-------
United States
Environmental Protection Agency
and
Environment Canada
ISBN 0-662-15189-5
Copies may be obtained from:
Great Lakes National Program Office
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois
U.S.A. 60604
E P A-905/9-87-002
GLNPO NO-2
Conservation and Protection, Ontario Region
Great Lakes Environment Program
Environment Canada
25 St. Clair Avenue East
Toronto, Ontario
Canada M4T 1M2
Cat. No. EN40-349/1987E
-------
THE GREAT LAKES
An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book
Jointly produced by:
Environment Canada
Conservation and Protection, Ontario Region
Toronto, Ontario
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Cireat Lakes National Program Office
Chicago, Illinois
Brock University
Institute of Urban and Environmental Studies
St. Catharines, Ontario
U,S Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5 Library
77 W. Jackson Blvd. (PL-16J)
Chicago, IL 60604-3507
Northwestern University
Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research
Evanston, Illinois
1988
-------
CONTRIBUTORS
Principal Authors Lee Botts
Center for Urban Affairs
and Policy Research
Northwestern University
Evanston, Illinois
Bruce Krushelnicki
Institute of Urban
and Environmental Studies,
Brock University
St. Catharines, Ontario
Daryl Cowell
Conservation and Protection, Ontario Region
Great Lakes Environment Program
Environment Canada
Toronto, Ontario
Tom Clarke
Water Planning and Mangement Branch
Inland Waters/Lands Directorate
Environment Canada
Burlington, Ontario
Kent Fuller
Great Lakes National Program Office
United States
Environmental Protection Agency
Chicago, Illinois
Brock University Alun Hughes, Cartographic Editor
Cartography Group Department of Geography
Cartographers:
Loris Gasparotto
Department of Geography
Peter Brown
Department of Geological Sciences
Editorial Assistants:
Alan Wilson
Ian Duquemin
U.S./Canada
Steering Committee
Graphics
Luanne Lewandowski
Chicago, Illinois
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The following people and agencies have provided valued assistance to this project
by providing information, reviewing or contributing to text, or by making helpful
comments. While their contributions are here acknowledged, the responsibility for
errors or omissions rests with the principal authors, the cartographic editor and the
U.S./Canada steering committee.
Production of the atlas was supported in part by grants from the Joyce Founda-
tion and the Donner Foundation of the United States.
The contents were reviewed by some of the participants in the 1982-1985 Inter-
university Great Lakes Seminar sponsored by the Institute for Environmental
Studies, University of Toronto, and the Center for Urban Affairs and Policy
research, Northwestern University.
J.M. Anderson, Department of Geography, Concordia University, Montreal,
Quebec
A.G. Ballert, Great Lakes Commission Ann Arbor. Michigan
A. Beeton, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, NOAA, Ann Arbor,
Michigan
R. Beltran, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes National Program
Office, Chicago, Illinois
F. Berkes, Institute of Urban and Environmental Studies Brock University,
St. Catharines, Ontario
M. Brooksbank, Regional Director General's Office, Conservation and Protection,
Ontario Region, Environment Canada
V. Cairns, Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Burlinton, Ontario
D. Coleman, Inland Waters and Lands Directorate, Environment Canada,
Burlington, Ontario
M. Dickman, Department of Biological Sciences Brock University St. Catharines,
Ontario
G. Francis, Department of Environment and Resource Studies, University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario
A. Hamilton, International Joint Commission, Ottawa, Ontario
C.E. Hendendorf, Ohio Sea Grant, Put-In Bay, Ohio
S. Leppard, Land Use Research Associates, Toronto, Ontario
J. Lloydd, CCIW, Burlington, Ontario
J. Middleton, Institute of Urban and Environmental Studies Brock University,
St. Catharines, Ontario
G.K. Rodgers, National Water Research Institute, Environment Canada,
Burlington, Ontario
R.M. Shipley, Welland Canals Preservation Association, St. Catharines, Ontario
W. Sonzogni, Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wisconsin
J.R. Vallentyne, Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Burlington, Ontario
-------
PAGE
Chapter One INTRODUCTION:
THE GREAT LAKES 3
Physical Characteristics of the System 3
Settlement 4
Exploitation 4
Industrialization 5
The Evolution of Great Lakes Management 5
Chapter Two NATURAL PROCESSES IN THE GREAT LAKES
Geology 7
Climate 9
The Hydrological Cycle 9
Surface Runoff 11
Groundwater 11
Wetlands 11
Lake Levels 12
Lake Processes: Stratification and Turnover 13
Living Resources 14
Chapter Three PEOPLE AND THE GREAT LAKES 17
Native People 17
Early Settlement by Europeans 17
The Development of the Lakes 18
Agriculture IB
Logging and Forestry 18
Canals, Shipping and Transportation 20
Commercial Fisheries 20
The Sport Fishery 22
Recreation 22
Urbanization and Industrial Growth 24
Major Diversion Proposals 24
Levels, Diversions and Consumptive Use Studies 27
Chapter Four THE GREAT LAKES TODAY
- CONCERNS 29
Pathogens 29
Eutrophication and Oxygen Depletion 29
Toxic Pollutants 30
CONTENTS
PAGE
Pathways of Pollution 31
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification 32
Sources of Pollutants 32
International Joint Commission Areas of Concern 32
Fish Advisories 33
Other Basin Concerns 33
Chapter Five JOINT MANAGEMENT OF THE GREAT LAKES 37
The Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 37
The International Joint Commission 37
National Institutional Arrangements
for Great Lakes Management 38
The 1972 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement 39
The 1978 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement 39
An Ecosystem Approach to Management 40
Chapter Six THE FUTURE OF THE GREAT LAKES 41
Great Lakes Charter and the Great Lakes
Toxic Substances Control Agreement 41
GLOSSARY 42
CONVERSION TABLE (Metric to Imperial Values) 42
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 43
SOURCES FOR MAPS 44
PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS 44
PRODUCTION
44
-------
CONTENTS (continued)
MAPS
PAGE
Relief, Drainage and Urban Areas
2
Geology and Mineral Resources
6
Winter Temperatures and Ice Conditions
8
Summer Temperatures
8
Frost Free Periods and Air Masses
8
Precipitation and Snowbelt Areas
8
The Great Lakes Water System
10
Coronelli's 1688 Map of Western New France:
An Early Depiction of the Great Lakes
16
Land Use, Fisheries and Erosion
19
Waterborne Commerce
21
Recreation and Sports
23
Employment and Industrial Structure
25
Roads and Airports
26
Pipelines
26
Railroads
26
Electrical Power Lines and Generating Stations
26
Distribution of Population
28
Pollution Sources and Trophic Status
34
Ecoregions, Drainage Basins and Wetlands
36
The Great Lakes Basin
Composite Folio Map
FIGURES
PAGE
Geologic Time Chart 7
Hydrograph of Great Lakes Water Levels 12
Wind Set-Up 13
Lake Stratification and Turnover 14
The Foodchain 15
Population Growth in the Great Lakes' Basins 18
Sources and Pathways of Pollution 31
Sediment Resuspension 31
Bioconcentration of Persistent Chemicals 32
The International Joint Commission 37
GREAT LAKES FACTSHEETS
FACTSHEET NO.
PAGE
1
Physical Features and Population
4
2
Land and Shoreline Uses
18
3a
Water Consumed
27
3b
Water Withdrawals
27
4
International Joint Commission
35
Areas of Concern: Pollution Problems and Sources
-------
MESSAGE FROM THE CANADIAN MINISTER AND
THE UNITED STATES ADMINISTRATOR
FOR
THE GREAT LAKES:
AN ENVIRONMENTAL ATLAS
AND RESOURCE BOOK
This atlas has been sponsored by the Canadian and American governments for citizens of the Great Lakes
Basin. In undertaking this work, a primary goal was to provide an understanding of the "ecosystem approach".
This approach forbids us to look at any element in the basin, including humans, in isolation. Rather, we see
clearly the relationship we have to other parts of the system and the chain effect our actions have on all others.
The atlas is an essential tool in helping us understand the fragile and complex ecosystem of the Great Lakes.
The authors have examined natural factors, such as geology, lake levels, and wetland habitats, to provide a
basis from which we can begin to assess impacts on the system. We trace the earliest settlers who began to
cut the trees, farm the land, and whose descendants eventually spawned the massive urban and industrial growth
we know today. These developments went hand in hand with the eutrophication problems caused by excessive
amounts of phosphorus. Today the paths by which toxic chemicals enter the ecosystem and their effects are
just beginning to be understood. Finally, the authors take us through the ways in which governments have sought
to understand and respond to the many difficult questions facing the lakes, from the advent of the Boundary
Waters Treaty of 1909 to our present day Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement.
It is imperative that we understand what has happened to the lakes over time in order to come to grips with
the problems we are facing today. It is our hope that this atlas will provide all our citizens with the grounding
they need to be full participants in resolving the problems facing our lakes. Future generations depend on us
to do so.
Tom McMillan, PC MP
Minister of the Environment
Lee M. Thomas
Administrator,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
¦ Environment Environnement
¦ Canada Canada
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-------
3
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION: THE GREAT LAKES
The Great Lakes - Superior, Michigan, Huron. Erie and
Ontario - are an important part of the physical and
cultural heritage of North America. Spanning more
than 1,200 kilometres (750 miles) from west to east, these
vast inland freshwater seas have provided water for consump-
tion, transportation, power, recreation and a host of other
uses.
The water of the lakes and the many resources of the Great
Lakes basin have played a major role in the history and
development of the United States and Canada. For the early
European explorers and settlers, the lakes and their tributaries
were the avenues for penetrating the continent, extracting
valued resources and carrying local products abroad.
Now the Great Lakes basin is home to more than one-tenth
of the population of the United States and one-quarter of the
people of Canada. Some of the world's largest concentra-
tions of industrial capacity are located in the Great Lakes
region. Nearly 25 percent of the total Canadian agricultural
production and seven percent of the American production
are located in the basin. The United States considers the Great
Lakes a fourth seacoast and the Great Lakes region is a domi-
nant factor in the Canadian industrial economy.
Physical Characteristics of the System
The magnitude of the Great Lakes water system is difficult
to appreciate, even for those who live within the basin. As
a whole, the lakes contain about 23,000 km3 (5,500 cu. mi.)
of water covering a total area of 244,000 km2(94.000 sq.
mi.) The Great Lakes are the largest system of fresh, sur-
face water on earth, containing roughly 18 percent of the
world supply. Only the polar ice caps contain more fresh
water.
In spite of their large size, the Great Lakes are sensitive
to the effects of a wide range of pollutants. The sources of
pollution include the runoff of soils and farm chemicals from
agricultural lands, the waste from cities, discharges from in-
dustrial areas, and leachate from disposal sites. The large
surface area of the lakes also makes them vulnerable to direct
atmospheric pollutants that fall with rain or snow and as dust
on the lake surface.
Outflows from the Great Lakes are relatively small (less
than one percent per year) in comparison to the total volume
of water. Pollutants that enter the lakes - whether by direct
discharge along the shores, through tributaries, from land
use, or from the atmosphere - are retained in the system and
become more concentrated with time. Also, pollutants re-
main in the system because of resuspension (or mixing back
into the water) of sediment and cycling through biological
food chains.
Because of the large size of the watershed, physical
characteristics such as climate, soils and topography vary
across the basin. To the north the climate is cold and the
terrain is dominated by a granite bedrock called the Cana-
dian (or Laurentian) Shield consisting of Precambrian rocks
under a generally thin layer of acidic soils. Conifers dominate
the northern forests.
In the southern areas of the basin the climate is much
warmer. The soils are deeper with layers or mixtures of clays,
silts, sands, gravels and boulders deposited as glacial drift
or as glacial lake and river sediments. The lands are usually
fertile and can be readily drained for agriculture.The original
deciduous forests have given way to agriculture and sprawl-
ing urban development.
Although part of a single system, each lake is different.
In volume, Lake Superior is the largest. It is also the deepest
and coldest of the five. Superior could contain all the other
Great Lakes and three more Lake Eries. Because of its size,
Superior has a retention time of 191 years. Retention time
is a measure based on the volume of water in the lake and
the mean rate of outflow. Most of the Superior basin is
forested with little agriculture due to a cool climate and poor
soils. Because of the forests and the sparse population,
relatively few pollutants enter Lake Superior, except through
airborne transport.
Lake Michigan, the second largest, is the only Great Lake
The northern region of the Great Lakes is sparcely populated and
is characterized by coniferous forests and rocky shorelines. Above,
the western shore of Georgian Bay in the Bruce Peninsula National
Park.
entirely within the United States. The northern part is in the
colder, less developed upper Great Lakes region. It is sparsely
populated, except for the Fox River Valley which drains in-
to Green Bay. This bay has one of the most productive Great
Lakes fisheries but receives the wastes from the world's
largest concentration of pulp and paper mills. The more
temperate southern basin of Lake Michigan is among the most
urbanized areas in the Great Lakes system. It contains the
Milwaukee and Chicago metropolitan areas. This region is
home to about 8 million people or about one-fifth of the total
population of the Great Lakes basin.
Lake Huron, which includes Georgian Bay, is the third
largest of the lakes by volume. Many Canadians and
Americans own cottages on the shallow, sandy beaches of
Huron and along the rocky shores of Georgian Bay. The
Saginaw River basin is intensively farmed and contains the
Flint and Saginaw-Bay City metropolitan areas. Saginaw Bay,
like Green Bay, contains a very productive fishery.
Lake Erie is the smallest of the lakes in volume and is
exposed to the greatest effects from urbanization and
agriculture. Because of the fertile soils surrounding the lake,
-------
4
the area is intensively farmed. The lake receives runoff from
the agricultural area of southwestern Ontario and parts of
Ohio, Indiana and Michigan. Seventeen metropolitan areas
of over 50,000 population are located within the Lake Erie
basin. Although the area of the lake is about 26,000 km2
(10,000 sq. mi.), the average depth is only about 19 metres
(62 feet). It is the shallowest and therefore warms rapidly
in the spring and summer and frequently freezes over in
winter. It also has the shortest retention time of the lakes,
2.6 years. The western basin, comprising about one-fifth of
the lake, is very shallow with an average depth of 7.4 metres
(24 feet) and a maximum depth of 19 metres (62 feet).
Lake Ontario, although slightly smaller in area, is much
deeper than its upstream neighbor, Lake Erie, with an average
depth of 86 metres (283 feet) and a retention time of about
6 years. Major urban industrial centers, such as Hamilton
and Toronto are located on its shore. The U.S. shore is less
urbanized and is not intensively farmed, except for a nar-
row band along the lake.
Settlement
The modern history of the Great Lakes region, from
discovery and settlement by European immigrants to the pre-
sent day, can be viewed not only as a progression of intensi-
fying use of a vast natural resource, but also as a process
of learning about the Great Lakes ecosystem. At first it was
a matter of learning to make use of the natural resources of
the basin while avoiding its dangers. Not until much later,
when the watershed was more intensively settled and ex-
ploited, was it learned that abuse of the waters and the basin
could result in great damage to the entire system.
Exploitation
The first Europeans found a relatively stable ecosystem
which had evolved during the 10,000 years since the retreat
of the last glacier; a system that was only moderately disturb-
ed by the hunting and agricultural activities of the native
peoples. The first arrivals had a modest impact on the system,
limited to the exploitation of some fur-bearing animals.
However, the following waves of immigrants logged, farm-
ed and fished commercially in the region, bringing about pro-
found ecological changes. The mature forests were clearcut
from the watersheds, soil was laid bare by the plow, and the
undisturbed fish populations were harvested indiscriminate-
ly by an awesome new predator - men with nets.
As settlement and exploitation intensified, portions of the
system were drastically changed. Logging removed protec-
tive shade from streams and left them blocked with debris.
Sawmills left streams and embayments clogged with sawdust.
When the land was plowed for farming the exposed soils
washed away more readily, burying valuable stream and river
mouth habitats. Exploitive fishing began to reduce the seem-
ingly endless abundance of fish stocks and whole popula-
tions of fish began to disappear.
Great Lakes Factsheet No. 1
Physical Features and Population
Superior
Michigan
Huron
Erie
Ontario
Totals
Elevation3 (feet)* *
600
577
577
569
243
(metres)
183
176
176
173
74
Length (miles)*
350
307
206
241
193
(kilometres)
563
494
332
388
311
Breadth (miles)*
160
118
183
57
53
(kilometres)
257
190
245
92
85
Average Depth3 (feet)**
483
279
195
62
283
(metres)
147
85
59
19
86
Maximum Depth3 (,eet)*
(metres)
1,330
923
750
210
802
405
281
229
64
244
Volume3 (cu. miles)*
2,900
1,180
850
116
393
5,439
(km 3)
12,100
4,920
3,540
484
1,640
22,684
Area:
Water (sq. mi.)*
31,700
22,300
23,000
9,910
7,340
94,250
(km2)
82,100
57,800
59,600
25,700
18,960
244,160
Land Drainage Areab (sq. mi.)*
49,300
45,600
51,700
30,140
24,720
201.460
(km2)
127,700
118,000
134,100
78,000
64,030
521,830
Total (sq. mi.)*
81,000
67,900
74,700
40,050
32,060
295,710
(km 2)
209,800
175,800
193.700
103,700
82,990
765,990
Shoreline Length0 (miles)*
2,726
1,638
3.827
871
712
10,210<
(kilometres)
4,385
2,633
6,157
1,402
1,146
17,017'
Retention Time (years)**
191
99
22
2.6
6
Population: U.S. (1980)
558,100
13,970,900
1,321,000
11,347,500
2,090,300 29,287,800
Canada (1981)
180,440
1,051,119
1,621,106
4,551,875
7,404,540
Totals
738,540
13,970,900
2,372,119
12,968,606
6,642,175 36,692,340
Outlet
St. Marys
Straits
St.
Niagara River
St. Lawrence
River
of
Clair
Welland Canal
River
Mackinac
River
Notes:
aMeasured at Low Water Datum.
''Land Drainage Area for: Lake Huron includes the St. Mary s River.
Lake Erie includes the St. Clair-Detroit system.
Lake Ontario includes the Niagara River,
including islands.
^These totals are greater than the sum of the shoreline length for the lakes because they include the connecting
channels (excluding the St. Lawrence River).
Sources: "Coordinating Committee on Great Lakes Basic Hydraulic and Hydrologic Data, COORDINATED GREAT
LAKES PHYSICAL DATA. May, 1977.
*'EXTENSION BULLETINS E-1866-70, Michigan Sea Grant College Program, Cooperative Extension
Service, Michigan State University, E. Lansing, Michigan, 1985.
-------
5
Industrialization
Industrialization followed close behind agrarian settlement
and the virtually untreated wastes of early industrialization
degraded one river after another. The growing urbanization
that accompanied industrial development added to the
degradation of water quality, creating nuisance conditions
such as bacterial contamination, putrescence and floating
debris in rivers and nearshore areas. Some of the situations
caused fatal epidemics of waterborne disease such as typhoid.
