Biological Services Program
FWS/OBS-80/40.11	Air Pollution and Acid Rain,
JUNE 1982	Report No. 11
THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN
ON FISH, WILDLIFE, AND THEIR HABITATS
CRITICAL HABITATS OF
THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECES
Office of Research and Development jnw
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Department of the Interior

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The Biological Services Program was established within the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service to supply scientific information and methodologies on key
environmental issues that impact fish and wildlife resources and their supporting
ecosystems.
Projects have been initiated in the following areas: coal extraction and
conversion; power plants; mineral development; water resource analysis, including
stream alterations and western water allocation; coastal ecosystems and Outer
Continental Shelf development; environmental contaminants; National Wetland
Inventory; habitat classification and evaluation; inventory and data management
systems; and information management.
The Biological Services Program consists of the Office of Biological Services in
Washington, D.C., which is responsible for overall planning and management;
National Teams, which provide the Program's central scientific and technical
expertise and arrange for development of information and technology by contracting
with States, universities, consulting firms, and others; Regional Teams, which
provide local expertise and are an important link between the National Teams and
the problems at the operating level; and staff at certain Fish and Wildlife Service
research facilities, who conduct inhouse research studies.
Fur side by the Superintendent of Documents, l!.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, I).C. 20402

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FWS/0BS-80/40.11
June 1982
AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN REPORT 11
THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN
ON FISH, WILDLIFE, AND THEIR HABITATS
CRITICAL HABITATS OF THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES
by
M. A. Peterson
David Adler, Program Manager
Dynamac Corporation
Dynamac Building
11140 Rockville Pike
Rockville, MD 20852
FWS Contract Number 14-16-0009-80-085
Project Officer
R. Kent Schreiber
Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Route 3, Box 44
Kearneysville, WV 25430
Conducted as part of the
Federal Interagency Energy Environment Researcti and Development Program
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Performed for:
Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Office of Biological Services
Fish and Wildlife Service
U. S. Department of the Interior
Washington, DC

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DISCLAIMER
The opinions and recommendations expressed in this series are those
of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service or the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor
does the mention of trade names consltute endorsement or recommendation
for use by the Federal Government. Although the research described in
this report has been funded wholly or in part by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency through Interagency Agreement No. EPA-31-D-X0581 to
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service it has not been subjected to the
Agency's peer and policy review.
The correct citation for this report is:
Peterson, M.A. 1982. The effects of air pollution and acid rain on fish,
wildlife, and their habitats - critical habitats of threatened and endangered
species. U.S. F1sh and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program,
Eastern Energy and Land Use Team, FWS/0BS-80/40.11. 55 pp.

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ABSTRACT
This report on Critical Habitats of threatened and endangered spe-
cies is part of a series synthesizing the results of scientific research
related to the effects of air pollution and acid deposition on fish and
wildlife resources. Accompanying reports in this series are: Introduc-
tion, Deserts and Steppes, Forests, Grasslands, Lakes, Rivers and
Streams, Tundra and Alpine Meadows, and Urban Ecosystems.
General aspects of relevant legislation protecting threatened and
endangered species and their habitats are described. Major stresses to
these species and their supporting habitats are outlined. The bulk of
this report describes potential effects of air pollution and acid rain
within the following impact categories: effects on food resources,
effects on physiology and breeding habitat, and effects on ecosystem
structure and function. The geographical range of potential effects is
briefly discussed and the report closes with a discussion of relevant
topics for further research related to air pollution effects on listed
species and their habitats.
iii

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CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT	iii
FIGURES		v
TABLES 		v
1.0 INTRODUCTION 		1
2.0 AN OVERVIEW OF CRITICAL HABITATS 		3
2.1	Threatened arid Endangered Species		3
2.2	Critical Habitats		7
3.0 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN ON
CRITICAL HABITATS OF THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES 		11
3.1	Effects on Food Resources	,	13
3.1.1	Food Source Injury and
Food Chain Disruption	13
3.1.2	Pollutant Bioaccumulatian
and Food Chain Sfofnagnificatiofr	22
3.2	Effects on Physiology and Breeding Habitat	28
3.3	Effects on Ecosystem Structure and Function 		32
3.4	Geographical Range of Potential Effects 		34
4.0 TOPICS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH	36
REFERENCES	39
APPENDIX	44
i v

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FIGURES
Number	Page
1 Weighted mean pH of precipitation in the continental
United States (1976-1979)		16
TABLES
Number	Page
1	An outline of some characteristics inherent to a species
which may contribute to the probability of extinction		5
2	Number of U.S. and foreign species on the U.S. List of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants		6
3	An outline of principal external stresses to threatened
and endangered species and their habitats		8
4	Number of counties with designated Critical Habitat by
state and FWS region	10
5	Sample species profile 		12
6	Indiana bat (Myotis soda!is) 		14
7	Virginia btg-eared bat (Plecotus townsendii virqinianus) ...	14
8	Morro Bay kangaroo rat (Dipodomys heermanni morroensis)....	15
9	Everglade kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus)	17
10	Mississippi Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis pulla) 		18
11	Whooping crane (Grus americana)	19
12	Spotfin chub (Hybopsis monacha)	20
13	Leopard darter (Percina pantherina)			21
v

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TABLES (continued)
Number	Page
14	Slackwater darter (Etheostoma boschungi) 		21
15	Palos Verdes blue butterfly
(Glaucopsyche lygdamus palosverdesensis) 		22
16	Valley elderberry longhorn beetle
(Desmocerus californicus dimorphus)	23
17	Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard (Uma inornata) 		23
18	Houston toad (Bufo houstonensis) 		24
19	Desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) 		24
20	Cape Sable seaside sparrow
(Ammospi2a mantima mirabilis) 		25
21	Dusky seaside sparrow
(Ammospiza maritima nigrescens)	26
22	American peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatuin)	26
23	San Marcos gambusia (Gambusia georgei) 		27
24	Alabama cavefish (Speoplatyrhinus poulsoni)	28
25	Pine Barrens treefrog (Hyla andersonii)	29
26	Delta green ground beetle (Elaphrus viridis) 		30
27	Little Kern golden trout (Salmo aguabonita whitei) 		31
28	California condor (Gymnoayps californianus) 		32
29	A hierarchical approach to screening rare and
endangered plants for air pollution sensitivity 		34
VI

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This report on the Critical Habitats of threatened and endangered
species is one of a series describing the effects of air pollution and
acid rain on fish, wildlife, and their habitats. Its purpose is to
assist U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service personnel and others in the antici-
pation, identification, and evaluation of potential impacts to designated
Critical Habitats and protected species from air pollution and acid depo-
sition. Used in conjunction with the other reports in this series,
potential risks to habitats and populations of threatened and endangered
species without designated Critical Habitats can also be identified.
For the purposes of this series, air pollutants have been grouped
into three basic categories: the photochemical oxidants, particulates,
and the acidifying air pollutants. A detailed description of individual
pollutants within these categories is provided in the introductory report
of this series along with discussions of emission sources, transport,
transformation, deposition, and the factors determining ecosystem sensi-
tivity to air pollution. Other reports in this series summarize the
effects of air pollution and acid deposition within specific types of
aquatic (lake, river, and stream) and terrestrial (forest, grassland,
tundra/alpine meadow, desert/steppe, and urban) ecosystems. This report
differs from others in the series in its lack of specificity to a given
type of ecosystem. Detailed information on the nature of air pollution
impacts to be expected in any given Critical Habitat will be found in the
report on the corresponding aquatic or terrestrial ecosystem.
This report focuses on the potential impacts of air pollution on
specific locations designated as Critical Habitats for threatened or
endangered species. As of December 1981, there are 50 designated
Critical Habitats (Endangered Species Technical Bulletin, 6{12):7,
December 1981). Critical Habitats for the majority of the threatened
and endangered species have not been officially designated. However,
it must be kept in mind that the habitat of each will contain factors
critical to its survival. The cross section of legally designated
Critical Habitats on which this report focuses is designed to represent
the many varying aquatic and terrestrial habitats which harbor protected
species. Thus, potential threats of air pollution to other threatened
and endangered species may be inferred.
A major limitation to this discussion arises from the fact that
little research has been done to assess air pollution effects specifical-
ly on threatened and endangered species or designated Critical Habitats.
Therefore, potential impacts must be inferred from studies on more common
flora and fauna, and their variety of supporting habitats. Examples
employing currently listed species are only intended to illustrate the
potential impact of air pollution and acid deposition on these species,
and related species, and their respective habitats. In no case to date
has air pollution or acid deposition been cited as a reason for listing a
species, as a threat to a Critical Habitat, or as a concern for recovery
efforts.

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Following this introduction is an overview of the subject, including
definitions, a brief description of relevant legislation, information on
the distribution of Critical Habitats, and a discussion of stress factors
other than air pollution. The next section discusses potential impacts
of air pollution and acid rain on listed species and Critical Habitats.
In this section several examples of potential direct or indirect effects
of air pollution on selected threatened or endangered species are de-
scribed. The final section outlines topics for further research concern-
ing possible air pollution stresses to Critical Habitats.
2

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2.0 AN OVERVIEW OF CRITICAL HABITATS
The Endangered Species Act of 1973, along with amendments to it
passed in 1978 and 1979, provides the legislative basis for preserving
biological diversity through the protection of endangered and threatened
plant and animal species. Under the law the Secretaries of Commerce and
Interior maintain a list of threatened and endangered species. The
Secretary of Commerce is responsible for marine species. All other biota
are the responsibility of the Secretary of the Interior. Both may desig-
nate habitats critical for species survival, develop and execute recovery
plans, and pursue agreements with the states and foreign nations. Within
the Department of Interior these responsibilities have been delegated to
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS).
The Act defines four basic methods for dealing with the potential
extinction of a species. These are (U.S. Congress 1973, Bean 1977):
§ land acquisition for plant and animal conservation (Sec. 5);
•	agreements with the States to enact endangered	species legisla-
tion (Sec. 6);
•	conservation and habitat protection on Federal	lands (Sec. 7);
•	the development and implementation of recovery	plans (Sec. 4(g)).
The 1973 Act afforded further protection to endangered species through
restrictions on taking, and regulation of trade in listed animals,
plants, and products made of them (Sec. 9(a)). In addition, this legis-
lation authorized U.S. participation in the implementation of the
Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) and the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Sec. 8).
Activities of the Federal Government that destroy or adversely
modify areas designated as Critical Habitat are prohibited; however, to
provide flexibility, the 1978 amendments allowed exemptions to these
restrictions under exceptional circumstances (U.S. Congress 1978). The
Department of the Interior is represented on an Exemption Review Board
and an Endangered Species Committee which together act on specific
requests for such exemptions (U.S. Chamber of Commerce 1978).
2.1 THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES
An Endangered Species is defined in the legislation as any species,
subspecies or population which is in imminent danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of its range. More specifically,
it is one whose prospects of survival and successful reproduction are in
immediate jeopardy as the result of one or several causes," e.g., loss or
modification of habitat, over-explpitation, predation, competition, or
disease (U.S. Congress 1973). A Threatened Species is defined under the
3

