EPA 910/9-78-048
SEDIMENT AND WATER QUALITY:
A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
INCLUDING A SUGGESTED APPROACH
FOR WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
by Robert N. Iwamoto Ernest O. Salo
Mary Ann Madej R. Lynn McComas
with SUMMARY OF WORKSHOP and
CONCLUSIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS
by Ernest (). Salo, Fisheries Research Institute
Robert L. Rulifson, EPA Region X
«tt) ST4,
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EPA 910/9-78-048
February 1978
SEDIMENT AND WATER QUALITY: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
INCLUDING A SUGGESTED APPROACH FOR WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
by
Robert N. Iwamoto
Ernest 0. Salo
Mary Ann Madej
R. Lynn McComas
Fisheries Research Institute, College of Fisheries
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
with
SUMMARY OF WORKSHOP and
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
by
Ernest 0. Salo Robert L. Rulifson
Fisheries Research Institute EPA Region 10
The Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10
Contract No. WY-6-99-0825-J
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CONTENTS
Page
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 2
Conclusions 2
Recommendations 3
III. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 6
Definitions 6
Sources of Sediments 6
Sediment Sampling Techniques .... 8
Suspended Sediment 8
Bedload 9
Inorganic Sediments and the Aquatic Biota 12
Algae and Phytoplankton 13
Invertebrates other than Insects 15
Aquatic Insects 15
Aquatic Vertebrates 18
Suspended Sediments 18
Deposited Sediments and Bedload Processes . . 22
IV. ANALYSIS OF PRESENT STATE OF THE ART 32
Problems in Establishing Sediment Criteria 32
Suggested Approaches from the Literature 35
V. RESEARCH NEEDS HO
Biological Research 40
Physical Research 41
VI. RECOMMENDED APPROACHES TO BE EVALUATED
AT THE WORKSHOP 43
VII. SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW 46
APPENDICES A - D
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LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX A - SUMMARY OF SEDIMENTATION WORKSHOP
APPENDIX B - SEDIMENT DISCHARGE COMPUTATIONS
APPENDIX C - TABULAR SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE CONCERNING
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND SEDIMENTS
APPENDIX D - ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
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PREFACE
Parts III through VII and Appendices B, C, and D of this report
were initially prepared to provide participants of a workshop on sedimen-
tation of streams and related water quality criteria with a review of
the pertinent literature. The workshop was held to evaluate, from
technical and managerial aspects, possible alternative approaches to
criteria based on turbidity measurements. Subsequently, the summary of
the workshop (Appendix A) and some conclusions and recommendations
(Part II) were added. The bibliography contains 307 annotated and 112
unannotated references, some of which are cited in the text of this
report. An additional 16 references which were not available for review
have been included.
The report consists of six major sections:
1. Conclusions and recommendations which were derived from the
bibliography and the workshop.
2. A review of the literature on sources of inorganic sediments,
sampling techniques, predictive equations, effects on aquatic biota, and
approaches for development of water quality criteria which have been
suggested in the literature.
3. Research needs based on the analysis of the literature.
4. Recommendations for approaches for development of water quality
criteria which were evaluated at the workshop.
5. A summary of the workshop proceedings (Appendix A).
6. The bibliography (Appendix D).
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I. INTRODUCTION
Numerous attempts have been made to determine the effects of sedi-
ments on aquatic organisms and, though often incomplete or inconclusive,
they have contributed to the establishment of sediment criteria based on
turbidity levels. Most are standards that do not allow amounts to
exceed: 1) those which are considered ambient; 2) some arbitrarily
determined numerical values in Jackson Turbidity Units (JTU's); or 3) some
other measurement of light transmissibility. Although satisfactory as a
first approximation in the establishment of judicial standards, the
application of such criteria has led to confusion and disagreement.
Assuming that the use of turbidity levels as a water quality crite-
rion is questionable, the problem became one of finding and of evaluating
alternative approaches for assessing impacts on water quality. The
conclusions and recommendations presented, although based on the review
of the literature and the workshop, are subjective and not necessarily
those of the participants of the workshop.
At the present time, some states have adopted forest practices
which include the concept of Best Management Practices (BMP). This
allows for the use of flexible standards which in practice may be the
only practical approach. However, it is the concensus that BMP need not
only updating but monitoring.
This report is intended as a base for continued investigation of
alternative approaches.
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II. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The conclusions and recommendations, although based on the analysis
of the literature and upon the proceedings of the workshop, are necessar-
ily subjective and not necessarily those of the participants of the
workshop. In fact, agreement on criteria was not reached (and could not
be expected in a 1-day session) and as the reader of the Summary of the
Workshop (Appendix A) will conclude, unanimity on recommendations are
unlikely. Thus, without additional collaboration with the participants,
the conclusions and recommendations are presented. The first conclusion
in particular is a judgment decision based on the literature as well as
on the overall field experiences of the Fisheries Research Institute.
Conclusions
1. Sedimentation of the stream substrate, particularly the gravel
used for spawning, produces significant detrimental effects on the
salmonid resources. The reproducible results in numerous laboratory and
several test stream situations can be extrapolated to natural conditions.
Extreme variation in results under natural conditions has precluded
consistency; however, sampling in the field (Koski 1966, Tagart 1976)
has included values obtained in the laboratory and test stream conditions.
2. Turbidity measurements are useful indicators of general quanti-
ties of suspended sediments. However, they are difficult to relate to
any biological significance.
3. Direct measurements of suspended sediments, although exact,
vary greatly with stage of hydrograph and with sequence of storms.
4. The tolerance of salmonids and other aquatic organisms to
suspended sediments appears to be high.
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5. Streambed composition—although variable with stage of hydro-
graph, sequence of storms (time of year), and location in stream—does
reflect the instantaneous as well as progressive condition of the stream
in relation to sediments.
6. Measurements of bedload, although technically valid, are too
complicated as a criterion.
7. Currently, and probably in the future, the concept of BMP is
the best management strategy.
8. BMP must be improved upon by monitoring, including the implemen-
tation of a set of water quality criteria.
Recommendations
We recommend that:
1. BMP be monitored by a set of criteria including:
a. Turbidity units as determined by light transmissibility
(JTU, NTU).
b. Limits to fines (to be defined as to size and quantity)
allowable as intragravel sediment. The intragravel fines are to be
measured by percentage composition by size categories.
c. Measurements of suspended sediments, including the rela-
tionships with turbidity and substrate composition (intragravel
measurements).
2. Sampling of the streambed be standardized, by watershed, by:
a. Technique--the freeze core device appears to be the most
promising.
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b. Location--sections of the stream above and below areas of
potential impact should be included as should the areas usable by salmo-
nids for spawning.
c. Hydrograph--the sequence of storms should be studied and,
as an example, the descending limb of one of the later winter storms
should be chosen to compare with early summer, i.e., after the last
storm.
3. A data bank of information received from recommendations 1 and
2 should be established.
4. A research program be started and continued to study the
relationships of:
a. Intragravel fines and storm sequences.
b. Intragravel fines and stage of hydrograph.
c. Sources of natural sediments and deposition in the intra-
gravel environment as related to a and b.
d. Sources of sediments from man-caused events (clearcut
practices, roads, instream gravel operations), as related to a and b.
e. Measurements of bedload be related to intragravel
environment.
f. The relationships of migrating salmonids to hydrograph
and storm sequences.
g. The relationship of spawning and hydrograph stage.
5. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) should research and
develop a method for evaluating the physical and biological effects of
sedimentation and demonstrate proposed methods in cooperation with the
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states. Development of standard methods for gravel sampling and other
elements to be used in the "approach" should be a part of the study.
6. A companion effort should be the formation of an ad hoc commit-
tee of EPA and the states of Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington for
review of the research progress and for development of an administrative
program for BMP.
Recommendations 1-4 are based on the assumption that "natural"
sediments may have a fate (deposition), that is correlated with storm
events and stage of hydrograph, different from that of man-caused events
(these may be more continuous). The life histories of anadromous fishes
may be closely related to hydrograph and storm sequence as might be the
suspension and deposition of sediments from natural sources. The impacts
of man-caused sediments, if out of phase with hydrograph and the fishes
adaptations, may be different than those of natural events.
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III. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Definitions
The following definitions are from the report of the Subcommittee
on Sediment Terminology (American Geophysical Union 1947):
"Suspended load can be used for either (1) the material moving in
suspension in a fluid, being kept up by the upward components of the
turbulent currents or by colloidal suspension, or (2) the material
collected in or computed from samples collected with a suspended load
sampler. (A suspended load sampler is a sampler which attempts to
secure a sample of the water with its sediment load without separating
the sediment from the water.) Where it is necessary to distinguish
between the two meanings above, the first may be called the 'true sus-
pended load.'
Bedload may be used to designate either coarse material moving on
or near the bed, or material collected in or computed from samples
collected in a bedload sampler or trap.
Bed material load is part of the sediment load of a stream which is
composed of particle sizes found in appreciable quantities in the shifting
portions of the streambed.
Washload is that part of the sediment load of a stream which is
composed of particle sizes smaller than those found in appreciable
quantities in the shifting portions of the streambed."
Sources of Sediments
The source of all sediment transported by a stream is the watershed
which the stream drains. Sediment may remain in storage in the channel
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bed and banks until critical discharges are exceeded and the sediment
begins to move. Thus, the channel bed and banks may be considered a
source of sediment for transport by a stream.
The erosion processes which are active in providing sediment to the
streams from the watershed are:
1. Creep—slow mass movement of weathered material downslope
under the influence of gravity.
2. Debris slides--rapid movement of unsaturated cohesionless
material down a hillslope.
3. Debris avalanches--rapid slide or flow of saturated material.
4. Bank erosion and caving.
5. Overland flow--water that flows unchanneled over the soil
surface because the infiltration capacity of the soil has been exceeded
by rainfall intensity, a situation that does not occur in humid regions,
except in disturbed areas.
6. Saturation overland flow--a situation where the soil becomes
saturated with water, and the excess water is forced to flow overland,
common on valley floors and in swales in humid regions.
The rates and relative magnitude of the six processes are dependent
upon climate, geology, exposure, slope gradient, soil type, and vegetation
cover. The yields of sediment to a stream are affected by the removal
of vegetation, changes in runoff characteristics of the watershed, and
changes in the cohesion of hillslope material. Human activities such as
agriculture, urban development and construction, silviculture, and
mining influence these variables in differing degrees of intensity and
must be evaluated when considering sediment transport within watersheds.
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Sediment Sampling Techniques
It is somewhat artificial to speak of sampling bedload and suspended
load separately because, during the process of sediment transport, an
exchange of the two modes occurs, but this distinction is made for ease
in separating field measurements.
Suspended Sediment
The two main types of direct suspended sediment samplers are the
depth-integrated and single-stage samplers. Depth-integrated samplers
sample the water sediment mixture continuously while the sampler is
lowered uniformly through the flow to the bed and raised back to the
surface. The US DH-4-8 and US DH-59 are two handheld depth-integrated
samplers used by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) (Guy 1970) and the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) (Miller and Bowie 1965) to sample
small and intermediate sized streams and are light, durable, and adaptable.
When streams cannot be waded, a cable and reel sampler (US D-43 or
US D-49) may be used. Stability and safety are improved in the D-49
depth-integrated model,
A point-integrated sample can be obtained from deep or swift flows
by holding the valve of the sampler open at specific points while inte-
grating the stream depth in sections. These point-integrated samplers
are more versatile than the depth-integrated variety, and are constructed
so that the sampling valve operates electronically.
In the second method of sampling, single-stage samplers (US P-46,
US P-63, and US P-50) are used to obtain sediment information on small
fast-rising streams. They work on the principle that as a stream rises,
the water sediment mixture enters the intake of the sampler until it
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fills the sampling bottle. These samples are affected by flow velocity,
turbulence, and several other factors, but are used in flashy streams
where normal sampling procedures are impractical.
Automatic pumping samplers have been designed to minimize the
effect of changing flow velocity, although they increase the chance of
malfunction by the dependence upon batteries as an energy source
(Fredericksen 1969, York 1976). Other automatic samplers analyze oediment
directly by measuring the bulk density of the water sediment mixtures or
indirectly through electrical or visual tests (Skinner and Beverage
1976).
Indirect measurements of suspended sediments usually assume a
correlation between suspended sediment concentration and turbidity, but
recent studies have questioned the validity of this assumption (Duchrow
and Everhart 1971, Larson and Wooldridge 1976). The USGS has decided to
abandon "turbidity" as a measurement and will replace it with more
precise optical measurements (Pickering 1976). Techniques to measure
turbidity have varied from remote sensing and infrared photography
(Rosgen 1976) to the use of Secchi disks. Duchrow and Everhart (1971)
found the Hach Model 2100 turbidimeter the most reliable of several
tested. With certain limiting conditions of particle size and suspended
sediment concentration, optical properties can be estimated, but it is
difficult to transfer the relationship from one environment to another.
Bedload
Bedload samplers are more difficult to design due to the wide range
of particle size to be sampled (from sand to cobbles and gravel) and
because any instrument lowered onto the bed will change the flow and
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thus, the hydraulic characteristics at the sampling station. Also,
sediment transport rates and flow velocity have a large range of natural
variability in space and time, so where suspended sediment loads can be
computed through the use of suspended sediment concentration and water
discharge data, bedload estimates must include several flow variables in
their computation.
Streamlined, pressure-differentiated samplers are designed to
minimize flow disturbance by the instrument. The US BMH-53 and US BMH-60
are handheld samplers to collect bed material from fines to medium
gravels. Pan-type samplers retain sediment that drops into slots after
rolling up a ramp. Nielson (1974) rated several models of gravel sampling
as follows:
Type Investigator Efficiency (%)
Box basket Muhlofers 45
Swiss Federal Authority 50
Nesper 40
Ehrenberger 60
Pressure-differential
box basket Karolyi 45
Vuv 70
Arnheim 70
Helley-Smith to 90
Pan type U.S. Corps of Engineers 70
Sirh 70
Pit and slot Hubbel to 100
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Another technique for measuring the amount of bedload transported
through a stream with a minimum of local disturbance is by surveying
(Anderson 1970) or measuring the amount of sediment collected in a basin
(Hansen 1973), trench, or slot (Renard 1976) across the stream. One
difficulty is that sediment basins effectively remove sediment from the
transport process, and so may cause degradation of the streambed down-
stream of the basin. Sills have also been used to force all the bedload
moving over them into a collection device (Hansen 1973). These devices
are inefficient in trapping fines, and periodically must be emptied out,
the sediment weighed, and the streambed dug up.
Chains buried at known locations before high discharges can be
checked afterward to establish the depth of scour and fill that occurred
(Foley 1976). Radioisotope tagging is another technique useful in
determining bedload movement in some cases.
For theoretical transport equations and biological considerations,
the size distribution of the bed material must be known. One method is
to push cores into the streambed, collect the material within the core,
and sieve it to determine the size distribution of the material (McNeil
and Ahnell 1960). Error may enter this measurement through the choice
of sampling site, difficulty in obtaining samples of a uniform depth,
and the introduction of fines while sampling (Cederholm and Lestelle
1973, Cederholm et al. 1976). A recent development uses the introduction
of liquid nitrogen (Stocker and Williams 1972), carbon dioxide alone
(Walkotten 1973, Walkotten 1976), or carbon dioxide dissolved in acetone
(Ryan 1970) into a standpipe to freeze a core of gravel. Once removed
and thawed, samples can be sieved by standard methods. Transportation
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of equipment to the sampling site and of samples to the base site may be
a problem in some areas (Walkotten 1973).
The size distribution of the streambed material can also be obtained
by measuring the size of sediment at points established by a grid (Wolman
1954, Williams 1975) and classifying these measurements into size categor-
ies. In gravel-bedded rivers, this method can establish the size distri-
bution of the armored layer as well (gravel that protects the streambed
from erosion until discharges are sufficient to move the protective
layer). Investigators have expanded this technique to define the bed
material in terms of particle shape, degree of imbrication, and gravel
porosity, as well as particle size (Cooper 1965).
Alternative methods to measure bedload movements are by magnetic
samples, acoustic devices that detect movement on the bed, photography,
and ultrasonic sounding (Hubbell 1964). The sampling method used depends
on the data required, the experimental situation, and the conditions for
which the device was designed.
A discussion of the various hydrologic and hydraulic approaches
used in determining sediment discharge is presented in Appendix A.
Inorganic Sediments and the Aquatic Biota
The general effects of sediments have been well documented in the
literature. Several reviews (Cordone and Kelley 1961, Hollis et al.
1964, Everhart and Duchrow 1970, Phillips 1971, Koski 1972, Gibbons and
Salo 1973, California State Water Resources Control Board 1973b, Meehan
1974, Mortensen et al. 1976) are available.
In general, research on sediment effects has been selective to
specific taxa. For obvious reasons, the majority of articles has dealt
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with fishes (66 percent) and fewer with other taxa--insects (23 percent),
algae and phytoplankton (8 percent), and invertebrates other than insects
(3 percent). Those percentages, while pertinent only to this report,
may be considered representative of the available literature.
Sedimentation has the potential of affecting aquatic organisms by:
1) clogging and abrasion of gills and other respiratory surfaces;
2) adhering to the chorion of eggs;
3) providing conditions conducive to the entry and persistence of
disease-related organisms;
4-) inducing behavioral modifications;
5) entombing different life stages;
6) altering water chemistry by the adsorption and/or absorption
of chemicals;
7) affecting utilizable habitat by the scouring and filling of
pools and riffles and changing bedload composition;
8) reducing photosynthetic growth and primary production;
9) affecting intragravel permeability and dissolved oxygen levels;
10) affecting the fishing for and catachability of sport fishes.
As implemented criteria might be based on effects on specific taxa,
we have attempted to treat taxonomic groups separately with respect to
suspended sediment and bedload (including settleable sediment) effects.
Algae and Phytoplankton
Inorganic sediments can affect algal and phytoplankton communities
by bedload movement and by changes influenced by suspended and deposited
particulates.
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Excessive shifting of bed material may remove algae by grinding and
dislodgment (Chapman 1963). Nuttall (1972) determined that the constant
3
shift of sand (0.3-0.599 mm) along the riverbed after 10,000 m had been
deposited was primarily responsible for the lack of aquatic algae and
macrophytes in the River Cornwall, England.
Suspended sediments produce more varied effects. They can decrease
penetrant light transmission, thereby reducing the depth of photosynthetic
activity (Chandler 1942, Chapman 1963, Cairns et al. 1972). Cordone and
2
Pennoyer (1970) found a difference in algal pad concentration of 2.3/ft
2
to 8/ft in silted and unsilted areas, respectively, above and below a
gravel mill outfall on a California stream. Similarly, Herbert et al.
(1961) reported a virtual absence of encrusting algae in Cornish streams
polluted by china clay, wastes. Buck (1956) noted that the average
volume of net phytoplankton in surface waters of clear impoundments
ranged from 8 to 13.8 times that in turbid water. Sediments from con-
struction activities resulted in a reduction of transparency of about
50 percent as measured by Secchi disk, and were apparently responsible
for a threefold reduction in algal productivity in a Virginia impoundment
(Samsel 1973). In two studies on estuarine systems, Sherk et al. (1976)
found significant negative correlations between carbon assimilation
efficiency of four phytoplankton species and increasing concentrations
of silicon dioxide representative of dredging, flood, and storm agitated
sediments. Carbon uptake was reduced from 50 percent to 90 percent in
those studies.
Suspended and settleable solids, by the reduction of photosynthetic
activity and consequently, food web efficiency, can also upset population
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balances (Chapman 1963, Cairns et al. 1972). Samsel (1973) noted the
disappearance of some algal genera associated with clear water and a
decrease in total number of genera from 24- to 16 following sediment
influx in an Oregon stream. Hansman and Phinney (1973) found a visual
increase in chlorophyta associated with mud, silt, and logging slash
after clearcutting.
Invertebrates Other than Insects
Effects of sediment on aquatic invertebrates other than insects has
received little attention. In a study of Mississippi River mussels,
Ellis (1931) found that death of both adults and young occurred as a
result of entombment or decreased oxygen, the latter caused by detrital
decay. Herbert et al. (1961) noted the absence of gastropods and bivalves
in streams with china clay wastes. However, oligochaete worms were
found in all parts of clear and polluted rivers.
Although the reactions of their freshwater counterparts are essen-
tially unknown, two species of estuarine copepods ingested significantly
fewer numbers of food organisms with increasing silt concentrations.
Those copepods typical of clean open waters were more affected than
turbid water inhabitants, but the results could not be used to predict
exposure times and concentrations required to cause serious population
depletion (Sherk et al. 1974, Sherk et al. 1976).
Aquatic Insects
The distribution of benthic insects inhabiting lotic environments
is largely dependent on substrate particle size (Leonard 1962, Cummins
and Lauf 1969). Species diversity and density are affected by the
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organisms' substrate preferences. These decrease progressively from
rubble through gravel, muck, and sand (Cairns 1967, Sprules 1974, Pennak
and Van Gerpen 1974). Riffle environments tend to support more diverse
faunas and a greater standing crop of bottom organisms (Ruggles 1966).
Rees (1959) found that Diptera preferred slow, sandy bottom areas, and
Coleoptera selected moderate velocity sand-gravel mixture environments.
Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera all showed a preference for
swiftly flowing streams with gravel bottom habitats (Rees 1959, Gaufin
1962). Leonard (1962) stated that numbers and volume of mayflies were
lowest in sand, increased through gravel, and reached a peak in coarse
gravel, rubble, and mud suitable for burrowers.
There are several other mechanisms by which sediments appear to
limit insect populations. Bed movement may dislodge or injure insects
(Tarzwell 1938), remove vegetation used as food and cover (Rees 1959),
or entomb sessile forms or life stages. Shifting and scouring of bed
material also create unstable habitat (Tebo 1955, Nuttall 1972).
Though the effects of sediments on benthic insect populations
remain unresolved, heavy deposits of sand and silt on stream substrates
appear to be more detrimental than suspended material (Hamilton 1961,
Brusven and Prather 1974). Deposited sediments may produce a gasket
effect around cobble, reducing accessibility of microhabitats (Brusven
and Prather 1974), or limiting intragravel waterflow (Ziebell 1960).
Nuttall and Bielby (1973) found large changes in species composition
and density associated with deposition of fine inert solids rather than
turbidity or abrasion caused by suspended material. Similarly, Bjornn
et al. (1974) noted lighter densities of insects in riffle areas containing
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large amounts of sediments less than 1/4 inch diameter. Investigating
the effects of landslide debris in the Clearwater River, Washington,
Cederholm and Lestelle (1973) found a significant negative correlation
between mean numbers of benthic invertebrates and gravel less than
0.8H1 mm. The bottom fauna population in control streams was nearly
four times that of affected sites. Significant reductions were also
observed below a gravel mill outfall in the Truckee River, California,
the effect decreasing with distance downstream from the sediment source
(Cordone and Pennoyer 1960). Herbert et al. (1961) reported a decrease
of 3.3- to 19-fold in bottom invertebrates in streams with china clay
wastes when compared with lightly polluted or clear systems. A field
survey of logging practices in Alaska revealed a low species diversity
of aquatic insects in Saginaw Creek which was believed to have resulted
from siltation from improper removal of a logging bridge (Reed and
Elliott 1972). Burns (1972) also observed immediate detrimental effects
of sediment following logging road construction in California.
The extent to which various amounts of deposited sediments affect
benthic faunas remains inconclusive. In fact, Tyler and Gibbons (1973),
comparing a logged to an unlogged Alaska stream, determined that the
greatest abundance of aquatic insects occurred in the logged system,
despite its 5.5 percent higher concentration of fines less than 3.33 mm.
Martin (1976) was unable to find a significant correlation between the
standing crop of benthic fauna and inorganic sediments less than 0.25 mm
in the Clearwater River, Washington. However, he concludes that this
may have been due to sample sizes inadequate for the detection of small
population changes. This observation may be valid. Chutter (1969)
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found that sediment-related changes in the invertebrate faunas of two
South African rivers occurred without the benthos being smothered with
inorganic debris.
Suspended particles may also be an important limiting factor, as
they may abrade respiratory surfaces or dislodge insects and vegetation.
Branson and Batch (1972) observed a 90 percent reduction in numbers and
kinds of benthic fish food organisms at silt loads of 3,000 ppm from
Kentucky strip mine operations. Roback (1962) noted parallel declines
in caddis fly larvae. A 10-yr stream survey revealed that at sediment
concentrations in excess of 500 ppm, numbers of genera decreased from 16
to 7. In field studies of a gravel dragline operation in the Wynoochee
River, Washington, both Wagner (1959) and Ziebel (1960) reported decreases
in the benthic productivity of about 85 percent at silt concentrations
ranging from 91 to 103 ppm. Similar results were obtained by Gammon
(1970). He found that the addition of more than 80 mg/liter of inert
solids to the normal suspended particle concentration (approximately
4-0 mg/liter) could cause a 60 percent reduction in population density of
riffle macroinvertebrates.
Aquatic Vertebrates
Suspended Sediments. While investigations in this area have been
fairly numerous, the results have generally been inconclusive. Many
experimental designs have incorporated static bioassays, and in other
cases quantification of effective sediment concentrations has either
been lacking, inapplicable to natural conditions, or variable.
Wallen (1951), through a series of tests involving montmorillonite
clay particles and their effects on 16 different fish species found
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impact levels were considerably higher than those usually found in
nature. He concluded that under natural conditions, suspended montmoril-
lonite clay particles were not lethal. Similar results indicating the
nonlethality of high suspended sediment concentrations have been reported
by Everhart and Duchrow (1970) for high natural runoffs in a Colorado
stream; Herbert and Richards (1963) for coal washery wastes at concentra-
tions of 50, 100, and 200 ppm; Neumann et al. (1975) for Patuxent River
sediments and fuller's earth; and Jones (1964) for a variety of suspended
inorganic and organic sediments. Cordone and Pennoyer (1960) found no
differences, either in condition or numbers of nonsalmonids, between
silted and unsilted waters below and above a gravel mill outflow site.
McCrimmons (1954) found no appreciable effects of turbidities up to
1,150 ppm on parr stages of Atlantic salmon, and Hamilton (1951) reported
that fish were seen in turbid regions of streams at almost any time of
the year.
On the other hand, Pautzke (1937) exposed young rainbow and cutthroat
trout to coal washings, and reported that death occurred within 150 and
30 min for the two species, respectively. No levels were reported.
Buck (1956) reported that turbidity generally decreased growth rate,
production, and reproduction of several spiny-rayed species (largemouth
bass, bluegill, redear sunfish, channel catfish). The average total
weight of fish in clear ponds (<25 ppm) was approximately 1.7 times
greater than intermediate ponds (25 to 100 ppm) and 5.5 times greater
than muddy ponds (> 100 ppm). Differences in tolerance levels were also
noted among the species.
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Gammon (1970) observed that the mode of response, at least for
several warmwater forms, was dependent on season and/or species. Those
populations examined were generally most sensitive during the spring
months. Langlois (1941) also reported that while pickerel, cisco,
perch, and whitefish required clear waters, several other species were
able to tolerate turbid conditions. Other species differences were
reported by Sherk et al. (1974).
Stuart (1953a) observed differences in suspended solids effects
relative to life stage. While brown trout ova placed in silty water
"attracted" fine silt particles and consequently died, eyed ova and
newly hatched alevins, through a variety of responses, were able to
avoid deleterious effects.
