Biological Services Program
FWS/OBS-80/40.8 Air Pollution and Acid Rain,
JUNE 1982 Report No. 0
THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN
ON FISH, WILDLIFE, AND THEIR HABITATS
ARCTIC "TUNDRA AND ALPINE MEADOWS
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Department of the Interior
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The Biological Services Program was established within the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service to supply scientific information and methodologies on key
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ecosystems.
Projects have been initiated in the following areas: coal extraction and
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The Biological Services Program consists of the Office of Biological Services in
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research facilities, who conduct inhouse research studies.
For sale by the (Superintendent of Doeunirnts. U.K. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402
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FWS/0BS-80/40.8
June 1982
AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN, REPORT 8
THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN
ON FISH, WILDLIFE, AND THEIR HABITATS
ARCTIC TUNDRA AND ALPINE MEADOWS
by
James E. Olson
David Adler, Program Manager
Dynamac Corporation
Dynamac Building
11140 Rockville Pike
Rockville, MD 20852
FWS Contract Number 14-16-0009-80-085
Project Officer
R. Kent Schreiber
Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Route 3, Box 44
Kearneysville, WV 25430
Conducted as part of the
Federal Interagency Energy Environment Research and Development Program
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Performed for:
Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Office of Biological Services
Fish and Wildlife Service
U. S. Department of the Interior
Washington, DC
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DISCLAIMER
The opinions and recommendations expressed in this series are those
of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service or the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor
does the mention of trade names consitute endorsement or recommendation
for use by the Federal Government. Although the research described in
this report has been funded wholly or in part by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency through Interagency Agreement No. EPA-31-D-X0581 to
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service it has not been subjected to the
Agency's peer and policy review.
The correct citation for this report is:
Olson, J.E. 1982. The effects of air pollution and acid rain on fish,
wildlife, and their habitats - arctic tundra and alpine meadows. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program, Eastern Energy
and Land Use Team, FWS/0BS-80/40.8. 29 pp.
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ABSTRACT
This report on arctic tundra and alpine meadow ecosystems is part of
a series synthesizing the results of scientific research related to the
effects of air pollution and acid deposition on fish and wildlife re-
sources. Accompanying reports in this series are the following: Intro-
duction, Forests, Lakes, Rivers and Streams, Deserts, Urban Ecosystems,
Grasslands, and Critical Habitats of Threatened and Endangered Species.
Recently performed research reveals the growing air pollution problem
in arctic tundra and alpine meadow ecosystems once thought to be rela-
tively unpolluted. This report describes the ecosystem features which
determine sensitivity to air pollution. Data related to the effects of
air pollutants on biota and whole ecosystems are reviewed. Because very
little work has been done on the effects of air pollution specifically in
arctic and alpine ecosystems this report includes relevant information
based on studies in other ecosystems. Suggestions are made for areas of
further research.
In the reports of this series, a simplified classification of air
pollutants has been used. Within this framework air pollutants fall into
the categories of photochemical oxidants, acidifying air pollutants, or
particulates, as described in detail in the introductory report of the
series.
i i i
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT iii
FIGURES v
1,0 INTRODUCTION 1
2.0 ARCTIC TUNDRA AND ALPINE
MEADOW ECOSYSTEMS 2
2.1 Geography 2
2.2 Landform and Soils 2
2.3 Climate 5
2.4 Flora 6
2.5 Fauna 7
3.0 ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS IN ARCTIC
AND ALPINE ECOSYSTEMS 9
3.1 Types of Pollutants 9
3.2 Transport and Transformations 9
4.0 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN ON
ARCTIC TUNDRA AND ALPINE NEADOW ECOSYSTEMS 13
4.1 Effects on the Abiotic Components
of the Environment 13
4.2 Effects on the Biotic Components
of the Environment 14
4.2.1 Flora 14
4.2.2 Fauna 17
4.3 Effects on Ecosystem Functions 18
5.0 SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS 19
6.0 TOPICS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 20
REFERENCES 22
iv
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Major areas of arctic tundra and alpine
meadow in the United States 3
2 Pathways of aerosol transport to the Arctic 12
v
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This document is one of a series of technical reports which summarize
current knowledge about the effects of air pollution and acid precipita-
tion on fish, wildlife, and their habitats. This report specifically
deals with the effects of air pollution on arctic tundra and alpine meadow
ecosystems. Other reports in the series present information on a variety
of other aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. For the purposes of this
series, air pollutants have been grouped into three basic categories:
photochemical oxidants, particulate matter, and acidifying air pollutants.
General information on the nature of atmospheric pollution is presented in
the introductory report of this series, which includes a discussion of
emission sources, transport, transformation, and deposition of pollutants,
and the sensitivity of receiving ecosystems.
Arctic and alpine ecosystems, once thought to be pristine, ha^e be-
come the object of growing interest with regard to the impacts of air pol-
lution. Studies of arctic haze, lead aerosols in the High Sierras, and
acid precipitation in the Rockies suggest the potential for damage to
plants and animals in these areas. The concern is heightened because the
specialization of biota and the reduced species diversity in harsh envi-
ronments results in increased vulnerability to changes in these ecosys-
tems. To date few studies have investigated the effects of air pollu-
tion specifically in arctic and alpine ecosystems, and potential effects
must be inferred from observations of similar biota in other ecosystems.
Additional research is needed to evaluate the nature and extent of im-
pacts because of the unique characteristics of arctic and alpine
ecosystems.
Following this introduction is a description of those features of
arctic tundra and alpine meadows relevant to an examination of air pollu-
tion impacts. The next section contains information on the pollutants
found in the two ecosystems and their long range transport. Then the
potential effects of air pollution and acid deposition on the biotic and
abiotic components of the ecosystems are discussed. Much of this section
draws heavily on observations of air pollution impacts in other ecosys-
tems. The report concludes with a discussion of socioeconomic impacts and
suggestions for areas of further research.
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2.0 ARCTIC TUNDRA AND ALPINE MEADOW ECOSYSTEMS
This report focuses on arctic tundra and alpine meadow ecosystems of
the United States. Arctic tundra, under U.S. possession, is restricted to
two areas in northern and western Alaska- This ecosystem is generally
cold, treeless, and underlain by a permanently frozen layer called perma-
frost. Alpine meadow is found above the treeline at higher elevations in
montane areas throughout the western United States. This ecosystem is
also generally cold with short-stemmed vegetation, though permafrost is
not a common characteristic. Because of the similarities, arctic tundra
and alpine meadow are often equated as "tundra". However, several impor-
tant differences do exist which affect the way these ecosystems respond
to the impact of atmospheric pollution. The next several sections char-
acterize the similarities and differences of arctic tundra and alpine
meadows.
