container Corp. of America, Chicago
Prairie State Paper Mills, Joliet
National Biscuit Co., Marseilles
-------
Waste Paporboard, contd.
Illinois, contd.
The Quaker Oats Co., Pekin
Packaging Corp. of America, Quincy
Sonoco Products Co., Rockton
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Continental Can Co., Inc., Elkhart
Alton Box Board Co., Lafayette
Weston Paper k Manufacturing Co., Terre Haute
Packaging Corp. of America, Vincennes
Container Corp. of America, Wabash
Packaging Corp. of America, Tama
Packaging Corp. of America, Hutchinson
Lawrence Paper Co., Lawrence
Yorktowne Paper Mills of Maine, Inc., Gardiner
Chesapeake Paperboard Co., Baltimore
Simkins Industries, Inc., Ilch^jter
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc., Whitehall
Continental Can Co., Inc., Haverhill
Franklin Paper Co., Inc., Holyoke
Sonoco Products Co., Holyoke
Union Box Board Co., Hyde Park
Mead Corp., Lawrence
Continental Can Co., Natick
Michigan Carton Co., Battle Creek
Packaging Corp. of America, Grand Rapids
National Gypsum Co., Kalamazoo
Brown Co., Kalamazoo
Consolidated Packaging Corp., Monroe
Time Container Corp., Monroe
Union Camp Corp., Monroe
Hoerner Waldorf Cojrp. , Otsego
B. F. Nelson Manufacturing Co • | M inneapolis
Hoerner Waldorf Corp., St. Paul
Missouri
U. S. Gypsum Co., N'orth Kansas City
New Hampshire
Hoague-Sprague Div. of USM Corp., West Hopkinton
-------
Waste Paperboard, contd.
New Jersey Macandrews & Forbes Co., Camden
^ Gypsum Co. , Clark Township
Whippany paper Board Co. , Inc. , Clifton
Georeia Pacific Corp. , Delair
National Gypsum Co., Garwood
J. F. Boyle Co., Jersey City
Newark Box Board Co., Newark
Sitnkins Industries Inc. , Ridgefield Park
Whippany Paper Board Co., Inc., Whippany
New York Sonoco Products Co., Amsterdam
1 J. P. Lewis Co., Brownville
Climax Manufacturing Co., Carthage
Brown Co., Castleton-on-Hudson
Columbia Corp., Chatham
Upson Co., Lockport
Upson Co., Lockport
National Gypsum Co. , N'ewburgh
Columbia Corp., Walloomsic
Continental Can Co., Inc., Tonavanda
U. S. Gypsum Co., Oakfield
Continental Can Co., Inc., Piermont
Wayrensburg Board &. Paper Corp. , Warrensburg
Ravenswood Paper Board Co., Long Island City
Ft. Schyler Paper Board Corp., Utica
Korth Carolina Carolina Paper Board Corp.t Charlotte
L """"" Federal Paper Board Co. Inc., Roanoke Rapids
Ohio Crown Zellerbach Corp., Baltimore
" Tecumseh Corregated Box Co., Brecksville
Mead Corp.,, Cincinnati
Stone Container Corp., Coshocton
Stone Container Corp., Franklin
U. S. Gypsum Co., Gypsum
Loroco Industries, Inc., Lancaster
Chipboard, Inc., Massillon
Massillon Paper Co., V.assillon
Diamond-National Corp. , .Massillon
Sonoco Products Co., Munroe Falls
Packaging Corp. of Ar.erica, Rittman
Weston Paper fe Manufacturing Co., St. Mary's
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc., Steubenville
Toronto Paperboard Co., Toronto
United Board & Carton Corp., Urbana
-------
Groundwood, contd.
Jtew York J. P. Lewis Co. , Beaver Falls
International Paper Co., Corinth
St. Regis Paper Co., Deferiet
Stevens £; Thompson paper Co., Greenwich
Kimberly-Clark Corp., Niagara Falls
Oregon publisher's Paper Co., Newberg
Publisher's Paper Co., Oregon City
Crown Zellerbach Corp., Wanna
Crown Zellerbach Corp., West Linn
South Carolina Bowaters Carolina Corp., Catawba
Bowaters Carolina Corp., Catawba
Bowaters Southern Paper Corp., Calhoun
Southland Paper Inc., Houston
Southland Paper Inc., Lufkin
United States Plywood-Champion Papers Inc., Pasadena
Standard Packaging Corp., Sheldon Springs
Crown Zellerbach Corp., Camas
Scott Paper Co., Everett
Inland Empire Paper Co., Millwood
Crown Zellerbach Corp., Port Angeles
Boise Cascade Corp., Steilacoom
Keyes Fibre Co., Wenatchee
Combined Paper Mills Inc., Combined Locks
St. Regis Paper Co., Cornell
American Can Co., Green Bay
Charinin Paper Products Co. , Green Bay
Kimberly-Clark Corp., Kinberly
Kimberly-Clark Corp., Niagara
Consolidated Papers, Inc., Stevens Point
Consolidated Papers, Inc., Wisconsin Rapids
Tennessee
Texas
mont
Washington
Wisconsin
-------
¥z::-te Paperboard, contd.
Oklahoma
Georgia Pacific Corp., Pryor
National Gypsum Co. , Pryor
Pennsylvania
Packaging Corp. of America, Delaware Water Gap
Brandy^ine Paper Corp., Downingtown
Daring Paper Co., Downingtown
Sonoco Products Co., Downingtown
American Paper Products Co,, Lancaster
Container Corp. of America, Philadelphia
Crown Paper Board Co., Philadelphia
Hevrman & Co., Philadelphia
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc., Reading
Interstate Intorcorr Corp., Reading
Whippany Paper Board Co., Inc., Riegelsville
St. Regis Paper Co., York
Yorktowne Paper Mills, Inc., York
South Carolina
Sonoco Products Co., Hartsvil?«
Carotell Paper Board Corp., Taylors
Tennessee
Container Corp. of Anerica, Chattanooga
Tennessee Paper Mills, Inc., Chattanooga
Texas
Fleming it Sons, Inc., Dallas
U. S. Gypsum Co. # Galena Park
Vermont
Mountain Paper Products Corp., Bellows Falls
Virginia
Mead Corp., Lynchburg
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc., Richmond
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc., Richmond
Vest Virginia
Halltown Paperboard Co., Halltown
Banner Fibreboard Co., Wellsburg
Wisconsin
Beloit Box Board Co., Beloit
U. S. Paper Kills Corp., Dc Pere
John Strange Papier Co. , Menasha
St, Regis Paper Co., Milwaukee
-------
APPENDIX G
Selected References
-------
APPENDIX G
Selected References
-------
r, rj n B r''
•' *v; .. ;'¦ j. \] : ;;; fi Ki •;
Li d V.i\J Vrv' to U id U L via^ ki l!
V?o'*k&r>r> /? f? ¦*' ™ ?. -
fcr V«^ Hfcif faf bp JJ li L' iJ L-U' I ) ij tu i
NATIONAL COUNCIL OF THE PAPER INDUSTRY FOR AIR AND STREAM IMPROVEMENT INC.. 103 PARK AVENUE NFW YORK N.V
A MANUAL OF PRACTICE
FOR
BIOLOGICAL WASTE TREATMENT
IN THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
DR, HOWARD EDDE
SOUTH CENTRAL REGIONAL ENGINEER
TECHNICAL BULLETIN NO, 2M
National Council of the Paper Industry
Per Air and Stream. Improvement, Inc.
103 Park Avenue
New York, N. V. 100]7
-------
lading also reduces the strength of the waste applied as well
as the time of passage through the filter. In these studies a
decrease in residence time from 20 to 6 seconds was associated
with an increase in hydraulic loading from 75 to 320 mgad. Both
these latter factors serve to offset the benefits of additional
passes through the filter. High recirculation ratios are believed
to prevent shock loading effects caused by organic and acid-alkali
spills by leveling out the concentration of constituent causing
the upset. Such benefits could not be detected in these studies
since the effluents applied were uniform in composition and con-
centration. A modest degree of recirculation is desirable if
only to provide continuous reseeding of the total filter depth.
Selection of Filter Media
Experience with large scale rock media trickling filters
has shown the tendency for this media to plug or clog when re-
ceiving pulp and paper waste, unless it is low in BOD and is well
clarified. This has therefore led to application of plastic media
incorporating large voids and an increased surface area per unit
of volume. Further, it has been found that a high hydraulic
loadings the entire filter depth is more effectively used in the
plastic media units.
BF.NCH SCAf.H ACTIVATED SLUDGE
Batch Versus Continuous Units
Laboratory experimentation to simulate the activated
sludge process have ranged from simple batch-fed, fill and draw
units (Figure 11) to the more sophisticated continuous feed
arrangements (Figure 12).
The batch-fed unit is generally considered to be well
suited for acclimating a sludge to a particular waste and for ob-
taining oxidation rate data. However, the continuous feed unit
has the advantages that: (a) once a day batch feedings my tend
to produce a shock loading of toxic waste to the system that would
not be experienced in a continuous flow system and (b) continu-
ously-fed units will more nearly simulate actual plant practice
than will the fill-and-draw unit. It is possible that biological
cultures developed under batch conditions may fail when placed
in a system of continuous displacement, or conversely an entirely
different mixed culture inny be developed on the same waste in
different hydraulic :«nd food supply environments. Batch systems
fed once a day should not be expected to attain the steady state
growth of optimum oxidation efficiency. Particularly obvious in
the comparison of the two systems is the fact that settling char-
cteristics of batch growth solids are a function of solids age
-------
- 23 -
TABLE I
EQUATING TUBE STUDIES
fopimarv of Effect- of Loading. Influent, Strength, and Pecvolft
Ratio on Trickling Filter Treatment of Five (5) Pulp and Papermill Wastes
BOD Loading
Hydraulic Load KGAD
Recycle
BOD,
mg/l
Reduction
lb/1000 ft3
Raw
Total
Ratio
Influent
Effluent
Percent
1215
160
320
1-1
238
120
50
1265
44
88
1-1
914
492
46
1265
44
320
6-1
914
502
45
BlO
160
320
1-1
160
98
39
925
32
64
1-1
914
535
4l
925
32
320
9-1
914
513
44
590
160
320
1-1
116
74
46
560
32
64
1-1
552
296
46
560
32
320
9-1
552
278
50
270
160
320
l-l
53
37
30
330
44
88
l-l
238
82
66
330
44
320
6-1
23«
92
61
TABLE II
ROTATING TUES STUDIES
Analysis of Influence of Iridividaul Variables on Trickling
Filter Performance Using Five (3) Pulp and Papermill V/astes
A. Influance of Process Loading (Feed Strength / 100mg/l)
lb BOP/lOOP ft.3 Percent BOP Reduction
1265 45
925 ^3
560 48
330 63
B. Influence of Influant Strength at Equal Process Loading and Recycle Ratio
Feed BOD, ng/.l Percent BOD Reduction
1H2 ^
655 50
C. Influance of recycle Ratio end Hydraulic Loading at Equal Influent Strength
and Process Lc. :i.ainr;3
Pecycl* Patio Hydraulic Load HGAD Percent BOD Eduction
-------
24 -
c
COMPRESSED AIR
«
S
AERATION TANK
FRITTED GLASS DISPERSION TUBE
PLASTIC COVERED MAGNET
MAG MIX
FIGURE //
^RATION & STIRRING APPARATUS FOR BATCH FEED ACTIVATED SLUDGE STUDIES
FIGURE >X
lABORATOItf SCALE CCiiTZi'uOUS FEED ACTIVATED SLUDv, UT.TT
-------
25 -
while in the continuous systems the applied surface loading de-
termines the settling characteristics of the solids. Also, the
continuously-fed unit is better adapted to study recirculation
ratios, sludge concentrations, and retention times. A short-
coming of either systei? is that different oxygen transfer and
mixing condition exist in the laboratory units from that found
in field practice.
NCSI Laboratory Units
In the past, NCSI has used a system similar to that
shown in Figure 12. This unit has evolved to a simpler design
incorporating the settling tank within the aeration compartment
using a gravity sludge return. This unit is shown in I-igure 13.
The size of the unit can be adapted to the amount of
feed available. At the National Council's Biological IVaste Treat
ment Research Center the project often has many units operating
at the same time, making feed volume required quite large. A
two-liter aeration unit has been found to be the best size for
this situation. However, other sizes have been used and will pre
duce results similar to the two-liter units.
Effect of Activated Sludge Concentration
The initial studies (8} at the Council's Biological
Waste Treatment Research Center used one-gallon mixed liquor aer-
ation tanks for the continuous flow activated sludge units, a
separate sludge reaeration tank of equal volume, a variable rate
feed pump, a sedimentation tank and a sludge pump.
The initial parameter investigated was the effect of
activated sludge aeration tank solids concentration or sludge
loading on process performance at a constant aeration tank volu-
metric loading of 100 lb of BOD5/IOOO cu ft/day aeration capacity
resulting from a feed of 190 mg/1 BOD waste (1:200 kraft black
liquor) and a 2.85 hr. detention period. The result of this
study are summarized in Table III. The mean mixed liquor susperu
solids (MLSS) were varied from 1650 to 6500 mg/1 representing
sludge loading of 0.25 to 1.0 lb BOD/lb MLSS. No significant
differences in BOD$ removal were noted over this range with re-
movals varying from 87 to 8 i>. 5 percent. Except for one of the
six trails, which showed a sludge volume index of 34 5 , the S.V.I,
ranged between 12 5 and 194. During the course of the. studies
biological color reductions were made using 5S0 mu transnittancy
measurements on the raw and treated effluents. No significant
color reductions were observed at any of the solids levels studii
-------
- 26 -
^
T
A
FIGURE f3
LABORATORY SCALE ACTIVATED SLUDGE UNIT
t?c«/ea'f/tej Mitt
-------
- 27
Effect of BOD Concentration
The effect of variation in the organic concentration
of the feed was investigated (9) maintaining a constant detention
period of 2.85 hr. The results are summarized in Table IV. With
mean mixed liquour suspended solids ranging from 4500 to 8100
mg/1, the influent BOD^ was varied from 200 to 1200 mg/1 using
diluted kraft black liquor. Unit loadings ranged from 103 to 616
lb of BODg/lOOO cu ft/day, with corresponding sludge loads ranging
from 0.4 to 1.3 lbs of BODs/lb MLSS. BOD5 removal efficiency re-
mained relatively consistent ranging from 87.5 to 91 percent with
loadings up to 300 lb BOD5/IOOO cu ft/day. JJeyond this loading
performance dropped off to 72.5 percent at the 600 lb BOD5/IOOO
cu ft/ day load.
Effect of Sludge Reaeration
A third study(6), investigated the value of sludge re-
aeration as a process modification. This modification, developed
as the contact-stabilization process, is frequently advanced as
a means of improving process performance since it enables larger
quantities of sludge to be carried in a given system, thereby re-
ducing the unit sludge load. The specific data presented in this
study was obtained while treating a dilute kraft black liquor and
may be characteristic of the particular waste investigated. The
contact-stabilization process was originally developed to treat
waste where a large part of BOD is present in suspended or col-
loidal form. The results obtained are given in Tables V and VI.
At the 550 lb BOD5/IOOO cu ft/day loading level, with reductions
in overall sludge loadings, no improvement in BOD- removal was
obtained. In fact, the poorest removal was observed in the
system providing the maximum sludge reaeration. Also, at the
138 lb BOD/1000 cu ft loading, no significant improvement of BOD
removal resulted from the reaeration modification although over-
all sludge loadings were reduced.
Whatever improvement in process performance was made
possible by carrying more sludge was offset by the reduced time
available for BOD5 removal in the mixed liquor aeration tank.
The reduction of the initial contact adsorption in the contact
aeration tank below 30 minutes produced a substantial decrease
in percent BOD5 removal. While some improvement in sludge volume
index was obtained, it is doubtful that this minor benefit could
justify the added process complexity and construction costs re-
sulting from separate sludge aeration based on results obtained
during treatment of the particular waste source considered.
-------
TABLE III
Effect p; Activated Sludf c.^Solids Concent ration on Performance
of Continuously i''cd
Kraft
Was u 0
Treatment rfys
terns
Activated Sludf.e Unit No.
1
2
3
b
_L_
6
Effluent BOD.j ing/l
20
25
22
21
21
22
Percent BOD.Reduction
89.5
87
88.5
89
89
88.5
MLSS Cone., rr.^/l
1650
1870
2380
2000
2800
65OO
Sludge Loading lbs BO^/lb MLSS
0.97
0.85
0.67
0.53
0.1+2
0.25
Sludge Volume Index
11+5
3^5
183
19^
180
125
Percent Transinittancy, Effluent
78
79
79
78
78
lb
Raw waste feed - 1:200 kraft black liquor (hardwood) BOQ^-- 190 rag/l
Raw waste color - 78 percent transmittance @ 5^0^ <8 pH 7«0 UEin& 2 cm paoh
Aerator Retention Time - 2.65 hours
System Loading - 100 l'o B03./1000 cu ft aeration capacity/da^
TABLE IV
Effect of Variation in Applied Effluent BOD Concentration on
Perfon.-.ance of Continue
v.oly Ped
Activ.
ited Slud.'v- Systems
6
Activated Sludge System No.
1
2
J.
1+
5
Peed BODj mg/l
196
29^
392
588
784
1176
Effluent BODj ag/l
18
28
^3
73
32
Percent 101) Reduction
91
90.5
89
87.5
80.5
72.5
M.SS Cone., i"G/l
1+1+70
6660
7300
8125
71+00
7650
i^luci^e Loading lb BOD/lo MLSS
0.37
0.37
0.1+5
0.61
0.89
1.29
Sludge Volur.e Index
103
131
12b
113
128
69
System BOD^-Loading, lb/lOCO cu
ft 103
154
205
OJ
0
CP
1+10
616
* rator Retention Time - 2.S5 hr
-------
IABLE V
Influence of Sludge Reaeration on Act-ivated Sludge Process Performance
Dilute Kraft Black Liquor
Raw Waste - 550 mfc/l BCD^ Process Loading - 55° lb BOu/lOOQ fcu ft/day
Total Detention Time - 1.5 hr MLSS Cone. - 4000 ltio/l
Run
1
2
3
4
5
6
Aerator Detention, hr
1.5
1.2
1.0
0.75
0.5
0.3
Sludge Reaeration Detention, hr
0.0
0-3
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.2
MLSS, mg/l
3550
3300
3660
4500
3720
3100
Reaerator Sludge Solids, mc/l
-
6100
6^50
7970
6670
4l4o
Aerator Sludge Loading, BQQ/lb MLSS
2.5
3.3
3-6
3.9
7.1
3.4.2
Total Sludge Loading, lb BOD/lb SS
2.5
2.3
1.9
1.4
1-5
2.2
Aerator Sludge Index
123
46
56
49
36
4l
Dissolved Oxygen level maintained
mg/l
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.1
Effluent BOD, in^/l
300
315
308
310
290
333
BOD Reduction, ^
46
43
44
44
47
39
-------
TABLE VI
Influence of Sludge Re aeration on Activated Sludge Process Performance
Dilute Kraft Black Liouor
Raw Waste - I38 m^/l BOD Process Loadin& - 133 lb BOD/lOOO cu ft
Total Detention time - 1.5 hr MLSS Cone. - 3OOO int/l
1
2
3
4
5
6
Aerator Detention, hr
1.5
1.5
1.0
0.75
0.5
0.3
Slud£e Reaerator Detention, hr
0.0
0.3
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.2
KLSS, >.uc/l
4100
3500
3290
3940
3780
2480
Reaerator Sludge Solids, E15/I
-
8250
9550
8460
7890
5910
Aerator Sludge Loading, lb BOD/lb
KLSS
0.5^
0.79
1.0
1.1
1.8
4.5
Total ilu^e Loading, LB B0D_/lb S3
0.54
0.50
0,1+1
0.36
0.34
0.42
Aerator Sludge Index
163
140
l4o
159
110
84
Dissolved Oxygen, r.i£r/l
1.3
1.5
1.6
1.5
1.6
1.8
Effluent BOD, rr.^/l
23
19
18
20
17
45
BOD Reduction, ^
83.5
86
87
85.5
87.5
67.5
-------
Effect of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration and Transfer Mechanism
Since the operation of the activated sludge proces is
dependent on aerobic bacteria the most important requirement xor
successful operation is maintenance of dissolved oxygen through-
out the process. The one liter system illustrated in Figure 13
was used to investigate the effect of dissolved oxygen concen-
tration on the activated sludge process (6). Dissolved oxygen
level was uniformly varied through the laboratory aeration tank
from 0.5 to 3.0 mg/1 with process loading maintained at 150 lb
BOD5 /1000 cu ft aeration capacity/day and 9.5 lb BODs/lb MLSS.
It was noted that below 1 mg/1 DO, BOD removal was adversely
affected, while at DO levels above 2mg/l, there was a tendency
toward sludge bulking. Aside from the fact that difficulty was
encountered in maintaining the desired concentration, BOD5 remova
was greatest at the high DO levels.
This problem was investigated in a study simulating
three types of aeration systems that are used by the pulp and
paper industry. These are diffusers, turbine sparger aerators
and mechanical surface aerators. Tests were performed on three
effluents from kraft, sulfite and NSS'C pulping liquors con-
taining 180-190 ing/1 BOD5, in which each of the three aeration
processes were used to maintain aeration tank dissolved oxygen
(DO) levels ranging from 1.0 to 1.5 and 1.5 to 3.5 mg/1. The
continuous flow treatment units were operated for 3 hrs detention
periods providing loadings of 90-95 lb BODc/1000 cu ft of aeratio
capacity/day at a MLSS concentration of 3000 mg/1. Galvanic
electrodes were used for DO measurement and control.
The results obtained are summarized in Table VII.
No significant differences in BOD5 removals were noted in any of
these studies, which could be attributed to either variation in
operating DO level or differences in aeration method. Mean BOD5
removals for all three wastes studied were 88, 87, and 87 percent
respectively, for turbine, diffuser and mechanical surface
aeration. In the lower and higher DO ranges, BOD-, removals
averaged 87.5 percent in each case. No consistent effect on slue",
index or onset of sludge bulking were observed which could be
associated with either DO level or method, of oxygen supply. The
mean values of all sludge volume index measurements in the low ar
high DO ranges using kraft and NSSC waste were 197 and 212 res-
pectively. Where bulking occurred, in the sulfite feed systems,
the data indicated this phenomenon was unrelated to the process
variables being studied.
These data indicated that none of the aeration methods
had an inherent process advantage other than that associated
with design and operating economy, and that maintaining a minimum
DO level around 1 mg/1 in the activated sludge process was both
-------
TABLE VII
Influence of Aeration System and Dissolved Oxygen Level
on Activated Sludge Process Performance
Ccur.posite Data for Kraft, NSSC and Acid Sulfite Wastes
Raw Waste I85 rng/l BOD
Aerator Retention Time 3 hours
Aerator System
Turbine
Dissolved Oxygen, mg/l l.U 2.U
MLSS Concentration, w^/l 3300 35^0
Sludge Index 200 150
Sludge Loading, lb BOIj/lb MLSS 0.^5 O.kb
Effluent BOD, me/l 22 21
BOD Reduction, # 88 89
Process Loading 93 lb BOD/lOOO cu ft/day
MLSS Cone. 3000 mg/l
Dlffuser
l.h 2.7
3000 3100
230 240
0.52 0.50
22 21
88 89
Surface
1.2 2.9
3000 2700
160 200
0.51 0.7^
2k 23
87 68
-------
satisfactory and feasible from a control standpoint. The pur-
pose of the DO residual is to assure presence of oxygen in suf-
ficient concentration to result in an aerobic condition through-
out the entire mass of biological floe particles. Since oxygen
solution power costs represent as much as 20 percent of operating
costs and continuous instrumental methods are available for
monitoring low DO levels, such instrumentation should be employed
to control aeration power input through automatic control.
Influence of Hiflh Temperature on Activated Sludge
Mills practicing good water reuse frequently have ef-
fluents at tomperaturcsexceeding 120°F. The operation of activated
sludge treatment facilities at temperatures exceeding 100°F was
thought to be responsible for deterioration in BOD removal. In fact,
several mills have installed cooling towers prior to activated
sludge treatment. However, there was absence of fundamental experi-
mental data dealing with this subject. The NCSI, therefore, under-
took a study of high temperature influence using laboratory-scale
continuous flow activated sludge units (10).
The studies were designed to determine the effect of
temperature elevation beyond the mesophilic range (up to 37°C or
99°F) on maintenance of adequate DO, BOD removal, ana waste
biological sludge sedimentation characteristics. A series of
laboratory units were operated at temperatures ranging from 26°
to 52°C and acclimatized for a 10 day period at MLSS concentrations
of 3500-4500 nig/1, using a 3 hr detention period. The BOD -loadings
vas 113 lb BQD/1000 cu ft aeration capacity/day consisting of a
1:200 dilution of kraft black liquor.
T The results obtained are tabulated in Table VIII.
These show that optimum performance was obtained at '37°C, and
J«at as the temperature increased beyond this point, BOD5-removal
decreased rapidly to as low as 37 percent at S2°C, Operation at
Elevated temperatures produced a donser activated sludge as shown
Py the lower sludge volume index. One objective of the study
n*d been to determine whether reduced metabolic rates of diffi-
culty in maintaining adequate DO was responsible for the poorer
Process performance observed in the field. It appears from these
J|ata that reduced metabolic rate was the prime factor, and that
°xygen supply problems are of lesser importance.
C* LABORATORY MQDBl AERATED STABILIZATION BASINS
Common type*, of laboratory equipment that are commonly
sed for aerated stabilization basins are laboratory shake flasks,
*w° liter plcstic aeration units, and ficty-five gallon drums.
®ome of, the first supplemental aeration studies made by NCSI
vo» 11) used laboratory shake flasks.
-------
TABLE VIII
Influence of Elevated Temperature on Activated Sludge Process
Simulated Kraft Effluent
Operating
Temperature
°C
MLSS
Big/l
SVI
Effluent
BODj
rag/1
B0D.r
Removal
26
3400
238
47
79.5
37
4300
136
^5
30.5
42
4400
86
67
71
47
4200
73
1
1
1
t
1
t
«
96
1 58
52
3600
53
144
I 37
t
t
1
Operating Conditions: Detention Period - 3 hr
Feed - 229 £g/l B0D.-r
Loading - 113 lb BQ^/lOOO cu ft
aeration c&£)acity/day
DO level -1.1 cig/l (nean)
-------
35 -
Effect of Detention Time
The first objective in the laboratory shake flask was
to determine the effect of liquid retention time on the rate of
BOD5 removal for several different well-aerated, nutrient-fortifid
pulp mill wastes. Depending on the desired retention time (variec
from three to twenty days), a portion of the treated effluent was
taken from laboratory shake flasks and replaced with settled pulp
mill waste at daily intervals to permit equilibration of the sim-
ulated basin contents.
Table IX shows the results obtained employing unbleachec
and bleached kraft, unbleached sulfite and waste paperboard ef-
fluents. These data indicate that a detention period of three
days produced BOD5 reductions of 80 percent, at detention periods
beyond seven days, BOD removals of 90 percent or greater were
reali zed.
The second objective was to determine the effect of
detention time on biological suspended solids production and to
determine the BOD5 exertion of these solids. Table X and Figure
14 show the results obtained indicating that biological solids
production varied inversely with detention time averaging 94 mg/1
at three days and only 22 mg/1 after twenty days with the inverse
relationship accounted to the endogenous respiration of the
biological solids formed during the initial metabolism of the
available food. For the long retention times practiced in this
experiment the BOD equivalent of these solids was found to be
approximately 0.2 lbs BOD/lb of solids.
These data suggest the feasibility of Upgrading per-
formance of existing stabilization basins by addition of mechan-
ical aerators in an environment containing ample nutrient supply.
Table IX data indicates that operation of aerated basins of
12 ft depth and 10 day detention period will permit an increase
in allowable loading for 90 percent BODe reduction from 50 lbs
BOD/acre/day for non-aerated basins to 700 lbs BOD/acre/day for
aerated stabilization basins. Normally, clarification of the
aerated basin effluent will not be required since the total sus-
pended solids content in the effluent is about the same (50 mg/'l)
as that discharged from the clarificr of conventional activated
sludge treatment plants and furthermore the aerated basin effluen
solids have been biologically decomposed during detention to a
low level of BOD demand.