Cooper (1965) has determined that "the flow of water can deposit
silt within gravel although velocities exceed those allowing deposition
on the surface." He also stressed the necessity for very low suspended
sediment concentrations in waters flowing over salmon spawning redds.
Slaney (unpublished material, from Parkinson and Slaney 1975) has appar-
ently documented an instance where suspended sediment loads were inversely
correlated (r = -.86) with survival-to-emergence of rainbow trout.
Suspensions of sediments of different constitution and size were
also found to provoke different responses. Sherk et al. (1974) noted
that while natural sediments tended to clog gill interstices, mineral
solids coated gill epithelia preventing water contact. Larger particles
clogged secondary lamellae and blocked circulation, creating dead spaces
at points of primary gas exchange.
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Although there are indications that relatively high turbidities may
be tolerated in some cases, and serve as concealment during migratory
movement (McCrimmons 1964), other observations indicated preferences for
nonsilted waters and modifications of natural movements and migration.
Smith (1939) reported that spawning Chinook salmon, given a choice
between silted and unsilted water, selected clear tributaries and a
small clear stream rather than "muddy" waters. Servizi et al. (1969)
and Mortensen et al. (1976) discussed the possibility that low oxygen
and/or turbidity in a harbor or dredged areas could divert salmon runs
from normal migration routes.
An indirect effect of sediments is that highly silted waters reduce
fishing success. Tebo (1956) reported a decline in fishermen use of a
stream after a reduction in water clarity as a result of logging. Buck
(1956) also pointed out that clear waters attracted more anglers,
increased catch-per-unit-of-effort, provided more desirable species, and
enhanced aesthetic values. Decline in fishing success for those fishes
which are primarily sight feeders has also been discussed by the European
Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC) (1964), Servizi and Martens
(1969), Koski (1972), and Meehan (1974).
Moggie* has completed the most comprehensive testing of direct and
indirect effects of suspended sediments on salmonids; however, his
results are in press.
*Noggle, Charles A. In press. The effects of suspended sediments
on juvenile salmonids as determined in a test stream. (Not exact title.)
Fish. Res. Inst., Univ. Washington, Seattle.
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Deposited Sediments and Bedload Processes. Generally, the investiga-
tions in this area have been more substantiated than others, although
the ultimate impact on production is often obscure and not uniformly-
significant. Also, the modifications of bed material composition (includ-
ing entombment or entrapment), bedload movement, and reductions in
intragravel flow and dissolved oxygen concentrations often lead to
indirect effects.
Bed material composition. Harison (1923) was among the first
to correlate increases in egg and fry mortality with decreases in the
size of particles comprising spawning redds. He also noted that only
the strongest fry were able to escape very fine gravel when planted
8 inches deep. Similar results were reported by Hobbs (1937). Heavy
mortality of incubating chinook salmon occurred in redds in which fine
material (mainly clay) was present in the egg pockets. Through a series
of experiments involving steelhead trout and coho salmon eggs, Shapovalov
(1937) observed reductions of 50.1 percent and 38.0 percent in survival-
to-emergence. The high mortalities were attributed to heavy siltation
caused by flooding. Gangmark and Broad (1955, 1956), and Platts (1970)
reported that high egg mortalities could be partially attributed to the
smothering or blanketing effects of silt and sand on alevins. Shaw and
Maga (1942) also observed that early and late additions of placer mining
silt to incubating coho salmon eggs had differential effects. Silt
added during initial stages of incubation resulted in low fry yields
(X = 1.16 percent) and later emergence. Late silt addition (after
hatching) reduced yield also, but damage was less extensive.
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Neave (1947) attributed heavy mortalities of chum salmon eggs to
streambed erosion and accumulations of silt on the bottom of a stream
during periods of high water. Johnson et al. (1952), in an investigation
of the effects of a landslide in the proximity of the Stillaguamish
River, Washington, reported that an additional 10 percent loss of eggs
and fry could be attributed to siltation in the river. McCrimmons
(1954) correlated the degree of bottom sedimentation in gravelly, riffle
areas with the percentage survival of underyearling Atlantic salmon.
Sedimentation in pools resulted in low fry survival even when adjacent
riffle areas were free from sediments. Shelton and Pollock (1966) were
also able to demonstrate that low survival of chinook salmon eggs in an
incubation channel occurred when 15 percent to 30 percent of the voids
in the gravel bed were filled with sediment. Curtailment of reproduction
of darters and minnows by siltation has also been reported by Branson
and Batch (1972). Mating was apparently prevented and eggs and fry
suffered heavy mortalities.
Burner (1951) observed that the size of chinook salmon redds varied
inversely with the size of gravels in the spawning area and also with
the amount of gravel cementation. Spawning generally took place in
areas with high intragravel flow, and silt and clay cemented areas were
avoided. Shelton (1955) reported that the percentage of coho salmon fry
in artificial spawning channels was considerably higher in larger gravel
(1 to 3 inches) than in gravel less than 1 inch in diameter.
McNeil and Ahnell (1964) found an inverse correlation between
numbers of adult pink salmon returning to six Alaska streams and the
percentage of gravel less than 0.833 mm. Spawners were also reported to
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be capable of removing a significant percentage of gravels less than
0.833 mm and tended to completely remove sediments less than 0.74 mm
from spawning redds. From their studies, the investigators concluded
that productive beds should contain no greater than 5 percent fines less
than or equal to 0.833 mm, and that the presence of 30 percent or greater
of fines in that category would constitute nonproductive beds. Shapley
(1964) determined similar correlations (r = -.80) between the number of
pink salmon fry produced and the mean fractions of gravel less than
0.833 mm.
Phillips (1964) reported species differences in the survival-to-
emergence of fry. Emergence of steelhead trout and coho salmon was
restricted at gravel sizes of less than 1/2 inch to 3/4 inch, and 3/4 inch
to 1 inch, respectively. Gravel size was also reportedly effective in
determining the weight of emergent steelhead fry, with only smaller
individuals emerging from 1/4 inch to 1/2 inch gravel.
Koski (1966) found that the amount of fines in 21 individual coho
salmon redds had the highest correlations with survival-to-emergence of
all factors studied (gravel permeability, dissolved oxygen, and gravel
stability). Fry in redds with greater amounts of fines completed develop-
ment in shorter periods of time and had lower survival rates. The
average sediment content in undisturbed streams ranged from 32 percent
to 42 percent for fines less than 3.327 mm, and from 22 percent to 28 per-
cent for those less than 0.833 mm.
From a field study of the survival-to-emergence of coho salmon in
three tributaries of the Alsea River, Oregon, Phillips et al. (1966)
found that survival ranged from 0 percent to 83 percent, with a significant
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decrease in survival in gravels less than 1/2 inch in diameter. Similar
observations were noted for steelhead trout. Later experiments revealed
that decreases in survival were directly related to the proportion of
fines less than 0.833 mm in diameter. The authors also reported results
obtained from experimental troughs. Fines of 1 mm to 3 mm were added
in 10 percent increments (to a total of 70 percent) to gravels, in the
composition normally found in redds. Survival was inversely correlated
with the amount of added fines. Under natural conditions, the percentage
of gravel less than 3.3 mm diameter was also negatively correlated
(r = -0.69) with fry survival. Related results have also been reported
by Hall and Lantz (1969) and Phillips et al. (1975).
Bjornn (1969) placed steelhead trout and chinook salmon eggs and
"swim-up" fry in various sand-gravel mixtures (less "than 1/4 inch diame-
ter) under field conditions. Steelhead survived in greater numbers from
gravel with higher percentages of sand than did chinook fry and eggs.
The effects of sand were also determined to be greater with eggs. The
author concluded that embryo mortality in gravels with 30 percent to
40 percent sand may approach 50 percent in chinook salmon and 30 percent
to 50 percent with steelhead trout.
The effects of gravel size on larval behavior were reported by Dill
(1969) and Dill and Northcote (1970). In aquaria experiments with two
gravel sizes (1.9 cm to 3.2 cm versus 3.2 cm to 6.3 cm), the extent of
downward larval movement was increased with the larger gravel. Survival
was also apparently greater in the larger gravel, but condition (weight-
length) ratio was poor. The increased survival was attributed to
increased ease of gravel penetration, and decrease in condition ,to,lack
¦ . ¦ . , ; . , • ' n < : in ¦ •;
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26
of support in the larger gravel. In an earlier study of chum alevins
under field conditions, Dill (1967) noted that variation in gravel size,
egg burial depth, or egg burial density could also affect emergence
timing and patterns.
Burns (1972) studied four small streams in northern California to
determine the effects of logging and road construction on fish popula-
tions. In one of those streams (Little North Fork Noyo River), an
increase of 33.3 percent in sediments less than 0.8 mm was observed.
Steelhead biomass decreased 42 percent; coho by 65 percent. Some of
those decreases were attributed to high mortality and premature emigra-
tions of yearling and older fish. Sculpins were also noted to decrease
with heavy siltation but were quick to recover.
Cederholm and Lestelle (1973) examined the effects resulting from a
landslide into Stequaleho Creek, Washington. No apparent differences
were noted between landslide-affected and -unaffected areas for survival
of cutthroat trout from eyed egg to hatching. Siltation levels for
3.36 mm and 0.841 mm fines were, however, found to be significantly
higher than normal.
Koski (1975) examined fitness characteristics of chum salmon adults
and their progeny. Through experiments with an artificial spawning
channel, he was able to determine that decreases in emergence and fry
fitness were correlated with percentages of sand (fines greater than
0.105 mm but less than 3.327 mm). For each 1 percent increase in sand,
a corresponding decrease of 1.26 percent in survival-to-emergence was
noted.
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Slaney (unpublished, from Parkinson and Slaney 1975) determined
negative correlations (r = -.78) between percentage of sediments less
than 0.297 mm in spawning beds to survival-to-emergence of rainbow
trout.
Tagart (1976) investigated the survival from egg deposition to
emergence of coho salmon in eight tributaries of the Clearwater River,
Washington. In the first year of the study, survival-to-emergence was
inversely correlated with sediments less than 0.850 mm and positively
correlated with sediments 3.35 mm to 26.9 mm. In the following year,
however, no significant correlations were demonstrable.
The sole reference to sediment effects on nonfish vertebrates has
been than by Branson and Batch (1972). High silt loads of 3,000 ppm
were found responsible for the entombment of salamanders beneath cemented
gravel and rocks.
Bed material composition has also been found to affect juvenile and
adult fishes. Everest and Chapman (1972) assessed substrate types
preferred by steelhead trout and chinook salmon. Differences in prefer-
ence by age and species were noted. Underyearling and yearling steelhead
preferred rubble, while underyearling chinook preferred silt. Earlier
observations by Chapman and Bjornn (1969) showed that substrate and
water temperature also determined downstream movement. Bjornn et al.
(1974) reported that fewer age-0 steelhead trout and chinook salmon
remained in channels with fully sedimented riffles (less than or equal
to 1/4 inch granitic bedload sand) compared to channels with no sediment
during the winter. Age-1 steelhead used pools for winter cover, while
age-0 steelhead trout and chinook salmon sought riffle substrates. The
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addition of sediments less than 1/H inch diameter led to reductions in
the carrying capacity of a stream during the summer, effectively elimina-
ting the presence of intragravel crevices for juvenile fish. In a much
earlier experiment, Stuart (1953a) noticed that spawning brown trout
avoided gravel containing fine sand silt or stones of uniform size.
Bedload movement. Bedload movement may affect survival-to-
emergence by concussion of eggs during sensitive periods, scouring of
redds, and exposing eggs from the protective confines of the intragravel
environment, altering the pool-riffle habitats of streams, or by deep
burial of intragravel developmental stages (Meehan 1974-).
Gangmark and Broad (1956) found high mortalities of chinook salmon
eggs apparently associated with the shifting and erosion of the channel
and the smothering action of silt and sand during high flow periods.
Severe floods also caused extensive gravel movement and 95 percent egg
mortality in another investigation by Sheridan and McNeill (1960).
Coble (1961) reported that considerable gravel movement can occur at
least 10 inches below the streambed during the period salmonid eggs are
in the gravel. Flooding and subsequent scouring of redds as a primary
cause of mortality of eggs and larvae has also been implied by McNeil
(1962). Sheridan (1967) noted that gravel removal from streambeds could
accentuate instability and result in the removal or entombment of eggs
in affected sections. Tyler and Gibbons (1973) attributed the low
productivity of a salmon stream in Southeast Alaska primarily to abrasion
from the movement of particles.
The International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission (1966) simula-
ted hydraulic erosion by directing streams of water onto gravel in which
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29
sockeye eggs were planted. In the first experiment, a marked increase
in mortality over controls was noticed. In a subsequent experiment, no
significant effect was observed, possibly because of the advanced develop-
ment of eggs or protection by gravel. Stages sensitive to physical
shock were determined to be between fertilization and blastopore closure.
Intragravel waterflow and dissolved oxygen concentrations.
Although treated separately, intragravel waterflow (permeability) and
dissolved oxygen concentration are integral parts of any holistic approach
in determining sediment effects. In general, positive correlations have
been demonstrated between the two variables and survival of embryos.
Vaux (1962) stated that the factors controlling the interchange of
oxygenated water from the water column into the gravel beds include
gravel bed permeability, gravel bed depth, bed surface configuration,
and gradients in the stream surface profile. Phillips et al. (1966)
reported significant interactions between dissolved oxygen and gravel
size. Similar results had been reported by Peters (1962) with trout
eggs in artificial redds subjected to natural siltation.
Cooper (1959) determined that sediments less than 0.3 mm were more
effective than larger sediment in reducing flow in coarse materials. He
also postulated that "the length of time required to kill eggs at critical
levels of dissolved oxygen concentration is relatively short, and that
mortalities observed from various lengths of exposure to silt deposition
merely reflect a range of minimum flows obtained through the gravel."
Alderdice et al. (1958) exposed chum salmon eggs at various develop-
mental stages to low oxygen levels at a constant temperature (10° C) for
7 days. Eggs were then removed to normal conditions. Among the results
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were: 1) oxygen levels below air saturation led to delays in hatching,
greatest during early development and decreasing about the time circula-
tion in the egg was established; 2) oxygen requirements were highest in
early development, decreased to lower levels, and then rose slightly to
a nearly constant level; and 3) median lethal levels for dissolved
oxygen rose from 0.4 ppm in early development to 1.0 to 1.4 ppm prior to
hatching.
Coble (1961), in a field study with steelhead trout eggs, also
observed positive correlations between dissolved oxygen concentration of
intragravel water and survival. Low embryonic survivals were also
generally associated with low mean water velocities. Kingsbury (1973)
however, found no significant relationship between fine sediment and
intragravel oxygen.
Fry size at hatching and length of preemergent survival were also
affected by dissolved oxygen concentration and rate of waterflow past
embryos (Shumway et al. 1964, Jones 1964). Brannon (1965) found that
sockeye alevins at '3.0 mg/liter required 2 weeks longer than those held
at 6.0 mg/liter, and 3 weeks longer than those at 11.9 mg/liter to reach
complete yolk sac absorption, although weights at time of emergence were
nearly the same. Water velocity differences had no significant effect
on embryo weights. Mason (1969) observed that coho salmon embryos and
fry exposed to dissolved oxygen concentrations of 3 and 5 mg/liter were
smaller at hatching and emergence, and had higher mortality during
development that embryos and fry exposed to 11 mg/liter. Phillips and
Campbell (1962) also found positive correlations between survival and
mean oxygen concentrations. While larger alevins were noted at higher
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oxygen concentrations, no correlations between survival and mean gravel
permeabilities of 2,110 to 25,400 cm/hr were noted. Wells and McNeil
(1970) observed that the largest and fastest growing embryos and alevins
of pink salmon were associated with spawning gravels with high levels of
dissolved oxygen. Silver et al. (1963) noted that steelhead embryos at
9.5° C and chinook embryos at 11° C all died at oxygen concentrations of
1.6 mg/liter. Sac fry from embryos incubated at low and intermediate
oxygen concentrations were smaller and weaker than those from embryos
exposed to higher concentrations.
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IV. ANALYSIS OF PRESENT STATE OF THE ART
The National Technical Advisory Committee (1968) has defined crite-
rion as "a scientific requirement on which a decision or judgment may be
based concerning the suitability of water quality to support a designated
use." With sediments, the establishment of criteria in that sense has
been extremely difficult. Circumstances ranging from the principally
nonpoint source nature of sediments (National Environmental Research
Center 1975) to the stochastic variability of the amounts and conditions
by which sediments are transported and impose their effects on aquatic
life represent just some of the problems. Many states have attempted to
circumvent those difficulties by establishing either turbidity and/or
settleable solids criteria (see EPA 1972a and b for state-by-state
compilations). Those policies, however, have not minimized the need for
sediment criteria which are meaningful and applicable for water uses. A
discussion of the problems inherent in establishing sediment criteria
and some possible approaches from the literature follows.
Problems in Establishing Sediment Criteria
Sediments are a natural component of the watersheds from which they
originate. A problem lies in differentiating those changes wrought by
natural causes from those of man's activities (Ziebell 1960). In some
cases, high sediment levels are a necessity for adapted aquatic communi-
ties. Elimination of the pollutant in those cases may not lead to
improvement and may drastically alter the morphology of the watercourse
(Gessler 1975). Tolerance to deviations from optimal sediment conditions
may differ at the species level, and possibly even for individuals of
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different ages of the same species (Ellis 1937, Bjornn 1968, Bjornn
1969, Hall and Lantz 1969, and Phillips et al. 1975).
In some cases, the impact of sediment additions on aquatic life has
been minimal, and the resiliency of streams and aquatic communities
effectively buffers any permanent changes (Bjornn 1974). Every stream
may have the capacity, albeit a highly variable one, to flush sediments
out of the system and restore conditions to normalcy. Merrell (1951)
reported that stream bottoms disturbed by the clearance of logs and
debris were restored to normal within a year. The unstable bottom of
Little Bear Creek, Washington, caused by stream channel dredging, began
to stablize by forming hard-packed bars and riffles within 2 months
(Rees 1959). High flows removed silt from logging operations so that
5 yr after logging, the levels of gravel fines resembled prelogging
figures (McNeil and Ahnell 1964). Saunders and Smith (1965) reported
natural scouring removed large accumulations of silt, effectively prevent-
ing any lasting effects on resident brook trout populations. Shapley
and Bishop (1965) analyzed substrate composition of four riffle areas in
an Alaskan stream prior to and immediately after hydraulic mining, and
again after flooding. Among results were: 1) moderate freshets are
capable of removing fine materials from the streambed; 2) suspended
sediments decrease at an exponential rate downstream; 3) the magnitude
of streamflow can determine the streambed composition. Streams with
high high flow:low flow ratios were more capable of removing fines than
those with low ratios. From tagging experiments with substrate material,
Brusven et al. (1974) determined that Emerald Creek, Idaho, was capable
of self-flushing under natural conditions, but that until additional
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sediment sources were eliminated, the cleansing action was insufficient.
Similarly, Platts and Megahan (1975) conducted a streambed monitoring
program in the Idaho Batholith, and observed that once sediments from
logging and ancillary sources were curtailed and a watershed rehabilita-
tion program initiated, the percentage of fines decreased while gravel
and rubble increased. Gammon (1970) cited a study in which adjustments
of population density of macroinvertebrates were rapid, requiring only a
few days to decrease significantly or return to normal. Meehan (1971),
in discussing the effects of gravel cleaning with a "riffle sifter,"
reported that bottom fauna populations were initially reduced, but
within 1 yr had returned to pretreatment levels. The adaptability of
juvenile steelhead trout and chinook salmon was described by Bjornn et
al. (1974). In that case, a creek with the highest proportion of sedi-
ments less than 1/4 inch diameter in riffle substrates, highest degree
of embedded cobble, fewest benthic invertebrates, lowest species diversity
index, and fewest drifting insects of three streams studied, had densities
of juvenile steelhead and chinook as high as in the other study streams.
Similar results have been reported by Alexander (unpublished) for a
Michigan stream. Fish habitat was apparently ruined by artificial
additions of sand, but the trout population remained in "good shape" by
altering feeding patterns.
A serious limiting factor is our inability separate the effects of
sediment from other environmental variables. Correlations in some cases
are possible but in others, the relationships are ill-defined (Kingsburg
1973).
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In defining the purpose of sediment standards as "maintenance of a
viable river biota and of geomorphic equilibrium," Gessler (1975 and
1976) has specified three problem areas: 1) determining the extent of
natural variations; 2) differentiating between man-influenced and natu-
rally caused sedimentation; and 3) determining the effect induced by
changes in sediment loads. He suggested that: 1) the entire spectrum
of sediment sizes is important to biota and, as such, the ideal standard
would incorporate "the sediment transport of each grain size as a function
of water discharge or stage;" 2) by setting and enforcing standards for
small streams, sediment sources may be identified by remote sensing; and
3) timing of sediment events often determines the extent of impact. The
biotic and geomorphic characteristics of each region's streams and
rivers should be integrated to determine applicable standards.
Suggested Approaches from the Literature
Wurtz (1966) suggested that variations in response to environmental
alterations, and classification of streams with criteria for each class
should be established within each river system. The importance of
having standards incorporate flow variations has been emphasized by Rice
et al. (1975). The amount of sediment varies, dependent on whether the
stream is rising or falling, and is a power function of discharge. Due
consideration must also be given to: 1) complete specifications of
performance characteristics; 2) simultaneous development of the standard
and the monitoring scheme for judging compliance; and 3) development of
statistical and analytical models to cope with variation and problems of
serial correlation of sediment samples.
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Cairns (1967) recommends that sediment standards be flexible because
of the natural variation in suspended sediment loads and applicable on a
drainage basin scale rather than for single streams. He suggests that
the effect on aquatic organisms be used as a means of assessing suspended
sediment loads. O'Connor and Sherk (1976) made a similar suggestion—
that suspended sediment criteria should be established with due considera-
tion for the most sensitive organisms and that the biological indicators
be "determined for each proposed environmental modification." They
state that, "data is difficult to compare because of different methods
and approaches. In addition, the observed responses of organisms may
not be due to turbidity or total suspended solids concentration, but to
the number of particles, their densities, sizes, shapes, heights, pres-
ence, and types of organic matter and sorptive properties of the parti-
cles. Consequently, values such as ton/day, mg/liter, JTU, or extinction
values which may be hydrologically satisfactory from a water quality
standpoint, may be insignificant from the standpoint of biological
effects." Moring and Lantz (1974) suggested the use of long-term studies,
when economically feasible, supported by short-term investigations.
This ecosystem approach would tend to delineate changes which may not be
immediately apparent.
Because of the greater ease of measurement, suspended sediments
would seem a likely source of sediment criteria, but there has been
little direct evidence to date of deleterious and lasting effects on
aquatic organisms at naturally occurring and higher levels. Many aquatic
organisms are highly mobile—vertically and/or horizontally—and thus,
have the capability of evading intolerable suspended sediment levels.
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It is the sessile, immobile forms in or on the streambed which appear to
be susceptible. The Aquatic Life Advisory Committee (1956) stated,
"adequate data are not available on amounts of inorganic materials which
can be added to a stream without significant harm to its productive
capacity. The direct effect of turbidity and suspended solids on fishes
is not a satisfactory criterion since fish can withstand large concentra-
tions without any apparent harm."
The size of particles carried as part of the suspended load varies
with concentration. Gammon (1970) reported that when suspended sediment
concentrations were low, 90 percent of the particles by weight were less
than 10 u in diameter. When concentration was high, more than 50 percent
of weight consisted of particles greater than 20 u in diameter. Wilson
(1957) suggested that suspended sediment criteria should be set as
"certain percentage increases above levels at normal low flow in waters."
The EIFAC (1964) established suspended sediments criteria for principally
spiny-rayed species of fish. The applicability of those limits may be
questionable in light of some of the problems discussed previously.
Finally, Bjornn (1974) suggested that the "amount of sediments that
should be allowed to enter a stream before detrimental effects will
occur on the aquatic habitat will depend on the amount of fines already
contained within the stream channel. The amount that can enter the
stream is the difference between the present level and the allowable,
plus the amount transported."
The present status of the use of suspended sediments as the basis
for sediment criteria continues to be a perplexing one, yet one that may
hold promise if difficulties with estimation, prediction, determination
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of the relationship with streambed sediments, and long- and short-term
effects on aquatic biota are clarified to the extent that reproducible
results are obtainable.
Streambed integrity in the form of percentage composition of parti-
cles, scour and fill, and bedload movement has been shown to be a critical
area as far as aquatic organisms are concerned. Several suggestions
have been documented from the literature which might conceivably be
valuable in determining sediment criteria. Wickett (1959) suggested the
development of rating curves for gravels that have the best combination
of use by adults, flow of water to incubating eggs, ease of fry emergence,
and stability under as wide a range of discharges as possible. The
requirements for ideal streambeds have also been proposed by Wagner
(1961, reported by Shelton and Pollock 1966). "The ideal streambed for
incubating salmon eggs would consist of gravel whose interstices (or
voids) are just large enough to contain the individual eggs yet permit
adequate percolation of oxygen-saturated water. This condition is met
when all the gravel is spherical and of appropriate and uniform size, in
which case about 35 percent of any given volume would be voids and 65 per-
cent would be gravel." McNeil (1964) also suggested that spawning redds
contain less than 10 to 15 percent fines for successful spawning.
Tagart (1976) determined "good" and "poor" gravels for coho salmon
emergence. "Good" gravel consists of sediments in sizes ranging from
greater than 0.8 mm to less than 26 mm; "poor" gravel is anything less
than 0.85 mm diameter. Relative to "poor" gravels, amounts in excess of
20 percent in the streambed lead to decreases in survival-to-emergence.
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There are many other documented instances of the effects of sediment
composition in streambeds. Many have been cited previously. Generally,
sediments in size categories between 0.1 mm and 3.3 mm appear to be the
most significant in impact. It seems obvious that once the relationships
amon.J fine sediments and other physical intragravel variables and intra-
gravel biota are firmly established and unknowns resolved, bedload
sediment composition may be a prime basis from which sediment criteria
can also be established.
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V. RESEARCH NEEDS
The sources, transport, and relationships of sediment with biological
populations will require substantial investigation before final workable
criteria can be implemented. The role of sediment in aquatic ecology is
highly variable and the literature is deficient in attempts at synthesis
and in crossing disciplines. Research is needed on:
Biological esearch
1. Aquatic macrophytes, phytoplankton, and algae; studies on
population dynamics, including recovery rates after impacts, and relative
contribution of each group to the energy budget.
2. Invertebrates other than insects. This is perhaps the weakest
area as far as background data are concerned. Any valid investigation
of effects of sediment would appear to be an important contribution.
3. Insects. More field data on effects of sediment concentrations
and particle sizes on species composition and density are needed.
Sampling should be precise enough for the detection of small changes in
community structure. This will require improved sampling methods for
both the insect fauna and sediment concentrations (suspended and bed
material) (see Recommended Approaches).
4. Vertebrates.
a. Field investigations of sublethal effects on fish, includ-
ing studies of physiological functions, should be conducted. The use of
biochemical indicators such as chloride ion and glucose concentrations
is of high priority. Continued studies of blood chemistry are recommended.
b. Further investigations on conditions under which spawning
and incubation are affected should be encouraged. Topics of high priority
(see Recommended Approaches) include:
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1) Clarification of differences in results between
natural streams versus test streams and laboratory experiments.