2.1 GEOGRAPHY
In the United States, artic tundra is found along the northern and
western shores of Alaska from roughly the 60th parallel to the northern
edge of land at about latitude 71°N. This area contains the plain north
of the Brooks Range and most of the western shore of Alaska (Figure 1).
The Brooks Range, the northernmost extension of the Rocky Mountains, is
actually a combination of arctic tundra and alpine meadow ecosystems.
Its high elevations (over 2,700 m) and northerly location produce an
environment with chracteristics of both ecosystems such as low average
temperatures, low atmospheric pressures, and permafrost.
Alpine meadow is found in disjointed areas at higher elevations of
the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada - Cascade ranges in the United
States. Treeline, the lower limit of alpine meadow, varies throughout
these systems moderated by latitude, climate, and exposure (Billings
1973). Figure 1, drawn by combining information from several sources, is
a map showing the major areas of arctic tundra and alpine meadow in the
United States.
2.2 LANDFORM AND SOILS
Arctic tundra has a gently rolling terrain with numerous water or ice
filled depressions; elevation of the tundra provinces is generally less
than 300 m (Bailey 1978), One predominant feature of coastal tundra is
patterned ground caused by a series of polygonal soil sections that can
be slightly higher or lower than the surrounding area. Cracks in the
frozen soil and permafrost fill with snow or spring meltwater that turns
to ice. Repeated cracking, filling, and freezing causes the ice wedges
to grow in width and depth (Billings and Peterson 1980). As the ice
2
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Figure 1. Major areas of arctic tundra and alpine meadow in the United States.
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wedges grow, they push out the soil, forming raised rims on both shoulders
of the wedge. Since the cracks occur at various angles to each other, the
result is a patchwork of soil polygons.
The wedges grow and form ridges on both sides, higher than the center
of the polygon. These low-center polygons often fill with meltwater in
spring producing the characteristic ponds and thaw-lakes which dot the
tundra. If the ice wedge melts, as may happen if the insulating surface
layer of peat is damaged (e.g., by vehicles, gully erosion), the rims
will collapse, producing high-center polygons. The formation of soil
polygons may be cyclical under the influence of thaw-lakes which erode
adjacent rims, coalescing several polygons to form a single lake.
Eventually, the lake drains off leaving a flat basin that once again
undergoes polygonization. Billings and Peterson (1980) provide
additional discussion, particularly in reference to ecosystemic changes
accompanying the thaw-lake cycle.
Tundra and alpine meadow ecosystems are dominated by physical fac-
tors. The thaw-lake cycle in the tundra exemplifies this; geormorphic
changes determine the flora which are present, and since these changes
are relatively rapid, the vegetational cycle is really a sequence of pri-
mary successions (Billings and Peterson 1980). In high mountain environ-
ments it is also the physical factors which dominate and control the
ecosystem (Billings 1979b). In both ecosystems plants are small; such
vegetation cannot modify or "soften" the effects of physical factors.
Soils of the Arctic tundra are generally poorly drained and poorly
aerated due, in part, to the underlying permafrost. The permafrost can be
hundreds of meters thick with only the top 10 to 60 cm of the surface
thawing in summer. Soil particles are produced almost entirely by mechan-
ical breakup of the parent rock, a result of the continual freezing and
thawing of soil moisture. Marine sediments are often the soil parent
material of the coastal tundra provinces. Entisols, inceptisols, and as-
sociated histosols with weakly differentiated horizons characterize the
soils (Bailey 1978). Undecayed organic matter is often a major soil com-
ponent as well, because microbial decomposition at the prevailing cold
temperatures is very slow. The slow rate of decomposition acts as a
bottleneck for the cycling of carbon and other elements. As a result the
tundra is carbon accumulating (Billings 1979a; Billings and Peterson
1980). Effects of air pollution on decomposition rates, such as have
been observed in more temperate ecosystems, could also take place in
alpine and tundra ecosystems. Decomposition could also be affected by
warming trends associated with higher CO2 concentrations, and the
resulting increase in the rate of decomposition would add still more
CO2 to the atmosphere (Billings and Peterson 1980).
Alpine meadow ecosystems vary greatly in elevation and latitude;
therefore, it should be no surprise that their physical components in
relation to landform and soils also vary. However, some of the common
characteristics listed by Billings (1978) include: 1) steep, unstable
slopes; 2) shallow, erodable soils; and 3) common soilfluction and soil
4
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frost activity. The soils of alpine areas vary greatly from mountain
range to mountain range depending on the type of parent material, the
mode of formation, and history of the range. Soil types include alpine
inceptisols in the Alaska Range, inceptisols mixed with loess and
volcanic ash in the highland Columbian Forest province, and mollisols and
alfisols in the Rocky Mountain Forest province. The Brooks Range is
underlain by folded and faulted limestone with inceptisols and glacial
and alluvial deposits covering the lower slopes and valleys. The nature
of the soil and bedrock is closely related to the susceptibility of an
ecosystem to air pollution, and acid deposition in particular.
Individual organisms which have adapted to the harsh alpine and
arctic conditions are not in themselves fragile. However, because the
soils in these regions are thin, the ecosystems themselves are fragile
(Billings 1979b). Once the soil is destroyed in a cold climate, for
example through erosion following the loss of plants, tens of thousands
of years may be required to replace it (Billings 1973).
2.3 CLIMATE
The arctic tundra is characterized by short, cool summers and long,
harsh winters. The average temperature of the warmest month is between
0°C and 10°C; the "growing season" at Barrow, Alaska has a mean daily
temperature of 3.1°C (Billings 1973). During winter, temperatures may be
lower than -50°C. The climate of the Bering Tundra province is less
severe than that of the Northern Coastal Tundra. Precipitation amounts
vary also. The Bering Tundra annually receives an average of 43 cm (17
in) of precipitation; the northern coastal tundra receives approximately
18 cm (7 in) (Bailey 1978). The potential for evaporation in those re-
gions is very low, however, since the relative humidity is high. A major
cause of the severe climate is the radiation budget of the tundra. North
of the Arctic Circle at latitude 66°30', the sun does not rise above the
horizon for as many as 67 consecutive days during winter. Thermal radia-
tion, however, continues to be lost to the atmosphere from the soil and
ice. During summer, up to 85 days may have continuous sunlight, but the
solar radiation arrives at oblique angles after a long passage through the
atmosphere. A great deal of the solar energy is dissipated in the passage
and the spectral quality is changed as well.
