Untied States
Environmental Protection EPA 909-B-97-001
Agency Region 9 March 1997
$efa ipm for Schools:
A How-to Manual
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IPM for Schools:
A How-to Manual
Authors: Sheila Daar, Tanya Drlilc,
Helga Olkowski, William Olkowski
Editor: Tanya Drlik
Editorial Assistant: Aloysha Ricards
Project Director: Sheila Daar
Acknowledgments
Roger Akre, Michael Baefsky, Joelle Bouchard,
Doug Carver, Stephen Frantz, Cynthia Hsu,
Irene Juniper, William Quarles, Sarah Schubart,
Laurie Swiadon, Robert L. Smith, Kathy Spaulding
Pamela Weatherford, and Michael Wolf.
Desktop Publishing by Lisa Krieshok Design
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Disclaimer
Mention of trade names, products, or services
does not convey, and should not be interpreted
as conveving, official EPA approval, endorsement,
or recommendation
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Preface
Why IPM in Schools?
The Environmental Protection Agency is responsible
for the regulation of pesticides in the United States.
Before a pesticide can be legally used, it must be
registered by the EPA, and to do this requires a
significant amount of data and a basic understanding
of the risks that may be posed by use of the pesticide.
Label restrictions and other requirements are im-
posed to reduce the possibility of these risks. So
why does EPA promote integrated pest management
(IPM), which suggests that prudence is needed in
using these registered pesticide products? There are
several reasons.
Uncertainties. Despite the substantial amount of
scientific information that EPA reviews prior to
registering a pesticide, it is virtually impossible to
identify all conceivable risks and to address all the
uncertainties of pesticide use. This means that from
time to time new risks are uncovered. Some examples
are: egg-shell thinning caused by DDT, groundwater
contamination, pesticides that mimic hormones, and
the more recent discovery that pesticides in combina-
tion may behave synergistically with a great multiplier
effect. The amount of testing that would be required
to resolve these uncertainties would result in no
pesticides being registered. Because science cannot, in
any practical sense, assure safety through any testing
regime, pesticide use should be approached cautiously.
Overuse of pesticide causes problems. Aside from
the potential for toxic effects to people, overuse of
pesticides may cause problems such as: 1) killing
beneficial organisms that would otherwise help
control pests; 2) promoting development of pesticide
resistance in pests, which starts a vicious cycle in
which more and more pesticides are needed; 3) resur-
gence of pest populations, and 4) contamination of the
environment.
Economics. Integrated pest management, when viewed
by traditional economics, often results in lower costs
than conventional pest management. If other costs, for
which dollar signs are not readily available, are consid-
ered, then the balance shifts further towards IPM. Some
of these poorly accounted-for costs are: potential long
term health effects, contamination of the environment,
effects of pesticides on non-target animals and plants,
the health effects to someone who may be particularly
sensitive to a pesticide or pesticides, and any other
effects that are not now understood, but will be uncov-
ered over time. Even though these costs are not tradi-
tionally considered in economics, they are costs, and
should not be ignored.
Unique characteristics of children. The National
Academy of Sciences, in their 1993 report Pesticides in
the Diets of Infants and Children, found that children
differ from adults both in the potential for exposure to
pesticides and the potential for health effects. This adds
a degree of uncertainty to the studies required for
registration of a pesticide, as all studies are conducted
on laboratory animals.
Educational opportunities. While this manual is
intended for school personnel with pest management
responsibilities, the concepts of IPM can also be used
for teaching about pests in biology and other science
classes. This will also promote IPM in homes and
ultimately-through the fostering of informed consum-
ers-in agriculture, city parks, roadsides, and other areas
that have been subjected to high use of pesticides.
EPA promotes integrated pest management through
documents such as this because it represents a prudent
approach to understanding and dealing with environ-
mental concerns. IPM does not blindly embrace new
technology nor does it reject technology. IPM does
promote a thoughtful awareness of the pest manage-
ment inherent in natural systems through an under-
standing of pest life cycles, and through the use of
beneficial organisms, cultural modifications, physical
barriers and other mechanical controls. It does not
rule out the use of pesticides, but requires that their
use be thoughtfully considered. This prudence and
thoughtfulness applied to pest management also has
lessons for our dealing with the environment in other
ways. It will help produce the thinking needed for
environmental preservation, and there can be no better
place for this lesson than in our schools.
IPM for Schools
iii
Preface
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Table of Contents
Preface
Introduction 1
Chapter 1 What Is Integrated Pest Management? 3
The Role of Pesticides in School IPM 3
IPM Program Goal 3
Components of an IPM Program 4
The Decision-Making Process 5
Bibliography 8
Chapter 2 Monitoring 9
Not Enough Time or Money? 9
Levels of Effort Used in Monitoring 9
What is Monitoring? 9
Why Monitor? 9
What to Monitor 10
Identifying the Target Pest 11
Timing Monitoring Activities 11
Record Keeping 13
Bibliography 14
Chapter 3 Setting Injury and Action Levels 15
Determine Injury Levels First 15
Determine Action Levels Based on Injury Levels 16
IPM Program Evaluation 16
Assessing Cost Effectiveness 18
Bibliography 18
Chapter 4 Selecting Treatment Strategies 19
Criteria For Selecting Treatment Strategies 19
Timing Treatments 20
Summary of Available Treatment Options 20
Education 21
Habitat Modification 21
Modification of Horticultural Activities 21
Physical Controls 21
Biological Controls 22
Least-Toxic Chemical Controls 23
Bibliography 26
Chapter 5 IPM for Ants in Schools 27
Identification and Biology 27
Damage 27
Detection and Monitoring 27
Management Options 28
Bibliography 33
IPM for Schools V Table of Contents
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Chapter 6 IPM for Cockroaches in Schools 35
Identification and Biology 35
Damage 35
Detection and Monitoring 35
Management Options 4'
Bibliography 4®
Chapter 7 IPM for Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles in Schools 49
Identification and Biology 49
Damage 50
Detection and Monitoring 52
Management Options 53
Bibliography 55
Chapter 8 IPM for Fleas in Schools 57
Identification and Biology 57
Damage 57
Detection and Monitoring 57
Management Options 58
Bibliography 61
Chapter 9 IPM for Flies in Schools 63
Garbage- and Manure-Breeding Flies
Identification and Biology 63
Damage 63
Detection and Monitoring 63
Management Options 63
Fruit Flies, Cluster Flies, and Phorid Flies
Identification and Biology 69
Management Options 69
Bibliography 70
Chapter 10 IPM for Lawns in Schools 7)
Detection and Monitoring 71
Management Options 74
Chinch Bugs
Identification and Biology 76
Damage 76
Detection and Monitoring 76
Management Options 77
Fusarium Blight
Identification and Biology 78
Management Options 78
Bibliography 79
Chapter 11 IPM for Head Lice in Schools 81
Identification and Biology 81
IPM for Schools vi Table of Contents
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How Lice are Transmitted 81
Damage 81
Detection and Monitoring 8'
Management Options 82
Bibliography 85
Chapter 12 IPM for Rats and Mice in Schools 87
Identification and Biology 87
Damage 89
Detection and Monitoring 89
Management Options 91
Bibliography 102
Chapter 13 IPM For Scorpions in Schools 103
Identification and Biology 103
Stings 103
Detection and Monitoring 104
Management Options 104
Bibliography 105
Chapter 14 IPM for Silverfish, Firebrats, and Booklice in Schools 107
Identification and Biology 107
Damage 108
Detection and Monitoring 108
Management Options 108
Bibliography 110
Chapter 15 IPM for Spiders in Schools 111
Removal of a Non-Dangerous Spider Ill
General Spider Management Ill
Black Widow Spiders
Identification and Biology Ill
Bites 112
Detection and Monitoring 112
Management Options 112
Brown Recluse or Violin Spiders
Identification and Biology 113
Bites 113
Detection and Monitoring 114
Management Options 114
Aggressive House Spider
Identification and Biology 114
Bites
Detection and Monitoring 114
Management Options
Bibliography
IPM for Schools vii Table of Contents
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Chapter 16 IPM for Trees and Shrubs on School Grounds 117
Plant Health Care (PHC) Management 117
Components of a PHC Program 117
Conclusion
Bibliography 119
Chapter 17 IPM for Wood Damaging Pests in Schools 121
Identification and Biology—Wood-Attacking Fungi 121
Identification and Biology—Termites 121
Identification and Biology—Wood-Boring Beetles 124
Detection and Monitoring 126
Management Options 130
Bibliography 136
Chapter 18 IPM for Weeds on School Grounds 139
Identification and Biology 139
Detection and Monitoring 140
Management Options 141
Bibliography 143
Chapter 19 IPM for Yellowjaclcets and Hornets in Schools 145
Identification and Biology 145
Stings 145
Nest Disturbance 147
Detection and Monitoring 147
Management Options 148
Bibliography 152
Recommended Reading List 153
Appendix A IPM-Related Curricula and Resources for the Classroom 157
Appendix B How to Develop an IPM Program 159
Appendix C Developing an IPM Policy Statement 169
Appendix D IPM Contract Performance Specifications 171
Appendix E Sample Monitoring Forms 177
Appendix F How To Collect and Preserve Specimens for Identification 195
Appendix G Pesticide Information Resources 197
Appendix H Head Lice Information Packet for Schools 199
Appendix I Inspection Checklist for Detecting Structural Decay and
Structural Pest Damage 209
IPM for Schools viii Table of Contents
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Introduction
Pest Management Challenges
in the School Environment
Use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) principles
and practices in the school environment is a growing
trend in communities throughout the United States.
IPM's focus on pest prevention using effective, least-
toxic methods is proving practical to apply and cost-
effective to operate.
As Maryland school IPM expert William Forbes (and
others) have pointed out, a school is a challenging
place to operate a pest management program. Most
school buildings are unintentionally designed with
ideal entry points and harborages for pest insects,
rodents, and other unwelcome wildlife. Inappropriate
landscape design and plant selection often encourage
weeds and other pest problems. Diminishing budgets
and deferred maintenance exacerbate these predispos-
ing conditions for pests.
Schools also include diverse physical spaces, indoors
and out, that require customized solutions to pest
problems. In addition, schools host a wide variety of
people, from teachers and students to vendors and
community groups, who have differing opinions
about pest tolerance levels and appropriate pest
management methods. It is necessary to sensitively
address the concerns of parents and others who want a
school site free of nuisance or health-threatening
pests, but want this achieved with minimal use of toxic
materials.
Because IPM is a decision-making process and not a
rote method, an IPM program will always be able to
take into account the wide spectrum of pest problems
and the diversity of people involved. IPM methods
equip pest control operators (PCOs) and other mem-
bers of the IPM team to design flexible, site-specific
pest management plans scaled to the severity of the
problem and the level of resources available.
The IPM approach also offers unique opportunities to
incorporate pest management issues into the school
science curriculum and offer students hands-on
learning experiences in the biology, ecology, and least-
toxic management of the pests that seek to inhabit
school buildings and grounds (see Appendix A for a
listing of IPM-related curricula).
Chapters 1 through 4 provide a full discussion of IPM
concepts pertaining to schools. These chapters will be
of particular interest to school board members, admin-
istrators, principals, facility managers, and parents as
they wo^k to establish IPM policies, pest control
contract guidelines, and other administrative systems
designed to institutionalize IPM.
Appendix B ,"How To Develop An IPM Program,"
provides a step-by-step guide for implementing a
school IPM program, and includes a discussion of the
psychological and institutional barriers to IPM.
Chapters 5 through 19 cover IPM strategies for 14 of
the most common pests or problem sites in U.S.
schools. These chapters are written primarily for pest
control personnel and others who may be involved in
the day-to-day pest management in a school.
IPM for Schools
I
Introduction
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Chapter 1
What Is Integrated Pest Management?
Integrated pest management (IPM) is an approach to
pest control that utilizes regular monitoring and
record keeping to determine if and when treatments
are needed, and employs a combination of strategies
and tactics to keep pest numbers low enough to
prevent unacceptable damage or annoyance. Biologi-
cal, cultural, physic.nl, mechanical, educational, and
chemical methods are used in site-specific combina-
tions to solve the pest problem. Chemical controls are
used only when needed, and in the least-toxic formu-
lation that is effective against the pest. Educational
strategies are used to enhance pest prevention, and to
build support for the IPM program.
The Role of Pesticides in School IPM
Although pesticides often have a role to play in IPM
programs for schools, their use should be approached
with caution. The risk of harm from exposure to
pesticides is relatively higher for infants and children
than for adults exposed at the same levels (National
Research Council 1993 [see Box 1-A]). By using the
least-toxic product effective against the pest and
applying it as a spot treatment in combination with
non-chemical methods such as pest-proofing and
improved sanitation, risks from pesticide exposure can
be minimized.
The term "least-toxic" refers to pesticides that have
low or no acute or chronic toxicity to humans, affect a
narrow range of species, and are formulated to be
applied in a manner that limits or eliminates exposure
of humans and other non-target organisms. Fortu-
nately, there are an increasing number of pesticides
that fit within this "least-toxic" definition. Examples
include products formulated as baits, pastes, or gels
which do not volitalize in the air and which utilize
very small amounts of the active ingredient pesticide,
and microbial pesticides formulated from fungi,
bacteria, or viruses that are only toxic to specific pest
species but harmless to humans.
IPM Program Goal
The goal of a school IPM program is to protect human
health by suppressing pests that vector diseases, to
reduce losses from pest damage, reduce environmental
pollution, reduce human exposure to pesticides,
particularly that of children, and to reduce costs of
Box 1-A.
Special Vulnerabilities of Children to
Pesticides
In 1993, the National Research Council, a commit-
tee of the National Academy of Sciences, published
a report entitled Pesticides in the Diets of Infants
and Children. This report documented that infants
and children face relatively higher risks from
exposure to pesticides than do adults exposed at the
same levels. This is due to a number of physiologi-
cal factors including the rapid growth and develop-
ment of a child's central nervous system that makes
this young nervous system particularly vulnerable
to exposure to neurotoxins, and the fact that
children consume more food relative to their body
weight, so their actual exposure levels are often
higher than those of adults. The report also points
out that children can be exposed to pesticides from
non-dietary sources (e.g., residues from pesticides
applied in the home, school, park, etc.), and that
when residues of two or more pesticides are com-
bined, synergistic action between the compounds
can significantly increase their level of toxicity.
For many years, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) has evaluated the safety of pesti-
cides largely on potential risks to healthy adults
(Benbrook 1996), primarily males. However, in
1996, the 104th Congress unanimously passed the
Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 which
amends the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Food, Drug,
and Cosmetic Act to require the EPA to take into
account the special risks posed to infants and
children (as well as pregnant women) when
determining tolerance levels for pesticide residues
in food. As a result, food tolerance levels are
expected to drop significantly, and not all cur-
rently registered agricultural pesticides (many of
which are also used in schools), will be able to
meet the new criteria. How this will affect the
availability of pesticides currendy used in schools
is not yet clear.
IPM for Schools
3
Chapter 1 • What is IPM?
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pest control. In IPM programs, treatments are not
made according to a fixed schedule; they are made
only when and where monitoring has indicated that
the pest will cause unacceptable economic, aesthetic,
or medical injury or damage.
"Economic injury" refers to damage to structures or
plants severe enough to cause an economic loss.
Examples of economic injury might be loss of food
due to rodent or insect contamination, or severe
structural damage due to moisture accumulation and
wood-destroying fungi. "Aesthetic injury" refers to
annoyance or embarrassment from visibility of a pest,
or damage to the appearance of plants which may
reduce aesthetic appeal but does not necessarily
adversely affect plant health. The tolerance levels for
aesthetic injury differ: the tolerance for weeds in
lawns might be much higher in a school playground
than in the front lawn or entryway to the school.
"Medical injury" refers to illness in humans, pets, or
wildlife caused by organisms or compounds transmit-
ted by pests. Two examples of health-threatening
pests are rodents which can carry diseases and poison
oak or ivy which cause painful skin rashes.
In an IPM program, if treatments are needed, they are
selected and timed to be most effective on the pest,
least disruptive to its natural controls, and least
hazardous to humans and the environment.
Components of an IPM Program
One of the characteristics of an IPM approach that
makes it so effective is that the basic decision-making
process is the same for any pest problem in any loca-
tion. The strategies and tactics may change, but the
steps taken to decide if and when treatment is needed,
and which methods to use, are the same each time.
Thus, the pest manager does not need to try to remem-
ber reams of pest control "recipes" for specific pests.
Instead, it is an understanding of the components of an
IPM program that must be mastered. The IPM deci-
sion-making process is illustrated in Figure 1-1.
An IPM program is built around the following
components:
• monitoring the pest population and other relevant
factors
• accurate identification of the pest
• determining injury and action levels that trigger
treatments
• timing treatments to the best advantage
• spot treating the pest (to minimize human and
other non-target organism exposure to pesticides
and to contain costs)
• selecting the least-disruptive tactics
• evaluating the effectiveness of treatments to fine-
tune future actions
• educating all people involved with the pest problem
Each of these components is discussed in detail in later
chapters of this manual.
Figure 1-1.
The IPM Decision-Making Process
IPM for Schools
4
Chapter 1 • What is IPM?
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The Decision-Making Process
The basic IPM process helps answer four key pest
management questions, easily remembered by four
words: IF, WHERE, WHEN, and WHICH.
IF treatment action is necessary
Instead of taking action at the first sign of a potential
pest, the IPM process begins with asking whether any
actions at all are needed (see Chapter 3 for a discus-
sion of injury and action levels). Sometimes, even a
fairly large population of pests can be tolerated with-,
out causing a problem. In other cases, the presence of
a single pest organism is considered intolerable. In
still other cases, what is considered a pest by one
group in society may be considered innocuous by
another.
Example: Boxelder bugs (Leptocoris trivittatus) are
brightly colored and often cluster under shrubs, on the
shady side of tree trunks, or enter buildings through
open doors or broken window screens. The sight of
them sometimes frightens people, or raises fears that
they will damage plants. In fact, these insects are
harmless. They feed mainly on boxelder trees and
silver maples, and rarely harm even these trees since
their main food source is the tree's seeds. Thus, concern
about their presence is generally unwarranted.
Example: Large rodent droppings and grease trails
suggest there is a rat in a crawl space under the eaves.
Even one rat can be a problem, because it can gnaw on
electric wires causing fires, and leave fleas which can
transmit pathogens to humans. Treatment action is
usually required even if only one rat is suspected.
WHERE treatment activity should take place
If it is decided that some treatment action is necessary,
the IPM process encourages pest managers to look at
the whole system for the best place to solve the
problem. Treatment should be applied where actions
will have the greatest effect.
Example: Although mosquito problems are frequently
handled by fogging buildings or school yards with
insecticides, it is not possible to control mosquitoes
unless treatment is directed at the immature stages of
the insect. Mosquito larvae develop in water (e.g.,
clogged gutters and drains, stagnant ponds, low-spots
in playing fields, etc.). By locating such sites and
eliminating them or treating them with non-toxic
microbial materials to kill the larvae, mosquito prob-
lems can be solved before mosquitoes become biting
IPM Is Federal Policy
In 1979, the Council on Environmental Quality
(CEQ), an advisory body to the President, issued a
report entitled Integrated Pest Management, which
included recommendations that IPM be adopted as
official policy in the United States. This new
Federal policy was announced to the nation in the
President's State of the Union address that year. It
represented a significant shift in thinking about an
appropriate apprcach to pest management for this
country.
The new policy immediately influenced budget
allocations and practice in Federal agencies such as
the National Park Service, the Department of
Agriculture, and the Environmental Protection
Agency. During the following decades, state,
county, and local public agencies, as well as ar-
borists, lands capers, and nurseries began to adopt
IPM as their standard.
The National Park Service (NPS) was the first
federal agency to adopt an IPM policy and to
implement IPM programs throughout the 70
million acres of lands and facilities then maintained
by NPS. Within three years after adopting IPM
system wide (1981-1983), NPS reduced pesticide
use by over 70% (Johnston 1984).
In urban settings, IPM has been used to manage
insect, pathogen, weed, and vertebrate pests in parks
and gardens, on shade trees, in houses, apartments,
office buildings, hospitals, restaurants, and at many
other sites. The City of Berkeley, CA, used IPM to
reduce pesticide use on municipal street trees by
over 90%, saving the city $22,500 in the first year of
the IPM program (Olkowski et al. 1976).
School systems have also implemented IPM pro-
grams. Maryland's Montgomery County Public
Schools have reported that their IPM program cut
pest control costs by $6,000 in the first three years
of the program (Forbes 1991), and IPM improved
overall pest control by substituting monitoring,
education, sanitation, physical controls, and least-
toxic pesticides in place of routine use of conven-
tional chemical controls. This is far from an
isolated example; schools and school districts in
California, Oregon, Florida, Illinois, and elsewhere
are adopting IPM and achieving a less-toxic envi-
ronment for their teachers and students.
IPM for Schools
5
Chapter 1 • What is IPMf
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adults without exposing the school community to
potentially hazardous pesticides.
WHEN action should take place
The timing of treatments is important. Often there is
an optimal time in the life cycle of the plant or the pest
to apply control measures. Conversely, there may be
times when treatments actually increase pest prob-
lems. The human social system will also affect the
timing of treatments. The IPM process encourages
managers to discover the best timing for treatment
actions (see "Timing Treatments" in Chapter 4) since
long-term success of any treatment depends on timing
and locating it properly.
Example of timing in the life cycle of a plant: Rose
powdery mildew (Spaerotheca pannosa) usually infects
only succulent young growth on roses. Because mature
leaves are rarely attacked, treatments are only neces-
sary when growth spurts occur, and only new foliage
requires treatment.
Example of timing in the life cycle of the pest insect- BT
(Bacillus thuringiensis) is a naturally occurring bacteria
developed into a commercial insecticide to control
caterpillar pests. It must be applied to leaves when
caterpillars are small and actively feeding in order for
them to consume the bacteria and die. IfBTis applied
when caterpillars are large, they may have already
stopped eating in preparation for spinning cocoons.
Example of timing in the social system: When switch-
ing to IPM, it is essential to coordinate the IPM pro-
gram plan with the overall budget process of the school
district. For example, improving rodent and fly man-
agement may require modifications in food storage
facilities or in the disposal of kitchen garbage. Sub-
stantial repair to windows or plumbing may be needed.
Requesting funds for minor construction, new contain-
ers, etc. must be done at the appropriate time in the
school district's budget development process.
WHICH mix of strategies and tactics are the
best to use
There are three guiding principles to use when choosing
treatments: conserve and enhance naturally occurring
biological controls; use a multi-tactic approach; and
view each pest problem in its larger context.
Conserve and enhance naturally occurring
biological controls
In a landscape setting, when we kill the natural en-
emies of pests, we inherit their work. In many cases,
the combined action of all natural enemies present
may result in substantial pest control. Even when
they are not able to do the complete job, natural
enemies are nonetheless providing some help in
protecting school landscape plants from pest insects.
The IPM program .should be designed to avoid dam-
aging natural enemies (see "Biological Controls" in
Chapter 4 for more information).
Example: Many spider mite populations on various
trees and shrubs are kept under control by naturally
occurring predatory mites. In fact, the predators keep
them undei• such good control we many never be
aware of their presence until we spray a pesticide
intended to kill more obvious pests, such as aphids. For
a number of reasons, most pesticides are more harmful
to the predatory mites then the pest mites. The pesti-
cide kills almost aU, of the predators, the spider mites
are only slightly affected, and now that they are free
from their natural enemies, the pest mites quickly
multiply and devastate the plant. By changing the
tactics for controlling the aphids, a spider mite problem
can be avoided.
Use a multi-tactic approach
Every source of pest mortality, no matter how small,
is a valuable addition to the program. Biological
systems are so complex, rarely will a single tactic, such
as the application of a pesticide, solve the problem for
long. As many non-toxic tactics as possible should be
combined to manage the pest problem.
Example: Controlling cockroaches requires direct
tactics such as applying boric acid dust to cracks,
crevices, and wall voids; placing baits in areas inacces-
sible to students; using an insect-growth regulator and
boric acid water washes in areas not in direct contact
with food or people; and releasing parasitoids for
certain roach species. But, long-term cockroach control
must also include habitat modification such as caulking
or painting closed cracks and crevices; screening vents
that may be used by cockroaches to travel between
adjacent areas; eliminating water leaks and cracks
around plumbing fixtures; and improving the storage
of food supplies and organic wastes.
View each pest problem in its larger context
Each pest problem must be considered within the
framework of the larger system in which it has arisen
Textbooks and manuals commonly treat pest prob-
lems one by one. However, in the "real world" setting
of a school and the grounds around it, pest problems
IPM for Schools
6
Chapter 1 • What is IPMf
-------
occur several at a time or in a sequence in which
management of one influences the others. In addition,
pest problems are influenced by other human activities
such as waste disposal and food handling indoors, and
mowing, fertilizing, and irrigating outdoors, as well as
the attitudes of the many people who work and study
within the district.
Using IPM means taking a "whole system" or ecosys-
tem management approach to solving a pest problem.
A successful IPM program considers all of the compo-
nents of an ecosystem. As biologists and ccologists
use the term, an ecosystem is usually thought of as
containing non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic)
components. For instance, if you consider a school
building as an ecosystem, the abiotic components of
the building would be the building itself and the equip-
ment and furnishings within it. The biotic components
would be the people, insects, spiders, etc. that live and
work in the building.
In an IPM program, it is helpful to include another
category—social/political components. In a school
system this category includes teachers, students,
custodians, grounds maintenance staff, food handlers,
clerical staff, health personnel, carpenters, plumbers,
pest control companies, refuse collectors, and other
outside service providers who might be contracted for
specific work in or around the school. The school
district administration and school board, school
neighbors or adjacent land owners, associated public
agencies or institutions, professional associations and
community groups, and the general public must be
included. The political and legal constraints of the
society at large should also be taken into consideration.
The many components of the school ecosystem can be
thought of as a series of systems, each having an
impact on the other, and all potentially impacted by a
pest management program. To design and implement
a successful IPM program, it is necessary, at least to
some degree, to be aware of and obtain information
from each of these components.
This raises the classic problem in systems management:
where to draw the boundary of your system. If you
draw the boundaries too narrowly and include only
the pest, you may miss something important like the
fact that people are leaving food out at night that feeds
the pest. Generally speaking, it is better to read,
question, and observe as much as possible about the
larger system in which the pest problem exists.
Otherwise, there is a risk that the solution to the pest
problem will be overlooked.
Example: A nuisance fly problem inside the school
may prompt use of space sprays or pesticide-impregnated
plastic strips. A less toxic quick-fix might be to purchase
and install electric insect traps. A broader view could
lead to the observation that some window screens need
repair and could be improved by the addition of
weather-stripping around the frames to exclude flies. A
still larger view might include the observation that the
dumpster out on the school grounds is inappropriately
placed or not adequately cleaned after being emptied
each week, thus attracting flies.
Changing these conditions will involve cooperation
from the custodial and maintenance staff Perhaps the
dumpster needs to be moved a greater distance from
the door. Perhaps more frequent removal and replace-
ment of the dumpster may also be desirable. This will
undoubtedly have budgetary consequences and will
involve negotiations outside immediate school person-
nel Ultimately it may be discovered that the flies are
part of a community-wide problem. There may be
little that can be done about this directly, but com-
plaints from the school system to the local municipal
government may help in ultimately changing area-
wide waste management practices.
At first it may seem that there is little that a few
individuals can do to influence the process of change
in the larger ecosystem; however, the individual
schools and the school district can assume a leadership
role in educating their community about safer and
more permanent methods of pest management. This
can be done indirectly by educating the student
population, and directly through the participation of
school personnel in community forums on pest
management-related matters.
IPM Policy Statement
Schools districts will need to develop policy state-
ments that set out how pest control will be performed.
Appendix C contains a sample school pest manage-
ment policy statement that can be modified to fit
individual districts.
Contract Specifications for Pest
Control Companies
Many schools will find it necessary to contract out all
or some of their pest management. It is important to
specify in the contract that IPM will be used and to
list the requirements of such a program (Appendix D
provides a sample contract). In some areas of the
country, school districts have developed requirements
IPM for Schools
7
Chapter 1 • What is IPMf
-------
for pest control firms that wish to contract with the
school district (Raphael 1997). If pest control compa-
nies can fulfill these requirements, they can be in-
cluded in a list of possible bidders from which indi-
vidual schools can choose. This prevents schools from
contracting with pest control companies that although
they may be the lowest bidder, may have little exper-
tise in running an IPM program.
Bibliography
Benbrook, C., E. Groth, J.M. Halloran, M.K. Hansen, and S.
Marquardt. 1996. Pest Management at the Crossroads.
Consumers Union, Yonkers, NY. 272 pp.
Forbes, W. 1991. From spray tanks to caulk guns: successful
school IPM in Montgomery County, MD. Journal of Pestiai
Reform 10(4):9-11.
Johnston, G. 1984. Personal communication. IPM Coordinator,
National Park Service.
National Research Council. 1993. Pesticides in the Diets of Infants
and Children. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Olkowski, W., et al. 1976. Ecosystem management: a framework
for urban pest control. Bioscience 26(6):384-389.
Raphael, D. 1997. Personal communication. Environmental
Analyst, Environmental Programs Division. 200 Santa Monica
Pier, Suite 1, Santa Monica, CA 90401. (310) 458-2255.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
8
Chapter 1 • What is IPM?
-------
Chapter 2
Monitoring
Mooitorine is the backbone of an IPM program. The
purpose of nvc>nitoring is to supply recent, accurate
information with *Wh you can make appropriate
decisions for managing pests m your school. By
appropriate we mean informed, intelligent pest
management decisions that "fit" your particular
situation. What is appropriate for you will depend on
the injury levels you choose to adopt (see Chapter 3),
the management techniques you wish to use, and the
results you hope to achieve.
Because IPM was developed for agriculture, the
original concept of monitoring was applied to agricul-
tural crops and their pests. Over the years, this
concept has been adapted for gathering information
on pests of urban plants and human structures. In the
loosest sense, we also speak of "monitoring" pests of
the human body, such as lice; however, in this context
monitoring is reduced to simply looking for the pest
before initiating treatment. In most situations en-
countered in schools, monitoring the plants and the
structures will be a bit more complex.
This chapter provides a general overview of how to set
up and operate a monitoiing program. More detailed
dLcus.cioiu on monitoring techniques for individual
pests are provided in Chapters 5 through 19.
Not Enough Time or Money?
Obviously, time and especially money will constrain
what you will realistically be able to do. The most
important thing is to go out and look at the problems,
and write down what you see. To insure that this job
will get done, you may need to figure out how moni-
toring can be included along with routine maintenance
activities. Make sure that personnel who are asked to
monitor understand what to look for and how to
record the information. Have them carry easy-to-use
monitoring forms whenever they go out. An example
of a monitoring form for the placement of cockroach
traps in a school kitchen is provided in Appendix E.
Data from this form is transferred to a simple comput-
erized spreadsheet after each monitoring session in
order to facilitate treatment decisions. If the school is
contracting out its pest control services, give the pest
-ontrol company a copy of this form to use or have
vhem develop their own forms subject to the approval
of the school.
Levels of Effort Used in
Monitoring
Monitoring need not be time consuming. The idea is
to match the level of monitoring effort to the impor-
tance of the problem. Monitoring can vary from the
extremely casual to the statistically strict, depending
on the seriousness of the problem. The levels of effort,
listed from casual to strict, are
1. Hearsay or reports from other people's casual
looking (not particularly helpful)
2. Casual looking with no record keeping (not par-
ticularly helpful)
3. Casual looking with written observations (useful
for schools)
4. Careful inspection with written observations
(useful for schools)
5. Regular written observations and quantitative
descriptions (useful for schools)
6. Quantitative sampling on a regular basis (appropri-
ate for research projects)
7. Statistically valid quantitative samples (appropriate
for research projects)
What is Monitoring?
Monitoring is the regular and ongoing inspection of
areas where pest problems do or might occur. Infor-
mation gathered from these inspections is always
written down.
Why Monitor?
A monitoring program helps you become familiar
with the workings of the target system. This knowl-
edge allows you to anticipate conditions that can
trigger pest problems, and thus prevent them from
occurring or catch them before they become serious.
Monitoring enables you to make intelligent decisions
about treatments.
Monitoring helps determine if treatment is
needed.
• Is the pest population getting larger or smaller?
And if you are monitoring plants, is the natural
enemy population getting larger or smaller? These
IPM for Schools
9
Chapter 2 • Monitoring
-------
questions affect whether or not you need to treat,
and you can get the answers only by inspecting the
problem sites on several different occasions.
• How many pests or how much pest damage can be
tolerated? This is also referred to as setting injury
and action levels, which is discussed in detail in
Chapter 3.
• Even when tolerance for pest presence is at or near
zero, as in the case of rats, monitoring will result in
e»/ly pest detection, reducing the likelihood of
unexpected pest outbreaks.
Monitoring helps determine whore, when,
and what kind of treatments are needed.
• This includes preventive treatments such as pest-
proofing and sanitation. Monitoring will tell you
where these are most needed.
• It is unnecessary (and expensive) to treat all parts
of a building or all plants on the school grounds
for a pest when all areas may not be equally
infested. Monitoring will pinpoint infestations
and problem areas.
• On plants, monitoring will help you time treatments
to target the most vulnerable stage of the pest. Th.i
vulnerable stage may change depending on the tyj.
of treatment used.
Monitoring allows you to evaluate and fine-
tune treatments.
Monitoring after a treatment will cw you
success or failure of ti»** treatment.
• Did th* rr«»i*nent reduce the number of pests
below the level that causes intolerable damage?
• How long did the effect last?
• Did you have to repeat the treatments?
• Were there undesirable side effects?
• Do you need to make adjustments to your treat-
ment plan?
What to Monitor
Monitoring plants and their pests includes
the regular observation and recording of
• the condition of the plants (their vigor and
appearance)
Table 2-1. Plant Condition Rating*
INDICATORS OF PLANT CONDITION
Plant
Condition
Rating
Leaf Color
Amount/Size of
Growth
Damaged Plant
Parts
Presence of Pest
Problems
Good
Adequate
None to few
No major ones
GOOD
Good
Slightly reduced
Few to common
A few minor ones
FAIR
Poor
Much reduced
Common to
abundant
Either major q[
minor ones
occurring
frequently
POOR
Poor
Severely reduced
Innumerable
Both major and
minor ones
occurring
frequently
Leaf Color: Note that there are healthy plants that do not have bright green leaves. Leaves can be purple, yellow, or sometimes a
mottled vellow and green (variegated). 'Good' leaf color will not aJways be the same; it will depend on the kind of plant.
Amount/Size of Growth: This refers to the length of the new growth for the season as well as the number of new leaves, and
the size of th .saves, flowers, or fruit.
Damaged Plant Parts: Look at the whole plant. Are there leaves with holes, spots, or discolorations? Are there wilted or
dead leaves? Are there dead twigs or branches? Is the damage only on old leaves while new leaves look perfectly healthy?
Presence of Pest Problems: A major pest problem is one that has seriously affected or injured the plant and requires manage-
ment. A minor pest problem may or may not have affected or injured the plant and may or may not require management.
Adapted from Michigan State University 1980
IPM for Schools
10
Chapter 2 • Monitoring
-------
Table 2-2. Pest and Plant Damage Abundance Rating*
Abundance Rating
Indicators of Abundance
Few
Organisms or plant damage occasionally found, but
only after much searching
Common
Organisms or plant damage easily found during
typical searching
Abundant
Organisms or plant damage found in large
numbers—obvious without searching
Innumerable
Organisms or plant damage extremely numerous—
obvious without searching
Adapted from Michigan State University 1980
• the kind and abundance of pests (insects, mites,
moles, weeds, etc.) as well as natural enemies
(ladybugs, spiders, lacewing larvae, syrphid fly
larvae, etc.)
• the amount of plant damage
• weather conditions (record any unusually dry, hot,
wet, or cold weather in the last few weeks)
• human behaviors that affect the plants or pests
(foot traffic that compacts the soil, physical damage
to plants caused by people, insistence on having
certain plants grow in inappropriate situations, etc.)
• your management activities (pruning, fertilizing,
mulching, treating pests, etc.) and their effects on
the plants and the pest population
Tables 2-1 and 2-2 provide more information to help
you quantify the first three points, above. Using the
four abundance ratings in Table 2-2 will make mon-
itoring faster and easier and will help to standardize
observations. If you get to a point where you need
more precision in your data, you can count the num-
ber of pests or their signs in a given area or on a
certain number of leaves.
Monitoring structures involves the regular
observation and recording of
• the conditions of the building inside and out
(structural deterioration, holes that allow pests to
enter, conditions that provide pest harborage)
• the level of sanitation inside and out (waste disposal
procedures, level of cleanliness inside and out,
conditions that supply food to pests)
• the amount of pest damage and the number and
location of pest signs (rodent droppings, termite
shelter tubes, cockroaches caught in traps, etc.)
• human behaviors that
affect the pests (working
conditions that make it
impossible to close
doors or screens, food
preparation procedures
that provide food for
pests, etc.)
• your management
activities (caulking,
cleaning, setting out
traps, treating pests, etc.)
and their effects on the
pest population
Table 2-3 provides
specific information on monitoring tools for both
plants and structures.
Identifying the Target Pest
It is extremely important to correctly identify the pest
that is causing problems. You cannot manage a pest
effectively without knowing what it is. For instance,
putting out mouse traps to control what is really a rat
problem can only result in failure. Chapters 5 through
19 provide information that will help you identify
some of the most common pests found in and around
schools. If you are uncertain of the identity of your
pest, take a specimen to a professional for identifica-
tion. Appendix F describes how to properly collect
and preserve an insect or plant specimen when seeking
an identification.
Once the pest is identified, read about its life cycle,
food sources, habitat preferences, and natural enemies.
Chapters 5 through 19 will provide this information
for the common pests, but if your pest is not included
here, check the Recommended Reading section at the
end of this manual for books that can help you.
Knowing the life habits of your pest will give you
clues about what to look for when monitoring and
help you decide how to best manage the pest.
If only damage symptoms and not the pest itself are
visible, a sleuthing job is in order. More observation
or observation at a different time of day may be
necessary. You can also talk to other pest management
professionals, local gardeners, nursery personnel,
Cooperative Extension staff, or university researchers.
Timing Monitoring Activities
Timing and frequency of monitoring differs depending
on the site and the pest(s). Outdoors, monitoring
IPM for Schools
11
Chapter 2 • Monitoring
-------
— 1
Table 2-3. Tools Used in Monitoring
TOOLS
PLANTS
Structures
Monitoring forms—use these to write down what you see
X
X
Maps or site plans of the buildings or grounds—use these
to mark where you find pests and where you put traps
X
X
Clipboard—use this to hold your monitoring forms and
maps
X
X
Flashlight with a halogen bulb—use this to detect
nighttime pest activity. A blacklight bulb can be
substituted to detect scorpions.
X
X
(for viewing areas
under counters, in
closets, etc. during the
day)
Sticky traps—use these to monitor a variety of insects,
mites, and small rodents.
X
(for many insects the
color of the trap is
important, e.g., thrips
are attracted to blue;
whiteflies prefer
yellow)
X
(glue boards for
monitoring rodents)
Hand lens—This is a small magnifying glass. Use this to
help you see mites and small insects. A lens that magnifies
things at least 10 times (=10x) is usually adequate. A 15x
lens can be used to distinguish among various mite species
and other similar!y.rsmall pest organisms such as thrips.
X
X
Plastic bags or small vials—use these to hold specimens
for later examination or identification.
X
X
Small knife or screwdriver
X
(use to dig up weeds
for specimens or for
control)
X
(use to probe damaged
wood, extract insect
droppings from wood,
etc.)
Ladder
X
X
Camera—use this for documenting pest damage to plants
or structures before and after IPM methods have been
applied
X
X
usually begins when plants put out new leaves in
spring, and ends when leaves fall in autumn. Plants
with annually recurring pest problems receive more
attention than relatively pest-free plants. Monitoring
can be incorporated into routine grounds maintenance
activities such as weekly mowing, or can be a separate
activity that occurs bi-weekly, monthly, or less fre-
quently, depending on plant, pest, site, weather, etc.
Indoors, monitoring might occur weekly during the
early stages of solving a serious pest infestation,
then taper off to monthly, once the pest problem is
under control.
Some pests are more active at night than during the
day. Thus, some monitoring may need to occur after
dark. However, this is usually only necessary when
you are trying to identify a nocturnal pest or trying to
determine its travel routes, feeding habits, etc. Once
this is known, nighttime monitoring can often be
replaced by daytime inspection of traps, plant foliage,
etc. for signs of pest presence.
IPM for Schools
12
Chapter 2 • Monitoring
-------
Record Keeping
A monitoring program is only as useful as its record
keeping system. Records function as the memory of
the IPM program. Human memory is unreliable and
can lead to erroneous conclusions when comparing
effects of treatment or other variables on the pest
problem.
Record keeping is important to you because
• you can leam about your specific pests and their
management faster if you write down your observa-
tions
• you can learn more about your specific pest problems
because you won't forget what you observed, which
treatments you tried, and when you tried them
Record keeping is important to the school system and
the IPM program because
• monitoring records form the basis for making
decisions on the most sensible distribution of
available resources to the areas most in need of
attention or observation
• information can be easily and accurately passed
from one employee to another
• information is not lost when employees leave or retire
What Should The Record Show?
The record should always show
• what you are monitoring—name of the pest
(common name and scientific name, if possible),
stage of the pest (immature, adult), and for land-
scape pests, the name of the plant
• where you are monitoring—a map is always useful
• when you are monitoring—date and time
• who is doing the monitoring
The rest of the information you will need to record is
listed under "What to Monitor," above. As men-
tioned before, the information in Tables 2-1 and 2-2
will help you to standardize some of your observa-
tions. Table 2-1 is specifically for plants, but Table 2-2
can be used for structural pests as well as plant pests.
It is also important to standardize the format and the
process by which the records are kept in order to
maintain continuity from season to season and person
to person. See Appendix E for sample forms. You
may want to design forms with boxes to be checked
off so less writing will be necessary.
Pest patterns emerge quickly when data gathered
during monitoring is made visual, facilitating decision-
making. This can be done by hand on graph paper, or
by using one of the many graph-making computer
programs included in spreadsheet software. Figure 2-1
shows fluctuations in cockroach trap counts.
No Time?
Try to make record keeping as easy and practical as
possible. A person who is on the site frequently
should be the person who monitors and keeps records.
Try other solutions such as
Cafeteria Monitoring Trap Data - German Roach
-O
E
3
Z
o
U
30
25.
20
ROACH HOT SPOTS
Trap 2 - Ice Machine
Trap 7 - Middle of Kitehen-S/S WALL
Trap 9 & 10 • Dishwashing Room
Trap 14 8c 15 - Dining Area West Wall
29-Nov
8-Mar 23-Mar
Dates of Trap Counts
16-Apr
4-Jun
Figure 2-1. A graph of Fluctuating Cockroach Trap Counts
IPM for Schools
13
Chapter 2 • Monitoring
-------
• asking an interested parent to help record monitor-
ing information, either by following the pest
manager or by interviewing the person later
• setting up a small student project to follow pest
managers around and record what they do
• having a quarterly or monthly meeting to discuss
monitoring and using a cassette recorder to record
the information
Evaluating Your Actions
Without evaluating the actions you took to reduce the
pest problem, you will not be able to improve your
management program from year to year. Ask yourself
the following questions:
• Was the pest problem a significant one?
• Were the actions I took necessary or would the
problem have gotten better if I had left it alone?
• Did the actions I took and the treatments I used
adequately solve the problem?
• Could I manage the problem better next time? If
so, how?
• Do I need more or better information to make
treatment decisions in the future?
Bibliography
Daar, S. 1997. Structural IPM successes at NASA's Ames research
center. IPM Practitioner 19(2):1-11.
Davidson, J.A., C.F. Cornell, and D.C. Alban. 1986. The untapped
alternative. American Nurseryman 167(11):99-109.
Davidson, J.A. et al. 1988. Making the pilot fly. American Nursery-
man 169(10):51-60.
Michigan State University. 1980. Pest Management Manual
Departments of Resource Development, Entomology, fit
Forestry, East Lansing, MI.
Owens, J.M. and G.W. Bennett. 1983. Comparative study of
German cockroach (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae) population
sampling techniques. Environmental Entomology 12:1040*1046.
Rust, M.K., J.M. Owens, and D.A. Reierson. 1995. Understanding
and Controlling the German Cockroach. Oxford Univ. Press,
New York. 430 pp.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
14
Chapter 2 • Monitoring
-------
Chapter 3
Setting Injury and Action Levels
Total eradication of pest organisms is virtually impos-
sible to achieve. A more realistic goal is to determine
the "injury level"—the number of pests or the amount
of pest-related damage that can be tolerated without
suffering an unacceptable medical, economic, or aes-
thetic loss. The "action level"— the number of pests
necessary for treatment to occur 10 prevent the injury
level being reached—depends largely on pest biology
and environmental conditions supporting the pest.
Determine Injury Levels First
Before you can determine the action level, you must
first determine the injury level. This is the level of
damage or the level of the pest population that causes
unacceptable injury. The injury level will be higher
than the action level (see Figure 3-1).
Three Types of Injury
There are three types of injury in IPM:
• Aesthetic injury is applied mainly to plants. This is
injury that affects the appearance without affecting
the health of the plant. There are few indoor pests or
pests of structures that cause only aesthetic damage.
• Economic injury refers to
pest damage that causes
monetary loss, e.g.,
clothes moths destroying
band uniforms or a plant
disease that causes the
death of a tree.
• Medical injury relates to
human health problems
caused by pests like
rodents, flies, yellow-
jackets, poison ivy, etc.
Injury Levels Differ
Depending on the Pest
The number of pests or
amount of pest damage you
can tolerate (another way to
think of injury level) will
depend on the kind of pest
and its location. Columns
of ants marching through
IPM for Schools
an unused outbuilding is an entirely different situation
from an ant invasion in the cafeteria. Many thousands
of aphids can usually be tolerated on a tree, but one
louse or nit on a child's head cannot.
Don't Set the Level too Low
One of the major causes of unnecessary treatments for
pests is unrealistically low tolerance levels. Obviously,
there is little leeway in tolerance for pests that have
consequences for human health or the school budget,
but for many other pests, the range of tolerance can be
very wide. By understanding which kinds of damage
are serious and which are unimportant and by simply
changing the way we view pests and pest damage, we
can avoid many unnecessary treatments. For instance,
most trees and shrubs.can support substantial popula-
tions of caterpillars, aphids, psyllids, or leafhoppers
without coming to any harm. Lawns can still be very
attractive and functional even though the grass is not all
of one kind and there are a number of weeds mixed in
(as long as they don't pose a tripping hazard; of course).
Determining the Injury Level
We all have intuitive, unspecified notions of injury
Chapter 3 • Injury and Action Levels
Figure 3-1. Graph Illustrating Injury and Action Levels
-------
level in various pest management situations, but these
may not be accurate. In an IPM program, the aim is to
try to make injury levels explicit and accurate. Moni-
toring is the only way to do this. It also takes knowl-
edge and experience to understand the life cycles of
pests, how fast their populations grow, and whether or
not their damage will have serious consequences.
Example: Last year a chemical control was used when
the aphid infestation in trees was first noticed by a
school employee. This year, a monitoring program was
initiated. Data collected indicated that 100 to 200
aphids per leaf produced no significant damage to the
tree. In fact, the data showed that only when there
were over 500 aphids per leaf did leaves start to drop
from the tree. This level of aphids also began to elicit
complaints about the sticky honeydew raining down
from the tree.
Periodically, the injury level should be re-evaluated
for each pest and for each site. Changes in weather
conditions, plant cultivars grown, horticultural prac-
tices, level of IPM experience of employees, building
renovations, etc., can affect the setting of injury levels.
Determine Action Levels Based on
Injury Levels
The action level is the level of pest damage or number
of pests that triggers a treatment to prevent pest
numbers from reaching the injury level. The action
level will be lower than the injury level (see Figure 3-1).
Determining action levels involves making educated
guesses about the likely impacts of numbers of pests
present in a given place at a given time. In other
words, you need to estimate how high you can let the
pest population grow before you need to treat to
prevent unacceptable injury. The action level must be
determined and treatments applied before the injury
level is reached.
Example: You know from previous observations that
the injury level for the shade tree you are monitoring is
15 caterpillars per foot of branch. Current counts show
5 caterpillars per foot. These counts, weather data, and
your experience lead you to expect the pest population
will exceed the injury level in about two weeks, unless
there is a surge in natural enemy activity or the tem-
perature drops. Your choices depend on available time
and resources:
(1) You can decide to set your action level at 5 to 7
caterpillars and schedule 'a treatment right away if it
will be difficult to check again in a week.
(2) Because the trees are extremely valuable and
because you see that caterpillars are starting to die
from attacks by natural enemies, schedule another vu
in one week. At that time, if natural mortality does
not appear likely to keep pest numbers below the
injury level, there is still time to apply an insecticide.
In this case, set your action level at 7 to 10 caterpillars.
When an IPM program is first implemented for a
particular pest/site, guidance on setting the action
leyel may be available from existing school records,
from the literature on the pest, through discussions
with those who have experience managing the pest
elsewhere, or from recollections of the problem in
prior years by school staff.
Set Conservative Action Levels in the Beginning
During the beginning phase of an IPM program, it is
wise to be conservative when establishing an initial
action level. Set it low enough (i.e., low numbers of
pests trigger treatments) to insure a wide margin of.
safety while learning monitoring methods. The initial
action level should then be compared with other
action levels for the same pest at different sites or
locations. This is necessary to determine if the action
level is set too high or too low, if treatments were
necessary or not, and if they were properly timed.
The easiest way to collect comparative data is to set
aside a portion of a school that remains untreated at
the time another area is treated, or to monitor two
schools where different action levels are applied to the
same pest. By monitoring both sites, and comparing
records, adjustment of the initial action level up or
down can be evaluated.
Avoid "Revenge" Treatments
Sometimes action takes place after the injury level has
been reached and the pest population has begun to
decline naturally (Figure 3-2). These "revenge"
treatments are generally useless at controlling pests,
damaging to the environment, and an unnecessary
expenditure of time and resources.
IPM Program Evaluation
One of the most important components of an IPM
program is evaluating whether or not it's working, and
fine-tuning it when necessary. Evaluation is rarely
done in conventional pest control. Many people hav
become habituated to spraying on a regular basis,
often without questioning the long-term efficacy or
side-effects of what they are doing. An IPM-oriented
IPM for Schools
16
Chapter 3 • Injury and Action Levels
-------
program would view the need to regularly apply a
toxic material as an indication that the program wasn't
working efficiently, and seek other solutions in order
to reduce pesticide use and maximize effects of non
toxic or natural controls.
For purposes of overall evaluation, it is helpful to view
the IPM program as composed of many simulta-
neously occurring, interacting systems or processes:
• monitoring
• record-keeping
• decision making regarding treatment activities
• delivery of treatments
• evaluation of treatments
• collection and cataloging of reference materials on
management of the pests
• education and training of school personnel in IPM
• communication to school personnel regarding IPM
program plans and progress
• budgetary planning
• evaluation of overall IPM program
Each of these components should have, as part of the
development of the initial program plan, some ex-
pressed objectives or criteria by which the component
is judged successful or not. But, in addition, it is
important to determine the following:
• Were all the necessary
components to the
program actually
developed?
• Were they integrated
successfully?
• Were the right people
involved in the integra-
tion of the components
into a whole program?
Questions to Ask After
Treatment Action
At the end of the year, use
monitoring data to answer
the questions below and
make any necessary adjust-
ments in methods for the
next season. After two or
three seasons of fine-tuning,
including modifying the
habitat, redesigning parts of
the school facility, or changing behavioral practices to
discourage pests, you can generally expect problems
to have lessened considerably, and in some cases
disappear After reaching this point, periodic moni-
toring rather than active management may be all that
is needed.
• Was the pest population adequately suppressed
(below injury level)?
• Was the pest population suppressed in a timely
manner?
• Was the planned procedure used? If not, what was
different?
• What damage was produced? What damage was
tolerable?
• In the landscape, were natural enemies affected by
treatments? How?
• If natural enemies were killed by treatments, will
this cause problems elsewhere or at a later period?
• Were there any other side effects from the treatments?
Any unanticipated consequences (good or bad)?
• If ineffective, should the treatments be repeated,
should another kind of treatment be evaluated?
• Is the plant or structure worth maintaining? Can
the site be changed to eliminate or reduce the
problem for the same costs of treatment?
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17
Chapter 3 • Injury and Action Levels
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• What were the total costs of the treatment—costs
of suppression vs. cost of damage, costs of side-effects
or unexpected consequences, costs of risks from
pesticides or benefits from reduction of pesticide, etc.
Assessing Cost Effectiveness
Cost effectiveness is central to a decision to continue
an IPM program. Data from IPM programs in school
systems and park districts across the country indicate
that IPM costs no more than conventional spray
programs, and often costs considerably less.
The Ann Arbor School District in Michigan has found
that hiring a contractor to monitor 35 schools on a
regular basis, and treat only if action levels were
reached, resulted in only a single treatment (a crack
and crevice application of low-toxic boric acid for
cockroaches) during the course of a full year. In the
first IPM year, this program cost the same as the
previous conventional program. Costs were expected
to drop the second year when in-house staff were
scheduled to assume monitoring responsibilities
Cooper 1990).
Whether an IPM program raises or lowers costs
depends in part on the nature of the current house-
keeping, maintenance, and pesr management opera-
tions. The costs of implementing an IPM program can
also depend on whether the pest management services
are contracted out, performed in-house, or both.
Prior to 1985, Maryland's Montgomery County
Public Schools (MCPS) had a conventional pesticide-
based program. Over 5,000 applications of pesticides
were made to school district facilities that year. Public
concerns about potential hazards to students and
school personnel led to development of an IPM
program that emphasized sanitation, habitat modifica-
tion, and less-toxic baits and dusts in place of conven-
tional sprays. By 1988, annual pesticide applications
had dropped to 600, and long-term control of pests
had improved.
According to William Forbes, pest management
supervisor for the school district, under conventiona
pest control in 1985, the district spent $513 per build
ing per year. This covered two salaries, two vehicles,
and materials for two employees who serviced 150
sites. Only crawling insects and rodents were man-
aged by in-house staff. An additional $2400 per
building per year was paid for contracted services at
11 sites. By 1988, under an IPM program, those same
11 sites were being managed by in-house staff at a cost
of only $500 per site per year. In addition, a total of
200 school buildings (33% increase) were serviced for
a cost of $575 per building per year, which covered
three salaries, three vehicles and supplies. No outside
contracting was needed and the program covered
virtually every structural pest, from pigeons to ter-
mites (Forbes 1990).
During the start-up phase, there are usually costs
associated with conversion to IPM. These might
include staff training, building repair and maintenance,
new waste storage containers, screening, traps, a turf
aerator, etc. However, these expenses are usually
recouped within the first year or two of the program,
and benefits continue to accrue for years.
Whether such costs are budgeted as a pest control
expense or distributed to the building maintenance
budget or the landscaping account depends on the
1 dgetary format of the school system. In the long-
term, training, repair and maintenance activities, and
equipment purchases will reduce overall costs of the
pest control operations, as well as other maintenance
and operating budgets.
Bibliography
Cooper, S. 1990. The ABCs of non-toxic pest control. School
Business Affairs (July 1990): 14-17.
Forbes, W. 1990. From spray tanks to caulk guns: successful
school IPM in Montgomery County, Maryland. Journal of
Pesticide Reform 10(4):9-11.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
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Chapter 3 • Injury and Action Levels
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Chapter 4
Selecting Treatment Strategies
IPM is not simply a matter of substituting "good"
pesticides for "bad" pesticides. Too often we want an
easy solution, a "magic bullet" that will solve all our
problems in one shot. Unfortunately, pest manage-
ment is complicated, and we cannot always expect a
simple solution to pest problems. IPM is based on the
fact that combined strategies for pest management are
more effective in the long run than a single strategy.
A good pest manager considers as many options as
possible and tries to combine them into an effective
program. The best pest managers have ideas for new
and creative ways to solve pest problems. Wherever
possible, IPM takes a preventive approach by identify-
ing and removing, to the degree feasible, the basic
causes of the problem rather than merely attacking the
symptoms (the pests). This prevention-oriented
approach is also best achieved by integrating a number
of treatment strategies.
Criteria For Selecting Treatment
Strategies
Once the IPM decision-making process is in place and
monitoring indicates a pest treatment is needed, the
choice of specific strategies can be made. Choose
strategies that are
• least hazardous to human health
• least disruptive of natural controls in landscape
situations
• least toxic to non-target organisms other than
natural controls
• most likely to be permanent and prevent recurrence
of the pest problem
• easiest to carry out safely and effectively
• most cost-effective in the short- and long-term
• appropriate to the site and maintenance system
Least hazardous to human health
It is particularly important around children to take the
health hazards of various strategies into consideration.
Example: Aerosol sprays can kill cockroaches; how-
tver, they can also pose potential hazards to humans
because the pesticide volatilizes in the air, increasing
the likelihood of respiratory or lung exposure of
students and staff. In addition, aerosol sprays may
leave residues on surfaces handled by students and
teachers. When cockroach baits are used instead, the
pesticide is confined to a much smaller area, and if
applied correctly, the bait will be out of reach of stu-
dents and staff. Baits volitilize very little so lung
exposure is not a problem.
Least disruptive of natural controls
In landscape settings, you want to try to avoid killing
off the natural enemies that aid in controlling pest
organisms. Unfortunately and for a number of rea-
sons, natural enemies are often more easily killed by
pesticides than are the pests. When choosing treat-
ment strategies, always consider how the strategy
might affect natural enemies. When choosing a pesti-
cide, try to use one that has less effect on natural
enemies. For help in determining this, see the re-
sources listed in Appendix G.
Least toxic to non-target organisms
The more selective the control, the less harm there will
be to non-target organisms.
Example: Aphid populations in trees often grow to
high numbers because ants harvest the honeydew
(sweet exudate) produced by the aphids, and protect
them from their natural enemies. The ants that protect
these aphid pests are often beneficial in other circum-
stances, aerating the soil and helping to decompose
plant and animal debris. By excluding the ants from
the tree with sticky bands around the trunk, it is often
possible to achieve adequate suppression of the aphids
without harming the ant populations.
Most likely to be permanent and prevent
recurrence of the problem
Finding treatments that meet this criteria is at the heart
of a successful IPM program because these controls
work without extra human effort, costs, or continual
inputs of other resources. These treatments often
include changing the design of the landscape, the
structure, or the system to avoid pest problems. The
following are examples of preventive treatments:
• educating students and staff about how their actions
affect pest management
IPM for Schools
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Chapter 4 • Treatment Strategies
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• caulking cracks and crevices to reduce cockroach
(and other insect) harborage and entry points
• instituting sanitation measures to reduce the
amount of food available to ants, cockroaches, flies,
rats, mice, etc.
• cleaning gutters and directing their flow away from
the building to prevent moisture damage
• installing a sand barrier around the inside edge of a
foundation to prevent termites from crawling up
into the structure
• using an insect growth regulator to prevent fleas
from developing in an area with chronic problems
Easiest to cany out safely and effectively
While the application of pesticides may seem com-
paratively simple, in practice it may not be the easiest
tactic to carry out safely or effectively. Use of con-
ventional pesticides often involves wearing protective
clothing, mask, goggles, etc. In hot weather, people
are often reluctant to wear protective gear because of
the discomfort this extra clothing causes. By choosing
not to wear the protective clothing, applicators not
only violate the law, but also risk exposure to toxic
materials.
Most cost-effective in the short- and long-term
In the short-term, use of a pesticide often appears less
expensive than a multi-tactic IPM approach; however,
closer examination of the true costs of pesticide
applications over the long-term may alter this percep-
tion. In addition to labor and materials, these costs
include mandatory licensing, maintaining approved
pesticide storage facilities, disposing of unused pesti-
cides, liability insurance, and environmental hazards.
Other factors to consider are whether a particular
tactic carries a one time cost, a yearly recurring cost or
a cost likely to recur a number of times during the
season. When adopting any new technology (whether
it be computers or IPM), there will be some start-up
costs. Once the program is in place, IPM generally
costs less than or about the same as conventional
chemically-based programs (see the discussion on
"Assessing Cost Effectiveness" in Chapter 3).
In addition, parental and community concern about
the use of conventional pesticides may make anv use
of pesticide in and around schools problematic. A
public relations headache can develop over compara-
tively innocuous incidents, and require substantial
amounts of time from the highest paid employees of
the school district to attend meetings, prepare policy
statements, etc. These costs should also be factored
into the pest control equation.
Appropriate to the weather, soils, water, and
the energy resources of the site and the
maintenance system
Skillfully designed landscapes can reduce pest prob-
lems as well as use of water and other resources. We
cannot stress enough the importance of choosing the
right plant for the right spot. Plants that are forced to
grow in unsuitable sites where they are unable to
thrive will be a continual source of problems. When
plants die on the school site, take the time to find a
replacement that is suited to the landscape.
Timing Treatments
Treatments must be timed to coincide with a suscep-
tible stage of the pest and, if at all possible, a resistant
stage of any natural enemies that are present. Some-
times the social system (i.e., the people involved or
affected) will impinge on the timing of treatments.
Only monitoring can provide the critical information
needed for timing treatments and thereby make them
more effective.
Example: To control scales on plants using a low-toxic
material such as insecticidal soap or horticultural oil, it
is necessary to time treatments for the period (often
brief) when immature scales (crawlers) are moving out
from under the mother scales, seeking new places to
settle down. It is at this stage that scales are susceptible
to soaps and oils.
Spot Treatments
Treatments, whether pesticides or non-toxic materials,
should only be applied when and where needed. It is
rarely necessary to treat an entire building or landscape
area to solve a pest problem. By using monitoring to
pinpoint where pest numbers are beginning to reach
the action level and confining treatments to those
areas, costs and exposure to toxic materials can be
kept to a minimum.
Summary of Available Treatment
Options
The following is a list of general categories of treat-
ment strategies. We have included some examples tc
help illustrate each strategy. The list is not intended tc
be exhaustive since products change, new ones are
IPM for Schools
20
Chapter 4 • Treatment Strategies
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discovered or invented, and ingenious pest managers
develop new solutions to old problems every day.
Education
Education is a cost-effective pest management strat-
egy. Information that will help change people's
behaviors—particularly how they dispose of wastes
and store food—plays an invaluable part in managing
pests like cockroaches, ants, flies, yellowjackets, and
rodents. Education can also increase people's willing-
ness to share their environment with other organisms
so that people are less likely to insist on toxic treat-
ments for innocuous organisms. Teaching children
about IPM will have a long-term effect on the direc-
tion of pest management in this country as these
students grow up to become consumers, educators,
policy makers, and researchers.
Habitat Modification
Pests need food, water, and shelter to survive. If the pest
manager can eliminate or reduce even one of these
requirements, the environment will support fewer pests!
Design or Redesign of the Structure
Design changes can incorporate pest-resistant struc-
tural materials, fixtures, furnishings, etc. Sometimes
these changes can entirely eliminate pest habitat. For
example, buildings designed without exterior horizon-
tal ledges will reduce pigeon problems. Inside, indus-
trial, stainless steel wire shelving mounted on rolling
casters helps reduce roach habitat and facilitates
cleanup of spilled food.
Sanitation
Sanitation can reduce or eliminate food for pests such
as rodents, ants, cockroaches, flies, and yellowjackets.
Eliminating Sources of Water for Pests
This involves fixing leaks, keeping surfaces dry over-
night, and eliminating standing water.
Eliminating Pest Habitat
How this can be done will vary depending on the pest,
but some examples are caulking cracks and crevices to
eliminate cockroach and flea harborage, removing
clutter that provides roach habitat, and removing dense
vegetation near buildings to eliminate rodent harborage.
Modification of Horticultural Activities
Planting techniques, irrigation, fertilization, pruning,
and mowing can all affect how well plants grow. A
great many of the problems encountered in school
landscapes are attributable to using the wrong plants
and/or failing to give them proper care. Healthy
plants are often likely to have fewer insect, mite, and
disease problems. It is very important that the person
responsible for the school landscaping have a good
foundation of knowledge about the care required by
the particular plants at the school or be willing to learn.
Design or Redesign of Landscape Plantings
• choosing the right plant for the right spot and
choosing plants that are resistant to or suffer little
damage from local pests. This will take some
research. Ask advice of landscape maintenance
personnel, local nurseries, local pest management
professionals, and County Extension agents or the
master gardeners on their staffs
• including in the landscape flowering plants that
attract and feed beneficial insects with their nectar
and pollen, e.g., sweet alyssum (Lobularia spp.) and
flowering buckwheat (Eriogonum spp.), species
from the parsley family (Apiacae) such as yarrow
and fennel, and the sunflower family (Asteraceae)
such as sunflowers, asters, daisies, marigolds,
zinnias, etc.
• diversifying landscape plantings—when large areas
are planted with a single species of plant, a pest can
devastate the entire area
Physical Controls
Vacuuming
A heavy duty vacuum with a special filter fine enough
to screen out insect effluvia (one that filters out par-
ticles down to 0.3 microns) is a worthwhile investment
for a school. Some vacuums have special attachments
for pest control. The vacuum can be used not only for
cleaning, but also for directly controlling pests. A
vacuum can pull cockroaches out of their hiding
places; it can capture adult fleas, their eggs, and pupae;
and a vacuum can be used to collect spiders, boxelder
bugs, and cluster flies.
Trapping
Traps play an important role in non-toxic pest control;
however, in and around schools, traps may be dis-
turbed or destroyed by students who discover them.
To prevent this, place them in areas out of reach of the
students in closets, locked cupboards, etc. Another
strategy is to involve students in the trapping proce-
dures as an educational activity so they have a stake in
guarding against trap misuse or vandalism.
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21
Chapter 4 • Treatment Strategies
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Today a wide variety of traps is available to the pest
manager. Some traps are used mainly for monitoring
pest presence. These include cockroach traps and
various pheromone (insect hormone) traps, although if
the infestation is small, these traps can sometimes be
used to control the pest. Other traps include the
familiar snap traps for mice and rats, electric light traps
for flies, and flypaper. There are also sticky traps for
whiteflies and thrips, cone traps for yellowjackets, and
box traps for skunks, raccoons, and opossums.
Barriers
Barriers can be used to exclude pests from buildings or
other areas.. Barriers can be as simple as a window
screen to keep out flying and crawling insects or
sticky barriers to exclude ants from trees. More
complicated barriers include electric fences to keep
out deer and other vertebrate "wildlife and L-shaped
footings in foundations to exclude rodents.
Heat, Cold, Electric Current
Commercial heat treatments can be used to kill wood-
destroying pests such as termites. A propane weed
torch can be used to kill weeds coming up through
cracks in pavement. Freezing can kill trapped insects
such as yellowjackets before emptying traps, kill
clothes moths, and kill the eggs and larvae of beetles
and moths that destroy grain. The "Electrogun®",
which passes an electric current through wood, can be
used for killing termites.
Removing Pests by Hand
In some situations removing pests by hand may be the
safest and most economical strategy. Tent caterpillars
can be clipped out of trees, and scorpions can be
picked up with kitchen tongs and killed in soapy
water or in alcohol.
Biological Controls
Biological control uses a pest's natural enemies to
attack and control the pest. We use the word "con-
trol" rather than "eliminate" because biological
control usually implies that a few pests must remain to
feed the natural enemies. The exception to this is a
separate category of biological control called micro-
bial control which includes the use of plant and insect
pathogens. Microbial controls are generally used like
pesticides to kill as many pests as possible. Biological
control strategies include conservation, augmentation,
and importation.
Conservation
Conserving biological controls means protecting tho
already present in the school landscape. To conserve
natural enemies you should do the following:
• Treat only if injury levels will be exceeded.
• Spot treat to reduce impact on non-target organisms.
• Time treatments to be least disruptive in the life
cycles of the natural enemies.
• Select the most species-specific, least-damaging
pesticide materials, such as Bacillus thuringiensis,
insect growth regulators that are specific to the pest
insect, and baits formulated to be attractive prima-
rily to the target pest.
Augmentation
This strategy artificially increases the numbers of
biological controls in an area. This can be accom-
plished by planting flowering plants to provide
pollen and nectar for the many beneficial insects that
feed on the pest insects or purchasing beneficials
from a commercial insectary. Examples of the best
known commercially available natural enemies
include lady beetles, lacewings, predatory mites, and
insect-attacking nematodes. These are but a very
small part of the large and growing number of species
now commercially available for release against pests.
Learning when to purchase and release them and how
to maintain them in the field should be emphasized in
any landscape pest management program.
Importation
People often ask if parasites or predators can be
imported from another country to take care of a
particularly disruptive pest in their area. It is true that
the majority of pests we have in North America have
come from other parts of the world, leaving behind
the natural enemies that would normally keep them in
check. "Classical" biological control involves search-
ing for these natural enemies in the pest's native area
and importing these natural enemies into the problem
area. This is not a casual adventure: it must be done
by highly trained specialists in conjunction with
certain quarantine laboratories approved by the
USDA. Permits must be obtained and strict protocols
observed in these laboratories.
The whole process takes a good deal of money to pay
for the research, travel, permits, etc. Unfortunately,
there is a dwindling amount of money for biological
control research and importation, and what money
IPM for Schools
22
Chapter 4 • Treatment Strategies
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there is goes to the biggest pests; therefore, unless
there is an increase in funding in the near future, few
of the pests that plague schools will become the object
of biological control importations. Public knowledge
about the value of importation projects can help
stimulate funding and additional importations. Once
the imported natural enemies become established in
their new home, they usually provide permanent
control of the pest. Patience is needed, however,
because establishment can take several years.
Microbial controls
Microbial controls are naturally occurring bacteria,
fungi, and viruses that attack insects and weeds. A
growing number of these organisms are being sold
commercially as microbial pesticides. Because each of
these microbial pesticides attacks a narrow range of
pests, non-target organisms are much less likely to be
affected.
The most well-known microbial insecticide is Bacillus
thuringiensis, or "BT." The most widely sold strain of
BT kills caterpillars. Another strain kills only the
larvae of black flies and mosquitoes, and a third strain
tills only certain pest beetles.