2) Differentiation of the effects of multiple variables
over long-term analysis.
c. Adaptations to sediments by individual and by population
should be investigated.
d. Mechanisms by which postemergents of various fish species
are removed from systems subjected to sediment influxes should be exam-
ined. Is the sediment directly or indirectly lethal, or do behavior
patterns initiate an avoidance reaction?
e. Behavior of individuals, groups, and populations as
indices of stress needs emphasis.
f. Differences in recovery rates of affected species at
different sediment concentrations should be studied in test streams.
g. Vertebrates other than fishes (amphibians and some rep-
tiles) should be studied.
Physical esearch
1. Techniques to measure the sediment load of rivers. Improvements
are needed on sampling so that the conditions being measured are not
disturbed and so that all ranges of the sediment load are sampled effi-
ciently. A rapid, accurate measurement of suspended sediment is needed.
2. Fluid dynamics and the effects of sediment movement on the
fluid properties of water.
3. The amount of sediment and its quality, which can be carried
by a stream in excess of its normal load before the channel itself
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changes, as well as on the basic relationships between transport and
channel geometry.
4. The prediction of location and effects of scour and fill, more
than in statistical terms, and upon the stability of stream channels.
5. More analytical modeling as opposed to empirical data correlation.
6. The mechanisms by which wind affects stream sediments.
7. The relationships between suspended sediments and bed material.
This is of high, if not top, priority (see Recommended Approaches).
8. Methods of sampling the intragravel environment (composition,
intragravel flow, and gravel movement). This includes the standardizing
and updating of methods; i.e. , construction of sieves with sieve openings
based on the metric system.
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VI. RECOMMENDED APPROACHES TO BE EVALUATED AT THE WORKSHOP
Because of the demonstrable significant relationship between stream-
bed composition and the eggs and larvae of fishes, as well as the rela-
tionship between the streambed and other aquatic organisms, we propose
that the composition of the streambed be used as a water quality crite-
rion. The composition can be expressed in percentages of particle size.
While exact limits on the concentrations of the various sizes and shapes
of sediments remain to be developed, there have been substantial data
describing the deleterious effects of particles of sizes less than
0.850 mm in diameter when they exceed approximately 20 percent of the
total.
In determining the limits on a geographical, i.e., demographically
regional basis, the tolerance of organisms which are the most sensitive
should be considered. Problems associated with a criterion of this kind
include:
1. Naturally occurring levels of fines may be highly variable.
Ranges may temporarily exceed 20 percent to 30 percent. Also, some
biota may have adapted to levels representative of each stream or
watershed.
2. Sampling techniques will have to be standardized. We recommend
that a standardized technique utilizing the freeze core sampler be
adopted.
3. The numbers of samples required to obtain levels of confidence
is, of course, a variable. Care must be taken so that the samples are
not collected and the diagnoses made after the damage has been done. In
order to avoid this possibility, relationships between suspended sediments
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and bed composition may have to be developed. Cederholm (personal
communication) and Dunne (personal communication) have indicated that it
may be possible to relate sediments suspended in the water column and in
the bedload by the use of sediment rating curves. If further experimenta-
tion does indicate that the relationship is valid, and provided that the
variability associated with sampling suspended sediments can be minimized,
criteria based on the two sediment characteristics appear plausible.
The synthesis of both sediment measurements in one criterion would be
highly desirable to insure against the possibility that subthreshold
levels of suspended sediments may accumulate over a long period of time
in the streambed and exceed critical levels there.
4. Monitoring: stream-by-stream monitoring may be economically
prohibitive. If it might be assumed that streams in a given watershed
are similar, monitoring on a watershed basis may be reasonable. Extending
our assumptions further, if streams possess certain physical and biologi-
cal characteristics in common (hydrology, geomorphology, aquatic fauna
and flora), then it may be possible to establish a classification scheme
with monitoring conducted on the basis of a model stream approach. For
example, data for such variables as rainfall, soil profiles, vegetation,
instream fauna and flora, streamflows, channel morphology, would be
collected, stored in data banks, and retrieved with the intent that
streams with similar characteristics would be pooled into definite
categories. On that basis, and depending on the ranges imposed on the
variables, it might be possible to have five to 10 (more or less) general
stream categories. Then, when proposed land-use activities are scheduled
for a watershed, data for the potentially affected watercourses in the
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45
area will be collected, compared with the previously established stream
categories, and forecasts of potential effects and changes which might
occur may be generated. This approach will particularly be effective in
instances where premonitoring may not be possible, but data on changes
which may have been caused by the particular land-use activity are
desirable. Once initiated, the data bank will continually be updated
with the results of each application.
Other alternatives: clinical, behavioral, and diversity changes as
influenced by suspended and bedload sediments appear as distinct possibil-
ities. However, our knowledge to date may be considered insufficient to
establish criteria on these bases.
Although outside the scope of this report, we recommend that land
management practices be reevaluated in terms of sediment production.
Data collected by Cederholm (personal communication) in the Clearwater
River Basin, Washington, indicate that a relationship exists between
linear road miles in the watershed and the percentage of fines in the
streambed.
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VII. SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW
1. A review of the literature dealing with physical and biological
aspects of sedimentation was compiled to provide participants of a
sedimentation workshop, held on March 10, 1977, with a summary of the
current state of investigations in the area.
2. The establishment of sediment criteria on the basis of measure-
ments other than turbidity may be difficult but not impractical.
3. The knowledge of the relationships of suspended sediments and
aquatic life is incomplete and requires further investigation before
criteria can be established on that basis.
4. Bed material composition (principally the percentage of fines
less than 0.850 mm in diameter) appears to have a significant impact on
primary and secondary productivity. Effects on spawning success of
salmonids have been especially well-documented.
5. The body of the report points out research needs which we feel
are most significant.
6. Alternative approaches to turbidity measurements as a criterion
include: composition of bed material, behavioral aspects of aquatic
fauna, and clinical measurements of physiological functions as a measure
of stress.
7. At this time, the best alternative appears to be establishment
of criteria limiting the percentage of fines in the streambed. A limit
of 10 percent to 20 percent for sediments less than 0.850 mm is suggested.
8. Problems of sampling and monitoring are discussed and the need
to develop a measurable relationship between suspended sediments and bed
composition is proposed.
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APPENDIX A
SUMMARY OF SEDIMENTATION WORKSHOP
Battelie-Seattle Research Center
March 10, 1977
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CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 2
Introductory Address - Mr. Daniel Petke (A Summary). . 3
PRESENTATIONS BY TECHNICAL MEMBERS (Summaries) 6
Dr. Salo 6
Dr. Bjornn 6
Dr. Thut 7
Dr. Bestcha 9
Dr. Dunne 10
QUESTION AND ANSWER PERIOD FOLLOWING TECHNICAL PANEL -
A SUMMARY 13
AFTERNOON SESSION OF THE TECHNICAL PANEL 22
CONCLUSIONS OF TECHNICAL PANEL (Salo) 25
PRESENTATION BY MANAGERIAL PANEL - A SUMMARY 28
CONCLUSIONS OF MANAGERIAL PANEL (Rulifson) 36
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APPENDIX A
SUMMARY OF SEDIMENTATION WORKSHOP
INTRODUCTION
The workshop on sedimentation and water quality criteria was held
to evaluate possible alternative approaches to criteria based on turbidity
measurements.
The workshop was divided into a technical session and a managerial
session, each followed by a question and answer period including audience
participation.
Prior to the workshop, members of the panels were given a set of
questions to consider (Appendix) and they were also instructed to be
prepared to give a short presentation related to the questions and to
the main topic—are there criteria that can replace or support turbidity
measurements? The summaries of the presentation are given.
The technical panel was composed of:
Chairman, Mr. Walt Rittall, EPA, Corvallis
Dr. Robert Bestcha, Forest Research Institute, Oregon State University
Dr. Ted Bjornn, Idaho Cooperative Fishery Unit
Dr. Tom Dunne, Geological Sciences, University of Washington
Dr. Ernest Salo, Fisheries Research Institute, University of
Washington
Dr. Rudi Thut, Weyerhaeuser Company
The managerial panel was composed of:
Chairman, Mr. Don Lee Fraser, Department of Natural Resources, State of
Washington
Mr. Ron Hansen, Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
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3
Mr. Edisal L. Quan, Oregon Department of Environmental Quality
(DEQ), Portland, Oregon
The Introductory Address was given by Mr. Daniel J. Petke, EPA,
Deputy Director, Water Division, Region 10, Seattle, Washington
Wrap-up was given by Mr. Bob Rulifson, EPA, Region 10, Seattle,
Washington.
Dr. Salo convened the meeting with:
"This workshop resulted from an EPA request to the Fisheries Research
Institute for a literature survey for leads to a possible water quality
criterion that might replace or augment the use of turbidity measurements."
Introductory Address - Mr. Daniel Petke. (A Summary. )
The water quality monitoring conducted by state pollution control
agencies and others identifies turbidity as one of the water quality
parameters most often violated, and the source of the problem seems to
be largely of nonpoint source origin. The states are currently in the
process of reviewing and revising their water quality standards as
required by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. The states and
area-wide planning agencies are also involved in the water quality
management program required under Section 208 of the Act. The point
source standards have served their purpose well. In the area of nonpoint
sources we begin to run into problems. Our specialists tell us that
turbidity is only poorly related to suspended and settleable solids and
tells us little about the effects of sediments on fish spawning and
rearing. Should we consider a criterion to supplement water quality
standards for protection of fish spawning in rearing areas from excess
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4
sedimentation? It is becoming increasingly apparent that nonpoint
sources in addition to point sources must be controlled if the national
water quality goals are to be achieved.
The concept of Best Management Practices has been developed, and
these are commonly known as BMP's. The relationship of these BMP's to
water quality standards now becomes of concern. Should they substitute
for water quality standards, or should water quality standards continue
to be in force when stream biolations are discovered?
The approach advocated in Region 10 is the three-pronged approach:
First, in using the best knowledge available ... a system of BMP's
should be implemented for as many nonpoint source categories as possible.
Second, new water quality criteria that reflect land management impacts
on water quality should be developed. These will supplement the present
water quality standards especially as they relate to sediment. Third,
the new criteria should be used to monitor the effects of the applied
BMP's on instream uses. With this approach, if the BMP's are established
through a state regulatory program through permit or some other form of
license, and the individual operator is complying with the BMP's set
forth in his permit, he should not be subject to further requirements of
water quality standards. It then becomes a burden of the regulatory
agency to monitor the impacts on streams of the revised land activities
and determine when BMP's should be upgraded and permits reissued with
stricter controls.
"I want to make it clear we are not advocating the compliance with
water quality standards to be waived, merely in favor of some other
informal approach. . . . This is where we come back to turbidity as the
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5
water quality criterion in the monitoring parameter. And we find that
it won't do the job protecting fish propagation in our Northwest
streams. ... We will have to find a better water quality criterion
which more accurately reflects the impact of these sources on water
uses. One immediate need is a better approach to evaluating the biologi
cal effects of sediment. ..."
Question from the Audience:
There was a question as to the direction taken by EPA in general
instream uses as compared to specific water quality criterion. Mr.
Petke answered that, "I think EPA has attempted to direct more attention
to instream uses and less attention to the specific water quality crite-
ria. I know the regulations that we promulgated here within the last
year or so made an attempt to do so and our guidance to the state has
made an attempt to attract more attention."
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PRESENTATIONS BY TECHNICAL PANEL MEMBERS (SUMMARIES)
Dr. Salo described the report SEDIMENT AND WATER QUALITY: A REVIEW OF
THE LITERATURE INCLUDING A SUGGESTED APPROACH FOR WATER QUALITY
CRITERIA. He emphasized the sections on recommended approaches and
showed slides on the relationships (Cederholm 1977) between the
percentage of fines in the streambed and lineal miles of logging
roads.
Dr. Bjornn's presentation was on the biological problems associated with
sediment and the streams of the Idaho Batholith.
The Idaho Batholith, in the central portion of the state, can
be characterized as an area with broad valley mountain streams,
granitic soil, and steep canyons. These components coupled with
washouts, natural blowouts, and the easily eroded soil present
sediment problems of some magnitude. The material studied was low
in organic constituents and ranged in size between 5 mm and 0.05 mm.
The potential effects of those sediments were described as:
1. Reduction in primary productivity.
2. Reductions in aquatic insect production and species
composition from:
a. Decreased primary productivity.
b. Decreased entrapment of debris.
c. Loss of suitable habitat.
3. Decreases in fish production from:
a. Reduced emergence of fry.
b. Reduced food production.
c. Loss of habitat.
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7
The results from several years of experimentation were summa-
rized, some points of which may be applicable toward the establish-
ment of future criteria. Gravel size becomes critical somewhere
below 1/2 inch. In experiments with embryo survival, significant
impact was noted when granitic sand composition was greater than or
equal to 20 percent. For example,. survival of chinook embryos
decreased by 50 percent if sand comprised 30 percent of the bed
material. Furthermore, 30-40 percent of the total volume of sandless
gravel mixtures can be interstitial space or void area. If these
void areas become filled with fine sediments, embryo survival
becomes tenuous. The same might be said for postemergent fish.
When voids become filled, substantial and significant reductions in
fish, representative of decreases in carrying capacity, can occur.
The relationship between percentage available area and the number
of fish a stream will hold apparently applies to small streams
only, and seasonal differences have been noted.
Correlational surveys were deemed inadequate in accurately
assessing the effects of fines on fish. Some differences in insect
density and drift would be associated with the amount of sediment
in streams, but the technique failed with fish.
Finally, the amount of sediments in riffle areas was suggested
as an index. Bjornn reported that this technique has been success-
fully used in some Idaho streams for controlling management activities.
Dr. Thut described the research on sediments conducted at the Weyerhaeuser
field laboratory.
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Weyerhaeuser has had studies underway since 1973 on the effects
of fine sediment on various kinds of stream-dwelling animals.
These include steelhead, coho, chinook salmon, cutthroat trout and
a variety of benthic invertebrates. These studies have been primar-
ily concerned with the impact of fine sediments in the gravel
environment as opposed to open water. To a gravel matrix which was
mixed beforehand, varying quantities of fine sediments were added
to study the impact on salmonid fry emergence and upon aquatic
invertebrates. There was a tendency (not statistically significant)
for the finer fines (less than 0.8 mm) to have a more significant
impact on the emergence success of-salmon fry than the larger ones.
The extent that these fines, within the interstices of the gravel,
can reduce the ability of fishes to make it into the open water was
the condition measured. The data, after testing by an analysis of
variance, showed that there were thresholds of fines, defined as
0.8 mm, of about 15 percent for coho salmon and 20 percent for
steelhead. At about 10 percent or greater the number of copepods
can be significantly affected by the fines 0.8 mm). They
conducted the experiments to see if they could help the biologist
to make some assessment of when the environment is in trouble and
to see if they could shed any light on a criterion that could be
used to measure performance—that is, a criterion that would have
some legal status. In answer to the question asked beforehand
whether or not a percentage of fines could be suggested which could
be used as a regulatory criterion, Dr. Thut said, "I quite frankly
don't think there is enough information just yet, although I kind
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9
of temper that, I believe there is probably 10 times more information
on the biological effects of fines on gravel substrate than there
is on the biological effect of turbidity. And that lack of informa-
tion hasn't stopped anybody from promulgating a turbidity criteria.
Additional work of that sort should be done and I think some decision
should be made along the lines to what species are we going to
direct our regulatory standards towards." Also, the measurement of
fines in the gravel is a very time-consuming process. In order to
demonstrate very subtle differences in the percentage of fines it
requires an enormous number of samples. Eighty or 100 samples
might be required to demonstrate a 5 percent difference at the
80 percent confidence level.
Dr. Thut suggested: 1) to work on the sampling problem;
although the freeze core device is "quite an elegant instrument,"
much needs to be learned about the gravel environment and how the
sediments enter into this environment before extreme variation can
be evaluated; 2) more needs to be learned about the interrelationship
between (current) flows, between different parts of the hydrograph,
and the deposition of fines; once this is known, then the sampling
can be stratified in time and space; 3) work should be done on the
total spectrum of fines. We are measuring fines at 0.8 mm minus
and it does seem to have some effect, but it is not to say that
those gravels greater than 0.8 mm might not have some impact as
well.
Dr. Bestcha presented his work on Patterns of Suspended Sediment Transport
in Oregon's Coast Range Watershed.
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"I'm not a biologist, so I'm going to be talking more in the
physical realm on small streams and what I see happening there
particularly in regards to suspended sediment transport." He
illustrated some of the variability that he saw in reference to
suspended sediment transport in these small streams, and illustrated
some sediment transport patterns that he saw developing, particularly
on a storm basis.
He emphasized the "tremendous" amount of variability involved
in discharge and suspended sediment. Dr. Bestcha then quoted Rice,
Thomas and Brown's paper (Appendix D, page 101) that stated that
several thousand samples are often required to detect a 10 percent
change in suspended sediment concentrations in a small mountain
headwater stream. Dr. Bestcha stated that although there was a
tremendous variability in these small streams, he could see very
definite patterns emerging when they looked at the data closely:
1) higher turbidities with a given discharge usually occur on the
rising limb of the hydrograph; 2) on the falling limb the turbidities
are much lower at any given discharge level; 3) the turbidity curve
also peaks prior to the peak of the hydrograph; 4) also in their
particular study stream, turbidity is positively correlated with
suspended sediment, so the argument can be made that the turbidity
curve expresses relative changes in suspended sediment transport.
Dr. Bestcha also emphasized the variability found from watershed to
watershed.
Dunne, when asked to address the question whether it is possible to
define the shape and size of streambed gravels within usable limits
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with just a few measurements, replied: "For about 20 years or more
geologists have been trying to come up with some generalization
about stream gravel shape and have abandoned the idea." So he
referred to it as a dead end and talked just about size. He pointed
out that there is a difference in the way a geologist usually
measures the size of gravel substrate and the way fisheries people
apparently do it with a coring device. He mentioned that the
geologist's procedure is a "dirtier and rougher" procedure but that
it yields results "that are comparable with sieving."
. .We just walk around on a gravel bar, or in a pool, or
on a hillside, wherever we're interested in the sediment and put
our foot down and without looking run your finger over the front of
your toe, pick up the rock you touch, pick it up, measure its
intermediate axis, throw it over your shoulder and collect about
100 of these. Takes 10 minutes and the answer we get is the same
as you get." Dr. Dunne said there are two general questions of
interest, "What is: 1) the hydraulic roughness of the channel bed;
2) the gravel bar as a source of sediment once the armour layer has
been stripped off?" In the case of the hydraulic roughness of the
channel bed the precise composition of the surface is measured and
in the case of the gravel bar as a source of sediment, after the
top layer has been shoveled off the layer beneath is sampled. This
allows only the sampling of fairly large particles. For example,
it is very slow picking up pieces of sand 0.5 mm in diameter, so
what they generally do is go down to about 4 mm. According to the
literature there may be a relationship between survival of fishes
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12
in the composition of the gravel beds between 3.3 and 25 mm, and
that just by altering the class of the mix on the frequency distribu-
tion and accepting a little bit less precision, the whole process
may be sped up relatively." He says, "I don't know for sure whether
it would work calibrated against your coring devices and if it
doesn't work well it's too bad as it is a very quick procedure."
Dr. Dunne then demonstrated a method of determining composition by
looking at some data from local streams and plotting them by grade
size against cumulative percent and showed that they were all
approximately straight. And although the eight samples he demonstra-
ted came from different parts of a disturbed channel at different
times of the year over a 2-year period, the variability was not
that bad. Then he demonstrated that you can calculate the mean and
the proportion of grade sizes less than 0.85 mm within about 1 per-
cent. So, in other words, the situation may not be near as bad
here as in some of the cases mentioned earlier.
In summary he concluded that it may be possible with as few as
10 samples to define the mean within one-quarter to one-third of
its value. He then discussed the importance of deciding where and
when (in terms of the hydrologic year) the samples are to be taken.
If the fish year is more important than the hydrologic year, then
that should be considered.
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QUESTION AND ANSWER PERIOD FOLLOWING TECHNICAL PANEL—A SUMMARY
The question and answer period was conducted by:
session Mr. Rittall reiterated that the workshop is essentially
predicated on the assumption, that, to ensure that BMP will be
sufficient to protect the liability of Northwest streams, a stream
sediment standard or a set of assessment criteria may be necessary.
Does the panel believe we have to have a stream sediment
standard in addition to BMP, and if such a standard can be effective
or will it do any more than give us a measure of after-the-fact
effects?
Salo: "I can pass on that very easily. In the literature
review that we completed we did not consider BMP. We
assumed that we were charged to look for another criterion,
and if we're looking for another criterion, what should
it be? We settled on concentration of sediments in the
streambed. Although I think that BMP should be the
ultimate goal, BMP needs checking, and it needs checking
from several sources. And as an alternate to measurements
of suspended sediments I suggest the streambed as a
criterion."
Chairman Rittall.
As an introduction to the question and answer
Bjornn:
The Forest Service in Idaho is using composition of fine
materials in the streambed, particularly riffles, but
they're also looking at the composition in pools as an
index of the health of the stream. However, I think it's
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an after-the-fact type of measurement. ... So I get the
feeling that the ties between streambed composition and
BMP are hard to tie down."
Bestcha:
Bjornn:
Dunne:
Salo:
Dunne:
Rittall:
"I can see . . . monitoring after the fact as being very
useful as indicating where you can improve management
practices, but I'm not sure that it is such a good
tool . . . because the linkage is not clear cut and I'm
not sure that it can be used as a water quality standard."
"One of the things that we have to keep in mind is the
ability of the stream to rehabilitate itself ... so
even the after-the-fact measurements can be misleading."
"The question about a stream cleaning itself up is a
complicated one; that is, it is more complicated than
just looking at a point. If your stream cleans itself
up, then someone else has gotten your sediment. ..."
"Does it always have to be an after-the-fact measurement?"
"I'm not too sure how difficult the coring method is, but
running around sticking your fingers in the rocks—that
method is very quick, but whether it would work to the
level of precision you want, I think it will, then it's
quick and easy to do."
"If you have an established BMP and some sort of set of
criteria, and if you are monitoring while activity in the
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watershed is going on and you see a degradation, what's
your next step? Is it merely a correction to the BMP, or
do you have assessments such as the possibility of the
stream cleaning itself? . . . Perhaps this is what the
Regional Office is after; a standard that would evaluate
BMP and allow some modification, but not necessarily
allow all the activity that goes on."
Rittall: "The second question on the list is: Do we really know
how to determine if the nonpoint source sediment problem
exists? ... Do we have enough knowledge to determine . . .
that sediments in the streams are the result of activity
in the watershed so that if we see an adverse effect can
we relate that to watershed activity and prescribe some
level of control for the BMP?"
Thut: "It's not always possible. There are instances when
you're dealing with small streams, and where in fact the
headwaters are entirely logged, that it's really difficult
to get any background in the sense that you could go
above the activity. ... To characterize a stream tempo-
rally you should begin to look at it 5 years before the
activities have been planned and really study it under a
variety of hydrological conditions ..."
Bestcha: "I'm pretty hopeful that looking at sediment transport in
streams that we begin to get a handle on sources.... I
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can see patterns developing in sediment movement. We can
begin to identify what makes these patterns . . . in an
undisturbed system and begin to make some comparable
comparisons with a disturbed system, . . , but I'm not
sure we're at that point yet."
Rittall: "The tie-in between the physical people and the biological
people to work on this problem is one that we've been
attempting to tackle in our laboratory and the question
arises as to the type of information one needs from the
other. For example, what do we need to know from the
biologist?"
Salo: "Don't ask a biologist for a simple answer—for the
dynamics of the biological situation is perhaps more
variable than the amount of sediment that's coming down
at some particular flow. But getting back to the practi-
cal, the physical people certainly should know or be able
to get answers to the life histories of the biota in the
stream. For example, it is possible to get some artifacts,
like Dr. Bjornn pointed out, that make it appear as if
regardless of the amount of sediment, regardless of the
amount the pools covered, the population didn't suffer.
That's because the population's already suffering from
overexploitment and underescapement. These sorts of
gives and takes are pretty rough."
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Bjornn: . .1 think we can throw the ball back to the physical
people, the hydrologists, so to speak, for I think we are
at the stage where, for example, we set the standard so
that we're going to keep the spawning area in good condi-
tion, which means no more than 20 to 30 percent fines,
then it's up to the hydrologist and watershed manager to
find out how much sediment is going to come off from a
particular operation, and how much is going to be deposited
in the stream, and how much of it relates to the stream's
transport capacity. . . . Also I think we are at a stage
where we are able to tell the forest people where the
impacts are going to be in our set of streams."
Thut: "I think I could foresee perhaps, in say 3 to 5 years, a
biologist might have enough information to suggest some
sort of fines criterion, for example a spawning ground. . . .
With enough communication with the hydrologist we may be
able to stratify our samples so that we might try to
determine a mean value for the fines . . . for particular
areas, for example where the current speed is just 1 ft/sec
or 2 ft/sec and stratify it in that manner to get at a
mean value that you could compare to a criterion."
(Audience) Tom Frost from Weyerhaeuser: "I feel a bit unsatisfied
and unfulfilled with the answers you got from the first
two questions ... so for the first question: Is BMP
going to achieve the result or does it need to be
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(Audience)
Rittall:
Bestcha:
18
supplemented with some direct measurement of sediment and
what sediment measurements are going to be made because
we want to enforce those rules? The second question is:
Can we segregate natural from cultural sediment sources
by the rules we have set up which include BMP? ... I
would like to see the panel discuss these again more
fully."
Dave Rickert, DEQ, volunteered to answer Mr. Frost's
questions. He discussed a questionnaire and the develop-
ment of a matrix that they (DEQ) have used for looking at
nonsource problems. The second thing that they are
developing is a system of maps and overlays so that if
you have a conceptual model of terrain types and management
practices, you can return to the matrix ranking the
terrain and the practices, and then this eventually leads
up to BMP.
"... The question still remains, do we need a standard
as a backup to BMP? And as I gathered from this morning's
panel, the answer was 'Yes'. ..."
"I see a big difference between a standard and doing
after-the-fact monitoring to understand what's going on
and I really believe we ought to be monitoring after the
fact what we've done out there. Now whether we are at
the point where we can say that we can write that standard
or not, I'm not so sure. But there is a big difference
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between monitoring a BMP and evaluating whether it's
indeed doing the right job, and I don't think the BMP's
ought to be etched in stone either. . . .I'm not sure
that I'd agree that a standard will buy us everything we
need to know."
Rittall: "I think that perhaps the word 'standard' is unfortunate
because I have a feeling it's going to be more of a set
of criteria, a set of parameters, rather than one number.
The second question we asked was, 'Do we know how to
determine the nonpoint source constituent of sediment in
the streams?' If I can rely on my own judgment the
answer was 'No,' we don't know. ... We can't tell
whether its 25 percent that's going to be affected by the
BMP's. We have to do more before we can really relate
what we see in the streams to the degree of control that
BMP might need to accomplish."
Dunne: "The question which you stated is, 'Can you separate
natural and cultural effects?' I would answer 'Yes' to
that. I think you need to do a lot of work—it's hard,
but you can do it ... I think it can be done."
Bestcha: "Yes, but you need some kind of a tool to assess that
change other than subjective interpretation. You need
some statistical tools, such as time series analysis. . . .