Nonetheless, the problems were perceived as being local in
nature.
As industrialization progressed, and as agriculture inten-
sified following the turn of the century, new chemical
substances came into use, such as PCBs (polychlorinated
biphenyls) in the 1920s and DDT (dichlorodiphenyl-
trichloroethane) in the 1940s. Non-organic fertilizers were
used to enrich the already fertile soil to enhance production.
The combination of synthetic fertilizers, existing sources of
nutrient-rich organic pollutants such as untreated human
wastes from cities, and phosphate detergents caused an ac-
celeration of biological production (eutrophication) in the
lakes. In the 1950s, Lake Erie showed the first evidence of
lake-wide eutrophic imbalance with massive algal blooms and
the depeletion of oxygen.
The Evolution of Great Lakes Management
In the late 1960s, growing public concern about the
deterioration of water quality in the Great Lakes stimulated
new investment in pollution research especially the problems
of eutrophication and DDT. Governments responded to the
concern by controlling and regulating pollutant discharges
and assisting with the construction of municipal sewage treat-
ment works. This concern was formalized in the first Great
Lakes Water Quality Agreement between Canada and the
U.S. in 1972.
Major reductions were made in pollutant discharges in the
1970s. The results were visible. Nuisance conditions occur-
red less frequently as floating debris and oil slicks began to
disappear. Dissolved oxygen levels improved, eliminating
odor problems. Many beaches reopened as a result of im-
proved sewage control and algal mats disappeared as nutrient
levels declined. The initiatives of the 1970s showed that im-
provements could be made and provided several important
lessons beyond the cleanup of localized nuisance conditions.
First, the problem of algal growth in the lakes caused by
accelerated eutrophication required a lake-wide approach to
measure the amount of the critical nutrient, phosphorus, enter-
ing and leaving each lake from all sources and outlets. This
approach of calculating a 'mass balance' of the substance was
then combined with research and mathematical modeling to
set target loading limits for phosphorus entering the lake (or
Industrialization of the Great Lakes basin followed early settlement
and the growth in agriculture. Above, a river winds its way
through an industrial city in the basin, (ca. 1970)
portions of the lake). The target load is the amount that will
not cause excessive algal growth (i.e., an amount that could
safely be assimilated by the ecosystem).
Other major lessons learned about the system arose as a
result of research on toxic substances, initially the pesticide
DDT. Toxic contaminants include persistent organic
chemicals and metals. These substances enter the lakes in
direct discharges of sewage and industrial effluents and in-
directly from waste sites, diffuse land runoff and by at-
mospheric deposition. As a result of increased research,
sampling and surveillance, toxic substances have been found
to be a system-wide problem.
Research showed that some toxic substances biologically
accumulate throughout the food chain. Consequently top
predators such as lake trout and fish-eating birds - cormorants,
ospreys and herring gulls - suffer adverse effects. Because
of biological accumulation, concentrations of toxic substances
can be a million times higher in fish than in water. Therefore,
the potential for human exposure to the contaminants is far
greater from fish consumption than from drinking lake water.
Although there is uncertainty about the risk to human health
of long-term exposure to low levels of toxic pollutants in the
lakes, there is no disagreement that the risk to human health
will increase if toxic contaminants continue to accumulate
in the Great Lakes ecosystem. These concepts - mass balance,
system-wide contamination and bioaccumulation in the food
chain - have become essential components in understanding
the lakes from an ecosystem perspective.
The second Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement was
signed in 1978. Canada and the U.S. recognized that
understanding the interconnected nature of the system re-
quired an ecosystem approach. Learning about the Great
Lakes has continued since the signing of the 1978 Agree-
ment. The mass balance approach to phosphorus control has
been used to formulate target pollutant loadings for the lower
lakes. The understanding of toxic contamination continues
to evolve rapidly as a result of continued monitoring and
research. From the research it appears that, although pre-
sent pollution is not as visually dramatic as earlier forms (ex-
cept possibly for fish tumors and bird deformities), the less
visible toxic impacts may actually be causing far greater
system-wide damage to the life in the lakes in the form of
impaired reproduction, disrupted and contaminated food
chains, and genetic change. Continued research is needed
to better understand the sources, pathways, impacts and ef-
fective control methods of toxic contaminants.
It is clear that disruption of the Great Lakes ecosystem will
continue for the forseeable future. The ecosystem focus of
the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, the growing use
of the mass balance approach, and the awareness of the need
to address multiple contaminants offer the hope of continu-
ing progress toward a successful strategy for reducing tox-
ics and 'decontaminating' the Great Lakes ecosystem.
The 36 million people who live in the Great Lakes basin,
and their governments, face an immense challenge for the
future of the basin. The wise management needed to main-
tain the use of Great Lakes resources requires greater public
awareness, the forging of political will to protect the lakes,
and creative government action and cooperation. It will not
be easy.
The Great Lakes are surrounded by two sovereign nations,
a Canadian province, eight American states and thousands
of local, regional and special-purpose governing bodies with
jurisdiction for management of some aspect of the basin or
the lakes. Cooperation is essential because problems such
as water consumption, diversions, lake levels and shoreline
management - like the problem of pollution - do not respect
political boundaries.
Humans are part of, and depend on, the natural ecosystem
of the Great Lakes, but are damaging the capacity of the
system to renew and sustain itself and the life within it. Pro-
tection of the lakes for future use requires a greater under-
standing of how past problems developed as well as continued
remedial action to prevent further damage.
-------
STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION
OF THE GREAT LAKES
SCALE 1: 20 000 000
NOTE:
The maps on left are
"snapshots" of a
continuously changing
situation during the
retreat of the Wisconsin
icesheet. They should
not be viewed as a simple
sequence, since many
intermediate stages are
omitted. The letters BP
denote before present.
GEOLOGY AND
MINERAL RESOURCES
SCALE 1: 7 500 000
100 200 300 kilometres
GLACIAL
DEPOSITS
I Ice
Ice Front
Advancing Ice
| Fresh Water
| Salt Water
Present Coastline
Stratified Drift
^ Silt and Clay (glacial lake deposits)
Sand and Gravel (outwash, alluvial
and ice contact deposits)
Unstratified Drift
| Till (ground and end moraines)
Bedrock areas where the glacial cover is
absent (e.g. parts of Canadian Shield)
are not distinguished.
PRINCIPAL MINERAL AREAS
["'«*] Coal |SNN Copper & Zinc
III I II Gas l°. ,°M Gold 8 Silver
I [ Oil |aaaI Iron Ore
111 uranium Y//^ Nickel
GEOLOGICAL PERIODS
Pennsylvanian
| Mississippian
| Devonian
| Silurian
| Ordovician
liW&S3 Cambrian
[] Precambrian
Carboniferous
345 - 290 BP
400 345 BP
440 - 400 BP
500-440 BP
570-500 BP
4500-570 BP
The extraction of minerals such as sand, gravel and
limestone is widespread and not mappable at this scale.
Other minerals, such as salt and gypsum, are omitted
to preserve clarity.
GENERALIZED CROSS-SECTION
Figures denote age in millions of years
before present (BP).
Door
Peninsula
Lower Michigan
Bruce
Peninsula
Green 1
Lake
Bav
Michigan
i _ *
Lake
Agassi*
Lake
Keweenaw
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7
CHAPTER TWO NATURAL PROCESSES IN THE GREAT LAKES
GEOLOGY
The foundation for the present Great Lakes basin was set
about three billion years ago during the Precambrian Era.
This era occupies about five-sixths of all geological time and
was a period of great volcanic activity and tremendous stresses
which formed great mountain systems. Early sedimentary
and volcanic rocks were folded and heated (metamorphos-
ed) into complex structures. These were later eroded and,
today, appear as the gently rolling hills and small mountain
remnants of the Canadian Shield which forms the northern
and northwestern portions of the Great Lakes basin. Granitic
rocks of the shield extend southward beneath the Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks where they form the 'basement' structure
of the southern and eastern portions of the basin.
With the coming of the Paleozoic Era. most of central
North America was flooded again and again by marine seas
which were inhabited by a multitude of life forms, including
corals, crinoids, brachiopods and mollusks. The seas
deposited lime muds, clays, sand and salts which eventually
consolidated into limestone, shales, sandstone, halite and
gypsum.
During the Pleistocene epoch, the continental glaciers
repeatedly advanced over the Great Lakes region from the
north. The first glacier began to advance more than a million
years ago. As they inched forward, the glaciers, up to 2,000
metres (6,500 feet) thick, scoured the surface of the earth,
leveled hills, and altered forever the previous ecosystem.
Valleys created by the river systems of the previous era were
deepened and enlarged to form the basins for the Great Lakes.
Thousands of years later, the climate began to warm, melting
and slowly shrinking the glacier. This was followed by an
interglacial period during which vegetation and wildlife
returned. The whole cycle was repeated several times.
Sand, silt, clay and boulders deposited by the glacier oc-
cur in various mixtures and forms. These deposits are col-
lectively referred to as 'glacial drift' and include features such
as moraines, which are linear mounds of poorly sorted
material or 'till', flat till plains, till drumlins, and eskers form-
ed of well-sorted sands and gravels deposited from meltwater.
Areas having substantial deposits of well-sorted sands and
gravels (eskers. kames and outwash) are usually significant
groundwater storage and transmission areas called 'aquifers'.
These also serve as excellent sources of sand and gravel for
commercial extraction.
As the last glacier retreated, large volumes of meltwater
occurred along the front of the ice. Because the land was
greatly depressed at this time from the weight of the glacier,
large glacial lakes formed. These lakes were much larger
than the present Great Lakes. Their legacy can still be seen
in the form of beach ridges, eroded bluffs and flat plains
located high above present lake levels. Glacial lake plains
known as lacustrine plains, occur around Saginaw Bay and
west and north of Lake Erie.
Layers of sedimentary rock eroded by wind and wave action are
revealed in these formations at Flower Pot Island at the tip of the
Bruce Peninsula in Canada.
GEOLOGIC TIME CHART. The Great Lakes basin is a relatively
young ecosystem having formed during the last 10,000 years. Its
foundation was laid through many millions of years and several
geologic eras. This chart gives a relative idea of the age of the eras.
PLEISTOCENE EPOCH-
CENOZOIC ERA
MEZOZOIC ERA
PALEOZOIC ERA
PRECAMBRIAN
ERA
PRESENT
63 MILLION
230 MILLION
600 MILLION YEARS
APPROXIMATE TIME
SINCE START OF
PERIOD
± 3 BILLION YEARS
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Brock University Cartography
MEAN ANNUAL
PRECIPITATION IN mm
¦ 1300 1000
1200 900
1100 hH 800
1000 700
' ' 600
MEAN ANNUAL FROST
FREE PERIOD IN DAYS
B 220 140
200 120
180 100
160 80
140 60
40
MEAN DAILY
AIR TEMPERATURE
FOR JULY IN °C
25
17.5
22.5
15
20
12.5
17.5
10
7.5
SUMMER
TEMPERATURES
PRECIPITATION AND
SNOWBELT AREAS
-17.5
-1
-12.5
WINTER TEMPERATURES
AND ICE CONDITIONS
Maritime
Po'
mi
Continental
FROST FREE PERIOD
AND AIR MASSES
-7.5
-7.5
AIR MASS
FREQUENCY
Winter Summer
cP 22% 15-20%
mP 75% 30-40%
mT 3% 40%
Maritime
Tropical
mT
22.5
MAXIMUM ICE
COVER IN TENTHS
10 (solid ice)
7-9
1 -6
0 (open water)
C 'F °C °F °C °F
0 32 -16 5 -20 -4
-2.5 27.5 -17.5 0.5 -22.5 -8.5
-5 23
-7.5 18.5
-10 14
-12.5 9.5
MEAN WATER
TEMPERATURE
FOR JULY IN C
2°
!6
Selected isotherms
only are shown for
each lake
X
°F
°c
°F
°c
°F
25
77
17.5
63.5
12
53.6
22 5
72.5
16
60 8
10
50
22
71.6
15
59
7.5
45.5
20
68
14
57.2
6
42.8
18
64 4
12.5
545
cm in
150 591
200 78.7
250 98 4
300 118.1
350 137 8
mm in mm in mm in
1300 51.2 1000 39.4 700 27 6
1200 47.2 900 35.4 600 23.6
1100 43.3 800 31.5
-17.5
MEAN DAILY
AIR TEMPERATURE
FOR JANUARY IN °C
-2.5
-7.5
Snowbelts are 800
defined as areas
of local snowfall
maxima
1200
1100
1000
MAJOR
SNOWBELTS
WITH RANGE
OF MEAN ANNUAL
SNOWFALL IN cm
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9
As the glacier receded the land began to rise. This uplift
(at times relatively rapid) and the shifting ice fronts caused
dramatic changes in the depth, size and drainage patterns of
the glacial lakes. Drainage from the lakes occurred various-
ly through the Illinois River Valley (towards the Mississip-
pi River), the Hudson River Valley, the Kawartha Lakes
(Trent River) and the Ottawa River Valley before entering
their present outlet through the St. Lawrence River Valley.
Although the uplift has slowed considerably, it is still oc-
curring in the northern portion of the basin. This, along with
changing long term weather patterns, suggests that the lakes
are not static and will continue to evolve.
CLIMATE
The weather in the Great Lakes basin is affected by three
factors: air masses from other regions; the location of the
basin within a large continental landmass; and the moderating
influence of the lakes themselves. The prevailing movement
of air is from the west. The characteristically changeable
weather of the region is the result of alternating flows of
warm, humid air from the Gulf of Mexico and cold, dry air
from the Arctic.
Winter on the Lakes is characterized by alternating flows of frigid
arctic air and moderating air masses from the Gulf of Mexico. Heavy
snowfalls frequently occur on the lee side of the lakes.
"1
Thousands of tributaries feed the Great Lakes, replenishing the vast
supply of stored fresh water.
In summer, the northern region around Lake Superior
generally receives cool dry air masses from the Canadian
northwest. In the south, tropical air masses originating in
the Gulf of Mexico are most influential. As the Gulf air
crosses the lakes, the bottom layers remain cool while the
top layers are warmed. Occasionally, the upper layer traps
the cooler air below, which in turn traps moisture and air-
borne pollutants, and prevents them from rising and disper-
sing. This is called a temperature inversion and can result
in dank, humid days in areas in the midst of the basin such
as Michigan and Southern Ontario, and smog in low-lying
industrial areas.
Increased summer sunshine warms the surface layer of
water in the lakes making it lighter than the colder water
below. In the fall and winter months, release of the heat stored
in the lakes moderates the climate near the shores of the lakes.
Parts of Southern Ontario, Michigan and Western New York
enjoy milder winters than similar mid-continental areas at
lower latitudes.
In the autumn, the rapid movement and occasional clash
of warm and cold air masses through the region produce
strong winds. Air temperatures begin to drop gradually and
less sunlight, combined with increased cloudiness, signal
more storms and precipitation. Late autumn storms are often
the most perilous for navigation and shipping on the lakes.
In winter, the Great Lakes region is affected by two ma-
jor air masses. Arctic air from the northwest is very cold
and dry when it enters the basin, but is warmed and picks
up moisture traveling over the comparatively warmer lakes.
When it reaches the land, the moisture condenses as snow,
creating heavy snowfalls on the lee side of the lakes in areas
frequently referred to as snowbelts. For part of the winter,
the region is affected by Pacific air masses which have lost
much of their moisture crossing the western mountains. Less
frequently, air masses enter the basin from the southwest
bringing in moisture from the Gulf of Mexico. This air is
slightly warmer and more humid. During the winter, the
temperature of the lakes continues to drop. Ice frequently
covers Lake Erie but seldom fully covers the other lakes.
Spring in the Great Lakes region, like autumn, is
characterized by variable weather. Alternating air masses
move through rapidly, resulting in frequent cloud cover and
thunderstorms. By early spring, the warmer air and increased
sunshine begin to melt the snow and lake ice, starting again
the thermal layering of the lakes. The lakes are slower to
warm than the land and tend to keep adjacent land areas cool,
thus extending cool conditions sometimes well into April.
In most years, this delays the leafing and blossoming of plants,
protecting tender plants such as fruit trees from late frosts.
THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
Water is a renewable resource. It is continually replenished
in ecosystems through the hydrological cycle. Water
evaporates in contact with dry air, forming water vapor. The
vapor can remain as a gas, contributing to the humidity of
the atmosphere, or it can condense and form water droplets
which, if they remain in the air, form fog and clouds. In the
Great Lakes basin much of the moisture in the region
evaporates from the surface of the lakes. Other sources in-
clude the surface of small lakes and tributaries, moisture on
the land mass, and water released by plants. Global
movements of air also carry moisture into the basin, especially
from the tropics.
Moisture-bearing air masses move through the basin and
deposit their moisture as rain, snow, hail or sleet. Some of
this precipitation returns to the atmosphere and some falls
on the surfaces of the Great Lakes to become once again a
part of the vast quantity of stored fresh water. Precipitation
that falls on the land returns to the lakes as surface runoff
or infiltrates the soil and becomes groundwater.
Whether it becomes surface runoff or groundwater depends
upon a number of factors. Sandy soils, gravels, and some
rock types contribute to groundwater flows, while clays and
impermeable rocks contribute to surface runoff. Water fall-
ing on sloped areas tends to run off rapidly, while water tends
to be absorbed or stored on the surface in flat areas. Vegeta-
tion also tends to decrease surface runoff; root systems hold
moisture-laden soil readily and water remains on plants.
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Brock University Cartography
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II
SURFACE RUNOFF
Surface runoff is a major factor in the character of the Great
Lakes basin. Rain falling on exposed soil tilled for agriculture
or cleared for construction accelerates erosion and the
transport of soil particles and pollutants into tributaries.
Suspended soil particles in water are deposited as sediment
in the lakes and often collect near the mouths of tributaries
and connecting channels. Much of the sediment deposited
in nearshore areas is resuspended and carried farther into
the lake during storms. The finest particles (clays and silts)
may remain in suspension long enough to reach the mid-lake
areas.
Before settlement of the basin, streams typically ran clear
year-round because natural vegetation prevented soil loss.
Clearing of the original forest for agriculture and logging
has resulted in both erosion and more runoff into the streams
and lakes. This accelerated runoff aggravates flooding pro-
blems.
GROUNDWATER
Groundwater is important to the Great Lakes ecosystem
because it provides a reservoir for storing water and slowly
replenishing the lakes in the form of base flow in the
tributaries. Shallow groundwater also provides moisture to
plants.
As water passes through subsurface areas, some substances
are filtered out, but some materials in the soils become
dissolved or suspended in the water. Salts and minerals in
the soil and bedrock are the source of what is referred to
as "hard' water, a common feature of well water in the lower
Great Lakes basin. Groundwater can also pick up man-made
materials that have been buried in dumps and landfill sites.
Although it is unseen, the underground movement of water
is believed to be a major pathway for the transport of
pollutants to the Great Lakes. Groundwater may discharge
directly to the lakes or indirectly as base flow to the
tributaries. Groundwater contamination problems occur in
agricultural and urban-industrial areas.