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Act as one which is likely to become an endangered species within the
forseeable future. Some species may be designated Endangered or
Threatened on the basis of their similarity in appearance to a listed
species. This occurs when conservation of the listed species can only be
assured by the simultaneous protection of the similar species (Bean
1977). For both threatened and endangered species, the Act authorizes
the exception of pest species of the Class Insecta whose protection under
the Act would pose some risk to human well-being.
Congress has declared through the Act that threatened and endangered
species are of esthetic, ecological, educational, historical, recreation-
al, and scientific value to the United States and its people (U.S.
Congress 1973). Thus, listed species are afforded protection for their
biological uniqueness, value as a national resource, and potential utili-
ty for future purposes. Potential future applications include the devel-
opment of new sources of food, energy, medicines, industrial chemicals,
and raw materials, any of which would provide a major economic incentive
for the preservation of biological diversity (Council on Environmental
Quality 1980). Of particular importance is the preservation of plant
stocks that may provide the genetic resources necessary for use in future
crop breeding (Zeedyk et _al_. 1978), as well as horticultural and silvi-
cultural appl ications "fffenif in et_ &]_. 1981).
Threatened and endangered species may often be distinguished from
more common flora and fauna by their narrow, or highly specialized, habi-
tat requirements. The absence of a critical requirement can be a limit-
ing factor, and a very highly specialized need may easily endanger a
species or population. For example, the endangered everglades kite
(Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus) feeds only on one species of snail;
thus, through food specialization, its habitat becomes very critical to
its existence. The endangered ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus
principal is), to cite another example, requires large areas of mature
timber, as it feeds exclusively on beetle larvae from trees which have
recently died. The reproductive requirements of the endangered
Kirtland's Warbler (Dendroica kirtlandii) are tightly bound to the
specie's fire-adapted forest habitat: patches of medium-sized jack pine
that result from periodic burning are required for breeding and nesting.
Many other examples of feeding or reproductive specialization can be
found among threatened and endangered species.
Species requiring protection are generally subject to one of several
external threats that may endanger them directly or promote their decline
through alterations of habitat. At the same time, factors inherent to
the genetic constitution of these species may threaten their continued
existence. An outline of some individual and population characteristics
which may render species more vulnerable to extinction is presented in
Table 1. The degree to which a species is endangered depends both on the
magnitude of its natural vulnerability and the extent of external threats
to population maintenance (MacBryde 1981).
4

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Table 1. An outline of some characteristics inherent
to a species which may contribute to the
probability of extinction.
REPRODUCTIVE FACTORS
•	Monogamy
•	Low reproductive rates
•	Long gestation periods
•	Inability to protect young
DEVELOPMENT FACTORS
•	Slow maturation period
•	Short life span
•	Specialized Iffe history stages requiring different habitat
attributes
INDIVIDUAL FACTORS
•	Physiological and anatomical specialization
•	Restricted nutrition sources
•	Specialized ecoJogical requirements
•	Dependence on habitat continuity
•	Large territorial requirements
•	High position 1n the trophic pyramid
•	Low mcbil 1ty
•	Lack of defense mechanisms
POPULATION FACTORS
•	Small populations
•	Depressed number of local populations
•	Limited geographic range
•	Reduced natality
•	Accelerated mortality
•	Long migrations
•	Behavioral rigidity and specialization
•	Low mutation rates
	•	Reduced genetic variability 		
(Adapted from Giles 1972)
The procedure for making additions to the list of threatened and
endangered species begins with a consideration of the degree of threat
based on available biological and economic evidence. This may be initi-
ated within FWS (or the Department of Commerce), or by a petition to the
relevant department. If it is determined that a threat exists, a notice
of the review or a proposal to list the species is published in the
Federal Register, and comments are collected from interested individuals,
states, agencies, organizations, industries, and foreign governments.
5

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The final decision will specify whether the species is threatened or
endangered. The final rule, as published in the Federal Register, indi-
cates when the species is protected under the law, usually thirty days
after its publication. A more detailed summation of the listing process
is offered by Bean (1977) and Zeedyk £t jil. (1978).
As of December, 1981, 238 native species, subspecies, or populations
are officially protected on the U.S. List of Endangered and Threatened
Wildlife and Plants (Table 2). Five of these species have separate popu-
lations listed as Endangered or Threatened and have therefore been tal-
lied twice. Of the 233 remaining species, none have recovered adequately
to permit their removal from the list although some populations have
shown signs of improvement. The status of the American alligator
(Alligator mississippiensis), for example, has been reclassified from
Endangered to Threatened in portions of its range (e.g., Louisiana,
southern Florida) and may now be cropped in some places (Council on
Environmental Quality 1980).
Table 2. Number of U. S. and foreign species on the
U. S. List of Endangered and Threatened
Wildlife and Plants.
Category
U.S.
Only
ENDANGERED
U.S. 1 Foreign
Foreign Only
THREATENED
U.S. U.S. &
Only Foreign
Foreign
On ly
SPECIES*
TOTAL
Mammals
15
17
224
3
0
21
280
Birds
52
14
144
3
0
0
213
Reptiles
7
6
55
8
4
0
80
Amphibians
5
0
8
3
0
0
16
Fish
29
4
11
12
0
0
56
Snails
3
0
1
5
0
0
9
Clams
23
0
2
0
0
0
25
Crustaceans
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
Insects
7
0
0
4
2
0
13
Plants
51
2
0
7
1
2
63
TOTAL	193 43	445	45 7	23	756
~Separate populations of species, listed both as Endangered and Threatened,
are tallied twice. Species which are thus accounted for are the gray wolf,
bald eagle, American alligator, green sea turtle, and Pacific ridley sea
turtle.
Number of species currently proposed: 11 animals
9 plants
Number of Critical Habitats listed: 50
(From U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Endangered Species Technical
Bulletin 6(12):7, December 1981)

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2.2 CRITICAL HABITATS
Habitat refers to the aggregate of biological and physico-chemical
factors needed by a species to assure survival and conservation. In
Section 3(5) of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, a
Critical Habitat is defined as the land, water, and air space which must
be conserved in order to satisfy the complete requirements of a Threat-
ened or Endangered species and assure the survival of its remaining popu-
lations (U.S. Congress 1973). The term "Critical Habitat" has three
basic connotations; it is at once a biological concept independent of any
law or regulation, a biological concept as defined under the Act, and the
legally designated area provided for by the Act.
Critical Habitats may be specifically designated areas located with-
in the larger geographical range occupied by a listed species, or they
may cover the entire known range of the species. If areas outside of
this geographical range are determined to be essential for species survi-
val, then they too may be designated as Critical Habitats. At the time
of listing, each Critical Habitat provides all the requirements of the
listed species; it may require special management or protection in order
to assure the long-term survival of the species.
The Critical Habitat concept, mentioned in the Endangered Species
Act of 1973 and defined in the 1978 amendments, had never before been
included in national endangered species legislation. Under the amended
Act, the designation of Critical Habitat for an Endangered or Threatened
species essentially follows the same rulemaking procedures as the listing
of species. Whenever prudent, the proposed determination of a species'
Critical Habitat is to be made at the time of the proposal regarding the
species' status. Economic and other impacts are to be considered in
determining a Critical Habitat. Certain areas may be excluded from
designation as Critical Habitats if the Secretary of Commerce or the
Interior determines that the economic benefits of exclusion outweigh the
benefits of conserving the areas, and if use of the area will not result
in the species' extinction.
The effect of a Critical Habitat designation is restricted to
Federal activities and Federally funded or authorized activities. In
this respect, designations are made primarily to assist Federal agencies
in identifying locations of endangered species. Private or state lands
may be designated as Critical Habitats; however, non-Federal activities
on non-Federal lands are only restricted by the Act in that listed wild-
life or plants may not be taken or harmed. In some cases disclosures of
the exact location of a rare species could make it more vulnerable to
collection or disturbance. The FWS may then decide it is imprudent to
designate a Critical Habitat for that species. This policy has been
applied, for example, to the Texas poppy-mallow (Callirhoe scabriuscula),
the 21 cacti now listed, and an entire genus of Hawaiian tree snails
(Achatinella) (Bender 1981).
7

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Habitats may become critical because of human activities, charac-
teristics inherent to the species involved (Table 1), or, more commonly,
a combination of both. The principal external stresses to threatened and
endangered wildlife and plants which have prompted Critical Habitat
designation typically result from habitat destruction or alteration, and
are outlined in Table 3. In no case to date has air pollution or acid
rain been recognized as a major stress requiring Critical Habitat desig-
nation.
Table 3. An outline of principal external stresses to
threatened and endangered species and their
habitats.
HABITAT DESTRUCTION OR REMOVAL
•	Catastrophic events (e.g., fires, volcanoes, etc.)
•	Human settlement and associated land use alterations
•	Agricultural conversion
•	Clear-cut lumbering operations
•	Dredging and filling of riparian and wetland areas
a	Stream channelization, impoundment, or diversion
t	Road construction
•	Timber monoculture development
HABITAT DISRUPTION OR ALTERATION
•	Solid and liquid industrial effluents
•	A1r pollution and atmospheric deposition
•	Soil erosion, siltatlon and compaction
•	Overgrazing
•	Flood control and irrigation
•	Fire protection
•	Fertilization and eutrophlcation
•	Recreational uses
INTRODUCTION OF EXOTIC OR FERAL SPECIES
t Excessive predation or competition
•	Elimination or alteration of habitat and food sources
•	Shifts in community structure and dominance patterns
EXPLOITATION
•	Killing or collecting for conmercial, medicinal, sporting,
scientific, or educational purposes
DISEASE
•	Pathogens and parasites
ACCIDENTAL DEATH
•	Collisions, strikes (e.g., transmission/powerlines, vehicles,
buildings)
•	Stray pesticide or herbicide applications
•	Predator or nuisance control poisons
(Adapted from Council on Environmental Quality 1980;
Henifin et al_. 1981)
8

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Stresses to threatened and endangered species and their habitats are
particularly severe in island ecosystems primarily due to the introduc-
tion of exotic and feral species. For example, the Hawaiian snail genus
Achatinella spp. on Oahu is directly or indirectly stressed by at least 3
different kinds of introduced species (Bender 1981). Probably because of
the isolation of island ecosystems, approximately two-thirds of past
extinctions in the United States (351 of 518) have occurred in Hawaii and
the channel islands of California (Opler 1977). Puerto Rico and the
Virgin Islands harbor a large variety of threatened and endangered spe-
cies as well. Together with the island state of Hawaii, the American
southwest and southeast have accounted for 92 percent of total U.S.
extinctions to date (Opler 1977). This in part reflects the greater
species diversity characteristic of warmer climates. These areas are
richly abundant in local endemics, or species restricted to localized
areas, and physical complexities of climate, geology, and topography tend
to isolate these habitats.
As a result, designated Critical Habitats tend to be unevenly dis-
tributed across the United States. This tendency is illustrated in Table
4 through comparisons of the numbers of counties possessing Critical
Habitats by FWS region. A detailed listing of locations, by county and
state, of designated Critical Habitats for Endangered or Threatened
species is found in the Appendix.
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e 4. Number of counties with designated Critical Habitat
state and FWS region.

Number
Designated
of Counties
Designated
Region I
18
Region V
8
California
13
Connecticut
-
Hawaii and Pacific
1
Delaware
-
Is lands

Maine
-
Idaho
2
Maryland
-
Nevada
-
Massachusetts
1
Oregon
2
New Hampshire
1
Washington
-
New Jersey
-


New York
-
Reqion II
16
Pennsylvania
-
Arizona
-
Rhode Island
-
New Mexico
4
Vermont
-
Oklahoma
3
Virginia
4
Texas
9
West Virginia
2
Reqion III
17
Reqion VI
14
111inois
1
Colorado
3
Indiana
2
Kansas
4
Iowa
-
Montana
-
Michigan
1
Neoraska
6
Minnesota
8
North Dakota
-
Missouri
5
South Dakota
-
Ohio
-
Utah
1
Wisconsin
-
Wyoming
-
Reqioti IV
53
Reqion VII

Al abama
1
Alaska
-
Arkansas
1


Florida
31


Georgi a
-


Kentucky
2


Louisiana
-


Mississippi
1


North Carolina
3


Puerto Rico
3


South Carolina
.


