Biological Services Program
FWS/0BS-80/40.5 Air Pollution and Acid Rain,
JUNE 1982 Report No. 5
THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN
ON FISH, WILDLIFE, AND THEIR HABITATS
RIVERS AND STREAMS
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency jKKBF
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Department of the Interior
-------
The Biological Services Program was established within the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service to supply scientific information and methodologies on key
environmental issues that impact fish and wildlife resources and their supporting
ecosystems.
Projects have been initiated in the following areas: coal extraction and
conversion; power plants; mineral development; water resource analysis, including
stream alterations and western water allocation; coastal ecosystems and Outer
Continental Shelf development; environmental contaminants; National Wetland
Inventory; habitat classification and evaluation; inventory and data management
systems; and information management.
The Biological Services Program consists of the Office of Biological Services in
Washington, D.C., which is responsible for overall planning and management;
National Teams, which provide the Program's central scientific and technical
expertise and arrange for development of information and technology by contracting
with States, universities, consulting firms, and others; Regional Teams, which
provide local expertise and are an important link between the National Teams and
the problems at the operating level; and staff at certain Fish and Wildlife Service
research facilities, who conduct inhouse research studies.
Kor wale b.v the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D C. 20402
-------
FWS/0BS-80/40.5
June 1982
AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN, REPORT 5
THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN
ON FISH, WILDLIFE, AND THEIR HABITATS
RIVERS AND STREAMS
by
Wayne Potter
Ben K-Y Chang
David Adler, Program Manager
Dynamac Corporation
Dynamac Building
12140 Rock vi "lie Pike
Rockville, MD 20852
FWS Contract Number 14-16-0009-80-085
Project Officer
R. Kent Schreiber
Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Route 3, Box 44
Kearneysv?77e, WV 25430
Conducted as part of the
Federal Interagency Energy Environment Research and Development Program
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Performed for:
Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Office of Biological Services
Fish and Wildlife Service
U. S. Department of the Interior
Washington, DC
-------
DISCLAIMER
The opinions and recommendations expressed in this series are those
of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service or the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor
does the mention of trade names consltute endorsement or recommendation
for use by the Federal Government. Although the research described in
this report has been funded wholly or in part by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency through Interagency Agreement No. EPA-31-D-X0581 to
the U.S. F1sh and Wildlife Service it has not been subjected to the
Agency's peer and policy review.
The correct citation for this report is:
Potter, W. 1982. The effects of air pollution and acid rain on fish,
wildlife, and their habitats - rivers and streams. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Biological Services Program, Eastern Energy and Land Use Team,
FWS/0BS-80/40.5. 52 pp.
-------
ABSTRACT
This report on rivers and streams is part of a series synthesizing
the results of scientific research related to the effects of air pollu-
tion and acid deposition on fish and wildlife resources. Accompanying
reports in this series are: Introduction, Deserts and Steppes, Forests,
Grasslands, Lakes, Tundra and Alpine Meadows, Urban Ecosystems, and
Critical Habitats of Threatened and Endangered Species.
The effects of photochemical oxidants, particulates, and acidifying
air pollutants on water quality and river and stream biota are summar-
ized. The characteristics that reflect river and stream sensitivity to
air pollutants, in particular acidifying pollutants, are presented.
Socioeconomic aspects of air pollution impacts on river and stream eco-
systems are discussed, and areas of research are suggested to increase
the understanding of the effects of air pollutants on river and stream
ecosystems.
iii
-------
CONTENTS
P£££
ABSTRACT ii
FIGURES v
TABLES v
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
2.0 RIVER AND STREAM ECOSYSTEM SENSITIVITY
TO AIR POLLUTION AND ACIO RAIN 2
2.1 Sensitivity to Photochemical
Oxidants and Particulates 2
2.2 Sensitivity to Acidification 2
3.0 THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACIO RAIN
ON RI VESS ANE STREAMS 6
3.1 Effects of Photochemical Oxidants 6
3.2 Effects of Particulates 7
3.3 Effects of Acidification 10
3.3.1 Acidification Effects
on Water Qual ity 10
3.3.2 Acidification Effects on Fish 15
3.3.3 Acidification Effects on Other
Aquatic Biota 19
3.3.4 Acidification Effects on Ecosystem
Structure and Function 26
4.0 SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS 29
5.0 SUMMARY AND AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ..... 31
5.1 Surnmary 31
5.2 Areas for Further Research 32
REFERENCES 37
iv
-------
FIGURES
Number Page
1 pH depression vs. discharge in a stream following
spring snowmelt 13
2 yearly yield of Atlantic salmon fisheries in 68 rivers
(all Norway rivers), seven rivers in southern Norway,
and the Tovdal River 18
TABLES
Number Page
1 Summarized effects of some metals on fish
and other biota 9
2 Mean ionic concentrations in snowmelt
and in snow runoff waters 14
3 Summary of low pH effects on fish 16
4 Representative studies demonstrating low pH
effects on river and stream biota other
than fish 20
5 Median minimum pH tolerances of different
aquatic taxa 25
v
-------
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This document is one of nine reports discussing the effects of air
pollution, including acid deposition, on fish, wildlife, and their habi-
tats in various ecosystems. The objective of the series is to provide
information that will assist the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and
others by providing an overview of the state of knowledge concerning
effects on fish and wildlife resources. This report reviews research
related to the effects of air pollution on rivers and streams.
Much of the literature dealing with the effects of air pollution on
aquatic ecosystems is equally applicable to lotic and lentic systems, and
has been summarized in the report on lakes, which is part of this series.
To avoid repetition of information common to lakes and to rivers and
streams, some sections of this report summarize information presented in
the report on lakes and concentrate more on information related specifi-
cally to rivers and streams. The reader will be referred to appropriate
sections of the report on lakes for more complete discussions.
The sources, transformation, and distribution of air pollutants are
discussed in detail in the introductory volume of this series. For the
purpose of this series of reports, air pollutants are classified into
three categories:
Photochemical Oxidants - a large variety of substances produced
by chemical reactions in the atmosphere as a result of sunlight
acting on nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons (e.g., ozone, PAN).
Particulates - trace metals, non-metallic ions, and synthetic and
natural organic micropollutants (e.g., Pb, Zn, Cu, F, alkanes,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pollen).
Acidifying Air Pollutants - acids or acid precursors (e.g.,
In this report, Section 2.0 reviews the characteristics of rivers and
streams determining their sensitivity to air pollutants. Section 3.0
summarizes the effects of air pollutants on the components of river and
stream ecosystems. Section 4.0 discusses socioeconomic impacts of air
pollutants related to river and stream ecosystems. Finally, Section 5.0
summarizes the important findings described in this overview and identi-
fies areas where further research is needed to understand how air pollu-
tion and acid deposition affect river and stream ecosystems.
-------
2.0 RIVER AND STREAM ECOSYSTEM SENSITIVITY TO AIR POLLUTION
AND ACID RAIN
Lotic systems, including rivers and streams, are the primary links
between terrestrial and lentic water systems, transferring the geologic
output of water, dissolved nutrients, other chemicals, and particulates
from terrestrial ecosystems to lakes and oceans (Likens and Bormann 1974).
Consequently, the terrestrial components of watersheds heavily influence
the water quality of rivers and streams. The amount and type of air
pollution reaching a river or stream are determined by the ecosystem's
proximity to sources of pollutants, prevailing meteorological patterns,
and drainage basin characteristics. The degree of impact of the pollu-
tants depends on both the abiotic and biotic components of the entire
drainage basin. Important abiotic factors include the nature of the
underlying bedrock and soils of the watershed, water and chemical resi-
dence times, temperature, and other water quality parameters such as pH,
hardness, metal concentrations, and total suspended solids. Biotic fac-
tors include the sensitivity of biota, the number of species and their
relative abundance, and the vegetation of the surrounding watershed.
2.1 SENSITIVITY TO PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS AND PARTICULATES
Little or no information is available to characterize the sensi-
tivity of river and stream ecosystems to photochemical oxidants or to
particulates. The sensitivity of rivers and streams to photochemical
oxidants should be related to the sensitivity of emergent or riparian
vegetation, as it is for lakes (see Lakes, Section 2.1). In the case
of oxidants, atmospheric concentrations that can cause foliar damage
will not, upon dissolving in a stream, result in levels high enough to
affect aquatic organisms.
The capacity of the terrestrial components of river and stream eco-
systems (e.g., vegetation, soils, geology, microbiota) to eliminate or
modify depositied toxic materials will play a large role in determining
the ecosystem's sensitivity. Watersheds with greater amounts of humates
that can chelate deposited metals, or those with thick, rich soils will
have a greater capacity to sequester or modify toxic pollutants and thus,
will be less sensitive than relatively barren watersheds.
2.2 SENSITIVITY TO ACIDIFICATION
The parameters of river and stream ecosystems that determine the
relative sensitivity of streams to acid deposition have been well
studied, and are essentially the same as those discussed for lakes
(Lakes, Section 2.3). Sensitive watersheds are generally characterized
by granitic or other siliceous bedrock types, thick and patchy podsolic
soils, and extremely soft or poorly buffered surface waters (Henriksen
2
-------
1979). Based on a survey of the literature, streams that are most sensi-
tive to acid deposition are usually located at high elevations and have a
low stream order (< 3) and soft water. Characteristics of these streams
include:
cold, shallow waters ( < 20°C);
turbulent flow;
rubble-gravel substrate;
high gradient;
extensive shade and cover;
coarse particulate organic matter; and
low alkalinity.
Streams having an alkalinity of less than 10 mg/1, as CaC03, are par-
ticularly sensitive while those with alkalinity in the range of 10-20
mg/1 are moderately sensitive to acid inputs (Altshuller and McBean 1979).
Larger rivers and streams at lower elevations, with greater amounts
of dissolved solics, may be affected by acid runoff, but usually to a
lesser degree than streams with the character!sties described aoove.
This is probably due to additional watershed buffering possible in the
larger, typically more fertile valleys the streams flow through and the
greater buffering capacity of the streams due to leaching of bases from
biological materials (Cronan et al. 1978; Seip and Tollan 1978; Johnson,
N. 1979; Martin 1979).
Watershed and surface water sensitivity has been documented in
southern Norway (Wright et el. 1976; Overrein et_ al. 1980), southern
Sweden (Aimer et 1974; TJTckson 1975), Denmark^~Rebsdorf 1980),
Canada (Scheider et_ aj_. 1979; Watt et_ al_. 1979; Zimmerman and Harvey
1979; Kerekes 1980; Impact Assessment Work Group 1981), New Hampshire
(Martin 1979), the Adirondack Mountains of New York (Festa 1978; Cronan
and Schofield 1979; Pfeiffer and Festa 1980), portions of the Appalachian
and Great Smoky Mountain ranges (Hendrey et al_, 1980; Herrmann and Baron
1980), mountainous areas of Colorado (Lewis and Grant 1979, 1980a), and
northern Wisconsin, Minnesota and Michigan (Bush 1980; Glass and Loucks
1980). On the basis of bedrock sensitivity, the four regions of the
United States most susceptible to aquatic impact from acid deposition
are (Galloway and Cowling 1978; Likens _et _al_. 1979; Hendrey et _ak 1930;
Impact Assessment Work Group 1981):
the northeastern U.S.;
the Appalachian mountain range;
3
-------
« the highlands of Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin; and
mountainous areas of California, Colorado, Idaho, Oregon and
Washington.
Norton (1980) and Hendrey et aH. (1980) summarized the geological
factors affecting the sensitivity of aquatic ecosystems to acid deposi-
tion. These authors developed and presented new bedrock geology maps by
county for the eastern United States to predict areas that may be sensi-
tive to acid deposition. These maps, based on recent state geologic maps,
provide a detailed picture of acid sensitive areas and are discussed
elsewhere in this series (Lakes, Section 2.3). That document should be
consulted for more information on the maps and their use.
Although bedrock geology provides a general indication of where sen-
sitive streams may be located, the presence of unconsolidated deposits of
glacial till, glaciofluvial materials, and other allochthonous material
may lead to mineralogical characteristics different from the bedrock.
Differences in these geological substrates, soil type, and vegetation may
result in local variations in stream water chemistry (Likens et aj_. 1979).
McFee (1980) also studied the characteristics of areas in the
eastern United States sensitive to acid deposition, but used soils
instead of geologic factors to determine sensitivity. Four parameters
important in estimating soil sensitivity to acid deposition include:
total buffering capacity or cation exchange capacity;
base saturation;
any land use which may affect the soil; and
the presence or absence of carbonates in the soil profile.
Cation exchange capacity was chosen by McFee (1980) to be the pri-
mary criterion for classifying soil regions into areas of differing sen-
sitivity. Areas of the eastern United States identified as potentially
sensitive are concentrated in the southeast on highly weathered soil, on
the shallow and steep soils of the Appalachian Highland regions, in the
Adirondack Mountains, and on the coarse, non-basic tills of New England.
In sum, major factors influencing river and stream sensitivity are
(Horn bee k et a_l_. 1976);
bedrock geology;
soil depth and chemistry;
the residence time of waters in terrestrial components of the
watershed; and
seasonal patterns in precipitation acidity.
4
-------
The work on area sensitivity, discussed above, identifies localities
in which acid-sensitive streams may be located. The designation of areas
as acid-sensitive or acid-tolerant is generally valid, although it should
be understood that regions with soils having high buffering capacities
may contain acid-sensitive streams, just as areas designated acid-
sensitive may contain well-buffered streams.
5
-------
3.0 THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACID
RAIN ON RIVERS AND STREAMS
The effects of air pollutants on the abiotic and biotic components
of lotic ecosystems have been determined in laboratory and field investi-
gations. The effects of photochemical oxidants on riparian forests have
been reported, and laboratory studies have indicated that high levels of
ozone are toxic to fish. Much of the available information on the
effects of particulate deposition is related to observed changes in water
quality and to evidence of accumulation of some of these pollutants in
sediments and biota. Extensive laboratory data indicate that heavy
metals, trace elements, and organic micropollutants have numerous effects
on river and stream biota. The effects of acidifying air pollutants on
the components of aquatic ecosystems are well documented and numerous
summaries are available (Leivestad et al. 1976; Aimer et al. 1978; Kramer
1978; Overrein et^ aJL 1980; Haines 1^877. This section wTTl highlight
some of the known or suspected effects of these air pollutants on the
components of river and stream ecosystems, and on the ecosystems as a
whole.