I think the information's there, but whether we can get
to the point where we can get specific enough to say we
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20
have reached this point on any given stream that it's in
violation, I don't know. That's a judgment decision.
Somebody may want to make that, but I won't make it right
now."
"I have concern about rigid standards and rigid practices
for they are not transferable from one drainage to
another ..."
". . . It seems that in looking at gravel composition
that we're relying pretty heavily on the egg and larval
stages to set the criteria. If this is the requirement,
one of the questions is: Is that sufficient to protect
the other biota in the stream? . . . Today we have heard
some 'No's' and some 'Yes's' ..."
". . .My feeling is that if we protect the spawning
gravel during the spawning and incubation period, that
most of our problems would be taken care of."
"I'll second that."
"I'll second that and perhaps say a little more. . . .
However, I'm not sure that we should accept anything up
to 20 percent ..."
". . . I think the approach that I'd suggest is to look
at three different parameters: one would be the intra-
gravel fines, the other would be turbidity. ... I think
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21
it is the most accurate indication of any adverse impact
that you would find on, say, something like photosynthe-
sis. . . . Another indicator that is rather difficult to
do is to get some measure of the intragravel chemistry . . ."
Bestcha: . .My feeling is that it (turbidity) is a very useful
tool from the standpoint of sediment transport. .
There were further questions and answers and discussion by the
Technical Panel.
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22
AFTERNOON SESSION OF THE TECHNICAL PANEL
In the first part of the afternoon session there was discussion
among members of the audience as to sampling variability, methods of
sampling, and the protection of first, second, and third order streams.
Then there was a discussion by Dr. Dunne on the needs to set up a sediment
budget for the watershed and to try to calculate what the stream can
carry away easily and what will be left behind in the gravels. "And
although it's not all that easy, it's one of the things that we can do
at the present time, and one has to decide whether it's worth doing and
whether it can be done on a routine basis."
One of the biggest contributors to variability has been the lack of
field sampling personnel understanding the complications of mixing
different kinds of sampling sites. The samples have to be tied in to
the time of the year relative to the seasonal hydrograph and sampling
specific physiographical locations within the stream. That is, always
doing it at that place and at specific hydrologic sequences.
There was a discussion on the scouring needed to remove sediment
from the streams.
Dunne: "I'm rather pessimistic on this point. I don't think in
the foreseeable future we're likely to know enough about
suspended load to be able to interpret turbidity measure-
ments or suspended sediment concentration measurements.
In terms of processes of cleansing the river channel or
what's going on in the watershed ... I'm fairly pessimis-
tic about suspended sediment measurements."
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23
Bestcha: "I feel just the opposite. I feel that there is a syste-
matic way that these streams are moving material through
them and it's the result of the summation of many different
random processes at work out there."
(Audience) K Koski (National Marine Fisheries Service (NMF?>,
Juneau, Alaska): "I'm not sure how much of this discussion
should be spent going over methodology and technique . . .
Perhaps we can talk about that at a later time.... We
do have a great deal of information and if we could
standardize these techniques somewhat as Jeff has done,
I think we would have a pretty good idea on what kind of
criteria to establish. The precision of the freeze core
is quite good and I feel that we can detect a 1 percent
change and knowing that you have at least a 2 percent
accuracy is good enough with this sampler and in a very
homogeneous area the minimum number of samples would be
about 15."
There was considerable discussion among the panel members and the
audience on stream channelization, sampling methods, and the interrela-
tionship of biological and physical systems.
(Audience) K Koski: "I want to make a comment regarding the criteria
or the standard of using the streambed gravel composi-
tion. ... I would recommend that we establish a criterion
based on the ambient level of the stream sediments and
that we select an additional figure, say perhaps 3 percent
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24
or so, that we cannot exceed. Now these would be in
selected stream reaches or areas of prime concern, such
as spawning habitat which we now know. And I present
this as a recommendation rather than saying an overall
load of 10 percent fines or additional 15 percent. I
think we have to look at individual streams and at the
ambient level and at specific locations in the streams,
and have a maximum change of perhaps 3 percent."
There was continued discussion but this is the end of the question
and answer session following the technical panel.
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25
TECHNICAL PANEL—CONCLUSIONS
1. Turbidity is one of the water quality parameters most often
violated and the source of the problem seems to be largely of nonpoint
origin (Petke).
2. Water quality criteria should be developed to monitor but not
replace the concept of BMP's (consensus).
3. In the Idaho Batholith area the amount of fines in a spawning
riffle has been used as an index for monitoring sedimentation. Studies
in the State of Washington (Thut) have shown that fines less than 0.8 mm
have more of an impact than do larger sizes on the emergent success of
salmonids. There appears to be a threshold (of fines < 0.8 mm) of 15 per-
cent for coho salmon and 20 percent for steelhead (Thut).
4. Some panel members (Thut, Bestcha) thought that we do not have
enough information to support a criterion based on intragravel sediments
although "we have 10 times as much as on the biological effects of
turbidity. ..."
5. Some participants (Thut, Bestcha) felt that an enormous amount
of samples are needed to detect a 5 percent difference at the 80 percent
confidence level.
6. Turbidity on a given discharge is higher on a rising limb of a
hydrograph, and the turbidity peaks before the hydrograph peaks. Turbid-
ity is positively correlated with suspended sediment (Bestcha).
7. One member (Dunne) of the panel felt that there may be ways to
drastically cut down on the number of samples needed and still maintain
enough precision for practical purposes.
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26
8. The relationship between "fish year" and the "hydraulic year"
needs to be determined (Dunne, Bestcha, Salo, Thut).
9. The biologists generally agreed that if a criterion should be
chosen, it should be streambed material and it should be associated with
the amount of fines in the spawning bed.
10. Three to 5 year's investigation on a stream may be necessary
to get enough information for precise before-and-after study of changes
in the spawning gravel,
11. A set of criteria is needed more than just one numerical
standard.
12. To differentiate between natural and man-caused sediments as
much as 5 year's background may be needed.
13. There are patterns in sediment movement and in order to get
knowledge of sources and their amounts, continuity in research is
necessary.
14. In 3 to 5 years biologists may have enough information to
suggest some sort of fines criteria, for example in a particular spawning
ground, and they may be able to stratify the samples in order to get
precise results.
15. There was concensus that if the spawning gravels are protected
during the spawning and incubation time, most of our problems would be
taken care of.
16. There was disagreement as to the immediate usefulness of
suspended sediment measurements (Dunne, Bestcha).
17. There were differences of opinion on the variability encountered
and the confidence that can be placed in sampling of the spawning gravels.
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27
One opinion (from the audience, Koski) was that we can detect a 1 percent
change at 2 percent accuracy in a homogeneous (spawning) area with a
minimum of as low as 15 samples.
18. A criterion of the ambient plus 3 percent fines was suggested
by Koski.
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28
PRESENTATION BY MANAGERIAL PANEL—A SUMMARY
Fraser suggested that for the purpose of the meeting the panel would
assume that the states are required to submit a 208 plan including
the treatment of silvicultural activities that would meet the
approval of EPA. The objective was to discuss the technical ques-
tions and how to go about devising and implementing a 208 plan that
would meet the approval of EPA.
Fraser then introduced the panelists who each gave a short
statement.
Ron Hanson outlined the normal sequence of functions that management and
planners normally use. These steps include setting goals and
objectives, with water quality standards as the intermediate goal,
defining the problems as point source or nonpoint source, selecting
alternatives for a permit system for point sources or BMP's for
nonpoint sources, setting up policies and regulations and then
monitoring to determine compliance and, finally, reevaluation of
objectives and verification of assumptions.
Ed Quan proposed a team effort to find a common denominator to reduce
the variables so one person doing the monitoring can get a good
picture with a minimum of effort. If simpler tools were developed,
the management agencies would be willing to test them.
John Spencer stated that Washington has begun its 208 planning process
by forming water quality committees throughout the state. Some of
the problems encountered include trying to set water quality stan-
dards that can be met by the rules and regulations for forest
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29
practices and the development of BMP for irrigated agriculture. He
did not think we are ready to accept BMP as the best way to go.
The difference between forest practices and agriculture is that a
timber operation occurs once in 80 years or so and a farmer is
concerned with practices that occur every year. The agricultural
community that likes the idea of getting better practices on the
farm is repulsed by the idea of effluent standards and treatment
plant technology. We have come the full circle and still have not
solved some of the real political and social problems.
Fraser: "You can see some of the problems administrators have.
I'm taking the prerogative to ask some of the first
questions. John, do you have the same kind of problem
with the silvicultural area as you do with agriculture?"
Spencer: "We do feel the Forest Practices Act is the answer to the
requirements of Section 208 of the Federal Act. The
problem with irrigated agriculture is that we haven't
defined the relationship between the general permit,
effluent limits, and BMP's. You have set up an application
process in forest practices with an estimated 6,000-10,000
applications a year. In Whitman County alone there are
1,700 separate farm operations. The big difference is
the continuity of forest practices that agriculture
doesn't have that doesn't lend itself to a permitting
system."
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Fraser:
Hanson:
Quan:
Spencer:
30
"Ed, you in Oregon have a Forest Practices Act. Ron, you
are just in the process of getting this in Alaska."
"Right. A bill was submitted again in January to establish
a Forest Practices Act. As yet we have no regulations to
implement the Act. The question we've been addressing
today is whether we are satisfied with accepting BMP's or
should there be some other criteria? Ed, do you like
BMP's and how does that relate to the question of quality
measurement that has been discussed here today?"
"I don't think we should be trying to squeeze more out of
BMP's than is reasonable. I think the land managers
should police themselves with the help of professionals
to manage their resources."
"I'd like to come back to my own mild argument and say
that we should be getting the best from the man who has
responsibility to manage the land. We run into a problem
when we try to couple this with other requirements of the
law, implementation, enforcement penalties, and so on.
But I think there is a way out of this. The answer lies
in the kind of political arrangement that's set up for
implementation of BMP's. For example, I think the general
permit concept that EPA has laid out is an opportunity
for us to establish an acceptable political process to
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31
get BMP's into the place they are needed. Local implemen-
tation and local authority in getting BMP's on the land
rings a bell with local people."
Tom Frost (Weyerhaeuser Company): "How are you (John
Spencer) going to judge the value of the rules under the
Forest Practices Act in terms of perfecting water quality
and biological integrity of streams? I think the people
here are looking for you, as a DOE manager, to set up a
standard to measure against."
"John has a little disadvantage because he wasn't able to
be here this morning. Our discussion so far today has
revolved around silviculture activity and not the farming
area. We went through the same participation process in
the forestry community on a statewide basis. Ernie and
some others made a proposal this morning that there might
be some other criteria than the present water quality
standards that might measure the effects of sediment on
fish. He finds better correlation between survival of
fish embryos and increase in fines in gravel than with
turbidity per se."
"I think there are two questions. One is the use of
water quality standards as a measure of effectiveness of
forest practice rules and regulations. The other is the
use of water quality standards as an enforcement tool. I
think we have come to a conclusion that the standards
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32
will not be used as the regulatory measure in forest
practices or for agriculture. There's no question in my
mind that we do need to add other criteria but we can do
that more easily when we take standards out of the realm
of enforcement. Our standards are very stringent and any
violation we find is an enforcement tool. I think we
have come to a conclusion that the standards will not be
used as the regulatory measure in forest practices or for
agriculture. There's no question in my mind that we do
need to add other criteria but we can do that more easily
when we take standards out of the realm of enforcement.
Our standards are very stringent and any violation we
find is an enforcement situation. If you set up some way
of measuring variability over time, then I think you will
be able to measure how valuable the (forest or agriculture)
practices are. We have to keep in mind the beneficial
uses and not become too concerned with criteria alone."
Hanson: "I'm in agreement that standards have to be changed
especially when we find that a parameter such as turbidity
doesn't really measure what we want."
Quan: "I'm in agreement with these fellows but I'd like to give
a little background on what a turbidity (JTU) criterion
has meant to us. Over the years we have been able to get
the sand and gravel operations to work behind a berm
except a dredge operating in deeper water. The public
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33
does not appreciate muddy water especially during the low-
flow period and I think that if someone wants to do some
instream work, at least he's aware that there is a standard
and subj ect to enforcement. The only thing we ask is
that they get in touch with the local biologist to find
out if the timing of their project would have the least
impact on the fishery."
Frank Rainwater, EPA, and others had a discussion on uniformity of
criteria. Responses from John Spencer and others pointed out that
there is an effort at uniformity through state water quality stan-
dards and the Forest Practices Act. In Alaska some of the miners
would like designation of creeks for disposal of mining wastes.
George Snyder (NMFS) pointed out that there will be different problems
if the fines are toxic or are organic. John Spencer explained that
in setting stream classifications you look at natural characteristics
and stream uses. JTU may not be relative to a particular use and
there probably ought to be some other kinds of criteria included in
the standard. Until we get over the administrative hurdles and
take standards out of the front line of enforcement we are not
going to be able to add these other criteria very easily. A discus-
sion followed which confused effluent limits for a particular
discharger with stream standards. The standard does not change
with land usage like silviculture or mining.
(Audience) Jeff Cederholm (University of Washington) asked if the
BMP's would apply to past practices. The discussion
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34
which followed concluded that the Washington Forest
Practices Act was set up to apply to new operations and
it is not clear whether it would apply to road maintenance.
A stream typing system was set up as a basis for assigning
practices for a particular stream. The scientific people
are making progress in perfecting the cause and effect
relationship between what happens on the land and what
the impact is on the fisheries. Every forester will put
importance on the relationship of emergence of fish from
the gravel beds and the amount of silt. If we can see
the cause-effect relationship, we will come closer together
(in finding solutions). Robert Burgner (University of
Washington) asked to what degree the BMP's for forestry
are uniform statewide. Don Lee Fraser pointed out that
there is flexibility in the rules a forester has to apply
on the ground. In Oregon, the Department of Forestry is
the sole agency regulating forest activities while in
Washington there are a number of agencies. If there is
an activity in the stream itself, then this has to be
coordinated with fish and game departments.
Fraser: "We do favor the BMP approach rather than a number system
down in the stream and we think that the land-use practices
are the thing that has to be regulated. In is entirely
appropriate that DOE and the other water and fisheries
people should be measuring the effectiveness of the BMP's
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35
in meeting water quality standards and we welcome better
ways to really evaluate whether we're meeting those
goals."
John Spencer agreed with Fraser's summary and pointed out that the new
criteria that are useful in cause and effect is where the greatest
progress can be made. He said that water quality standards do
have a place particularly where activities do not come under a
management program.
Ron Hanson agreed with these remarks.
Rob Rulifson (EPA) gave a wrap-up stating that we have a ways to go in
engineering and biological effects research but we are probably on
the right track with this type of meeting. The next step is to
assess our resources and proceed with the Corvallis Environmental
Research Lab 5-Year Plan for research in this area. Their four
main objectives relate to nonsteady state for quality, regional-
type problems, broad relationships, and ecological effects of
sedimentation. Our problem as a region is how to get regional and
state input into the system. We will be working with the states to
get their cooperation. Bob pointed out that there were many more
experts in the audience that could have had more to say if it had
not been crowded into 1 day. He thanked the audience for coming
and the technical and managerial panels for their participation.
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36
MANAGERIAL PANEL—CONCLUSIONS
1. There was general agreement among the panelists that a Forest
Practice Act is the answer to Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (control of nonpoint sources of pollution) for silviculture.
One panelist (Spencer) pointed out that the many political and social
problems of agriculture have not been worked out. He believes that a
general permit is a way to establish an acceptable political process for
implementation of BMP's.
2. There was a concensus that water quality standards will not be
used as the regulatory measure in forest practices or for agriculture.
Three members (Fraser, Spencer, Hanson) concurred in regulation of land-
use practices rather than enforcement of a numerical system (water
quality standards) in the stream.
3. There was unanimous agreement of the panel that there is a
need for additional criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of forest
practice rules and regulations. The water pollution and fisheries
people should be measuring the effectiveness of the BMP's in meeting
water quality standards.
4. The state pollution agencies (Alaska, Oregon, Washington)
present at the workshop will cooperate in development of new approaches
for evaluation of BMP and a meeting like this workshop is a step in the
right direction.
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1
APPENDIX B
SEDIMENT DISCHARGE COMPUTATIONS
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2
APPENDIX B
SEDIMENT DISCHARGE COMPUTATIONS
Hydrologic Approach
With a set of suspended sediment samples (and bedload samples if
available) and corresponding water discharge data, one can relate concen-
tration and discharge through a sediment rating curve, which is then
used to estimate periods of mixing data or to extend records (Porterfield
1972). With knowledge of the frequency of discharges and concentration
of sediment associated with them, total sediment discharge can be computed
for a given period of time, i.e., Qs = Qw x Cs x K where Qs = sediment
discharge (tons), Qw = water discharge (cfs) for the time period, Cs =
concentration of suspended sediment (mg/liter), and K is a constant
(0.0027).
But if a sufficient number of sediment samples is not available for
a particular stream, estimates of the sediment load can be derived from
theoretical considerations. Colby 1964, Graf 1971, and Stalnaker and
Arnette 1976 present several approaches to this problem.
Hydraulic Approach
Bedload Transport
Although the bedload makes up only 5 percent to 25 percent of the
total load carried by a stream (Tywoniuk 1972), it is bedload transport
that influences the scour and fill of streambeds and so determines the
stability of the channel. Below a certain velocity or discharge, the
bed material remains stable, and above that point, particles on the bed
begin to move. This point is called the critical velocity, and cannot
be defined precisely, except in a statistical sense. Initial motion is
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3
dependent on the particle size and the local shear stress which, in
turn, is a function of the depth and slope of the water.
Historically, there have been three main approaches to the problem
of sediment transport, later modified to fit particular situations.
Numerous methods have been advanced to calculate sediment load, but many
of these are applicable only in specific situations. The following
discussion covers equations which are applicable to the study of streams
in the Pacific Northwest:
1. The duBoys-type relationship assumes there is a critical shear
stress where
Tcr = a d S,
er
a = the specific weight of water,
d = depth of water,
cr
S = slope of water.
When this shear stress is exceeded (i.e., when the water depth exceeds
the critical water depth d ), sediment transport proceeds according to:
cr
q = x S)2 d (d - d ),
as cr
where
q = sediment transport of bedload per unit width of channel,
s
and
X
= an empirical coefficient.
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The applicability of equations derived for sand-bedded rivers is limited
for Pacific Northwest streams. The Meyer-Peter Muller formula, a modifi-
cation of the duBoys shear stress relation, was developed for armored
gravel-bedded rivers. The equation, in English terms, is as follows:
q - .1.606
s
3-306(^)(% I 3/2 ds - °-627D„
n
s
3/2
qg = bedload transport (tons/day/ft width of channel),
Q = discharge quantity determining bedload transport (cfs) function
s
of n and n ,
w m
Q = total water discharge quantity (cfs),
D = armor size (mm) as approximated by the size of sediment for
90
which 90 percent of the material is finer,
n = weighted Manning's "n" value for the streambed, a roughness
s
value,
d = depth of flow (ft),
S = slope energy gradeline (estimated by water surface slope),
D = effective size of bed material,
m
n = sidewall roughness value,
w
n = total channel roughness,
m
For the condition at which bed material just begins to move, D is
m
replaced by the individual particle size D,
dS = 0.0001624 D,
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5
or shear stress a dS = 0.0001624 D a where a = specific weight of water
(62.1 lb/cu ft).
For another variation of the shear stress approach, see Kalinske
(1947).
2. Schoklitsch (1930), instead of using depth as the limiting
parameter, formulated an equation using a critical discharge (discharge
= area x velocity). The equation can be stated as:
q = discharge at a particular time.
3. Because the critical condition for sediment transport is
difficult to determine, H. A. Einstein (1950) approached the problem
statistically, assuming sediment transport is governed by the fluctuations
in velocity rather than by the average velocity. The material moves
slowly down the stream in a series of short hops and rests, and there is
an active exchange of particles in the bed with those in the moving
bedload. Einstein included the effect of different sizes and shapes of
material, and that of small particles hiding behind larger ones in his
statistical analysis.
qs = x"sk - V''
where
X1' = a new sediment coefficient,
q = the water discharge at which material begins to move,
= 1/2
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6
Xs *s ~K
\r
Based on exoerinents 3 6 and x were related as 0.455 6 = exp (-0.3S1 x)-
Suspended Sediment Transport
Suspended sediment is supported by the fluid rather than by the
channel bed, and is usually calculated in terms of concentration. The
concentration of suspended sediment is largely dependent upon availability
as well as the intensity of the flow, so it may be higher on the rising
limb of a hydrograph (representing the beginning of a storm and a large
amount of available sediment) than on the falling limb (representing the
end of a storm when most sediment available for transport has been
washed away). Thus, there is potential for variability in sediment
concentrations even at equal discharges at the same location. The
concentration at a point is also often a function of its height above
the bed. If z = the height above the bed, when z < 0.2 of the total
water depth, d, the concentration can be expressed as:
R^1 = hydraulic radius of sediment grain on bed,
a s = specific weight of sediment,
a = specific weight of water,
2
g = gravitational constant (9.8 x 10 cm/sec).
.1—c 1-c Tz )
s s a
where P = w
when Z > 0.2 d, the concentration is
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7
C
s
1-C
where
W = settling velocity of the suspended particles,
k = von Kantian's constant, 0.4,
Zb =0.2 d,
u* = shear velocity = /T/e,
6^™ = constants,
and Z is the top of the bedload layer, which can be estimated by 2D
3.
(Einstein 1950) or by a function of Z^, a roughness parameter of the
bed.
The volume of sediment can be calculated by integrating the sediment
concentration over the depth of water.
Total Load
' ~
The total load, or more correctly, the bed material load of a
stream can be calculated by adding the values of bedload and suspended
load as computed above. At low transport rates where most of the sediment
moves in contact with the bed, the bedload approximates the total load
sufficiently well (Graf 1971, White et al. 1975).
Bogardi (1958) and Laursen (1958) have formulated empirical total
load equations to estimate the concentration of sediment. "Total load"
is somewhat of a misnomer for these equations, however, since the actual
sediment discharge is not computed directly.
C (Za)
= s
Zq
1-C (Za) \Zb
exp
-Ps 8.
i
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8
Besides carrying material that is found within the bed and that is
moved at certain discharges, streams can carry washloads. The latter
are made of up grain sizes finer than most of the bed material and,
hence, are rarely found in the bed. This, coupled with the fact that
there is not a clear relation between flow and washload, has made attempts
at analytical determination of washload difficult (Einstein 1950).
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1
APPENDIX C
TABULAR SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE CONCERNING
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND SEDIMENTS
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APPENDIX C
TABULAR SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE CONCERNING
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND SEDIMENTS
Code
Letter/Number
Suspended solids A
B
C
D
E
Subject Concerns
Duration of sediment effects
Suspended sediments and spawning redds
Damage to postemergents
Suspended solids criteria
Model stream approach
Bed material 1 Relationship of fines to organisms
2 Oxygen requirements
3 Percentage of fines allowable
4 Duration of sediment effects
5 Modification of bed composition
6 Approaches
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3
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Author
Year
Topic
Code
Bjornn
1974a Amount of sediment allowed in stream =
total allowable level minus present level.
1974i> Suspended sediment at high concentration
causes short-term insect drift.
Bjorn et al.
Buck
Cairns
Cederholm and
Lestelle
Cooper
Ellis
EIFAC
Gammon
1974 Small amounts of sediment in limit areas
cause limited impact.
1956 Production of spiny-ray fish in farm ponds:
< 25 ppm 161.5 #/acre
25-100 ppm 94 #/acre
> 100 ppm ->-29.3 #/acre.
Tolerance varies by species.
1967 Biological indicator approach on drainage
basin scale.
1973 Postemergents may have damage to gills
(clogging, clubbing) as a result of contact
with suspended sediments.
1965 Suspended sediment concentration must be
very low over spawning redds.
1944- Sufficient concentration of solids with
hardness < 1 can cause excessive mucus
production.
1965 < 25 ppm = no harmful effects; 80 to
400 ppm = good fisheries doubtful;
> 400 ppm = only poor fisheries.
1970a 80 mg/liter suspended solids above normal
amount present decreased insect density
60%.
19702? At low concentrations, 90% of particle
weight = 10 u diameter. At high concentra-
tions 50% of particle weight = 20 y
diameter.
Gessler
1975a Aquatic environments adjusted to individual
sediment loads and were directly or
indirectly dependent on them.
1975& Develop land management techniques to
prevent erosion.
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4
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Author
Year
Topic
Code
Gessler
Moring and
Lantz
1975c Enforce standards on small streams and
large streams will indirectly benefit.
1976 Model stream approach; combination of
biological and geomorphic characteristics.
1974 Detrimental effects of sediments usually
short-term on most streams.
Rice et al.
Shapley and
Bishop
Wedemeyer and
Yasutake
(unpublished)
Wilson
Wurtz
1975 Statistical and analytical models approach;
standards must include flow variations and
stream performance characters concurrent
with monitoring system.
1965 Streams with lower high flow:low flow
ratios need less sediment load to make more
or less lasting changes in bed composition.
< 80 ppm recommended limit for total
suspended and settleable solids, for warm
and cold water fishes.
1957 Set standards as a percentage increase
above normal low flows.
1966 Classify streams and establish criteria by
class/river basin.
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1
1
5
1
3
6
1
2
1
2
2
1
5
BED MATERIAL
Year Topic
1976 In trout habitat ruined by alluvial sand
deposits, trout populations remain in good
shape by shifting food base to annelid worms.
1974 Stream with highest degree of imbeddedness and
highest percentage of fines < 1/4 inch diameter
had fewest benthic invertebrates, lowest
species diversity, fewest drift insects, but no
effect on steelhead populations.
1974 Gabion deflectors, log drop structures, and
debris removal increased sediment transport and
improved fish habitat.
1956 Redd size = i—: = —-—-=
gravel size gravel concentrations
1972 Percentage of increase in sediments < 0.8 mm
10.2 -* 13.3% = no effect
16.4 22.1% = partial effect
20.1 -*¦ 33.3% = decreased biomass of all fish
species.
1972 Recommends stream system improvements be based
on multidisciplinary approach, including
interactions of sociology, geology, hydrology,
and biology.
1973a High silt levels can decrease preemergent
survival; depends on species and life stage.
1973b Shifting and erosion can cause mortality.
1973c Salmon require good permeability and oxygen in
redd; oxygen consumption varies with depth and
life stage--maximum just before hatching.
1961 Damage to eggs, food supplies, or alevins
occurs long before adult fish are harmed.
1962a Dissolved oxygen < 3 mg/liter insufficient for
salmonids and other sensitive species.
1962b Intragravel velocity must be high enough to
deliver oxygen to redds.
1965 Salmon spawning grounds should be as free as
possible of fines.
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2
2
5
5
1
1
2
3
4
3
3
4
1
3
3
6
BED MATERIAL
Year Topic
1937 5 ppm oxygen critical or limiting level.
1962 Stonefly larvae require large oxygen supply;
do not use sand and mud.
1973 Sediment basins must be large to trap fines;
can be used above redds.
1969 Diversionary devices reduced silt bottoms by
70%, sand by 40%. Fish food biomass increased
in treated sections.
1966 Fines < 3.327 mm detrimental to preemergent
survival.