Tennessee
11


Virgin Islands
1


(Adapted from Calef and Nagy 1980)
10

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3.0 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN ON
CRITICAL HABITATS OF THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES
The objective of this chapter is to consolidate and integrate infor-
mation related to potential effects of air pollution and acid deposition
on Critical Habitats by examining some of the known requirements of
listed species in their natural habitat in light of any changes which may
result from the effects of air pollution. To this end, selected species
are briefly profiled to present known habitat requirements and attributes
needed to make projections of air pollution effects.
Many instances have been reported in the literature of specific fish
and wildlife damage or death due to individual pollutants or industrial
emissions. These have been discussed and condensed by Dvorak et al.
(1978) and by Newman (1979, 1980). Effects on wildlife and plants are
also reviewed in other reports of this series along with the impacts of
acid deposition in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
The following information is useful in assessing potential effects
of air pollution and acid deposition on Critical Habitats:
t levels of ambient air pollutants and emissions in counties or
areas in which Critical Habitats are located;
•	air quality criteria for these pollutants;
t identification of habitat attributes potentially susceptible to
air pollution or acid deposition;
•	sensitivity of various components (e.g., hydrospheric and lithos-
pheric) of the Critical Habitats to air pollution and acid depo-
sition;
•	accounts of incidents in which air pollution has affected flora
and fauna of the area; and
•	available data on non-pollutant caused habitat changes.
In this report a "species profile" is used to summarize items of the
data listed above which are unique to selected threatened and endangered
species with designated Critical Habitats. Table 5 displays the format
for this profile and describes the information contained. This informa-
tion can then be integrated with more general knowledge of the nature of
air pollution impacts on the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems,
which is presented in the other reports in this series, to assess the
potential for damage to an endangered species or its Critical Habitat.
11

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Table 5. Sample species profile. Factual information has been provided
through personnel of the Fish and Wildlife Service'-National Fish
and Wildlife Laboratories. Information available in the Federal
Register is also used.
Legal Status: Endangered or Threatened.
Critical Habitat: A general description of location is provided.
Although Critical Habitat description in the Federal Register is often
limited to the geographic location, additional knowledge including bio-
logical information is sometimes presented, particularly for those desig-
nated in 1980 or later.
Distribution and Abundance: Many of the species are limited in distribu-
tion to their Critical Habitat. Others are found in isolated populations
outside the Critical Habitat, Detailed information on abundance is not
available for most species.
Food and Foraging Behavior: Information on foodstuffs is useful in indi-
cating possible routes of pollutant exposure to species, potential
effects on the food organisms, bioconcentration, and subsequent secondary
effects on the species. Foraging behavior may influence the extent of
exposure.
Habitat: The biological habitat within the Critical Habitat is charac-
terized and places occupied by the species are described in terms of dom-
inant plants present or some physical aspect.
Habitat Stresses: Known or expected pollution and other threats to the
species and its habitat are presented.
As a general rule, threatened and endangered species inhabit one or
a few limited areas of suitable habitat. The greatest danger is for
those fish, wildlife, or plant species which have only one habitat, or a
unique habitat requirement, that may be adversely affected by air pol-
lutants.
Species most likely to be directly threatened by regional atmos-
pheric deposition include amphibians, fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and
some aquatic insects. Aquatic systems in sensitive areas are subject to
contamination by airborne acids and organic mi cropoHutants as well as
mercury and other toxic elements. In addition, toxic aluminum may be
mobilized from terrestrial ecosystems into surface runoff by the enhanced
weathering effect of acids in precipitation. Direct effects on the
physiology and reproduction of aquatic organisms, and indirect effects
stemming from habitat alteration, have been documented in several areas
of chronic acid deposition, notably Scandinavia, eastern Canada and the
State of New York. Commonly cited are sudden fish kills due to acid
snowmelt pulses, gill deterioration from excessive concentrations of
toxic metals, and reduced survival among larvae of fish and amphibians in
waters of low pH.
For these sensitive organisms, even a partial loss of populations,
or the loss of one of several populations, can remove genetic character-
istics of potential value to the species' survival. Since geographic
mobility of these life forms is limited, the recovery of prestressed
12

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genetic characteristics is probably only possible over millenia. Species
extinctions in affected regions would represent a serious irreversible
biological effect of air pollution or acid deposition. The ecological
importance of such an extinction will depend on the availability of suit-
able stocks for niche substitution.
3.1 EFFECTS ON FOOD RESOURCES
Losses or reductions of necessary food organisms are potential
effects on listed species and their Critical Habitats to be anticipated
from elevated exposures to air pollution. These impacts may stem from
direct or indirect injuries to plant or animal life, and may lead to the
selective removal of one or several preferred food items or to the dis-
ruption of entire food chains. Chronic low-level fumigations by oxidants
or sulfur dioxide may produce these effects. The degree of potential
impact in large part depends on the variety of foods employed by a spe-
cies and its flexibility in accepting substitutes for preferred foods.
Further impact to the food resources in Critical Habitats may be
expected from particulate deposition and trace element bioaccumulation in
living components of the habitat. Some of these contaminants may become
progressively more concentrated in living tissue at every step of the
food chain. Referred to as food chain biomagnification, this effect can
lead to proportionately greater exposures in animals of higher trophic
levels, as evidenced by the widely publicized contamination of raptors by
pesticides.
3.1.1 Food Source Injury and Food Chain Disruption
The effects of atmospheric pollution on food organisms of threatened
and endangered species may compromise the protective function of Critical
Habitat designation. Food-related impacts vary widely in nature and can
range from the elimination of single food sources to the general impover-
ishment of entire food chains. While effects this severe have not been
documented among the listed species, the following examples illustrate
potential pathways of food source injury and food chain disruption.
Among the endangered mammals, the Indiana bat {Table 6) and Virginia
big-eared bat (Table 7) depend solely on insects to fulfill their nutri-
tional requirements. Several groups of insects, notably the Diptera,
Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera, are reported to be sensitive to freshwater
acidity in the range of pH 5.0-6.0, while the number of taxa present may
decrease as much as 50 percent at pH 6.0 {Eilers and Berg 1981) (see also
Rivers and Streams report). Reduced emergence of adults has been docu-
mented in experimental stream acidification studies (Fiance 1978). Work
done in Norway suggests that the caloric content and nutritional value of
acid-impacted food organisms may decline as the insects devote more
energy to maintaining proper ionic balances in internal tissues (Overrein
et al. 1980), Thus, if precipitation acidity should play a role in the
"alteration of streamwater quality in their habitat, these bats, and per-
haps the endangered gray bat (Myotis grisescens), may experience reduc-
tions in the quality, quantity, and diversity of their insect diet.
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Table 6. Indiana bat (M.yotis soda! is)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated as specific caves in La Salle County,
Illinois; Crawford and Greene Counties, Indiana; Carter and Edmonson
Counties, Kentucky; Crawford, Franklin, Iron, Shannon, and Washington
Counties, Missouri; Blount County, Tennessee; and Pendleton County, West
Virginia.
Distribution and Abundance: Isolated populations are scattered through-
out the eastern and midwestern U.S. Approximately 75 percent hibernate
at sites designated as Critical Habitat. The total population numbers
less than 600,000 individuals.
Food and Foraging Behavior: The bat eats mainly small, soft-bodied
flying insects captured at night while in flight. In early summer,
females and juveniles forage mostly along stream banks; later in the year
they frequent trees and the edges of flood plain forests. Hales forage
1n densely wooded areas at treetop height.
Habitat: The bat typically mates in fall, hibernates in winter, and
gives birth in spring in or near a cave. Sexes and age classes diverge
in summer. Males use floodplain ridges and hillside forests and usually
roost in caves. Females and juveniles use floodplains and stream banks,
and roost under the bark of trees.
Habitat Stresses: Human disturbance to wintering populations and the use
of insecticides on farms and forests cause declines in the bat population.
Table 7. Virginia big-eared bat (Plecotus townsendii virqinianus)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated as five caves in Pendleton and Tucker
counties, West Virginia.
Distribution and Abundance: This bat is found 1n three separate popula-
tlons centered in eastern Kentucky, southwestern Virginia, and eastern
West Virginia. Only three nursery colony caves in West Virginia and one
in Kentucky remain. The bats number 2,500-8,000 in West Virginia and
fewer than 1,000 elsewhere.
food and Foraging Behavior: Foraging after dark, the bats search for
food In the fol lage of trees alid bushes, on the ground or on the sides of
buildings. They also capture insects in flight.
Habitat: The bats require precise conditions of physical structure,
temperature, and humidity in caves used for hibernation and reproduction,
and are thus restricted to a few specific types of caves.
Habitat Stresses: Minor disturbances or physical changes in occupied
caves would further threaten this species.
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Precipitation chemistry data for the period 1976-1979, compiled by
several major monitoring networks, show average rainfall pH values to
vary from approximately 5.0 in the midwestern range of the Indiana bat to
approximately 4.2 at the edge of its eastern range (Figure 1 and Table
6). Critical Habitats of the Virginia big-eared bat are located in areas
receiving precipitation in the range of pH 4.2 to 4.4; they also lie on
soils estimated to be slightly sensitive to the deleterious effects of
chronic acid deposition (McFee 1980). Portions of the range of the
Indiana bat lie in areas of Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, and West
Virginia that have similar soils of incomplete acid-buffering capacity.
Freshwater acidity in these areas may be confined to primarily first- and
second-order streams, particularly following spring snowmelt, yet the
overall effect on the foraging range of these species cannot be predicted
until the sensitive insect groups are identified with more precision and
compared to the dietary preferences of the bats. Potential effects may
be negated if the bats can accept insects relatively tolerant to habitat
acidification or chronic low-level air pollution.
The endangered Morro Bay kangaroo rat {Table 8) is another listed
mammal with a Critical Habitat subject to potential losses of food sup-
plies. Food sources in the habitat of this rodent appear at present to
be under no direct thre£t fr-oir injury by zlr pollution; however,, some
plant components of its diet nay be periodically ^ftected by photochemi-
cal oxidant pollution. While emissions cx the oxidant precursors nitro-
gen dicxide ano hydrocarbons, are less dense in San Luis Obispo County
tli an in metropolitan "locations to the south (USEPA 1973), concentrations
of secondary S2one are typically mora constant over large regions of
central and southern California. Furthermore, oxidant levels may remain
elevated for periods of several days to a few weeks.
Table 8. Morro Bay kangaroo rat (Dipodomys heermanni morroensis).
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated as a small coastal land area near Morro Bay
in San Luis Obispo County, California.
Distribution and Abundance: The population is restricted to a small
range surrounding the Critical Habitat.
Food and Foraging Behavior: A related subspecies 0. h. tularensis eats
seeds of grasses and shrubs during the dry season, amf grass and herb
cottings during the rainy season. Small amounts of Insect prey are
collected, and food is stored 1n the burrow.
Habitat: Preferred habitat is found primarily in the early serai stages
o^ chaparral in the area of Morro Bay, California.
Habitat Stresses: Encroachment by man reduces the foraging area of the
kangaroo rat. Pesticides, herbicides and automobile pollution may also
have an impact.
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a*
Chart Plotting Legend
• National Atmospheric Deposition Program (N A0P)
~ Department of Energy (DOE)
¦ Environmental Protection Agency (EPA/NOAA/WMO)
UnfeersilyofCstttanria
-O Calfomia Institute ol Technology
~ MuJtt-Stata Atmospheric Power
Production Pollution Study (MAP3S>
A Electric Pouter Research Institute (EPRI)
0 Oak Ridge National Laboratory
9 Canadian Atmospheric Erofromnent Service (CAttSAP)
A University of Arizona
Q University of Florida
Figure "j. Weighted mean pH of precipitation in the continental United States (1976-1979).
(From Wisniewski and Keitz 1982)