-------
Table IX
Effect of Basin Residence Tine on Residual Effluent IX)D, tn
Residence Tiro - days 0 23°C
3-0
k.Q
7.T
12.3
19.7
«
04
ECDj-Loadinc - lbs/acre/day
o>
(&EGUi.:iric 12 ft. depth)
2200
1350
850
530
330
•
Unbleached Kraft
32
20
16
21
27
Bleached kraf't
h3
52
19
17
12
Unbleached sulfite
3^
32
39
lfr
17
Uucte Paper beard
30
30
20
16
14
l-lean effluent BOD, mc/l
BOD.removal
35
3^
24
17
17
82.5
83
88
91.5
91.5
-------
Bible X
Effect of Basin-Residence Tine on Biological Solids Generation, hja/jt
Residence Tirio - days
3.0
if.8
7.7
12.3
19.7
Unbleached kraft
22
28
k
2
Bleached kraft
1U2
90
6k
58
26
Unbleached sulfite
85
101
70
17
22
Uaste paper beard
104
129
76
k$
37
Biological colids production, ne/l
Sk
88
60
32
&
BOI^.equivalent of biological solids
generated lb BOD/lb solids
0.19
0.24
0.1O
0.13
0.18
I
iM
I
-------
* 38 "
WBSJt
Sift'oisb or intention Tima en Biole/loal Su»p«ndcd
gollda Production
Laboratory Aaratid Bmlna
ayntivasia
Siolocical Solids ^
Production (w;Jl)
•udosenoufl Oxidation
»j
"Or
detention Tima (daya)
-------
- 39 -
Significance of DO Level, BOD Feed Concentration and Nutrient
Addition
Further laboratory studies investigated the influence
of aerated basin dissolved oxygen levels, nutrient additions,
and effect of BOD5 feed concentration on BOD5 reduction in con-
tinuously fed laboratory scale aerated oxidation basins. Dilute
kraft black liquor was used as the feed source for studies con-
ducted in simulated basins holding 1.5 gallon of waste and
aerated with slow speed mechanical stirrers. Aeration tank DO
determination were made using silver-lead galvanic electrodes.
Table XI shows the results obtained for a study in-
volving a four day retention period. These data indicate that
BOD5 reduction were independent of DO at levels as low as
0.5 mg/1, since average BODc reduction was 81 percent in three
basins with a mean DO of 0.8 mg/1 as compared to 80 percent at
1.5 mg/1 DO indicating no significant difference. Likewise, a
change in the BOD5 to nitrogen ratio from 60:1 to 30:1 B0D:N
had no influence on BOD5 removal rate.
Using a feed concentration of 196 mg/1 BOD5, corres-
ponding to a loading of 126 lb BOD^/acre-ft/day, BOD5 reduction
averaged 82.5 and 83 percent respectively at BOD:N ratios of
30:1 and 60:1. An increase in feed concentration from 196 to
490 mg/1 decreased BOD5 removals from 83 to 75 percent, but
total pounds BOD removal per acre-foot increased from 105 to
236 lbs in basins containing sufficient oxygen to maintain aerobic
conditions.
Influence of Low Temperatures
The longer detention periods (3-15 days) employed in
aerated basins results in cooling of the liquid waste during \\'inte
months. Biological treatment processes are known to be temperatur
dependent. This required that studies be conducted to determine
if aerated basin treatment is at all suitable in e *eas \\-here sever
winter conditions exist, yet require high degree w..3te treatment.
The effect of temperature of BOD5 removal was investigat
in the laboratory at temperatures ranging from 2°C to 20°C (12).
A wide applicability of the findings was insured by studying kraft
acid sulfite, N'SSC,'waste paperboard and roofing felt effluents
using continuous flow laboratory aeration basins for 2 and 5 day
detention periods and batch feeiiin^ to simulate the 10 day de-
tention study. The feed waste was adjusted to approximately
£U0 mg/i Ii0D ancl were added to maintain a 100:5:1
b°D:N:J> ratio.
-------
TABLE XI
Influence of Effluent Strength, Nutrient Addition, and ;>issolved
Oxygen Level on £01) Ke^-io/al peri ori.-unce of Su?plc;..efl>-al
Aeration Stabilization Basin
Run
1
2
3
k
6
Raw Waste BOD, Mg/Ji
196
196
196
196
490
1*90
B0D:N Ratio (added N)
30
30
60
60
30
30
Dissolved Oxygen, /}$/£
0.8
1.6
1.2
1-9
0.5
1.1
Treated Effluent BOD,
35
31*
30
37
22h
123
Basin Loading, lbs BOD/acre ft-
-day 126
126
126
126
315
315
Retention Time k,2 days
Basin Temperature 23°C
Study Duration 17 days
Test Effluent 1:200 kraft black liquor
-------
- 41 -
Table XII shows that a reduction in liquid waste temper-
ature from 20°C to 2°C resulted in a drop in percentage BOD5 remova
efficiency from 73 to 53 at 2-days, from 82 to 65 percent-at 5-days
and from 92 to 85 percent at 10-days. Prolonged aeration, there-
fore, tended to minimize the low temperature effects. At 2°C, it
was possible to remove 85 percent of the applied BOD load within
10 days aeration, and even with 2 days detention more than half
the applied BOD load was oxidized. This work indicates that
aerated stabilization basin treatment can be successfully used
in areas subjected to prolonged sub-zero ambient air temperatures.
D. SUMMARY
The following observations can be made based on laboratoi
scale biological oxidation studies conducted at the National Counci
Biological Waste Treatment Research Center.
1. BOD removal of 40 to 50 percent;can be obtained in
trickling filters at loadings of 1200 lb BOD/1000
cu ft of media/day when treating wastes containing
250 mg/1 BOD at hydraulic loadings as high as
300 mgad. This indicates that high total poundage
reduction of BODg are possible through the trickling
filter at the expense of high degree treatment.
This suggest use of the media where only partial
treatment is required or where the filter can be
used in combination with high degree activated
sludge, because of the high capital cost of the
filters.
2. Laboratory investigations of the effect of activated
sludge system concentration showed no significant
differences in BOD5 removal over a range of mixed
liquor suspended solids from 1650 to 6500 mg/1, re-
presenting loadings of 0,25 to 1,0 lb BOD applied/lb
MLSvS. BOD removals varied only from 87 to 90 per-
cent using 2.S5 hrs aerator retention time.
3. When influent BODc to the activated sludge unit
varied between 200 and 1200 mg/1, BOD5 removal
efficiency remained relatively consistent ranging
from 88 to 91 percent with loadings up to 300 lb
BOD/1000 cu i't aeration capacity/day. Beyond this
loading performance dropped off to 7 3 percent at
the 600 lb B0n5/1000 cu ft/day load.
-------
TABi:: Xll
Influence of Tcaperc-ttu-o on Xfflyitesjval "by Acratcd Stabilization lv.sln IVo-at
BOD RivBUCilOU (Pert***)
Tperatin^ Teup. °c
2 days
Retention period
5 days
10 days
2
10
20
2
10
20
2
10
so
Kraft
*8
75
07
64
74
86
69
88
93
KSSC
65
55
62
82
72
80
91
Sulfite
h9
66
61*
69
66
87
87
€0
89
Roofing Felt
59
65
70
62
74
82
86
62
93
BoordmlU
64
70
78
71*
82
75
93
90
93
Mean
!. .....
53
68
73
65
72
82
65
84
92
-------
- 43 -
The sludge reaeration modification of the activated
sludge process showed no improvement in process per-
formance when c ilute black liquor was used as a
feed source. These data also indicated the need
for an initial contact period between the raw waste
and the activated sludge of greater than 30 min,
in OTder to realize a high BOD removal efficiency.
Aeration tank dissolved oxygen levels below 1 mg/1,
resulted in decreased BOD removal rates. At DO
levels above 2 mg/1, there was a tendency toward
sludge bulking. This indicates that the most
effective operation can be achieved at aeration
tank dissolved oxygen levels between 1 and 2 mg/1.
Studies on the effect of high temperatures on the
activated^ slud >e process indicated that optimum
performance was obtained at 37°C, and that as the
temperature increased beyond this point, BOD re-
moval decreased rapidly to as low as 37 percent
BOD reduction at 52°C.
Laboratory aerated stabilization basins tests in-
dicated that at detention periods of 3 days,
BOD reductions of 80 percent were obtained with
reduction continuing as the detention period was
extended.
A laboratory study using a simulated aerated lagoon
with a 4 day detention period indicated that BOD
reductions were independent o£ dissolved oxygen at
levels as low as 0.5 mg/1. Nitrogen additions
ranging from CO:1 to 30:1 BODs;N ratio likewise
showed no changes in the BODj removal rate in-
dicating that above an oftimum nutrient addition
no additional benefits for increasing biological
activity rate* are realized.
Prolonged aeration minimized the effects of low
temperatures fn aerated stabilization basins. At
2°C, it was possible to remove 85 percent of the
BODg load wit'iin 10 days aeration, and even with
2 days aeration, more than half tho BOD5 load was
oxidized.
-------
82
4. Flexibility: The degree of treatment is control-
ble within reasonable limits since it is proportional to the
area and depth of the basin employed for a given discharge.
5. Capital and Operation Cost: The capital and main-
tenance costs of stabilization basin treatment is generally a
fraction of that mechanical secondary treatment and the operating
cost is considerably low.
C. AERATED STABILIZATION BASINS
Laboratory and pilot plant studies of the aerated sta-
bilization basin process by the National Council for Stream Im-
provement and its member mills have led to its rapid acceptance
and extensive application. Figure 23 shows a typical large aerated
basin in the industry. Today, 450 MGU receive treatment at 17
installations with a definite trend toward this treatment at a
number of additional mills. While new in terms of application,
the process rests on old established principles. In the spectrum
of aerobic treatment processes it occupies the ground between
low-rat e (extended aeration actuated sludge treatment (24-hour
aeration with recycle of secondary sludge) and long-term 'storage
:ural stabilization basin treatment. The process is a flexible
one involving supplemental aeration for periods of 3 to 20 days
th or without nutrient addition, occasionally followed by secon-
dary sedimentation, but without being dependent on sludge recycle
for successful operation. Process efficiency can be varied over
a wide range from 50 to 95 percent by control of nutrient and air
Sivpp.ly anti addition of secondary sedimentation, and most impor-
tantly by selection of aeration basin detention time.
One major factor prompting adoption of this process has
been the need to upgrade performance of older natural stabilization
basins that have become overloaded or are now.unable to meet
changing receiving water quality needs. Overloading of such ba-
sinshas been remedied in several ways. For example, at two mills
mechanical aerators were installed directly in existing storage
basi. s in order to increase BOD removal to 600-1200 lb/acrc/day.
At a other mill an alternate course was followed by installing a
sinal er 40-acre aerated basin to provide substantial pretreatment
befo e discharge into the older 100-acre stabilization basin. In"
this case, this step was in response both to a mill expansion that
inCi -,ascd the HOD lending, and a loss in stream self-purification
capa-ity caused by downstream Lmpoundir.cnt.
Favorable experience gained with mcc' anica-1 surface
aerators in several large activated sludge in.¦filiations has pro-
led the means lor artificially aerating large water bodies with-
out ,1,1)0 necessity of producing and distributing compressed air
'er great, distances that would -otherwise be involved in aerated
cabali zation basin treatment.
-------
- 84 -
Land requirements for aerated stabilization basin treat-
^ lie between those for activated sludge aeration tanks and
¦;li|tjral stabilization basins. Thus, land usage for aerated basins
-nay equal 2 acres per MGD. While this is much greater than a typi-
cal requirement of 0.0 1 acre/nigd for activated sludge aeration
ranks, it is substantially less than the 40 acres/mgd normally al-
lotted for natural stabilization basins.
An important consideration in the design of aerated sta-
bilization basin aeration systems is the relative ease of oxygen
-ransfer, expressed by the alpha value. NCSI studies have shown
-ihat while this value ranges from 0.7 to 1.0 for kraft wastes, the
general tendency is for this value to approach 1.0 as oxidation
Aroceeds. In the absence of experimental data, the use of a value
j£ 0.7 provides an ample margin of safety in meeting oxygen re-
-•uirements.
Nitrogen and dissolved oxygen requirements have been
studied sufficiently by Gellman (32) to establish the adequacy of
jO levels of 0.5 mg/1 and B0D:N ratios substantially greater (less
-Nutrients required) than that required lor activated sludge treat-
ment. Optimal ratios have been found to range from 50:1 with 4
:.ays aeration to 100:1 at 10-15 days, beyond which point nutrient
Iddition is not normally required.
Stabilization basins will probably always be designed
the basis of the land available of suitable topography. How-
, „r, from what has been learned, ideal design requirements can be
et forth. These are as follows:
1. Stabilization basins must receive waste free of
ettleable solids. For this purpose, mechanical clarifiers are generali-
sed! However, it is well to provide a small basin between the
ond and the clarifier, which will alllow solids passing the cla-
-ifier during periods of upset or repair to settle prior to en-
eri^S t^lc oxidation basins. This basin should be so arranged
~h.at it can bypassed for cleaning.
2. Basins are best built in multiple and operated in
eries to prevent short-circuiting. At least two separate basins
hou!d be used or a dividing wall provided if a single basin is
mployed-
3. All dykes should be built properly with a knowledge
f soil conditions and core walled where stability is questionable.
4. Basins should be cleared of stumps and the bottom
impacted when this treatment is indicated. Porous areas should
e filled with dispersed clay.
5. Inlet and outlet structures should be designed to
,-vvide for changing tlio water level for mosquito control.
-------
International St/m/wsium an
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
IN
COLD CLIMATES
held at the University of Alaska
July 22-24, 1970
Sponsored by
INSTITUTE OF WATER RESOURCES
UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA
FEDERAL WATER QUALITY ADMINISTRATION
and
EDITORS
R. Sage Murphy
Director, Institute of
Water Resources
David Nyquist
Assistant Professor of
Water Resources
TECHNICAL EDITOR
Paul W. Neff
lot ul* by tt» Soptrinteadaot at Doouawnu, 17.8. OoT«ram*nt Frtnttni OOo*
Wiifaiaitoa, D.0.30403 • Priot W.M Quptr oow)
MatkNUttlwUU-MOa
-------
EVALUATION OF AERATED LAGOONS AS A SEWAGE TREATMENT
FACILITY IN THE CANADIAN PRAIRIE PROVINCES
Archie R. Pick, George E. Burnt,
Dick W. Van Et and Richard M. Girling
INTRODUCTION
Metropolitan Winnipeg has a population o( 500,000 and is located at latitude 49° 45' N, longitude
97° 15' W. The climate is of the continental type, with an annual temperature of 35.50° F, the
coldest month is January with an average temperature of -20° F, the warmest month is July with
jn average temperature of 61° F above, and the average frost-free period (32° F) is 115 days. The
average winter snowfall is 51 inches.
In 1967, the Metropolitan Corporation of Greater Winnipeg undertook a two-year study of aerated
lagoons, because there wai little documented information on aerated lagoons operating under
Canadian prairie conditions. In order to assess the applicability of this process for the treatment of
domestic wastes, three pilot aerobic-anaerobic aerated lagoons were constructed by the
Corporation.
During the summer and fall of 1967 the pilot lagoons were constructed in the corner of an existing
stabilization pond. The sewage treated was domestic sewage from a separate system. The three
aeration systems installed were:
Air-Aqua*
Mechanical Surface Aerator'*
Air-Gun4'*
The work was supported by Public Health Research Grant 606-7-167 of the Department of
National Health and Welfare, Canada.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PILOT LAGOONS
Each system was designed to treat a flow of 0.5 Imgd. The general arrangement of the systems is
shown on Figure 1 and the design data is summarized in Table 1.
Air-Aqua
This system operates on the diffused air principle. A 30-HP compressor supplies air to
polyethylene tubes laid >n a tapered grid on the cell bottom. The system has a 30-day retention
time, an operating depth of 10 feet and is divided into two cells, operating in series. 10% of the
affluent is returned to the inlet for seed.
• Aa manufactured by Hinde Manufacturing Limiud, Hamilton, Ontario.
•* Equipped with Lightnin Aerators aa manufactured by Grety Mixing Equipment Limited,
Toronto, Ontario.
• •• Aa manufactured by Aerr-Hydraulics Corporation, Montreal, P.Q.
191
-------
-------
TABLE 1
Summary of D*iign Data
Item
Average Design Flow
Influent 6-day BOD 20° C
Influent Suspended Solids
BOD Removal rate Coefficient (Bate 10)
ki at 0 C
BOD Removal rate Coefficient (Base 10)
ki at 20 C
Temperature Coefficient 9 (applied to k,)
Oxygen Utilization factor a (lbs.
oxyjen required per lb. 5-day
BOD removed)
Oxygen transfer ratio' (ratfls of Oi
transfer to watt* to that of water)
(a factor)
Saturation value of waste compared to
HjO (0 factor)
Solubility of oxygen 20° C (780')
Operating dissolved oxygen
Effluent Temperature ¦ winter
Effluent Temperature - summer
Influent Temperature - winter
Influent Temperature ¦ summer
Mean ambient air temperature ¦ winter
Mean ambient air temperature - summer
Treatment efficiency required
Retention time • Air-Aqua
Retention time ¦ Surface Aerator
Retention time • Air-Gun
Operating depth ¦ Air-Aqua
Operating depth ¦ Surface Aerator
Operating daptli - Air-Gun
Volume • Air-Aqua
Volume - Surface Aerator
Volume ¦ Air-Gun
Mixing requirement* for surface aerators
Process loading -a) Design
Process loading - - Air-Aqua
Process loading -
Process loading -
- Surface Aerator
- Air-Qun
proceis loading - b) Actual
ft-oces* loading - -Air-Aqua
Process loading - - Surface Aerator
Process loading - -Air-Gun
Daaign Formulation:
Value and Uaita
0.S Irngd
450 mg/1
180 mg/l
0.13 per day
0.50 par day
1.07S pa* ' C
ISO
0.86
0.M
ft.OS mg/l
2.00 mg/l
3S.* !•
76 F
tt'.t
u'r
-le'.p
~75* r
•0%
30 days
80 days
SO daya
10 ft.
11 ft.
17 ft.
18 «10? gal.
10 s 10J gal
10 k 10* gat.
0.016 HP/1000 gala.
0.81 Iba. •<
0.7J Iba. -
0.1* Iba.
O.ST Iba.
0.55 Iba
0.55 Iba.
A000 ft? /day
/1000 ft? /day
A 000 ft1/day
./1000 ft'/dsy
. /1000 ft Jday
,MQOD ft /day
2.3 kt (100-E)
wT. it,ae(T-80'
Ibs.O, per day ¦ R, - s lbs. BOD, removed/day
-------
194
Surface Aerator
This system consists of eight 20-HP aerators installed in series along the lagoon basin. The ba
sized for a 20-day retention time and has an operating depth of 11 feet. The raw sewage is t
adjacent to the first aerator only.
Air-Gun
A combination of the diffused air and surface aerator principles is used for this system. The-
54 guns installed in a tapered grid pattern. A 40-HP compressor delivers air into an inverted i
in the gun base, where a large bubble is formed which rises inside the gun, pushing water ahe,:
exploding at the surface. The system has a 20-day retention time and an operating depth
feet.
RESULTS
Effluent Quality
The raw sewage concentration for the period January 1, 1d68 to September 30, 1969 avo
175 mg/l and 188 mg/l for BODs and SS respectively. Corresponding effluent quality for the
21 month period was:
BOD mg/l S.S
Air-Aqua 37
Surface Aerator 38
Air-Gun 34
Figure* 2 and 3 show these in detail.
The effect of cold weather on BODs removal it evident when the winter of 1968-69 is co'
to the summer of 1968 on Figure 2. The loss of efficiency during the summer of 1969 is at"
to sludge which will be discussed below.
The results were analyzed statistically for the 12 month period September 30,1968 to Sept
30, 1969 (See Fig. 4 & 5). This period was selected as the most typical for continuous op*
The median value of the effluent BOD for the three systems ranged between 39 end 38
10% of the occasions the effluent was greater than or equal to 78 mg/l.
Suspended Solids removal remained reasonably constant over the 21-month period
exception of start-up, which can be attributed to initial erosion and suspension of matet
construction. On the 12-month basis the median SS in the effluent ranged between 21 and
and on 10% of the occasions greater than or equal to 48 mg/l.
Figures 6 and 7 Illustrate results for temperature and D.Q. respectively.
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FIGURE 2 Lagoon fMrformanc* (BODs)
-------
196
280
260
240
220
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180
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AERO HYDRAULICS — ——
FIGURE 3 Lagoon performance (Suspended solids)
-------
197
Nutrients
Figures 8 and 9 show the average performance of the aeration systems in the treatment of algal
nutrients, phosphorus and nitrogen. The average percent removals over the test period were:
System Nutrient Removal
Total Nitrogen (N) Phosphate (P04)
Air-Aqua 12.6% 10.9%
Surface Aerator 14.6% 19.5%
Air-Gun 10.0% 23.3%
Although there was a reduction of total phosphorus through all systems, the orthophosphate
concentrations in the effluent increased. The nutrient removal efficiencies were relatively low
compared to results on pounds reported by others (Azzenso and Reid, 19661. The conventional
activated sludge plant operated by the Corporation has removal rates of 36% and 45% for nitrogen
and phosphate respectively. There was no appreciable difference in removal rates between summer
and winter.
The aeration systems are basically equal in nutrient removal and are relatively ineffective.
Temperature
The effluent temperature follows the ambient temperature curve closely as it is almost
independent of the raw sewage temperature {Fig. 6). There is a four-month period during the year
when the effluent temperature is between 0° C and 1a C.
One of the concerns in design was the possible freezing of the Air-Gun cell, as little information
was available on heat loss through ice cover. To keep the heat loss at a minimum, the surface area
was reduced by making the side slopes steeper. Observations proved, however, that the cell had a
built-in self-protection system. When the temperature rose to 10° F the ice melted on 25* of the
cell, but as soon as the temperature dropped the cell covered with ice to conserve heat.
SLUDGE ACCUMULATION
The three aeration systems have shown a substantial build-up of bottom sludges. Samplings were .
conducted during July 1968, in the fall of 1969 and early in 1970. The accumulation of sludge in
aerated lagoons has been recognized by others (Thimsen, 1965; Barnhart, 1965; Clark and Dostal,
1968); however, the significance of the accumulation of sludge deposits under climatic conditions
similar to those experienced in the Canadian prairies has not been reported.
The rate of sludge accumulation in the Air-Aqua system has been estimated to be approximately
0.18 to 0.25 lbs. of dry solids per capita per day (based on population equivalents). The rate is.
comparable to the 0.21 lbs. of dry solids per capita per day pumped to digestion at an activated
sludge plant operation by the Corporation.
Theoretical Sludge Accumulation
Theoretically, the overall digestion rate is sufficient to reduce the amount of volatile sludge
accumulated to a relatively stable content each summer. After the fir** summer of operation an
-------
198
FIGURE 4 Variability of final effluent BOD5 (Test lagoons on a one year basr.-
annual cycle should occur with the sludge accumulation reaching a maximum in March ;•
decreasing to a minimum level in August-September. The theoretical cycle is shown m r
(based on temperature-corrected anaerobic digestion rates).
Based on the accumulation of all suspended solids removed, and 0.45 pounds of solids
per pound of B0Ds removed, the daily sludge production would be 1,120 pounds
products of anaerobic digestion had been removed from the systems, the amount of ac
at the September 1969 sampling would have been an estimated 200,000 pounds (•»
accumulation of approximately 300 pounds).
Observed Sludge Accumulation
Based on actual surveys, the sludge accumulation (as dry solids) to September &
estimated as follows:
Lba/day
1,120
220
930
Total Lb».
Air-Aqua Primary 740,000
Air'Aqua Secondary 145,000
Air-Gun 580,000
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199
a » .I .2 .5 I 2 345 10 IS 20 30 40 50 60 70 8086 90 9696979699 99.8 9 93 9999
PERCENT Of TIME EFFLUENT LESS THAN
FIGURE 5 Variability of final effluent suspended solids (Test lagoons on a one year basis)
Sampling of the Air Gun had to be done through 15 feet of supernatant liquor and these figures
are subject to confirmation. Only two samples were obtained in the Air-Aqua secondary, so the
reliability of the 145,000 pound estimate is poor. Considering the methods of obtaining data, it
was concluded that there was no apparent difference in the quantities of sludge between the
systems, the significant point being that the accumulation was considerably greater than expected.
An analysis of the sludge from the Air-Aqua system indicated a moisture content of 90% for the
primary cell and 92% for the secondary cell; the volatile content was 55% for the primary and 45%
for the secondary.
Effect of Sludge Accumulation on Aerated Lagoon Performance
During the months of May, June, July and August 1969, in all three systems, there were significant
upward trends in the effluent BOD, as shown in Figure 11. All three systems showed similar
relationships. This decline in BOD removal efficiency was accompanied by a trend to reduced
dissolved oxygen concentrations in all cells. The reduced dissolved oxygen could be an "effect"
caused by high oxygen demands imposed by the end-products of anaerobic decomposition of the
sludge, or it could be a "cause" of higher effluent BOD due to an oxygen deficiency.
-------
200
Some of the related factors that may account for the sludge accumulation and the effect
performance are:
a) Release of sludge digestion end products to the mixed liquor
b) Recycle of sludge by bacterial and algal synthesis in the mixed liquor
c) Relatively short period of higher rate anaerobic digestion
d) Insufficient air supply
The duration of the study has been insufficient to allow definition of the ultimate extent of slud ,¦
accumulation and loss of efficiency during the summer. However, based on the observations made
it appears that sludge is accumulating at the rate of approximately one ton of dry solids per lm<><
treated.
To determine if an abnormal quantity of inert material was contained in the raw sewage or
effluent a series of tests was conducted. The volatile content of the raw sewage was normal and
showed no evidence of extraneous inert matter. Similarly, the effluent volatile solids were typicji
for biologically treated sewage.
Insofar as the higher BOD and reduced D.O. in the effluent is concerned, it is probably that
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FIGURE 6 Temperature monthly average
-------
201
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FIGUR E 7 Dissolved oxygen average monthly (372 readings par system)
sufficient additional air can be added economically to handle the benthal demand, although some
doubts exist because the Surface Aerator system sustained a similar loss of efficiency in spite of
relatively higher 0.0. concentrations. The major problem would appear to be the physical
accumulation of the sludge, which will ultimately require removal and additional treatment.
Sawyer has described the problems encountered as being similar to experience with Imhoff tanks,
with respect to removal and storage of BOO and solids during the winter months and the release of
soluble BOO and nutrients as acid fermentation of accumulation sludge deposits deve'opj.
(Sawyer, 1970).
OPERATIONAL OBSERVATIONS AND PROBLEMS
Observations were made on mosquitoes, weeds, grease and scum odors, ice, foaming, grit, erosion
md equipment operation. Plugging of the Air-Aqua tubing and the Air-Guns occurred. The
problems were corrected and at the time of writing, both systems appear to be operating
satisfactorily, although more time is needed to assess their ultimate reliability. Ice was a major
problem with operation of the surface aerators; ice built up on the impeller shaft and support
structure with subsequent freeze-up and stoppage. Although steps were taken to try and eliminate
the ice problem, it was found that during the winter months only half of the surface aerators could
be kept operating.
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-------
202
FIG UR E 8 Test aerated lagoons average test results phosphates
Weed Control
No particular problems were encountered with the control of weed growth on the test cell bank*
Scheduled grass cutting on the sodded banks and judicious application of weed control chemica 1
on the rip-rapped sections of the banks were carried out to control this nuisance with good
success.
Mosquito Control
Although at times the mosquito population appeared to be large, actual counts taken showed tho"
the lagoon area had one of the lowest mosquito counts of the entire Metropolitan Area. Here *
should be noted that the aerated lagoons are surrounded by conventional stabilization ponds witr
the area ratio between aerated and conventional cells being in the order of 1:25. Regular sprayn'i
by the Mosquito Abatement Department was carried out.
Grease and Scum
Build-up of grease and scum was noted to occur in the corners of the Air-Aqua primary cell. w "
very little floating material noticed on the surface aerator and Air Gun cells. The Air-Aqua syst '
is designed with a center dike, one of its purposes being to intercept floating material and prev'
it from escaping to the effluent.
Odori
In general it may be said that odors emanating from the three systems were of a minor natiir* J
they certainly did not carry beyond the test area. The only exception was the Air Aqua pr tTV'\
-------
cell which at times released odors that were quite noticeable on the enclosing banks The
attributed to the floating grease and scum collecting along the banks and in the corners of ••
where this material would decompose, releasing odors. This occurred primarily along ih»
banks, and may well have been the result of the very flat slope (8:1) incorporated in the d'-
Ice
Ice build-up caused the greatest problems with the surface aeration system. The Air A>u,
Air-Gun systems were notably free of problems due to ice build-up.