WETLANDS
Wetlands are areas where the water table occurs
above the land surface for at least pan of the year.
When open water is present, it must be less than two
metres deep (seven feet), and stagnant or slow moving.
Most wetland vegetation emerges and stands erect above
the surface.
Four basic types of wetland are encountered in the
Great Lakes basin: swamps, marshes, bogs, and fens.
Swamps are areas where trees and shrubs live on wet
organically rich mineral soils that are flooded for part
of the year. Marshes develop in shallow standing water
such as ponds and protected bays. Aquatic, plants (such
as species of rushes) form thick stands which are rooted
in the sediment at the bottom of the water, or floating
mats where the water is deeper. Swamps and marshes
occur most frequently in the southern and eastern por-
tions of the basin.
Bogs form in shallow stagnant water. The most
characteristic plant species are the sphagnum mosses
which enhance conditions that are too acidic for most
other organisms. Dead sphagnum decomposes very slow-
ly accumulating in mats that may eventually become
many meters thick and form a dome well above the
original surface of the water. It is this material that is
excavated and sold as peat moss. Peat also accumulates
in fen wetlands. Fens develop in shallow, slowly moving
water. They are generally less acidic than bogs. Fens
are dominated by sedges and graminoids (grasses), but
Long Point Marshes, Lake Erie.
may include shrubs and stunted trees. Fens and bogs are
commonly referred to as peatlands and occur most fre-
quently in the cooler northern and northwestern portions
of the Great Lakes basin.
Wetlands are an integral part of the Great Lakes
ecosystem because they store water and act as reser-
voirs, reducing the risk of flooding. They also help to
replenish groundwater supplies. Furthermore they can
improve the quality of water by filtering sediment,
nutrients and contaminants. Some municipalities are
beginning to take advantage of this characteristic by us-
ing wetlands, especially marshes, as natural sewage
treatment systems. Wetland vegetation along lakes and
rivers can reduce shoreline erosion by providing a
physical buffer between the open water and the shore.
Wetlands also play an important biological role in the
ecosystem. They provide habitats for many kinds of
plants and animals, some of which are found nowhere
else. For ducks, geese and other migratory birds,
wetlands are the most important part of the migratory
cycle providing food, resting places and seasonal
habitats. Wetlands, particularly shoreline and river
mouth wetlands, are important spawning and nursery
grounds for many species of fish.
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12
LAKE LEVELS
The Great Lakes are part of the global hydrological system.
Prevailing westerly winds continuously carry moisture into
the basin in air masses from other parts of the continent. At
the same time, the basin loses moisture in departing air masses
by evaporation and transpiration, and through the outflow
of the St. Lawrence River. On average over time, the quan-
tity lost equals what is gained, but lake levels can vary
substantially over short-term, seasonal and long-term periods.
Day-to-day changes are caused by winds that push water
on shore. This is called 'wind set-up' and is usually associated
with a major lake storm which may last for hours or days.
Another extreme form of oscillation, known as a seiche, oc-
curs with rapid changes in winds and barometric pressure.
During storms, high winds and rapid changes in barometric
pressure cause severe wave conditions at shorelines.
GREAT LAKES HYDROGRAPH. The Hydrograph for the Great
Lakes shows the variations in water levels and the relationship of
precipitation to water levels.
Annual or seasonal variations in water levels are based
mainly on changes in precipitation and runoff to the Great
Lakes. Generally the lowest levels occur in winter when much
of the precipitation is locked up in ice and snow on land and
dry winter air masses pass over the lakes enhancing evapor-
ation. Levels are highest in summer after the spring thaw
when runoff increases.
The irregular long-term cycles correspond to long-term
trends in precipitation and temperature, the causes of which
have yet to be adequately explained. Highest levels occur
during periods of abundant precipitation and lower
temperatures that decrease evaporation. During periods of
high lake levels, storms cause considerable flooding and
shoreline erosion which often result in property damage.
Much of the damage is attributable to intensive shore develop-
ment which alters protective dunes and wetlands, removes
stabilizing vegetation, and generally reduces the ability of
the shoreline to withstand the damaging effects of wind and
waves.
The International Joint Commission, the bilateral agency
established under the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 bet-
GREAT LAKES BASIN 1000'
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13
ween Canada and the U.S., has the responsibility for limited
regulation of flows on the St. Marys and the St. Lawrence
rivers. These channels have been altered by enlargement and
placement of control works associated with deep-draft ship-
ping. Agreements between the U.S. and Canada govern the
flow through the control works on these connecting channels.
The water from Lake Michigan flows to Lake Huron
through the Straits of Mackinac. These straits are deep and
wide causing lakes Michigan and Huron to stand at the same
elevation. There are no artificial controls on the St. Clair
and Detroit Rivers which could change the flow from the
Michigan-Huron lakes system into Lake Erie. The outflow
of Lake Erie via the Niagara River is also uncontrolled, ex-
cept for some diversion of water through the Welland Canal.
A large percentage of the Niagara River flow is diverted
through hydroelectric power plants at Niagara Falls, but this
diversion has no effect on lake levels.
Studies of possible further regulation of flows and lake
levels have concluded that natural fluctuation is huge com-
pared to the influence of existing control works. Further
regulation by engineering systems could not be justified in
light of the cost and other impacts. Just one inch of water
on the surface of lakes Michigan and Huron amounts to more
than 36 billion cubic metres of water (about 1260 billion cubic
feet).
High Lake levels and severe weather conditions can cause damage
to unprotected properties. Right, shoreline damage to the southern
shore of Lake Michigan.
WIND SET-UP is a local rise in water caused by winds pushing water
to one side of a lake.
LAKE PROCESSES:
Stratification and Turnover
The Great Lakes are not simply large containers of
uniformly mixed water. They are, in fact, highly dynamic
systems with complex processes and a variety of subsystems
that change seasonally and on longer cycles.
The stratification or layering of water in the lakes is due
to density changes caused by changes in temperature. The
density of water increases as temperature decreases until it
reaches its maximum density at about 4 degrees Celsius (39
degrees Fahrenheit). This causes thermal stratification, or
the tendency of deep lakes to form distinct layers in the sum-
mer months. Deep water is insulated from the sun and stays
cool and more dense, forming a lower layer called the
hypolimnion. Surface and nearshore waters are warmed by
the sun, making them less dense so that they form a surface
layer called the epilimnion. As the summer progresses,
temperature differences increase between the layers. A thin
middle layer or thermocline develops in which a rapid tran-
sition in temperature occurs.
The warm epilimnion supports most of the life in the lake.
Algal production is greatest near the surface where the sun
readily penetrates. The surface layer is also rich in oxygen
which is mixed into the water from the atmosphere. A se-
cond zone of high productivity exists just above the hypolim-
nion due to upward diffusion of nutrients. The hypolimnion
is less productive because it receives less sunlight. In some
cases, such as the central basin of Lake Erie, it may lack
oxygen due to decomposition of organic matter.
In late fall, surface waters cool, become denser, and des-
cend, displacing deep waters, causing a mixing or turnover
of the entire lake. In winter, the temperature of the entire
lake approaches four degrees Celsius, while surface waters
are cooled to the freezing point and ice can form. As
temperatures and densities of deep and shallow waters change
with the warming of spring, another turnover may occur.
However, in most cases the lakes remain mixed throughout
the winter.
Layering of lake water as it warms in summer can prevent the
dispersion of effluents from tributaries causing increased concen-
tration of pollutants near the shore.
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14
LAKE STRATIFICATION (Layering) and TURNOVER. Heat from the
sun and changing seasons cause water in large lakes to stratify
or form layers. In winter, the ice cover stays at 0 degrees C (32
degrees F) and the water remains warmer below the ice than in
the air above. Water is most dense at 4 degrees C (39 degrees
F). In the spring turnover, warmer water rises as the surface heats
up. In fall, surface waters cool, become denser and descend as
heat is lost from the surface. In summer, stratification is caused
by a warming of surface waters which form a distinct layer called
the epilimnion. This is separated from the cooler and denser waters
of the hypolimnion by the thermocline, a layer of rapid temperature
transition. Turnover distributes oxygen annually throughout most
of the lakes.
and nitrogen are present with oxygen, inorganic carbon and
adequate water.
Plant material is consumed in the water by zooplankton
which graze the waters for algae, and on land by plant-eating
animals (herbivores). Next in the chain of energy transfer
through the ecosystem are organisms that feed on other
animals (carnivores) and those that feed on both animals and
plants (omnivores). Together these levels of consumption con-
stitute the food chain, a system of energy transfers through
which an ecological community consisting of a complex of
species is sustained. The population of each species is deter-
mined by a system of checks and balances based on factors
such as the availability of food and the presence of predators
including disease organisms.
Every ecosystem also includes numerous processes to break
down accumulated biomass (plants, animals and their wastes)
into the constituent materials and nutrients from which they
originated. Decomposition involves micro-organisms that are
essential to the ecosystem because they recycle matter which
can be used again.
Stable ecosystems are sustained by the interactions that cy-
cle nutrients and energy in a balance between available
resources and the life that depends on those resources. In
The layering and turnover of water annually are impor-
tant for water quality. Turnover is the main way in which
oxygen-poor water in the deeper areas of the lakes can be
mixed with surface water containing more dissolved oxygen.
This prevents anoxia or complete oxygen depletion of the
lower levels of most of the lakes. However, the process of
stratification during the summer also tends to restrict dilu-
tion of pollutants from effluents and land runoff.
During the spring warming period, the rapidly warming
nearshore waters are inhibited from moving to the open lake
by a thermal bar of distinct temperature change that prevents
mixing until the sun warms the open lake surface waters or
until the waters are mixed by storms. Because the thermal
bar holds pollutants nearshore, they are not dispersed to the
open waters and can become more concentrated within the
nearshore areas at this time.
LIVING RESOURCES
As an ecosystem, the Great Lakes basin is a unit of nature
in which living organisms and nonliving things interact adap-
tively. An ecosystem is fueled by the sun which provides
energy in the form of light and heat. This energy warms the
earth, the water and the air, causing winds, currents, evapora-
tion and precipitation. The light energy of the sun is essen-
tial for the photosynthesis of green plants in water and on
land. Plants grow when essential nutrients such as phosphorus
Double Crested Cormorants and Herring Gulls occupy Big Chicken
Island in Lake Erie.
-------
15
The FOODCHAIN is a simplified way of understanding the process
by which organisms in higher trophic levels gain energy by con-
suming organisms at lower trophic levels. All energy in an
ecosystem originates with the sun. The solar energy is transform-
ed by green plants through a process of photosynthesis into stored
chemical energy. This is consumed by plant-eating animals which
are in turn consumed as food. The concept of the foodchain ex-
plains how some persistent contaminants accumulate in an
ecosystem and become biologically magnified (see biomagnifica-
tion and bioaccumulation in Chapter Four).
ecosystems, including the Great Lakes basin, everything
depends on everything else and nothing is ever really wasted.
The ecosystem of the Great Lakes and the life supported
within it have continuously altered with time. Through periods
of climate change and glaciation, species moved in and out
of the region, some perished and others pioneered under
changed circumstances. None of the changes, however, has
been as rapid as that which occurred with the arrival of Euro-
pean settlers.
When the first Europeans arrived in the basin nearly 400
years ago, it was a lush, thickly vegetated area. Vast timber
stands, consisting of oaks, maples and other hardwoods
dominated the southern areas. Only a very few, small vestiges
of the original forest remain today. Between the wooded areas
were rich grasslands with growth as high as two or three
metres (seven to 10 feet). In the north, coniferous forests
occupied the shallow, sandy soils, interspersed by bogs and
other wetlands.
The forest and grasslands supported a wide variety of life,
such as moose in the wetlands and coniferous woods, and
deer in the grasslands and brush forests of the south. The
many waterways and wetlands were home to beaver and
muskrat which, with the fox, wolf and other fur-bearing
species, inhabited the mature forestlands. These were trap-
ped and traded as commodities by the natives and the Euro-
peans. Abundant bird populations thrived on the various ter-
rains, some migrating to the south in winter, others making
permanent homes.
It is estimated that there were as many as 180 species of
fish native to the Great Lakes. Those inhabiting the near-
shore of the lakes included smallmouth and largemouth bass,
muskellunge, northern pike and channel catfish. In the open
water were lake herring, blue pike, lake whitefish, walleye,
sauger, freshwater drum, lake trout and white bass. Because
of the differences in the characteristics of the lakes, the species
composition varied for each of the Great Lakes. Warm,
shallow Lake Erie was the most productive of inshore species,
while deep Superior was least productive.
Changes in the species composition of the Great Lakes
basin in the last 200 years have been the result of human
activities. Many native fish species have been lost by over-
fishing. habitat destruction or the arrival of exotic or non-
native species, such as the lamprey and the alewife. Pollu-
tion, especially in the form of nutrient loading and toxic con-
taminants, has placed additional stresses on fish populations.
Other man-made stresses have altered reproductive condi-
tions and habitats, causing some varieties to migrate or perish.
Still other effects on lake life result from damming, canal
building,altering or polluting tributaries to the lakes in which
spawning takes place and where distinct ecosystems once
thrived and contributed to the larger basin ecosystem.
-------
Coronelli's 1688 Map of Western New France. The first printed map
to show the Great Lakes in their entirety and the most accurate
general portrayal of the lakes and tributaries in the 17th century.
-------
17
CHAPTER THREE
PEOPLE AND THE GREAT LAKES
NATIVE PEOPLE
The first inhabitants of the Great Lakes basin arrived about
10,000 years ago. They had crossed the land bridge from
Asia or perhaps had reached South America across the
vastness of the Pacific Ocean. Six thousand years ago, descen-
dants of the first settlers were using copper from the south
shore of Lake Superior and had established hunting and
fishing communities throughout the Great Lakes basin.
The native population in the Great Lakes area is estimated
to have been between 60,000 and 117,000 in the 16th cen-
tury when Europeans began their search for a passage to the
Orient through the Great Lakes. The natives occupied widely
scattered villages and grew corn, squash, beans and tobac-
Native peoples were the first to use the many resources of the Great
Lakes Basin. Abundant game, fertile soils and plentiful water enabl-
ed the early development of hunting, subsistence agriculture and
co.These were moved once or twice in a generation when
the resources in an area became exhausted.
EARLY SETTLEMENT BY EUROPEANS
By the early 1600s, the French had explored the forests
around the St. Lawrence Valley and had begun to exploit
the area for furs. The first area of the lakes to be visited by
Europeans was Georgian Bay, reached via the Ottawa River
and Lake Nipissing by the explorer, Samuel de Champlain,
or perhaps Etien Brule, one of Champlain's scouts, in 1615.
To the south and east, the Dutch and English began to settle
on the eastern seaboard of what is now the United States.
Although a confederacy of five Indian nations confined Euro-
pean settlement to the area east of the Appalachians, the
fishing. The lakes and tributaries provided convenient transporta-
tion by canoe and trade among groups flourished.
French were able to establish bases in the lower St. Lawrence
Valley. This enabled them to penetrate into the heart of the
continent via the Ottawa River. In 1670 the French built the
first of a chain of Great Lakes forts to protect the fur trade
near the Mission of St. Ignace at the Straits of Mackinac.
In 1673, Fort Frontenac, on the present site of Kingston, On-
tario became the first fort on the lower lakes.
Through the 17th century precious furs were transported
to Hochelaga (Montreal) on the Great Lakes routes, but no
permanent European settlements were maintained except at
forts Frontenac, Michilimackinac and Niagara. After Fort
Oswego was established on the south shore of Lake Ontario
by the British in 1727, settlement was encouraged in the
Mohawk and other valleys leading toward the lakes. A
showdown between the British and the French for control
of the Great Lakes ended with the British capture of Quebec
in 1758.
The British maintained control of the Great Lakes during
the American Revolution and, at the close of the conflict,
the Great Lakes became the boundary between the new U.S.
republic and what remained of British North America. The
British granted land to the Loyalists who fled the former New
England colonies to Upper and Lower Canada or what are
now the southern regions of the provinces of Ontario and
Quebec, respectively. Between 1792 and 1800 the popula-
tion of Upper Canada increased from 20,000 to 60.000. The
new American government also moved to develop the Great
Lakes region with the passage by Congress of the Ordinance
of 1787. This legislation covered everything from land sale
to provisions for statehood for the Northwest Territory, the
area between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River west of
Pennsylvania.
The final military challenge for the wealth of the Great
Lakes region came with the War of 1812. For the Americans
the war was about the expansion into, and development of,
the area around the lakes. For the British, it meant the defense
of its remaining imperial holdings in North America. The
war proved to be a short one - only two years - but final.
When the shooting was over both the Americans and the
British claimed victory.
Canada had survived invasion and was set on an inevitable
course to nationhood. The new American nation had failed
to conquer Upper Canada but gained needed national con-
fidence and prestige. The natives, who had become involv-
ed in the war in order to secure a homeland, did not share
in the victory. The winners in the War of 1812 were those
who dreamed of settling the Great Lakes region. The long-
awaited development of the area from a beautiful, almost
uninhabited wilderness into a home and workplace for
millions began in earnest.
-------
18
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAKES
During the next 150 years the development of the Great
Lakes basin proceeded with haste. The battles for territory
so common during the era of empires and colonies gave way
to nation-building, city-building and industrialization. The
warriors of the previous era gave way to, or themselves
became, the entrepreneurs, farmers and laborers who ran the
mills, tilled the soil and provided the skills and services re-
quired for modern industrial economies.
The development of the Great Lakes region proceeded
along several lines which took advantage of the many
resources within the basin. The waterways became major
highways of trade and were exploited for their fish. The fertile
land that had provided the original wealth of furs and food
yielded lumber, then wheat, then other agricultural products.
Bulk goods such as iron ore and coal were shipped through
Great Lakes ports and manufacturing grew.
AGRICULTURE
The promise of agricultural land was the greatest attrac-
tion to the immigrants to the Great Lakes region in the 19th
century. By the mid-1800s, most of the Great Lakes region
where farming was possible was settled. The population had
swelled tremendously. There were about 400,000 people in
Michigan, 300,000 in Wisconsin and perhaps half a million
in Upper Canada.
YEARS
Population Growth in the Great Lakes' Basins Since 1900.
Canals led to broader commodity export opportunities
allowing farmers to expand their operations beyond a sub-
sistence level. Wheat and corn were the first commodities
to be packed in barrels and shipped abroad. Grist mills - one
of the region's first industries - were built on the tributaries
flowing into the lakes to process the grains for overseas
markets.
As populations grew, dairying and meat production for
local consumption began to dominate agriculture in the Great
Lakes basin. Specialty crops, such as fruit, vegetables and
tobacco, grown for the burgeoning urban population, claimed
an increasingly important share of the lands suitable to them.