The climate of alpine meadows in the United States is also character-
ized by short, cool summers and long, harsh winters. Billings (1973)
states that the only environmental characteristic held in common between
arctic tundra and alpine meadow ecosystems is the short, cold growing sea-
son. Most types of alpine and arctic vegetation recover very slowly from
any type of disturbance^ at least partially because of this climatic
feature. In addition, the high elevation of the alpine meadows compen-
sates for the high latitude of the arctic tundra. This is seen in the
mean daily temperature, during the growing season, which was only 8°C at
a station at 3,200 m in the Beartooth Mountains of Wyoming - Montana
(Billings 1973). Low air temperatures in the mountains are due to high
solar and thermal radiation flux rates made possible by the transparent,
5
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low density atmosphere. Also, air rising over mountains is cooled adia-
batically resulting in lower temperatures.
Other climatic features are substantially different for alpine
ecosystems as compared to the arctic. Alpine areas of middle latitudes
receive more precipitation, often as snow, than the arctic. The central
Rocky Mountains annually average 100 cm (39 in). The characteristic high
winds, which are often present in the arctic as well, produce deep and
long-lasting snowdrifts in the alpine meadows. The photoperiod of alpine
areas is more moderate because of the latitude but visible and ultraviolet
irradiation are more intense (Billings 1979a). The high ultraviolet
radiation in these ecosystems may increase the rate of ozone formation.
2.4 FLORA
The vegetation of the arctic tundra and alpine meadow is very similar
with considerable overlap of species. Relatively few plant life forms are
represented, and, in general, the diversity of species decreases in these
ecosystems as one moves farther north or to greater altitudes. The few
that are found include evergreen or deciduous prostrate shrubs, short-
stemmed herbaceous perennials (grasses, sedges, cushion plants, and
rosette plants), lichens, and mosses (Billings 1973). Annual plants are
very rare in both ecosystems, since conditions dictate that they flower
and set seed quickly. Adaptations of both arctic and alpine plants often
have similar morphological and physiological characteristics. Plants of
both ecosystems are well adapted to conducting photosynthesis and other
metabolic functions at low temperatures. Alpine types, however, appear
to acclimate metabolically to changes in temperature more easily than do
those of the arctic (Billings 1974). Rapid weather changes, as well as
cold nights, are characteristics of the alpine growing seasons as opposed
to the arctic where the photoperiods can be 24 hours. Other environ-
mental factors, such as the radiation budget, atmospheric pressures, and
soil types, also are different for arctic and alpine ecosystems which
lead to the differences observed in their respective plant communities.
In the arctic tundra, vegetation is dominated by grasses, sedges,
mosses, lichens, and dwarf woody shrubs. The permafrost limits the root-
ing depth of plants though most of the plant volume is underground. In
wet tundra during the summer, 96 percent to 98 percent of living plant
material is located beneath the soil surface and above the permafrost
(Billings 1973). Tundra vegetation is found on a variety of substrates
from rocky fell-fields to deep, wet peaty soils. Soil polygons play a
large role in determining local distribution of plant species. Billings
and Peterson (1980) discuss vegetational succession in relation to soils
and the thaw-lake cycle. Tieszen (1978) is an excellent source for
additional information concerning tundra vegetation and productivity.
Although accurate floristic data for high altitude ecosystems is
rare, the vegetation of alpine meadows is dominated by perennial
herbaceous plants or dwarf shrubs (Billings 1979b). Billings (1979a)
6
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provides the following list of North American alpine plant forms in their
approximate order of importance:
Perennials
Graminoid plants
Herbaceous dicotyledonous plants
Cushion plants
Small basal rosette plants
Dwarf shrubs, either evergreen or deciduous
Lichens
Mosses
Annual vascular plants
Like tundra vegetation, most of the mass of alpine plants is below ground,
however, less of the total standing crop (approximately 50 percent at a
site in Wyoming) is below ground at drier sites (Billings 1973). The
distribution of alpine vegetation is governed mainly by water availabil-
ity and by length of growing season (Billings 1979a). Local topography
often determines these factors. Billings (1973) explains that ridge-
crests, and the accompanying windward and leeward slopes, influence snow
accumulation and later snowmelt. On the lee slope, meltwater meadows and
bogs will form which often have the greatest vegetational biomass and
density. On the windward slope, ridge, and ground under the melted snow-
drift, the vegetation present will be mostly open, dwarfed, and scanty.
Various plant species are restricted to certain segments of this topogra-
phic gradient. In general, the total alpine flora is many times richer
than the arctic flora (Billings 1974). This is due principally to the
uniqueness, isolation, and diversity of alpine environments.
2.5 FAUNA
Fauna of arctic tundra and alpine meadow ecosystems, like the flora,
have some common species between them owing to the relative similarity of
the environments. Adaptations to the extreme environment are often
similar as well. Homeothermous animals remain active throughout the year
by adaptations for conserving body heat. Other animals utilize these
ecosystems only during more moderate times of the year. Several species
of fish, mostly in the family Salmonidae, exemplify this. The fish will
migrate into the streams after ice-out and the fry will remain until
flows are reduced by freezing or a lack of meltwater. The fry will then
migrate to sea as smolts or will migrate down to larger, year-round
streams as is true of some trout species. The timing of this migration
is especially important because of the rapid increase in the acidity of
surface waters which often accompanies spring snowmelt. Additional
information on this phenomenon is presented in the reports in this series
that deal with aquatic ecosystems.