The Air-Aqua system did not cover completely with ice for the wintefr period and sho.v
peculiar build-up of "stooks" over the air lines as observed in other installations. Ice ?»¦
found on the Air-Aqua secondary cell varied from approximately 6 inches to 48 inches it
to outlet, respectively. With water depth of 10 feet this will cut down the retention j
considerably during the winter when water temperatures are adverse to the promo;
biological activity. The foregoing is of course true for all lagoon type systems, bo
conventional or aerated. No ice thickness surveys were carried out on the remainder of :r-
cells due to thin ice.
The Air-Gun system retained open water longer than the Air-Aqua. With the onset of
temperatures the openings immediately above the guns decreased in size from inlet to i
Under severe temperature conditions the openings became covered with ice domes tow.,r
outlet end. Open water conditions existed year-round above the first two or three rows of yu
40
NO, ~ NO,
AMMONIA
ORGANIC
* 10
211 2» 210 186 NO. OF TESTS
FIGURE 9 Test aerated lagoons average test results nitrogen
-------
204
Ice built up on the surface aerators to such an extent that it was impossible to clear the ice from
the aerator area. The result was that during the winter only three or four surface aerators could bt
kept operating.
Foaming
As with conventional lagoons or stabilization ponds, foaming conditions were encountered to
some degree with all three aeration systems. The surface aeration system showed more foam than
the other two systems, due to the more violent agitation of the surface of the water by the
aerators.
The quantity of foam generated varied with the water temperature, the maximum condition
occurring after spring break-up when water temperatures were rising. However, the foaming did
not reach a point where it became a problem
FIGURE 10 Theoreticat sludge accumulation in aerated lagoon (Complete anaerobic digestion
assumed)
Grit and Rags
After one year of operation considerable quantities of grit and rags were present in all three
systems. For the effective long-term operation of any aerated system pre-treatment facilities win
be required to remove grit and fags.
Bank Slopes
jhe following observations on bank slopes were made:
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205
The existing 8:1 slope utilized in the Air-Aqua cells created a wide unaerated band around a
portion of the lagoon; this likely resulted in some short circuiting. If flat slopes are required for
stability, consideration should be given to providing aeration along the slope. The majority of the
dikes for the demonstration lagoons were constructed at 3:1; this slope was stable, but for
long-term operation 4:1 is recommended. The slopes of the Air-Gun cell were constructed at 2.5:1
to minimize surface area. These slopes proved .unstable under draw-down conditions. The rip-rap
provided effective erosion control in all cells.
Equipment Operations
Air-Aqua System. After start-up, difficulties were encountered with pressure build-up in the
system. Recommended HCI acid gas cleaning of the tube system was performed without alleviating
the problem. Removal of a 250-foot length of tubing revealed that the perforations had not been
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120-
110 -
100-
90-
80-
70-
60-
50-
40
30
20
10
A
i
secondary
EFFLUENT
*
\
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FIGURE 11 Charleswood lagoons monthly trends Air Aqua system
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206
properly cut. All tubing was repunched in situ, requiring the lowering of the system so that the
workers could walk through the cells feeding the tubing through a punching mechanism mounted
on a boat. The repunching took 2 man-days to complete.
Upon completion of this work, pressure on the system dropped to 5.6 to 6 psig. The manufacturer
then recommended that acid cleaning be carried out quarterly, regardless of pressure build-up.
When operating properly, the pattern of air distribution should show a grid of air bubbles, released
by the perforated tubing. Although this grid did show immediately after installation and
repunching of the tubing, it deteriorated after a period of operation due to clogging of the
perforations, regardless of acid cleaning, carried out regularly. This clogging had affected the air
distribution pattern and was confirmed by D.O. tests. Further investigations traced the loss of
pattern to water in the tubes and condensation, and from water coming back through the valves
during power failures. By manipulating the acid valves it was possible to force the majority of the
water out of the tubes, restoring a reasonably good air pattern.
Supporting equipment such as air-compressors, effluent recirculation pump, flow meters, and
samplers were subjected to a regular preventative maintenance program, and few problems were
encountered.
Surface Aeration System. Ice has been a problem with the operation of the surface aerators. The
basic problem was ice build-up on the impeller shaft and supporting structure, with subsequent
freeze-up and stopping of the mechanism. Ice formed on the piles and impeller, resulting in a
limited clearance between the rotating ice on the impeller and the fixed ice on the piles. This is a
problem that is difficult to overcome with the winter climate experienced in the Winnipeg area.
Two methods aimed at overcoming this problem were attempted; firstly, one of the platforms was
shrouded with plywood, and secondly a second unit was shrouded with flexible nylon cloth. Both
attempts failed.
Other results of the ice accumulation were off-balance, causing vibration of the supporting
structure and misalignment of motor reducer, resulting in a coupling failure and loosening of
impeller, bending and loss of blades.
In the spring of 1968 the manufacturer replaced all blades with a heavier design. Although this was
thought to cure the problem encountered with the impeller blades, subsequent winter operation
disproved this, as bending and loss of blades occurred.
It may be possible to reduce or eliminate the icing problems with a change in the supporting
structure. The existing structure with four piles provided a surface for the ice to grow on, a two
pile arrangement with the piles widely spaced may be more successful.
Air-Gun System. No problems were encountered with the operation of this system until October
1968, when it was noticed that the most northeasterly gun was discharging air continuously.
During the winter 1968-69 this condition spread to most guns. It was thought to be caused by the
auild-up of either ice or rags in the syphon chamber. The latter proved to be true. In May 1969,
the manufacturer installed syphon chambers of a new design on 42 guns. The new design, hav g
larger clearances, may eliminate the problems of plugging of the syphon chambers with rugs
Insufficient tirtie has elapsed since the modification to allow 8n assessment of their long-term
dependability.
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207
COSTS
Capital Costs
Two sets of cost data have been prepared for aerated lagoons; firstly, the 0.5 Imgd demonstration
lagoons and secondly, a general unit capacity cost curve.
All costs and estimates in this report are adjusted to an Engineering News Record Sewage
Treatment Plant cost index of 132.0. As costs change the appropriate adjustment must be made to
the reported costs.
The capital costs for the demonstration lagoons are shown in Table 2. These costs have been
arrived at by assuming each system would be as indicated in Figure 1, insofar as floor dimensions
and identical equipment layout are concerned. However, in order to relate realistic costs to a
permanent installation it is necessary to assume each unit is to be constructed as a totally
independent unit. An independent unit is one with independent piping, diking, influent-effluent
structures and electrical supply. Therefore, only items 1 and 2 of Table 2 are established directly
from the contract amounts. The remaining items were arrived at by combining estimated
quantities and the actual unit prices tendered. The general contractor for the lagoon project was
consulted on the tendered prices. All costs were considered realistic with the exception of rip-rap.
In the case of rip-rap, the contractor was of the opinion that the price should be 1.5 times the
tendered price (i.e. $12.00/cu. yd. in place).
The estimated quantities for earthwork were calculated on the basis of 3 feet freeboard, 12 feet
roadway width, and 4:1 dike slopes, rip-rap facing the interior dikes from toe of slope to 1 foot
above the normal operating level. These adjustments are considered necessary to insure a
permanent and relatively maintenance-free structure with the soils encountered in the Winnipeg
rea.
Sodding and seeding quantities include sodding the interior dikes above the rip-rap and 50% of the
total dike crest, and seeding the exterior dike slopes. Roadway quantities are based on an asphaltic
surface treatment being applied to the unsodded dike crest.
The electrical costs include service entrance equipment, motor starters, and lighting for the
equipment and structures associated with the respective systems. Power distribution costs were
based on the billing received from Manitoba Hydro for the supply and erection of equipment, and
allocation to the respective systems on the basis of length of cable and number of poles required
for each.
Actual influent and effluent chamber and piping costs were reestimated on the basis of piping and
chambers being of such length and size for an independent treatment system of 0.5 Imgd capacity.
Fencing costs are for the perimeter of the cell taken at the toe of the dike slope. Additional items
of chlorination facilities and instrumentation are included since these would be desirable in a
permanent installation. The costs do not include pumping station, forcemain, outfall, or land.
However, they are inclusive of engineering, legal and administration charges.
From Table 2 it can be seen that the total costs for the Air Gun are slightly lower than the
Air-Aqua and Surface Aerator Systems. Major cost differences are due to additional rip-rap and
-------
208
TABLE 2
Capital Costs ¦ Demonstration Lagoons
Surface
Air-Aqua
Aerator
Air-G'ip.
1. Aeration Equipment, Supply
(Blowers, Headers)
$ 47,500
$ 44,300
$ 3*
2. Aeration Equipment, Installation
(Headers, Housing, Platforms)
23,000
56,500
33 -
3. Electrical
3,500
7,800
3...
4. Influent Piping
3,200
3,200
3 _
5. Effluent Piping
3,500
2,200
2.2
6. Influent Chamber
17,900
17,900
17.9'
7. Effluent Chamber
22,900
22,900
22.i).
8. Excavation & Dike Construction
32,400
29,200
27.0'
9. Clearing, Grubbing Unsuitable Material
10,800
10,800
10.81"
10. Rip-rap
93,000
73,500
70.30'j
11. Seeding & Sodding
6,400
5,000
4.0U"
12. Roadway (asphalt)
3,900
3,500
3,20"
13. Chlorination Facilities (including
housing)
20,000
20,000
20.000
14. Power (hydro)
3,500
5,400
3,500
15. Instrumentation (including magnetic
flow meter)
10,000
10,000
10,000
16. Fencing
4,700
4,000
3,500
Total Estimated Cost
10% Eng. & Contingencies
$306,200
30,600
$316,200
31,600
$273,700
27,300
Total Estimated Cost
$336,800
$347,800
$301,000
Coats indexed to ENR S.T.P. 1) Includes installation, excludes blowers and header
cost index 132.0 2) Includes blower and header
excavation required for the dividing dike, greater dike perimeter for the Air-Aqua System, and
platform costs for the surface aerator.
Figure 12 shows the development cost of the aerated lagoon process per unit of lagoon capacity.
These costs have been developed by applying the unit material and installation costs of the
demonstration lagoons to calculated quantities. Equipment supply and installation costs were
derived from equipment manufacturers' quotations for similar facilities at Other treatment works.
-------
209
2 .3 « .6 474910 2 3 4 0 6 78 910 20 30 40 5000700090100
DESIGN CAPACITY — AVERAGE FLOW (t.M.G.D.)
FIGURE 12 Aerated lagoons capital cost vs. design capacity
Operation and Maintenance Costs
The operating and maintenance costs for the O.S Imgd demonstration lagoons are shown on Table
3. They are based on 17 months of operation.
Assuming chlorination of the effluent at 8 mg/1 is desirable, the total operating costs should be
adjusted to $53, $107 and $56 for the respective lagoons.
The power costs tabulated in Table 3 are based on field measurements of true power drawn with a
unit power cost of 0.9c/kwh. Allocated to each system is a shore of the heating and sampling
pun- < load. In the case of surface aeration the cost is calculated on all eight units operating. In
terrr/. of oxygen requirements, the surface aerators are capable of treating in excess of the rated
flowi However, at the time of design, eight units were considered necessary to insure adequate
mixi' ).
Rep s include regular weekly inspection and servicing of equipment, non-routine repairs and
repl ement parts where required. The costs of repunching the aeration tubes and replacing the
siph ns on the Air-Guns are not included in Table 3. The labor and materials on the servicing were
base I on actual time card and material receipts and allocated to the respective systems. Labor
incl des a 25% factor for overhead. General costs include maintenance to the common.inlet
chai -ber, metering equipment, etc. Since it was difficult to allocate these costs to a specific lagoon
thfe\ , were split equally to the three systems. Laboratory costs include labor and supplies for
-------
210
TABLE 3
Actual Operating and Maintenance Costs
0.5 Imgd Demonstration Lagoons
Avg. Cost per Img Treated
Air-Aqua
Surface
Aerator
Air Our-
Power
$ 10
$ 64
S ! ¦
Equipment Servicing & Repair
13
14*
1 1
Laboratory & Control
13
13
!2
Road & Dike Maintenance
4
3
Snow Removal, Grass Cutting,
Mosquito Control
3
3
General
3
3
.1
Total Operating & Maintenance Costs
per Imgd Treated
$ 46
$100
$ 4?
•Not continuously maintained due to ice.
sampling and analysis. Actual laboratory costs were three times the cost reported due to th-
frequency and number of analyses performed under test conditions. Therefore, the lower costir.
for laboratory reported here would be a more realistic value under normal operating conditions
Maintenance and laboratory personnel were not based at the lagoons during the test; therefor?
considerable labor and vehicle time for travelling were not charged to the test lagoons.
The development of operating and maintenance costs for aerated lagoons is shown in Figure 13
The curve was prepared by projecting the actual demonstration lagoon costs on the trend line a<
indicated. The slope of the line was guided by costs reported in recent literature (Okey and
Rickles, 1968). The reported costs from the literature reference have been adjusted to Imperi i
Gallons and are also shown on Figure 13. It is noteworthy that the referenced costs an
representative of power costs of 1 c per kw. hr. and labor of $5.00/hr., while in comparison the
local power and labor costs are approximately 0.9 c per kw. hr., and $4.25 per hr., respectively
Very little cost information at other aerated lagoons is available to confirm the trend costs for
increasing capacities. However, a check was made on the expected operating and maintenance
costs by determining the future power requirement for mechanical equipment coupled with
current power rates. The total costs were extrapolated from the power costs on the basis of power
being about one-third of the total costs. This provided a reasonable check on the trend developed,
by the literature.
CONCLUSIONS
Aerated lagoons were found to be capable of providing "secondary equivalent" sewage treatmen:
Under prairie climatic conditions there is a problem of sludge accumulation leading to a decline in
efficiency of BOD removal and a reduction in the dissolved oxygen concentration during the
summer months.
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211
The economic feasibility of aerated lagoons is questionable until the extent and cost implications
of the sludge problem are fully defined by further research and experience.
The use of surface aerators under prairie winter conditions is not practical due to ice build-up
It can be concluded that aerated lagoons are an effective means of providing secondary treatment
but some provision must be made for sludge handling.
It is intended to continue the investigation on a lets rigorous scale, with a goal of determining the
long term effects, and finding a practical and economical solution. Equipment manufacturers are
actively pursuing a solution.
900
400
300
200
•0
70
•0
50
(RE io:
Of
-s;U5£fj
40
90
20
10
C06T3 (E.N.R. STB INDEX 132)
INGLUBCfi'O POWER, EOUFMENT AND MRTS
(23 LABOR (INCLUDES 25% FOR OVERHEAD
(9 SNOW REMOVAL, GRASS CUTTING,
INSECT CONTROL, AND ROAO MAMTENCE
(•LABORATORY
mCHUORWXnON
M5% FOR WKES HOMO MAINTCNCC ANO
mrS!rffaW0T EMCOuNTERe° ouww T"T wwooj
MOT
im-nwrn. TRAVEL TMC, 8 VEHICLE COST FOR ¦
MAMTENANCE STAFF ANO LAB.
1 1 I ' 1—
"""iSS
.2 J 4 .9 1 7.8.910
9 4 8 6 7 8910
20 90 40 9080 708090100
DESIGN CAPACITY ¦—AVERAGE FLOW UM.G.Q)
FIGURE 13 Aerated lagoons operating and maintenance costs
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212
REFERENCES
Azzenso, J. R. and Reid, G. W., Removing nitrogen and phosphorus by bio-oxidation ponds
central Oklahoma, Water and Sewage Works, V. 113, No. 8, p. 294-299.
Barnhart, E. L. and Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr. (1965) Theoretical aspects of aerated lagoon desu,-
paper presented at the Symposium on Waste-wator Treatment for Small Municipalities, Ecc
Polytechnique, Montreal, pp. 1.
Clark and Dostal (1968) Evaluation of waste treatment Chemawa Indian School, Report No. FR •.
FWPCA, North West Region, Pacific North West Water Laboratory Corvallis, Oregon.
Okey, R. and Rickles, R. N. (1968) Industrial waste treatment management, Water and Wasi*
Engineering, Vol. 5, Nr. 9, pp. WWE/1-14.
Sawyer, C. N. (1970) Private communication.
Thimsen, D. J. (1965) Biological treatment in aerated lagoons, Paper presented at the Twelfth
Annual Waste Engineering Conference, University of Minnesota.
-------
CRITICAL REVIEW OF PAPERS ON TREATMENT PROCESSES
Karl Wuhrmann
Reviewing eight contributions of excellent and distinguished speakers is a delicate task considering
the fact that the most pertinent paper has not been presented at this symposium. I mean the basic
text, setting the specific goals and defining the special needs for water pollution control measures
in countries with arctic climates. Like in any other geographic region waste treatment has to meet
the requirements set by the quality standards which are or have to be imposed on the receiving
water bodies by legislation or on the grounds of ecological exigencies. As anywhere, the quality
standards of treatment plant effluents must be tailored to thf local conditions in rivers and lakes,
and the technology of treatment can only be decided upon when these conditions are known.
Since this basic concept was lacking, the papers under review necessarily pointed in various
directions, according to the personal association of each author to the keyword of "cold climate."
Concerning the first fundamental question, namely "what has to be done?" three objectives have
been considered, i.e., the conventional problem of removal of organics, the abatement of
eutrophicating effects of wastes and the health hazards involved with sewage. No priorities have
been set. All of these objectives might be important, however, at one place or another, and it was
justified, therefore, to cover the respective technology to a certain extent.
As to the second fundamental question "how cen it be done?" the authors have mostly elaborated
on the problem of tow temperature effects on process efficiency and design. Process efficiency is
undoubtedly an important item in the present context. I should say, however, that it has much less
weight in practical water pollution control than such banal items as sludge disposal or purely
mechanical problems of operating machinery in an arctic winter. As a microbiologist I am not
competent to deal with such technical matters. Having some experience, however, with small
treatment plants in the Alps up to altitudes of more than 9,000 ft., I wish to indicate that these
technical problems are by far dominating every other question which might arise due to tow
temperature!
In the group of pepers reviewed by Or. Krenkel it has clearly been shown that the above
mentioned objectives one and three, i.e. removal of organics and reduction of health hazards, are
most imperative in the majority of Alaskan situations. It was made clear also that, besides c ery
few large agglomerations where conventional planning of plants may be adequate, mostly L' all
population centers exist, requiring the utmost technical and operational simplicity for any
treatment installation.
I take the liberty to comment on the papers under the two headings:
- Basic considerations as to biological processes at low temperatures, and
- Practical observations and experiences with treatment processes.
329
-------
330
It is justified to begin with the papers presented by Eckenfetder and Engiande and by Benedek and
Farkas, because the temperature effects on reactions and reaction rates in treatment plants (be
they of biological or chemical nature) are fundamental in our context.
It must be emphasized that we have to differentiate between:
- Temperature effects on the performance of the entire treatment plants or individual treatment
steps, and
- Temperature effects on single chemical or physico-chemical reactions or reaction chains,
including those occurring in organisms.
On
ttio
Th*
y
It would be a fundamental mistake to confound these two groups of terntwratum ,
case of, for stance, a biological treatment plant, the on »
population dynamics of the entire system. The resultant effect on olant n»rfl, l
« directly ,u„ctl„n(
biochemical reaction rates. It is true, of course, that the population shifts in mi***™
fermentation systems are caused by temperature effects on growth rates and h '
biochemical reaction rates. The phenomenologically dominant result, however is a chanopTn
competition situation of the individual species, leading to a so-called soeini™i \ -J 9
biocenosis (Wi.hrm.nn 1964). This change within the organism community must
be associated with a shift in the overall fermentation performance.
In the paper of Eckenfelder and Englande temperature coefficients of numerous activated sl.d,,
laboratory and pilot plant experiments, as well as of lagoons are comoileri Th» J
Hoff.Arrhen.us equation for actuation energy. It has to be recognized, however thVt w
temperature factors are plainly empirical and should not be misused to anticipate the kinetl' •
specific biochemical react.ons. The temperature coefficient of endogenous and subs ,V;.
m^rauon of activated sludge has always been a favorite subject for studie7and the essential b»i.
of Benedek and Farkas paper has many predecessors (Sawyer. 1939; Wuhrmann 1955 et 7) 7
values around 2 have been found consistently, from which Ea valueTof Tb^Vl l 2bo 12 0'
te.l/mol (temp. w, around 20 C, ™y „,cu,.w. rfa
Imam mm w, ,9„or. eomplnely ih. r,K,i,„ miJht ,ra lm,ti . ^ ^'
end result of oxygen consumption. It is noticeable that other entirely different reaction cha • .
such as the removal of a substrate from the medium (Benedek and Farkas) or the kill of bact- .
by disinfectants (Chambers paper) are also subject to temperature effects with values of 6,0 in r
range of about 1.6 to 2.5 (calculated activation energies around 8,000 -15,000 kcal/mol) Th,
general indication that enzymatically catalized reactions might be involved Jt is obvious how
that just because of this parallelism farther reaching conclusions as to the behavior of co'mpiu-¦¦¦•
systems such as living cells or entire organism associations are not justified.
There is no objection against the determination of temperature coefficients of plant perfo,
Such values are very useful in practice because they give at least a rough indication as •
magnitude of safety factors to be considered in the dimensioning of biological rejci
pertinent, however, to clearly separate 1) reactions in a biological treatment system will."
invariably affected by temperature changes according to thermodynamic principles and 2'
system's behavior as an entity under steady state conditions of practical operation The r .
-------
331
example for the first group of reactions is sludge respiration with a temperature factor 81 o around
2 irrespective of any other environmental conditions or population shifts. It is mandatory,
therefore, to consider this temperature factor in the dimensioning of aeration systems/Growth
rales as well as substrate resorption rates are subject to similar temperature factors. On a long term
basis of continuous operation and at slow temperature shifts, however, these temperature effects
will be largely hidden by a sociological adaptation of the sludge which may readily compensate for
the change in metabolic rates of the originally dominating species. Most sewage plants
demonstrate, therefore, amazingly small shifts of efficiency from summer to winter temperatures.
These small differences even disappear more or less completely at low sludge loads (0.1 - 0.2 kg
BOD/kg dry solids/day) because substrate supply and not temperature is then acting as the rate
limiting factor for sludge metabolism. I think there is no need for Eckenfelder's and Englande's
hypothesis, assuming sludge flocculation is an essential parameter for the magnitude of
temperature effects on the overall performance of conventional activated sludge systems. This
hypothesis is even contradicted by earlier experimental evidence such as Sawyer's observations
(1955) and the reviewer's own results (Wuhrmann, 1964). The idea of temperature-independent
rate limitations by too small a substrate supply is further confirmed by the skim milk experiments
in the paper of Koyama et al. and by the laboratory experiments described by Clark at al.
The essential practical conclusions are therefore:
1. Compensation for adverse effects of low temperature in activated sludge systems is readily
possible by low sludge loads. With domestic sewage the limit is in the order of magnitude of
0.1 to 0.2 kg BOD/kg MLSS/day. As was shown by the reviewer (Wuhrmann, 1964) and has
been confirmed with the skillful experiments of Clark et al., dimensioning has to consider the
lowest temperatures occurring.
2. Aeration rates have to be evaluated on the basis of the highest temperatures to be expected in
the system. Exigencies for low temperature will then automatically be satisfied.
3. Although lagooning might be a relatively cheaper investment than other systems, it is
doubtful it will serve the needs, emphasizing the fact that the highest treatment efficiency is
required in wintertime, i.e. at the lowest temperatures (see introduction of Gordon's paper).
The above conclusions lead to some technical consequences regarding sewage and plant
construction. From the operational point of view one of the main problems • especially with small
plants - is ice formation. Heat conservation is imperative, therefore, and requests a very compact
and condensed plant layout. Heavily exposed plants in the Alps of Switzerland are enclosed for
protection against snow and wind and for easier maintenance. The largest heat loss occurs in the
aeration basin due to evaporation and intensive exposure of the water to the atmosphere. As has
already been mentioned by Pick and others, surface aerators should, therefore, not be used. Very
much can be done in favor of safe plant operation with an adequate sewage system as has neatly
been shown in the paper of Koyama at al. He demonstrated how thawing may interfere with
treatment efficiency by increasing the hydraulic plant load and simultaneously decreasing the
sewage concentration and temperature. All three factors may work together and produce an acute
danger of sludge washout. The answer to this problem evidently is separate sewering, a concept
which is already adopted in the United States but still meets resistance in other places.
-------
332
Not many words have been devoted at this conference to the delicate topic of sludge treatment
and disposal, the paper of Balmer excepted. The problem is highly critical with small installations
where no machinery for sludge processing can be afforded. It is a favorable coincidence, however,
that small plants should be designed as very low loaded complete oxidation units, for reasons
already discussed. This concept automatically involves a minimum of excess sludge production and
a sludge quality which is inoffensive, creates no odor problems and dries rapidly (especially after
freezing). Under these conditions the conventional drying bed is probably the optimum solution
for sludge disposal.
The question of eutrophication by plant effluents has been discussed in the papers of Rosendahl
and Balmer in regard to phosphorus removal from sewage. This is of course an immediate problem
all over the world. Irrespective of the obvious question of whether nutrient removal from wastes is
of top priority in the Alaskan situation, the process described by Balmer raises an interesting point
worth mentioning: chemical processes such as precipitation or adsorption etc. have much lower
temperature coefficients (diffusion being mostly the rate-limiting process) than enzymatically
cstaJized reactions. Dimensions and operations of chemical purification plants are much less
affected, therefore, by temperature shifts than are biological units. This represents a considerable
advantage. In view of the high degree of purification required by the winter conditions in arctic
rivers, it is questionable, however, whether exclusively chemical processes as described by Balmer,
are sufficiently effective in regard to removal of dissolved organic compounds. It is also common
experience that handling of excess sludge from precipitation units can be a difficult task. I am of
the opinion, therefore, that the application of chemical precipitation or fiocculation processes
under critical operation conditions (small plants, low temperature, unskilled personnel, etc.)
should be considered with caution.
REFERENCES
Sawyer, C. IM. (1939) Factors involved in prolonging the initial high rate of oxygen utilization by
activated sludge - sewage mixtures, Sew. Wks. J., 11,595.
Sawyer, C. N., Frame, J. D. and Wold, J. P. (1955) Revised concepts on biological treatment. Sew.
Ind. Wastes, 27, 929.
Wuhrmann, K. (1956) Factors affecting efficiency and solids production in the activated sludge
process, Biol. Treatment of Sewage and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 1, 49-65, Reinhold Publ.
Comp. New York.
Wuhrmann, K. (1964) Bibl. Microbiol. Fasc., 4, 52-64.
Wuhrmann, K. (1964-68) Hauptwirkungen und Wechselwirkungen einiger Betriebsparameter im
Belebtschlammsystem. Ergebnisse mehrjahriger Grossversuche, Schweiz. Z. Hydrol., 26,
218-270, see also Adv. in Water Quality Improvement, Univ. Texas Press> p. 143.
« H. S. GOVERNMENT PMNTINC OFFICE 1HJO - ««-¦«»
-------
Aerated Stabilization Basin Treatment of Mil! Effluents
ISAIAH GELLMAN
Aerated stabilization basins currently provide secondary treatment for 50 million
gol/doy effluent ot 7 milts, and ore being actively considered ot 1 5 mills dis-
charging over 400 million gal/day. Factors promoting adoption of aerated
stabilization basin treatment include ease of upgrading older nonoeroted storaoe-
oxidation basins, process flexibility and simplicity, land availability, acceptance of
mechanical surface aerators, and reduced cost*. Considerable laboratory and
pilot scole investigation Has preceded current application, and indicates that ^00
removal is readily correlated with retention time by a continuously mixed, first
order type reaction equation. Process temperature response studies between 2
and 20°C indicate process feasibility during winter conditions, in comparison to
activated sludge treatment the process is characterized by reduced nu»ri(?rt re-
quirements ond lower rates of secondary solids generation. Design data are ore-
sented for 7 installations ranging in size from 0.3 to 25 million gal/day. Basils
occupy from 1 to 70 acres, providing from 3 to 9 days retention, and remove as
much os 90% BOD.
l.'.vTi!, ret-en'ly il. was common practice
ti> categorize the secondary treatment,
installation* in our industry into those
,.ini)!"\'iii),' i iicklinjj; filters, activated
-.liidit*', "r long-term storage natural
¦itabilization basins, Thus, an up-
u,nn!iii^ <>f our most recent, summary of
industry application of these three
methods (!) would show that 45 million
Kui/ihiy now receive trickling filter
treatment, 125 million ^iilAlay activated
,lui!-.;e tre.-i'ment, and tlmt 500 million
jr;i!/'l".V i"'1' proee.-sed in 15,000 acres of
natural stabilization basins.