1976 Duration of sediment impact on bottom fauna
short-term.
1963 5-8 mg/liter oxygen necessary in natural redds;
survival best in area with best oxygen supply;
oxygen supply controlled by permeability,
B.O.D.
1964 15% fines maximum for successful spawning
redds.
1964cz 5 yr after logging, levels of fines in gravels
normal.
1964# Percentage of fines <_ 0.833 = Li'Uiea^•
1964c Good permeability = < 5%; poor = > 15%.
1951 Following slash clearing, bottom returned to
normal in < 1 yr.
1974 Coho populations not affected by logging;
cutthroat populations were. Suggest use of
cutthroat as indicator species.
1968 About 60% of spawning gravels sampled contained
1/2-inch to 4-inch gravel; few with large
boulders or fine compacting gravel and silt.
1975 Emergent survival:
coho - 96% control, 8% with 60% sand;
steelhead - 99% control, 18% with 70% sand.
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7
BED MATERIAL
Author
Year
Topi
1C
Code
Rees
Tagart
1959 Aquatic insect preferences:
Diptera - low velocity, sand bottom;
Coleoptera - moderate velocity, sand-gravel
mixture;
Ephemoptera, Plecoptera, Tricoptera - high
velocity, gravel bottoms.
1976 < 20% fines = increased survival; > 20% fines =
decreased survival (fines < 0.850 mm).
Saunders and 1965
Smith
Sheridan and 1966
Wilke
Von Tumbling 1969
Wickett
1959
Brook trout found only in silt-free bottom
areas; return when unsilted.
Three passes with "riffle sifter" decreased
gravel < 3.3 ran by 40% to 70%.
Entirely biological approach; four classifica-
tions of natural waters based on dissolved
oxygen, oxygen saturation deficit, B.O.D.,
ammonium ion saprobity.
Specific grading curves for gravels according to
use by fish. Develop machine to produce "good"
gravels.
Addendum:
Hall and 1969 Percent survival (egg deposition to emergence):
Lantz 1-3 mm sediments: steelhead - 40%;
coho - 20%-30%;
less than 0.83 mm sediments: coho - 20%.
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1
APPENDIX D
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Note: The abstracts listed in this bibliography were obtained from a
variety of sources. Abbreviations following each citation
indicate the individual source. Sources included:
(BA) Biological Abstracts
(EPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1975. Forest
harvest-regeneration activities and protection of
water quality. USEPA Region X, Seattle, Washington
(GS) Gibbons, D. R., and E. 0. Salo. 1973. An annotated
bibliography of the effects of logging on fish of
the western United States and Canada. USDA Forest
Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-10. 145 pp.
(M) Mortensen, D. G., B. P. Snyder, and E. 0. Salo.
1976. An analysis of the literature on the effects
of dredging on juvenile salmonids. Special report
to the Department of the Navy, March 15, 1976. 37 pp.
(NTIS)
National Technical Information Service
(OR) Original Abstract (author)
(WP) Water Pollution Abstracts
No abbreviations indicate abstract was written by authors of
this literature survey.
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2
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aitken, W. W. 1936. The relation of soil erosion to stream improvement
and fish life. J. For. 34(12):1059-1061. (GS)
The author notes that gradual changes in stream environment
caused by erosion can bring about corresponding changes in fish fauna.
Without erosion control, stream improvement devices are of little value
since they cannot eliminate turbidity, siltation, and other conditions
resulting from erosion that are deleterious to fish life.
^Alderdice, D. F., W. P. Wickett, and J. R. Brett. 1958. Some effects
of temporary exposure to low dissolved oxygen levels on Pacific
salmon eggs. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 15:229-250. (OR)
Eggs of the chum salmon (Onaovhynahus beta) were exposed to
various constant levels of dissolved oxygen for a period of seven days.
The procedure was repeated with fresh egg samples at various developmental
stages. Temperatures were constant at 10°C from fertilization to
hatching. Estimates of oxygen consumption uninhibited by low dissolved
oxygen levels were obtained at various stages of egg development for
whole eggs and also on the basis of the weight of larvae, excluding the
yolk. Eggs were most sensitive to hypoxia between 100-200 Centigrade
degree-days and compensated for reduced oxygen availability by reducing
the oxygen demand and rate of development. Very low oxygen levels at
early incubation stages resulted in the production of monstrosities. At
about the time the circulatory system becomes functional the compensatory
reduction in rate of growth under hypoxial conditions is reduced, the
eggs no longer survive extreme hypoxial conditions. Eggs subjected to
low dissolved oxygen levels just prior to hatching hatch prematurely at
a rate dependent on the degree of hypoxia. The maximum premature hatching
rate corresponded approximately with the median lethal oxygen level.
Estimated median lethal levels rose slowly from fertilization to hatching.
Oxygen consumption per egg rose from fertilization to hatching while the
consumption per gram of larval tissue declined from a high to a low
level at about the time of blastopore closure. Subsequently, a slight
rise in the rate occurred up to a level which was more or less constant
to hatching. "Critical" dissolved oxygen levels were calculated and
they appear to define the oxygen level above which respiratory rate is
unmodified by oxygen availability. Critical levels ranged from about 1
ppm in early stages to over 7 ppm shortly before hatching.
Alsonso, C. V., J. R. McHenry, and J. C. S. Hong. 1973. The influence
of suspended sediment on the surface reaeration of uniform streams.
Mississippi State Univ., Water Resources Res. Inst. 61 pp. (OR)
The surface reaeration of uniform streams, with and without
sediments in suspension, has been studied in the laboratory.
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3
This equation was then modified in order to account for the
effect of suspended sediments on the surface reaeration of uniform sediment-
laden streams. The new equation was substantia Led by the experimental
results, which indicate that the reaeration rate decreases as the
average sediment concentration increases. The decrease was attributed
to the dynamic influence of the suspended particles on the turbulent
flow field.
Anderson, H. W. 1957. Relating sediment yield to watershed variables.
Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 38(6):921-924. (OR)
The yield of sediment from watersheds depends upon three sets
of variables: (1) inherent watershed characteristics such as geology
and topography; (2) land use, condition of vegetation, and management
and protective measures; and (3) nature of storms and streamflow which
produce and transport sediment. Measured quantities of yield also
depend on the sediment measuring device and on which fraction of total
sediment yield is measured. The sources of variation in sediment yield
between and within watersheds can be evaluated by study of the yield
from many watersheds which have wide differences in variables affecting
sediment yields. Such studies are useful to determine and evaluate the
principal sources of sediment, to evaluate the probable effects of
conservation programs on yield, and to provide criteria for design of
reservoirs and channels. This paper summarizes some recent studies in
which multiple regression analysis was used in relating sediment yield
to watershed variables. The studies are discussed in the light of
methods of selecting watersheds, data, variables, and functions; and the
effects of neglected variables, errors in variables, and exclusion of
nonsignificant variables.
Anderson, H. W. 1970. Principal components analysis of watershed
variables affecting suspended sediment discharge after a major
flood. Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. 96:404-4-16. (OR)
Increases in the sediment discharge from 31 watersheds after
two major floods in northern California were studied by principal compo-
nents analysis. Eleven years of sediment data after the December 1955
flood and 3 years of data after the December 1964 flood in California
were analyzed. Relative flood size was expressed as the deviation from
average annual flood size, divided by the mean annual discharge. Non-
linearity was evaluated by studying the interactions between variables
expressing watershed conditions. Topographic variables were calculated
from slopes of primary streams, elevation distribution, and surface path
lengths. Sediment discharge was calculated from measured suspended
sediment concentration, using the flow duration-sediment method. Increased
suspended sediment discharge for average flow duration occurred after
each major flood. The first year after the December 1964 flood, sedimenta-
tion was as much as five times the pre-flood amount. Poor land use
practices—specifically, placing logging roads adjacent to streams and
temporary log storage areas (landings) in draws—was associated with
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4
greater increases in suspended sediment concentration after the floods.
Increases in sediment discharges over pre-flood rates were generally
less each successive year after each flood. Equations were developed to
relate the rate of decline of the increases in sediment to year since
the flood and to watershed condition.
Anderson, H. W. 1971. Relative contributions of sediment from source
areas and transport processes. Pages 55-63 in James Morris, ed.
Proc. Symposium—Forest Land Uses and Stream Environment. Ore.
State Univ., Corvallis. (OR)
The paper reports new findings, offers a reanalysis of older
studies, and summarizes pertinent results in the literature. Past land
use, forest fires, road building, "poor logging," and conversion of
steep lands to grass have increased sediment discharge by factors
ranging from 1.24 to more than 4. Projected future use is expected to
increase sediment production by a factor of 4, with 80 percent associated
with roads and 20 percent with logging. Major floods have increased
subsequent turbidity of streamflow by a factor of 2. The increases were
greater in logged areas of watersheds where roads were next to streams
and landings were in draws than in undisturbed watersheds. Most landslides
were associated with road development, next most with logged areas, and
least with undisturbed forest area. The number of turbid days in stream-
flow varied by a factor of 2.34 with differences in silt plus clay
content of soils, by 8.55 with differences in erodibility, and by 4.3
with the percent of gravel. Further, these soil characteristics were
predictable from geologic rock types. In a sample calculation, 89
percent of channel bedload became suspended load enroute downstream.
Soil creep contributed 15 percent to total sediment discharge from
watersheds; channel bank erosion contributed 54 to 55 percent.
Andrew, F. J., and G. H. Geen. 1960. Sockeye and pink salmon production
in relation to proposed dams in the Fraser River system. Int. Pac.
Sal. Fish. Comm., Bull. 11. 259 pp. (OR)
Extensive dam construction recently proposed for the Fraser
River system would, on the basis of present knowledge, seriously deplete
the sockeye and pink salmon populations. To contribute towards a better
understanding of the complicated nature of problems that would be involved
in preserving sockeye and pink salmon if dams were constructed in the
Fraser River system, and to contribute towards the possible solution of
these problems, this report presents a review of available information
concerning methods of passing adult and juvenile salmon over dams, the
possible effects of environmental changes on production of sockeye and
pink salmon, and methods of artificially propagating these species.
Efficient passage of adult salmon over dams would be a critical problem
in the Fraser River system in view of the large numbers of fish involved
and the known intolerance of many races to migratory delay. Because
methods have not been developed for safely passing large numbers of
seaward migrants over the proposed Fraser River dams, a significant
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5
proportion of these fish would be killed in passage over spillways and
through turbines. Other obvious effects of dam construction, such as
creation of reservoirs, inundation of spawning areas, and alternation of
lake rearing areas would also seriously reduce productivity. The effects
of subtle environmental changes, such as altered temperatures and dis-
charges, are more difficult to evaluate but, in view of the sensitive
relationship between the fish and their environment, such changes could
have serious adverse effects on productivity. Maintenance of the delicately
balanced environmental conditions to which Fraser River sockeye and pink
salmon have become dependent appears to be a prerequisite for maximum
production. Alteration of the natural environment, an inevitable conse-
quence of dam construction, could result in seriously reduced production
of Fraser River sockeye and pink salmon. On the basis of present knowledge,
hatcheries, artificial spawning grounds, and other artificial production
methods in the downriver area would not compensate for loss of natural
upriver production of sockeye and pink salmon. Extensive basic and
applied research in salmon biology and fish-power problems is not being
undertaken but there is no justification for expecting early solutions
to all of the particularly complex Fraser River fish-power problems.
Angino, E. E., and W. J. O'Brien. 1968. Effects of suspended material
on water quality. Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. 78:120-128. (OR)
It has been stated frequently that the suspended material in
streams and reservoirs does affect water quality. This is obvious;
little information, however, is available as to just what some of these
effects are. This paper summarizes some of the effects that the suspended
load has or may have on determining water quality. The suspended material
contributes to turbidity, hardness, alkalinity, water color, affects
photosynthetic activity, and may be harmful to some organisms. In
obstructing the penetration of light it induces a reduction in photosyn-
thetic activity and thus indirectly causes a change in the oxygen content
of the stream. The suspended load may act as substrate for bacteria,
fungi, and other microorganisms as well as influence the concentration
of certain compounds by adsorption and/or absorption. Little is known
of the mineralogic make up of the suspended load and how it really
affects water quality. For example, study of the suspended load of
rivers draining the Cretaceous chalk terrain of Western Kansas showed
that at certain times of the year a large part of the load is calcite.
At other times considerable amounts of quartz, clays, and organic debris
make up the river load. The calcite was a clearly identified component
in transported sediments of the Kansas River as much as 150 miles east
of the eastern limit of Cretaceous outcrops. Considering the solubility
of CaC03 and the saturation of river water relative to CaC03, any solution
of the suspended calcite influences the Ca, Mg, pH, HC03 values for
these streams and thereby stream hardness. It is probable that part of
the CaC03 is present as a sol accounting for the extreme distance it is
carried. A relatively constant K and Mg content suggests a possible
positive control by exchange reactions with the clay-load of the streams.
Similar affects on the NO3, PO^, and possible SO^ concentration are to
be expected from seasonal changes in the organic content of streams.
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6
The direct effect of suspended solids on organisms, chemical
quality, photosynthesis, temperature, and oxygen content is poorly
understood. Presently we know few of the detailed mechanisms by which
suspended material has any effect on the water quality of the water
carrying it.
Anonymous. 1975. State of Wash., Water Quality Assessment Rep., Vol. 1.
48 pp.
Included are a summary of water quality criteria (including
numerical values for turbidity) and discussions of water pollution
problems as they apply to the State of Washington.
Aquatic Life Advisory Committee of the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation
Comm. (ORSANCO).. 1956. Aquatic life water quality criteria.
Second Prog. Rep. Sewage Indust. Wastes 28(5):678-690. (OR)
To the best of our knowledge adequate data are not available
on the amounts of inorganic materials which can be added to a stream
without significant harm to its productive capacity. The direct effect
of turbidity and suspended solids on fishes is not a satisfactory
criterion, since it has been found that fish can withstand large concentra-
tions of suspensoids without any harm. The real influence on fish
populations is exerted indirectly through a reduction of the food supply.
Criteria for judging the amount of inorganic materials which
may be added to a stream, therefore, should be based primarily on the
effect on the productivity of the stream bottom rather than on the acute
or direct effect on fishes. The deposition of materials on the beds of
streams may also be detrimental to fish reproduction because it covers
spawning areas, smothers eggs, or makes areas unsuitable for spawning
activities.
Since there is a lack of exact information concerning the
effects of suitable solids on fish food production, fish spawning, and
phytoplankton production, no criteria on the amount of such material
which may be added safely to a stream can be formulated at this time.
Au, D. W. K. 1972. Population dynamics of the coho salmon and its
response to logging in three coastal streams. Ph.D. Dissertation.
Ore. State Univ., Corvallis. 245 pp. (GS)
This study examines the ecology and dynamics of coho salmon
(Onoovhynahus kisutoh) in environments experimentally altered by logging.
The objective was to evaluate processes that stabilize or regulate the
populations.
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7
Two small watersheds in Oregon's Coast Range were logged in
1966, one clear-cut, the other patch-cut. A third adjacent watershed
was left uncut as a control. The influence of these treatments on the
biology of the coho was assessed. Attention was concentrated on popula-
tions of the six-year classes 1963 to 1968.
The natural variability of streamflow-related conditions
influencing both the magnitude and pattern of coho recruitment each year
was increased in the logged watersheds. Peak flow during storms increased;
intragravel dissolved oxygen levels decreased in the stream draining the
clear-cut water watershed. These changes, however, were apparently
within the range of variation that the coho naturally experience.
Increased stream temperatures and mortalities, due to the logging effects,
altered the post-recruitment life conditions of the coho in that stream
but did not significantly affect the final smolt yield.
Adjustments in coho population size were largely accomplished
by fall, resulting in stable and characteristic population levels in
each stream. A stable smolt yield was a further result. These adjust-
ments are accomplished through high mortality during the months of the
first spring and summer. This mortality is likely density dependent and
related to the territorial and agonistic behavior of the fish.
Growth, biomass, and net production varied greatly during each
year. Seasonal changes in growth rate resulted in seasonal variations
in biomass that were in contract to the stabilized trends of population
number. The pattern of net production rate was also largely determined
by the seasonal growth pattern, and like biomass, did not show a tendency
to stabilize with time. It averaged 5 g/m2 among the three streams for
the period June 1 to April 15.
This study has shown that coho streams normally produce
characteristic levels of smolt yield in spite of large natural variations
in fry input and conditions for growth. The range of environmental
variation for which this result holds may include short-term changes due
to logging. However a normal population response to such a severe
alteration as occurred on Needle Branch is very likely conditional upon
a program that at least includes vigorous stream clearance, the restric-
tion of additional mortality to early summer, when population adjustments
are far from complete, and the encouragement of streamside vegetation.
A streamside buffer strip of trees is an effective way of protecting
aquatic resources.
Bachman, R. W. 1958. The ecology of four northern Idaho trout streams
with reference to the influence of forest road construction. M.S.
Thesis. Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 97 pp. (GS)
Physiochemical and biological measurements of four trout
streams, one of which was being logged, were studied. Turbidity was
found to increase during rapid runoff from storms or snowmelt. Sedimenta-
tion increased in both riffles and pools. Water temperatures, volume of
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8
flow, and water chemistry showed no change from the previous year. The
relocation of stream channels away from road fills appeared to reduce
the amount of eroded material entering the stream.
Bartsch, A. F. 1959. Settleable solids, turbidity, and light penetration
as factors affecting water quality. Pages 118-127 in C. M. Tarzwell,
ed. Trans. Second Seminar on Biol. Problems in Water Poll.
Robert A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio. (OR)
A few water pollution control agencies have adopted specific
criteria to protect fish and other aquatic life from settleable solids
and turbidity. A general lack of information on the effects they produce
has caused other agencies to forego establishing criteria at this time.
While the individual elements can be examined separately, settleable
solids, turbidity and light are so interrelated as to require additional
discussion as a single factor affecting the environment.
Settleable solids include inorganic particles from soil erosion and
various industrial operations as well as living and dead suspended
organic matter of natural or man-influenced origin. Particles that
settle on the bottom can destroy fish food organisms, interfere with
successful hatching of fish eggs, obliterate otherwise suitable spawning
areas and carry unstable organic matter to the bottom where undesirable
decomposition products are formed. While suspended, particles in suffi-
cient concentration or of sufficient hardness and size may directly
injure fishes and fish food animals. Specific cases that exemplify some
of these effects are described.
Suspended particles also affect the optical properties of water so
as to create turbidity. By impairing light penetration, turbidity
diminishes the thickness of the euphotic zone and this limits basic
productivity. Rates of photosynthesis in relation to light extinction
in a raw sewage stabilization pond and in the Ohio River near Cincinnati
are discussed. Quantities of phytoplankton in clarified and turbid
waters of the Missouri River are another expression of impairment of
basic productivity by turbidity. Turbidity may also affect temperature
relations. In sport fishing waters, turbidity limits the distance at
which sport fish can see the lure and thus affects both the yield and
attractiveness of fishing waters.
Bell, Milo. 1973. Fisheries handbook of engineering requirements and
biological criteria. U.S. Army Eng. Div., Corps of Eng., Portland,
Ore. (M)
A 34-chapter handbook outlining various engineering and biologi-
cal criteria for use in design of facilities which may have a potential
impact on the aquatic environment. Criteria set forth in this publication
are compiled from many sources and are valuable for developing "workable
limits" but may be subject to change under varying conditions.
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9
Bjornn, T. C. 1968. Survival and emergence of trout and salmon fry in
various gravel-sand mixtures. Pages 80-88 in Richard T. Myren, ed.
Logging and salmon. Proc. Forum Am. Inst. Fish. Res. Biol.,
Alaska Dist., Juneau, Alaska. (GS)
The survival and emergence of steelhead trout and chinook
salmon were tested in various mixture of gravel and sand in troughs with
flow and gradient control. The emergence of swim-up steelhead trout fry
placed in the troughs was reduced by large percentages of sand. Swim-up
chinook salmon fry appeared to be more impeded by sand than were steelhead
trout, but these results need to be verified because some sick fish were
unknowingly included in the test samples. The survival from green egg
to emergence of chinook salmon was relatively high (70-77 percent) in
gravel with little or no sand but much reduced in gravel with 18 percent
or more sand.
Bjornn, T. C. 1969. Embryo survival and emergence studies. Job. No. 5.,
Sal. Steelhead Invest., Project No. F-49-R-7. Annu. Completion
Rep. Idaho Fish Game Dep. 11 pp. (OR)
The survival and emergence of steelhead trout (Salmo gai,vdnevi)
and chinook salmon (Onoorhynakus tshawytscha) in gravel with various
amounts of granitic sand were tested in troughs with flow and gradient
control. Chinook salmon fry readily emerged from gravel with less than
20 percent sand, experienced difficulty in 20-40 percent sand, and few
emerged from more than 40 percent sand. Most steelhead trout fry emerged
from gravel with up to 30 percent sand, half emerged with 50 percent
sand and only 10 percent emerged with 55 percent sand.
Sand in spawning gravel also reduced the flow of water through
the gravel and created lethal conditions of low oxygen or high waste
concentrations that caused large mortalities in troughs with 20 percent
or more sand and spring water. In tests with spring and creek water
mixed (higher initial oxygen content) the mortalities were less than
with only spring water.
Mortalities of 60-80 percent of chinook salmon and 40-60 percent
of steelhead trout embryos may occur when sufficient sand is present to
fill the gravel interstices (30-40 percent sand). High egg to emergent
fry survival is desirable as fewer adults are needed to adequately seed
a rearing area.
Bjornn, T. C., M. A. Brusven, M. Molnau, F. J. Watts, and R. L. Wallace.
1974. Sediment in streams and its effects on aquatic life. Idaho
Water Resources Res. Inst., Moscow. 47 pp. (NTIS)
Natural streams were surveyed, laboratory experiments were
conducted, and sediment was added to a natural stream from July 1972 to
June 1974 to assess the temporal and spatial impact of granitic bedload
sediment (<1/4 inch) on insect and fish populations, and on the capability
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10
of the streams to transport sediment. Juvenile chinook salmon and
steelhead trout were not adversely affected during the summer when
sediment comprised up to 52 percent of the substrate in riffles. Reduc-
tion of pool area or volume in a small stream resulted in a reduction in
summer capacity for fish proportional to the percentage of pool area or
volume lost. Winter capacity of experimental streams for age 0 steelhead
trout and chinook salmon was reduced when the riffles were fully sedi-
mented. Addition of sediment to riffles temporarily reduced insect
species diversity indices, but no reduction in insect abundance was
observed. The Meyer-Peter-Muller formula appears most applicable to
estimate sediment transport capabilities of mountain streams in the
Idaho batholith. Sediment transport during the summer, low flow period
was negligible in the streams studied.
Brannon, E. L. 1965. The influence of physical factors on the develop-
ment and weight of sockeye salmon embryos and alevins. Int. Pac.
Sal. Fish. Comm., Prog. Rep. 12. 26 pp. (OR)
The effects of water velocity, daylight and dissolved oxygen
on the development and weights of sockeye salmon embryos and alevins
were investigated. Before hatching, embryos were unaffected by the
range of velocities studied, but were affected by exposure to diffuse
daylight and different levels of dissolved oxygen. After hatching, the
weights of the alevins and their rates of weight gain were influenced by
velocity and oxygen, and their mortality was influenced by high velocities,
especially when exposed to diffuse daylight. The significance of the
effects of the three factors on the ultimate survival of fry are discussed.
Branson, B. A., and D. L. Batch. 1972. Effects of strip mining on
small stream fishes in east-central Kentucky, USA. Proc. Biol.
Soc. Washington 84(59):507-517. (M)
In this study the authors observed the effects of siltation
from strip mining on the fish populations of two streams.
Results show that fish are eliminated or forced to move down-
stream due to high turbidity and siltation. Benthic organisms were
reduced in number and species by 90 percent and reproduction in darters
and minnows was reduced.
Brett, J. R. 1958. Implications and assessments of environmental
stress. Pages 69-83 in P. A. Larkin, ed. The investigation of
fish-power problems. Proc. H. R. MacMillan Lectures in Fish.,
Univ. Brit. Columbia, Vancouver. (OR)
The thesis is presented that a working definition of stress is
a state produced by any environmental factor which extends the normal
adaptive responses of an animal, or which disturbs the normal functioning
to such an extent that the chances of survival are significantly reduced.
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11
Two major subdivisions of stress can be distinguished, discrimi-
nate and indiscriminate. The chief distinction separating these two is
in the status of the surviving individuals.
Discriminate stress is measured simply by the percentage loss,
being strictly a lethal stress not inflicting any particular handicap on
the balance of the assailed population. Losses from predation or from a
fishery fall in this category, which is the reason why a population such
as the sockeye of the Fraser River can withstand an 80 percent loss, yet
reproduce at a sustained high level.
For indiscriminate stress, four categories appear to embrace
most of the conditions under which this form of stress acts, viz.,
lethal, limiting, inhibiting and loading. Either by direct loss or
through measures of metabolism reflecting reduced performance, a measure
of the stress can be ascertained. Since altered water conditions are
likely to cause indiscriminate stress, any loss from hydro-electric or
other industrial development can be considered suspect for serious
consequences to the total population.
The establishing of norms is one of the prime research respons-
ibilities, from which an estimate of stress may be derived, and the safe
limits of environmental change determine. The tasks are many and inviting.
The examination of stress and how it operates should provide greater
insight in the investigation of fish-power problems.
Brinkhurst, R. 0. 1962. The biology of the Tubificidae with special
reference to pollution. Pages 57-65 in C. M. Tarzwell, ed. Trans.
Third Semimar on Biol. Problems in Water Poll. Robert A. Taft
Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio. (OR)
The title of this paper is a little ambitious in relation to
our knowledge of the biology of the aquatic oligochaetes and of the
Tubificidae in particular. The subject is reviewed, however, under
three headings: the establishment of physical and chemical tolerance
limits for individual species; the search for indicator species whose
mere presence or absence can be used to categorize the water concerned;
and detailed analyses of community structure, emphasizing identification
to species. Our fragmentary knowledge under the first heading is reviewed,
but few if any conclusions can be drawn as yet in view of the interaction
of factors in nature, the variability of tolerance levels within the
species in respect to different stages in the life cycle, and other
complications. Under the second heading it is claimed that there is no
such universal indicator organism available, certainly not in the Tubificidae.
Finally, the pattern of species distribution in relation to known sources
of pollution in British rivers is described, and the hope is expressed
that detailed surveys along such lines will clarify this pattern and so
render invertebrate surveys more complete and more useful as a diagnostic
tool.
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12
Brown, C. L., and R. Clark. 1968. Observations on dredging and dissolved
oxygen in a tidal waterway. Water Resources Res. 4(6):1381-1384.
(OR)
Evidence indicates that resuspension of oxidizable bottom
sediments in a tidal waterway caused significant reductions in the
dissolved oxygen (D.O.) concentration of the water. During dredging,
D.O. was reduced between 16-83 percent below normal.
Brown, G. W. 1972. Logging and water quality in the Pacific Northwest.
Pages 330-334 in Nat. Symposium Watersheds in Trans. Am. Water
Res. Assoc. and Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins, Colo. (EPA)
Discusses and compares recent studies that show that clearcut
logging can significantly affect stream temperature, sediment and dissolved
oxygen. Losses of nutrients occur but are low in magnitude and short in
duration in the Pacific Northwest. The forest soils had high infiltration
rates because of high porosity. Surface and surface erosion are not the
dominant form of natural or unaccelerated erosion, these steep watersheds
mass wasting predominates. Small streams generally are characterized by
large fluctuations in discharge, sediment concentration, and temperatures,
even under undisturbed conditions.