Microbial herbicides made from pathogens that attack
weeds are commercially available for use in agricul-
tural crops. In the near future, there may be commer-
cial products for use in urban horticultural settings.
Least-Toxic Chemical Controls
The health of school residents and long-term suppres-
sion of pests must be the primary objectives that guide
pest control in school settings. To accomplish these
objectives an IPM program must always look for
alternatives first and use pesticides only as a last resort.
Many people are familiar with insecticides such as
malathion, fungicides such as benomyl (Benlate®),
and herbicides such as 2,4-D. These and similar
materials have engendered controversy over possible
hazards they pose to human health and the environ-
ment. There are many other chemical products to
choose from that are relatively benign to the larger
environment and at the„same time effective against
target pests.
"Least-toxic" pesticides are those with all or most of
the following characteristics: they are effective against
the target pest, have a low acute and chronic toxicity
to mammals, biodegrade rapidly, kill a narrow range
of target pests, and have little or no impact on non-
target organisms. More and more such products are
reaching the market. These include materials such as
the following:
• pheromones and other attractants
• insect growth regulators (IGRs)
• repellents
• desiccating dusts
• pesticidal soaps and oils
• some botanical pesticides
Pheromones
Animals emit substances called pheromones that act as
chemical signals. The sex pheromones released by
some female insects advertise their readiness to mate
and can attract males from a great distance. Other
pheromones act as alarm signals.
A number of pheromone traps and pheromone mating
confusants are now commercially available for insect
pests. Most of the traps work by using a pheromone
to attract the insect into a simple sticky trap. The
mating confusants flood the area with a sex phero-
mone, overwhelming the males with stimuli and
making it very difficult for them to pinpoint exactly
where the females are.
Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs)
Immature insects produce juvenile hormones that
prevent them from metamorphosing into adults.
When they have grown and matured sufficiently, their
bodies stop making the juvenile hormones so they can
turn into adults. Researchers have isolated and syn-
thesized some of these chemicals and when they are
sprayed on or around certain insects, these insect
growth regulators prevent the pests from maturing
into adults. Immature insects cannot mate and
reproduce, so eventually the pest population is
eliminated. The IGRs methoprene and fenoxycarb
are used to suppress fleas, and hydroprene is used
against cockroaches.
Since humans and other mammals don't metamor-
phose as insects do, our bodies do not recognize
juvenile hormones.
Repellents
Some chemicals repel insects or deter them from
feeding on treated plants. For example, a botanical
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23
Chapter 4 • Treatment Strategies
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insecticide extracted from the neem tree (Azadirachta
indica) can prevent beetles and caterpillars from
feeding on treated rose leaves. Current research
shows that neem has a very low toxicity to mammals.
A number of neem products are currently available.
Desiccating Dusts
Insecticidal dusts such as diatomaceous earth and silica
aerogel, made from natural materials, kill insects by
absorbing the outer waxy coating that keeps water
inside their bodies. With this coating gone the insects
die of dehydration.
Silica aerogel dust can be blown into wall voids and
attics to kill drywood termites, ants, roaches, silver-
fish, and other crawling insects.
Pesficidal Soaps and Oils
Pesticidal soaps are made from refined coconut oil and
have a very low toxicity to mammals. (They can be
toxic to fish, so they should not be used around fish
ponds.) Researchers have found that certain fatty
acids in soaps are toxic to insects but decompose
rapidly leaving no toxic residue. Soap does little
damage to lady beetles and other hard-bodied insects
but could be harmful to'some soft-bodied beneficiaLs.
A soap-based herbicide is available for controlling
seedling stage weeds; the soap kills the weeds by
penetrating and disrupting plant tissue. Soap com-
bined with sulfur is used to control common leaf
diseases such as powdery mildew.
Insecticidal oils (sometimes called dormant oils or
horticultural oils) also kill insects and are gentle on the
environment. Modern insecticidal oils are very highly
refined. Unlike the harsh oils of years ago that burned
leaves and could only be used on deciduous trees
during the months they were leafless, the new oils are
so "light" they can be used to control a wide variety of
insects even on many bedding plants.
Note that it as always wise to test a material on a small
portion of the plant first to check for damage before
spraying the entire plant.
Botanical Pesticides
Botanical pesticides, although they are derived from
plants, are not necessarily better than synthetic pesti-
cides. Botanicals can be easily degraded by organisms
in the environment; however, plant-derived pesticides
tend to kill a broad spectnim of insects, including
beneficials, so they should be used with caution. The
most common botanical is pyrethrum, made from
crushed petals of the pyrethrum chrysanthemum
flower. "Pyrethrins" are the active ingredient in
pyrethrum, but "pyrethroids" such as resmethrin and
permethrin have been synthesized in the laboratory
and are much more powerful and long-lasting than the
pyrethrins. Neem, another botanical pesticide, is ,
discussed above under "Repellents." Some botanicals,
such as nicotine or sabadilla, can be acutely toxic to
humans if misused, and rotenone is, very toxic to fish.
The same care must be used with these materials as
with conventional insecticides.
How to Select a Pesticide for an IPM Program
When contemplating the use of a pesticide, it is pru-
dent to acquire a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
for the compound. MSDS forms are available from
pesticide suppliers and contain some information on
potential hazards and safety precautions. See the
Recommended Readings section of this manual for
other reference materials on pesticides. Appendix G
lists organizations that provide information on pesti-
cide toxicity.
The following criteria should be used when selecting
pesticide: safety, species specificity, effectiveness,
endurance, speed, repellency, and cost
Safety
This means safety for humans (especially children),
pets, livestock, and wildlife, as well as safety for the
overall environment. Questions to ask are as follows:
• What is the acute (immediate) and chronic (long-
term) toxicity of the pesticide? Acute toxicity is
measured by the "LDJ(,," which is the lethal dose of
the pesticide required to kill 50% of the test ani-
mals (measured in milligrams of pesticide per
kilogram of body weight of the test animal). The
higher the LDJ0 value, the more poison it takes to
kill the target animals and the less toxic the pesti-
cide! In other words, high LDJ0= low toxicity.
Chronic toxicity refers to potential health effects
from exposure to low doses of the pesticide for
long periods of time. Chronic effects can be
carcinogenic (cancer-causing), mutagenic (causing
genetic changes), or teratogenic (causing birth
defects). Sources of information on health effects
of pesticides are provided in Appendix G.
• How mobile is the pesticide? Is the compound
volatile, so that it moves into the air breathed by
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Chapter 4 • Treatment Strategies
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people in the building? Can it move through the
soil into the groundwater? Does it run off in
rainwater to contaminate creeks and rivers?
• What is the residual life of the pesticide? How long
does the compound remain toxic in the environment?
• What are the environmental hazards listed on the
label? What are the potential effects on wildlife,
beneficial insects, fish, or other animals?
Species Specificity
The best pesticides are species-specific; that is, they
affect just the group of animals or plants you are
trying to suppress. Avoid broad-spectrum materials
that kill many different organisms because they can
kill beneficial organisms that keep pests in check.
When broad-spectrum materials must be used, apply
them in as selective a way as possible by spot-treating.
Effectiveness
This issue is not as straightforward as it might seem,
since it depends on how effectiveness is being evalu-
ated. For example, a pesticide can appear to be very
effective in laboratory tests because it kills 99% of the
test insects. But in field tests under more realistic
conditions, it may also kill 100% of the pest's natural
enemies. This will lead to serious pest outbreaks at a
later date.
Endurance
A pesticide may have been effective against its target
pest at the time it was registered, but if the pest problem
is now recurring frequendy, it may be a sign that the
pest has developed resistance to the pesticide or, stated
otherwise, that the pesticide has lost its endurance.
Speed
A quick-acting, short-lived, more acutely-toxic
material might be necessary in emergencies; a slow-
acting, longer-lasting, less-toxic material might be
preferable for a chronic pest problem. An example of
the latter is using slower-acting boric acid for cock-
roach control rather than a quicker-acting but more
toxic organophosphate.
Cost
This is usually measured as cost per volume of active
ingredient used. Some of the newer, less-toxic micro-
bial and botanical insecticides and insect growth
-egulators may appear to be more expensive than
some older, more toxic pesticides. But the newer
materials tend to be effective-in far smaller doses than
Notification and Posting
School systems have the responsibility to
inform occupants when they may be ex-
posed to pesticides. Unless it is an emer-
gency situation, the applications should be
performed when only maintenance staff are
present and the building is otherwise unoc-
cupied. Notifications of all pending treat-
ments using a pesticide should be sent home
to the students parents and be distributed to
all school staff prior to the treatment.
Schools should direct concerned parents to
the school pest manager for more specific
information. A voluntary registry of indi-
viduals with medically-documented prob-
lems that could be adversely affected by
exposure to pesticides should be kept at each
school's office and in the pest manager's
office for special contact in emergency
situations.
Post all areas to be treated or that have been
treated. If posting is a new practice at the
school, the new policy should be explained
in the context of the IPM program so that all
affected parties will understand that the
posting is part of a new overall effort to
reduce pesticide use and not the result of
new or heavier pesticide use.
the older materials—one container goes a long way.
This factor, together with their lower impact on the
environment, often makes these newer materials more
cost effective.
Pesticide Use Guidelines
In addition to becoming informed about the character-
istics of the material itself, it is important to develop
guidelines to be followed each time a pesticide is used.
Prepare a checklist to be used each time an application
is made. The following are important items to include
on the checklist:
* Make sure the pesticide is registered for use in the
state. (Pesticides can be registered in some states and
not in others.) What are the laws regarding its use?
IPM for Schools
25
Chapter 4 • Treatment Strategies
-------
• READ THE PESTICIDE LABEL. Follow its
restrictions and directions for use, labeling, and
storage exacdy.
• If required, secure a written recommendation from a
licensed pest control adviser for using the pesticide.
• Make sure that all safety equipment and clothing
(e.g., neoprene gloves, goggles, respirator, hat, and
other protective coverings as necessary) is available
and worn when the pesticide is used.
• Verify that the person doing the application is
certified and/or qualified to handle the equipment
and material chosen and has been adequately trained.
• Make sure application equipment is appropriate for
the job and properly calibrated.
• Confine use of the material to the area requiring
treatment (spot-treat).
• Keep records of all applications and copies of
MSDS sheets for all pesticides used.
• Monitor the pest population after the application to
see if the treatment was effective and record results.
• Be prepared for all emergencies and compile a list
of whom to call for help and the kinds of first aid
to be administered before help arrives. Place the
list in an accessible area near a phone.
• Dispose of pesticides properly. DO NOT pour
pesticides down the drain, into the toilet, into the
gutter, or into storm drains! If you are unsure
about how to dispose of the pesticide, call the
manufacturer or your local utility company that
handles sewage and storm drains.
Bibliography
Bio-lntegral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. IPM Practitioner 18(11/
12):l-39.
Hembra, R.L. 1993. GAO Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee
on Toxic Substances, Research and Development, Committee
on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate Lawn Cart
Pesticides Reregutration Falls Further Behind and Exposure
Effects Are Uncertain. U.S. General Accounting Office,
Washington, D.C. 41 pp.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Controlleast-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
26
Chapter 4 • Treatment Strategies
-------
Charter 5
IPM for Ants in Schools
Introduction
Ants become pests when they invade buildings search-
ing for food or when they protect plant-feeding
insects like aphids and scales from attack by their
natural enemies. It is neither desirable nor practical to
try to eliminate most ants from their outside habitat,
so management efforts should aim to keep them out of
structures and to prevent them from tending plant-
feeding insects.
Regardless of the damage they produce directly or
indirectly, it is important to recognize that an ant
species can be both pestiferous and beneficial. Ants
kill numerous other pest insects, including fly larvae
and termites, and they aerate the soil outdoors and
recycle dead animal and vegetable material. From that
point of view, ants provide an ecological cleansing and
fertilization service of considerable importance.
Note that it is not within the scope of this project to
address either carpenter ants or fire ants.
Identification and Biology
Ants are .social insects and live in colonies. The
colony is divided into three main castes: workers,
queens, and males. The workers enlarge and repair
the nest, forage for food, care for the young and
queen, and defend the colony. The queens lay eggs,
and the males serve only to mate with the queens.
Ants pass through four stages of development: egg,
larva, pupa, and adult (see Figure 5-1). Queens mate
Ad utt queen
Adult worker
(all female*)
Argentine Ant
Figure i-1. The Life Cycle of the Argentine Ant
with males and lay eggs that
hatch into blind, legless
larvae. The larvae are fed
and cared for by worker
ants. At the end of the larval
stage they turn into pupae
which do not feed. Eventually, the adult ants that we
recognize emerge from the pupal cases.
It is important to identify your problem ant before
you design your management program because ants
differ in their habits and food preferences. Use Box 5-
A and Table 5-1 to assist you.
Damage
Certain species of ants, such as thief, Pharaoh, and
Argentine ants, are particularly prone to getting into
food. Inside buildings, these ants are mainly a prob-
lem of nuisance since they almost never sting or bite.
Since ants walk over many different kinds of material
and sometimes feed on dead animals and insects, it is
possible that they can carry disease-causing organisms
to human food. At the very least you should assume
that food they have swarmed over has been exposed to
organisms that can cause spoilage, and the food should
be thrown away.
Detection and Monitoring
Visual inspection is the most useful monitoring
technique for ants, and can be very useful in prevent-
ing an incipient ant infestation. Often it takes detec-
tive work and ingenuity to discover where the ants are
coming from.
• Begin by constructing a map of the school on
which you can note problem areas and areas
needing repair.
• Kneepads, a mirror, and a good flashlight will be
helpful.
• Carry a caulking gun and seal all small holes found
during the inspection.
• Keep accurate records during the monitoring
program to help formulate an IPM plan and evalu-
ate its effectiveness.
IPM for Schools
27
Chapter 5 • Ants
-------
• Ants are most likely to be pests indoors, especially
in kitchens and fooid preparation areas.
• An ant infestation may indicate that there has been a
change in the methods of storing food or food waste
that allows increased access for ants. Note how
food and food wastes are stored in the area, and
whether refuse containers are emptied and cleaned
regularly. Check recycling bins to see if recyclables
have been cleaned before storage.
• Speak to the kitchen staff and custodians to learn
more about the problem from their perspective.
• Ants can be attracted to snacks kept in classrooms
or the teachers lounge, or to something like a sweet
drink accidentally spilled on the floor.
Management Options
Habitat Modification
The environment should be modified to reduce ant
entryways and access to food. With good quality
materials and a careful job, the alteration will be
permanent and make a long-term impact on the num-
ber of ant invasions.
Caulking
• Caulk actual and potential entryways with a silicone
caulking compound.
Box 5-A. Identifying Ants
Since ant species can differ widely in their food
requirements, it is important to identify the
species before choosing a bait. Like all insects,
ant bodies are divided into head, thorax, and
abdomen. Unlike many other insects, however,
ants have a constriction between the thorax and
abdomen that gives them their pinched-waste
appearance. The constricted part of the abdomen
is called the pedicel, and the fat, main part of the
abdomen is called the gaster. An important
Ltnepuhema humde
• Use mildew-resistant caulk in moist areas.
• It is not necessary or practical to seal all cracks, b
begin with the access point that the current trail 01
ants is using.
• Always carry caulk when making inspections and
seal as many cracks as time allows, especially those,
around baseboards, cupboards, pipes, sinks, toilets,
and electrical outlets. Silicone caulks are flexible,
easy to apply, and long-lasting.
• Weather-strip around doors and windows where
ants may enter.
Sanitation
Sanitation eliminates food for ants. Thorough daily
cleaning of school kitchens and food preparation areas
is essential.
• Sweep and mop floors.
• Drain all sinks and remove any food debris.
• If children regularly receive snacks in classrooms, these
floors should be vacuumed and/or mopped daily.
• Periodically give all food preparation areas an all-
inclusive cleaning, focusing on areas where grease and
food debris accumulate. These include drains, vents
deep fat fryers, ovens, stoves, and hard-to-reach art
behind or between appliances. Thoroughly vacuum
the area with a powerful vacuum.
identification characteristic is the number of
segments or "nodes" in the pedicel (see the
figure below). For example, one-node ants
include the Argentine ant and odorous house
ant. Two-node ants include the Pharaoh ant,
pavement ant, and little black ant. Final identifi-
cation is made from size, color, other body
characteristics, habits, or other information.
Table 5-1 provides more information to help you
identify your problem ant.
Monomorutm pharaoms
IPM for Schools
28
Chapter 5 • Ants
-------
Table 5-1. Common House-Invading Ant Species
Species
#of node*
in the
pedicel*
Description of
Workers
Habits
Distribution
Argentine Ant
Lmepithema humile
(formerly known
as: Iridomyrmex
bumilii)
1
light to dark brown;
around 3/32 to 1/8 inch
(22-2.8 nun)
frequent house invader, nests in a wide
variety of places outdoors and inside;
multiple queens; prefers honeydew from
aphids, soles, etc, but is an opportunistic
spedes and will feed on other, sweets,
protein, and grease
MD, west to IL,
TX.AZ.CA,
OR, WA, HI
Pharaoh Ant
Monomorium
pharaonu
2
small, around 1/16 to
3/32 inch (1.5-2 nun);
yellowish to red; often
confused with thief ant,
but has 3 segments in the
dub-like structure at the
end of the antennae
nests in any scdvded spot; prefers
temperatures between 80° and 86°F;
frequent house invader, often found around
kitchen and bathroom faucets where it
obtains water; feeds on sweets but prefers
fatty foods, eats dead insects; also
predadous on bedbugs, white grubs, boll
weevils, and other insects
throughout U.S.
and Canada
Thief Ant
Solenopiis mole tea
2
very small, around 1/32
to 1/16 inch (1-1.5 mm);
yellowish: often confused
with Pharaoh ant, but has
2 segments in the dub-
like structure at the end
of the antennae
often lives in association with other ants as
predator of brood; omnivorous but prefers
grease or high protein foods over sweets;
frequent house invader, may nest indoors
in cracks and cupboards; more likely to
have an indoor nest than the Pharaoh ant
throughout U.S.
Little Black Ant
Monomonnm
minimum
2
very small, around 1/32
to 1/16 inch (1-1.5 rani);
jet black
small craters of fine soil mark nest openings
in ground; will also nest in the woodwork
or masonry of buildings; omnivorous;
occasional house invader
throughout U.S.
Big-Headed
Ant
Pheidole spp.
2
around 1/16 to 1/8 inch
(1.5-3 mm); yellowish or
light to dark brown; head
large
neitsin and around the house; prefers
sweets or high protein foods
NY to NE, south
to FL Be. AZ
Pavement Ant
Tetramortum
caetpuum
2
around 1/8 inch (2.5-3
mm); light to dark brown
or blackish; head Be
thorax furrowed by
parallel lines
nesu under stones 8t edges of pavement, in'
winter will nest in houses in crevices
adjacent to a heat source; slow-moving;
tends aphids for their honeydew; feeds on
seeds; insect remains, and greasy materials
common along
the Adantic
seaboard and in
central CA;
sporadic in
Midwest
Odorous House
Ant
Tapmoma tetsile
1
around 1/16 to 1/8 inch
(2-3 mm); brownish to
black; foul odor when
crushed;' darker than
.Argentine ant
frequent house invader; nests in a wide
variety of places outdoors and inside;
multiple queens; colonies are more
localized than those of the Argentine ant;
food habits are similar to the Argentine ant
throughout U.S.
1 See Box 5-A.
• At the end of each day, remove from the building
all garbage containing food.
• Use soapy water to wash any bottles, cans, wrap-
pings, and other items that have food residues
clinging to them before storing them for recycling.
• If dishes cannot be washed right away, it is very
important that they at least be rinsed to remove all
food debris.
• Place garbage in sealed plastic bags before it is placed
into, a rodent-proof dumpster (see Chapter 12) or
other storage receptacle.
• Keep garbage cans and dumpsters as clean as possible
to deny food to ants, roaches, flies, mice, and rats.
Proper Food Storage
• Food not kept in the refrigerator should be kept in
containers that close tightly. Cardboard boxes and
paper are not ant- or roach-proof.
IPM for Schools
29
Chapter 5 •• Ants
-------
• During ant invasions, you can keep particularly
attractive substances, like sugar and honey, in a
refrigerator.
• Although refrigerator storage is usually safe, ants
sometimes get into refrigerators and freezers even
when the seals appear intact. When this occurs, a
light, temporary coating of .petroleum jelly on the
edge of the refrigerator seal will exclude the ants.
Once ants have left, the petroleum jelly can be
wiped off. Freezer storage is safe, because any ants
that manage to get past the seal will die.
• Screw-top jars are ant-proof only if the lid has a
rubber seal since the ants can follow the spiral
ridges to get into the jar.
¦ Glass containers with rubber gaskets or plastic
containers with tight-fitting, snap-top lids are also
ant-proof.
• As soon as they arrive in the building, transfer food
packaged in paper to plastic or glass containers. To
prevent roach problems, do not bring shipping
boxes into the food preparation area. Instead, boxes
should be broken down and stored away from the
kitchen in a cool area until removed for recycling.
• Advise students and teachers not to leave unsealed
food items in their desks or lockers. Any food kept
in offices or classrooms should be stored in ant-
and roach-proof containers.
Physical Controls
Before ants become highly visible in long columns
marching through a room, there have been a few
"scouts" wandering around looking for food or water,
[t is alwavs a good idea to kill these scouts before they
have a chance to go back to the colony and summon
their nest mates. Instruct teachers and staff to squash
lone, wandering ams whenever they see them.
Vacuuming
• Use a strong vacuum to vacuum up trails of ants
effortlessly and quickly.
• Although the dust in the vacuum bag will usually
clog the ants' breathing apparatus and suffocate
them, you can vacuum up a tablespoon of corn-
starch to be sure they die.
Detergent Barrier
Temporary "moats" of detergent and water may be
useful during heavy ant invasions.
• Containers of food or food waste which must
remain open during working hours can be placed in
larger, shallow pans filled with water mixed with a
small amount of detergent. Water alone is insuffi-
cient, since ants can float across using the water's
sutface tension; the detergent breaks the surface
tension, and the ants sink and drown.
• Use this technique to protect potted plants from
ants that may be attracted to nectar produced by the
plant or to honeydew produced by plant-feeding
insects. Elevate the pot above the detergent-and-
water mixture by placing it on an overturned saucer.
Make sure the plant is not touching anything that
ants could use as a bridge.
Flooding
Ants sometimes build nests in potted plants. Rather
than disposing of the soil and the plants, water the soil
until the ants are driven out.
• It is easiest to do this outside where the ants will
find their way to another suitable nesting place, but
if this is impractical, use a container of loose dry soil
or compost to catch the ants.
• Place the infested pot in a wide and deep container,
and use a stick to make a bridge from the pot to the
ground or to the bucket of soil or compost.
• Water the plant heavily. As the soil becomes satu-
rated, the ants will pick up their white pupae and
look for drier ground.
• Many ants may walk out on the stems and leaves,
but eventually they will find the bridge.
• When the trail of ants leaving the pot has disap-
peared, the plant can be drained and returned to its
usual location.
Chemical Controls
If non-chemical methods alone prove insufficient to
solve the problem, then integrating a pesticide into
your management program may be warranted. For
information on the hazards of various pesticides and
on how to select an appropriate pesticide for your
situation, consult Appendix G for a list of resources.
Pesticides must be used in accordance with their EPA-
approved label directions. Applicators must be certi-
fied to apply pesticides and should always wear protec-
tive gear during applications. All labels and Material
Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the pesticide products
authorized for use in the IPM program should be
maintained on file. Do not apply these materials wh^
buildings are occupied, and never apply them where
they might wash into the sanitary sewer or into outside
storm drains.
IPM for Schools
30
Chapter 5 • Ants
-------
When treating ants, only crack and crevice treatments
with dust or bait formulations should bemused. See
Box 5-B for tips on controlling specific ant species.
Detergent and Water
When ants invade a classroom or food preparation
area, the best emergency treatment is detergent and
water in a spray bottle. This mixture will quickly
immobilize the ants, and they can be wiped up with a
sponge and washed down the drain. Each classroom,
cafeteria, and food preparation area should be
equipped with such a spray bottle so teachers and staff
can safely deal with emergencies.
Bone Add
Boric acid is one of the most valuable chemical control
tools in an integrated program against ants. It is
formulated as a dust, gel, and aerosol. It acts as a
stomach poison, and because it is a general enzyme
inhibitor, ants are unlikely to become resistant to this
material. If kept dry, boric acid dust remains effective
for the life of the building.
• When applying boric acid dust, wear a dust mask to
avoid breathing the material.
• Use a bulb duster to apply a light dusting in cracks
and crevices. This is superior to dusting large,
open areas.
• Boric acid is approved for crack and crevice treat-
ment in kitchen and food preparation areas.
• Boric acid can be blown into wall voids and spaces
behind and under cabinets.
Diatomaceous Earth and Silica Aerogel
These are insecticidal dusts that can be used for ant
control. Diatomaceous earth is made from fossilized
diatoms, and silica gel is produced essentially from
sand. Both kill insects by desiccation; they absorb the
wax and oil from the insect's outer covering, which
causes dehydration and death. Although these materi-
als are not poisonous to humans directly, the fine dust
travels freely through the air and can be irritating to
the eyes and lungs; therefore, use a dust mask and
goggles during application.
Diatomaceous earth and silica aerogel are especially
useful in wall voids and similar closed spaces. During
construction and remodeling these dusts can be blown
into such spaces, and in finished buildings they can be
applied by drilling tiny holes in the walls. These dusts
are also useful in crack and crevice treatments.
Some! products combine diatomaceous earth or silica
gel with pyrethrins. The pyrethrins provide a quick
knock-down of the ants, and the dusts provide the
long-term control.
Ant Baits
Baits greatly reduce the amount of pesticide that must
be used to kill ants. Foraging ants take the bait back
to the nest to feed to other members of the colony,
and if the bait kills the queen, the colony will die.
Even if the queen is not killed, baits will usually stop
an ant invasion. If a colony has been starved by
effective sanitation measures, baits will be more
readily accepted.
Always place baits out of sight and reach of children,
or, if this is not possible, use baits at night or on
weekends and remove when children are in school.
Some ants are very susceptible to baits, some are less
so. There are many reasons for these differences, only
some of which we understand. If you are having
difficulty in controlling your problem ant(s) with a
bait, the following points may be helpful:
• It is important to correctly identify the species of
ant that is invading the school since each species
differs in its food preferences. Some baits use a
sweet attractant and some use a protein or oily
attractant, so the bait must be matched with the ant.
If you cannot determine the type of attractant by
looking at the label, call the manufacturer for more
information. You should also ask if the company
has data to support the efficacy of their product
against the ant species you are dealing with.
• After setting out bait, observe closely to see if the
target ant is taking the bait.
" Ant colonies have changing nutritional require-
ments that can pose problems in baiting. A colony
that accepted a protein bait one week may be more
interested in a sugar bait the next.
• The nesting and foraging environment can also
affect bait acceptance. Ants nesting and foraging in
dry areas will be more interested in baits with a
high water content than will ants nesting in moist
environments.
• When there are several competing ant species in
one area, ants that you are not trying to control
may attack your bait more readily than the pest ant
and in some cases prevent the pest ant from getting
to the bait.
IPM for Schools
31
Chapter 5 • Ants
-------
Box 5-B. Tips For Controlling Specific Ants
• Argentine Ant—Since it is practically impos-
sible to eradicate the colony/colonies, concen-
trate efforts on getting rid of the present ant
invasion. Sanitation is key. Although its favorite
food is honeydew from aphids, scales, psyllids,
etc., the Argentine ant will feed on almost any-
thing. Outside, this ant nests under rocks and
logs or in shallow holes in the ground, and it
frequently moves its nest to escape unfavorable
environmental conditions. Indoors it nests in
wall voids, potted plants, under loose tiles,
behind baseboards, etc., usually close to moisture
sources. Argentine ants come indoors searching
for food or looking for water when it's too dry
outside, but they also come in to escape wet
conditions outdoors. For control, use commer-
cial bait stations along ant trails and around
building perimeters.
• Pavement Ant—Start inspections at the ground
floor or subfloor level because even if pavement
ants are on upper floors, they usually originate
from ground floor and outside colonies. Follow
trails of ants to locate colony /colonies. Outside,
trails are usually hidden by grass or mulch next
to the building foundation or the edges of pave-
ment. Inside, you can often find trails under
edges of carpets along the tack strip. Pavement
ants use electrical wires, conduit, and water pipes
as highways throughout the building. Perform-
ing an inspection at night around 10 or 11 PM
can be useful since pavement ants are most active
at night and you are more likely to find trails that
will lead back to the colony. Outside, piles of
soil near slabs and concrete are a good indication
of underground galleries. Effective pavement ant
control requires caulking cracks and crevices and
placing baits in the path of ant trails near colonies.
Observe carefully to ensure ants are feeding on
bait. If not, change baits until you find one they
will accept. Baiting is a slow control process and
will take several days or longer for satisfactory
treatment and will probably not eliminate the
problem.
• Pharaoh Ant—This is a tropical ant that likes
inaccessible dark places with a relative humidity of
80% and a temperature of around 80°F. Workers
are attracted to baits that contain protein, peanut
butter oil, liquid sugars, and granulated silkworm
pupae. Place the baits in door or window frames,
light switches, and fuse boxes; at floor level in
corners and along baseboards; near toilets, sinks,
drains, heating pipes, and radiators; and in food
cupboards. In warmer areas of the U.S., Pharaoh
ants may nest indoors and forage outside. If you
find foragers outside, place baits in areas of high
activity. Use enough bait stations so that feeding
will not deplete the bait before the colonies are
dead. It may also be advantageous to use baits that
combine 2 different attractants or use several differ-
ent kinds of bait at once. A Pharaoh ant bait con-
taining the insect growth regulator methoprene has
been pulled from the market by the manufacturer in,
order to formulate the bait to be attractive to more
ant species. Workers are unaffected by methoprene,
but the queen is sterilized and no new larvae are
produced. Although this kind of bait can take 10
weeks or more to kill a colony, it will be a useful ant
management tool when it returns to the market.
• Do not spray pesticides when using baits. Bait
stations contaminated with pesticide are repellent
to ants, and sprays disperse the ant infestation,
making it harder to place baits effectively.
• Place bait stations along foraging trails, but do not
disturb ant trails between the nest and the bait.
Killing the ants or disturbing the trails prevents the
ants from taking enough bait back to the colony to
kill nest mates.
• Do not put out bait until you have an ant problem.
If you use baits preventively you may attract ants
into the building.
• Some baits come packaged in plastic disc "bait
stations" that come with double-sided tape so they
can be glued to various surfaces out of view. It is
important to remove bait stations once the ant
problem is under control because they are ideal
harborage for cockroaches. Likewise, if there is
bait left in them, it may eventually attract ants back
into the building. Other baits come in granular or
gel formulations that can be injected into wall voir1'
through small holes. Gel baits can also be placed
near ant trails in unobtrusive places-where they win
not be disturbed.
IPM for Schools
32
Chapter 5 • Ants
-------
Bibliography
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. The IPM Practitioner 18(11/
12): 1-39.
Gulmahamad, H. 1995. Argentine ant: the Ghenghis Khan of the
ant world. Pest Management 14(6):9-15.
Hedges, S.A. 1995. Pavement ant control in commercial buildings.
Pest Control Technology 2J(5):50-51,54,65,58.
Mallis, A. 1982. Handbook of Pest Control Franzak and Foster,
Cleveland, OH. 1,101 pp.
Markin, G.P. 1970. The seasonal life cycle of the Argentine ant,
Iridomyrmex humihs (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), in southern
California. Annals of the Entomological Society of America
63(5):1238-1242.
Newell, W. and T.C. Barber. 1913. The Argentine ant Bureau of
Entomology, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.,
Bull. 122. 98 pp.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Control• Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Quarles, W. 1995. Baiting Pharaoh or Argentine ants. Common
Sense Pest Control Quarterly 11(4):5-13.
Tucker, J. 1995. Why ants are sometimes finicky with certain baits.
Pest Control Technology 23(9):94,98.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
33
Chapter 5 • Ants
-------
Chapter 6
IPM for Cockroaches in Schools
Introduction
Cockroaches are the most important pest in schools,
homes, restaurants, and other indoor spaces. They
consume human foods and contaminate them with
saliva and excrement, produce secretions that impart a
characteristic fetid odor, and shed skin scales that
cause allergic reactions.
Identification and Biology
Except for size and markings, all cockroaches are
similar in overall appearance: flattened cricket-like
insects with long antennae. The most common
cockroaches in the United States are the German,
brownbanded, oriental, American; and smoky brown
cockroaches. See Table 6-1 for a list of their important
characteristics. Figure 6-1 is a pictorial key to these
and some other common roaches.
The Asian cockroach (Blattella asahinai) has recently
become established in Florida. Because this species
flies readily and has a greater reproductive potential
than the German roach, it may become a serious pest
in other areas in the future.
In general, roaches like to squeeze into cracks and
crevices in warm places, but as you can see from Table
6-1, the specifics of their habitat differs with the
species of roach. The American, oriental, and smoky
brown roaches can all live outside, but are forced
indoors by cool weather or lack of food.
The life cycle of the cockroach begins with the egg
case, or ootheca. In some species the female carries
the egg case around with her until just before the eggs
hatch and in other species she deposits it in a sheltered
place (see Table 6-1). Roaches undergo a gradual
metamorphosis in their life cycle. An immature roach,
or nymph, looks very much like an adult, but is
smaller and wingless. As the nymph grows, it sheds
its skin (molts) a number of times. The number of
days it takes a cockroach to mature is affected by the
temperature: the warmer it is (up to a certain point),
the faster the roach grows.
Cockroaches prefer carbohydrates to protein and fat.
They will discriminate among foods if given a choice,
but when hungry they eat almost anything. Some
products not normally considered food—starch-based
paints, wallpaper paste, envelope glue,
and bar soaps—contain carbohydrates, f
and hence are food for roaches. I
Cockroaches are generally active at J/ JHRBmL *
night and remain hidden during j f j
daylight. Daylight sightings usually 1 I
indicate a high population which has / \
overrun available harborage, or a *
recent emigrant roach seeking shelter. German Roach
Damage
Cockroaches have not yet been proven to be involved
in the natural transmission of any particular human
pathogen (this means that they are not a necessary part
of the life cycle of a disease organism); however,
evidence has been collected that clearly indicates that
cockroaches can mechanically transmit a long list of
disease-causing organisms. Because roaches wander at
will through all types of organic wastes, then travel
over kitcnen counters, cooking utensils, plates, and
silverware, their presence indicates potential contami-
nation of foods and utensils. They can also trigger
allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.
Detection and Monitoring
Efforts to control roaches should begin with a moni-
toring program. Roaches are rarely dispersed every-
where throughout the building. Once they have
located a suitable harborage, they tend to concentrate
there, leaving periodically to forage for food and
water, then returning to the same place. Thus, the first
step in monitoring is to locate these roach concentra-
tions. Note that the places where you see signs of
roaches are often where they forage and not where
they harbor. You may also need to inspect adjacent
rooms (above, below, beside). Monitoring must
continue after treatment has begun to determine
whether control efforts have satisfactorily reduced the
cockroach population.
Establishing a Communication System
A successful monitoring program depends on clear
and frequent communication with principles, teachers,
custodians, and food service personnel. These people
IPM for Schools 35 Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
Table 6*1. Characteristics of Common Coackroach Species
Common and
scientific names
German
(Blatella
germartica)
Brownbanded
(Supella
longtpalpa)
American
(Periplanta
americana)
Oriental
(Blatta orientals)
Smoky brown
(Periplaneta
fuliginosa)
Color and
distinctive
markings
Light brown with 2
dark stripes on the
pronotum (platelike
structure behind the
head on the back).
Tan with faint V-
shaped lighter bands
on wings. Nymph has
2 distinct brown bands
running crosswise on
body.
Reddish brown
throughout with a pale
band on the edge of
the pronotum.
Dark red-brown-black
throughout.
Dark brown to black.
The wings of both
sexes cover the
abdomen.
Length of adult
1/2 to 5/8 inch
3/8 to 1/2 inch
1 1/2 to 1 3/4 inch
1 1/4 inch
1 1/2 inch
Average # of
eggs/egg case1
37
16
14
18
17
Life cycle from
egg to adult
64-251 days
143-379 days
320-1071 days
316-533 days
324-890 days
Reproduction
characteristics
Female carries egg case
until about 1 day
before hatching, then
drops it anywhere.
Egg case glued to
rough, dark areas such
as ceilings, beneath
furniture, or in closets;
will glue egg cases on
top of one another.
Egg case deposited in
sheltered area on or
near floor, usually
close to food and
concealed in debris.
Needs high humidity
to hatch.
Female uses existing
crevices in which to
secure and conceal egg
case; usually covers
egg case with debris or
sometimes with fecal
pellets.
Female carries egg case
until 3-4 days before
hatching, then deposits
in a sheltered area.
Preferred
habitat
Usually found in
kitchen and bathroom.
Prefers dark voids
such as cracks and
crevices not more than
3/16" wide, especially
in warnv moist areas
like
• food preparation
areas
• undersides of
tables, kitchen
equipment, and
service counters
• kitchen cupboards
• motor
compartments of
refrigerators
• electrical fuse boxes
• spaces under
broken plaster or
behind sinks
During warm periods
they are found
outdoors in and
around dumpsters and
other waste
receptacles.
Favors cracks and
crevices but prefers
them in warm dry
areas throughout the
building.
Prefers high locations
in heated buildinp, but
can also be found
* under furniture
* in appliances that
generate heat
* on the undersides of
counters that
support appliances
that generate heat
¦ behind pictures and
picture frames,
* behind wallpaper
* in ceiling light
fixtures,
* in telephones
* in desks and
dressers
* in boxes
* in piles of debris or
stored material in
closets
Usually found in
basements or on first
floor. Prefers warm,
moist areas
• around furnaces or
heating ducts
• in steam pipe
catacombs
• in drainage
manholes and grease
traps
• in sewers
Can live outside dunng
warm weather.
Found in areas with
excessive moisture;
usually in groups in
sheltered, but more or
less open spaces
Found in cooler areas
of a building such as
• basements,
• cellars
• service ducts
• crawl spaces
Can also tolerate hot,
dry locations such as
• radiators
• ovens
• hot-water pipes
• under floor
covenngs
Can tolerate colder
temperatures, and is
capable of
overwintering out-of-
doors in colder regions
of the U.S.
Found in basements or
on the first floor of
buildings in crevices in
warm, moist areas such
as
• food preparation
areas
• bathrooms
Also lives outside in
woodpiles and organic
debris during warm
weather.
Natural enemy
parasites2
Miniwasp Tetrastichus
hagtnowi
Miniwasps Comperia
merceti and Anasiatus
bUttidarum
Miniwasp Tetrastichus
hagenowi
Parasitic wasp Evania
appendigaster and
miniwasp Tetrastichus
hagenowi
Miniwasp Tetrastichus
hagenowi
'The number actually hitched can be (ewer
Other natural enemies include spiders, ana, wasps, beetles, mantids, dragonfliei, centipedes, scorpions, toads, geckos, and rats
IPM for Schools
36
Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
Figure 6-1. Pictorial Key To Some Common Adult Coackroaches
-------
have first-hand knowledge of pest sightings, sanitation
problems and other contributing factors, as well as the
history of control measures in their buildings. With a
small investment in time, school personnel can be
trained to serve as additional sources of valuable
information for the monitoring program.
Make sure personnel understand the following:
• the goals of the cockroach IPM program and the
role monitoring plays
• their role in the IPM program (what they can do to
help reduce the number of cockroaches and the
kind of information they can provide)
• how they can communicate with the pest manage-
ment technicians (you may want to post log sheets
in various locations where people can write down
pest sightings and other information)
Visual Inspection
• Construct a map of the premises.
• Mark all the locations where roaches are sighted, or
where you see signs of their presence, such as fecal
matter, shed skins, egg cases, etc.
• Mark any places that are likely harborage or food
sources.
• Note any sanitation problems such as food or
grease spills, food or grease buildup behind or
under kitchen equipment, or improper garbage
disposal procedures.
• Note any leaks or condensation.
• Look for roach entry points such as holes in walls
or floors, or around pipes where they enter a wall,
around electrical conduits, in vents, etc.
• Use the list of preferred habitats in Table 6-1 to
help you decide where to inspect, and see Box 6-A
for a list of monitoring tools.
When to Inspect
Schedule at least one inspection after dark. This will
give you more information about where the cock-
roaches are and the level of sanitation at a time when
the building is supposed to be clean. Ask custodians
to leave the lights on for your inspection. If you have
to enter a dark room, turn on the lights and remain
motionless for a few minutes. The roaches will soon
resume their activity. Once you see the roaches, you
can move. Your movement will frighten them into
running back to their hiding places. Inspect these
spots to determine whether they are actual harborage
or pathways to harborage in another area. Note this
information on your map.
Flushing with a Repellent Insecticide
This should not be necessary, especially if you conduct
thorough inspections and include at least one night
inspection. Do not use this technique in rooms with
cockroach traps, baits, or bait stations because roaches
will avoid them after you have sprayed.
If you do encounter situations where it is necessary to
flush roaches from a suspected hiding place, use just a
1-second blast from a small can of aerosol pyrethrin; no
more is required for effective flushing.
Where to Inspect
When inspecting for roaches, check the following areas:
• in corners of rooms at floor or ceiling level
• under, behind, and around sinks, toilets, showers,
bathtubs, drinking fountains, ice machines, dish-
washers, beverage dispensers, floor drains
• the engine compartments of refrigerators, beverage
dispensers, toasters, air conditioners, and other equipment
• in and under stoves, hot plates, heaters, and near ht
water pipes and radiators
• in and around stove vents, hoods, grease traps
• between equipment and walls
• behind picture frames, mirrors, bulletin boards,
wall-mounted shelving
• in false ceilings, vents, light fixtures, ceiling-
mounted fixtures, and railings
• in cupboards, linen closets, drawers, filing cabinets,
lockers, cluttered areas
• in and under cash registers, computers, telephones,
electric clocks, televisions, switchboxes, and
fuse boxes
• in and around check-out stands, vegetable bins, and
meat counters
• cracks and crevices in walls, baseboards, etc.
• under edges and in corners of equipment, tables,
desks, counters, and other furnishings and equipment
• indoor and outdoor trash containers, dumpsters, and
recycling containers
• loading docks, and storage areas where
incoming food, supplies, equipment, and other
potential sources of migrating roaches are received
and stored
IPM for Schools
38
Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
Trapping
A visual inspection may not provide all the informa-
tion you need about where roaches are harboring or
how many roaches there are; you may need to use
sticky traps as well. Many brands of sticky traps are
available, but most are of a similar design—a rectangu-
lar or triangular cardboard box with bands of sticky
glue inside and, in some models, a dark strip of cock-
roach attractant.
The best sites for traps are along the roaches' normal
travel routes as they move from harborage to feeding
areas. Roaches will not seek out traps located outside
these travel routes. Avoid placing traps in extremely
dusty areas because they will quickly lose their sticki-
ness. Initially, put out as many traps as possible. The
more traps used, the sooner the concentrations of
roaches can be located. Later, you can use fewer traps
for ongoing monitoring. Try to "think like a roach"
as you decide where to place the traps. Your monitor-
ing map and the following examples will help you to
determine the best spots.
Trap Locations
Keeping in mind the habitats preferred by roaches
(refer to Table 6-1), place the traps in the following
types of locations:
• near and under sinks and stoves
• in or near motors of refrigerators and other appli-
ances or vending machines.
• in or near electric clocks, switch plates, and conduits
• next to computer equipment (where possible)
• near leaky plumbing fixtures
• near steam pipes or hot water pipes with insulating
jackets
• near drains
• in drawers and cupboards
• in closets, on their floors and upper shelves
• in false ceilings or subfloor areas
• in areas where packaged goods and equipment are
delivered and stored
Trap Placement
Once the general locations for setting out traps have
been decided, it is important to place the traps along
the periphery of rooms or other objects as this is
where roaches travel. Traps set out in the open away
from walls or other "edges" are unlikely to catch
Box 6-A.
Tools Used To Monitor For Cockroaches
• Flashlight. Use a heavy-duty, corrosion-
resistant model with a bright-colored body,
shacter-proof lens, and halogen bulb. A smaller
halogen flashlight with a flexible neck is useful
in tight, confined locations. Flashlight holders
that can be attached to a belt are available.
• Telescoping Mirror. Use a furnace inspector's or
mechanic's metal mirror with a telescoping
handle and rotating head. To illuminate areas
inside equipment, fixtures, etc., reflect the
flashlight beam off the mirror.
• Clipboard and Pen. Use the clipboard to carry
monitoring forms, floorplans, etc. during
inspections.
• Floorplan Maps and Building Plans. Carry a
floorplan with the major equipment and fixtures
marked. In large buildings, construction
drawings which show utility lines, heating/
cooling ducts, shaft connections, pipe chases,
etc. are very useful for locating entry points,
harborages, and runways.
• Sticky Traps. These are used to locate harbor-
age areas and estimate populations.
• Flushing Agent. A pocket-sized can of pyre-
thrin flushing agent is useful for spot-flushing
roaches out of inaccessible areas where trapping
is not sufficient.
• Utility Tools. A pocketknife equipped with
various blades, screwdrivers, and forceps allows
you to open grills, electrical boxes, and other
equipment for inspections. Carry small vials
and adhesive labels to collect cockroach speci-
mens. A 10-power (lOx) hand lens (small
magnifying glass) will help you identify roach
species. Colored adhesive labels can be used to
mark hot spots, location of traps and bait
stations, etc. These tools can be stored in a tool
pouch worn on a belt.
• Knee Pads and Bump Cap. These are useful
when crawling around for floor-level inspec-
tions.
• Camera. A Polaroid camera is useful for
communicating specific conditions (e.g., unsani-
tary conditions, areas needing pest-proofing,
etc.) in reports to decision-makers or sub-
contractors not on the premises.
IPM for Schools
39
Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
roaches. Examples of edges include the intersection of
• floors and walls
• floors and cabinets or other solid furnishings
• floors and appliances such as stoves, refrigerators,
vending machines
• counters and walls
• hanging cabinets or shelves and walls
Place each trap so the opening is perpendicular to the
wall, countertop,
etc. so a roach
traveling along the
edge of the floor or
wall can walk into
the trap (see Figure
6-2).
Number and date
each trap, and mark
on your monitoring
map. After 24 to 48
hours, count and
record the number
of roaches in each
crap. Record the Figure 6-2
date and the number of roaches on both the trap and
the monitoring form.
Evaluating Trap Counts
• Traps with the highest numbers of roaches indicate
a nearby harborage, and this is where management
efforts should be concentrated.
• Traps with few or no roaches should be moved to
other locations until all main harborage areas are
pinpointed.
• When traps contain large numbers of small
nymphs, this may indicate that the roach popula-
tion is being stressed by such factors as scarcity of
food and water, or it may indicate overcrowded
harborage since nymphs generally remain within
the harborage.
• Large numbers of adults in the traps can indicate a
population explosion.
On-Going Monitoring
Sometimes it is useful to continue counting the roaches
in each trap every 24 to 48 hours for a week or two.
This can give you a clearer picture of the population
and, if it is small, the trapping may eliminate it.
Where roaches rarely invade, you can check traps
every 2 or 3 months (be sure to replace traps when
they are full or no longer sticky). In cafeterias and
other food-handling areas, check traps every month.
Monitoring to Evaluate Treatment Efficacy
Monitoring traps can provide information on the
effectiveness of management efforts. To see how well
treatment efforts are working, put out fresh traps a
week or so after implementing the treatment methods
selected from the Management Options below, and
count the roaches in the traps 24 hours later. If the
roach population has dropped considerably, progress
has been made. If not, greater efforts must be made to
eliminate food sources and reduce harborage. In order
to assess the continued success of treatments and
detect any new infestations, continue to monitor after
the IPM program is underway. Vigilance is important.
Monitoring to Determine Roach
Tolerance Levels
It may be impossible to eliminate cockroach infesta-
tions completely, especially in urban situations. Very
old buildings may have more roach harborage than
can be eliminated in any practical way, and there is
always the possibility of reinfestation from roaches
traveling in handbags, backpacks, clothing, used
furniture and appliances, and packing materials.
Because of these problems, it may be necessary to live
with a certain small number of roaches. The sticky
traps can help determine what this number is, since it >
is possible for the roach population to be low enough
that the traps catch a few roaches, but no one notices
any in the course of a normal day. This is considered
the tolerance level and will differ depending on loca-
tion, time of year, health department regulations, and
availability of management resources.
Determining the number of roaches that can be
tolerated will take time and experience, and will have
to be done after you have reduced the cockroach
population through the appropriate treatments. First
you will need to ascertain the average number of
roaches caught in a designated area, and then you
must correlate this figure with the perceptions of the
people using the area.
Set out a certain number of traps (say 10) in a certain
area (perhaps the kitchen), and leave them there for a
IPM for Schools
40
Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
Sample IPM Program for
a Cockroach Infestation in
a Kitchen
1. Use sticky traps to locate roach
habitat and prioritize areas to be
treated.
2. Knock-down the roach population
by vacuuming areas where traps
indicate roaches are harboring;
steam-clean infested kitchen
equipment and appliances if
possible.
3. Initiate an education program for
students, staff, custodians, and
building maintenance personnel to
gain cooperation for the next
steps.
4. Improve sanitation and waste
management procedures to reduce
roach food sources.
5. Reduce roach access to water and
habitat by repairing water leaks,
caulking cracks, and scheduling
other building repairs.
6. If the previous activities have
failed to reduce roach numbers
sufficiendy, apply insecticidal
dusts, baits, or gels in cracks and
crevices in hard-to-clean areas;
blow boric acid or silica aerogel
into wall or ceiling voids, under-
neath appliances, or in other
inaccessible areas where roaches
harbor.
7. After the adult roach population
has been reduced, apply an insect
growth regulator to help prevent
future roach problems.
8. Monitor weekly and fine-tune
management methods as needed
until the problem has been solved.
Continue monitoring monthly or
quarterly to insure sanitation
measures are maintained and to
detect any incipient buildup of
roach numbers.
certain period of time (a week). The number of traps
that you use in the area and the length of time you
wait before counting must remain the same each time
you make an assessment if your estimation is going to
be accurate. When you make your counts, find the
average number of roaches per trap by dividing the
total number of roaches by the total number of traps.
Record this information on your monitoring form,
and write on each trap the date and the number of
roaches inside. Question the people using the area
you are monitoring to see if they have noticed any
evidence of cockroaches. Record this on your moni-
toring form. If the traps are still sticky, leave them out
for another week and count the roaches again.
Once you have done this for a number of weeks you
will begin to be able to correlate the number of
roaches caught in your traps with the number that can
be tolerated. Use this number as a baseline, and be
aware that it may differ depending on the area and the
people using the area. When the number of roaches
caught is above the baseline, renewed sanitation
efforts and other treatments may be justified. When
the number is at or below the baseline, you don't need
to do anything except continue to monitor.
Management Options
Education
Food service and custodial staff play an essential pan
of any successful roach management program. Pro-
vide them with information on how to maintain
roach-free kitchens, dining rooms, and waste disposal
areas by applying the methods described below.
Teachers, students, and other staff also play a signifi-
cant role in maintaining a high level of sanitation in
other areas of the school, so they must be informed of
their responsibilities in that regard.
Habitat Modification
Cockroaches need food, water, and harborage to
survive, and the harborage must be at the proper
temperature. By modifying the environment of an
infested building, you can reduce roach access to these
resources. With good-quality materials and a careful
job, the alterations will produce a long-term reduction
in the capacity of the structure to support roaches. It
is important to note that the simple act of increasing
the distance between food, shelter, and water will
dramatically reduce the number of roaches an envi-
ronment can support. Eventually the cockroaches,
IPM for Schools
41
Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
especially the young, will have to expend excessive
energy to get from harborage to food or water, and
they will die.
Limiting Areas for Eating
If you expect to contain and limit pest problems (ants
and rodents as well as cockroaches), it is very impor-
tant to designate appropriate areas for eating and to
enforce these rules. The fewer designated areas, the
easier it will be to limit the pests.
Eliminating Cracks and Crevices
• It is not necessary to seal all cracks. Start by
caulking where roach populations are highest. If
roaches remain a problem, caulk additional areas.
• Use silicon caulk or mildew-resistant caulk around
sinks, toilets, and drains.
• Before beginning the sealing process, vacuum and
wash the area to eliminate all egg cases, fecal mate-
rial, or other debris.
• Caulk or paint closed cracks around baseboards,
wall shelves, cupboards, pipes, sinks, toilets, and
similar furnishings in the locations suggested by
trap results.
• Repair small holes in window screens with clear
caulk.
• Weather-strip around doors and windows w^ere
cockroaches may enter.
• Where gaps can't be sealed, they can be widened to
make them less attractive to roaches. For example,
the crack between free-standing shelving and
adjacent walls can be widened by simply moving
the shelving one inch away form the wall. An inch-
wide gap is not attractive to roaches.
Eliminating Clutter
Removing clutter from areas near prime habitat such
as sinks, stoves, refrigerators, vending machines, etc. is
one of the most important components of sanitation.
Clutter in these areas vastly increases the available
harborage that is conveniently near the cockroaches
food and water sources. For example, in kitchens,
boxes should be broken down and stored in a cool or
unhealed area preferably near the loading dock but
definitely isolated from the main kitchen.
Sanitation
Sanitation eliminates food and harborage and can play
a part in slowing the cockroach life cycle by scattering
them as they search for new harborage (their life cycle
Sample IPM Program for a Roach
Population in an Office or Classroom
1. Initiate an education program for students, staff,
custodians, and building maintenance personnel to
gain cooperation with tne program. Since monitoring
an A manag«n«it activities will probably involve
desks, computers, lighting fixtures, and other equip-
ment in use by staff, it is essential that they be given
prior warning of work to be done and that the
problem can not be solved without their cooperation.
2. Place sticky traps to locate roach habitat and
prioritize areas to be treated.
3. Vacuum areas where traps indicate roaches are
harboring.
4. Improve sanitation and waste management in office,
snack, and lunch areas to reduce roach food sources.
5. Caulk cracks, and schedule other building repairs to
reduce roach habitat.
6. If traps indicate roaches have infested computers or
other electrical equipment, place insecticidal bait
stations next to infested machines. Never put baits
direcdy on or inside computers or electrical equip-
ment Never use aerosol insecticides around
computers because of the danger of shorting out the
equipment. Give office and custodial staff a map
showing where bait stations have been placed and
request that the stations not be moved.
7. If traps indicate that roaches have infested electrical
conduit and are moving into the room through
lighting switch plates, spot-treat the switch box with
insecticidal bait, gel, or dust.
8. If traps indicate storage boxes containing paper files
are infested with roaches, enclose file boxes in large
plastic bags and fumigate with carbon dioxide.
9. If the previous activities have failed to reduce roach
numbers sufficiendy, apply insecdcidal bait, gel, or
dust in cracks and crevices, and blow insecticidal
dusts into wall or ceiling voids, underneath
counters, or in other inaccessible areas where
roaches harbor.
10. After the adult roach population has been reduced,
apply an insect growth regulator to help prevent
future roach problems.
11. Continue monitoring until the roach population has
been reduced to a tolerable level. Circulate a memo
announcing that the roacH problem has been solved
and thank staff for their cooperation. Return
monthly or quarterly to place and inspect traps to
insure roach numbers remain within tolerable levels.
12. If monthly monitoring indicates roach populations are
starting to rise, renew sanitation efforts and consider
experimenting with releases of cockroach parasitoids
while roach numbers are still relatively low.
IPM for Schools
42
Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
is shorter when they are grouped together). This
disruption can also help to bring more individual
roaches into contact with toxic baits or insecticidal
dusts (see Chemical Controls below).
Thorough daily cleaning of kitchens is essential:
• Sweep and mop the floors.
• Drain all sinks and remove any food debris.
• If children regularly receive snacks in classrooms,
vacuum and/or mop these floors daily.
• Periodically, give all food preparation areas an all-
inclusive cleaning, focusing on areas where grease
accumulates: drains, vents, deep fat fryers,.ovens,
and stoves. Steam-clean drains and infested appli-
ances. Survivors driven out by the steam can be
caught in traps placed nearby. Thoroughly vacuum
the area with a powerful vacuum cleaner (see the
section below on vacuuming).
• At the end of each day, remove from the building
all garbage containing food to prevent cockroaches
from feeding at night.
• Use soapy water to wash any bottles, cans, wrap-
pings, and other items that have food residues
clinging to them before storing them for recycling.
• If dishes cannot be washed right away, it is very
important that they at least be rinsed to remove all
food debris.
• Place garbage in sealed plastic bags before it is
placed into a rodent-proof dumpster or other
scorage receptacle.
• Keep garbage cans and dumpsters as clean as
possible to deny food to roaches as well as ants,
flies, mice, and rats.
Brownbanded cockroaches can survive without free-
standing water, and they can live on soap or the glue
on stamps, so simple sanitation will not make as
significant an impact on a brownbanded roach popula-
tion as it will on German roaches.
Proper Food Storage
• Food not kept in the refrigerator should be kept in
containers that close tightly. Cardboard boxes and
paper are not roach-proof.
• Screw-top jars are roach-proof only if the lid has a
rubber seal since the roaches can follow the spiral
ridges to get into the jar.
• Glass containers with rubber gaskets or plastic
containers with tight-fitting, snap-top lids are also
roach-proof.
• Transfer food packaged in paper to plastic or glass
containers as soon as the food arrives in the build-
ing. Do not bring shipping boxes into the food
preparation area. Instead,'boxes should be broken
down and stored away from the kitchen in a cool
area until removed for recycling.
• Advise students and teachers not to leave unsealed
food items in their desks or lockers. Any food kept
in offices or classrooms should be stored in ant-
and roach-proof containers.
Installing Roach-proof Fixtures and Appliances
Whenever food preparation areas are scheduled for
remodeling, the school district can take the opportu-
nity to install roach-proof kitchen appliances and
fixtures, such as stainless-steel open shelving units.
Theround shape of the metal and the general open-
ness of the design offer few hiding places for roaches.
Free-standing storage units and appliances on castors
enable them to be rolled away from walls to facilitate
thorough cleaning.
Eliminating Water Sources
The German roach survives longer on water alone
than on food alone. And it survives longer without
food or water if the relative humidity is higher; thus
reducing the available drinking water and humidity
are high priorities. Roaches find drinking water in
• sink traps
• appliance drip pans
• drain pipes
• wash basins and tubs
• toilet bowls and flush tanks
• spills
• condensation on cold-water pipes and windows
• leaky pipes and faucets
• pet dishes and aquariums
• vases
• beverage bottles
• various high-moisture foods
Much can be done to cut back this supply through
repairs and barriers. Repair dripping faucets and any
other leaks, and drain or ventilate moist areas. Keep
kitchen surfaces dry whenever they are not in use,
especially overnight.
Removing Vegetation
Some roaches live primarily outdoors in the decaying
IPM for Schools
43
Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
vegetation of the garden and forest. Examples include
the brown roach and the field cockroach. In cases
where these roaches periodically come into the school,
it is essential to remove decaying vegetation from
foundations, leaving a clean border. Outdoor planter
boxes and other structures close to the school where
moisture and decayed organic material collect should
also be monitored.
Physical Controls
Screening Vents and Windows, and Sealing Off
Runways
Cockroaches can travel throughout a building and
from building to building on runways such as electri-
cal conduits, heating ducts, and especially plumbing
pipes. Seal these runways with caulk, window screen,
or other appropriate materials.
Roaches may also travel up the outside of the building
and enter through an open window, weep hole, or
ventilation duct. Screening these openings prevents
roaches from using them as entry points. Screens can
also be placed behind grill covers and over vents or
floor drains to prevent roach entry. Use caulk around
the edge of the screen to make a tight seal.
Vacuuming
A strong vacuum can be used to pick up roaches,
including their egg cases and droppings, as well as
debris that drops behind appliances or furniture and
feeds the pests. If you are dealing with a huge roach
population that must be knocked down immediately, a
thorough vacuuming will be very effective. Once you
have vacuumed up a large portion of the roach popu-
lation, it will be easier to begin habitat modification.
A crevice attachment will suck roaches out of cracks,
and uie nose end alone can pull roaches out from
under appliances, or from cupboards or upholstered
furniture. If the vacuum is capable of filtering out
very small particles (0.3 microns), it will greatly
reduce the amount of cockroach effluvia that is blown
around during cleaning. It is this effluvia that can
cause allergic reactions.
Although the dust in the vacuum bag will usually clog
the roaches' breathing apparatus and suffocate them,
you can vacuum up a tablespoon of cornstarch to be
sure they die.
Trapping
In certain limited situations traps can also be used to
reduce roach numbers. For example, the University
of California used sticky traps to help control roaches
in animal-rearing rooms where no insecticides were
allowed (Slater et al. 1980). Traps can also capture a
few roaches that might be dislodged during construc-
tion, introduced into roach-free areas on furniture or
packaging, or forced into the area when an adjacent
room is sprayed with an insecticide.
When traps are used to reduce populations of roaches,
leave them in place until they are full. In most situa-
tions, however, trapping alone will not produce a
sufficient degree of control.
Biological Controls
One parasitoid has been used in a precedent-setting
project to control the brownbanded cockroach in a
large research building on the campus of the Univer-
sity of California at Berkeley. The roach population
had become a significant problem, but because labora-
tory animals were being raised in this research facility,
pesticides could not be used (Slater et al. 1980).
Researchers imported the egg parasitoid Comperia
merceti from Hawaii, where it was known to be
effective against the brownbanded roach. The parasi-
toids are so tiny—less than half the size of the roach
egg capsule—that even the periodic releases of 20,000
at a time went unnoticed by the people who worked
there. The fact that the building contained animal-
rearing labs where food, water, and animal fecal matter
were always available for roaches to feed on makes the
high degree of control achieved in this project even
more impressive.
Although Comperia merceti only attacks the
brownbanded roach, another parasitoid, Tetrastichus
hagenowi, has been found to be effective agaiiist the
German, American, oriental, and smoky brown roaches.
The use of natural enemies of roaches cannot by itself
be expected to solve cockroach problems. Roach
control must always involve sanitation and habitat
modification as described above, and, in most cases,
the judicious use of chemical controls.
Chemical Controls
If non-chemical methods alone prove insufficient to
solve the problem, then integrating a pesticide into your
management program may be warrahted. For informa-
tion on the hazards of various pesticides and on how t
select an appropriate pesticide for your situation,
consult Appendix G for a list of resources.
IPM for Schools
44
Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
Pesticides must be used in accordance with their EPA-
approved label directions. Applicators must be
certified to apply pesticides and should always wear
protective gear during applications. All labels and
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the pesticide
products authorized for use in the IPM program
should be maintained on file. Do not apply these
materials when buildings are occupied, and never
apply them where they might wash into the sanitary
sewer or into outside storm drains.
When insecticides are needed, they should be applied
as dusts in crack and crevice treatments or in bait
form. Broadcast spraying of insecticides will do more
to scatter the cockroaches than it will to control them.
This makes them more difficult to find and the pest
manager must expend more time and effort baiting in
the new scattered locations.
Never use aerosol insecticides around computers
because of the danger of short-circuiting the equip-
ment. Use baits near computers but do not place
loose bait inside the computer or on the keyboard.
When cockroaches have infested computer equipment,
small quantities of dry formulations can be inserted
into 2-inch lengths of plastic drinking straw and taped
to the computer in inconspicuous places.
Resistance to Insecticides
Insecticide resistance in cockroaches is a growing
problem. Many residual poisons no longer affect
cockroaches. So far, there is no documented resistance
to boric acid, diatomaceous earth, or silica gel, and
because of the way these insecticides work, resistance
in the future is unlikely. There is no guarantee,
however, that the other insecticides mentioned here
will be useful forever.
There are three types of materials available for roach
control: insecticidal dusts, insecticidal baits, and insect
growth regulators. These materials take 5 days or
longer to kill substantial numbers of roaches, and it
can take weeks to suppress large populations to the
point where none are seen. However, once this point
has been reached, and if parallel steps are taken to
reduce roach food and harborage, you can expect
long-term relief from roach infestations.
Boric Acid
Boric acid is one of the most valuable chemical control
tools in an integrated program against roaches. It is
formulated as a powder, paste, and aerosol. It acts as a
stomach poison and is one of few materials that does
not repel cockroaches, so they are not able to avoid it
as they do other compounds. The powder and paste
formulations do not vaporize into the air as do con-
ventional sprays. Furthermore, if kept dry, it remains
effective for the life of the building.
Wear a dust mask when applying boric acid powder.
A very light dusting in cracks and crevices is supe-
rior to dusting large open areas. Cockroaches will
avoid piles of boric acid. Boric acid is approved for
crack and crevice treatment in food handling areas.
It can be blown into areas of prime habitat, such as
under refrigerators or into cracks in the inner
recesses of cabinets and cupboards, whether or not
roaches are present.
There,are a number of products on the market now
that contain boric acid. In general, boric acid works
better alone than when it is mixed with other insecti-
cides. Some boric acid products contain additives
which improve their effectiveness or the safety of their
use, such as anti-caking agents, bitter-tasting com-
pounds, and dyes.
Boric acid has also been formulated into baits (see
discussion below for general information on baits).
Diatomaceous Earth and Silica Aerogel
These are insecticidal dusts that can be used for roach
control, but they are more repellent to roaches than
boric acid. Diatomaceous earth is made from fossil-
ized diatoms, and silica gel is produced essentially
from sand. Both kill insects by desiccation; they
absorb the wax and oil from the insect's outer cover-
ing, which causes dehydration and death. Although
these materials are not poisonous to humans directly,
the fine dust travels freely through the air and can be
irritating to the eyes and lungs; therefore, use a dust
mask and goggles during application.
Diatomaceous earth and silica aerogel are especially
useful in wall voids and similar closed spaces. During
construction and remodeling these dusts can be blown
into such spaces, and in finished buildings they can be
applied by drilling tiny holes in the walls. These dusts
are also useful in crack and crevice treatments.
Some products combine diatomaceous earth or silica
gel with pyrethrins. The pyrethrins provide a quick
knock-down of the cockroaches, and the dusts pro-
vide the long-term control.
Cockroach Baits
In general, baits help to reduce the amount of pesticide
IPM for Schools
45
Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
used against a pest because the pest is attracted to
discreet locations where it comes into contact with the
poison; the pesticide doesn't need to be to be spread
around all over the environment. Baits work best
where sanitation and physical modifications are also
employed so that the bait is not competing with freely
available roach'food.
Bait Placement Tips
According to Dr. Austin M. Frishman (Frishman
1994), there are a number of tricks to placing bait
properly.
• Large blobs of baits in a few locations do not work
well because German cockroaches don't easily find
food that is any distance from their harborage. Put
out small amounts of bait in many locations.
• Put bait near harborage and between harborage and
food. Review the Monitoring section for examples
of roach harborage, and use the information col-
lected from your monitoring traps.
• Once you have pinpointed harborage areas, place
the baits along edges or in places where roaches are
most likely to travel or congregate. If the bait is
between the harborage.and the food but not in a
place where roaches are likely to run into it, the
baiting program will fail.
• Sometimes an inch one way or the other can make
all the difference in bait placement. If air currents
are moving the bait odors away from the cockroach
harborage, they will never find the bait.
• Make sure that the surface of the bait will not get
covered by excessive grease, flour, or dust. In areas
where this might be a problem, such as near french
fry preparation, the bait must be protected.
• Harsh environments pose various problems in a
baiting program. In very warm areas baits can melt
and run, in cold environments the cockroaches
don't move far and may miss the bait, and in very
warm and wet environments the baits may grow
mold.that renders them unattractive to roaches.
Boric acid baits hold up better in the last situation
because boric acid naturally inhibits mold growth.
• Check baits frequently to make sure that someone
has not inadvertently painted over them or acciden-
tally knocked them off while cleaning, etc.
• If new cockroaches are moving in so fast that it
appears that the baits are failing, you may need to
elicit more help from the school staff in preventing
contaminated goods from coming into areas of
prime habitat.
As Dr. Frishman notes, "Keep in mind that you are
trying to control living organisms. It is not a simple
mathematical formula that works every time. You
sometimes have to adjust what you did to get the baits to
do the job. I call it 'tweaking the baits to perfection.
Active Ingredients Used in Baits
Abamectin—an extract from the naturally occurring
soil microorganism Streptomyces avermitilis.
• available as a dust, spray, or gel
• can be applied only by a commercial pest control
operator
• works both as a lethal internal toxicant and as a
contact insecticide when roaches groom themselves
and ingest the bait
• takes a week or longer to kill 70 to 90% of the
roaches, may take 12 weeks to achieve 100% kill
• should be used in cracks and crevices and in other
inaccessible places near harborage
• not registered for use in food preparation or food
handling areas.
Boric Acid—a general enzyme-inhibitor.
• available as a paste either in bulk or in a cartridge
for bait gun application.
• available as a weather-resistant, granular bait
• also available as a "fine granular" bait that can be used
in a bulb duster for interior crack and crevice treat-
ment (the advantage of a granular bait is that roaches
are exposed by contact as well as by ingestion)
• use dust mask and goggles during application
Hydramethylnon—a slow-acting stomach poison that
must be ingested to be effective.
• Roaches die within 2 to 8 days after feeding on
the bait.
• Available in a plastic disk as well as a gel.
• Disks come with a double-sided tape so they can be
glued to various surfaces out of view. The tape also
facilitates placement of the bait stations on the
undersides of drawers, on walls.
• Two to 3 discs per 100 square feet of horizontal
surface area are recommended. This may not be
enough bait stations when roach numbers are high,
IPM for Schools
46
Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
and the bait will be used up quickly leaving the
empty stations as excellent roach harborage.
• If you see roaches inside stations, they are prob-
ably using the discs as harborage after having
eaten all the bait. Put these discs into a plastic
bag, seal, and discard.
• The bait may last for several months if roach
numbers are low to moderate, but the bait stations
should be checked 4 to 6 weeks after installation.