Fauna of the arctic tundra include carnivorous (sometimes omnivorous)
bears, wolves, foxes, and lynx. Herbivores are represented by caribou,
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moose, lemmings, and others. Various avian species are fairly common par-
ticularly during summer months when the coastlines and numerous ponds and
lakes provide excellent habitat for migrating waterfowl and shorebirds,
some of which feed on the insects which are abundant at that time. Air
pollution related impacts which affect insects could have repercussions
to these predators. Alpine areas, particularly in temperate regions,
have a much greater diversity of resident and transient animal life than
arctic regions. Alpine fauna are based primarily on a grazing food web
that is extremely complex and further complicated by introduced species
and domestic stock. Poikilothermic vertebrates are very rare in both
arctic and alpine ecosystems. Decomposers (fungi, bacteria, protozoans,
invertebrates) are important components of both ecosystems. At some high
altitude areas, more than 90 percent of plant material is decomposed
rather than grazed (Billings 1979b). Decomposition is limited by the
extreme cold in both environments as well as by a lack of moisture in
most alpine areas.
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3.0 ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS IN
ARCTIC AND ALPINE ECOSYSTEMS
3.1 TYPES OF POLLUTANTS
The principal types of air pollutants to be discussed in this report
are divided into three categories: photochemical oxidants such as ozone,
peroxyacetyle nitrate (PAN), and hydrogen peroxide; particulate matter in-
cluding sulfate complexes and carbonaceous aerosols with associated trace
metals; and acidifying air pollutants including sulfuric, nitric and
hydrochloric acids, and their precursors. More detailed information on
these pollutant categories is provided in the introductory report in this
series.
A great deal of fairly recent research has focused on the existence
and composition of atmospheric pollutants found in arctic and alpine eco-
systems. Some of this interest can be traced to the assumption that
these ecosystems are pristine and unaffected by air pollution; this most
certainly, however, is not the case (Rahn and McCaffrey 1980; Rahn et al.
1980; Kerr 1981b). For instance, Hirao and Patterson (1974) reported TRe
existence of lead aerosol pollution in the High Sierras of Yosemite
National Park in California. Lewis and Grant (1980a) found low precip-
itation pH (averaging 4.63 in early 1978) in the Rocky Mountains near the
Continental Divide west of Denver. Nitric acid appeared to be the pre-
cipitation component responsible for the observed pH. Though the exact
source of the acid is open to question (Kelly and Stedman 1980; Lewis and
Grant 19B0b), anthropogenic nitric acid in the atmosphere is principally
the result of mobile sources of pollution such as automobiles. The other
major component of precipitation acidity is sulfuric acid which results
primarily from stationary sources such as power plants, smelters* and
heavy industry. Acidity in the western United States is dominated by
nitrogen oxide derivatives probably from vehicles (Glass et a]_* 1979),
while in the east, sulfuric acid dominates because of the preponderance
of industrial sources.
In the arctic, a haze has been noticeable for many years, particular-
ly during the winter. The haze apparently is at least partially the re-
sult of anthropogenic particulates that originate from the combustion of
fuels in the midlatitudes (Kerr 1979; Rahn and McCaffrey 1980; Rahn et al.
1980; Barrie jrt al. 1981; Daisey^t al. 1981; Kerr 1981b; Ottar 1981; an?
Rahn 1981a,b). "Though natural materTals such as sea salt and soil dust
are part of the haze, 75 to 80 percent of the mass is fine particulate
matter of distant origin (Rahn 1980).
3.2 TRANSPORT AND TRANSFORMATIONS
Air pollution, from anthropogenic sources, is released from numer-
ous, widely distributed sites but particularly from urban centers in the
northern hemisphere. Once released, it is transported by winds and may
9
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be deposited several thousand kilometers from the emission source, an
important consideration for the remote environments of alpine meadows and
arctic tundra. Ironically, one factor contributing to the long range
transport of pollutants is the construction of tall smokestacks charac-
teristic of modern technology, some over 350 m high (Graves 1980), built
to reduce local pollution as monitored at ground level. To comply with
local air pollution standards, the pollutants are injected higher into
the atmosphere and travel much farther before they are deposited, creating
national and international problems.
An excellent example of long range pollution transport is the acid
rain problem being experienced in Scandinavian countries. The low density
of population, industrial concentrations, and automobiles in these coun-
tries cannot account for the amount of pollution that has fallen on the
countryside (Elgmork et ^1_. 1973). Numerous studies have documented that
the sources of the proFlem are the densely populated, industrial regions
of western, central, and eastern Europe, up to 1500 km away (Rodhe 1972;
Elgmork et al. 1973; Forland 1973; Hagen and Langeland 1973; Forland and
Gjessing~T97*>).
Once in the atmosphere, the most important mechanisms for removing
air pollutants are precipitation, dry sedimentation of particles, and ad-
sorption of gases. Forland and Gjessing (1975) concluded that, farther
from the emission source, the rate of dry deposition becomes significantly
smaller than deposition associated with precipitation, whereas near the
source the two rates are of approximately the same magnitude, depending on
the frequency and amount of precipitation. Kerr (1981a) reports that
techniques to measure and monitor dry deposition are inadequate, but that
significant dry deposition of atmospheric pollutants does occur. Herman
and Gorham (1957) reported on snow samples that had much lower concentra-
tions of several compounds, including oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, than
rain samples collected the same months at the same site. This indicated
that snow flakes are less efficient in removing materials from the atmos-
phere, an important consideration when assessing contamination of the
tundra. Additional information on the accumulation of pollutants in the
snow pack and their rapid release during spring snowmelt can be found in
the report on lakes and in the report on rivers and streams in this
series.
In North America, pollution in alpine and arctic environments has
been traced to distant urban and industrial centers. Hirao and Patterson
(1974) concluded, on the basis of aerosol component ratios, that the lead
in the High Sierras of California came from smelter fumes and automobile
exhausts in Los Angeles and San Francisco, 480 and 240 kilometers away,
respectively. Questions about the source of the haze over the arctic
tundra have not been fully resolved, though it has been clearly demonstra-
ted by air-mass trajectories and chemical analysis that the pollution has
a distant origin, particularly during the winter (Daisey et _al_. 1981;
Ottar 1981; Rahn and Heidam 1981; Weschler 1981). Based on trace element
analysis and transport modeling, Rahn and McCaffrey (1980) concluded that
the component concentrations of the arctic aerosol are consistent with
10
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the hypothesis that polluted European air masses are the source, moving
over European Russia and then to the north, a distance of 5,000 to 15,000
km (Figure 2). This conclusion is supported by the research of Heidam
(1981). Similarly, it has been observed that increases in arctic SO?
concentrations during winter can be attributed to transport from Eurasian
midlatitudes (RahnetjH. 1980).