Brown, G. W. 1974. Forestry and water quality. School of For., Ore.
State Univ., Corvallis, Ore. 74 pp. (OR)
The objective of this text is to illustrate the interaction
between man and his activities in the forest, the hydrologic cycle, and
the quality of water in forest streams.
A well-written section on erosion and sedimentation in forested
watersheds is included. Topics include: the erosion process on forested
lands, impact of land use on erosion and sedimentation, preventing
erosion and sedimentation problems, sampling suspended sediment, and
sampling and measuring turbidity.
Brown, G. W., and J. T. Krygier. 1971. Clear-cut logging and sediment
production in the Oregon Coast Range. Water Resources Res. 7(5):
1189-1198. (OR)
The impact of road construction, two patterns of clear-cut
logging, and controlled slash burning on the suspended sediment yield
and concentration from three small watersheds in the Oregon Coast Range
was studied for 11 years. Sediment production was doubled after road
construction but before logging in one watershed and was tripled after
burning and clear-cutting of another watershed. Felling and yarding did
not produce statistically significant changes in sediment concentration.
Variation in the relation between sediment concentration and water
discharge on small undisturbed streams was large. Conclusions about the
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] 3
significance of all but very large changes in sediment concentration are
limited because of annual variation for a given watershed, variation
between watersheds, and variation with stage at a given point.
Brusven, M. A. , and K. V. Prather. 1974. Influence of stream sediments
on distribution of macrobenthos. J. Entomol. Soc., Brit. Columbia
71:25-32. (OR)
Studies were conducted in the laboratory and field to determine
the substrate relationships of five species of stream insects representing
the orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera and Diptera. Various
combinations of pebble and sand were tested in the presence or absence
of cobble. Substrates with cobble were generally preferred over sub-
strates without cobble. The preference for cobble generally increased
as the sediments around the cobble decreased in size. Substrates with
unembedded cobble were slightly preferred over half-embedded cobble;
completely embedded cobble in fine sand proved unacceptable to most
species. Three types of substrate-distribution patterns are recognized;
stream insects which inhabit substrate surface; interstices; and both
substrate surfaces and interstices.
Brusven, M. A., F. J. Watts, R. Leudtke, and T. I. Kelley. 1974. A
model design for physical and biotic rehabilitation of a silted
stream. Idaho Water Resources Res. Inst., Moscow, Idaho. Completion
Rep. 36 pp. (OR)
A methodology was developed for rehabilitating a silt-polluted
stream and the biological impact of rehabilitation on the insect community
was measured. Field work was conducted in the East Fork and main stem
of Emerald Creek in northern Idaho.
The study involved natural field conditions and laboratory
simulation. Six control sites were selected based on similarity of
flow, substrate type and channel geometry. Sediment samples were tagged
and monitored, hydraulic structures were constructed for modification,
and changes in the aquatic insect community were studied in conjunction
with physical changes in the streambed.
Instream alterations were effective for increasing sediment
transport, thus improving insect and fish habitat. Other improved
conditions included increased pool-riffle ratios and higher values of
percent cobble.
Due to its hydrological cycle, Emerald Creek can flush large
amounts of fine sediments per year. But until the source of pollution
sediments is eliminated, excessive loading will occur.
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14
Buck, H. D. 1956. Effects of turbidity on fish and fishing. Trans. N.
Am. Wildl. Conf. 21:249-261. (OR)
1. At the end of two growing seasons, the average total
weight of fish in clear farm ponds was approximately 1.7 times greater
than in ponds of intermediate turbidity and approximately 5.5 times
greater than in muddy ponds. Differences were due to faster growths by
all species and to greater reproduction in clear ponds, particularly by
bluegills and redear sunfish.
2. Of the 3 species used in farm ponds, largemouth bass were
most affected by turbidity in both growth and reproduction. Redear
sunfish appeared less retarded in growth than did bluegills during the
first year, but the two sunfishes appeared equally restricted in both
growth and reproduction during the second year.
3. Average volume of net plankton in surface waters of clear
ponds during the 1954 growing season was 8 times greater than in ponds
having intermediate turbidities; 12.8 times greater than in the most
turbid ponds.
4. In hatchery ponds, high turbidities reduced growth and
total yield of bass and bluegills but increased channel catfish production.
Individual catfish grew faster in clear ponds, but muddy ponds yielded
much greater total weights of channel catfish than either clear or
intermediate ponds. This was due to a higher rate of survival.
5. The presence of carp caused reduced growth of bass and
bluegills but ponds with carp produced greater yields of channel catfish
and young bluegills than ponds without carp.
6. Sodium silicate proved effective in sustaining hatchery
pond turbidities when introduced in suspension with finely divided clay.
7. Growths of largemouth bass, white crappies, and channel
catfish were much slower in turbid Heyburn than in clear Upper Spavinaw
reservoir, as well as in all other Oklahoma reservoirs of similar age
and size.
8. Growth of flathead catfish was the most favorable of any
Heyburn species studied, and it is apparently well adapted to the turbid
environment.
9. The number of species, as well as individuals, of all
scaled fishes was low in turbid Heyburn reservoir, apparently due to a
lack of successful reproduction in the turbid waters and also to competi-
tion from the better adapted catfishes.
10. Extreme scarcity of forage species, particularly gizzard
shad, limited growth and development of bass, crappies, and other
carnivorous species at Heyburn.
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15
11. Heyburn largemouth bass and white crappie populations
exhibited unusual dominance by older individuals. This seemed to be due
to successively smaller year classes as a result of increasing turbidities
12. In 1954, the average volume of plankton in surface waters
was 13.8 times greater in Upper Spavinaw than in Heyburn, and average
volume from the 60-foot depth at the clear reservoir was greater than
the combined total from surface, 15-foot depth, and 30-foot depth in the
muddy reservoir. This contrast was less marked in 1955, possibly due to
somewhat lower average- turbidities at Heyburn.
13. The clear reservoir attracted more anglers, yielded
greater returns per unit of fish effort, as well as more desirable
species, and was immeasurably more appealing in the aesthetic sense.
Bullard, W. 1959. Watershed management-grazing, deforestation and
roadbuilding. Pages 27-31 in E. F. Eldridge and J. N. Wilson, eds.
Proc. Fifth Symposium—Pac. Northwest on Siltation—its source and*
effects on aquatic environment. (GS)
Sources of siltation and methods to control and correct it are
discussed. An outline of factors to consider in watershed management for
the control of erosion and subsequent siltation of streams is presented
Bullard, W. E. Jr. 1965. Role of watershed management in the maintenance
of suitable environments for aquatic life. Pages 265-269 in C. M
Tarzwell, ed. Trans. Third Seminar on Biol. Problems in Water
Poll. Robert A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio. (GS)
Increased sedimentation of streams seems to be the most obvious
effect of land use practices on the aquatic habitat. The addition of
finer particles on the bottom gravels reduces the niches where many
benthic organisms live. Perhaps the direct effects on eggs are among
the most important. There is a smothering effect from silt coatings and
a decreased permeability of the bottom gravels reducing the flow of
water over the eggs. The turbidity resulting from the increase in
suspended particles also reduces the light penetration and photosynthetic
rate.
Not all sedimentation is a result of obvious operations such
as mining and cultivation. Instances are on record in which the activitv
of ducks has reduced fish egg survival. Perhaps the trampling of stream
banks by cattle may be far more important than is commonly recognized
Changes in the stream bank brought about by cattle or man-made channel
changes may produce a cycle of changes which may be carried clear to the
mouth of the stream. Usually, these changes are not desirable.
The feeling among the discussants seemed to be that, ideally
for fish production, partial tree cover of the banks, something less
than complete bank stabilization, and an increase in rainfall infiltratio
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of the soil are all desirable goals along with reduction in siltation
and turbidity. However, the attainment of such goals may affect the
stream flow patterns and reduce the total amount of water reaching the
stream. In more arid areas, grasses are more desirable than trees
because they achieve stabilization of soil but do not lose as much water
through transpiration.
In any case, the optimum conditions for fish production will
have to be sacrificed in many instances for multiple uses of the surface
waters. However, the general feeling was that many improvements could
be made that would improve the waters for fish production and still
incorporate multiple use.
Burgner, R. L. 1960. Spawning and growth of fish. Pages 33-39 in E. F.
Eldridge, ed. Proc. Seventh Symposium on Water Poll. Res., Water
Problems in Watersheds of the Northwest. U.S. Dep. Health, Educ.,
Welfare, Portland, Ore. (OR)
In summary, we can expect that there will be a certain conflict
between stream management by the biologists and the activities of logging
mining, and road building. However, there is an excellent possibility
that production in many natural streams can be greatly improved by
controlling stability of the stream and by removing fine materials. If
this can be done, it may be possible to log more economically and with
less concern about damage to the streams. However, before we proceed,
we need some pilot plant operations to test our procedures. The task
ahead is actually experimentation in the field where the salmon spawn
and die.
Burner, C. J. 1951. Characteristics of spawning nests of Columbia
River salmon. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 52(61):97-110.
(OR)
Eight-hundred and fifty salmon redds in the Columbia River
watershed were examined. Characteristics examined included current
velocities, bottom composition of spawning sites, and density of spawners
1. Observations were made on a large number of chinook,
silver, chum, and blueback salmon redds in the Columbia River watershed,
and 850 redds were measured.
2. Normally, the female salmon constructs the redd, the male
taking no part in this activity.
3. The redd is formed or excavated by the female turning on
her side and making violent flexions of the body and tail. The boiling
currents set up by this action disturb the gravel of the stream bed
which is carried a short distance downstream to form the tailspill.
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17
4. A typical redd is an excavation in the stream bottom, oval
in shape, the greatest diameter being lengthwise with the current, and
with a tailspill at the downstream end. The center of the redd is
referred to as the pot and it is here that the bulk of the eggs is
deposited.
5. Current velocities at spawning areas varied from less than
1 foot a second to 3.5 feet a second. Redds made in fast water were
invariably long and narrow; those in quiet water had a broad oval shape.
6. The current in the pot of the redd flows slightly upstream,
which favors safe deposition of the eggs in the gravel and is conducive
to complete fertilization by the milt of the male salmon.
7. As the spawning progresses, the redd in a sense moves
upstream by continued excavation of the upstream edge and filling in of
the tailspill area.
8. In general, salmon chose areas of stream bed composed of
gravel less than 6 inches m greatest diameter, with the size of the
redd inversely proportioned to the size of gravel. Firmly cemented
gravel was avoided though where there was some cementation, the size of
the redd was inversely proportioned to the amount of cementation.
9. Percolation of water through the gravel appears to be a
requisite of the redd site.
10. In general, salmon prefer areas of stream bottom relatively
free of mud or silt for redd-making purposes. Silvers (0. kiautah) were
the only salmon of the four species which constructed redds in areas of
stream bottom containing up to 10 percent mud.
11. Average redd size for the various salmon is as follows:
Summer and fall chinook, 6.1 square yards; spring chinook, 3.9 square
yards; silver, 3.4 square yards; chum, 2.7 square yards; and blueback,
2.1 square yards.
12. Few redds of any species were made side by side. For the
most part, nests were either up or downstream from each other so that
they would form diagonal rows across the stream.
13. The tendency of female salmon to prevent other females
from getting too close resulted in inter-redd space approximately three
times the size of the redd.
14. By dividing the area suitable for spawning in a given
stream by four times the average redd area, a conservative estimate will
be obtained of the number of salmon that may satisfactorily spawn in the
stream.
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18
Burns, J. W. 1970. Spawning bed sedimentation studies in northern
California streams. Calif. Fish Game 56(4):253-270. (OR)
Changes in the size composition of spawning bed materials in
six coastal streams were monitored for three years to determine the
effects of logging on the habitat of silver salmon (Onoovhynahus kisutah)
and trout (Salmo gaivdnerii gaivdnerii and S, alarkii olarkii). Four
test streams were sampled before, during and after logging. Two streams
in unlogged watersheds and the undisturbed upstream section of one test
stream served as controls. A variety of stream types in second-growth
and old-growth forests was selected for observation.
Spawning bed composition in the four test streams changed
after logging, roughly in proportion to the amount of streambank disturb-
ance. The heaviest sedimentation occurred when bulldozers operated in
narrow stream channels having pebble bottoms. In a larger stream with a
cobble and boulder bottom, bulldozer operations in the channel did not
increase sedimentation greatly. Sustained logging and road construction
kept sediment levels high in one stream for several years. Sedimentation
was greatest during periods of road construction near streams and removal
of debris from streams, confirming the need for special measures to
minimize erosion during such operations. Control streams changed little
in spawning bed composition during the three years.
Burns, J. W. 1972. Some effects of logging and associated road construc-
tion on northern California streams. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 101(1):1-
17. (OR)
The effects of logging and associated road construction on
four California trout and salmon streams were investigated from 1966
through 1969. This study included measurements of streambed sedimentation,
water quality, fish food abundance, and stream nursery capacity. Logging
was found to be compatible with anadromous fish production when adequate
attention was given to stream protection and channel clearance. The
carrying capacities for juvenile salmonids of some stream sections were
increased when high temperatures, low dissolved oxygen concentrations,
and adverse sedimentation did not accompany the logging. Extensive use
of bulldozers on steep slopes for road building and in stream channels
during debris removal caused excessive streambed sedimentation in narrow
streams. Sustained logging prolonged adverse conditions in one stream
and delayed stream recovery. Other aspects of logging on anadromous
fish production on the Pacific Coast are discussed.
Busch, A. W. 1968. A suggested approach to the problem of water quality
standards. Pages 458-461 in Indust. Waste Conf. I., 23rd Proc.,
Eng. Ext. Series 132. Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Indiana. (OR)
The use of the word standards in preference to criteria is
chosen for this discussion in concurrence with the practice of other
writers on the subject. The key element in the definition of standard
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19
is the phrase "established by an authority" where authority is in turn
used in its legalistic rather than its expertise sense.
The following remarks are intended to point out the equity
limitations of legislated standards, to suggest an alternate approach
(primarily in practice), and then to examine how this approach differs
from actuality and reality.
The philosophy behind this proposal is that accelerated pollution
abatement efforts must be implemented and that while the "perfect"
solution does not exist, better ones will be found. In the meanwhile,
our present technological capability should be used in the most enlightened
fashion possible without taking refuge in standards or in long lived
studies to set standards. Broad based legislation is proposed which
would encourage immediate action or a flexible approach without the
rigidity of standards.
Cairns, J. Jr. 1962. The environmental requirements of freshwater
protozoa. Pages 48-52 in C. M. Tarzwell, ed. Trans. Third Seminar
on Biol. Problems in Water Poll. Robert A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent.
(OR)
Although free-living Protozoa have a cosmopolitan distribution
a particular species will occur only where the appropriate environmental
conditions exist. Since the environment changes constantly, a constant
replacement of the component species of a protozoan population is a
normal event. An examination of protozoan populations from 202 areas,
classified as healthy or semi-healthy according to the system of Patrick
(1949), in rivers and streams of the United States and other parts of
the world resulted in identification of nearly 1200 species. Approximately
75 percent of these species occurred in three or fewer areas, or less
than 1.6 percent, of the areas sampled. Of the 25 percent that occurred
four or more times, only 20 species were found in 25 percent of the
areas studied. For those species with saprobian designation, some
sampling areas had excellent agreement in composition, although the
greater number did not. An association matrix was made for the 20 most
common species. A Chi square test of significance was run on the 190
possible associations of species pairs, and of these, 44 pairs occurred
together more frequently than would be expected from chance alone at the
5 percent level of confidence. The data indicated that associations of
three or more species also existed. Three main facts were noted in the
course of the analysis: (1) pairs or larger groups of associated species
always had virtually identical ranges of environmental conditions; (2)
these species always tolerated rather broad ranges of environmental
conditions; and (3) having identical ranges of tolerance to the chemical
and physical environment does not insure that species will be associated
more often than would happen by chance alone.
Due to the relatively low number of associated species and the
broad range of tolerance of these species to the chemical and physical
environment, it is evident that the best criterion for evaluation of the
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20
degree to which the requirements of protozoan populations are being met
is the diversity of species within these populations. Since Protozoa
are part of a larger aquatic community, the entire aquatic flora and
fauna should first be evaluated and the structure and diversity of the
protozoan population analyzed both as a unit and in terms of its relation-
ship to the structure of the larger community of which it is a part.
Cairns, J. Jr. 1967. Suspended solids standards for the protection of
aquatic organisms. Pages 16-27 in Indust. Waste Conf. I., 22nd
Proc (OR)
The literature indicates that discharge of particulate matter
into a body of water may cause damage both while in suspension and after
settling on the bed. Large amounts of naturally occurring particulate
matter are not uncommon in many bodies of water and do not appear to
endanger (and may even favor) the development of many species. It is
also evident that the "normal" suspended solids concentrations of a
particular stream or lake vary considerably. In addition, the response
of aquatic organisms to a particular concentration will be affected by
the stage in the life cycle, length of exposure, condition or health of
the exposed organisms, presence of other toxic materials, quality of
suspended material, etc. Since aquatic organisms survive (or at least
enough survive to perpetuate the species) temporary exposure to rather
high concentrations of suspended solids, it seems best to relate suspended
solids standards to the variations and conditions to which the aquatic
species have become adjusted. This would, of course, mean than the
standards would be based on stream conditions rather than fixed arbitrary
standards. Since stream flow and other characteristics vary from day to
day this would require both continual monitoring of the water quality of
each basin with appropriate information feedback to those using the
stream.
Cairns, J. C. Jr., G. R. Lanza, and B. C. Parker. 1972. Pollution
related structural and functional changes in aquatic communities
with emphasis on freshwater Algae and Protozoa. Proc. Acad. Natur.
Sci., Philadelphia 124:79-127. (OR)
The past and present tendency to ignore or minimize the impor-
tance of aquatic microbial communities when assessing the effects of
pollution is clearly irrational. Microbial communities are not haphazard
aggregations of species thrown together by the whims of nature but
rather structured communities with numerous interlocking cause-effect
pathways. It is evident that the requirements of microbial species and
communities are as complex or nearly as complex as those of taxonomically
higher organisms and that disruption of these communities by pollution
can affect the entire aquatic food web. We urge that all environmental
impact studies of aquatic ecosystems include an evaluation of the effects
of pollution upon these communities and that standards be developed to
protect them as well as fish and other organisms.
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21
Cairns, J. Jr., K. L. Dickson, and Guy Lanza. 1973. Rapid biological
monitoring system for determining aquatic community structure in
receiving systems. Pages 148-163 in Biological Methods for the
Assessment of Water Quality, ASTM STP 528. Am. Soc. Testing Mats.
(OR)
Biological monitoring plays an important role in a pollution
monitoring program providing information not available through conventional
physical and chemical monitoring. The saprobic system and the use of
structural and functional changes in aquatic communities are two approaches
utilized in assessing the effect of pollutants on aquatic communities.
The feedback of information from conventional instream biological monitor-
ing has been too slow for the most effective management of an aquatic
system. Two rapid biological monitoring systems (the Sequential Comparison
Index, and an automated community structure analysis using laser holo-
graphy) have been developed to increase the speed of data collection and
data analysis.
California State Water Resources Control Board. 1963. Water quality
criteria, Second ed. J. E. McKee and H. W. Wolf, eds. Publ. No.
3-A. 548 pp. (M)
This report is a survey and evaluation of the literature and
compendium of data on water quality criteria. Conclusions and recommenda-
tions are presented on various topics which include water quality criteria
of state and interstate agencies; judicial expression; quality criteria
for the major beneficial uses of water; potential and biological pollutants*
radioactivity; pesticides and surface active agents. *
California State Water Resources Control Board. 1973. A method for
regulating timber harvest and road construction activity for water
quality protection in northern California. Vol. 1, Procedures and
Methods. Vol. 2, Review of Problem and Annotated Bibiolgraphy. ,
Publ. No. 50. Report compiled by Jones and Stokes Assoc. Inc.
(OR)
This chapter defines major water quality problems in California
identifies information needed to assess and control water quality, and '
identifies wastewater treatment and reclamation technology needs.
Legal, economic and institutional problems relating to water resources
control in California are also described briefly.
Cederholm, C. J., and L. C. Lestelle. 1974. Observations on the effects
of landslide siltation on salmon and trout resources of the Clearwater*
River, Jefferson County, Washington, 1972-73. Univ. Wash., Fish. **
Res. Inst., Final Rep. FRI-UW-7404. 89 pp. (OR)
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22
Field investigation of the effects of logging operation-
induced landslides on the composition of salmonid spawning gravel,
stability of the streambed, concentrations of suspended sediment, popula-
tions of fish, and abundance of benthic fauna in Stequaleho Creek and
the Clearwater River were carried out during 1972-73.
In Stequaleho Creek and the Clearwater River those gravel
areas suitable for spawning downstream of the landslides were found to
have significantly greater percentages of the less than 3.36 mm and
0.841 mm fines that the upstream control gravels. However, a high
degree of gravel flushing since the landslides was evidenced by the
relatively low levels in Stequaleho Creek. Cutthroat trout eggs planted
in landslide-affected and -unaffected parts of Stequaleho Creek showed
no difference in intragravel survival from eyed egg to hatch. Cross-
sectional surveys of the lower Stequaleho streambed detected general
streambed instability which may or may not be man-caused. Suspended
sediment samples taken from various tributaries in the winter of 1971-72
showed Stequaleho Creek to have the highest sediment levels in most
cases. The Yahoo Lake landslide caused additional turbidity in lower
Stequaleho Creek occasionally during the summer of 1972.
Juvenile coho salmon and steelhead trout rearing densities
were small in lower Stequaleho Creek when compared to densities in the
upper Clearwater River during the summer of 1972. Resident cutthroat
trout are quite numerous in upper Stequaleho Creek.
The populations of benthic organisms were significantly (1
percent level) lower in landslide-affected areas of Stequaleho Creek
compared to landslide-unaffected areas. However, no significant difference
(1 percent or 5 percent levels) existed for the Clearwater River above
and below the mouth of Stequaleho Creek. When all stations were considered
together, strong inverse correlation (June, r = -0.85; July and August,
r = -0.95) was found between mean numbers of total insects per square
foot per station and the percentage of sediment less than 0.841 mm in
diameter, implying a reduction in the available living space for benthic
organisms.
Chandler, D. C. 1942. Limnological studies of western Lake Erie. II.
Light penetration and its relation to turbidity. Ecology 23(1):41-
52. (M)
The present report is concerned with variations in turbidity
of the waters of western Lake Erie and the effect of these variations on
the depth to which 1 percent of the surface light penetrates. In this
investigation year-round observations were made of: (1) turbidity, (2)
light penetration, (3) amount of organic and inorganic suspended matter,
and (4) quantity of phytoplankton. The study extended from September
1939 through October 1940, during which time several observations were
made each month.
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23
Chapman, D. W. 1962. Effects of logging upon fish resources of the
West Coast. J. For. 60(8):533-537. (GS)
The author reviews the effects of logging on fish. It was
found that after logging:
1) stream runoff was increased and as a result of heavy
runoff gravel shifting occurred;
2) summer temperatures increased and winter temperatures
decreased;
3) chemical quality of water deteriorated;
4) sediment increased;
5) stream energy source was disrupted; and
6) barriers to fish migration were left.
A good bibliography is included.
Chapman, D. W. 1963. Physical and biological effects of forest practices
upon stream ecology. Pages 321-330 in Symposium—Forest Watershed
Management. (EPA)
The report reviewed and discussed changes induced by land
reatments on the aquatic ecosystem and their effect on stream ecology.
The effects of logging or other land treatment on fish cannot
be determined by single—factor analysis, and consideration of the whole
stream ecosystem is essential.
Chapman, D. W., and T. C. Bjornn. 1969. Distribution of salmonids in
streams, with special reference to food and eating. Pages 153-176
in T. G. Northcote, ed. Symposium on Salmon and Trout in Streams.
Univ. Brit. Columbia, Vancouver. (OR)
Autecology of fish distributions is treated with particular
attention to behavior of young chinook salmon and steelhead trout in
Idaho streams. Behavior of other fish species and races is examined and
discussed.
In the warmer months young chinook salmon and steelhead trout
are associated with velocities and depths in proportion to body size,
shifting to faster and deeper waters as body growth occurs. Interaction
for space between species is minimal because of differing times of fry
emergence. Distribution close to high-velocity water is food-related
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24
and density is socially-controlled with the greatest distributional role
of social behavior played among fish of near-equal size. During the day
the fish remain in a small home area, then settle at night to the bottom,
generally after moving inshore.
Beginning in September many young steelhead and chinook salmon
move downstream from tributaries to over-winter in larger streams, often
living in the stream substrate. Most fish disappear into the substrate
at temperatures below about 5°C, and winter cover is important in holding
over-wintering fish.
Distributional behavior of young salmon and steelhead in the
warmer months is similar to that of several other salmonid species.
Winter hiding behavior is common in stream salmonids, often preceded by
downstream movement in the fall. Return upstream movements in stream
often occur. Such behavior in the colder months is probably directly
related to water temperature.
Chutter, F. M. 1969. The effects of silt and sand on the invertebrate
fauna of streams and rivers. Hydrobiologia 34(1):57-76. (OR)
Most of the literature concerned with the effects of silt and
sand on the invertebrate fauna of streams and rivers has described
changes taking place when biotopes are completely smothered by silt and
sand. In few of these studies were the kinds of animals found recorded.
There have been few studies of the effect of silt and sand on individual
species. The invertebrate fauna of two biotopes in the streams and
rivers of the Vaal River system, South Africa, changed with the amount
of silt and sand in the watercourses. Where there were large amounts of
silt and sand the variety of animals recorded from the stones in current
biotopes was reduced, but the density of the fauna as a whole did not
change. However the density of many groups of animals was affected.
Some of the animals adversely affected by silt and sand appeared in
large numbers below impoundments in which silt and sand would settle.
In the sediment biotopes the summer density of the fauna was lowest
where there was a lot of silt and sand. Large amounts of silt and sand
were associated with large summer declines in the surface dwelling
animals as a proportion of the whole sediment fauna. Differences
between the summer proportions of surface dwelling forms in fine and
coarse sediments were due to faunal differences. Sediments were not
studied below impoundments.
It is concluded that there may be considerable changes in the
composition of the stones in current fauna due to silt and sand without
the biotope being smothered, and that increases in the amount of silt
and sand in river beds lead to increased instability of the sediments,
which adversely affects their fauna.
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Clarke, F. E. 1967. What do we really know about stream quality criteria
and standards? Water Quality Criteria, ASTM STP 416. Am. Soc.
Testing Mats. Pp. 100-111. (OR)
Generally speaking, quality standards for streams are aimed at
insuring maximum practicable utility of water resources for all intended
users. Thus, the basic criterion in setting stream quality standards
has been to insure absence of those quality factors which are dangerous
or otherwise objectionable to the users. Lack of accurate information
on effects of many pollutants hinders standardization, as does inability
to perform accurate analysis for certain pertinent water components.