• Although hydramethylnon is less repellent when it
is used in a bait station, the gel formulation is
useful in situations where it is difficult to place a
bait station. Inspect bait locations each week
reapply if bait has been depleted. Do not place bait
gels on surfaces that will be washed because the
bait will be washed away. Hydramethylnon gels
are not registered for use in food preparation or
storage areas.
Metarhizium anisopliae—a fungus that has been tested
rather thoroughly over the last hundred years. Be-
cause it cannot grow at temperatures greater than
95°F, it does not infect humans or other mammals.
• Bait stations do not contain a food attractant;
roaches are attracted to the water in the formulation.
• Roaches are infected when they touch the fungus as
they enter the station.
• Individuals carry the pathogen back to their har-
borage to infect other roaches.
• It takes 4 weeks or longer to kill 80% of the
roaches, and may take 5 or more weeks to achieve
100% kill.
• Do not place bait stations near radiators or other
sources of heat as heat will destroy the fungus.
• Direct exposure to sunlight might also kill the
fungus.
Insect Growth Regulators (IGRsj
IGRs, such as hydroprene, are synthetic versions of
the juvenile hormones insects produce to regulate
development from their immature to adult stages.
Because many of the worst cockroach infestations
occur in settings where migration from one infested
area to another takes place, new adults can continue to
move into areas where IGRs have been applied and
the new roaches will not be affected. As a result, use
of IGRs makes sense only if they are combined with
other tactics such as roach exclusion, reduction of
access to water, food and harborage, and application
of an adulticide such as boric acid.
• IGRs do not kill insects directly. Their most
important effect is to cause immature roaches to
become sterile adults and eventually die without
reproducing. But those roaches that are already
adults before they come into contact with an IGR
will keep on reproducing.
• IGRs are best applied after heavy roach infestations
have been reduced to low levels and every effort
has been made to eliminate harborage or opportu-
nities for roaches to migrate in from other areas.
When IGRs are used this way, the small number of
immature roaches that survived suppression efforts
(perhaps because they were still inside egg capsules
when the cleanup took place) will encounter the
IGR and fail to mature and reproduce. Adults that
survived the cleanup may produce young before
dying, but their young will be sterilized by the
IGR. Theoretically, the IGR will eventually
eliminate the remnant cockroach population.
• For brownbanded control, the IGR should be
sprayed in prime egg-laying habitat (rough, dark
places) so that when eggs hatch the nymphs will be
exposed immediately to the material.
• To monitor the effectiveness of IGR use, place
sticky traps in areas where roaches are known to
travel. Immature roaches that have been exposed
to an IGR become adults that are darker in color
and somewhat distorted in appearance (they have
twisted wings). When you begin finding these
roaches in the traps, you know the reproduction
rate is being lowered.
Carbon Dioxide Fumigation
Carbon dioxide gas (CO}) can be used to kill cock-
roaches when they have infested cartons of papers,
clothes, or other stored materials.
• Loosely fill a heavy-duty plastic garbage bag
with the infested items, and insert the end of a
vacuum hose into the bag to suck out as much air
as possible.
• Tightly seal the bag using duct tape to reinforce
all seams.
• Finally, insert a hose from a C02 canister into a
1PM for Schools
47
Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
-------
small opening cut in the top side of the bag. Fill
the bag with undiluted C02 from the canister,
remove the hose, and seal the hole with duct tape.
Leave the bag sealed overnight.
• When the bag is opened, roaches will either be dead
or extremely sluggish and will die a short time later
without further treatment.
Bibliography
Bio-lntegral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. The 1PM Practitioner 18(11/
12):l-39.
Cochran, D.G. 1994. How resistant are they? Pest Management
13(6):14-16.
Daar, S. 1987. Boric acid: new formulations and application
equipment. The fPM-Practitioner 9(6/7):3-4.
Frishman, A. 1994.15 ways to misuse German cockroach baits.
Pest Control 22(4)33,67.
MaJlis; A. 1982. Handbook of Pest Control Franzak and Foster,
Cleveland, OH. 1,101 pp.
Moore, W.S. and T.A. Granovsky. 1983. Laboratory comparisons
of sticky traps to delect and control five species of cockroacl
(Orthoptera: Blattidae and Blattellidae). Journal of Eeonomt
Entomology 76(4):845-849.
Olkowski, W., SI Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Control: least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press. Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Olkowski, W., H. Olkowski, and S. Daar. 1983. The German
Cockroach. Bio-lntegral Resource Center, Berkeley, CA. 22 pp.
Olkowski, W., H. Olkowski, and T. Javits. 1979. The Integral
Urban House. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco. 494 pp.
Owens, J.M. and G.W. Bennett 1983. Comparative study of
German cockroach (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae) population
sampling techniques. Environmental Entomology 12:1040-1046.
Quarles, W. 1995. Least-toxic baits for roaches. Common Sense
Pest Control Quarterly 10(1):5-12.
Slater A., M. Hurlben, and R. Lewis. 1980. Biological control of
brown-banded cockroaches. California Agriculture 34(8/9): 16-18.
Snetsinger, R. 1989. A paper on the use of diatomaceous earth (as
the product Shellshock®) for cockroach control, delivered at
the 1989 annual meeting of the Entomological. Society of
America. The 1PM Practitioner 12(2):6.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
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Chapter 6 • Cockroaches
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Chapter 7
IPM for Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles in Schools
Introduction
The insects discussed in this chapter, clothes moths
and carpet beetles, are sometimes referred to as fabric
pests. They can digest keratin, the "hard" protein of
which hair, horns, nails, claws, hoofs, feathers, and
reptile scales are formed. These insects can also attack
a wide variety of other natural materials and even
some synthetic ones.
Identification and Biology
Clothes Moths
The most common fabric-attacking moths are the
webbing and the casemaking clothes moths. The
webbing clothes moth (Ttneola bisselliella) is common
throughout the United States, while the casemaking
moth (Tinea pellionella) is most common in the
southern states. The adults of both species are about
1/4 inch long, and have a wingspan of 1/2 to 3/4 inch.
The webbing clothes moth is golden buff or yellowish
gray with a satiny sheen; the hairs on its head are
upright and reddish. The casemaking clothes moth is
similar in size and shape, but has a browner hue and
three indistinct dark spots on the wings with lighter-
colored hairs on the head.
Adult moths of both species avoid light and attempt
to hide when disturbed, which helps distinguish these
moths from others (see also Table 7-1). They are
occasionally seen flying in subdued light. Males fly
more often than females, but both may fly consider-
able distances and can move from building to building
in favorable weather. Adults can be seen flying at any
time of year, but they are more common during the
summer months.
The life cycles of the two moths are similar. Adult
females lay an average of 40 to 50 eggs. Incubation
takes from 4 days to 3 weeks or sometimes longer. If
conditions are good—meaning abundant food, tem-
peratures around 75°F, and at least 75% relative
humidity—a new generation can be produced in a
month. It takes over a year when conditions are less
favorable, and periods up to 4 years have been re-
corded in the laboratory. The larval and pupal stages
combined may take from 45 days to more than a year
to complete. At ordi-
nary household tem-
peratures, adult moths
live from 2 to 4 weeks.
The adults do not feed
on fabrics.
Case-making Clothes Moth
Carpet Beetle
In heated buildings, female
webbing clothes moths can
mate and lay eggs any time
during the year. The
casemaking clothes moth
generally produces one
generation each year in the
northern U.S. and two
generations in the south.
This species particularly
likes feathers, and may reduce stored garments, quilts,
or down pillows to masses of frass (insect fecal mate-
rial). The casemaking clothes moth also attacks other
food and fiber, such as cayenne pepper, horseradish,
ginger, black mustard seed, and hemp.
The larvae of both moths are also similar (pearly-white,
naked bodies and dark heads) but the casemaking moth,
larva spins a characteristic silken tube under which it
feeds. These tubes can include parts of the fabric.
Larvae of both species range from 1/4 to 1/2 inch long
when fully grown. Their fecal matter is often the same
color as the material they consume.
Carpet and Hide Beetles
Adult beetles are small and have short, clubbed
antennae, but are otherwise varied in appearance (see
Table 7-2). Their bodies are covered with small scales
or hairs, which are visible with a magnifying glass.
Larvae are brownish, and 1/8 to 1/2 inch long, and
characteristically hairy or bristly.
As with clothes moths, the larval stage is the most
damaging. Females lay eggs throughout the year and
the eggs hatch after less than two weeks. The larvae
feed for varying periods, depending upon the species
and the environmental conditions. When ready to
pupate,-the larvae may burrow farther into the food or
wander and burrow elsewhere. They may also pupate
within their last larval skin or burrow into wood if no
IPM for Schools
49 Chapter 7 • Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles
-------
fable 7-1. Distinguish among Common Clothes Moths and Common Grain Moths
Species
Distinguishing Characteristics
Webbing clothes moth
(Tineola bisselliella)
• wingspan 1/2 inch, resting length 1/4 inch
• wings without spots
• body covered with shiny golden scales
• usually with reddish hairs on head
• adults fly in dark areas
• cosmopolitan
Casemaking clothes moth
(Tinea pcUionella)
• same size as webbing clothes moth but less common
• more brownish than webbing clothes moth
• often with three indistinct dark spots on the wings (on older moths
they may have rubbed off)
• larvae always in case
• adults fly in dark areas
• not common in northern states
Mediterranean flour moth
(Anagasta [=Ephestia] kuehniella)
• wingspan 4/5 inch
• hind wings dirty white, forewings pale gray with transverse black
wavy bars
• at rest forebody distincdy raised
• cosmopolitan
Indianmcal moth
(Plodia interpunctella)
• wingspan.c '8 inch, resting length 1/2 inch
• broad grayish band across bronzy wings
• favors dried fruit but will feed on many other stored products
• cosmopolitan
Angoumois grain moth
(Sitotroga cerealella)
• same size as webbing clothes moth
• pale yellow forewings and gray pointed hind wings
• cosmopolitan
Adapted from Olkowski, et al. 1991
other location is found. Beetle larvae do not construct
webs, but their shed skins and fecal pellets make it
obvious where larvae have been feeding. The cast
skins look so much like live larvae that under casual
inspection there may seem to be a far larger infestation
than is actually present.
Some adult carpet beetle species feed on pollen and
nectar;,thus, they may be introduced into the school
on cut flowers. They are sometimes mistaken for
lady beetles, because some species are similarly
round in shape.
Damage
Clothes Moths
Adult clothes moths do not feed; only their larvae
cause damage. Clothes moth larvae feed on pollen,
hair, feathers, wool, fur, dead insects, and dried animai
remains: Feeding holes are scattered over the material
fPM for Schools
Chapter 7 • Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles
-------
and are usually small. Clothing, carpets, furs, blan-
kets, upholstery, piano felts, and a myriad of other
items are subject to their attack. They will also feed
on wool mixed with synthetic fibers. Only the wool
is digested while the other fibers pass through the
insect's gut. Clothes moths are attracted to stains on
fabrics from food and human sweat and urine. It is
mostly goods in storage that are damaged because the
larvae are so fragile that they cannot survive in cloth-
ing worn regularly.
Carpet and Hide Beetles
Carpet beetle holes are usually concentrated in a few
areas and can be quite large, in contrast to clothes
moth holes. As a group, these beetles cause far more
damage thin clothes moths, since the range of sub-
stances they consume is much wider. Carpet beetles
damage materials made from wool such as sweaters,
uniforms, felt, wool yarn, etc. They can also destroy
insect collections, furniture, and carpets. Hide beetles
feed on animal carcasses and hides, and also damage
furnishings, carpets, and fabrics. Some species also
infest stored, dried foods such as cereal. (Table 7-3
provides more detailed information on the food
preferences of both hide and carpet beetles.)
Table 7-2. Important Carpet or Hide Beetles (sometimes called Dermestids)
Common Name(s)
Scientific Name
Description of Adults
Furniture carpet beetle
Anthrenus flavipes
(=A. vorax)
• 1/10 inch to 1/5 inch long
• definite cleft at rear
• mottled with black, white, and yellow scales
Common carpet beetle,
buffalo bug, buffalo moth
A. scrophulariae
• 1/8 inch long
• blackish with varied pattern of white and orange
scales on back
• scalloped band of orange-red scales down middle of
back
Varied carpet beetle
A. verbasci
• 1/8 inch long
• mottled with white, brownish and yellowish scales
Black carpet beetle
Attagenus megatoma
• 1/10 inch to 1/5 inch long, oval
* shiny black and dark brown with brownish legs
Black larder beetle, incinerator
beetle
Dermestes ater
(=D. cadaverinus)
• 3/10 inch to 2/5 inch long
• black with yellowish gray hairs
• black rounded and hook-shaped spots on underside
of abdomen
Larder beetle
D. lardarius
• 3/10 inch to 2/5 inch long
• dark brown with pale grayish yellow hair
• yellow band at base of wing covers with about six
black spots
Hide beetle, leather beetle
D. maculatus
(=D. vulpinus)
• 1/5 inch to 2/5 inch long
• black with white hairs on sides and undersides
• apex of each wing cover comes to a fine point
Warehouse beetle
Trogoderma variabile
• 1/8 inch long
• brownish black
Adapted from Olkowski, et al. 1991
1PM for Schools
51 Chapter 7 • Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles
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1
Table 7-3. Some Food Sources for Carpet and Hide Beetles
Beetle
Food Sources
Furniture carpet beede
(Anthrenus flavipet)
horse-hair filled furniture, wool, hair, fur, feathers, bristles, horn, tortoise
shell, silk, animal excreta, stained linen, cotton, rayon, jute, softwood, leather,
bags, dried silkworm pupae and cocoons, dead mice, dead insects, dried
cheese, old grain, casein, dried blood, and the glue of book bindings
Common carpet beetle
(buffalo bug, buffalo moth)
(A. scrophulariae)
carpets, fabrics, woolens, feathers, leather, furs, hairbrush brisdes, silks,
mounted museum specimens; found in a chipmunk nest in the California
mountains; adults found on Spiraea, Ceanothus (a chaparral shrub), wild
buckwheat daisy, and wild aster flowers; they enter homes on cut flowers
Varied carpet beetle
(A. verbasci)
nests of bees, wasps, and spiders; carpets, woolen goods, skins, furs, stuffed
animals, leather book bindings, feathers, horns, whalebone, hair, silk, fish
manure, dried silkworm pupae, rye meal, cacao, corn, red pepper, and dead
insects in collections
Black carpet beetle
(Attagenus megatoma)
feathers, dead birds, birds' nests, bird manure, dry horse and cow carcasses,
seeds, grains, cereals, woolen rugs, clothing, carpeting, felts, furs, skins, yarn,
velvet, silk, hair-filled mattresses, upholstered furniture, wool-filled blankets,
house insulation with sheep wool or cattle hair, meat, insect meal, kid leather,
milk powders, casein, books, cayenne pepper, dried pupae of silkworms, pet
food, spilled flours, and pollen (for adults, particularly of Spiraea)
Black larder beetle, incinerator beede
(Dermestes ater)
mouse cadavers in walls of building; partially burned food and other kitchen
wastes in incinerators; pet foods.
Larder beetle
(D. lardarius)
stored ham, bacon, meats, cheese, dried museum specimens, stored tobacco,
dried fish, dog biscuits; can tunnel slightly in wood; can penetrate lead and tin
but not zinc or aluminum; pest of silkworm cultures; reported to attack newly
hatched chickens and ducklings
Hide beetle, leather beetle
(D. maculatus)
prefers hides and skins; used to clean carcasses; known to survive on smoked
meat and dried cheese, but cannot live on fat alone; larvae can tunnel short
distances into wood
Warehouse beetle
(Trogoderma variabile)
prefers barley, wheat, animal feeds, grains, and pollen; also found in seeds,
dead animals, cereals, candy, cocoa, cookies, corn, corn meal, dog food (dried
and "burgers"), fish meal, flour, dead insects, milk powder, nut meats, dried
peas, potato chips, noodles, spaghetti, and dried spices
From Mallis 1982
Detection and Monitoring
Look for holes in fabric, for larvae, moth cocoons,
cast skins of beetle larvae, or insect excreta in stored
materials, or for small moths fluttering about in dimly
lit areas. The fluttering flight itself is quite distinctive,
and may be enough to distinguish them from food-
mfesting moths, which have a steadier flight.
Unlike moth larvae, carpet beetle larvae may be found
wandering far from their food, particularly to pupate,
so they are sometimes encountered on materials they
do not actually eat. Also, unlike clothes moths, adult
carpet beetles do not shun light and may be found
crawling on windows. This is often the first place
they are noticed.
These beetles and moths are easy to catch: cover the
insect with a jar and slowly slide a card under the open
end. Seal the jar and place it in the freezer overnight.
The dead insect can be examined with a magnifying
glass or taken to a professional for identification.
An inspection should include the following locatioi
• around carpets or furniture covered or filled with
susceptible materials; infestations may be under
IPM for Schools
Chapter 7 • Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles
-------
the slipcovers, where it is dark and quiet, or in the
pads under the carpet
• around accumulations of lint and other organic
debris, particularly under and behind furniture that
is rarely moved, in wall and floor cracks, in cracks
behind filing cabinets, shelves, or other built-in
items that may not be flush with the wall, behind
baseboards, moldings and window trim, and in
cold air and heater ducts
• around stored animal specimens, feathers, gar-
ments, blankets, or other items made of susceptible
materials
• around bags or boxes of dried milk, fish or meat
meal, dog food, etc; note that carpet beetles can
bore through cardboard and paper packaging
If the infestation does not appear large enough to
account for the number of pests found, or if cleaning
up the infestation does not seem to diminish their, ¦
number, then a further search should focus on less
obvious sources:
• bird, wasp, bee, squirrel, or other animal nests on,
or very close to, the walls of the building
• animal carcasses or trophies, insect collections, or
leather or horn goods
• cut flowers, or blooming bushes near open,
unscreened windows or doorways
• incompletely incinerated garbage
In some circumstances, sticky traps placed in areas
where activity is suspected may be useful for monitor-
ing. Hang them where you suspect you might have a
problem and check them daily. Sticky traps that
contain an attractant called a "sex pheromone" are
available for the webbing clothes moth. A sex phero-
mone is a chemical signal that female moths give off to
attract males. If you have a small infestation in a
limited area, you may also be able to solve a webbing
clothes moth problem using only these traps.
Management Options
There is rarely a need to use an insecticide to control
clothes moths or carpet beetles. The following physi-
cal controls should be adequate.
Physical Controls
Storage in Tight Containers
If clean materials are placed into tightly sealed contain-
ers, they will be safe from infestation. The problem
with closets and similar storage areas is that they are
almost impossible to seal because newly hatched
larvae areso small they can crawl through any gap
larger than 0.0004 inch.
Entomologist Roy Bry (USDA Stored Product Insects
Laboratory in Savannah, GA) suggests wrapping
clean, susceptible materials in heavy brown paper and
carefully sealing the package with heavy-duty tape.
As long as the package is not punctured or torn, the
contents should be safe from attack for years. Clean
materials could also be stored in heavy-duty Ziploc®
plastic bags or heavy-duty plastic garbage bags (2.7
mils or thicker, or a double bag) sealed with tape (Bry
et al. 1972).
All grains, cereals and other similar susceptible sub-
stances should be stored in tight-fitting containers to
deny beetles access. Containers can be placed in the
freezer for a few days to help reduce the possibility of
an infestation developing.
Cedar Products
Cedar chests have long been thought to protect
against fabric pests, but it has been known for many
years that although cedar oil can kill very young
clothes moth larvae, the oil does not affect eggs,
pupae, adults, or larger larvae, and that cedar lumber
loses its oil in only a few years (Back and Rabek 1923,
Laudani and Clark 1954, Laudani 1957). Commercial
repellents made from cedar, cedar oil, or herbs cannot
be counted on to give adequate control to protect
goods either (Abbott and Billings 1935).
Vacuuming
Accumulations of lint, human and animal hair, and
other organic debris in cracks and crevices of floors,
baseboards, closets, and shelves provide food for
fabric pests. These areas should be cleaned thor-
oughly and regularly to prevent infestations. It is
particularly important to clean under furniture that is
rarely moved (e.g., desks, bookcases, cabinets, etc.); in
closets where fabric items, furs, and feather-filled
materials are stored; and inside and behind heaters,
vents, and ducts.
Caulking
Caulking or otherwise repairing cracks and crevices
where lint and hair can accumulate will reduce the
number of fabric pests that are able to live in the ¦
environment. Areas of particular concern are the
IPM for Schools
53 Chapter 7 • Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles
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Table 7-4. Length of Time Various Stages of the Clothes Moth Most Be
Exposed to Heat to Produce 100% Mortality0*
95°F
97°F
99°F
100°F
102°F
104°F
106°F
egg
2 days
1 day
4 hours
larva
7 days
18 hours
3 hours
3 hours
pupa
1 day
3 hours
adult
6 days
3 days
3 days
1 day
1 day
4 hours
* Tests conducted at 70% relative humidity,
b Adapted from Rawle 1951
spaces inside cabinets where shelves do not meet the
wall and similar spaces in drawers holding susceptible
materials. These same habitats are likely to be inviting
to cockroaches.
Cleaning and Airing Fabrics, Carpets, and Furniture
Since many fabric pests are attracted to the food,
beverage, perspiration, and urine stains in woolens and
other materials, garments should be cleaned thor-
oughly. before being stored. If materials cannot be
stored in moth- and beetle-proof packages or contain-
ers, they should be shaken; brushed, and aired regu-
larly. This will kill delicate moth larvae and cocoons.
Vigorous brushing, can remove moth and beetle eggs.
Susceptible furniture and carpets that cannot be
washed can be steam cleaned.
Fabrics and other items badly damaged by beetles
should be thrown away in sealed plastic bags or
burned. If the item is salvageable, submerge it in hot
soapy water (at least 120°F) for 2 to 4 hours to kill the
larvae and eggs.
Exposure to Heat
Heat can be used to kill all stages of the clothes moth
that might be hiding in cracks and crevices of an
infested closet or storage space (see Table 7-4). Re-
move all materials from the space and place a heater in
the center of the floor. Turn the heater to its hottest
setting and monitor the temperature with a thermom-
eter that registers temperatures over 120°F. Keep the
temperature at 120°F for 4 hours to kill the insects
(Ebeling 1975).
Exposure to Cold
Sudden changes in temperature from cold to warm can
cause clothes moth mortality. In the Handbook of
Pest Control, Arnold Mallis (1982) suggests that "if
articles infested with clothes moths were refrigerated
at 18°F for several days, then suddenly exposed for a
short time to 50°F, and then returned to 18°F, and
finally held permanently at about 40°F, all moth life in
them would be killed....During the winter if furniture
is placed outdoors at 0°F for several hours, it often
results in good control." Smaller items should be
bagged and moved in and out of bin-type freezers that
are normally kept at 0°F. Infested items can be placed
in tightly closed plastic bags in a freezer for 2 to 3
days, since few insects can withstand this temperature,
After that, they can be moved for long-term storage to
closets or chests at room temperature.
Microwave Radiation
In laboratory studies, eggs, larvae, and adults of
webbing clothes moths on wool were killed after 4
minutes at 2,450 MHz in a Sharp™ carousel micro?
wave oven (Reagan et al. 1980). Although these tests
indicate that microwave radiation is useful in destroy-
ing clothes moths, further work is necessary before a
treatment procedure can be fashioned from this
preliminary work. Additional studies should help
determine the optimum depth of the material, since
thick layers may shield the moths. Note that any
clothing with metal buttons, zippers, or decorations
should not be microwaved.
Removal of Animal Nests
Clothes moths and carpet beetles can sometimes move
into buildings from the abandoned nests of birds,
rodent s, bats, bees, and wasps, as well as from the
carcasses of dead animals. Remove nests in the eaves
in the walls, or close to the walls of the school. Prob-
lems with birds' nests usually occur after the nestlings
IPM for Schools
Chapter 7 • Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles
-------
have left. Nests should be removed before the cold
weather sets in and the beetles begin searching for
sheltered hibernation spots. If there is a problem with
rats and mice, these should be trapped rather than
poisoned. If poisoned rodents die in inaccessible
places, their carcasses can become food sources for
fabric pests and flies. (See Chapter 12 for management
of mice and rats.)
Bibliography
Abbott, W.S. and S.C. Billings. 1935. Further work showing that
paradichlorobenzene, naphthalene and cedar oils are ineffective
as repellents against clothes modu. Journal of Economic
Entomology 28:493-495.
Back, E.A., and F. Rabek. 1923. Red cedar chests as protection
against moth damage. USD A Technical Bulletin 1051.
Baerg, W.J. and L.O. Warrent. 1954. Biology and control of the
webbing clothes moth. Arkansas Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletin 544.19 pp.
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of least-
coxic pest control products. 1PM Practitioner 18(11/12): 1-39.
Bry, R.E., L.L. McDonald and J.H. Lang. 1972. Protecting stored
woolens against fabric-insect damage: a long-term nonchemical
method. Journal of Economic Entomology 65(6): 1735-1736.
Ebeling, W. 1975. Urban Entomology. University of California,
Los Angeles. Division of Agricultural Sciences. 695 pp.
S
Laudani, H. 1957. PCOs should treat cedar chests and closets for
moths. Pest Control 25(10):39-40,98.
Laudani, H., and P.H. Clark. 1954. The effects of red, white, and
South American cedar chests on the various stages of the
webbing clothes moth and the black carpet beetle. Journal of
Economic Entomology 47:1107-11.
Mollis, A. 1982. Handbook of Pest Control Franzak and Foster,
Cleveland. 1,101 pp.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Control; Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Rawle, S.G. 1951. The effect of high temperatures on the common
clothes moth, Tineola bisseUiella. Bulletin of Entomological
Research 42(1)^9-40.
Reagan, B.M., Chiang-cheng, Jaw-Hu, and N.J. Streit. 1980.
Effects of microwave radiation on the webbing clothes moth,
Tineola bisseUiella and textiles. Journal of Food Protection
43(8):658-663.
Wilson,H.F. 1940. Lures and traps to control clothes moths and
carpet beetles. Journal of Economic Entomology 33:651-653.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
Chapter 7 • Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles
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Chapter 8
IPM for Fiias in Schools
Introduction
Fleas can be a problem in all parts of the country
except in very dry areas. The most common species in
school buildings is the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis).
This flea feeds on cats, dogs, and humans, as well as
rodents, chickens, opossums, raccoons, and other
animals. The dog flea (C. canis) and the human flea
(Pulex irritans) are less commonly encountered.
Identification and Biology
Fleas are small, wingless insects. They pass through
four developmental stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult
(Figure 8-1). The adult body is oval and compressed
on the sides, allowing the insect to glide through the
narrow spaces between the hairs of its host. Young
adults that haven't had their first blood meal are quite
small and black in color; after feeding they expand and
appear lighter brown. The hairy, worm-like, white
larvae, which are 1/16 to 3/16 inches long, have a
distinct brown head.
Under the best conditions, a female flea can lay about
25 eggs a day for at least three weeks. She lays eggs
either on the host or in its bed or nest. Eggs laid on
the host fall off and accumulate in floor cracks, rugs
and carpets, dust, and damp soil.
Eggs hatch in 2 to 12 days. Optimal conditions for
egg hatching and flea development are temperatures
between 65 and 80°F
with a relative
humidity of 70% or
more. Dry condi-
tions and tempera-
tures over 95°F are
fatal to larvae be-
cause they lose
excessive moisture.
The larvae develop
over 8 to 21 days in
the cracks and
crevices where the
eggs have fallen. In
unfavorable condi-
tions, they may
develop more slowly,
taking up to 200 days. The
larvae feed on dried blood
excreted by adult fleas.
When conditions are
favorable, the pupal stage
lasts 1 to 2 weeks, but when
it is cool and moist and no
host is present, this stage
can last nearly a year.
Adult fleas emerge from the pupal case in response to
the warmth, vibrations, and carbon dioxide coming
from an animal or human. This ability of flea pupae to
wait until a host arrives can result in a sudden increase
of adult fleas when they emerge simultaneously from
many accumulated flea pupae.
As soon as the adult fleas emerge from the pupal case,
they look for a host for their first blood meal. Adults
can live 1 to 2 months without a meal and can survive
7 or 8 months with one.
These variations in flea development time account for
the sudden appearance of large numbers of adult fleas
in "flea season," usually in the late summer and early
fall. The flea population has been building up all year
long in the form of eggs, larvae, and pupae, but rapid
development into biting adults cannot be completed
until the temperature and humidity are right and a
host appears.
Damage
Flea bites cause irritation, but also serious allergies in
animals and humans. Other more serious and less
common problems are associated with the cat flea.
Cat fleas can carry or transmit various organisms, such
as Yersinia pestis, which causes bubonic plague;
Rickettsia typhi, which ,causes murine typhus; and
Dipylidium caninum, the double-pored dog tape-
worm, which can live in dogs, cats, or humans.
Detection and Monitoring
Fleas can be a problem in schools even when no pets
are kept in the buildings. Adult fleas can be brought
in on the clothing of staff, students, or visitors. Other
possible sources include urban wildlife such as rats,
Figure 8-1. The Flea Life Cycle
IPM for Schools
57
Chapter 8 • Fleas
-------
raccoons, opossums, chipmunks, squirrels, feral cats,
or birds that may live in unused parts of the buildings.
Areas to Monitor
• in and around the cages of pets kept in classrooms
(also check the pets themselves for signs of fleas)
• places where animals might find harborage, such as
basements, crawl spaces, attics, eaves, roof top
structures, and secluded shrubbery near buildings
Monitoring Traps
Flea Sock Traps
These are homemade, knee-high, white flannel booties
that fit over the shoes and lower pant legs: When you
walk through a flea-infested area, fleas will jump onto
the flannel and become temporarily entangled in the
nap where you can easily see and count them. Long,
white athletic socks worn over the shoes and trouser
legs will also work, as well as wide strips of sticky-
backed paper wrapped around the lower legs (sticky
side out). Socks can also provide protection from
bites if a person must enter a severely flea-infested
area for a short period of time.
Light Traps
These compact (roughly 4x6-inch) traps are composed
of a small electric light and a sheet of sticky paper.
Fleas attracted to the warmth and light get stuck 10 the
paper. Research has shown that fleas are most sensi-
tive to green light and are more attracted to light traps
if the light is turned off for 10 seconds every 5 to 10
minutes (Pickens et al. 1987); therefore, it is important
to choose a trap with a green light that can flicker on
and off.
Light traps are especially useful for monitoring in
office situations where no animals are present and the
flea population is likely to be small. Check the traps
once a week. If no fleas are caught by the second
week, move the trap to another location or remove it.
If the traps catch only a few fleas, the infestation is
very small and can probably be controlled by the traps
alone. In this case, leave the traps in place until no
additional fleas have been caught for a week. If 20 or
more fleas are caught per trap in a week, this probably
indicates a more serious infestation, and time must be
devoted to finding the source-.of the infestation (such
as an animal living in or under the building).
Persistent Flea Problems
Persistent flea problems in buildings where there are
no pets may indicate the presence of rodents or other
wildlife. In this case it can be useful to have the fleas
identified by a professional. When the flea species is
not the cat flea, its identity can help determine the
host animal and where to search to find the animal or
its nest.
Management Options
An integrated management program for fleas can be
designed by selecting from the following strategies
and tactics. See Box 8-A for a sample emergency flea
control plan.
Physical Controls
Wild Animal Removal
Wild animals can be removed with traps by trained
animal control technicians. Consult your Yellow
Pages or talk to your County Agricultural Extension
agent for a recommendation. Make appropriate
repairs to the building to exclude animals. For con-
trolling rats and mice see Chapter 12.
Vacuuming
• Vacuuming on a regular basis throughout the year
will keep developing flea populations low by
picking up adult and egg-stage fleas.
• Vibrations caused by vacuum cleaners will stimu-
late pupal, stage fleas to emerge, and the new adults
can be captured in the next vacuuming.
• Vacuuming is not very effective at capturing flea
larvae in carpeting because they coil themselves
around the fibers. Vacuuming does, however, pick
up the dried blood that larvae feed on.
• Use vacuum attachments to clean cracks and
crevices. Caulk or seal these openings permanently.
• Most fleas will be killed when dust in the vacuum
bag blocks their breathing apparatus, but to be
sure, you can vacuum up a tablespoon of corn-
starch.
• Vacuum badly infested areas thoroughly every day
until the infestation is controlled.
• When infestations are severe, you may need to
supplement vacuuming with steam-cleaning or
other controls.
Steam-Cleaning
The services of a steam-cleaning firm may be war-
ranted when flea populations are high. This process
kills adult and larval fleas and probably some eggs as
IPM for Schools
58
Chapter 8 • Fleas
-------
Box 8-A. Sample IPM Program for an
Indoor Flea Emergency
If monitoring has confirmed a high indoor flea
population that requires an immediate response, the
following IPM program can be used to bring the
emergency under control. A significant reduction
of flea numbers should occur within one to two
days.
1. Protect Yourself. Wear long plants tucked into
boots or socks. For added protection, you may
want to apply an insect repellent to pant legs and
footwear.
2. Vacuum and/or Steam-Clean Infested Areas.
Since most fleas reside in carpeting, it should be
thoroughly cleaned. In uncarpeted areas, or
where carpeting cannot be steam-cleaned,
concentrate vacuuming along baseboards, under
furniture, behind doors, or in other areas where
dust collects and flea eggs are protected from
foot traffic. See Physical Controls for more
details.
3. Apply an Insect Growth Regulator (IGR). After
completing steps 1 and 2 above, spray carpets
and floor with an IGR such as methoprene or
fenoxvcarb (see Chemical Controls). The IGR
will prevent pre-adult fleas that survive vacuum-
ing or steam-cleaning from maturing to biting
adults.
4. Apply an Insecticide if Needed. The first three
steps described above should reduce the flea
population to a very low level and keep it there
while long-term measures (e.g., locating and
removing wild animal flea hosts from the build-
ing) are undertaken. If sufficient control has not
been achieved, apply a borate insecticide to
carpeting or spot-treat infested areas with
insecticidal soap or pyrethrin (see Chemical
Controls). If adequate control has still not been
achieved, apply a stronger insecticide, such as a
synthetic pyrethroid. Follow all label directions
to the letter and wear appropriate protective
clothing.
5. Remove Any Wildlife Nesting In Or Under
Building. If flea problems persist but no pet is
present, check for wildlife in the vicinity of the
building and remove the animal.
well; however, since the warmth and humidity from
the steam also stimulates the remaining flea eggs to
hatch a day or two after the cleaning, some fleas may
reappear. If the other steps recommended in this
chapter are followed—regular vacuuming, washing,
etc.—the few fleas that hatch after steam-cleaning
should represent the last of the flea population.
Flea Combs
Classroom pets in a flea-infested room should be
combed regulany with a special flea comb that can be
purchased at a pet store. Fleas and eggs removed from
the animal should be dropped into soapy water.
Laundry
Wash removable floor coverings, such as rugs, located
in areas where'there are known infestations. Any
bedding for classroom pets should be washed regularly.
Heat
Tests have indicated that cat flea larvae die after
exposure to 103° F for one hour (Silverman et al.
1981), and researchers have developed techniques to
raise the temperature in a room enough to provide this
exposure (Forbes and EBeling 1987). The heating
process qses a common heating unit modified to
include special blowers and flexible ducts. Companies
have been using heat to kill termites and woodboring
beetles for a number of years, and now some compa-
nies are experimenting with heat to control fleas. One
potential problem with this technique is that fleas can
burrow down into carpets and upholstery, and per-
haps escape lethal temperatures.
Drying or Flooding Infested Areas Outdoors
Outdoors, organic matter can temporarily harbor flea
larvae. Either drying out these areas or saturating them
with water will kill the eggs'and larvae (Silverman et al.
1981). You an also treat these areas with insect-attack-
ing nematodes (see Biological Controls, below) or with
an insecticidal soap (see Chemical Controls, below).
Biological Controls
Insect-Attacking Nematodes
These microscopic, worm-like organisms live in the
soil and kill insects by entering their bodies, feeding
on tissue, and releasing harmful bacteria. These
bacteria do not affect humans or other vertebrates.
When they have eaten all they can of the insect, the
nematodes leave to search for other prey. They cannot
move far (only an inch or two) and die if they find no
IPM for Schools
59
Chapter'8 • Fleas
-------
other insects. The nematodes sold for flea control are
native to the United States and are found naturally in
the soil all over the country; they will not adversely
affect beneficial soil organisms, including earthworms.
Tips for Using Nematodes
• Use the number of nematodes recommended by the
manufacturer.
• Treat areas outside where you have found evidence
of animals sleeping or areas that you know are
regular travel routes for animals.
• Moisture is critical to the effective use of nematodes,
so water the area before and after the application.
Chemical Controls
If non-chemical methods alone prove insufficient to
solve the problem, then integrating a pesticide into
your management program may be warranted. For
information on the hazards of various pesticides and
on how to select an appropriate pesticide for your
situation, consult Appendix G for a list of resources.
Pesticides must be used in accordance with their EPA-
approved label directions. Applicators must be
certified to apply pesticides and should always wear
protective gear during applications. All labels and
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the pesticide
products authorized for use in the IPM. program
should be maintained on file. Do not apply these
materials when buildings are occupied, and never
apply them where they might wash into the sanitary
sewer or into outside storm drains.
Insecficidal Soap
The insecticidal, properties of naturally occurring fatty
acids used to make soaps have been refined into a
number of useful flea-control products. These insecti-
cidal soap products can be found in pet stores and
sometimes hardware stores. Some of these products
contain 0.01% pyrethrins (discussed below).
Insecticidal soap can be used on pets, rugs, floors, and
other places where flea eggs or young fleas may have
collected. Outdoor areas can also be treated with
insecticidal soap to reduce adult populations. Because
this soap can kill a wide variety of insects, mites, and
other arthropods (many of which are beneficial), it
should be used outdoors only in spot treatments
where wild animals nest, and only during periods of
large flea infestations. Routine or random outside
treatment or cover spraying is not advised. To locate
areas with adult fleas, wear the flea socks described
above (under Detection and Monitoring) and walk
around the areas suspected of harboring fleas. If adu
fleas are present, they will hop onto the socks where
you can easily see them and evaluate the degree of the
infestation.
Diatomaceous Earth and Silica Aerogel
These are insecticidal dusts that can be used for flea
control. Diatomaceous earth is made from fossilized
diatoms, and silica gel is produced essentially from
sand. Both these products kill insects by desiccation;
they absorb the wax and oil from the insect's ouicr
covering which causes dehydration and death. Al-
though these materials are not poisonous to humans
directly, the fine dust travels freely through the air and
can be irritating to the eyes and lungs; therefore, use a
dust mask and goggles during application. Silica gel
and diatomaceous earth are also formulated with
pyrethrins (discussed below).
How to Use Diatomaceous Earth and Silica Aerogel
• Apply a light dusting to upholstered furniture that
is suspected of harboring fleas. Be sure to get into
the cracks and crevices.
• Apply a light dusting to rugs or pet bedding.
• Apply to infested carpeting, leave for a couple of
days, and then vacuum up.
• Dust into crawl spaces, wall voids, attics, and other
similar spaces where you suspect animals of nesting
or resting.
• Do not use in moist environments; neither material
works well when wet.
Chrvs Oil Extracts (D-Umonene/Linalool)
D-limonene and linalool are citrus-peel extracts that
have teen used for years as food additives. Products
that contain d-limonene kill larval and adult fleas,
while those containing both ingredients kill all flea
stages. EPA-registered citrus products can be used
directly on pets, but veterinarians caution that some
cats may suffer if the material is applied in excessive
concentrations. These materials can also be applied to
animal bedding but should not be used to spray enure
rooms, nor should they be used outdoors.
Borates
Sodium polyborate can be used in carpets to control
flea larvae. The powder is worked into the nap of th
carpet and then thoroughly vacuumed. This treatment
will continue to kill flea larvae for as long as a year.
IPM for Schools
60
Chapter 8 • Fleas
-------
Veterinarians sell sodium polyborate formulations for
carpet application and there are also companies that
provide this service.
Insect Growth Regulators
Insect growth regulators (IGRs) arrest the growth of
the flea at or before the pupal stage, but they do not
kill fleas that have reached the adult stage before the
material was applied. IGR products, such as
methoprene and fenoxycarb, should be used before
fleas reach the adult stage and only inside where severe
infestations were previously located. Use liquid
solutions and apply as spot treatments. Do not use
aerosol foggers because much of the material falls on
areas that will have no contact with fleas.
Pyrethrins and Synthetic Pyrethroids
There are a number of flea control products contain-
ing pyrethrins and synthetic pyrethroids. These
products should be used as a last resort in areas where
fleas problems are severe. Apply as a spot treatment—
do not use aerosol foggers.
Bibliography
Bennett, G.W., and R.D. Lund. 1977. Evaluation of encapsulated
pyrethrins (Sectrol™) for German cockroaches and cat flea
control. Pest Control 45(9):48-50.
Bio-Integral Resource Center (B1RC). 1996.1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. IPM Practitioner 18(11/
12):l-39.
Forbes, C.F. and W. Ebeling. 1987. Use of heat for elimination of
structural pests. IPM Practitioner 10(5):l-6.
Katz, H. 1992. Chemical addictions: Part V. Pest Control Tichnol-
ogjf20(6):97-102.
Klotz, J.H., J.I. Moss, R. Zhao, L.R. Davis, Jr., and R.S. Patterson.
1994. Oral toxicity of boric acid and other boron compounds
to immature cat fleas (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae). Journal of
Economic Entomology 87(6): 1534-1536.
Mallis, A. 1982. Handbook of Pest Control Franzak and Foster,
Cleveland. 1,101 pp.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Control: Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Pickens, L.G., J.F. Carroll, and A.S. Azad. 1987. Electrophysi-
ological studies of the spectral sensitivities of cat fleas,
Ctetiocephalide: felts, and oriental rat fleas, Xenopsylia cheopis,
to monochromatic light. Entomologia, Experimental et
Applicata 45:193-204.
Powers, K.A. 1985. Toxicological aspects of linalool: a review.
Veterinary and Human Toxicology 27(6):484-486.
Silverman, J., M.K. Rust, and D.A. Reierson. 1981. Influence of
temperature and humidity on survival and development of the
cat flea, Ctenocephalides felts (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae). Journal
of Medical Entomology 18(l):78-83.
Tarshis, IJ)^1959. Use of sorptive dusts on fleas. California
Agriculture 13(3):13-14.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
61
Chapter 8 • Fleas
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Chapter 9
IPM for Flies in Schools
Introduction
Many species of flies can be problems in schools.
Each kind of fly has a distinct breeding site inside or
outside the school building. In order to control pest
flies, it is necessary to know which fly is causing the
problem and where it is breed-
ing. Table 9-1 summarizes
identifying characteristics of the
most common pest flies encoun-
tered in schools.
Garbage- and Manure-Breeding Flies
House Fly
Identification and Biology
Flies such as house flies, dump flies, blow flies, and
blue and green bottle flies which breed in food wastes
(garbage) and/or animal feces are generally referred to
as "filth flies."
Sometimes flies are confused with wasps; however,
flies have two wings, while wasps and all other winged
insects have four wings arranged in two pairs, al-
though sometimes the second set of wings may be
covered or hidden by the first. Wasps, unlike flies,
fold their wings alongside their bodies when at rest.
Most pest wasps are colorfully marked with yellow,
red, black, and white. These wasps are less likely to
come indoors, they are aggressive in their flight
around foods, particularly sweets, and they are larger
than filth flies. Filth flies do not act aggressively and
do not bite. The cluster fly, which is also larger than
the filth flies, can be identified by its stout body with
crinkled yellow
Adult hairs.
Filth flies pass
through four
distinct stages in
their, life cycle: egg,
larva (maggot),
pupa, and adult (see
Figure 9-1). Adult
female filth flies
look for a moist
place with the right
smell to lay their
eggs. This can be
in food waste in a
garbage can or
dumpster, in dog or
cat feces, in dead
Larva
Figure 9-1. Life Cycle of a Fly
animals, in kitchen drains, in grass clippings allowed to
rot in a pile, and even in moist soil that is mixed with
garbage. The larva hatches from the egg and grows
until it is ready ro form a puparium (a kind of cocoon)
from which an adult fly will emerge. Once the adult fly
emerges, it doesn't grow any larger, small flies do not
grow into larger flies.
Damage
Flies that invade cafeterias and kitchens carry bacteria
and other microbes which contaminate food, utensils,
and surfaces. It is good hygienic practice to prevent
this exposure.
Detection and Monitoring
It is important to correcdy identify the problem flies
and pinpoint their breeding sites. Table 9-1 can help
you with identification, or you can take several
specimens to a specialist. The specialist should be able
to tell you what kind of breeding site to look for after
an identification has been made.
To collect specimens inside, use sticky flypaper or
gather dead specimens from windowsills and light
fixtures. Outside, trapping is one of the easiest meth-
ods of catching flies for identification (see the discussion
below for trap construction, placement, and baits). If
adult flies consistendy avoid baited traps, it may indicate
that the pest fly is not a filth fly. In this case, you can try
using a butterfly net to catch one of the flies.
Management Options
To manage flies, you must find and reduce breeding
sites, install and maintain screens to keep flies out of
buildings, kill those flies that do get inside with a fly
swatter or flypaper, and reduce or eliminate the odors
that attract flies.
IPM for Schools 63 Chapter 9 • Flies
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In a school with a frequent waste removal program, it is
very possible that few flies are breeding on the school
property. It is more likely that odors from dumpsters,
garbage cans, kitchens, and cafeterias are attracting flies
to the school from the surrounding neighborhood.
House flies and blow flies, the species that most com-
monly invade buildings, usually develop outside and
follow odors into the building. They can also be pests
when students or staff are eating outside. In schools
where waste removal is infrequent, fly populations can
be breeding at the waste collection site.
Habitat Modification
This is one of the most important aspects of fly
control. Without controlling wastes and odors, it is
impossible to control filth flies.
Food Waste
• All food waste from the kitchen, cafeteria, and
other areas should be separated from other garbag
drained so it will be as dry as possible, and then
stored in sealed plastic bags before discarding.
• Place containers with small amounts of food waste,
such as milk or yogurt cartons, into sealed plastic
bags before disposal. This method will reduce
access to flies (and yellowjackets).
• Promptly fix drains or electric garbage disposal
units that leak, or drains that allow food waste to
accumulate under sinks or floors. Leaky drains can
attract many species of flies. Remove any food
waste that has accumulated under sinks or floors or
in crawl spaces or basements at the site of the
broken drain, and then clean the area thoroughly.
Common Name
Scientific Name
Description
Sources
House Fly
Musca domestica
medium-sized, gray; 4
stripes on thorax
garbage, human and animal manure
Dump Flies
Ophyra spp.
medium-sized; black
mixed garbage, bird feces; in the Pacific
Northwest, sometimes replaces the
house fly as the main indoor pest
Black Blow Fly
Phormia regina
large; dark blue
garbage, animal carcasses; most
abundant in early spring
Green Bottle Fly
Phaenicia lericata
medium-sized; shiny
green to bronze
garbage containing mixtures of animal
and vegetable matter, dead animals,
fresh meat; enters buildings less
frequently than house flies
Blue Bottle Flies
Cynomyopsis cadav-
erina
Calliphora spp.
medium-sized; thorax
dull, abdomen metallic
blue
exposed meat, feces, overripe fruit and
other decaying vegetable matter; enters
buildings in cool seasons
Little House Fly
Fannia canicularis
small, dull gray, yellow
on upper abdomen;
males circle in the air
decaying vegetable and animals matter,
especially the manure of humans,
horses, cows, poultry, and dogs; also
piled, moist, grass clippings
Cluster Fly
Pollenia rudis
larger than house fly;
dark gray with
distinctive yellow
hairs; adults sluggish
lan/ae parasitic on earthworms; adults
enter houses in fall
Fruit Fly
Drosophila spp.
very small; yellow-
brown
fermenting fruit and vegetables, other
moist organic matter
Phorid Fly (Drain
Fly)
Megaselia scalans
similar to fruit fly, but
more humpbacked in
appearance
decomposing organic matter including
vegetables, fruit, flesh, feces
Table 9*1. Common Flies Found in and around Schools
IPM for Schools
64
Chapter 9 • Flies
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Other Garbage
• In food preparation areas, rinse all cans, bottles, and
plastic containers before recycling or discarding.
Exterior Garbage Cans and Dumpsters
• To avoid attracting flies into the building, place
dumpsters and recycling containers upwind from
the outside doors of the school, particularly doors
to the kitchen or cafeteria. When dumpsters are
downwind, flies are attracted to the waste odors
and then find the odor trails that the breeze blows
down from the doorways. Following these odor
trails, they find their way into the building.
• Wastes should be collected and moved off site at
least once a week. In hot months, garbage collec-
tion twice a week will significantly reduce fly
problems.
• Make sure garbage can and dumpster lids seal
tightly when closed and remain closed when not in
use. Do not leave lids open at night; garbage can
attract other pests, such as rodents. Repair or
replace garbage cans with holes or with lids that do
not close tightly. For more information on rodent-
proof garbage containers, see Chapter 12, IPM for
Rats and Mice.
• Regularly clean garbage cans and dumpsters to
prevent the build-up of food waste, an ideal place for
flies to lay eggs. Use a high pressure stream of water
or a brush and soapy water, if necessary. A solution
of borax and water will eliminate odors. Do not
allow soured milk to collect in trash receptacles; it is
a powerful attractant to flies. If possible, dumpsters
should be fitted with drains so they can be hosed or
scrubbed out as needed. Another option is to
require the refuse company to clean the dumpster or
replace it with a clean one more frequendy.
• Flies can develop in soil soaked with water used to
clean garbage cans and dumpsters. Check these
areas regularly. If you see maggots, scrape them up
along with the soil and dispose of everything in a
plastic bag sealed tightly with a knot or a twist-tie.
• Do not store extra garbage outside of dumpsters or
garbage cans in cardboard, plastic, or paper; this
provides easy access for rats, dogs, raccoons, or
other animals.
• Inspect dumpsters and other outdoor trash recep-
tacles at the end of the day and remove any wastes
lying on the ground.
• Garbage cans on the school grounds should have
removable domed tops with self-closing, spring-
loaded swinging doors. Cans should be lined
with plastic bags that can be tightly sealed and
removed daily.
• Inform students, teachers, and staff of the impor-
tance of placing garbage inside the proper contain;
ers. Garbage should not be left lying on the ground.
Animal Feces
Remove droppings promptly and put them into plastic
bags that are sealed before disposal. Dog feces that dry
quickly may attract adult flies with their odor but are
unlikely to host many maggots. Droppings that remain
damp because of humidity or rain can breed a number
of maggots.
Odors
Flies can detect odors over long distances. Smells of
souring milk from hundreds of containers thrown in
dumpsters can attract thousands of flies from the
surrounding neighborhood. Storing garbage in sealed
plastic bags and having cans and dumpsters cleaned
and emptied frequendy to eliminate odors is very
important. Removing pet feces also helps reduce
attractive odors.
Flies attracted to open kitchen or cafeteria doors, or to
dumpsters or garbage, will rest on nearby walls, eaves,
and rafters. While resting, they leave fly specks,
which have a strong fly-attracting odor. These
brown- to cream-colored specks should be washed off
with an odor-eliminating cleaner (a mild solution of
borax and water can be particularly effective) other-
wise they will continue to attract flies.
Physical Controls
Screens
Install screens over windows, doors, and vent holes to
prevent flies from entering buildings. Weather-
stripping or silicone caulk can be used to insure a tight
fit. Torn screens can be repaired with clear silicone
caulk. Screen doors should be fitted with springs or
automatic closing devices that close the screen door
firmly after it is opened. External doors that cannot
be screened should be fitted with automatic closing
devices, and/or vertical strips of overlapping plastic
that allow human access but prevent fly entry. "Air
walls" that force air across openings are another
alternative to screen doors.
Fly Swatters
In many instances, the old-fashioned fly swatter is the
safest and quickest way to kill flies that have found
IPM for Schools
6S
Chapter 9 • Flies
-------
their way into a room. Aim the fly swatter about 1 1/2
inches behind the fly, rather than directly at it, because
research has shown that when a house fly takes off
from a horizontal surface, it jumps upward and
backward. Stiff plastic swatters seem to work better
than wire-mesh ones. The fly's unblurred range of
vision is about 11/2 feet, and the swatter can be
moved to this distance before striking (Tierney 1988).
Flypaper
Sticky flypaper is effective at catching flies because it
takes advantage of their natural habit of moving up to
the ceiling to rest. It will take several days for a new
strip of flypaper to start catching flies. Use a number
of strips at a time and replace them when they are
covered with flies or when they begin to dry out.
Flypaper can be very useful in areas where there are
too many flies to kill with a fly swatter, and where
aesthetic appeal is not of primary importance. Flypa-
per is also a useful monitoring tool.
Fly Traps
Fly traps can be used to reduce adult fly populations,
capture specimens for identification, and monitor the
effectiveness of control programs. Fly traps are not
toxic and are more selective than using insecticide.
Traps need to be serviced regularly, appropriately
placed, and repaired or replaced when damaged.
Trapping Flies Indoors
Electrocuting light traps are preferred for indoor use
and can be used in food preparation and storage
areas. Light traps will not work well in a room with
many and/or large windows because the bright light,
coming in the windows is a much more powerful
attractant than the comparatively weak light coming
from the trap.
Contrary to the advice provided in some promo-
tional literature for ultraviolet light or electrocutor
traps, these traps should not be used outdoors. They
are relatively non-selective in the insects they attract
and will kill many more beneficial and innocuous
insects than pests.
The following are key points to remember when using
light traps for indoor flies:
• Use the number of traps recommended by the
manufacturer, or, as a general rule, one trap for
every 30 feet of wall.
• Mount traps 3 feet from the floor on the perimeter,
walls of the room, because hungry flies circle the
perimeter of a room close to the floor when look-
ing for food.
• Mount traps 5 feet away from any open food and
25 feet from any doors or windows. Traps work
best in rooms without windows.
• Empty and clean the traps weekly to prevent
dermestid beetles from developing in dead flies.
• Replace lamps at least once a year.
• The more expensive black light "blue" bulbs do not
attract more flies than regular black light bulbs.
• The lamp should be directed toward the interior of
the building. Do not place traps where flies that
are outside can see the light bulb. This may attract
more flies.
• Place traps near odor sources (such as cooking
areas, garbage cans, outdoor restrooms), since
odors will be more attractive (especially from a
distance) than the light.
Trapping Flies Outdoors
To capture flies outside, use traps with a screen cone
suspended above the bait. These cone-type traps take
advantage of the fly's habit of flying or walking
toward light. Cone traps can be easily made from
wood together with aluminum or plastic screening;
use the dimensions in Figure 9-2. Flies are attracted to
oie bait in the pan under the trap. Once the flies are
under the trap, the brightest spot they see is the hole
in the cone above them. They walk up through the
hole and are trapped in the outer screen cage. Since
flies are attracted to the light and it is always lighter
above them, they do not find their way back out
through the hole in the cone.
The following are key points to remember when
trapping flies outdoors:
Trap placement is important.
• If an area has a small or moderate fly problem,
traps placed close to buildings can attract flies from
all over the neighborhood and make the problem
worse. It is better to set the traps close to fly
breeding sites with any prevailing breeze blowing
from the trap toward the breeding area.
• Since most bait odors are heavier than air, place
traps so odors flow over the area where flies are
developing.
• Do not set traps near doorways or entrances to
buildings.
IPM for Schools
66
Chapter 9 • Flies
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• Place traps away from outdoor areas that are used
for eating or recreation.
• Generally, traps are most effective when placed on
the ground, but they can be hung over the openings
of dumpsters and from buildings or fences as well.
Traps hung in these areas must not interfere with
the opening and closing of the dumpster, and
should be placed in areas where people will not
tamper with them and will not be offended by the
bait odors.
• Place traps in sunlight. Flies are more active in
sunlight, both outside and inside the trap. Flies buzz
more in the sunlight, and the noise coming from the
trap will attract additional flies from a distance.
Yellowjackets are also attracted to the buzzing and
will enter the cone trap in search of food.
Figure 9-2. Cone Trap. Bait pan is placed beneath bottom of the
cone. Make sure the top edge of the bait pan is above the bottom
edge of the trap.
Empty the trap to maintain performance.
Empty the trap when dead flies cover about one
quarter of the cone. Do not release live flies that are in
the trap. Kill them by enclosing the trap in a plastic
bag and placing it in the sun. After the flies are dead,
the. contents of the trap should be poured into the
plastic bag, sealed, and discarded in a dumpster or
garbage can.
Do not dean Hie trap between uses.
The smell of the millions of fly specks deposited on
the screen is very attractive to flies.
Bait is important to the performance of the trap.
• Liquid bait, either the Yeast Bait or the Beltsville
Bait (see Box 9-A for recipes), is a superior attrac-
tant that will not breed flies unless it is allowed to
dry to a sludge. If either of these baits contaminate
clothing and hands, use baking soda and water to
remove the odors.
• Yeast Bait has a foul odor that is particularly
attractive to female flies because it smells like a
good place to lay eggs. This bait will lure flies even
from the most attractive breeding sites.
• Beltsville Bait will attract male flies as well as
females because it contains sugar. This sweet bait
can be used in cool weather when the main aim of
trapping is to reduce the total number of flies
rather than to suppress breeding.
• Baits such as decaying meat or fish scraps will
attract mainly blow flies and flesh flies. These baits
should always be put inside a rolled down plastic
bag and then placed in the bait pan. Watch the bait
so that it does not become a breeding site for flies.
The larvae feeding on the bait can crawl out of the
plastic bag and away from the trap to pupate. If
larvae are found in the bait, the plastic bag should
be sealed, thrown away, and replaced with a new
bag and bait.
" Sex pheromone baits for flies do not last long and
do not attract flies from a distance. They are likely
to be more expensive and less effective than other
food-type baits which can be mixed from common
materials and attract both sexes.
• Do not add poison to the bait. Flies are more
attracted to the live flies in the trap than they are to
dead ones.
• The top edge of the bait pan must be at least 1 /2
inch above the bottom edge of the trap. If flies can
sit on the top edge of the bait pan and look out
under the trap, trap catches will be poor.
Top is also made of screening. Top should be hinged (to empty
the trap) and closed with a hook and eye. Weather-stripping or
a strip of foam or cloth glued to all 4 sides of the underside of
the lid will prevent flies from squeezing out.
Aluminum or fabric screening
22"
TPM for Schools
a
Chapter 9 • Flies
-------
Box 9-A. Fly Bait Recipes
Liquid Yeast Bait
(from Satrom and Stephens 1979)
This recipe makes 7-9 portions of liquid bait for
use with - cone trap. It can be stored 20-30 days
once it is ready for use.
Ingredients:
2 quarts tepid (not hot) water (95-105° F)
1 cup + 3 oz. active dry yeast (baking yeast)
2 tablespoons ammonium carbonate (optional*^
Mixing the bait:
Use a plastic (not glass) narrow-necked gallon jug
with a screw cap for mixing, ripening, and storing
bait. Bleach or milk jugs work well. Wide-mouth
containers will not produce effective bait.
Mix all the above ingredients in the jug. Impor-
tant: With cap lightly sealed, allow mixture to
begin to-ripen (see ripening instructions below).
It will foam up at first After it subsides (1-2
days), tighten the lid and continue ripening till
very smelly (2-9 additional days). Gases must
escape while bait is foaming up (loose cap), but
bait must finish ripening without air (tight cap) to
attract flies.
Ripening the bait:
Allow bait to ripen 4-10 days in a place where
temperatures remain above 60° F during the
night and day. Bait is ripe when it is very smelly,
with a musky, penetrating odor. Warm daytime
temperatures will make up for slightly cooler (less
than 60°F) nights, but in general, the warmer the
average temperature, the faster the bait will ripen.
Because of its heavy odor, the bait should be
ripened in a well-ventilated area where it will not
offend people. Do not ripen or store the bait in
direct sunlight. Extreme temperatures can build
within the jug, kill the yeast, and cause gases to
expand enough to pop off the lid or break the jug.
Storing the bait:
To maintain potency, store bait with the cap kept
tight. Open the jug only when necessary to refill
the bait pan. Do not store in direct sunlight.
Ammonium carbonate is available from chemical supply
houses and will improve the odor of the bait.
Note: Ripened bait should be treated as a decaying
food material. It can cause gastro-intestinal distur-
bances if ingested.
Using the bait:
Stir or shake the bait supply each time before
adding to the bait pan. Pour about 1 cup (8 ounces)
of bait in a wide pan on a level surface under the
trap. Be sure the edge of the pan is higher than the
bottom edge of the trap frame.
The bait is effective in the pan for at least 3 to 5
days. It attracts more flies on the first day, and
then gradually declines thereafter. Don't let the
bait dry out.
Beltsville Bait
(from Pickens, et al. 1994)
This makes a dry bait that can be easily stored for a
considerable time. It must be mixed with water
before using.
Ingredients:
1 pound granulated sugar
1 pound baking powder (double-acting type)
2 ounces dry active yeast (baking yeast)
6 ounces air-dried blood or freeze-dried fish meal
1/4 cup honey
2 tablespoons* water
Procedure:
Mix ingredients thoroughly. Press mixture into a
plastic ice-cube tray to form cubes. Invert the tray
to dump the cubes, and let them dry to form hard
blocks. To use the bait, add 2 cubes of bait to 2
quarts of water. Place bait in a wide-mouth pan
beneath a cone-type trap. Flies are attracted to this
bait from only a short distance, so traps should be
placed within 6 feet of areas where flies are active.
Bait pans should be cleaned and baited every 1 to 2
weeks and should be kept filled with water.
^Quantity of water needed may vary with humidity of air when
mixing. Use only sufficient water to bind dry ingredients
together when they are compressed.
IPM for Schools
68
Chapter 9 • Flies
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Prevent excessive amounts of water from getting into
the trap.
If dead flies in the trap get wet and begin to rot, they
will attract blow flies that will lay their eggs on the
outside of the screen. When the tiny blow fly larvae
hatch, they crawl through the screen to feast on the
rotting mass of flies. This turns the trap into a messy
breeding site for flies.
• Do not place traps where sprinklers will get
them wet.
• In areas where there are frequent rainstorms during
the trapping season, it may be necessary to fit the
trap with a clear Plexiglas™ top.
Chemical Controls
Except for odor-eliminating chemicals such as borax,
pesticides are not recommended for fly control.
Borates
Low concentrations of borax in water can be used to
eliminate fly odors. This solution is particularly
effective for removing fly specks from walls and eaves,
and for rinsing out garbage cans and dumpsters.
These solutions should not be used near ponds,
streams, lakes, or other bodies of water, and should
not be poured onto plants.
Fruit Flies, Cluster Flies, and Phorid Flies
Identification and Biology
Fruit Flies
These small flies are commonly seen flying around
ripe fruit, especially bananas. They are about 1/8 inch
long and usually have red eyes. They lay their eggs
near the surface of fermenting fruits and vegetables
and other moist organic materials (including damp
mops and cleaning rags as well as residues in bottles,
cans, garbage disposals, and drains). Their life cycle,
from egg through maggot and pupa to adult, takes
little more than a week, and the number of flies that
can be produced by a single piece of fruit is enormous.
These flies are most often a problem in late summer
and early fall, so careful storage of fruit and vegetables
is necessary at these times of the year.
Cluster Flies
Cluster flies are larger and darker than house flies
and have a distinctive yellowish color caused by the
crinkled yellow hairs on their bodies. In the sum-
mer, cluster flies lay their eggs in soil where the
maggots parasitize earthworms. Soil containing
many earthworms—for example, large lawn areas on
the school grounds or in nearby parks—is a common
source of these flies. In the fall, the adults can be
seen clustering on the south and west sides of build-
ings. As the weather gets cooler, these flies begin
looking for sheltered places to spend the winter and
often enter buildings.
Phorid Flies
The most common phorid fly, Megaselia scalaris, is
small (1/16 to 1/8 inch) with a yellowish-brown body
and light brown wings. The adults seem reluctant to
fly, and they run around on walls, windows, and tables
with a characteristic quick, jerky motion. The females
are strongly attracted to odors and lay their eggs on or
next to decaying material, both plant and animal. Food
sources for the larvae are highly varied, from decom-
posing fruit, vegetables, and meat to open wounds in
animals and people, and human and animal feces. The
life cycle; from egg to adult takes from 14 to 37 days.
Management Options
Fruit Flies
Fruit flies are most active from late summer through
early fall. Problems with these flies can be avoided by
ripening fruit in paper bags. Seal the bags by folding
the top over several times and closing it with a paper
clip or clothes pin. Once fruit is ripe, it should be
stored in the refrigerator. Careful storage of fruit
during the rest of the school year may not be necessary.
If an infestation is discovered, look for and remove the
material that is breeding the flies. Begin by searching
for the obvious sources, such as ripe fruit and veg-
etables, and then look at water from refrigerators,
humidifiers, or sink drains that may be fermenting;
spoiled animal food; or even damp, sour mops or rags.
Areas outside the building near windows and doors
should be checked for rotting vegetable matter. All
breeding sources should be removed and disposed of in
a sealed plastic bag. Make sure that screens and win-
dows near food preparation areas are in good repair.
Fruit Fly Trap
To make a simple trap for fruit flies, combine 1 cup of
IPM for Schools
69
Chapter 9 • Flies
-------
vinegar, 2 cups of water, and 1 tablespoon of honey in
a 2-liter soda bottle. Replace the cap, shake the
mixture well, and punch holes in the side of the bottle
above the liquid so the flies can get in. Using string,
hang the bottle about 5 feet from the ground. Periodi-
cally, dump out the dead flies.
Cluster Flies
Cluster flies are not as strong fliers as house flies and
can easily be killed with a fly swatter or removed with
a vacuum. Cluster flies can also be allowed to exit by
opening the window. They can find their way into
buildings through unscreened doors and windows,
openings under sidii>6 «..d around roofs, unscreened
ventilating spaces, cracks around windows, and holes
where wires penetrate the walls of the building.
During warm winter periods, cluster flies hidden in
buildings become active and are attracted to windows.
Phorid Flies
Phorid flies breed in diverse sources of organic matter,
so it may take considerable sleuthing to find their
breeding sites. Once the site is found it must be
thoroughly scraped, cleaned, and dried. Large
infestations of these flies are often the result of
broken drains or garbage disposals that allow organic
matter to accumulate in out of the way places such as
wall voids, under floors, in'basements, or in the soil of
crawl spaces.
Bibliography
Baur, F.J., ed. 1984. Insect Management for Food Storage and
.Processing. American Society of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul,
MN. 384 pp:-
Campbell, E. and R.J. Black. 1960. The problem of migration of
mature fly larvae from refuse containers and its implication,
on the frequency of refuse collection. California Vector Vu
7:9-15.
Drummond, R.O., J.E. George, and S.E. Kuntz. 1988. Control of
Arthropod Pests of Livestock: a review of technology. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL. 245 pp.
Gilbert, 0.1984. Insect electrocutor light traps, pp. 87-108. In:
Baur, Insect' Management for Food Storage and Processing. •
American Sociery of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Greenberg, B. 1971. Flies and Disease, Volume I: Ecology, classifi-
cation, and biotic associations, and Volume II (1973): Biology
and Disease Transmission. Princeton University Press,
Princeton, NJ. Vol. 1,856 pp. Vol. 2,447 pp.
Oldroyd, H. 1964. The Natural History of Flies. W.W. Norton,
New York, NY. 324 pp.
Olkowski, H., W. Olkowski and T. Javits. 1979. The Integral
Urban House. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, CA. 494 pp.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Control: Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Pickens, L.G., E.T. Schmidtmann, and R.W. Miller. 1994. How to
control house and stable flies without using pesticides. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USDA
Information Bulletin #673,14 pp.
Richardson, J. 1994. Echoes from our network. Echo Development
Notes (46), October. North Fort Myers, FL. 6 pp.
Satrom, G. and D. Stephens. 1979. A Fly Control Handbook, IPM
for Manure and Compost Ecosystems. Beneficial Biosystems,
Emeryville, CA. 42 pp. (out of print).
Tierney, J. 1988. The right way to swat a fly. Pest Control Technol-
ogy 16(8):36-40.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
70
Chapter 9 • Flies
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Chapter 10
IPM for School Lawns
Introduction
In schools, lawns often cover several acres, and serve
important roles as athletic fields, picnic lunch sites,
outdoor classrooms, and general recreational areas for
the community at large.
Heavy use of lawns and athletic fields causes stress
that predisposes grass to attack by a variety of weeds,
pest insects, pathogens, and vertebrates such as go-
phers and moles. As a result, most pesticides used on
school grounds are applied to lawns.
Because the bodies of children and youths are often in
direct contact with the grass, use of pesticides on
lawns increasingly raises concerns among parents and
health professionals. On the other hand, coaches and
school administrators are under pressure to insure
quality turf for use by students and by community
athletic leagues. In addition, the competence of
landscape maintenance staff is often judged by the
aesthetic appearance of the lawns that surround most
schools. These various viewpoints often come into
conflict when pests threaten lawns.
The key to lawn IPM is the use of cultural practices
that optimize growth of grasses and minimize condi-
tions favorable to pest insects, weeds, or pathogens.
The following discussion describes how to implement
an IPM approach to lawn care. Since specific methods
for managing all possible lawn pests is beyond the
scope of this chapter, a general IPM approach is
described, followed by complete management pro-
grams for two typical lawn pests: chinch bugs and
fusarium blight.
Detection and Monitoring
An IPM approach to lawn management begins with a
monitoring program. Monitoring entails making
regular inspections of the lawn to gather and record
sice-specific information on which to base pest control
decisions. Monitoring enables pest managers to do the
following:
• identify the pest(s)
• identify any natural enemies of the pest(s)
• apply preventive methods to reduce the occurrence
of pest problems
• determine if any treatment is needed
• determine where, when, and what kind of treat-
ments is needed
• evaluate and fine-tune treatments as the pest
management program continues over the. seasons
Tools used to monitor lawns are listed in Box 10-A.
Developing Background on Local Pests
When beginning a monitoring program, some effort
should be made to become familiar with the common
pest insects, weeds, and lawn pathogens found in the
local area. Learn about their life-cycles and how to
recognize them. This information can be obtained
from the Cooperative Extension Service, located in
every county, or from publications listed in the Bibli-
ography at the end of this chapter. It is also important
to learn to recognize the natural enemies of common
lawn pests, and factor their presence into deciding if
treatments are needed and which ones to use.