The efficient transport of aerosols and SOg northward to the artic
implies that residence times of these pollutants during transport are
several times larger than those observed in lower latitudes (Rahn and
McCaffrey 1980; Rahn et aj_. 1980). In arctic (or cold continental) winter
conditions, such an increase in residence times is reasonable. Precipi-
tation scavenging is reduced because of the small amount of precipitation
during the arctic winter. It is likely that dry deposition is also re-
duced because of the surface smoothness and the increased stability of
near-surface air (Rahn et _ai. 1980). In addition the oxidation of SO2
is expected to be slow Uecause of the reduced cloud cover, the low tem-
peratures, the small amounts of trace metals available as catalysts, and
the lack of solar radiation during the arctic night (Rahn et al. 1980).
II
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Figure 2. Pathways of aerosol transport to the Arctic.
(Rahn and McCaffrey 1980)
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4.0 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN ON
ARCTIC TUNDRA AND ALPINE MEADOW ECOSYSTEMS
The principal effects of air pollution on the abiotic arctic and al-
pine environments include alteration of soil chemistry and the solar bud-
get. The component of the biotic communities most likely to be affected
is lichens because of their adaptations and sensitivity. If lichens are
adversely affected, it is probable that herbivorous animals would be also
because of their dependence on lichens for food. Ecosystem impacts relate
primarily to nutrient cycling and its effect on plant growth for animal
forage. Acid precipitation has been shown to reduce the activity of soil
microorganisms responsible for decomposition and the release of nutrients.
Additional ecosystem problems may result from increased trace element
mobility within food chains.
4.1 EFFECTS ON THE ABIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
A principal effect of air pollution, and particularly acid rain and
snow, on abiotic environments is the alteration of soil chemistry. Though
soils are poorly developed in most alpine meadow ecosystems, acid rain has
been shown to increase the rate of mineral weathering (Berigari and Xeri-
kos 1975). In addition to mineral weathering, acid rain has been shown to
affect anion mobility (Johnson and Cole 1977) and nutrient loss in soils
(Reuss 1978). The anion of major importance in many soils is bicarbonate;
bicarbonate leaching is regulated by soil CO2 and the solution pH. If
the soil pH is changed, for instance by the addition of sulfuric or nitric
acid from precipitation, the bicarbonate concentration and anion adsorp-
tivity will be affected which will alter leaching rates (Johnson and Cole
1977). Various investigators have demonstrated increased leaching of
metallic ions under the influence of acidified water. Cronan and Scho-
field (1979) documented comparatively high concentrations of dissolved
aluminum in ground and surface waters of high-elevation watersheds in the
northeastern United States subjected to acid precipitation. Maimer (1976)
reported increased leaching of metal lies including calcium, magnesium, and
aluminum by acidified water. Graves (1980) indicated that mercury may
also be involved. In addition to soil leaching of metallic ions, trace
metals associated with particulates in polluted air may contribute to the
burden of ground and surface waters after deposition.
In a study of alpine lakes of the Ossola Valley in northern Italy,
Mosello (1980) found that the degree of acidification was controlled
mainly by the lithological substrate, in agreement with other studies of
lake acidification. The lakes in the area studied are generally small
(<.5 km2) and located at altitudes between 1800 and 2700 meters above
sea level. Of the 50 lakes sampled by Mosello (1980), 28, located in
areas characterized by calcareous bedrock, showed high alkalinities
(.10 - .94 meq/1) and pH levels between 6.7 and 9.2. The remaining 22
lakes had a lower buffering capacity with total alkalinity less than 0.10
meq/1. In ten of these lakes the total alkalinity was less than 0.01
13
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meq/1, indicating almost complete exhaustion of the capacity to neutral-
ize acids. The pH of these ten samples ranged from 4.8 to 6.0, with 6 of
them having a pH less than 5.6. These 6 lakes were all located at alti-
tudes greater than 2000 meters above sea level in areas where siliceous
rocks {gneiss, micaschist, and granite) prevail.
Mosello (1980) also analyzed 15 snow samples collected at altitudes
between 500 and 2800 meters. Six of these samples had a pH less than
5.0. The range of measured pH was 4.4 to 5.7. These values were higher
than measurements of the pH of rainfall in the same region. Mosello
concluded that, consistent with the work of other researchers, lake
chemistry was controlled by the geological substrate and precipitation
was the principal source of acidity.
The effects of increasing acidity, such as alterations of soil pH or
cation leaching, could lag behind the input of acid rain, and continue af-
ter the deposition of acid rain has stopped (Reuss 1978). According to
Maimer (1976), the question is not whether soil impacts will occur, but
rather the magnitude of the effects and the time required for them to ap-
pear. Any modification of arctic tundra soils may be particularly impor-
tant because of the basin effect created by the permafrost, which traps
soil moisture in the uppermost layers and in surface waters. High alti-
tude watersheds are major contributors of runoff to lower stream and river
systems. Some adverse biological effects may be expected with the in-
creased availability of trace metals and nutrient loss. These will be
discussed further in Section 4.3 on ecosystem effects.
In addition to the modifications of soil chemistry, recent studies
indicate that air pollution may affect the climate of arctic ecosystems.
Shaw and Stamnes (1980) calculated that the arctic haze could cause a
heating of the earth-atmosphere system in general and, in particular, a
heating of the atmosphere coinciding with a cooling of the earth's sur-
face. These effects will be most noticeable in the spring when light
scattering is greatest (Bodhaine et 1981) due to maximum levels of
haze (Rahn and McCaffrey 1980; Barrie et al_. 1981; Daisey ejt a_K 1981;
Rosen £t jH. 1981). The changes in the radiation budget will tend to in-
tensify air subsidence and decrease cloudiness (Shaw and Stamnes 1980).
The temperature inversions that are present in the Arctic during much of
the year but especially in winter and spring (Schofield et a^. 1970)
may become stronger. The effect of the inversion is to trap pollutants in
the stable air mass near the ground surface allowing additional contact
with the arctic ecosystem.
4.2 EFFECTS ON THE BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
4.2.1 Flora
A great deal of information is available concerning the effects of
air pollution on plant species. Two reports in this series summarize the
effects on grasslands and forests, and other reports also discuss effects
14
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on plants. This section will focus on air pollution impacts to alpine
meadow and arctic tundra plant species or species closely related to these
plants.