Continuing laboratory and pilot plant,
studies of iIn- aera'ed stabilization basiri
iiruioss liavr, however, recently led U)
rapid acceptance and extensive
afioli'-a'ion, where today close to 50
niilli"" K.il.'day receive treatment at 7
.-dialions, anil additional treatment
is in the olliii;; •or over 400 million gal/
day at 15 nmre mills. While new in
terms nf :i.|iii!ieat!iMi, the process rests
on old c.-!ab!hlicd prilieiples. In the
spectrum id' aerobic treatment processes
it oi-enpies the uroiind between low-rate
..steoded ;«¦ lu'i'HI activated sludge
rn-u' mi-id (- l-'iraemtioi) with recycle- ol
„,.eoi>dary ¦>ludi{i-i and lonj(-term storage
s':'l)>li/.!itiim basin treatment
shallow lagoon stoi-;ige for periods of at
least 5<) days limited to loadings of
riioii"d 5'l lb HO!) (biochemical oxyuen
di-niuiidj '.'icre-d.iy by natural rcaeration
ra'r-" T'»- process is a flexible one
involving «'inpl«-meiit:i( aeration for
iH-rii'ds of "Ji
'»in;»Mt ltii|ir<>t«MMi Mi.
4 »" ''tin . Ulttifr.
REASONS FOR ADOPTION OF
AERATED STABILIZATION
BASIN PROCESS
Upgrading of Oldtr Natural
Stabilization Batint
One major factor prompting adoption
of this process has been the need to up-
grade performance of older natural
stabilisation hu-it\s that havft become
ovei'!i««!ed or are now unable to meet
chatiiiiiiK receiving wuter i|tmlity need*.
Our earlier studies have shown that
such basins can remove from 40 to 00
lh UOD/acce-day without «cnoratinn
anaerobic odors, ami that such removal
rates rorn'late well with natural reaera-
tion vatl's fov shallow basins (£). Over-
loading of such basins has been remedied
in several ways. For example, both at
Rie^-lwood, V. C., aitd Hal!inwre, Ohio,
mt-i-bimicnl ni-ratms were ' his*al!ed
ilirecdy in t!u- course was
followed, namely to install a smaller
•M-aere aerated basin to pvovitln #nl»-
sianiial |>vciivatment before disehai'no
into the older lOO-ami staliilixntion
'i.'t—iii. (n this ohm> this step was in
nwooiise Imth twti a mill expansion in*
cten-n in loading, and a loss in stream
¦ vveen
those for activated sludne aet-ut unit auks
anrl natural stabilization hn-i'K. '' Im-
while land usage for aerated basins mav
eipial2acres/million Rations a day, which
is much greater than a typii-.-d >•,»,»;in-
ment of 0.04 ucre/iuillion gallons a d:n-
for activated sludne aeration '.auk.-, i'
sulwtuntially less than the 10 an.-- '
million irtillons a (lav normally allot •t
tor natural stabilisation !>;i-ins. \t
locations sneh a Durham, I'a., and
CoviiiKlon, 'l'enn.. "ivantaije uus then-,
fore taken of ample land availability '<>
avoid lioth the high coiisinic'inti and
opevatitiK costft and greater
complexity of activated, Men -
mcnt. Our recent cost studio- im'.v <•>
that construetioK aud operat-nu
for aerated, stabilization lia>'n n .-a--t-c-!-
are approximately fiO am!
respectively, of those -'m
sludge treatment in t!\e *"»'
removal range.
Mechanical Surfac• Aerators
Favoralde experience caitu-d uot>
mechanical Htliiaei' neraioi- in larne
activated shiilice i'Ml.'dla'iiHis *oc!i ,-is
ibose at Scott-Mobile, I'. I!, tl'r-
feltev, and l>o\vnh\K\<>\vu, bas iivnva'-
-------
til ' i; i * 1111. ) ikiiiktiiifi,
m.i'ci bodies without tlio necessitv of
producing and distributiug coinpn scd
:iir ever p eat distances that would other-
»!-.<¦ l>e involved ilk aerated stabilization
ha-iin treatment.
Elimination of Downstream Odor
Tlir desirability of eliminating odor
nuisance conditions around mill ponds
receiving effluents .'is lit Versailles and
I'itehburg has prompted additional
applications. Unlike run-of-the-rivcr
artificial stream reaeration, the reten-
tion time afforded in such cases is
sufficiently long (4 (lays at Versailles)
ihat. substantial MOD reduction can be
simultaneously accomplished while pre-
venting odor nuisance, thereby reducing
downstream deoxygenation as well.
Second Stage Biological Treatment
Another source of application is
represented by posttreatment of high
rate-low etlieiency trickling filter ef-
fluents. These have been found to
rusnomi readily to aerated stabilization
basin treatment, as shown ill Table I.
Those data represent results obtained in
preliminary studies at two largo kraft
mills, and together with additional
pilot ditta provide the basis for the
system now being engineered for one of
these mills.
PROCESS DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS
The major problem is, of course,
selec'-ion of retention time suffi-
cient to provide the desired degree of
HOD removal. Several process design
approaches have been advanced, in the
ab-ence of pilot plant studies which can
readily simulate anticipated operating
conditions. Prior to construction of a
new mill, such generalized design
me'hods and interpretation of existing
pilot or full-scale performance data are
ol course the only means available for
process specification.
Application of Monomolecular BOD
Rate Formulation
The most elementary means for
predicting aerated stabilization basin
performance lies in assuming that
|1(>I> removals will follow 'hose of
batch systems predicated on l:t rates
I UUIU II. I IVKCUVI«< iwi
/. 4nyt «¦ £ S
kt - 0.15
k, = (1.20
k - o r.
k = 1 (I
T - 20* C
of 0.15 to 0.2. As shown in Table II,
BOD removals of 75-85% can be ex-
pected in 4 days, 80-90% in 5 days,
85-95% in 6 days, and at least 90% in
8 days. In a completely mixed system
there will of course be a predictable
short-circuiting of untreated influent to
the point of discharge. This is
minimized to some extent by series
arrangement of basins. Countering
this is the probability that k\ rates are
somewhat higher owing to the steady-
state nature of these systems and their
continuous resceding by mixing. The
a!>ove predicted BOD removals can !>c
adjusted for temperature effects along
classical lines.
Eckenfelder Design System
Eckenfelder (S, 4) has proposed that
HOD removal in such completely mixed
systems was characterized by a first-
order reaction of the form
. (i + fr0-.
and
or
100 ]\ - (1 J- /;()-']
where L,,'L<, represented the fraction of
initial BOD remaining after t days
aeration. Da'a presented for a hoard-
vi rt«iuiou w«iuu'iiiuiicii uu)>ii *.
4 6 ti H lit
U4 'i?
'.IS 'I'. I
SO M
S'.l til
85 S<>
mill waste study showed that wi''i
ample nutrient supply, BOD removal-.>• 1
80% were attainable in ."ida>-, u'
aeration beyond 0 days, with seditneiiv.- [
tion, produced 00',,', reduction "¦¦¦- «
cedures were suggested for esumu'ms
temperature effects on removal con;'' ;'>n
constants, for convening BO! > remc.a
to actual oxygen supply ivqtiiremeii'-,
and predicting basin operating tempera-
tures.
McKinney Design System
McKinnev (5) recently assemb'e'! •!
series of equations eorrclat'ng > 'n
influence of mixing, retention V»ie,
temperature on aerated
formance. These assume Unit, the
of initial BOD load is eonv...
cellular material within the tiiv L'l '•••.
and that thereafter the efllue.p I''1!'
consists essentially of continually •
creasing endogenous re>pira,;"n i/
declining microbial popn!a':oii.
net effect is similar to that ilwn'r 1
by Eekenfeldcr's first-order cui-a*..-'.
mentioned earlier.
Where the anticipated HOD rem.>.¦,¦'
must be known with a greater derive «
precision prior to con.-'ruetion, 1 -
no substitute for labora'tny .en.' -•>
scale studies, and numerous >iy i -1 • *. •> -
have been, and are U-iiig c.>,- ,,
t!ie pulp and paper ic!i!»>ry.
LABORATORY STUD":S Oc
A5?AT5D STAT".'Z,\*"ov
basis.'
In addition to the work by !>';.¦»-
felder and O'Connor cited i. -
erence should Ihj made *<» "i¦
N'ational Council - o.'v- •
by Ainherg •>!' n i". ¦ •
ToIV.j I. Resoonse of High
12
0.45
. t
J70
HI
•1S
0.
t
i:;-i
If)
'.M
0 40
(i
-IS
0.40
0.45
• II... . i'.ii,' 111.II-. \<*riil .'it I.Mill fin,a,.II',.,I Ir-, l.'uij llll.-r iKIihmii -I.MI llllll
'¦(" • - 11 ' " 'In' A.-r >"•' '••I.H..I. n.-ri...I I J is i.i Uinfi ••lltiii'iii
(a) Use t>{ monoiuiileciilar U< M) curve
BOD removal, % - 100 - J'1
«.¦*- v»
kr - k» 1.047r-*
50 65 75 82 87
00 75 84 UO 04
(b) Eckenfelder first-order equation
BOD removal, % «¦ 1 — «» 1 — (1 + kt)~'
kT - km t.08r-»
50 60 67 71 75
U7 75 8U 83 NC.
(c) McKinney correlation equations
kr - ku l.OTT-*
65 72 76 80 «3
-------
Basins
KlTt-et of bstsin-resitlimee time mi residua! niHuenl MOD, ppm
IN'Milcm-i' I iui'1, days
:$.<>
4 , S
7.7
1!) 7
fti>|> I.ii' 1 u11-, lli/ai re-day
2'JI III
sr.o
*.:tn
331)
(usnUiiiiug 1- ft- dcplh)
ililr.-irlici! Krafl
;i2
20
i«
21
27
i-aclied krafl
4o
r>2
19
17
12
I 'illileaclied -iillite
:i4
:i2
:j!>
14
17
Waste p:iper hoard
an
:io
20
16
14
.Mean ellluent Hi »l). ppm
:!4
24
17
17
|}01> removal,
«2.r>
S3
SS
'J1.5
01.5
I'llVect of basin-resilience time on secondary uluilge solids generation, ppm
Kc-sideiici; time, days
:i ti
4.S
7.7
12.3
10.7
llnbleaclied kraft
44
22
28
4
2
Hleiiched krafl
142
as
04
5H
20
thihlenclieil snltiie
s;>
mi
70
17
22
Waste paper hoard
104
I2'.l
"ti
40
37
Mean sludge uroductinn, ppm
!)4
ss
00
32
22
.VditV HOD ci|iiiviileiil. of 2° sludge
solids generated, lb/lb
0.1!)
0.24
0.18
0.13
0.18
lagoons. Morn recent studies at our
lalwirutory (7) summarized in Table III
showed Ibat ISO!) removals exceeding
80% were attainable for a variety of
mil! wu-tes with aeration periods
jjrvtitcr than 3 days, tind that generation
of secondary •mU/!s was u function of
item!ion ba-in loading or retention
time, 'riio.se solids were found to he well
stabilized, wit.li 11 o-day oxygen demand
of 0.2 Hi,'!!) solids, and accumulated at
r.-ilc- ranging from 0.,') lb/lb BOD at 3
days IV!I'llt ion downward to 0.1 at
*2(1 days. ,
'I'aMi; ! V summarizes studies employ,
galvanic oxygen electrodes which
-iioMtvl ihat dissolved oxygen (DO)
levels of ()."> |i|hii were adequate to
maintain aerobic conditions in such
systems am! that l'OX:X ratios of
50: t wen1 -.idlieient in support, optimum
microbial .-n-iivity. Studies of tlx; in-
fluence of -tabiliz.'Uion lutiifi treatment
,m the alpha value; (the ratio of reuera-
ijnii co(;Hii'ii'iits o! mil! waste and water)
luiV".' shown a tendency for alpha to
decline willi treatment. Using ten
,.t.iifeseut:i' ivi; wust.es, the average atphu
viihn* declined from 0.9 to 0>0,. 0.S5,
0.75, nod 0.ii,'> iii 2, 4, 7, and 10 days
v'cly. The importance of deter-
mi'iiirij. :t!;riu <"i waste representative
of aeration basin condition* rather than
i»ii ruw
results.
A '•
fluenci
,i .ti! »i Ji>
cirinit
during
wit- underscored by these
••••nt. i lives' 'Ration of tlie in-
.f low i,i-iu|iiTatun; on aerated
inn Ii.'i^io performance lias
• iiio'ci! by 'uteri's' ill Using this
II ;iMil 'iec t lo severe winter
I- :„
¦fI till tve
W
fiillll
l< - I.ri't, -n'lile, -.cmic'icm, Wa-ti
rliirinl, ami I'i'oiitldw.iod roofing
I'Jl l\lio I i'I ell I lull liel'ilnN: 'J,
•Hi'1 •' 11 '• ihiv'i' ba-in
l,.i,ii>i ratnir-: 'J, ,10, and 20't The
i'i 'I :i'ili' \ -how ' ft:iI willi le.
dttced temperature, the rate of HOD
removal is correspondingly lowered, but
that this reduction becomes less signifi-
cant as aeration time is prolonged. Thus,
even at. 2°C, HOI) removal can be
accomplished in 2 days, while aeration
for 10 days increases this to 85%.
Secondary sedimentation was found to
add no more than 2-5% to the HOI)
removals shown.
PHOT SCALE INVESTIGATION
Turning to the published literature
we find first the Riee and Weston (8)
report on the (jlatfelter bleached kraft
studies. Three and four-day aeration
periods without nutrient addition at
25-30°C produced <>0-70% removals
while sludge accumulated at a rale of
0,2.5 lb/!b KOI) removed. Removal of
these solids was shown to provide an
additional 5% HOI") reduction. Sub-
sequent large-scale studies showed that
day iteration without nutrient addi'ion
produced fid 7(1'/,'. HOO reduction. :i>u!
t.hul this eon Id In* increased In Sit'
with nutrient addition.
lUosser (!)) described «tiiilic> u-iiiji
deinking wastes at the Michigan I'aper
Co., which showed that.-I 0 day aerat ion
with nutrients produced X(H>0% KO|)
reduction, with secondary sedimentation
accounting for an additional 2..V',;
reduction. Secondary solids ac-
cumulated ul ti rate of 0.15 lb lb HOI)
removed, and were unite stable with a
5 day H00 of 0.2 lb/lb volatile solids.
White (10) reported on recent studies
at Riegel which showed that at 30 3.V"(
6 days aeration would produce S0-sf>%
reduction, in-oviding nitrogen was ad.dcd
at a 40:1 ratio. Secondary solid-
production equalled 0.2 lb/lb HOI)
removwl.'and again these solids were
well stabilized. Their HOI) was !<•>-
than 0.1 lb/lb, and secondary sedi-
mentation added only 0.5 2% to 'In-
total I'Ol) removal.
Other recent field studies using kmft,
soda, and sulfite pulp and paper wastes
have followed a similar pattern. I'ost
treatment of kraft wastes leaving a
trickling filter has provided 70c'y, re-
duction in 1 day, iiicreitsing to ,sf>% in
2 days (agreeing with data cited earlier)
at 30-35°C operation. Sulfite wastes
have yielded 80% redue'ioii in :f day-,
with only 0.15 lb solids aciunnilai ion lb
HOD removed. Soda wast<-.s have re-
sponded satisfactorily to Miis i>r.M-<.,»
with HOI) reductions of 1"> mi^}) in !
days aeration.
Taken as a whole, the results obtained
in these studies have shown lhat a
continuously mixed first-order tvi»-
correlation of HOI) removal with
retention time is probably aupmpria'e,
Toble IV. Influence of Effluent Strength, Nutrient Addition, and Dissolved Oxygen
Level on BOO Removal Performance of Supplemental. Aeration Stabilization Basin
I'etention time, days
4.2
17
Hasin temperature,' °C « 23
Teat ellluent
¦ 1.200 kruft blauk Uttuor
tilnltiliinlion boat*i fftl no. —
l
a
a
4
s
6'
Haw wast.e H(>1), opm
m
nm
106
15Wi
4!>0
400
HOl):N ralio uutded N)
30
30
(SO
tit*
30
Dissolved oxvgen, nnm
'*.8
16
t .2
1.9
On
1 !
Treated ellluent Mt)l>, |>pm
35
34
30
i) 1
121
123
reduet.ion, 1 J,
S2
S3
sr.
SI
Ha->in loadint;, lb LtOD/'auru
fl-dav
120
12(1
120
120
3!.-.
Table V. Influence of Temperature on BOO Removal by Aerated Stabilization
3asin Trec'ment
Tnmitrinturr,
Kraft.
N'S.-I'
Su'lii t;
liiHiting 1'Vlt
I '.iI .! 111 i II
Mean
/(fteutivn litni
4 tlayt
B HtitfH
1
III
*0
*
"j
Jl}
¦ ' —
—
—
¦IS
7r»
X7 •
in
7 \
so
S'l
sS
IS
«i 1
ti.j
r»r»
S'i
7'*
"i
liS
til
tin
s7
s:»
v»
.VI
.'.'.I
~»;»
70
71
s-J
Sfi
V-1
ii t
Tti
TS
Tt
v.!
T.">
%x\
.-t3
(IS
73
IM
7'®
S2
s;»
-------
»
u • ' ¦
- - -
M ' ¦ V* • ^ 1 • ,
Ami it«
HUlt Ituul,
flow, mittion
ifeftntion.
Site.
Depth,
Atrntor*
II. tm
4.5
4
1
0
8.5
¦to i-:,,
' t,r»(Ni
Durham, f'-,
•>
S
2
•j
12
3
ID ''"is
rm
Munu.t
0.3
6
1
0.8
8
.")
n 75
;»(Ki
CtiviugUtti, I'utm.
0.3
A
1
0.9
3
1
7.5 !¦' i \
N'oic: All iiutnllntionit (with tKe exception <>f Riegelwood, which treats bleached kraft efflueot) handle waete paperboarri mill effluent.
that secondary sludge generation is
considerably lower than in activated
-lie!.n<' treatment, and tlmt these solids
aii- »i'!l stabilized. Kxternal secondary
produces only a very
mode.-! improvement in efllueiit (|Uulily,
:iinl it remains problematical whether
the same nr even greater Ix'liefits may
not Ik- achieved by putting t.his extra
investment in additional Iwsin retention.
One major benefit of the pilot studies
ha- course lieen to permit evaluation
ol various mechanical aerators under
field conditions, and this has helped
considerably in design of full-scale
trca'ment facilities.
FULL-SCALE APPLICATION
The fill! significance of this process
development, can perhaps best be
inea-'ired by (he following figures show-
inn the extent of present and planned
:>iiii<-siI i'iii. There are ut present seven
I'till—'-ale in-taUations rimming in size
from <).;> to ;<5 million Kal/'day providing
from :> I" f> days retention in basins
occupying from I to 7(1 acres. Me-
chanical aerator installed horsepower
ranges ~'rom 5 to X40 hp. The largest
sim.'.'c aeialors in Use are rated at 00 hp.
Tlie daily HO!) load per aerator horse-
power varies from ,'t() to 100 lb, aventg-
;nu .Vt, iir 2 lb BOD/lip-hr. The
e'"tieu'. volume currently receiving
• c.-rti Mieot now totals -IS million gal/day.
!n addi'ion to these seven installa-
tions, I here are a1, least fifteen projects
a!, various stages of const ruction or
jili'iniitu; accounting for a total of 420
million jijil day. These include two
p'i tieet s i Miller eons! ruction at Marathon
.V,i':ei !a ami in Uriiish, <'olumbia
\v!i'i li v. ill handle (>0 million ^al'day
bleached '•:< at'!, ellluent. 1'oiir projecis
now in 'he engineering stage g fur i>o.*>
million va! day within the next 5 years.
TaMe Y! 'irovides a s'llnma'T of pro-
ii- a 'c! :gll le.'ll ores ol ;'n' seven
,|.ti|,,. i" '.-illation*. I M'iu'e'c.-'. is 'he
i' - \ of ihe-e (real ei'lucn'
i-'i' panel''ion rd i > 11 ¦> liti-' i< hi ,
,. Iitge-I -y-'em ||i Vei'.-nil'e-,
1 ' '': 11 'i i 11 tt ju-l Wider ."i Inll'ioH
' 'II-I a I'.l I it III ;i I t{i,-M,.j.
•i.ii
V. '!
I
wood may, however, be said to rei»-
resent a pacemaker, since by handling
35 million gal/day of bleached kraft
effluent it has pointed the way to ap-
plication on a large scale. As a result,
nearly all the projects now under con-
struction, or in one of the i>lani)iht£
stages, are for large kraft or integrated
newsprint mills ranging up to 1500 tons/
day in size with effluent volumes averag-
ing 30 million gal/day. The following
are specific features of a liumlier of these
installations.
Riegel Paper Corp., Riegelwood, N. C.
At this major Southern bleached
kraft mill, an existing 230-acre storage-
stabilization basin created by partial
dike construction during the original
mill construction had become in-
adequate to meet new treatment needs
following several mill expansion stages.
With the benefit of laboratory and pilot
plant studies cited, earlier, a 70-acru
portion of the original lagoon, free of
primary sludge deposits, was converted
to an aerated basin by installation of
fourteen fit) hp float-mounted me-
chanical aerators (10). Since operation
liegan in .July 19(14, these have per-
mitted HOD removals of from 150,000 to
60,000 lb HOD daily, depending on the
loading, or from 1.5 to 3 lb/hp-hr.
Partial nutrient addition is practiced,
with anhydrous ammonia metered to
the system in amounts sufficient to
maintain a 50:1 B0D:NT ratio. BOD
removals within the aerated basin it-
self have averaged from 50 to 85%,
and more importantly have enabled the
mi!! to meet the state regulatory
agency'* Class "Q" 3 p;in\ DO standard
at. all points below the outfall.
Crown-Zellerhach Corp.,
Bal'imore, O.'iio
At the 1 la11:more-Division mil! a 4-
ncr" o\a' 'tioii lagoon was added to-the
waste •reatment system in 10,5"). Even
with cascade aeration induced by two
recirculation numps, the system was
itiadc<|iia»i' for meeting the total load of
WO !b HOI) daily. Installation of
tour I'M hp final,-mounted surface
iterators in l«w):j enabled 'he effluent
HO|) lnwl i,, |,e reduced in 4 days by
only 1000 lb daily,' and
additional tiinei, i m < i< >n in it-move
waste solids generated during trea'
was found to reduce H<>!> \v ai-
5001b, for an overall reduction i.
Nutrient addition to maintain a !'
X; P ratio of 300:7.5: I was -o:'
to support the cell synlhc-i- a----
with this HOD removal rate (II'.
Packaging Corporation of Am-via
Rittman, Ohio
At Rittman a portion n* a
60-aere lagoon system was mod'':
provide four 3.5-acre oxidase: '
permitting 9 day retention v
million gal/day flow. Six:?') and -
hp platform mounted aerator-
formly distributed in these ba-'ii-,
are to !>e followed by six seiOni.v
basins providing an ad>!i* •«•• r,5
retention for secondary sc;'. ae
Provision has been made t< <•' '¦
from Ilittman, bin preei.i:
studies indicated thatut. least'""
reduction was anticipated.
Federal Paper Board Co.,
Versailles, Conn.
At Versailles, the lower (!-!>.•>.• •
of a large 15-uere pond,
created by an old mil! dam,
converted to an aerated s'a'.'
basin by installation of !,i>-
floating aerators. Initial !•*1' ¦
lion has lieen on the older
4 days aeration in 'In-
nutrient addition, and vi'-
sutlieient to el'.mitia'e :¦ 'li .
plaints around the p'md.
Whippany Paperboa-d Co.,
Durham, Pa.
The installation a* nur'i.'i" •
the few to . date in whn- i .
stabiliitatiiin basin- v.ei.
solely for this piii'io-e. •
sysieut eon-isted. of ",st. I
!*2 ft deep, (leeiipyiut* :
taining threehp i'\ed-e'
tir>t basin onlv. Thu'e '
-------
""••"ml inwiii, :uul the total system now
!'n>vi(Jc.i s (lays aeration for a 2 million
Iv'i! '(i:«y flow from waste paperbourd
GENERAL process features
"¦.-fore concluding this presentation,
wvorul comment regarding this process"
arc in (i!(Ut on experience gained
(.!<'¦ iiutusVry \ n date. From a physical
standpoint the process displays uon-
"idvriiUltt versatility in making use of
existing Ja^dons umt stream impound-
ments, us wi'll in relatively low cost
I'nrthon ;ii:i:ition basins. Air supply
t';ui !«• accomplished by both stationary
and t1u.it mounted aerators, capable of
0|HM!itini« in unusually deep areas as
well ;w by use of extended shaft auxiliary
»tipi'!I(>is. Float mounting permits
basins to fulfill several functions in-
'¦hiditiK variable discharge rates pro-
portioned to stream flow or irregular
stream patterns.
Decree of treatment accomplished
may l*e wntro'.lwl through variation in
ah- or nutrient supply to meet seasonal
°i' other variations in BOD- reduction
r<1<;ratimj Iras!.*, approximately ime-
uilf those for comparable activated
where adequate land area is available
for basin construction, thereby avoiding
operating problems associated with
untivut&l nludp; treatment, BOD re-
mo j^js in excess of 90% characteristic
*>f extremely weU-aiwrnted, low-toadinp;
activated sludge plants, are believed
attainable through nse of multiple
basins in series to minimise short-
circiiiting caused by complete mixing.
Low levels of secondary suspended
solids discharge result from a combina-
tion of loiv generation rates and partial
internal sedimentation and decomjxwi-
tion. This tends to obviate the need
for secondary sedimentation, partic-
ularly since the discharge solidn are
generally well-stabilized, and avoids the
excess Kludge disposal problem as-
sociated with activated sludge treat-
ment.
CONCLUSION
To conclude, recent progress in
aerated stabilization basin treatment has
added a valuable technique to the
already diversified methods available
to the pulp and paper industry for
accomplish in g secondary treatment.
Continuing laboratory study and review
of full scala oiwnitieinfd ex|»erien«! Are
ex|>ected to lead to an even greater
process) within the industry.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Oellmuii, I,, I'uly i'lt/icr Mut/. Cwt.,
65 (C): 7 (lf)<>4); A 'alt. Conn. Sir,'urn
Improti. Tech. Hull. L7<> (Aumwl. IPC, | >
2. Gfthm, H. W-, J, Water }'"!] 1 .
Fed. 35 (9): 1174(11103).
3. EckenfeMer, VV. W., /'roc, I6ih Pur.
due Ind. Waste Conf. Eng. Est. .v, '-
1W: 115 (I'IGI).
4. O'Connor, I). J. and KckenMt&r, '.v.
W,, J. Water Pull. Control Fed. 32 (1 - •
365(1900).
5. McKinney, It. E., "!)esi^n of Aci.n,-.'
-Lagoons," paper presented at Tt'¦
Great Plains Sewage Work* ' V, ,- u
Con/., Omaha, Nebr., March 5,
0. Amberg, H. II., Natl. Conn. ,S!riir-
1mproe, Tech. Bull. S.r> (M)!Wi am!
Sth. Purdue Ind. Waste Conf., lijct. Ser.
'76 :• '.48 (1051).
7. Gellman, I., Natl, t'oun. Stream tm-
prov. Tech. liull. I (i'J (March
8. Rice, W. D. and Weston, 1!. P., /'roc.
16th Purdue Ind. Waste Conf. En-i.
Ext. Ser. 100:4BI (l'JiH).
9. Blower, R. O., Proc. tUth Purdue lml.
WasU Conf. Eng. Ext. Ser. !09: >7
(1981).
10. White, M. T., Tappi <8; t» b« nu!>-
lished.
11. Amberg, H. It., IMtcliard, J. !!„
Wise, D. W., 'Tappi 47 (10): 27A
(1«64).