3.1 EFFECTS OF PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
No field studies have been reported that demonstrated the effects of
photochemical oxidants on aquatic organisms of rivers and streams. How-
ever, there are laboratory studies demonstrating the effects of ozone on
various life stages of different fish species (Asbury and Coler 1980;
Hall et £l_* 1981; Paller and Heidinger 1980). These studies concern the
use o?-ozone as a biocide for the treatment of municipal and industrial
waters. The levels demonstrating acute or chronic effects are higher
than those expected to be found in natural waters. Brief summaries of
these studies are presented to indicate that environmental levels of
ozone necessary to cause observable effects are higher than would occur
as a result of air pollution.
Asbury and Coler (1980) reported the results of continuous testing
of ozone toxicity to eggs and/or larvae of the fathead minnow (Pimephales
promelas), white sucker (Catostomus commersoni), bluegill (Lepomis
macrochirus). and yellow perch (Perca flavescens). The eggs of the fat-
head minnow and yellow perch were more tolerant of dissolved ozone than
the larvae and generally had LCcq values greater than 1 mg/1 for expo-
sure times ranging from 10 to 160 min; larvae of the same species had
LC50 values less than 0.1 mg/1 for 5-min exposure. White sucker eggs
were similarly tolerant, having LC5Q values ranging from greater than
5.9 mg/1 for a 5-min exposure to 1.43 mg/1 for an 80-min exposure. Larval
bluegill LC50 values ranged from less than 0.1 mg/1 for a 2-min
exposure (longest exposure period) to 0.15 mg/1 for 0.25-min. No chronic
toxicity was observed at 24, 48, or 96 h after exposure in either eggs or
larvae exposed to sublethal ozone levels.
6
-------
Hall et al. (1981) studied the effects of ozone on striped bass
(Morone saxatTTis) eggs, larvae, and juveniles. Eggs tested in fresh-
water for 12-h and 30-h exposures had a LC50 of 0.06 mg/1 ozone-pro-
duced oxidants. Larvae tested in estuarine water had LC50 values of
0.15 mg/1 at 6 h and 0.08 mg/1 at 96 h. LC50's for fingerlings in
estuarine water were 0.20 mg/1 at 6 h and 0.08 mg/1 at 96 h.
Paller and Heidinger (1980) reported greater than 50 % mortality of
young (4 g) bluegill exposed to 0.06 mg/1 ozone for 25 h in a flowthrough
bioassay. There was also 50 % mortality at 0.23 mg/1 ozone during an
intermittent (8 exposures for 30 min each) 40-b bioassay.
Because of the considerable documentation of oxidant effects on
terrestrial vegetation (USEPA 1978; Smith 1981), it may be expected that
there will be some foliar damage in vegetation in and near rivers and
streams, especially near urban or industrial centers. The types of plant
effects expected to occur at ozone concentrations often found in urban
and rural areas of the United States (USEPA 1978) include reduced growth
and yield, altered plant quality, and changes in the plant community
structure. However, research to date has not provided sufficient infor-
mation to indicate that photochemical oxidants cause measurable changes
on components (e.g., water chemistry, submerged vegetation) of river and
stream ecosystems.
3.2 EFFECTS OF PARTICULATES
The effects of particulates containing heavy metals, trace ele-
ments, and organic micropollutants on the biota of rivers and streams
are essentially the same as those reported for the biota of lakes.
Inputs may either be beneficial, providing necessary nutrients, or
detrimental when the pollutants are composed of toxic materials. The
reader is directed to the Lakes report (Section 3.2) for information
concerning particulate effects on aquatic biota.
Particulates carried in rivers and streams may be bound or mobilized
by a variety of abiotic and biotic processes (Lakes, Section 3.2). Thus
the effects of airborne heavy metals, trace elements, and organic micro-
pollutants on water quality, and ultimately on the biota of rivers and
streams depends on several factors. These include the:
acidity, chemical composition, and volume of precipitation;
buffering capacity of the land and receiving water;
forest canopy and understory;
geology of the watershed (soils, bedrock); and
flow rate and volume of the receiving system.
7
-------
The degree of change in stream water quality is variable and
depends, in part, upon the sources of water and its constituents. For
instance, during heavy precipitation, runoff may consist primarily of
unmodified rainwater. In alpine streams with low dissolved solids, the
pH may drop suddenly and concentrations of heavy metals and trace ele-
ments increase. When the runoff decreases, the water quality will
usually return to normal because the major water input into the streams
will then be buffered groundwater.
An obvious, but important stream characteristic that affects water
quality is the flow which results in no net accumulation of dissolved
materials in the water column. Nevertheless, the greater area of con-
tact of streamwaters with terrestrial components of the watershed allows
greater opportunity for metals to enter lotic systems. Lentic systems,
by contrast, serve as repositories where trace elements accumulate and
are stored over time.
Pollutants (e.g., trace metals) may be lost from stream waters
through deposition or adsorption on sediments (Pagenkopf and Cameron
1979; Van Hassell et _al_. 1980). Metals deposited in stream sediments
may not remain there but can be slowly leached or resuspended by
turbulence and transported downstream. Sediments serve as a primary
source of heavy metals which eventually accumulate in the biota of
streams (Van Hassell _et _aj_. 1980).
Norton iet _al_. (1980) summarized recent literature concerning metals
in surface freshwaters and pointed out that, although there are abundant
data for rivers on trace metals (e.g., Fe, Mn, A1, Zn, Pb, Cd), the
studies generally are not useful in determining temporal changes in trace
metal content due to atmospheric deposition. Most .of the studies were
initiated because of suspected pollution by human activities within
drainage basins. As a result, concentrations of these pollutants far
exceed the levels expected to result from atmospheric deposition. The
investigators could not find long-term data permitting assessment of
metal-related changes and suggested the need for geographic transect or
paleolimnologic studies to investigate changes in metal concentrations
in surface waters.
Although numerous field studies have shown that aquatic organisms
bioaccumulate heavy metals, other trace elements, and organic micro-
pollutants (Faber ert _al_. 1972; Scott 1974; Hutchinson and Czyrska 1975;
McNurney et_ a_l_. 1977; Van Hassell et aj_. 1980; Wells et al. 1980), few
have shown organism effects due to air pollution inputs ^excluding acid
materials) to rivers and streams. Because the relationship between the
amount of heavy metals accumulated in organisms and the toxic effects of
these metals is poorly understood, the impacts on aquatic ecosystems
cannot be directly estimated (Van Hassell _et 1980).
Laboratory studies have led to general understanding of the poten-
tial effects of isolated metals on aquatic fauna; some results are sum-
marized in Table 1. However, greater knowledge is required of the poten-
tial synergistic effects of several atmospheric contaminants, especially
8
-------
Table 1. Summarized effects of some metals on fish and other biota.
Hetals
Effects
Arsenic
Catinium
Chromium
Copper
Bioconcentrated, but riot biomagnified,
in aquatic organisms
Acute mortal ity
Reduced survival and growth in fish
Reduced papulations in bottom fauna
and plankton
Reduced faunal standing crops
Reduced spawning in fish
Reduced survival of developing embryo
Reduced survival and growth of larvae
Retarded growth in the midge; reduced
growth in Daphnia magna
Acute mortality
Reduced survival and growth in fish
Reproductive impairment in
Daphnia magna
Acute mortal i ty
Inhibited spawning in fish
Reduced gt-owth and survival in fish
Reproductive impairment in
Daphnia magna
Iron
Acute mortal ity
Gill damages in fish
Detrimental to fish eggs, and bottom
dwelling fish-food organisms
Metals
Effects
Lead
Acute mortality
Reduced growth
Changed behavior in fish
Reproductive impairment
Mercury Acute mortal i ty
Retarded or inhibited spawning
in fish
Reduced growth in fish
Reproductive impairment in
Daphnia magna
Nickel Acute mortality
Reduced spawning and hatchability
t Impaired reproduction
Silver
Acute mortality
Possible effect on spawning
behavior or reproduction
Zinc
Adverse changes in the morphology
and physiology of fish
Acute effects include cellular
breakdown of the gills and possibly
the clogging of the gills with mucus
Histological changes of many organ
tissues
Retarded growth and maturation
(Adapted from USEPA 1976; American Fisheries Society 1979)
-------
metals and hydrogen ions, under varying ambient environmental conditions.
In addition, the relative contribution of atmospheric deposition to the
total concentration of metals in aquatic ecosystems is uncertain. The
reader is directed to the report on lakes for further discussion of the
effects of particulates on aquatic biota.
3.3 EFFECTS OF ACIDIFICATION
The deposition of acid materials can have significant impacts on the
abiotic and biotic components of sensitive rivers and streams as has been
shown in both laboratory and field studies of the direct and indirect
effects of acidification. Direct effects result from acid deposition,
acidic groundwater and surface runoff, and toxic materials (e.g. alumi-
num) mobilized from rocks, soil and sediments. Indirect effects may
result from modifications in water chemistry and biological communities
caused by acid deposition.
Although a considerable body of literature is available concerning
the effects of acid mine drainage on freshwater organisms (Parsons 1968;
Warner 1971; Dills and Rogers 1974; Herricks and Cairns 1974; Wojcik and
Butler 1977), it is not directly applicable to the acid deposition prob-
lem. Acid mine drainage is typified by low pH, high hardness, and high
concentrations of suspended and dissolved solids such as Fe and SO4
(Harrison 1965; Cairns e_t a_l_. 1971). Surface waters acidified by atmos-
pheric deposition are characteristically softwaters with low conductivity
and ionic content. The information reported here is related to the ef-
fects of acid deposition or to laboratory studies performed under water
conditions similar to those expected in acid-sensitive rivers and streams.
3.3.1 Acidification Effects on Water Quality
Acid deposition has modified the water quality of rivers and streams
in many regions. Observations of decreased pH levels apparently due to
acid deposition have been reported in rivers and streams of Norway
(Overrein et al. 1980), Sweden (Leivestad et aj_. 1976), England (Rippon
1980), Canada~TThompson et _al_. 1980), and in the U.S. in Colorado (Lewis
and Grant 1979, 1980a, b~77 New Hampshire (Cronan et al. 1978; Martin
1979), New Jersey (Johnson, A. 1979a, b), New YorlT^Ffeiffer and Festa
1980), Pennsylvania (Arnold et jfL 1980), and central North Carolina and
Virginia (Hendrey et al. 1980]". Storm trajectories, pollutant loadings
and surface topography largely determine regional patterns of acid and
trance element deposition (Elgmork _et _a^. 1973).
Gradients of changing physical conditions make it more difficult
to interpret the impacts of acid deposition in lotic ecosystems than in
lentic ones. As a general rule, low-order streams acidify to a greater
extent than downstream reaches (as headwater lakes acidify before those
at lower elevations); conversely, an increase in alkalinity and buffering
capacity is found as a stream enlarges (Johnson et ah 1972).
10
-------
Observations such as these suggest that the river continuum concept of
Vannote et_ _al_. (1980) is applicable to understanding the physicochemical
and biological effects of acidification in lotic systems.
As discussed in Section 2.2, the extent of acidification is related
to the amount of acid material deposited in a river drainage basin, the
buffering capacity of the soils, and the geological formations in the
drainage basin. As acid precipitation, snowmelt or runoff passes through
soils or over geologic formations, hydrogen ions are exchanged with other
cations which enter the ground water and eventually flow into rivers and
streams. A net discharge of A1, Ca, Mg, and K has been observed in cali-
brated watersheds of Sweden (Skartveit 1981). Hydrogen ion deposition
has been shown to be equivalent to the total export of base metal ions in
streams of New Hampshire (Fisher e_t al. 1968) and Norway (Gjessing et al.
1976). In the vicinity of metal smeTters, roads, and other sources,
metals accumulated in the watershed can be mobilized by acid deposition
resulting in accelerated flux of aluminum and other trace elements from
the watershed (Hutchinson 1980).
In headwater streams of England, New England, and Scandinavia, most
of the sulfate and hydrogen ions in streams originate in precipitation
(Fi sher et jaL 1968; Johnson et jTL 1972; Glover et al. 1980; Skartveit
1981). Sulfate has ?arge?y replaced b-icarbor?ete as TFe dominapt ion in
these strearis; buffernc capacities are lost when pH drops below 5.5
^Galloway _et_ al * 1976 ; Wright £nd Gjessing 1976). Deposited nitrate
and anmooium iorts are most often taken up sy biota in the wotersneo and
only attain high concentration in streams during periods cf high runoff.
At these times, additional hydrogen and aluminum ions are mobilized
through cation exchange reactions in the acidic top layers of soil humus
while calcium ions predominate when runoff is low and waters penetrate
deep into less acidic soil layers (Skartveit 1981).
Mobilization of aluminum from terrestrial to aquatic systems due to
hydrogen ion neutralization has been identified as an especially critical
effect of acid precipitation (Wright and Henriksen 1978; Johnson, N.
1979; Driscoll et al_. 1980; Gorham and McFee 1980). Aluminum concentra-
tions have beenTound to correlate inversely with pH levels in stream-
waters (Cronan and Schofield 1979; Johnson, N. 1979). In soft waters of
low conductivity and ionic content, greater amounts of toxic Al3+ are
mobilized as pH declines; in waters of high organic content, much of the
aluminum in solution may be complexed with humic and fulvic substances
in a form less available to biota (Driscoll 1980; Driscoll et _al_. 1980).
In addition to the contribution of terrestrial portions of the
drainage basin, cations can be mobilized from stream sediments and
biota. Hall et al. (T980) experimental?y acidified a section of a New
Hampshire stream to pH 4.0 and found increases in the concentrations of
Al, Ca, Mg, K, Mn, Fe, and Cd. Concentrations of these substances
returned quickly to their original values upon termination of the acid
i nput.
11
-------
The effects of acid deposition on streams and rivers are most appar-
ent during spring snowmelt and episodes of heavy rain when the acidity of
a stream can increase rapidly. Snowmelt acid pulses, or rapid drops in
pH, accompanied by elevated metal concentrations, have been recorded in
springtime in Norway (Leivestad and Muniz 1976, Johannessen and Henriksen
1978; Wright and Dovland 1978), Sweden (Hultberg 1977), Canada (Jeffries
et al_. 1979) Colorado (Lewis and Grant 1980b), and the Adirondack Moun-
tains of New York (Schofield 1977, Schofield and Trojnar 1980). The
characteristic relationship between elevated discharges and pH depression
is depicted in Figure 1.