Even if one could analyze accurately and be sure of the quality he
desires in a river, the complex interactions of flow, water composition,
seasonal variations and aquatic processes would make it quite difficult
to set a single quantitative standard for any quality parameter. In
some cases, efforts to reduce pollution are opposed by almost immovable
forces of nature and thus are impracticable, if not almost impossible.
The proper approach to setting stream quality standards under these
circumstances is to accept arbitrary limits or ranges for the most
pertinent solutes, suspended materials, and aesthetic factors, while
performing the data collection and research necessary to place standardi-
zation on a firmer basis.
Coble 0 W 1961. Influence of water exchange and dissolved oxygen in
redds on survival of steelhead trout embryos. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 90:469-474. (OR)
Movement of gravel 10 inches below the surface of a streambed
was indicated in areas where no logging disturbance was apparent. The
survival of salmonid embryos in the gravel was related to the apparent
velocity and dissolved oxygen content of subsurface water.
n n r 1Q57 Relationship of unmeasured sediment discharge to
mean velocity! Trans. Am. Geophys. Onion 38(5):708-717. (OR)
Unmeasured sediment discharges were computed by subtracting
the measured suspended sediment discharges at alluvial sections from
total sediment discharges that had been either measured at nearby con-
tracted sections or computed from the modified Einstein procedure
Averaee curves show a general increase of unmeasured sediment discharge
ner foot of stream width as a function of about the third power of the
mean velocity. At constant mean velocity the unmeasured sediment dis-
charge per foot of width generally increases with concentration, espe-
cially with suspended sands concentration adjusted for depth of stream.
turh adiusted concentrations of suspended sands seems to be reasonably
gooS measures of the availability of sands. This availability is the
Slative rate of transport of sands for a given condition of flow and is
related to particle sizes and cohesiveness of sediments of the stream
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26
bed and banks. Relationships of unmeasured sediment discharge to mean
velocity and to concentration can be applied successfully in several
kinds of sediment computations.
Colby, B. R. 1964a. Discharge of sands and mean-velocity relationships
in sand-bed streams. USGS Prof. Pap. 462-A. 47 pp. (OR)
Graphs based on the empirical relationships of discharge of
sands to major variables were prepared for a wide range of velocity,
depth, water temperature, and concentration of fine sediment; they
provide a method for quickly approximating the discharge of sands in
sand-bed streams. In spite of many inaccuracies in the available data
and uncertainties in the graphs, about 75 percent of the sand discharges
that were used to define the relationships were less than twice or more
than half of the discharges that were computed from the graphs of average
relationship.
The agreement of computed and observed discharges of sands for
sediment stations whose records were not used to define the graphs
seemed to be about as good as that for stations whose records were used.
Colby, B. R. 1964b. Practical computations of bed-material discharge.
ASCE, J. Hydraul. Div. 90(HY2):217-246. (OR)
At least five alternative measures of fluid forces or fluid
velocities may have usually dominant effects on the discharge of bed-
material in a sand-bed stream. Interrelationships among most of these
measures vary widely with changes in the resistance to flow. Approxi-
mately defined average relationships between discharge of bed-material
per foot of stream width and each of four usually dominant measures
(mean velocity, stream power, and two forms of effective shear on the
bed sediment) are shown graphically as possible bases for practical
computations of bed-material discharge. Such usually secondary factors
as depth of flow, particle size of the bed sediment, water temperature,
and concentration of fine sediment affect each defined relationship,
generally by different amounts.
Colby, B. R., and D. W. Hubbell. 1961. Simplified method for computing
total sediment discharge with the Modified Einstein Procedure.
USGS Water Supply Pap., 1593. 17 pp. (OR)
A procedure was presented in 1950 by H. A. Einstein for comput-
ing the total discharge of sediment particles of sizes that are in
appreciable quantities in the stream bed. This procedure was modified
by the U.S. Geological Survey and adapted to computing the total sediment
discharge of a stream on the basis of samples of bed sediment, depth-
integrated samples of suspended sediment, streamflow measurements and
water temperature. This paper gives simplified methods for computing
total sediment discharge by the modified Einstein procedure. Each of
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four nomographs appreciably simplifies a major step in the computations.
Within the stated limitations, use of the nomographs introduces much
less error than is present in either the basic data or the theories on
which the computations of total sediment discharge are based. The
results are nearly as accurate mathematically as those that could be
obtained from the longer and more complex arithmetic and algebraic
computations of the Einstein procedure.
Committee on Water Quality Criteria. 1972. Water quality criteria
1972. Environmental Studies Board, Nat. Acad. Sci., Nat. Acad.
Eng., Wash.-, D.C. 594 pp. (M)
A report written for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
concerning various aspects of water quality. This material is organized
into six sections:
1.
Recreation and Aesthetics,
2.
Public Water Supplies,
3.
Freshwater Aquatic Life and
Wildlife,
4.
Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife,
5.
Agricultural Uses of Water,
and
6.
Industrial Water Supplies.
Each of the sections are thoroughly discussed and water
quality standards and guidelines, as established by the National Academy
of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, are presented.
o A C 1959. Discussion of the effects of silt on survival of
Cooper, A. C. 19b9. u ^ ^ ^ Eldridge and N>
Wilson efds. Proc. Fifth Symposium-Pacific Northwest on Siltation-
Its Source and Effects on Aquatic Environment. U.S. Dep. Health,
Educ., Welfare, Portland, Ore. (GS)
Surface flow over a smooth bed with a constant gradient showed
intragravel flow lines nearly parallel with some interchange near the
surface. Interchange in the top 1 foot of stratum was increased with
the addition of large rocks, and downward interchange occurred when a
pile of gravel was formed by a female salmon digging a re .
A C 1965. The effect of transported stream sediments on the
Cooper, .3^ ^ so;keye and pink salmon eggs and alevins. Int. Pac.
Sal. Fish. Comm., Bull. 18. 71 pp. (OR)
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28
Results are presented of studies made to assess quantitatively
the effects of sediment deposition upon and within salmon spawning beds
on the survival of salmon eggs and alevin. Methods of determining the
size of bed load materials that may be expected on a given portion of a
stream bed are presented. Spawning gravel permeability is defined in
terms of particle size grading, particle shape and gravel porosity. The
velocity of fluid flow through the gravel is quantitatively related to
the gravel permeability and the hydraulic gradient. Deposition of
sediment either on the gravel surface or within the gravel is shown to
reduce gravel permeability with consequent reduction in fluid flow and
reduction in rate of survival of salmon eggs and alevin deposited in the
gravel. Formulae are developed which relate time and silt size and
concentration to the effect on gravel permeability, and examples of the
consequent effect on survival of salmon eggs and alevin are presented.
The results of the studies show the importance of preventing deposition
of sediments on or within a salmon spawning bed.
Cooper, R. H., A. W. Peterson, and T. Blench. 1972. Critical review of
sediment transport experiments. ASCE, J. Hydraul. Div. 98(HY1):
827-843. (OR)
Many of the formulas dealing with the transport of sediment in
mobile bed channels are empirical or semiempirical in nature and have
been based on the results of laboratory flume experiments. Where the
experimental collections used to develop a formula cover only a narrow
range of flow conditions, there exists a danger of errors resulting when
the formula is extrapolated to practical engineering conditions. This
danger is particularly severe in those cases where empiricism has been
relied upon in determining both the mathematical form of the relation
and the required numerical constants.
The present study is concerned with: (1) Describing the
nature and scope of existing collections of data, considered individually
and as a whole, and (2) comparing the scope of experimental conditions
with conditions likely to be encountered in engineering practice. It is
hoped that the results will point to gaps in existing experimental
knowledge, limitations in the applicability of empirical formulas, and
serve as a guide in the design of future experiments.
Cordone, A. J. 1956. Effects of logging on fish production. Calif.
Fish Game, Inland Fish Admin., Rep. No. 56-7. 98 pp. (GS)
The material examined consisted of published and mimeographed
literature, regulations and policies, and correspondence. No attempt
was made to compile a complete bibliography. However, it is believed
that the more important published and mimeographed literature was
reviewed. The subject of pollution from sawdust and sulfite liquor
wastes was not covered. The physical influences of logging on the
environment were stressed, i.e., soil erosion, turbidity, sedimentation,
fluctuating stream flows, etc. Material on direct effects of logging on
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29
fish life was rare, but papers concerning the foregoing factors were
common. That these factors are interrelated with fish production is
universally accepted.
The report is divided into three parts: (1) review of litera-
ture, (2) review of regulations and policies, and (3) list of literature
not examined. The first part is presented in the form of an annotated
bibliography. Direct quotes are employed as annotations whenever feasible.
This eliminates some subjective interpretations. A brief summary of the
surveyed material is presented at the end of the report.
Cordone, A. J., and D. E. Kelley. 1961. The influence of inorganic
sediment on the aquatic life of streams. Calif. Fish Game 47:189-
228. (M)
This report discusses the effects of inorganic sediment on
fishes; fish eggs and alevins; bottom organisms; aquatic plants; physical
habitat and populations. Discussion of sediment standards and research
was included.
Cordone, A. J., and S. Pennoyer. 1960. Notes on silt pollution in the
Truckee River Drainage. Calif. Dep. Fish Game, Inland Fish. Admin.,
Rep. No. 60-14. 25 pp. (GS)
Silt from a gravel washing plant drastically reduced the
populations of bottom organisms immediately below the outfall and as far
as 10 miles downstream at Cold Creek and Truckee River, California.
Cottam, C. , and C. M. Tarzwell. 1959. Research for the establishment
of water quality criteria for aquatic life. Pages 226-232 in C. M.
Tarzwell, ed. Biol. Problems in Water Poll. Robert A. Taft
Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio. (OR)
The main beneficial uses of our waters are: domestic, agricul-
tural, aquacultural, industrial, recreational, aesthetic, navigation and
power. To maintain or restore the suitability of our waters for these
stated purposes, our first task is to determine the water quality charac-
teristics which are required for each of these uses for we cannot effec-
ively measure pollution, determine needed correction, or evaluate control
measures until we have established these essential characteristics. In
this paper attention will be directed toward research needs for the
establishment of water quality criteria for aquatic life.
Cummins, K. W. 1967. An evaluation of some techniques for the collection
and analysis of benthic samples with special emphasis on lotic
waters. Am. Midland Naturalist 67(2):477-504. (OR)
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A consideration of a large number of procedures for the collec-
tion and analysis of benthic samples, with particular emphasis on stream
investigations and the importance of substrate particle size as a common
denominator in benthic ecology, reveals that only certain techniques are
suitable.
Although either systematic or stratified random samplings are
appropriate for faunal surveys, the careful selection of sample sites in
single-species studies can provide maximum information per unit sampling
effort. In order to adequately describe the micro-distribution of
benthic organisms, investigations must be conducted on a year-round
basis. Only bottom samplers, such as the core-type, which retain the
entire sediment sample for analysis are desirable. Measurements of
current velocity should be made close to the substrate-water interface.
The removal of the fauna by elutriation and hand sorting allows for
further physical and chemical analyses. Physical analysis of stream
sediments can be accomplished through the decantation of silt and clay
followed by dry sieving of the coarser material. In addition, a new
photographic technique for substrate analysis, described in detail, can
provide information on the surface sediments. Indications of the organic
content of sediments can be obtained by the dry combustion carbon train
method or, when clay content is low, from loss of weight on ignition
values. However, new techniques are called for, especially those directed
toward the food habits of particular species. The Wentworth classifica-
tion, modified to include a gravel category, should be followed, and the
size classes converted to the phi scale in graphic presentations of
sediment data.
Cummins, K. W., and G. H. Lauff. 1969. The influence of substrate
particle size on the microdistribution of stream macrobenthos.
Hydrobiologia 34:45-181. (OR)
Substrate microhabitat preferences of ten species of benthic
macroinvertebrates were investigated in a laboratory flowing water
system and compared with preliminary field data. Eight particle size
categories of both silted and non-silted substrates were tested in the
laboratory.
The correspondence between field and laboratory data indicated
primary microhabitat selection on the basis of substrate particle size
by the stonefly Perleeta ptaoida, the riffle beetle Stenelmis erenata
and the caddisflies Pyanopeyahe guttifer and P. lepida. Broad substrate
responses in the laboratory and lack of correspondence with field' data
indicated a secondary importance of substrate particle size in microhabi-
tat selection by the pulmonate snail Hetiaoma ancepe, the caddisfly
Helioopsyahe boreali-8, the cranefly Tipula oalopteva, the alderfly
Sialis vagans and the mayflies Caenis latipennis and Ephemera simulana.
Silting had minor effects on substrate selection patterns in
all species tested except Caenis tatipennie and Perlesta ptaoida in
which it enhanced selection for the interstices of coarse sediments.
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31
Curry, L. L. 1962. A survey of environmental requirements for the
midge (Diptera: Tendipedidae). Pages 127-141 in C. M. Tarzwell,
ed. Trans. Third Seminar on Biol. Problems in Water Poll. Robert
A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio. (OR)
A brief history of the taxonomy and the limnological importance
of the family is given. When possible, synonymy is given for the impor-
tant species to enable the researcher to relate his data to that of
different geographical regions. Interpretations of environmental require-
ments for the more common species of the family are based primarily on
the Michigan fauna. Evaluations are made for the Holarctic, Neotropical,
and Ethiopian realms, however, when these data are available. The
environmental conditions considered are oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulfides,
sulfites, acids, some organics, pH, temperature, fiber deposits, and
siltation. These are considered with respect to midge populations in
lothic and lentic environments, as well as in the littoral and profundal
regions of freshwater lakes. The maximum conditions tolerable to midge
populations in these environments are given when known. Several general
conclusions are drawn from the study. Field work indicates that no
group of midges can be regarded of pollutional indicator organisms per
se. The species Tendipes (T.) riparius (Meigen) (-Chifonomus riparius
Meigen) and 2*. (T. J tentane (Fabricius) (-Chtvonomus teutons Fabricius)
could be considered as such, however. Some species in the family are
restricted either to a lentic or lotic environment. Others are known to
inhabit both environments. In addition, a few species are able to adapt
to the physical and chemical conditions imposed upon the organisms in
the littoral and profundal regions of larger bodies of water. In general,
the conditions discussed in this paper, when imposed upon the midge
fauna, have a detrimental effect upon the population.
Dill, L. M. 1969. The sub-gravel behavior of Pacific salmon larvae.
Pages 89-101 in T. G. Northcote, ed. Symposium on Salmon and Trout
in Streams. Univ. Brit. Columbia, Vancouver. (OR)
Results of a study of the sub-gravel behavior of the coho
salmon (Oncorhynchue kisutah) are compared with studies of other salmonid
larvae. The present results were obtained through observation of the
larvae or alevins in specially designed aquaria. The alevins moved
about within the gravel prior to emergence, apparently as a result of
phototaxes and rheotaxes, the direction of which varied with the age of
the fish. For example, the response to light was initially negative,
but changed to positive as the time of emergence approached. Lateral
movements were similarly influenced by the current direction.
There was evidence that the alevins were spacing themselves
out within the gravel, and that some interaction was taking place between
them. The effects upon behavior of changes in burial density, burial
depth, and gravel size were also explored. Several studies are suggested
as logical and productive continuations of the present work, and their
implications are discussed from both practical and theoretical standpoints.
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32
Dill, L. M., and T. G. Northcote. 1970. Effects of gravel size, egg
depth, and egg density on intragravel movement and emergence of
coho salmon (Onaorhynahua kiautoh) alevins. J. Fish. Res. Board
Can. 27(7):1191-1199. (OR)
In experimental aquaria with large gravel (3.2-6.3 cm),
vertical and lateral movements of coho salmon (Onaorhynohus kiautoh)
alevins were more extensive and area utilized per alevin was greater
than in small gravel (1.9-3.2 cm). At low density (50 per aquarium) the
alevins moved farther towards the inlet, but the mean area occupied per
alevin was the same as that at high density (100 per aquarium). Burial
depths tested (20 and 30 cm) had no significant effects on vertical or
lateral movements or on area utilized per alevin. Alevin orientation in
the gravel, survival to emergence, and timing of emergence were not
affected by any of the environmental variables examined.
Doudoroff, P. 1957. Water quality requirements of fishes and effects
of toxic substances. Pages 403-430 in M. E. Brown, ed. The
Physiology of Fishes. Vol. 2, Behavior. Acad. Press, Inc., New
York. (OR)
This chapter is an introduction to the physiological and
toxicological principles of water quality appraisal relating to the
requirements of fishes, and a guide to correct interpretation and
application of basic data to be found in the voluminous pertinent litera-
ture. All of the essential information could not be included. Reference
is made, however, to some useful literature reviews and compendia, as
well as original sources of data.
Simple physical and chemical criteria of the suitability of
waters for fish cannot be prescribed for general application, because
the requirements of species vary greatly, and also because of the large
number and the complex interaction of factors which together determine
or can influence the quality of water. Arbitrary water quality standards
and lists of unqualified critical or maximum tolerable concentrations of
water pollutants which can be harmful to fish have been published
repeatedly. Useful though these may appear to be, they actually are apt
to be misleading more often than helpful, for they are based on fragmen-
tary information and have been prepared without proper regard to unrefuted
contradictory evidence. An intelligent approach to water quality and
pollution problems relating to the complicated requirements of aquatic
life involves careful consideration of all available pertinent data, in
the light of general principles discussed herein.
A distinction must be made between tolerable environmental
conditions determined experimentally in the laboratory and those condi-
tions under which fish can be expected to occur and thrive in nature.
In order to maintain themselves in their natural habitats, fish must be
more or less active, they must find and^capture food (competing effec-
tively with other species), resist currents, escape enemies, grow, and
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reproduce successfully. Their ability merely to survive under unnatural
experimental conditions requiring no sustained activity obviously is not
a reliable indication that the quality of the medium is satisfactory.
It must be concluded that the present state of our knowledge
and understanding of the water quality requirements of fishes is such
that the suitability of any untried water must be judged chiefly with
reference to limits or ranges of tolerance determined experimentally.
Even these cannot be precisely defined without much qualification. One
can only surmise what alterations of water quality will have no detrimen-
tal effects on populations of fishes in their natural environments. The
lethality data presented in connection with the following discussion of
the resistance of fish to various harmful agents should be viewed in the
light of the foregoing considerations, and applied accordingly.
—• Doudoroff, P., and D. L. Shumway. 1967. Dissolved oxygen criteria for
the protection of fish. Pages 13-19 in C. L. Cooper, ed. A
Symposium on Water Quality Criteria to Protect Aquatic Life. Am.
Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ., No. 4. (OR)
The rates of growth and embryonic development and the activity
of fish can be limited by the supply of oxygen even when dissolved
oxygen concentrations are near or above air-saturation levels. Yet,
oxygen concentrations well below 3 mg/liter can be tolerated for long
periods by the fish and fish embryos. Fishery biologists should decline,
therefore, to specify any particular dissolved oxygen level as a minimal
requirement of any fish population or as a proper standard of water
quality until the necessary clear guidelines or explicit definitions of
terms are provided by pollution-control agencies desiring such simple
criteria. The dissolved oxygen level at which growth of fish is limited
by the oxygen supply depends on the amount of food available, as well as
other environmental factors such as temperature. No reduction of dis-
solved oxygen below natural levels probably is the only "standard" that
would afford complete protection for fishery resources under all circum-
stances, but adoption of this standard for the regulation of waste
disposal usually would be unrealistic and unnecessary. Any lower or
less restrictive standards applicable over wide ranges of temperature
probably should be expressed as oxygen concentrations (mg/liter) rather
than as percentages of saturation. They should be designed to prevent,
by limiting diurnal or other fluctuations of dissolved oxygen, frequent
exposure of fish to nonlethal but very low dissolved oxygen levels even
for periods of moderate duration. The choice of suitable criteria or
standards probably should be based in part on bioenergetic considerations
relating to fish growth and production rates, but it is not simply and
entirely a biological problem, many considerations other than biological
ones clearly being pertinent.
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3M
Doudoroff, P., and C. E. Warren. 1957. Biological indices of water
pollution with special reference to fish populations. Pages 144-163
in C. M. Tarzwell, ed. Trans, of a Seminar on Biol. Problems in
Water Poll. Robert A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio.
(OR)
A genuine contribution to water pollution science can be made
whenever the presence or relative abundance of living organisms of any
kind can be shown to be a reliable index of something tangible that one
may need to know in order fully to ascertain and understand the pollu-
tional status of an aquatic environment. Widely distributed sessile or
sedentary organisms should be the most useful indicators of past condi-
tions. Unfortunately, the water quality requirements of most of the
"indicator organisms" have never been thoroughly investigated, so that
there is no real knowledge of specific factors which limit their distribu-
tion and abundance. If there are common sedentary organisms whose water
quality requirements can be shown to correspond closely with those of
valuable fish species, they are potentially useful indicators. At the
present time, however, excepting instances of growth pollution, only
fish themselves can be said to indicate reliably environmental conditions
generally suitable or unsuitable for their existence.
Doudoroff, P., and C. E. Warren. 1962. Dissolved oxygen requirements
of fishes. Pages 145-155 in C. M. Tarzwell, ed. Trans. Third
Seminar on Biol. Problems in Water Poll. Robert A. Taft Sanit.
Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio. (OR)
Dissolved oxygen concentration has been shown to influence
markedly the maximum or active rates of oxygen consumption and the
sustained swimming performance capabilities of fresh-water fishes at any
given temperature. When food supply is unrestricted in laboratory
tests, oxygen concentration influences likewise the rates of food consump-
tion and of growth, and under extreme conditions, the gross efficiency
of food conversion. The rates of embryonic and larval development, the
size of larvae at the times of hatching and of completion of yolk absorp-
tion, and so the efficiency of yolk utilization, also are dependent on
oxygen concentration. The effects of reduced concentrations on embryonic
development vary not only with temperature, but also with the velocity
of the water which determines the rate of delivery of oxygen to the
chorion surfaces. Marked reductions of active rates of oxygen consumption
by fish, of maximum sustained swimming speeds, and of rates of develop-
ment, food consumption, and growth have been observed upon reduction of
oxygen concentration to levels only slightly below the air-saturation
level. The appetite and the growth rates of fish can be greatly impaired
by wide diurnal fluctuation of oxygen concentration. The impairment
occurs even when the arithmetic or geometric mean oxygen concentrations,
i.e., the properly weighted means of the alternating low and high
concentrations to which the fish are exposed, fall within the range of
most favorable constant concentrations aiid the duration of daily exposure
to low concentrations is only one-third or one-half of the 24-hour day.
Abnormally high concentrations well above the air-saturation levels also
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35
can be inhibitory. Prompt avoidance reactions of fishes to reduced
oxygen concentrations well above those that are lethal or cause obvious
distress have been observed under experimental conditions.
The ecological significance of all the above observations made
in the laboratory is not yet clear. Oxygen concentrations avoided under
some experimental conditions may not be avoided likewise under natural
conditions. Swimming speeds and developmental rates that are essential
to survival and unimpaired success of fish in natural environments, as
well as larval sizes that must be attained at the time of hatching or of
complete yolk absorption are unknown, but presumably can be determined
experimentally. The critical oxygen concentration for incipient impair-
ment of growth under natural conditions probably depends on the availabil-
ity of food, which may itself be the major factor limiting growth rates.
This critical concentration may well depend also on the rate at which
energy must be expended by the fish in seeking and capturing available
food, while also escaping enemies, etc. The appetite of the fish or the
activity that presumably is necessary for food procurement, or both,
evidently must be reduced when available oxygen becomes insufficient for
supporting all metabolic processes at normal levels. Accordingly, a
satisfactory laboratory model for studies of the dissolved oxygen require-
ments of fish, directed toward reliable estimation of critical concentra-
tions at which incipient impairment of growth would occur in a given
natural environment, cannot be a very simple one. Evidently it must
combine the food ration normally obtainable under favorable dissolved
oxygen conditions in the natural environment with enforced activity
approximately equivalent to the spontaneous and other activity that
under the natural conditions would be essential for survival and normal
feeding. This conclusion applies also to the study of other water-
quality requirements of fishes.
Duchrow, R. H., and W. H. Everhart. 1971. Turbidity measurement.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 100(4):682-690. (OR)
A quick and reliable method of measurement is necessary to set
standard limits on the amount of suspended sediment to be tolerated in
streams near land-use operations. Turbidity measurements may be useful
if a major portion of the total turbidity is contributed by settleable
solids, if a relationship exists between turbidity readings and weight
per unit of volume of suspended sediment, and if a reliable meter is
available. Water with turbidity readings greater than one JTCJ (Jackson
Turbidity Unit) is generally composed mostly of settleable solids unless
distorted by color. Non-filterable and total dissolved solids contribute
variable amounts of light penetration reduction. Percentage contribution
to turbidity of settleable solids is highly variable from sample to
sample and from station to station.
A high correlation exists between turbidity readings and
weight for individual sediment types of suspension, but a poor relation-
ship exists when sediment type is varied. Experiments conducted on the
Hach model 2100, the Helige, and the Jackson Candle turbidimeters resulted
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36
in a highly significant difference (
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37
(3) The first part of the calculation covers the hydraulic
description of the flow for each discharge.
(4) The resulting equilibrium transport is divided into two
parts: (a) the suspended load which includes all particles the weight
of which is supported by the fluid flow, and which has been found to
include all particles moving two diameters above the bed or higher; and
(b) the bed load which includes all particles moving in the bed layer,
a layer two diameters thick along the bed. The weight of all particles
moving in the bed layer is supported by the bed as they are rolling or
sliding along. On the basis of this definition, the thickness of the
bed layer is different for the various grain sizes of a sediment mixture.
(5) The motion of bed-material load in suspension is described
by the commonly accepted method based on the exchange theory of turbulent
flow. The transport is integrated over a vertical.
(6) The description of the bed-load motion in the bed layer
is the same for fine sand as for coarse particles which never go into
suspension. The effect of varying ratios between the grain size and the
laminar sublayer thickness must be allowed for and evaluated, however.
(7) A complete sample calculation for a reach of Big Sand
Creek, Mississippi, demonstrates the practical application of the method
and of its formulas and graphs.
Einstein, H. A., and M. A. Farouk. 1972. Einstein bed load function at
high sediment rates. ASCE J. Hydraul. Div. 98(HY1):137-151. (OR)
A method is suggested which can be used to extend the applica-
bility of bed-load calculations to the case of high sediment concentra-
tions near the bed for near uniform bed material.
It is found that, by changing the von Karman coefficient
equally in both the velocity and in the suspended sediment distributions,
a reasonable solution is obtained for both flume experiments and river
measurements. The changed k value is predicted as a function of the
dimensionless parameter {v D Aq1/zS1/2 v1/2).
8 35 65/ e
Ellis, M. M. 1931. Some factors affecting the replacement of the
commercial freshwater mussels. U.S. Dep. Commerce, Bur. Fish.,
Fishery Circ., 7. 10 pp. (OR)
Erosion silt is destroying a large portion of the mussel
population in various streams by directly smothering the animals in
localities where a thick deposit of mud is formed; by smothering young
mussels even where the adults can maintain themselves; and by blanketing
the sewage and other organic material which in turn produces an oxygen
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38
want that lowers the oxygen content of the water to the detriment of
those species requiring well-aerated water. Very young mussels are
particularly sensitive to the low oxygen tensions in the water.
Extensive and rapid reduction, amounting in many places almost
to extermination, of the mussel fauna is to be expected if the erosion
and pollution problems are not solved, in view of various improvements
for navigation now existing or already authorized throughout the
Mississippi, Ohio, and Tennesee drainages.