Lichens are a common and highly susceptible component of both arctic
tundra and alpine meadow ecosystems. They consist of a fungus and one or
sometimes two algae, living symbiotically. Birds use lichens for nest
building, camouflage, and feeding. Caribou consume 3 to 5 kg of lichens
per day and lichens may exceed 50 percent of their winter diet (Richardson
and Young 1977). Species of lichens are found in all environments from
tropical rain forests to deserts and tundra. They have numerous adapta-
tions for survival in the extreme environments of the arctic tundra and
alpine meadow. For instance, they have a high resistance to freezing and
can endure long periods of frozen inactivity. They are poikilohydric,
with cellular functions mediated by the availability of water. Lichens
can begin photosynthesis immediately with the onset of favorable
conditions, and they continue photosynthesizing at temperatures below
freezing (Kappen 1973). Lichens have no roots or other organs for
nutrient uptake though they can absorb elements dissolved in water that
comes into contact with the thallus. This particular trait, and the
ability to concentrate substances from dilute solutions in excess of
physiological needs, make lichens good indicators of air pollution.
The relationship of lichens and air pollution has been studied for
many years. Excellent reviews of this information are contained in
Ahtnadjian and Hale {1973], Ferry et &L (1973), Seaward (1977 ), and
others. For the purposes of this"~Jiscussion, it is important to note that
lichens are extremely sensitive to sulfurous pollutants (Gilbert 1970;
Schofield et £l_. 1970; Sundstrom and Hallgren 1973; Richardson and Young
1977). As stated previously, sulfates are a major component of the
arctic haze, averaging over 2 micrograms per cubic meter of air in March
and sometimes reaching 10 ug/nw (Rahn 1980). Schofield (1975) presents
evidence that SOg in concentrations as low as 0.01 ppm (12 ug/m^) will
depress photosynthesis in several lichen species. Other investigators
(Gilbert 1973; Moser et al. 1980) have demonstrated adverse effects of
SO;? on lichens but aOTigKer concentrations (0.05 ppm to 0.25 ppm).
Considering the capacity of lichens to concentrate atmospheric pollutants
and the trend toward increasing air pollution, this is a problem that
should be monitored now, before radical changes take place. The physio-
logical effects of sulfuric acid, which is the hydrated form of sulfate,
include degradation of chlorophyll a> to phaeophytin _a, limitation of car-
bon dioxide fixation by competitive inhibition of enzymes, and cessation
of nitrogen fixation by low pH. Lichen sensitivity to sulfates is gener-
ally increased in the presence of moisture or humidity, a prevalent condi-
tion in the Arctic tundra (Schofield et al. 1970; Gilbert 1973; Sundstrom
and Hallgren 1973)-
Because of their rapid and efficient ion exchange mechanisms, lichens
are also susceptible to accumulation of other pollutants. For instance,
lichens accumulated substantial levels of radionuclides following atmos-
pheric testing of nuclear weapons (James 1973; Richardson and Young 1977).
15
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Lichens are very efficient at accumulating various heavy metals including
beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum,
nickel, strontium, tin, titanium, vanadium, yttrium, and zinc (James 1973;
Tuominen and Jaakola 1973). Fluorine also has been noted as having a
major effect on lichens (Gilbert 1973). Gilbert also discusses the role
of habitat influences on lichen survival. These include shelter afforded
by topographic barriers, tall grassland, or bark fissures, as well as pH
and buffering capacity of the substratum, and nutrient flushing.
With specific reference to the survival of arctic and alpine lichens,
three points are crucial:
• lichens are able to colonize inhospitable habitats but their adap-
tations leave them inherently susceptible to air pollution (Gil-
bert 1970);
• pollution-resistant species of lichens are apparently those which
grow fastest (Gilbert 1970); however, lichens of arctic tundra and
alpine meadow ecosystems are among the slowest growing because of
the cold;
• arctic tundra species are active in the late winter and spring
conditions of bad weather (Sundstrom and Hallgren 1973) which in-
cludes the strong arctic temperature inversions that trap pollu-
tants, increasing the exposure of lichens.
As a result, lichens will probably be one of the first biotic components
of alpine meadows or the arctic tundra to show the effects of atmospheric
contamination.
Other plant species living in arctic or alpine ecosystems may be af-
fected by air pollution, but their responses are difficult to predict
given the considerable range of sensitivities. Some plants may actually
benefit from low doses of sulfates (Knabe 1976) or acid rain (Graves
1980). Higher concentrations, however, can be expected to adversely af-
fect plants. For sulfates, acute injury in plants may result from concen-
trations ranging from less than 1 ppm to over 10 ppm; chronic injury may
begin at about 130 mg/m^ of SO2 (Dvorak et. al. 1978). Knabe (1976)
reports acute injury for sensitive plants aTter 1 hr exposures to 1.3
mg/m^; chronic injury was demonstrated at annual means of below 0.01
mg/m^. Acid precipitation can affect vegetation directly or through
modification of soil chemistry; Dvorak £t aj_. (1978) provide a review of
recognized responses. Davies (1980) reported on a phenomenon of relevance
to arctic tundra situations: pasture grass growing rapidly in high irra-
diance with long days showed no response to SO2 at 0.12 ppm. However,
when grown under the same sulfate concentrations but with a short photo-
period and low irradiance near the light compensation point, the grass had
a 50 percent reduction in dry matter accumulation as compared to a
control group that had the same light but no sulfate exposure. Such
photoperiods and light levels are characteristic of significant portions
of the arctic tundra growing seasons.
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4.2.2 Fauna
As with the floral communities, some general information is available
concerning the effects of air pollution on animals. Reviews are provided
by Dvorak et _a1. ( 1978) and Newman (1980). This report will focus on
those species found in arctic tundra or alpine meadow ecosystems. Other
reports in this series covering topics such as grasslands, forests, lakes,
rivers and streams, and threatened and endangered species will discuss air
pollution impacts associated with various species of fish and wildlife.
No studies were found that were concerned with the direct effects of
air pollutants on animals found in arctic or alpine ecosystems. Informa-
tion that may be relevant to these animals is reported by Dvorak et al.
(1978) and Newman (1980) though much of that information is based on~Tab-
oratory experiments. The species studied are limited so that the applica-
bility of the studies to natural systems is unknown. Dvorak et al. (1978)
state that clearcut threshold levels for injury or death to ammaTs from
sulfate or nitrogen oxide emissions are generally unknown. Also, acid
precipitation is unlikely to have direct affects on terrestrial animals.