The rapid, large-scale clearing of land for agriculture
brought rapid changes in the ecosystem. Soils stripped of
vegetation washed away to the lakes; tributaries and silty
deltas clogged and altered the flow of the rivers. Fish habitats
and spawning areas were destroyed. Greater surface runoff
led to increased seasonal fluctuation in water levels and the
creation of more flood-prone lands along the waterway.
Agricultural development has also contributed to Great Lakes
pollution chiefly in the form of eutrophication. Fertilizers
that reach waterways in soils and runoff stimulate growth
of algae and other water plants. The plants die and decay,
depleting the oxygen in the water. Lack of oxygen leads to
fish kills and the character of the ecosystem changes as the
original plants and animals give way to more pollution-
tolerant species.
Modern row crop monoculture relies heavily on chemicals
to control pests such as insects, fungi, and weeds. These
chemicals are usually synthetic organic substances and they
find their way to rivers and lakes to affect plant and animal
life. The problem was first recognized with DDT, a very
persistent chemical, which tended to remain in the environ-
ment for a long time and to bioaccumulate through the food
chain. It caused repoductive failures in some species of birds.
Since the use of DDT was banned, some bird populations
are now recovering. Other, less persistent, chemicals have
replaced DDT and other problem pesticides, but toxic con-
tamination from agricultural practices continues to be a con-
cern. DDT levels in fish are declining but, in spite of being
banned, some other pesticides such as dieldrin continue to
persist in fish at relatively high levels.
LOGGING AND FORESTRY
The original logging operations in the Great Lakes basin
involved clearing the land for agriculture and building houses
and barns for the settlers. Much of the wood was simply burn-
ed. By the 1830s, however, commercial logging began in
Upper Canada. A few years later logging began in Michigan
and operations in Minnesota and Wisconsin soon followed.
Once again the lakes played a vital role. Cutting was
generally done in the winter months by men from the farms.
Great Lakes Factsheet No. 2
Land and Shoreline Uses
Superior Michigan
% %
Huron
%
Erie Ontario
% %
BASIN LAND USE
Agricultural
Canada 0.5
U.S. 6.0
Total 3.0
44
44
21
40
27
80
63
67
49
33
39
Residential
Canada
U.S.
Total
0.1
3.0
1.0
9
9
1
6
2
4
12
10
6
8
7
Forest
Canada
U.S.
Total
98.7
80.0
91.0
41
41
75
52
68
15
23
21
42
53
49
Other
Canada
U.S.
Total
0.7
11.0
5.0
6
6
3
2
3
1
2
1
3
6
5
SHORELINE USE
Residential
Canada
U.S.
n/a
39
34
42
39
45
25
40
Recreational
Canada
U.S.
n/a
24
8
4
8
13
15
12
Agricultural
Canada
U.S.
n/a
20
4
15
21
14
30
33
Commercial
Canada
U.S.
n/a
12
35
32
10
12
18
8
Other
Canada
U.S.
n/a
5
19
7
22
16
12
7
Source: BULLETINS E-1866-70, Sea Grant College
Program, Cooperative Extension Service,
Michigan State University, E. Lansing,
Michigan, 1985.
n/a: not available
-------
LAND USE
| Specialized Field Crops (e.g. fruits and tobacco)
| Specialized Dairying
| More Intensive General Farming
| Less Intensive General Farming
| Boreal Forest
| Southeastern Mixed Forest
Deciduous Forest
| Urban Areas
COMMERCIAL FISHERIES
U.S. Catch
Species of fish caught
Canadian Catch
1940 I960
The vertical scale is labelled
in units of 1000 tonnes
Tonnes
Tons
4 000
4 400
8 000
8 825
12 000
13 225
16 000
17 625
20 000
22 050
24 000
26 450
28 000
30 875
NOTE:
1. Each bar represents the average catch over
a five-year period, except for the last bar
which represents four years.
2. Data for individual fish species are not
available prior to 1950.
3. The species shown for each lake are those
which have been consistently important
since 1950. They are not necessarily those
which yielded the largest catch in any one
five-year period.
SHORELINE EROSION
Minimal
Moderate
Severe
The symbol * denotes
shorelines in the United
States protected from
severe erosion risk by
man-made structures.
Comparable data is
unavailable for Canada.
LAND USE,
FISHERIES AND
EROSION
¦ Alewile
- Whitefish
LAKE MICHIGAN
Walleye
Smelt
Yellow Perch
LAKE ERIE
1920 1940 I960 1980
Brock University Cartography
-------
20
They traveled up the rivers felling trees that were floated
down to the lakes during the spring thaw. The logs were form-
ed into huge rafts or loosely gathered in booms to be towed
by steam tugs. This latter practice had to be stopped because
logs often escaped the boom and seriously interfered with
shipping. In time, timber was carried in ships specially
designed for log transport.
The earliest loggers mainly harvested white pine. In virgin
stands these trees reached 60 metres (200 feet) in height and
a single tree could contain 10 cubic metres (6.000 board feet)
of lumber. It was light and strong and much in demand for
shipbuilding and construction. Each year loggers had to move
farther west and north in search of white pine. The trees were
hundreds of years old and so were not soon replaced. When
the resource was exhausted lumbermen had to utilize other
species. The hardwoods such as maple, walnut and oak were
cut to make furniture, barrels and specialty products.
Paper-making from pulpwood developed slowly. The first
sulphite process paper mill was built on the Welland Canal
in the 1860s. Paper production developed at Green Bay in
the U.S. and elsewhere in the Great Lakes. Eventually Canada
and the U.S. became the world's leading producers of pulp
and paper products. Today much of this production still oc-
curs in the Great Lakes area. The pulp and paper industry
(along with chloralkali production) contributed to the mer-
cury pollution problem on the Great Lakes until the early
1970s when mercury was banned from use in the industry.
The logging industry was exploitive during its early stages.
Huge stands were lost in fires often because of poor manage-
ment of litter from logging operations. In Canada lumber-
ing was largely done on crown lands with a small tax charg-
ed per tree. In the United States cutting was done on private
land but when it was cleared the owners often stopped pay-
ing taxes and let the land revert to public ownership. In both
cases, clearcutting was the usual practice. Without proper
rehabilitation of the forest, soils were readily eroded from
barren landscapes and lost to local streams, rivers and lakes.
In some areas of the Great Lakes basin, however, reforesta-
tion has not been adequate and today, as a result, the forests
may be a diminishing resource.
CANALS, SHIPPING and
TRANSPORTATION
Conflict over the Great Lakes continued after the War of
1812 in the form of competition to improve transportation
routes. By 1825 the 364-mile (586 km) Erie Canal, a water-
way from Albany. New York to Buffalo, was carrying set-
tlers west and freight east. The cost of goods in the West
fell 90 per cent while the price of agricultural products ship-
ped through the lakes rose dramatically. Settlement in the
fertile expanses of Ohio and Michigan became even more
attractive.
The Canadians opened the Lachine Canal at about the same
time to bypass the worst rapids on the St. Lawrence River.
In 1829, the Welland Canal joined lakes Erie and Ontario,
bypassing Niagara Falls. Other canals linked the Great Lakes
to the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and the Great Lakes
became the hub of transportation in eastern North America.
Railroads replaced the canals after mid-century, making
still-important transportation links between the Great Lakes
and both seacoasts. In 1959, completion of the St. Lawrence
Seaway allowed modern ocean vessels to enter the lakes, but
shipping has not expanded as much as expected because of
intense competition from other modes of transportation such
as trucking and railroads.
Today, the three main commodities shipped on the Great
Lakes are iron ore, coal and grain. Transport of iron ore has
declined as some steel mills in the region have shut down
or reduced production, but steel-making capacity in North
America is likely to remain concentrated in the Great Lakes
region. Coal moves both east and west within the lakes, but
coal export abroad has not expanded as much as was an-
ticipated during the rapid rise of oil prices in the 1970s. As
a result of economic decline the Great Lakes mid-1980s fleet
of over 300 vessels is being reduced through the retirement
of the older, smaller vessels.
A Great Lakes freighter passes through the Welland Canal linking
lakes Erie and Ontario.
The commercial fishery prospers in a few locations on the lakes.
Above, a Lake Erie fisherman out of Port Dover, Ontario harvests
a trawl net of smelt.
COMMERCIAL FISHERIES
Fish were important as food for the natives as well as for
the first European settlers. Commercial fishing began about
1820 and expanded about 20 per cent per year. The largest
Great Lakes fish harvests were recorded in 1889 and 1899
at some 67.000 tonnes (147 million pounds). However, by
the 1880s some preferred species in Lake Erie had declin-
ed. Catches increased with more efficient fishing equipment
but the golden days of the commercial fishery were over by
the late 1950s. Since then, average annual catches have been
around 50,000 tonnes (110 million pounds). The value of
the commercial fishery has declined drastically because the
more valuable, larger fish have given way to small and
relatively low-value species. Over-fishing, pollution,
shoreline and stream habitat destruction, and accidental and
deliberate introduction of exotic species such as the sea lam-
prey all played a part in the decline of the fishery.
Today, lake trout, sturgeon, and lake herring survive in
vastly reduced numbers and have been replaced by introduced
species such as smelt, alewife, splake, and Pacific salmon.
Populations of some of the native species such as yellow
perch, walleye and white bass have made good recovery.
Lake trout, once the top predator in the lakes, survives in
sufficient numbers to allow commercial fishing only in Lake
Superior, the only lake where substantial natural reproduc-
tion still occurs. However, even in Superior, hatchery reared
trout are stocked annually to maintain the population.
Commercial fishing is under continuing pressure from
several fronts. Toxic contaminants may force the closure of
additional fisheries as the ability to measure the presence of
chemicals improves together with the knowledge of their ef-
fects on human health.
-------
INTER-LAKE
COMMODITY FLOW
IN TONNES, 1983
Upbound
40 ooo ooo
20 000 000
0
viN.
1=E~7
Downbound
SILVER BAY
TWO HARBORS
TACONITE
HARBOR
DULUTH/
SUPERIOR/
' ^ °
CARGO VOLUME BY PORT
IN TONNES, 1983
PORTS < 2 500 000 TONNES
o 1 000 - 100 000
O 100 000 - 500 000
O 500 000 - 2 500 000
PORTS > 2 500 000 TONNES
Port Location
Cargo Volume
40 000 000
30 000 000
20 000 000
10 000 000
5 000 000
2 500 000
Commodity Type
Other
Grains &
Soybeans
Iron Ore
Coal
Commodities in "other" category
exceeding 500 OOO tonnes or comprising
more than 10% of port total
Ce Cement
Ch Chemicals
Co Coke
E Electrical Products
THUNDER
Tonnes
Tons
1 000
1 100
100 000
110 250
500 000
453 600
2 500 000
2 755 800
5 000 000
5 511 550
10 000 000
11 025 100
20 000 000
22 046 250
30 000 000
33 069 350
40 000 000
44 092 450
Michipicoten
WATERBORNE
COMMERCE
©
(7a) St. Marys R.
(Soo Locks)
(jb) Straits of
DULUTH CHICAGO Mackinac
St. Clair River
Lake St. Clair
Detroit River
Lake Superior
Lake Michigan
SEA LEVEL
SAULT
STE. MARIE
GREAT LAKES PROFILE
<
Littiei - °
STONEPORT
NOTE: 1. The profile is taken along the long axes of the lakes.
2. The vertical exaggeration is 2 000 times.
3. Lake surface elevations are given above sea level,
and maximum depths are below surface level.
4. Inter-lake lock and river systems are numbered
to correspond to map.
. Parry Sound
Green Bay
O
Kewaunee^
CP
Manitowac
o
o
Sturgeon Bay
7 I ,
*7* ¦
o
Traverse
City
v l j V s
CALCITE A|Pena
q
..Manistee
$ lo
Ludington
Port Washington,.
CHICAGO
Ch
Co
M
P
s
> Milwaukee
^ Oik Creek
O
O
Muskegon
Saginaw River
ST. CLAIR
Rochester
Grand Haven
Holland
Waukegan
QSt Joseph
Harbar
TOLEDO
L Limestone
M Metal Products
P Petroleum Products
S Sand and Gravel
INDIANA
HARBOR
GARY
BURNS
HARBOR
Kingston^
Oswego
DETROIT
SCALE 1:5 OOO 000
100 150 200 250 kilometres
75 100 125 150 175 miles
SANDUSKY^
LORAIN
ASHTABULA
CLEVELAND
Brock University Cartography
-------
22
In addition to the lake trout, lake whitefish, grayling and
blue pike of Lake Erie, and the Atlantic salmon of Lake On-
tario were the top predators in the open waters of the lakes
and were major components of the commercial fishery in
earlier times. Of the four, the blue pike, grayling and Lake
Ontario salmon are believed to be extinct. The lake whitefish
survives in sufficient numbers to support commercial fishing
only in Lake Superior and parts of lakes Michigan and Huron.
Currently, hatchery-reared coho and chinook salmon are the
most plentiful top predators in the open lakes except in the
western portion of Lake Erie which is dominated by walleye.
Only pockets remain of the once large commercial fishery.
The Canadian commercial fishery in Lake Erie remains pro-
sperous. In 1984, 714 Canadian fishermen harvested a total
of about 16,000 tonnes (36.2 million pounds) with a landed
value of about $26 million (Canadian). For Canada, the Lake
Erie fishery represents nearly two-thirds of the total Great
Lakes harvest.
In the United States, the commercial fishery is based on
lake whitefish, smelt and perch, and on alewife for animal
feed. Commercial fishing is limited by a federal prohibition
on the sale of fish affected by toxic contaminants. Pressure
to limit commercial fishing in the U.S. is also exerted by
sport fishing groups anxious to manage the fishery in their
interests. In addition, the trend in the U.S. is to reduce the
pressure on the fishery by restricting commercial fishing to
trapnets that harvest species selectively, without killing
species preferred by recreational fishermen.
SPORT FISHERY
Several factors have contributed to the success of the sport
fisheries. The sea lamprey, which almost destroyed the lake
trout population, is being successfully controlled using
chemical lampricides. Walleye populations rebounded in Lake
Erie due to regulation of the commercial fishery and im-
provements in water quality. The population of alewife ex-
ploded as lamprey destroyed native top predators. The in-
crease in alewife provided a forage base for new predators
such as coho and chinook salmon which were introduced in
the 1960s when lamprey populations declined.
The sport fishery developed quickly as the Pacific salmon
rapidly grew to large size after they were introduced into
Lake Michigan. Charter fleets developed and a minor tourist
boom led to plans to develop a large fish stocking program
to fuel a new sport fishing industry.
By 1980, the idea of stocking exotic fish such as salmon
to support the sport fishery had spread to all the lakes and
jurisdictions. Ontario and Michigan also experimented with
the 'splake', a hybrid of the native lake trout and brook (or
speckled) trout. None of these predators has been able to
reproduce very well if at all, so the fishery has been main-
tained by stocking year after year. Ironically, the exception
is the pink salmon, a small species accidentally introduced
to Lake Superior in 1955, that survived to establish spawn-
The development of pleasure boat marinas Is one of the recrea-
tional activities that has increased in recent years, often placing
pressure on the shoreline.
ing populations. They spread through lakes Michigan and
Huron, where they established self-propagating populations
by the 1980s.
RECREATION
The early explorers and settlers did not come to the Great
Lakes region because of opportunities for recreation and
leisure activities. Carving out a subsistence economy based
on the land and the water resources played a far greater role.
However, as the agricultural, industrial and manufacturing
economies of the new world developed and matured, the
waterways, shorelines and woodlands of the Great Lakes
region became attractions to those with the money and time
to enjoy the natural wealth.
Recreation in the area became an important economic and
social activity with the age of travel in the 19th century. A
thriving pleasure-boat industry based on the newly constructed
canals developed, bringing people into the region in conjunc-
tion with rail and road travel. Niagara Falls attracted travellers
from considerable distances and was one of the first stimulants
to the growth of a leisure-related economy. Later, the reputa-
tion of the lower lakes region as the frontier of a pristine
wilderness drew people seeking restful cures and miracle
waters to the many spas and 'clinics' which developed along
the waterway.
In the 20th century, more people had more free time. With
industrial growth, greater personal disposable income and
shorter work weeks, people of all walks of life began to spend
their leisure time beyond the city limits. Governments on
both sides of the border acquired lands and began to develop
an extensive system of parks, wilderness areas and conser-
vation areas in order to protect valuable local resources and
to serve the needs of the population for recreation areas. Un-
fortunately, by the time the need for publicly accessible
recreation lands had become apparent, much of the land in
the basin, including virtually all the shoreline on the lower
lakes, was in private hands. Today, about 80 percent of the
U.S. shoreline and 20 percent of the Canadian shore is
The sandy beaches of the lower lakes provide one of the most
popular summer recreational activities on the lakes. Above, the In-
diana Dunes National Lakeshore on Lake Michigan.
privately owned and not accessible to the public.
The recreation industry includes sport outfitters, boat
builders, marinas, resorts and restaurants. The economy of
many areas within the basin relies heavily on tourism and
the revenues from local recreational activities nearby. In some
areas, recreation and tourism are actively being sought to
replace losses resulting from economic decline in
manufacturing.
The increasingly intensive recreational development of the
Great Lakes has had mixed results. On the one hand many
recreational activities cause environmental damage. Exten-
sive development of cottage areas, summer home sites,
beaches and marinas has resulted in land clearance and
shoreline alteration. The removal of vegetation and changes
to beaches, dune structures and other natural shore protec-
tion have stepped up erosion in some areas. Effluent from
recreational sites has generally not been as well treated as
sewage from cities, posing local water quality problems such
as enrichment and bacterial contamination. Also, increased
development in areas susceptible to natural flooding and ero-
sion has increased pressure to manage lake levels to protect
real estate that was unwisely developed.
On the other hand greater recreational use of the Great
Lakes has brought environmental problems in the lakes to
the attention of many more people. Environmental damage
often interferes with recreational uses. Hence, people who
use the water for its fun and beauty can become a potent force
in the protection of the ecosystem. Naturalists, anglers and
cottagers were among the first to bring environmental issues
to the attention of the public and call for the cleanup of the
lakes in the 1950s and 1960s when eutrophication threaten-
ed favored fishing, bathing and wildlife sites. Today more
people than ever use and value the lakes for recreational
purposes.
-------
PROTECTED AREAS
~ National Park
~ Provincial/State Park
National Forest
State Forest
National Lakeshore
National Wildlife Area/Refuge
National Recreation Area
National Marine Park/
Underwater Preserve
RECREATION AND SPORTS
~
~
'' Trail
Pukaskwa
National
Park
RECREATIONAL
BOATING FACILITIES
Sparse
Moderate
Dense
SPECTATOR SPORTS
Hockey ^^Baseball
Football Basketball
Major League
Superior
National
Forest
Minor League
w
J Lake Superior^
Provincial Park
Whitefish Point
Underwater
Preserve
Chequamegon
National Forest
RECREATIONAL AREAS
AND ROUTES
a Ski Area
Canalized Waterway
Canoe Route
Long-distance Trail
NOTE:
1. The canoe routes include portages.
2. Not all sections of the trails shown
are yet in existence.