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Many species of native vegetation in a mixed grassland ecosystem
have been shown to be injured by controlled oxidant fumigations that
approximated severe smog episodes (Price and Treshow 1972; Treshow and
Stewart 1973) (see also Grasslands report). Westman (1979) documented
reductions in plant productivity and species diversity in coastal sage
scrub exposed to chronic oxidant pollution. While potential effects in
the habitat of the kangaroo rat may be less severe, some of the species'
preferred foods, particularly seeds, may diminish along with plant
productivity. Such losses might nevertheless be accomodated by the
species as the result of its partially omnivorous feeding habits. The
effects of precipitation acidity, reported by monitoring stations to
the immediate south (Morgan and Liljestrand 1980), on soils and plants
of this Critical Habitat remain unknown.
Some of the threatened and endangered bird species may be subject to
diminished food supplies through a variety of pollutant-induced causes.
The endangered Everglade kite, for example, is inherently sensitive to
this type of effect as it feeds only on one species of snail (Table 9).
Snails in general have been demonstrated to be among the most sensitive
of aquatic invertebrates to freshwater acidification, and are rarely
encountered in waters of pH less than 6.0 (Okland 1980). The minimum pH
for mollusks as a group is approximately 6.5 (Eilers and Berg 1981). The
pH of precipitation in Florida ranges on the average from 4.8 to 5.2
(Figure 1); furthermore, the mature, severely leached soils characteriz-
ing forested portions of the state may exert little buffering effect on
even modest inputs of hydrogen ions to surface runoff (Crisman et al.
1980).		
Table 9. Everglade kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated in marshy areas of seven counties 1n
southern Florida, Including the western shore of Lake Okeechobee.
Distribution and Abundance: The population Is restricted to southern
Florida. Population was estimated at 6S1 in 1981. About 80 percent of
reproduction normally occurs on the southwest side of Lake Okeechobee.
Food and Foraging Behavior: The kite feeds exclusively on the freshwater
apple snail (Pomacea paludosa) which, 1n turn, depends on the maintenance
of water levels 1n the marshes, sufficient bicarbonate concentrations,
and near-neutral pH.
Habitat: Freshwater marshes vegetated with sawgrass, spikerushes,
water1ily, big floating heart and other aquatic plants are the usual
habitat.
Habitat Stresses: Stresses stem from the drainage of wetlands and
potential losses of the apple snail due to pesticide or herbicide
pollution, particularly the copper-based substances.
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Populations of this snail may also be impacted by the toxicity of
copper-based herbicides used to control vegetation in the Everglades.
Further threats would arise from increased predation by native or intro-
duced consumers as well as from reductions of the wildlife species used
as hosts by the parasitic juvenile stage of this snail. The unique food
specialization of the Everglades kite renders its remaining population
dependent on the complex: reproductive biology of this snail and increases
its vulnerability to the indirect effects of air pollution or acid rain.
Loss of the snail resource would inevitably lead to the extinction of
this subspecies.
Other bird species which may be subject to potential food-related
effects from air pollution are the endangered Mississippi sandhill crane
(Table 10) and the whooping crane (Table 11). While the only known habi-
tat of this sandhill crane is located on coastal savanna with soils
estimated to be tolerant to acid deposition (McFee 1980), the bedrock is
moderately sensitive (Hendrey et_ al. 1980), and the area receives precip-
itation in the range of pH 4.6 to~T.8 (Figure 1). Moreover, emissions of
sulfur and nitrogen dioxide are elevated ( 100 tons per square mile) in
surrounding counties (USEPA 1978).
Table 10. Mississippi Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis pulla)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated as an area containing all known breeding,
summer feeding and roosting sites in Jackson County, Mississippi.
Distribution and Abundance: Mississippi sandhill cranes are permanent
residents in Jackson County, Mississippi. There are about 50 individuals
in the population.
Food and Foraging Behavior: During the summer, cranes feed in swamps,
savanna, and open forests on adult and larval insects, earthworms, cray-
fish, frogs, small rodents, plant roots, tubers, seeds, nuts, fruits and
leafy parts of plants. Cranes also feed in pastures and corn fields
during the remainder of the year.
Habitat: The nesting habitat is wet savanna with pine, cypress and
shrubs. The cranes winter roost in plants in marshes along creeks and
bayous.
Habitat Stresses: Stresses are primarily anthropogenic and include the
draining of marshes, planting of trees for timber, elimination of natural
fires which prevent encroachment of pines into the savanna, urban and
suburban development, and highway construction.
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Table 11. Whooping crane (Grus americana)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated as specific areas, primarily National Wild-
life Refuges, located along the migratory route and in wintering grounds
of the crane in Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma
and Texas.
Distribution and Abundance: The whooping crane is historically native to
Canada, Mexico, and the United States from the Rocky Mountains east to
the CaroTinas. Total population in the two remaining flocks is estimated
at 75 individuals.
Food and Foraging Behavior: Cranes are omnivorous, feeding on grains,
acorns, marine worms, crustaceans, mollusks, insects, fish, amphibians,
reptiles, small mammals and occassionally birds. Cranes often feed in
recently harvested grain fields during migration.
Habitat: The nesting grounds are in marshes with evergreen vegetation.
Winter grounds are on salt-marsh flats in coastal lagoons on the Gulf of
Mexico. Being territorial, pairs and unmated singles each require
several hundred acres of undisturbed wetland in and around Aransas
National Wildlife Refuge. The availability of sand or gravel bars in
rivers and lakes for nightly roosting appears to be a major factor in
crane habitat selection.
Habitat Stresses: Most any activity in the primary habitat would
adversely affect the population as they are readily stressed by distur-
bances to themselves or their habitat.
Potential stream and shallow lake acidification could lead to reduc-
tions in the distribution and abundance of foods preferred by the sand-
hill crane, particularly aquatic insects, crayfish, and frogs. The
insects and crayfish are vulnerable to physiological stresses at the time
of moulting (Fiance 1978; Schindler 1980) while the reproduction of frogs
and other amphibians may be inhibited at low pH (see Section 3.2).
The whooping crane feeds on similar aquatic organisms and would thus
be subject to the same kinds of impacts from declining food resources.
However, very few of its many designated or proposed Critical Habitats
are located in areas receiving acid precipitation. The exceptions are
three coastal counties in southeastern Texas where precipitation averages
4.8 to 5.0 (Figure 1). Information on soil sensitivity is not available
for areas west of the Mississippi River, however it is anticipated, on
the basis of bedrock sensitivity and the absence of acid precipitation,
that effects on these habitats would be minimal. In the event that air
pollutants caused damage to some preferred foods of the crane, it is
expected that this highly omnivorous bird would accept several alterna-
tive sources of nutrition.
Many types of waterfowl may be equally susceptible to potential
losses of preferred prey. For example, the common loon (Gavia immer) and
a variety of mergansers (Mergus spp.) may be forced to migrate from lakes
that no longer sustain viable fish populations (Impact Assessment Work
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Group 1981). Insectivorous birds like the goldeneye (Bucephalus
clangula), on the other hand, may thrive in the absence of competition
from fish (Haines arid Hunter 1981). Thus it is difficult to generalize
the extent to which various groups of waterfowl may be subject to food
losses from pollutant-induced alterations of habitat.
Among the fish, the threatened spotfin chub (Table 12), leopard
darter (Table 13), and slackwater darter (Table 14) may also experience
food losses in their Critical Habitats as the result of freshwater acidi-
fication. These species feed primarily on benthic insect fauna. The
leopard darter is located in an area receiving precipitation of pH 5.0 or
greater (Figure 1); bedrock is predominantly of moderate or low sensi-
tivity (Hendrey ert al. 1980). The spotfin chub and slackwater darter, on
the other hand, inhabit areas of less sensitive bedrock, yet soils in the
region are estimated to be slightly sensitive to acid inputs (McFee
1980), and precipitation pH averages 4.6. Freshwater acidification may
effect the availability of appropriate nutrition for these species in
their Critical Habitats.
Table 12. Spotfin chub (H.ybopsis monacha)
Legal Status: Threatened
Critical Habitat: Designated as the Little Tennessee River, North
Carolina; Emory, and Obed Rivers, and Clear and Daddys Creeks, Tennessee;
and the North Fork Holston River, Tennessee and Virginia.
Distribution and Abundance: The historical range of the spotfin chub
spans the southeast U.S. from Alabama north to Virginia. The species is
abundant only in the Emory River system.
Food and Foraging Behavior: The chub feeds on aquatic insects and the
larvae of other aquatic organisms.
Habitat: The spotfin chub requires moderate to large streams of clear
unpolluted water and current-swept gravel bottoms.
Habitat Stresses: Runoff from coal-mining operations, municipal and
industrial wastes, and siltation threaten the habitat of this species.
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Table 13. Leopard darter (Percina pantherina)
Legal Status: Threatened
Critical Habitat: Designated as the Little River, Black Fork Creek, East
Fork and West Fork of Glover Creek, Pushmataha County, Oklahoma, and
Mountain Fork Creek in McCurtain County, Oklahoma and Polk County,
Arkansas.
Distribution and Abundance: The darter population is limited to the
upper Little River, Mountain Fork, Cossatot River and Glover Creek
Systems.
Food and Foraging Behavior: Availability and abundance of benthic fauna
appears to be the main factor determining their diet of predominately
insect larvae and green algae.
Habitat: The leopard darter requires clear, swift shoal areas in streams
of moderate size. It is frequently found in gravel areas with some sand
intermixed and along the edges of stream channels.
Habitat Stresses: Stress in the habitat results primarily from stream
impoundment, although industrial and municipal effluent, overgrazing,
logging and road construction also threaten water quality in the habitat.
Table 14. Slackwater darter (Etheostoma boschunqi)
Legal Status: Threatened
Critical Habitat: Designated as permanent and intermittent streams in
the Cypress Creek System Lauderdale County, Alabama and Wayne County,
Tennessee, as well as Buffalo River and Tributaries in Lawrence County,
Tennessee.
Distribution and Abundance: The main population 1s limited to areas
designated as Critical Habitat although smaller groups are found 1n some
streams of adjacent counties.
Food and Foraging Behavior: Primarily benthic larvae and insects are
eaten.
Habitat: The darter Inhabits small to medium-sized streams of little
current, frequenting areas of leaf and detritus accumulation as well as
silt, sand and fine gravel substrates. Breeding habitat consists of
connecting seepage areas in open fields and woods.
Habitat Stresses: Residential development and stream channelization
stress the habitat.
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3.1.2 Pollutant Bioaccumulation and Food Chain Biomagnification
The bioaccumulation of available trace elements is a common response
of most animals and plants in environments receiving excessive amounts of
particulate pollution. Food chain biomagnification of trace metals,
radionuclides, and synthetic organic compounds will enhance exposure to
higher-order carnivores in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
Several of the threatened or endangered species may be bioaccumulating
toxic substances, even at the generally low-level concentrations prevail-
ing in Critical Habitats.
The major atmospheric source of deposited metals and other trace
elements in Critical Habitats is expected to be nearby roads and other
transportation corridors. In certain areas, fly ash and related particu-
late emissions from upwind utilities or other industries may be a signif-
icant source. Airborne metals, pesticides, and other synthetic organics
may enter Critical Habitats both in atmospheric deposition and in surface
runoff from urban and agricultural areas.
Terrestrial species which may bioaccumulate metals and other toxic
trace elements from contaminated vegetation include the endangered Palos
Verdes blue butterfly (Table 15) and the threatened valley elderberry
longhorn beetle (Table 16). Contamination may occur along roadways sit-
uated near the Critical Habitats of these species. Roadside metal con-
tamination may also be present in and around Critical Habitats of the
threatened Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard (Table 17) and endangered
Houston toad (Table 18), or other listed species such as the blunt-nosed
leopard lizard (Gambelia (= Crotaphytus) silus) and the Island night
lizard (Xantusia (= Klauberina) riversianaTi The threatened desert tor-
toise (Table 19) may be susceptible to trace element accumulation as a
consequence of its long life span and strictly herbivorous diet.
Table 15. Palos Verdes blue butterfly (Glaucops.yche
lyqdamus palosverdesensis)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated as two sites on Palos Verdes Peninsula, Los
Angeles County, California.
Distribution and Abundance: The species is known to occur only on Palos
Verdes Peninsula.
Food and Foraging Behavior: Locoweed is the preferred food of larvae.
Habitat: The species is restricted to the cool, fog-shrouded slopes of
the Palos Verdes Hills.
Habitat Stresses: Primary threats to the species include weed control
practices that adversely affect the larvae-food plant locoweed,
overgrowth of weeds, and recreational development.
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Table 16. Valley elderberry longhorn beetle (Desmocerus
californicus dimorphus)