Gathering Background Data on the Site
The next step in a monitoring program is to map all
lawn areas, noting locations of existing pest problems
or conditions that can produce pest problems (bare
spots, broken sprinkler heads, etc.). Identify the lawn
grasses in each area and record the maintenance
history of the turf and current horticultural practices.
Soil should be tested at representative sites to assess
fertility status and requirements. If any pest organ-
isms are present, be sure to get an accurate identifica-
tion. Many unnecessary pesticide applications can be
traced to mistaken identification of pests.
Next, give eaich major section of lawn an identifying
number and prepare a monitoring form for recording
on-going maintenance activities and information about
pests and their management in each section of lawn.
You will need to compile an inventory of existing
lawn maintenance equipment. In addition to mowers,
is there an aerator, de-thatcher, and fertilizer spreader
that can handle sludge or other organic materials ? Is
there a spring-tooth harrow for removing weeds from
infields and running tracks? These are useful tools in
non-chemical lawn management. Prepare a list of
equipment that is needed so it can be worked into the
IPM for Schools
71
Chapter 10 • Lawns
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Box 10-A.
Tools Used to Monitor Lawns
The following tools are useful for monitoring
lawns. They can be carried in a sturdy bag
designed to transport baseball equipment
(available at most sporting goods stores). The
soil probe with its extension fits snugly in the
bottom pocket designed for baseball bats, and
everything else fits into an upper zippered area,
• soil probe
• pH meter
• soil thermometer
• 10-power hand lens (magnifying glass)
• watering can and bottle of detergent
• plastic bags for collecting specimens
• clip board and forms for recording data
• a ball of twine or clothesline for taking
transects
• a small hand trowel and knife
• camera
• field guides for identifying pests and natural
enemies
• pheromone traps for cutworms, sod web-
worms, etc.
budget process. Inspect the condition of the equip-
ment. Are mower blades kept sharp? Can mowing
height be adjusted easily? Does the equipment have
flotation tires to reduce soil compaction?
Developing Pest Tolerance Levels
Most lawns can tolerate some pest presence without
compromising appearance or function. The challenge
for the pest manager is to determine how much
damage is tolerable and when action is needed to keep
pest damage within tolerable levels. Since the compet-
ing interests in the lawn mentioned earlier must be
taken into account when deciding whether or not
treatments are warranted, it is good practice to involve
representatives of these interest groups in setting pest
tolerance levels for lawn areas.
One approach is to work with an IPM advisory
committee (discussed in Appendix B) to develop pest
tolerance levels for lawns at each school site. Toler-
ance levels will differ, depending on location and uses
of the lawns. For example, tolerance for pest presen
on lawns at the front of the school in public view m;
be lower than tolerance on playing fields behind
school buildings. Tolerance levels may also differ
depending on the particular pest. For example,
tolerance for damage by pest insects or pathogens that
can kill large areas of turf, leaving bare soil, may be
lower than tolerance for weeds that displace grasses
but nevertheless continue to cover soil and serve as a
playing surface.
Tolerance levels can be quantified in a number of
ways. Box 10-B describes a method for quantifying
the amount of weeds growing in a lawn. This permits
expression of tolerance levels by percentage of weeds,
for example, "up to 25% weed growth is tolerable on
the back lawn at the elementary school; only 10% is
tolerable on the football field at the high school."
Tolerance for insect damage can be correlated with
numbers of insects present and amount of visible
damage. For example, white grubs can be monitored
by examining several areas of soil underneath the
grass. A spade is used to cut three sides of a 1-foot
square of grass. The grass is carefully folded back,
using the uncut edge as a hinge. Dirt from the roots
removed, and the number of exposed grubs counted.
Then the grass can be folded back into place, tamped,
and watered in. In well-managed lawns, up to 15
grubs per square foot can be present without causing
any appreciable damage to the turf. In stressed or
poorly managed lawns, however, 15 grubs per square
foot might seriously damage the grass.
By setting tolerance levels, pest managers and
groundskeepers can gear their management efforts to
keeping pest populations within tolerable levels, and
apply treatments only if, when, and where necessary.
By involving members of the school and community
in setting treatment guidelines, confrontations can be
minimized and broad support developed for the IPM
program.
Evaluating Pest Management Practices
When actions are taken to reduce pest presence, moni-
toring data should be used to evaluate the effectiveness
of the treatment. Did pest numbers go down suffi-
ciently to prevent intolerable damage? Were treatments
cost-effective? Is the problem likely to recur? Can
conditions causing chronic pest problems be altered c
removed? If not, can other ground covers better suited
to conditions at the site replace the lawn?
IPM for Schools
72
Chapter 10 • Laztms
-------
Box 10-B.
The Transect Method for Monitoring Weeds in a Lawn
Wetd Monitoring Form for Turf
Location el Torf _ Dit*
Data coflcctcd by Length of pi«
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(for oMMpk, terry mxmm pica)
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Sktuh of ftocatioo of transect)
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1. At the beginning and at the end of the season, establish
three parallel transect lines along the length of the
field. Use the center of the field and two imaginary
lines on either side.
Note: Three transects will give sufficient data to
indicate percentage weed cover in the total turf area. If
time is limited, information recorded from one transect
across a representative area of turf (e.g., down the
center of the field) may give sufficient indication of
weed trends for management purposes.
2. Calculate the number of paces you will walk between
samples.
a. Measure the length of one of your transect lines in
feet (e.g., 360 ft).
b. Measure the length of the pace of the person
doing the transect. To do this, slowly walk a known
length (e.g., 20 ft), count the number of paces it takes
to cover this distance (e.g., 10 paces), ana divide the
distance by the number of paces (20 ft divided by 10
paces = 2 ft per pace) This figure represents the
average length of the pace.
c. Divide the length of the field by the length of the
pace (360 ft divided by 2 ft per pace =180 paces). This
establishes the number of paces it takes to walk the
transect.
d. Divide the number of paces by the number of
samples to be recorded (a minimum of 20 samples is
recommended): 180 paces divided by 20 samples = 9
paces per sample. Thus, in this example, a sample will
be taken every 9th pace along the transect.
3. Stretch lines of string along the three transect lines,
laying the string directly on the ground.
4. Beginning at one end of the first transect, walk the
calculated number of paces (9 paces in the above
example), stop and look at a 3 x 3 inch area (this is
about the circumference of a softball or the lid to a 1
lb coffee can) immediately in front of your toe.
If this area contains part or all of a weed, check the
'yes' box on the first line under Transect A' on the
monitoring form (see Figure). If you know the
identity of the weed, write it down.
If the toe sample area contains grass, check the 'no'
box on the monitoring form. If 25% or more of the
toe area sample is bare soil, check the box marked
'bare.' If less than 25% is bare, but a weed is present,
check 'yes.'
Continue pacing the transect line and marking the
monitoring form. Repeat along the two other
transect lines.
5. To calculate the average percentage of weeds, total the
number of boxes marked 'yes' in each column and
multiply by 100. Divide this number by the total
boxes in all columns. The resulting figure represents
average percent weed cover in the turf. Do the same
calculation with the boxes representing bare ground.
This will indicate percent area that will become
weedy if not seeded to grass.
6. By collecting data from the transects at the begin-
ning and end of each season, the turf manager can
spot emerging problem areas. For example, if
several boxes in succession are marked 'yes' indicat-
ing weed presence, a closer look at this area on the
transect is warranted. Usually such 'clumping' of
weed growth indicates exceptionally heavy wear on
the turf, although structural problems such as
severely compacted soil, a broken irrigation line,
inoperative sprinkler head, scalping of the turf due
to uneven grade, etc., also may be indicated.
By monitoring the turf area from season to season,
the manager can tell if weed populations are rising,
falling, or remaining relatively stable. This informa-
tion will indicate whether or not current turf man-
agement practices are keeping weeds at or below the
agreed-upon tolerance level. If weed populations are
rising, changes in management practices are indicated.
IPM for Schools
73
Chapter 10 • Lawns
-------
Management Options
When pest numbers threaten to exceed tolerance levels
(i.e., the action level is reached), there is a wide variety
of strategies and tactics available to solve any lawn
pest problem. The first approach is to address condi-
tions causing stress to lawns.
Stress and Pests
The pest problem of greatest concern on school
lawns—and target of highest pesticide use—is growth
of weeds, such as dandelions (Taraxacum officinale) or
crabgrass (Digitaria spp.). Presence of weeds is a
symptom of a lawn undergoing stress—a common
occurrence on school lawns and athletic fields. Lawn
stress can contribute to the development of insect and
disease problems as well.
Sources of stress include levels of use unsuited to the
grass species that has been planted, compacted soils,
improper mowing heights, too much or too little
irrigation or fertilization, accumulation of thatch, and
uneven grading.
Knowing the identity of the pest and something about
its biology often reveals the specific source of stress.
By relieving the stress, the pest problem can be re-
duced or eliminated. For example, the weed yellow
nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus) grows best in water-
logged soils—indicating a faulty or broken irriga' >n
valve or a low spot in the lawn. The presence of
chinch bug (Blissus spp.) damage, on the other hand,
indicates drought stress, while brown patch disease,
caused by the fungus Rhizoctonia solani, suggests
excessive fertilization with soluble nitrate fertilizers.
Reducing Stress on Lawns
The best method for reducing stress on lawns is to
employ good horticultural practices during lawn
installation and maintenance. Even where budgets are
limited, key sources of stress can be avoided or dimin-
ished by minor changes in maintenance practices, such
as raising the mowing height or changing fertilizer
formulations. The following lawn care suggestions
will help keep pest problems to a minimum.
Maintaining Healthy Soil
The most vigorous lawn growth occurs in loose,
loamy soils teeming with beneficial microorganisms,
insects, worms, and other organisms. These organ-
isms play critical roles in transforming thatch and
grass clippings into humus. Humus slowly releases
nutrients and buffers grass roots from extremes of
drought or other stresses. Soil organisms also play an
important role in biological pest control. For ex-
ample, certain beneficial microorganisms protect law.
roots from attack by soil pathogens or insects such as
white grubs.
The presence of humus in the soil is key to a healthy
soil ecosystem. The best way to improve poor soils and
maintain healthy soils is to insure that organic matter is
routinely replenished by leaving grass clippings to
decompose, and fertilizing or topdressing with organic
materials such as sludge, composted manure, etc.
Planting Appropriate Grass Species
School lawns are subject to high levels of use and
wear, and maintenance budgets are usually low. Thus,
select blends of grass species tolerant to such condi-
tions and resistant to local pest problems. Check with
the Cooperative Extension Service closest to your
school for recommendations suited to local climate
and conditions. In temperate areas of the country, a
seed mix favored by many schools is 80% fine bladed
tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and 20% perennial
ryegrass (Lolium perenne). This mix is highly tolerant
of drought, wear, and low fertility. Depending on the
varieties of tall fescue or perennial ryegrass selected,
the mix is also resistant to certain pest species.
'Mustang' tall fescue is resistant to the turf diseases
brown patch and meiting out. Many tall fescue grasses
also release chemicals into the soil that prevent compe-
tition from lawn weeds such as crabgrass and purslane.
In southern and western states where sub-tropical
grasses are grown, centipedegrass and 'Floratam' St.
Augustinegrass are resistant to chinch bugs.
Reducing Soil Compaction
When lawns are heavily used, or simply mowed on a
regular basis, the soil eventually becomes compacted,
and the pore spaces that allow water and air to pass
through the soil become compressed, creating adverse
conditions for root growth. Compaction can be
reduced through aeration, topdressing, and rotation of
mowing patterns.
Aeration involves removing plugs of grass to improve
air exchange and water penetration into the soil.
Ideally, heavily used turf should' be aerated two to
four times per year, although even a single aeration is
better than none. Since aerating can provide a seedbe
for problem weeds, you should time aeration opera-
tions to avoid periods when heavy seeders such as
crabgrass are germinating or setting seed.
IPM for Schools
74
Chapter 10 • Lawns
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Follow aeration with a topdressing of composted
sludge along with seeds of the desired lawn grass.
Drag the lawn with a piece of cyclone fencing to break
up cores of soil left by the aerator and to fill in holes
with the topdressing material.
Mowers and other maintenance equipment compact
the soil. By routing the point of mower entry onto
the lawn from week to week, compaction at entry
points can be minimized.
liaising the Mowing Height
Most temperate grasses used on school lawns (tall
fescues, perennial ryes, bluegrasses, etc.) can be
mowed at a height of 2 1/2 to 3 inches without sacri-
ficing vigor or function as ball fields or recreational
areas. Similarly, subtropical grasses such as St.
Augustinegrass or centipedegrass can be mowed at 1
to 1 1/2 inches. The taller the grass can be kept and
the denser the canopy, the greater the interception of
available sunlight. By keeping the soil shaded, weed
seeds are less likely to germinate.
Adjust mowing frequency to changes in the growing
season. Weekly intervals may be appropriate when
grasses are growing vigorously, but when grasses are
semi-dormant, 14 or 21 days may be more appropriate.
The right interval between mowings allows grasses to
recover from the previous cut and enter the second
growth phase when new blades, called tillers, are
produced from the growing points. "Tillering" keeps
lawns growing in a tight, dense manner that discour-
ages weeds.
Careful Irrigation
Too much or too little water stimulates pest problems.
For example, many lawn diseases result from excessive
irrigation. Development of a disease can often be
arrested by letting the lawn dry out, then keeping
irrigation to a minimum.
The length of time needed to adequately water lawns
is determined by the time it takes to wet it to the
depth of the root system. Most lawn grass roots
extend 4 to 6 inches in the soil, but because grasses
and soil conditions differ, irrigation schedules must be
tailored to individual lawns and adjusted for seasonal
changes. Infrequent, deep irrigation is preferred since
frequent, shallow watering promotes shallow rooting.
Use a soil probe or a pointed tool such as a screw-
driver to determine when soil is wet 4 to 6 inches
>elow the soil. This will indicate how long to leave
sprinklers on at each irrigation.
Irrigation equipment should be checked to insure that
it is in good repair and that all areas of lawn receive
adequate coverage. Low spots should be leveled or
drained to avoid waterlogged soils that favor weeds
and pathogens.
Keeping Thatch to a Minimum
Thatch is the accumulation of dead but undecomposed
roots and stems that collects in a layer at the soil
surface. If the thatch becomes excessively deep—
greater than 3/4 inch—water and nutrients do not
penetrate the soil adequately. When water puddles on
thatch, it enhances the habitat for disease organisms.
Regular aeration keeps thatch at an acceptable level,
and the use of organic fertilizers such as composted
sewage sludge promotes thatch decomposition.
Synthetic chemical fertilizers, on the other hand,
actually enhance thatch development. Excessive layers
of thatch can also be removed with de-thatching rakes,
or with power de-thatchers available from equipment
rental companies.
It is wise to seed the area with desired grasses wherever
lawns are thinned by de-thatching procedures. The
seeds can be mixed into the topdressing (soil amend-
ments or organic fertilizer) that is customarily applied
to thinned lawns. The grass seedlings usually out-
compete weeds that attempt to occupy the openings.
Fertilizing with Restraint
Excessive nitrogen fertilizer produces weak grass
blades with thin cell walls that are susceptible to pest
attack. A soil test should be obtained before planning
annual fertilization programs. Only the levels of
nutrients needed should be applied. Split applications
(one in spring, one in fall) should be used, rather than
a heavy single application in the spring. Use slow-
release fertilizer to prolong the availability of nutrients
throughout the growing season. When feasible,
organic fertilizers such as sludge or compost are
preferable,because they provide organic matter to
support soil microorganisms and improve soil health.
Fertilization can be used to directly suppress weeds
and lawn pathogens. A study by Ohio Extension
Service researchers in the 1940s showed that an appli-
cation of 20 lbs. of composted poultry manure per
1000 ft2 of lawn in late fall and early spring stimulated
early spring growth of lawn grasses, enabling them to
crowd out crabgrass. In this study, crabgrass was
reduced by up to 75% within one year.
IPM for Schools
75
Chapter 10 • Lawns
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A recent study by Cornell University researchers
(Hummel and Thurn 1992) showed that monthly
applications of Sustane®, a composted turkey litter
(NPK 5-2-0), at a rate of 1 pound of actual nitrogen per
1000 sq. ft., suppressed pink and gray snow mold
(Microdochium spp. and Typhula incarnata, respec-
tively), summer patch (Magneporthe poae), dollar spot
(Lanzia spp.). and brown patch (Rhizoctonia solani).
Direct Pest Suppression
When the horticultural methods listed above are not
sufficient to solve the pest problem, direct suppression
methods including physical, biological, and chemical
controls can be integrated into the program.
Physical controls include using a flamer to spot-treat
weeds, or using a bamboo pole to flick off dew from
grass blades in the early morning to deny nourish-
ment to lawn pathogens. Biological controls include
applying microscopic insect-attacking nematodes' to
kill soil-dwelling white grubs, or topdressing lawns
with microbially enhanced soil amendments to kill
lawn pathogens. Chemical controls include insecti-
cidal oils, insecticidal and herbicidal soaps, botanical
insecticides such as neem oil, and pyrethrin.
Chinch Bugs
Chinch bugs (Blissus spp.) are the most important of
the "true bugs" (order Hemiptera) that become pests
on lawns. Several species of chinch bug are serious
pests of a variety of lawn grasses. The southern
chinch bug (B. insularis), prevalent in the warm
climates of the southeast, south, and parts of the west,
feeds primarily on St. Augustinegrass, but it also feeds
on bermudagrass and zoysiagrass. The hairy chinch
bug (B. hirtus), a pest in the northeast, particularly
from New Jersey to Ohio, feeds on bentgrasses,
bluegrass, and red fescue.
Identification and Biology
Adult chinch bugs overwinter in dry grass and other
debris that offers them protection. In spring or early
summer, depending on temperature and moisture,
overwintering females lay from 200 to 300 eggs on
leaves of grass, or push them into soft soil and other
protected places. Young nymphs (the immature
stages) emerging from the eggs are bright red with a
distinct white band across the back. The red changes
to orange, orange-brown, and then to black as the
nymph goes through five growth stages.
Nymphs range from about 1/20-inch long soon after
hatching to nearly the size of the 1/4-inch long adult.
The nymphs mature into adults, which are black with
a white spot on the back between the wing pads. The
adult stage of the southern chinch bug can live 70 days
or more; hairy chinch bug adults live only 8 to 10
days. Adult southern chinch bugs tend to move by
walking, whereas hairy chinch bug adults fly. In the
spring, adults can be seen flying to new areas.
The development time of eggs, nymphs, and adults is
directly dependent upon temperature, and thus varies
from one pan of the country to another. Development
of one generation, from egg to adult, can take six weeks
at 83°F and 17 weeks at 70°F. Chinch bugs produce up
to seven generations per year in southern Florida, but
only three to four generations in northern Florida, two
generations in Ohio, and one in New Jersey.
Damage
Chinch bugs suck the juices from grass leaves through
their needle-like mouthparts. They also inject a toxic
saliva into the plant that disrupts the plant's water-
conducting system, causing it to wilt and die. Most
damage is caused by nymphs that concentrate in
limited areas together with the adults and feed on the
same plants until all the available juice has been
extracted from the grass. This feeding pattern results
in circular patches of damaged grass that turn yellow
and then brown as they die. In the yellow stage, the
grass superficially resembles grass that is drought-
stressed. As it dies, the chinch bugs work outward
from the center of the infestation, destroying a larger
area as they advance.
Populations of chinch bugs increase under hot, dry
conditions. In wet, cool years, or when lawns are kept
properly irrigated and not over-fertilized, the chinch
bug populations decrease significantly.
Detection and Monitoring
Lawns can be protected from damage by chinch bugs
through regular monitoring. The objective is to detect
pests while their populations are still small and deter-
mine whether their natural controls—such as adverse
weather, other insects, and diseases—will.keep the
population low enough to prevent damage.
Any lawn can tolerate a low population of chinch bugs
and most other pests without sustaining significant
1PM for Schools
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Chapter 10 • Lawns
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Box 10-C. How To Count Chinch Bugs
Flotation Method
If you see damage that you suspect has been caused
by chinch bugs out you cannot see the bugs them-
selves, try the flotation method. Cut the ends off a 2-
lb. coffee can, then push one end of the can a few
inches into the sod. If this is difficult, use a knife to
cut the ground around the perimeter of the caa Fill
the can with water, if it recedes, fill it again. If chinch
bugs are present, they will float to the surface in 5 to
10 minutes.
If you are monitoring before you have seen any sign
of chinch bug damage, the flotation method should
be used in four or five random locations around the
lawn. If damage has already occurred and you are
trying to diagnose the cause, place the can at the edge
of the damaged area to detect nvmphs that have
moved to the perimeter of the damage to feed on
fresh grass.
Soap-and-Flannel-Trap Method
Put 1 fluid oz. of dishwashing soap in a 2-gal.
sprinkling can and drench a 2 ft3 area of lawn where
you suspect there are chinch bugs. Watch the area for
two or three minutes. Larger areas can be covered by
Euning the detergent in a hose attachment designed to
old pesticides for spraying the lawn. If chinch bugs
are present, they will crawl to the surface of the grass.
Next, lay a piece of white cloth, such as an old
bedsheet or a piece of white flannel, over the area
treated with the soapy water. Wait 15 to 20 minutes,
then look under the cloth to see if chinch bugs have
crawled onto it as they attempt to escape the soap.
Their feet tend to get caught in the flannel's nap.
Pick up the cloth and either vacuum it or rinse it off
in a bucket of soapy water to remove the bugs The
vacuum bag should be disposed of so that the bugs
will not return to the lawn.
This method can also be used to monitor for other
insects such as lawn caterpillars, mole crickets, and
beneficial insects that feed above the soil, but it
will not bring soil-inhabiting grubs or pillbugs to
the surface.
damage. If the monitoring techniques described below
indicate that there are fewer than 10 to 15 chinch bugs
per square foot, generally no action is needed.
It is a good idea to begin monitoring as early as mid-
April in south Florida, mid-May in Ohio, and early
June in New Jersey, before overwintering adults have
finished laying their spring eggs. A quick check of the
lawn once a month during September should be
sufficient in most areas.
Chinch bugs produce an offensive odor that advertises
their presence, especially when populations are high
or when they are crushed by foot traffic. Since
nymphs tend to congregate in groups, it is important
to check several areas of the lawn. Infestations often
begin on the edges of lawns, particularly in sunny, dry
spots, so check these areas carefully. Spread the grass
apart with your hands and search the soil surface for
reddish nymphs or black adults. Chinch bugs may
also be seen on the tips of grass blades, where they
climb during the day. Be certain to distinguish be-
tween the pest chinch bugs and their predators, the
big-eyed bugs, which they superficially resemble. Box
10-C describes two methods of counting chinch bugs.
Management Options
Physical Controls
Chinch Bug-Resistant Grass Cultivars
If chinch bugs are a chronic problem, it may be advis-
able to replace existing grass with a type that is resistant
to chinch bugs. In southern states, centipedegrass or
the St. Augustinegrass variety 'Floratam,' are not
attacked by chinch bugs. In other parts of the country,
try perennial ryegrass varieties such as 'Repell,' 'Score,'
'Pennfine, and 'Manhattan' or Kentucky bluegrass
varieties such as 'Baron' and 'Newport.'
Habitat Management
Chinch bugs are attracted to lawns that have an
excessive buildup of thatch, are insufficiently irrigated
(often due to soil compaction), or have either too little
nitrogen or too much in a highly soluble form that
forces grass to grow too rapidly. The discussion of
good lawn culture provided at the beginning of this
chapter includes suggestions on overcoming these
problems. Proper habitat management will go a long
way toward controlling these bugs.
Manual Removal
Small populations of chinch bugs can be removed
from the lawn using the soap solution and white flannel
cloth method described in Box 10-C. This is particu-
larly appropriate when damage is just beginning to
appear, since at this stage chinch bug nymphs are still
congregated in specific locations and can be collected
efficiently. Small vacuums may also be helpful.
Biological Controls
One of the primary tactics for the biological control of
chinch bugs is conserving its natural enemies. At least
IPM for Schools
77
Chapter 10 • Lawns
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two beneficial organisms often move in to feed on
chinch bugs: the big-eyed bug and a tiny wasp. The
big-eyed bug (Geocoris'spp.) superficially resembles a
chinch bug, so pest managers must learn to distinguish
between the two. According to Ohio State University
turf specialist Harry Niemczyk, "the body of the
chinch bug is narrow, the head small, pointed, triangu-
lar-shaped, with small eyes, while the body of the big-
eyed bug is wider, the head larger, blunt, with two
large prominent eyes. Big-eyed bugs run quickly over
the turf surface and are much more active insects than
the slower-moving chinch bugs."
Although big-eyed bugs cannot be purchased from
insectaries at this writing, recent research indicates
that members of this genus can be reared easily and
inexpensively, so they may become commercially
available in the near future.
The tiny wasp Eumicrosoma beneficum can parasitize
up to 50% of chinch bug eggs under favorable condi
tions. It should be noted that common insecticides
such as chlorpyrifos and herbicides such as simazine
significandy reduce populations of these biological
control organisms in lawns, thus triggering repeated
pest outbreaks.
Chemical Controls
If non-chemical methods alone prove insufficient
to solve the problem, then integrating a pesticide
into your management program may be warranted.
For information on the hazards of various pesti-
cides and on how to select an appropriate pesticide
for your situation, consult Appendix G for a list
of resources.
If pesticide use seems necessary to bring a serious
chinch bug infestation under control, insecticidal soap
or pyrethrin should be considered.
Fusarium Blight
Many schools throughout the U.S. have planted lawns
of Kentucky bluegrass, a species that is particularly
susceptible to a disease called fusarium blight, caused
by the fungus Fusarium culmorum.
Identification and Biology
Infected turf has small, circular, 2-inch spots of dead
and dying grass chat often enlarge to 24 inches in
diameter. Spots begin as dark blue to purple wilted
turf and turn straw-colored to light tan when dead.
The grass in the center of each spot may remain
healthy and become surrounded by a band of dead
turf—a symptom called "frog eye." Both the leaf
blades and the basal crown may be affected.
Fusarium blight is a warm-weather disease that can
occur from late June through early September, de-
pending on the location. It usually appears after a
week or two of dry weather following a heavy rain
and is associated with shallow-rooted grass, which is
highly vulnerable to drought stress. Symptoms often
appear first along sidewalks and in poorly drained
areas. The disease primarily attacks Kentucky
bluegrass when it is kept in a lush, over fertilized
state in summer. Kentucky bluegrass varieties 'Park,'
'Campus,' 'Fylking,' and 'Nuggett' are particularly
vulnerable. Annual bluegrass and fine-leaf fescues
are also affected.
Management Options
Physical Controls
Planting Resistant Grasses
Consider modifying or replacing highly susceptible
Kentucky bluegrass lawns with a mix of species such
as tall fescues and perennial ryegrasses or, in subtropi-
cal climates, bermudagrass or St. Augustinegrass.
'Columbia* is one bluegrass variety that is resistant to
fusarium blight.
The increased drought- and heat-tolerance of peren-
nial ryegrass, tall fescue, and other varieties is one of
the factors thought to explain the suppression of
disease. Simply adding 10 to 15% of these other
grasses to a Kentucky bluegrass lawn can greatly
reduce the incidence of fusarium blight. The County
Cooperative Extension Service can provide informa-
tion on cultivars that grow well in your area.
Fertility Management
Kentucky bluegrass naturally slows its growth during
warm summer months because it does not tolerate hig
temperatures well. It is important not to over fertilize.
Excessive nitrogen produces lush, soft growth more
IPM for Schools
78
Chapter 10 • Lamms
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vulnerable to attack by the disease. A moderate but
balanced fertilizing program should be maintained so
that the lawn can produce growth to cover damage.
Slow-release fertilizers, especially composted sludge or
manure, is desirable. The highly soluble fast-release
nitrogen fertilizers should be avoided.
Aeration
Fusarium blight is exacerbated by compacted soils,
excessive thatch, and soil layering, all of which inhibit
the percolation (seeping) of water into the soil.
Diseased turf should be aerated with a coring tool (see
the discussion at the beginning of the chapter under
Reducing Soil Compaction) to reduce compaction and
thatch and increase infiltration and soil air movement.
Coring also helps integrate the dissimilar soil layers
that occur when imported topsoil or sod is used to
establish the lawn. When one soil type is laid on top
of another, water tends to collect at the boundary,
moving laterally rather than vertically. Grass roots
tend to stop growing when they reach this boundary,
and can die in the excessively wet soil. By coring into
the layered soil and incorporating compost, both
water and roots are encouraged to move more deeply
into the soil, producing more vigorous growth.
Wafer Management
Supplemental irrigation will help drought-stressed
grasses outgrow fusarium blight. It may be necessary
to irrigate daily at the hottest times of the day until the
grass resumes vigorous growth. Thatch management
and removal of infested grass blades after mowing are
also effective controls.
Biological Controls
Because fusarium blight primarily attacks roots, the
more you can do to increase the number of beneficial
microbes in the soil that are antagonistic to the patho-
gens, the fewer problems you will have.
Studies (Vargas et al. 1989) have shown that a number
of products on the market can do just that and thus
can help a lawn recover from the necrotic ring spots
associated with fusarium blight. Researchers tested
these products on lawns with ring spots and found
that after 3 years all treated lawns had recovered 100%
whereas the number of ring spots on untreated lawns
had increased by 300%. The products tested were the
following:
• Soil Aid®—contains an enzymatic wetting agent
that helps to flush substances that are toxic to
beneficial soil microbes out of the soil and the thatch
• Green Magic®—contains a variety of soil nutrients,
beneficial microbes, and various plant extracts
• Strengthen & Renew®—contains the same kinds of
ingredients as Green Magic
• Lawn Restore®—a fertilizer that consists of bone
meal, feather meal, soybean meal, and other protein
sources supplemented with beneficial microbes.
All the products were applied twice in the summer
and once in the fall at a rate of 1 -lb per 100 square feet.
Soil Aid was used along with either Green Magic or
Strengthen & Renew. Lawn Restore was used alone.
The researchers stress the importance of frequent
treatment when using biological approaches to manag-
ing lawn diseases, "These products are not like fungi-
cides that can be applied one time, halting the spread
of the fungus and allowing the grass to recover. In
order to be effective, such products must be applied
on a regular basis, either monthly or bi-monthly
throughout the growing season to change the biologi-
cal makeup of the thatch and soil environment."
Chemical Controls
If non-chemical methods alone prove insufficient to
solve the problem, then integrating a pesticide into
your management program may be warranted. For
information on the hazards of various pesticides and
on how to select an appropriate pesticide for your
situation, consult Appendix G for a list of resources.
The Cooperative Extension Service should be con-
sulted for information on fungicides registered for use
against this pathogen.
Bibliography
Ali, A.D. and C. L. Elmore. 1992. Turfgrass Pests. Cooperative
Extension, ANR Publication 4053. University of California,
Oakland, CA. 121 pp.
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. IPM Practitioner 18(11/
12):l-39.
Couch, H.B. 1973. Diseases of Turfgrass. Krieger Pub. Co.,
Huntington, NY. 248 pp.
Hummel, N.W. Jr., and M. Thurn. 1992. Turfgrass IPM demon-
stration, pp. 52-53. In: Anon., 1991 Reports: IPM research.
IPM for Schools
79
Chapter 10 • Lawns
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development, and implementation projects. Ornamentals. New
York State IPM Program. IPM Publication 404. Cornell
University, Ithaca, NY.
Madison, J H. 1971. Practical Turfgrass Management. Nostrand
Reinhold, New York. 466 pp.
Niemczyk, H. 1981. Destructive Turf Insects. HDC Book Sales,
Wooster, OH. 48 pp. [Available from 2935 Smithville Western
Rd., Wooster, OH 44691.]
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Control; Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Schultz, W. 1989. The Chemical-Free Lavm. Rodale Press,
Emmaus, PA. 194 pp.
Tashiro, H. 1987. Turfgrass Insects of the United States and
Canada. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY. 391 pp.
Vargas, J.M., Jr., D. Roberts, T.K. Dannenberger, M. Otto, and
R. Detweiler. 1989. Biological management of turfgrass
pests and the use of prediction models for more accurate
pesticide applications, pp 121-126. In: Integrated Pest
Management for Turfgrasses and Ornamentals. A.R. Leslie
and R.L. Metcalf (eds.), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, O.C.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
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Chapter 10 • Lawns
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Chapter 11
IPM for Head Lice in Schools
Introduction
Today, the management of head lice continues to be a
major task for parents, school personnel, and health
care professionals worldwide. The growing resistance
of lice to pediculicides (lice-killing insecticides),
combined with a surprising willingness of many
parents to tolerate head lice, is turning a manageable
problem into a major nuisance.
Head lice are most often found on school children
between the ages of three and ten, less often on older
children or adults. The eggs, or nits, of head lice are
glued tightly to hairs, most often around the back of
the ears and at the nape of the neck. The adults are
found in these and other areas of the head, including
the eyelashes, and more rarely on other body hairs.
The traditional chemical "first-strike" approach is
inappropriate and is not recommended. The chemi-
cals used in lice shampoos may pose long-term health
hazards and under no circumstances should they be
used on pregnant or nursing women or children under
two. Sound management of head lice involves prompt
diagnosis and the use of non-toxic physical treat-
ments, with insecticides only as a last resort. Each of
these elements requires that the person treating the
lice problem have more precise information about the
biology of lice than is usually available.
Identification and Biology
The head louse, Pediculus humanus capitis, is one of
three sucking-lice species that feed on humans. The
head louse spends its entire life on the human head; if
it does move onto other surfaces, it must return to the
head within a few hours to survive. Lice can survive
only 24 hours without blood and they cannot com-
plete their life cycle on pets.
Head lice can move fairly rapidly, but cannot jump or
fly. The adult head louse is 1/16 inch to 1/8 inch long,
and ranges from tan to grayish-white in color. Each of
its six legs ends in a claw that is used to grasp the hair
shaft. The nits are laid near the junction of the scalp
and the hair shaft. The eggs are oval-shaped and are
attached to the hair with a very tough glue. Each
Female produces about 6 to 8 eggs in a 24-hour period
and these are laid mosdy at night.
The eggs hatch within 7 to 11
days. Once hatched, develop-
ing lice take 8 or 9 days to
become adults; after an
additional day, the adult
female can start laying eggs.
Thus, about 16 days in all are
required for an egg to give
rise to a female capable of
laying more eggs. Adults live
for up to 30 days.
How Lice are Transmitted
Most head lice are probably transmitted when an
infested person comes into close contact with another.
For example, when children sleep or sit together,
enough time and opportunity is provided for a louse
to walk from head to head. Lice and their eggs can
also be transferred between people via infested
brushes^ combs, caps, hats, scarves, coats, bedding,
towels, and upholstered furniture.
Damage
Although the symptoms of head lice are irritating,
head lice have generally been regarded as little more
than a nuisance by medical personnel. While a louse
bite itself is painless, the louse's saliva usually causes an
allergic reaction that produces itching (although some
people may not experience the itching for several
weeks). If itching is severe, the lice probably have been
present for some weeks. Scratching that breaks the skin
creates entryways for germs and lice feces, and can lead
to swollen glands and secondary infections such as
impetigo. Severely infected individuals may experience
fever and feel tired and irritable.
Detection and Monitoring
Frequent head scratching may be the first sign of lice.
Adult lice may. be present on the head or in the eye-
brows and eyelashes, and with careful observation the
eggs can be seen. A magnifying glass will help in
distinguishing beween nits and dandruff. Eggs are
oval-shaped and attached only to one side of the hair
shaft. The eggs themselves stay glued to the hair even
after they hatch, and cannot be removed as easily as a
IPM for Schools
81
Chapter 11 • Lice
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piece of dandruff or other debris. Because eggs stay
attached to the hair, it is als.o important to determine
whether or not the egg has hatched. Nits start out as a
yellowish to gray color and darken to a tan or coffee
color before they hatch. Hatched eggs are white.
Eggs that are shrunken or indented will not hatch.
Originally, scientists believed that eggs that were 1/4
inch or more away from the scalp would all be
hatched or dead, and therefore it wasn't necessary to
examine eggs that might be farther down the hair
shaft. Recent research (Taplin and Meinking 1988)
shows that this is not always true, particularly in
warmer climates and possibly on individuals who
always wear some type of head covering.
Management Options
Lice can be controlled without resorting to shampoos
with pesticide, but this depends on thorough combing
of the hair with a special lice comb. Because reinfestation
from playmates is common (regardless of the treat-
ment used), parents may wrongly assume that the first
treatment wasn't strong enough and turn to something
more toxic. To minimize reinfestation, schools are
urged to adopt a "No Nit" policy (see below) and to
educate teachers and students, but especially parents,
in how to find, control, afid prevent head lice.
Education
Most people view lice with disgust. Panicked parents
who would not normally expose their children to
potentially hazardous materials will apply pesticides
in haste, sometimes well beyond the recommended
frequency and dosages. Education can help to over-
come these obstacles to non-toxic lice control.
It is crucial that teachers, children, and parents have
some rudimentary information about head lice before
a lice outbreak'occurs. The school can send an infor-
mation sheet home with children when school begins
in the fall and after long vacations. The sheet can
include some facts about lice and information on how
to detect them (see Appendix H for a sample).
Encourage parents to look for head lice weekly as just
another part of personal hygiene. Have teachers in the
lower grades talk to students about head lice at the
beginning of the school year. Young children gener-
ally are not hesitant to talk about head lice—for them
it's just another learning experience. Remind them
repeatedly not to share combs, brushes, caps, hats,
scarves, head pieces from costumes, etc.
When an outbreak occurs, the school can send home a
packet that includes information on how to control
lice and a note alerting parents that children will not
be allowed back into school until their hair is free of
nits—the "No Nit" policy (see below). See Appendix
H for a sample information packet.
It is our experience, that sometimes only a small group
of families is responsible for the frequent reinfestation
of an entire class. It is important to understand that
there are some parents who do not regard head lice as
a serious problem at all. Many cultures outside the
United States accept head lice as a minor, constant
inconvenience, and do not assume that head lice can
be eliminated when infestations occur. Families with
this attitude may need to be convinced of the impor-
tance of cooperation.
"No Nir Policy
The National Pediculosis Association (P.O. Box
610189, Newton, MA 02161; 617/449-NITS), a non-
profit organization that provides education on safe
ways to manage head lice, recommends that schools
establish a "No Nit" policy, which means that chil-
dren are denied re-admission to the classroom until
their heads are free of lice eggs. This recommendatic
is based on the fact that most parents and teachers
cannot easily tell the difference between an egg that is
v! ble and one already hatched. By tolerating nits,
children are allowed to return to school and unwit-
tingly spread head lice to others.
When a "No Nit" policy is adopted, each principal
should designate at least one member of the school
staff to receive training from the school nurse or other
public health official in the detection of lice and nits.
Store Garments Separately
Transmission can be reduced through proper storge of
hats and other garments that may carry stray female
lice. Head lice are a particular problem among chil-
dren in child care programs, kindergarten, and the
early grades of grammar school. Facilities should be
equipped with separate lockers or "cubbies" for each
child. Headgear, scarves, and other outer clothing that
comes into contact with the hair should be stored
separately, one cubbyhole for each child. It is crucial
that the parent or teacher explain the importance of
this behavior clearly. If separate lockers or cubbies a
impossible, cloth bags that close at the top with a
drawstring are another alternative. At the very least,
children should be assigned a hook on the wall to use
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82
Chapter 11 • Lice
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throughout the school year. There is evidence that
assigned hooks can reduce the spread of lice through a
classroom.
If, during head lice outbreaks, cubbies or lockers are
unavailable, sturdy plastic bags can be used. Place
identifying decals on individual bags so children know
which is theirs. Bags containing clothing should be
doubled over and wrapped with a twist tie. This
process should be supervised to make sure the chil-
dren are doing it properly. Torn bags should be
replaced immediately.
Housekeeping
The rugs and upholstered furniture in classrooms with
lice outbreaks should be thoroughly vacuumed. If lost
and found articles are stored in the classroom, they
can be separated by placing them in individual plastic
bags, and then sealed.
Treatments
This must be left to the parents, but the school can
provide them with accurate information on how to
comb for lice and nits, and on the hazards and proper
use of insecticidal shampoos. The Sample Information
Packet in Appendix H provides this information.
Physical Controls
Tt is possible co eliminate a lice problem using the
following physical controls without resorting to more
toxic chemicals. Success depends on several factors,
including the determination of parents, existence of
good relations between the parent and child, and the
length and texture of the child's hair.
Combing
Combing is the most important aspect of head lice
control. Combing removes nits from the hair and helps
you to find adult lice. Unfortunately, there is no safe
solvent for the powerful glue that holds the nits to the
hair, and though insecticides may kill some eggs, they
do not kill them all. Box 11 -A provides detailed
instructions on combing that should be followed
carefully using a comb with specially tooled metal teeth
designed to remove head lice and their eggs from the
hair. Metal lice combs are available from pharmacists.
Ordinary fine-toothed plastic combs are not adequate,
even though they may be sold along with various
insecticides for the control of head lice.
There is no denying that the combing process de-
mands time and patience from parents and children;
however, many parents tell us that their children grow
to enjoy the process and even look forward to it
because it feels good and the child is the center of the
parent's attention.
Based on the life cycle of the female head louse, and
assuming the child is not immediately reinfested, the
combing process should be repeated every 5 to 7 days
during the period when head lice are a problem at the
school. If die child becomes reinfested before a week
has elapsed, the combing will have to be repeated
sooner. Parents should refrain from using pesticides
with these cases of immediate reinfestation; instead,
use only the combing method to remove lice and nits.
Salad Oil
The use of salad oil is sometimes recommended to
smother adult lice, but personal experience has shown
us that lice can survive in hair covered with oil even
when it is left on overnight. Do not count on oil to
kill adults or nits. Oil can be very useful in combing,
however. Oil prevents the hair from tangling which
makes combing much easier. In this respect, oil works
better than shampoo or conditioner and doesn't dry
out during the combing process. Washing the hair
twice with any ordinary shampoo will remove all
traces of the oil.
Washing Clothing and Bedding
Since lice may wander from the head to the pillow or
to headwear, washing these items at the time the child
is initially treated is a good idea. Putting clothing or
bedding through a wash cycle with hot water and
ordinary detergent in a washing machine and then
drying in a hot dryer is sufficient. Anything that
cannot be washed can be stored in large, sealed plastic
bags for 2 weeks.
Vacuuming
Clothing can also be vacuumed to remove stray nits
and wandering lice. Upholstered furniture and rugs can
be vacuumed too, but, in general, head lice do not leave
the head and there is no need to go into a frenzy of
laundering and cleaning. The time and energy spent in
washing clothes and cleaning the home environment
would be far better spent combing out nits, and educat-
ing the child and other parents, teachers, and children
with whom the child associates.
Chemical Controls
Ordinary shampoo
Certain fatty acids in soaps have insecticidal proper-
ties, but shampoos are detergents, and you cannot
IPM for Schools
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Chapter 11 • Lice
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Box 11-A How to Comb for Head Lice
NOTE- We do not recommend shampooing with a lice
shampoo that contains a pesticide except in extreme cases and
as a last resort
A. You will need:
• Salad oil.
• A special metal lice comb. These are available in drugstores
(ask your pharmacist to order one if you cannot find a metal
como). Do not use the plastic combs that are included in
some lice treatment packages. These are not effective.
• A wide bowl of water with a squirt of dishwashing detergent
added This water is used to kill nits (eggs) and lice combed
from the head;
• A box of facial tissue.
• A strong lamp with a flexible arm that allows you to rotate it
to direct the fight wherever you are working. (If it is possible
to do the combing in the daylight near a window, it will be
much easier to see the adult lice and the nits.)
• If the hair is long, many large bobby pins or hair dips, to pin
up sections of hair that have been combed.
• A large towel to place around the child's shoulders during
combing.
• Two comfortable seats, one for the child and one tor you.
You want the childto be just below your eye level.
• Something entertaining for the child to do that does not
require much physical activity, such as reading, drawing,
playing with plastic clay, or watching videos.
• If the child has very long- hair, which takes more time and
tries the patience of the child, two people can work together
on different pans of the head.
B. Preparing the Hair
Cover the child's hair with salad oil (any kind will do). This will
Erevent the hair from tangling and make it very easy to use the
ce comb. (The oil may also smother some of the young and
adult lice, but you cannot count on it) Oil has the advantage of
not drying out if the combing takes a long time. After you finish
combing, shampoo the hair twice to remove the oil.
C. The Combing
1. Seat the child so that his or her head is just slightly below
your eye level.
2. Brush or comb the hair (use a large-toothed regular comb) to
remove snarls.
3. Separate a mass of hair that is slighdy wider than the width of
your lice comb and about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in the other
direction. Separating the hair into such small sections is
important so that you can more easily see nits and adult lice.
4. Hold the mass of hair with one hand. With the other hand,
hold the lice comb in a slanting position with the curved side
of the teeth toward the head.
5. Insert the comb into the hair as close to the scalp as possible,
since the eggs are first laid within 1/2 inch of the scalp. Pull
the comb slowly through the hair several times.
6. Comb one section at a time and check each section to make
sure it is clean, then pin it out of the way, curling it flat against
the head.
7. Whenever you comb out nits or live lice, dunk the comb in
the soapy water. Make sure the lice and nits are off the
comb before you use it on the hair again. Frequently
remove the hair and other debris from the comb with a
tissue. When the tissue becomes soiled, place it in the bowl
of soapy water. When the bowl is full, flush its contents
down the toilet and refill the bowl with soapy water.
8. When all the hair has been combed, wash out the oil by
shampooing twice.
9. Once the hair is completely dry, check the entire head for
stray nits and remove those hairs individually with a pair of
small, pointed scissors (like nail scissors).
D. Cleaning up
1. Soak die lice comb in hot ammonia water (1 teaspoon of
ammonia in two cups of hot water) for 15 minutes. Metal
combs can also be boiled in plain water for 15 minutes. A
comb cleaned either way can be reused by many different
children.
2. Scrub the teeth of the comb with a nail brush or an old
toothbrush to remove debris. Remove dirt lodged between
the teeth of the comb with dental floss or a small stiff
brush.
3. Boil the towels for 10 minutes or wash them in a washing
machine in hot, soapy water, and follow with a hot dryer.
Note: There is no safe solvent for the glue that the female
louse uses to attach her eggs to the hair even though there are
products that make such claims. Combing is the only sure way
to remove nits from hair.
WARNING: If you must use a shampoo with a pesticide,
• Do not leave the shampoo on any longer than the time
specified, and do not use it more frequendy than indicated
on the label. Follow the directions exacdy.
• Do not use on the eyebrows or allow any shampoo to get
into the eyes.
• Do not use on pregnant women or nursing mothers.
• Do not use on children under 2 years.
• Do riot use on anyone with open cuts or scratches or with
head or neck inflammations.
• Do not use in a shower or bath where the pesticide can
reach other parts of the body. Shampoo hair over a basin or
sink.
• Use gloves to do the shampooing.
• Do not count on lice shampoos to kill nits. You must comb
to get them out.
• Never use any head lice shampoos preventively. Before
you treat, make sure that live lice or eggs are present.
• Return to combing if the lice shampoo is not working; it
may mean product failure or that tne lice have become
resistant to the pesticide.
• Store these shampoos out of the reach of children, ideally in
a locked cabinet.
1PM for Schools
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Chapter 11 • Lice
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count on shampoo to kill young or adult lice. Al-
though it might seem possible to drown lice while
shampooing the hair, personal experience has shown
us that adult lice can survive through two consecutive
shampooings even when the hair is not rinsed for an
hour after the second shampooing.
Shampoos with Pediculicides
We do not recommend the use of insecticides except as
a last resort in extreme cases. The scalp has many
blood vessels that are close to the skin, making it easy
for toxic substances to be absorbed directly into the
bloodstream. Absorption is greater when the skin is
warm and the blood vessels are dialated.
For many years, lindane (commonly referred to as
Kwell®), an organophosphate pesticide, was the
treatment of choice; it is still recommended by many
medical personnel who have not taken the time to
acquaint themselves with its potential health hazards
to humans. Lindane is absorbed through the skin into
the bloodstream; once absorbed, it can be carried
throughout the body to tissues and organs. In preg-
nant women, it can travel across the placenta to the
developing fetus. Lindane is available only by pre-
scription. We do not recommend its use at any time.
In many cases, its chronic overuse has produced
resistant lice and rendered lindane ineffective.
The over-the-counter pesticides include pyrethrum,
pyrethrins, and permethrin. The National Pediculosis
Association has been collecting numerous reports of
failures of these products as well. It is unclear
whether these problems are caused by product failure
or lice resistance, but it is another reason to use
combing as the main control method.
Pesticidal shampoos must be used in accordance with
their EPA-approved label directions. Never re-treat
with the chemical more frequently than the label
allows. The following cautions should be added to
those already on the label:
• Never treat pregnant or nursing women, infants, or
children under two with pediculicides.
• Minimize body exposure. Confine the exposed
area to the head hair. Do not treat the eyebrows or
get the pediculicide near the eyes. Do not use in
the bathtub or shower stall; use a basin or sink so
pesticide residues do not reach other parts of the
body. Wear rubber gloves to protect yourself if
you shampoo yourself or someone else.
• Minimize frequency of use. Frequent, repeated
use of pediculicides, especially lindane, is danger-
ous. Never use insecticides at higher doses or at a
greater frequency than listed on the label! If
insecticides are not working it can mean either
product failure or lice resistance. Return to
combing.
• Never treat anyone with open cuts, scratches, or
head or neck inflammations. Check for cuts,
scratches, or inflammation before treatment; do not
use insecticides if such conditions are found.
• Store insecticides out of reach of young children,
ideally in a locked cabinet. Treat insecticides as you
would any other poison.
• Do not use any head lice insecticide preventively.
Before you undertake any treatment, make sure live
head lice or viable eggs are present.
Lice Sprays
Never, under any circumstances should lice sprays be
used. Lice cannot live in the environment and lice
sprays unnecessarily expose everyone to harmful
pesticides.
Bibliography
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996. 1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. IPM Practtttoner 18(11/
12): 1-39.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Seme
Pest Control: Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Poorbaugh, J. 1990. Head lice infestation—update on control
measures. California Morbidity 47/48:1.
¦Solomon, L.M. and D.P. West. 1977. Gamma benzene hexachlo-
ride toxicity. Arch. Dermatol 113:353-357.
Taplin, D. and T.L. Meinking. 1988. Head Lice Infestation:
Biology, diagnosis, management. University of Miami School
of Medicine, Miami, FL. 31pp.
Zinsser, H. 1934. Rats, Lice, and History. Little Brown, New
York. 301 pp.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
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Chapter 11 • Lice
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Chapter 12
IPM for Rats and Mice in Schools
Introduction
Although setting out poison baits is the common
response to rodent problems, this tactic has been
overused, and strains of rats and mice have developed
that are no longer affected by the poison. Even when
baits remain effective, poisoned rodents frequently die
in inaccessible places where their decomposing bodies
create unpleasant odors and feed pest insects such as
flesh flies and carpet beetles. Moreover, on school
grounds, there is always a risk that children or pet
animals will inadvertendy come in contact with the bait.
A better approach combines careful inspection,
regular monitoring, sanitation, garbage management,
rodent-proofing, trapping, and, if necessary, baiting
with toxicants. Unless the conditions that attracted
rodents in the first place are changed, new mice and rats
often move into the habitat vacated by the dead ones,
and the cycle will continue.
Identification and Biology
It is important to identify which rodent species is
present. Table 12-1 and Figure 12-1 describe the
differences among Norway rats, roof rats, and house
mice. Table 12-2 describes how to distinguish a house
mouse from other similar species. After trapping a
rodent, you can use information from these tables to
identify it.
Rats
The two most common pest rat species in the United
States, both introduced from Europe, are the Norway
rat, Rattus norvegicus, and the roof rat, Rattus rattus.
Table 12-3 summarizes the biology of these two rats.
The Norway rat, considered the most important pest
rat in the U.S., is also known as the brown, wharf,
house, gray, or sewer rat. It occurs in every state. The
roof rat, also known as the ship, black, or Alexandrine
rat, occurs mainly along the coastal U.S., including the
Pacific coast states, the Gulf states, and the southern
and Atlantic states.
Characteristics of rats that can have an impact on
management
• will feed on a wide variety of materials (see Table
12-4 for more specific information)
Norway Rat
Body heavy and thick
Roof Bat
HoumMoum
BodyBght
and slender
Young Rat
Headsman. ^Head large
^FeetimaO
Figure 12-1.
Feetlwge^ '
• usually search for food between dusk and dawn,
but when hungry or living under crowded condi-
tions, may be seen in the daylight
• require water daily, unless food items are succulent
• can travel several hundred feet from their nests in
search of food, depending on the relationship of
food to nesting resources.
• prefer traveling along edges, e.g., the edge of the
floor next to the wall, along the outside or inside of
a foundation
• also travel along pipes, rafters, and for roof rats,
overhead utility lines
• wary of crossing open spaces that provide no cover
• have poor visual acuity, but are quite sensitive to
patterns and contrasts
• have acute senses of smell, taste, touch, and hearing;
navigate using their whiskers and guard hairs
• tend to be extremely wary (though temporarily) of
new objects in their environment
In general, Norway rats build their nests in under-
ground burrows or in ground level areas in buildings
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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Table 12-1.
Differences Among the Norway Rat, Roof Rat, and House Mouse
Norway Rat
Roof Rat
House Mouse
Scientific name
Rattus norvegicus
Rattus rattus
Mm musculus
Other common
names
brown, wharf or sewer rat
black, ship or house rat
Adult weight
3 to 21 ounces
3 to 12 ounces
1/2 ounce
Snout
blunt
pointed
pointed
Ears
small Ac thick with short hairs
large & thin without hair
large, some hair
Tail coloration
dark above, pale underneath
all dark
all dark
Fur
brown with black; shaggy
light brown, gray to black;
smooth
light brown to gray
Droppings
capsule-shaped, pointed
pointed & curved
rod-shaped, pointed
Food requirement
about 1 ounce/day
1 ounce or less/day
1/10 ounce/day
Water source
free water-
free water"
water from food; also
need free water if
dependent on a diet that
is dry or high in protein
Climbing ability
can climb
active climber
good climber
Neit locations
mainly in burrows
walls, attics, trees
near/in stored material
Swimming ability
excellent
can swim
can swim
'Water present by itself and not simply a constituent of the food eaten by the rodent Free water
unnecessary when feeding on succulent foods, but needed if diet u dry and/or high in protein.
Sources: Frantz &C Davis 1991, Olkowski et al. 1991
while roof rats prefer living in elevated areas. Table
12-4 provides more specific information.
Rats have amazing physical abilities. Understanding
what they can and cannot do is very important when
planning ways to prevent rat problems or to reduce
the number of rats present. These abilities are summa-
rized in Box 12-A.
Mice
The house mouse is the most common species to
invade structures, but "wild" mouse species such as
meadow voles and deer mice are also occasional
problems, especially when temperatures drop in the
autumn. Usually these mice can be easily trapped and
removed, and rarely become chronic problems.
Invasions of the house mouse can occur at any time of
the year, and once inside, house mice will continue to
reproduce, generation after generation, without
leaving the confines of the building. Biological infor-
mation for the house mouse is summarized in Table 12-
5, and its physical abilities are summarized in Box 12-B.
Characteristics of mice that can have an impact on
management
• can generally get all the water they need from food;
if dependent on dry food, will need some free water
• travel over their entire home range daily (about 33
feet), investigating changes and new objects
• like rats, prefer to travel along edges and are wary
of crossing open spaces
• have poor visual acuity; navigate using their whiskers
• indoors, often live in false ceilings; in appliances
such as stoves, refrigerators, air conditioners, and
coolers; in wall and floor voids; and in similar
enclosed spaces
• outdoors, prefer thickly vegetated ground level
areas
Indoors, mice populations are limited by the availabil-
ity of food, by competition from other animals, and
by disease. The amount of available shelter inside can
limit the number of mice to a certain extent; however
in spring, summer, and fall, mice can establish them-
selves outdoors. They need to live inside only during
the severe conditions of winter. Because rats prey on
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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Table 12-2. Distinguishing the House Mouse from Other Similar Species.
Common Name
Scientific Name
Description
House Mouse
Mm mmscultii
small feet and head in proportion to body; long ears for body
size; relatively small eves; tail nearly hairless and equal or longer
than the head and body combined; tail is uniformly dark
beer Mouse or
White-footed Mouse
Pcromytcut spp.
same size or slightly larger than house mouse; distinctive bicolor
coat, pale gray to reddisn brown above white belly; tail brown or
gray on top and white underneath with distinct line between the
two colors; large eyes; invades buildings near fields or wooded
areas
Meadow Mouse or
Vole Mouse
Micro tus spp.
larger, more robust body; weighs about twice as much as the
house mouse; smaller, heavily furred ears; much shorter tail;
sometimes invades buildings, but commonly found outdoors
under boards, boxes, etc.
Adapted from Olkowski, et al. 1991
mice and compete for the same food and shelter,
removing the rats often results in higher and more
visible mouse populations.
Damage
Rodents damage food, clothing, documents, and
structures through gnawing, urination, defecation, and
nesting activities. The damage to food from contami-
nation is probably ten times greater than the damage
by direct feeding. Feces and urine raise the humidity
of enclosed spaces, promote wood deterioration, and
provide a medium for proliferation of microorganisms
(Frantz 1988). Rodents cause fires by chewing
through the insulation on electrical wires, and they are
involved in spreading human pathogens (see Table 12-
6). The hantavirus is cause for concern in many parts
of the country; see Box 12-C for more information.
Detection and Monitoring
Make a thorough inspection to find as many of the
active infestations as possible. At the same time note
all possible harborage sites, sources of food and water,
and holes that provide access to the building. Box 12-
D details tne signs of rodent infestation, and Boxes
12-E and 12-F summarize the areas to inspect inside
and out. Make detailed notes about problem areas on
a map of the building. Do not neglect to inspect any
outbuildings on the property.
To help you monitor effectively, do the following:
• Make a site plan of the school with separate draw-
ings of each floor so you can accurately record
information.
• Lightly dust smooth surfaces near suspected
harborage, runs, or entry points with unscented
talcum powder or powdered chalk to gain further
information. Footprints and drag lines (made by
tails) across powdered surfaces indicate rodent
traffic. The powder can also be dusted onto a heavy,
smooth material such as a piece of floor tile that can
be moved around. Holding a flashlight at a low
angle helps to illuminate tracks on dusty surfaces.
• Inspect at night with a strong flashlight. Look for
movement and listen for squeaking, scrambling,
and gnawing sounds.
• Vacuum up fecal pellets and gnawed wood shavings
and remove any nests. Re-inspect for new rodent
signs in a day or two. In areas where hantavirus is
suspected, vacuuming is not advised. See Box 12-C
for precautions to take when cleaning.
Table 12-3.
The Biology of Norway and Roof Rats
Breeding (estrous)
cycle
polycstrous, every 4-5 days;
in subtropical climates, rats
can reproduce year around; in
cooler climates, populations
peak in spring St autumn
Litter size
average of 5 to 12
Litters per year
up to 9, depending on food
availability (average is
approx 4 for Norway rats
and 5 for roof rats)
Age at weaning
around 30 days
Gestation period
20 to 25 days
Sexual Maturity
75-90 days (Norway); 68-90
days (Roof)
Life span in the
wild
Less than 1 year
Source: Frantz 6c Davis 1991
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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Table 12-4. Nesting and Eating Habits of Norway Rats and Roof Rats
Norway Rats
Roof Rats
Nesting Sites
Outdoors
¦ in the ground, in burrows thai are less
than 18 inches deep and less than 3 feet
long; burrow openings are 2 to 4 inches
in diameter
• burrow system can be quite complex and
interconnected
• in unused sewers or storm drams
• usually above ground: in trees, especially
untrimmed palm trees; in dense,
overgrown vegetation, especially
Algerian ivy (Hedera eananensu); and in
piles of wood and debris
• in the ground if there are few suitable
above-ground sites and there are no
Norway rats nesting in the area
• in unused sewers or storm drains
Nesting Sites
Indoors
Usually in the lower floors of the building
• in wall voids and crawl spaces
• in storage rooms under pallets or
equipment
• behind seldom-used stored materials at
the corners and backs of rooms
• in any cluttered area that is little used
Usually in the upper part of the building
• in the attic
• in ceiling and attic voids
• can also nest in the lower floors of a
building
Eating Habits
• more likely to eat garbage than roof rats
• prefer foods that are high in protein, such
as fish, meat, nuts, grains, pet food, and
insects
• prefer fresh plant material, such as nuts
and seeds, fruit and vegetables, and tree
bark
• sometimes eat garbage and meat
Sources: Meehan 1984 and Ingles 1965
• You can temporarily placi a piece of gray paper or
cardboard in dark or hard-to-reach areas and
inspect them later for fecal pellets. Remember that
rats, especially Norway rats, are fearful of new
things, so it may take several days before they even
come near the paper. For this reason, darker colors
of paper will work better than bright white.
• Temporarily close suspected rodent burrows or
holes with soil, crumpled paper, aluminum foil, or
sawdust. Inspect 24 hours later to see if the holes
have been opened or the paper chewed or moved.
Monitoring Blocks/Monitoring Stations
Non-toxic, food attractant blocks are commercially
available for mpnitoring rodents. You can also use
bait stations filled with non-toxic baits such as rabbit
food or grains. These monitoring blocks or stations
can be placed anywhere indoors or out to locate or
monitor a rodent population simply by noting
whether animals have fed on the bait. Monitoring
blocks or stations can also help you gauge the effec-
tiveness of your treatment efforts. The blocks or bait
stations should be wired, staked, or glued down with
caulk so they cannot be dragged away. Clearly mark
the blocks or stations with a tag alerting people that a
non-toxic, rodent monitoring program is underway.
Number each block or station and note its location c.-
your map. In 2 to 7 days, check for
-------
Box 12-A. Physical Abilities of Rats
Rats have the ability to:
• pass through any opening as small as 3/4 inch in
diameter
• walk along horizontal wires and climb vertical wires
(especially roof rats)
• climb inside vertical pipes from 1 1/2 to 4 inches in
diameter
• climb outside of vertical pipes that are up to 3 inches
in diameter
• climb the outside of vertical pipes and conduits of
any size if within 3 inches of a wall; Norway rats are
not likely to climb vertical wires unless they are
close to a wall
• crawl horizontally on any type of pipe or conduit
• jump vertically (from a standstill) at least 24 inches
above a flat surface and horizontally at least 4 feet
• reach about 13 inches above a flat surface
• fall more than 50 feet and survive
• dive and swim underwater for as long as 30 seconds,
and tread water for up to 3 days
• swim up through the water seal, or trap, of toilets
• swim as far as 1/2 mile in open water
• gnaw and leave marks on almost anything, including
wood, chip board, lead pipes, cinder blocKs, asbestos,
aluminum, sheet metal, sun-dried adobe, and an
exposed edge of a piece of glass.
Sources: Caslick and Decker 1980, and Howard and Marsh 1967
rodent presence. The low risk areas can be inspected
once every quarter. It is important to pay attention to
seasonal and other changes. Is there a wheat or
cornfield next to the school? If so, at harvest time,
field mice will often leave the field and seek shelter in
the nearest building. Is new construction or demoli-
tion starting next door to the school? Rats will be
displaced and could invade the school yard and
buildings. These are times for renewed vigilance.
Management Options
Initially, concentrate control efforts in the high risk,
high priority areas, such as the kitchen, the cafeteria,
locker rooms, and perhaps various storage rooms.
Your inspection will reveal the precise areas you must
concentrate on in your own school. After you have
improved sanitation in these areas, worked on rodent
exclusion, and trapped most of the offending animals,
move on to the other areas you noted in your inspec-
tion. You need not tackle the entire school at once.
Habitat Modification
It is very important to change the physical environ-
ment that is supporting rodents. As mentioned
before, if rodents are killed but habitat and food are
still available, it is very likely that new rodents will
move in to replace the dead ones.
Reducing Food Availability
• Store foods such as grains, pet foods, snacks, etc. in
metal, glass, or heavy plastic containers with tight-
fitting lids.
• Food stored in classrooms or teachers' lounges
should be in tightly closed containers. Do not
leave food out overnight.
• Do not allow students to store food in their lockers
overnight unless it is in rodent-proof containers.
Explaining to them why this is important will help
with compliance.
• Store fresh fruits and vegetables in refrigerators or
in open air coolers that are screened with 1/4-inch,
heavy wire mesh.
• Store bags of grass seed, dry pet food, and other
similar items in rodent-proof containers, or at the
very least, inspect them frequently for any signs of
chewing.
• Prompdy clean up any spilled bird seed around
feeders.
Limiting Areas for Eating
If you expect to contain and limit pest problems
(cockroaches and ants as well as rodents), it is very
important to designate appropriate areas for eating
and to enforce these rules. The fewer designated areas,
the easier it will be to limit the pests.
Table 12-5.
The Biology of the House Mouse
Breeding (citrous) cycle
polyestrous, every 4 days all year
Litter size
4 to 8
Litters per year
6 to 8, depending on food available
Age at weaning
21 to 28 days
Gestation period
18 to 21 days
Sexual Maturity
5 to 9 weeks
Life span in the wild
less than one year, perhaps up to 2
years under excellent conditions
Source: Frantz 8c Davis 1991
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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Box 12-B.
Physical Abilities of the House Mouse
Mice have the ability to
• jump up to 12 inches from the floor, use vertical
surfaces as a spring board to gain additional height,
and jump downward 8 feet to the floor
• run up almost any vertical surface, including wood,
brick, metal pipes and girders, sheet metal, wire
mesh, and cables
• easily run along suspended electric wires and ropes
of most common sizes
• squeeze through a 1/2 inch diameter hole
• travel upside down, clinging from 1/4 inch hard-
ware mesh
• swim well, but tend not to dive below the surface
• survive at 24°F for many generations
Adapted from Pinto 1992
Managing Garbage Properly
In most areas, garbage is the main source of food for
rats. An electric garbage disposal unit in the sink can
make rat problems worse by providing them with food
in the sewer system. Proper disposal of organic garbage
(food waste, garden waste, pet waste) is essential
• All food waste from the kitchen, cafeteria, and
other areas should be separated from other garbage,
drained so it will be as dry as possible, and then
stored in sealed plastic bags. These bags must be
placed in rodent-proof containers at the end of each
day because plastic-bags are not rodent-proof.
• In food preparation areas, thoroughly rinse all cans,
bottles, and plastic containers before recycling or
discarding.
• Make sure garbage can and dumpster lids seal
tightly when closed, and remain closed when not in
use, especially at night. Repair or replace garbage
cans with holes or with lids that do not close
tightly. Use stretchy fasteners over garbage can
lids, if necessary.
• Clean garbage cans and dumpsters frequently to
prevent the.build-up of food waste. Dirty garbage
cans not only attract pests, but also repel people
who want to use the garbage cans so that trash ends
up outside the can. Use a high pressure stream of
water or a brush and soapy water, if necessary. If
possible, dumpsters should be fitted with drains so
dirty water can be drained. The plug should be
snugly in place, except when hosing out the
dumpster; otherwise, rodents can enter the
dumpster and it becomes a huge feeding station.
Another option is to require the refuse company
clean the dumpster or replace it with a clean one
more frequently.
• Do not store extra garbage in cardboard, plastic, or
paper outside the garbage cans because they can be
torn open by rats, dogs, raccoons, or other animals.
• Inspect dumpsters and other outdoor trash recep-
tacles at the end of the day, and pick up any wastes
lying on the ground.
• Garbage cans on the school grounds should have
removable, domed tops with vertical, spring-loaded
swinging doors. Line these cans with plastic bags
that can be tightly sealed and emptied into rat-
proof garbage containers every evening.
• Inform students, teachers, and staff of the impor-
tance of placing garbage inside the proper containers.
• Pick up cat and dog feces daily (rats will feed on
these).
• Shovel, rake, or sweep up fallen fruit, nuts, and
similar foods that may be feeding rats in the school
yard. Dispose of in rat-proof garbage containers.
Sometimes it may be necessary to strip, trees of the?
fruits or nuts to get a rat problem under control.
• Store excess garden produce away from rats or
dispose of it in rat-proof garbage containers.
Removing Vegetation
• Trim trees, vines, bushes, grass, and weeds at least
12 to 18 inches from all buildings to decrease cover
for rodent runways and prevent hidden access to
buildings.
• Break up dense plantings with pathways, stretches
of lawn, or very low groundcover. Rats don't like
to move across areas where they can be easily seen.
• Avoid large plantings of a single groundcover that
could allow rats to run for long distances without
being seen.
• Thin out dense bushes to reduce rat habitat.
• Avoid planting date palms or Algerian ivy (Hedera
canariensis) on the school grounds because rats can
live in and feed on these plants.
Excluding Rodents
Exclusion must be the basis of any reliable managemer
program. Rodent-proofing will take time and should
begin simultaneously with trapping and/or poison
baiting. The following procedures are recommended:
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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Small Openings in the Structure, Inside or Out
• Depending on the material in which you find these
openings, holes as small as 3/16 inch in diameter
should be sealed. These holes are very important
and are often difficult to find. If the holes are in
materials that rats can gnaw, they can enlarge these
holes until they can eventually squeeze through them.
• Seal small holes with steel or copper wool (copper
will not rust) or with caulk.
• Check for gaps around exterior doors and seal with
weather stripping. Metal kickplates can be used to
prevent rodent entry. Use raised metal door sills
when necessary.