SPORT FISHING
CP
colet *
i1^
Hull Ste. Marl
Mississapi River *
Provincial Park
Trail
Sudbury
8 Nicolet
National r~i
Forest
J
Hiawatha o
National Q
Forest .
q Straits of Mackinac '
NOTE:
1. The leagues represented are as follows:
Baseball: American League, National League and
Triple A
Basketball: National Basketball Association and
Division One Colleges
Football: National Football League, Canadian Football
League and Division One Colleges
Hockey: National Hockey League, American Hockey
League, International Hockey League and
Ontario League
2. The minor leagues are selected on the basis of level of
play and spectator attendance.
3. Where a sport has major and minor league teams in
the same location only the major league team is shown.
4. Where a sport has more than one major or minor
league team in the same location only one is shown.
Inland
'Waterway
v /yi /
T- Bruty^X M:!
Thunder Bay V Peninsula?
Und. National
athom Five§
National
Marine Park
Other^_g
Perch C^Tv
Bass and
White Bass
Salmon and
Steelhead Trout
Lake Trout
and otherTrout
Walleye, Sauger.Pike,
Pickerel and Muskie
u it Trenl~ Severn
\^o Waterway
I
foPeterboroai
Rideau
J Canal
/RideauJ
Trail
Newtoarket
a j
Kitchener j
Oshawa_
LAKE
TORONTO OS'I'aR[ ___
Niagara Mils
w# '
rAdirondack\
State Park
Canal
"BUFFAK
Lansing
DETROIT^
We!land A
CanaU
^Ithaca
NOTE:
1. Circle areas are proportional to the number
of angler days in 1983: Lake Superior - 2 576 000,
Lake Michigan - 27 170 000,
Lake Huron -18 667 000. Lake Erie-43 409 000,
and Lake Ontario-18 519 000.
2. The data measures sport fishing effort, and is
classified according to species sought as opposed
to species actually caught.
3. Significant species in the "other" category are:
C - catfish and bullhead, P - panfish, and
S - sheephead.
4. The "other" category also includes those cases
where the angler has no preference for the
species caught.
^ Evanston
kCHICAGO
Kalamazoo
Ann Arbor {
Ypsilanti;
Windsor
'Valparaiso
Fort Wayne
' Point Pelee
National Park
t/
&
e*iE
.CLEVELAND ¦
Bowling
Green
SCALE 1:5 000 000
50 100 150 200 250 kilometres
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 miles
Buckeye
Trail
Brock University Cartography
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24
URBANIZATION and INDUSTRIAL
GROWTH
Nearly all the settlements that grew into cities in the Great
Lakes region were established on the waterways that
transported people, raw materials and goods. The largest ur-
ban areas developed at the mouths of tributaries due to
transportation advantages and the apparently inexhaustible
supply of fresh water for domestic and industrial use.
Historically, the major industries in the Great Lakes region
have produced steel, paper, chemicals, automobiles and other
manufactured goods.
A large part of the steel industry in Canada and the United
States is concentrated in the Great Lakes because iron ore,
coal and limestone can be carried on the lakes from mines
and quarries to steel mills. In the United States, ore is car-
ried from mines near Lake Superior to steel mills at the south
end of Lake Michigan and at Detroit, Cleveland, and Lorain
in the Lake Erie basin. In Canada, ore from the upper lakes
region is processed in steel mills at Sault Ste. Marie. Hamilton
and Nanticoke.
Paper-making in the U.S. occurs primarily on the upper
lakes, with the largest concentration of mills along the Fox
River that feeds into Green Bay on Lake Michigan. In
Canada, mills are located along the Welland Canal as well
as along the upper lakes. Chemical industries developed on
both sides of the Niagara River because of the availability
of cheap electricity. Other major concentrations of chemical
production are located near Saginaw Bay in Lake Huron and
in Sarnia, Ontario on the St. Clair River, because of abun-
dant salt deposits and plentiful water.
All of these industrial activities produce vast quantities
of wastes. Initially the wastes of urban-industrial centers did
The City of Chicago on Lake Michigan is the largest urban area
on the lakes.
The City of Toronto on Lake Ontario is the largest Canadian city
on the lakes.
not appear to pose serious problems. Throughout most of
the 19th century industrial wastes were dumped into the
waterways, diluted and dispersed. Eventually, problems
emerged when municipal water supplies became contaminated
with urban-industrial effluent. The threat to public health from
disease organisms prompted some cities to adopt practices
that seemed for the time to solve the problem.
In 1854, Chicago experienced a cholera epidemic in which
five percent of the population perished, and in 1891, the rate
of death due to typhoid had reached a high of 124 per 100,000
population. To protect its drinking water supply from sewage,
Chicago reversed the flow of the Chicago River away from
Lake Michigan. A diversion channel was dug to carry sewage
effluent away from Lake Michigan into the Illinois and
Mississippi River system. In Hamilton, in the 1870s, water
could no longer be drawn from the harbor or from local wells
because of contamination. A steam powered water pump was
installed to draw deep water from Lake Ontario for distribu-
tion thoughout the city.
Many of the dangers of industrial pollution to the Great
Lakes and to human and environmental health were not
recognized until recently, in part because their presence and
their effects are difficult to detect. In recent years this has
become especially evident where aging industrial disposal
sites leak chemicals discarded many years ago into the en-
vironment or where sediments contaminated by long-standing
industrial activities continue to contribute dangerous pollutants
to the waterways. Now the region must cope with cleanup
of the pollution from these past activities at the same time
that the industrial base for the regional economy is struggl-
ing to remain competitive.
Use of Great Lakes resources brought wealth and well-
being to the residents of Great Lakes cities but the full price
of the concentration of industry and people is only now be-
ing understood. The cleanup of the Great Lakes region will
require continuous expenditure by, and cooperation among
state, provincial and federal agencies, local governments and
industry.
MAJOR DIVERSION PROPOSALS
A number of proposals have been made for large-
scale diversion of water from water-rich regions of
North America to water-poor areas experiencing
growth in population and industry. The plans generally
call for interbasin transfer of Great Lakes water or
Canada's Arctic waters southward to the western V. S.
Massive engineering schemes needed to do this have
often been proposed by private entrepreneurs interested
in selling the water or benefitting from improved water
supply to their area.
In the 1960s, a California engineering firm proposed
a ' 'North American Water and Power Alliance
(NAWAPA). The plan included diversion of water from
Alaska and northwestern Canada through a major
valley in the Canadian Rockies (Rocky Mountain
Trench) for distribution as far as Mexico by a system
of canals and rivers. Efforts to revive NA WAP A in the
1970s failed.
At the direction of the U.S. Congress the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers studied the possibility of diversion
of water from the Great Lakes via the Mississippi River
to compensate for rapid depletion of groundwater from
the Ogallala aquifer in the high plains states of
Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas. A Colorado
proposal called for a canal or a pipeline to carry
water from the Great Lakes to rapidly growing
economies in the Southwest. Both ideas were opposed
by all Great Lakes states and the Province of Ontario.
The Great Recycling and Northern Development
(GRAND) Canal concept was revived in 1985 after be-
ing proposed in the 1950s. The plan calls for turning
James Bay into a freshwater lake using a dam to pre-
vent mixing with saltwater from Hudson Bay. Fresh
water would then be pumped over the Arctic divide and
transferred into the Great Lakes. Great Lakes water
would in turn be diverted for sate to western states.
Development would require an estimated $100 billion
and the support of Ontario and all the Great Lakes
states as well as the federal governments of both
countries.
Invariably the proposals have failed to materialize
for economic reasons. Increasingly, however, opposi-
tion to these proposals is based on environmental con-
cerns because the environmental impacts of large-scale
diversions have not been adequately assessed. In the
1985 Great Lakes Charter all the state governors and
the premiers of Ontario and Quebec agreed to
cooperate in consideration of any proposed diversion.
-------
SCALE 1: 7 500 000
0 100 200 300 kilometres
0 50 100 150 200 miles
POPULATION AND EMPLOYMENT,
1980 (USA), 1981 (CANADA)
NUMBER OF PEOPLE
7 500 000
¦ 5 000 000
¦ 3 000 000
1 500 000
1 000 000
500 000
¦ ¦ 250 000
EMPLOYMENT BREAKDOWN
Female
Male
Outer circle - total population
Inner circle - working population
INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE,
1980 (USA), 1981 (CANADA)
Lur
- Female
- Male
123456789
The vertical scale is labelled
in units of 100 000 people.
1. Primary industry ( agriculture, forestry,
mining, etc.)
2. Manufacturing
3. Construction
4. Transportation and communications
5. Trade (retail and wholesale)
6. Finance, insurance, and real estate
7. Personal services (recreation, repairs,
hotels, etc.)
8. Community services (health, education,
religion, etc.)
9. Public administration and defence
Graphs of Industrial Structure are shown only for
statistical areas with populations exceeding 750 000.
EMPLOYMENT
AND INDUSTRIAL
STRUCTURE
* TORONTO & OSHAWA
CHICAGO
TOLEDO
^DETROIT & ANN ARBOR
1. The data mapped are based on Census Metropolitan
Areas (CMA's) in Canada and Standard Metropolitan
Statistical Areas (SMSA's) in the United States, shown as:
2. In several cases, marked * on the map, contiguous CMA's
and SMSA's have been combined to preserve clarity.
3. Note that certain SMSA's extend beyond the boundary of the
Great Lakes Basin.
4. The full names of abbreviated SMSA's are as follows:
BATTLE CREEK et al: Battle Creek. Lansing-E. Lansing & Jackson
BAY CITY et al: Bay City, Saginaw & Flint
Benton Harbor et al: Benton HarborS Portage-Kalamazoo
GRAND RAPIDS et a I: Grand Rapids & Muskegon-Norton Shores-
Muskegon Heights
Green Bay et al: Green Bay, Sheboygan & Appleton-Oshkosh
Brock University Cartography
-------
J ROADS AND
S AIRPORTS
V_^/ IIH* ^
AIRPORTS \ ^
ROADS W| | f Li \
Toll Road ^JfltaNkM KfeA
_ Other Limited Lfla*911 /" i^U?al°VTA rJ\
Access Road Jf Jj #// ir^jpfT^ 0 Ifr'x ^ dr\ \ v*
Trans Canada ^
Other Ma,n 7Pf^-J,n w,,,,
Ferry Service » \ SCALE 1 .1
0 100 200
PIPELINES
\ ,.----j s.«"iilit *rit
(jw ; | i i I torontoL^7o,,,,,,,, ^_/
\y -J l Grant 'v. \ ^-j^Kinllm ^!»I""j'
PIPELINES T ^
0 000 000 "'""V
300 400 km '±
RAILROADS
RAILROADS llW"kM ^ ('
Passenger and
50 200 250 mi J }
/ S-x ELECTRICAL
POWER LINES AND
\ L GENE RATI N G
1 S* "7 KT / SiidhurVv "Rorth Bit
POWER UNES \ j/y^^
J l ' r $ \ Huron T
(LAjI J f\ l PT'^V^UOJ^- _~. jV^
GENERATING ' AtWhnitoi "\i J 1 ¦ (
STATIONS " V Grud Ripidi ~)A "Vl.!'11'10 . C\
\l / m M * r /LonilBn
Hydro nt , ?% 7 * V / \ Vs.
Fossil Fuel JrCHie»G0. 1
Nuclear Toledo* Cleveland /
Only stations with / j I
a total capacity ^rFtrt Wiyne .^--/TNJ
exceeding 100 MW
are shown
Biock University Cartography
-------
27
LEVELS, DIVERSIONS and CONSUMPTIVE USE STUDIES
The responsibilities of the International Joint Commission
(IJC) for levels and flows of the Great Lakes are separate
from its responsibilities for water quality. Water quality ob-
jectives are set by the Great Lakes Water Quality Agree-
ment but levels and flows decisions are made to comply
with the terms of the 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty.
Only limited controls of levels and flows are possible and
only for Lake Superior and Lake Ontario. The flows are
controlled by locks and dams on the St. Marys River, at
Niagara Falls and in the St. Lawrence. Special boards of
experts advise the IJC how to meet the terms of the treaty.
Members of the binational control boards are equally divid-
ed between government agencies in both countries. Until
1973, the IJC managed levels and flows for navigation and
hydropower production purposes. Since then, the IJC has
tried to balance these interests with prevention of shore
erosion.
The IJC has carried out several special studies on levels
issues in response to references, or requests, from the
governments. In 1964. when water levels were very low, the
governments asked the IJC whether it would be feasible to
maintain the waters of all the Great Lakes, including
Michigan and Huron, at a more constant level. After a nine
year study, in 1973, when water levels were very high, the
IJC advised the governments that the high costs of an
engineering system for further regulation of Michigan and
Huron could not be justified by the benefits.
The same conclusion was reached for further regulation
of Lake Erie in 1983. With water levels even higher in
1986, many shore property owners who disagree with the
conclusions of the earlier studies are urging the govern-
ments to reduce water levels by increased diversions
regardless of costs.
Diversion means transfer of water from one watershed to
another. In 1982 the IJC reported on a study of the effects
of existing diversions into and out of the Great Lakes
system and on consumptive uses. "Consumptive use"
measures the difference between the amount of water that is
withdrawn and the amount that is returned to the waterway
after use.
At present, water is diverted into the Great Lakes system
from the Hudson Bay watershed through Long Lac and
Lake Ogoki and diverted out of the Great Lakes at
Chicago. These diversions are almost equally balanced and
have had little long term effect on levels of the lakes. The
study concluded that climate and weather changes affect
levels of the lakes far more than existing man-made
diversions.
Most consumptive use in the Great Lakes is due to
evaporation from power plant cooling systems. Until this
study, consumptive use had not been considered significant
for the Great Lakes because the volume of water in the
system is so large. The 1983 report concluded that, if
consumptive use of water continues to increase, outflows
through the St. Lawrence River could be reduced by as
much as eight per cent by around the year 2030.
Levels of all the Great Lakes have been relatively high
since the early 1970s. They are expected to remain high if
Great Lakes Factsheet No. 3A
Water Withdrawals
the trend toward wetter, colder weather continues in the
region. Shore property owners concerned about erosion are
urging that diversions be increased. Consequently the IJC
may receive a new reference from the governments on
diversions. A reference on lake levels was received in 1985.
Great Lakes Factsheet No. 3B
Water Consumed
Superior Michigan
Huron
Erie
Ontario TOTALS
Superior Michigan
Huron
Erie
Ontario TOTALS
Municipal
Municipal
Canada
40
120
190
660
1010
Canada
10
20
30
100
160
36
107
170
589
902
9
18
27
89
143
U.S.
70
2940
310
2820
380
6520
U.S.
10
190
170
280
70
720
62
2262
277
2515
339
5455
9
169
152
257
62
649
Total
110
2940
430
3010
1040
7530
Total
20
190
190
210
170
780
98
2622
384
2685
927
6716
18
169
170
189
152
698
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Canada
860
1360
1900
2760
6880
Canada
20
70
80
100
270
767
1213
1694
2462
6136
18
62
71
89
240
U.S.
410
9650
1060
9110
530
20760
U.S.
60
880
30
I500
40
2510
366
8608
945
8126
473
18518
53
785
27
1338
36
2239
Total
1270
9650
2420
11010
3290
27640
Total
80
880
100
1580
140
2780
1133
8608
2158
9820
2935
24652
71
785
89
1409
125
2479
Power Production
Power Production
Canada
70
2870
1160
8370
12470
Canada
0
20
10
60
90
62
2560
1035
7466
11123
0
18
9
54
81
U.S.
760
13600
2570
13180
6520
36360
U.S.
10
240
50
190
120
610
678
12131
2292
11757
5816
32674
9
214
45
169
108
545
Total
830
13600
5440
14340
14890
49100
Total
10
240
70
200
180
700
740
12131
4852
12791
13282
43796
9
214
62
178
174
673
GRAND TOTALS
GRAND TOTALS
2210
26190
8290
28360
19220
84270
110
1310
360
1990
490
4260
1971
23361
7394
25296
17144
75166
98
1168
321
1776
451
3814
Cubic feet per second
Millions of cubic metres per year
Source: BULLETINS E-1866-70, Sea Grant College Program,
Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan State
University, E. Lansing, Michigan, 1985.
-------
Brock University Cartography
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29
CHAPTER FOUR THE GREAT LAKES TODAY CONCERNS
Wilderness is the raw material out of which man has
hammered the artifact called civilization ...
No living man will see again the virgin
pineries of the Lake states, or the flatwoods of the
coastal plain, or the giant hardwoods ...
- Aldo Leopold
While parts of the Great Lakes ecosystem have been
changed to better suit the needs of humans, the
unexpected consequences of many of the changes
have only recently become apparent. Since 1960, the
magnitude of these changes and the harsher implications of
some human activities have slowly become better understood.
Deterioration in water quality began with modern settle-
ment. At first the pollution was localized. Agricultural
development, forestry and urbanization caused streams and
shoreline marshes to silt up and harbor areas to become septic.
Domestic and industrial waste discharges, occasional oil and
chemical spills and the effects of mining left some parts of
the waterways unfit for water supply and recreation. Waste-
treatment solutions were adopted to treat biological pollutants
which threatened the immediate health of populations. In
some jurisdictions, regulations were passed to prevent
capricious dumping in the waterways. Eventually, however,
it took a major threat to the whole Great Lakes basin to
awaken authorities to the fact that the entire Great Lakes
ecosystem was being damaged.
PATHOGENS
Historically, the primary reason for water pollution con-
trol was prevention of waterborne disease. Municipalities
began treating drinking water by adding chlorine, a disinfec-
tant. This proved to be a simple solution to a very serious
public health problem.
Humans can acquire bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases
through direct body contact with contaminated water as well
as by drinking the water. Preventing disease transmission
of this kind usually means closing beaches during the sum-
mer when the water is warm and when bacteria from human
feces reach higher concentrations. For instance, many of the
public swimming beaches in the Toronto - Niagara area on
Lake Ontario are closed for some or all of the summer
because their bacterial count exceeds the safe level established
by public health authorities. This is usually attributed to the
common practice of combining storm and sanitary sewers
in urban areas. Although this practice has been discontinued,
existing combined sewers contribute to contamination pro-
blems during periods of high rainfall and urban runoff. At
these times sewage treatment plants cannot handle the large
volumes of combined storm and sanitary flow. The result
is that untreated effluent, diluted by urban runoff, is discharg-
ed directly into waterways.
Modern, large-scale agriculture with its reliance on synthetic fer-
tilizers and peslicides is one of the main nonpoint sources of pollu-
tion to the Great Lakes.
Remedial action can be very costly if the preferred solu-
tion is replacement of the dual-purpose systems in urban areas
with separate storm and sanitary sewers. However, alternate
techniques can be used which would greatly reduce the pro-
blem at lower costs. In the U.S., beach closures have become
rare since sewage treatment was improved in the 1970s.