Numerous studies have been conducted on aquatic fauna; many species
are only temporarily present in arctic or alpine ecosystems. However, be-
cause of the timing of the presence of these animals in the ecosystems,
the effects may be magnified. Of particular concern is the accumulation
of contaminants in snow and ice. During spring breakup, the contaminants
are released in the meltwater. Studies have shown that the first part of
the snowmelt is the most contaminated (Lynch and Corbett 1980), with the
first fractions having up to five times the contaminant concentration of
the snowpack. This can subject receiving waters to severe pH shocks as
discussed by Hagen and Langeland (1973) and others (see also Rivers and
Streams report). During spring, many aquatic organisms are at the most
sensitive stage of their life cycle. Larvae of many fish species emerge
from the gravel spawning beds in spring. Small fish are most sensitive
to pH, particularly salmonids (Schofield 1976). Emerging adults of many
aquatic invertebrates are also particularly pH sensitive and many of
these sensitive aquatic organisms emerge in early spring (Hendrey et al.
1976).
With respect to fish, the primary factor leading to extinction from
acid-induced causes is decreased recruitment (Schofield 1976). This may
result from a combination of increased egg/larvae mortality and from a re-
duction in egg deposition. Death in adults resulting from acidification
may stem from an ionic imbalance, the result of inhibited sodium uptake by
lower pH. Consequently, where salt concentrations are high, the lethal pH
level is lowered, which may explain why dilute waters lose their fish
first (Schofield 1976). Death may also result from the synergistic action
of acids with metals such as aluminum or mercury, and increased carbon
dioxide content characteristic of acid waters. Acidification has also
been shown to affect aquatic microdecomposers, algae, macrophytes, zoo-
plankton, and zoobenthos with resulting changes in nutrient cycling, popu-
lation structure, and biomass (Hendrey et 1976).
17
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Indirect effects on terrestrial animals are quite probable if other
components of the tundra ecosystem are affected by air pollution. Of par-
ticular concern is the principal forage of the caribou, lichens. Several
investigators (Schofield et ak 1970; Klein 1971; Rahn 1980) have iden-
tified this rather fragile link in the food chain as a probable point of
vulnerability to the effects of atmospheric pollution. To date, however,
no studies have quantitatively measured lichen growth rates under the
influence of air pollution and any corresponding effect on caribou herds.
Moser et al. (1980) quantitatively assessed the gross photosynthetic
response o7 arctic caribou forage lichens to long-term fumigation by
sulfur dioxide but did not translate the observed responses in terms of
the caribou carrying capacity of the tundra. Schofield (1975) discussed
the high probability of adverse effects of air pollution on forage lichens
and caribou herds but cites no substantive studies. Additional informa-
tion concerning indirect impacts on tundra animals will be discussed in
the next section.
4.3 EFFECTS ON ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS
As with previous sections on abiotic and biotic impacts, much of this
discussion must be based on inference since few studies have been conduct-
ed in tundra and alpine ecosystems to examine the effects of air pollu-
tion. Some of the characteristics of these ecosystems, however, make
these inferences particularly interesting. For instance, the total amount
of carbon per unit area in the arctic tundra is about the same as in a
rainforest (Krebs 1978). However, in the tundra only 2 percent of the
carbon is contained in living organisms; in rainforest, approximately 65
percent is living. About 96 percent of the carbon in tundra is tied up
in peat or dead organic matter. The level of activity of decomposers
limits the rate of nutrient cycling in tundra ecosystems. Several
investigators including Berigari and Xerikos (1975) and Bryant et al.
(1979) have demonstrated that the activity of soil microorganisms Ts
reduced by acidification. The Arctic is being contaminated by acidic
precipitation. Barrie et jil, (1981) estimate the pH of snow ranges from
5.0 to 5.2 from February to April. It is quite probable that higher
plants and animals could be adversely affected by the influence of acid
precipitation on soil microorganisms, particularly if pH surges are
occurring during snowmelt.
Adverse ecosystem impacts may result from synergistic effects (Maimer
1976). Acid precipitation may influence the time required for the de-
struction and decomposition of polluting organic compounds. Acid rain has
been demonstrated to increase the mobility, and hence the availability, of
heavy metals. Living organisms, especially plants, could be affected.
Dvorak eit al. (1978) provide a review of trace element impact on
plants and animals. Again, the applicability to arctic tundra and alpine
meadow ecosystems may be questioned, but it has been demonstrated that
lichens will accumulate many trace elements; given increased availability,
it seems likely that greater quantities of trace substances will enter
into the respective food chains under the influence of air pollution.
18
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5.0 SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS
Society can experience air pollution impacts in a number of ways
which can be classified as unavoided, avoidance, and non-user. Unavoided
impacts are all those changes in goods and services which society is un-
able or unwilling to avoid. These include impacts on vegetation and aes-
thetic impacts. On the other hand, avoidance impacts are those incurred
in the process of preventing pollution impacts such as planting less sus-
ceptible crops and driving farther to find a less polluted recreation
site. Air pollution impacts also can accrue to non-users, i.e., people
who have no plans of making direct use of an environmental amenity but are
nevertheless willing to pay for their restoration and maintenance because
of a variety of values. These have been referred to as option, vicarious,
preservation, and risk aversion values. In the case of option value,
these people are willing to pay for an option of being able to use the
clean environment in the future. Vicarious, or bequest, benefits are ex-
perienced by people who wish to provide these environmental amenities to
others and to future generations. Preservation value is associated with
the desire to preserve a unique natural resource. Finally, risk aversion
refers to the willingness of people to pay for decreasing or averting the
risk of a catastrophic or irreversible impact such as extinction of a bio-
logical species (Heintz et al_. 1976).
If the pollutants in arctic tundra areas adversely affect morbidity
or mortality rates of wildlife, the subsistence and culturally unique
economy of the eskimo could be affected. Recreational hunting in both the
arctic and alpine areas also could be affected. These effects would be
classified as unavoided. Hunters and others seeking recreation may be
able to avoid these impacts by traveling farther to unaffected areas.