Legal Status: Threatened
Critical Habitat: Designated in Sacramento County, California.
Distribution and Abundance: The beetle is found in less than 10
locations in Merced, Sacramento, and Yolo Counties, in the Central Valley
of California.
Food and Foraging Behavior: One or more species of Sambucus may be the
only suitable host plants for the beetle.
Habitat: The beetle inhabits elderberry thickets in the understory of
moist valley oak woodlands.
Habitat Stresses: Clearing of undergrowth for development or agriculture
stresses the beetles' habitat. Former range has been greatly restricted
due to agricultural conversion, levee construction and stream
channelization.
Table 17. Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard (Uma inornata)
Legal Status: Threatened
Critical Habitat: Designated in Riverside County, California.
Distribution and Abundance: The lizard is found only in the Coachella
Valley of Riverside County, California. Population density is estimated
at 4 to 45 per acre of ideal habitat.
Food and Foraging Behavior: Food generally consists of insects and other
arthropods, but they occasionally feed on buds and leaves.
Habitat: The fringe-toed lizard is adapted to the fine, loose, windblown
sand of dunes, flats, riverbanks, and washes in deserts. Three general
types of blown-sand deposits located in the Coachella Valley are
inhabited: (1) sandy plains; (2) creosote bush sand hummocks; and (3)
mesquite dunes. Areas protected from wind are most favored.
Habitat Stresses: Stresses are placed on the habitat by vegetation that
naturally forms wind breaks, man-made wind breaks and off-road vehicle
use, Urban development is the major threat, and additional stress may
occur from agricultural development and associated pesticides.
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Table 18. Houston toad (Bufo houstonensis)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated in Bastrop and Burleson Counties, Texas.
Distribution and Abundance: The toad is found only in	the vicinity of
Bastrop and Buescher State Parks, Bastrop County; Lake Woodrow, Burleson
County; and possibly southeast Houston, Harris County,	Texas. The total
population is estimated to be 1500 individuals.
Food and Foraging Behavior: A wide range of insects and other
invertebrates presumably comprise the main diet of the toad.
Habitat: The toad prefers heavily wooded areas with loblolly pine, mixed
deciduous forests, and interspersed open grassy areas. Loose soils, such
as sands and sandy loams, are required so it can burrow down far enough
to find the dampness it needs during estivation. Breeding sites are
temporary ponds located in woodlands, pastures, roadside ditches, and
residential areas.
Habitat Stresses: Residential, commercial and industrial development
threaten the preferred habitat of the toad.
Table 19. Desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii)
Legal Status: Threatened (Utah population only)
Critical Habitat: Critical Habitat for the Beaver Dam Slope population
of the desert tortoise is designated in Washington County, Utah.
Distribution and Abundance: The desert tortoise is found in southern
Nevada, extreme southwest Utah, western Arizona, and the Mojave desert
and eastern side of the Salton Basin in California. It is also found in
the Sonoran Desert of Mexico. An estimated 350 individuals occupy the
Critical Habitat.
food and Foraging Behavior: The tortoise is a herbivore, feeding on
leaves, soft stems, and fruits of perennial and annual grasses.
Habitat: Desert tortoises are found in areas of the American desert with
firm, but not hard, ground for construction of burrows, adeguate ground
moisture for survival of eggs and young, and low plant growth for food.
They are found in desert oases, riverbanks, washes, dunes and
occasionally rocky slopes. The Beaver Dam Slope population inhabits an
ecotone between northern and southern flora and fauna.
Habitat Stresses: Overgrazing by sheep and cattle could adversely modify
the Beaver Dam Slope site since they can trample burrows, remove cover,
and may compete for food items, especially if present in spring and early
summer before tortoises estivate. The population is also threatened by
natural predators and human collection. The county containing the
Critical Habitat has a history of exposure to fallout from atomic weapons
testing.
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Among birds, the endangered Cape Sable seaside sparrow (Table 20)
and dusky seaside sparrow (Table 21) may be subject to elevated metal and
pesticide exposures from food chain biomagnification. A wide variety of
studies document trace metal bioaccumulation in both vertebrates and
invertebrates near polluted roadsides (see Urban Ecosystems report).
Insectivores have consistently been found to retain greater concentra-
tions of cadmium, lead, nickel and zinc in internal tissues than strict
herbivores (Quarles et al. 1974). The endangered American peregrine
falcon (Table 22) may also accumulate trace elements from contaminated
food sources within or outside its Critical Habitat. Like other
top-order carnivores, including the endangered Arctic peregrine falcon
(Falco peregrinus tundrius) and bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus),
this species may be contaminated by the process of food chain biomagni-
fication if prey are consistently taken from polluted environments.
Table 20. Cape Sable seaside sparrow (Ammospiza maritima
mirabilis)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated as the Taylor Slough vicinity of Dade and
Monroe Counties, Florida.
Distribution and Abundance: Populations of the sparrow occur in marshes
at Cape Sable, the Big Cypress Swamp, and the Taylor Slough area of
Everglades National Park, Florida. Nearly 95 percent of the total
population of 1900-2800 individuals live in Taylor Slough.
Food and Foraging Behavior: Although primarily insectivorous, amphipods,
mollusks and vegetable matter are included in the diet. They feed almost
entirely on or near the ground.
Habitat: Inhabits Interior prairies (marshes) within a limited area of
southern Florida. The prairies, generally dry for most of the year,
depend for maintenance on a stable water regime, but may flood
periodically with fresh or slightly brackish water. Fire 1s a vital
component of the prairie, and serves to perpetuate the community by
preventing the invasion of fast-growing exotic trees.
Habitat Stresses: Stresses stem from the introduction of fast-growing
trees, development, man-induced fires, the drainage of wetlands, and the
inland encroachment of mangroves. Predation by cats and dogs are a
threat to the sparrow.
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Table 21. Dusky seaside sparrow (Amniospiza maritime
riiqrescens)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habit-at: Designated as specific areas surrounding the St. Johns
River in Brevarcf and Volusia Counties, Florida.
Distribution and Abundance: Historically, this sparrow is known only
from the area of St. Johns National Wildlife Refuge, Brevard County,
Florida. A 1961 survey did not reveal any birds remaining in the "wi 1 cl" .
Food and Foraging Behavior: This subspecies (s essentially
insectivorous, although snails and vegetation are induced in the diet.
Habitat: The birds prefer moist zones of the marsh dominated by cord
grass. A stable water regime maintains appropriate habitat,
Habitat Stresses: Wetland drainage and insecticide spraying for mosquito
place a stress on the sparrow's habitat.
Table 22. American peregrine falcon (Falco peregririus anatum)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated in five areas of Sonoma, Lake, and Napa
Counties, California.
Distribution and Abundance: In 1981, a nesting pair of falcons was
observed in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. The species also
breeds in northwestern Mexico and from west central Canada to Alaska.
Food and Foraging Behavior: The falcon eats mostly birds ranging in size
from sparrows to ducks. Prey is often taken while fn flight.
habitat: Nesting sites are usually cliffs, but cut banks, hollows in
trees, tree nests of other large birds and ledges of tall buildings are
also used. Typically, falcons locate near high concentrations of
passerine birds.
Habitat Stresses: Organochlorine pesticides have severely impacted the
population in the past through food chain contamination.
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Of listed aquatic species, the endangered San Marcos gambusia (Table
23) may be impacted by trace element contamination of its food and spring
habitat from nearby highway pollution. Several other endangered Texas
gambusias as well as the threatened San Marcos salamander (Eurycea nana),
may also be subject to trace element bioaccummulation. Studies have
shown that metal levels in stream sediments and fish correlate with traf-
fic density on nearby roads (Van Hassell _et a]_. 1980), suggesting that
potential contamination of roadside streams may be a direct function of
road use. Many fish species are also subject to the retention of syn-
thetic organic substances in food. Populations of the Alabama cavefish
(Table 24) may be accumulating pesticides concentrated in their food from
groundwater.
Table 23. San Marcos gambusia (Gambusia georgei)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated as a segment of the San Marcos River in
Hays County, Texas.
Distribution and Abundance: The gambusia is restricted to one short
segment of the 5an Marcos River. Population is estimated to be less than
1,000 individuals.
Food and Foraging Behavior: Unknown.
Habitat: The gambusia inhabits open areas away from the stream bank with
mud bottoms and a minimum of current and aquatic vegetation. This
spring-fed habitat is thermally constant.
Habitat Stresses: Any action which would increase vegetation growth,
disrupt the mud bottom, or alter the temperature of the water would be
detrimental to the species. Threats arise from groundwater depletion and
contamination.
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Table 24. Alabama cavefish (Speoplatyrhinus poulsoni)
legal Status: Threatened
Critical Habitat: Designated as Key Cave, Lauderdale County, Alabama.
Distribution and Abundance: The Alabama cavefish is known only from this
single cave. Although it is not found in other nearby caves the species
may occur in other subterranean waters of the general area.
Food and Foraging Behavior: Guano deposits from an abundant summer
colony of gray bats probably contribute to the production of food
organisms for this fish.
Habitat: Warm, alkaline water in an unpolluted pond or lake environment
is required. Hater levels in Key Cave contract or expand as water table
levels change. Guano deposits have an energetic role in the ecology of
this aphotic environment devoid of primary producers (photosynthetic
organisms).
Habitat Stresses: This cavefish and its Critical Habitat would be
adversely affected by interference with the bat population and may be
subject to groundwater pesticide contamination from agricultural
operations.
Other listed species which may experience similar food chain contam-
ination from trace-element pollution in stream ecosystems include the
Indiana and Virginia big-eared bat, the Mississippi sandhill and whooping
cranes, and the spotfin chub. The toxicity of trace metals to aquatic
organisms may be enhanced by freshwater acidification and toxic forms may
be particularly abundant at the time of snowmelt. Moreover, chronic
atmospheric deposition of organic micropollutants and toxic trace ele-
ments, including mercury, is reported to occur over major portions of the
northeastern U.S. (Galloway et al. 1981; Eisenreich et _aj_. 1981).
Top-order carnivores, particularly birds and fish of the region, may be
subject to contamination through the biomagnification of these toxic
substances in aquatic food chains.
3.2 EFFECTS ON PHYSIOLOGY AND BREEDING HABITAT
Gradual habitat acidification due to the long-range transport of air
pollutants may already pose some stress to the successful reproduction of
threatened and endangered species in their Critical Habitats. Other
forms of atmospheric deposition, particularly metals and organic micro-
pollutants, can also contribute to breeding habitat contamination.
Furthermore, some listed species without designated Critical Habitat may
be subject to direct physiological injury as a result of freshwater
acidity and elevated concentrations of trace metals.
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The development of larval stages of the endangered Pine Barrens
treefrog (Table 25) could possibly be inhibited by the increased acidity
of breeding habitats. Investigations initiated during a study of the
distribution of frogs and toads in the pine barrens of southern New
Jersey have shown the treefrog to tolerate waters in the range of pH 3.8
to 5.0; critical pH values lay between 3.6 and 3.8 while 3.4 was the
estimated lethal pH (Gosner and Black T957). Investigations into repro-
ductive effects on spotted salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum) and
Jefferson salamanders (Ambystoma jeffersonianum) showed that egg hatching
and larval development are greatly inhibited below pH 6.0 (Pough 1976).
Larval development of the shovel-nosed salamander (Leurognathus
marmoratus) is reported to be inhibited in waters of pH less than 5.5
(Mathews and Larson 1980).
Table 25. Pine Barrens treefrog (Hyla andersonii)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated in Okaloosa County, Florida.
tls-z-ibiticn nc kb.nCiice: The traefrog Is presently kncwn from 115
site: in CkalcDSi, kalian, Santa Rc-sa, ard l-olaes "cuntles, Florida, ard
f-arr Z2 sites in jereva.., Escanbla, and C&^lrgton Courtles, hlaoana.
Pc-p-u 1 atitsri = a-e a. 1 sc- fours ir. Hcrtl" ard Souti Carolina and Sew Jersey.
Florida populations arfr uriqie 1n tieir color patterrs, TMtirg ci'ls, aid
bod> [wripc-tians. Ti€*r tsxQncalc relafwihlp *-tfi oiher Isrilatec
fopulai-ojij. cf :he Firs Earrens treefrog in Berth Ca'Dlna, SomH
Car-cl ijia, anc He* Jersey remains u.-rclaar. Only trie FT or ten populailw Is
listed as endangered.
Food and Foraging Behavior: Adult treefrogs eat any insect of small size
moving in the vicinity, including flies, beetles, grasshoppers, and
ants. Tadpoles feed on algae.
Habitat: In Florida the P1ne Barrens treefrog usually associates with
tftr trees (CI if torn'a and Cyril la). Tidal vegetation Is required for egg
laying and larval hatching.
Habitat Stresses: Habitat destruction 1n the form of development and
land clearing for agriculture is the primary threat to the treefrog In
Florida.
Annual average precipitation pH values below 4.8 have been recorded
near the treefrog's Critical Habitat in Florida (Brezonik et al. 1980).
The habitat is mostly underlain by bedrock of moderate sensTtTvtty