Rvckivko ktftroK tSt HIM, hi tlio
nu*< fVutirjJ f»if S»rt«jvuv
pp«v«*jtont, U«UJ In Now York. N. Y., j.i,
-------
Aerated Lagoon Treatment of Sulfite Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents
H. R. AMBERG, T. R. ASPITARTE, K. F. BYINBTON, J. J. EHLI, and J. G. COMA
Thz Crown Zellerbach pulp and paper
mill at Lebanon, Ore., has been in opera-
tion since 1890. The plant now has a rated
capacity or 100 tons/day of unbleached
sulfite pulp which is converted on two
paper machines. Late in 1949 the mill
ws converted to ammonia base pulping
and a pilot plant recovery unit was
intuited to study the possibility of evap-
orating and burning the digester strength
cooking liquor. The recovery phase of the
operation is described in detail by Palm-
rose and Hull (/). Based upon the success-
ful pilot plant work, a full-scale by-prod-
act recovery unit was placed on stream in
1932. A description of the by-product
operation has been presented by Amberg
(J).
The mill»located on the South Santiam
River which supports a sizeable anadro-
tnout ftsh run. Upstream impoundments
BOW provide for a minimum drought Row
Of about 300-600 ft '/sec. The discharge of
untreated waste to the South Santiam
River created two problems, both of
which could have adverse effects upon
the fishery resource. Heavy bacterial
dime infestations generally extended to
about 6 miles below the introduction of
the untreated waste and a significant
depression in the dissolved oxygen con-
centration of the stream occurred during
the summer drought period.
Because of the small size of the mill and
the marginal economics of the operation.
H. It. Ammbc, Manager, Environmental Re-
search, Crown Zdlcrh.ich Corp.. Camas,
Waah. 9S067; T. R. AsmAltTr. Supervisor,
Microbiological Research, Crown ZJIuroaeh
Corp, Camas, Wash. W167. K. F. Buscton,
Technic*! Director, Lvhunou Otvmon. Cruwit
ZcUcrbach Corp., Lcb.1n9n. Orv.: J. J. Emu.
Engineer, Central Engiitfcnnf Oillcv. Crown
Z«*6ed! Corp., S*itik. Wash.; J. O. Coma,
Supervisor, Proem Engineer inf Reward),
Own Mlerbach ' 9*4)67.
imi
Abstract: Secondary treatment of satfite pulp and paper mill effluents in aerated
stabilization basins was tested on a Cult-scale basis over a 17-month period of contin-
uous operation. The secondary treatment plant consisted of two aeration basins. One
basin was equipped with two 7!-hp surface aerators and the other basin of equal volume
was equipped with six ?3-hp aeration wilts. Piping was designed to permit series and
parallel operation of the two basins and provisions were made to recycle treated waste.
The waste treated was a mixture of weak wash water from the pulp mill, evaporator
condensate from the spent liquor tenvery system, and paper machine white water.
Experimentation conducted over the 17-month period showed that series operation
was more efficient than parallel operation and that the 75-hp surface aerators were
much more efficient mixing and aeration devices than equivalent capacity of 25-hp
units. An 8u% BOD reduction in the combined secondary system could be achieved at
a BOD load of 3.33 lb,'1000 ft' of aeration capacity or 2.2 lb hp-hr. This was equivalent
to a daily BOD load of 16,000 lb. Biological treatment of the mill waste to a BOD
reduction of S0-85 % produced a waste which did. not readily support slime growth
when added to simulated experimental streams. Although slime growth was closely
related to the amount of BOD added to the simulated streams, two to three limes as
much slime was produced from untreated waste than for equivalent BOD additions of
treated waste. Total operating cost including interest on investment and depreciation
was $169,300/year or J4.79/ton of production. Total operating cost per pound of BOD
destroyed was 3.48 cents.
Keywords: Sulfite pulping - Effluents • Industrial wastes ' Wastes ¦ Waste treatment
Process control - Biochemical oxygen demand ¦ Slime - SphamiUiu nutans ¦ Biological
control - Removal ¦ Aeration • Aeraien ¦ Lagoons • Surface aerators ¦ Cost analysis
a treatment system to be successful aust
meet the following basic requirements:
fl) ease of operation, (2) high BOD
reduction. (3) low capital investment, and
(4) low operating and maintenance costs.
These requirements could be expeaed to
apply equally to many small sulfite mills
throughout the country which face unular
problems. The ultimate treatment rbnt
design selected for the mill met all of ifccse
requirements and since sufficient land was
available on the mill property, the
-------
reoass DESCRIPTION AND WASTE
TREATMtNT FACILITIES
The mill uses batch digester! and blow
pit pulp washing. Liquor from the wash-
ing operation is separated by temperature
tensing into three fractions, "Strong"
liquor, "Weak" liquor, and "Dilute"
spent liquor. From collecting tanks the
nrong liquor is processed by evaporation
and spray drying to produce commercial
lignin sulfonate products. When product
sales are not adequate, the strong liquor is
disposed of by burning in a steam gener-
ating furnace. Weak liquor is recycled to
the pulp mill where it is used for cooking
liquor dilution and blow pit padding. The
weak spent liquor from the collecting sys-
tem enters .the waste treatment process
just prior to the effluent collecting sump.
Excess white water from the paper
machines, general nonchemical mill
effluent, and fresh water are combined in
an evaporator sump. Water from here is
used in the evaporator system lor direct
condensation of the vapors produced by
strong liquor concentration. These com-
bined effluents overflow the hotwell and
go into another collecting sump. Total mill
effluent is pumped over side-hill screens
and into a primary treatment pond. Fiber
recovered on the screens is returned to the
paper mill. Suspended solids settle to the
bottom of the primary pond and are
periodically removed for disposal by land
All. Clarified effluent flows into a waste
sump for pumping to secondary treatment
at an average rate of 4 million gal, day.
Chemicals such as ammonia and phos-
phoric acid are added for pH regulation
and biological nutrition. The diluent is
next distributed to one or both of two
stabilisation lagoons. Pond No. I con-
tains six 25-hp surface aerators. These are
direct-drive Welles units with two-bladed
13 diameter propellers turning at
1200 rppL Two 75-hp aerators are
installed in Pond No. II. One is a gear
driven Mixco unit with a four-bladed
turbine impeller, 116 in. in diameter oper-
ating at 37 rpm. The other is a direct-drive
Welles aerator with a three-blade propel-
ler, 23'/t in. in diameter running at 900
rpm.
TaM* L Aeration fond
OtfTMU.
Dimensional Details
Anit
Petti
No. 1
No. II
Wall slope, horii/vert.
3/1
3/1
Width ®. bottom, ft
IIS
279
Width 9. top, ft
296
337
Length 6- bottom, ft
7JJ
623
Length ® top. It
863
703
Overall depth, ft
1)
13
Operating liquid depth.
ft
9.9
9 9
Area Q liquid surface.
A'
236,000
236,000
Liquid voL, million gal
IT 0
17.0
Area of pond liner, Ik'
160,000
260,000
PAPER MACHINE effluent.
DILUTE SPENT LIQUOR
EVAPORATOR
CONDENSATE
WELLES ^^73 hp
S6C0N0ARY POND
NaZ
O
MIXCQ i )ra»
"©
4 ©
-M-
O O
SECONDARY POND
No. t
o o
WELLES »-t»
AERATORS
o o
—^^1 I II
Pig. I. flair diagram el the Lebeaw adO treeaewatflaat
Up to t Vt days retention of the effluent
is provided by either parallel or series
operation of the ponds. These are diked
basin* constructed by cut-and-flU excava-
tion, lined with a 4-in. layer of sand and
sealed with 14-mil black polyvinylchloride
Him. Dimensional details are presented in
Table I. Each pond overflows into sepa-
rata sumps from where the effluent can be
recycled or discharged into a slough lead-
ing to the South Ssntiam River. An exper-
imental streams station is included con-
tainipg six flumes for simulating the elTects
of mill discharge into the river. Pumps and
Row metering are provided for two con-
centration levels of nonnested and three
levels of treated affluent in fresh sueam
water.
A variety of construction materials an
used throughout the treatment plant.
Piping to the primary pond is fabricated
from 304 siainluss Heel. Fiberglass rein-
forced polyester pipe it used to distribute
and recycle effluent to the secondary
lagoons. Both cast iron and concrete pipe
are used to handle treated effluent. The
Welles aerators have JtM stainless steel
pwaelkrs with 17-4PK stainless steel
shahs and aft supported by fiberglass
reinforced plastic floats housing polyure-
thanc foam. The Mixcoaeraior has a 304
stainless steel shaft and impeller. The
floats on this unit consM of polystyrene
foam shrouded by galvanized steel. The
latter is showing substantial signs of
corrosion after almost 2 yean of operation.
Stainless steel cable it used to toor the
aerators to anchor posts on the s ireline.
A simplified flow diagram oft... ,ystem
iapresciuedin Fig l. The secondary system
was designed to permit either parallel or
aeries operation. Recycle of treated waste
from this outlet of either pond to the inlet
italsopoasiUe.
MCIHODS AND PROCEDURES
Daily 24-hr. composite samples were
taken from the influent to the aeration
bastes, the effluents from Pond 1 and
Poad (( and the combined effluent.
Although samples were taken at the Han
Tappi / October 1971 Vol. 54, No. 10
lift
-------
Tabl* M. Characteristics of Influent and Effluent During Parallel and Sarles Operation, Rated Horsepower— 150/Basin
Operation
Want
Warn ed.,
mil/hn
*H*nt
pH
Tt%"
BOD,
COD,
ppm
Snjfl.
«*.
ppm
Vd.
17:
ppm
Total
to/.,
PPn
1TV
'—
acm
Influent
4.49
7.1
29
593
1864
117
92
1580
112
jirki
Pond 11
6 9
19
231
1347
90
72
1679
276
Serin
Pond 1
6 8
13
161
1431
114
96
1639
229
Fvittel
Influent
4 31
7.3
28
604
2211
81
76
2661
116
Parallel
Pound II
2 18
7.2
16
181
1(13
77
66
1919
299
Parallel
Pond I
2.13
7Q
16
233
1843
72
66
1939
248
Parallel
Composite
4.31
6.9
16
207
1(73
274
Tabl* W. Comparison of Performance—Series Versus Parallel Operation Rated Horsepower—150/Sasin
Ofmihm
Warn
million
BOD, lb/day
too
rtd.,
%
BOD
tblkp'ftr
In
Out
M.
AJckd Rtd.
Series
Pond U
4.49
22,000
9,667
12,533
56.3
6 17 3.48
Pond I
4.49
9,667
6.033
1.634
37.6
2,8# 101
Composite
4.49
22,000
6,033
16,167
72:8
3.06 2.25
Pamllt!
Pond II
2.1(
10.918
3.420
7,(09
71.1
3.05 2.17
Pond I
2.13
10,741
4.129
6.562
<1.1
2.M 1.82
Composite
4.31
21,729
7,447
14,282
65.7
3.01 1.98
of each run and analyses conducted
throughout the run, the analytical data
were not used for compilation of results
until equilibrium was reached. After
major changes in operation were made,
about 7-14 days of operation were allowed
before the data wen used for evaluation
of run. At least 2 weeks of data at equilib-
rium were used in the computation and
in many cases 4 weeks of duia were used.
The following tests were conducted on
a daily basis using the 24-hr composites:
BOO, total suspended solids (TSS),
volatile suspended solids (VSS), chemical
oxygen demand (COO), and total organic
orbon (TOC). Weekly composite samples
were taken for the following analyses:
Kjeldahl-nitrogen, ammonia, nitrate,
nitrite, total phosphorus, and onhophoi-
phate. Data recorded at the site by per-
sonnel from the mill technical department
were: pH, flow, ammonia and phosphoric
acid addition rates, power consumption,
and pond temperatures.
OPERATIONAL RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
Sarin Versus Poralltl Operation
Because of the case of operation and the
lower power costs, most of the trials dur-
ing the 17-month experimental period
were conducted by operating the ponds
in parallel. However, from Jan. lb to
Feb. 18, 1970, the aenitlon ponds were
operated in scries. The untreated waste
entered Pond II which contained the two
73»hp aerators and was then pumped by
1700
means of the 75-hp recirculation pump
back to the inlet of Pond I which con-
tained the six 25-hp aerators. To compare
series and parallel operation, the results
from a parallel run conducted from Nov.
20, 1969, to Jan. 16, 1970, were used.
The neutralization, nutrient and power
usage for the two runs were as follows:
Stubs PttnIM
Ammonia addition
rate, lb/day
Phosphorus addition
rate. lb. day
Power uiai|t. kW ¦ hr/day
t ,810 1,703
29 33
lt,030 8,331
There was a considerable increase in
daily power usage when operating the
ponds in series because of the use of th*
100-hp recycle pump. If the ponds had
originally been designed for series opera-
tion. the flow would have been by gravity,
thereby eliminuling the need for the pump.
The characteristics of the influent and
effluent from the two runs are shown in
Tabled.
Under parallel operation both ponds
assumed an equilibrium temperature of
16°C. Although the final waste tempera-
tures were about the same for parallel and
series operation, it was possible to main-
tain Pond II at a substantially higher tem-
perature during series operation. The sus-
pended solids concentration of the final
i-irhient during the series operation. was
considerably higher than during parallel
operation. This may result from the some-
what higher velocity attained under serin '
operation since the wane volume to eath
pond is doubled.
Tabl* IV, Summary of Performance
Under Series and Parallel Operation
Pmnilrt Sarin
Volumetric load,
million gal/day 4.31 4.49
BOO load, lb/day 21.729 22.200
BOD discharged, lb/day 7,447 6.033
BOD reduction, lb/day 14,282 16,167
BOD reduction, % 65 7 72.8
Suspended solids dis-
charged. lb/day 4,368 4,272
Suspended volatile solids
discharged, lb/day 4,280 3,397
Ammonia-nitrogen
discharged, lb/day 3,684 3,433
Soluble phosphorus
discharged, lb/day 30 16
A comparison of the operating effi-
ciencies for the two runs is presented in
Table (If.
Under series operation the major por-
tion of the BOD reduction was accom-
plished in the first pond (Pond It) which
received the untreated waste. The readily
available organic material was rapidly
destroyed in the first of the series operated
ponds and the more resistant organic
material was left for the second pond. A
total of 16.167 lb of BOD day was
destroyed or 72.8 % of the applied load.
The BOD reduction under parallel opera-
tion averaged 14.282 lb day or 65 \
There was a definite improvement in
efficiency when the two ponds were oper-
ated in series.
A summation of the average perfor-
Vof. 34, No. 10 October 1971 / Tappi
-------
2.0
ll.O
10
1
>«CLL£$73*1
f ' '
i ftfiXC0 74hpiA
T '
\ PONDS / \
5ft
»f»-
-§i
' 7t
¦
/
i
a|t POND 1
0 200 400 600 800
0ISTANCC PROM INFLUENT TO WElfl. ft
flf. 2. Dittolv«d oxygen profiles for ponds la eerie* operation:
flow from Pond II to Pond I on Feb. 16, 1970.
•.0
[4'°
j 2.0
i
! o
i
i 2.0
0,
' 1 Alt' ' 1
WCLLCSi?**
1 VI '
T '
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r«»co|7st»
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«:
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HI
\
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-
a|. ajr
4*
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—F>
C-
*.
tel.
too 400 «00
distance from'Infujent to weir, ft
Fl{. 3. Dissolved oxygen profiles (or pond* in parallel operation
on Fob. 21, 1070.
Tabu V. 100 Reduction* in the Two Aeration Basins
BOD reduction
Ibihp-kr BOO reduction, %
Iblkp-hr
Pond!
Pond H
Pond 1
Pond II
1.3
1.23
1.40
83.4
93.3
2.0
1.38
1.73
79.0
87.7
2.3
1.18
2.03
73.3
82.0
1.0
2.20
2.37
73.3
79.0
3.3
2.30
2.67
71.4
76.3
4.0
2.M
3.00
70.0
73,0
Tobla VI. Performance of Combined Treatment System
BOO load.
BOD toad.
BOD reduction
Iblhp-hr
Ibjdoy
tb/hp-hr
lb/day
%
2.00
14.400
1.68
12,100
84.0
2.30
16,330
1.80
12,970
78.3
2.60
11,700
1.92
13,820
73.9
290
20,900
2.03
14.770
70.7
3.10
22,400
2.13
13.320
68.7
ranee under serieiarid parallel operation
it presented in TaWe IV. It can be seen
that series operation resulted in an addi-
tional 1414 lb/day BOD reduction. About
71J5 of the total BOD reduction occurred
in the Ant of the series operated ponds
and 22% occurred in the second pond. It
appears that the major portion of the BOD
if easily destroyed in about 3.8 days, the
mention in Pond It during the series
operation.
The DO profiles shown in Fig. 2 clearly
show that BOD reduction could prob-
ably have been improved by increasing
the aeration capacity or Pond II during
the series operation since the DO in most
of the pond was zero during the run. The
DO content in Pond I was uniformly high
during the run.
It is of interest to compare the DO pro-
flles under series and parallel operation.
Profiles conducted on Feb. 23. 1970, when
operating in parallel, are shown in Fig. 3.
ft will be noted that when the ponds were
equally loaded under parallel operation,
the large aeration units wen: able to supply
substantially greater amounts of DO than
the small 23-hp units.
lfhct of tOD load on SOD fteduetfoa
Since aeration capacity appears to be
the limiting factor atfecting BOD removal,
plots of the BOD reduqion/hp-hrvs. bod
loading have been prepared and are shown
in Fig. 4 for the two ponds over the 17-
month test period. BOD reduction appears
to be a straight line function of BOD load
over a rather wide range of'loadings. The
BOD reductions in the two ponds over a
loading range from 1.3 to J.5 Ib/hp-hrare
presented in Table V..
To achieve an 80% BOD reduction.
Pond I would have to be loaded at 1.9 lb
of tlOD.hp-hr or 6840 lb,day and Pond
II could receive a load of about 2.8 lb hp-
hr or 10,000 lb day. It becomes apr nt
that Pond II which is equipped with the
two 73-hp surface aerators is much more
efficient than Pond I with the tux 25-hp
units. An additional three 23-Hp surface
aerators would be needed in Pond I to
bring it up to the efficiency of Pond 11. On
the basil of the work conducted, the two
73-hp units were equivalent to nine of the
small 2S-hp aerators.
The performance of the combined aera-
tion systems is presented in Fig. S and
summarized in Ta ble VI.
If the overall requirement for primary
and aecondary treatment is considered to
be 83% and if 5% is allotted to primary
treatment, an 80% reduction must be
reached in the com billed secondary system.
To permit selection of the allowable BOD
load, Fig. 6 has been prepared which pre-
sents the percentage of BOD reduction as
a function of BOD loading. To achieve an
80% BOD reduction in the secondary sys-
tem the BOD load must be limited to
about 13,800 lb'day or 2.2 !b,hp-hr. At a
daily load or 20,000 lb/day the BOD
reduction can be expected to be 72%. An
80% BOD reduction at a load ol 20,000
lb/day could be achieved by the addition
or another 73-hp surface aerator which
would bring the total aeration capacity
for the two ponds to 373 hp.
During the 17-month experimental pe-
riod, the incoming BOD load to the aera-
tion ponds varied quite widely from day
to day. It was noted, however, that these
fluctuation* had very little effect upon the
final effluent which had a fairly uniform
BOD concpntration. Very high shock
loadings were readily absorbed without
drastically affecting the final BOD. The
effects of shock loadings are minimized
because of the mixing characteristics of
the system and the long retention available
for equalization.
Tempore (urt f ffeefi
During the experimental period, the
feed temperature to the secondary treat-
ment system varied from 28 to 33'C
whereas the composite outlet temperature
varied from 16 to 26°C. There was a sub-
Toppi / October 1971 Vol. 54, No. 10
1701
-------
Jlf. 4. Meet ol BOD lead on BOD re-
ST u
* Vlf.*. R*UBoB>hi|> betwoea BOD toadtaf aad rwtacttailor comMnet secondary system
(MCKtaf Mrsttoa capacity).
Kaotial temperature drop at all times of
the year. The summer temperature drop
was atuaed fay heavy evaporation rata
wheMM the winter drop was attributable
to low ambient temperatures and dilution
by cold rain water. The average evapora-
tion fata from May 1 through Sept. 30,
1969, *u about 6.§ in./month, whereat
the awim ambient temperature wai
«J*F.
The avenge temperature data for each
rua were used to calculate the heat
looses. The average heat loss front May
thwmh September 1969 was 134,000,000
¦uv^ay when the Incoming waste temper-
mm averaged )]*C. During the winter
period from November through April,
hesitate*averaged 793,000,0)0 Btu/day.
Had lone* were found to be greater for
series operation than for parallel opera-
tion.
The relationship between monthly
smbient air temperatures and average
heat losses is shown in Fig. 7. At an aver-
age ambient summer temperature of 65 F,
bait losses will average 500,000,000 Btu/
day and at an average winter temperature
of 40'F heal losses can be expected to
average SI 5,000,000 Btu/day. These calcu-
lations are based on an average inlet waste '
temperature of J2'C. The actual waste
temperature drop that can be expected at
various ambient temperatures it also
shown in Fig. 7. During the winter season
a drop of pond temperatures as great as
11.7"C can be expected and summer
opesatlon can be expected to result in a
drop of 1.3 *C.
Since temperature in the ponds could
not be controlled, temperature was in
equilibrium with the ambient temperature.
food temperatures varied From IA 'C dur-
ing (he winter to 27 'C in the summer.
Since biological activity increases with
increasing temperature, it would be
It M M 14
BOO
Fig. 6. Effect of BOD loading an BOD iy»
ducdoafor combined secoadary ifitm (9dt>-
hf aaritioa cafacity).
expected that BOD reductions would be
substantially greater in the summer than
the winter, ^owever. a careful analysis of
the daia indicated that irmpenuurt had no
significant eltect upon the secondary sys-
tem. Ihn can be shown by referring to
Pigs. 4 and 5 which include all of the BOD
data regardless of temperature. The data
used to develop these figures covered an
11 °C spread in temperature, yet no signif-
icant effect upon treatment efficiency
could be attributed to temperature effects.
If temperature were critical, a much
greater spread In the individual points
would be expected and BOO reduction
would not plot as a linear function of BOD
load.
In evaluating the data, it appears that
other facing) have a more pronounced
clTeet upon flOD removnljhiin tempera-
ture lor this particular svsiem. for
example, if aeration capacity or nuirk-m
SO *0 m « »0
ummTwmmm.f
rig. 7. EffSet of tin bint totnporature on
hMt leasee from Mcoadary treatment ud
oo temperature redaction U the ponds.
concentrations were limitin« _faanCL.
increases in temperature would not
necessarily result in an crease in effi-
ciency. Since nulrientsTw ' Keen found to
be adequate, aeration rate r._ty be (he lim-
iting factor, thereby masking the temper-
ature effect. If aeration capacity «ere
sufficient to maintain a 2 ppm DO rcsiJual
in the ponds, a more pronounced temper-
ature ctfect would undoubtedly have been
experienced. During mot of the run*, the
DO in Pond I. which contained the -5-hp
aerators, was close to zero. It has already
been shown that additional aeration ca-
pacity in Pond I would improve cfitv i-ncy.
Furthermore, laboratory shaker
studies have shown that BOD reductions
of 90% can readily be attained in 5 days
of aeration with dispersed bncterial
growths. However, in the laboratory
studies, the rate of oxygen transfer was
not a limiting factor.
1702
Vol 34, No. TO October 1971 / Topp.
-------
Surfoct Atralor Companion
A great deal of flexibility was designed
into the secondary treatment sy>tem to
permit comparisons of large surface aer-
ators versus smaller units anil to compare
the high-speed uniu with the low-speed
units employing gear reducers.
To evaluate the difference between
different size aerators, Pond I was
equipped with six 25-hp Welles surface
aerators and Pond II with two 75-hp
units. Selection of optimum size is of
utmost importance since it has a sizeable
impact upon capital cost. A plot of aer-
ator cost as a function of rated horse-
power is shown in Fig. 8. Because of the
limited data used, data taken from this
figure are only rough approximations.
However, it can readily be seen that the
installed cost of the large 75-hp units is
substantially lower than for equivalent
capacity of the smaller 25-hp units. For
example, the installed cost of the 25-hp
units ranged from $378 to 5405/rated
horsepower whereas the installed cost for
a 7J-hp unit ranged from $287 to S305/
rated horsepower. A reduction of 24% in
installed cost can be accomplished by
selection of the larger units. It becomes
imperative, then, to determine whether
equivalent horsepowers of small and large
units are equally effective in the transfer
of oxygen and mixing of the basin
contents.
In referring to Fig. S it can also be seen
that the installed cost of the low-speed
MLxco units was somewhat higher than
that for equivalent horsepower of the
direct-drive high-speed Welles units. A
comparison of performance based upon
efficiency of oxygen transfer, mixing, and
reliability of operation would also be
helpful in making a selection between
these two different pieces of equipment.
Comparison of operational data for the
17-month experimental period presented
an exceptional opportunity for a critical
performance evaluation. The average data
for each run clearly show that Pond II
containing the two large 75-hp surface
aerators consistently performed better than
Pond I with the six 25-hp units. The dif-
ference between the two sizes has already
teen demonstrated and can be seen by
referring to Fig. 9. If 80 % BOD reduction
in the secondary system is used as a design
basis, the two large aerators were capable
of treating 9740 lb of BOD. day compared
to 6660 lb/day for the equivalent horse-
power in 25-hp aerators (6 units).
The improved efficiency of the larger
units may also be related to the configura-
tion within the ponds or distance between
the units. For example, the distance
between aerators in Pond II was about
31) ft which provided a radius of 157 ft
for each unit or 2.1 ft hp It becomes cn-
dentthat the space between (he small aera-
tors in Pond (is too great. In the longitu-
dinal dimension the spacing is more than
2C0 ft, leaving considerable dead area
Fig. 8. Aerator costs vs. rated horiepowtr.
between the aerators for sedimentation of
settleable solids. It is questionable
whether the small units could do an
effective job in either lagoon without
additional aerators. It becomes apparent
(hat selection of the proper size unit and
spacing is of the utmost importance in
attaining optimum efficiency.
To gain additional insight into the over-
all performance of the different aerator
sizes and configuration, extensive temper-
ature. DO and BOD profiles were con-
ducted.
The DO profiles presented in Fig. 10
show a substantial difference in DO
between Pond I and Pond II. For all prac-
tical purposes, the DO in Pond I was zero
except in the immediate vicinity of the sur-
face aerators whereas the large aerators
appeared to have a much greater zone of
influence. This was also evident in the
lateral profiles.
To gain insight into the mixing charac-
teristics of the dilferent size aerators,
velocity profiles were conducted on the
two ponds. The velocity profiles from
inlet to outlet are shown in Fig. 11. The
velocity in Pond II which contained the
two 75-hp aerators was much greater than
in Pond I. Velocity noted in Pond I
was limited to the upper 12 in. of depth
and dropped rapidly below that depth.
The zone of influence of the 25-hp units
was very restricted. The lateral profiles
confirm this observation, i.e., the overall
mixing capability of the large units is
superior to an equivalent horsepower of
smaller units.
Another set of profiles was run on the
ponds on Sept. 17and 18,196V. The ponds
were operated in parallel. The BOD pro-
tiles through the two ponds are shown in
Fig. 12. A definite BOD concentration
gradient was noted in Pond I from inlet
to outlet. The BOD dropped rapidly at
the inlet from about }J8 ppm to 210 ppm
and then gradually decreased in passing
through Pond I. The BOD concentration
throughout the length of Pond II was
more uniform indicating almost complete
mixing of the basm contents. The lon-
gitudinal aerator spacing in Pond II was
155 ft/aerator or 2.1 It/hp. If the (wo
aerators in each section of Pond 1 are
considered as a single entity, the spacing
in this pond then becomes 2.6 ft/hp.
Fig. 9. Performance comparisons of larga
vs. small surface aerators.
From the data collected it appears that a
spacing of about 2 ft/hp will ensure com-
plete mixing of the basin contents. A
completely mixed basin is to be preferred
since it has the capacity to absorb fluctua-
tions in waste strength. Complete mixing
aiso minimizes the potential for odor
productions.
From March I through March 12,
1970, the 75-hp Mixco surface aerator was
shut off and the 75-hp Welles unit was
moved to the inlet end of Pond II. The
two ponds were operated in parallel
during this short trial to permit an evalua-
tion of the mixing and reaerat ion potential
of the 75-hp Welles unit. The BOD con-
centrations throughout Pond II were quite
uniform indicating complete mixing with
but one 75-hp surface aerator whereas
there was a definite BOD concentration
gradient from inlet to outlet of Pond 1.
On the basis of the data collected, there
appears to be little difference in mixing
characteristics and aeration capacity be-
tween the high-speed, direct-drive aerator
and the low-speed unit.