The impact of the arctic haze can be partially quantified by using
visual analysis techniques recently developed by the U.S. Bureau of Land
Management and U.S. Forest Service (Winston and Green 1980}. The arctic
haze can adversely affect people's recreation experiences. Certainly, the
option, vicarious, and preservation values to nonusers also are diminished
by the haze.
The assessment of socioeconomic impacts associated with a level of
air pollution is still most assuredly an art, which permits grossly diver-
gent interpretation of available data that may lead to widely differing
results.
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6.0 TOPICS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Current research efforts related to air pollution and acid deposition
in arctic tundra and alpine meadow ecosystems are oriented primarily tow-
ard measuring the extent of pollution. Very little is known for certain
about the effects of air pollution on these ecosystems. Extrapolation of
effects observed in other ecosystems is uncertain because of the unique
characteristics of arctic and alpine regions, as described earlier in this
report. Yet the potential exists for extensive impact because of the
fragile network of relationships between the biotic and abiotic components
of these ecosystems. In general, the adaptations needed for survival in
harsh environments may leave many plants and animals more susceptible to
perturbations which would be relatively minor in more temperate climates.
This is undoubtedly the case for many species endemic to alpine meadows
and arctic tundras.
The contamination of lichens and their growth response in these eco-
systems should be of particular concern, not only because these organisms
can provide early warning of atmospheric pollution, but also because they
constitute such an important part of the food chain. Surveys are needed
of current population structures and densities because of the variation
among different lichen species in susceptibility to various pollutants.
Research is also needed to clarify the degree to which the susceptibility
of these species is affected by the climatic features of these ecosystems,
such as temperature, photoperiod, or relative humidity.
Although a substantial amount is known about the effects of acid pre-
cipitation on fish, including fish found in alpine and arctic ecosystems,
the effects of air pollution on terrestrial wildlife in these ecosystems
are unknown, particularly in the case of tundra species. Because the
direct effects are unlikely to be severe, research should be focused on
indirect effects resulting from changes in habitat. Caribou and other
herbivores, such as marmots and pikas, should be studied for both acute
effects resulting from consumption of contaminated forage and chronic ef-
fects from degradation of range value.
The effects of air pollution on microorganisms in tundra and alpine
ecosystems should also be examined, since detrimental effects have been
documented in other ecosystems caused either directly by air pollution or
indirectly, for example by metal ions mobilized in acidified soils. De-
composers play an essential role in nutrient cycling in these ecosystems,
although the rate is limited by the low temperatures even in the absence
of pollution. Further reduction in the activity of microorganisms result-
ing from air pollution could seriously disrupt ecosystem functioning. In
addition, because of the low normal rate of decomposition, any effects may
be slow to develop to a level at which they become apparent. The serious-
ness of this problem can only be assessed through study of the likelihood,
extent, and consequences of air pollution damage to microorganisms under
conditions found in arctic tundra and alpine meadow ecosystems.
20
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In addition to research efforts directed toward understanding the ef-
fects on plants and animals in these ecosystems, studies should be under-
taken to address the role of unique features, such as climate, landforms,
and soils, in exacerbating or mitigating the effects of pollution. Some
of the phenomena which merit study in this regard include the following:
• The efficiency of snow as a scavenger of pollution differs from
that of rain, and the possible concentration, transformation, and
movement of pollutants retained in long-lasting snowpacks could
affect these ecosystems.
• The thin, erodable soils of alpine meadows are likely to be sensi-
tive to air pollution in general, and acid deposition in particu-
lar. In addition, increased loadings of pollutants and leachates
in surface waters could be transferred to other ecosystems by run-
off to streams and rivers at lower elevations.
• In the tundra the effects of air pollution and acid rain could be
enhanced by the thaw-lake cycle and the permafrost, which traps
moisture near the surface.
• Alterations in the climate caused by arctic haze could affect the
response of arctic plants to air pollution.
In summary, tundra ecosystems are unique. They are coming under the
first waves of anthropogenic pollution to which they are probably highly
sensitive. They must be monitored closely, and soon, for signs of immi-
nent change.
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50272-101
REPORT MCUMENTAT.ON '
4> Title and Subtitle
Air Pollution and Acid Rain, Report 8
The Effects of Air Pollution and Acid Rain on Fish,
Wildrtife & Their Habitats - Arctic Tundra & Alpine Me
7. Author(s)
J^E. 01 son ___
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
Dynamac Corporation
Dynamac Building
11140 Rockville Pike
Rockville, MD 20852
3. Recipient's Accession No.
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address Department Of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service/Office of Bio-
logical Services; Eastern Energy and Land Use Team,
Route 3 Box 44, Kearneysville, WV 25430
15. Supplementary Notes
5. Report Date
June 1982
6.
adow
8. Performing Organization Rept. No.
10. Pro fact/Task/Work Unit No.
XI. ContractfC) or Grant(G) No.
(C)
(G)
14-16-0009-80-085
13. Type of Report & Period Coveted
Final
14.
IS. Afr«tr»et (Limit: 200 word*)
Report 8 of the series synthesizing the results of scientific research related
to the effects of air pollution and acid deposition on fish and wildlife res-
ources deals with arctic tundra and alpine meadow ecosystems.
Recent research revealed the problem of increased air pollution in these areas
once thought to be relatively unpolluted. The report describes the ecosystem
features which determine sensitivity to air pollution. Data related to the
effects of air pollutants on biota and whole ecosystems are reviewed. Because
very little work has been done on the effects of air pollution specifically in
arctic and alpine ecosystems, this report includes relevant information based
on other studies in other ecosystems. Suggestions are made for areas of
further research.
17. Document Analysts a. Descriptors
atmospheric pollution, pollutants, exhaust emissions, acidification, precipi-
tation, terrestrial habitats, aquatic habitats
b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms
flue dust, flue gases, fumes, haze, oxidizers, smog, smoke, soot, air content,
pH, ecosystems, environmental effects, ecology
c. COSATI Field/Group 48B, 6*, 57C, H, U, Y
18. Availability Statement
Unlimi ted
| 19. Security Cl,iss (This Report)
Unclassified
i 20. Security Class (This Page)
1 Unclassified
21. No. of P.-iRe'-a
31
22. Price
(See ANSI-Z39.18) OPTIONAL FORM 272 (1-7?)
(Formerly NTlS-35)
2"J Department of Commerce
* U. B GOVERNMENT PRINTING OrriCE : 1962 379-346
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