EUTROPHICATION and OXYGEN
DEPLETION
Lakes can be characterized by their biological productivi-
ty, that is, the amount of living material supported within
them, primarily in the form of algae. The least productive
lakes are called oligotrophic; those with intermediate pro-
ductivity are mesotrophic; and the most productive are
eutrophic. The variables that determine productivity are
temperature, light, depth and volume, and the amount of
nutrients received from the environment.
Except in shallow bays and shoreline marshes, the Great
Lakes were oligotrophic before European settlement and in-
dustrialization. Their size, depth and the climate kept them
continuously cool and clear. The lakes received small amounts
of fertilizers such as phosphorus and nitrogen from decom-
posing organic material in runoff from forested lands. Small
amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus also came from the
atmosphere.
These conditions have changed. Temperatures of some
tributaries have been increased by thermal pollution and by
removal of vegetative shade cover. But, more importantly,
the amount of nutrients and organic material entering the lakes
has increased with intensified urbanization and agriculture.
Nutrient loading increased with the advent of phosphate
detergents and inorganic fertilizers. Although controlled in
most jurisdictions bordering the Great Lakes, phosphates in
detergents continue to be a problem where they are not
regulated.
Increased nutrients in the lakes stimulate the growth of
green plants including algae. The amount of plant growth
increases rapidly in the same way that applying lawn fer-
tilizers (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) results in rapid,
green growth. In the aquatic system the increased plant life
eventually dies, settles to the bottom and decomposes. Dur-
ing decomposition, the organisms which break down the
plants use up oxygen dissolved in the water near the bottom.
With more growth there is more material to be decompos-
ed, and more consumption of oxygen. Under normal condi-
tions, when nutrient loadings are low, dissolved oxygen levels
are kept high by the diffusion of oxygen into water, mixing
by currents and wave action, and by the oxygen production
of photosynthesizing plants.
Depletion of oxygen through decomposition of organic
material is known as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
which is generated from two different sources. In nearshore
areas it is often caused by materials contained in the
discharges from treatment plants. The other principal source
is decaying algae. In deep-water areas such as the central
basin of Lake Erie, algal BOD is the primary problem.
As the BOD load increases and as oxygen levels drop, cer-
tain species of fish can be killed and pollution-tolerant species
that require less oxygen such as sludge worms and carp
replace the original species. Changes in species of algae,
bottom-dwelling organisms (or benthos), and fish are
therefore good biological indicators of oxygen depletion. Tur-
bidity in the water as well as an increase in chlorophyll also
accompany accelerated algal growth and indicate increased
eutrophication.
Lake Erie was the first of the Great Lakes to demonstrate
a serious problem of eutrophication because it is the
shallowest, warmest and naturally most productive. Lake Erie
also experienced early and intense development of its lands
for agricultural and urban uses. About one-third of the total
Great Lakes basin population lives within its drainage area
and surpasses all other lakes in the receipt of effluent from
sewage treatment plants.
Oxygen depletion in the shallow central basin of Lake Erie
was first reported in the late 1920s. Studies showed that the
area of oxygen depletion grew larger with time, although the
extent varied from year to year due, at least in part, to weather
conditions. Eutrophication was believed to be the primary
-------
30
cause. Before controls could be developed, it was necessary
to determine which nutrient(s) was (were) most important
in causing eutrophication in previously mesotrophic or
oligotrophic waters. By the late 1960s, the scientific con-
sensus was that phosphorus was the key nutrient in the Great
Lakes and that controlling the input of phosphorus could
reduce eutrophication.
The central basin of Lake Erie is especially susceptible to
depletion of oxygen in waters near the bottom because it
stratifies in summer, forming a relatively thin layer of cool
water, the hypolimnion, which is isolated from oxygen-rich
surface waters. Oxygen is rapidly depleted from this thin layer
as a result of decomposition of organic matter. When dissolv-
ed oxygen levels reach zero, the waters are considered to
be anoxic. With anoxia many chemical processes change and
previously oxidized pollutants may be altered to forms that
are more readily available for uptake by the water. By con-
trast, the western basin of the lake is not generally suscepti-
ble to anoxia because the wind keeps the shallow basin well
mixed, preventing complete stratification. The eastern basin
is deeper and the thick hypolimnion contains enough oxygen
to prevent anoxia.
In both Canada and the United States, the belief that Lake
Erie was "dying" increased public alarm about water pol-
lution everywhere. Even the casual observer could see that
the lake was in trouble. Cladophora. a filamentous blue-green
algae which thrives under eutrophic conditions, became the
dominant nearshore algae covering beaches in green, slimy
masses. Increased turbidity caused the lake to appear
greenish-brown and murky.
In response to public concern, new pollution control laws
were adopted in both countries to deal with water quality pro-
blems including phosphorus loadings to the lakes. In 1972,
Canada and the United States signed the Great Lakes Water
Quality Agreement to begin a binational Great Lakes cleanup
that emphasized the reduction of phosphorus entering the
lakes.
The concerted effort to reduce phosphorus loadings which
began in 1972 represents an unprecedented international ac-
complishment. Loadings have been reduced by an estimated
80 to 90 percent through regulation and financial assistance,
primarily for upgrading sewage treatment plants. Reductions
in levels of phosphorus from industry and in domestic laun-
dry detergents have also contributed. These reductions have
resulted in dramatic improvements in nearshore water quality
and some improvement in open lake conditions.
In 1983, the two countries approved a supplement to the
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement confirming the max-
imum phosphorus loads that the lakes could tolerate and
agreed to prepare load reduction plans to achieve further
reductions. Reduction in nonpoint sources is now the major
focus of the plans.
The carcinogenic
effects of toxic
pollutants are
believed to have
caused this
tumor (ossifying
fibroma) on a
sauger from the
Great Lakes.
TOXIC CONTAMINANTS
Toxic contamination of the environment and the potential
risk to human health have been the result of the increased
commercial production and wide-spread use of synthetic
organic chemicals and metals since the 1940s. The dangers
of toxic substances in the natural environment were first il-
lustrated through the study of the persistence, movement and
effects of the pesticide DDT in the environment.
Toxic contaminants are the focus of concern in the 1978
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, the Great Lakes
cleanup efforts of the International Joint Commission, and
governments in both countries. Both governments have been
urged to strengthen control of toxic substances by the Water
Quality Board in a 1985 report and the Royal Society/U.S.
National Academy of Sciences in a review of the 1978 Water
Quality Agreement.
Toxic pollutants include man-made organic chemicals and
heavy metals that can be acutely poisonous in relatively small
amounts and injurious through chronic exposure in minute
concentrations. Many trace contaminants that are present have
the potential to increase the risk of cancer, birth defects and
genetic mutations through long-term exposure. These
chemicals may also be affecting aquatic organisms in the
lakes.
The crossed bill
of this Cormorant
is believed to be
an effect of toxic
contamination of
the food chain in
isolated locations
on the lakes.
Many toxic substances tend to bioaccumulate as they pass
up the food chain in the aquatic ecosystem. While the con-
centrations in water of chemicals such as PCBs may be so
low that the toxic substances are almost undetectable,
biomagnification through the food chain can increase levels
in predator fish such as large trout and salmon by a million
times. Still further biomagnification occurs in birds and other
animals that eat fish. Public health and environmental agen-
cies in the Great Lakes states and the Province of Ontario
warn against human consumption of certain fish. Some fish
cannot be sold commercially because of high levels of PCBs,
mercury or other substances.
Fish consumption provides a greater potential for exposure
of humans to toxic substances from the Great Lakes than other
activities such as drinking water or swimming. For exam-
ple, a person who eats one meal of lake trout from Lake
Michigan will be exposed to more PCBs in one meal than
in a lifetime of drinking water from the lake. Epidemiological
studies of Michigan residents have shown that people who
regularly eat fish with high levels of PCBs have much higher
concentrations in their bodies than others. The health risks
of such exposure are uncertain but in one study, mothers who
regularly ate fish with high PCB concentrations had higher
levels of PCBs in their bodies and breast milk than mothers
who did not regularly eat Great Lakes fish. Furthermore,
the average birth weight of the infants exposed to more PCBs
was smaller and their vital signs at birth were not as strong.
Sign on the Grand Calumet River, Indiana.
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31
PATHWAYS OF POLLUTION
While efforts were underway to reduce point sources of
pollution and to study nonpoint pollution sources, it was
discovered that many pollutants are deposited from the at-
mosphere. Like the precursors of acid rain which can
originate far from where the damage occurs, nutrients and
toxic contaminants can be carried long distances from their
sources to be deposited in the lakes in wet and dry forms.
Atmospheric deposition of a pollutant in the Great Lakes basin
was first recognized with phosphorus. Measurements of rain,
snow and dust fall showed that about 20 percent of the
phosphorus loading to Lake Michigan was from the at-
mosphere. Because this source could not be controlled, the
need to reduce phosphorous in detergents, in sewage treat-
ment, and from fertilizer runoff was reinforced. Atmospheric
deposition of toxic chemicals was recognized by
measurements of PCBs in precipitation after these chemicals
were discovered in Great Lakes fish in 1971. Long-range
Biotic Disturbances
SEDIMENT RESUSPENSION. Polluted sediments that have
settled out of the water can be stirred up and resuspended
in water by dredging, by the passage of ships in navigation
channels, and by wind and wave action. Sediments can also
be disturbed by fish and other organisms that feed on the
bottom.
Groundwater movement is another pathway for pollutants.
As water slowly passes through the ground it picks up
materials that are buried. Near-surface disposal sites along
the Niagara River have been found to be leaking a wide varie-
ty of toxic substances into the river which then flows into
Lake Ontario. Fissures in the bedrock allow substances to
migrate with ground water to the walls of the Niagara Gorge
where they then flow to the river. Results of a study con-
ducted in late 1985 suggest that industrial wastes may be con-
taminating ground water around a railway tunnel on the Cana-
dian side of the St. Clair River. A possible source could be
wastes from the former disposal zone in the bedrock beneath
the Sarnia area.
Surface runoff is the pathway for a wide variety of
substances to enter the lakes. Nutrients, pesticides and soils
are released by agricultural activities. In urban areas, street
runoff includes automobile-related substances such as salt,
sand, asbestos, lead, oils and greases. Surface runoff also
includes a wide number of materials deposited with precipita-
tion which may include particulates, bacteria, nutrients and
toxic substances.
SOURCES AND PATHWAYS OF POLLUTION.
transportation of substances was confirmed by the PCBs and
toxaphene discovered in fish from a lake on Isle Royale, a
remote island in Lake Superior isolated from any known
direct sources of the pollutants.
Sediments which were contaminated before pollutant
discharges were regulated are another source of pollution.
Such in-place pollutants are a problem in most urban-
industrial areas. Release of pollutants from sediments is
believed to be occurring in connecting channels such as the
Niagara, St. Clair and St. Marys rivers, in harbors such as
Hamilton, Toronto and the Grand Calumet, and in tributaries
such as the Buffalo, Ashtabula and Black rivers. Even where
it is possible to remove highly contaminated sediments from
harbors, removal can cause problems when sediments are
placed in landfills which may later leak and contaminate
wetlands and groundwater. Dredging for navigation can also
present problems of disposal of dredge spoils. Disposal of
highly polluted sediments in the open lakes has been pro-
hibited since the 1960s.
Dredging
Shipping
Storms
MIGRATION
THROUGH
GROUNDWATER
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32
BIOACCUMULATION and BIOMAGNIFICATION
The nutrients necessary for plant growth (eg., nitrogen
and phosphorus) are found at very low concentrations in
most natural waters. In order to obtain sufficient quantities
for growth, phytoplanklon must collect these chemical
elements from a relatively large volume of water.
In the process of collecting nutrients, they also collect
certain man-made chemicals, such as some persistent
pesticides. These may he present in the water at concen-
trations so low that they cannot be measured even by very
sensitive instruments. The chemicals, however, biologically
accumulate
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33
FISH ADVISORIES
The state and provincial governments surrounding
the Great Lakes have issued advisories for people
consuming fish caught in the lakes. These advisories
suggest that consumption of certain species and sizes
offish should be avoided or reduced due to toxic
chemicals present in the fish. These chemicals can
cause a number of human health problems ranging
from cancer to birth defects and neurological
disorders.
As a result of uncertainty in the scientific com-
munity about the toxicity to humans of these
chemicals, the jurisdictions surrounding the lakes vary
in the advice they provide. However, in all cases,
following the advisories will reduce (but not
necessarily eliminate) the exposure and, therefore, the
risk of suffering adverse effects. High-risk groups
such as pregnant women, nursing mothers and pre-
teen children are advised to pay close attention to the
advisories.
For more information, consumers should contact
their public health and environmental agencies before
eating fish from the Great Lakes or their tributaries.
Serious problems remain throughout the basin in locations
identified by the International Joint Commission as 'areas
of concern'. Areas of concern are those geographic areas
where beneficial use of water or biota is adversely affected
or where environmental criteria are exceeded to the extent
that use impairment is likely to exist. The purpose of
establishing areas of concern is to encourage jurisdictions
to rehabilitate these acute, localized problem areas and to
restore their beneficial uses. The areas are classified accor-
ding to their stage in the remedial process. In these areas,
existing routine programs are not expected to be sufficient
to restore water quality to acceptable levels. Jurisdictions are
preparing remedial action plans to guide specific rehabilita-
tion activities in all 42 areas.
Most UC areas of concern are near the mouths of
tributaries where cities and industries are located. Several
of the areas are along the connecting channels of the St. Clair
and Niagara Rivers. Pollutants are concentrated in these areas
because of long term, direct discharge of wastes from local
sources, nonpoint source leaching of contaminants and ac-
cumulation of pollutants from upstream. Nearly all the areas
of concern have contaminated sediments.
Over the last decade, the nature of the problems associated
with some areas has changed. For instance, as progress was
made in restoring dissolved oxygen and reducing some tox-
ics such as lead and mercury, it became apparent that the
problem of dissolved oxygen had been obscuring other pro-
blems of toxic contamination. In these areas, continued
remedial action and research is necessary.
Understanding all the sources, fates and effects of toxic
contaminants in the Great Lakes ecosystem is still at a relative-
ly early stage. Governmental programs to address toxic
substances are progressing and attempting to bring current
sources under control to levels that protect human health.
However, it is not clear that such levels are fully effective
in the rehabilitation of the Great Lakes with their long food
chains and high degree of bioaccumulation. Also, toxic
chemicals released during earlier less regulated times remain
within the system and continue to create problems.
In some cases, levels have declined for substances whose
production has been banned or whose use has been restricted.
These include DDT, PCBs, mirex and mercury. However,
with hundreds of other chemicals remaining in the ecosystem
and many new ones being found annually, it can be expected
that new problems will continue to develop.
OTHER BASIN CONCERNS
Acid precipitation created by continued use of fossil fuels
in the transportation sector and in the production of electrical
power, as well as from smelter emissions, may seriously af-
fect the quality of aquatic ecosystems. Small lakes and
tributaries which feed the Great Lakes are most susceptible.
Because of the underlying sedimentary limestone in most of
the basin, the Great Lakes have a natural capacity to buffer
the effects of acid rain. However, concern remains for the
lakes and tributaries originating in the northern forest on the
Canadian Shield. In Ontario, Minnesota and Michigan
acidification is already evident in many small lakes.
Wetlands are another concern. Many natural wetlands have
been filled in or drained throughout the southern part of the
region for agriculture, urban uses, shoreline development,
recreation and resource extraction (peat mining). It is
estimated, for example, that between 70 and 80 percent of
the original wetlands of Southern Ontario have been lost since
European settlement. Governments continue to encourage this
practice through drainage subsidies to farmers. The loss of
these lands poses special problems for hydrological processes
and water quality because of the natural storage and cleans-
ing functions of wetlands. Moreover, the loss makes difficult
the preservation and protection of certain wildlife species such
as fish and waterfowl.
The shoreline of the Great Lakes is under continual stress.
In the lower lakes region little remains undeveloped. Most
lakefront properties are in private ownership and thus under
limited control by public authorities wishing to protect them.
Erosion losses are high because of intensive development and
loss of vegetative cover and other natural protection. Damages
due to flooding are also of concern, particularly during
Improper storage of toxic contaminants leads to contamination of
the groundwater supply which can have far-reaching effects.
periods of high lake levels. Flooding and erosion damages
to private property lead to public pressure on governments
to further regulate lake levels through diversion manipula-
tion and control structures on outlet channels (see Chapter
Three.) The demand for public access to the lakes for recrea-
tion has grown steadily in recent years and can be projected
to continue. Currently, the greatest growth is in the develop-
ment of marinas for recreational boating.
Some consideration has been given to the sale of water as
a commodity to fast-growing water-poor areas such as the
American Midwest and Southwest. These range from pro-
posals for minor diversions out of the basin to mega-projects
which would see large-scale alterations to the natural flows
from as far away as James Bay, through the Great Lakes
basin, to the American sunbelt states. Opposition to such sug-
gestions comes from environmentalists and others who fear
the enormous consequences of such large-scale manipula-
tion of the natural watersheds.
It would be a tragic irony if, because of our failure to deal
with the pollution of the lakes and the effects of our develop-
ment of the basin, we look out over the vast expanse of the
lakes and realize that we have permanently damaged a sus-
taining natural resource.
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TROPHIC STATUS
| Oligotrophy
] Oligotrophic/Mesotrophii
Mesotrophic
Mesotrophic/Eutrophic
Eutrophic
Data available for Great Lakes coastal areas
only. Coastal bands not drawn to scale.
POLLUTION SOURCES
AND
TROPHIC STATUS
AREAS OF CONCERN
~
Areas of concern are areas such as harbours,
river mouths and connecting channels
exhibiting serious environmental
degradation, according to the Great Lakes
Water Quality Board and the International
Joint Commission.
POLLUTION SOURCES
O Main map and inset map: Waste
discharges in excess of operating
permits, according to Pollution Probe.
© Inset map only: Waste discharges
providing a significant loading into
the water, according to the Niagara
River Toxics Committee. Some of
these discharges also fall into the
previous category.
Main map and inset map: Hazardous waste
sites having the greatest potential impact on
human health and the environment, according
to the Ontario Ministry of the Environment and
the United States Environmental Protection
Agency "Superfund" National Priorities List.
Inset map only: Hazardous waste sites having
significant potential for contaminant migration,
according to the Niagara RiverToxics Committee.
Some of these sites also fall into the previous category.
NOTE:
The various government agencies responsible for the source
data use different definitions and significance levels; thus not
all the sites shown are equally threatening to human health
and the environment.