(Hendrey et al. 1980), and soils in the area may be slightly sensitive to
acid inputs TWcFee 1980). As a result, freshwater acidification may at
some time affect the reproductive success of populations in Florida as
well as those in New Jersey. The reproduction of other amphibious
species may be disrupted in areas sensitive to atmospheric deposition.
The endangered Santa Cruz long-toed salamander (Ambystoma macrodactylum
croceum), for example inhabits a region of California where precipitation
pH averages 4.8 to 5.2 (Figure 1).
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Another terrestrial species which may be subject to breeding habitat
alteration from air pollution is the threatened delta green ground beetle
(Table 26). Vernal pools in which this species breeds are suspected to
be contaminated periodically with pesticides and herbicides. The pools
may also be subject to acidification, since an annual average precipita-
tion pH of 4.84 has been reported in Napa, California, near the Critical
Habitat of the beetle (McColl 1980). The Houston toad, discussed pre-
viously, breeds in temporary pools near roadsides and may suffer repro-
ductive impairment from elevated metal or trace element concentrations
from highway pollution. Certain plant species that inhabit vernal pools,
for example, the endangered San Diego Mesa mint (Pogogyne abramsii), may
also be subject to impact from contaminants such as metals and herbicides.
Table 26. Delta green ground beetle (Elaphrus viridis)
Legal Status: Threatened
Critical Habitat: Designated in Solano County, California.
Distribution and Abundance: The beetle is known to occur in two vernal
pools south of Dixon, Solano County, California.
Food and Foraging Behavior: The beetle is predatory, although diet is
unknown.
Habitat: This beetle requires vernal pools which are filled by rain and
dry out by late summer, their surrounding vegetation, and the land areas
which drain into these pools. Once widespread throughout California,
only a few of these pools remain.
Habitat Stresses: Stress could be placed on the habitat by agricultural
conversion o^ the vernal pools and their contamination with pesticides.
One listed fish potentially affected by habitat acidification is the
threatened Little Kern golden trout (Table 27). Generally, salmonids and
their juvenile stages, are among the most sensitive of fish to acid
precipitation (Fritz 1980). The golden trout inhabits small streams
located on bedrock of predominantly low acid-buffering capacity (Hendrey
et aK 1980); precipitation pH values at monitoring stations located to
the south of the trout's habitat have been reported to average 4.9 to 5.0
annually (Morgan and Liljestrand 1980). In addition, oxidant-induced
alterations of surrounding pine forest ecosystems are suspected to alter
temperature and other physical characteristics of streams in this area
(Taylor 1973). Other listed fish species which might be subject to simi-
lar impacts include the threatened greenback cutthroat trout (Salmo
clarki stomias) of Colorado, the Lahontan cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki
henshawi) of California and Nevada, and the Paiute cutthroat trout (SaTmo
clarki selenirus) of California.
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Table 27. Little Kern golden trout (Salmo aquaboriita whitei)
Legal Status: Threatened
Critical Habitat: Designated as the Little Kern River and all streams
tributary to it above barrier falls in Tulare County, California.
Distribution and Abundance: The trout is found only in the Little Kern
River watershed in Tulare County, California.
Food and Foraging Behavior: Aquatic insects provide food for the trout
and are abundant in pools and in stream areas within the Critical Habitat.
Habitat: Small to moderately sized streams of steep gradient are
required. Cobbles and larger rocks provide cover for both juvenile and
adult fish. The gravel bottom in pool areas of the stream provides
proper substrate for nesting.
Habitat Stresses: Stream sedimentation and pollution associated with
recreation, road construction, and logging may cause stress in the
trout's habitat. Water quality in the habitat of this fish is generally
good; however, pollution from mining operations or overgrazing in a large
portion of the basin could result in temperature alterations and
increased siltation.
The spotfin chub, discussed earlier, inhabits areas in the Great
Smoky Mountain National Park of moderate soil and geological sensitivity,
where average annual precipitaton pH may be as low as 4.1 (Figure 1).
The pH of streams in the park has been observed to decline by as much
as one unit in response to individual storms and snowmelt (Mathews and
Larson 1980). Acid-induced releases of aluminum from the watershed may
compound the effects of acidity on survival and reproduction in these
species. Detrimental toxic effects in biotic communities of the park
have been reported to be caused by aluminum mobilization in the water-
shed (Herrmann and Baron 1980; Mathews and Larson 1980). The slack-
water darter and leopard darter discussed earlier may experience similar
breeding habitat alteration and reduced reproductive success as a result
of ecosystem acidification.
Some invertebrate species may be subject to physiolocigal alteration
or reproductive inhibition in areas sensitive to atmospheric deposition.
As discussed above, snail species are among the most susceptible of
aquatic invertebrates to adverse effects of habitat acidification. The
mollusks as a group generally require alkaline waters of elevated bicar-
bonate concentration for the maintenance of their calcareous shells.
Listed species which occupy habitats in areas of acid deposition include
the threatened Chittenango ovate amber snail (Succinea chittenangoensis)
of New York, the endangered Virginia fringed mountain snail (Polyqyriscus
virginianus), and several of the endangered pearly mussels (EpiobI asma
spp. and others) that inhabit the southeastern United States.
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3.3 EFFECTS ON ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Some threatened or endangered species which experience little, if
any, of the potential effects discussed above may nevertheless be subject
to impacts arising from general ecosystem degradation. These may relate,
for example, to pollution-induced reductions in ecosystem productivity,
food chain energetics, or shifts in the dominance patterns of biotic com-
munities. Perhaps the best example of a listed wildlife species with
Critical Habitat susceptible to pollutant-induced ecosystem alteration is
the California condor (Table 28).
Table 28. California condor (Gymnogyps californianus)
Legal Status: Endangered
Critical Habitat: Designated areas in southern California are: Sespe~
Piru Condor Area, Matilija Condor area, Sisquoc-San Rafael Condor Area,
Hi Mountain-Beartrap Condor Area, Mt. Pinos Condor Area, Blue Ridge
Condor Area, Tejon Ranch, Kern County rangelands, and Tulare County
rangeland.
Distribution and Abundance: The historical range of the condor extended
from British Columbia to Baja California in Mexico. The California
condor population is currently present only in southern California, and
numbers about 25-30 individuals.
Food and Foraging Behavior: The California condor feeds on carrion
(primarily cattle and wild mule deer), which it locates while soaring
overhead.
Habitat: Caves, crevices, and potholes in isolated areas of high moun-
tains are used for nesting and related year-long activities. Rock
cliffs, often with dead conifer snags, are used for roosting. Rangeland
and open areas in chaparral and California coastal sage are used for
feeding and related activities.
Habitat Stresses: Remaining rangeland within the Critical Habitat is the
only significant feeding ground available to the California condor.
Critical Habitats of the California condor are located in areas of
California with chronically high levels of oxidant pollution. Annual
emission densities of the photochemical oxidant precursors, nitrogen
dioxide and hydrocarbons, range from 10 to over 100 tons per square mile
in counties containing Critical Habitats of the condor; sulfur oxide
emissions are equally great in this area (USEPA 1978). Large areas of
mixed coniferous forest, particularly ponderosa (Pinus ponderosa) and
Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) stands, have been severely impacted by
oxidant-induced chlorotic mottling of needles (Taylor 1973). In addi-
tion, plant communities in coastal sage scrub have been reported to
decline in areas of chronic oxidant exposure (Westman 1979). This reduc-
tion of available forage could affect the abundance and distribution of
mule deer, hence the availability of carrion for the condor. The neces-
sity of increased energy expenditure for food gathering may reduce the
utility of Critical Habitats for this species.
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Trace element emissions that accumulate in forage could also affect
the condor's habitat by contaminating deer and cattle taken by the condor
for food. Acid precipitation may exacerbate this effect. In the Los
Angeles area precipitation averages pH 4.5 to 4.6 (Morgan and Liljestrand
1980), and this, in turn, will influence the availability of toxic trace
elements deposited from the atmosphere or released from soils and bed-
rock. Lead accumulation from smelter emissions has been reported in
small herbivorous mammals of the high Sierras (Hirao and Patterson 1974),
suggesting that the herbivores eaten by the condor may experience similar
exposures. Critical Habitats of the American peregrine falcon, discussed
above, are also located in areas of elevated oxidant pollution and
decreased precipitation pH. These may be subject to impact from similar
forms of ecosystem degradation.
Virtually all of the species covered in this report would be impact-
ed by widescale ecosystem degradation related to pollutants, particularly
ecosystems now receiving acid precipitation. The threatened and en-
dangered plants may also be adversely affected by impacts to ecosystem
structure and function. For example, Critical Habitats of the endangered
Robbins cinquefoil (Potent ilia robbinsiana) and threatened mountain
golden heather (Hudsonia montana) are located in areas receiving acid
precipitation (Figure 1). Soils in these areas are estimated to be
slightly sensitive to deposited acids (McFee 1980). Gradual soil acidi-
fication leads to an increased availability of toxic trace metals for
bioaccumulation in conjunction with the accelerated loss of essential
plant nutrients from the system (Overrein et al_. 1980). Adverse effects
on microbes and subsequent reductions in decomposition and mineralization
rates tend to reinforce nutrient deficiencies in impacted soils
(Alexander 1980). Ac id-induced nutrient impoverishment may gradually
reduce plant productivity and energy storage, ultimately diminishing
reproductive success in the species. There is also the possibility that
seed germination or seedling emergence and establishment may be inhibited
or reduced in acid soils (Lee and Weber 1979). Leaf surfaces or repro-
ductive organs may also be altered by wet and dry acid deposition (Evans
1980).
The endangered Antioch Dunes evening primrose (Oenothera deltoides
spp. howellii) and Contra Costa wallflower (Erysimum capitatum var.
angustatum) may suffer direct or indirect injury from oxidant-induced
alterations of habitat. Foliar injury and premature leaf drop due to
chronic high levels of oxidants have been observed in many plant families
of California, although tolerances vary widely among them (National
Research Council 1977). Plants weakened by oxidant exposure have also
been shown to be predisposed to disease and pest infestation (Dahlsten
and Rowney 1980; James et al. 1980). No projections of acid precipita-
tion effects can be made for these Critical Habitats since information on
soil sensitivity is not available. Several other species of endangered
plants without designated Critical Habitats are endemic to California and
may thus be subject to similar oxidant-related effects. Possible
examples include the Eureka evening primrose (Oenothera avita spp.
eurekensis) and Solano grass (Orcuttia mucronata).
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Current understanding of the potential effects of air pollution and
acid deposition on native plants is insufficient to permit an evaluation
of endangered plant responses based on known effects in related species.
This is largely due to a longstanding research emphasis on crops, timber,
and other plants of economic importance. To the extent that threatened
and endangered plants also represent genetic resources of potential
economic importance, the need for studying threats to these species posed
by air pollution has been recognized. In view of the practical difficul-
ties of studying these rare species, a hierarchical screening procedure
has been developed to assess the relative sensitivities of threatened and
endangered plants to air pollution (Bennett 1981). Described in Table
29, the approach involves three alternative means for assessing plant
sensitivity without destroying the rare species or disturbing its habi-
tat. Such procedures can be easily generalized for evaluating impacts to
animal species as well. Moreover, this approach can be used to gain in-
formation for a given species related to each of the different effects
described in this chapter.
Table 29. A hierarchical approach to screening rare and
endangered plants for air pollution sensitivity.
Level I - The Species Themselves
1.	Examine in field for foliar injury.
2.	Obtain cultured specimens and screen in fumigation
f acil Ity.
3.	Collect seed in the field and culture for fumigation.
Level II - Using Generic Cohorts
1.	Obtain specimens or seeds of species in the same genera
that are found in the same area or ecosystem.
2.	Screen in fumigation facility.
3.	Examine for foliar injury in the field.
Level III - Us ing Bioindicators
1.	Examine species in any genera in the same ecosystem that
are known to be sensitive to certain air pollutants.
2.	If possible, introduce specimens of bioindicators into
areas of endangered and threatened species and exarrfne for
foliar injury. Introduction should not interfere with
endangered and threatened species in any way.
(From Bennett 1981)
3.4 GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE OF POTENTIAL EFFECTS
Current trends in the chemical composition of precipitation and dry-
fall suggest that listed species and their habitats are most vulnerable
to adverse effects from acid deposition in U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Regions One, Three, Four and Five. States comprising these regions were
listed in Table 4. Within these large geographical areas, research on
34