Acids, trace elements, and organic compounds in atmospheric deposi-
tion accumulate in snowpacks, tending to concentrate in distinct layers;
the first snowmelt usually contains the highest concentrations of impuri-
ties (Hagen and Langeland 1973; Seip 1980). Skartveit and Gjessing
(1979) observed sulfate concentrations 2-5 times higher in initial snow-
melt than in the snowpack. During initial snowmelt sulfate was observed
to increase by a factor of 7 in a creek of northern Minnesota, causing
the pH to drop 1.1 units (Siegel 1981).
Table 2 contrasts the chemical composition of snowmelt (defined as
meltwater collected from surface channels immediately adjacent to the
snowpack) with snow runoff in an alpine watershed of British Columbia.
Most of these constituents are more concentrated in snow runoff, indi-
cating that interactions with soil add to the total pollutant loadings
of the runoff. In addition the acidity of the snowmelt is reduced by
these interactions; the pH of the runoff is 6.6 compared to a pH of 5.3
for the snowmelt (Zeman and Slaymaker 1975). In watersheds subject to
acid deposition with soils of low base saturation, hydrogen and ammonium
ions in snowmelt are absorbed in the watershed while A1, Ca, and Mg are
mobilized (Skartveit and Gjessing 1979).
Pollutant concentrations in the snowpack decrease during the melting
process. Johannessen et al. (1980) observed the initial 10 percent of
snow runoff to contain-FaTF of the sulfate and hydrogen ion content of a
snowpack in Norway. Laboratory and field experiments showed that 50 to
80 percent of snowpack pollutants were released in the first 30 percent
of the snowmelt (Johannessen and Henriksen 1978). Thereafter, concentra-
tions of sulfate and other ions decreased in snow runoff due to the
diluting effect of peak flows, despite persistent high ionic concentra-
tions in spring and summer precipitation (Johannessen et_ aj_. 1980;
Skartveit 1981).
Whatever the reason for increased acidity, an important consequence
is the enhanced mobilization of metals, particularly aluminum (Cronan and
Schofield 1979; Driscoll e_t el. 1980; Gorham and McFee 1980; Grahn
1980). Leaching of metals from soils and geologic formations increases
the loads carried by rivers and streams. However, because rivers and
streams are open systems, with extensive exchange of materials among the
water, sediments, organic matter, and nutrients, increases in water con-
centrations of metals may not be readily apparent except during episodes
of acidification.
12
-------
Figure 1. pH depression vs. discharge in a stream following spring snowmelt.
(Adapted from Jeffries et aK 1979)
1?
-------
Table 2. Mean ionic concentrations in snowmelt and in snow runoff waters.
Dissolved Constituents (mg/1) Snowmelt Snow Runoff
Na
5.27b
6.57b
K
0.015
0.21
Ca
0.02
1.08
Mg
0.02
0.24
CI
0.20
0.24
no3
0.03
0.03
Si02
0.026
3.23
nh4
0.005
0.005
P04
0.005
0.005
Total
0.34
5.82
PH
5.27
6.57
(From Aeman and Slaymaker 1975)
14
-------
3.3.2 Acidification Effects on Fish
Rapid or persistent depression of streamwater pH can result in fish
kills or reduced fish abundance due to mortality of eggs and larvae. The
direct impacts of acid precipitation in river and streams are:
acute mortality;
osmoregulatory failure and other physiological stress;
predisposition to disease; and
reproductive stress, including endocrine imbalances, curtailed
spawning, genetic damage, and, ultimately, recruitment failure.
Surviving and acid-tolerant populations may be affected by the indirect
effects of acid-induced alterations in food resources, community energe-
tics, competition and predation. Recent reviews provide concise informa-
tion on the potential impacts of low pH on fish (Fritz 1980; Haines 1981)
and on the physiological and toxicological responses of fish to acid
stress (Alabaster and Lloyd 1980; Fromm 1980). Table 3 summarizes the
effects of low pH levels on fish, based on Alabaster and Lloyd (1980)
and a survey of recent literature. It should be noted that the effects
of low pH levels may be modified by various factors in different labora-
tory and field situations. The reader is directed to the report on lakes
(Section 3.3.2) where reports of acid effects on fish are extensively
documented and a summary of the factors that affect the tolerance of
fish to acid water is given.
Fish kills related to acidification episodes may be due to failure
in body salt regulation (Leivestad and Muniz 1976; Leivestad et jH. 1976
Muniz and Leivestad 1980a). Packer and Dunson (1970) attributed fish
mortality in acidified water to suffocation, depletion of body sodium,
and lowered blood pH. McWilliams and Potts (1978) further showed that
brown trout exhibited sodium loss at low pH levels. Although disruption
of gill epithelium, production of mucous on gills, inability to osmoregu-
late, and acidosis of the blood have all been associated with low pH
levels (Alabaster and Lloyd 1980; Fromm 1980), the prime mode of toxic
action to fish is still unresolved. Failures of ion regulation and
respiratory functions are probable causes (Haines 1981).
The tolerance of fish to low pH decreases in waters of low conduc-
tivity and ionic content (Grande and Anderson 1979; Fromm 1980; Rosseland
et _al_. 1980). During acid pulses associated with spring snowmelt, the
"First fraction of snowmelt may product the greatest pH shock. The dilu-
tion resulting from subsequent melts may have a greater effect on streamm
ionic content than on acidity, and the lowered ionic content can rein-
force the effects of continued low pH (Leivestad and Muniz 1976).
15
-------
Table 3. Summary of low pH effects on fish.
pH range Effects
9.0 - 6.5 Harmless to most fish; toxicity of other poisons may
be affected by changes within this range.
6.5 - 6.0 Unlikely to be harmful to fish unless free carbon
dioxide is present in excess of 100 mg/1; egg
hatchability and growth of alevins of brook trout
significantly lower at all pH levels below 6.5.
6.0 - 5.5 Egg production and hatchability of fathead minnow
reduced; reduced egg production and larval survival
of flagfish; roach reproduction may be affected;
unlikely to be harmful to fish unless free carbon
dioxide is present in excess of 20 mg/1.
5.5 - 5.0 Increasing hatching time of Atlantic salmon eggs;
mortality of brown trout eggs is high; threshold of
tissue damage for fingerling brown trout; growth of
flagfish larvae may be reduced; roach reproduction
reduced at least 50 percent; may be harmful to non-
acclimated salmonids if the calcium, sodium, and
chloride concentrations, or the temperature are low.
5.0 - 4.5 Harmful to eggs and alevins or larvae of most salmon-
ids and white sucker, and to adults particularly in
soft water containing low concentrations of calcium,
sodium, and chloride; may be harmful to carp; roach
recruitment impaired; fish mortalities may be
expected.
4.5 - 4.0 Expected to be harmful to salmonids at all stages;
likely to be harmful to tench, bream, roach, gold-
fish, carp, fathead minnow, bluegill; acclimation
may increase resistance to these levels.
4.0 - 3.5 Lethal to most fish over extended periods.
3.5 and below Acutely lethal to fish.
(Adapted from Alabaster and Lloyd 1980)
16
-------
Acid deposition has been cited as the reason for declines in the
catch of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in several southern Norwegian
rivers (Leivestad e_t _a_h 1976; Wright _et _al_. 1976; Howells and Holden
1979). As shown in Figure 2, reduced salmon yields in the Tovdal River
and seven other rivers in southernmost Norway contrast markedly with
sustained or increased catches in rivers of other parts of the country.
Salmon populations had been completely eliminated in these eight rivers
by the mid 19701 s (Leivestad et aj_. 1976)
In the Adirondack Mountains of New York, snowmelt waters of low pH
and elevated aluminum content caused direct mortality of brook trout
(Salvelinus fontinalis). Fry suffered gill damage and mortality in
waters of pH 4.4-5.9 with 0.25-1.0 mg/1 A1 (Schofield 1977). Recruit-
ment failure, possibly leading to population extinction, is suspected
among Adirondack populations of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), yellow
perch (Perca flavescens), lake chub (Couesius plumbeus), and white sucker
(Catostomus commersoni). In the Great Smoky Mountains National Park,
brook trout have been observed with symptoms of gill damage due to
reduced pH and high concentrations of metals and sulfate minerals leached
from newly placed roadfill by drainage waters (Huckabee _et jH. 1975).
More recently declining populations in the park have been attributed to
combined aluminum and acid stress (Mathews and Larson 1980).
Gill destruction, anoxia, and death due to excessive aluminum
concentrations are observed at pH levels (4.4-5.2) that do not normally
produce physiological stress in adult fish (Muniz and Leivestad 1980a, b;
Schofield 1980; Schofield and Trojnar 1980). However, in acid waters
with a pH of less than 4.4, aluminum and acid have antagonistic effects.
Increased concentrations of aluminum can be tolerated (up to 1.0 mg/1)
and the aluminum reduces the acid stresses to fish (Baker and Schofield
1980; Leivestad et _al_- 1980; Schofield 1980; Schofield and Trojnar 1980).
Recruitment failure, or the inability of a population to maintain
its size through reproduction, is another major cause of declining
fisheries in areas subject to chronic atmospheric deposition. Acid
snowmelt pulses frequently coincide with the time of spawning, and
observed reproductive failure has been attributed to sudden mortalities
of fish eggs and larvae (Johansson ^t _aK 1973; Kwain 1975; Daye and
Garside 1977; Swarts et_ aj_. 1978; Carrick 1979). Populations of brown
trout (Salmo trutta) in several rivers of southern Norway have been
eradicated by recruitment failure even though pH levels were not low
enough to kill larger fish (Jensen and Snekvik 1972). The lowest pH at
which eggs can hatch and fry can develop normally was observed to be 5.0
to 5.5 in salmon and 4.5 in brown trout; salmon disappeared before brown
trout populations in the softwater rivers of depressed pH. Growth of
brook trout and the hatching of brook trout eggs both are reduced at pH
levels below 6.5 (Menendez 1976; Fromm 1980).
Several sub-lethal effects of acidification have also been detected
in laboratory and field experiments with fish. Alterations of blood
chemistry have been shown to affect the physiology of fish. The uptake
of excessive hydrogen ions can reduce the pH of fish blood, diminishing
17
-------
<
CD
-5
(/)
0
<
Cl
01
(/I
3"
<<
_j.
ci.
U 20
IQ
c+
O
Figure 2. Yearly yield of Atlantic salmon fisheries in sixty-eight rivers
(all Norway rivers), seven rivers in southern Norway and the Tovdal river.
(From Howells and Hoi den 1979)
18
-------
the capacity of hemoglobin to transport dissolved oxygen (Fromm 1980).
Low oxygen tension resulting from acidemia is offset by increased red
cell production; elevated levels of hemoglobin and hematocrit have been
measured in the blood of acid exposed rainbow trout (Saltno gairdneri)
(Neville 1979). Reduced fish growth has been shown to result from
chronic pH stress (Menendez 1976; Edwards and Hjeldnes 1977), and the
associated changes in metabolism and oxygen consumption (Rosseland
1980).
Freshwater acidity may delay or inhibit spawning by females (Beamish
1976; Ruby et_ a^L 1977). Avoidance responses to low pH may prevent
females from finding suitable nesting grounds (Haines 1981). Johnson and
Webster (1977) observed brook trout to prefer areas of upwelling waters
for use as spawning sites, but those at pH 4.0 or 4.5 were avoided. Up-
well ings of pH 5.0 did not provoke avoidance reactions in this species.
Finally, fish may be exposed to elevated metal concentrations under
conditions of low pH. As waters become acidified, mercury is rapidly
translocated from the water to fish (Tsai _e_t _al_. 1975). Alterations in
fish population structure and intra-specific relations of predation and
competition, can play an important role in metal availability (Thompson
e_t a]_. 1980). These changes can also affect the magnitude of sub-lethal
growth responses in fish (Ryan and Harvey 1977, 1980).
3.3.3 Acidification Effects on Other Aquatic Biota
The specific effects of acidification on biota other than fish in
rivers and streams (pH < 6.0) include:
increases in benthic filamentous algae;
species elimination and replacement among the fungi and bacteria;
reduced diversity of benthic invertebrates, and altered community
composition;
accelerated drift of benthic invertebrates;
reduced reproductive success in amphibian species; and
indirect effects on waterfowl due to reduced food availability.
Table 4 summarizes observations of these effects in river and stream
biota other than fish. Informative reviews of acidification effects on
aquatic fauna have been prepared by Overrein 'fit_ aJL ( 1980), Haines (1981)
and Eilers and Berg (1981).
Gradual or sudden depressions of pH levels in streams stimulate
dense growths of filamentous algae, or periphyton, despite concurrent
reductions in the number of species present and despite changes in the
composition of algal communities (Hendrey ert aj_. 1976; Aimer et_ aj_. 1978;
19
-------
Table 4. Representative studies demonstrating low pH effects on river and stream
biota other than fish.
Organism Effect/Observation Reference
Bacteria
Fungi
Peri phytic algae
In laboratory respirometers, decomposition of glucose and glumatic acid proceeded
rapidly even at pH 1.0; at pH 4.0 fungi predominated; at pH 7.0 bacteria dominated
during the exponential phase, and the end product was dinof1agellates; in litter-
bag experiments, there was a decrease in weight loss with decreasing pH; results
indicated that decomposition of leaf material was retarded at low pN, apparently
due to a reduced attack by zoobenthos.
In artificial channels, at pH values 4, 6, and uncontrolled, the periphytic algae was
dominated by 7 taxa (of 30); at pH 4 and at natural pH (4.3-5.6) algae was more
abundant with more luxuriant growth of long, filamentous strands of greenish algae
that in the pH 6 channel; accumulated organic material was greatest at pH 4, however
the differences between the means of ash-free dry weights were not significant; in all
cases but one, maximum mean chlorophyll value at pH 4 was significantly higher than
at pH 6 (P < 0.05); the algae occurring naturally in Ramse Brook (natural water) were
well suited to the acid conditions found there.
Traaen
( 1980)
Hendrey
(1976)
Algae
Growth rates of 34 species of algae were studied in relation to pH; no pattern was
found in the minimum pH tolerated; most of the species for which the minimum pH was
established would not grow at pH values lower than 4.5-5.1, though the exact minimum
was above pH 3.8; no differences could be shown between oligotrophic and eutrophic
species.