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 miles
Brock University Cartography
-------
GREAT LAKES FACT SHEET NO. 4 INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMISSION AREAS OF CONCERN: POLLUTION PROBLEMS AND SOURCES
LAKE BASIN/
AREA OF CONCERN
LAKE SUPERIOR
Peninsula Harbour
Jackfish Bay
Niplgon Bay
Thunder Bay
St. Louis River
Torch Lake
Deer Lake-Carp
Creek-Carp River
LAKE MICHIGAN
Manistique River
Menominee River
Fox River/Southern
Green Bay
Sheboygan
Milwaukee Estuary
Waukegan Harbor
Grand Calumet River/
Indiana Harbor Canal
Kalamazoo River
Muskegon Lake
White Lake
LAKE HURON
Saginaw River/
Saginaw Bay
Collingwood Harbour
Penetang Bay to
Sturgeon Bay
Spanish River Mouth
LAKE ERIE
Clinton River
Rouge River
Raisin River
Maumee River
Black River
Cuyahoga River
Ashtabula River
Wheatley Harbour
LAKE ONTARIO
Buffalo River
Eighteen Mile Creek
Rochester Embayment
Oswego River
Bay of Quinte
Port Hope
Toronto Waterfront
Hamilton Harbour
CONNECTING CHANNELS
St. Marys River
St. Clair River
Detroit River
Niagara River
St. Lawrence River
JURISDICTION
Ontario
Ontario
Ontario
Ontario
Minnesota
Michigan
Michigan
Michigan
Michigan/ Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Michigan
Michigan
Michigan
Ontario
Ontario
Ontario
Michigan
Michigan
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Ontario
New York
New York
New York
New York
Ontario
Ontario
Ontario
Ontario
Ontario/Michigan
Ontario/Michigan
Ontario/Michigan
Ontario/New York
Ontario/New York
TYPES OF PROBLEMS
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Conventional
Pollutants
Heavy Metals
and Toxic
Organics
Contaminated
Sediments
Eutrophi-
cation
Biological
Impacts
and Fish
Advisories
Beach
Closings
Nonpoint
Sources
Municipal
Industrial
Point
Sources
Waste
Disposal
Sites
In-Place
Pollutants
SOURCE: Adapted from IJC. 1985 REPORT ON GREAT LAKES WATER QUALITY. Report of the Water Quality Board. Kingston, Ont: 1985.
INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMISSION AREAS OF
CONCERN. The IJC has identified 42 areas where the use
of water has been impaired by continuous pollution or
where the objectives of the Great Lakes Water Quality
Agreement and local standards are not being achieved.
Studies and remedial action plans are being undertaken for
many of the areas.
-------
MAJOR WETLANDS
There are numerous wetlands in
northern Ontario and elsewhere
that are too small to show
individually at this scale.
ECOREGIONS, WETLANDS
AND DRAINAGE BASINS
NOTE:
1. Ecoregions are areas that exhibit broad ecological
unity, based on such characteristics as climate,
landtorms, soils, vegetation, hydrology and wildlife.
2. Ecoregion characteristics are summarized in
charts on the folio map in the back pocket.
CANADIAN ECOREGIONS
m
Lake St. Joseph Plains
m
Nipigon Plains
m
Thunder Bay Plains
5SEH
Superior Highlands
HI
Matagami
Chapleau Plains
m
Nipissing
ELI
Hurontario
r»i
Erie
Hoi
Saint Laurent
UNITED STATES ECOREGIONS
| 11 | Northeastern Highlands
12n Erie/Ontario Lake Plain
¦I Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands
14 1 Eastern Corn Belt Plains
I 15 | Huron/Erie Lake Plain
[ 16 Southern Michigan/Northern Indiana Clay Plains
TV" Central Corn Belt Plains
j 18 Southeastern Wisconsin Till Plain
19 North Central Hardwood Forests
j 20 | Northern Lakes and Forests
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 miles
Brock University Cartography
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37
CHAPTER FIVE JOINT MANAGEMENT OF THE GREAT LAKES
The concept of an ecosystem approach to management
of the Great Lakes has developed out of the joint ex-
perience of Canada and the United States. An evolu-
tion in understanding of how environmental damage has
resulted from human use of natural resources in the basin
has arisen out of the research, monitoring and commitment
to Great Lakes protection by the governments and citizens
of both countries.
Originally, water pollution was treated as a separate pro-
blem. As experience demonstrated connections between use
of land, air and water resources, appreciation grew for the
need to consider relationships within the ecosystem. Con-
cern about protection and use of waters that are shared by
the United States and Canada led to creation of institutions
that foster joint management.
The first changes that became apparent due to intensive
settlement and development were considered local and
specific. Initially, solutions to problems such as bacterial con-
tamination near cities, sedimentation of tributary mouths and
industrial pollution were handled locally. Usually the solu-
tions involved dilution or displacement of polluted discharges
to other locations. Eventually pollution that had been local
began to affect whole lakes and then became basin-wide con-
cerns.
THE BOUNDARY WATERS
TREATY OF 1909
In 1905 the International Waterways Commission was
created to advise the governments of both countries about
levels and flows in the Great Lakes, especially in relation
to the generation of electricity by hydropower. Its limited
advisory powers proved inadequate for problems related to
pollution and environmental damage. One of its first recom-
mendations was for a stronger institution with the authority
for study of broader boundary water issues and the power
to make binding decisions.
The Boundary Waters Treaty was signed in 1909 and pro-
vided for the creation of the International Joint Commission
(IJC). The IJC has the authority to resolve disputes over the
use of water resources that cross the international boundary.
Most of its efforts for the Great Lakes have been devoted
to carrying out studies requested by the governments and ad-
vising the governments about problems.
In 1912, water pollution was one of the first problems refer-
red to the IJC for study. In 1919. after several years of study,
the IJC concluded that serious water quality problems re-
quired a new treaty to control pollution. However, no agree-
ment was reached.
THE INTERNATIONAL JOINT
COMMISSION
The 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty established the
International Joint Commission of Canada and the United
States. The treaty created a unique process for cooperation
in the use of all the waterways that cross the border
between the two nations, including the Great Lakes.
The IJC has six members, three appointed from each side
by the heads of the federal governments. The authors of the
1909 Boundary Waters Treaty saw the Commission not as
separate national delegations, but as a single body seeking
common solutions in the joint interests of the two countries.
All members are expected to act independently of national
concerns and few IJC decisions have split along national
lines.
The IJC has three responsibilities for the Great Lakes
under the original treaty. The first is the limited authority
to approve applications for the use, obstruction or diversion
of boundary waters on either side of the border that would
affect the natural level or flow on either side. In the early
years a number of such applications were reviewed in re-
lation to changes brought about by power generation and
alterations for shipping. In recent years, applications have
been rare.
The second responsibility is to conduct studies of specific
problems under references, or requests, from the govern-
ments. The implementation of the recommendations
resulting from IJC reference studies is at the discretion of
the two governments. When a reference is made to the IJC,
the practice has been to commission a board of experts to
superv ise the study and to conduct the necessary research.
A number of such studies have been undertaken in the
history of the IJC.
The third responsibility is to arbitrate specific disputes
which may arise between the two governments in relation to
boundary waters. The governments may refer any matters
of difference to the Commission for a final decision. This
procedure requires the approval of both governments and
has never been invoked.
In addition to these specific powers under the 1909
Treaty, the IJC provides a procedure for monitoring pro-
gress under the Water Quality Agreements of 1972 and
1978. For this purpose two standing advisory boards have
been established to assist in collecting, analyzing and
distributing data, and to coordinate the implementation of
approved actions between the cooperating governmental
agencies.
The Water Quality Board is the principal advisor to the
Commission and consists mainly of the staff of federal,
state and provincial control agencies selected equally from
both countries. Its responsibilities include promoting co-
ordination for Great Lakes programs among the different
levels of government.
The Science Advisory Board consists primarily of govern-
ment and academic experts who advise the Water Quality
Board and the IJC about scientific findings and research
needs. Both boards have complex structures involving
special committees, task forces and work groups to address
specific issues.
The IJC relies on work done by the various levels of the
two governments and the academic community. It maintains
an office in each of the national capitals and a Great Lakes
Regional Office in Windsor, Ontario. The Great Lakes
Office provides administrative support and technical
assistance to the two boards and a public information
sendee for the programs of the Commission.
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38
NATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR
GREAT LAKES MANAGEMENT
The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement recognizes
that control procedures, research, and monitoring would
continue to be conducted by the two countries within their
respective legislative and administrative structures.
Because of their obligations under the Agreement, both
governments have established special programs for the
Great Lakes.
In Canada, the British North America Act assigns the
authority for navigable waters and international waters to
the federal government, while pollution control and the
management of natural resources are primarily provincial.
Consequently, the initiative to establish water quality
objectives under the Great Lakes Water Quality Agree-
ment has been federal/provincial, while the implementa-
tion has been primarily a provincial responsibility.
The federal Canada Water Act provides for federal/pro-
vincial agreements setting out responsibilities for both
levels of government. The Canada /Ontario Agreement
provides for joint funding of activities required by the
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and enables the
federal government to play a greater role in pollution
control.
The lead agency at the federal level is Environment
Canada. It maintains research facilities at the Canada
Centre for Inland Waters (CCIW) in Burlington, Ontario.
CCIW houses laboratories and support services for
Environment Canada s research effort. The department of
Fisheries and Oceans is a major contributor of scientific
and research support to Canada's Great Lakes program.
Other federal departments directly involved include the
Department of Health and Welfare, Agriculture Canada,
Transport Canada, and the Department of Public Works.
The major responsibility for water quality at the provin-
cial level rests with the Ontario Ministry of Environment
(MOE). The MOE is responsible for establishing indi-
vidual control orders for each industrial discharger. It
also provides, along with the federal government, funding
for municipal sewage treatment.
In the U. S., many federal environmental laws affect the
lakes, including the Clean Water Act, the Resource Con-
serration and Recovery Act, the Toxic Substances Control
Act, the Comprehensive Environmental Response and
Recovery Act (Superfund) and the National Environmental
Policy Act. These statutes provide federal regulatory
authority, but it is federal policy to delegate regulatory
authority to the state governments wherever possible. The
states have their own laws and operate using both state
and federal funding.
Two considerations determine the level of control
required by U. S. laws. The first requires all municipal
and itulustrial dischargers to meet minimum national stan-
dards for pollution control. Secondly, if further limits are
necessary to meet ambient environmental standards,
tighter limits can be imposed.
For meeting U.S. obligations under the Great Lakes
Agreement, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) has the lead responsibility. Numerous other agen-
cies also have important roles, particularly the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service and the U.S. Coast Guard.
The federal government supports Great Lakes Research
in several agencies. The Great Lakes National Program
Office in the EPA regional office at Chicago provides fun-
ding for applied research and coordinates its activities
with EPA research laboratories in Grosse lie. Michigan,
Duluth, Minnesota and elsewhere.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOA A) has a Great Lakes Environmental Research
Laboratory and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service main-
tains laboratories at the National Fisheries Center in Ann
Arbor, Michigan. The Army Corps of Engineers carries
out research on water quality as well as water quantity.
A nerwork of Sea Grant College programs is supported by
state and federal funding at universities in seven of the
Great Lakes states.
Additional studies in the 1940s led to new concerns by
the IJC. The commission recommended that water quality
objectives be established for the Great Lakes and that technical
advisory boards be created to provide continuous monitor-
ing and surveillance of water quality.
During the 1950s and 1960s, problems on the Great Lakes
came to a head. The parasitic sea lamprey had decimated
fisheries as it invaded further into the waterway. In 1955 the
binational Great Lakes Fisheries Commission was established
to find a means of control for the lamprey. By the late 1970s
the lamprey population had been reduced by 90 percent with
use of selective chemicals to kill the larvae in streams. Since
then, the Fisheries Commission has expanded its activities
to include work to rehabilitate the fisheries of the lakes and
to coordinate government efforts to stock and restore fish
populations.
Public and scientific concern about pollution of the lakes
grew as accelerated eutrophication became more obvious
through the 1950s. In 1964 the IJC began a new reference
study on pollution in the lower Great Lakes. The report on
this study in 1970 placed the principal blame for eutrophica-
tion on excessive phosphorus.
Fish kills of the type seen here prompted citizens to demand that
remedial action be taken to improve water quality on the Great
Lakes.
The study proposed basin-wide efforts to reduce
phosphorus loadings from all sources. It was recognized that
reduction of phosphorus depended on control of local sources.
Uniform effluent limits were urged for all industries and
municipal sewage treatment systems in the basin. Research
suggested that land runoff could also be an important source
of nutrients and other pollutants into the lakes. The result
of the reference study was the signing of the first Great Lakes
Water Quality Agreement in 1972.
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39
THE 1972 GREAT LAKES WATER
QUALITY AGREEMENT
The Great Lakes Agreement established common water
quality objectives to be achieved in both countries and three
processes that would be carried out binationally. The first
is control of pollution, which each country agreed to ac-
complish under its own laws. The chief objective was reduc-
tion of phosphorus levels to no more than 1 ppm (mg per litre)
in discharges from large sewage treatment plants into lakes
Erie and Ontario together with new limits on industry. Other
objectives included elimination of oil, visible solid wastes
and other nuisance conditions.
The second process was research on Great Lakes problems
to be carried out separately in each country as well as
cooperatively. Both countries established new Great Lakes
research programs. Major cooperative research was carried
out on pollution problems of the Upper Great Lakes and on
pollution from land use and other sources.
The third process was surveillance and monitoring to iden-
tify problems and to measure progress in solving problems.
Research vessels collect water samples for the Great Lakes Inter-
national Surveillance and Monitoring Program
Surveillance is carried out under a binational plan that is coor-
dinated through the Great Lakes Regional Office of the IJC.
The plan continues to change with evolution of new concepts
of management. Initially, water chemistry was emphasized
and levels of pollutants were reported. Now, the surveillance
plan is designed to assess the health of the Great Lakes
ecosystem and increasingly depends on monitoring effects
of pollution on living organisms.
The agreement provided for a review of the objectives after
five years and negotiation of a new agreement with different
objectives if necessary. Tangible results had been achieved
when the review was carried out in 1977. The total discharge
of nutrients into the lakes had been noticeably reduced.
Cultural, or man-made eutrophication, bacterial contamina-
tion and the more obvious nuisance conditions in rivers and
nearshore waters had declined. However, new problems in-
volving toxic chemicals had been revealed by research and
the surveillance and monitoring program.
Public health warnings had been issued for consumption
of certain species of fish in many locations. In the United
States sale of certain fish was prohibited due to unsafe levels
of PCBs and, later, mirex and other chemicals. In 1975,
discovery of high levels of PCBs in lake trout on Isle Royale
in Lake Superior demonstrated that the lakes were receiv-
ing toxic chemicals by long range atmospheric transport.
These developments and the results of studies that were car-
ried out after the 1972 agreement set the stage for the next
major step in Great Lakes management.
The Upper Lakes study concluded that phosphorus ob-
jectives should be set for lakes Huron, Michigan and
Superior. This development was significant because it
recognized the Great Lakes as a single system and called for
joint management objectives for Lake Michigan and its
tributaries that had not previously been considered boundary
waters.
The study on pollution from land use and other nonpoint
sources was known as PLUARG (Pollution from Land Use
Activities Reference Group). The study demonstrated that
runoff from agriculture and urban areas was affecting water
quality in the Great Lakes. This significant development con-
firmed that control of direct discharge of pollution from point
sources alone into the Great Lakes and tributaries would not
be enough to achieve the water quality objectives. It also call-
ed for control of nonpoint pollution into the Great Lakes from
land runoff and the atmosphere.
The experience under the 1972 agreement demonstrated
that, despite complex jurisdictional problems, binational joint
management by Canada and the United States could protect
the Great Lakes better than either country could alone. In
1978, a new Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement was sign-
ed that preserved the basic features of the first agreement
and built on the previous results by setting up a new stage
in joint management.
THE 1978 GREAT LAKES WATER
QUALITY AGREEMENT
Like the 1972 agreement, the new agreement called for
achieving common water quality objectives, improved pollu-
tion control throughout the basin, and continued monitoring
by the IJC. As part of improved pollution control, the 1978
agreement called for setting target loadings for phosphorus
for each lake and for virtual elimination of discharges of toxic
chemicals. The target loadings were a step toward a new
management goal that has come to be called "an ecosystem
approach."
In contrast to the earlier agreement which called for pro-
tection of waters of the Great Lakes, the 1978 agreement
calls for restoring and maintaining "the chemical, physical
and biological integrity of the waters of the Great Lakes Basin
Ecosystem." The ecosystem is defined as "...the interac-
ting components of air, land and water and living organisms
including man within the drainage basin of the St. Lawrence
River."
In calling for target loadings for phosphorus, the 1978
agreement introduced the concept of mass balance into Great
Lakes management. A target loading is the level that will
not cause undesirable effects, including over-production of
algae and anoxic conditions on lake bottoms. The mass
balance approach calculates the amount of pollutant that re-
mains active after all sources and losses are considered. All
sources of phosphorus are considered in setting the controls
that are needed to reach the target loading. Formerly
phosphorus control was based on setting effluent limits to
reduce pollution from direct discharges. Target loadings based
on mass balance use mathematical models to determine levels
of control that should protect the integrity of the ecosystem.
The mass balance concept is being applied to control of
toxic substances into the Great Lakes, but understanding of
the sources and effects of toxic chemicals in the lakes is not
as complete. Although total elimination of toxic substances
from the Great Lakes basin is the goal, the mass balance ap-
proach can be used to set priorities and direct pollution con-
trol efforts. Use of the mass balance concept for toxic
substances is complicated by the large number of chemicals
that have been found in fish, water or sediments. In order
to set priorities for control, the Water Quality Board of the
IJC has now divided them into groups with similar
characteristics.
Another complication is the large number of diffuse sources
such as land runoff, leaching from landfills, the atmosphere,
and contaminated sediments. Still another complication is the
difficulty of identifying effects of toxic chemicals. The levels
of toxic chemicals in the Great Lakes are not high enough
to cause immediately apparent health effects. However,
damage occurs through long term exposure and bioaccumula-
tion in the food chain. The extent of damage by synergism
/
; ,4«f.
V,
J
-------
40
or the cumulative result of exposure to many different
chemicals is not known.
The 1978 agreement called for virtual elimination of the
discharge of persistent toxic chemicals because of severe and
irreversible damage from bioconcentration of toxic substances
present at very low levels in water. The effects include birth
defects and reproductive failures in birds, and tumors in fish.
A long term epidemiological study in Michigan has since
shown that exposure to high concentrations of PCBs before
birth and in breast milk affects the development of human in-
fants. The elevated levels of PCBs in the mothers of these
babies was due to consumption of certain fish from Lake
Michigan.
Success in reducing phosphorus loadings under the Great
Lakes agreement has provided a model to the world in bina-
tional resource management. The use of the mass balance ap-
proach for phosphorus set the stage for the much more dif-
ficult task of controlling toxic contamination. Further progress
in cleaning up pollution from the past and preventing future
degradation depends on fully applying an ecosystem approach
to management.
AN ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO
MANAGEMENT
The adoption of an ecosystem approach to management is
the result of growing understanding of the many interrelated
and interdependent factors that govern the ecological health
of the Great Lakes. An ecosystem approach does not depend
on any one program or course of action. Rather it assumes
a more comprehensive and interdisciplinary attitude that leads
to wide interpretation of its practical meaning. Certain basic
characteristics, however, mark the ecosystem approach.