The data collected, including the BOD,
DO, and temperature profiles, although
extensive, do not conclusively demon-
strate significant differences between the
two dilferent types of aerators.
Irt summation, it can be concluded that
the large horsepower units were more
efficient aeration and mixing devices
than equivalent horsepower of smaller
units, i.e., one 75-hp surface aerator will
be more ctfective than three 25-hp units.
The data are inconclusive in regards to
comparing the two large surface aerators
(direct-drive versus geared unit).
SoMdi Production in
Seconder? System
A certain amount of suspended solids
was always present in the waste pumped
to the aeration basins and the concentra-
tion of suspended solids varied quite
widely depending upon the condition of
the primiry settling lagoon.
The average suspended volatile solids
concentration of the influent to the aera-
tion pOnds was 62 ppm, whereas the
average suspended volatile solids of the
treated effluent was 62 ppm. Because of
the carry-over from the primary system
fopp. / October 1971 Vol. 54, No. 10
17Q3
-------
200 400 WO
distance moM influent to weir , ft
800
fig. 10. Hmhid oxygsn profiles (or ponds l« unhl inn
tka «¦ V«k. U, WO.
0 200 400 *00 800
CXSTANCC FROM WFUItWT TO WElfl, ft
Tic. H> TAdti greUee la tha poods on July 16> 1969.
it was difficult to determine the bacterial
solids buildup per unit of BOD destroyed.
Turbidity measurements were actually
am indicative of celt buildup than •im-
pended solids. The average JTU's going
to the aeration ponds were 112 where*!
the treated effluent had an average JTU
reading of 214 Most of the turbidity in the
final effluent could not be removed by
settling but required ultra-filtration or
highspeed centrifugation. If it is assumed
that most of the suspended solids leaving
the aeration basins were biological in
nature, then 0.14 lb of bacterial cells were
discharged per pound of BOD destroyed.
This is considerably lower than what
would be expected from activated sludge
which usually averages 0.4-0.5 lb/lb
of BOD destroyed when treating similar
waat*a(J4).
Removal of the biological cells would
reduce the Anal BOD somewhat, but it is
questionable whether this would have
any beneficial effect upon the receiving
(Mam. For example, Rader (j) found that
simulated streams receiving the treated
wastes supported a heavy population of
the protozoan, yuriicella. The growth
rate of this organism increased in propor-
tion to the suspended bacterial load in
the mated waste added to the simulated
¦trams whereas the untreated waste and
control supported low concentration!
of VortlttttQ. It becomes apparent that
the bacterial cells discharged readily
wrve as food for higher forms of life in
the food chain which could have an over-
all beneficial effect upon productivity
of aquatic life in the receiving stream
providing DO is not adversely affected by
discharge of the biological suspended
200 300 400 900 *00
OSTANCE FMW INFUCNT TO WEM.ft
fig. 12. BOD fnftsltt ponds oo got. J, 1969.
tion into and out of the secondary
was as follows:
Influent
EAIusm
Influent
Effluent
KiMMf-JV, MNM,
ppm urn
1M 145
155 1»
Tmtl Sdnttr
photfhona, phetphma.
1.54
1.73
0.9*
O.JT
Netiienf Content of Waste
Dmhorgtd
Since the pulping base used at Lebanon
was ammonia, considerable ammonia-
nitrogen would be expected in the llnal
effluent. The average nutrient concentre-
No significant difference In KjeldaU-
nitrogen could be detected between the
influent and effluent ovta the 17 month
experimental period whereas a decrease
of 6 ppm in ammonia-nitrogen was noted
after treatment. Based upon the 42 ppm
of suspended volatile solids leaving the
secondary ponds, the nitrogen content of
the suspended solids would then be shout
y.7% which is quite typical of bacterial
ceils.
A slight increase in total phosphorus
was noted after treatment. Whether this
difference is statistically significant is
questionable. Soluble phosphorus de-
creased by 41 % indicating a significant
utilization for cell synthesis or precipita-
tion in the aeration ba is. Reduction in
the ammonia uuge . - neutralization
would bring down the ». .nonia-nitrogen
concentration in the Anal etfluccu to about
98 ppm and elimination of phosphorus
additions would reduce the concentration
of this element to less than 0.5 ppm.
Slim* Growth from Treated and
Untreated Waste
The major compounds in spent sulfite
Iwjuor which serve as a readily available
source of carhon for SpltatmOlta nutans
are the six carbon sugars such as glucose
and mannose, the Ave carbon sugar
xylose, and acetic acid. Schcuring and
Hohnl (6) demonstrated by extensive
1704
Vol. 54, No. 10 October 1971 / Toppi
-------
10 IS
000 *OCCD.P**
*€¦ 1J. Simulated ftrMm studit< and a* «ff«ct of BOO upon slim* growth from Sept. 26
to Oct 13.1970.
Tobl# VII.
Slim* Growth Potential of Treated and Untreated Waite Added
to Simulated Stream
Stream
Want
atUtd
BOD In
tmam.
ppm
Siimr growth, mgl/t'/day
Tote/
nHdt
Xtiaiict
growth
Votatdi
totids
Matic*
tramtk
I Nona
1.0
107
1.0
17
1.0
4 Treated
2.9
106
1.0
23
1.4
1 Treated
51
122
1.1
27
1.6
2 Timed
11.7
163
I.J
42
1.9
6 Untreated
13.0
295
l.t
117
6.9
5 Untreated
26.1
421
4.0
170
10.0
Table VW.
Capitol Cost of Secondary Treatment System
Con In dotlari
item
Labor +
Labor
Meterta/i
malrHalt
Aeration ponds
62.796
67.17S
129,974
Aerators
2,010
65,225
67,235
Pumps and tumps
6,579
73,123
79,702
Nutrient tanlu
316
6, in
6,503
Piping
28,377
113,542
141,919
Instrumentation
1,354
19.426
Z7.7M
Control building
5,476
12,117
It,293
Electrical
15,9)2
55,373
71,327
Miscellaneous
11.660
57,152
75,112
Engineering
46,455
46,455
Totals
194,975
470.025
<65,000
laboratory experimentation that these
compounds support luxuriant growth* of
Sphatrotllta.
A series or experiments wti conducted
utini the experimental streams described
in a previous section of this report to
determine the amount of slime growth
that would be produced by adding various
amounts of treated and untreated waste
to South Santiam River water. The
amount of slime obtained is shown in
Table VII. In general, slime growth was
closely related to the amount or BOD
added to the simulated stream*. However,
This has also been confirmed by Amber g
and Cormack (7, 8) who found that
aerobic bacterial treatment of ammonia
base spent sulfite liquor resulted in much
lower slime growth than raw waste at
equivalent BOD concentrations. These
experiments are also in agreement with
Wuhrman (9) who found that equal con-
centrations of BOD achieved in a river
by dilution of settled or biologically
tnated sewage did not produce compar-
able associations of microorganisms.
Wuhrman concluded that biological treat-
ment of domestic sewage produced qual-
itative as well as quantitative alteration
of aewage compounds, which could not be
detected by the usual comprehensive
criteria such as BOD, organic nitrogen,
organic carbon,' etc.
In general, the studies conducted at
Lebanon showed conclusively that treat-
ment of the mill waste to a BOD reduction
of Vy-iSy. produced a waste which did
not readily support slime growth. The
effect of treatment can readily he seen by
referring to Fig. 13. Two to three times
as much slime was produced from un-
treated waste than for equivalent BOD
additions of treated waste.
It becomes apparent that biological
treatment of the Lebanon waste serves
two very important functions: the first,
destruction of oxygen-depleting organic
material which could affect the DO of the
South Santiam River during the critical
low flow period and the second, reduction
or elimination of the waste*s ability to
support troublesome filamentous slime
growths.
Capita/ Costs of Secondary
TraahMi# System
A breakdown of the major capital
items is presented in Table VIM. Total
capital cost Tor the secondary system was
$663,000. Of the total capital cost, 29.}%
was attributable to. labor and 70.7J5 to
materials. Capital costs based upon waste
volume, BOD and pulp tonnage capacity
were as follows:
the experiments conducted indicated that
the treated waste always produced con-
siderably less slime per unit BOD added
than the untreated waste. For example,
if streams 2 and 6 are compared, it can
be seen thtt although the BOD additions
to these two streams were almost identi-
cal. the amount of slime produced was
considerably greater in the stream receiv-
ing the untreated waste. After treatment
most of the readily available BOD is
destroyed leaving a substantial amount of
BOD which evidently cannot be wed by
Sphaerauha or is used at a very slow rate.
DoUars/dafly a.d. ton of pulp
DoUarc/mg of waite tret tad/day
Dollars/tb of daily BOD
lamowsd1
6,650
166,000
55.50
i of the small size of the mill, unit
capital costs based upon tonnage are
quite high. Furthermore, since the waste
being treated had a BOD of about 5O0
ppm, capital costs baaed upon volume
were also high. If the calculations are
adjusted to a waste BOD of 200 ppm. the
volume would then become 10.3 million
gal,'day and the unit capital cost would be
S63.400/million gai/day of treated yaste.
Because of the experimental program, the
capital costs were somewhat higher than
would normally be expected. For example,
the simulated streams, recirculation s>s-
* laud o« 12,000 Ik of BOO nnani/iiy.
Toppi f October 1971 Vol. 54, No. 10
iros
-------
ten, ale, added dose to J100,000 to the
eost of the installation.
OpvaMngCo«t«
Ik* items which make up the operating
i in the calculations presented are:
power, operating labor, repair
*, repair material], water, chemicals,
administrative overhead, fringe benefits,
iolflRst on capital, and depreciation.
Electric power rates averaged about 3
mils/WWhr during the 17-month period.
The chemical costs included a small
t of phosphoric acid nutrient and
for neutralization. Interest on
the $663,000 capital investment was
calculated at 9% and straight line de-
predation was taken over 15 years.
A summary of the operating costs in-
cluding interest on the capital and de-
preciation is presented in Table IX.
Monthly total operating costs averaged
114,120. The largest items were the fixed
COM, interest on the capital investment
and depreciation which accounted for
of the total operating costs. Elec-
tric power and chemicals were the largest
MM items of the direct operating cosu
aadthey accounted for 22.33% of the
total operating costs. The ease of opera-
Tabte IX. Summary of Direct and
Indirect Operating Costs, Average of
17-Moirih Period, April 1969
Through August 1970
Itrm
OoUorsI
month
r.*r
total
Electric power 9 S0.005
kW-hr
1,190
1.4]
Operating labor
191
1.35
tebof
633
4.41
Repair material
«9
4.93
Watsr
261
1.83
Chemicals
1.992
14.10
Administrative overhead
363
2.38
Mage benefits
99
0,70
latarast on capital @9%
4.990
35.30
Depredation, S.L.—13
years
3,700
26.20
Total
14,120
99.94
Table X. Summary of Direct and
Total Operating CotH
Dirtet Taut
cottt com
•Mm IndutHg
Intrtu Imrrrtt
mtib and it-
prtekb prrcio-
Man tkm
DcOars/momh 5,430 14,120
Dollars/year 65,200 169,300
Oottars/a.d. ton of
production | M 4.79
Dollan/million |al 42.X0 111.20
OoUan/U) BOD added 0 OOP) Q 0237
Dettutflb BOO removed O.OI34 0 0MI
tion of the secondary treatment system is
reflected in the low operating labor cost of
1.33%ofthe total or SHI /month.
A summary of the direct and total
operating costs is shown in Table X.
The average unit cost of the 17-month
period was 54.79/ton of production or
about 11.14/1000 gal treated. On a BOO
basis, the operating costs averaged 2.37
e/lb of BOD added and 3.48l/lb of BOD
destroyed. Although some minor econo-
mics could be realized in the operation of
the facilities such as reduction in chemi-
cals, it is doubtful whether the total
operating costs would be significantly '
alTectcd. It becomes evident that sec-
ondary treatment is quite costly and cer-
tainly adds a substantial amount to
production costs.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Secondary treatment of sulfite pulp
and paper mill effluent in aerated sta-
bilization basins was tested on a full-
scale basis over a 17-month period of
continuous operation. The secondary
treatment plant consisted of two aeration
basins each having a surface area of 3.42
acres or a liquid volume of 17 million
gal. At a total waste flow of 4 million gal/
day front the mill, the combined sec-
ondary system provided a detention of
about I days. The ponds were constructed
to permit series or parallel operation and
provisions were made to recyde treated
waste. One basin was equipped with two
75-hp surface aerators and the other basin
of equal volume was equipped with six
23-hp aeration units. One of the 73-hp
aerators was a direct-drive, high-speed
unit whereas the other was • low-speed
gear-driven unit. The 23-hp surface
aerators were direct-drive, high-speed
units.
The treatment works were designed
and constructed to achieve economy,
efficiency, and effectiveness in the preven-
tion or abatement of pollution. Further-
more, the design of the process piping,
equipment arrangement, and structures in
the facility provided for a maximum
flexibility of operation and convenience
in operation and maintenance. The waste
treated was a mixture of weak wash water
from the pulp mill, evaporator condensate
from the spent liquor recovery system,
and paper machine white water.
The results from 17 months of experi-
mentation warrant the following con-
clusions:
1. Series operation wu considerably
more efficient in BOD destruction than
parallel operation. At • BOO laid of
22,000 lb/day or 4.83 lb,'1000 ft> of aera-
tion capacity, parallel operation resulted
in the destruction of 14,300 lb of BOD'day
(3.13 lb/1000 ft*) compared to 16.200
Ib'day {3.37 lb/1000 ft') for series opera-
tion.
2. To achieve an 80% BOD reduction
in the secondary system, the pond with -he
six 23-hp surface aerators was loaded at
1.9 lb of BOD/hp-hr or 6600 lb/day
(2.91 lb/1000 ft') and the pond with the
two 73-hp surface aerators received a
load of 2.8 lb/hp-hr or 9740 Ib 'day (4.29
lb/1000 ft'), the BOD load to the com-
bined system should not exceed 16.000
lb/day (3.33 lb/1000 ft') or 2.2 lb/hp-hr
to maintain the desired 80% BOD reduc-
tion in the secondary system. An 80%
reduction at a load of 20,000 lb/day or
4.41 lb/1000 ft" could be achieved by
increasing the total aeration capacity
from 300 to 373 hp.
3. The 73-hp surface aerators were much
more efficient mixing and aeration devices
than equivalent capacity of 23-hp units.
Nine 23-hp surface aerators would be
required to achieve the same BOO re-
duction as the two 73-hp units. Good
mixing characteristics for the 75-hp sur-
face aerators were obtained at a spacing
of about 2.1 ft/hp. The installed cost of
the 73-hp Welles surface aerator was
S283/hp compared to S37J,hp for the
23-hp Welles units. On the basis of equiv-
alent BOO reductions, the installed
aeration capacity of 73-hp Welles units
would have a total cost of $85,500 com-
pared to S140.500 for the 23-hp Welles
units.
4. No conclusive data were collected
which demonstrated any difference in
mixing characteristics and aeration ca-
pacity between the direct-drive, hiiih-speed
aerator, and the low-speed, gear-driven
unit.
3. Dissolved oxygen temperature and
BOD profiles conducted in the two ponds
showed the pond with the two 75-hp
surface aerators was completely mixed,
i-c., BOD concentration and temperature
gradients were not noted from waste inlet
to outlet. There was a definite B<>D con-
centration gradient from inlet to outlet
of the pond with the six 23-hp surface
aerators. The velocity profiles also con-
firmed that the large surface aerators
were much more effective mixing devices
than the small units.
fi. Operational labor requirements for
the secondary system were very low be-
cauae of the ease of operation. Wide
variation in the incoming waste strength
had only minimal effects upon treatment
efficiency.
7. Although slime growth was closely
related to the amount of BOD added to
the simulated experimental streams, two
to three times as much slime was produced
from untreated waste than for equivalent
BOD additions of treated waste. Bio-
logical treatment of the combined mill
waste to a 60O reduction of 80% resulted
in slime growth reductions in excess of
80% as measured in the simulated
streams.
g. Optimum pH ranged from 6.3 to
7.3. Ammonia usage for neutralization
varied from 198 lb/day to 2300 Ib 'day
and phosphorus addition rates of leu
170*
Vol. S4, No. 10 October 1971 / Toppi
-------
thin 40 lb/day were sufficient to maintain
optimum efficiency.
9. Change* in aeration temperatures
within the range of 16 to 26°C did noi have
• significant elfcct upon BQD reduction.
10. The average heat loss from the
secondary system during the summer
period was 534,000,000 Blu day when the
incoming waste temperature averaged
33°C. During the winier season, the heat
losses averaged 7V3,0Q0,0(X) 8tu/day.
During the winter, a drop in pond tem-
perature of 11.7°C can be expected and
during the summer the temperature drop
Will average 8.3°C.
11. The effluent discharged from the
treatment plant contained about 62 ppm
of suspended solids and had an average
turbidity of 214 JTU. The turbidity con-
sisted of dispersed bacteria which were
not removed by sedimentation. Suspended
biological solids buildup was calculated
at 0,16 lb/lb of BOD destroyed.
12. Tht Anal treated effluent contained
•bout 1SS ppm of total Kjcldahl-nitrogen
and 0.6 ppm of soluble phosphorus.
Elimination of ammonia Tor neutraliza-
tion reduced the Kjeldahl-riitrogen con-
centration in the treated effluent to about
98 ppm. .
13. The capital cost of the Lebanon
secondary treatment plant was $665,000.
Total annual operating costs including
interest on investment and depreciation
was $169,900 or S4.79,'ton of production.
Total operating cost per pound of BOD
destroyed was 3.481 or S111.20/million
gal ot waste treated.
Anelytieol Mefhod»
Biochemical oxygen demand was con-
ducted as outlined in Standard Methods
for the Examination of Waste Water
and Sewage (10) with the exception
of the seed preparation stage. Seed was
prepared by centrifuging 400 ml of bio-
logically treated effluent at 10,000 rpm.
The inoculum or seed was washed with
cold water and resuspended in 150 ml
of dilution water. Microscopic examina-
tions were made on the effluent before
centrifuging to ensure that active motile
bacteria were present. The bacterial
suspension was again examined micro-
scopically to determine whether the bac-
teria were concentrated and not adversely
affected by the separation step.
The chemical oxygen demand was
determined in accordance with Standard
Methods (10). Total organic carbon was
measured using a Carbon Analyzer. A
microsample was injected into a cata-
lytic combustion tube which was enclosed
by an electric furnace thermostatically
controlled at 950°C. The water is vapor-
bed and the carbonaceous material is
Oxidized to carbon JukhIc which is
measured by an infrared analyzer.
Total solids (TS) were determined by
pipetting a 100-ml sample into a tared
crucible and drying at I l()°C fur *4 hr.
Total suspended solids (TSS) were deter-
mined by vacuum filtering 500 ml of
waste through a tared 12 5-cm No. 40
Whatman filter paper. The residue wa*
dried to constant weight at 105°C. The
dried residue w»s tired at 600°C for
2 hr for the volatile suspended solids
determination. This procedure has been
outlined in detail in another publication
(II).
The Azide modification of the Winkler
method as outlined in Standard Methods
(10) was used to determine dissolved
oxygen (DO). A DO probe designed and
manufactured by Precision Scientific Co.
was used to conduct the DO profiles in
the ponds.
A Beckman Model N pH meter was
used and turbidities were measured with
a standard Jackson candle in accordance
with the procedure outlined in Standard
Methods (10).
Kjeldahl-nitrogen was run in accor-
dance with Standard Methods. A Tech-
nicon AutoAnalyzer was used to deter-
mine ammonia-nitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen,
and nitrite-nitrogen.
Operation
Phosphorus was supplied to the raw
waste as phosphoric acid and sufficient
acid was added to ensure a soluble phos-
phate content in the effluent of about
I ppm. The aeration lagoons wen gen-
erally operated at a phosphorus addition
rate of about 40 lb/day.
. Since ammonia was present in the
waste in relatively high concentrations, an
additional source of nitrogen was not
required. Ammonia, however, was used
•s a neutralization chemical and the
amount of ammonia added varied quite
widely depending upon the products
made in the ligno-sulfonate by-product
plant and the operational pH of the
secondary system. For example, the
neutralization chemical requirements fot
three runs at different pH values were
as follows: pH 5.7—-198 lb of ammonia-
nitrogen/day; pH 7.0—2312 lb of am-
monia-nitrogen/day. The optimum pH
ranged from 6.5 to 7.5. Most of the runs
were conducted at a pH of about 6.8 and,
on the average, about 1800 lb of ammo-
nia/day were adequate to maintain a
satisfactory reaction.
LITJRATUM OT€D
I. Palmrose, G. V. and Hull, 1. H„ To*
34: 241 (1951).
1 Ambtrj, H, R„ J. Wattr foB. Cetml
Fed. 2: 27»(I965).
3. Rudolfs. W. and Amberg. H. R., Sew.
tad. Wanes J. 23: 191 (l«3).
¦1. Gellman. I.. 7": I06A (1965).
5. Ratter. L.. "VumctUa Growth in £*•
perimental Streams,"' Unpublished data
(April 23. I'iroi.
6. SciH-uriny. L. and Hohnl. G.. "Sfliiatro-
rUus hows. Seine Okologie und Physio,
logie," Schriften Del Vercint der ZellKuff
und Papier-Chentiker und Inatnteur*
Vol. 26(1956).
7. Amberg, H. R. and Cormack, J. F.,
Pulp Paper Mat- Can., Tech. Seer. (Feb?
1960).
S. Cormack, J. F. and Amberg, H. R., "The
Effect of Biological Treatment of Sul-
phite Waste Liquor on the Growth of
Sphaerotrfus nouns" Proc. 14th Indust.
Waste Conf., Purdue Univ., Laf«>ette,
Ind. (May 1959).
9. Wuhrman. K... Sew. but. Wanes 16. 212
(1954).
Id Am. Pub. Health Assoc.. Am. Water
Works Assoc.. W«ter Poll. Control Fed.,
"Standard Methods for the Examination
of Water and Waste Water," 12th Ed.,
Am. Pub. Health Assoc., Inc.. New
York. N. Y. (1965).
11. Oregon State Sanitary Authority. "Ten-
tative Procedures for Analysis of Pulp and
Paper Mill Effluents," April 1968.
The results reported in this paper were
submitted in fulfillment of Grant Num-
ber WPRD 69-01-68, Program Number
12040 ELW under the sponsorship of the
Federal Water Quality Administration.
The project was conducted at the Leb-
anon Division of Crown Zellerbach and
we are indebted tp the following mill
personnel for ensuring the success of the
project: R. G. Kott, A. M. Neelley, E. C.
Mays,A.C. Moncini.andH. P. Burrelle.
lilt support of the project by the Fed-
eral Water Quality Administration and
the help provided by Messrs. A. Cywin
and C. R. Webster is gratefully acknowl-
edged and appreciated. We were par-
ticularly pleased with the help and guid-
ance provided by R. H. Scott, the Project
Officer, and Dr. H. K. Willard of the
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory. A
substantial portion of the analytical work
was conducted by the staff of the .Pacific
Northwest Water Laboratory and we
wish to acknowledge the following who
were active in the analytical program:
Mrs. F. Cole, Mrs. M. Carpenter, J.
O'Donnell.C-Greenup, and F. Roberts.
The technical aspects of the program,
such as preliminary design, testing and
evaluation of data, were undertaken at the
Crown Zellerbach Corp.'s Central Re-
search Division and we wish to acknowl-
edge the help of the following personnel:
S. H. Watkins.O. Hamblin, and R. Bafus.
Advice and help were received from
the staff of the National Council for Air
and Stream Improvement and we would
like to express our thanks to R. O. Blosser,
A. L.Caron,andE. L.O ns.
The suggestions and 'Wee provided
by Dr. E. I. Ordal, Proi.--.or of Micro-
biology at the University of Washington,
were very helpful in the planning and
< execution of the experimental program.
The cooperation received from the Oregon
State Department of Environmental
Quality is gratefully acknowledged. W. C.
Westgarth, A. Hose, and C. Carter of
the Department served as advisors to the
project.
RtcnviD fo» Mvitw March 16. 1971.
Axetnio June 11. Wit.
P>ts«srio m ilw Water and Air Conference of
the Twchnicat Allocution of the Pulp ant) Paper
tnduslry, held in Bmton, Mass., April 4-7, IV71.
Tmppt I October 1971 Vol. 34, No. 10
1707
-------
Aerated Lagoon - Pilot Data vs. Operating Performance
Anthony F. Adamczyk, P.E.
Senior Sanitary Engineer
Presented at the New York Water
Pollution Control Association
January, 1972
New York State
Department of Environmental Conservation
Bureau of Industrial Wastes
50 Wolf Road
Albany( New York
-------
AERATED LAGOON - PILOT DATA vs OPERATING PERFORMANCE
Anthony F. Adamczyk
A comparison of pilot plant data and actual operating data is made
for two aerated lagoons serving box board mills. The dato presented
il for a facultative aerated lagoon followed by two polishing ponds
and an aerobic lagoon.
Seasonal performance and operating problems of these installations
are discussed. New York State's Operating Permit System and Testing
and Measuring Program are also discussed.
Temperature and nutrient effects are correlated against effluent
quality.
-------
Introduction
The use of aerated lagoons as a means of complete treatment in
industrial wastes has been generally limited to dischargee located
on water courses able to assimilate wastes of a rather variable
effluent quality. Other applications of aerated lagoons have been as
pre-treatment systems. This is found in the food processing industry
where production corresponded to periods of low stream flow and
plants were located on rather small water courses.
This presentation will discuss the operating data gathered on
two aerated lagoons serving box board mills as complete treatment
facilities.
-------
Aerated Laooons
There are various types of aerated lagoons with .various
classifications and terminology being used to describe then. In general*
an aerated lagoon consists of a basin in which oxygen is supplied by
various means to biologically degrade its contents. Aerated lagoons
do not have sludge recirculation and because of this are more sensitive
to temperature. For definition purposes we will consider an aerobic
lagoon and a facultative aerated lagoon.
The aerobic lagoon is designed with sufficient power to maintain
solids in suspension. This type of lagoon requires power levels
generally in excess of 20 HP/million gallons of basin volume.
The majority of the aerated lagoons are of the facultative type
and are designed to insure a uniform dissolved oxygen concentration
throughout the aerobic portion of the basin. Some solids will be
maintained in suspension and carried out in the effluent. This type of
lagoon is popular because of low horse power requirements* which are
generally less than 15 HP/million gallons.
The following equation is proposed by Eckenfelder (l) to describe
soluble BOD removal in the aerated lagoons
Le - (1)
Lo 1 + TK
Where
Le * Effluent BOD (mg/l)
Lo » Influent BOD (ma/l)
T ¦ detention time (days)
K ¦ BOD removal rate coefficient (days-*)
This equation can be used provided a completely mixed flow regime
exists and the system has reached steady state conditions^2).
-------
A completely mixed fifty regime exists when the portion of the
basin under consideration has a uniform removal rate coefficient (k).
Steady state conditions are defined as the time when the rate of
sedimentation of solids in the lagoon equals the rate of resuspension.
The variation of K with respecto to temperature is expressed in
the following equation!
Kt - K20°C 9 T'20 <2)
Where
Kt ¦ BOD removal rate coefficient at T Temperature
K20PC • EQD removal rate coefficient at 20°C
T ¦ Temperature (°C)
0 • Temperature coefficient
Eckenfelder(l) reports values of 9 of 1.035 for aerobic lagoons and
values of 1.07-1.06 for facultative lagoons. These coefficients vary
considerably and are a function of the system*
The liquid temperature in a facultative lagoon depends on the heat
balance in a lagoon and can be calculated by the following equation^).
Ti " To ' (Tw - Ta) fA (3)
Q
Where
Q - flow (mgd)
A • area (Ft2)
Tt ¦ average air temperature (°F)
¦ influent temperature (°F)
T*» " lagoon temperature (°F)
T0 ¦ effluent temperature (°F)
f • overall heat transfer coefficient
In a completely mixed system T0 * Tw and the appropriate substitution
can be made in the above equation. Actual measurements of lagoon
temperatures have verified using an f of 14x10-* for the middle Hudson
River Valley. Calculations have'produced results within * 1°F.
-------
-J-
New York State Requirement*
New York State utilizes a two permit system - "Construction" and
"Operating". The "Construction" permit sets forth the physical basis of
approval while the "Operating-Discharge" permit sets forth the
conditions under which the facility was approved to operate. These
conditions also set forth maximum.allowable effluent concentrations of
the applicable parameters. New York State also has as' law* a testing
and measuring program which briefly described, "Requires all industrial
discharges to be on a testing and measuring program".