• Some doors have vents or louvers in them as pan of
the ventilation system. It may be necessary to
screen these. Sometimes pipes have been installed
Table 12-6. Selected Pathogens Associated with the House Mouse,
Roof Rat/ and Norway Rat
Disease
Causal Agent
Transmission (common
routes)
bubonic plague (Black Death)
Yersinia pestu
infective flea bites
salmonellosis
Salmonella spp.
feces-contaminated food and
water
lymphocytic choriomeningitis
LCM virus
contaminated food; dust from
feces, urine, or saliva
rickettsialpox (or vesicular
ricketuiosis)
Rickettsia akart
bite of infective house mouse mite,
Ltponyssoides (=Allodermanyssus)
sanguineus
leptospirosis, or infectious
jaundice
Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae
contaminated food, water, etc.
rat bite fever (Haverhill fever,
Sodoku)
Spirillum minus, Streptohacillus
moniliformis
rat bite, contaminated food
tapeworms
Hymenolepis nana, H. dimmuta
^droppings, contaminated food
favus, ringworm
Trichophyton schoenlemi
direct contact, mites
murine typhus, or endemic typhus
Rickettsia typhi (formerly R.
mooseri)
infective flea feces that
contaminate broken skin, or are
inhaled or eaten
Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome
(HI>S)
Sin Nombre Virus (SNV)
most common route of
transmission is through breathing
in the virus on/in aerosolized,
infective rodent urine, saliva, and
feces
mucous membranes can also be
infected after one handles
infective/contaminated materials
(dirt, dust, rodent excreta, etc.)
a rodent bite is another, though
less common route
Sources: Frantz 1988, Harwood and James 1979, Olkowski 1991, and Quarles 1995
Large Openings in the Exterior of the Structure
• Seal holes larger than 3 inches in diameter with 1/4-
inch hardware cloth, 19-gauge or thicker sheet
metal, plaster, or mortar." Make supports or frames
for the screen and make sure they are secured
solidly to the building.
• If maintenance staff needs access to the opening,
install a lockable door with a heavy-duty spring
hinge that will automatically close the door if
someone forgets.
• Look for holes in the building not only in the first
3 feet above the ground, but also at the roof line, in
the eaves, and in attic and roof vents.
• Make sure all vents are screened with 1/4-inch
hardware cloth and that existing screen is not ripped.
• Cover vent pipes with a square of 1/4-inch hardware
cloth bent around the pipe and secured with a wire.
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Box 12-C. Hantavirus
Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) is a serious, often deadly, respiratory disease that has been found mostly in
the rural areas of the western United States where there is an overpopulation of deer mice, Peromyscus maniculatus,
the primary vector (see Table 12-2 for description). Other rodent vectors include the piiion mouse, P. truei; brush
mouse, P. boylii, and various western chipmunks, Tamias spp.
The most common route of transmission is through breathing in the virus on or in aerosilized, infective rodent
urine, saliva, and feces. Mucous membranes can also be infected by touching them with fingers that have been
contaminated by handling infective or contaminated materials such as dirt, .dust, rodent excreta, etc. Rodent bites
can also spread the virus, but this is less common. Organisms such as ticks, lice, or fleas are not involved, and as of
this writing no human-to-human transmission has been observed.
Human exposures have been mostly associated with agricultural activities such as planting and harvesting field
crops, but a number of exposures have come from contaminated dwellings. Infections have occurred from staving in
previously vacant cabins, from cleaning barns and other outbuildings, and from hiking and camping. Any time the
rodent population becomes large enough to incubate large quantities of the virus, disease can result.
Symptoms of hantavirus usually appear within 2 weeks of infection, but can appear as early as 3 days to as late as 6
weeks after infection. The primary symptom of this disease is difficulty breathing, but other symptoms may
include fever (101°-104°F), headache, abdominal and lower back pain, and sometimes nausea and vomiting. If any
combination of these symptoms—especially difficulty in breathing—appear after direct or indirect exposure to
rodents, contact your doctor immediately and be sure to mention your exposure to rodents.
To determine if deer mice are a problem in your area, call the local Cooperative Extension. In areas of known infec-
tion, trapping and cleanup should be done by a trained health department representative or pest control operator.
At present, the best means of protection against the virus is by excluding deer mice from buildings. Since the types
of mice that carry hantavirus are difficult to identify, all wild rodents should be considered potentially infectious and
should be avoided. Methods for exclusion for deer mice are the same as for any rodent. See the section on excluding
rodents under Management Options for directions on rodent-proofing your school building.
When you are cleaning, you can minimize contamination by following these precautions:
• Wear latex or rubber gloves.
• Mix a solution of 1 cup bleach to 10 cups water or use a household disinfectant.
• Wipe down counter tops, cabinets, and drawers. Mop floors and baseboards.
• Thoroughly spray or, soak any dead mice, droppings, or nesting areas with disinfectant or the 10% bleach
solution.
• Do not vacuum, sweep or dust. This may spread the virus throughout the air. Use rags, sponges and mops that
have been soaked in tne disinfectant solution.
• Steam-clean carpets, rugs, and upholstered furniture.
• Wash clothes and bedding in hot water and detergent. Transfer to a dryer set on high.
• Dispose of contaminated items, including dead mice, in a double plastic bag.
• Disinfect or throw away the gloves you used.
• When you are done, wash your hands with soap and hot water.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1993
through the vents or louvers; make sure to seal any
gaps around the pipes.
• Check areas where pipes and wiring enter buildings
and close any gaps with caulk or with steel or
copper wool.
Air Conditioners
• These units can provide rodents with water, harbor-
age, and access to the structure. Make sure each unit
is well-sealed, especially those on the roof.
Sewer Pipes
• Repair broken sewer pipes. Rats can dig into
broken sewer lines and swim up the trap in a toilet
to get into a building.
• Toilet drains can be rat-proofed by feeding the pipe
from the toilet bowl into a pipe section of larger
diameter (Frantz and Davis 1991).
Drains
• Cap the drains in basement floors so rats cannot
enter through them.
• Install a brass drain cover or a perforated metal ct
held in place by a hinge so it can be opened for
cleaning. Make sure the unhinged type of cover is
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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Box 12-D. Signs of Rodent Presence
live or Dead Rodents
• Seeing live rodents is the most obvious and certain sign of their presence. Seeing live rodents in the daytime
usually means there is a heavy infestation, that their harborage has been disturbed, or that new rodents are
moving into the area and haven't found any harborage yet
• A freshly dead rodent is a sign of infestation, but this is not necessarily true with an old, dried body which
may merely indicate a previous infestation.
Droppings
• The largest number of droppings will be in feeding areas and near harborage.
• Rat droppings may be as large as 3/4 inch long and 1/4 inch in diameter. Mouse droppings are much
smaller, about 1/4 inch long.
• Fresh droppings are moist, soft, black or nearly black, and they glisten or look wet. After a few days to a
week, the droppings dry, become hard, and appear dull rather than shiny. In warm, dry atmospheres the
droppings can lose their shine after only a few hours. After a few weeks, rat droppings become gray, dusty
and crumbly, and mouse dropping become hard, dry, and dull or whitish.
• If very old droppings are moistened, they may look like new ones, but they will still be crumbly instead of soft.
• Sometimes lizard or bat droppings can be confused with rodents droppings, but both lizard and bat
droppings contain many insect fragments that can easily be seen when the droppings are crushed.
• In order to monitor for current rodent activity, remove the droppings so that fresh droppings are apparent
during future inspections.
Damage to Goods and Structures
• Rodents gnaw to get at food in packaging or containers and to obtain nesting material.
• When rodents gnaw, their front teeth leave two parallel marks, about 1/8 inch across for rats and about 1/16
inch across for mice.
• Gnaw marks on doors or ledges, in corners, in wall material, or on stored materials as well as bits of
gnawed wood, paper, cloth, packaging, etc. are good indications of rodent presence.
• Rats can gnaw through rusty sheet metal and sheet aluminum.
Grease Marks or Rub Marks
• These marks on beams, rafters, walls, pipes, and other fixtures are the result of oil and dirt rubbing off
rodents' fur along frequently traveled routes.
Runs or Burrows
• These may be found outside along foundations, walls, or fences or under bushes or debris. Runs will look
like tiny paths and burrows are open holes.
Tracks
• Footprints and long, thin marks indicating a tail being dragged or rested can easily be seen on dusty
surfaces, in mud, or in snow.
Noises
• As rats gnaw, claw, fight, and scramble around inside walls they make noises. These are particularly audible at
night when they are most active. A stethoscope may be used to pinpoint the activity. Mouse noises are harder
to hear, but you can sometimes hear them scurrying and skittering around. Note that squirrels and other
animals can make similar noises, so you should confirm rodent presence with other signs.
Urine
• Rodent urine will fluoresce blue-white under ultraviolet light, but many other substances also fluoresce, so
recognizing rat urine takes skill.
Adapted from Meehan 1984
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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threaded so it screws in place; otherwise, a rat can
push it open.
• Place 1/4-inch galvanized hardware cloth under
existing drain covers with holes larger than 1/2 inch.
Debris and duller
• Clean up and organize storage rooms to eliminate
as much clutter as possible. It's harder to detect
rodent presence in such rooms and the clutter is
attractive harborage.
• Outside, remove debris heaps, wood piles, or
construction debris.
Water
• Free-standing water in stagnant pools, ditches,
Box 12-E. How to Conduct a Rodent
Inspection Inside
• Begin in the basement or substructure. Remember
that you are trying to find as many areas as you can
that might provide harborage, food, water, or access
to the building.
• Make detailed notes on your schematic of the
building.
• Try to locate all entry points and nesting areas.
"Starter holes" for rodents to enlarge can be
openings as small as 1/4 inch in diameter in walls,
around pipe entries, sewer outlets, under doors, etc.
Unscreened sewer outlets and even toilets can give
rats access to buildings. Nests are often composed
of things like shredded paper, pieces of plastic, and
bits of fabric gathered together into a 5-inch
diameter mass for mice and 8 to 12 inch diameter
for rats. If you find clothing or paper that looks
torn or shredded but doesn't loolc like a nest, you
will most likely find the nest nearby.
• Look for water leaks and rooms where water
condenses on the walls.
• Always be on the lookout for piles of trash, clutter,
or other debris.
• Note where the custodians, teachers, and students
take their breaks or eat lunch. These areas can
present a sanitation problem.
• Rodents like to follow edges; inspect these areas for
feces, rub marks, unne, or other indications of activity.
• Move to the mam floors of the building and inspect
locker rooms, home economics rooms, art rooms,
child care areas, lower-grade areas, cafeteria,
kitchen, and teachers' lounge. Even science rooms
can have food for rodents.
• Continue into the attic to look for holes, nests,
feces, and rub marks:
ornamental pools, or fountains can provide rats
with their daily ration of water. Drain or eliminat
these sources where possible. Fountains and
ornamental pools will pose a problem, but during
severe rat infestations, they may need to be tempo-
rarily drained.
• Fix leaking pipes, faucets, or broken irrigation
systems.
• Eliminate condensation in places like boiler rooms.
Installing Barriers
• Make, rat-proof barriers to separate landscaping
from the foundations of buildings by digging a small
trench 8 to 12 inches wide, 8 inches deep, and as long
as the building. Fill this with pea gravel. Rats dislike
burrowing in loose gravel and will be discouraged
from trying to penetrate the foundation.
• Place barriers between and within walls to prevent
rodent travel (see Figure 12-2). An open space
between floor joists (as shown at A) gives rats free
access to wall voids. Wood 2x4 stops (show at B)
are sometimes used on upper floors, but an incom-
bustible material should be employed on lower
floors. In old buildings, galvanized sheet metal
(shown at C) can be cut to fit and nailed between
studs, joists, floor, and sill. In new construction,
incombustible stops of a good grade of cement are
recommended (shown at D).
• Vertical barriers of galvanized sheet metal 18 to 24
inches high placed around stored flour or grain will
exclude mice. Pallets containing stored food and
paper supplies can be mouse-proofed by elevating
the pallet on 12-inch cinder blocks, then covering,
the pallet with a layer of sheet metal so that the
edges of the sheet metal extend 4 to 6 inches be-
yond the edges of the pallet. The edges should then
be bent down toward the floor at a 45° angle.
•»» .55*
Adapted from Harmon 1995
Figure 12-2. Bamen between and within walls
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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Trapping Rodents
Many schools have concerns about the ethical implica-
tions of killing rodents slowly by trapping. Snap traps
are probably the most humane in that regard because
they kill the animals swiftly. These concerns for the
animals can be turned into motivation for habitat
modification and other strategies that exclude rodents
and eliminate their food supply, thus reducing the
numbers that have to be directly killed. Be sure to
inspect the traps daily to remove and humanely kill
any rodents that have been caught.
Killing trapped rodents
• Plunge live capture traps or glue boards into a 5
gallon bucket of soapy water and hold down until
the rodents drown.
• Place a few traps into a large, heavy-duty garbage
bag and tie the bag loosely to the exhaust pipe of a
car. Open the car windows, start the car, and leave
it running for a minute or two. After turning off
the car, remove the bag from the exhaust pipe, seal
the bag and leave it for several more minutes.
Tips for a successful trapping program
• Set traps in the correct locations, bait properly, and
inspect frequently—sometimes this will mean daily.
• Use the map of the building and/or grounds to
record the precise location of each trap and the date
it was set. This record keeping is the key to pre-
venting lost and forgotten traps. If dead and
decomposing rodents are left in the traps, the
results can be very unpleasant.
• When handling traps, always wear gloves for
protection from diseases.
• Rats will avoid traps for a few hours to several days
after initial placement. "Pre-baiting" traps for rats
(see below under Baits) can improve catches.
• For mice, set a large number of traps for a few days,
then remove the traps and dispose of dead mice.
Reset traps two weeks later. This will ensure that
Box 12-F. How to Conduct a Rodent Inspection Outside
• Try to identify as many of the areas as possible that provide rodents harborage, food, water, and access to the
building.
• Make detailed notes on your map of the exterior of the building and the school grounds.
• Take note of how garbage is dealt with, what condition dumpsters and garbage cans are in, and whether rodents
have easy access to garbage.
• Check doorways for gaps or holes and note windows without screens or glass.
• Look for other openings in the structure—holes, vents without screens, holes around plumbing, and electrical
wire entry points.
• Note any power lines running into the upper portions of buildings and any trees which are brushing up against
the structure; these give rodents access to the roof.
• Note any bird or bat problems because rats may not be far behind. Rodents will feed on bird eggs, chicks, and
young bats.
• What kind of vegetation is growing near the building? Does it give rodents cover for runways or nesting sites?
Are there any fruit- or nut-bearing trees?
• Inspect all planters, wood waste piles, portable storage containers, and outbuildings. Are there signs of rodent
infestation in or around any of these areas?
• Take into account any field or lot which may be next door, as well as any supermarket or fast food establishment
which may attract rodents. Rodents that start to invade the school may be an overflow from adjoining proper-
ties. If a vacant building next door to a school is going to be renovated or an empty field or lot prepared for
construction, the rodent population will be displaced to the surrounding areas.
• Pay attention to seasonal occurrences. For example, if there is a corn or wheat field near the school, when the
grain is harvested in the fall, field mice often migrate to the nearest structure.
• Check for irrigation leaks and any standing water such as irrigation or drainage ditches, stagnant pools, orna-
mental ponds, and fountains.
• On the roof, check air conditioning units that might provide water and harborage for rats.
Adapted from Harmon 1995
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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Making an Expanded Rat Trap Trigger
Rat traps with expanded triggers are available commer-
cially, but you can also make your own. Cut a 11/2 in.
(3.8 cm) square piece of stiff cardboard or '/8 in. (0.3 cm)
thick wood ana attach it to the existing trap trigger with
wire or strong glue. Expanded triggers often catch rats
without bait it the traps are placed well arid are moved
when necessar^^^^gg^^^^^
*~r
Figure 12-3. Rat traps
mice too small for capture during the first trapping
are caught in the second round.
• If catches are poor, try moving the traps to new
locations.
• When most of the rats have been trapped, it can be
hard to catch the last few because they may have
become trap-shy and will avoid the traps. In such
cases, the traps can be removed for a week, then set
in new locations using the pre-baiting method
described below. You can also leave out food in
shallow pans until the rats readily eat it, and then
camouflage the trap by burying it under the food in
the pan.
Trap, choices
Rodent traps fall into three general categories: snap
traps, live traps, and glue boards. Each kind of trap is
better suited to some situations than others. The
information below will help you decide where to best
use each of the traps.
Snap Traps. These traps are widely available and can
be made more effective by expanding the trigger (see
Figure 12-3) so that it can be tripped by a mouse or rat
simply running over the trap. Do not place them
where human toes might accidentally get caught,
unless the traps are protected inside a bait station (see
below). These traps work well in dusty places, but do
not use a snap trap in an area with standing water or
high humidity because the mechanism will rust and
the trap will be useless.
Live Capture Traps. Live traps are available for rats
and mice, but the rodents must be killed once they are
trapped. When mouse populations are high, multiple-
catch live traps may be more efficient than snap traps.
Multiple catch traps can capture several mice at a time
without needing to be reset. Some models have wind-
up mechanisms that "kick" the mice into another
compartment. Others use a treadle door. Although
these traps can work without baits because mice are
curious and attracted to the small entrances designed
into the traps, they are more effective when baited.
Glue Boards. These are boards covered with a sticky
material that will catch mice and rats. Glue boards
provide the advantage of catching and retaining rodent
hairs, droppings, and ectoparasites coming from the
trapped animal. Glue board traps should be inspected
daily in order to prevent unnecessary suffering by the
trapped animals.
If glue boards are used in areas where they might fall
and get stuck to something, secure the traps with a nail
or wire. Boards should always be secured when you
are trapping rats so that if the rats are only partially
caught they cannot drag the traps away. Baiting glue
boards is not necessary but will improve the chances
of success.
Trap Placement
• Check the monitoring map to locate active rodent
holes, and set traps along walls or other runways
leading to the holes. Other good trap locations
include areas near droppings, gnawing marks, or
other signs of rodent damage; under and behind
objects likely to harbor rats or mice; in dark cor-
ners; and along rafters or other protected areas
where rodents are likely to travel.
• Changing the location of furnishings will produce
new pathways that mice will quickly investigate.
Traps can be placed along these new pathways.
For rats, move objects around to funnel them into
the traps.
• Set traps at right angles to the wall, with the trigger
facing the wall.
• Place traps flush with the wall so that rodents
traveling along the edge of the wall will encounter
the traps.
• Two traps, side by side with their triggers facing the
wall, can increase the chances of success. Alterna-
tively, the two traps can be placed parallel to the
wall, back to back with their triggers facing away
from each other. Three traps in a row will make it
difficult for a rat to jump over the traps without
being caught.
• Traps can also be nailed to a wall or rafter or wirec
to a pipe. Make sure the trigger side of the trap is
projecting into the rodents' runway.
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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• When trapping rats with snap traps, it may be
useful to secure the trap so that if a rat is only
partially caught, it cannot drag the trap away to an
inaccessible area.
• A trap can be camouflaged by sinking it just below
ground level on dirt surfaces. This is done by
positioning the trap and then completely covering
it with a fine layer of sand or sawdust. Traps can
also be set in shallow pans filled with sawdust,
grain, or meal. It may be necessary to place a small
piece of cloth over the trigger to keep it from
jamming.
Baiting the Traps
• Baits for Norway rats include pieces of hot dog,
bacon, liver, peanut butter, or nut meats. Suggested
baits for roof rats include nuts, dried fruits, or fresh
fruits such as bananas or apples. You can also try
other baits such as candy, marshmallows, raisins, or
peanut butter mixed with rolled oats or bacon
grease. Many of these baits don't last long because
they dry up or become rancid. If rats are feeding
on other foods, try them as baits also.
• For catching mice try raisins, g^imdrops, or a
mixture of peanut butter and rolled oats or bacon
grease. A small piece of cotton can be attached to
the trigger instead of food. The cotton makes
attractive nesting material, will not spoil, and is less
likely to attract new pests such as flies, cock-
roaches, etc.
• Place the bait in the center of the trigger. Baits that
do not stick to the trigger can be tied on with string
or dental floss so the rodent cannot steal the bait
without tripping the trigger.
• To catch rats, you will probably have to "pre-bait"
the traps. This may not be necessary for mice,
unless you find them avoiding the traps. Place the
traps out with bait but do not set the traps. Check
them daily to see if the bait has been taken, and
move them to a new location if the bait remains
undisturbed. Once you see signs of feeding on the
bait, refill the bait and set the traps.
• Alternatively, pre-bait the traps with a large piece
of peanut butter, hot dog, liver, or fruit. When you
are ready to set the traps, remove the large piece of
bait and smear a small bit on the underside of the
trigger. The animals will have become used to
taking the bait from the trigger and will now try to
manipulate the trigger to find the bait they know
should be there.
• Cereal (like oatmeal) can be sprinkled around the
traps to make them more attractive.
• Remember that you will probably have to experiment
to find the bait that works best in your situation.
Number of Traps to Use
• It is difficult to give a formula for the number of
traps to use because the appropriate number will
depend on the situation; however, it is better to err
on the side of too many traps than too few. Place
traps where you see activity and try using traps
every 2 to 3 feet along a wall. You-may need 3 to 6
traps around each hole or burrow opening.
• Concentrate the traps in one area at a time. When
you have finished trapping in that area, move the
traps to your next target.
Protecting Snap Traps
• If safety or tampering is a concern, you can place a
snap trap inside a cardboard rat bait station that has
been assembled inside-out to hide the poison,
warnings. Use only rat bait stations; a mouse
station is not large enough to allow traps to fire.
Place the bait station on its side against the wall
with the entry holes closest to the floor. Set and
insert a baited rat or mouse snap trap with its
trigger facing the entry hole. By placing two of
these bait station traps back to back, the rodent will
be caught traveling in either direction.
• Mouse snap traps can also be placed inside PVC
pipe. Use pipe that is at least 3 1/4 inches in diam-
eter so the traps have room to fire. Place two traps
end to end inside the pipe with the triggers facing
the cut ends of the pipe. PVC piping is available at
plumbing supply stores and can easily be cut to the
desired length.
Protecting Glue Boards
Glue boards can be used inside professional cardboard
rat or mouse bait stations. This extends the life of the
board by protecting it from dust, dirt, children, and
tampering. This method also hides the catch from view.
The following points will help you set up the traps:
• Assemble the cardboard bait station inside-out to
conceal the rodenticide warnings.
• For mouse bait stations, you will need to cut or fold
the glue board to fit inside the station before you
remove the protective release paper from the board.
• Remove the glue board from the bait station to
dispose of the rodent and replace with a new board.
Glue boards can also be placed inside a length of PVC
pipe along exterior foundations or indoor walls. Curl
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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the glue board inside the pipe, making sure that the
curve of the board matches the contour of the pipe.
Glue Boards in Multiple Catch Mouse Traps
This combination allows the multiple catch trap to be
serviced quickly, prevents mice from leaping out of
the trap at service time, keeps the trap cleaner, protects
the glue board, and contains hairs, droppings, and
ectoparasites.
Miscellaneous Points
• Do not spray insecticides on the traps and do not
store them with insecticides, rodenticides, or
application equipment. The traps will smell of
these substances and rats will avoid them.
• To prepare snap traps for storage, scrub them with
a stiff brush, soak them in detergent and water, dry
them carefully, and coat the metal parts with a thin
layer of oil.
Repellent Sound Devices
There is no evidence to show that these devices either
kill rodents or prevent them from entering buildings.
The Federal Trade Commission has ruled that these
devices are ineffective in controlling rodents and
insects, that they do not prevent pests from entering
an area, and that the sound does not cover the area
advertised.
Biological Controls
Some institutions maintain cats for protection against
rodents. Cats can "prune" a mouse population but
seldom eliminate it. They can be a deterrent to new
mouse immigration, although it is entirely possible to
have alert cats and still have mice present.
Cats can kill rats as well, especially young rats; how-
ever, as with mice, cats are not a guaranteed rat deter-
rent. Owls and snakes are rat predators, so when
considering the use of chemical control techniques,
remember that depending on the toxicant used, these
predators can be killed by consuming poisoned rats.
Chemical Controls
If non-chemical methods alone prove insufficient to
solve the problem, then integrating a rodenticide into
your management program may be warranted. For
information on the hazards of various rodenticides
and on how to select an appropriate rodenticide for
your situation, consult Appendix G for a list of
resources.
Rodenticides must be used in accordance with their
EPA-approved label directions. Applicators must be
certified to apply rodenticides and should always wr
protective gear during applications. All labels and
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the rodenti-
cide products authorized for use in the IPM program
should be maintained on file.
Baits and bait stations will be avoided for a few hours
to several days after initial placement. Even after this
period, rats will be very cautious about approaching
them. If a rat nibbles on a bit of poison bait that later
makes it sick without killing it, the rat will avoid
similar baits in the future, and, if female, may teach
her young to do the same.
When to Use a Poison-Baiting Program
It is appropriate to use poison-baits when trapping
and physical changes to the building and to food and
waste storage have, been clearly documented to be
ineffective. In emergency situations when there are
very high numbers of rodents or when rat fleas have
been identified as transmitting bubonic plague, it may
be appropriate to use poison baits, but trapping and
habitat modification must also be used at the same time.
Be aware that overuse of some rodenticides has
produced rodent populations resistant to the poison
Rodenticides should be used only if absolutely neces-
sary. This approach preserves their effectiveness when
they are needed to handle emergency situations.
Safety Precautions
• All rodenticides must be placed inside tamper-
resistant bait stations. These are metal or heavy
plastic boxes that lock with a metal screw and can
be filled with poison bait. They protect bait from
humans and pets, and can be easily inspected to
determine how much bait is being consumed. Bait
stations should always be secured to the floor, a
wall, or some other surface and be clearly labeled
with a warning.
• Use poison baits over long holidays when students
are not in the building.
• Use only in locked storerooms, basements, attics,
or other areas not accessible to children or escaped
classroom pets.
• Rats may cache (hide) food that may or may not be
eaten later. This is very important to remember
when using poison baits because rats may take th
poison bait to a place where children and animals
can find it, or to other locations the label does not
allow, or may hide it without eating it. Some forms
IPM for Schools
100
Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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of baits, such, as grain or meal, paraffin blocks, and
water baits, are not as readily distributed by rats.
• Handle rodent carcasses with gloves.
• Keep unused bait in its original container in a
locked cabinet with appropriate warnings on the
outside of the cabinet door. (If baits are stored
with other chemicals, put the original container
into an airtight one so the bait will not absorb
odors that may impair its effectiveness.)
Rodentieide Formulations
• Liquid formulations are dispensed in special bait
stations made especially for liquids and are most
useful for rats in situations where water is very
restricted and food is plentiful. Liquid bait must
always be used where non-target animals and
children have NO ACCESS.
• Meal formulations, e.g., cornmeal or oatmeal mixed
with a poison, are a good choice because mice or
rats are less likely to drop and/or take away much
of the meal. Canarygrass seed bait is,particularly
attractive to mice.
• Parafinized bait blocks are useful in wet situations
where dampness could spoil other baits. These
blocks must be wired to the bait station so they
cannot be dragged away.
Types of Rodentieides
In general, the older anticoagulant rodentieides such
as warfarin, chlorophacinone, and pindone are recom-
mended over the newly developed anticoagulants.
The older anticoagulants last for only a few days in a
dead rodent body so that they pose less of a hazard to
non-target organisms than some other rodentieides
such as brodifacoum, which can last for many months.
Zinc phosphide, an acute poison, can be useful for
burrow baiting in its wax pellet formulation.
Anticoagulants work by preventing blood from clot-
ting. Rodents eat small doses of these chemicals over
several days and eventually die from internal bleeding.
Resistance Problems
Many rats and mice have become resistant to some
anticoagulants. This means that the rodents can eat
the anticoagulant and not sicken or die. Resistance to
a chemical should be suspected if the bait is eaten
regularly but the same or a greater number of rodents,
holes, droppings, etc. continue to be seen. Research
has shown that even rats that are classified as "resis-
tant" to warfarin eventually succumb to the poison if
enough time (at least 30 days) is allowed to lapse
between exposures (Frantz and Padula 1990). This
seems to indicate that it may not be necessary to resort
to the newer and more problematic rodentieides if the
rodentieide producing resistance can be withdrawn
from use for a period of time. During that time, focus
on eliminating food and harborage.
Instituting a Poison Baiting Program
Before beginning a baiting program, use monitoring
blocks or stations (see the discussion under Detection
and Monitoring, above) to determine the locations
where rodents are most likely to accept poison bait.
Points to remember when, instituting a baiting pro-
gram include the following:
• Bait stations must always be secured in place and
clearly labeled "RODENT BAIT—POISON-
DO NOT TOUCH."
• Set out bait stations only where rodents are most
active and have previously gnawed on monitoring
blocks. Place bait stations along walls and, when-
ever possible, between shelter and the source of
food. In the case of roof rats, bait stations should
be placed above the ground in areas such as attics,
roofs, or trees.
• For rats, bait stations should be placed 15 to 30 feet
apart, for mice, 6 to 8 feet apart.
• Mark the location of each bait station on your
building map.
• Check each bait station daily to make sure there is
enough bait (this is extremely important), the bait
is in good condition (not moldy or rancid), and the
bait'station is not being tampered with.
• Leave bait stations in place for the number of days
recommended on the label. Mice will readily
investigate new things in their territory, but it may
take 4 or more days for the rats to try the bait.
• Multi-dose anticoagulants take from 4 to 9 days to
kill rodents if the„bait is the only food source.
• Rats have an excellent sense of taste, enabling them
to detect extremely small amounts of rat poison
very quickly. For this reason, poisoned baits must
be more attractive to rats than the other foods that
are available to them in the area.
• Remove and securely store all bait stations when
the baiting program is over.
IPM for Schools
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
-------
Bibliography
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of least-
toxic pest control products. IPM Practitioner 18(1 l/12):l-39.
Baker, R.O., G.R. Bodman, and R.M. Timm. 1994. Rodent-proof
construction and exclusion methods. In: Prevention and
Control of Wildlife Damage, pp. B137-B150. University of
Nebraska, Lincoln.
Caslick, J.W. and D.J. Decker. 1980. Rat and mouse control.
Cornell Cooperative Extension, Ithaca, NY, Bulletin 163.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1993. Hantavirus
infection—Southwestern United States. Interim recommenda-
tions for risk reduction. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly
Report 42(No. R-ll):l-20.
Corrigan, R.M. 1994. Managing field mice. Pest Management
13(7):8-12.
Dodds, W.J., S.C. Frantz, and K. Story. 1986. The Professional's Guide
to Managing Poisoning by Anticoagulant Rodentiddes. CHempa
Products Div., Lipha Chemicals, Inc. New York. 10 pp.
Ebeling, W. 1975. Urban Entomology. University of California,
Los Angeles. 695 pp.
Fehrenbach, P. 1994. Are PCO's at risk? Pest Control Technology
22(8):32-34,108.
Frantz, S.C. 1979. Rodent Control—A Case for Integrated Pest
Management (IPM). U.S. Public Health Service, Center for
Disease Control, Preventive Health Services Conference,
Ellenville, NY. May 7-11,1979. 29 pp.
Frantz, S.C. 1980. Integrated Pest Management: Philosophy and
Basic Guidelines. National; Association of Housing and
Redevelopment Officials;'^Albany, NY. Sept. 3 -4,1980.20 pp.
Frantz, S.C. 1988. Architecture and commensal vertebrate pest
management. In: Architectural Design and Indoor Microbial
Pollution, R.B. Kundsin, ed., Oxford University Press, New
York, NY.
Frantz, S.C. and D.E. Davis. 1991. Bionomics and integrated pest
management of commensal rodents, pp. 243-313. In: Gorman,
Ecology and Management of Food-Industry Pests. Association
of Official Analytical Chemists, Arlington, VA.
Frantz, S.C. and C.M. Padula. 1990. Recent developments in
anticoagulant rodenticide resistance studies: surveillance and
application in the United Sutes. In Proceedings of the 9th
Vertebrate Pest Conference. J.P. Clark, ed. University of
California Press, Davis, CA. pp. 80-88.
Goldstein, M.M: 1995. Teaching old pro's new tricks: utilizing
existent rodent IPM tools in new ways can result in greater
rodent catch and time savings. Pest Control Technology
23(8):48,50,52.
Gorman, J. R., ed. Ecology and Management of Food-Industry
Pests. FDA Tech. Bulletin 4. Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, Arlington, VA. 595 pp.
Gunther, R., et al. 1988, Toxicity of.vitamin D3 rodenticides to
dog s. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
193(2):211-214.
Harmon, J. 1995. Classy vermin: controlling rodents in schools.
Pest Control Technology 23(9):38,40,49,52,54,112.
Harwood, R.F. and M.T. James. 1979. Entomology in Human anu
Animal Health, Seventh Edition. Macmiilan, New York, NY.
548 pp.
Howard, W.E. and R.E. Marsh. 1967. The rat: us biology and
control University of California, Davis. Division of Biological
Science, Cooperative Extension Service (Leaflet'2896). 22 pp.
Hygnstrom, S.E., R.M. Timm and G.E. Larson. 1994. Prevention
and Control of Wildlife Damage. University of Nebraska,
Lincoln.
Ingles, L.G. 1965. Mammals of the Pacific States, California,
Oregon, and Washington. Stanford University Press, Stanford,
CA. 506 pp.
Kundsin, R.B., ed. 1988. Architectural Design and Indoor Micro-
bial Pollution. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
Marsh, R.E. 1994. Roof rats. In: Prevention and Control of
Wildlife Damage, pp. B125-B132. University of Nebraska,
Lincoln.
Meehan, A.P. 1984. Rats and Mice: their biology and control
Rentokil Ltd., East Grinstead, England. 383 pp.
Moore, F., et al. 1988. Hypercalcemia associated with rodenticide
poisoning in three cats. Journal of the American Veterinary
Medical Association 193(9): 1099-1100.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Control': Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Pinto, L. 1992. Module III, vertebrates. In: Urban Integrated Pest
Management: a guide for commercial applicators, Chapter 3,
pp. 1 -7. Dual & Associates Inc., Arlington, VA.
Quarles, W. 1995. Deer mice spread new hantavirus. Common
Sense Pest Control Quarterly 11(1):13-15.
Scott, H.G. 1991. Design and construction: building out pests, pp.
331-343. In: Gorman, Ecology and Management of Food-
Industry Pests. Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
Arlington, VA.
Timm, R.M. 1983. House mouse. In: Hygnstrom, Timm and
Larson, Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage, pp. B17-
B44. University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
Timm, R.M. 1994. Norway rats. In: Hygnstrom, Timm and
Larson, Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage, pp. B105-
. B120. University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
Timm, R.M. 1991. Chemical control of rodent pests in bulk-stored
grains, pp. 419-426. In: Gorman, Ecology and Management of
Food-Industry Pests. Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, Arlington, VA.
Timm, R.M. and G.R. Bodman. 1983. Rodent-proof construction.
In: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage, pp. B125-
B131. University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
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Chapter 12 • Rats and Mice
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Chapter 13
IPM for Scorpions in Schools
Introduction
Scorpions live in a wide variety of habitats from
tropical to temperate climates and from deserts to rain
forests. In the United States they are most common in
the southern states from the Adantic to the Pacific.
All scorpions are beneficial because they are predators
of insects.
The sting of most scorpions is less, painful than a bee
sting. There is only one scorpion of medical impor-
tance in the United States: the sculptured or bark
scorpion, Centruroides exiiicauda (=sculpturatus).
The danger from its sting has been exaggerated, and its
venom is probably not life-threatening. This species
occurs in Texas, western New Mexico, Arizona,
northern Mexico, and sometimes along the west bank
of the Colorado River in California.
Identification and Biology
Scorpions range from 3/8 to 8 112 inches in length, but
all scorpions are similar in general appearance.
Scorpions do not lay eggs; they are viviparous, which
means they give birth to live young. As embryos, the
young receive nourishment through a kind of "placen-
tal" connection to the mother's body. When the
young are born, they climb onto the mother's back
where they remain from two days to two weeks until
they molt (shed their skin) for the first time. After the
first molt, the young disperse to lead independent
lives. Some scorpions mature in as little as six months
while others take almost seven years.
All scorpions are predators, feeding on a variety of
insects and spiders. Large scorpions also feed on small
animals including snakes, lizards, and rodents. Some
scorpions sit and wait for their meal to come to them
while others actively hunt their prey. Scorpions have a
very low metabolism and some can exist for 6 to 12
months without food. Most are active at night. They
are shy creatures, aggressive only toward their prey.
Scorpions will not sting humans unless handled,
stepped on, or otherwise disturbed.
It is rare for scorpions to enter a building since there is
little food and temperatures are too cool for their
comfort. There are some exceptions to this rule.
Buildings in new developments (less than three years
old) can experience an influx <|
of scorpions because the
construction work has de-
stroyed the animals' habitat.
In older neighborhoods, the
heavy bark on old trees J& RSB V
provide good habitat for « W
scorpions, and they may enter [
through the more numerous 1
cracks and holes in buildings in I
search of water, mates, and prey. I
Also, buildings near washes and |
arroyos that are normally dry may
become refuges for scorpions during T
summer rains.
Scorpions do not enter buildings in winter because
cold weather makes them sluggish or immobile. They
are not active until nighttime low temperatures exceed
70°F. Buildings heated to 65" or 70°F provide enough
warmth to allow scorpions to move about. Scorpions
found inside buildings in cold weather are probably
summer visitors that never left. Although scorpions
prefer to live outdoors, they can remain in buildings
without food for long periods of time.
Stings
A scorpion sting produces considerable pain around
the site of the sting, but little swelling. For four to six
hours, sensations of numbness and tingling develop in
the region of the sting, then symptoms start to go
away. In the vast majority of cases, the symptoms will
subside within a few days without any treatment.
If the sting is from a bark scorpion, symptoms can
sometimes travel along nerves, and tingling from a
sting on a finger may be felt up to the elbow, or even
the shoulder. Severe symptoms can include roving
eyes, blurry vision, excessive salivation, tingling
around the mouth and nose, and the feeling of having
a lump in the throat. Respiratory distress may occur.
Tapping the sting can produce extreme pain. Symp-
toms in children also include extreme restlessness,
excessive muscle activity, rubbing at the face, and
sometimes vomiting. Most vulnerable to the sting of
the bark scorpion are children under five years and
elderly persons who have an underlying heart condi-
1PM for Schools
103
Chapter 13 • Scorpions
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Avoiding Scorpion Stings
Schools is areas where encounters with scorpi-
ons are likely should teach children and adults
how to recognize scorpions and to understand
their habits. Focus on scorpion biology, behav-
ior, likely places to find them, and how to avoid
disturbing them.
At home, children and parents should be taught
to take the following precautions to reduce the
likelihood of being stung:
• Wear shoes when walking outside at night.
If scorpions are suspected indoors, wear
shoes inside at night as well.
• Wear leather gloves when moving rocks,
boards, and other debris.
• Shake out shoes or slippers before they are
worn, and check beds before they are used.
• Shake out damp towels, washcloths, and
dishrags before use.
• When camping, shake out sleeping bags,
clothes, and anything else that has been in
contact with the-ground before use.
• Protect infants and children from scorpions
at night by placing the legs of their cribs or
beds into clean wide-mouthed glass jars and
moving the crib or bed away from the wall.
Scorpions cannot climb clean glass.
tion or respiratory illness. The greatest danger to a
child is the possibility of choking on saliva and vomit.
Antivenin for the bark scorpion is produced at Arizona
State University in Tempe and is available in Arizona
but not in other states. The therapeutic use of antivenin
is still experimental. People have been treated without
antivenin for many years, and in areas where antivenin
is unavailable, people are monitored closely by medical
professionals until the symptoms subside.
Detection and Monitoring
To determine where scorpions are entering, inspect
both the inside and outside of the building at night
(when scorpions are active) using a battery-operated
camp light fitted with a UV (black) fluorescent bulb.
Scorpions glow brighdy in black light and can be
spotted several yards away.
Always wear leather gloves when hunting scorpions.
Places to check inside the building include under
towels, washcloths, and sponges in bathrooms and
kitchen; under all tables and desks, since the bark
scorpion may climb and take refuge on a table leg or
under the lip of a table; and inside storage areas.
Outside, check piles of rocks and wood, under loose
boards, and in piles of debris. After the following
treatment strategies have been implemented, monitor-
ing with the black light should continue to verify
population reduction.
Management Options
Physical Controls
In most cases, physical controls will be adequate to
manage a scorpion problem.
Removal of Scorpions
Any scorpions found during monitoring can be
picked up using gloves or a pair of kitchen tongs, and
transferred to a clean, wide-mouthed glass jar. Scorpi-
ons cannot climb clean glass. You can also invert a j
over a live scorpion and then slide a thin piece of
cardboard under the mouth of the jar to trap the
scorpion inside. Once a scorpion is captured, drop it
into a jar of alcohol or soapy water (water without
soap will not work) to kill it.
Habitat Modification
If you discover areas near school buildings that harbor
a number of scorpions, you can try to alter the habitat
to discourage them. Wood piles, rocks, loose boards,
and other debris should be removed from the immedi-
ate vicinity of the building.
If there are slopes on the school grounds that are faced
with rip rap (large rocks placed on a slope or stream
bank to help stabilize it), or other similar areas highly
attractive to scorpions, place a barrier of aluminum
flashing between the rip rap and the school to prevent
scorpion access. The flashing must be bent in an "L"
shape away from the building. The other edge of the
flashing should be buried a short distance from the
rocks, deep enough in the soil so that the L shape will
not fall over and lean on the rip rap. Make the heigh*
of the barrier before the bend greater than the heigh
of the rip rap to prevent scorpions from standing on
the rocks and jumping over the barrier.
1PM for Schools
104
Chapter 13 • Scorpions
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Carry a caulking gun during nighttime inspections
inside and outside the building to seal any cracks and
crevices found. If scorpions are entering through
weep holes in windows or sliding doors, cover the
holes with fine-mesh aluminum screening, available
from hardware or lumber stores. The ends of pipes
that are designed as gray water drains should be fitted
with loose filter bags, or makeshift end-pieces made
from window screen. The screened end will prevent
scorpion access to the drainpipe, sink, and other parts
of the building.
It is important to continue nighttime patrols and
caulking until all entryways have been located and
sealed, and all the scorpions in the building have been
captured and killed. Once the access routes are sealed,
and all indoor scorpions have been removed, only
doorways provide access, unless the scorpions ride in
on logs and other materials. Glazed tiles can be placed
around the perimeter of the buildings, and under or
around doors and windows as part of the decor and as
practical scorpion barriers. Scorpions have difficulty
crossing smooth tiles unless the grout line is wide.
Wood storage should be elevated above the ground
since scorpions like contact with moist soil. Before
bringing materials such as logs inside, bang them on a
stone to dislodge any scorpions.
Traps
A simple trap made of damp gunny sacks laid down
near the building in the evenings may be useful for
monitoring and trapping. Scorpions may seek out the
moist environment under the sacks where they can be
collected in the morning. This trap is most effective
when used before summer rains.
Chemical Controls
In general, preventing scorpion problems is better
than trying to kill these creatures with pesticide.
Spraying the perimeters of buildings is not only
unnecessary but also ineffective. Scorpions can
tolerate a great deal of pesticide in their environment.
The pesticide will only be harmful to humans, espe-
cially children, and to other wildlife. Using physical
controls along with education to reduce the fear of
scorpions will help prevent unnecessary treatments.
FirstAkJ for Scorpion Slings
Most scorpion stings are similar to a bee or
wasp sting, and like bee or wasp stings, the
majority of scorpion stings din be treated at
school or the victim's home.
First aid for a scorpion sting includes the
following:
• Calm the victim.
• Do not use a tourniquet
• Wash the area with soap and water.
• Apply a cool compress (an ice cube wrapped
in a wet washcloth), but do not apply ice
directly to the skin or submerge the affected
limb in ice water.
• To reduce pain, over-the-counter pain
relievers such as aspirin or acetaminophen
can help.
• Elevate or immobilize the affected limb if
that feels more comfortable.
• Do not administer sedatives such as alcohol.
Bibliography
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996. 1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. IPM Practitioner 18(11/
12):l-39.
Cloudsley-Thompson, J.L. 1968. Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes
and Mites. Pergamon Press, New York. 278 pp.
Keegan, H.L. 1980. Scorpions of Medical Importance Jackson
University Press, Jackson, MS. 140 pp.
Mallis, A. 1982. Handbook of Pest Control. Franzak and Foster,
Cleveland, OH. 1101 pp.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Control: Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Polis, G.A., ed. 1990. The Biology of Scorpions. Stanford Univer-
sity Press, Stanford, CA. 587 pp.
Smith, R.L. 1982. Venomous animals of Arizona. Cooperative
Extension Service, College of Agriculture, University of
Arizona, Tucson, AZ, Bulletin 8245. 134 pp.
Smith, R.L. 1992. Personal communication. Associate Professor,
Entomology Dept., University of Arizona at Tucson.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
105
Chapter 13 • Scorpions
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Chapter 14
IPM FOR SlLVERFISH, FlREBRATS, AND BOOKLICE IN SCHOOLS
Introduction
The presence of silverfish, firebrats, or booklice is an
indicator of excessive humidity. These insects can
damage paper and book bindings, starched fabrics,
cotton, linen, silk, rayon, cereals, and wallpaper. They
also feed on the molds growing on various surfaces.
Silverfish, firebrats, and booklice are frequently
introduced into a building with boxes of materials that
have been stored in damp basements or attics, but they
can also wander in from outdoors. They are fast-
moving and can travel throughout buildings in ventila-
tors or heating ducts originating in damp basements.
Once these insects find a good source of food, how-
ever, they stay close to it. In general, they do very
little damage, but they may be seriously upsetting to
people who are afraid of insects. They may also attract
spiders and scorpions that prey on these insects.
Identification and Biology
Silverfish and Firebrats
Silverfish (Lepisma saccharina) are about 1/2 inch long
when fully grown, and are covered with silvery scales.
They are grayish to greenish in color, have two long
antennae, and their bodies have a flattened-carrot
shape. There are three long appendages attached to
the tapered posterior end, each about as long as the
body. They do not have wings. Firebrats (Thermobia
domestica) have a mottled appearance with patches of
white and black, and are shaped similarly to silverfish.
Characteristics of Silverfish
• lay eggs in any season, usually in secluded places
• life cycle is 3 to 4 months
• prefer moist areas (75 to 97% humidity) and
moderate temperatures (70 to 80°F)
• active at night or in dark places and rarely seen
unless disturbed during cleaning
• indoors, may be found throughout the building—
sometimes in boxes and books, or in glass utensils
and sinks into which they have fallen
• leave yellowish stains on fabric
• outdoors, live in nests of insects, birds (especially
pigeons), and mammals, and under the bark of trees
Characteristics of Firebrats
• lay eggs in cracks and crevices
• life cycle is a few weeks
• prefer moist areas with temperatures above 90°F
• active at night or in dark places
• found where heat and starches are present (for
example, in bakeries); also found in furnace rooms,
steam pipe tunnels, and partition walls of water
heater rooms.
Booklice (Psocids)
The common booklouse (Liposcelis spp.) is a small,
grayish, soft-bodied insect whose shape superficially
resembles that of a head louse. Booklice are wingless
and have chewing mouthparts. The size of an adult is
approximately 1/25 to 1/12 inch. Relatives of the,
booklouse live outside under the bark of trees where
they feed on molds.
Characteristics of Booklice
• life cycle is around 110 days
• prefer warm, moist conditions that are conducive
to the growth of the mold and mildew they feed
on; require humidity of at least 60%.
• found in books and paper products
• sometimes found on houseplants where they may
be feeding on honeydew (a protein-rich substance
excreted by plant-eating insects such as aphids), or
more likely, on the sooty mold that grows on the
honeydew
IPM for Schools 107 Chapter 14 - Silverfish, Firebrats, and Booklice
-------
Damage
The mouthparts of silverfish and firebrats are used for
biting off small particles or for scraping away at
surfaces. Silverfish and firebrats eat material high in
protein, sugar, or starch, including cereals, moist
wheat flour, starch in book bindings, sizing in paper,
and paper on which there is glue or paste. These
insects often attack wallpaper, eating irregular holes
through the paper to get to the paste. Silverfish may
bite very small holes in various fabrics, including
cotton, linen, and silk, even though they cannot
digest either linen or cotton. Firebrats will feed
extensively on rayon, whereas silverfish usually
damage it only slightly.
Booklice cause little direct damage to plants and wood
because they feed chiefly on mold. Damage to books
may be more direct, since they eat the starch sizing in
the bindings and along the edges of pages.
Detection and Monitoring
Silverfish are found in bookcases, on closet shelves,
behind baseboards, wallpaper, window or door
frames, and in wall voids, attics, and subfloor areas.
They prefer bathrooms and kitchens because of the
moisture. Firebrats will be found in similar but
warmer areas. If you suspect that damage to books,
carpets, curtains, art prints, or other materials is due to
silverfish or firebrats, confirm your suspicions using
the following test:
• Mix flour and water to the consistency of house
paint.
• Coat one or more 3x5 index cards with the paste.
• Let the cards dry, and place them where you have
spotted damage.
• If silverfish or firebrats are in the vicinity, they will
be attracted to the card within a week and will feed
on the paste. Characteristic feeding marks are
minute scrapings in irregular patterns, and the edge
of the card may be notched.
If you see groups of small whitish insects in damp
areas, suspect booklice, particularly if mold is present
or the area smells moldy. Remember that booklice are
considerably smaller than silverfish, and lack the
telltale three long bristles at the tail end.
Silverfish, firebrats, and booklice can also be detected
by placing sticky cockroach traps in the area where
damage is occurring. These traps, along with other
homemade ones, can also be used for control purposes
(see the discussion below under Physical Controls).
When the insects are caught, they should be preserver
in alcohol for professional identification.
Management Options
Management of booklice, silverfish, and firebrats is
essentially the same. All three are living indicators of
excessive moisture. An occasional individual is not a
pest, and is usually tolerated by most people. None-
theless, its presence should be taken as a sign to
investigate moisture problems.
Physical Controls
Dehumidifying
If moisture is not eliminated, it may bring more
serious problems, such as termites, carpenter ants, and
wood rot (see Chapter 17, IPM for Wood-Damaging
Pests). School libraries and paper supply storage
rooms could have independent dehumidification
systems in areas where high humidity is a concern.
You can do the following to decrease humidity:
• Mend leaking pipes.
• Ventilate closed rooms and attics.
• Eliminate standing water.
• Replace any single-glazed window that repeatedly
accumulates condensation with a double-glazed
window.
• Use a dehumidifier in rooms such as bathrooms
that are regularly moist.
• Use anhydrous calcium carbonate, a dehydrating
agent .that is available from chemical supply
companies, or silica gel, available from camera
stores, to absorb free moisture, particularly in
enclosed areas. Silica gel is often packaged in
small cloth bags that can be dried out in an oven
and then reused. Do not use these agents in areas
to which children have access.
Vacuuming
Regularly vacuum accumulations of lint in cracks and
crevices. Wherever possible, such potential hiding and
feeding areas should then be sealed with patching
plaster and/or caulk.
Exposure to Heat and Cold
Firebrats die when exposed to a temperature of 120°F
IPM for Schools
Chapter 14 • Silverfish, Firebrats, and Booklice
-------
for one hour. Below freezing and above 112°F,
nymphs are killed quickly. Thus, in areas of the
building where temperatures can be elevated, use hot
air as a lethal treatment. After a general effort has
been made to reduce the source of the humidity, a
small heater can be used to warm and dry the problem
area. The heat should be turned off before the wood
surface gets too hot to touch. Books and similar
materials that are suspected sources of infestations
should be placed inside a plastic bag with a dehydrat-
ing agent (anhydrous calcium carbonate) and placed in
the freezer for a week to kill all life stages of the insect.
Microwave Radiation
Books infested by silverfish and booklice can be
placed in a kitchen microwave oven for 30 to 60
seconds (Brezner 1988, Brezner and Luner'1989).
Most books can undergo this treatment without any
damage. The glue on paperback book bindings may
soften initially, causing the book to curl a little, but if
the book is set on a flat table, it will soon straighten
out. This treatment is not recommended for very old
books made of parchment or other fragile paper, or
for books with gilding or color illustrations that may
contain metallic salts in their paints—metals and
microwaves don't mix.
Trapping
Silverfish can be trapped very easily in small, clean
glass jars. The outside of the jar should be wrapped
with masking tape so the insects have something to
grip as they climb up. Tests have shown that adding
bait does not enhance the trapping power of the glass
jars—they work just as well completely empty
(Ebeling 1975). Set the jars upright in areas where
silverfish have been seen. Silverfish can also be
trapped in sticky cockroach traps. Remember that
there is no point in trapping if the original moisture
conditions are not corrected; pests will continue to
migrate to the damp area.
Drying Stored Articles
Periodic airing and drying of articles stored in damp
areas may help reduce the mold on which booklice
feed. Disposing of moldy articles is often the simplest
way of ridding an area of booklice infestations.
Consider Structural Changes
Condensation from wooden windows can cause mold
to grow on and around windows. Sometimes the
condensation can be eliminated by switching to
aluminum windows with double panes. Other struc-
tural changes should be considered in order to reduce
moisture accumulations that lead to pest presence.
Chemical Controls
It should not be necessary to use pesticides to control
silverfish, firebrats, *nd booklice. Instead, focus on
reducing humidity and on heating or freezing infested
articles. When the pests are detected they can be
vacuumed up.
If non-chemical methods alone prove insufficient to
solve the problem, then integrating a pesticide into
your management program may be warranted. For
information on the hazards of various pesticides and
on how to select an appropriate pesticide for your
situation, consult Appendix G for a list of resources.
Pesticides must be used in accordance with their EPA-
approved label directions. Applicators must be
certified to apply pesticides and should always wear
protective gear during applications. All labels and
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the pesticide
products authorized for use in the IPM program
should be maintained on file. Do not apply these
materials when buildings are occupied, and never
apply them where they might wash into the sanitary
sewer or into outside storm drains.
Diatomaceous earth, borate-based insecticidal dust
products, and silica aerogel can be used to kill these
insects. Diatomaceous earth and borate-based prod-
ucts must be kept dry to be most effective, but silica
aerogel will work under damp conditions.
Dusts should be applied only in cracks and crevices,
attics, crawl spaces, and other areas that are relatively
inaccessible to humans and pets. Wear a dust mask or
a professional-quality respirator to provide proper
lung protection when applying any dust.
Products commonly found in schools, such as bleach,
ammonia, salt, and formalin can be mixed with water
(use a 2% solution of formalin) and used to kill the
molds on which booklice feed. In addition, pyre-
thrum insecticides are registered for the control of
booklice. Pyrethrum degrades quickly so exposures
can be minimized.
IPM for Schools
109 Chapter 14 • Silverfish, Firebrats, and Booklice
-------
Bibliography
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. 1PM Practitioner 18(11/
12): 1-39.
Brezner, J. 1988. Protecting books from living pests. TAPPl Paper
Preservation Symposium. TAPPI Press, Technology Park,
Atlanta, GA.
Brezner, J. and P. Luner. 1989. Nuke 'em! Library pest control
using a microwave. Library Journal September, 15:60-63.
Ebeling, W. 1975. Urban Entomology. University of California,
Division of Agricultural Sciences, Los Angeles, CA. 695 pp.
Harmon, J.D. 1993. Integrated Pest Management in Museums,
Libraries and Archival Facilities. Harmon Preservation Pest
Management, Indianapolis, IN. 140 pp.
Mallis, A. 1982. Handbook of Pest Control Franzak and Foster,
Cleveland, OH. 1101 pp.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Control Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
Chapter 14 • Silverfish, Fire brats, and Booklice
-------
Chapter 15
IPM for Spiders in Schools
Introduction
Although few organisms create as much hysteria as
spiders, this fear is largely unwarranted. Most spiders
are too small or have venom too weak to harm hu-
mans. Many bites for which people blame spiders are
really inflicted by other organisms such as insects
(fleas, bedbugs, mosquitoes) or mites (scabies, bird
mites, etc.).
The four types of spiders that cause the most concern
are the black widow, brown recluse (or violin) spider,
aggressive house (or hobo) spider, and tarantula. The
tarantula's bite does not cause lasting pain, but if
handled, its hairs can be irritating and can sometimes
cause an allergic reaction. The other three spiders are
potentially more dangerous to humans. Bites from
these spiders can have painful consequences, but
usually these spiders will bite only if provoked and
only under certain circumstances.
Spiders are beneficial to humans because they feed on
insects. Indoors and out, spiders help to control a
wide variety of insect pests. Unfortunately, the
majority of spiders that are seen and killed by people
pose no threat to us at all.
Removal of a Non-Dangerous Spider
Most spiders found in and around a school can be
used as an educational opportunity to teach some
interesting facts about these fascinating creatures. If
any spider found in the classroom creates anxiety on
the part of the teacher or children and the teacher
wishes to remove it, use the following procedure:
• Invert a wide-mouthed jar over the spider.
• Using a piece of stiff paper or thin cardboard large
enough to cover the mouth of the container, slide it
under the jar while keeping the
jar pressed against the surface on
which the spider is standing.
Work slowly so the spider is not
harmed.
• Keeping the card over the mouth
of the jar, turn the jar over and
up the paper so the spider falls
into the container.
• Holding the paper over the top as
a cap, carry the »ar outside and release the spider by
shaking the container.
An unwanted tarantula can be removed by gently
sweeping it into a dustpan, dropping it into a large
paper bag, and releasing it outside.
General Spider Management
You can contrul the number of spiders in an area by
reducing their food supply. Study the situation to
locate the source of their prey. Are too many flies
getting in? If so, screens should be installed or re-
paired. Is security lighting attracting insects at night
for spiders to feed on? Insects may also be attracted
to poorly stored food or mishandled organic wastes.
Eliminating the food source for these insects will
reduce the food source for the spiders.
Unwanted spiders and their webs can be removed
simply by vacuuming. In most cases, vacuuming and
reducing the spiders' food source will be sufficient to
control the problem. The three potentially dangerous
spiders—black widow, brown recluse, and aggressive
house spider—nest in undisturbed areas, often near
the floor; therefore, thorough vacuuming from time to
time in these areas can also help in their control.
Figure 15-1.
Black Widow
Black Widow Spiders
Identification and Biology
All the adult females of the three most common
species of black widows in the United States
(Latrodectus variolus, L. mactans, and L. hesperus) are
large (body size is 1/2 inch or larger), shiny black
spiders with a red design on the underside of the
abdomen that usually resembles an hourglass (see
Figure 15-1). Because their webs are near the ground
and the spiders hang upside down in the web, this
distinctive marking is obvious. The adult male, which
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111
Chapter 15 • Spiders
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First Aid for Spider Bites
If possible, capture the spider so the specimen
can be taken to a doctor. Proper treatment may
depend on identifying the species, Even the
squashed remains of the spider can be useful for
identification purposes.
Wash the area around the bite, calm the victim,
and consult a doctor as soon as possible. Those
particularly at risk are the very young, the
elderly and sick, or people with high blood
pressure. Although the illness and lesions from
bites of the three spiders discussed in this
chapter can be serious, deaths are rare.
is not dangerous, is small and patterned with whitish
streaks, bars, or dots on the top of the abdomen.
There is a red form of this genus in the sandy, scrub
pine areas of central and southeastern Florida, as well
as a tropical brown widow that has established itself in
southern Florida.
The black widow spins an irregular, tangled web with
a tunnel in the center. The webs are spun in quiet,
undisturbed locations that are usually, but not always,
close to the ground.
The female spends her life in this web and retreats into
the tunnel when disturbed. Her eggs are placed in
spherical egg sacs within the web. After hatching, the
young spiders stay near the sac for a few hours to
several days and then climb to a high point, wait for
suitable air currents, and spin a silken thread so they
can float on the breeze like a kite. This method of
"ballooning" scatters them far and wide. Once they
land, the spiders begin to construct their own webs.
The abdomen of a young black widow is patterned
with red, white, and yellow, but it has black legs and
the general appearance of the adult.
Bites
Black widows are shy, retiring creatures that bite
reluctantly and then only in self-defense when
threatened. When a female is defending her egg sac,
she can be more aggressive. Although the bite may
not be felt at first, it soon becomes painful. Symptoms
include headache and general body ache, nausea,
shortness of breath, intense muscle pain, and rigidity
of the abdomen and legs. An injection of calcium
gluconate can relieve the pain. Without treatment,
these symptoms usually subside in 2 to 3 days. A
black widow bite is more serious for a small child or
an elderly person.
Detection and Monitoring
Monitor for black widows at night with a flashlight or
head lamp. This is the time when they move to the
center of their webs and will be most visible. When
making your inspections, focus on areas that are dark
during the day, undisturbed, but not necessarily close to
the ground. Look in and around the following places:
• small crevices anywhere from the foundation to the
eaves of buildings
• the undersides of outdoor wooden furniture (for
example, beneath the seats in the corners where the
legs are braced)
• piles of wood, bricks, stones, or similar materials
• the openings of rodent burrows
• water meters
• cellar doors
• outhouses
• storage rooms
Black widow webs have high tensile strength and,
with a little experience, can be identified by the way
they "pop" when broken. An experienced pest
manager can use this information to find webs during
the day.
Management Options
Physical Controls
To achieve some kind of permanent control of black
widow spiders, you must try to eliminate not only the
spiders but also the habitats they prefer, otherwise a
new black widow will soon find the same habitat and
move in. If black widows regularly build their webs
in certain locations indoors, try to modify these areas
by increasing the light, caulking crevices, or reducing
the insect population the spiders are feeding upon. As
mentioned before, check window and door screens for
holes that let in insects, and make sure that foods and
organic wastes are stored properly to prevent insect
infestations. To reduce or eliminate possible web sites
outdoors, debris piles and litter should be removed
and discarded. All crevices in foundations and walls
that are child-height and wide enough to stick a finger
into should be caulked closed.
IPM for Schools
112
Chapter IS • Spiders
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A black widow is easy to crush with a flat stick or
similar tool. The spider can be pressed against one of
the surfaces to which it has attached its web. You can
also crush the spider with your fingers if you are
wearing heavy gloves.
Brown Recluse or Violin Spiders
Identification and
Biology
Brown recluse spiders (Loxosceles
spp.) are identified by long thin
legs, an oval-shaped abdomen, a
light tan to dark brown color, and a
very distinctive violin-shaped mark
on the back (see Figure 15-2). This
marking gives rise to their other
common name, violin spiders.
Their overall size is 3/4 inch to 1 1/4
inches. The males are slightly smaller than the females.
There are many species of brown recluse spider in the
United States. They are found mostly in the
mid western and south-central states, the Southwest,
and Puerto Rico. As the common name "recluse"
suggests, these spiders are similar to black widows:
they are shy, retreat when possible, and prefer dark,
undisturbed places near or on the ground for their
webs. Unlike the black widow, however, brown
recluse spiders hunt for insects some distance from
their webs. They usually come into contact with
humans because they have taken temporary refuge in
clothing or bedding. Items left lying undisturbed or
the floor, such as supplies, toys, or clothing, are
perfect daytime refuges for these spiders. Such
objects should be shaken out thoroughly if they have
been on the floor for any length of time.
Bites
Brown recluse spiders avoid areas of human activity.
Bites are rare and are usually the result of unused
rooms suddenly being put to use, or accidental
contact resulting from pressing the spider between
the body and either clothing or sheets. The bites are
almost always very unpleasant, producing an ulcer-
ous wound called a necrotic lesion that turns dark
within a day and takes a long time to heal. Young
children, the elderly, and the infirm are most likely
to be affected severely. Victims should seek medical
attention, but should never allow a doctor to excise
the affected tissue.
Avoiding Spider Bites
The three dangerous spiders described in this
chapter have particular nesting and hiding places
which are described below. If any of these
spiders is common around your school, it is
important to be cautious when working near
these places. Gardeners'and custodians should
be careful about where they put their hands
when doing outdoor work, and wear gloves and
a. lone-sleeved shirt when working around
woodpiles and other items stored outdoors that
are likely to harbor the spiders.
Make sure students and staff can identify any
dangerous spiders in your area and know their
likely nesting and hiding places. Children
should be taught not to tease spiders in their
webs or poke at them, and not to put their hands
in dark crevices without looking first. The
dangers of spider bites should be explained
without exaggeration so no one develops an
unnecessary fear of all spiders. Teach students
and staff that "black spiders" they see walking
around are not likely to be black widows, since
the females (males aren't dangerous) do not
travel away from their webs.
Nesting and Hiding Places for Three
Problem Spiders
Black Widow—likes dry, undisturbed places
such as lumber and rock piles, stacked pots or
baskets, rodent burrows, water meters, tinder
bricks and stones, in dry crawl spaces. Females
stay in the web.
Brown Recluse—likes undisturbed places for its
web; hunts primarily at night and will take
refuge in clothing and bedding; often found in
unused closets and storerooms, behind furniture,
and in baseboard cracks and crevices. Outside, it
can be found in foundation cracks, cracks in the
soil, and window wells.
Aggressive House Spider—likes dark, moist
places with cracks and crevices for its funnel-
shaped web; is a poor climber so is rarely seen
above ground level; males wander (especially
from June through September) and sometimes
become trapped in clothes, toys, bedding, or
shoes. Inside, this spider is likely to be found
in basements and on ground floors between
stored items, in window wells, in closets, and
behind furniture. Outside, it can be found in
areas similar to both the black widow and
brown recluse.
Figure If. 2
Brovm Recluse Spider
IPM for Schools
113
Chapter 15 • Spiders
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Detection and Monitoring
The brown recluse spider wanders at night searching
for prey. It seeks dark, uninhabited areas for protec-
tion. Brown recluse spiders are usually found on
floors and baseboards. Only rarely are they seen on
desks and tables and they are never found on walls.
Searches for this spider should concentrate in uninhab-
ited areas close to the floor, particularly in boxes;
around piles of paper, clothing, and debris; in closets;
and under furniture. Periodic checks outdoors should
focus on storage sheds, piles of debris or wood, cracks
in the soil or in foundations and walls, and window
wells, especially if small children play near those places.
Management Options
Physical Controls
Because these spiders prefer undisturbed places for
nesting and hiding, periodic, thorough cleaning can
help reduce their numbers. Floors should be kept
well-vacuumed. Boxes of paper and other items stored
in closets, or anywhere else that is dark and undis-
turbed, should be handled carefully when first in-
spected. If brown recluse spiders are suspected, .the
boxes can be placed in a bin-type freezer for 48 hours
to kill the spiders before the boxes are unpacked. A
small hand-held, battery-powered vacuum can also be
used while checking through stored items. If a spider is
vacuumed up, the vacuum bag can be slipped into a
plastic bag and then placed in a freezer to kill the spider.
Outside, remove piles of debris, wood, and rock. Fill
cracks in walls and foundations with mortar or caulk.
Inside, clothing and other objects should be removed
from floor areas in closets, locker rooms, and other
storage spaces. Because most bites are received when
putting on shoes or clothing that has lain on the floor,
clothes normally stored near the floor should be
moved to a higher location. Shake out clothes if they
were on a floor overnight. Hanging shoes or placing
them in sealed plastic bags reduces the likelihood of
being bitten. Wearing leather gloves while searching
through stored items can help prevent bites.
Aggressive House Spicier
Identification and Biology
The aggressive house spider (Tegenaria agrestis) is a
fairly large (1 3/4 inches, including legs), fast moving
spider. Its legs are long and hairy and its body is brown
with darker markings on its oval abdomen. This spider
builds a funnel-shaped web in moist, dark places. The
aggressive house spider waits in the funnel and when it
feels vibrations it rushes out to grab its prey.
Spiders mate in the summer and early fall, and
females lay eggs in the fall in silken sacs that are
placed behind or beside the web. Eggs hatch in the
spring and the spiderlings develop for a year before
they are sexually mature.
The aggressive house spider is found throughout the
Pacific Northwest, Idaho, and Utah.
Bites
Not many people are bitten by this spider and even
fewer develop severe symptoms. Bites are most
common from July to September when males are
wandering in search of females. Often bites occur
when the spider is squeezed between clothing and a
person's body. The bite of an aggressive house spider
can produce symptoms similar to those produced by a
bro—n recluse. The initial bite is not painful, but
within 30 minutes a hard, sensitive area forms around
the bite. Other symptoms include severe headache,
nausea, weakness, and joint pain. Later, the area
blisters, then oozes serum, and eventually scabs over.
The lesion can take months to heal.
Detection and Monitoring
The distinctive funnel-shaped web of the aggressive
house spider is easy to spot in dark, moist locations at
ground level or in basements. Traps made from a
cardboard tube about 8 inches long and 1 1/2 inches in
diameter coated inside with a sticky material may be
useful in detection and possibly control.
Management Options
Physical Controls
As with the brown recluse, regular, thorough vacu-
uming behind furniture and stored articles, under
baseboard heaters, and in closets will help eliminate
habitat. Repair torn screens and broken windows.
Make sure doors shut tightly without gaps. If this
spider is common in your area, do not store shoes,
IPM for Schools
114
Chapter 15 • Spiders
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clothing, or bedding at ground level where spiders
could become entrapped in these articles. Outside,
caulk holes and crevices in foundations or walls and
eliminate as much as possible piles of debris, lumber,
and rocks. Cut or eliminate long grass growing near
foundations. Wear protective clothing when working
outside in areas that might harbor spiders and inspect
items that you pick up. Always check articles that you
bring into the school from outside storage sheds to
make sure you don't bring in spiders or their egg sacs.
Bibliography
Akre, R.D., and E.P. Catts. 1992. Spiders. Washington State
University Cooperative Extension, Pullman, WA, Bulletin
#EB 15448, 8 pp.
Akre, R.D., J. Bruce, and D. Suomi. 1987. Aggressive house spider.
Washington State University Cooperative Extension, Pullman,
WA, Bulletin #EB1466,4 pp.
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. IPM Practitioner 18(11/
12):1-J9.
Ebeling, W. 1975. Urban Entomology. University of California,
Division of Agricultural Sciences, Los Angeles, CA. 695 pp.
s
Gertsch, W.J. 1979. American Spiders. Van Nostrand Retnhold,
Princeton, NJ. 274 pp.
Hite, J.M., W.J. Gladney, J.L. Lancaster, and W.H. Whitcomb.
1966. Biology of the brown recluse spider. University of
Arkansas, Division of Agriculture, FayetteviUe, AR, Bulletin
711,26 pp.
Olkowski, H. 1991. It's in the wind: learning to welcome benefi-
cial spiders in the garden. Common Sense Pest Control
Quarterly 7(3):5-11.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Control Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Roe, A.H. 1993. The aggressive house spider (hobo spider). Utah
State University Cooperative Extension, Logan, UT, Fact Sheet
No. 86,4 pp.