First, it takes a broad, systemic view of the interaction
among physical, chemical and biological components in the
Great Lakes basin. The interdependence of the life in the lakes
and the chemical/physical characteristics of the water is
reflected in the use of biological indicators to monitor water
quality and changes in the aquatic ecosystem. Examples in-
clude the use of herring gull eggs as an indicator of toxic
pollutants, algal blooms as indicators of accelerated eutrophica-
tion and changes in species composition of aquatic communities
as an indicator of habitat destruction. Biomonitoring for
chronic toxicity can use zooplankton and phytoplankton to
measure the effects of long term exposure to low levels of
a toxic chemical on growth and reproduction.
Second, the ecosystem approach is geographically com-
prehensive, covering the entire system including land, air and
water. New emphasis on the importance of atmospheric in-
puts of pollutants and the effects of land uses on water quali-
ty are evidence of the broad scope of management planning
required in an ecosystem approach.
Finally, the ecosystem approach includes humans as a central
factor in the wellbeing of the system. This suggests recogni-
tion of social, economic, technical and political variables that
affect how humans use natural resources. Human culture,
changing lifestyles and attitudes must be considered in an
ecosystem approach because of their effects on the integrity
of the ecosystem.
The ecosystem approach is a departure from an earlier focus
on localized pollution, management of separate components
of the ecosystem in isolation, and planning that neglects the
profound influences of land uses on water quality. It is a
framework for decision making that compels managers and
planners to cooperate in devising integrated strategies of
research and action to restore and protect the integrity of the
Great Lakes ecosystem for the future. The evolution of
management programs toward a full ecosystem approach is
still in its early stages, but progress is being made.
Keeping the Water Quality Agreement up to date is assured
by a requirement that its terms be reviewed following each
third biennial report of the LIC. During 1987 each country
conducted a review, then jointly negotiated amendments.
After consultation with various federal agencies, states, pro-
vinces, and the public, it was decided that revisions were need-
ed to bring the Agreement up to date and strengthen it in
several areas including its management and accountability. It
was also decided that changes would not be allowed to disturb
the basic purpose and objectives of the Agreement, that is
restoration and maintenance of the chemical, physical and
ecological integrity of the basin ecosystem.
The 1987 amendments to the Agreement clarify the role
of the governments and the IJC. It requires that the govern-
ments complete technical and progress reports by specified
dates and calls on the IJC to evaluate them and provide com-
ment. Management plans are to be developed for the most
polluted areas of the basin, the "Areas of Concern" iden-
tified by the IJC and for lakewide problems. These remedial
action plans and lake management plans are to provide clear
definition of problems and the remedial actions needed to clean
them up. Given this information, it will be easier for managers
and the public to keep track of progress and ensure that
remedial actions are taken.
The amendments also address atmospheric deposition of to-
xic substances; leaking dumps and storage tanks; polluted
underground water that seeps into the Great Lakes; con-
taminated lake and river bottoms and sediments; contamina-
tion from runoff in agricultural areas; and polluted street runoff
in urban areas.
The 1987 Amendments require that the governments meet
twice each year to discuss the state of the lakes and to report
to the public regularly on the progress of Great Lakes cleanup.
In addition to changes related to pollution sources and
remedial actions, a provision was added calling for develop-
ment of ecosystem objectives and indicators for each of the
lakes. Also, specific ecosystem objectives and indicators were
adopted for Lake Superior. These provisions are viewed by
many as a major step toward implementing an ecosystem ap-
proach to management.
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41
CHAPTER SIX
Even though in earlier times the effects of pollution were
often considered necessary results of prosperity and
progress, the damage to human health and natural
resources can no longer be ignored. Cooperation under the
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and the national pro-
grams for environmental protection reflect the commitment
of the people of the United States and Canada to prevent fur-
ther degradation and protect the future of the Great Lakes.
Earlier chapters described the resources of the Great Lakes,
how humans have used them and the physical, biological and
chemical impacts of human activities. The previous chapter
considered how a community of Great Lakes concern
developed that included the public, scientists, and resource
managers. Research in universities and government agen-
cies has provided a substantial body of theory and informa-
tion for practical management programs. The public, through
participation as individual citizens and in organizations, have
influenced elected officials.
Together, citizens and experts from both sides of the border
provided the impetus for governments to cooperate and adopt
more creative and effective management solutions to Great
Lakes problems. The concept of an ecosystem approach to
management evolved from experience in this broadly based
Great Lakes community. But the story of the Great Lakes
docs not end here. Research continues, new methods of con-
trolling and regulating impacts of human activities are be-
ing developed and the demand grows for rehabilitation and
prevention of further damage.
While research continues to assist refinement of the mass
balance and biomonitoring techniques, there is still an urgent
need for better understanding of how toxic substances move
through the Great Lakes ecosystem on land, in the air, and
through aquatic foodchains. More information is needed about
nonpoint sources such as land runoff, the atmosphere and
groundwater, and about secondaiy pollution that may occur
when substances combine chemically in air or water. As more
is learned about the pathways of toxic chemicals, there is
growing concern beyond the Great Lakes to the human food
chain.
A broader scope of regulation of toxic chemicals may be
necessary as research and monitoring reveals practices that
are harmful. More stringent controls of waste disposal are
already being applied in many locations. Agricultural prac-
tices are being examined because of the far-reaching effects
of pesticides and fertilizers. Wetlands, forests, shorelines and
other environmentally sensitive areas that are important to
the Great Lakes ecosystem will have to be more strictly pro-
tected and, in some cases, rehabilitated and expanded.
THE FUTURE
For continued progress to be made in the protection of the
Great Lakes, the people of the Great Lakes region must
recognize their part in the ecosystem approach. We must con-
trol our technology and economic development so that we
live within the ecosystem without injury to it. In return, the
lakes and the lands surrounding them will continue to con-
tribute to the quality of life for the people of the region and
beyond.
GREAT LAKES CHARTER
AND THE GREAT LAKES
TOXIC SUBSTANCES
CONTROL AGREEMENT
In 1985, the governors and premiers signed a Great
Lakes Charter committing the states and provinces to
regional cooperation in managing the Great Lakes. It
was developed in response to interest in diverting water
from the Great Lakes to other regions of the United
States that face water shortages.
The charter assumes eventual agreement on a basin-
wide management program based on principles that
have already been accepted. Developing the charter
was the first step toward a regional program for pro-
tecting the ecological integrity of the Great Lakes
system. By signing the charter, the states and provinces
also agreed to develop their own water management
programs and to exchange information with each other
before taking actions that affect the lakes.
The charter carries no legal enforcement authority in
either country but depends on the voluntary good faith
of the Great Lakes states and provinces. As a sign of
regional unity against new exports of Great Lakes
water, the charter probably makes federal support of
diversion less likely in Ottawa and Washington.
In the spring of 1986, the governors of the eight
Great Lakes states signed the Great Lakes Toxic
Substances Control Agreement. This agreement pledges
the states to co-operate in studying, managing and
monitoring the lakes. The Agreement aims to reduce
toxic substances to the maximum extent possible and to
maintain environmental and public health priorities
ahead of economic priorities. The premiers of the
provinces of Ontario and Quebec support the
agreement.
OF THE GREAT LAKES
A
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-------
42
GLOSSARY
ALGA (ALGAE) - Simple one-celled or many-celled
microorganisms capable of carrying on photosynthesis in aquatic
ecosystems.
ANOXIA - The absence of oxygen necessary for sustaining most
life. In aquatic ecosystems this refers to the absence of dissolved
oxygen in water.
AREA OF CONCERN - An area recognized by the International
Joint Commission where water uses are impaired or where objec-
tives of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement or local
environmental standards are not being achieved.
ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION - Pollution from the atmosphere
associated with dry deposition in the form of dust, wet deposition
in the form of rain and snow, or as a result of vapor exchanges.
BIOMAGNIFICATION - A cumulative increase in the concentra-
tion of a persistent substance in successively higher trophic levels
of the foodchain.
BIOMASS - Total dry weight of all living organisms in a given
area.
BIOMONITORING - The use of organisms to test the acute tox-
icity of substances in effluent discharges as well as the chronic
toxicity of low-level pollutants in the ambient aquatic
environment.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND - The amount of dissolved
oxygen required for the bacterial decomposition of organic waste
in water.
CARCINOGEN - Cancer-causing chemicals, substances or radia-
tion.
CONSUMPTIVE USE - Permanent removal of water from a water
body. Consumptive use may be due to evaporation or incorpora-
tion of water into a manufactured product.
DDT - Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane - a widely used, very per-
sistent pesticide (now banned from production and use in many
countries) in the chlorinated hydrocarbon group.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN - The amount of oxygen dissolved in
water. See BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND.
DIVERSION - Transfer of water from one watershed to another.
DRAINAGE BASIN - A waterway and the land area drained by it.
ECOSYSTEM - The interacting complex of living organisms and
their non-living environment.
EFFLUENT - Wastewaters discharged from industrial or
municipal sewage treatment plants.
EPILIMNION - The warm, upper layer of water in a lake that oc-
curs with summer stratification.
EROSION - The wearing away and transportation of soils, rocks
and dissolved minerals from die land surface or along shorelines
by rainfall, running water, or wave and current action.
EUTROPHICATION - The process of fertilization that causes high
productivity and biomass in an aquatic ecosystem. Eutrophication
can be a natural process or it can be a cultural process ac-
celerated by an increase of nutrient loading to a lake by human
activity.
EXOTIC SPECIES - Species that are not native to the Great
Lakes and have been intentionally introduced or have inadvertent-
ly infiltrated the system.
FOODCHAIN - The process by which organisms in higher trophic
levels gain energy by consuming organisms at lower trophic
levels.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE - The natural cycle of water on earth, in-
cluding precipitation as rain and snow, runoff from land, storage
in lakes, streams, and oceans, and evaporation and transpiration
(from plants) into the atmosphere.
HYPOLIMNION - The cold, dense, lower layer of water in a lake
that occurs with summer stratification.
LEACHATE - Materials suspended or dissolved in water and
other liquids usually from waste sites that percolate through soils
and rock layers.
MASS BALANCE - An approach to evaluating the sources,
transport and fate of contaminants entering a water system as
well as their effects on water quality. In a mass balance budget,
the amounts of a contaminant entering the system less the quanti-
ty stored, transformed or degraded must equal the amount leaving
the system. If inputs exceed outputs, pollutants are accumulating
and contaminant levels are rising. Once a mass balance budget
has been established for a pollutant of concern, the long-term ef-
fects on water quality can be simulated by mathematical modeling
and priorities can be set for research and remedial action.
MESOTROPHIC - See TROPHIC STATUS
MONOCULTURE - Agriculture that is based on a single type of
crop.
NONFOINT SOURCE - Source of pollution in which pollutants
are discharged over a widespread area or from a number of small
inputs rather than from distinct, identifiable sources.
NUTRIENT - A chemical that is an essential raw material for the
growth and development of organisms.
OLIGOTROPHY - See TROPHIC STATUS
PCBs - polychlorinated biphenyls - A class of persistent organic
chemicals that bioaccumulate.
PATHOGEN - A disease-causing agent such as bacteria, viruses,
and parasites.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS - A process occurring in the cells of green
plants and some microorganisms in which solar energy is
transformed into stored chemical energy.
PHYTOPLANKTON - Minute, microscopic aquatic vegetative life.
POINT SOURCE POLLUTION - A source of pollution that is
distinct and identifiable, such as an outfall pipe from an industrial
plant.
RESUSPENSION (of sediment) - The remixing of sediment par-
ticles and pollutants back into the water by storms, currents,
organisms and human activities such as dredging.
SEICHE - An oscillation in water level from one end of a lake to
another due to rapid changes in winds and atmospheric pressure.
Most dramatic after an intense but local weather disturbance
passes over one end of a large lake.
STRATIFICATION (or LAYERING) - The tendency in deep lakes
for distinct layers of water to form as a result of vertical change
in temperature and therefore in the density of water.
THERMOCLINE - A layer of water in deep lakes separating cool
hypolimnion (lower layer) from the warm epilimnion (surface
layer).
TOXIC SUBSTANCE - As defined in the Great Lakes Agreement,
any substance that adversely affects the health or wellbeing of
any living organism.
TROPHIC STATUS - A measure of the biological productivity in
a body of water. Aquatic ecosystems are characterized as
oligotrophic (low productivity), mesotrophic (medium productivi-
ty) or eutrophic (high productivity).
WIND SET-UP - A local rise in water levels caused by winds
pushing water to one side of a lake.
ZOOPLANKTON - Minute aquatic animal life.
CONVERSION TABLE
Metric to Imperial Values
(approximate only)
1
metre =
3.28 feet
1
kilometre =
0.621 miles
1
kilogram =
2.2 pounds
1
square kilometre =
0.386 square miles
1
cubic kilometre =
0.24 cubic miles
1
liter =
0.264 U.S. gallons
1
cubic melre/second =
35.31 cubic feet/second
1
tonne =
1.1 short tons
-------
43
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44
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Miscellaneous tourist pamphlets and brochures for Ontario and the states within
the Great Lakes Basin.
Ontario, road map, 1/800,000 and 1/1,600,000. Toronto: Ontario Ministry of
Transportation and Communications, 1986.
Shore Use and Erosion Work Group. Great Lakes Basin Framework Study. Ap-
pendix R9, Recreational Boating. Ann Arbor: Great Lakes Basin Commission, 1976.
Shore Use and Erosion Work Group. Great Lakes Basin Framework Study, Ap-
pendix 12. Shore Use and Erosion. Ann Arbor. Great Lakes Basin Commission,
1975.
The National Atlas of the United States. Washington: USGS, Department of the
Interior, 1970 and later.
EMPLOYMENT AND INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE (Page 25)
1980 Census of Population, Volume 1, Characteristics of the Population, Chap.
C, General Social and Economic Characteristics, Parts 15, 16, 24, 25, 34, 37,
40 and 5}. Washington: Bureau of the Census. US Department of Commerce, 1983.
1981 Census of Canada, Population etc., Selected Characteristics, Ontario. Ottawa:
Statistics Canada, 1982.
1981 Census of Canada, Population, Economic Characterises, Ontario. Ottawa:
Statistics Canada, 1984.
1981 Census of Canada. Reference Maps. Census Divisions and Subdivisions.
Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1982.
TRANSPORTATION AND ENERGY MAPS (Page 26)
Generating Station December Installed Capacity. Toronto: Ontario Hydro, 1985,
mimeo.
Handy Railroad Atlas of the United States. Chicago: Rand McNally & Co.. 1982.
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wiscon-
sin, road maps, various scales. Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1986.
Inventory of Power Plants in the United States 1985. Washington: Energy Infor-
mation Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, 1986.
National Atlas of Canada, 5th ed. Ottawa: Surveys and Mapping Branch. EMR,
1978 and later.
Ontario, road map, 1/800,000 and 1/1.600,000. Toronto: Ontario Ministry of
Transportation and Communications, 1986.
Sectional Aeronautical Charts, map series, 1/500,000, Chicago, Detroit, Green
Bay and Lake Huron sheets. Washington: US Department of Commerce, 1986.
The Gifts of Nature. Toronto: Ontario Hydro. 1979.
The National Atlas of the United States. Washington: United States Geological
Survey, Department of the Interior. 1970 and later.
VIA Rail pamphlets.
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION (Page 28)
1980 Census of Population, Vol. 1, Characteristics of the Population. Chap. C.
General Social and Economic Characteristics, Parrs 15, 16, 24. 25. 34. 37, 40
and 51. Washington: Bureau of the Census. U.S. Department of Commerce. 1983.
1981 Census of Canada, Population etc., Selected Characteristics, Ontario. Ottawa:
Statistics Canada, 1982.
POLLUTION SOURCES AND TROPHIC STATUS (Page 34)
Beltram. R.. U.S. EPA, Chicago, personal communication, 1986.
Great Lakes Water Quality Board, 1985 Report on Great Lakes Water Quality.
Kingston: UC, 1985.
Profiles of Environmental Quality, Region V. The Midwest. Chicago: U.S. EPA.
1979.
Report of the Niagara River Toxics Committee, 1984.
Saving the Great Lakes. Special issue of "Alternatives", Vol. 13, No. 3. 1986.
Toxics-Great Lakes-Hot Spots, map, no scale. Toronto: Pollution Probe, 1985.
Waste Site Inventories. Toronto: Waste Management Branch, Ontario MOE, 1986.
ECOREGIONS, DRAINAGE BASINS AND WETLANDS (Page 36)
Ecoregions of the coterminous United States 1:7,500.000 by James Omernik, Cor-
vallis Environmental Research Laboratories, U.S. EPA, 1986.
Ecodislricts of Southern Canada, draft maps, 1/2,000,000, no date.
International Reference Group on Great Lakes Pollution from Land Use Activities,
Inventory of Land Use and Land Use Practices in the Canadian Great Lakes Basin,
Vol. 1. Windsor: International Joint Commission 1977.
Rubec, C., Lands Directorate, Environment Canada, Ottawa, personal communica-
tion, 1986.
Shore Use and Erosion Work Group, Great Lakes Basin Framework Study, Ap-
pendix 10, Power. Ann Arbor: Great Lakes Basin Commission, 1975.
Wickware, G., Hunter and Associates, Mississauga, personal communication, 1987.
PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS
Cover: NOAA-NESS satellite image courtesy of AES, Environment Canada.
Pages 3, 7, 9, 11 (right) and 12: D. COWELL, Environment Canada
Pages 5, 29, 30 (center): Great Lakes Program Office, U.S. EPA, Chicago, III.
Pages 11 (center), 14, 20 (center), 22 (center), 38,41: CCIW, Burlington, Ontario.
Pages 13 (center), 22 (right), 40 (right): U.S. National Parks Service, Indiana Dunes
National Lakeshore.
Page 13 (right); University of Wisconsin, Extension Service.
Page 16: National Map Collection, Public Archives of Canada, Ottawa.
Page 17: Royal Ontario Museum.
Page 20 (right): F. BERKES.
Pages 24 (left), 30 (right): Lake Michigan Federation, Chicago, 111.
Page 24 (center): Metropolitan Toronto Convention and Visitors Association.
Page 33; Ontario Ministry of the Environment.
Page 39: P. BERTRAM, Great Lakes National Program Office, U.S. EPA, Chicago,
III.
PRODUCTION
Typesetting and photomechanical work for atlas maps by Commercial Photocopy
lid., St. Catharines. Photomechanical work for folio map by Bergman Ltd., Bramp-
ton, Ontario. Typesetting and layout of text by Kopy Kats Ltd., St. Catharines.
General assistance with the production of this atlas was given by Mr. H. BELZER,
Printing Products Officer, Canadian Department of Supply and Services, Etobicoke,
Ontario.
Appreciation is expressed for the generous assistance of Mrs. Olga Slachla and
Miss Colleen Beard of the Brock Univerity Map Library.
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