To promote program continuity, the operating permit generally sets
the maximum allowable effluent characteristics on a monthly average
basis, and the testing and measuring program has been placed on a
monthly reporting basis. The effluent conditions are based on environmental
impact. Situations where streams have limited waste assimilation
capacity or where toxic materials are involved, more stringent
conditions would be specified in terms of an absolute figure.
Since the approved basis of design is generally reflective of the
most critical stream conditions the operating permit conditions are
generally directed towards summer operations. If we look at equation(l)
it is evident that if the influent loading is constant in terms of flow
and BOD and the other assumptions are valid the effluent concentration
in an aerated lagoon should be a function of temperature. As a result
of this theoretical consideration, requests have been made for operating
permits to be reflective of seasonal temperature changes.
Conflicting information regarding this point has appeared in the
literature Bartsch and Randall(2) have reported a change in effluent
quality for temperatures at 55°F and lower.
-------
-4-
Boyko and Rupke(3) have not observed seasonal fluctuations in effluent
quality such as may be associated with temperature in lagoons operating
in Ontario, Canada.
Ooeratlno Data
The following treatment systems A and B are summarized
respectively in Figures 1 and 2. The systems design and expected waste
characteristics are a result of pilot plant data and mill waste
cha ra cterizati on.
Treatment System A - The following operating data has been gathered
under our testing and measuring program with augumented data collected
by the Department of Environmental Conservation* This is a
facultative aerated lagoon followed by settling ponds,, and as noted has
a low power requirement of 4 HP/million gallons. For design details
refer to Figure 1.
The average flow of .92 MOD with a standard deviation of .06, as
observed, compares favorably with the expected average design flow of
1.0 MGD (Figure 3).
An analysis of the Influent BOD3 data gives a log normal
distribution with the data being skewed toward the higher values. The
geometric mean is 240 mg/l with geometric standard deviation value at
the 84.1# plot of 280 mg/l. This influent waste is significantly stronger
that oriqinally estimated. The skewed data at higher values is
probably attributable to expensive use of secondary filters in the
manufacture of pap$rboard (Figure 4).
The effluent &OD5 and Suspended Solids are effluent quality
characteristics following a total of 5 days detention time in the settling
lagoons. The expected effluent characteristics were based on pilot data
-------
-D-
gathered at temperatures of 71 to 91°F, followed by one hour of
settling* The analysis of additional data gathered showed an additional
25$ BOD5 -reduction across the settling ponds.
A statistical analysis of the effluent characteristics shows a
normal BOD5 distribution and a log normal Suspended Solids distribution
with average values of BOD5 and SS respectively of 18 and 31 mg/l. It
should be noted that this data represents system characteristics with
nutrients being added In accordance with the theoretical ratios of
BOD1N1P of 100j5i1 (Figures 5 and 6).
An attempt was then made to determine a temperature response on
effluent quality. Before proceeding, several, generalizing assumptions must
be made, in the context of the objective of determining a qeneral system
temperature response. We must assume a completely mixed flow regime
exists. This fact has been established by work conducted by McKeown^)
on this system. Another assumption is that the system has reached steady
state conditions) this may not be completely valid but is sufficiently so,
for our purposes.
An additional BOD removal through the settling ponds was observed.
It is felt that this additional BOD removal is associated with the
removal of the remaining solids being discharged from the aerated lagoon.
For our purposes the settled effluent BOD should, therefore, sufficiently
represent the soluble BOD remaining.
The temperature response investigated was a comparison of settlinq
pond effluent 8OD5 (mg/l) vs lagoon temperature (Figure 7). The lagoon
temperatures were determined by using equation (3) with a f of 14x10*^.
A comparison of calculated and observed temper .tures showed a * 1°F
difference*
-------
-o-
A rather dramatic deterioration in effluent quality was observed
during the first year's operation of the aerated lagoon. The summary
data points for the first year's operation are represented by the
(+) symbol. A lack of PO4 addition was coupled with the fact that the
winter of the first year's operation was one of the coldest on record.
Additionally, the mill was closed for two weeks during January of this
period. It is felt that these conditions are responsible for the
resultant effluent quality. It, therefore, would not be reasonable to
accept this data as being responsive to temperature change In the aerated
lagoon.
The remaining data of approximately one (l) year operation with
nutrient addition is represented with the (e) data points. Due to this
year's rather warm fall and early winter, data paints could not be
obtained for lagoon temperatures less than 42°F. Observation of this
data, however, does not indicate any significant change in effluent
quality due to temperature changes. In general, these data points fall
below the 40 mg/l level fair BOD*.
Treatment System B - The deslgri of treatment system B Is a result
of effluent characterization and pilot plant data. It should he noted
that prior to the aerated lagoon the effluent is given primary
clarification with solids return to the mill for reuse. This is an
aerated lagoon with a power level of 30 HP/million gallons*
The flow through the system follows a normal distribution with a
mean of 2.1 MOD compared with an «xpected average of 2.7 MOD (Figure 9).
The influent BOD5 data is significantly different from the expected
values (Figure 10). A statistical analysis of the data revealed two
distinct families of curves each being normally distributed*
-------
One third (l/3) of the observed data point fell into the distribution with
a class average of 115 mg/l with the remaining two thirds (2/3) of the
data belonging to the distribution with a class average of 194 mg/l.
This gives a weighted average influent BODj concentration of 168 mg/l,
which compares favorably with the expected average of 173 mg/l. These
two distinct families of curves are attributable to the use of primary
and secondary fibers in the production of paperboard and are a function
of the required product quality* Contact with personnel of the mill
indicated that it would not be possible to predict any product pattern
that could be related to waste characterization. It could be possible to
have a prolonged run of product requiring secondary fibers and, therefore,
this particular distribution would warrant consideration in effluent
characterization for design purposes.
The observed effluent suspended solids have an average value of
140 mg/l compared with an expected average of 183 mg/l. This distribution
was found to be normal (Figure 11).
The observed effluent BQDj values were found to have a log normal
distribution with an average value of 70 mg/l. This value compares
favorably with the expected effluent concentration of 87 mg/l. The
skewing of this data towards the higher values if probably due to the
higher use of secondary fibers (Figure 12).
Since again we are investigating a treatment response to temperature
changes several assumptions must be made. A completely mixed flow regime
must exist. At the power level, in this lagoon, it is felt that this assump-
tion is valid. The problem associated with steady state conditions in
facultative lagoons- would not be applicable here because of the high
degree of mixing.
-------
-8-
Temperature data 1$ observed aerated lagoon temperatures.
Though the influent consists of two families of data it is felt that
sufficient mixing occurs in the lagoon to assume an equalized system.
The plot of effluent BOD5 (mg/l) vs lagoon temperature should, therefore,
indicate any overall temperature dependency on effluent characteristics.
As seen in Figure 12 the data is extremely variable and cannot be
quantified.
-------
Conclusions
1. Theoretically and under controlled laboratory conditions, effluent
quality can be expected to vary with lagoon temperatures.
2. Seasonal fluctuations in effluent quality as may be associated with
temperature changes is not apparent in actual operation.
3. Fluctuation in the many environmental factors effecting an aerated
lagoon such as loadings and temperatures may completely mask any
quantifiable temperature response.
4. A facultative aerated lagoon followed by settling ponds can, in
general, be expected to produce an effluent of less than 50 mg/l
BOD5 and 70 mg/l Suspended Solids.
5. An aerated lagoon with high power loadings will produce a highly
variable effluent quality, probably due to solids carryover and in the
case of treatment system 8, also due to the highly variable influent
loadings.
6. There appears to be no quantifiable response of effluent quality to
temperature in either of the two mixing regimes investigated.
7. Administratively it would be difficult to accommodate possible
seasonal effluent quality variations due to temperature.
-------
Treatment System A
Basis of Design
Expected Average Waste Characteristics
Influent Effluent
Flow (MGD) 1.0
BOD5 (mg/l) 195 2-10
Suspended Solids (ag/l) 110 5-20
Rated Mill Capacity - 90 tons/day Paperboard
Nutrient Ratio - BOD 1 N 1 P
100 1 5 * 1
Figure 1
-------
Treatment Systea 1
Basis of Design
Influent
Aerated Lagoon
Effluent
2.3 Days Detention
200 HP
Expected Average Haste Characteristics
Influent Effluent
Flow (MSD) 2.7
BOOK (ng/i) 173 87
Suspended Solids (ng/l) 164 183
Rated Mill Capacity - 220 tons/day Paperboard
Nutrients - none
Figure 2
-------
% Observations less than or equal too
Figure 3
-------
Treatment System
A
• i « ¦ ' ' ¦ ' ' » . t i
s to ts Jto 30 40 & 40 JO 0005*99 Sf
% observations less than or equal too
Figure 4
-------
r1 ¦¦¦ ¦ t i ¦ 1 ¦ » i i %
» " l
T
35
30
CD
6
a
+*
e
2d
w
XJ
Ui
IS
to
rmtient Systwi A
to io jo lo 50 60 To so 90 9C 99
% Observations less than or *qual too
Flqur* 5
-------
Flour* 6
-------
30
90\
70 \
60
SO]
4*1
TrMtttcnt System
+ No P04 Addition
• BOO1N1P - lOOtdtl
30\
~ ~
#
zo\
IO\
-------
o zo
©
te>
io J» 4« » » 1» BO
% observations equal to or less then
-------
I 11 1
I I I
Troataont System
B
f ' * »-¦ » » , ' n „„ « '
i t ft 7i to jo Ji 40 io jo 90 if 35 M
% observations «qu«l to or itss thtn
Flgur* 9
-------
-------
MO JO
-------
no
too
90
§
tu
70
Treatment System B
» •
60
ro
5T0 60 7 0 SO SO
Lagoon Tempertture (oF)
Eiflue*—U
-------
References
1. Eckenfelder, W. Wesley, Jr. "Water Quality Engineering for
Practicing Engineers", Barnes & Noble, Inc., New York, 1970
2. Bartsch, Eric H. and Randall, Clifford W. "Aerated Lagoons -
A Report on the State of the Art", J.W.P.C.F., 43,699, (1971)
3. Boyko, B.I. and Rupke J.W.G. "Aerated Lagoons in Industrial
Waste Treatment" - 18th Ontario Industrial Waste Conference-
Niagara Falls, June, 1971
-------
- / . .* ",v 1 j
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vTT ~ ';£.^ i ¥ \ ¦*?¦.* i'T ••'•
Vl
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jUHCil. 1HE PAi'LR l-V \S5>1 RY COR AIK AND STRtAU If.'PROVEMCNT, INC., ?60 MADISON AVEHUH. Ntt YOl.k, f).Y. KK';t.
A SURVi'V OF PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECT U;:j EXPENDITURES AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS - 1971
SPECIAL REPORT NO, 73-0j.
ja;:!!a?-v i:.-73
-------
NA ^MAL COUNCIL OF THE PAPER INDUSTRY FOR AIR AND STREAM IMPROVEMENT. INC.
260MADISON AVE. NEW YORK, N.Y. 10016 (212)889-5416
Dr. Isaiah Gellman
Technical Director
SPECIAL REPORT No. 73-01 January 22, 1973
A SURVEY OF PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION EXPENDITURES AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS - 19 71
The attached special report summarizes the findings of
the National Council's survey of industry environmental pro-
tection expenditures and accomplishments through 1971, con-
ducted during 19 72. This survey was unique in that it
inquired simultaneously into both air and water quality
protection measures, and for the first time solicited in-
formation on solid waste disposal efforts and practices at
the point of paper manufacture.
Prepared largely through the efforts of Russell 0.
Blosser of the National Council staff, and dependent for its
information input on the cooperative efforts of numerous
company personnel in responding to the survey questionnaire,
the report addresses a number of salient questions.
With regard to industry capital costs, it first seek?; l.o
differentiate water quality protection c./ >ital expenditures
into two categories; namely for external and .internal effluent
loud control measures. Second, it identifies several distinct,
categories of atmospheric quality protection expenditures.
Finally, it summarizes each class of environmental protection
capital expenditures through 19 71, and presents projections
for the 19 72-74 period.
The report then addresses itself to the annual charges
being incurred in each of the environmental protection areas,
presents a description of the various control measures em-
ployed and i;he extent of their use, and provides an assessment
of the indu'.l ry manpower effort applied to this activity. The
report also continues the practice of reporting on water use
trends and ow;ts incurred for process water supply and
trr-M-niont.
-------
Finally,the report notes improvements in selected efflu-
ent parameters since the p-revious study and summarizes the
19 71 compliance status of the industry with respect to then
current effluent regulatory programs. The report provides
the? most coKij>rehcinr.ive a>)d reliable compilation available on
these matters, based as it is on replies from 329 mills rep-
resenting 77.5 percent of 1971 paper and paperboard capacity
and 8 3.2 percent of wood pulp capacity.
The National Council expresses its gratitude to the many
survey questionnaire respondents who provided the information
summarized in this report. It is currently examining its
survey procedures as well as the industry's environmental
protection record keeping procedures with the objective of
further improving the breadth and reliability of subsequent
surveys in this area.
Your comments and inquiries are invited on matters cov-
ered in the report.
Very truly yours
Isaiah Gellman
Technical Director
IG: cv
Attach.
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
I INTRODUCTION 1
II ORGANIZATION OF SURVEY 1
III CAPITAL EXPENDITURES FOR WATER QUALITY PROTECTION
1971 2
A. External to Process Treatment and Disposal 2
B. Internal Process Loss Control Expenditures 4
IV CAPITAL EXPENDITURES FOR AIR QUALITY PROTECTION 4
A. Emission Control Facilities and Other Control
Technology 4
V CAPITAL EXPENDITURES FOR DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE
GENERATED AT SITE OF MANUFACTURE ®
VI SUMMARY ?•:> LN VIRDNHBNTAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURES
THROUGH 19 71 AND PLANNED THROUGH 19 74 8
VII ANNUAL CHARGES TOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY PROTECTION 9
A. Annual Charges for Water Quality Protection 9
B. 7mnual Charges tor 7\ir Quality Protection H
C. Annual Charges for Disposal of Solid Waste
from the Manufacturing Site
D. Summary of Annual Charges for Environmental
Protection Activities
VIII NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF ACTIVITIES RELATED TO
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 15
h. Water Quality Protection 15
E. Air Quality Protection 19
C. Solid Waste Disposal from Treatment and
Manufacturing Operations 21
IX EXTENT OF MANPOWER INVOLVED IN ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION PROGRAMS 2 5
X PROCESS 7JJD COOLING WATER USE, COSTS AND EFFLUENT
VOLUMES - 1971 27
A. Purchased Process and Coc.1i.ng Water 27
E. Self- Suppl j el Process and Cooling Wato.r
C. Water Use 'P. vnds
x;i r•;v o in polp and ..h r.rrwsr.uy c.'.;ality
AND ST. .TU.- or COMPLi l.'-V/iV UATyii QUALITY
i-jiovEC-.! i l : rr x\Rhiw 29
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h SURVhV OF PULP AND I^vr-IR INDUSTRY ENVIRONMENTAL
PKt 'Th:-:: ; ON EXPENDITURj;'' 7iND ACCOMPLISHMENTS -1971
1 INTRODUCTION
During 1972 the National Council conducted an industry
wide of environmental protection expenditures, operat-
ing cc.. : -..I accomplishments . A portion of this survey re-
preson ti. fourth such survey on water quality protection,
the first having been published as part of an NAM sponsored
survey published in 196 5 as "Water in Industry - A Survey of
Mater U<=r i , "ndustry. The second and third surveys on
v.-iitprotection covered the periods through 1965
and .1''^'.
The £ir«;t comprehensive survey of air quality protection
expend!t . was conducted in 1971 and covered the period
throucji. Ii-'.V. As in this survey, information was requested
on cur -;. - d planned capital expenditures, and associated
operci_Jr-j o: Is for (a) external emission control devices for
pr/r- ¦¦¦ ' •. ¦ . paper manufacturing and chemical pulping opera-
tic,.:., portion of expenditures assignable to air qual-
ity protection for the conversion of power and stream genera-
tion boilers to utilize fuels resulting in lower emissions,
and (c) that portion of expenditures for air quality protection
fit-coy."4, '.rg for the provision of additional J:raft recovery fur-
n<:c.¦ city that permits controlled operation for minimum
reduced p.ulfur emissions as a means of meeting current or antic-
ipated regulations.
'i;.. present .survey,presented in summary form in this re-
in :. , r i resents the first attempt to identify the capital
ti. i .u re.s, operating costs, and means of disposition of
.'.ic 1 :d vrs-tf-s generated on the mr'.r.ufacturing site namely (a)
Or ¦ ¦ ¦ •. -waste treatment sludtjus, and (b) solid wastes gener-
-1 *' '-he manufacturing operation itself.
11 ORGANIZATION of survey
A '-vostionnaire format was developed by the staff and ap-
pro u the Operating Committee, which it was anticipated
won 3 u
-------
posal of solid wastes generated at the manufacturing site,
and (o) operating expenses for these activities. Informa-
tion on (a) the extent of effluent treatment provided as of
the end of 1971, (b) manpower involved in environmental pro-
tection programs, (c) status of individual mill effluent con-
trol compliance with state effluent discharge regulatory
schedules,and (d) methods of disposition of solids wastes
v;as also solicited.
Distribution of the questionnaire was directed to corpo-
rate management of- all paper companies in the United States.
At the time of data analysis from which this summary report
was developed, some information had..been received from 38.V5
mills Ve;:- eseiitinq 7.6.3% of the paper anc • napferboaVd capacity
ctr»a t'ir. bt,. :>i tne^v-ooa pvtip capacity..,.in The'vdata base
for estimation of capital expenditures and operating charges
was however based on at least partial information supplied by
329 mills which represented 77.5% of the paper and paperboard
capacity and 83.2% of the wood pulp capacity in 1971.
Ill CAPITAL EXPENDITURES FOR ^^Z^QUALITY PROTECTION
1971
A. External to Process Treatment and Disposal
(1) Capital Expenditures Through 1971 - Through 1969 the
pulp and paper industry had spent $380 million on facilities
for the control, treatment and disposal of liquid effluents.
For mills replying to this portion of the questionnaire $692
and $577 were spent per ton of paper and paperboard capacity
in 19 70 and 1971 respectively. The capital expenditures for
1970 and 1971 were projected from the actual reported expen-
ditures (and estimating, after sampling a representative
group that the observed percentage of mills providing no numer-
ical reply for a particular year, and those not replying to
the questionnaire made capital expenditures at the same rate-
as those who did).
As shown in Table 1 the expenditures for water quality
protection nearurr.-rr-external to the process in 1970 and 1971
were $(>7 and $79 million respectively. The trend in increasing
annual capital expenditures for this activity is evident when
compared with expenditures of prior years. The 1970 and 1971
expenditures for this activity do not include expenditures for
the water quality protection portion of sulfite recovery sys-
tems previously carried under this activity and now carried
under internal process loss control expenditures. The total
capital expenditure for external to process measurer, through
.1971 was S!3'"G million.
-------
- 2 -
(2) Planned Capital Expenditures - The planned expenditures
for external to process treatment an
-------
Int< riirtl ''(\.'gs Lot: a Control Expenditures
Respondc.n: j wore asked to provide information on capital
expenditures i>.y that portion' of internal process loss control
r.Ka;:u::j.p assicj:,.->ble to v.'ater quality protection. Examples for
v.hich .incroir.r r.icosts for water quality protection might have
L p incurred include: storage tankage, special sumps, ins-
t effluent segregation, white water reuse systems,
saveallr,, evaporator capacity, and sulfite and non-integrated
.'.emichtiitiiortl liquor recovery systems, the latter of which were
previously included with external to process expenditures.
(1) Capital Expenditures Through 1971 The capital expen-
ditures for internal process loss control assignable to water
quality protection for mills discharging, as well as those not
discharging, to municipal systems are shown in Table 2. As
mentioned previously these include that portion of sulfite
liquor recovery systems assignable to water quality protection.
It can be observed that the expenditures per ton paper and
paperboard were less for those mills replying to this portion
of the questionnaire than for external treatment, about $200
compared to about $600.
The annual capital expenditures for the industry were
projected as explained previously, treating sulfite mills
separately. They amount to $32.6 and $54.8 million respective-
ly for ID70 and 1971. The total expenditure for these activ-
ities through 1971 is $143 million compared with $56 million
through 19G9.
(2) Planned Capital Expenditures - The planned capital ex-
penditures tor internal process loss control water quality
prt .action are also shown in Table 2. The planned
If;'/ experidit'. r are 50$ greater than "those for 1971, com-
p-, an jj case of lOO'i for external treatment measures
i.1 V. 72. The j r.nned expenditures are $84, $69, and $53
irr" V i on for tv years 1972, 1973 and 1974 respectively, much
o ;ich is .-c. ounted for by sulfite liquor recovery systems.
rv £L1: EXPENDITURES FOR AIR QUALITY PROTECTION
¦¦ ¦ KrcissiControl 'Facilities and Other Control Technology
(1) Katv!;- of Information Collected - Information was rcquest-
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TABLE 2
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY INTERNAL PROCESS LOSS CONTROL
WATER QUALITY PROTECTION EXPENDITURES - 19 71
MILLS DISCHARGING TO
MUNICIPAL SYSTEMS
$/Ton Paper and
Paperboard for
Mills Reporting
Expenditures
Million Dollars
MILLS NOT DISCHATSr
municipal s\£n-::
$/I'on Paper and "
Paperboard for
Mills Reporting
(Excluding Sulfite)
Expandl tores
(Including
Sulfite)
Million Collars
Millie.
trough 1969
170
•71
trough 1971
127
141
1.6
1.8
231
175
31
53
32.5
54.8
-armed 1972
1973
1974
178
455
208
1.9
4.2
1.4
499
164
197
82
65
52
G-J
53
Sulfite internal process loss controls included with external
expenditures through 1969.
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monitoring devices. Information was solicited on emission con-
trol facilities at paper making operations. Six solvent emis-
sion control systems were reported and the expenditures for
these are included in the power boiler and paper manufacturing
category.
Existing and anticipated SOn and particulate control reg-
ulations are known to have entered into management decision
making concerned with selection of new, or modification or
replacement of existing power and steam-generating boilers.
Recipients of the questionnaire were therefore asked to identify
the portion of expenditures assignable to SO? and particulate
emission reduction in projects covering modification or replace-
ment of power and steam generation boilers by conversion of coal
or oil firing to oil or gas firing.
Similarly, respondents were asked for the incremental capi-
tal costs in the installation of new kraft recovery furnace
systems to meet existing or self-imposed objectives in antic-
ipation of new regulations. These two categories are defined
as "other control technology" in this report. The expenditures
reported however do not account for the unidentified cost as-
sociated with premature obsolescence of such equipment.
(2) Expenditures for Emission Control Facilities Through
1971 - The capital expenditures for emission control facil-
ities on pover boilers, sulfite pulping and kraft pulping
facilities are presented in Table 3. They equalled $9.7, $3.1,
and $26 million respectively for 1971. No annual expenditure
data for prior years is available but these expenditures are
equal to or greater than, the mean of the expenditures of the
previous four years. These total $386 million through 1971.
(3) Expenditures for Other Control Technology Through 1971-
The capital expenditures lor "other control technology" in
1971 for power boilers were $5.5 million. These costs are those
assignable to emission reduction as a result of fuel conversions.
The incremental expenditures for new kraft recovery systems
assignable to emission control in 1971 were $22 million. The
expenditures for the activity through 1971 total $126 million,
as shown in Table 3.
. Total and Planned Capital Expenditures - Through 1971
capital expenditures for all air quality protection measures
totalled $386 million. The planned capital expenditures for
air quality protection in 1972, 1973 and 1974 were reported
in 19 72 as $132, $204 and $162 million respectively. The 1972
planned expenditures are about tv?ice those for 1971 closely
following tl .¦ pattern illustrated earlier in external to process
wat'-r quality protection expenditures. These data are included
in la 3.
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TABLE 3
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
AIR QUALITY PROTECTION EXPENDITURES
MILLION DOLLARS
Iv'HSSICN CONTROL FACILITIES
Pcr.'.-er Boi.lo.rs
Sulfite Kraft
Through 1966
Tnrcuch 1970
43.2
4.0
18.5
89
160
3.7
3.1
26
Through 1971
52,9
21.6
186
Planned 1972
Planned 1973
Pl-zxcd 1374
(Power Boilers, Sulfite and Kraft)
(Power Boilers, Sulfite and Kraft)
(Paver Boilers, Sulfite and Kraft)
75
113
78
- 1971
OTHER CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
PCTv-er Boilers Kraft T
8.5
35 £j
5.5 22 t6
40.5 S3
3.5 54 132
6.6 34 2C4
16.2 68 162
-------
V CAPITAL EXPENDITURES FOR DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE
GENERATED AT SITE OF MANUFACTURE
A. Dj:->posj-ti.on of Waste Treatment Sludges and On-Site Generated
f 1 a' i u f a c t 'j r 11 u f K e s i d u e s.
(j) Nature of Information Collected - Information was request-
ed for the first line on the initial installation and acquisition
co.'.L: and major overhaul expenditures for solid waste disposal
facilities to include such items as land used as disposal areas,
trucks, incinerators, etc.
(2) Capital Expenditures Through 1971 - The capital expend-
itures for solid waste disposal facilities were $2.5 million
in IP71 and $18.5 million through 1971 as shown in Table 4.
(3) Planned Capital Expenditures - The planned capital expen-
ditures shown in Table 4 for this activity amount to $7.7,
$15.5 and $15.4 million, respectively for 1972, 1973 and 1974.
TABLE 4
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL CAPITAL EXPENDITURES — 1971
EXPENDITURES
Million Dollars
1971 2.5
Through 1971 » 5
Planned 1972 7.7
Planned 1973 15.5
Planned 1974 15.4
VI SUMMARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURES
THr.OTlGH 1971 AND PLANNED THROUGH 1974
The capital expenditures for the four categories of en-
vironmental protection, (a) external to process water quality
j.ii. o t —ct2.on , (b) xji'cerna 1 process loss control water quality
protection, (c) air quality protection, and (d) disposal of
;;c.lid vastes oenerai. \ci at the site of manufacture through
1(J7] and planned thv .u;gh 1974 are summarized in Table 5. The
to to 1 annual expend it'-.res for the industry can be seen to
ij.crease each year n. -liing $203 million in 19 71. These ex-
penditures represent " nit 27?. of the -1971 coital expenditure;;
"I $75!> J.vi 11 ion for . • , pr.pavhoniril huA building moU-
.].1. r.!i.i;uf.ici-.urijv. .iitii.-.. rcpoxted by tin.- Cem/u.;
v.vey of linnufu'.-i. uj : ...
-------
- 9 -
The planned capital expenditures for environmental protec-
tion practices in 1972 were $414 million or just over twice those
for 1971, This increase is reflected in the difference for ex-
ternal water quality protection expenditures between 19 71 and
1972, $577 compared to $1241 per ton paper and paperboard for
mills reporting. A 50 percent increase in expenditures for
internal process loss control measures in these two years and
a doubling of air quality protection expenditures over the same
period also account for the increase. The planned capital ex-
penditures for environmental protection measures for 19 7 3 and
1974 remain at the same level as 1972, or greater than $400
million annually.
VII ANNUAL CHARGES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY PROTECTION
A. Annual Charges for Water Quality Protection
(1) Composition of Annual Charges - Recipients of the question-
naire were asked to provide the operating charges consisting of
such items as supervision and labor, power, chemicals, utilities
and maintenance on "external to process" water quality protection
facilities and that portion of the operating charges applicable
to water quality protection in dual purpose internal process
loss control measures.
The fixed charges for these two types of facilities were
also requested. These include such items as taxes, amortization,
interest and depreciation. Those mills who discharge to public
facilities were also asked to provide the amount of payment for
these services. For the first time information was requested
on the administrative costs for water quality protection. This
would include such items as discharge permit application fees,
management functions at the mill level not directly costed to
effluent operations, surveillance, and taxes, etc.
(2) External to Process Annual Charges - External to process
water quality protection operating costs were $27.8 million com-
pared to $26 million in 1969. Fixed charges were $22.8 million
on an investment of $546 million through 1971 or just over 4%
of the investment. This appears to be low and is lower than
the 1969 value as a result of shifting sulfite liquor recovery
systems to the category of internal process loss control. The
payments to public agencies amounted to $9.4 million, up from
$4 million in 1969. For mills discharging to municipal systems
the mean cost was $1.08/ton paper and paperboard capacity while
the median was $0.64/ton paper and paperboard capacity. The
minimum charge was less than $0*01 while the maximum was greater
than $30/ton paper and paperboard capacity where special costs
for pulping liquor disposal were involved.