Moss
( 1973)
Periphytic algae
Periphytic algae accumulate in acid streams; at pH 4, the growth of long strands of
algae was more extensive than at natural pH (4.3 to 5.6); at pH 6 there was little
development of long strands (more information in Hendrey (1976) above).
Leivestad
et al.
T1976)
Periphytic algae
Fungi
In an experimentally acidified stream excessive accumulation of attached plants
(periphyton) at low pH were observed; hyphomycete fungal densities decreased and
basidiomycete fungus increased in the experimentally acidified stream section
relative to the reference section.
Hall and
Li kens
(198 Da,b)
Water flea
Daphnia pulex
Survival in river water in the pH range of 6.1 to 10.3; in static bioassays survival
at pH values from 4.3 to 10.4 for 32 hours; parthenogenesis noted at pH values between
7.0 and 8.7.
Davis and
Ozburn
(1*63)
Water flea
Daptinia magna
In 24-hour static bioassays over 85 percent survived in pH 4.5 or greater; at pH 4.2
or lower, survival was less than 50 percent; in chronic studies, reproduction varied
with pH, depending on the age of the Daphnia; older (7 day) reproduced at pH 5.0,
younger (4 day) reproduced at pH 5.5.
Parent and
Cheetham
(1980)
Crayfish
Oreonectes virilis
Crayfish survived pH 4.0 for 10 days when not molting, but died when in postmolt
stages; at pH 5.0 postmolt crayfish survived for 10 days but developed slower and
calcification of the carapace was slower than for crayfish tested at pH 6.0 or
higher; uptake of Ca by postmolt crayfish was inhibited by pH levels below 5.75
and ceased below 4.0.
Mai ley
(1980)
Schindler
(1980)
-------
Table 4. (Continued)
Organi sm Effect/Observat ion Reference
Midge
Tanytarsus dissiroilis
Stoneflies (Plecoptera}
CaddiSf 1 i-es (Trichoptera)
Mayflies (Ephemeroptera)
Dragonflies (Odorata)
Stoneflies (Plecoptera)
Caddisflies (Trichoptera)
Mayflies {Epheneroptera)
True flies (Diptera)
Amphipods (Amphipoda)
Lepi durus arcticus
Amphipo3~
Gamma rus lacustris
Mayfly
Ephanerel la funeral is
Waterbug
Corixa punctata
Freshwater insects
Freshwater invertebrates
In static bioassays, the life cycle could rot be completed below pH 5.5; larvae survived
and pupated at pH 5.0 but no adults emerged; larvae could not survive pH 4.0 more than
10 days.
ys 7L50 values (pH at which 50 percent of organisms died)
2.45 [Brachycentrus anericanus) to pH 5.38 (Ephemerella
ich 50 percent emerged was pH 4.0 to pH 6.6. ]n general,
tnlo^ant tho ctnnpf 1 snd rlrartnnf I ioc mnrtpr^ t"f>l v
the
In continuous-flow bioassays
at 30 days ranged from pH 2
subvsria); the range at wh
the caddisflies were
tolerant, and the m
emergence of aquat
cycle; 50 percent successfu
In static and continuous-flow bioassays, test organisms died at pH values below those
normally found in the field. Longer exposure my have detrimental effects on molting,
growth, reproduction, and survival; considerable variability in tolerance between
species tested; pH levels below 6.0 appeared to be injurious to rrayflies, pH 5.5 to
stoneflies; some caddisflies and a fly (Simulium) tolerated pH levels below 4.0;
amphipods were most sensitive (TLm96 at pH 7.27-7.29).
The eggs of 1^. arcticus did not survive betow pH 4.0; first instars required more time
to molt at pH 5 and the third instar was not reached when the tests ended; at pH 4.5
and 4.0, eggs hatched but the first instar did not molt and the larvae died after
about 2 days; 6. lacustris adults exposed to extremely soft water with pH below 5.5
for 45 hours dTd not survive; mortality was negligible at pH 5.5 and 6.0.
The experimental acidification of Norris Brook had no effect on emergence, but caused
a decrease In growth and nearly eliminated recruitment of the new cohort; abundance of
E_. funeral is appeared to decrease with pH; large instars were mare tolerant to
occasional low pH episodes.
Waterbugs are able to live in very acid waters, pH changes Na+ influx, haemolymph sodium
concentration does not change with the pH of the water; the chloride balance can also be
maintained.
Stream survey data from 1951 to 1974 were analyzed; minimum pH values where species
were collected were:
Odonata
Ephemeroptera
Plecoptera
Hemiptera
Megaloptera
- 4.8,
- 5.5,
- 5.5
- 3.3,
- 3.3
generally 2 5.6
generally > 6.0
generally > 5.4
Coleoptera - 3.0, generally > 5.5
Lepidoptera - 5.4
Trichoptera - 3.3, generally ^ 5.5
Diptera - 3.0, generally ^ 5.5
Bel 1
(1970j
Bel I
py/ij
Gaufin
(J973 j
Borgstrom arid
Hendrsy
{1976}
Fiance
(1978)
Vangerecfiten
and Vander-
borglit (1980)
Roback
(1974)
After a 1970 acid spill in the Clinch River, Virginia, mayflies and molluscs were elimin-
ated for 13.7 river miles; reductions in numbers of all other species were noted except for
hellgrannites and beetles; by 2 weeks disproportion increases in populations of jimulium,
Hydropsyche, and Cheumatopsyche were observed; by week 6 after the spill, diversity values
were within the range prior to the spill; 5 weeks after the spill representatives of aquatic
insects found before the spill were presen:; mollusc species were slower to reoolonize.
Cairns et al¦
£29? IJ
-------
Organism
Table 4. (Continued)
Effect/Observation
Reference
Freshwater invertebrates
Freshwater invertebrates
Freshwater invertebrates
Freshwater invertebrates
Leopard frog
Rana pi pi ens
Frogs
Spotted salamander
Ambystoma maculatuffl
Jefferson salamander
Ambystoma jeffersonianum
Experimental acute acidification (15 minutes to below pH 4.0 from pH 8.0) of Mill Creek, Cairns et al.
Virginia resulted in reduction of every taxa; density was markedly reduced; recolonization (1971)
was rapid for some organisms; after 4 weeks density and diversity values were at pre-shock
levels; recolonization from upstream unaffected areas was proposed as tbe mechanism of
restoration of the acid-stressed section.
No significant difference in numbers of predators and shredders (emergent adults) in the Hall et al.
reference and acidified stream sections; significant decrease (Mann-Whitney U test, (1980j~
P < 0.05) in the number of collectors in the acidified section; macro invertebrate drift
increased in the acidified section relative to the reference area; benthic densities
were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the acidified section than in the reference section.
Fewer taxa were found in an acid stream (18) compared to a reference stream (46); among Friberg et al.
functional groups in the acid stream, shredder species were by far most abundant, (1980)
followed by predators and deposit feeders; in the reference stream shredder, scraper,
deposit feeder, and predator species were about equally abundant; shredder species were
about 3 times more abundant in the reference stream compared to the acid stream;
taxonomically, the most obvious difference between the two streams were the absence of
ephemeropterans and elminthid beetles in the acid water.
In acidified artificial streams the total number of invertebrates was reduced 68 percent Burton et al.
after 38 days of acidification; control populations were reduced only 13 percent over the (1981)
same period; the most common species was a shredder Lepidostoma liba (Trichoptera); the
isopod, Asellus intermedins was reduced by 87 percent in 38 days of acidification; the
snail, Physa heterostropha had low number initially and was eliminated with acidification;
based on limited field and laboratory studies, acidification to pH 4.0 will reduce
invertebrate numbers by 60-80 percent, will result in increased drift of col lector and
predator species and will result in decreased emergence of certain groups, especially
aquatic Diptera (midges, crane flies, and biting midges) and Ephemeroptera (mayflies).
Exposure of isolated frog skin to acid decreased sodium influx; no significant change Fromm
in osmotic permeability of intact frogs was observed. (1981)
Lethal pH values for embryos (solutions killing 85 percent or more in a few hours), Gosner and
using hydrochloric acid in tap water, varied from below 3.5 for Rana virgatipes to Black
4.0-4.1 for Acris q. crepitans; the critical pH range for the species tested varied (1957)
from pH 3.6 to 3.8 for R. virgatipes to about 4.2 to 4.6 for Acris; freshly hatched
larvae of R. palustris were maintained for 2 days at pH 3.7-3.8, and freshly hatched
Pseudacris n. kalmi"were kept for 4 days at pH 3.8-3.9 with no observed effects
suggesting That anuran larvae have a greater resistance to low pH than the embryos.
Embryos are sensitive to pH; hatching success of 90 percent or more by Jefferson Pough
salamanders only at pH 5 and 6 and by spotted salamander only at pH 7, 8 and 9; beyond (1976)
those limits mortality was high; egg mortality was low (< 1 percent) in pools near Pough and
neutrality, but high (> 60 percent) in pools at ph < 6; mortality was low during early Wilson
embryonic development, even at pH 4.5; mortality increased at neurulation and again (1976)
at late stages of gill development and at hatching.
-------
Table 4. (Concluded)
Organism
Effect/Observation
Reference
Shovel-nosed salamander
Leurognathus marmoratus
Acute toxicity tests showed that larvae were more sensitive to acid conditions than
adults; LC50 (and 95 percent confidence limits) for larvae was pH 5.44 (4.94-6.11),
for sub-adults was pH 4.86 (4.39-5.44), and for adults was pH 3.75 (3.42-4.10); LT50
(95 percent confidence limits) for adults ranged from 2.41 hours (0.01-4.04) at pH
2.61 to 265.94 hour (160.72-371.16) at pH 4.25, for sub-adults ranged from 13.64 hour
(7.48-18.67) at pH 2.25 to 164.24 hour (151.06-334.36) at pH 5.20, and for larvae
from 3.43 hour (1.72-4.08) at pH 2.61 to 234.87 (200.65-441.13) at pH 6.2.
Mathews and
Larson
(1980)
Fish-eating birds
The ranges of fish-eating birds were compared with the map of areas in Canada affected
by acid deposition; about 70 percent of the ranges of the coranon loon (Gavia immer) and
hooded merqanser (Lophodytes cucullatus) were within the zone of acid fallout; about
half of the ranqe of the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) was within the affected
area.
Peakal1
(1979)
ro
Ca>
-------
Muller 1980). Observed dominants include Mougeotia spp., Tabellaria
flocculosa and Eunotia lunaris (Hendrey 1976). Decreased microbial
decomposition and invertebrate grazing are partial causes of the slow
rates of algal removal observed. Diatoms are eliminated in waters below
pH 5.2 (Patrick et jijk 1968) and many other characteristic stream flora
are reduced below pH 6.0 (Eilers and Berg 1981).
Decreased invertebrate densities, and a noticeable absence of may-
flies (Ephemeroptera), have been observed in acidic surface waters of
England (Sutcliffe and Carrick 1973; Rippon 1980). The same effects
were produced by experimental stream acidification in New England (Fiance
1978; Hall and Likens 1980a, b; Hall _et _a_l_. 1980). Amphipod crustaceans
(e.g., Gammarus) decline in acid streams, or are eliminated during snow-
melt; larval stages are generally less tolerant than adults to low pH
(Costa 1967; Borgstrom and Hendrey 1976). Molluscs (Gastropoda) are also
highly sensitive to reductions in bicarbonate ions that accompany stream
acidification, and their disappearance may serve as an early warning of
impending ecosystem impact (Eilers and Berg 1981). Sponges and related
organisms may also be reduced under conditions of low pH (Haines 1981).
Acidification effects differ among functional groups (Sutcliffe and
Carrick 1973; Friberg et^ £l_. 1980). For example, declines in the number
of invertebrate collectors and scrapers were observed to coincide with
increases in filamentous algae on stream bottoms; collectors, scrapers,
and predators were all subject to increased drift at pH 4.0, while the
drift density of the shredder group was not affected (Hall and Likens
1980a, b; Hall et__al_. 1980).
Altered prey-predator relationships caused by the selective elim-
ination and replacement of the less tolerant fauna can produce further
impacts on community composition (Henriksen jst al. 1980). In aquatic
systems, acidification provokes a change from tFe dominance of fish
predation to a dominance of invertebrate predation (Eriksson et al.
1980). Invertebrate groups normally suppressed by fish predation
increase in number as fish populations decline; predators, such as
the dragonflies (Odonata) or surface-dwelling insects (Corixidae),
can reduce standing crops of planktonic crustaceans and insects such
as mayfly nymphs (Eriksson et a]_. 1980). Waterfowl and other semi-
aquatic vertebrates may suffer alterations in available food supplies
(Peakall 1979; Haines and Hunter 1981).
Table 5 gives median minimum pH values tolerated by various groups
of aquatic fauna, as determined from surveys of available literature
(Eilers and Berg 1981). Molluscs, including clams and snails, are among
the most sensitive, followed by leeches and the aquatic insects. Among
the insects, dragonflies and caddisflies are the least tolerant to low pH
while stoneflies are more resistant. Diatoms and desmids are more sensi-
tive than other groups of algae. Frogs have relatively low median pH
tolerances; however, salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum and Leurognathus
marmoratus) are known to suffer reproductive failure at pH values below
24
-------
Table 5. Median minimum pH tolerances of different aquatic taxa.
Taxonomic Group Median pH Tolerance
Algae
Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) 6.0
Desmidiaceae (desmids) 5.25
Chlorophyta (green algae) 4.6
Chrysophyta (yellow-algae) 4.6
Cyanophyta (blue-green algae) 4.5
Euglenophyta (flagellates) 3.1
Insects
Gdonata (dragonf1fesj 6.4
Trichoptera (caddisflies) 6.3
Ephemeroptera (mayflies) 6.0
Hemiptera (bugs) 6.0
Diptera (true flies) 5.6
Coleoptera (beetles) 5.5
Plecoptera (stoneflies) 5.2
Miscellaneous Groups
Pelecypoda (bivalves) 6.65
Gastropoda (snails) 6.6
Hirudinea (leeches) 6.55
Porifera (sponges) 5.5
Crustacea (crustaceans) 5.2
Teleostei (fish) 4.9
Anura (frogs) 4.1
(Adapted from Eilers and Berg 1981)
25
-------
6.0 (Pough 1976; Mathews and Larson 1980). Fish and their reproductive
stages have widely varying tolerance limits. These have been summarized
by Fritz (1980) and Haines (1981). Information on the pH tolerances of
both fish and non-fish aquatic biota has been compiled by Eilers and Berg
(1981).