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biotic and abiotic effects suggests that organisms and habitats in moun-
tainous regions are most susceptible to pronounced adverse impact. Steep
slopes with thin rocky soils and first- and second-order stream habitats
are particularly vulnerable locations. Areas of sandy soils or mature
and severely leached soil systems are also subject to alteration when
located in areas of depressed precipitation pH.
With respect to photochemical oxidants, the greatest ambient expo-
sures typically occur in Regions One, Four and Five. Habitats at higher
elevations, for example in the San Bernardino Mountains of California or
the Blue Ridge Mountains of the eastern U.S., are particularly vulnerable
to chronic oxidant pollution.
Elevated exposures to the criteria pollutants (sulfur and nitrogen
dioxide, particulates, etc.) do not characterize any one particular
region and are likely to occur locally within all regions in the vicinity
of point, line, and area emission sources.
On the basis of the above information, it would appear that the
secondary pollutants, or those transported long distances, hold the
greatest potential for future adverse effects on endangered species and
their habitat resources.
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4.0 TOPICS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Research has not been performed related specifically to potential
air pollution threats to listed species and their habitats. Preliminary
studies appear justified for threatened and endangered species whose
habitats coincide with areas of elevated or increasing air pollution
levels, for example, those located near point sources or in areas not
meeting Federal air quality standards. The long-term nature of many
atmospheric deposition processes also reinforces the need for further
research focused on potential effects among several groups of rare
species.
In view of the variety of habitats which have been designated as
critical, the research areas suggested in the other reports in this
series are all applicable to the examination of Critical Habitats.
Research needs specifically related to the effects of air pollution on
Critical Habitats and threatened and endangered species should be focused
in three principal areas: collection of baseline data, determination of
changes over time within areas designated as critical or likely to become
critical, and development of an "early warning system" for anticipating
the need to list species as threatened or endangered or designating a
Critical Habitat.
Baseline data on listed species is needed not only to monitor the
changes in their conditions but also to assess the role air pollution
plays in endangering a species or degrading its habitat. Included in
this data would be the following information:
•	listings of food resources which, if affected, would severely
affect the nutrition of threatened and endangered species;
•	ecological data on food organisms, for example, their food chain
position and interactions with other living components of the
habitat;
•	complete descriptions of population dynamics and life cycles of
the species in their environment;
•	development of evaluation criteria to estimate the scarcity
values of food, water cover, or reproductive areas in habitats
potentially subject to damage;
•	quantitative data on air pollution loadings or the extent of
acidification in affected areas;
•	information on the biological, geological, and soil sensitivities
of watersheds or individual drainage systems in or near Critical
Habitats; and
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• case-history field studies focusing specifically on ways in which
air pollution can alter habitat attributes necessary for threat-
ened and endangered species, or alter the genetic constitution of
remaining populations.
All of this information may be useful in estimating potential effects
based on varying levels of ambient pollution or habitat acidification.
It should also be useful in suggesting mechanisms by which the habitat
pollution can aggravate other stresses to listed species and their
habitats.
Research should be initiated to develop ways in which data on am-
bient air pollution and atmospheric deposition can be utilized in the
determination of Critical Habitats and in the listing of endangered and
threatened species. For example, the standardization of methodologies to
compare current with past environmental quality data and ecological
inventories would provide an indication of rates of ecosystem degrada-
tion. In the absence of available baseline information, alternative
methods for collecting data on trends, such as paleolimnological analyses
of sediments, could be refined and used for assessment purposes. Exact
mechanisms which operate at the local level to control ecosystem sensi-
tivity to air pollution and acidification are largely unknown. Knowledge
of these mechanisms is of considerable value in the formulation of
recovery plans and the determination of Critical Habitats. Biomonitoring
of selected plants and animals for trace element bioaccumulation or toxic
symptoms may also be useful for judging the quality of Critical Habitats
and changes over time. Ambient pollution and precipitation chemistry
monitoring efforts would acquire a dual purpose if sites are located
within Critical Habitats.
In addition, efforts should be made to develop methods for determin-
ing if listed species without designated Critical Habitats, or non-listed
species, subspecies, or populations, may be threatened or endangered at
present or in the future by the effects of air pollution and acid deposi-
tion. Limnological observations of lakes in Ontario, Canada, have led to
the conclusion that a rare subspecies of trout, the Aurora trout
(Salve!inus fontinalis timagamiensis), is probably already extinct as the
result of chronic acid deposition in its habitat. In the United States,
infrequent and isolated populations of fish, for example the frostfish
(Prosopium cylindracum) of the Adirondack State Park, New York, may soon
require the protection afforded under endangered species legislation.
Many high-altitute lakes in the region have already lost populations of
fish due to acidification and associated aluminum mobilization from the
watershed. Unfortunately, listing and the designation of Critical
Habitats are not likely to protect them from further population damage
because of the ubiquitous nature of acid deposition. Only costly
recovery measures can upgrade the quality of the environment or prevent
further damage to the species.
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With the adoption of tall stacks and other efficient dispersion
techniques, considerable success has been achieved in reducing ground-
level concentrations of the criteria air pollutants (primary pollutants),
with the notable exception of ozone fa secondary pollutant). These
pollutants may thus be posing less and less of a threat to designated
Critical Habitats. Nevertheless, elevated ambient concentrations of
oxidants and acidic sulfates (secondary pollutants) characterize major
portions of the United States. These pollutants are largely unregulated
due to the practical and political difficulties involved in their con-
trol, and must therefore be considered in future research as a potential
factor leading to species listings and the designation of Critical
Habitats.
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Bean, M.J. The evolution of national wildlife law. Washington, DC:
Environmental Law Institute; 1977. 485 p. Available from: Supt. Docs.,
GPO, Washington, DC; 041-011-00033-5,
Bender, M. Genus of Hawaiian tree snails listed as endangered. Endangered
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Bennett, J.P. Rare plants and the Clean Air Act. 1981 Rocky Mountain
regional rate plant conference; 1981 November 5; Denver Botanic Gardens,
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Brezonik, P.L.; Edgerton, E.S.; Hendry, C.D. Acid precipitation and sulfate
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98 p.
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Range Experiment Station; General Technical Report PSW-43; 1980:125-130.
Dvorak, A.J.; Lewis, B.G.; Chee, P.C., et al. Impacts of coal-fired power
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39