Smith, R.L. 1982. Venomous Animals of Arizona. Cooperative
Extension Service, College of Agriculture, University of
Arizona, Tucson, AZ, Bulletin 8245,134 pp.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
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Chapter 15 • Spiders
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Chapter 16
IPM for Trees and Shrubs on School Grounds
Introduction
Across the United States, landscapes vary so greatly
that it would be impossible to provide specific
management suggestions for all the pest problems on
the many trees and shrubs that might be encountered
on school grounds. In this chapter we will try to
provide a basic framework that will enable.you to
solve your own problems using information from
your specific site. In the Recommended Reading
section of this manual you will find severalexcellent
books on trees and shrubs that can help you with
specific pest problems.
Plant Health Care Management
Plant health care management (PHC) is a new concept
in managing landscapes that was developed from the
concept of integrated pest management (IPM). Many
arborists, horticulturists, and landscape managers have
long felt that IPM's focus on "pests" is too narrow
when it is applied to landscape plants. Probably over
half of the problems encountered in landscapes or
gardens are not attributable to insects, mites, or
disease; instead they are the result of compacted soil,
drought stress, overwatering, frost damage, and many
other factors. To effectively manage landscapes, plant
health and the ecosystem in which the plant is grow-
ing must be taken into consideration. PHC takes just
this kind of broad approach. PHC incorporates all
the principles of IPM, including monitoring, record
keeping, and integrating treatments, but PHC empha-
sizes plant health and proper horticultural practices.
PHC is plant management, not just pest management.
By focusing only on pests we often overlook the
horticultural or environmental factors that affect plant
growth and health.
Components of a PHC Program
Van Bobbitt, Community Horticulture Coordinator
for the Washington State University Cooperative
Extension, lists the following 5 components of a PHC
program (Bobbitt 1994):
• Know your plants.
• Determine key problems.
• Study your landscape ecosystem.
• Promote plant health.
• Consider a variety of strategies to manage pests.
Know Your Plants
Before you can properly care for the trees and shrubs
on your school grounds, you must know what they are.
Make a map of the grounds and identify every tree and
shrub. There are books that can help you with this (see
the Recommended Reading section), or you can take a
specimen to a nursery, the local Cooperative Extension
office, or to a landscaping professional.
Once you know the names of all your plants, do some
research on each one. Talk to nursery personnel and
horticulturists and read about your plants in garden-
ing books. From your research, you should be able to
answer the following questions:
• What kind of soil does the plant prefer?
• How much water does it need ?
• When should it be fertilized?
• How should it be pruned?
• Does it prefer shade or sun?
• How much heat or cold can it tolerate?
• What are its most common pest problems ?
• What environmental problems is it susceptible to
(soil compaction, air pollution, salt damage, etc.)?
Your research and your experience can help you to
identify key plants that are prone to problems and will
therefore need more of your time and attention than
other plants. If there are many trees and shrubs on the
school grounds, this information can help you focus
your maintenance activities. You may also want to
use this information to remove plants that are not
suited to their sites, that have too many problems, or
that require too much care.
Determine Key Problems
There are many things that can affect the health of a
tree or shrub, and they are generally divided into
biotic factors and abiotic factors. Biotic factors are
living organisms such as diseases, insects, mites, deer,
etc. Abiotic factors include maintenance practices
(fertilizing, pruning, irrigation), weather, soil quality,
IPM for Schools
117
Chapter 16 • Trees and Shrubs
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amount of sunlight, and human activities such as
vandalism or compaction of the soil caused by constant
foot traffic. These abiotic factors are probably respon-
sible for a majority of the landscape plant problems.
Determining key problems involves deciding which
problems are most likely to affect the health of your
plants. Ask yourself if the problem is a serious threat
to plant health, a minor threat, or just an aesthetic
problem. Again, your research and your experience
will help you answer these questions. For instance,
one plant disease may kill a tree, but another disease
may cause premature leaf drop year after year without
seriously affecting tree health.
It is likely that you will have not only key problems,
but also key problem sites. For example, perhaps the
heavy equipment used in remodeling the school last
year has severely compacted the soil in several areas,
or perhaps drainage is poor in one corner of the school
yard because of heavy clay soil. These sites will need
special attention and most likely special plants.
Learn as much as you can about your key problems.
If they are living organisms, learn about their life
cycles, learn how to identify various stages of the pest
and how to recognize symptoms of damage. Do
enough research to help you decide which manage-
ment options are both safe and effective.
If the problems are abiotic, you will need to research
these also. Are there specific symptoms that you can
learn to recognize? What techniques are available to
you for solving the problem? Which solutions can
you afford and which are best suited to the particular
site? Are there specific plants that can tolerate the
problematic abiotic factors?
Study Your Landscape Ecosystem
Your school ground is an ecosystem with complex
relationships among the plants, animals, water, soil,
sunlight, weather, etc. Because of these complex
relationships, there are many things you will need to
pay attention to in order to promote plant health.
Questions you will need to answer include the
following:
• What is your climate? What are the maximum and
minimum temperatures?
• Are there micro climates in the school yard that
might affect plant growth?
• Where do the prevailing winds come from? Are
they unusually strong?
• What are your seasonal patterns of precipitation?
• Where are the sunny and shady parts of the yard?
(These will change over time as plants grow and dit
• What are the characteristics of the soil in each pan
of the yard?
• What are the drainage patterns?
• What is the history of each area in the school yard?
What plants were grown there? (This can be an
important factor for some plant diseases.) Was the
area covered with asphalt or concrete at some
point? Did a road or path go through the site?
• Are animals such as squirrels, deer, and dogs having
an impact on the landscape? (The salts in dog urine
can be very damaging to plants.)
• What human activities are having an impact on the
landscape? Are children vandalizing plants? Are
lawns growing right up to the trunks of trees so
that mowers regularly damage the trees? Are city
de-icing operations salting up the soil?
• What kind of irrigation system is installed in the
landscape and is it in working order? Are plants
getting too little or too much water?
• Is air pollution a problem in your area? (Air
pollution affects plants as well as animals.)
Since landscapes are constantly changing, you will
need to monitor frequently in order to detect prob-
lems early. Monitor at least every two weeks during
the growing season. In mild climates, you should also
monitor once a month during the winter. Focus your
monitoring efforts on your key plants and your key
problems. Be aware that plants growing in poor
conditions are under stress and are often more likely
to suffer from insects and disease. As you monitor,
look for the kinds of damage symptoms you learned
about in your research.
Promote Plant Health
Proper plant care is the foundation of a PHC pro-
gram. Healthy plants mean healthy landscapes, and
healthy landscapes have fewer problems and require
less special attention. The following points will help
you to minimize cultural and environmental prob-
lems, as well as pest problems.
• Match the plant to the site. For example, you
cannot grow a subtropical swamp plant in a cold
dry site. Some plants cannot grow in full sun, and
some plants are better adapted to salty or com-
pacted soil or soil with poor drainage. For help
IPM for Schools
118
Chapter 16 • Trees and Shrubs
-------
with finding plants for your area or for problem
sites, talk to local gardening clubs, nurseries,
Cooperative Extension personnel or consult books
on regional gardening.
• Select pest and disease resistant species.
• Know what kind of care each plant needs and pay
special attention to how you water, prune, and
fertilize it.
• Plant a diversity of species so that a single pest
problem will not devastate your landscape.
• Include "insectary" plants in your landscapes.
These are plants that attract and feed beneficial
insects with their nectar and pollen, for example,
sweet alyssum (Lobularia spp.), flowering buck-
wheat (Eriogonum spp.), members of the parsley
family (Apiacae) such as fennel and yarrow, and
members of the sunflower family (Asteraceae) such
as sunflowers, asters, daisies, marigolds, zinnias, etc.
• Use proper planting techniques when installing
vegetation.
• Improve the soil with organic matter and mulches.
Consider a Variety of Strategies
If you determine that a problem needs to be treated, it
is important to consider a variety of strategies and to
integrate those strategies into a comprehensive pro-
gram. Treatment strategies can be divided into several
general categories (each of these strategies is discussed
in detail in Chapter 4, Selecting Treatment Strategies):
• Education. This can include educating students
and teachers about respect for landscape plantings;
the more that students can be involved in the
planting and care of various portions of the school
yard, the less they will vandalize these areas.
Education can also involve training maintenance
staff in various aspects of plant care and plant
selection.
• Cultural Controls. These usually include modify-
ing horticultural practices to prevent plant prob-
lems or to improve plant health.
• Biological Controls. Biological control uses other
organisms to combat pests. More and more benefi-
cial organisms are becoming commercially avail-
able, and by planting "insectary" plants (see discus-
sion above), you can attract beneficial insects
already in your area.
• Chemical Controls. Chemicals are not prohibited
in a PHC program, but they are used as a last
resort, and then they are used judiciously and in the
least-toxic formulations. Always spot-treat to
minimize the amount of active ingredient used.
• No Action. This can be a valid strategy in many
situations where the problem does not seriously
affect the health of the plant. Your research will
help you understand which problems are serious
ancl which are minor or simply aesthetic problems.
Conclusion
PHC is an environmentally sound approach to man-
aging school landscapes anywhere in the country and
can result in healthier trees and shrubs that can better
withstand the ravages of insects and disease. Although
PHC requires time and work coupled with knowledge
and experience, the reduction in the use of pesticide
along with the long-term benefits to the school
landscape will far outweigh these expenditures of
time and energy.
Bibliography
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. IPM Practitioner 18(11/
12): 1-39.
Bobbitt, V. 1994. Join the plant health care revolution. Washington
Park Arboretum Bulletin 57(4):12-15.
Funk, R. 1988. "Davey's Plant Health Care." Journal of
Arboriculture 14^285-287.
Harris, R.W. 1983. Arboriculture: Care of trees, shrubs, and vines
in the landscape. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 688 pp.
Karnosky, D.F. and S.L. Karnosky. 1985. Improving the Quality of
Urban Lift with Plants: Proceedings of the June 21-23,1983
International Symposium on Urban Horticulture. New York
Botanical Garden, New York. 200 pp.
•Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-Sense
Pest Control: Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Smith, M.A.L., R.D. Neely, A.G. Endress, R.K. Stutman, and G.R.
Smith. 1992. Plant Health Care: a guide to the plant health
care management system. International Society of
Arboriculture Books. Savoy, IL.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
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Chapter 16 • Trees and Shrubs
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Chapter 17
IPM for Wood-Damaging Pests in Schools
Introduction
The job of maintaining a building includes detecting
structural pest problems before they become severe;
Early detection means less costly repairs. Although
the discovery of wood-destroying insects often
generates panic and premature decisions, these pests
are slow co cause new damage and there is ample time
to accurately identify the pest and decide on an
appropriate IPM program. Some of the work can be
done by school personnel and the rest contracted out
to a professional, or the entire job can be contracted
out to professionals.
This chapter will discuss wood-attacking fungi,
termites, and wood-boring beetles.
Identification and Biology
WOOD-ATTACKING FUNGI
Fungi reproduce from seed-like spores present in the
air and soil. Thread-like structures called hyphae
grow from the spore and penetrate directly into wood.
A mass of hyphae, called a mycelium, is frequendy
visible on the surface of the wood. A mycelium often
takes the shape of a fan or a fluffy mat. Optimal
growth occurs at temperatures between 50°F and 95°F
on wood containing at least 20% moisture.
The three major groups of wood-attacking fungi are
surface-staining fungi (molds and mildews), sap-
staining fungi (wood-stains), and decay fungi (wood
rots). Surface-staining and sap-staining fungi do not
cause loss of structural strength and will not be
discussed here; however, they are evidence of moisture
problems needing correction. The third group, decay
fungi, attack the cellulose and lignin in wood and
cause structural weakness. They are hard to detect in
their early stages; however, advanced stages are quite
evident from the changes in the wood's appearance.
Brown Rot
• characterized by white mycelial mats
• causes wood to crack into small cubical pieces
perpendicular to the wood grain
• wood rapidly loses its strength and eventually
crumbles to powder
• changes the color of the wood to a distinctive brown
Dry Rot or Water-Conducting Rot
• relatively rare problem
• a special kind of brown rot most often found in
new construction
• can disperse rapidly throughout wood, destroying
large amounts in one to two years
• characterized by large, papery, white-yellow
mycelial fans
• forms large tubes called rhizomorphs that are up to
an inch in diameter and can conduct water to 25 feet
• rhizomorphs are dirty white to black, and grow out
and away from the moisture source
• rhizomorphs allow the fungus to extend its growth
into dry wood containing less than 20% moisture
• wood surface may appear sound but wavy, even
while the interior is heavily decayed
White Rot
• makes wood look bleached
• affected wood feels spongy when probed and is
stringy when broken
• no abnormal shrinkage
• strength of the wood gradually diminishes
Soft Rot
• seldom encountered in buildings, except where
wood is in contact with constantly wet soil
• develops in marine habitats in wood that is too wet
for other decay fungi
• attacks surfaces of wood and produces a gradual
softening inward
Identification and Biology
TERMITES
Although there are a number of groups of termites in
the United States (including subterranean, drywood,
dampwood, and powderpost termites—see Table 17-1),
they share some common characteristics. They are
social insects and form colonies that contain several
castes. These castes differ greatly in their form and
function.
During the first six months of the development of a
new colony, only 6 to 20 eggs are deposited by the
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121
Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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queen. The total number of eggs deposited by a queen
varies depending on the termite species (drywood and
damp wood queens lay only "a few hundred eggs
during their lifetimes, whereas subterranean queens
can lay tens of thousands). Nymphs hatch in 6 to 12
weeks and are tended by the reproductives. As the
nymphs increase in size and number, castes are
formed. The worker caste maintains and feeds the
colony, and in many species there is a soldier caste that
defends the colony. The darkly pigmented, winged
reproductive caste (kings and queens) serves only to
reproduce and start new colonies. Reproductives
"swarm" (fly away from their original colony) only at
certain times of the year.
Subterranean Termites (Reticulitermes spp.)
Subterranean termites require different ecological
conditions from drywood, dampwood, or powderpost
termites. Knowing these differences is critical to their
successful detection and management.
• Subterranean termites must be in regular contact
with moisture, which in most cases means they
must stay in contact with the soil.
• In rare cases, they live in the wood above the soil,
getting their moisture from a leaky air-conditioner,
regular condensation, or some other constant
moisture source.
• They construct distinctive earthen tubes to bridge
the distance between the soil and wood.
• The passageways prptect them from predators and
help prevent desiccation as they travel. These
tubes are important visible clues to subterranean
termite presence.
• Initially, subterranean termites tunnel into soft
spring wood, but as the infestation grows, they
remove more and more wood until most of it is gone.
• They reinforce their excavations with "carton," a
mixture of wood fragments and fecal material held
together by saliva.
• Subterranean termite galleries are coated with a
carton-like substance which gives the interior of
the galleries a more rough and uneven appearance
than other termite galleries.
• Subterranean termites are found in every state, and
are responsible for 95% of termite-related damage.
Recently, researchers have discovered distinct differ-
ences between northern and southern populations of
R. flavipes, die eastern subterranean termite. The
northern populations are commonly spread by in-
fested firewood, lumber or possibly topsoil, resulting
in a patchy distribution pattern similar to Formosan
termites (described below). R. flavipes in northern
areas is rarely seen swarming. As with Formosan
termites, northern termites will feed on trees and free
standing poles, and they have extremely large colonies
that are comparable in size to Formosan termite
colonies (up to 2 million individuals). Subterranean
termites in the north build extensive shelter tubes on
the outside of infested structures and trees.
This new information on northern termites has several
implications for control and detection. More build-
ings must be considered at risk from a single detected
infestation of northern termites because of their
patchy distribution and large foraging area. Also,
monitoring activities should extend to trees, poles, and
fences to detect termite activity.
Formosan Subterranean Termite
(Coptotermes formosanus)
The Formosan subterranean termite was first docu-
mented in the United States in 1965. This species is
currently found in Hawaii, Texas, Louisiana, Missis-
sippi, South Carolina, Alabama, Tennessee, Florida,
and southern California, and is expected to continue
aggressively expanding its range.
• The Formosan termite is considered a serious threat
in subtropical areas of the United States because it
is such an aggressive feeder and has extremely large
colonies (2 million to 10 million individuals).
• These termites build nests underground, but they
can also nest above ground inside structures.
• A single reproductive pair of C. formosanus can
result in an extensive infestation within three to
five years.
• These termites can chew through the insulation on
electrical wire, causing shorts and even damaging
12,000 volt lines.
• They also attack more than 50 species of plants and
trees. When trees are attacked and become riddled
with tunnels, they lose their structural integrity and
are easily blown over in storms.
• Infestations are difficult to locate and control.
Chemical control of this insect has been largely
unsuccessful.
Drywood Termites (Incisitermes spp.)
Drywood termites do not require much moisture.
They can attack a structure at points far removed from
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122
Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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Table 17-1. Distinguishing Major Termite Groups
Distribution
Habitat
Behavior
Appearance
Subterranean
termite
(Reticulitermes
spp.)
throughout the
United Statu
ground-dwelling in
moist sites
builds earthen tubes;
does not form fecal
pellets; eastern
species swarm in
April or May,
western species
usually swarm on
warm, sunny days
after the first
autumn rain
workers and soldiers
1/4 inch long;
winged
reproductives 1/2
inch long
Formosan
termite
(Coptotermes
formosanus)
alone Gulf and
southern Atlantic
coasts, Florida,
Hawaii, southern
California
structural lumber,
living plants; can
penetrate non-
cellulosic materials
such as soft metals,
asphalt, cracked
concrete, and plastic
builds earthen tubes;
swarms on warm,
sultry evenings
especially after rain
soldiers have an oval
head with prominent
horn-like gland;
winged forms pale
yellow-brown,
similar to drywood
termites, with wings
about 1/2 inch long
Drywood
termite
(Incisitermes
spp.)
southern and coastal
areas
dry sites including
outdoor furniture,
firewood and
sometimes woody
plants (e.g., English
walnut, grape, rose,
citrus, eucalyptus)
forms oval, six-sided
fecal pellets
resembling poppy
seeds; sometimes
expels pellets in
sawdust-like piles
from "kick-hole"
exits in galleries;
swarms during the
day from July to
October depending
on the climate
larger than
subterraneans but
smaller than
dampwoods; winged
forms and soldiers
up to 1/2 inch long
Dampwood
termite
(Zootermopsis
spp.;
western United
Sates and from
British Columbia to
lower California
damp, decaying
wood, old tree
stumps, rotting logs,
pieces of buried
timber and damp
decaying structural
lumber
produces large, oval
fecal pellets similar
to drywood, but flat
or concave sides not
so prominent; forms
only reproductives
and soldiers, no
workers; swarming
peaks in late
summer and early
fall at dusk
largest termite in the
United States;
winged forms 1 inch
long, with wings
twice the length of
the body
Powderpost
termite
(Cryptotermes
SPP)
southern and
subtropical areas;
occasional invader
elsewhere
dry wood, furniture,
woodwork, wood
floors
forms small fecal
pellets
small; soldiers have
strongly concave
brown or black
heads; winged forms
7/16 inch long
the soil. Drywood termites have been the most costly
to treat because, until recently, whole-house fumiga-
tion was the only treatment. These termites are found
in California and the Gulf States.
• Drywood termites usually enter a building through
a crack.
• They excavate numerous broad chambers con-
nected by narrow passages.
• The inside of their tunnels is smooth and clean.
• They will tunnel in almost any direction through
both spring and summer wood (note that carpenter
ants excavate soft spring wood and leave the hard
summer wood).
• Fecal pellets are often stored in old chambers, or
the termites may drill small, round "kickholes"
from the galleries to the outside for expulsion of
fecal pellets.
• Piles of these sawdust-like pellets may be the only
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123
Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
-------
visible signs of drywood termites. The pellets have
a distinctive elongated shape with rounded ends
and flat or concave sides separated by six ridges.
To see this you will need a magnifying glass.
• Drywood termites cause less structural weakness
than subterranean termites.
Powderpost Termites [Cryptotermes spp.)
The powderpost termites are tropical pests that can
live in subtropical climates such as those found in
Florida, Louisiana, southern California, and Hawaii.
Although it is uncommon, they may occur elsewhere
when brought in accidentally with infested goods
imported from the tropics.
Dampwood Termites (Zootermopsis spp.)
Dampwood termites are found primarily in the
western United States in wet, decaying wood, al-
though they can extend their feeding activities into
sound, dry wood.
• These termites are most often found in conjunction
with fungal decay.
• In rotten wood their galleries are large and can run
across the wood grain.
• In wood that is more .sound, dampwood termites
make narrower tunnels in the softer spring wood.
• The inside of their galleries has a velvety appear-
ance and is sometimes partially or completely
coated with fecal matter.
• An infestation of dampwood termites can usually be
controlled by fixing any water leaks that caused the
wood to decay and by replacing any rotten wood.
Identification and Biology
WOOD-BORING BEETLES
Although some wood-boring beetles can cause serious
damage, there is always time to identify the type of
beetle present before taking action. When dealing
with wood-boring beetles, it is important to know
whether or not they will reinfest a piece of wood.
Some beetles cannot, and seeing their holes in wood
means they have done their damage and left. See Table
17-2 for more information to help you identify some
of the most important beetles.
Lyctid Powderpost Beetles
These are small (1/8-1/4 inch), slender beetles that
vary from reddish brown to black. Lyctids attack
only the sapwood (outer wood) of hardwoods, and are
the most common and widespread of the beetles that
reinfest wood in the United States and Canada.
Females lay an average of 20 to 50 eggs in exposed
areas of partially seasoned lumber with a high starch
content. The hatched larvae bore down the vessels of
the wood making straight tunnels which then turn and
become irregular. Most species complete their life
cycle in 9 to 12 months but they can develop more
quickly if the temperature and starch content of the
wood are favorable. The larvae pupate near the
surface of the wood, and the emerging adults drill a
hole through the wood to get out.
You are unlikely to see adult beetles during an inspec-
tion, and the larvae are always inside the wood. There
is no outside evidence of infestation on wood that has
been attacked for only a short time; however, once
adult beetles emerge, you will see their small exit holes
in the wood. You may also see piles of the fine, flour-
like frass (beetle excrement) that sifts from the holes.
Anobiid Beetles (sometimes called death-
watch or furniture beetles)
These beetles are small (1/8-1/4 inch), reddish brown
to black, and elongate with a very rounded back. In
general, beetles in the family Anobiidae are more
frequently a problem in coastal areas, unheated dwell-
ings, or wherever the humidity is high. Furniture kept
in centrally-heated living spaces is usually too dry for
them to infest.
Anobiids attack both hardwoods and softwoods, and
will feed on either newly seasoned or older wood.
Although they feed mainly on the sapwood, they can
also damage heartwood that is close to the sapwood.
In the wild, they live in dead tree limbs or in bark-free
scars on the trunks.
The females lay their eggs in small cracks or crevices
oh the surface of the wood When the larvae hatch,
they bore a short distance into the wood, then turn at
a right angle and tunnel with the grain. Their tunnels
get larger as the larvae grow, and eventually become so
numerous that they intersect, and the wood becomes a
mass of fragments. Tunnels are packed with fecal
pellets from the larvae. It may take two to three years
for larvae to complete their development.
Larvae usually pupate in the spring. The,newly
emerged adults bore holes straight out of the wood,
and a large proportion of the females lay eggs in the
same wood from which they emerged.
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Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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Table 17-2. Characteristics of Damage Caused by
Common Wood-Boring Beetles
WOOD ATTACKED
Recognizing Damage
Type of
Borer
Part and type
Condition
Exit Holes
Galleries
(tunnels)
Frass
Reinfest?
Anobiid
powderpost
beetles
Sapwood of hardwoods
and softwoods; rarely in
heartwood
Seasoned
Circular, 1/16 to
1/8 inch diameter
Circular, up to
1/8 inch
diameter;
numerous;
random
Fine powder
with elongate
pellets
conspicuous;
loosely packed in
isolated clumps
of different sizes;
tends to stick
together1
Yes
Bostrichid
powderpost
beetles
Sapwood or hardwoods
primarily; minor in
lofrwoods
Seasoning and
newly
seasoned
Circular, 3/32 to
9/32 inch
diameter
Circular, 1/16 to
3/8 inch
diameter,
numerous;
random
Fine to coarse
powder; tightly
packed, tends to
stick together
Rarely
Lyctid
powderpost
beetles
Sapwood of ring- and
diffuse-porous hardwoods
only
Newly
seasoned with
high starch
content
Circular, 1/32 to
1/16 inch
diameter
Circular, 1/16
inch diameter;
numerous;
random
Fine, flour-like,
loose in tunnels
Yes
Round-
headed borers
(general)
Sapwood of softwoods and
hardwoods; some in
heartwood
Unseasoned,
logs and
lumber
Oval to circular
1/8 to 3/8 inch
long diameter
Oval up to 1/2
inch long
diameter, size
varies with
species
Coarse to
fibrous; may be
mostly absent
No
Old house
borer
Sapwood of softwoods,
primarily pine
Seasoning to
seasoned
Oval. 1/4 to 3/8
inch long
diameter
Oval, up to 3/8
inch long
diameter,
numerous in
outer sapwood,
ripple marks on
wails
Very fine powder
and tiny pellets;
tighdy packed in
tunnels
Yes
Flat oak borer
Sapwood and heartwood of
hardwoods, primarily oak
Seasoning and
newly
seasoned
Slightly oval;
1/16 to 1/12 inch
Oval, up to 1/12
inch long
diameter
Fine granules
No
Flat-headed
borers
Sapwood and heartwood of
softwoods and hardwoods
Seasoning
Oval, 1/18 to 1/2
inch long
diameter
Flat oval, up to
3/8 inch long
diameter,
winding
Sawdust-like,
may contain light
and dark
portions if under
bark; tightly
packed
No
Bark beetles
Inner bark and surface of
sapwood only
Unseasoned,
under bark
only
Circular, 1/16 to
3/32 inch
diameter
Circular, up to
3/32 inch
diameter,
random
Coarse to fine
powder, bark-
colored, tightly
packed in some
tunnels
No
Ambrosia
beetles
Sapwood and heartwood of
hardwoods and softwoods
Unseasoned,
logs and
lumber
Circular, 1/50 to
1/8 inch diameter
Circular, same
diameter as holes;
across grain,
walls stained
None present
No
Wood-boring
weevils
Sapwood and heartwood of
hardwoods and softwoods
Slightly
damp,
decayed
Raggedly round
or elongate, 1/16
to 1/12 inch
diameter
Circular, up to
1/16 inch
diameter
Very fine powder
and very tiny
pellets, tightly
packed
Yes
3 In hardwood, pellets may be absent and frass packed tightly.
Adapted from Moore 1995
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125
Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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Old House Borer [HyJotrupes bajulus)
These beetles are brownish black, slightly flattened,
and about 5/8 to 1 inch long. The segment just behind
the head is marked by a shiny ridge and two shiny
knobs that suggest a face with two eyes. These beetles
are very common along the Atlantic coast, particularly
the mid-Atlantic states, but because they can be
moved around in infested wood, they may become
established in other parts of the country.
Despite being called the "old" house borer, this insect
is also very common in new construction. This beetle
attacks coniferous wood, such as pine, spruce, hem-
lock, and fir, but it will also feed on hardwoods. The
female lays her eggs in cracks and crevices on the
surface of wood, and the hatched larvae sometimes
crawl around before finding a place through which
they can bore into the wood. They remain near the
surface, feeding on the sapwood and only gradually
penetrating deeper as they grow. They do not feed on
heartwood.
The larval period may be completed in two to three
years, but it can take as long as 12 or 15 years in dry
wood, such as that found in attics. Old house borer
tunnels have a distinctive rippled appearance on the
inside. Unless the moisture content is high, the
tunneling proceeds slowly.
Although this beetle can reinfest wood, the likelihood
of this happening in buildings that are occupied,
heated, and well ventilated is small.
Detection and Monitoring
It is important'to determine exactly which organisms
are present and causing damage before deciding on
treatment strategies. The actual damage caused by
structural pests (except Formosan termites) occurs
slowly over a period of months or years, so there is
time to study the situation and make a decision.
Correct identification of the pest is critical to deter-
mining appropriate management strategies. The
diagnostic key in Table 17-3 will help you identify the
pest that is causing the problem. Figure 17-1 illustrates
some of the major differences between ants and ter-
mites, which are often confused with each other. Table
17-1 provides information to distinguish among the
major termite groups: Note that in some cases more
than one kind.of wood-damaging pest may be present.
Table 17-2 describes the major groups of wood-boring
beetles and the damage they cause. Wood-boring
beetles can be distinguished from one another by the
type of frass they produce and the size and shape of
the holes they create. It is important to distinguish
between those species of beetles that can reinfest
wood, causing extensive damage, and those beetles
whose damage is limited to one generation.
If you are uncertain about which pest is present, get a
professional identification from the local Cooperative
Extension Service or a pest control professional. The
time and potential expense needed to correctly iden-
tify the pest will be compensated by the fact that you
will be able to develop an effective management
program for your school.
Regular Monitoring
Monitoring means looking for signs of damage to the
wooden parts of the structure on a regular basis.
Information gathered from these regular site inspec-
tions should be written down. Include a map of the
site with notes about problem areas. Monitoring
should show whether a pest problem is getting worse
and requires treatment, and whether the treatment has
been effective.
Monitoring for structural pests should be regarded as
an ongoing responsibility, repeated every one to five
years depending on the kind of problems in your area
Early detection of structural pest activity will result it
considerably less expensive treatment later.
School Staff Responsibilities for Monitoring
All personnel responsible for maintaining wboden
structures should be trained to identify the conditions
TERMITE
Both wings
the same
size
Antennae not
elbowed—
Wings, if present,
have many veins
ANT
Antennae
elbowed
Broad
waist
Wings, if present,
have few veins
Hind wings
smaller than
front wings
Narrow waist
Figure 17-1. Differences Between Ants and Termites
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Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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Table 17-3. Diagnostic Key to Wood-Attacking Organisms Based on Symptoms
Fungi: Wood damaged and discolored with shrinkage and/or loss of structural strength. Colored stains or
dusty coating on underside of floor, on walls, or on ceilings.
Specific Symptoms
Probable Cause
Blue suin visible in sapwood.
Blue stain fungus.
Fan-shaped white fungal mat with large 1 inch wide dirty
white, brown or black thread-like strands (mycelia)
Poria fungus, or !*dry rot".
Soft decayed wood with mycelia and checking (cracking) at
right angles to the grain of the wood, particularly on floor or
perimeter joists. Wood looks brown and crumbles to a
powder when touched.
Brown rot.
White mycelial mass covered with irregular specks or pocks.
Fomes fungi.
Insects: Holes, tunnels, galleries or chambers on or beneath the surface of the wood.
Specific Symptoms
Probable Cause
Holes greater than 1/2 inch in diameter.
Carpenter bees.
Holes less than 1/2 inch in diameter
Wood boring beedes.
Galleries or chambers found in wood. The wood surface is
easily penetrated with a screwdriver or ice pick.
Termites.
Surface earthen tubes or tunnels running from soil to wood
Subterranean termites
Swarming winged insects at base of fence post, foundation or
indoors, or a collection of wings but no insect specimens.
Ants or termites (refer to Fig. 17-1 to
distinguish). Use Table 17-1 to distinguish
termites.
Large bumble bee-like insects flying around exterior near the
eaves of the house. Some enter large holes. Damage mostly
confined to siding or outer boards.
Carpenter bees.
Sawdust or tiny wood scraps on floor
Carpenter ants or drywood termites (see Fig.
17-1)
chat can lead to infestation by wood damaging pests
(see the inspection checklist in Appendix I). Box 17-A
provides a list of equipment needed for monitoring.
If monitoring by school personnel indicates signs of
termite or wood-boring beetle activity, a more
thorough inspection should be made by a pest control
professional. These staff members should also be
trained to recognize obvious signs of damage, such as
those listed under Symptoms in Table 17-3. Although
major structural pest management decisions should be
based on the recommendations of a trained inspector,
having someone on the school district staff who is
knowledgeable about structural pests and can super-
vise outside contractors can improve the quality of
pest control and contain costs.
Using a Pest Control Service
When contracting for structural pest control services,
the choice of a company should be based partially on
their willingness to provide monitoring services for a
fee separate and distinct from treatments. In some
parts of the country it is still common for pest control
professionals to offer free termite inspections with the
expectation that the inspection cost will be covered by
the fees for the treatments that follow. Because there
is a potential conflict of interest in having the inspec-
tion and treatments performed by the same company,
inspection services should be purchased separately.
Separate payment increases the likelihood of an
unbiased inspection, especially if the inspection and
treatment companies are different.
You can use the checklist in Appendix I to confirm the
thoroughness of an inspection performed by a profes-
sional., A compromise that can save money might
involve school personnel checking the relatively
accessible areas once or twice a year using this check-
list, and hiring a professional (ideally with a termite
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Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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Box 17-A. Tools and Safety Equipment
(or Monitoring Termites
• Flashlight with spare batteries and bulbs
• Screwdriver or ice pick for probing wood sus-
pected of being infested
• Hammer or similar instrument for hitting wood
and listening for indications of hollowness
• Ladder for inspecting roof trim and other off-
ground areas
• Moisture meter with a range of at least 15% to
24% moisture
• Pencil, clipboard, graph paper, and measuring tape;
with these, records can be made precisely on the
floor plan or elevation of the building where
moisture is evident or wood is damaged
• Tools for opening access entrances into crawl spaces
• Hacksaw blade for checking earth filled porches
adjacent to crawl spaces; when inserted under the
sill, the thin portion of the blade should not
penetrate beyond the sill or headers
• Good-quality caulk, such as silicone seal, and a
caulking gun to plug suspicious exterior cracks and
crevices; silicone seal is also available in a thinner
consistency that can b.e applied with a brush
detecting dog [see below]) to check the harder-to-see
places less frequently. Inspect both the inside and the
outside of the buildings.
If a professional is hired to do the inspection, ask to
see examples of sites which were found to have dam-
aged wood. Discovering subterranean termite tubes
or beede damage is not necessarily evidence of an
active infestation. Termite tubes or beede exit holes or
frass indicate only that termites or beedes were there
at one time. In the case of beetles, the adults that
made the exit holes may have been the last beetles that
will ever emerge if they are from a species that does
not reinfest wood. Treatment of inactive infestations
would be an unnecessary expense. Ask for confirma-
tion that living termites or beetles are present, as
some companies do not make this confirmation
normal practice.
Detection Techniques for Termites
There are several ways to identify termite activity.
The observation of swarming reproductives is an
indication of a current termite infestation in the area,
but simply finding a pile of discarded wings can be
misleading. Winged termites are attracted to light and
so could come from other areas. If only swarming
insects are seen, a distinction must be made between
carpenter ants and termites (see Figure 17-1). If they
are termites, monitoring will determine whether the
infestation is from drywood, dampwood, or subterra-
nean termites.
Sometimes you may be able to find "kickholes" made
by drywood termites. These holes, 1/16 inch or
smaller, are used by drywood termites to eject their
sawdust-like fecal pellets from their galleries. These
piles of fecal pellets are often the only visible sign of a
drywood termite infestation. Wood-boring beedes
also make holes in wood and, in some species, fine
sawdust-like fecal pellets sift from the holes. Table 17-2
can be used to help identify the pest based on the kind
of fecal pellets (frass) left and the kind of hole and
tunnels produced by the pest.
The discovery of a mud tube extending from the soil
up to the wood is an indication of probable subterra-
nean termite infestation (these tubes are described
above under Biology). If only one tube is located,
monitoring for other tubes should begin immediately.
Break open tubes to see if the termites are active or if
the tubes are deserted; an active tube will be rebuilt
within a few days. Finding soil in cracks and crevices
can also be an indication of subterranean termites.
It isn't always possible to detect damaged wood by
looking at the surface. An ice pick can help you probe
the wood, and listening for sound differences while
pounding on the wood surface can help you find the
hollow areas (see Box 17-B).
For many years the only structural pest detection
method available was visual observation by trained,
experienced pest control inspectors. This method has
been further improved by inspection tools such as
detection dogs and moisture sensors.
Termite-Detecting Dogs
The use of termite-detecting dogs is a great advance in
inspection methods. Like their bomb- and narcotics-
detecting counterparts, these dogs, usually beagles, are
specially trained to use their highly developed sense of
smell to help their handlers to locate infestations of
termites, wood-boring beetles, carpenter ants, and
other live, wood-damaging insects. Inspectors use
information from the dogs to enhance their own visual
and physical inspections.
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Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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Box 17-B. The Pick Test
When monitoring your building, use an ice pick or
screwdriver to probe wood you feel might be
decayed based on its color or other changes you
detect. Insert the pick about 1/4 inch into the wood
and press sharply downward perpendicular to the
grain. If the wood is sound, a long splinter will pull
out of the wood along the grain (as shown in the
figure below). If the wood is decayed, the splinter
will be brittle and break into short pieces across the
grain, especially at the point where the pick enters
the wood and acts as a lever. You can also detect
decayed wood by its lack of resistance relative to
sound wood.
Mudsills (wood installed on footings) can be pick-
tested without producing excessive visual or struc-
tural damage, since they are not visible from outside
the crawl space. Sometimes wood treated with a
preservative on the surface is decayed inside. The
pick test can help reveal these hidden pockets of decay.
Termite inspections with dogs cost $50 to $100 more
than inspections by humans alone, but the cost is
usually justified by the increase in thoroughness of the
inspection and the added precision in pinpointing sites
of infestation. This added precision can lead to
enormous savings by focusing treatment on the site of
infestation rather than on the entire building.
Moisture Meters
A moisture meter will help determine whether or not
the moisture content of the wood is high enough to
support the growth of wood-inhabiting fungi, wood-
boring beetles, or subterranean termites. The needles
of the meter should be inserted along the grain of
wood to give the most accurate readings. Temperature
corrections should be applied to readings taken below
70°F and above 90°F (correction tables are supplied
with meters). The meters should not be used in wood
treated with water-borne wood preservatives or fire
retardants.
Monitoring Techniques for Formosan Termites
Detection of subterranean Formosan termites
(Coptotermes formosanus) requires considerable
experience, and various techniques may not be equally
effective in all areas where the termite has been found.
Box 17-C describes a monitoring trap used in areas
like south Florida and Hawaii where aerial infestations
of the Formosan subterranean termite in multi-level
buildings are prevalent. Light traps are another tool
for area-wide monitoring programs, but the cost of a
light trap can be expensive. An alternative, developed
in South Carolina, uses sticky traps attached to street
lamp poles. Studies show that the greatest number of
termites was caught 19 feet from the ground. Light
traps should be used in the spring during the swarm-
ing season. Note that the month in which Formosan
termites swarm varies with the area.
Monitoring for Beetle Infestations
When wood-boring beetle larvae mature into adults
inside the wood, they bore exit holes to the surface
to get out. Table 17-3 can help you determine what
kind of insect created the holes you find. If it is a
beetle, the information in Table 17-2 will help to
identify the kind of beetle and whether or not it is
capable of reinfesting. Consultation with a profes-
sional is also advised.
Discovering beetle damage is not necessarily evidence
of an active infestation. Signs that the infestation is
still active include fresh frass the color of new-sawn
wood and live larvae or adults in the wood. Where
you suspect an infestation of the kind of beetles that
do not emerge for several years (such as old house
borers), you can confirm their presence by listening
for the chewing sounds they make inside the wood.
To amplify the sounds, use a doctor's stethoscope or
the cardboard tube from a roll of paper towels. You
can also place a cloth or piece of paper underneath the
suspicious area for a week or two to monitor for the
fresh debris and frass that are indications of activity
for some beetles.
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Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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Management Options
Habitat Modification
(All Wood-Damaging Pests)
No structural pest control program is complete unless
the conditions that favor the survival of the pest are
modified. Moisture in or on wood is the single most
important predisposing condition for wood damage
and structural failure.
Reduce the moisture level of the wood
The investment in installing, fixing, or relocating
gutters, siding, roofing, vents, drains, downspouts,
and vapor barriers will pay for itself in long-term
protection against termites, wood-boring beetles, and
fungi. Leaking pipes, drains, sinks, showers, or toilets
should be repaired. For wood-boring beetles and
fungi, often the only control measures necessary are
fixing leaks, installing vapor barriers, and using central
heating to dry out wood and keep it dry. The most
common wood-boring beetles cannot establish them-
selves in wood with a moisture content below 15%,
and the old house borer probably needs more than
10% moisture. Wood must contain at least 20%
moisture before it will support the growth of fungi.
Few species of fungi can extend their growth into dry
wood, and these fungi are relatively rare.
Ensure proper drainage under buildings
If the soil under buildings is constantly wet or be-
comes wet after it rains, this problem should be
corrected. Equip downspouts with plastic extensions
to direct water away from foundations. Grade the soiL
around the building to slope gently away from the
structure. Installation of a vapor barrier under the
building will correct many situations, but more
serious moisture accumulations need other measures.
Coat foundations walls with rubberized asphalt
membranes to reduce moisture under the building.
Extreme cases may require the installation of a sump
pump or French drains. French drains are lengths of
perforated pipe placed under the soil below the
outside foundation footings to catch and drain water
away from the building.
Improve irrigation or landscape practices to decrease
water collection near buildings
Remember that water that falls on the sides of build-
ings from sprinklers can cause as many problems as
natural rainfall.
Eliminate direct contact between wood and soil
Ideally, wood should be at least 8 inches above the soil to
prevent direct access by subterranean termites and to
prevent wood from absorbing excessive moisture. Wood
in contact with the soil must be replaced with concrete.
If wood is too close to the soil, remove some of the soil
and grade it so that it slopes away from the building.
Replace damaged wood with treated wood
When wood must be replaced, especially wood in
vulnerable areas, it can be treated with borates (see
Box 17-C. Aerial Monitoring for Formosan Termites
Research shows that aerial infestations of the Formosan termite alates (winged termites) can be monitored using a
pine board (3.8 x 8.5 x 120 cm) with 31 cylindrical cells (13 x 10 mm) drilled 37.5 mm. apart (Su et al. 1989).
Sawa groove (3.5 mm wide x 5 mm deep) through the center of each cell across the width of the board. Attach a
wood cover (1.0 x 8.5 x 120 cm) to the board by two metal hinges and fasten it with two hook-and-eyelet closures.
When covered, the grooves provide alates with pathways leading to each cell. Before fastening, sandwich a plate of
clear epoxy glass (2.5 x 8.5 x 120 cm) between the board and the cover. When the cover is lifted for observation, the
epoxy glass prevents escape of alates. Soak in water for 24 hours before use. Monitor the traps weekly.
Alates trapped on rooftops of
multistory buildings originated
either from aerial colonies in
nearby buildings or ground
colonies. The trap cells can also
detect termites, Cryptotermes
spp., Incisitermes spp., and
Reticulitermes spp. Catching
alates means the area is infested.
Develop a management preven-
tion program before the next
swarming season.
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Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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discussion below under Chemical Controls) to protect
it from termites and fungal decay. Whenever wood
will be exposed to the weather, it is important to paint
a water repellent on the bare wood before it is stained
or painted. Depending on the product, water sealed
wood must dry for a few days to over a month before
being painted. Studies show that wood treated in this
manner resists weathering and decay many years
longer than wood that is only painted or stained.
Replace moisture-prone wood with aluminum,
concrete, or vinyl
Sometimes it is more cost-effective to eliminate wood
altogether from the most vulnerable areas of the
building.
Remove tree stumps and wood debris
Decaying stumps, construction debris, andywood
scraps near or under the building can be a source of
termite infestation. Remove all wood debris and
stumps within 10 feet of foundations. To kill stumps,
make a new cut horizontally across the top and a
number of cuts vertically into the stump. Immedi-
ately rub handfuls of soil into the vertical cuts and
cover the stump with a tarp to block out all light.
Leave for several months until the stump has decom-
posed. Never bury wood pieces; they can become
termite nesting areas. Small pieces of wood debris
co.taining live termites can be soaked in soapy water to
kill the insects. Wood debris containing live termites
should be taken to a landfill or other area where the
natural decomposing abilities of termites are useful.
Store wood piles properly
Firewood or lumber piles should be constructed so
that no wood rests directly on the ground. Use cinder
blocks or concrete as a base on which to pile lumber
or firewood and inspect the pile periodically. Large
piles should be as far from the building as is practical;
smaller amounts of wood can be moved closer to the
building as they are needed, but do not store logs
inside or in a place where they can touch the building
or a wooden deck.
Plant trees away from buildings
Because trees and shrubs used in landscaping are often
planted when young, a common mistake is to site
them too close to a structure. Roots, branches and
eventually decaying stumps provide avenues for
termite, carpenter ant, and wood-boring beetle infes-
tations. Trees and large shrubs may also provide roof
rats, squirrels, and other animals nesting places and
access to the upper portions of the building. Leaves
clog gutters and can lead to water damage.
Screen vents
Drywood termites also enter buildings through
ventilation openings, especially in the attic. Screen
vents with window screen instead of the hardware
cloth that is commonly used and has much larger
openings. Note that window screen may impede the
flow of air through the vents, and the number or size
of vents may need to be increased.
Maintain buildings in good repair
The most effective indirect strategy for controlling
structural pests is keeping buildings in good repair.
Keep, the skin of the structure sealed using paint,
putty, and caulk. Drywood termites often enter
buildings through cracks in eaves or in siding near the
roof. Repair cracked foundations by injecting cracks
with various materials (patching compounds). Cracks
should be chiseled out to a 1/2 inch depth and 3/4
inch width before patching. Injectable bonding
materials have some elasticity to resist cracking,
whereas cement-mixes are likely to crack if soil heav-
ing or settlement is causing ongoing foundation
movement.
Inspect lumber
Lumber and other wood items should be carefully
examined for wood-boring beetle damage, such as
small holes, sawdust, or fine wood fragments, before
using or storing. Wooden furniture should be exam-
ined carefully for current beetle infestations before
placement in the building.
Use kiln-dried or air-dried lumber
Although close visual inspection of wood is essential,
it is not a guarantee against beetle infestation. Some
infestations can go undiscovered for years before
damage is seen. Kiln-dried or air-dried lumber should
be used in all construction projects.
Physical Controls
For termites, heavily damaged wood should be re-
placed with sound wood. Wherever possible, use
lumber treated with wood preservatives such as
borates (see Chemical Controls below). Dispose of
wood as described above under removing tree stumps
and wood debris.
For wood-boring beetles, simply removing and
replacing infested wood should be the first treatment
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Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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option you consider. Carefully inspect wood in
contact with the pieces that are removed to see if there
is further infestation. In some situations this may not
be practical because of inaccessibility of the wood or
prohibitive labor costs. If any wood has been damaged
to the point of structural weakness, it must be replaced
or reinforced no matter what treatment is used.
Breaking open termite shelter tubes
(Subterranean Termites)
The highly visible earthen tubes of subterranean
termites can be broken open easily, or scraped off with
a trowel or other instrument and disposed of as
described above for wood debris. Once the tubes are
opened, natural enemies such as ants can more easily
enter the colony and kill the termites. Seal any cracks
in the foundation, flooring, or wall that the termite
tubes led to, then check back a week or two later. If
the tubes have not been rebuilt, the termites are no
longer reaching wood at that location; however, it is
possible that they will construct new tunnels in
inaccessible areas. This is the reason thorough inspec-
tions and regular monitoring are essential.
Sand barriers (Subterranean Termites)
Sand barriers composed of grains of sand in a specific
size range can be used to prevent subterranean ter-
mites from gaining access to a building. UCLA
entomologist Dr. Walter Ebeling was the first to show
that termites cannot tunnel through a layer of moist or
dry sand consisting of panicles ranging from 10 to 16
mesh (2.0 mm to 1.2 mm). The range of particle sizes
is important because the termites are unable to put
their jaws around the larger particles, and the smaller
particles pack the spaces in between the larger ones so
the termites can't push their heads through. Commer-
cial sand sold for use in sandblasting operations
generally contains the required panicles sizes; how-
ever, confirm with the supplier the mesh sizes in a
specific batch of sand before purchasing it for use in
termite barriers.
Sand barriers can be used as a remedial treatment
under buildings with perimeter foundations and piers
or as a preventive treatment under slab foundations
before the slab is poured. Sand can also be used
around and under fence posts, around underground
electrical cables and water and gas lines, beneath and
around structural foundation blocks and telephone
and electrical poles, inside hollow-tile cells, and as
backfill against structural retaining walls. If sand
barriers are installed along exterior walls or around
fence posts, the sand must be capped with concrete or
other material to prevent the sand from blowing or
washing away. Around the exterior of a building thi.
can be quite expensive.
Proper installation of the sand barrier is critical to its
effectiveness. It is important to carefully smooth the
soil before installing the barrier. For perimeter foun-
dations sand is piled to a height of 3 inches next to the
foundation or concrete piers, and tapered off over a
horizontal distance of 20 inches. A 4-in layer of sand
is necessary under a slab. Sand barriers around perim-
eter foundations must be monitored regularly in order
to detect weaknesses that termites can exploit.
At present, Live Oak Structural in Berkeley, CA is the
only company in the continental U.S. commercially
installing sand barriers.
Heat (Drywood Termites, Powderpost and Wood-
Boring Beetles)
Special equipment composed of a heating unit, blow-
ers, and ducts carries heat to the locations in the
structure where the pests are causing damage. In
several years of field tests in various parts of the
United States, heat treatments have killed insects
inside wood without damaging the building or fur-
nishings, although certain sensitive articles and appli-
ances must be removed as a precaution.
An entire structure can be treated with heat but pest
control operators generally confine the heat to areas of
identified infestations. Temporary containment walls
are built inside the building to help focus and contain
the heat. Temperature control is critical to success.
The inside air is usually heated to around 160°F to
attain temperatures on the outside of exposed wood
surfaces of 145°F to 150°F. These temperature allow
the inside of the wood to rise to 120°F—a temperature
known to kill termites. Large fans are used to mix the
heated air, so that the interior of the wood remains at
120°F for 35 minutes.
Since large scale heat treatments are expensive, it is
important to have a thorough inspection that can
pinpoint infestations. The technique is called Thermal
Pest Eradication™, and is marketed by Isothermics,
Inc. in Orange, CA. They can supply names of
contractors who supply heat fumigation services in
your area.
Electricity (Drywood Termites)
A tool called the Electrogun™ can be used to kill
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Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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drywood termites. The gun shoots pulses of electric-
ity into the wood at low energy (90 watts), high
voltage (90,000 volts), and high frequency (100 kHz),
killing the insects in their galleries. This tool is safe
for the operator and emits no microwaves, X-rays, or
ultraviolet rays. In most cases it does not require any
special preparation of the structure, nor relocation or
inconvenience to the client. There are drawbacks to
the Electrogun which include the necessity of the
wood being accessible and the limitations of the device
that allow its use on only about 60 to 70% of existing
structures. Although it will not damage wires,
wirewound motors, refrigerators, or washing ma-
chines, computers and other electronic equipment must
be unplugged and moved three feet away from walls.
Etex, Ltd. in Las Vegas, NV manufacturers the
Electrogun and can identify operators in your area
who are trained to use the tool. Operators must learn
how to use it properly, and training is provided by the
distributors.
Microwaves (Drywood Termites)
Microwave irradiation is commercially available in
some areas for spot treatment of drywood termites.
This method relies on the high water content of
termites which makes them heat up faster than the
surrounding wood when they are exposed to micro-
waves. If the internal temperature of the termite is
elevated sufficiently, the insect will die just as it does
during heat treatment.
Extreme cold (Drywood Termites)
Extreme cold in the form of liquid nitrogen can be
used to kill drywood termites. It is applied commer-
cially as "The Blizzard System" by Tallon Pest Con-
trol (Union City, CA) in parts of California and
Nevada and can be used only in wall voids.
The pest control operator must know the approximate
extent of the cermite infestation in order to inject
liquid nitrogen into the proper areas, but the material
can reach areas of buildings not accessible to other
treatment methods. For example, infestations embed-
ded too deeply in wood to be accessible to chemical
"drill and treat" methods, or wall voids containing
metal lath which interferes with the Electrogun can be
treated with liquid nitrogen.
Biological Controls
The fungus Metarhizium anisopliae has recently been
formulated into a microbial pesticide that is effective
against a number of termites including subterranean
termites such as Reticulitermes spp., Heterotermes
spp., and Coptotermes formosanus (the Formosan
termite), drywood termites such as Incisitermes spp.
and Kalotermes spp., dampwood termites such as
Zootermopsis spp., and powderpost termites such as
Cryptotermes spp. (This same fungus is used in
cockroach bait stations.) The fungus is extremely
infectious among termites and is spread in the termite
colony by direct contact, grooming, and trophallaxis
(the exchange of alimentary fluids). It causes death
within 8 to 11 days.
The fungus is currently formulated as a dust or wet-
table powder that must be applied where termites will
come into contact with it. This means it can only be
sprayed into active termite galleries. Initial studies
indicate that only 5% of the termites have to encoun-
ter the fungus directly to kill the entire colony, al-
though this number will probably vary depending on
the termite species and the environmental conditions.
Since it cannot grow at temperatures greater than 95°F,
the fungus does not infect humans or other mammals.
Chemical Controls
If non-chemical methods alone prove insufficient to
solve the problem, then integrating a pesticide into
your management program may be warranted. For
information on the hazards of various pesticides and
on how to select an appropriate pesticide for your
situation, consult Appendix G for a list of resources.
Pesticides must be used in accordance with their EPA-
approved label directions. Applicators must be
certified to apply pesticides and should always wear
protective gear during applications. All labels and
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the pesticide
products authorized for use in the IPM program
should be maintained on file. Do not apply these
materials when buildings are occupied, and never
apply them where they might wash into the sanitary
sewer or into outside storm drains.
Always post durable signs where pesticides have been
used in attics and crawl spaces so that future inspec-
tors and repair technicians can identify and avoid the
materials if necessary.
If insecticides are used, spot treatment is recommended
to reduce human exposure. Spot treatment in this case
refers to the application of the insecticide to only
those areas where structural pests have been detected or
areas that are not accessible for monitoring. Standard
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Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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practice is to apply long-lasting pesticides in all areas
where structural pests might conceivably become
established. With a good monitoring program in
place, it should not be necessary to use broad-scale
applications of insecticides. If insecticides are used,
they are most effective when combined with physical
controls such as habitat modifications, wood replace-
ment, heat treatments, and electrical treatments.
Borate-based wood treatments (Subterranean and
Drywood Termites, and Wood-Attacking Fungi)
Borates are fungicides and slow-acting insecticides.
They are not repellent to insects (termites will con-
struct tubes over borate-treated wood), but do act as
anti-feedants, which means that pests prefer not to
feed on wood treated with borates.. When insects feed
on wood treated with borate or, in the case of wood-
boring beetles, chew emergence holes through treated
wood, the borate acts as a stomach poison to kill the
insects over a number of days. As fungicides, borates
act by inhibiting the growth of wood-attacking fungi.
Borates are used both in the pre-treatment of lumber
for the construction industry and in remedial treat-
ment of lumber in existing buildings. Pre-treated
lumber can be used to replace existing lumber to
prevent reinfestation in areas of potential termite
activity or in areas vulnerable to rot. Crawl spaces
and attics can be treated by a professional using a
borate fogger, by spraying or painting liquid solutions
directly on the wood, or by pressure injecting the
solution into the wood. A larger amount must be
used in a fogger to get the same coverage as painting
or spraying on the solution. Borates can be effective
as an insecticide to eliminate small termite and wood-
boring beetle infestations.
Since borates are water soluble they cannot be used to
treat exterior wood unless a finish (paint or stain) or
sealant is subsequently applied to the wood. Since
borates can move easily through the soil and leach
awav from the area of application, they should not be
used in close proximity to lakes, streams, ponds, or
areas where there is standing water. High concentra-
tions of borates are toxic to plants, so treatments of
the perimeter of buildings can result in inadvertent
poisoning of plants and shrubs near the building.
Desiccating dusts such as diatomaceous earth
and silica gel (Drywood Termites and
Wood-Boring Beetles)
Desiccating dusts can help in preventing future infes-
tations of drywood termites and wood-boring beetles.
They are particularly useful in confined spaces such as
attics and wall voids where they can remain effective
for the life of the building. Desiccating dusts alone a
effective and safe. They act primarily as physical, not
chemical, agents but are commonly combined with
pyrethrins.
Desiccating dusts act by absorbing the oily or waxy
outer layer that coats the body of an insect. Water
inside an insect is contained by this waterproof coat-
ing, and loss of the coating causes the insect to die
from dehydration.
Diatomaceous earth has been used against termites as
a repellent, but the use of silica gel for termite control
is more common. Diatomaceous earth can be easier to
handle because it is composed of larger particles than
the silica gel. It is important to note that the product
described here is not the glassified diatomaceous earth
used for swimming pool filters, but rather "amor-
phous" diatomaceous earth.
These dusts are effectively used during construction to
prevent infestations of drywood termites, but can also
be blown into attics and wall voids as a remedial
treatment. They can be applied over a small or large
area. Examples of sites where desiccating dusts are
useful are areas where condensation or poor drainage
cannot be corrected, where wood cannot be moved far
enough above the soil level, or where physical access
for monitoring is limited, such as wall voids, crawl
spaces, and attics.
If dusts are applied on a large scale, it is best to use
special (but readily available) pressurized application
equipment. Whenever dusts are applied, use a
dustmask and goggles to avoid breathing the material
and getting it in the eyes.
Synthetic pyrethroids (Subterranean and
Drywood Termites)
Synthetic pyrethroids are coming into wider use as
termiticides. Studies have shown that cypermethrin,
fenvalerate, and permethrin are more toxic and more
repellent to eastern subterranean termites than is
chlorpyrifos (Su et al. 1990). Cypermethrin is by far
the most toxic, and although permethrin is somewhat
less toxic to termites than cypermethrin, it is capable
of repelling them at the lowest concentrations. Note
however, that pyrethroids cannot repel termites at a
distance because of their low vapor pressure (their
vapors do not move far into the soil); termites must
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134
Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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come into direct contact with the treated soil to be
repelled.
Using insecticides as termite barriers in the soil relies
on uniform distribution in the soil; however, in some
cases soil characteristics may prevent this and barriers
will fail.
Termiticides can also be applied as a foam to more
effectively coat hard-to-reach surfaces. This can be
particularly useful when treating a slab where the
underlying soil has subsided or washed away. Injec-
tions of liquid pesticide may not coat all vulnerable
surfaces, especially the underside of the slab. Because
the foam fills the void, it leaves a residue on all surfaces.
Termite baits (Subterranean Termites)
The termite baiting strategy involves two steps:
attracting termites and then exposing them to a slow-
acting toxicant. The toxicant must be slow-acting so
that termites have time to go back to the nest to spread
the toxicant among their nest mates through food
sharing and through mutual grooming. Since termites
habitually wall off members of the community and/or
galleries when they sense a problem with their food
supply, the toxicant must work slowly enough that it
goes undetected until a good portion of the colony has
been exposed.
Baiting can eliminate a termite colony over a number
of months (conventional chemical barrier treatments
only try to prevent termites from entering a structure),
but elimination may not be practical or necessary.
Adequate control can probably be achieved by reduc-
ing the colony enough that no termites are seen in
structures and no PCO call-backs are necessary
(Ballard 1995).
Safety of Baits
Much smaller amounts of active ingredient are used in
baits than are used in chemical barrier treatments so
there is less of a risk of contamination by the poison.
Most of the toxicants that are used in termite baits
have low acute toxicity, and the concentrations in
which they are used are generally low. Manufacturers
are designing bait stations to be self-contained and
tamper-resistant to protect children and animals from
accidental exposure.
When to Bait
Because termite activity is seasonal, baiting is more
effective at certain times of the year than other times.
The best time to bait the eastern subterranean termite
(R. flavipes) is in the late spring and early summer.
The western subterranean termite (R. hesperus) can
probably be baited year around, but the best results
will be obtained in June, July, and August.
Two Types of Baiting Strategies
There are two general types of food baiting that can be
used: perimeter baiting or interceptive baiting. If the
whereabouts of the termites are unknown, perimeter
baiting is used. Wooden stakes, bait blocks, or plastic
monitoring stations are set around the perimeter of a
structure either in a continuous circle or in a grid
pattern. Perimeter baiting relies on the certainty that
termites foraging at random will eventually discover
the bait. Once termites have been located, either by
perimeter baiting or by finding shelter tubes or active
galleries, interceptive baiting can be used. Here,
actively foraging termites are intercepted with a toxic
bait. Interceptive baiting of structures has the disad-
vantage that quite often termite damage has already
been done, and even though the colony is eliminated,
the wood may have to be replaced.
Three Bait Toxicants
At this writing, only three toxicants are being used
commercially for baiting termites.
Sulfluramid. Sulfluramid is currently registered as an
above-ground bait toxicant and cannot yet be used
below ground. The tamper-resistant bait stations
contain a food bait treated with sulfluramid.
Sulfluramid acts by biochemically blocking the
termite's ability to respire causing death by suffoca-
tion. Only tiny amounts of sulfluramid are necessary.
Currently, sulfluramid bait stations are only being
produced by FMC Corporation under the product
name First Line®
For inside infestations, the mud shelter tubes need to
be located and broken into at the leading edge where a
bait station is then attached with tamper-resistant
screws. For outside infestations, bait stations can be
placed near fenceposts, in wooden mulches, and in
other areas where termite infestation is likely.
Hexaflumuron. Hexaflumuron is currently registered
as a below-ground bait toxicant. It is a chitin-synthe-
sis inhibitor that stops termite development by pre-
venting the insects from producing chitin, the sub-
stance that makes up their exoskeleton or "skin."
Termites must produce a new exoskeleton each time
they molt (grow) which is every 1 -2 months; therefore,
a toxicant that interferes with molting could kill an
expanding termite colony over a period of 3 months.
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Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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Currently, hcxaflumuron is being manufactured into
termite bait stations only by DowElanco. The bait
stations are being marketed as one part of a 3-step
process (the Sentricon® System) that involves detec-
tion, elimination, and continued monitoring. The
stations, which are perforated plastic cylinders, are
buried in the ground every 10 to 20 feet around the
perimeter of the building. The cylinders are first filled
with wooden monitoring blocks, but when the ter-
mites are found, the blocks are replaced by bait tubes.
Once termites are no longer feeding on the bait,
monitoring with wooden blocks continues in order to
detect any new invasions.
Hydramethylnon. Hydramethylnon is registered for
underground use in termite bait stations, but it is also
used in fire ant and cockroach bait stations. This
toxicant works as an insect stomach poison. At this
writing, hydramethylnon is formulated into a toxic
termite bait only by Cyanamid for use in their pat-
ented bait stations (called the Subterfuge™ Termite
Bait System). The bait stations are placed in the
ground at least every 20 feet. If there is a known
infestation, they are placed every 10 feet, and if ter-
mites are found entering a building, two or three bait
stations are placed around the entry point. The stations
can be opened to replenish bait without removing them
from the ground so that termite feeding tunnels are not
disturbed and the termites are less likely to abandon the
station. After termites have stopped feeding on the
bait, the stations can be left in the ground to monitor
for new infestations.
Bibliography
Beal, R.H., J.K.. Mauldin, and S.C.Jones. 1983. Subterranean
termites: their prevention and control in buildings. U.S. Forest
Service, Washington, D.C. Home and Garden Bulletin 64. 36 pp.
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. IPM Practitioner 18(11/
12):l-39.
Ballard, James. 1995. Personal Communication. Technical
Manager, FMC Corporation, P.O Box 8 Princeton, NJ 08543.
Brown, R.W. 1979. Residential Foundations: Design, behavior and
repair. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 99 pp.
Daar, S. and W. Olkowski. 1985. Moisture management: Key to
protecting your home. Common Sense Pest Control Quarterly
1(4):13-21.
Ebeling, W. The Extermax System for Control of the Western
Drywood Termite, Incistermesmmor. Etex Ltd, Las Vegas, NV.
11 pp.
Ebeling, W. 1968. Temutes: Identification, biology, and control of
termites attacking buildings. California Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Extension Service (Manual 38), Berkeley. 74 pp
Ebeling, W. 1975. Urban Entomology. University of California
Publications, Los Angeles. 695 pp.
Ebeling, W. 1994a. The thermal pest eradication system. The IPM
Practitioner 16(2): 1-7.
Ebeling, W. 1994b. Heat penetration of structural timbers. The
IPM Practitioner 16(2):9-10.
Ebeling, W. and C.F. Forbes. 1988. Sand barriers for subterranean
termite control. The IPM Practitioner 10(5):l-6.
Forbes, C.F. and W. Ebeling. 1986. Liquid nitrogen controls
drywood termites. The IPM Practitioner 8(8): 1-4.
Forbes, C.F., and W. Ebeling. 1987. Use of heat for elimination of
structural pests. The IPM Practitioner 9(8): 1-5.
French, J.R.J. 1991. Baits and foraging behavior of Australian
species of Coptotermes. Sociobiology 19(1):171-186.
Grace, J.K. 1989. Northern subterranean termites. Pest Manage-
men/8(11): 14-16.
Grace, J.K. 1991a. Behavioral ecology of subterranean termites and
implications for control. In: Proceedings of the symposium on
current research on wood-destroying organisms and future
prospects for protecting wood in use. USDA General Technical
Report PSW-128. Pacific Southwest Research Station, P.O. Box
245, Berkeley, CA 94701.
Grace, J.K. 1991b. Termite-fungal associations and manipulations
for termite control. In: Program and Abstracts, 24th Ann.
Meeting of the Society for Invertebrate Pathology.
Grace, J. K., A. Abdallay, and K.R. Farr. 1989. Eastern subterranean
termite (Isopterx Rhinotermitidac) foraging territories and
populations in Toronto. Canadian Entomologist 121:551-556.
Herbertson, R. 1991. Construction cpoxies, how they work, what
they're used for and how to use them. Fine Homebuilding
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Hickin, N.E. 1971. Termites, a World Problem. Hutchinson and
Co., London. 232 pp.
Levy, M.P. 1975. A Guide to the Inspection of New Homes and
Houses under Construction for Conditions which Favor Attack
by Wood-inhabiting Fungi and Insects. U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development, Washington, D.C. 42 pp.
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Levy, M.P. 1975. A Guide to the Inspection of Existing Homes for
Wood-Inhabiting Fungiand Insects. U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development, Washington, D.C. 104 pp.
Moore, H.B. 1995. Wood Destroying Insects. Pest Control
Magazine, Cleveland, OH. 120 pp.
Olkowski,W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common Sense
Pest Control- Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Potter, M.F. 1994. The coming technology: a wild ride. Pest
Control Technology 22(10):35-45.
Quarles, W. 1995. Least-toxic termite baits. Common Sense Pest
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Scheffer, T.C. and A.F. Verrall. 1973. Principles for protecting wood
buildings from decay. U.S. Deportment of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, D.C. Forest Service Research Paper FPL 190.56 pp.
Su, N.Y. and R.H. Schcffrahn. 1990. Potential of insect growth
regulators as termiticides: a review. Sociobiology 17(2):313-325.
Su, N.Y. and R.H. Scheffrahn. 1993. Laboratory evaluation of two
chitin synthesis inhibitors, hexaflumuron and diflubenzuron,
as bait toxicants against Formosan and eastern subterranean
termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic
Entomology 86(5): 1453-1457.
Su, N.Y., R.H. Scheffrahn and P. Ban. 1989. Method to monitor
initiation of aerial infestations by alates of the Formosan
subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in high-rise
buildings. Journal of Economic Entomology 82(6):1643-1645.
Su, N.Y., R.H. Scheffrahn, and P. Ban. 1990. Measuring
termiticides. Pest Control September 24,30-36.
Weesner, F.M. 1965. The Termites of the United States. The
National Pest Control Association, Dunn Lonng, VA. 68 pp.
Wood Protection Council. 1988. Guidelines for Protection of
Wood against Decay and Termite Attack. National Institute of
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P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
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Chapter 17 • Wood Pests
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Chapter 18
IPM for Weeds on School Grounds
Introduction
A "weed" is commonly defined as a plant growing in a
place where it is not wanted. Plants can be unwanted
because they compete with desired species, because
they cause harm to people or structures, or because
their appearance or odor is offensive. The designation
"weed" can be quite subjective; for instance, the
dandelion can be considered a weed in one setting and
a wildflower or culinary herb in another.
On school grounds, there is usually consensus on the
weedy nature of certain plant species such as thistles,
docks, crabgrass, and poison oak or ivy that spring up
where they are not wanted. These species have com-
mon characteristics that enable them to "take over"
when conditions are right. By understanding condi-
tions suited to weed growth, landscapes can be de-
signed and maintained in ways that minimize such
conditions, and the need for herbicides can be reduced
or eliminated. The goal is to encourage desirable
plants to out-compete weeds in habitats where plant
growth is acceptable (shrub beds, turf areas, tree wells,
student gardens), and to remove conditions conducive
to weeds in areas where vegetation is not wanted (in
pavement cracks, on running tracks, under fences). A
review of basic principles of weed biology and ecol-
ogy will help identify conditions that promote weed
growth and suggest methods for encouraging com-
petitive desirable vegetation and discouraging weeds.
(Note that the management of weeds in turf is dis-
cussed in Chapter 10.)
Identification and Biology
Weeds can be found among both broadleaf plants and
grasses. Like all plants, weeds are classified within
three general categories according to the duration of
their life cycle and their methods of reproduction.
Annuals. These are the most common weeds; they
live one year and reproduce by seed. These plants
have a rapid life cycle that enables them to germinate,
shoot up, blossom, set seed, and die within the space
of a few weeks or months. Their rapid life cycle allows
them to thrive on a minimum of nutrients and water.
Biennials. These weeds live two years, and reproduce
both vegetatively and by seed.
Perennials. These weeds live more than two years.
Although perennials produce seeds, their main means
of reproduction is usually vegetative, for example, by
forming new plants from bulbs or corms, or by
producing new top growth from buds located on
underground stems (rhizomes).
Weed Habitats
Weeds tend to grow in places where the soil is bare or
disturbed:
• areas that have been cultivated (shrub and flower
beds, etc.)
• trampled or close-mowed lawns
• unpaved play areas and paths
• sports fields
• fence lines
• graded roadsides
• cracks in sidewalks or other pavement
• areas where the same herbicide has been used
repeatedly and plants tolerant to that material have
moved in
Weedy areas found on school grounds tend to be hot,
dry, unshaded habitats—often with low nutrient levels
and soil moisture. Certain plants such as thistles,
knotweeds, plantains, barnyard and crab grasses, etc.
have evolved to take advantage of these conditions.