3.3.4 Acidification Effects on Ecosystem Structure and Function
The impacts of acid deposition on ecosystem structure and function
involve interactions between terrestrial and aquatic portions of the
drainage basin. In most low-order streams vulnerable to acidification,
energy inputs on which food webs are based originate primarily from
outside the hydrographic network. These allochthonous organic materials
(leaves, detritus) are produced in the terrestrial ecosystem, and are
broken down physically and chemically by specialized groups of aquatic
organisms. Streams and rivers sensitive to acid deposition exhibit a
disruption of bacterial, fungal, and protozoan decomposition processes
(Gorham and McFee 1980; Hall et al. 1980; Traaen 1980) and a reduction
in numbers of those macroinverFeFFates which are leaf-shredders
(Sutcliffe and Carrick 1973; Friberg e_t aj_. 1980; Hall et_ aj_. 1980).
These break-down processes mobilize organic matter into forms more
readily assimilated by other components of the ecosystem. Reductions
in the activity of these organisms may disrupt the aquatic food web.
Similarly, reduced microbial activity in watershed soils may retard
the decomposition of forest litter and limit the export of material
to drainage waters (Hen drey et_ ah 1976).
Autochthonous organic matter is produced within rivers and streams
by primary producers, such as attached algae and aquatic vascular
plants. Many acidified streams exhibit dense growths of a few filamen-
tous algae and mosses (Hen drey e_t ah 1976; Leivestad et ah 1976; Hall
et_ _a_L 1980). In streams that are not acidified, the attached algal
community generally has a more balanced distribution of species than
in acidified streams where only tolerant species survive.
Changes in the composition and abundance of some biotic components
of river and stream communities may affect other biotic components.
For instance, damage to benthic invertebrate communities, by the direct
effects of acidification or the indirect loss of food sources, can
affect their availability as food for other organisms. Invertebrates
play important roles in cropping the growth of attached algae and in
mobilizing dead organic matter from rivers and streams. They are also
important as food sources to carnivorous invertebrates and fish. The
continued survival of many aquatic insect species in acid water is
influenced by their low tolerance during the emergence of the adult
insects. Since many species emerge in early spring when melt water
runoff is highest, they may be exposed to the highest levels of acidity
(Overrein et_ a_h 1980). The toxic effects of lowered pH on emerging
adults may have serious impacts on the continued presence of insect
species within affected systems.
26
-------
As discussed earlier, fish populations can also be impacted in
streams and rivers stressed by acid deposition. Decreases in pH may
cause direct toxic effects such as mortality, reproductive failure, or
reduced growth, or indirect effects such as pH-related toxicity from
trace metals (e.g., A1, Hg) or from other toxicants. Tolerance to pH
change varies with species and life form. Changes in the structure of
fish communities in streams and rivers will alter patterns of herbivory
and predation in the aquatic ecosystem, affecting the structure of the
invertebrate, primary producer, and decomposer communities.
Amphibians, which are important as both predators and prey in rivers
and streams, also may be affected by acid conditions. Reproduction of
frogs and salamanders seems to be affected primarily by acidification of
streams or temporary pools in which eggs are laid (Pough 1976). The loss
of amphibians, as well as fish from rivers and streams, may ultimately
affect waterfowl. Although no studies were found demonstrating the
effects of deposition on waterfowl, Peakall (1979) and Haines and Hunter
(1981) have discussed the possibility that effects will be observed in
the future as acid deposition degrades the habitats relied upon by fish-
eating birds and other aquatic waterfowl and wildlife.
As mentioned above, there is a limited utility in drawing analogies
between streams acidified by atmospheric deposition and acid mine drain-
age, mainly due to the extreme hardness, elevated conductivity, and high
metal levels of mine drainage. However, useful comparisons may be drawn
with naturally acidic river and stream ecosystems. Naturally acid
surface waters are of two types (Patrick et_ al_. 1981):
those underlain by igneous rock or sand substrates, with low
conductivity, low buffering capacity, and a tendency for fre-
quent fluctuations in pH; and
t those underlain by similar substrates, which have accumulated
substantial organic matter from peat and bog plants.
Streams of the New Jersey Pine Barrens are examples of naturally
acidic freshwaters (Patrick jrt _aL 1979). They are low in hardness,
alkalinity, and pH. The water has a high content of humic substances
which makes it tea-colored. These waters support a characteristic flora
and fauna wich are acclimated to high acidity and low conductivity. As
with acid precipitation, dragonflies (Odonata) are abundant in these
streams while mayflies (Ephemeroptera) and caddisflies (Trichoptera)
are absent or rare (Patrick et al. T?79). The major difference between
naturally acidified waters and water affected by acid deposition is that
the latter lacks the humic substance content that chelates toxic metal
forms in the naturally acid system (Patrick et a_l_. 1981).
In summary, the effects of air pollution and acid deposition on
river and stream ecosystems include changes in water quality, elimination
of species at different trophic levels, disruption of food webs, and
general simplification of community structure. By contrast, the effects
27
-------
of photochemical oxidants and particulates are not as evident and would
be expected to occur more gradually over time. In rivers and streams,
acid deposition effects appear to be most strongly related to episodic
decreases of pH during early snowmelt or during heavy autumn rains.
28
-------
4.0 SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS
Information on the socioeconomic impacts of air pollution on rivers
and streams is limited primarily to effects of acid deposition on
salmonid fisheries. Estimates of economic impacts on sport fisheries are
discussed in the report on lakes (Section 4.0). There, it is pointed out
that loss of the recreational potential of coldwater fisheries due to air
pollution and acid deposition, in particular, may result in reduction of
sport fishery revenues by several million dollars.
In North America and Europe, some commercial fisheries appear to
have been impacted by increased inputs of acidic materials. Dramatic
declines in the catch of Atlantic salmon have been noted in several
Norwegian rivers (Leivestad et a_l_. 1976; Sevaldrud et aj_. 1980) and
streams in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia (Impact Assessment Work Group
1981). One explanation presented for the losses of these fisheries
has been the increased acidification of rivers used during spawning by
Atlantic salmon. Similar adverse impacts may be anticipated in Great
Lakes fisheries if acid-sensitive streams that support salmonid
hatcheries or nurseries become acidified.
The recreational and economic importance of river and stream
resources affected by acid deposition may, in certain instances, justify
programs to mitigate the effects of acidification, (e.g., the development
of resistant strains of fish or the application of lime to buffer the
acid). Most of the literature available on the use of lime to buffer
acid inputs reports work on lake ecosystems (Wisconsin Department of
Natural Resources 1980; Bengtsson et a/L 1980; Blake 1981 F1ick et al.
1981; Fraser et al. 1982). These studies indicate that application of
lime to acidi7Te"31 akes to control acidification is time-consuming and
expensive. The application of lime to the watershed requires much
greater quantities of lime and higher application costs.
Although the application of lime to lotic systems presents many
difficulties and is probably more expensive than treating lakes, attempts
have been made which appear to have been successful. Edman and Fleischer
(1980) reported results of a liming project on the River Hogvadsan,
Sweden. Over 4 years, 10,700 kg of lime have been applied to the 476
km2 watershed at a cost of over 0.5 million dollars. Lime was added
to arable land and mire, directly to running water, and directly to the
river bottom. This treatment has been successful in maintaining high pH
levels during the critical Atlantic salmon egg incubation period in the
winter. However, during spring snowmelt and heavy autumn rains, the
river pH dropped below 6.0.
The Pennsylvania Cooperative Fishery Unit has experimented with
limestone flow-through devices (gabions) for maintaining the pH in poorly
buffered streams (Arnold 1981). They found that a series of wire gabions
containing limestone of a uniform size (about 4 inch diameter pieces) and
of high-calcium type such as cupola fluxing stone are necessary to
achieve significant results. Leaf control was necessary to eliminate
29
-------
clogging problems. The costs per gabion are about 200 to 300 dollars for
the stone, 50 to 70 dollars for the wire gabion, and 10 to 12 man days
for construction (personal communication, D. Arnold).
Since different genetic strains of brook trout and brown trout may
have different heritable tolerances to acid, selective breeding for
acid-tolerant trout and stocking of acid-stressed streams can be used to
reestablish viable populations. Researchers at Cornell University are
currently working to develop acid-tolerant strains for introduction into
acid-stressed systems (Haines 1981). Selective breeding for acid-
tolerant fish may only be a temporary remedy to the acidification pro-
blem. This is because of the limits to the acid tolerance of the stream
biota, and episodes of acidification are likely to continue and increase
in severity as air pollution continues and/or the buffering capacities of
affected watersheds are diminished.
Other poorly understood areas of socioeconomic concern that may
result from air pollution and acid deposition include:
contamination of drinking water (e.g., direct contamination,
leaching from watershed, and corrosion of materials in drinking
water systems);
contamination of water used for irrigation;
contamination of fish and waterfowl flesh (e.g., bioaccumulation
of trace metals);
contamination of water used for recreation (e.g., swimming);
related health effects to the above concerns; and
contamination of industrial process or make-up water.
30
-------
5.0 SUMMARY AND AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
In this report, the current knowledge of the effects of air pollu-
tion and acid deposition on fish, wildlife, and their habitats in rivers
and streams has been summarized. Most of the available information deals
with acid deposition. In this section, the most important observations
of this report are summarized, and areas of research are suggested to
increase the understanding of the effects of air pollutants on river and
stream ecosystems.
5.1 SUMMARY
Little information is available on the effects of photochemical
oxidants and particulates on river and stream ecosystems. The effects
of photochemical oxidants are expected to be minimal and probably would
occur on emergent or riparian vegetation near urban or industrial
centers. The types of effects that might be observed include foliar
damage and modifications in plant communities.
It has been demonstrated in laboratory investigations that compon-
ents of atmospheric particulates have a variety of toxic effects to
members of every trophic level of rivers and streams ecosystems. These
effects include behavior modification, mortality, morphological damage,
and modifications in community structure. In conjunction with episodes
of acidification, the toxic effects of particulates may severely impact
river and stream ecosystems and result in the loss of the recreational
or commercial value of the affected systems.
The types of river and stream ecosystems sensitive to acid deposi-
tion are similar to those sensitive to particulates. These include
streams that have relatively barren watersheds with thin, poor soils, low
in organic matter, and/or waters that have insufficient humates to bind
toxic materials released into them. Rivers and streams whose watersheds
have low buffering capacity, generally in areas where the bedrock is of
granite or other siliceous types, are especially sensitive to acid depo-
sition.
Acidification of rivers and streams as a result of acid deposition
or experimental means has resulted in numerous observed effects on their
abiotic and biotic components. These effects include:
decreased pH, in rapid short-term episodes or gradually over
years;
increased concentrations of cations (e.g., Fe, A1, Ca) during
episodes of acidification;
accelerated accumulation of organic debris;
31
-------
modifications in primary, secondary, or tertiary productivity;
simplification of community structure at all trophic levels; and
elimination of sensitive species depending on the extent of pH
decrease during acidification episodes.
In general, these effects of acidification on stream ecosystems are
similar to those observed in lake ecosystems. However, differences
between lotic and lentic ecosystems are apparent in the temporal occur-
rence and magnitude of effects and in the species affected. For in-
stance, lakes are stressed by acid inputs both during short-term episodes
and over several years as the ambient pH of the lakes decreases due to
decreased buffering capacities and/or concentrations of toxic materials
increase to harmful levels. In streams, the effects related to acid
deposition appear to be caused primarily by short-term episodes of
acidification. The effects are associated with increases in the concen-
trations of toxic metals, since the ambient pH and water quality gen-
erally return to pre episode conditions within a few days or weeks as
acid inputs diminish or are diluted.
Simplification of community structure at different trophic levels as
a result of lake acidification has been observed in many regions. Long-
term changes in the biotic communities of acid-sensitive streams may also
be anticipated after repeated episodes of severe acidification or if the
ambient pH level of streams decreases significantly, since naturally acid
streams or experimentally acidified streams exhibit community shifts when
compared to streams with near neutral pH values.
The effects of air pollutants on rivers and streams may result in
substantial socioeconomic impacts as commercial and recreational uses are
affected. Economic impacts have been evaluated primarily for salmonid
fisheries which are of commercial importance in acid-sensitive regions.
The magnitude of these losses may justify programs designed to mitigate
the effects of the pollutants, such as liming of streams or watersheds
and selective breeding of acid-tolerant stocks.
5.2 AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The previous chapters have pointed out that a substantial body of
research has been performed on the effects of air pollution and acid
deposition on river and stream ecosystems. The amount of information is
heavily weighted toward acid deposition effects because of the dramatic
changes which have been attributed to this phenomenon. Substantial pro-
grams have been initiated to measure the effects and to determine the
general characteristics of regions where rivers and streams are sensitive
to air pollution and acid deposition. Summaries of ongoing research
include USEPA (1979), Bennett (1980), and Jackson (1980).
32
-------
There are gaps in the understanding of the phenomenon of acid
deposition and the associated deposition of toxic particulates that have
implications for fish and wildlife. The reader is directed to Section
5.2 of the report on lakes in this series for a summary of areas of
research that are equally applicable to lakes and to rivers and streams.
In summary these areas of study, as related to rivers and streams are:
continued and enhanced inventory and monitoring of sensitive
rivers and streams;
mitigation measures;
effects of non-acidic atmospheric pollutants;
effects on fish and wildlife; and
socioeconomic impacts.
Research related to the effects of acid deposition should be
directed toward testing the hypothesis that air emissions lead to sub-
stantial modifications of aquatic ecosystems. Extensive documentation
of effects is required on a regional basis. Beyond these goals, future
efforts should address those aspects of the acidification process that
will help solve the problem through mitigative techniques, by providing
criteria for siting future development, and by supporting policy for
establishing air quality standards and emission control programs.
Areas of study that should be pursued relating specifically to
rivers and streams include:
Development of a complete and accurate inventory of stream water
buffering capacities.
Precise buffering capacity information should be used to identify
geographical areas most vulnerable to surface water acidification, and
to predict the degree of future impact of sustained acid precipitation
on rivers and streams (Jeffries and Zimmerman 1980). There is a related
need to define and disseminate uniform procedures and methodologies that
yield precise alkalinity information and facilitate regional, inter-
disciplinary analyses for inter-system comparisons.