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Eisenreich, S.J.; Looney, B.B.; Thornton, J.D. Airborne organic contaminants
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Gosner, K.L.; Black, I.H. The effects of acidity on the development and
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40

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Impact Assessment Work Group. United States - Canada memorandum of
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photochemical oxidant injury of ponderosa and Jeffrey pines on
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41

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42

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Wisniewski, J.; Keitz, E. Acid rain deposition patterns in the
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plant species and wildland management. J. For. 76(l):31-36; 1978.
43

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APPENDIX
Threatened arid endangered species for which Critical Habitats
have been designated through May 31, 1981.
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
STATUS
CRITICAL HABITAT LOCATION
COUNTY	STATE
FEDERAL REGISTER
REFERENCE
mammals
Indiana Bat Myotis eodalis
La Salle
Crawford
Greene
Carter
Edmonson
Crawford
Franklin
Iron
Shannon
Washington
Blount
Pendleton
II1inois
Indiana
Indiana
Kentucky
Kentucky
Missouri
Missouri
Missouri
Missouri
Missouri
Tennessee
West Virginia
F.R. 9/24/76
41	(187): 41914
F.R. 8/11/77
42	(155): 40687
Virginia
Big-eared
Bat
Plecotue
IxnMBendii
vteginicatue
Pendleton
Tucker
West Virginia
West Virginia
F.R. 11/30/79
44 (232): 6S206
West Indian Triaheahus
(Florida) manatus
Manatee
Brevard
Charlotte
Citrus
Clay
Col Tier
Dade
DeSoto
Duval
Hillsborough
Indian River
Lake
Lee
Manatee
Marion
Martin
Monroe
Nassau
Orange
Osceola
Palm Beach
Putnam
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
F.R. 9/24/76
41	(187): 41914
F.R. 8/11/77
42	(155): 40687
44

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APPENDIX (continued)
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
STATUS
CRITICAL HABITAT LOCATION
COUNTY	STATE
FEDERAL REGISTER
REFERENCE
St. Johns
St. Lucie
Sarasota
Seminole
Volusia
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Florida
Morro Bay
Kangaroo
Rat
Dipodomye
heermanni
mowoeneie
San Luis
Obispo
California
F.R. 8/11/77
42 (155): 40685
Gray Wolf Canis lupu.8
Isle Royale
Nat. Park
Beltrami
Cook
Itasca
Koochiching
Lake
Lake of the
Woods
Roseau
St. Louis
Michigan
Minnesota
Minnesota
Minnesota
Minnesota
Minnesota
Minnesota
Minnesota
Minnesota
F.R. 3/9/78
43 (47): 9607
BIRDS
Yellow— Agelaius
shouldered xanthomus
Blackbird
Main Island Puerto Rico
Mona Island Puerto Rico
F.R. 11/19/76
41	(225): 51019
F.R. 8/11/77
42	(155): 40689
California
Condor
Gymnogype
aa lifomianu8
Kern
Los Angeles
San Luis
Obispo
Santa
Barbara
Tulare
Ventura
California
California
California
California
CalIfornia
California
F.R. 9/24/76
41	(187): 41914
F.R. 8/11/77
42	(155): 40688
Mississippi
Sandhill
Crane
Grus canadensis
pulla
Jackson
Mississippi
F.R. 8/8/77
42 (152): 39985
45

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APPENDIX (continued)
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
STATUS
CRITICAL HABITAT LOCATION
COUNTY
STATE
A1amosa
Colorado
Conejos
Colorado
J?io Grande
Colorado
Bonneville
Idaho
Caribou
Idaho
Barton
Kansas
Reno
Kansas
Rice
Kansas
Stafford
Kansas
Adams
Nebraska
Buffa!o
Nebraska
Dawson
Nebraska
Hall
Nebraska
Kearney
Nebraska
Phelps
Nebraska
Socorro
New Mexico
Alfalfa
Oklahoma
Aransas
Texas
Cal houri
Texas
Refugio
Texas
Lake
California
Napa
California
Sonoma
California
Broward
Florida
Dade
Florida
Glades
Florida
Hendry
Florida
Indian River
Florida
Palm Beach
Florida
St. Lucie
Florida
Hawai i
Hawaii
FEDERAL REGISTER
REFERENCE
Whooping
Crane
Gvus amerioana
American
Peregrine
Falcon
Everglade
Kite
Pal 11 a
{honey-
creeper)
Falao
peregrinus
ana turn
RostThamus
sooiabilis
p lymbeus
Psitt-irostra
bailleui
Island
F.R. 5/15/78
43 (94): 20938
F.R. 8/11/77
42 (155): 40685
F.R. 8/11/77
42 (155): 40685
F.R. 8/11/77
42 (155): 40685
Cape Sable
Seaside
Sparrow
Armospisa
mcac-itima
m-Lrabilis
Dade
Col 1i er
Monroe
Florida
Florida
Florida
F.R. 8/11/77
42 (155): 40685
46

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APPENDIX (continued)
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
STATUS
CRITICAL HABITAT LOCATION
COUNTY STATE
FEDERAL REGISTER
REFERENCE
Dusky
Seaside
Sparrow
Ammospiza
maritima
nigrescent
E
Brevard
Volus.ia
Florida
Florida
F.R. 8/11/77
42 (155): 40685
REPTILES
Culebra
Giant
Anole
Anolie
rooseoelti
E
Culebra
Island
Puerto Rico
F.R. 7/21/77
42 (140): 37371
Mona Tree
Boa
Epioratee
monensis
monensie
T
Mona Island
Puerto Rico
F.R. 2/3/78
43 (24): 4618
American
Crocodile
Crooodylue
acutus
E
Dade
Monroe
Florida
Florida
F.R. 9/24/76
41	(187): 41914
F.R. 8/11/77
42	(155): 40689
Mona Groundcyoiui'a
Iguana stejnegeri
T
Mona Island
Puerto Rico
F.R. 2/3/78
43 (24): 4618
St. Croix
Ground
Lizard
Ameiva polops
E
St. Croix
Virgin
Islands
F.R. 6/3/77
42 (107): 28543
F.R. 8/11/77
42 (155): 40690
Coachel1 a Uma inornata
Valley
Fringe-toed
Lizard
T
Riverside
California
F.R. 9/25/80
45 (188): 63812
New Mexican Crotalus ^
Ridge-nosed villardi
Rattlesnake obsaurue
T
Hidalgo
New Mexico
F.R. 8/4/78
43 (151): 34476
Leatherback Dermoohelye
Sea Turtle aoviaoea
E
St. Croix
Virgin
Islands
F.R. 9/26/78
43 (187): 43688
47

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APPENDIX (continued)
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME STATUS1
CRITICAL HABITAT LOCATION
COUNTY	STATE
FEDERAL REGISTER
REFERENCE
Plymouth
Red-bellied
Turtle
Pseudemys
(= Ckrysemus)
vubiventris
bang si
Plymouth
Massachusetts
F.R. 4/2/80
45 (65): 21828
Desert
Tortoise
Gopherus
agassizi-i
Washington Utah
F.R. 8/20/80
45 (163): 55654
AMPHIBIANS
Golden Coqui Eleutherodaatylus T
jasperi
San Marcos Euryaea nana
Salamander
T
Main Island Puerto Rico
Hays
Texas
F.R. 11/11/77
42 (218): 58756
F.R. 7/14/80
45 (136): 47355
Houston Toad Bufo	E
houstonensis
Bastrop Texas
Burleson Texas
F.R. 1/31/78
43 (21): 4022
Pine Barrens Eyla.
Treefrog andersonii
Okaloosa Florida
F.R. 11/11/77
42 (218): 58754
FISH
Alabama
Cavefish
Speop la vyrbSnus T
poulsoni
Lauderdale Alabama
F.R. 9/9/77
42 (175): 45526
Slender Chub Hybopsis aahni T
CI airborne
Hancock
Lee
Scott
Tennessee
Tennessee
Virginia
Vi rginia
F.R. 9/9/77
42 (175): 45526
Spotfin Chub Hybopsis	T
monaoha
Macon	North Carolina F.R. 9/9/77
Swain	Worth Carolina 42 (175): 45526
Cu'fiiberl and	Tennessee
Fentress	Tennessee
Hawkins	Tennessee
Morgan	Tennessee
Sullivan	Tennessee
Scott	Virginia
Washington	Virginia
48

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APPENDIX (continued)
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAMElSTATUS
Snail Darter Pereina tanasi
1
Leopard
Darter
PeToina
¦panthevina
CRITICAL HABITAT LOCATTflN
COUNTY	STATE	
Loudon
Polk
McCurtai n
Pushmataha
Tennessee'
Arkansas
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
FEDERAL REGISTER
REFERENCE
F.R. 4/1/76
(64): 13926
F.R. 1/27/78
43 (19): 3711
Slackwater
Darter
Etheos toma
bosohungi
Lauderdale
Lawrence
Wayne
Alabama
Tennessee
Tennessee
F.R. 9/9/77
42 (175): 45526
Fountain
Darter
Etheos toma
fontioola
Hays
Texas
F.R. 7/14/80
45 (136): 47355
San Marcos
Gambusia
Gambus-ia
georgei
Hays
Texas
F.R. 7/14/80
45 (136): 47355
Yellowfin
Madtorn
No turns
flavipinnis
Clairborne
Hancock
Lee
Russel1
Scott
Tennessee
Tennessee
Virginia
Virginia
Virginia
F.R. 9/9/77
42 (175): 45526
Leon Springs Cypvinodon
Pupfish bovinus
Pecos
Texas
F.R. 8/15/80
45 (160): 54678
Little Kern Salmo
Golden aguabonita
Trout	whitei
T Tulare
California
F.R. 4/13/78
43 (72): 15427
INSECTS
Delta Green Elapbrue
Ground	vividie
Beetle
Solano
California
F.R. 8/8/80
45 (155); 52807
Valley	Deernoaerue
Elderberry	oaliforniaus
Longhorn	dimovphus
Beetle
Sacremento California
F.R. 8/8/80
45 (155): 52803
1 This Critical Habitat has been destroyed by closing of the Tellico Dam.
49

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APPENDIX (Concluded)
COMMON NAME!SCIENTIFIC NAME
STATUS
CRITICAL HABITAT LOCATION
COUNTY	STATE
FEDERAL REGISTER
REFERENCE
Pal os Verdes Glaueopayche
B1 lie	lygdamu.8
Butterfly palos-
verdesensis
^ Los Angeles California
F.R. 7/2/80
45 (129): 44939
Oregon Speyeria
Silverspot zerene
Butterfly hippolyta
Lane
Oregon
F.R. 7/2/80
45 (129): 44935
PLANTS
Contra Costa Erysimum
Wallflower capitation
var. anguetatum
Contra Costa California
F.R. 8/31/78
43 (170): 39042
Antiocfi	Oenothera
Dunes	deltoid&s
Evening	ssp. howeltii-
Primrose
E Contra Costa Ca?ffomfa
F.R. 8/31/78
43 (170): 39042
Gypsum Wild Eriogonum	T Eddy
Buckwheat gypsophilum
New Mexico
F.R. 2/I9/S1
46 (12): 5730
Todsen's Hedeoma
Pennyroyal todsenii
E Sierra
New Mexico
F.R. 1/19/81
46 (12): 5730
Texas Wild Zizcmia texana E Hays
Rice
Texas
F.R. 7/14/80
45 (136): 47355
Mo u n ta i n	Hudeonia
GoTcfen	montana
Heather
Robbihs	Potentilla
Cinquefoil rohbinsiana
Burke
Coos
North
C
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30272-101
REPORT DOCUMENTATION
PAGE
1. REPORT NO.	| 2.
FWS/OBS-80/40.1JL
4. Title and Subtitle
Air Pollution and Acid Rain, Report 11
The Effects of Air Pollution and Acid Rain on Fish,
Wildlife and Their Habitats - Critical Habitats of Th
7. Author(s)
Peterson, M. A. and D. Adler	
5.	Report Date
June 1982
6.
reatened and Endangered Sp|ecies
B. Performing Organization Rept. No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
Dynamac Corporation
Dynamac Building
11140 Rockville Pike
Rockville, MD 20852
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address	Department Of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service/Office of Bio-
logical Services; Eastern Energy and Land Use Team,
Route 3 Box 44, Kearne.ysville, WV 25430
3. Recipient's Accession No.
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
11. Contract(C) or Grant(G) No.
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