As they grow, die, and decompose, the soil is stabi-
lized, erosion is reduced, and the soil environment
becomes more moist and fertile. Under these im-
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139
Chapter 18 • Weeds
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proved conditions, plant species with less-weedy
characteristics will eventually displace the weeds.
Thus a meadow left undisturbed may eventually
become a forest.
Detection and Monitoring
The purpose of monitoring is to determine if, when,
where, and why weeds are growing or posing a prob-
lem, and to assign priorities for habitat change and
least-toxic weed suppression. The components of
effective weed monitoring are described here.
Mapping Weed Habitats
The first step in monitoring is to map areas where
weeds are growing. This need not be a detailed, time-
consuming process—a rough map will do. For areas
to monitor, see the list under "Weed Habitats," above.
Identifying Weed Species
It is important to accurately identify the most com?
mon weed species on your school grounds in order to
determine appropriate management methods. Know-
ing the scientific name of the weed makes it much
easier to obtain information from research profession-
als and the scientific literature. Assistance is available
from Cooperative Extension Service literature and
personnel, or pictorial weed guides. A quick and
effective method for preserving weed samples using
plastic-covered index cards is described in Appendix
F. This simple method results in a portable, easy-to-
use weed reference.
Learn about the growing conditions required by the
weed as well as its growth characteristics and methods
of reproduction. Weeds can be indicators of soil
conditions that need to be changed to discourage weed
growth. For example, yellow nutsedge (Cyperus
esculentus) indicates excessive water perhaps due to a
broken irrigation pipe or valve. Conversely, prostrate
knotweed (Polygonum aviculare) indicates dry,
compacted soil requiring aeration and addition of
organic matter. By changing the conditions indicated
by the weed, these unwanted plants can be discour-
aged from growing.
Record Keeping
It is important to record the time of year a particular
weed species appears, its abundance, and its impact on
the landscape. This information will help determine
• which weeds and how many of each can be tolerated
in a specific area without the weeds impairing the
function of the landscape or its aesthetic appeal
• whether or not management strategies are effective
• whether weed populations are rising, falling, or
staying about the same from year to year
• whether new species of weeds are becoming a
problem (this often happens as a result of weed
control efforts)
Without this information, it is impossible to determine
the long-term effectiveness of management methods.
Establishing Weed Tolerance Levels
School landscape maintenance budgets rarely stretch
far enough to suppress all weeds, even if that were
desirable. Aesthetic standards should be adjusted to
take this into account. Assigning tolerance levels
helps prioritize budget allocations, facilitate long-term
plans, and provide justification for weed management
action—or lack of action.
Identify areas where weeds pose potential health or
safety hazards or threaten damage to facilities, and
distinguish these locations from those where weeds
are considered aesthetic problems alone. For exampl
poison oak or ivy can cause severe skin rashes and
itching, and weeds growing in playing fields or run-
ning tracks can pose tripping hazards. Assign low
tolerance levels to weeds in such areas, and place high
priority on their management. On the other hand,
assign higher tolerance levels to weeds growing in
shrub beds or along fence lines and lower priority for
management.
Since most weed tolerance levels are subjective, one
way to establish them is to invite a representative
group (e.g.; the school principal, coach, landscape
maintenance supervisor, PTA officer, teacher, student,
and parent) to tour the school grounds and decide
where weed levels are acceptable and where they are
not. It is important that this group reach consensus
on overall weed management objectives for various
school sites, and that weed tolerance and action levels
derive from this agreement. Weed tolerance levels can
be re-evaluated on an annual basis.
Long-Term Weed Management Plans
Long-term plans should focus on making changes to
the habitat to permanently exclude weeds in areas
where weed tolerance levels are low. In some cases
this may require augmented budget allocations. By
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140
Chapter 18 • Weeds
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developing plans, budget needs can be spread over
several years.
Evaluation of Weed Management Programs
The availability of herbicides has often helped per-
petuate poor landscape designs and inappropriate
maintenance practices because herbicides could be
used to compensate for them. By gathering monitor-
ing data, the underlying causes of weed presence can
be pinpointed. The data can be used to change design
specifications for landscapes, sport fields, playgrounds,
and pavement to avoid encouraging weeds.
The long-term costs, risks, and benefits of various
weed management approaches should also be evalu-
ated. A one-time cost to install concrete or asphalt
mow strips under backstops and fence lines and
thereby permanently remove weed habitat may be less
costly in the long run than repeated herbicide use that
may pose a potential health risk, resulting in lawsuits
and poor public relations.
Management Options
Horticultural Controls
This approach involves manipulating plant selection,
planting techniques, and cultural practices so that
desired vegetation grows so densely and vigorously
that weeds are crowded out.
Planting beds can be rototilled and irrigated to force
weed seeds to germinate. As soon as sprouted weeds
appear as a "green fuzz" on top of the soil, they can be
killed by a second cultivation with the tiller set at 1
inch. Shallow cultivation prevents weed seeds from
being moved to the top 2 inches of soil—the germina-
tion range. This will reduce weed growth while
ornamental plants are becoming established.
Plant Selection
In shrub beds, you can include groundcovers with rapid,
spreading growth habits that can out-compete weeds.
Competitive Interplanting
When shrubs or groundcovers are installed, the spaces
between individual plants are often colonized by
weeds before the ornamentals can spread and shade
them out. These weed habitats can be eliminated by
overseeding newly planted areas with fast-growing
annual flowers such as sweet alyssum (Lobularia
maritima), farewell-to-spring (Clarkia amoena), and
scarlet flax (Linum grandiflorum var. rubrum).
Mulching
Mulches are primarily used to exclude light from the
soil, thus limiting weed seed germination. Mulches
can be composed of organic materials (compost, wood
chips, etc.), stones or gravel, or synthetic landscape
fabric. Landscape fabric is preferred over black
plastic, because it allows air and water to move
through the soil to benefit ornamental plant roots, but
excludes light at the soil surface to thwart weeds.
To be effective, mulches should be applied immedi-
ately after plants are installed. Bark or compost
mulches should be 3 to 4 inches deep to exclude light.
If landscape fabric is used, it should be covered with
an inch or two of bark, stones, etc. to improve the
aesthetic appearance of the planting area and reduce
degradation of the fabric by sunlight. Landscape
fabric can last for years if properly maintained.
Physical Controls
Hand-pulling, cultivation, and use of string trimmers
and mowers are very effective weed control tech-
niques. If labor is in short supply, make good use of
parent and student volunteers, community service
groups, and youth groups. Classrooms can adopt a
flower bed or a section of the school yard to maintain
and beautify. If students are involved in grounds
maintenance, they will be more careful of the plants
and take pride in a clean, well-maintained school yard.
Weeds on baseball infields, running tracks, and other
bare soil areas can be suppressed by periodic shallow
cultivation with a tractor-mounted rotary harrow, also
called a rotaiy hoe or power rake (Rhay 1994). In
areas with heavy clay soils, this method can be com-
bined with addition of sawdust to reduce the crusting
and puddling characteristics of these soils.
Eliminate Weed Habitat
Creating a "mow strip" under and immediately
adjacent to fence lines can solve a common weed
problem. When fences surround paved playing
surfaces such as basketball courts, the steel fence posts
can be installed directly into the paving material, 8 to
12 inches to the inside of the paving edge. The paving
prevents weeds from growing under or adjacent.to the
fence, and provides a paved strip for the wheel of a
mower which can keep adjacent grass trimmed. The
strip also provides access for use of string trimmers
when shrub beds abut the fence line.
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Chapter 18 • Weeds
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Existing cyclone fence lines can be modified by
pouring a 16-inch wide concrete or asphalt strip to
cover the soil under and beside the fence. This retrofit
can be performed in stages over several years as
budgets permit. The one-time paving cost will pro-
duce many years of savings in weed control.
Use asphalt or cement crack filler to fill cracks in
paved areas where weeds are a problem.
Flaming
Flamers are used by a growing number of parks and
school districts to treat weeds in pavement cracks,
under picnic tables and benches, along fence lines, etc.
This technique utilizes a small gas- or propane-fired
torch to sear the tops of young weeds. The heat raises
the temperature of the sap in the plant cells, the cell
walls rupture, and the weed wilts and dies. Flaming is
most effective on young annual and perennial weeds
in the seedling (4- to 5-leaf) stage, because at that point
the fragile root system is killed along with the top
growth. Grasses are difficult to kill by flaming because
their growing tips are covered by a protective sheath.
Keep the torch about 6 inches above the vegetation
and pass it slowly over the plants. Hold the flamer
over each plant briefly so the plant is heated but not
actually burned. The leaves may lose their usual
green color, but there may not be any evidence of
willing, let alone plant death, for several to many
hours. Leaves that have been heated sufficiently to
burst cell walls will feel very soft to the touch and
may turn a purplish color.
Soil Soiarization
This technique uses a covering of clear plastic to raise
soil temperatures high enough to destroy weeds and
their seeds. For soiarization to be effective, daytime
temperatures should average 85°F or more, so it
should be done during the hottest and sunniest time of
the year. Soiarization can kill annual or perennial
weeds as well as soil pathogens and nematodes. Even
tough bermudagrass can be killed with this method.
Soiarization can also be used to destroy weed seeds
and other soil pests in rototilled beds scheduled for
new plantings.
To solarize a section of soil, do the following:
• Mow any existing vegetation to the ground.
• Cultivate to incorporate the vegetation into the soil.
• Provide a smooth surface by raking the soil so it
is level.
• Encourage weed seeds to germinate by irrigating
the soil 1 to 2 weeks before covering it.
• Irrigate again just before laying down the plastic.
• Use UV-stabilized plastic 2 to 4 mils thick.
• Anchor the tarp by burying its edges in a small soil
trench around the area to be solarized.
• In the Southwest, wait 3 to 4 weeks before remov-
ing the plastic, and 6 to 9 weeks anywhere else.
Chemical Controls
When non-chemical weed management methods are
not sufficient to solve weed problems, herbicides are
available for integration into the program. There are
many herbicides on the market. For information on
the efficacy and hazards of various herbicides and on
how to select an appropriate product for your situa-
tion, consult Appendix G for a list of resources.
When selecting herbicides, keep in mind the criteria
described for treatments in Chapter 4. An example of
using these criteria is provided in Box 18-A.
Box 18-A
Selective Use of low Toxicity Herbicides.
Tim Rhay, IPM specialist with the Eugene, Oregon
Public Works Department, manages the city's parks
and sports fields within an IPM framework. His
approach has been adopted by a number of local
schools as well. When herbicides are needed, he
selects materials that have relatively low toxicity and
are compatible with spot-treatment. In discussing his
infield/bare-soil weed management program (see also
Physical Controls), he writes,
"The integrated methodology developed in
Eugene...will both provide quality infield surfaces
and reduce the resource requirement for doing so. In
particular, the need for herbicide application will be
dramatically reduced. Some spot treatment may be
necessary to deal with noxious perennial plants that
do not respond to cultivation. In some cases, a
comprehensive treatment may be needed to gain
initial control of an area. In some climate zones,
treatment may be needed only at the infield/outfieid
interface, to prevent opportunistic vegetation from
creeping into the bare soil area. When such treatment
is required, consider low-toxicity granular preemer-
gence materials which can be soil-incorporated
during the dormant season, after the field is taken out
of play....For postemergence work, newly available
fatty acid-based herbicides [i.e., herbicidal soaps] may
be useful for some types of vegetation. Others may
require the use of foliar-applied, translocated materi-
als such as glyphosate. Consult local regulatory and
reference sources before choosing herbicide materials."
(Rhay 1994)
IPM for Schools
142
Chapter 18 • Weeds
-------
Whenever possible, apply herbicides as spot-treat-
ments to the target weeds. For example, a tool called a
"rope wick applicator" can be used to wipe a small
amount of herbicide on a single plant or patch of
weeds. This reduces human exposure and helps to
protect non-target vegetation and beneficial soil
organisms that can be damaged or killed by herbicide
residues. Wick applicators are available as hand-held
versions or as attachments to small tractors and riding
mowers.
When applying herbicides, use a colorant to mark the
treated area. This will not only insure even coverage,
but will help passersby see and avoid the treated area.
Do not allow children to play or lie on the treated
area—rope it off and post a sign.
Herbicides must be used in accordance with their EPA-
approved label directions. Applicators must be certi-
fied to apply herbicides and should always wear protec-
tive gear during applications. All labels and Material
Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the pesticide products
authorized for use in the IPM program should be
maintained on file. Never apply these materials where
they might wash into the storm drains, sanitary sewer,
creeks, ponds, or other water sources.
Bibliography
Aldrich, R.J. 1984. Weed-Crop Ecology: pnnctplei in weed
management. Breton Publishers, Belmont, CA. 465 pp.
Bio-lntegral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. IPM Practitioner 18(11/
12):l-39.
Harrington, H.D. and L.W. Durrell. 1957. How to Identify Plants.
Swallow Press, Chicago, IL. 203 pp.
Hesketh, K.S. and C.L. Elmore. 1982. Vegetable plantings without
weeds. University of California, Division of Agricultural
Sciences, Berkeley, CA, Leaflet 21153,19 pp.
Katan, J. 1981. Solar heating (solarization) of soil for control of
soil-borne pests. Annual Review of Phytopathology 19:211-
236.
Muenscher, W.C. 1980. Weeds. Cornell University Press, Ithaca,
NY. 586 pp.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common sense
pest control: Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Radosevich, S.R. and J.S. Holt 1984. Weed ecology. John Wiley
and Sons, New York, NY. 265 pp.
Rhay, T. 1994. IN: Leslie, A.R. ed. Handbook of Integrated Pest
Management for Turf and Ornamentals. Lewis Publishers,
Bou Raton, FL. pp. 611-612.
Subcommittee on Standardization of Common and Botanical
Names of Weeds. 1989. Composite List of Weeds. Weed Science
Society, Champaign, IL. 112 pp.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
143
Chapter 18 • Weeds
-------
Chapter 19
IPM for Yellowjackets and Hornets in Schools
Introduction
Yellowjackets and hornets are both beneficial and
problematic. They are predators and scavengers,
helping to control pests and recycle organic materials,
but they can also sting humans and their pets.
Yellowjackets persistently search out protein-rich and
sugary foods and drinks, so care must be taken when-
ever food is served outside. Although often grouped
together with bees, yellowjackets pose a more serious
threat to people. Because they have only tiny barbs on
their stingers, yellowjackets can insert them repeatedly
into a victim whereas a bee can sting only once. Mul-
tiple stings from yellowjackets are common because
they vigorously defend their nest when it is disturbed.
Identification and Biology
"Yellowjacket" and "hornet" are the common names
given to wasps in the genera Dolichovespula, Vespula,
and Vespa\ for the sake of simplicity, we will use the
term "yellowjacket" in the following discussion.
Note that these common names are not reliable
indicators of whether or not they are pests (see Table
19-1 for more specific information).
Yellov. jackets are relatively short and stout compared
with paper wasps and other wasps (see Table 19-2).
Paper wasps are more slender and have long, dangling
legs. All yellowjackets are either white and black or
yellow and black, are rapid fliers, and are more aggres-
sive than other types of wasps. Their nests can be in
the ground, in wall voids, or hanging from eaves or
tree branches, but the nests are always completely
enclosed (except for a small entrance hole at the
bottom) with a papery envelope.
The queen begins her nest by building a small comb of
chewed wood. She-
lays eggs in the cells
and, after the eggs
hatch, tends them
herself. When some
of the larvae develop
into adult workers,
they expand the nest
into tiers, built one on
top of the other
(Figure 19-1). In the
late summer or early
fall, males and new
queens are pro-
duced. After
mating, the queens
seek a sheltered
place to spend the
winter and, except
in perennial
colonies, all the
worker wasps die.
The nest is not
reused and even-
tually disintegrates.
Yellowjacket colonies seldom exceed 15,000 workers
with a single queen, although they can become larger
aiiu can include multiple queens in perennial colonies.
Early, in the warm season, colonies are small and
yellowjackets are usually not a problem. Later in the
season when colonies are at their peak, these insects
become pestiferous. They are attracted to garbage
cans, dumpsters, lunch counters, and playgrounds,
where they scavenge for protein and liquid sweets.
Stings
Insect stings are the leading cause of fatalities from
venomous animals, and most of these stings are
inflicted by yellowjackets. The people who die from
yellowjacket or bee stings are people who experience
large numbers of stings at once (hundreds in adults) or
who suffer severe allergic reactions to the inflamma-
tory substances in the insect venom. These allergic
reactions include soreness and swelling not only at the
site of the sting but also on other pans of the body
that may be distant from the site. Other symptoms
include fever, chills, hives, joint and muscle pain, and
swelling of the lymph glands and small air passage-
ways. In severe cases, the individual may suffer a
sudden drop in blood pressure and lose consciousness.
Individuals who experience allergic reactions have
become sensitized over time by previous stings, so this
hypersensitivity is found more often in adults than in
children.
Ordinary reactions to stings include localized pain,
itching, redness, and swelling for hours to a day or
two after the event.
See Box 19-A for first aid treatment for yellow-
jacket stings.
Figure 19-1. Yellowjacket Nest
The Western Yellowjacket
IPM for Schools 145 Chapter 19 • Yellowjackets and Hornets
-------
Table 19-1. Major Yellowjacket and Hornet Species in North America0
Species
Common
Name
Distribution
Habits*3
Dolichovespula
arenaria
aerial
yellowjacket
transcontinental
does not ordinarily scavenge for protein, but in late summer
may be attracted to sweets
D. maadata
baldfaced
hornet
transcontinental
predator and occasional scavenger; not as sensitive to nest
disturbance; not a pest unless colony located close to human
activity
Vetpa crabro
germana
European
hornet
forested areas of
eastern North
America; native to
Europe
predator; sometimes girdles branches and twigs of trees and
shrubs; primarily a forest species, so has less contact with
people and is therefore less of a stinging hazard
Vespula acadica
forest
yellowjacket
forested areas of
Canada, Great Lakes
states, much of western
U.S., U Alaska
strict predator, primarily a forest species so less conuct with
humans, but can be quite aggressive when nest is disturbed
V. atropilosa
prairie
yellowjacket
prairies and open forest
areas of much of
western U.S. & Canada
strict predator; nests in yards, golf courses, pastures, etc., and
can also nest in walls; usually not a problem unless nest is
disturbed
V. consobnna
blackjacket
forested areas of
Canada, northern U.S.
strict predator; primarily a forest species so less contact with
humans, but can be aggressive when nest is disturbed
V. germamca
German
yellowjacket
transcontinental; native
to Europe
predator and scavenger; nests mainly in structures, but can
nest in th" ground or in trees; colonies can be perennial;
exploits a variety of food sources, so is usually a pest; can be
aggressive when nest is disturbed
V. maculifrons
eastern
yellowjacket
eastern fic central U.S.
to the Mountain
Region
predator and scavenger; nests in yards, golf courses,
recreational areas, and buildings; is the primary pest
yellowjacket where it occurs
V. pensylvamca
western
yellowjacket
western North
America and Hawaii
predator and scavenger; scavenges extensively for protein,
especially later in the year; nests mainly in ground, but also in
buildings; primary pest yellowjacket where it occurs; can be
aggressive when nest is disturbed
V. squamosa
southern
yellowjacket
eastern, southeastern
U.S. to Central
America
predator and scavenger, parasitic on V. maculifrons; will
scavenge for protein; nests mainly in the ground in disturbed
areas, but also in buildings; perennial colonies possible in
subtropical locations; can be aggressive when nest is disturbed
V. vidua
none
eastern U.S.
predator; nests mainly in the ground in disturbed areas but
also forests, sometimes in buildings; not a stinging hazard
unless nest is located where it can be disturbed by human
activity
V vulgaris
common
yellow|acket
transcontinental,
Hawaii; prevalent in
heavily forested areas
in the West
predator and notorious scavenger of nearly any protein or
sugar source; nests mainly in the ground, but also in
buildings; colonies can be very large
' From Akre et al., 1981.
Those species that are scavengers are more likely to be pests around garbage cans and where food is eaten outside.
IPM for Schools
146
Chapter 19 • Yellow jackets and Hornets
-------
Nest Disturbance
Yellowjackets that are foraging for food will usually
not sting unless physically threatened in some way,
such as being squashed or caught in a tight place. But
if they feel their nest is in danger, they will vigorously
defend it. All wasps defend their colonies, but some
yellowjackets are more sensitive to nest disturbance
and more aggressive in their defense. Disturbing the
nests of these species can result in multiple stings.
This can occur when someone accidentally steps on an
underground nest opening or disturbs a nest in a
shrub or in a building. Sometimes merely coming
near a nest, especially if it has been disturbed previ-
ously, can provoke an attack.
Underground nests can be disturbed by vibrations
detected by the wasps. Thus, mowing lawns or
athletic fields can be hazardous, and operators may
need to wear protective clothing when mowing during
the late summer season when colonies are large. Such
clothing should include a bee suit with a protective
bee veil or, at the very least, a veil and wrist and ankle
cuffs taped or carefully tied to keep the insects out of
sleeves and pant legs. A heavy sweatshirt can also be
protective.
It can be very frightening to be the victim of multiple
wasp stings. The first response may be to run away,
but since it is impossible to outrun the wasps, running
will only make the situation worse by exciting the
wasps more. The best strategy is to back slowly away
from the colony until you are at least 6 to 8 feet away.
It is important to educate children about the beneficial
role of these wasps (they feed on pest insects, particu-
larly caterpillars) and to remind them repeatedly of
ways to avoid stings. Since problems with yellow-
jackets are most common in late summer and fall,
teachers can be provided with this information at the
beginning of the fall term. See Box 19-A for tips on
avoiding stings.
Detection and Monitoring
If there is a chronic problem with yellowjackets
around outdoor lunch areas or school athletic fields,
inspect the area methodically to locate the nests.
Nests can be found in the ground, under eaves, and in
wall voids of buildings. Ground nests are frequently
(but not always) located under shrubs, logs, piles of
Table 19-2. Distinguishing Yellowjackets, Wasps, Bees, and Hornets
Appearance
Habits
Nests
Feeding
Behavior
Bees
Hairy, stout bodies
with thick waists;
workers 6c
reproductive! are
winged
Noisy flight; sting mainly
while defending nest;
foraging workers seldom
sung
In hives, trees, or buildings
Collect pollen and
nectar, feed pollen to
young 6c. share food
with other adult bees
Wasps
Bodies vary; all
winged
Colorful, rapid fliers;
solitary 8c social varieties
Aerial or ground nests; can also
be in structures
Scavengers and/or
predators
Solitary
wasps
Thin- or thick-
waisted
Visit flowers fc other
vegetation; relatively docile
In mud, or in holes in ground
Predators; provision
nests with prey for
young to feed on
Yellow-
jackets
Stout, colorful
Rapid fliers; aggressive;
individuals capable of
inflicting multiple stings;
social in large colonies
which they defend
vigorously
Multi-layered, papery nests
mostly in ground, although
some aerial or in structures;
nests have an outer papery
covering called an "envelope"
Mostly beneficial
predators, but
scavenger species
become pestiferous
Paper
(umbrella)
wasps
Long bodies with
thin waists, long
dangling legs
Social; search vegetation for
prey; visit flowers for
nectar; not particularly
aggressive
Single layered, papery nests
without an envelope; attached
to fences, eaves, boards,
branches; shaped like an
umbrella
Beneficial predators;
feed prey to
developing young in
nest
IPM for Schools
147 Chapter 19 • Yellowjackets and Hornets
-------
rocks, and other protected sites. Entrance holes
sometimes have bare earth around them. Nest open-
ings in the ground or in buildings can be recognized
by observing the wasps entering and leaving.
Management Options
The objective of a yellowjacket management program
should be to reduce human encounters with the
wasps, but not to eliminate them from the entire area
since they are beneficial predators of caterpillars. The
two most productive and least environmentally de-
structive ways to do this are to modify the habitat to
Box 19-A.
Avoiding and Treating Slings
Children should be taught to stay calm when con-
fronted by a foraging yellowjacket. Impress upon
them that sharp, jerky motions will frignten wasps
and make them more likely to sting. Stillness, or
slow, gentle movements, which can be described to
children as "moving like the swaying branches of a
tree," will greatly decrease the possibility of being
stung. Slowly and carefully brushing off a yellow-
jacket that has landed on someone, or waiting until it
flies off is better than hitting or constraining it since
aroused yellowjackets will sting. It is important to
avoid smashing yellowjackets because when crushed,
they give off a scent that can cause other
yellowjackets to attack.
If soft drinks or fruit juices are being consumed on
school grounds where there are many yellowjackets,
warn the children to look into the cup or can before
each sip, because,someone can accidentally drink in a
wasp and get stung in the mouth or throat. Tell
them not to panic if they find a wasp taking a drink.
They should wait patiently until the wasp leaves by
itself, then place a napkin or similar barrier over the
cup between sips. Children can also use a straw for
drinking or place the drink in a paper bag and poke a
hole through it for the straw. Alternatively, eating
and drinking outside can be prohibited during
yellowjacket season.
Gardeners or custodians should wear protective
clothing when mowing grass where underground
nests are suspected.
First Aid for Stings
• If the sting is to the throat or mouth, medical atten-
tion must be sought immediately, because swelling in
reduce yellowjackets' access to food in the vicinity of
human activities, and to use physical controls such as
trapping and nest removal. Area-wide poison-baiting
should be used only as a last resort when other methods
have failed and stings are frequent.
Physical Controls
Habitat Modification
Garbage cans on school grounds should have remov-
able domed tops with vertical spring-loaded swinging
doors. The cans should be emptied frequently enough
to prevent the contents from impeding the closure of
these areas can cause suffocation. Dial 911 immedi-
ately and give the victim an ice cube to suck.
For hypersensitive individuals
• Anyone who is hypersensitive or is showing
respiratory reactions, dizziness, or color
changes should be treated by the school nurse
or taken to a doctor immediately. The nurse
should have an emergency kit containing pre-
loaded syringes of epinephrine for use with
hypersensitive individuals. An antihistamine
such as diphenhydramine (e.g., Benadryl) can
stop or slow symptoms, but it must be given
immediately.
• Keep the affected pan down, below the level of
the victim's heart.
For all others
• Wash the area around the sting with soap and
water and apply an antiseptic. Washing can help
remove the protein venom from the wound
which will help reduce the pain and swelling
from the sting.
• As soon as possible, treat the sting either with ice
contained in a cloth or plastic bag, commercially
available products for easing the pain of wasp or
bee stings, or a paste of meat tenderizer mixed
with water. Ice will help reduce the swelling, and
the commercial products will relieve pain as well
as swelling. Meat tenderizer works by breaking
down the venom, thus reducing swelling and pain.
• Antihistamines given every few hours, according
to label directions, can also prevent pain and
swelling.
• Have the victim rest, and do not administer
sedatives such as alcohol.
IPM for Schools
Chapter 19 • Yellowjackets and Hornets
-------
Box 19-B.
Tips on Trapping Yellowjackets in a
Homemade Cone-Type rly Trap
Yellowjackets can be caught in a cone-type fly trap
(Chapter 9, IPM for Flies in Schools, includes bait
recipes and plans for making such a trap) using only
the trapped flies as bait. The following tips will help
improve yellowjacket trapping:
• Use this trapping method where students cannot
gain access to the traps or at a time when students
are not in school.
• Mix the fly bait according to the instructions in
Chapter 9 of this manual.
• Set up the fly trap with the fly bait in the area where
the yellowjackets are a nuisance.
• If after a day or two in one spot the trap is still
attracting only flies, move it to a new spot around
the perimeter of the nuisance area.
• If your trap stops catching yellow-jackets at some
point, but is still catching flies, try switching to a
sweet bait such as fruit punch, jam, or grenadine.
NOTE: To avoid being stung, you should replenish the
fly bait or move the trap in the cool parts of the day—
early morning or late evening. To kill everything in the
trap before emptying, put the trap into a large plastic
garbage, bag and seal the bag. Place the bag in direct
sunlignt for several hours or in a freezer overnight. You
can also loosely tie the bag to the exhaust pipe of a
gasoline engine and run the engine for a minute or two.
the lid. The lids and cans should be periodically
cleaned of food wastes. Disposable liners can be used
and replaced when soiled or damaged.
When these practices are not followed, school garbage
cans become a food source for all the yellowjackets in
the area. With a large number of wasps around the
cans, students become afraid to get close enough to
place garbage all the way inside, and spilled food
attracts more wasps.
Dumpsters should be cleaned frequently by washing
them with a strong stream of water. If the dumpster
service company has a cleaning clause in their con-
tract, make sure it is enforced.
To limit yellowjacket infestations inside the school
buildings, repair windows and screens and caulk holes
in siding. Building inspections for yellowjackets can
be done at the same time as inspections for other pests
such as rats, mice, termites, etc.
Trapping
Trapping with a sturdy trap and an attractive bait can
significantly reduce yellowjacket numbers if a suffi-
cient number of traps are used. There are a variety of
traps on the market. In general, cone-type traps are
more useful for long-term (many weeks) trapping
because it takes longer for the yellowjackets to find
their way out of the trap. In some schools,
unbaited yellow sticky traps (like those used to
catch whiteflies) affixed to fences near underground
nests have provided sufficient control to protect
children from stings.
When traps are full they can either be placed in a
freezer for a day to kill the wasps or enclosed in a
heavy-duty plastic garbage bag and placed in the
direct sun for several hours. A third way of killing the
wasps is by submerging the traps in a bucket of soapy
water until the wasps drown.
A homemade, cone-type fly trap (Figure 19-2) can be
used to catch yellowjackets simply by using the
captured flies inside the trap as bait (see Chapter 9 for
a discussion on how to catch flies). The yellowjackets
enter the trap to get the flies and become trapped
themselves (see Box 19-B for tips on this kind of
trapping). You can also try using baits such as dog
food, ham, fish, and other meat scraps, or, toward the
end of the warm weather, sugar syrups, fermenting
fruit, and jelly.
Take care to place traps out of the children's reach as
much as possible; however, the traps should be placed
Top is also made of screening. Top should be hinged (to empty
the crap) and closed with a hook and eye. Weather-stripping or a
strip of foam or cloth glued to all 4 sides of the underside of
thelid will prevent flies from squeezing out.
Figure 19-2. Cone Trap. Bait pan is placed beneath bottom
of the cone. Make sure the top edge of the bait pan is above
the bottom edge of the trap.
IPM for Schools
Chapter 19 * Yellowjackets and Hornets
-------
near the nest if it can be found, and/or near the area
where the yellowjackets are troublesome. Teachers
can be instructed to make a short presentation on the
purpose of the traps to satisfy the curiosity that
students will undoubtedly have. Show students the
traps, explain how they work, and try to impress upon
them the importance of the traps in maintaining the
safety of the playground.
The traps should be out only during the period that
yellowjackets are a problem, usually late summer and
early fall. When the traps are taken down for the year,
they should be cleaned with soap and water and stored.
Nest Removal
A nest can be destroyed through physical removal
(vacuuming) or by using a pesticide (see Chemical
Controls). Either way, care is essential because any
disturbance around a nest can cause multiple stings. It
is best to have a professional pest control operator or
other person.experienced with these techniques
remove the nest, and it should be done at night when
the children are out of school and the yellowjackets
are in their nests. When illumination is needed, use a
flashlight covered with red acetate film so it will not
attract wasps. Adequate protective clothing (see Box
19-C) and proper procedure can minimize problems
and stings. People who are sensitive to wasp stings
should not attempt control procedures.
Vacuuming
We do not recommend vacuuming out entire nests
unless it is done by a professional experienced in
handling stinging insects.
Vacuuming can be particularly effective where nests
occur in wall voids, in emergencies where nests have
already been disturbed, and in environmentally
sensitive areas where nests should not be treated with
insecticides. Use a lightweight, powerful vacuum with
a removable bag. Before the bag is completely full of
wasps, vacuum up 2 tablespoons of cornstarch to
incapacitate the insects. Leaving the motor running,
detach the hose from the canister to reveal the opening
in the vacuum bag. Stuff this opening with newspaper,
paper towels, or a rag. With the motor still running,
open the canister and tape over the bag opening with
duct tape. With the motor off, take out the bag and
place it inside a cardboard box. Seal the box and place
it in a freezer at least overnight.
Before vacuuming an underground nest, check for
secondary entrance holes (these can be identified by
the wasps flying in and out) in a 40 to 50 foot area
Box 19-C.
Protective Clothing for Nest Destruction
It is important to wear protective clothing when
removing wasp nests. Complete body coverage
is essential because yellowjackets and other
wasps can find even the smallest exposed area.
Use clothing made for beekeepers. This includes:
1. A bee veil or hood that either contains its own
hat or can be fitted over a light-weight pith
helmet or other brimmed hat that holds the
veil away from the head. A metal-screen face
plate that extends around the head is a desir-
able feature. Check the veil carefully for tears
before each use.
2. A bee suit or loose-fitting, heavy-fabric
coverall with long sleeves. This is worn over
regular pants and a long-sleeved shirt to
provide extra protection from stings.
3. Sturdy high-topped boots with pant legs
secured over the boots with duct tape to
prevent wasps from getting into trousers.
4. Gloves with extra-long arm coverings so
sleeves can be taped over them to protect
the wrists.
around the main opening. If these secondary
entrances are not covered with a good quantity of soil
before vacuuming begins, they will provide outlets for
angry wasps.
Vacuuming the nest is a job for two people, both
covered with protective clothing. While one person
operates the vacuum, the other excavates the nest with
a trowel. The vacuum operator doesn't actually insert
the hose into the nest; instead, the wand is positioned
3 or 4 inches away from the nest opening to suck in
yellowjackets as they fly in and out. When no more
wasps are seen entering or leaving, the underground
nest structure should be dug out, placed in a plastic
garbage bag, and set in the sun for several hours.
In some cities there are companies that will perform
this service for free so they can collect the wasps to
sell to pharmaceutical companies for their venom. If
the school is interested in this, take time to find a
reputable company.
Chemical Controls
If non-chemical methods alone prove insufficient to
solve the problem, then integrating a pesticide into
IPM for Schools
Chapter 19 • Yellowjackets and Hornets
-------
your management program may be warranted. For
information on the hazards of various pesticides and
on how to select an appropriate pesticide for your
situation, consult Appendix G for a list of resources.
Pesticides must be used in accordance with their EPA-
approved label directions. Applicators must be
certified to apply pesticides and should always wear
protective gear during applications. All labels and
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the pesticide
products authorized for use in the IPM program
should be maintained on file. Do not apply these
materials when buildings are occupied, and never
apply them where they might wash into the sanitary
sewer or into outside storm drains.
When an insecticide is considered necessary for the
control of yellowjackets, the best approach is to
confine it to the nest itself. Anyone applying insecti-
cides should use special clothing that protects against
the chemical as well as against wasps. This should
include a respirator, goggles, coveralls, and rubber
gloves, as well as a bee suit with a veil (see also Box
19-C). Apply insecticides in the evening or very early
morning when children are out of the school, the
wasps are in their nests, and cool temperatures reduce
the insects' ability to move around.
Of the main insecticides registered for use against
yellowjackets, the following are most appropriate for
use in schools.
Pyrethrin Aerosol
Pyrethrin can be used to quickly knock down guard
wasps at the nest entrance and to kill yellowjackets in
an aerial nest once the nest has been cut down and is
inside a plastic bag. Only very small amounts of this
material are necessary to kill the wasps and there is no
need to use more (consult Box 19-D for the specific
procedures for poisoning nests).
Box 19-D. How to Destroy Nests Using Pesticides
Application of pesticides to yellowjacket nests should
be made in the evening or early in the morning, and the
pest control operator should always wear protective
clothing (see Box 19-C).
Aerial Nests
1. If necessary, use a pole-pruner to trim branches away
from the nest. Be extremely careful if you do this.
2. Using a ladder, climb near enough to the nest to
squirt a half-second blast (no more is necessary) of
aerosol pvrethrin (0.3% or 0.5%) around the nest
entrance hole to kill the guard wasps.
3. Cover the nest with a large, heavy-duty, black plastic
garbage bag and cut off the branch from which the nest
is hanging or cut the nest off the branch.
4. On a sunny day, twist the top of the plastic bag, fold
the twist over and secure with a twist tie. Leave the
bag in the sun for 2 or 3 hours to kill the wasps.
On a cool or cloudy day, you may need to use
insecticide to kill the wasps. Gatner the top of the
plastic bag together, insert the nozzle of the aerosol
pyrethrin (0.3% or 0.5%), and squirt in another
naif-second blast. Do not over-treat. This small
amount of pyrethrin is enough to kill the
yellowjackets.
5. Dispose of the bag in the garbage.
Ground Nests
1. Check the area 40 to 50 feet around the nest before
treating. If another entrance is found, use a half-
second blast of aerosol pyrethrin (0.3% or 0.5%)
to kill the guard wasps, stuff the hole with news-
paper or paper towels, and cover it with soil.
2. Use a half-second blast of the aerosol pyrethrin to
kill the guards at the main entrance.
3. Using a 4-way tip on the aerosol, spray inside the
entrance hole for 5-10 seconds. Do not over-treat.
Stuff the hole with newspaper or paper towels but
do not cover it with soil.
4. After waiting a few minutes, remove the paper
from the entrance hole. Use a bulb duster to apply
silica aerogel plus pyrethrin to the interior of the
cavity and the nest. A few pumps should apply
sufficient material. If the nest is located some
distance back from the ground opening, attach a
length of PVC tubing to the bulb duster to extend
its reach.
5. Stuff a piece of coarse steel wool or copper mesh
that has been treated with a light dusting of silica
aerogel plus pyrethrin into the entrance hole. Any
wasps trying to get in or out will chew on the steel
wool and be killed by the insecticide.
Nests in Wall Voids
Wasp colonies in wall voids can be eliminated using the
same procedure detailed above for ground nests.
After removing the colony, make any necessary struc-
tural changes to prevent wasps from reinfesting.
IPM for Schools
Chapter 19 • Yellowjackets and Hornets
-------
Silica Aerogel and Pyrethrin
Silica aerogel combined with pyrethrin is an effective
insecticidal dust that can be used to destroy an under-
ground nest or a nest in a wall void after the guard
wasps have been lulled (see Box 19-D). Silica aerogel
is made essentially from sand and works by absorbing
the outer waxy coating on insect bodies. Once this
coating is gone, the insects cannot retain water and die
of dehydration.
Products with Components That "Freeze" Wasps
In emergency situations when nests must be destroyed
in the daytime, it is helpful to carry one of these
products as a safety precaution. These aerosol prod-
ucts are designed to project their spray a distance of 10
to 20 feet and contain highly evaporative substances
that "freeze" or stun the yellowjackets.
Do Not Use Gasoline
Many people pour gasoline into underground nest
holes. This is a fire hazard, contaminates the soil, and
prevents growth of vegetation for some time. It is a
very dangerous procedure.
Avoid Area-Wide Poisoning
Mass poisoning is seldom, if ever, necessary, and is
expensive due to the labor involved in the frequent
mixing and replacement of bait. The effectiveness of
bait mixtures is also questionable, since the baits face
considerable competition from other food sources
attractive to scavenging yellowjackets.
Bibliography
Akre, R.D. and A.L. Antonelli. 1991. Yellowjackets and paper
wasps. Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA, Cooperative
Extension Bulletin No. EB0643, 6 pp.
Akre, R.D., A. Greene, J.F. MacDonald, P.J. Landolt, and H.G.
Davis. 1981. Yellowjackets of America North of Mexico. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USDA
Agricultural Handbook 552,102 pp.
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996.1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. IPM Practitioner 18(11/
12):1 -39.
Krorabein, K.V., P.D. Hurd, Jr., D.R. Smith, and BJ). Burks. 1979.
Catalog of Hymenoptera of America North of Mexico, Volumes
I, II, and III. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
1198,2209, and 2735 pp., respectively.
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. CommonrSense
Pest Control Least-toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets
and community. Taunton Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
Turkington, C. 1994. Poisons and Antidotes. Facts on File, New
York, NY. 372 pp.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
152
Chapter 19 • Yellowjackets and Hornets
-------
Recommended Reading
Beal, R.H., J.K. Mauldin, and S.C.Jones. 1983.
Subterranean termites: their prevention and control in
buildings. U.S. Forest Service, Washington, D.C.
Home and Garden Bulletin 64, 36 pp.
An excellent, beautifully illustrated booklet on
detecting termite damage. Prevention in the form of
correct building design and maintenance is stressed,
but the discussion of corrective treatments is limited to
chemical controls.
Bland, R.H., and H.E. Jaques. 1978. How to Know
the Insects. 3rd ed. McGraw Hill Co., Blacklick, OH.
409 pp.
Identification keys and drawings for insects common to
the United States and Canada.
Carr, A. 1979. Rodale's Color Handbook of Garden
Insects. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. 241 pp.
Contains 300 color photos to aid the pest manager in
recognizing insect pests and allies.
Conner, E.W. 1976. The Back Pocket Guide to
Ornamental Plants. Vocational Education
Productions of California Polytechnic State
University, San Luis Obispo, CA. 317 pp.
This guide contains over 300 black and white drawings
of plants found throughout the United States. It is
arranged in alphabetical order by botanical names,
and is cross referenced in the index by common names.
Crouch, H.B. 1995. Diseases of Turf grasses 3rd ed.
Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar, FL. 421 pp.
A good reference book containing 30 full-page color
plates to assist a turfgrass manager m identifying
turf grass diseases. Causal agents and control methods
are also discussed.
Dreistadt, S.H., J.K. Clark, and M.L. Flint. 1994. Pests
of Landscape Trees and Shrubs: an integrated pest
management guide. University of California Statewide
Integrated Pest Management Project, Division of
Agriculture and Natural Resources (Publication 3359),
Davis, CA. 327 pp.
Excellent guide for managing problems on a wide
variety of plants; each pest is illustrated with a color
plate. Although published for California, this book
will be useful in other areas as well.
Ebeling, W. 1975. Urban Entomology. University of
California, Division of Agricultural Sciences, Los
Angeles. 695 pp.
A classic text on the biology and management of urban
pests, including rats and mice. Excellent drawings and
photographs and a readable text make it outstanding.
Dr. Ebeling is the U.S. expert on the use of silica gel,
boric acid, and other least-toxic pesticides for insect
control in urban and suburban environments.
Editors. 1997. Farm Chemicals Handbook. Meister
Publishing Company, Willoughby, OH. 560 pp.
This is a very useful reference that lists experimental
and commercially available pesticides being marketed
in the U.S. Includes technical descriptions of the
compounds, chemical formulas, and brief notes on
action, toxicity, and application. Also contains a
directory of fertilizers. Updated yearly.
Ellis, B.W. and F.M. Bradley, eds. 1992. The Organic
Gardener's Handbook of Natural Insect and Disease
Control: a complete problem-solving guide to keeping
your garden and yard healthy without chemicals.
Rodale Press, Inc. Emmaus, PA. 534 pp.
This alphabetical encyclopedia of over 200 popular
garden plants has well-researched, easy-to-use
information to diagnose, prevent, and control problems
m gardens and landscapes.
Ferguson, Nicola. 1984. Right Place, Right Plant: the
indispensable guide to the successful garden. Summit
Books, New York. 292 pp.
Written by an English author but useful for the U.S. as
well. Describes particular situations (dry shade, moist
sun, etc.) and suggests specific plants.
Flint M.L. 1990. Pests of the Garden and Small Farm:
a grower's guide to using less pesticide. University of
California Statewide Integrated Pest Manage-ment
Project, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources
(Publication 3332), Davis 276 pp.
Summarizes 1PM approaches to more than a hundred
IPM for Schools
153
-------
pest insects, weeds, and plant diseases found in the U.S.
and Canada. Beautifully illustrated with color plates.
Frantz, S.C. 1980. Integrated pest management:
philosophy and bask guidelines. National Association
of Housing and Redevelopment Officials, September 3
and 4,1980, Albany, NY. 20 pp.
An excellent discussion of an IPM approach to rodent
control emphasizing sanitation, pest-proofing structures
and trapping.
Harmon, J.D. 1993. Integrated Pest Management in
Museum, Library and Archival Facilities. Harmon
Preservation Pest Management, Indianapolis, IN.
140 pp.
An excellent reference for pest problems encountered in
libraries and museums.
Hembra, R.L. 1993. GAO Report to the Chairman,
Subcommittee on Toxic Substances, Research and
Development, Committee on Environment and
Public Works, U.S. Senate Lawn Care Pesticides Re-
registration Falls Further Behind and Exposure
Effects Are Uncertain. U.S. General Accounting
Office, Washington, D.C. 41 pp.
Hvgnstrom, S.E., R.M. Timm, and G.E. Larson, eds.
1995. Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage.
University of Nebraska, Institute of Agriculture and
Natural Resources, Lincoln. 250 pp.
This loose-leaf book is the most comprehensive source
of information available on managing wildlife pest
problems. The groups covered include rodents, bats,
deer, birds, reptiles, and others.
Johnson, W.T. and H.H. Lyon. 1988. Insects that Feed
on Trees and Shrubs. Cornell University Press, Ithaca,
NY. 565 pp.
Although this book does not always make recommen-
dations for management, it is an excellent reference for
identification, biological summaries, and scientific
references.
Leslie, A.R. 1994. Handbook of Integrated Pest
Management for Turf and Ornamentals. Lewis
Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. 660 pp.
The EPA assisted in the development of this book with
the stated purpose of reducing,pesticide pollution. It is
intended for professionals who deal with urban
landscaping and turf management of all kinds.
Madison, J.H. 1971. Practical Turf grass Management.
PWS Publishers, Boston. 466 pp.
This is the best lawn management text yet written.
Mallis, A. 1997. Handbook of Pest Control 8th ed.
CIE Publications, Cleveland, OH. 1,400 pp.
(Available by June 1997.)
A classic work on urban pests. Excellent reference book.
Marer, P.J. 1988. The Safe and Effective Use of
Pesticides. University of California Statewide
Integrated Pest Management Project, Division of
Agriculture and Natural Resources (Publication 3324),
Davis. 387 pp.
Michalak, P.S. 1994. Rodale's Controlling Pests and
Diseases. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. 160 pp.
Color photographs and specific information for 65
garden pests and 50 common plant diseases. Also
includes color photographs and discussions of over 20
beneficial insects.
Miller, N.L., ed. 1995. The Healthy School Handbook
Conquering the Sick Building Syndrome and Other
Environmental Hazards In and Around Your School.
National Education Association, Washington, D.C.
446 pp.
A comprehensive, illustrated guide to sick building
syndrome and its treatments.
Moore, H.B. 1995. An Introduction to Wood
Destroying Insects: their identification, biology,
prevention and control. Pest Control Magazine,
Cleveland, OH. 120 pp.
Good descriptions of and control information for
termites, wood-boring beetles, wood wasps, carpenter
bets, and carpenter ants.
National Research Council (U.S.) Committee on
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. 1993.
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children.
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 386 pp.
This report documents the fact that infants and children
face relatively higher risks from exposure to pesticides
than do adults exposed at the same levels. Discusses
physiological reactions, dietary and non-dietary sourc.
of pesticides, and the possible effects on children of
combined pesticides (synergism).
IPM for Schools
154
Recommended Reading
-------
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991.
Common-Sense Pest Control Least-toxic solutions for
your home, garden, pets and community. Taunton
Press, Newtown, CT. 715 pp.
An excellent, comprehensive resource book on IPM.
Illustrated with photos, drawings, tables, and charts.
Phillips, R. 1978. Trees of North America and Europe.
Random House, New York. 224 pp.
This book contains color photographs of leaves, flowers,
seeds, and fruits of more than 500 commonly planted
trees.
Riley, B. 1994. Getting Pesticides out of our Schools.
Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides
(NCAP), Eugene, OR. 30 pp.
This compilation of articles covers the hazards of
pesticides to school children, alternatives to pesticides,
and model school IPM policies. Includes a resource list.
Schultz, W. 1989. The Chemical-Free Lawn. Rodale
Press, Emmaus, PA. 194 pp.
An excellent primer on lawn care without the use of
synthetic chemical products.
Sinclair, W.A., H.H. Lyon, and W.T. Johnson. 1987.
Diseases of Trees and Shrubs. Cornell University Press,
Ithaca, NY. 574 pp.
Contains excellent descriptions and color plates. While
control methods are not discussed, the biological
information is critical for developing management
programs.
Smith, M.D., ed. 1982. The Ortho Problem Solver. Chevron
Chemical Company, San Francisco, CA. 1022 pp.
Although suggested treatments rely heavily on Ortho
chemicals, this book has good color photos to help
identify problems. Contains a very useful Appendix
with information on plants that are susceptible and
resistant to various diseases, insects, pollution, drought,
lightning, injury from fill and much more. Includes a
list of all the extension agents in the country.
Smith, R.L. 1982. Venomous Animals of Arizona.
Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture,
University of Arizona, Tucson. 134 pp.
An excellent practical survey of the venomous animals
in the southwestern states and California. Incudes
least-toxic approaches to their management.
Symonds, W.D. 1963. The Shrub Identification Book.
William Morrow and Company, New York. 379 pp.
Over3500 black and white photographs for identification
of shrubs, vines, and ground comers. Many details such as
leaves, fruit, twigs, etc. appear in actual sue.
Tashiro, H. 1987. Turf grass Insects of the United States
and Canada. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
391 pp.
A comprehensive text-reference on turf grass pests
(including vertebrates) in the continental United
States, Hawaii, and southern Canada.
Ware, G.W. 1994. The Pesticide Book. 4th ed.
Thomson Publications, Fresno, CA. 386 pp.
This valuable reference contains much more in-depth
information on pesticides than the Farm Chemicals
Handbook. The book is arranged by type of pesticide:
insecticides, rodenticides, ovicides, herbicides, etc.
Includes discussions on modes of action, pesticide
resistance, toxicity and hazards, and safe handling
and storage.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
155
Recommended Reading
-------
Appendix A
IPM-Related Curricula and Resources
for the Classroom
BugPlay
For grades K through 3. Hands-on experiences with harmless insects help students develop an appreciation for
these amazing creatures. Lessons, with accompanying music cassette, include the jse of poems, songs, and
drawings. Available from:
Addison Wesley Publishing Co.
(800)552-2259
Learning About Pesticides at School: Project Ideas for High School or Middle School Classrooms or Stu-
dent Environmental Clubs
September, 1995 22 pp. plus 8 page glossary
Teaching/learning activities designed for middle school and high school level students. Includes a variety of
activities which can be combined into one comprehensive school pesticide use reduction project. This is an ideal
project for interdisciplinary classes or environmental clubs. The project also involves activities appropriate in
traditional health, chemistry, biology, ecology, math, speech, and social studies classrooms. Better yet, it involves
students in a "real-world" project that will make a difference in their own lives. Available from:
Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides (NCAP)
P.O. Box 1393
Eugene, OR 97440
(541)344-5044
Legacy of a Pest
Science, technology, and social curriculum guide for understanding and dealing with pest problems. The over 50
teacher-tested activities deal with the gypsy moth problem, it's life cycle, IPM control strategies, chemical con-
trol strategies, and more. 243 pp. Available from:
Legacy of a Pest
607 E. Peabody Dr.
Champaign, IL 61820
(217)333-6880
Living With Insects in the Big City: Urban Insect Ecology and Safe Pest Management
A curriculum for grades K-3. Contains hands-on activities, teaches science framework concepts and applies
biological concepts to our urban world. Includes graphic aids. Available from:
Citizens for a Better Environment (CBE)
500 Howard St., Ste. 506
San Francisco, CA 94105
(415)243-8373
IPM for Schools
157
Appendix A • Curricula and Resources
-------
Teaching Ideas: Pesticide Awareness and the Concept of Integrated Pest Management
Curriculum is suitable for use in middle, junior, or senior high school biology, ecology, or social studies
courses. Included is "How to Map Pesticide Use in your School (and Community),'' and four lesson plans on
pesticides and Integrated Pest Management concepts. Available from:
Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides (NCAP)
P.O. Box 1393
Eugene, OR 97440
(541)344-5044
The Growing Classroom
For grades 2 through 6. Students use indoor and outdoor gardens for the study of science and nutrition through
experimentation, investigation, and data collection and analysis. Available from:
Addison Wesley Publishing Co:
(800)552-2259
The Young Entomologists' Society (Y.E.S.)
An international society of young and amateur insect enthusiasts. Operates on a membership basis, publishes
several newsletters, sells books, educational toys, and clothing. Encourages active involvement of its young mem-
bers and communication with each other, primarily through the mail. A catalog of their publications is available.
Y.E.S. Inc.
1915 Peggy Place
Lansing, MI 48910-2553
(517)887-0499
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
158
Appendix A • Curricula and Resources
-------
Appendix B
How to Develop an IPM Program
The Two Phases
of IPM Program Development
IPM program development generally occurs in two
major phases: the start-up phase and the operational
phase. The start-up phase involves educating key
decision-makers about the need for the program,
adopting an IPM policy and addressing administrative
issues, and identifying the roles and responsibilities of
the various members of the school community in
operating a successful IPM program. The operational
phase involves designing and implementing IPM
programs for specific pests; training pest management,
custodial, grounds maintenance, and nursing staff in
IPM methods; and institutionalizing the IPM program.
Start-Up Phase
Educating key decision-makers
The stimulus for development of successful IPM
programs in schools has come primarily from con-
cerned parents. The key to success is educating the
school board, superintendent, business operations
manager, principals, PTA officers, and other decision-
makers about potential problems with pesticide-based
programs and presenting them with viable alternatives
offered by the IPM approach.
Two publications are useful in this early phase: Get-
ting Pesticides out of Schools, published by Northwest
Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides in Eugene,
OR, and the booklet, Pesticides in our Communities:
Choices for Change, a community action guide pub-
lished by Concern, Inc., in Washington, D.C. (see the
bibliography at :he end of this chapter for details on
where to obtain these publications). Box A summarizes
twelve steps for pesticide use reduction in schools.
Adopting an IPM policy
Adoption of an IPM policy by the school board is key
to starting an IPM program. A sample IPM policy is
provided in Appendix C.
Identifying pest management roles and
responsibilities
It is critical that representatives from all segments of
the school communiry be involved in setting up the
IPM program from the beginning in order to foster
their "buy-in" to the process and the program. This
includes school board members, administrators and
staff, teachers, students, parents, custodians, food
service workers, ground maintenance personnel,
school nurses, and pest control professionals. When
the respective roles of all the people involved directly
or indirectly with pests in the school system are
identified and agreed upon, and when these people
communicate well with each other, effective and less
expensive protection of the site and the people can be
achieved with reduced risk from pesticides. A discus-
sion of roles and responsibilities is provided in Box B.
Operational Phase
The operational phase involves designing IPM pro-
grams for specific sites and pests, delivering IPM
services, and evaluating program costs. Fully-devel-
oped, multi-tactic IPM programs are generally imple-
mented in three stages, although components of each
stage often overlap.
Stage 1 introduces monitoring and pest action thresh-
olds to replace routine pesticide applications, and
develops preliminary pest management objectives.
Schools that have relied primarily on routine pesticide
applications usually begin with a Stage 1 IPM program,
and work up to a more complex stage as they develop
experience and confidence in the IPM approach. Box C
outlines tips for getting programs started.
Stage 2 formalizes pest management plans and maxi-
mizes pest-proofing, education, and non-chemical pest
suppression. Stage 3 institutionalizes the IPM program.
Stage 1 IPM
Stage 1 IPM focuses primarily on moving away from
routine use of pesticides by instituting a pest monitor-
ing program to collect data and establish pest treat-
ment (action) thresholds based on pest population
levels (see Chapters 2 and 3). A pilot program is
initiated at one school site, so new skills can be gained
and techniques fine-tuned before the program is
expanded throughout the system.
Pesticides may remain the primary control agents used
during this stage, but applications are made only when
pest numbers reach action levels. Spot-treatments
IPM for Schools
159 Appendix B • How to Develop an IPM Program
-------
Box A
STEPS TO SCHOOL PESTICIDE USE REDUCTION*
1. DO YOUR HOMEWORK
• Find allies, network.
• Develop a basic plan, establish goals (but remain
flexible).
• Compile information on hazardous pesticides and
their alternatives.
• Be prepared to answer statements countering your
arguments.
• Gather information on the organization of your
school and school district (who's responsible for
what).
• Maintain records.
2. MEET WITH SCHOOL OFFICIALS
• Determine the level of interest and cooperation for
your pesticide reduction plan.
• Schedule a meeting with those school representa-
tives who need tQ be involved in a plan to reduce
school pesticide use (safety officers, grounds
keepers, school pest management personnel, etc.).
• Bring allies and an agenda to your meeting.
• Ask questions. For example, which pests are
present? What chemicals are being used to
control them? When and how often are pesticide
applications done and by whom? Who makes the
decisions about application. Are alternatives
considered? What kind of records are kept? Is
the school nurse trained to recognize pesticide
poisoning?
• Be friendly but insistent.
3. EVALUATE AND IDENTIFY STRATEGIES
• Determine the level of cooperation you're likely to
receive and develop a plan accordingly.
4. MEET WITH OR WRITE THE
SUPERINTENDENT
• Make him/her aware of your concerns.
5. DOCUMENT SCHOOL PESTICIDE USE
Include in your report
an introduction about the hazards of pesticide use in
schools
the types, uses, and hazards of chemicals used in
your district
basic recommendations for alternatives (hire an
entomologist to do an on-site assessment!)
DEVELOP A SCHOOL IPM POLICY
Get your school board to develop a system-wide
pesticide reduction policy.
Watch for soft language—policy wording that is open
to interpretation can be used to justify spraying.
CONSIDER COSTS
Compare the costs of IPM and conventional pest
control methods.
Remember to point out long-term budgetary issues.
EDUCATE AND ORGANIZE
Prepare a presentation for parent groups, student
groups, school personnel, and other appropriate
community groups.
Have a handout ready.
WORK WITH THE MEDIA
Define your message.
Get the word out in the community.
0. ADVOCATE FOR THE IPM POLICY
Lobby school board members. Gather petitions in
support of the IPM policy.
Hold public meetings and have teacher's reps, and
experts on health, the environment, and children
ready to speak.
Include the media.
Be prepared to handle objections.
1. SELECT A COMMITTEE
Organize a pesticide use reduction committee to
oversee developments and implementation.
2. CELEBRATE AND NETWORK
Adapted from Taylor 1991
rather than area-wide applications are stressed, non-
volatile baits and dusts are substituted for vaporizing
sprays, and less-toxic soaps, oils, and microbial mate-
rials replace more toxic compounds.
At the same time, a planning process is established to
set pest management objectives, identify the root
causes of pest problems in the school system, and
assess methods to address these causes with primarily
non-chemical solutions.
Stage 2 IPM
Stage 2 IPM involves a concerted effort to incorporate
physical, mechanical, biological, and educational
strategies and tactics into the pest management pro-
gram, and to further reduce pesticide use.
Most pests found in school buildings can be attributr
to faulty building design, lack of structural repairs,
and poor food handling and waste management
practices. To achieve permanent solutions to pest
IPM for Schools
160 Appendix B • Haw to Develop an IPM Program
-------
problems, pest management staff must devote time to
educating building maintenance and custodial staff,
food handlers, and teachers and students about their
role in attracting or sustaining pests, and enlisting their
participation in solving the problems.
A similar process is needed to solve outdoor pest
problems. For example, cooperation from physical
education and coaching staff is needed to reduce stress
on athletic turf that leads to weed problems. Landscape
maintenance staff need encouragement to locate pest-
resistant plant materials, increase diversity in the
plantings to attract natural enemies of pests, and experi-
ment with non-chemical pest control methods. Assis-
tance from playground supervisors is needed to insure
that food debris and other wastes are placed inside
waste receptacles where rats, yellowjackets, etc. cannot
gain access to the wastes.
Box B
Identifying Pest Management Roles*
In successful school IPM programs, students, staff,
Earents, pest managers, and decision-makers all
ave important roles. These functions and respon-
sibilities are identified below.
Students and Staff—The Occupants
Students and staff have a major role to play in
keeping the school clean. Sanitation should not be
viewed as only the custodian's job. If students and
staff are shown the connection between food and
garbage and pests such as cockroaches, ants, flies,
and rodents, they are more likely to take sanitation
measures seriously and comply with them. Rules
for sanitation should be clear and succinct and they
should be stricdy enforced.
The Pest Manager
The pest manager is the person who observes and
evaluates (or directs others to do so) the site and
decides what needs to be done to achieve the pest
management objectives. The pest manager designs
an IPM program that takes into account potential
liability, applicator and occupant safety, costs,
effectiveness, environmental impacts, time re-
quired, and customer or occupant satisfaction.
The pest manager draws on knowledge gained
through experience and prior training and uses
information from the site and the pest and its
biology. Since the pest manager usually has the
responsibility of keeping both the occupants and
the decision-makers (management) informed, he
or she has the greatest need for information about
the site, pest, and appropriate pest management
methods.
The IPM program for the site must achieve the
goals within the limitations posed by safety, time,
money, and materials available. Pest managers
Adapted from U.S. EPA 1993
monitor the site and the pest populations to
determine if actions taken are successful, and must
keep accurate records of the amount and location
of all treatments, including pesticides, dates of each
treatment, and the level of effectiveness of the
treatment.
Decision-Makers
Generally, persons who authorize the IPM pro-
gram and control the money for pest management
are people involved in the school administration,
such as a Superintendent or Assistant Superinten-
dent of Schools. However, a person indirectly
involved with the site may become a pest manage-
ment decision-maker, e.g., the Health Department
Inspector. On other occasions, the purchasing
agent or contracting officer for a school system or
district may be a major decision-maker for a
school site.
At this level of pest management decision-making,
concerns about costs, liability, time expended,
method effectiveness, safety, and customer or
occupant satisfaction are foremost. Decision-
makers also determine if the pest manager is
performing at an acceptable level and if the pest
management objectives are being met. This can
be done by monitoring complaints from occu-
pants, periodic evaluation and review of pest
management strategy and effectiveness, observa-
tion of the site environment, inspections by
external sources, or by a combination of these and
other methods. Decision-makers must also provide
the necessary level of financial commitment for any
IPM program to succeed. With adoption of an IPM
policy and use of model IPM contract language,
there is less chance of error in communication
between the different parties involved.
IPM for Schools
161 Appendix B • How to Develop an IPM Program
-------
The primary activities during this stage include devel-
oping site-specific pest management plans and educat-
ing all participants about their roles and responsibilities
in helping to implement the plans.
Developing site-specific pest
management plans
Written plans help move school pest control from a
reactive system to a prevention-oriented system.
Annual plans enable pest managers to prioritize use of
resources, justify planned expenditures, provide ac-
countability to IPM policies, and coordinate with other
components of the school system.
These plans emphasize repairing buildings, changing
waste management procedures to deny food, water,
and shelter to indoor pests, and modifying plant
materials and landscape maintenance practices to
relieve plant stress and improve plant health.
Coses of these repairs and changes may fall within on-
going operation expenses in existing budgets, or may
require a one-time expenditure. In the long-term,
however, these activities will reduce overall pest
control costs as well as other maintenance and operat-
ing budget expenses.
Educating participants
Food service and custodial staff, clerical and adminis-
trative staff, teaching staff, and students must be
educated about their role in reducing pest presence in
order to enlist their cooperation.
Everyone must understand the basic concepts of IPM,
who to contact with questions or problems, and their
role as participants in the program. Specific instructions
should be provided on what to do and what not to do.
Teachers and staff should be discouraged from bring-
ing pesticides to school and applying them on school
sites. Instead they should be provided with clear
instructions on how and to whom to report a pest
problem. One option is to provide teachers, etc., with
"pest alert" cards on which they can write the date,
location, and pest problem. The card can be returned
to the teacher with a notation of what was (or will be)
done about the problem and what, if any, assistance is
requested of the teacher and students (e.g., better
sanitation in the classroom, etc.).
If information on IPM can be woven into the current
curriculum, students and teachers will better under-
stand their roles and responsibilities in the program,
but more than this, students will carry these concepts
into their adult lives. Education is the only way to
make a significant, long-term impact on pesticide use
in this country, and what better place to start than in
schools? The following ideas are just a few of the
ways that this information can be included in the
school curriculum:
• involve science classes in identifying pests and in
researching IPM strategies
• involve an classes and English classes in developing
simple fact sheets and other educational materials
on various school pests (use information from the
pest by pest chapters in this manual)
• involve vocational classes in making site plans of
the school to use for monitoring, in making site
inspections for structural defects that may exacer-
bate pest problems, and in suggesting structural
modifications to eliminate the problems
• involve journalism classes in reporting on the new
IPM program
• use some of the innovative curricula available that
emphasize IPM (see Appendix A for a list)
Stage 3 IPM
Stage 3 IPM involves institutionalizing the IPM pro-
gram. This includes developing on-going incentives
and reward systems for achieving IPM objectives,
establishing an IPM library of educational materials and
staff training programs, and writing operations manuals
that describe IPM policies and procedures to be fol-
lowed by pest management personnel.
Develop incentives and rewards
Involve staff in establishing benchmark objectives
(e.g., 20% pesticide reduction the first year, testing of
boric acid in place of organophosphate roach sprays,
raising of mowing height on turf to shade out weeds,
etc.). Reward them for innovations and achieving
objectives (e.g., a letter of commendation, recognition
at a staff awards picnic, article in local news media,
travel authorization to an out-of-town IPM confer-
ence, etc.).
Provide IPM educational materials and staff
training programs
IPM programs are information-intensive rather than
treatment-intensive. This necessitates motivating pest
control staff to try new approaches and broaden their
IPM for Schools
Appendix B • How to Develop an IPM Program
-------
Box C
Tips For Starring An IPM Program*
The following suggestions will help overcome
barriers and smooch the transition to IPM
implementation.
Mandate staff training in IPM. When writing
the IPM policy document, include a require-
ment for the continuing education of pest
management personnel. Ensure that budgetary
allocations are made to assist them in obtaining
the information, skills, and equipment they
need to carry out the policy.
Start small. Begin IPM implementation in one
location (e.g., a kitchen in a single school, a
section of lawn at a single school, etc.) and
include shon-term objectives. For example,
when dealing with a number of pest problems,
identify one of the pests likely to respond
quickly to an IPM approach, such as cock-
roaches, so a short-term objective can be real-
ized. Test the IPM methods and fine-tune.them.
When the program is working successfully in
one area, or against one pest, expand the pro-
gram further.
Develop a list of resources. Know where you
can go when information is needed, and know
when you need to seek outside help. County
Agricultural Extension personnel, teaching staff
in the biology or entomology departments of a
nearby university, staff at the local zoo, and even
the high school biology teacher can help identify
pests and their natural enemies. As you talk to
these people ask them if they know of experts in
yo;ur particular pest problem. You can slowly
compile a list of people whom you can call for
advice. Appendix G can be the beginning of
your resource list. Always post your local
poison control center telephone number in a
prominent place.
Build a library for pest management person-
nel, staff, and students to use. Agricultural
Extension publications are usually free or inex-
pensive and can be good sources of information
on pest biology. Even though these publica-
tions do not always recommend the least-toxic
"Adapted from Flint, et al. 1991
approach, they are still useful. The recommended
reading section of this manual lists many useful
books. Although some of these books are not in
print anymore, you may be able to obtain them
from your local library. If your library doesn't
have the book you are looking for, ask if they can
find the book in another, larger library and borrow
it through an inter-library loan.
Don't change everything at once. To thedegree
possible, retain communication and accountability
procedures already in use. Tailor new record
keeping and reporting forms to fit existing agency
formats. Recycle existing equipment to uses
consistent with IPM methods rather than immedi-
ately eliminating the equipment.
Share the process. Involve all members of the
student body and staff, especially pest management
personnel, in the day-to-day IPM program process
as early as possible so they will understand and
support-the program during the sometimes difficult
transition period.
Emphasize communication and plan for future
training. During the IPM transition period, keep
all personnel informed about what is planned, what
is happening now, the expected outcome, and
what will happen next. Prepare written records
and visual aids that will remain in the school
when persons associated with development of the
IPM program are no longer there.
Publicize the program. Develop good rapport
with district public relations personnel and with the
local news media. For interviews and photo ses-
sions, include pest managers, custodians, and land-
scape maintenance personnel as well as principals,
school board members, and the superintendent
Involve the community. Form an IPM advisory
committee composed of interested parents, school
staff, community organizations, health specialists,
and pest control professionals. They can help
make IPM implementation a budgetary priority in
the district, and can donate or locate resources that
may not otherwise be available to the school.
IPM for Schools
'43 Appendix B • How to Develop an IPM Program
-------
1
Box D
Sources of Pest Control Services*
IPM programs can be successfully implemented by
"in-house" school employees, by contracting with
a pest control company, or by mixing and match-
ing these options to meet the needs and capabilities
of the school system. All three approaches have
advantages and disadvantages, and individual
school systems must decide what is best for them
under their unique circumstances. Whatever way
you choose to implement your program, pest
management personnel should be trained to
• understand the principles of IPM
• identify structural features or human practices
that are contributing to pest infestations and
know how to permanently improve them to
reduce pest problems
• identify pests and recognize the signs or symp-
toms of their presence
• monitor infestation levels and keep records of
pests and treatments
• know how to successfully apply physical,
mechanical, cultural, and biological pest control
methods
• know the full array of least-hazardous pesti-
cides registered for use
• know recommended methods of judicious
pesticide application
• know the hazards of pesticides and the safety
precautions to be taken; be familiar with the
pesticide label's precautionary statement(s)
pertaining to exposure to humans or animals
"In-House" Services
One of the most important tasks for an in-house
program is training staff to function within an IPM
Adapted from U.S. EPA 1993
professional skills. Build an IPM library of literature
and training videos, and provide release time for staff
to attend training seminars or take courses in pest
identification.
Prepare an IPM operations manual
Written policies and procedures are needed to insure
clarity about responsibilities, authorized activities,
permitted materials, and other program elements. A
context. Universities and State Cooperative
Extension Services have the expertise to meet most
IPM training needs. Training materials that are
needed and are not already available can be devel-
oped jointly between the School District, the
Cooperative Extension Service, and other resource
organizations (see Appendix G).