Development of a model for indicating stream acidification.
The Henriksen model of lake acidification has been widely recognized
as a useful descriptive and predictive model for lake ecosystems
(Henriksen 1979). The development of a comparable model for the acidi-
fication of flowing waters is needed for understanding and assessing the
impacts of acid deposition on river and stream ecosystems.
Such a model should allow estimates of the time scale over which
specific waters can sustain pollutant loadings with little or no adverse
effect. In order to do this, one should be able to predict whether water
33
-------
quality changes are linear or exponential in nature, and whether gradual
or sudden changes will lead to a critical threshold where impacts may be
drastic or largely irreversible. Development of these models may be
aided by the determination of historical trends in precipitation and
surface water chemistry. Ideally, such a model would predict both
short-term changes resulting from periodic acid episodes and long-term
changes from progressive alteration of the watershed.
Enhanced understanding of watershed interactions that influence
the freshwater acidification process.
Investigations of water-soil interactions in catchments should be
initiated with detailed analyses of air mass trajectories, rainwater
quality, and the buffering capacity of the watershed. The ability of the
catchment to neutralize acid inputs should be studied in relation to soil
type and weathering mechanisms, and to water flow patterns. The kinetics
of reactions involving the leaching and exchange of metals and cations
require further elucidation. Also, more needs to be known of biological
contributions to acidity, particularly nitrates, and of the influence of
watershed vegetation (e.g., deciduous vs. coniferous forest) on aspects
of stream acidification.
This research would improve understanding of hydrological and
chemical budgets (inputs, outputs, and storage), in particular the flows
of sulfur and other nutrients, in aqueous systems dominated by sulfuric
acid. Such detailed watershed studies would allow investigation of the
timing and magnitude of acid events. They could also reveal mechanisms
and rates of chemical weathering, and could eventually lead to an
improved understanding of the modifying influence of canopy and soil on
the quality of catchment discharges. Studies such as these should be
coordinated with the development and testing of a stream acidification
model discussed earlier.
Analysis of the effects of repeated episodes of acidification on
streamwater quality.
The controlled experimental acidification of a stream from its
headwaters or an artificial stream ecosystem (such as the USEPA experi-
mental outdoor stream ecosystem at Monticello, Minnesota) will allow
examination of the acute and long-term effects of brief acid episodes on
streamwater quality (USEPA 1979). Observed alterations could be compared
to single, acute episodes, as reported by Cairns et aj_. (1971), and to
controlled stream acidification over several months, as reported by Hall
and Likens (1980a, b) and Hall et_ al_. ( 1980).
In connection with whole stream studies, much remains to be learned
of the kinetics of aluminum in aqueous solution, particularly the role of
ligands (e.g., H+, F", and organic acids) on aluminum dynamics in
streams. The toxicity potential of different chemical forms (species) of
metals requires evaluation and more information is needed on their
spatial and temporal distribution in the aquatic environment. Of parti-
cular importance is an understanding of the fate of atmospheric mercury
deposited in the watershed (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982).
34
-------
Continued research on the snowmelt phenomenon.
In view of the importance of snowmelt to stream acidification, the
relationships between such variables as daily fluctuations of snowpack
temperature during melting, the direction of heat transfer, and pollutant
loads and gradients should be studied further. Research may also be
usefully directed at finding means to mitigate the severe, short-term
chemical alterations in streams that accompany snowmelt.
Investigation of possible modifications to buffered downstream
waters by acid discharges from headwater streams.
Many of the effects of acidification and increased levels of toxic
materials have been described for acid-sensitive streams. The downstream
areas receiving acid discharges and elevated levels of aluminum or other
toxic materials, may also be affected. The effects of acidification on
downstream suface waters require further study. Buffering of the acid
discharge could enhance deposition of toxic materials into sediments from
which they could later be taken up by stream biota. The potential
effects of reduced energy transport or altered food resources due to
upstream acidification should also be assessed.
Assessment of the sensitivity of non-salmonid coldwater stream
fishes to low pH or toxic levels of trace elements.
Acute and chronic toxicity studies with fishes other than salmonids
{e.g., sculpins, daces) that are found in acid-sensitive streams should
be conducted. Salmonid egg incubation is much longer (several weeks or
months) compared to other cold-water stream fishes (few days) and
salmonid juveniles and adults are more mobile than other cold water
stream fishes. Thus, the effects of acid on the salmonid species may
not be representative of resident fish communities. To study changes
in populations of these species, baseline fish distribution surveys
are required.
More specifically, research is needed to clarify the exact mechanism
of hydrogen ion injury to fish, as well as the modifying influence of
calcium and aluminum ions. Related effects on reproduction, such as
delayed spawning and inhibition of gamete production, also require
special attention. More needs to be known about spatial and temporal
influences of acidification, avoidance responses, and modifications of
behavior or olfactory senses governing migration and reproduction (U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service 1982). Information thus gained may be used
in developing specific biomonitors. The expression of sub-lethal effects
in these species could be indicative of deteriorating water quality
(Ei lers and Berg 1981).
Studies devoted to individual species should discern the relative
proportions of energy devoted to basal metabolism, growth and reproduc-
tion. Resultant effects on the energetics of food chain transfers need
specification. Efforts to develop fish stocks that are more resistant
to acidification should involve selection for late spawning and physio-
logical tolerance to acid-aluminum stress (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
-------
Population responses requiring further study include changes in birth
rates, death rates, and maturation times. Effects of altered competition
for food, predation and social behavior need further elucidation. Final-
ly, more research is needed to understand the effects of recruitment
failure on biomass and population age structure.
Determination of the sensitivity of non-fish river and stream
biota to low pH and related alterations of water quality.
Much remains to be learned of the effects of altered predation
patterns on benthic invertebrate communities, and of the influence of
this and direct stresses on productivity and reproduction. Another
important area of research is related to the influence of acids, in
conjunction with factors such as metal levels or temperature, on the
feeding and energetics of benthic insects (U.S. Fish and Widlife Service
1982). Research is needed to assess indirect effects on waterfowl,
amphibians, and other semi-aquatic species that feed or reproduce in
or near river and stream ecosystems. Information on the comparative
sensitivity of fish and non-fish biota may permit the identification
of biomonitoring assemblages which, as a community, are indicative of
ecosystem alterations that may not be made apparent through the responses
of individual species (Eilers and Berg 1981).
§ Identification of the nature and extent of actual and potential
socio-economic impacts associated with altered water quality and
changes in biological communities.
Research on the socio-economic impacts of surface water acidifica-
tion should be focused on surveys of resource-oriented industries, sport
and commercial fisherman, and knowledgeable field naturalists. Work of
this nature should be confined to areas of documented impact, suggesting
that such studies would be most informative if undertaken in the Adiron-
dack region of New York. While efforts should be concentrated on impacts
stemming from effects on freshwater fisheries, other aspects (e.g.,
deterioration of finishes and surfaces, metal contamination of drinking
water supplies) should not be overlooked. Useful information may be
drawn through comparisons with the Scandinavian and Canadian experience.
36
-------
REFERENCES
Alabaster, J.S.; Lloyd, R. Water quality criteria for freshwater fish.
Boston: Butterworths; 1980.
Aimer, B.; Dickson, W.; Ekstrom, C.; Hornstrom, E. Sulfur pollution and the
aquatic ecosystem. Nriagu, J.O., ed. Sulfur in the environment. Part II:
Ecological impacts. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1978:271- 311.
Aimer, B.; Dickson, W.; Ekstrom, C.; Hornstrom, E.; Miller, V. Effects of
acidification on Swedish lakes. Ambio 3( 1 ): 30-36; 1974.
Altshuller, A.; McBean, G. The LRTAP problem in North America: A preliminary
overview. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
1979.
American Fisheries Society. A review of the EPA red book: Quality criteria
for water. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society; 1979.
Arnold, D.E. An experimental limestone flow-through device for maintenance of
pH in poorly-buffered streams. Poster paper. Acid Rain/Fisheries Symposium;
1981 August 2-5; Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; 1981.
Arnold, D.E.; Light, R.W.; Dymond, V.J. Probable effects of acid precipitation
on Pennsylvania waters. Corvallis, OR: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory; EPA-600/3-80-012; 1980.
Asbury, C.; Coler, R. Toxicity of dissolved ozone to fish eggs and larvae.
J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 52:1990-1996; 1980.
Baker, J.P.; Schofield, C.L. Aluminum toxicity to fish as related to acid pre-
cipitation and Adirondack surface water quality. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds.
Ecological impact of acid precipitation: Proceedings of an international con-
ference; 1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project;
1980:292-293.
Beamish, R.J. Acidification of lakes in Canada by acid precipitation and the
resulting effects on fishes. Dochinger, L.S.; Seliga, T.A., eds. Proceedings
of the international symposium on acid precipitation and the forest ecosystem;
1975 May 12-15; Ohio State University, Columbus, OH. Upper Darby, PA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment
Station; 1976:479-498. Available from: NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB-258645.
Bell, H.L. Effects of pH on the life cycle of the midge Tanytarsus dissimilis.
Can. Entomol. 102:636-639; 1970.
Bell, H.L. Effect of low pH on the survival and emergence of aquatic insects.
Water Res. 5:313-319; 1971.
Bengtsson, B.; Dickson, W.; Nyberg, P. Liming acid lakes in Sweden. Ambio
9:34-36; 1980.
37
-------
Bennett, D.A., ed. Acid rain research inventory FY79-80. Washington, DC:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development;
EPA-600/9-80-038; 1980. 59 p.
Blake, L.M. Liming acid ponds in New York. Michigan State University. Insti-
tute of Water Reserach. Initial draft of the proceedings for the effects of
acid precipitation on ecological systems: Great Lakes region; 1981 April 1-3;
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI; 1981. To be published by Ann
Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI.
Borastrom, R.; Hendrey, G.R. pH tolerance of the first larval stages of Lepi-
durus arcticus (Pa 11 us) and adult Gammarus lacustris G.O. Sars. Oslo-As, Nor-
way: SNSF Project; IR 22/76; 1976.
Burton, T.M.; Stanford, R.M.; Allan, J.W. The effects of acidification on
stream ecosystems. Michigan State University. Institute of Water Research.
Initial draft of the proceedings for the effects of acid precipitation on eco-
logical systems: Great Lakes region; 1981 April 1-3; Michigan State Univer-
sity, East Lansing, MI; 1981. To be published by Ann Arbor Science Publishers,
Inc., Ann Arbor, MI.
Bush, D.M. The potential impact of acid precipitation on Wisconsin's
fisheries. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of
Fish Management; Fish Management Report 105; 1980. 12 p.
Cairns, J.C.; Crossman, J.S.; Dickson, K.L.; Herricks, E.E. The recovery of
damaged streams. ASB Bull. 18(3):79-106; 1971.
Carrick, T.R. The effect of acid water on the hatching of salmonid eggs. 0.
Fish Biol. 14(2): 165-172; 1979.
Costa, H.H. Responses of Gammarus pulex (L.) to modified environment. II.
Reactions to abnormal hydrogen ion concentrations. Crustaceana 13:1-10; 1967.
Cronan, C.S.; Schofield, C.L. Aluminum leaching response to acid precipita-
tion: Effects on high-elevation watersheds in the northeast. Science
204:304-306; 1979.
Cronan, C.S.; Reiners, W.A.; Reynolds, R.C.; Lang, G.E. Forest floor
leaching: Contributions from mineral, organic, and carbonic acids in New
Hampshire subalpine forests. Science 200:309-311; 1978.
Davis, P.; Ozburn, G.W. The pH tolerance of Daphnia pulex (Leydig, amend,
Richard). Can. J. Zool. 47:173-175; 1969.
Daye, P.G.; Garside, E.T. Lower lethal levels of pH for embryos and alevins
of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Can. J. Zool. 55:1504-1508; 1977.
Dickson, W. The acidification of Swedish lakes. Drottningholm, Sweden:
Institute of Freshwater Research; Report No. 54:8-20; 1975.
Dills, G.; Rogers, D.T., Jr. Macroinvertebrate community structure as an
indicator of acid mine pollution. Environ. Pollut. 6:239-262; 1974.
38
-------
Driscoll, C.T. Aqueous speciation of aluminum in the Adirondack region of New
York State, U.S.A. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact of acid
precipitation: Proceedings of an international conference; 1980 March 11-14;
Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; 1980:214-215.
Driscoll, C.T.; Baker, J.P.; Bisogni, J.J.; Schofield, C.L. Effect of aluminum
speciation on fish in dilute acidified waters. Nature 284:161-164; 1980.
Edman, G.; Fleischer, S. The River Hogvadsan liming project - a presentation.
Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact of acid precipitation. Pro-
ceedings of an international conference; 1980 March 11-14. Sandefjord, Norway.
Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; 1980; 300-301.
Edwards, D.J.; Hjeldnes, S. Growth and survival of salmonids in water of
different pH. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; FR 10/77; 1977.
Eilers, J.M.; Berg, R. Sensitivity of aquatic organisms to acidic
environments. Duluth, MN: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Environmental Research Laboratory; Draft; 1981.
Elgmork, K.; Hagen, A.; Langeland, A. Polluted snow in southern Norway during
the winters 1968-1971. Environ. Pollut. 4:41-52; 1973.
Eriksson, M.O.G.; Henriksen, L.; Nilsson, B.I.; Nyman, G.; Oscarson, H.G.;
Stenson, A.E. Predator-prey relations important for the biotic changes in
acidified lakes. Ambio 9(5):248-249; 1980.
Faber, R.A.; Risebrough, R.W.; Pratt, H.M. Organochlorines and mercury in
common egrets and great blue herons. Environ. Pollut. 3:111-122; 1972.
Festa, P. Acid waters and declining fisheries - the next step. Izard, H.H.;
Jacobson, J.S., eds. Scientific papers from the public meeting on acid
precipitation; 1978 May 4-5; Lake Placid, NY. Albany, NY: New York State
Assembly, Science and Technology Staff; 1978:7-14.
Fiance, S.B. Effects of pH on the biology and distribution of Ephemerella
funeral is (Ephemeroptera). Oikos 31:332-339; 1978.
Fisher, D.W.; Gambell, A.W.; Likens, G.E.; Bormann, F.H. Atmospheric
contributions to water quality of streams in the Hubbard Brook Experimental
Forest, New Hampshire. Water Resour. Res. 4(5):115-1126; 1968.