-------
TABLE
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY PROTECTION CAPITAL EXPENDITURES - 1971
Million Dollars
Solid Waste Disposal
Water Air from Manufacturing Total
Thrcv.r'a 1966 213 129 10 352
44 31(E) 1(E) 76
---- 49 43 (E) 1(E) 93
i — 9 74 52(E) 2(E) 128
1970 120 65(E) 2(E) 187
Through 1970 556^ 320 16 892
1371 134 66 2.5 203
Through 1971 690 386 18.5 1095
Planned 1972 274 132 8 414
Planned 1973 257 204 16 477
Planned 1374 256 162 15 433
(1)
Includes 56 million in undistributed internal process
loss control expenditures made through 1969.
Estimated distribution.
-------
- 11 -
The annual operating charges and fixed charges for external
to procc; water quality protection measures were $l/ton pulp
and paperboard capacity in 1971. These charges are net re-
presentative of those providing secondary treatment where mean
annual charges for various forms of treatment ranged from $1.90
to $3.50. Economy of scale and variation in complexity of the
treatment process, e.g., aerated basins versus activated sludge,
accounted for annual charges below $1.90 for some installations
and an increasing number above $5/ton compared to the 1969
survey. The capital investments where thse forms of treatment
are practiced ranged from $2000 to almost $5000/ton paper or
paperboard capacity.
(3) Internal Process Loss Control Measure Annual Charges - The
operating charges for internal loss control measures assignable
to water quality protection we're $23.4 million while fixed charges
were $15.9 million. The latter represented about 11% of an in-
vestment of $143 million. No information on operating and fixed
annual charges on this group of activities as a whole has been
collected before. Those for sulfite liquor recovery systems
were included in external to process treatment and disposal mea-
sures in earlier surveys.
The annual operating charge for this activity amounted 'to
$0.65/ton paper and paperboard capacity.
(4) Administrative Expenses - Administrative expenses amounted
to $0.05/.ton"paper and paperboard capacity.
(5) Total Annual Charges for Water Quality Protection Measures -
The total water quality protection operating charges for 1971
were $1.70/ton paper and paperboard, consisting of $1.00 for
external to process treatment, $0.65 for internal process loss
control measures and 0.05 for administrative costs. These an-
nual charge data are summarized in Table 6.
B. Annual Charges for Air Quality Protection
(1) Composition of Annual Charges - Information was request-
ed for the operating charges which include labor and supervision,
utilities, maintenance on single purpose emission control equip-
ment, and that portion of the operating charges assignable to
emission control in dual purpose equipment, i.e., that which
provides some return through caputure of materials that are
returned to process. The fixed charges, taxes, amortization, in-
terest and dejireciation for these two.typos of facilities were
also solicited. Also solicited were the administrative charges
for air quality protection not directly costed to emission con-
trol operations such as permit application fees, management
functions not costed to omission control operations, surveillance
and taxes, etc. Mo rtti, ,
-------
TABLE 6
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY ANNUAL CHARGES FOR INTERNAL PROCESS
LOSS CONTROL AND EXTERNAL TREATMENT - 1971
Million Dollars
To Public
Operating Fixed Agencies
$/Ton Paper and
Paperboard
1965 External
0.62
1969 External
27
26
1.06
(
IS71 External
Internal
27.8
23.4
Administrative Expense
22.8
15.9
9.4
1.00
0.65
0.05
1971 Total
1.70
Includes operating and fixed costs for environmental protection portion
of acid sulfite and non-integrated NSSC recovery systems.
-------
- 13 -
production capacity as a result of tai3>rintj production rate
to emission control capability, (c) differential fuel costs
incurred as a result of fuel change to reduce emissions or
(d) premiums price paid for low sulfur cc'tent fuel.
(2) Summary of Annual Charges - The ¦ vl operating cost
was $6.3 million for power boiler emission control and paper
manufacturing operations, and $11.5 million for chemical pulp-
ing operations.- The total, or $17.8 mill ron, was up from $14
million in 1970 and represented an operating charge of $0.29/ton
paper and paperboard capacity. Fixed costs were $2.4 and $9.3
million for these two functions in 1971, or a total of $11.7
million which represented little change from the $11.4 million
in 1970. This represented an annual charge of $0.19/ton paper
and paperboard capacity. The administrative expenses for this
activity were $0.03/ton paper and paperboard capacity.
Annual charges reached a grand total of $0.51/ton paper
and paperboard capacity compared with $0.42 in 1970. The bulk
of these annual charges were accounted for in the kraft in-
dustry, where about $0.60/ton pulping capacity was accounted
for in chemical pulping activities. This value is estimated
to be greater than $0.70/ton pulping capacity when annual
charges for emission control at chemical pulp mill power boil-
ers is added. These data are £*u.;v:narized in Table 7.
TABLE 7
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY ANNUAL CHARGES FOR AIR QUALITY
PROTECTION EMISSION C'.'MTROL FACILITIES - 1971
ANNUAL COST -
1970 Operating
1970 Fixed
1970 Total
1971 Operating
Fixed
Administrative'
Expenses
19 71 Tol-i.l
Power
Boilers
6.3
2.4
MILLION DOLLARS
Chemical
Pulping
11.5
9.3
14.0
11.4
25.4
17.8
11.7
$/Ton
Paper and
Paperboard
0.29
0.19
0.03
-------
- 14 -
C. Annual Charges for Disposal of Solid Waste from the Manu-
facturing Site^
(1) Composition of Annual charges - Information was solicited
on the operatenq charges, including those for labor and super-
vision, power, utilities, and maintenance, etc. for solid
waste disposal facilities such as trucks, incinerators and opera-
tion of landfill sites used in disposition of sludge and residue
generated on site at manufacturing operations. The fixed charges
on this class of activities such as interest, taxes, amortization
and depreciation were also solicited. In those cases where pay-
ment was made to public agencies or others for all or some por-
tion of the solid waste disposal activity cost information was
also solicited.
(2) Summary of Annual Charges - The annual operating charges
for mill operated solid waste disposal facilities were $5.5
million or $0.09/ton paper and paperboard capacity. Fixed
charges for these activities were $2 million or about $0.03/ton
pulp and paperboard capacity. Payments to public agencies, or
others for solid waste .disposal totalled $3.1 million of which
$2.0 million for disposal of on site generated manufacturing
residues. This represented just over $0.05 ton for the indus-
try's pulp and paperboard capacity.
Seventy two mills representing just over 16,000 tons paper
ind pape:-board capacity reported some payment to a public agency
or a private contractor for the disposal of solid wastes from
manufacturing. The maximum, minimum, median and mean charges
for the mills reporting in this category were $1.53, $ < 0.01,
$0.12 and $0.15 respectively per ton paper and paperboard. The
summary of annual charges for solid waste disposal is shown in
Table 8. These amounted to $0.18/ton of pulp and paperboard
in the industry.
TABLE 8
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY ANNUAL CHARGES
FOR SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL - 1971
$/Ton
Million Paper and
Dollars Paperboard
1971 Operating
5.5
0.091
1971 Fixed
2.0
0.033
71 Paynoir : i.o Public Atjr-ncios
Slue! , :>j.spo: al
So.? •' r.;ute;» Ironn I'janufncluring
1.1
2.0
0.018
0..033
I *\'t 1
-------
- 15 -
I). Summary of Annual Charges for Environmental Protection
Activities.
A summary of annual charges for environmental protection
activities in t:he pulp and paper industry in 1971 is shown
in Table 9. They amounted to $1.70 for water quality protection,
up from 1.0 6 in 1969; 0.51 for air quality protection, up from
0.42 in 1970; and 0.18 for disposal' of solid wastes for a total
of $2.39/ton of pulp and paperboard capacity in 1971.
TABLE 9
SUMMARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
ANNUAL CHARGES - 19 71
$/Ton Paper and Paperboard
Water 1.70
Air 0.51
Solid Wastes 0.18
Total 2.39
VIII NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF ACTIVITIES RELATED
TO ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
A. Water Quality Protection
(1) Categories of Effluent Control and, Disposal - Of 383
mills replying to this portion of the questionnaire, 216 mills
representing over .112,000 TPD paper and paperboard capacity and
75% of the industry capacity not discharging to public facilities
reported some form of external treatment.
Of those discharging to public facilities, 29 with a capa-
city of 3632 TPD or 15% of the capacity of mills using public
facilities, discharged with no special control. Thirty eight
representing G283 TPD capacity and 25% of the capacity of mills
using public facilities employed some form of required or self-
imposed internal process control for effluent quality improve-
ment. Twenty three mills representing 5561 T/D ciipacity cirul
22% of the cii}\-.cii.y of mills discharging to public facilities
provided ucir.c fonr of extern* 1 to-process pretreatment prior
to difch
-------
- 16 -
Sixty six mills representing 12 percent of the capacity
of mills not discharging to public facilities reported that
no external treatment was provided. The number of mills and
portion of the capacity they represent indicates this group
to be composed principally of smaller mills than those pro-
viding external treatment. Discharge requirements were met
by internal process control by 8 mills representing 1.4% of
the pulp and paperboard capacity not discharging to public
facilities. Only four mills reported no effluent discharge
as a result of closed process systems. Categories of effluent
control and disposal provided by mills replying to the survey
are shown in Table 10.
(2) Extent of Treatment and Disposal Methods Used - Two
hundred and twenty mills replying to the questiorvnVn r*» who do
not discharge to public facilities practice primary treatment.
Earthen basins were used by 44 mills with a paper and paper-
board capacity of 17,300 TPD. One hundrea fwnrv nin» mlTIs
with a capacity of 67,400 TPD used mechanical clar]^ «¦»-<=
and 47 mills with a capacity of 24,400 TPD use both.Primary
treatment was provided by 75% of the mills and 73% of the
capacity of mills not discharging to public facilities.
Primary treatment, treatment in public facilities, dis-
charge requirements met by internal process control and mills
without any discharge account for 79% of the total industry
capacity. The actual capacity covered in these categories is
higher by that amount accounted for in the group who do not
discharge to public facilities but provide some form of external
treatment or other control, but who did not reply to the question-
naire. Greater than 90% of the total industry capacity probably
currently falls in one of the above categories.
Of the mills reporting. 52 with a .capacity of 19f961 TPD^
used non-HPT-it-Pri a form of sprnnriarv tr^atmi-mt. f>5
with a capacity of 40-r>fi4 TPD used aerated stabilization basins,__
"16 y.'ith a capa^"H''r <">f ">0-701 TPD used nctivatpri s1nqpfrf '-t with -
a capacity of 2513 tpp n.sri trickling fillers and 13 with a
capacity of 3629 TPD used irrigation. This group with a total
capacity or 7'/.5bH TPD represented 51% of the mills and 52%
XthT
capacity not m scftarcring to nnhl-ir- tan i.ities. These
percentages represent a substantial increase over those of
27% and 41% respectively reported in the 1969 survey. The
information on extent of effluent treatment disposal methods
used in 1971 is summarized in Table 11.
(3) Extent of Special Effluent Tr'-.itn.ont and Control - Res-
pondents were asked to .identify selected special effluent treat-
ment or effluent quality control L'-°cedures currently employed.
Of 383 mills .n:'tary sewage was
from or or: sov.-yrs. This gr.ou] a paper and paperboard
-------
CATEGORIES OF PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY EFFLUENT CONTROL
AND DISFCSAL AT HILLS REPLYING TO SURVEY - 1971
PERCENT OF CAPACITY
?»o.
•ills
33
23
65
Category
External Treatment
To Public Facilities
Mo Special Control
To Public Facilities
VJith Internal Process Control
To Public Facilities
VJith External Treatment
l\c Treatments Provided by
Kill or Others
Discharge Requirements Met by
Internal Process Control
No Effluent
TPD
Pulp and Paperboard
Capacity
112,334
3,632
6,283
5,561
18,678
2,194
263
Not Discharging Discharging
to to
Municipal Systems Municipal Systems
75
12
1.4
0.2
15
25
22
62
-------
iviaijc. jl '
EXTENT OF T RE ATI-IE NT ANu DISPOSAL METHODS USED BY
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY - 1971
NO.
Mills
PERCENT
TPD Not Discharging
Paper and to Public Facilities
Paperboard Mills Reporting
Capacity Annual
Reporting Capacity
?rdr?_ry Treatment
Earthen Basins
>:^cJ;anical Clarifiers
44
129
47
17.3
67.4
24.4
220
109.1
75
73
Hills with Primary or
Discharging to Public Facilities
Prfeary Treatrrsnt, Public Treatment,
Discharge Requirements Met by Internal
eProcess Control and No Effluent
78
79
Secondary Treatment
Kcn-vleratfid Basins
Aerated Stabilization Basins
Activated Sludge
Trickling Filters
Irrigation
52
65
16
3
13
19,961
40,564
1C ,701
2,513
3,629
149
77,36a 51
52
NO Eirt.em.al to Process Treatment
22
12
-------
- 19 -
capacity of 90,830 TPD and represented 64% of the mill capac-
ity replying and 72% of the number of mills replying. One
hundred and five mills representing 36% of the mill capacity
replying, reported that sanitary sewage was not segregated.
About one half of this group discharged to public facilities
so that the question was not appropriate for this group. A
significant portion of the mills reporting, and approximately
80% of those not discharging to public facilities have there-
fore taken steps to isolate sewage as a potential source of
bacteriological water quality indicator organisms in process
effluents.
Of the 65 mills reporting the use of aerated stabilization
basins, 26 reported the use of special measures for clarifica-
tion of aeration basin effluents. Most of these consist of
quiescent zones located just prior to discharge in the terminal
portion of aerated basins and are not separate structures.
Eleven mills, ten kraft mills and one paper mill, reported
the use of effluent color reduction schemes. In the kraft
mills, in all but one case, these consist of lime precipitation
of selected process streams in the bleachery, or a change in
L bleaching sequence which results in effluent color reduction.
One paper mill reported the use of a color reduction scheme
(as distinguished from turbidity removal).
The information on these special effluent treatment facil-
ities and controls is summarized in Table 12.
(4) Measures Taken to Control Effluent Quality Prior to D.is-
charr-' to Public FacTTlties - Sixty one of the 90 mills report-
ing regulated effluent quality prior to discharge to public
facilities. Of these, 10 with a capacity of 2264 TPD controlled
pH, 57 with a capacity of 11,40G. TPD provided solids reduction,
17 with a capacity of 4357 provided some BOD reduction, es-
sentially ell associated with solids reduction, and 7 provided
some other method of effluent quality control. This informa-
tion is summarized in Table 13.
(5) Sludge Dewater.ing Facilities Serving Mills - Seventy
_t:h|-oo nil is rt-n.;rhc-c. the use of" drying beds as means of siiTdae
"dewatering, g portion of which were used in conjunction with
mechanical dewatering facilities. Vacuum filters were report-
ed in use at 37 mills for sludge dewatering, with centri'-ucrcrS
~~in nop ,-.t 14 other mils... The s.iudco cake from filters or
centrifuges was pre:;fed at 17 mills prior to disposal an'!
six miK's rfoori.I'd -i-imf sir.cjio-step pressing was the, solo method
of sludr - dc-watering. Sludge lagoomna was rrnm-t-.o3 to be in
use by mills.
B. Ai> t.v Pro! ection
51_5 r,c1 ''13/1 Rc oo-
toi.v.11 oj 01 i.iij. 1 s' j:9por to j"
( I ) . ' ' >' I r.r> 1 1 ¦ , Ci'ijiv ¦ • c 1
VI • I y , , I'v, ! • j. ; .
-------
TAB 12
EXTENT 0" PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY SPECIAL EFFLUENT TREATMENT
FACILITIES AND CONVHOL BY MILLS NOT DISCHARGING TO PUBLIC
FACILITIES
Yes
No
TPD
Paper and
P.-.perboard
Capacity
Percent
^aper ~nd
Paperc ;ard
Capacity
Replying
Sanitary Sewer Segregation
273
Clarification of Aerated Stabilization
Bssin Effluents 26
Color Reduction
10 (Kraft)
1 (paper-
mill)
105
39
90,830
51,427
13,767
26,797
6,882
220
64
36
fsj
O
-------
- 21 -
TABLE 13
MEASURES TAKEN AT MILLS DISCHARGING TO PUBLIC FACILITIES
TO MEET SPEC IV : >:D EFFLUENT QUALITY-1971
Number Mills
TPD
Paper and
Paperboard
Capacity
Effluent
Control
Measure
10
57
2264
11,046
4357
1457
pH Control
Solids Reduction
BOD Reduction
Other
pencil tu
or con\-
type as a it-
:& to emission control through the replacement
power boilers and changes in fuel grade or
>f reducing SO2 or particulate emissions.
Twen4-" >' kraft mills reported incremental costs in the
installs .>ew recovery furnace systems to meet existing
result.t: •. v . lupoid objectives in anticipation of new
rocjulat:! . .'i mJ o included the elimination of the direct contact
evapo) ai.o; .• 3 .idd.it.Lon of new furnace capacity to match the
existing ..netion rate with ability to fire for maximum reduced
sulfur c;v)n control.
Of
the end
in 1972.
contno 1
liquor,
ktion o
syt
been in:
non-co,;
C,
So1.
.1 ) V.-c. ft mills, 41 practiced black liquor oxidation at
and 9 more mills planned to install these system?
..v ;n:other six mill locations recovery furnaces without
v.\.<
-------
- 22 -
l'acturina o.i'cratiom; - Waste treatment sludges returned to pro-
cess in 17.1 amounted to 377 ton/day or about 7.5% of the total
generate-'. Just over 3% of the total generated, or 174 tons/day,
was repc > ' 1 to be used in by-products, and the remainder or
/!4 6r/ ton> was disposed of by some other means.
On ; ¦:.)ste treatment sludge not returned to process or
used in 1 . ducts, mechanically dewatered sludge accounted
for a vr ¦ >£ 8890 yds/day, that from drying beds C26 yds/day,
and otl: 'dge primarily sludge lagoons, was reported as 3315
yds/dev . ; amount of sludge still disposed of in lagoons
suggec4 .. \i...t the latter estimate may be low.
57ov one mills reported that process water treatment
sludc _ , ¦ . .,nting to 326 tons/day was generated and returned to
rece; \ : v:aters.
The weight of solid wastes generated from manufacturing opera-
tion amounted to 5840 ton/day with a volume of 20,180 ydsJ/day.3
(.c ic. iated mean bulk density of this material was 580 lbs/yd
TL ; information on sludge and solid waste generation is
-I ' ' .:d in Table 14.
(- . i/M' Hods of Disposition of Waste Treatment Bludge - A sig-
r ¦ volume oT" :;~ludge estimated a s " 420(T*ycu$- 7aay as disposed
. ¦! landfill.';. Of the 4C ntills reporting who used
. of final disposal, 30 hauled some sludge themselves,
• ¦ * tec; that contractors were used for hauling, and in three
i-a material was hauled by a public agency. In some cases
<- ¦ n 0210 arrangement for hauling was used. Seventy two
! j sites were reported to be used, 40 owned by the mills
' '.¦¦ ¦ ethers. The median hauling distance was 2 miles and
miles to 1,-ndfill and other land disposal areas.
' -it. 1600 yd.s,A I ay of sludge is estimated to be disposed
of land disposal other than sanitary landfill. Forty
'lis were reported in this category, with private hauling
' .~>y s employed at five mills. All 49 mills using this
final sludge disposal reported they owned some disposal
in 26 cases at least some of the disposal area was own-
Twenty three mills reported disposition of waste treatment
i,v incineration, 3 by separate incineration, 19 by in-
!:.ic>n in pov;er boilers and one by others.
r.'lghty five mills reported that all or portions of waste
".'it sl".d'jo wcis disponed of in lagoons.
met-'1 oil:; uc*-
-------
- /: J -
TABLE 14
PULP AND P.APER INDUSTRY SLUDGE AND SOLID WASTES
GENF.R : AND METHODS OF DISPOSITION - 1971
Waste Treat. Sludge
1. Returned to Process
2. Reur^c1 in By-Products
3. Not Returned to Process
Volume of ji-uage Not Returned to Process
1. t" :y t. ically Dewatered
2. ' -ying Beds
3. Other (Sludge Lagoons)
Proces
Treatment Sludge
rr.'.ed to Receiving Waters
377 tons/day
174 tons/day
4465 tons/day
"3TTD5"
8890 yds/day
826 yds/day
3315 yds/day
382 tons/day
Solid V
1.
2.
3.
rom Manufacturing Operations
!¦
oensity
5840 tons/day
20,100 yds3/day
580 lbs/yds3
-------
TABLE lt>
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY METHODS OF FINAL DISPOSITION
OF WASTE TREATMENT SLUDGES - 1971
I Sanitary Landfill and Other Land Disposal
Volume
Hauled By:
(1) Mills
(2) Private Contractor
(3) Public Agency
Disposal Area Owned By:
(1)
(2)
Mill
Others
Distance to Sanitary Landfill or
Oth'..r Land Disposal
. :nxnium
lied.Lan
Mean
Sanitary
Landfill
30
23
3
40
32
1 mile
2 miles
3.9 miles
Other Land
Disposal
3800 yds3/day 1600 yds3/da
37
19
5
49
26
i;'.V * notrntion
i) Separate Incineration 3
(?) Incineration in Power
Boilers 19
(3) Incineration by Others 1
T'i j Lagoon Stcr-ago of Sludge
(1) Uuru:. r of Mills Bb
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( 3) Methods of Disposition- of Solid Waste from Manufacturing
Operations - An estimated 8000 ydsJ/day of solid waste from
manufacturing operations is hauled to sanitary landfill, and
10,200 yds3/dr.y is hauled to some other form of land disposal.
Of the 178 mills disposing of at least a portion of the
solid waste from manufacturing operations by sanitary landfill,
112 haul at least a portion, contractors haul some portion
and public agencies haul from 5. The landfill areas are owned
by the mills in 66 cases and in 128 cases by others. The
median and mean haul distance to landfill and other methods
of land disposal is 2 and 4.7 miles.
Of the 93 mills using other land disposal methods for
these residues, 90 haul at least a portion, contractors haul
from 26 mills and none was hauled by public agencies. Seventy
one other land disposal areas were owned by mills and 39 by
others.
A significant number, or 26, mill-owned and operated incin-
erators were reported in use, and in 16 cases the solid waste
from manufacturing operations was incinerated by others.
The information on methods of disposition of solid wastes
from manufacturing is summarized in Table 16.
IX EXTENT OF MANPOWER INVOLVED IN ENVIRONMENTAL
3 PROTECTION PROGRAMS
Based on the survey there are 1319 man years spent annually
on water quality protection programs of the pulp and paper in-
c?ut>try and 532 ir.ai: years devoted to air quality protection pro-
grams at the mill level. The distribution based on training
find responsibilities in water quality protection programs was
29i> or 22% professional, 2C1 or 21% semi-professional, 586 or 44
operators and 157 or 13% in administrative roles. The distribu-
tion among professionals, semi-professionals, and operators is
rbc ut the same as .\n 1969, with an increase of 12% in total
number of man years reported.
In the air quality protection programs 155 or 29% man years
of the marpower involved was professional, 117 or 22% semi-
professional, 18C or 35% operators, and 72 or 14S. in administra-
tive functions. No .information is available on manpower involve
in these programs for earlier years.
Tlie informatics on personnel assign, d to air and v/ater qua]
it.y protection pro^r;;\is is summarised in Table 17.
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TABLE 16
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY METHODS OF FINAL DISPOSITION
OF SOLID WASTES FROM .C'.:URING OPERATIONS - 1971
Sanitary Landfiil and Other Land Disposal
Volume
Hauled By:
(1) Mills
(2) Private Contractor
(3) Public Agency
Disposal Area Owned By:
(1)
(2)
Mill
Others
Distance to Sanitary Landfill,
or Other Lan;! Disposal
Minimum.
Median
Mean
Sanitary
Landfill
112
85
5
66
128
1 mile
2 miles
4.7 milfes
Other Land
Disposal
8000 yds /day 10,200 ydsVd,
90
26
0
71
39
II Incineration
(1)
(2)
Mill O.
Incir
£d and Operated Incinerators
:ion by Others
26
16
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TABLE 17
PERSONNEL ASSIGNED TO AIR AND WATER QUALITY
PROTECTION ACTIVITIES
Water Air
Professional 295 155
Semi-Professional 281 117
Operators 586 188
Management and Administrative 157 72
Total 1319 532
X PROCESS AND COOLING WATER USE, COSTf AND
EFl'LUEWT VOLUMES - 1971
A. Purchased Process and Cooling Water
Of the 390 mills reporting in this category, ?.28 purchased
all or a portion of their process wdterv The co ' of pur elided
water ranged from a maximum of 92C/1000 gal. to ?. than
1C/1000 gal. with a mean of 10.4^/1000 gal. and ; median of
17.0C/1000 gal. Thirty mills reported that additional treatment
was provided at a mean cost of 6.5C/1000. gal. and median cost
of 1.6C/1000 gal.
B• Self-Supplied Process and Cooling Water
The median cost of self-supplied process and cooling water
was 2.9C/1000 gal. The maximum reported cost was 45C/1000 gal.
The minimum O.K'/IOOO gal. and the mean 4.8£/1000 gal. The in-
formation on water use. and cost is summarized in Table 18.
C. Water Use Trends
Process water use in .1971 was 27 ,70(; gal/ton paper and
paperboard prothcod, com] red to 2f!,000 In 1969 and 36,000 in
1959 sho\.v ng an j.nsignifi ant reduction ince the last surv^y.
Total m.i 3 !. off loont"., i ncv • pre re sr. I cool.ing wc.>tor5;, v::;.s
34,800 r.'.l/ton of paper : :•! Jn:.ard •dvcc'd co.mp.ired' to
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TABLE 18
PROCESS AND COOLING WATER COSTS
IN THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY - 1971
CENTS/1000 GALLON
Moan Cost
of Additional
Max. Min. Median Mean Treatment
Purchased 92 <1 17 18.4 6.5
Self-Supp3ied 45 1 2.9 4.8
37,000 gal/to., in 1969 and 57,000 gal/ton in 1959, showing a
well-defined trcrd in reduction of total effluent volume per
ton of production, probably resulting from increased reuse of
cooling water. This information is summarized in Table 19.
TABLE 19
WATER UE-r \ • VUDS IN THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY - 1971
GAL/TON
1959 1969 1971
Process
36,000
28,000
27,700
Tol.:-.l nill Effluent
57,000
37,000
34,800
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XI OBSERVED CHANGES IN PULP AND PAPER EFFLUENT QUALITY
AND STATUS OF COMPLIANCE WITH STATE WATER QUALITY
PROTECTION PROGRAMS
One of the measures Which has found historical use in chart
ing industry progress in stream improvement is the BOD discharge
per unit of production, usually expressed as lbs/ton. It is of
limited value since it fails to identify the changes occurring
in the receiving water. Traditional use, however, suggests its
incorporation in this report while recognizing its limited
value.
The mean BOD load has dropped steadily from 210 lbs/ton
paper and paperboard produced in 1943, to 94 lbs. in 1959, 68
lbs. in 1969 and 54 lbs. in 1971. From 11 million lbs/day in
1969 the total load dropped almost 14% to 9.5 million lbs/day
in 1971 while production increased almost 12%. These reductions
in overall loads do not take into account improved treatment
efficiency during the warm weather low flow periods, or the
benefits derived from effluent storage and ability to proportion
discharge to stream conditions during these periods as mechanism
of receiving water quality protection. Such programs have been,
and can be expected to continue to be effective where avail-
able land permits storage of effluent for extended periods in
those instances where low, or intermittent, receiving stream
flow occurs.
The suspended solids loads were reduced from 61 lbs./ton
paper and paperboard produced in 1965 to 45 lbs. in 1969 and
42 lbs. in 1971, Increasing amounts of treatment assure that
these are becoming essentially free of settl.ic.ble solids.
Since the amounts of residual BOD or suspended solids in
effluent are not directly indicative of receiving water quality
or the effectiveness of current water quality protection pro-
grams another means was used to identify progress in these
areas. Recipients of the questionnaire were asked if the mill
was in compliance with the time schedule set forth in state
regulatory water quality protection programs established speci-
fically for this mill. A total of 304 repl-ied to the question,
229 replying yes, 16 no, and 59 replying that none had as yot
been set or that, the question war, not applicable. The structure
of the response indicates favorable compliance with programs
established by those agencies who have a major regulatory res-
ponsibility in water quality protection.
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