Contracted Services
Pest control companies should work with the
responsible school official to solve pest control
problems. Using an outside pest control company
may cost more initially than in-house staff, but
has the advantages of not having to hire and train
personnel, or, when necessary, incur the added
costs of storing pesticides. The contract should
specify the use of IPM principles and practices in
meeting pest management objectives.
When choosing a pest control firm, local Better
Business Bureaus or state regulatory agencies may
provide information about whether they have or
have not received complaints about a pest control
company. State regulatory agencies can also provide
information on pesticide applicator certification.
The pest management services contract should
include IPM specifications. Contracts should be
written to provide expected results. Pest manage-
ment objectives specific to the site should be
jointly developed, agreed upon, and written into
the contract. Any special health concerns (such as
those for old or young persons, for pets, or for
individuals.who are allergic, etc.) should be noted
and reflected in the pesticides that can be utilized,
or excluded from use. See Appendix D for sample
contract performance specifications.
manual serves as an accountability mechanism, and helps
insure program continuity despite personnel changes.
A loose-leaf binder that allows for addition or deletion
of materials over the years is a convenient format. In
addition to official policies, procurement practices, etc
the manual should specify the following:
• pest management objectives
• the overall IPM process for managing each pest
IPM for Schools
Appendix B • How to Develop an IPM Program
-------
• biological and ecological information on the pest
and its natural enemies
• the monitoring system for each pest (and natural
enemies when appropriate)
• injury levels and action thresholds for pests
• the record keeping system to be used
• how to interpret field data
• how to obtain, use, and maintain equipment and
supplies required to carry out monitoring and
treatment activities
• the range of treatment tactics authorized for use
against the pest and how to employ them
• a list of pesticides authorized for use in the district
• safety procedures and resources for emergencies
• how to evaluate treatment effectiveness
Building Support for the IPM
Program
Once an IPM policy has been adopted by a school
board, it is up to the in-house pest control staff or
outside contractors to implement the policy (see Box
D for a discussion of pest control services and Appen-
dix D for sample IPM contract specifications).
Change never comes easilv. and there are a number of
predictable obstacles within a school system—both
psychological and institutional—to be overcome when
initiating IPM programs. At the same time, even if the
public has been involved with development of a policy,
there are likely to be occasional complaints and contro-
versies, especially as pests, pest control practices, and
public concerns change.
Psychological Barriers to IPM
Adoption
Psychological resistance to change
The Problem
When pest control personnel are asked to make pest
control decisions in a new way and to use new
methods, they may feel that there is a negative impli-
cation regarding their past performance so they resist
making the changes or drag their feet.
How to Address It
It is important to avoid an adversarial relationship
with the school's personnel. If you want to secure
their cooperation, you cannot think of them or por-
tray them as "the bad guys." Pest control personnel
will have information about current pests and pest
control practices in the school as well as historical
information that will be invaluable to you. Let them
know that you consider their knowledge important
and that you need their expertise in planning the
implementation of the IPM program. Try to foster a
sense of team spirit and point out that a pilot IPM
program at your school could be used as a model for
other schools in the district.
Loss of authority
The Problem
Adopting an IPM approach may engender fear of
many kinds of loss, including loss of personal or
supervisory authority. In the first case, individuals
may fear that their experience in the field will become
devalued, particularly if their, expertise has been in
pesticide application. In the second case, supervisors
may fear that the system will become more efficient
and they will lose positions beneath them.
How to Address It
Actually, successful IPM implementation enhances
both personal and supervisory authority. Many of the
new, less toxic pest control materials, such as phero-
mones, microbial and botanical pesticides, and insect
growth regulators (IGRs) require the same or similar
application skills and equipment as conventional
pesticides. Mastering the techniques of monitoring,
for example, enhances individual skills and can lead to
an upgrading in job classification. In terms of supervi-
sory authority, IPM programs provide managers with
greater flexibility in staff assignments. For example,
by emphasizing monitoring rather than prophylactic
pesticide applications, staff time previously spent
spraying can be redirected to other tasks, increasing
overall productivity within a department.
Imagined difficulty in learning new
technology
The Problem
The techniques used in IPM may initially appear to
require conceptual and operational skills beyond those
of the current staff.
How to Address It
This fear can be overcome by building staff training
into the IPM implementation program, and by estab-
lishing a transition period during which pest manage-
ment personnel experiment with and fine-tune IPM
methods. Once personnel have a basic understanding
of IPM concepts, these people will become the source
IPM for Schools
Appendix B • How to Develop an IPM Program
-------
of the most useful innovations in pest management
because they have the most extensive knowledge of
how their system works.
Fear of IPM program failure
The Problem
Supervisory personnel may believe that the IPM
program will not work for them even though it has
been successful in a nearby school.
How to Address It
In fact, IPM programs are designed for the particular
circumstances of each location. While the IPM
decision-making process remains the same no matter
what the pest or site, the specific tactics and products
used may vary greatly from one location or circum-
stance to another. This flexibility usually assures an
appropriate solution to the pest'problem.
Institutional Barriers to IPM
Adoption
Fear that IPM means no access to pesticides
The Problem
Some people think IPM means never using chemical
controls.
How to Address It
While IPM definitely encourages alternatives to
pesticides when feasible, chemical controls are used
when necessary. However, in an IPM program,
pesticides that are least-disruptive, most-selective to
specific pests, and rapidly biodegrade are preferred
over common, broad-spectrum materials. When
chemical controls are used in an IPM program, every
effort is made to "spot-treat" specific areas rather than
spraying large areas.
Fears that IPM is more expensive than
traditional pest control
The Problem
Until agencies have experience with IPM, they expect
it to cost more than their current program.
How to Address It
While there are short-term start-up costs for any new
technology, in the long run IPM has usually proven
more cost-effective than a strictly chemical control
program. When possible, IPM programs substitute
information gathering (monitoring) in place of other
pest control activities, such as preventive pesticide
applications. This can be very cost-effective. For
example, by monitoring 1100 e^m tTees rather
than prophylactic'1'y spraying them against elm leaf
beetles, the City of San Rafael, CA found that only a
-------
Box E
Contacts to Help Implement an IPM Program
Tim Rhay Consulting
916Corydon St.
Eugene, OR 97401
(541)345-8006
Tim Rhay has been instrumental in developing and maintaining the IPM program for Eugene, OR, which
has been a huge success. He is involved in doing presentations to pest control professionals, maintenance
workers, and various state government workers. He operates a limited consulting business in IPM imple-
mentation, especially for athletic turf maintenance.
Mike Raup—(301) 405-3912
John Davidson—(301) 405-3927
Lee Hellman—(301) 405-3920
Department of Entomology
University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
All three have been part of a team of entomologists working for many years on implementing IPM pro-
grams in various environments. They have been involved in establishing demonstration homeowner sites;
in working with commercial landscape professionals (where switching to IPM resulted in a 93% reduction
in pesticide use), in nurseries and greenhouses, and in institutional settings. They have published reports
on each of the programs they have implemented, including data on pesticide use reduction.
Bibliography
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). 1996. 1997 directory of
least-toxic pest control products. IPM Practitioner 18(11/
12):l-48.
Boyd, S. et al. 1992. Pesticides in our Communities: choices for
change. Concern, Inc., Washington, D.C. 31 pp. [Available
from Concern, Inc., 1794 Columbia Road NW, Washington,
D.C. 20009; (202) 328-8160. Has extensive references to
source literature on pesticide toxicology.]
Flint, M.L., S. Daar, and R. Molinar. 1991. Establishing Integrated
Pest Management Policies and Programs: a guide for public
agencies. Univ. of California Statewide IPM Project. UC 1PM
Publication 12. University of California, Davis, CA. 9 pp.
Riley, B. Getting Pesticides out of Schools. NC AP, Eugene, OR.
30pp: [Available from NCAP, P.O. Box 1393, Eugene, OR
97440; (503) 344-5044.]
U.S. EPA 1993. Pest Control m the School Environment: Adopting
Integrated Pest Management. Pub. No. 735-F-93-012. Office
of Pesticide Programs (H7506C). Washington, D.C. 43 pp.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
Appendix B • How to Develop em IPM Program
-------
Appendix C
Developing an IPM Policy Statement for
School Pest Management
A clear policy statement is needed to develop agree-
ment about how pest control will be performed. The
sample IPM policy included here does not exclude the
use of a pesticide, but places all pesticide use within a
context where such use will be minimized. A policy
statement for school pest management should state the
intent of the school administration to implement an
IPM program and should briefly provide guidance on
what specifically is expected. The sample policy
statement below can be adapted and modified to fit
your own situation. This model has been used by a
wide variety of institutions and school districts as a
way to resolve conflicts and redirect pest control
efforts toward least hazardous practices.
Sample School Pest Management
Policy Statement
Structural and landscape pests can pose significant
problems to people, property, and the environment;
however, the pesticides used to solve these problems
carry their own risks. It is therefore the policy of this
School District to use Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) programs and procedures for control of struc-
tural and landscape pests.
Pests
Pests are living organisms (animals, plants, or micro-
organisms) that interfere with human purposes for the
school site. Strategies for managing pest populations
will be influenced by the pest species and the degree to
which that population poses a threat to people, prop-
erty, or the environment.
Pest Management
Pests will be managed to
• reduce any potential human health hazard or to
protect against a significant threat to public safety
• prevent loss or damage to school resources, struc-
tures or property
• prevent pests from spreading in the community,
or to plant and animal populations beyond the
school site
• enhance the quality of life for students, staff,
and others
Pest management strategies must be included in an
approved pest management plan for the site.
Integrated Pest Management Procedures
IPM procedures will determine when to control pests,
and whether to use physical, horticultural, or biologi-
cal means. Chemical controls are used as a last reson.
IPM practitioners depend on current, comprehensive
information on the pest and its environment, and the
best available pest control methods. Applying IPM
principles prevents unacceptable levels of pest activity
and damage. These principles are implemented by the
most economical means and with the least possible
hazard to people, property, and the environment.
It is the policy of this School District to utilize IPM
principles to manage pest populations adequately.
While the goal of this IPM program is to reduce and
ultimately eliminate use of toxic chemicals, toxic
chemicals may become necessary in certain situations.
The choice of using a pesticide will be based on a
review of all other available options and a determina-
tion that these options are unacceptable or are infea-
sible, alone or in combination. Cost or staffing
considerations alone will not be adequate justification
for use of chemical control agents. The full range of
alternatives, including no action, will be considered.
When it is determined that a pesticide must be used in
order to prevent pest levels from exceeding action
thresholds, the least-hazardous (see Box A) material
will be chosen. The application of such pesticides is
subject to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (7 USC 136 et seq.), School District
policies and procedures, Environmental Protection
Agency regulations in 40 CFR, Occupational Safety
and Health Administration regulations, and state and
local regulations.
Education
Staff, students, administrative personnel, custodial
staff, pest managers, and the public will be educated
about potential school pest problems and the inte-
grated pest management policies and procedures to be
used to achieve the desired pest management objectives.
IPM for Schools 149 Appendix C • Developing a Policy Statement
-------
Record Keeping
Records will be kept on the number of pests or other
indicators of pest populations both before and after
any treatments. Records must be current and accurate
if IPM is to work. Records of pesticide use shall be
maintained on site to meet the requirements of the
state regulatory agency and School Board, and records
will also document any non-toxic treatment methods
being used. The objective is to create records from
which programs and practices can be evaluated in
order to improve the system and to eliminate ineffec-
tive and unnecessary treatments.
Notification
This School District takes the responsibility to notify
students' parents or guardians and the school staff of
upcoming treatments which will involve a pesticide.
Notices will be posted in designated areas at school
and sent home with students.
Pesticide Storage and Purchase
Pesticide purchases will be limited to the amount
authorized for use during the year. Pesticides will be
stored and disposed of in accordance with the EPA-
registered label directions and State or Local regula-
tions. Pesticides must be stored in an appropriate,
secure site not accessible to students or unauthorized
personnel. A cabinet in a non-student area with a
locked and labeled door is advised. The door label
should include a skull and crossbones, Mr. Ugh, or
other visual signals for non-English reading adults or
children.
Pesticide Applicators
Pesticide applicators must be educated and trained in
the principles and practices of IPM and the use of
pesticides approved by this School District, and they
must iollow regulations and label precautions. Appli-
cators must be certified and comply with this School
District IPM Policy and Pest Management Plan.
Under no circumstances should applications be made
while school or school activities are in progress.
—1
Box A
Cautionary Labeling for Pesticides
Law requires that precautionary statements
and signal words be included on all pesticide
labels. The signal words (see below) indicate
the level of acute (immediate) toxicity of the
pesticide to humans. The chronic (long-term)
toxicity is not indicated on the label. Note
that chronic toxicity may be important for
materials used frequently or extensively, or
used in areas where children may receive
regular whole-body exposure (for example,
lawns on which young children play, sit, and
lie). Chronic toxicity information must be
obtained from scientific papers that are pub-
lished in scientific journals. Every label bears
the child hazard warning "Keep Out of Reach
of Children."
Signal Words
If none of these warnings is provided do not
use the pesticide.
DANGER-A taste to a teaspoonful taken by
mouth could kill an average-sized adult.
WARNING-A teaspoonful to an ounce taken
by mouth could kill an average-sized adult.
CAUTION-An ounce to over a pint taken by
mouth could kill an average-sized adult.
Note that these warnings are expressed as
amounts taken by mouth; however, most
actual exposure is through skin and lungs.
Thus, this system is not sufficient to guarantee
safety; it is only one indicator. No materials
with the DANGER indication should be used
near children. It also follows that WARNING
materials should be used only rarely on pests
for which no CAUTION materials are regis-
tered. Whenever additional information is
available about chronic toxicity it should be
used to compare different materials to chose
the least-toxic pesticides.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
Appendix C • Developing a Policy Statement
-------
Appendix D
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Contract Performance Specifications*
General Program Description
It is the intent of this contract to provide a compre-
hensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program
for the property listed herein. IPM is a relatively new
concept in urban areas. Traditional structural pest
control is largely reactive to pest infestations and bases
much of its response on routinely scheduled applica-
tion of pesticides. Routine applications are probably
unnecessary, and have limited effectiveness in provid-
ing adequate long-term control.
Conversely, IPM is a decision-makingprocess for
achieving long term pest suppression. In the IPM
process, monitoring and the interpretation of data
gathered provide estimates of the pest population in a
given area. This monitoring allows accurate decisions
to be made about when intervention measures are
needed, the cype of control measure selected, and the
method of application. Pest management practices in
an IPM program extend beyond the application of
pesticides to include structural, procedural, and
landscape modifications. These practices establish
physical barriers to pests, reduce the food, water, and
harborage available to them, and establish landscape
plants and designs which require less maintenance.
The Contractor shall furnish all labor, materials and
equipment to implement the monitoring, trapping,
and pesticide application aspects of the IPM program.
The Contractor shall also make detailed, site-specific
recommendations for structural and procedural
modifications to achieve pest suppression. The
Contractor shall provide evidence in his/her proposal
of sufficient expertise in pest control, and IPM prin-
ciples and practices to effectively carry out these
responsibilities.
The School District Pest Manager (SDPM) will act as
the manager of the IPM program, which will include
overseeing and monitoring contract performance.
Pests Included and Excluded
The IPM program specified by this contract is in-
tended to suppress the population of rats, mice,
cockroaches, ants, silverfish, and any other pest
° Adapted from contract specifications prepared for the Federal Goverr
included in the contract. Populations of these pests
which are located outside the buildings listed herein,
but within the property boundaries of the buildings,
are included.
General Program Requirements
General requirements of the IPM program shall include
the following for each site specified in this contract:
Initial Inspection
A thorough, initial inspection shall be conducted
during the first month of this contract by the
Contractor's representative, Property Manager or
representative, and SDPM. The purpose of this initial
inspection is to allow the contractor to evaluate the
pest management needs of the property and to discuss
these needs with the Property Manager and SDPM.
The following specific points should be addressed:
• identification of problem areas in and around the
buildinjg
• identification of structural features or personnel
practices that are contributing to pest infestations
• discussion of the effectiveness of previous control
efforts
• facilitation of Contractor access to all necessary areas
• informing the Contractor of any restrictions or
special safety precautions, or other constraints
Submission of Plan
Following the initial inspection, the Contractor will
develop a detailed Pest Management Plan and Service
Schedule for each property. This written plan and
schedule must be submitted to the SDPM for approval
prior to initiation. The plan and schedule must
address the following:
• the structural and operational actions to inhibit
pests
• the Contractor's means for monitoring pest popu-
lations in and around the building
• the proposed primary pesticides (accepted common
name and generic name) and alternatives approved
by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
:nt General Services Administrator by Dr. Albert Green and colleagues.
IPM for Schools
171
Appendix D • Contract Specifications
-------
• the conditions requiring application
• the method(s) of application proposed
• the rationale for each type of use
• the proposed trapping devices for rodents, if any
Frequency of inspections, monitoring, and treatment
by the Contractor shall depend on the specific pest
management, needs of the premises. At the minimum,
inspections and monitoring shall be done monthly.
The Plan and Schedule shall be submitted not more
than' 10 working days following the initial inspection
of the premises. The SDPM will render a decision
regarding the acceptability of the Plan and Schedule
within 10 working days following receipt. The
Contractor shall be on site to implement the Plan and
Schedule within 5 working days following notice of
approval of the plan. If the Plan is disapproved, the
Contractor shall have 3 working days to submit a
revised Plan and Schedule.
Any subsequent changes in the Plan and Schedule
must receive the concurrence of the SDPM.
The Contractor shall describe, in the proposal, the
capability of meeting emergency and special service
requests (e.g., radio-dispatched service, names of
office personnel handling the account, availability of
trucks and personnel, etc.).
Monitoring and Inspection
A critical aspect of the Pest Management Plan shall be
the establishment of a monitoring and inspection
program to identify infested zones and allow an
objective assessment of pest population levels. Moni-
toring and inspection shall be continued throughout
the duration of this contract. The Contractor shall
describe in the proposal the approach to meet this
requirement. Where appropriate, glue traps shall be
employed to monitor cockroach populations in
selected areas.
Pesticide Treatment
The Contractor shall not apply any pesticide which
has not been specifically approved by the SDPM. In
cooperation with the SDPM, the Contractor shall
develop action thresholds specific to each pest and to
site zones.
As a general rule, application of pesticides in any area
inside or outside the premises—i.e., in any room,
closet, hallway, stairwell, court, driveway, planting
bed, and similar locations—shall not occur unless
inspections or monitoring indicate the presence of
pests that exceed action thresholds in that specific
area. Signs of pest activity must be seen and identi-
fied. For instance, a relatively fresh rodent dropping
or an active burrow or runway is sufficient to indicate
the presence of rodents in an area. Use and effective-
ness of alternative non-pesticidal pest management
methods must be documented in monitoring records
prior to requesting the use of pesticides.
Preventive pesticide treatments of inside and outside
areas where inspections indicate a potential insect or
rodent infestation are generally unacceptable. In
exceptional circumstances,.however, preventive
pesticide treatment may be allowed on a case-by-case
basis. The Contractor must substantiate the need,
indicating areas for preventive treatment in the Pest
Management Plan for the building, and listing the
preventive treatment methods of application. Each
preventive treatment is subject to approval by the
SDPM and can be eliminated by him/her at any time.
Structural Modifications
Structural modifications for pest suppression shall no
be the responsibility of the Contractor. However, th
Contractor is responsible for notifying the SDPM
about structural modifications necessary to prevent
access by pest populations, or for safety reasons.
Record Keeping
The Contractor shall be responsible for maintaining a
complete and accurate Pest Management Log Book.
Each property specified in this contract shall have its
own Log Book which will be kept in the Property
Manager's office and maintained on each visit by the
Contractor.
The Log Book shall contain the following items:
• A copy of the Pest Management Plan and Service
Schedule for the property.
• A copy of the current label and EPA registration
number for each pesticide used in the building,
including the Material Safety Data Sheet.
• Pest monitoring data sheets which record, in a
systematic fashion, the number of pests or other
indicators of pest population levels revealed by the
Contractor's monitoring program for the buildinp
e.g., number and location of cockroaches trapped,
number and location of rodents trapped or car-
casses removed, number and location of new rat
IPM for Schools
172
Appendix D • Contract Specifications
-------
burrows observed, etc. The Contractor shall
provide, in the proposal, a sample of the format for
the data sheets and an explanation of all informa-
tion to be recorded on them.
• The location of all traps, trapping devices, and bait
stations in or around the property. This informa-
tion can be in either tabular or in list format, and
should be accompanied by a map for each pest.
• The Property Manager's copies of a Pest Control
Work and Inspection Report Form. These forms
will be supplied to the Contractor to advise the
Contractor of routine service requests and to
document the performance of all work, including
emergency work. Upon completion of a service
visit to the building, the Contractor's representative
performing the service shall complete, sign, and
date the Form and return it to the Property
Manager's office on the same or succeeding day of
the performance of the service.
• The Contractor's Service Report forms, document-
ing arrival and departure time of the Contractor's
representative performing the service, and all
record keeping information on pesticide applica-
tion required by the FIFRA statute. These report
forms may incorporate some or all of the pest
monitoring data required above.
Special Requests and Emergency Service
The regular service shall consist of performing all
components of an IPM program other than structural
modifications, as described in the Contractor's de-
tailed Plan and Schedule for each property, during the
period of the contract. Occasional requests for
corrective action, special services beyond the routine
requests for emergency service shall be placed with the
Contractor. The Contractor shall respond to requests
for emergency service on the day of the request. The
Contractor shall respond to special service requests
within one (1) working day after receipt of request. In
the event that such services cannot be completed
within their time frames, the Contractor shall immedi-
ately notify the SDPM and indicate an anticipated
completion date.
Specific Program Requirements and
Restrictions
Personnel
The Contractor shall provide only qualified pest
management personnel with adequate experience in the
conduct of IPM programs. All personnel must under-
stand current practices in this field and be able to make
judgments regarding IPM techniques. Training and
experience in IPM must be demonstrated.
Any proposed deletions, additions, or replacement of
personnel from those cited in the Contractor's original
proposal must be submitted, in writing, to the SDPM
and approved prior to their becoming a part of this
contract.
The contractor must meet the following specific staff
requirements:
Entomologist
The Contractor shall have a staff Entomologist, or
access to one, available for routine and emergency
consultation. Evidence of the following documenta-
tion regarding this individual's experience and training
shall be provided in the proposal:
• Bachelor's degree in entomology from an accred-
ited University; or a Bachelor's degree in biology,
chemistry, or other life science and proof of mem-
bership in the American Registry of Professional
Entomologists (ARPE).
• Current certification in the appropriate jurisdic-
tions as a Commercial Pesticide Applicator in the
category of Industrial, Institutional, Structural, and
Health Related Pest Control with a minimum of
subcategories to include General Pest Control,
Rodent Control, and Turf and Ornamental.
Supervisor
A Supervisor and an alternate must be identified in the
proposal. The on-site Supervisor shall have the
Contractor's authority to act on matters pertaining to
the performance of services required under this
contract. This individual shall assure safety and carry
out coordination and continuity of the program
routine. The Supervisor and alternate shall both have
a working knowledge of this contract and the detailed
Pest Management Plan and Schedule for each building.
The Supervisor and alternate must both meet the
qualifications identified below under Pest Manage-
ment Technicians.
Pest Management Technicians
The Contractor shall provide, in the proposal, the
names of all pest management personnel assigned to
this contract, and pertinent information regarding
their qualifications, experience, and training.
Throughout the life of this contract, all personnel
providing on-site pest management services must be
IPM for Schools
173
Appendix D • Contract Specifications
-------
certified in .the appropriate jurisdictions as Commer-
cial Pesticide Applicators in the category of Industrial,
Institutional, Structural, and Health Related Pest
Control. No uncertified personnel will be permitted
to work on-site under this contract unless under the
supervision of a certified applicator.
Manner and Time to Conduct Services
It shall be the Contractor's responsibility to carry out
work according to the detailed Pest Management Plan
and Schedule developed for each property. The
Contractor's on-site Supervisor shall be responsible
for coordination with the Property Manager or
representative at the beginning of each visit. The
purpose of this coordination is to review the plan and
schedule, and to receive information on problem areas
needing corrective action.
Services which are not likely to adversely effect tenant
health or productivity may be performed during the
regular hours of operation in the various buildings.
Pesticide applications (except bait placement), how-
ever, shall not be made during school hours, or during
normal work hours of school staff. When it is neces-
sary to perform work on weekends or outside the
regularly scheduled hours set in the Contractor's Plan
and Schedule, the Contractor shall notify the SDPM
and the Property Manager at least 2 days in advance
and all arrangements will be coordinated between the
SDPM, the Property Manager, and the Supervisor.
Where service to vacated areas is required, it shall be
the Contractor's responsibility to notify the SDPM
and the Property Manager at least 2 days in advance of
the treatment, provide and post all necessary signs
(such as when an area may be reentered—in case of
pesticide use, according to the product's label direc-
tions) and remove signs when the area is safe for entry.
The Contractor shall observe all safety precautions
throughout the performance of this contract. Certain
areas within some buildings may require special
instructions for persons entering the building. Any
restrictions associated with these special areas will be
explained, in writing, to the Contractor and SDPM by
the Property Manager or representative. These
restrictions shall be adhered to and incorporated into
the Contractor's detailed plan and schedule for the
property.
All Contractor personnel, working in or on properties
designated under this contract, shall wear distinctive
uniform clothing. The uniform shall have the
Contractor's name easily identifiable, affixed thereon
in a permanent or semi-permanent manner. Addi-
tional personal protective equipment required for the
safe performance of work must be determined and
provided by the Contractor. Protective clothing,
equipment, and devices shall as a minimum, conform
to Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) standards for the products being used.
Vehicles used by the Contractor must be identified in
accordance with State and local regulations.
Pesticide Products and Use
The Contractor shall be responsible for the proper use
of pesticides. All pesticides used by the Contractor
must be registered with the EPA and State and/or
local jurisdiction. Transport, handling, and use of all
pesticides shall be in strict accordance with the
manufacturer's label instructions and all applicable
Federal, State, and local laws and regulations. The
Contractor will follow all notification and warning
procedures required by the SDPM prior to the appli-
cation of a pesticide. The environment and the public
shall be protected at all times.
The Contractor shall minimize the use of synthetic
organic pesticides wherever possible. Alternatives are
• The use of crack and crevice application of pesti-
cide to pest harborage areas rather than fan spray-
ing exposed surfaces in the genera] vicinity of
harborage areas.
• The use of containerized bait such as boric acid,
for cockroaches, rather than sprays, wherever
appropriate.
Pesticide fogs and sprays (including mists and ultra-
low volume applications) will be restricted to unique
situations where no alternative measures are available
or practical.
In the unusual event that a space spray application is
required, and prior to performing a space spray
treatment, the Contractor shall submit a written
request for approval to the SDPM at least 2 days prior
to the proposed treatment time. The request must
identify the target pest, document the need for such
treatment, the time (when site is not occupied) and
specific place(s) of treatment, the pesticide(s) to be
used, the method of application, what precautions
should be taken to ensure tenant and employee safety,
and the steps to be taken to ensure the containment of
the spray to the site of application. No space applica
tion of pesticides shall be made without the written
approval of the SDPM. No space application of
pesticide shall be made while tenant personnel are
IPM for Schools
174
Appendix D • Contract Specifications
-------
present. Products identifiable as fumigants shall be
considered inappropriate for use and shall not be used
in any space for any purpose, unless it determined that
an emergency exists by the SDPM.
Rodent Control
Snap traps and trapping devices (including glueboards)
used in rodent control must be checked daily. The
Contractor shall dispose of rodents killed or trapped
within 24 hours. Trapping shall not be performed
during periods when maintenance will be delayed by
holidays, weekends, etc. Traps shall be placed out of
the general view and located so as not to be affected
by routine cleaning procedures.
All rodenticides, regardless of packaging, shall be
placed either in locations not accessible to children,
pets, wildlife, and domestic animals, or in EPA-
approved tamper-resistant (often termed "tamper-
proof") bait boxes. Frequency of bait box servicing
shall depend upon the level of rodent infestation. All
bait boxes shall be labeled, and dated at the time of
installation and each servicing. All bait boxes shall be
maintained in accordance with EPA regulations, with
an emphasis on the safety of non-target organisms.
The following points shall be strictly adhered to:
• The lids of all bait boxes must be securely locked or
fastened shut.
• Bait must always be placed in the baffle-protected
feeding chamber of the box and never in the run-
way of the box. Bait may be placed inside an active
rodent burrow if the burrow entrance (and the bait)
is then buried or caved-in to avoid non-target
access to the bait.
• All bait boxes must be securely attached or an-
chored to the floor, ground, wall, etc., so that the
box cannot be picked up or moved.
• Baits, bait boxes, and stations should only be
considered as a last option for use inside buildings
or school structures.
All traps, trapping devices, and bait boxes shall be
accounted for, and their location recorded in the
property Log Book; all shall be removed from the
premises covered by this contract at its conclusion.
Inspection
Throughout the duration of this contract, the premises
covered will be inspected periodically by the SDPM to
determine the effectiveness of the program and Con-
tractor compliance with the contract. Inspection
results will be documented in writing. The Contrac-
tor shall promptly initiate actions within 5 working
days to correct all contract performance deficiencies
found by the SDPM.
It shall be the Contractor's responsibility to furnish an
adequate supply of materials necessary to inspect the
interior of all rodent bait stations. These materials
may include wrenches to loosen and tighten fasteners,
keys to open locks, or replacement self-locking plastic
ties. Implements to cut plastic ties or seals are not
included under this provision.
Related Services
The School District reserves the right to negotiate
with the Contractor for the purpose of related pest
control services not specifically covered herein, such
as subterranean and structural management of termites
and other wood-boring insects, or bird control, and to
add (or delete) properties or parts of properties to the
contract.
Bid Submittal
Pre-Bid Building Inspection
All prospective bidders shall conduct a thorough and
complete investigation of each property prior to
submitting their proposal.
Selection for Award
Bidders should be aware that the School District will
perform a "best-buy analysis" and the selection for
award shall be made to the bidder whose proposal is
most advantageous to the School District, taking into
consideration the technical factors listed below and
the total proposed cost across all contract periods.
Technical Evaluation Criteria
The technical portion of the proposal will be the most
important consideration in making the award; there-
fore, the proposal should be as complete and as
specific as possible.
The merits of each proposal will be carefully evaluated
in terms of the requirements and in relation to the
criteria established below. The evaluation will take
into consideration the technical and administrative
capabilities of the bidders in relation to the needs of
the program and reasonableness of costs shown in
relation to the work to be done.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
175
Appendix D • Contract Specifications
-------
Appendix E
Sample Monitoring Forms
You will find the following forms in Appendix E:
1) Roach Trap Monitoring
2) An example of how to fill out a Roach Trap Monitoring form
3) Landscape Monitoring
4) An example of how to fill out a Landscape Monitoring form
5) Plant Condition and Pest and Plant Damage Abundance
Charts (for use with the Landscape Monitoring form)
6) Pest Control Trouble Call Log
7) Weed Monitoring Form for Turf
Also included is a sample floor plan of a building.
These forms can be used as they are, or they can be modified to fit your particular circumstances.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA.94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
Appendix E • Sample Monitoring Forms
-------
Roach Trap Monitoring
Building ft
Room or Area Name of person monitoring.
Trap 9
Room f or Name
Date trap was
Set Read
Trap
Missing?
Location Description
Roaches
Adults Nymphs Total
Total § of Traps
Average t of Roaches/Trap
(total # of roaches divided by total § of traps)
Total 9 of Roaches.
-------
Roach Trap Monitoring
Building tt 3
Room or Area Cafeteria Name of person monitoring John Doe
Trap 9
Room 9 or Name
Date trap was
Set Read
Trap
Mlsslng7
Location Description
Roaches
Adults Nymphs Total
1
Kitchen
3/5
3/2 6
5£ Drain, under grate
0
0
0
Z
Kitchen
S Sink under electric box
1
I
z
3
Dishroom
yes
S under conveyor belt
-
-
-
H
Dishroom
N under conveyor belt
0
0
0
5
Storage
left side of door
0
0
0
6
Dining
W serving counter
0
z
z
EXAMPLE
6 Total 9 of Traps
(total 9 of roaches divided by total 9 of traps)
066 Average 9 of Roaches/Trap
Total 9 of Roaches H
-------
Landscape Monitoring Date_
Name of Person Monitoring
Describe location of appropriate category.
Ornamental beds Fence Unes
Sport turf Paved Areas
Ornamental turt Trees
Playground Other
Name ot
Plant
Condition' ot Plant
excellent Fab Good floor
Name of Pest
(B any are present)
Abundance' of
Pests Plant Damage
tew Common Abundant (nnumerctta
Presence
ot Natural
Enemies
Management
Activities
Comments
'See accompanying charts for explanation
-------
Landscape Monitoring Date _mi
Name of Person Monitoring _ John Doe
Describe location of appropriate category:
Ornamental beds Fence lines
Sport turf Paved Area
Ornamental turf Trees Northwest corner of school entrance
Playground Other
Name of
Plant
Condition' of Plant
Excodonl Fair Good Poor
Name of Pest
(if any are preterit)
Abundance' of
Pests 1 Plant Damage
few Common Abundant tanumerabto
Presence
of Natural
Enemies
Management
Activities
Comments
Blue Spruce
Good
Cooley Spruce
Gall Aphid
Common
Common
None
Pruned 80Z of Galls out
of tree
Continue
monitorlnq
EXAMPLE
*See accompanying charts for explanation
-------
Charts for Use with the Landscape Monitoring Form
Plant Condition Chart
INDICATORS OF PLANT CONDITION
Plant
Condition
Rating
Leaf Color
Amount/Size of
Growth
Damaged Plant
Parts
Presence of Pest
Problems
EXCELLENT
Good
Adequate
None to few
No major ones
GOOD
Good
Slightly reduced
Few to common
A few minor ones
FAIR
Poor
Much reduced
Common to
abundant
Either major or minor
ones occurring
frequently
POOR
Poor
Severely reduced
Innumerable
Both major and
minor ones
occurring frequently
Leaf Color Note that there are healthy plants that do not have bright green leaves. Leaves can be purple,
yellow, or sometimes a mottled yellow and green (variegated). "Good" leaf color will not always be the same;
it will depend on the kind of plant.
Amount/Size of Growth: This refers to the length of the new growth for the season as well as the number of new
leaves, and the size of the leaves, flowers, or fruit.
Damaged Plant Parts: Look at the whole plant. Are there leaves with holes, spots, or discolorations0 Are there
wilted or dead leaves? Are there dead twigs or branches? Is the damage only on old leaves while new leaves
look perfectly healthy?
Presence of Pest Problems: A major pest problem is one that has seriously affected or injured the plant and
requires management. A minor pest problem may or may not have affected or injured the plant and may or
may not require management.
Pest and Plant Damage Abundance Chart
Abundance Rating
Indicators of Abundance
FEW
Organisms or plant damage occasionally found, but
only after much searching"
COMMON
Organisms or plant damage easily found during
typical searching
ABUNDANT
Organisms or plant damage found in large numbers-
obvious without searching
INNUMERABLE
Organisms or plant damage extremely numerous-
obvious without searching
These charts were adapted from Michigan State University Pest f^pnagement Manual
-------
Pest Control Trouble Call Log
Trouble Calls
Pest Management Response
Date
Building
Problem Description
School Contact
Phone
Date
PCO
Name
Action Taken
Materials' Used
A Amounts Used
' Pesticides, caulk, traps, etc.
-------
Weed Monitoring Form for Turf*
Location of Turf Date.
Data collected by Length of Pace
Distance between sampling points on transect
(tor example, every nine paces)
Number of transects Length of transects
Sketch of location of transects
Transect A Transect B Transect C
Yes No Bare Weedl.0. Yes No Bare Weed I.D. Yes No Bare Weedl.D.
I 1 i
2
3
i
3
3
3
4
4
4
K
5
5
4
6
6
7
7
7
s
s
8
9
9
9
10
10
10
1)
11
11
12
12
12
13
IS
13
14
14
14
18
IS
15
16
16
16
17
17
17
ie
16
18
19
14
19
20 20 20
Average % weed growth Average % bare area _
Total the number of boxes marked 'Yes' In each column. Multiply this number by 100 and
divide by 60 (the total number of samples taken). The result Is the average percentage
of weeds growing In the turf area. Follow the same procedure to calculate percentage of
bare area.
' For Information on how to use this form, see Chapter 10, Box 10-B
-------
25
50
BUILDING 12
HOST FLOOR
SCALE IN FEET
APPROXIMATE
Q
T3
©
w
c
a
3
(Q
-------
Appendix F
How to Collect and Preserve Specimens for
Identification
If your pest problem is common in your area, Coop-
erative Extension personnel may be able to confirm
your identification over the phone just from your
description of the organism and/or the damage it
caused. Sometimes, however, they must inspect the
specimen directly.
Collecting Insects and Mites for Identification
Whenever possible, ask how your identification
specialist would like the specimens preserved, and try
to collect more than a single specimen. If you aren't
able to ask about preservation before you collect, the
following are good guidelines.
Larger insects (those larger than aphids) or insects
with hard bodies should be placed in an appropriately
sized plastic container, such as a pill bottle or film
canister. Do not use the original cap; instead, stopper
the botde tightly with cotton. (Be careful not to
crush the insect with the wad of cotton.) The cotton
prevents moisture from accumulating inside the
container and encouraging mold that can destroy
important characteristics needed for identification.
If the captured insects are still alive inside the bottle,
place the container in the freezer for a day or two to
kill them. If you are mailing the specimen to some-
one for identification, you must make sure the insects
are dead. It is not a good idea to send live insects,
because they may escape and cause a pest problem
where you are sending them, particularly if they are
not already present there. To mail the bottle, gently
push the cotton wad down almost to the bottom of
the bottle to prevent the insects from rattling around
and losing body parts, then place the bottle in a box
stuffed with crumpled newspaper.
Smaller organisms or organisms with soft bodies, such
as aphids or mites, can be picked up with a paint
brush and dropped into a small amount of rubbing
alcohol in a container. In a dry container they might
escape by tunneling around the cotton stopper or
become entangled in the cotton, which can impair
identification. Alternatively, insects and mites, even
soft-bodied species such as aphids, can be left to dry
out in a container and the identification specialist can
rehydrate them for study later.
Collecting Plant Specimens (or Identification
If you want to have a damaged plant inspected or a
weed identified, place the plant and a moist paper
towel inside a plastic bag. If you are unable to deliver
the specimen in person, place the bag inside a padded
mailing envelope. If you cannot mail the specimen
immediately, however, it is likely to shrivel or mold.
In that case, use the process outlined below.
Preserving a Plant Specimen
Plants preserved in this manner can also be kept in a
file for future reference regarding weeds, pest damage
symptoms, etc.
Find a stiff index card or piece of white poster board
large enough for the specimen, then cut a piece of clear
contact paper that overlaps the card 3/4 inch on all
sides. A sheet of aluminum foil spread over the work
surface will prevent the contact paper from sticking in
the wrong place. Separate the backing from the
contact paper and lay the paper over the plant, press-
ing out air bubbles by moving your hand from the
bottom to the top.
Cut off the corners of the contact paper, then fold the
paper over the back of the card. Write the name of the
weed (if known), the date, and the location where it
was collected on the back.
Keeping a Record
If you send a sample specimen for identification, we
suggest you keep another for your own reference,
because samples are not always returned. Along with
the sample, you should send records of potentially
important information about the situation or problem
surrounding the specimen. Keep a copy of this
information for yourself. We suggest you follow
this format:
* date the specimen was collected
IPM for Schools
195
Appendix F • Collecting Specimens
-------
• place or address where the specimen was collected
• specific area where the specimen was collected (e.g.,
"north side of the house," "under a stone," etc.)
• maintenance practices that might have a bearing
on the situation (e.g., "watered lawn two days
before")
previous pest control efforts (e.g., "used insecticidal
soap spray morning of problem")
host plant, if the insect was found on a plant
weather, if it seems relevant (e.g., "rained night
before")
time, if it seems relevant
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
196
Appendix F • Collecting Specimens
-------
Appendix G
Pesticide Information Resources
Product manufacturers can provide information on hazards, efficacy, and safe disposal of pesticides. They are
required to provide the public with a sample label and an MSDS (material safety data sheet) on request.
Cooperative Extension personnel (look in the government section of your phone book under Cooperative
Extension) can provide information on the hazards and efficacy of pesticides. If you have questions about the
pesticides that are registered against your particular pest, they can provide you with up-to-date information.
The Cooperative Extension office also provides services for insect identification.
The National Pesticide Telecommunications Network (NPTN) operates a toll-free hotline, staffed by toxi-
cologists, to provide the general public as well as the medical, veterinary, and other professional communities
with the following:
• information on recognizing and managing pesticide poisonings
• tips for correctly using pesticides, especially household and professionally-applied pesticides
• referrals for laboratory analyses and investigation of pesticide incidents
• emergency treatment information
• pesticide clean-up and disposal procedures
NPTN/Department of Agricultural Chemistry
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331-7301
(800)858-7378
The following non-profit organizations provide information on pesticides. These organizations are funded by
memberships and donations. Information is provided for small fees.
NCAMP—National Coalition Against the Misuse of Pesticides
701 "E" St., SE
Washington, D.C. 20003-2841
(202)543-5450
• educates interested parties on the toxicity and health effects of pesticides
• sells chemical fact sheets
• collects records of poisonings and environmental illnesses
• provides referrals to expert witnesses specializing in toxicology and multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS)
NCAP—Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides
P.O. Box 1393
Eugene, OR 97440
(541)344-5044
• answers questions on pest problems, pesticides, and alternatives
• sells chemical fact sheets and IPM packets for schools
• publishes the Journal of Pesticide Reform
NYCAP—New York Coalition Against the Misuse of Pesticides
P.O. Box 6005
Albany, NY 12206-0005
(518)426-8246
• publishes a quarterly newsletter
• can provide information on setting up a school IPM program
• trains interested parties in IPM for both home and public property (includes office buildings and golf courses)
IPM for Schools
197
Appendix G • Pesticide Information
-------
PANNA—Pesticide Action Network North America
116 New Montgomery St., Suite 810
San Francisco, CA 94105
(415)541-9140
• clearinghouse for pesticide information
• will conduct library searches for a fee
• provides pesticide updates as they pertain to current media events
• provides referrals for pesticide alternatives
• concerned with international pesticide policy especially in South and Central America
Pesticide Education Center
Dr. Marion Moses
P.O. Box 420870
San Francisco, CA 94142-0870
(415)391-8511
• well-informed about the health hazards of pesticide exposure
• strong emphasis on women and children
The Rachel Carson Council
8940 Jones Mill Rd.
Chevy Chase, MD 20815
(301)652-1877
• publishes "Basic Guide to Pesticides"
• pesticide legislation advocacy group
The following non-profit organizations can provide information on alternatives to pesticides. These organiza-
tions are funded by memberships and donations. Information is provided for small fees.
The Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC)
P.O. Box.7414
Berkeley, CA 94707
(510)524-2567
• can provide information and/or publications on least-toxic methods for managing any pest
• publishes two journals: The IPM Practitioner and Common Sense Pest Control Quarterly
• publishes Directory of Least-Toxic Pest Control Products which is updated yearly
• provides consultation and training in IPM
NCAP—Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides
P.O. Box 1393
Eugene, OR 97440
(541)344-5044
(see preceding section for description)
Washington Toxics Coalition
4516 University Way, NE
Seattle, WA 98105
(206)632-1545
• provides technical information, strategies, and alternative management policies to people working to protect
human health and the environment
• offers the "Buy Smart, Buy Safe" consumer guide to least-toxic products (20 pp.)
• sells "Home Safe Home" fact sheets on toxics and their alternatives in and around the home
• sells industrial toxics reduction fact sheets
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
198
Appendix G • Pesticide Information
-------
Appendix H
Head Lice Information Packet for Schools
This Sample Information Packet contains the following:
1) Facts about Head Lice
2) Recommendations for How to Treat Head Lice
3) How to Comb for Head Lice
4) Sample Letter from School to Parents
These materials may be reproduced by any school in part or as a whole
and may be modified to suit particular situations.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
IPM for Schools
199
Appendix H • Lice Packet
-------
Facts about Head Lice (Pediculosis)
People have many false ideas about head lice.
1. Head lice are not a reason for panic or extreme measures.
2. Head lice are not a sign of uncleanliness.
3. Head lice do not favor any particular socio-economic level—they attack rich and poor alike.
4. Head lice are not something to be ashamed of.
5. Head lice do not carry serious diseases.
6. Head lice cannot jump or fly.
7. Head lice cannot live on pets.
Head lice infest the hair, suck blood from the scalp, lay their eggs (commonly known as nits) on the hair shafts,
and cause itching and some additional discomfort when present in large numbers.
They are very easily transmitted from one person to another, primarily by close personal contact with head hair.
They can also be transmitted by sharing personal items like combs, hair brushes, hats, or other articles of
clothing on which infested strands of hair or adult lice are present. Rugs and upholstered furniture can some-
times be a source of hair strands with nits.
Below are drawings of an adult louse (1/8" long, yellowish-grey), a nit (1/3" long), and hair debris that can be
mistaken for nits. The eggs are white when they are first laid and darken to a coffee color before they hatch,
otice that nits are always oval-shaped and attached to only one side of the hair shaft, usually close to the scalp.
Louse
embryo
Hoir-
GlotXite of
hair spray
Adult Louie
Nit
Hoir Cost-
Hair Debris
w
They are attached with very strong glue and cannot be as easily removed as dandruff and other hair debris.
There is no safe solvent for this glue.
The female lays 6-8 eggs/day. It takes 7 to 11 days for the eggs to hatch and another two weeks to develop into
reproducing adults. Adults live for up to 30 days and spend their entire life on the human head. If they do
move to other surfaces, they must return to the head within a few hours to survive.
In order to prevent multiplication and spread, the adults and the nits must be killed.
We encourage you to add a quick, weekly inspection for head lice to your regular personal hygiene routine for
children between the ages of 6 and 10 (younger if the child is attending pre-school or day care). A magnifying
glass can help you to see the nits.
-------
Recommendations for Treating Head Lice
In order to bring the current head lice problem under control, the following procedures are
recommended:
1. Inspect your child's head. If you find lice or eggs (commonly called nits), continue reading.
If you find no lice or nits, you don't need to do anything; however, it is a good idea to con-
tinue checking your child's head frequently.
(a) Separate the hair with a rat-tailed comb.
(b) Check all areas of your child's scalp, especially at the back of the neck and behind the
ears—these seem to be the favorite spots for lice.
(c) Adult lice are found close to the scalp. Nits are attached to the hair 1/2 to 1 inch away
from the scalp. Nits may be found farther out on the hair strands in long-standing cases.
There may be anywhere from a few to several hundred nits in a child's hair.
2. If you find lice or nits, coat the hair with salad oil and comb out the lice and nits with a special
metal lice comb. You can buy these combs in a pharmacy. Do not use the plastic combs
provided with some pesticidal shampoos; they can allow nits and lice to slip through unno-
ticed (if you cannot find a metal lice comb, ask your pharmacist to order one from the Hogil
Pharmaceutical Corp.).
Refer to the attached sheet entitled "How to Comb for Head Lice" for combing instructions.
You can get rid of lice by combing. It is not necessary to use shampoos with pesticides. In
fact, these shampoos are recommended only as a last resort in extreme cases.
• Do not use shampoos with pesticides on infants or children under 2 years, or on pregnant or
nursing women.
• Do not use on anyone with open cuts, scratches, or head or neck inflammations.
• Do not use in the shower or bath; use over a basin or sink. Expose only the scalp to the
pesticide.
• Never use lice shampoos to prevent lice infestations. Check the child's head first. If there are
no lice, don't treat.
• Do not use extra shampoo or leave the shampoo on the hair for longer than the directions
specify, and do not use on the eyebrows or allow any shampoo to get into the eyes.
• Store these products out of the reach of children, ideally in a locked cabinet.
OVER, PLEASE
-------
3. fy»mH. Cnrnh. Comb! This is the only way to remove the nits. Repeat the combing every
week until you find no more lice or nits. Be forewarned that if the child has very long or very
curly hair this process will' be time consuming. You may want to consider cutting the hair.
4. Examine all members in the household. Treat them as above, if lice are found.
5. Do not use the lice spray included in some of the lice shampoos. Lice cannot live in the
environment and sprays unnecessarily expose everyone to pesticides.
6. Wash bed linens and recendy worn clothes in hot, soapy water in a washing machine and dry
in a hot dryer. This does not have to be repeated daily. The washing is only necessary when
you treat the child or when he/she is re-infested. Articles that cannot be washed can be
vacuumed or placed in a plastic bag and sealed for 2 weeks. This will kill all lice and nits.
7. Clean combs and brushes by soaking them in 1 Teaspoon of ammonia and 2 cups of hot water
or heating them in a pan of hot water for 5-10 minutes.
8. If your time is limited, it is much more important to comb the child's hair than to spend time
washing clothes and linens and vacuuming your house.
REMEMBER:
• It takes time to comb all the nits out of the hair, BUT, this must be done, and done fre-
quently, until the hair is free of evidence of lice and nits.
• Combing is an inconvenience, but remains a parent responsibility and only total parent
cooperation and follow-through will stop the spread of lice.
• You will probably find that your child actually enjoys the combing.
9. Check hair the morning following treatment to be sure it is nit-free before allowing your
child to return to school.
10. Until the lice epidemic has passed, school personnel will be examining children's heads each
morning. Any child with nits or lice will not be allowed to attend school.
11. If your child is re-infested, comb the hair again with the lice comb rather than applying
pesticidal shampoo. Use these products only as a last resort.
12. Instruct children and adults not to share combs, brushes, hats, and other articles of clothing
that might be contaminated with strands of hair.
-------
How to Comb for Head Lice
NOTE: We do not recommend shampooing with a
lice shampoo that contains a pesticide except in
extreme cases and as a last resort.
A. You will need:
• Salad oil.
• A special metal lice comb. These are available in
drugstores (ask your pharmacist to order one if
you cannot find a metal comb). Do not use the
plastic combs that are included in some lice treat-
ment packages. These are not effective.
• A wide bowl of water with a squirt of dishwashing
detergent added. This water is used to kill nits
(eggs) and lice combed from the head.
• A box of facial tissue.
• A strong lamp with a flexible arm that allows you
to rotate it to direct the light wherever you are
working. (If it is possible to do the combing in the
daylight near a window, it will be much easier to
see the adult lice and the nits.)
• If the hair is long, many large bobby pins or hair
clips, to pin up sections of hair that have been
combed.
• A large towel to place around the child's shoulders
during combing.
• Two comfortable seats, one for the child and one
for you. You want the child to be just below your
eye level.
• Something entertaining for the child to do that
does not require much physical activity, such as
reading, drawing, playing with plastic clay, or
watching videos.
• If the child has very long hair, which takes more
time and tries the patience of the child, two people
can work together on different parts of the head.
B. Preparing the Hair
Cover the child's hair with salad oil (any kind will
do). This will prevent the hair from tangling and
make it very easy to use the lice comb. (The oil may
also smother some of the young and adult lice, but
you cannot count on it.) Oil has the advantage of not
drying out if the combing takes a long time. After
you finish combing, shampoo the hair twice to re-
move the oil.
C. The Combing
1. Seat the child so that his or her head is just slighdy
below your eye 'evel.
2. Brush or comb the hair (use a large-toothed regular
comb) to remove snarls.
3. Separate a mass of hair that is slightly wider than
the width of your lice comb and about 1/2 to 3/4
inch in the other direction. Separating the hair into
such small sections is important so that you can
more easily see nits and adult lice.
4. Hold the mass of hair with one hand. With the
other hand, hold the lice comb in a slanting position
with the curved side of the teeth toward the head.
5. Insert the comb into the hair as close to the scalp as
possible, since the eggs are first laid within 1/2 inch
of the scalp. Pull the comb slowly through the hair
several times.
6. Comb one section at a time and check each section
to make sure it is clean, then pin it out of the way,
curling it flat against the head.
7. Whenever you comb out nits or live lice, dunk the
comb in the soapy water. Make sure the lice and
nits are off the comb before you use it on the hair
again. Frequendy remove the hair and other debris
from the comb with a tissue. When the tissue
becomes soiled, place it in the bowl of soapy water.
When the bowl is full, flush its contents down the
toilet and refill the bowl with soapy water.
8. When all the hair has been combed, wash out the
oil by shampooing twice.
9. Once the hair is completely dry, check the entire
head for stray nits and remove those hairs indi-
vidually with a pair of small, pointed scissors (like
nail scissors).
D. Cleaning up
1. Soak the lice comb in hot ammonia water (1
teaspoon of ammonia in two cups of hot water) for
15 minutes. Metal combs can also be boiled in
OVER, PLEASE
-------
plain water for 15 minutes. A comb cleaned either
way can be reused by many different children.
2. Scrub the teeth of the comb with a nail brush or an
old toothbrush to remove debris. Remove dirt
lodged between the teeth of the comb with dental
floss or a small stiff brush.
3. Boil the towels for 10 minutes or wash them in a
washing machine in hot, soapy water, and follow
with a hot dryer.
Note: There is no safe solvent for the glue that the
female louse uses to attach her eggs to the hair even
though there are products that make such claims.
Combing is the only sure way to remove nits from hair.
WARNING: If you must use a shampoo with a
pesticide,
• Do not leave the shampoo on any longer than the
time specified, and do not use it more firequendy than
indicated on the label. Follow the directions exacdy.
• Do not use oh the eyebrows or allow any shampoo to
get into the eyes.
• Do not use on pregnant women or nursing mothers
• Do not use on children under 2 years.
• Do not use on anyone with open cuts or scratches or
with head or neck inflammations.
• Do not use in a shower or bath where the pesticide
can reach other parts of the body. Shampoo hair over
a basin or sink.
• Use gloves to do the shampooing.
• Do not count on lice shampoos to kill nits. You must
comb to get them out
• Never use any head lice shampoos preventively.
Before you treat, make sure that live lice or eggs are
present.
• Return to combing if the lice shampoo is not work-
ing; it may mean product failure or that the lice have
become resistant to the pesticide.
• Store these shampoos out of the reach of children,
ideally in a locked cabinet.
-------
Letter From School To Parents
Dear Parents,
There have been a few cases of head lice detected in your child's class. Attached
information on head lice and their treatment. Your child will not be allowed to
return to school unless his/her head is free of nits (lice eggs).
Sincerely yours,
School Principal
-------
Appendix I
Inspection Checklist for Detecting Structural
Decay and Structural Pest Damage
Check the following locations for structural decay
and pest damage. Check both visually and by probing
with a pointed tool, such as an ice pick. Look for
signs of moisture, damaged wood, insect frass, and
termite earthen tunnels and/or fecal pellets.
Roof, Overhangs, Gutters, Eaves,
Trim, Attic
Roof Surface
Check the roof for cracks, missing shingles, and other
openings where moisture might enter. Shingles should
extend 3/4 inch or more beyond the edge of the roof and
should form a continuous drip line at the eave and end
rafters, or at the rake boards that cover the end rafters.
Remove leaves from the roof surface, and replace any
missing shingles. Install flashing or an aluminum drip
edge under the first course of shingles to divert rainwater
from the fascia board and walls of the building.
Be careful not to block eave vents. Install flashing; it
should curl over the forward edge of the fascia board
about 2 inches and then run about 6 inches beyond a
vertical line drawn from the inside face of the wall studs.
Check for the formation of masses of ice on the roof
near the gutters which can lead to water filtration
and/or excessive condensation on interior attic walls.
Gutters
Check for poorly sloped, clogged, rotted, or leaking
gutters that can lead to eave, overhang, or siding leaks
and rots. Remove leaves and twigs that absorb mois-
ture and cause rot. Flush gutters with a hose prior to
the rainy season. Install downspout leaf strainers and
gutter guards.
Attics
Extra effort is needed to inspect areas difficult to see
or reach. Use a good light source and a probe. Search
for rain seepage or decay around vent pipes, antennas,
wall top plates, skylights, and other vents.
Eaves, Overhangs, and Fascia Boards
Make sure there is at least 18 inches of overhang to
allow proper water runoff. Extend short overhangs.
Search for soft, tunneled, cracked, or exposed areas.
Check areas where algae, moss, lichens, or discolora-
tion occurs; these symptoms may indicate moisture
problems and termites.
Flashings
Make sure areas around vents, chimneys, and dormers
are flush and well sealed. Rusty or broken nails can
cause problems in flashings. Aluminum or galvanized
nails are required to prevent electrolysis (a chemical
reaction between dissimilar metals that causes the nails
to disintegrate). Seal nail head and flashing joints with
marine-quality caulk or silicone (tar preparations are
cheapest, but they crack after a few years in the sun).
Damaged or discolored areas
Search for exposed areas that are soft, tunneled,
cracked, rotted, or blistered. Check for algae, moss,
lichens, or discoloration, since these areas indicate
potential openings for fungi and/or insects. Locate the
sources of moisture and make the necessary repairs.
Outside Walls
Rusty Nails
Check for rusty nails or nail-staining, which indicates
moisture within the wall and/or the use of non-
galvanized nails. Replace nails with aluminum or
galvanized nails or screws.
Deteriorating Paint
Look for signs of deteriorating paint such as loss of
paint sheen and bubbling and peeling; scrape and sand
the surface and repaint. If the wood seems soft, weak,
or spongy, scrape out the spongy parts. If holes are
smaller than 1/2 inch in diameter, fill them with caulk.
Larger holes can be filled with epoxy wood-filler. If
holes are very large, replace the wood.
Building Siding that is Stained or Buckled
Stained or buckled siding (with or without peeling
IPM for Schools
209
Appendix I • Inspection Checklist
-------
paint) is a symptom of underlying moisture, rot, or
insects. Check for moisture caused by splashing rain
or lawn sprinklers. If possible, remove the source of
the moisture and refinish or replace the damaged
wood. In tropical, subtropical, or heavy rainfall areas,
such as Hawaii or the Gulf Coast, pressure-treated
siding is usually recommended. Consider using a
more durable material, such as aluminum siding.
Pressure-treated woods are treated with toxic materi-
als and their use should be minimized.
Damaged Wood Junctions
Moisture and insect problems often occur where
wood pieces join or abut, particularly when there is
shrinkage, splintering, or settling. Corners, edges of
walls, roof-siding intersections, and siding-chimney
contacts are particularly vulnerable. Apply water
repellent and caulk to these joints, and monitor them
regularly for building movement.
Weathering of Exposed Lumber/Beam Ends
Check for expanded, split, or cracked lumber ends
which provide access for moisture and insects. Even
previously treated wood is subject to attack if the
openings are deep enough. Caulk cracks and monitor
for further developments.
Loose Stucco or Cracks in Stucco
Search for cracks, especially stress cracks around
windows and doors. These conditions can provide
access to moisture, termites, and decay organisms.
Caulk cracks. If they are large, consider replacing the
old stucco.
Moisture Accumulation around Laundry
Facilities, Especially Dryer Vents
Check for signs of moisture accumulation around
the vent. Modify the vent to direct exhaust air away
from the building.
Moisture Associated with Pipes and Ducts
Check for moisture where ducts pass through wooden
parts of a building. Also check downspouts during
heavy rains for leakage and proper drainage. Insulate
ducts, install splash guards below downspouts, repair
the spouts, and direct water away from buildings.
Moist Window Sills, Windows, or Doors
Check for cracked sills and casings, and poorly fitted
windows and doors. Badly fitted doors may indicate
warping of the door or its casing from excessive mois-
ture or uneven settling. Moisture problems can alter
door jambs. Warped and cracked sills and poorly fitted
windows and doors allow water access which aids
decay and provides initial insect habitat.
Caulk cracks and monitor for further development.
Warped door thresholds and jambs may need replace-
ment, and casings may need repair if the cracks are too
large to caulk effectively.
Foundation and Grade
Soil Surface
Make sure the soil surface slopes away from the
school building in order to carry water away from the
foundation. Seepage under the foundation will cause
it to crack and settle. Add fill to direct the water away
from the building but make sure there is at least 8
inches between the top of the fill and the sill. If
clearance is small, consider installing foundation
"gutters". Install splash blocks and perforated pipe.
Check their performance during rains or test the
system with a hose. A sump pump can also be used to
move water away from the foundation.
Low Foundation Walls and Footings
Allowing Wood-to-Soil Contacts
Check for wood in contact with the soil. Wood
should be at least 8 inches, and preferably more, above
the soil surface. Low foundation walls or footings
often permit wooden structural members to come in
contact with the soil, providing access for subterra-
nean termites. Repair these areas or install subgrade
concrete "gutters" where the building sills sit too
close to ground level. Remove wood that comes in
contact with the soil and replace it with concrete.
Foundation Cracks
Check for cracks that allow decay organisms access to
wood. Cracking may also indicate uneven settling.
Monitor cracked walls for discoloration and seepage
during rains. Termites use cracks to gain access to
wood hidden from view. If the problem is serious, the
foundation may need repair.
Brick Veneer or Stucco Applied to the
Foundation
Check the bond between the veneer or stucco and the
foundation wall. If it is failing, moisture and termites
IPM for Schools
210
Appendix I • Inspection Checklist
-------
may have a Hidden entrance to wooden portions of the
building. Remove the loose covering and explore the
extent of the decay.
Crawl Space, Basement, and
Foundation
Make sure enclosed crawl spaces are vented to allow
moist air to escape. Milder climates are especially
vulnerable to dry-rot fungus. In humid climates, the
subfloor can be wet from condensation from interior
air-conditioning. Shrubbery or other obstacles that
block airflow through foundation vents cause air
underneath the building to stay warm and moist—an
ideal environment for termites.
Clean existing vents of dust, plants, and debris. Foun-
dation vent openings should equal 2 ft* of opening for
each 25 linear feet of outside wall. An opening should
occur within 5 feet of each corner. Add more vents if
needed. The top edge of the concrete under all vents
should be at least 6 inches above the finished grade to
allow sufficient ventilation. Vents located below grade
may require wells to prevent surface water from
entering subfloor and basement areas. Divert roof
drainage away from vents.
Corners of the Building
Check for moisture accumulation and stains at junc-
tions of wood surfaces in these areas. Install addi-
tional cellar or crawl space vents.
Enclosed Areas
Check for proper ventilation under staircases, porches,
and other enclosed areas, since these are vulnerable to
moisture accumulation. Look for decayed, discolored,
or stained areas. Adjust or add venting.
Vapor Barriers
Check for condensation on the subfloor and/or sill,
which may indicate the need for vapor barriers on the
subfloor and on the soil surface in the crawl space.
Such barriers can be installed to reduce the moisture
resulting from poor soil grading, unexpected seepage,
or high rainfall.
Cover the crawl space soil surface with a 6-mil poly-
ethylene vapor barrier. Use polyethylene, not roofing
paper, which can rot. A slurry of concrete can be
placed over the plastic to protect it from rodents.
Where condensation continues, consider installing
extra vents or electric-powered vents whose fans and
openings are operated automatically. A sump pump
can be installed to remove standing water.
Wood-to-Stone or Wood-to-Concrete Contacts
Check to see whether the wood is pressure-treated
(look for perforation marks from the chemical injec-
tion on the surface of the wood ). Replace untreated
wood with rot-resistant or pressure-treated wood. Be
sure sealing material is used between the wood and
stone or concrete, and place a metal washer between
posts and footings.
leaky Pipes or Faucets
Even small leaks keep the wood or soil underneath
continuously moist, thereby setting up ideal condi-
tions for termites. Areas where rain splashes on walls
should be protected with rain guards. Do not allow
sprinklers to spray the side of the building. Fix all
leaks, and change irrigation practices where necessary.
Wafer- or Space-Heating Units
Check to see whether the heating unit is insulated. If
the soil near the flame is kept warm throughout the
year due to lack of insulation, microbial and insect
development will be accelerated. Insulate the heater
and cover the soil with concrete.
Paper Collars around Pipes
Since paper is almost pure cellulose, it is extremely
attractive to termites and should be removed and
replaced with other insulting materials not capable of
being eaten by termites.
Miscellaneous Openings
Meter boxes, bathroom inspection doors, pet doors or
openings, milk delivery doors, and air exhaust vents
should be checked for water access, cracks, termite
pellets, and soft areas.
External Areas
Porches
Check for wooden steps touching the soil, and inspect
for possible decay or termite access. The porch
surface must slope away from the building to carry
rain away^quickly. If the porch does not slope away
from the building, check siding for moisture and
termites. Tongue-and-groove flooring is a water trap.
IPM for Schools
211
Appendix I • Inspection Checklist
-------
If there is a space between the porch and the building,
check for drainage problems.
Caulk and repair cracks. Fill spaces between tongue-
and-groove floorboards with caulk or resurface and
refinish with wood-sealing compounds and appropri-
ate paint. Another floor can be placed over the first.
Earth-Filled Porches
Soil should be at least 8 inches, (optimally 12 to 18
inches) below the level of any wooden members.
Remove the excess soil where possible, regrade to
enhance drainage and redesign the porch to eliminate
earth/wood contact.
Planter Boxes
Check planter boxes that are built against the building.
If they are in direct contact with the building, they
allow direct termite access to unprotected veneer,
siding, or cracked stucco. One remedy is adding 2 to 3
inches of protective concrete wall between the planter
and the building. An air space several inches wide
must separate the planter wall from the building and
must be kept free of dirt or other debris.
Trellises and Fences
Check for wooden portions of the trellis that touch
the soil and are connected to the building, since they
provide a direct link to the building for wood-rot
and termites. Check fence stringers and posts for
decay. Cut off the decay and install a concrete
footing for trellises and fence posts. Replace decayed
stringers and leave a small gap between the stringers
to allow air circulation. Separate wood and concrete
with metal washers.
Wooden Forms around Drains
These are sometimes left in place after the concrete
foundation is poured and provide termites with
access routes to inner walls. Areas and joints around
pipes rising from slabs should be sealed with tar or
other adhesive to prevent water and termite access.
Caulk the holes and monitor them for decay and
excess moisture.
Gate Posts/ Fence Tie-ins, Abutments
and Columns
Inspect these for weakness and rot especially around
areas adjacent to the soil. Exposed areas can provide
cracks for termite invasion. If wooden posts go
through concrete into the soil below, check the post
for evidence of termite attack. The bottoms of thet.
posts should be cut and replaced with a concrete
footing. Cut post tops at an angle to promote runoff
and prevent water from penetrating the vulnerable
end grain.
Balconies and Landings
Surfaces should be sloped away from the building.
Check junction of floor and siding for moisture and
insects.
Wood Debris under and around Buildings
Pieces of wood, particularly partially buried tree roots
or construction lumber, can help support a termite
colony until the population grows large enough to
attack the building itself. Since cardboard boxes are
very attractive to termites, they should be removed
from crawl spaces or basements with earthen floors.
Interior Locations
Areas with water stains or mold growth indicate
excessive moisture and should be analyzed for correc-
tive action. Pay special attention to areas listed belov
Kitchen Pipes
Look for condensation and leaks, especially where
pipes enter walls. Repair leaks and insulate pipes
where condensation is excessive.
Counter Areas
Check around and below sink surfaces for moisture
and decay. Caulk or otherwise protect wall surfaces
from moisture. Subsurface areas damaged by water
leaking from above may be tolerated if the surface leaks
are repaired.
Exhaust Vents
Check for moisture leaks from outside. Repair with
caulk or water-resistant sealing material, or replace the
vent and the rotted wood around it. Use extra flash-
ing to fill the gap.
Toilets
Check the integrity of the floor around each toilet
base by thumping lightly with a hammer. Check the
wax seal for leakage at the floor/toilet pedestal
intersection. Check the cellar or crawl space beneath
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Appendix I • Inspection Checklist
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the toilets to see whether the leakage has caused
damage. Replace the wax seal if necessary and repair
the surrounding water damage.
Showers and Sinks
Check all sinks and shpwers for a sound caulk seal.
Look for splash-over on the floors from inadequate
water barriers or user carelessness. If moisture is
visible from crawl spaces, it may indicate a crack in the
floor or in drainage pipes. If moisture is visible in the
ceiling, it may indicate cracks in the delivery pipes.
Repair or replace flooring materials, pipes, drains, or
sink basins if necessary. Sealing compounds may be
useful when leaks are relatively recent and small,
especially if termites have not been found; however,
regular monitoring is necessary if sealing materials
are used.
Tile Walls
Check for mildew stains. Make sure the grout in tile
walls has a silicone coating to prevent water penetra-
tion. Clean the walls regularly to remove mildew and
improve ventilation.
Ceilings
Check for blistered areas, since these can indicate
moisture leaks in the area above or inadequate
installation of a vapor barrier. Repair leaks and
faulty vapor barriers.
Windows
Check for moisture accumulation and/or water stains
on window frames and walls. Search for evidence of
decay or insect attack next to glass areas where con-
densation accumulates, at edges where moldings meet
walls and casings, and in window channels and door
jams. Gaps between window and door casings may be
avenues for hidden moisture and insect access. Check
interior walls beneath windows, especially if they are
regularly wetted by garden sprinklers.
Open windows when feasible to improve air circula-
tion. Install double- or triple-glazed windows when
replacement is necessary. Use aluminum frames if
wooden frames are decaying. Adjust or move sprin-
klers so water does not hit windows.
Closets
Check coat and storage closets for dampness. A light
bulb left burning continuously in a damp closet will
often generate enough heat to dry it out, but make
sure the bulb is far enough away from stored materials
to avoid creating a fire hazard. Containers of highly
absorbent silica gel, activated alumina, or calcium
chloride also remove moisture from the air in enclosed
spaces. These agents should be placed out-of-reach to
avoid accidental exposures. Avoid use of silica gel
where children may tamper with the containers.
These chemicals can be reused after drying them in the
oven. Small exhaust fans can also improve closet
ventilation.
Floors
Sagging or buckling floors can indicate shrinkage or
rot from excessive condensation or water leaks.
Gaps between floor and baseboards can indicate
wood damage from insects, fungi, or water-trig-
gered swelling and shrinkage.
This document was produced for USEPA (Document #909-B-97-001) by the Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O. Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, March 1997.
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Appendix I • Inspection Checklist
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