Flick, W.; Schofield, C.L.; Webster, D.A. The use of lime products in neu-
tralizing acid lakes and streams. Acid Rain/Fisheries Symposium; 1981 August
2-5; Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; 1981.
Fraser, J.; Hinckley, A.D.; Burt, R.; Rodensky-Severn, R.; Wisniewski, J. A
feasibility study to utilize liming as a technique to mitigate surface water
acidification. Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power Research Institute, Energy
Analysis and Environmental Division; 1982. 101 p.
39
-------
Friberg, F.; Otto, C-; Svennson, B.S. Effects of acidification on the dynamics
of allochthonous leaf material and benthic invertebrate communities in running
water. Drablos, 0.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact of acid precipitation:
Proceedings of an international conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord,
Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; 1980:304-305.
Fritz, E.S. Potential impacts of low pH on fish and fish populations. Ann
Arbor, MI: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program,
National Power Plant Team; FWS/0BS-80/40.2; 1980. 14 p.
Fromm, P.O. A review of some physiological and toxicological responses of
freshwater fish to acid stress. Environ. Biol. Fish 5(1):79-93; 1980.
Fromm, P.O. Effect of acid stress on sodium transport by isolated skins and
on the osmotic permeability of intact frogs. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
27:160-166; 1981.
Galloway, J.N.; Cowling, E.B. The effects of precipitation on aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems: A proposed precipitation chemistry network. J. Air
Pollut. Control Assoc. 28(3):229-235; 1978.
Galloway, J.N.; Likens, G.E.; Edgerton, E.S. Acid precipitation in the
northeastern United States: pH and acidity. Science 194:722-724; 1976.
Gaufin, A.R. Water quality requirements of aquatic insects. Washington, DC:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development;
EPA-600/3-73-004; 1973.
Gjessing, E.T.; Henriksen, A.; Johannessen, M.; Wright, R.F. Effects of acid
precipitation on freshwater chemistry. Braekke, F.H., ed. Impact of acid
precipitation on forest and freshwater ecosystems in Norway. Oslo-As,
Norway: SNSF Project; FR 6/76; 1976: 64-85.
Glass, G.E.; Loucks, O.L. Impacts of airborne pollutants on wilderness areas
along the Minnesota-Ontario border. Duluth, MN: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Environmental Research
Laboratory; EPA-600/3-80-044; 1980.
Glover, G.M.; Kallend, A.S.; Marsh, A.R.W.; Webb, A.H. Ion relationships in
acid precipitation and stream chemistry. Hutchinson, T.C.; Havas, M., eds.
Effects of acid precipitation on terrestial ecosystems. New York: Plenum
Press; 1980:95-109.
Gorham, E.; McFee, W.W. Effects of acid deposition upon outputs from terres-
trial to aquatic ecosystems. Hutchinson, T.C.; Havas, M., eds. Effects of
acid precipitation on terrestrial ecosystems. New York: Plenum Press;
1980:465-480.
Gosner, K.L.; Black, I.H. The effects of acidity on the development and hatch-
ing of New Jersey frogs. Ecology 38(2):256-262; 1957.
40
-------
Grahn, 0. Fish kills in two moderately acid lakes due to high aluminum concen-
tration. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact of acid precipita-
tion: Proceedings of an international conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sande-
fjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; 1980:310-311.
Grande, M.; Andersen, S. Toxicity of acid snowmelt water to brown trout Salmo
trutta L. Vatten 35(l):27-32; 1979.
Hagen, A.; Larsgeland, A. Polluted snow in southern Norway and the effect of
the meltwater on freshwater and aquatic organisms. Environ. Pollut. 5:45-57;
1973.
Haines, T.A. Acidic precipitation and its consequences for aquatic
ecosystems: A review. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 110 (6): 669-707; 1981.
Haines, T.A.; Hunter, M.L. Waterfowl and their habitat: Threatened by acid
rain? Fourth International Waterfowl Proceedings; 3981 January 30-February 1;
New Orleans, LA: Ducks Unlimited; 1981: 177-190.
Hall, L.W., Jr.; Burton, D.T.; Richardson, L.B. Comparison of ozone and
chlorine toxicity to the developmental stages of striped bass, Morone
saxati1is. Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 38:752-757; 1981.
Hall, R.J.; Likens, G.E. Ecological effects of experimental acidification on
a stream ecosystem. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact of acid
precipitation: Proceedings of an international conference; 1980 March 11-14;
Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; 1980a:375-376.
Hall, R.J.; Likens, G.E. Ecological effects of whole-stream acidification.
Shriner, D.S.; Richmond, C.R.; Lindberg, S.E., eds. Atmospheric sulfur
deposition: Environmental impact and health effects. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann
Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.; 1980b:443-451.
Hall, R.J.; Likens, G.E.; Fiance, S.B.; Hendrey, G.R. Experimental acidifica-
tion of a stream in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire.
Ecology 61(4):976-989; 1980.
Harrison, A.D. Some environmental effects of coal and gold mining on the
aquatic biota. Biological problems in water pollution, third seminar, 1962.
Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public
Health Service, Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control; 1965:270-274.
Available from: NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB-168784.
Hendrey, G.R. Effects of pH on the growth of periphytic algae in artificial
stream channels. Oslo: SNSF Project Report No. IR 25/76; 1976.
Hendrey, G.R.; Baalsrud, K.; Traaen, T.S.; Laake, M.; Raddum, G. Acid precip-
itation: Some hydrobiological changes. Ambio 5(5-6):224-227; 1976.
Hendrey, G.R.; Galloway, J.N.; Norton, S.A.; Schofield, C.L.; Shaffer, P.W.;
Burns, D.A. Geological and hydrochemical sensitivity of the eastern United
States to acid precipitation. Upton, NY: Brookhaven National Laboratory;
EPA-600/3-80-024; 1980.
41
-------
Henriksen, A. A simple approach for identifying and measuring acidification
of freshwater. Nature 278:542-545; 1979.
Henriksen, L.; Oscarson, H.G.; Stenson, J.A.E. Does the change of predator
system contribute to the biotic development in acidified lakes? Drablos, D.;
Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact of acid precipitation: Proceedings of an
international conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As,
Norway: SNSF Project; 1980:316-317.
Herricks, E.E.; Cairns, J. The recovery of stream macrobenthos from low pH
stress. Rev. Biol. 10:1-11; 1974.
Herrmann, R.; Baron, 0. Aluminum mobilization in acid stream environments,
Great Smoky Mountains National Park, U.S.A. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds.
Ecological impact of acid precipitation: Proceedings of an international
conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF
Project; 1980:218-219.
Hornbeck, J.W.; Likens, G.E.; Eaton, J.S. Seasonal patterns in acidity of
precipitation and their implications for forest stream ecosystems. Dochinger,
L.S.; Seliga, T.A., eds. Proceedings of the international symposium on acid
precipitation and the forest ecosystem; 1975 May 12-15; Ohio State University,
Columbus, OH. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station; 1976: 597-609. Available
from: NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB-258645.
Howells, G.; Holden, A.V. Effects of acid waters on fish. Leatherhead,
Surrey, England: Central Electricity Research Laboratories. Laboratory Note
no. RD/L/N 142/79; 1979.
Huckabee, J.W.; Goodyear, C.P.; Jones, R.D. Acid rock in the Great Smokies:
Unanticipated impact on aquatic biota of road construction in regions of
sulfide mineralization. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 104(4): 677-684; 1975.
Hultberg, H. Thermally stratified acid water in late winter - a key factor
inducing self-accelerating processes which increase acidification. Water Air
Soil Poll lit. 7:279-294; 1977.
Hutchinson, T.C. Effects of acid leaching on cation loss from soils.
Hutchinson, T.C.; Havas, M., eds. Effects of acid precipitation on
terrestrial ecosystems. New York: Plenum Press; 1980:481-498.
Hutchinson, T.C.; Czyrska, H. Heavy metal toxicity and synergism to floating
aquatic weeds. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 19:2102-2111; 1975.
Impact Assessment Work Group. United States - Canada memorandum of intent on
transboundary air pollution: Impact assessment interim report. Ottawa:
Canadian State Department; 1981.
Jackson, D.R., ed. Research report to American Electric Power Service Corpo-
ration on section F environmental effects. Columbus, OH: Battelle Columbus
Laboratories; 1980.
42
-------
Jeffries, D.S.; Zimmerman, A.P. Comments on the analysis and sampling of low
conductivity natural waters for alkalinity. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37:
901-902; 1980.
Jeffries, D.S.; Cox, C.M.; Dillon, P.J. Depression of pH in lakes and streams
in central Ontario during snowmelt. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada 36:640-646;
1979.
Jensen, K.W.; Snekvik, E. Low pH levels wipe out salmon and trout populations
in southernmost Norway. Ambio 1(6):223-225; 1972.
Johannessen, M.; Henriksen, A. Chemistry of snow meltwater: Changes in con-
centration during melting. Wat. Resour. Res. 14(4):615-619; 1978.
Johannessen, M.; Skartveit, A.; Wright, R.F. Streamwater chemistry before,
during and after snowmelt. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact
of acid precipitation: Proceedings of an international conference; 1980 March
11-14; Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; 1980:224-225.
Johansson, N.; Kihlstrom, J.E.; Wahlberg, A. Low pH values shown to affect
developing fish eggs Brachydanio rerio Ham-Buch. Ambio 2(12):42-43; 1973.
Johnson, A.H. Acidification of headwater streams in the New Jersey Pine
Barrens. J. Environ. Qual. 8(3):383-386; 1979a.
Johnson, A.H. Evidence of acidification of headwater streams in the New
Jersey Pinelands. Science 206:834-835; 1979b.
Johnson, D.W.; Webster, D.A. Avoidance of low pH in selection of spawning
sites by brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34:
2215-2218; 1977.
Johnson, N.M. Acid rain: Neutralization within the Hubbard Brook ecosystem
and regional implications. Science 204:497-499; 1979.
Johnson, N.M.; Reynolds, R.C.; Likens, G.E. Atmospheric sulfur: Its effect
on the chemical weathering of New England. Science 177:514-516; 1972.
Kerekes, J.J. Preliminary characterization of three lake basins sensitive to
acid precipitation in Nova Scotia, Canada. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds.
Ecological impact of acid precipitation: Proceedings of an international
conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF
Project; 1980:232-233.
Kramer, J.R. Acid precipitation. Nriagu, J.O., ed. Sulfur in the environ-
ment. Part I: The atmospheric cycle. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1978:325-370.
Kwain, W.H. Effects of temperature on development and survival of rainbow
trout Salmo qairdneri, in acid waters. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32(4):493-
497; 1975.
43
-------
Leivestad, H.; Hendrey, C.; Muniz, I.P.; Snekvik, E. Effects of acid precipi-
tation on freshwater organisms. Braekke, F.H., ed. Impact of acid precipita-
tion on forest and freshwater ecosystems in Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF
Project; FR 6/76; 1976: 87-111.
Leivestad, H.; Muniz, I.P. Fish kill at low pH in a Norwegian river. Nature
259:391-392; 1976.
Leivestad, H.; Muniz, I.P.; Rosseland, B.O. Acid stress in trout from a dilute
mountain stream. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact of acid
precipitation: Proceedings of an international conference; 1980 March 11-14;
Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; 1980:318-319.
Lewis, W.M.; Grant, M.C. Changes in the output of ions from a watershed as a
result of the acidification of precipitation. Ecology 60(6):1093-1097; 1979.
Lewis, W.M.; Grant, M.C. Acid precipitation in the western United States.
Science 207:176-177; 1980a.
Lewis, W.M.; Grant, M.C. Relationships between snow cover and winter losses
of dissolved substances from a mountain watershed. Arct. Alp. Res. 12(1):
11-17; 1980b.
Likens, G.E.; Bormann, F.H.. Linkages between terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. Bioscience 24(8):447-456; 1974.
Likens, G.E.; Wright, R.F.; Galloway, J.N.; Butler, T.J. Acid rain. Sci. Am.
241(4):43-51; 1979.
Malley, D.F. Decreased survival and calcium uptake by the crayfish Orconectes
virilis in low pH. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37:364-372; 1980.
Martin, C.W. Precipitation and streamwater chemistry in an undisturbed
forested watershed in New Hampshire. Ecology 60(1):36-42; 1979.
Mathews, R.C.; Larson, G.L. Monitoring aspects of acid precipitation and re-
lated effects on stream systems in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.
Proceedings of the First Conference of the Society of Environmental Toxicology
and Chemistry; 1980 November 24-25; Washington, DC; 1980. 18 p.
McFee, W.W. Sensitivity of soil regions to acid precipitation. Corvallis,
OR: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory; EPA 600/3-80-013; 1980.
McNurney, J.M.; Larimore, R.W.; Wetzel, M.J. Distribution of lead in the sedi-
ments and fauna of a small midwestern stream. Biological implications of
metals in the environment. Proceedings of the 15th annual Hanford life sci-
ences symposium; 1975 September 29-0ctober 1; Richland, Washington. Technical
Information Center. Energy Research and Development Administration; 1977:
167-177.
44
-------
McWilliams, P.G.; Potts, W.T.W. The effects of pH and calcium concentrations
on gill potentials in the brown trout, Salmo trutta. J. Comp. Physiol. 126:
277-286; 1978.
Menendez, R. Chronic effects of reduced pH on brook trout (Salve!inus
fontinalis). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33(1);118-123; 1976.
Moss, B. The influence of environmental factors on the distribution of fresh-
water algae: An experimental study. II. The role of pH and the carbon
dioxide-bicarbonate system. J. Ecol. 61:157-177; 1973.
Muller, P. Effects of artificial acidification on the growth of periphyton.
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37:355-363; 1980.
Muniz, I.P.; Leivestad, H. Acidification - effects on freshwater fish.
Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact of acid precipitation: Pro-
ceedings of an international conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord, Norway.
Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; 1980a:84-92.
Muniz, I.P.; Leivestad, H. Toxic effects of aluminum on the brown trout, Salmo
trutta, L. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact of acid precfpT^
tation: Proceedings of an international conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sande-
fjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; 1980b:320-321.
Neville, C.M. Sublethal effects of environmental acidification on rainbow
trout Salmo gairdneri. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 36:84-7; 1979.
Norton, S.A. Geologic factors controlling the sensitivity of aquatic ecosys-
tems to acidic precipitation. Shriner, D.S.; Richmond, C.R.; Lindberg, S.E.,
eds. Atmospheric sulfur deposition: Environmental impact and health effects.
Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.; 1980:521-531.
Norton, S.A.; Hess, C.T.; Davis, R.B. Rates of accumulation of heavy metals
in pre- and post-European sediments in New England lakes. Eisenrich, S.I,
ed. Input of atmospheric pollutants to natural waters. MI: Ann Arbor
Science; 1980:409-421.
Overrein, L.N.; Seip, H.M.; Tollan, A. Acid precipitation - effects on forest
and fish. Final report of the SNSF-project 1972 - 1980. Oslo-As, Norway;
1980. 163 p.
Packer, R.K.; Dunson, W.A. Effects of low environmental pH on blood pH and
sodium balance of brook trout. J. Exp. Zool. 174:65-72; 1970.
Pagenkopf, F.K.; Cameron, D. Deposition of trace metals in stream sediments.
Water Air Soil Pollut. 11:429-435; 1979.
Paller, M.H.; Heidinger, R.C. Mechanisms of delayed ozone toxicity to bluegill
Lepomis machrochirus Rafinesque. Environ. Pollut. 22:229-239; 1980.
Parent, S.; Cheetham, R.D. Effects of acid precipitation on Daphnia magna.
Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 25:298-304; 1980.
45
-------
Parsons, J.D. The effects of acid strip-mine effluents on the ecology of a
stream. Arch. Hydrobiol. 65( 1):25-50; 1968.
Patrick, R.; Roberts, N.A.; Davis, B. The effect of changes in pH on the
structure of diatom communities. Not. Nat. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia.
416:1-16; 1968.
Patrick, R.; Matson, B.; Anderson, L. Streams and lakes in the Pine Barrens.
Forman, R.T., ed. Pine Barrens: Ecosystem and Landscape. New York:
Academic Press; 1979:169-193.
Patrick, R.; Binetti, V.P.; Halterman, S.G. Acid lakes from natural and
anthropogenic causes. Science 211:446-447; 1981.
Peakall, D.B. Acid precipitation and wildlife. A.S.A.P. Organizing Committee,
eds. Proceedings of the action seminar on acid precipitation; 1979 November
1-3; Toronto, Ontario, Canada; 1979:91-96.
Pfeiffer, M.H.; Festa, P.J. Acidity status of lakes in the Adirondack Region
of New York in relation to fish resources. Albany, NY: New York State
Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Fish and Wildlife,
Bureau of Fisheries, 1980. 36 p.
Pough, F.H. Acid precipitation and embryonic mortality of spotted salamanders
Ambystoma maculatum. Science 192(4234):68-70; 1976.
Pough, F.H.; Wilson, R.E.. Acid precipitation and reproductive success of
Ambystoma salamanders. Dochinger, L.S.; Seliga, T.A., eds. Proceedings of
the international symposium on acid precipitation and the forest ecosystem;
1975 May 12-15; Ohio State University, Columbus, OH. Upper Darby, PA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment
Station; 1976: 531-544. Available from: NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB-258645.
Rebsdorf, A. Acidification of Danish soft-water lakes. Drablos, D.; Tollan,
A., eds. Ecological impact of acid precipitation: Proceedings of an
international conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As,
Norway: SNSF Project; 1980:238-239.
Rippon, J.E. Studies of acid rain on soils and catchments. Hutchinson, T.C.;
Havas, M., eds. Effects of acid precipitation on terrestrial ecosystems. New
York: Plenum Press; 1980:499-524.
Roback, S.S. Insects - Antropoda: Insecta. Hart, C.W.; Fuller, S.L.H.
Pollution ecology of freshwater invertebrates. New York: Academic Press;
1974:313-377.
Rosseland, B.0. Effects of acid water on metabolism and gill ventilation in
brown trout, Salmo trutta L., and brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis
Mitchell. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact of acid
precipitation: Proceedings of an international conference; 1980 March 11-14;
Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; 1980:348-350.
46
-------
Rosseland, B.O.; Sevaldrud, I.; Svalastog, D.; Muniz, I.P. Studies on
freshwater fish populations - effects of acidification on reproduction,
population structure, growth and food selection. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A.,
eds. Ecological impact of acid precipitation: Proceedings of an
international conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As,
Norway: SNSF Project; 1980:336-337.
Ruby, S.M.; Aczel, J.; Craig, G.R. The effects of depressed pH on oogenesis
in flagfish Jordannella floridae. Water Res. 11:757-762; 1977.
Ryan, P.M.; Harvey, H.H. Growth of rock bass, Ambloplites rupestris in
relation to the morphoedaphic index as an indicator of environmental stress.
J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34(11):2079-2088; 1977.
Ryan, P.M.; Harvey, H.H. Growth responses of yellow perch Perca flavescens
(Mitchell) to lake acidification in the La Cloche Mountain Lakes of Ontario.
Environ. Biol. Fish. 5(2):97-108; 1980.
Scheider, W.A.; Jeffries, D.S.; Dillon, P.J. Effects of acidic precipitation
on Precambrian freshwaters in southern Ontario. J. Great Lakes Res.
5(1):4551; 1979.
Schindler, D.W. Experimental acidification of a whole lake: A test of the
oligotrophication hypothesis. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological
impact of acid precipitation: Proceedings of an international conference;
1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project;
1980:370-374.
Schofield, C.L. Acid snow-melt effects on water quality and fish survival in
the Adirondack Mountains of New York State. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University,
Department of Natural Resources; 1977.
Schofield, C.L. Processes limiting fish populations in acidified lakes.
Shriner, D.S.; Richmond, C.R.; Lindberg, S.E., eds. Atmospheric sulfur depo-
sition: Environmental impact and health effects. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc.; 1980:345-356.
Schofield, C.L.; Trojnar, J.R. Aluminum toxicity to fish in acidified waters.
Toribara, T.Y.; Miller, M.W.; Morrow, P.E., eds. Polluted rain. New York:
Plenum Press; 1980:347-366.
Scott, D.P. Mercury concentration of white muscle in relation to age, growth,
and condition in four species of fishes from Clay Lake, Ontario. J. Fish.
Res. Board Can. 31:1723-1729; 1974.
Seip, H.M. Acid snow snowpack chemistry and snowmelt. Hutchinson, T.C.;
Havas, M., eds. Effects of acid precipitation on terrestrial ecosystems. New
York: Plenum Press; 1980:77-94.
Seip, H.M.; Tollan, A. Acid precipitation and other possible sources for
acidification of rivers and lakes. Sci. Total Environ. 10:253-270; 1978.
47
-------
Sevaldrud, I.H.; Muniz, I.P.; Kalvenes, S. Loss of fish populations in
southern Norway. Dynamics and magnitude of the problem. Drablos, D.; Tollan,
A., eds. Ecological impact of acid precipitation: Proceedings of an
international conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As,
Norway: SNSF Project; 1980:350-351.
Siegel, D.I. The effect of snowmelt on the water quality of Filson Creek and
Omaday Lake, northeastern Minnesota. Water Resour. Res. 17(1):238-242; 1981.
Skartveit, A. Relationships between precipitation chemistry, hydrology, and
runoff acidity. Nord. Hydrol. 12:65-80; 1981.
Skartveit, A.; Gjessing, V.T. Chemical budgets and chemical quality of snow
and runoff during spring snowmelt. Nord. Hydrol. 10:141-154; 1979.
Smith, W.H. Air pollution and forests. Interactions between air contaminants
and forest ecosystems. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1981; 379 p.
Sutcliffe, D.W.; Carrick, T.R. Studies on mountain streams in the English
Lake District. I. pH, calcium and the distribution on invertebrates in the
River Dudden. Freshwat. Biol. 3:437-462; 1973.
Swarts, F.A.; Dunson, W.A.; Wright, J.E. Genetic and environmental factors
involved in increased resistance of brook trout to sulfuric acid solutions and
mine acid polluted waters. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 107(5):661 -677; 1978.
Thompson, M.E.; Elder, F.C.; Davis, A.R.; Whitlow, S. Evidence of
acidification of rivers of eastern Canada. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds.
Ecological impact of acid precipitation: Proceedings of an international
conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF
Project; 1980: 244-245.
Traaen, T.S. Effects of acidity on decomposition of organic matter in aquatic
environments. Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds. Ecological impact of acid pre-
cipitation: Proceedings of an international conference; 1980 March 11-14;
Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF Project; 1980:340-341.
Tsai, S.C.; Boush, G.M.; Matsumura, F. Importance of water pH in accumulation
of inorganic mercury in fish. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 13(2):188-193;
1975.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Quality criteria for water.
Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1976:337-346.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Air quality criteria for ozone and other
photochemical oxidants. Washington, DC: Office of Research and Development,
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office; EPA-600/8-78-004; 1978. 341 p.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Research summary - acid rain. Washing-
ton, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; Office of Research and Develop-
ment; EPA-600/8-7 9-028; 1979.
48
-------
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Effects of acid precipitation on aquatic
resources: Results of modeling workshops. Washington, DC: Biological
Services Program, Eastern Energy Land Use Team; FWS/0BS-80/40.3; 1982.
Van Hassell, J.H.; Ney, J.J.; Garling, D.L. Heavy metals in a stream
ecosystem at sites near highways. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 109:636-643; 1980.
Vangenechten, Vanderborght, O.L.J. Effect of acid pH on sodium and
chloride balance in an inhabitant of acid freshwaters: The waterburg Corixa
punctata (Illig.) (Insecta, Hemiptera). Drablos, D.; Tollan, A., eds.
Ecological impact of acid precipitation: Proceedings of an international
conference; 1980 March 11-14; Sandefjord, Norway. Oslo-As, Norway: SNSF
Project; 1980: 342-343.
Vannote, R.L.; Minshall, G.W.; Cummins, K.W.; Sedell, J.R.; Cushing, C.E. The
river continuum concept. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37:130-137; 1980.
Warner, R.W. Distribution of biota in a stream polluted by acid
mine-drainage. Ohio J. Sci. 71(4):202-215; 1971.
Watt, W.D.; Scott, D.; Ray, S. Acidification and other chemical changes in
Halifax County lakes after 21 years. Limnol. Oceanog. 24(6): 1154-1161; 1979.
Wells, J.R.; Kaufman, P.B.; Jones, J.D. Heavy metal contents in some macro-
phytes from Saginaw Bay (Lake Huron, U.S.A.). Aqua. Bot. 9:185-193; 1980.
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. A review of acid deposition in
Wisconsin: Recommendations for studying and solving the problem. U.S. Senate.
Economic impact of acid rain. Hearing before the Select Committee on Small
Business and the Committee on Environment and Public Works. 96th Congress;
1980 September 23; Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1980:8-60.
Wojcik, B.; Butler, L. Aquatic insects as indicators of stream environmental
quality in northern West Virginia. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia Univ.,
Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, College of Agriculture and
Forestry; 1977.
Wright, R .F.; Dovland, H. Regional surveys of the chemistry of the snow pack
in Norway, late winter 1973, 1974 and 1976. Atmos. Environ. 12:1755-1768;
1978.
Wright, R.F.; Gjessing, E.T. Acid precipitation: Changes in the chemical
composition of lakes. Ambio 5(5-6):219-223; 1976.
Wright, R.F.; Henriksen, A. Chemistry of small Norwegian lakes with special
reference to acid precipitation. Limnol. Oceanogr. 23(3):487-498; 1978.
Wright, R.F.; Dale, T.; Gjessing, E.T.; Hendrey, G.R.; Henriksen, A.;
Johannessen, M.; Muniz, I.P. Impact of acid precipitation on freshwater
ecosystems in Norway. Water Air Soil Pollut. 6:483-499; 1976.
Zeman, L.J.; Slaymaker, H.0. Hydrochemical analysis to discriminate variable
runoff source areas in an alpine basin. Arct. Alp. Res. 7(4): 341-351; 1975.
49
-------
Zimmerman, A.P.; Harvey, H.H. Final report on sensitivity to acidificat
waters of Ontario and neighboring states for Ontario Hydro. Toronto:
University of Toronto; 1979.
50
-------
30272 -IQl
REPORT DOCUMENTATION
PAGE
1. REPORT NO.
IFWS/0BS-80/40.5
4. Till* and Subtitle
Air Pollution and Acid Rain, Report 5
The Effects of Air Pollution and Acid
Wildlife, and Their Habitats - Rivers
Rain on Fish
and Streams
7. Author(s)
W. Potter, B. K. Chang
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
Dynamac Corporation
Dynamac Building
11140 Rockville Pike
Rockville, MD 20852
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address US Department Of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service/Office of Bio-
logical Services; Eastern Energy and Land Use Team,
Route 3, Box 44, Kearneysvilie, WV 25430
3. Recipient's Accession No.
5. Report Date
June 1982
6.
8. Performing Organization Rept. No.
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
11. Contract(C) or Grant(G) No.
<<=>14-16-0009-80-085
(G)
13. Type of Report A Period Covered
Final
14.
15. Supplementary Notes
16. Abstract (Limit: 200 word*)
Report 5 of the series synthesizing the results of scientific research
related to the effects of air pollution and acid deposition on fish and
wildlife resources deals with river and stream ecosystems.
The effects of photochemical oxidants, particulates, and acidifying air
pollutants on water quality and river and stream biota are summarized.
The characteristics which indicate river and stream sensitivity to air
pollutants, in particular acidifying pollutants, are presented. Socio-
economic aspects of air pollution impacts on river and stream ecosystems
are discussed, and areas of research are suggested to increase the under-
standing of the effects of air pollutants on river and stream ecosystems.
17. Document Analysis a. Descriptors
atmospheric pollution, pollutants, exhaust emissions, acidification,
precipitation, terrestrial habitats, aquatic habitats
b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms
flue dust, flue gases, fumes, haze, oxidizers, smog, smoke, soot, air
content, pH, ecosystems, ecology, environmental effects
c. cosati Fieid/Group 48B, G; 57C, H. U, Y
18. Availability Statement
Release unlimited
19. Security Class (This Report)
Unclassified
20. Security Class (This Page)
Unclassified
21. No. of Pages
55
22. Price
(See ANSI239.15)
51
OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77)
(Formerly NTIS-35)
Department of Commerce
o U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1982 379-346
-------
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of
the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned
public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the
wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and
wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our
national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoy-
ment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses
our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their
development is in the best interests of all our people. The Depart-
ment also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation
communities and for people who live in island territories under U.S.
administration.
------- |