Ellis, M. M. 1936. Erosion silt as a factor in aquatic environments.
Ecology 17(1):29-42. (M)
The paper discusses the effects of silt on the aquatic environ-
ment. Erosion silt alters aquatic environments, chiefly by screening
out light, by changing heat radiation, by blanketing the stream bottom,
and by retaining organic material and other substances which create
unfavorable conditions at the bottom.
The present erosion silt loads of our inland streams have
reduced the millionth intensity depth for light penetration from 15,000
mm to 34,000 mm or more, to 1,000 mm or less, the summer average for the
Mississippi River above Alton, Illinois, being less than 500 mm.
Erosion silt in river water act chiefly as an opaque screen to
all wave lengths of visible light but in very muddy waters a small
difference was found favoring the transmission of scarlet-orange light.
Erosion silt alters the rate of temperature change in river
waters. This is particularly significant in deep river lakes where
thermal stratification of the water produces a stratification of the
silt load, a warm muddy river, the hyperlimnorrheum flowing over a
clear, cold lake, the hypolimnion, during the summer months.
Excepting the very quiet portions, erosion silt is quite uni-
formly distributed throughout the waters of rivers even in very deep
holes, and in those river lakes in which there is no thermal stratification.
Erosion silt does not materially alter the salt complex or the
amount of electrolytes in river waters.
Experimental studies demonstrated that layers of fine silt
from one fourth of an inch to one inch thick produced a very high mortal-
ity among freshwater mussels living in gravel or sand beds, and in water
which was otherwise unfavorable.
The amount of organic material carried to bottom with erosion
silt ranged from 8 to 12 percent of the dry weight of the mud on the
bottom of Lake Pepin and Lake Kelkuk.
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39
The aquatic environment is affected by silt by: 1) reducing
light penetration, 2) changing heat radiation, 3) covering the stream
bottom, and 4) retaining organic and other material. Each of these
effects is discussed.
Ellis, M. M. 1937. Detection and measurement of stream pollution.
Bull. Bur. Fish. 48:365-4-37.
Effects of erosion silt on aquatic organisms by smothering of
bottom fauna, covering of fish spawning grounds, mechanical action
injury to gills and external structures and reduction of photosynthetic
depth are briefly discussed.
^Ellis, M. M. 194-4. Water purity standards for freshwater fishes. U.S.
Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. 2. 18 pp. (OR)
(1) Extensive field and laboratory studies of the freshwater
streams of the United States show that general water conditions favorable
to, not merely sublethal for, mixed faunae of game and food fishes of
the "warm-water" types and supporting organisms, present.a complex
defined by:
(a) Dissolved oxygen not less than 5 ppm.
(b) pH range between 7.0 and 8.5.
(c) Ionizable salts as indicated by a conductivity
between 150 and 500 mho x 10~6 at 25° Centigrade and in
general not exceeding 1,000 mho x 10 6 at 25° Centigrade.
(d) Ammonia not exceeding 1.5 ppm.
(e) Suspensoids of a hardness of 1 or greater, so finely
divided that they will pass through a 1,000-mesh (to the
inch) screen; and so diluted that the resultant turbidity
would not reduce the millionth intensity depth for light
penetration to less than 5 meters.
(2) Experimental data are submitted supporting these field
and laboratory findings.
(3) If such favorable conditions for fishes are to be main-
tained and fishes and other aquatic organisms are to be protected against
the toxic actions of many stream pollutants, all pollutants not readily
oxidizable or removable by the stream should be excluded, including
particularly all cellulose pulps, wastes carrying heavy metallic ions
and gas factory effluents. Other types of wastes should be diluted to
concentrations nontoxic to the aquatic life of the particular stream.
Ho substance should be added to stream waters which would cause a
deviation in general conditions beyond the limits outlined above.
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HO
Ellis, M. M., B. A. Westfall, and M. D. Ellis. 1948. Determination of
water quality. Res. Rep. No. 9, U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. 122 pp.
(OR)
This manual on water quality has been designed to present a
system for the determination and evaluation of those conditions and
substances of primary interest to the aquatic biologist, which occur in
natural and polluted waters. Many of the procedures are applicable,
however, to various problems in sanitary engineering and in trade waste
disposal. The methods chosen have been used by the authors in the Water
Quality Laboratories of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service and
in actual field operations, in most cases, over a period of years. It
has been possible in general, therefore, to select analytical sequences
for which the technical limitations are rather well established. Where
it seemed desirable, a choice of procedures, including both routine and
research methods, is offered.
As water quality is a complex defined by the several specific
characteristics of the water under examination, the designation of water
quality depends upon the presence or absence of those substances which
determine whether the water will serve a particular purpose. It is
quite possible, therefore, to rate a given water as good for one use and
poor for another. As the aquatic biologist is concerned for the most
part with conditions which affect living aquatic organisms, the substances
and characteristics discussed in this manual have been selected because
they are essential to aquatic life, influence conditions which are
essential, or are specifically harmful to aquatic organisms. However,
water characteristics cannot be assembled under three simple groupings
as this statement might imply, for the same substances may be harmful in
one combination and innocuous in another. Nevertheless, certain condi-
tions must be maintained in an aquatic environment if life is to survive
even a short time, and certain others in addition are necessary if life
is to continue successfully over a period of time. Therefpre, the
sequence suggested by the groupings given above has been followed in the
general plan of the procedures presented here for the determination of
water quality.
Emmett, W. W. 1976. Bedload transport in two large, gravelbed rivers,
Idaho and Washington. Proc. Third Fed. Inter-Agency Sedimentation
Conf., March 22-25, 1976. Pp. 4-104 to U-llU. (OR)
Bedload transport in two gravelbed rivers has been measured by
direct sampling in the Snake and Clearwater Rivers in the vicinity of
Lewiston, Idaho. These rivers are large and capable of high flows
producing mean depths in excess of 6 meters (20 feet) and velocities in
excess of 3 meters per second (10/ft/s). At high values of streamflow
when the rivers are competent to move almost all sizes of particles on
the streambed, bedload-transport rates are correlative with a predictable
proportion of stream-power expenditure. As streamflow decreases and the
river loses competence to transport the coarser bed particles, the
channel bottom becomes armored and limits the availability of smaller
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'41
sizes material. As the channel becomes armored, the smaller material is
transported at efficiencies that are greatly reduced from those predicted.
Both rivers have a deficiency in bed material of intermediate sizes.
Thus, median particle size of bedload shifts abruptly from very coarse
gravel when all sizes of material are moving, to coarse sand when the
channel bottom becomes armored.
Everest, F. H., and D. W. Chapman. 1972. Habitat selection and spatial
interaction by juvenile chinook salmon and steelhead trout in two
Idaho streams. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 29:91-100. (OR)
During summer sympatric steelhead trout and summer chinook
salmon segregated in Crooked Fork and Johnson creeks. In short-term
allopatry, each species occupied the same types of habitat as in sympatry.
Most age 0 steelhead lived over rubble substrate in water velocities and
depths of less than 0.15m/sec and 0.15 m, respectively; most age 0
chinook lived over silt substrate in water velocities of less than
0.15m/sec and depths of 0.15-0.3 m; most age I steelhead resided over
large rubble substrate in water velocities of 0.15-0.3m/sec (near bottom)
and 0.75-0.9 m/sec (near surface), and in depths of 0.6-0.75 m. As fish
of each species became larger they moved into faster, deeper water.
Juvenile chinook and steelhead of the same size used the same physical
space. But steelhead spawn in spring and chinook spawn in early fall,
and disparate times of spawning create discrete intra- and inter-specific
size groups of pre-smolts. The size differences minimize potential for
social interaction, both intra- and inter-specific.
Everhart, W. H., and R. M. Duchrow. 1970. Effects of suspended sediment
on aquatic environment. U.S. Bur. Reclamation, Project Completion
Rep. 135 pp. (NTIS)
Effects of suspended sediment on aquatic fauna have been well
documented in the literature. Sublethal concentrations of suspended
sediment can be tolerated by organisms as long as mechanisms which
remove sediment from the body surfaces function. Field studies on four
high mountain streams in southwestern Colorado indicate no harmful
effects on aquatic fauna from suspended solid concentrations. A quick
and reliable method of measurement must be found to set standard limits
on the amount of suspended sediment to be tolerated in streams near
land-use operations. Turbidity measurement may be useful if: (1) a
major portion of the total turbidity is contributed by suspended solids;
(2) a relationship between turbidity readings and the weight per unit
volume of suspended sediment exists; (3) a reliable meter can be found
to given consistent readings. Turbidity is a questionable parameter to
use as an index to suspended solids in water. Too many factors must
remain constant before a turbidity reading can be converted to weight
per unit volume of suspended solids. Suspended solids should be measured
gravimetrically according to standard procedures suggested by the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration (1969).
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12
Ferguson, D. E., J. L. Ludke, J. P. Wood, and J. W. Prather. 1966. The
effects of mud on the bioactivity of pesticides on fishes. J.
Mississippi Acad. Sci. 11:219-228.
Bioassy and gas chromatographic techniques demonstrated lethal
units of enderin and DDT in muds from areas receiving runoff from insecti-
cide treated cotton fields. Acetone extracts from such muds killed test
fish. Mud containing sorbed pesticides failed to release lethal quanti-
ties of toxicants into standing H2O.
Flaxman, E. M. 1959. Sediment concentration in streams of the Pacific
Northwest. Pages 23-26 in E. F. Eldridge and J. N. Wilson, eds.
Proc. of the Fifth Symposium—Pacific Northwest on Siltation—Its
Sources and Effects on the Aquatic Environment. Portland, Ore.
The contributions of various streams in the Columbia Basin to
the total sediment load of that area are presented in tabular form.
Areas included are western and eastern Oregon and Washington, Idaho,
British Columbia, and Montana.
Foley, M. G. 1976. Scour and fill in an ephemeral stream. Proc. Third
Fed. Inter-Agency Sedimentation Conf., March 22-25, 1976. Pp. 5-1
to 5-12. (OR)
The classical concept that mean bed elevation over an entire
stream reach is lowered by scour during flood-wave passage and is restored
by deposition in the waning flood phase (mean-bed scour and fill) can be
challenged. The alternative that both scour and fill occur simultaneously
at different migrating loci with a reach (local scour and fill) is more
consistent with published field data. The field investigation reported
herein suggests that mean-bed scour and fill in a natural uniform channel
is minor compared to local scour and fill caused by bedform migration.
This experiment, utilizing a rectilinear array of buried
maximum-scour indicators (scour-cords), produced data for contouring of
maximum scour and fill in an ephemeral streambed during two floods. In
the first flood, 2M- cm (9.5 in) of scour and fill was measured for a
bankfull flow depth of 23 cm (9 in). In the second, maximum scour and
fill were at least 66 cm (26 in) for a bankfull flow depth of 34 cm (13 in).
Estimates of antidune amplitudes for the two floods, based on
theoretical models and laboratory and field observations, are 28 to 64 cm
(11 to 25 in) and 48 to 97 cm (19 to 38 in), respectively. This suggests
that all scour and fill measured by the scour-cord array was caused by
antidune migration.
Fredericksen, R. L. 1965. Sedimentation after logging road construction
in a small western Oregon watershed. U.S. Dep. Agric. Misc. Publ.
(illus.) 970:56-59. (OR)
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During the summer of 1959, 1.65 miles of logging road were
constructed in a 250-acre forested watershed that rises 2,000 feet in a
distance of 1 mile. This study evaluates the change in sedimentation
subsequent to road construction. Runoff from undisturbed watersheds in
this area remains clear during the summer low-flow months and reaches
concentrations of 100 parts per million during winter storm peaks.
Runoff from the first rainstorms after road construction carried 250
times the concentration carried in an adjacent undisturbed watershed.
Two months after construction, sediment had diminished to levels slightly
above those measured before construction. Sediment concentrations for
the subsequent two-year period were significantly different from preroad
levels. In about 10 percent of the samples, sediment concentrations
were far in excess of predicted values, indicating a streambank failure
or mass soil movement. Annual bedload volume the first year after
construction was significantly greater than the expected yield, but the
actual increase was small. A trend toward normalcy was evident the
second year.
Fredericksen, R. L. 1969. A battery powered proportional stream water
sampler. Water Resource Res. 5(6): 1410-14-13. (OR)
A stream water sampler was designed and tested to sample water
from a stream at a rate proportional to the streamflow rate. A composite
of samples taken in this manner is an estimate of the mean concentration
of constituents carried by the stream while the sample was collected.
The instrument is suitable for estimates of transport of suspended or
dissolved constituents in small streams. The sampler can be built for
under $1000.
Gammon, J. R. 1970. The effect of inorganic sediment on stream biota.
EPA Grant No. 18050DWC. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Wash., D.C.
113 pp. (OR)
Fish and macroinvertebrate populations fluctuated over a four-
year period in response to varying quantities of sediment produced by a
crushed limestone quarry. Light inputs which increased the suspended
solids loads less than 40 mg/1 resulted in a 25 percent reduction in
macroinvertebrate density below the quarry. Heavy inputs caused increases
of more than 120 mg/1 including some deposition of sediment and resulted
in a 60 percent reduction in population density of macroinvertebrates.
Population diversity indices were unaffected by changes in density
because most taxa responded to the same degree. Experimental introduc-
tions of sediment caused immediate increases in the rate of invertebrate
drift proportional to the concentration of additional suspended solids.
The standing crop of fish decreased drastically when heavy
sediment input occurred in the spring, but fish remained in pools during
the summer when the input was very heavy and vacated the pools only
after deposits of sediment accumulated.
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44
After winter floods removed sediment deposits, fish returned
to the pools during spring months and achieved levels of 50 percent
normal standing crop by early June. Slight additional gains were noted
during the summer even with light sediment input. Only spotted bass
(Miaropterus punotulatus) was resistant to sediment, but its growth rate
was lower below the quarry than above. Most fish were much reduced in
standing crop below the quarry.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of project 18050 DWC
under the sponsorship of the Water Quality Office of the Environmental
Protection Agency.
Gangmark,' H. A. 1962. The Mill Creek channel study. Presented at West.
Div. Am. Fish. Soc., Seattle, Wash. (GS)
To learn how we might achieve the conditions desired in our
spawning channel, we studied, among other places, the Sacramento River
near Red Bluff. In test plants similar to the ones made in Mill Creek,
(salmon) egg samples were eroded out of the streambed and lost in four
out of five seasons. In the one successful year, in which we were able
to measure our results, only 1.7 percent fry were produced.
In the fall of 1961, we moved the location of our river studies
40 miles upstream to a riffle near Redding where the tributaries entering
the river, do so, below the Redding area.
Actual survival was 53.6 percent of the eggs planted or 74.4
percent of eggs that survived the initial handling and planting operation.
As a result of comparing the differences between the Redding and Red
Bluff stream sections we found the former had only 1/3 the fines. The
streamflow at Redding was stabilized and heat storage in Shasta Reservoir
was responsible for moderating and tempering water temperatures.
Gangmark, H. A. 1963. A view of the present status of spawning channels.
Rep. Second Governor's Conf. on Pacific Salmon, convened by Governor
Albert D. Rosellini Wash. Hyatt House, Seattle. (GS)
Advantages of improved production (salmon) areas usually
include: stabilized streamflow, reduced silt loads, clean gravel,
gravel sizes that preclude washout of eggs, and predetermined hydraulic
gradients. They can also include temperature regulation of the streamflow
below impoundments.
Disadvantages may include construction and maintenance costs
and confinement that might limit the carrying capacity and, in one way,
favor predators.
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On a management scale the cost benefit of controlled flow may
make such areas of controlled flow for salmon alone prohibitive. When
tied in with other benefits, however, it can become feasible. For
example, the water conservation and flood control programs that involve
practically every stream in California can provide many acres of such
control flow for the benefit of salmon.
Gangmark, H. A., and R. G. Bakkala. 1960. A comparative study of
unstable and stable (artificial channel) spawning streams for
incubating king salmon at Mill Creek. Calif. Fish Game 46:151-164.
(GS)
With the knowledge that fast stream runoff was significant in
the mortality of spawn, effort was directed toward finding exactly how
severe runoff caused these losses. It was determined that mortalities
were caused by both direct and indirect factors. Direct losses of spawn
was due primarily to erosion of the streambed by high velocities of
water. Information as to the fate of spawn washed out is not available,
but it is reasonable to assume that once the eggs are washed from the
protecting gravel bed out into the stream of violent water flow and
shifting gravel, their chance of survival is low. Indirect losses of
spawn occurred from a series of events of diverse and complex nature
involving loss of spawning gravel and erosion of soil. Another series
of events causing indirect loss of salmon spawn starts with soil erosion
that clogs the redd. This blockage leads to: inadequate oxygen and
poor delivery of oxygen to the eggs and poor cleansing of metabolic
waste products.
Gangmark, H. A., and Robert D. Broad. 1955. Experimental hatching of
king salmon in Mill Creek, a tributary of the Sacramento River.
Calif. Fish Game 41:233-242. (GS)
The upper Sacramento River system continued to flood during
the last stage of the experiment. The water gauge used by the California
State Division of Water Resources was torn from its position by the
flood. Records received from the Water Resources Branch of the United
States Geological Survey show the Mill Creek rose to 5,240 cfs or approxi-
mately 100 times the flow recorded at the time the eggs were planted.
The result was that all but six sacks of eggs (salmon) disappeared from
the stream bed. Examination of the sacks that could be found revealed
that none of the embryos had survived the floods. The shifting of the
channel and the eroding and smothering action of silt and sand apparently
caused a complete kill of the developing young salmon.
Gangmark, H. A., and Robert D. Broad. 1956. Further observations on
stream survival of king salmon spawn. Calif. Fish Game 42(1):37-
49. (GS)
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'+6
The authors present evidence of a relationship between the
occurrence of floods and the reduced survival of salmon eggs.
Garvin, W, F. 197!+. The intrusion of logging debris into artificial
gravel streambeds. Completion Rep. Ore. State Univ., Corvallis.
89 pp. (EPA)
The objective was to describe quantitatively the intrusion of
logging debris into artificial gravel streambeds during conditions of
low streamflow with a stable streambed, and begin an analysis of the
effect of high flow and unstable streambeds. Prior studies indicated
that logging debris was responsible for dissolved oxygen reduction
within the gravel bed of spawning streams. Low flow stable streambed
studies were conducted for eighteen to twenty days in a flume. Two high
flow studies were also conducted. Samples were subdivided vertically
into three sections and analyzed for pore volume, solid volume, and
organic material present. Quantitative changes in organic material in
each section of a sample were determined. These changes were compared
with the depth of the sample, organic size class, position of the sample
horizontally from a datum point, time, porosity, solid and pore volume,
and rainfall during.sampling days.
Gaufin, A. R. 1962. Environmental requirements of Plecoptera. Pages 105-
110 in C. M. Tarzwell, ed. Trans. Third Seminar on Biol. Problems
in Water Poll. Robert A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio.
(OR)
While Plecoptera (stonefiles) constitute one of the smaller
orders of insects, they are nevertheless one of the most important
groups found in many streams. In mountain streams, they are a principal
source of food for trout. Brinck reported that streams in Sweden with
dissolved oxygen concentrations below HO percent saturation had no
stoneflies. Because of their preference for clear, well-aerated water,
they are becoming increasingly important to limnologists as indicators
of clear water conditions in pollutional surveys.
Practically all of the work that has been done to date on the
North American stoneflies has dealt with their taxonomy and morphology.
Despite the work that has been done, the nymphs of over 50 percent of
our North American species have not yet been described. The position of
zooplankton in polluted lakes and reservoirs is given.
A more complete knowledge of physiological differences of
species is needed for understanding ecological effects of pollution on
different species of planktonic Crustacea and for utilizing these species
as biological indicators for water purity control purposes.
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Gaufin, A. R. 1973. Use of aquatic invertebrates in the assessment of
water quality. Pages 96-116 in Biological Methods for the Assessment
of Water Quality, ASTM STP. Am. Soc. Testing Mat. (OR)
Pollution is essentially a biological phenomenon in that its
primary effect is on living organisms. A biological investigation of a
polluted lake or stream has several advantages over chemical analyses.
It is less time-consuming because a single series of samples can reveal
the status of the animal and plant communities which themselves represent
the results of the summation of the prevailing conditions and are not
affected by a temporary alleviation of a polluting effluent.
Intensive studies were carried out by Gaufin and Tarzwell in
1952 and 1956 to determine the effects of organic pollution on the
aquatic communities of Lytle Creek and the value of these populations as
indicators of pollutional conditions. The studies revealed that little
reliance could be placed upon the mere occurrence of a single species in
a given locality as an indicator of pollution. In the creek the nine
species of macroinvertebrates which were most numerous in the septic
zone also occurred in the recovery and clean water zones, but in much
smaller numbers. The septic zone has less than one-fifth as many species
as the clear water zone, but the total number of organisms per unit area
was many times greater. The septic zone was characterized by species
adapted to live in low dissolved oxygen concentrations or those able to
secure their oxygen directly from the air.
In the clean water zone there was a great variety of inverte-
brate communities, each consisting of many different species. Most of
the species which occurred in the septic and recovery zones were also
found in very limited numbers in the clean water zones. In addition,
there was also present a wide variety of forms which were intolerant of
conditions in the polluted zones. Most of these were the gill-breathing,
immature stages of such insects as the mayflies, stoneflies, caddis
flies, and alder flies.
In evaluating the reliability of aquatic organisms as indicators
of pollutional conditions and water quality, one must consider the
different indicator organisms not separately but as biological associa-
tions or communities.
Gessler, J. 1975. Research needs as related to the development of
sediment standards in rivers. Office Water Res. Tech., Completion
Rep. 39 pp.¦
This report includes a position paper by the author as well as
a summary of the proceedings of a workshop assembled to discuss the
problems associated with the development and establishment of sediment
standards for rivers.
Some specific points mentioned were:
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48
1. Problem areas in setting standards include the establishment
of natural adjustment ranges and variations in a river, the contribution
of sediments from human interference, and the effect on the river environ-
ment brought on by changes in the sediment load.
2. The setting and controlling of standards is difficult
because natural sediment levels are likely to be very variable, and the
river environment may well be adjusted to the pollutant.
3. Bedload research when related to the corresponding suspended
sediment load is needed.
i+. Turbidity levels are unacceptable to standards. "The
ideal standard would certainly be one which relates to the total sediment
transport characteristics of the stream, i.e., to the sediment transport
of each grain size, as a function of water discharge or stage."
5. Biotic and geomorphic characters of a region's streams and
rivers might well be used conjointly in determining the standards.
Gessler, J. 1976. The dilemmas of setting sediment standards. Proc.
Third Fed. Inter-Agency Sedimentation Conf., March 22-25, 1976.
Pp. 2-158 to 2-268. (OR)
Society has a multitude of interests in the quality of our
rivers as it related to the movement of sediment. Some of these interests
are directly contradictory to each other. Reducing suspended sediment
loads in the interest of water quality as related to domestic and indus-
trial use or as related to recreational purposes may result in offsetting
the delicate equilibrium of the river's biota due to changes of the food
supply or may lead to drastic changes in the river's geomorphic structure.
With the biotic and geomorphic characteristics changing from river to
river sediment standards cannot have the form of absolute upper and
lower limits for the total sediment transport. They must be tied to the
past history of the individual river.
Standards without enforcement are meaningless. This will
require monitoring the total sediment transport at strategic locations.
Selection of such locations again leads to a dilemma. Deviations in
sediment transport from some baseline data must be investigated and
their cause determined, whether it is natural or man-induced. In order
to do so the deviations must be relatively strong and the number of
possible sources relatively small. This demand puts the monitoring
stations into the far upstream regions of the watersheds. But this will
require a large number of stations which makes the monitoring at these
locations economically unfeasible.
Ideas for possible solutions are suggested. Special emphasis
is on areas in which knowledge is insufficient for reaching any conclu-
sions and will require extensive research efforts.
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49
Gibbons, D. R., and E. 0. Salo. 1973. An annotated bibliography of the
effects of logging on fish of the western United States and Canada.
USDA For. Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep., PNW-10. 145 pp. (OR)
This bibliography is an annotation of the scientific and
nonscientific literature published on the effects of logging on fish and
aquatic habitat of the western United States and Canada. It includes
278 annotations and 317 total references. Subject areas include erosion
and sedimentation, water quality, related influences upon salmonids,
multiple logging effects, alternation of streamflow, stream protection,
multiple use management, streamside vegetation, stream improvement, and
descriptions of studies on effects of logging. A review of the literature,
a narrative on the state of the art, and a list of research needs deter-
mined by questionnaires are included.
Graves, D. S., and J. W. Burns. 1970. Comparison of the yields of
downstream migrant salmonids before and after logging road construc-
tion on the South Fork Caspar Cre,ek, Mendocino County. Calif. Fish
Game, Inland Fish. Admin., Rep. 70-3. 11 pp. (GS)
Yields of juvenile steelhead rainbow trout (Satmo gairdnerii
gairdnerii) and silver salmon (OncovkynQhus kisutch) emigrants were
compared in South Fork Caspar Creek, a small coastal stream in Mendocino
County, California, before and after construction of a logging road
along the stream in the summer of 1967. Numbers, lengths, and age class
structures were compared.
There were 138 percent more steelhead smolts and 41 percent
fewer silver salmon smolts in 1968 (first spring following road constru-
ction) than there had been in 1964 (preroad construction). Increased
emigration of steelhead smolts in 1968 was probably caused by a decrease
in favorable living space. The decrease in salmon smolts accompanied
high mortalities during road construction. Eighty-three percent of the
total salmon population and 86 percent of the total steelhead population
died or emigrated from the affected area during the road construction
from June to October 1967. The combined populations of steelhead and
salmon smolts decreased 20 percent. This combined decrease is within
the range of natural fluctuation reported from other California streams;
however, there is no doubt that road construction contributed to the
decrease in Caspar Creek.
Steelhead and salmon fry were more numerous in 1968 than in
1964. No steelhead fry were trapped in 1964, while 72 percent of the
migrants trapped in 1968 were fry. The age composition of the salmon
also shifted markedly from 1964; fry comprised 5 percent of the total in
1964 and 81 percent in 1968. This increase in numbers of emigrating fry
in 1968 could have resulted from poor environmental conditions.
Steelhead smolts were smaller in 1968 than in 1964, while
salmon smolts were larger. Salmon fry were smaller in 1968. Steelhead
fry cannot be compared as none were trapped in 1964. The increase in
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length of the salmon smolts may have resulted from a decrease in competi-
tion due to higher mortality in 1967. The fry may have been smaller due
to unfavorable intragravel conditions during incubation. Comparison of
steelhead smolts is difficult because of the emigration of more than one
year class. The decrease in average length, however, supports the
hypothesis of premature emigration due to unfavorable habitat.
Griffin, L. E. 1938. Experiments on the tolerance of young trout and
salmon for suspended sediment in water. Bull. Ore. Dep. Geol. 10,
Appen. B. Pp. 28-31. (GS)
The preliminary examination of data from a study on the tolerance
of young trout and salmon to suspended sediment indicated that young
trout and salmon are not directly injured by heavily silted water.
Experimental design and controls were found lacking. Results are
inconclusive.
Grissinger, E. H., and L. L. McDowell. 1970. Sediment in relation to
water quality. Water Resources Bull. 6(1):7-14. (OR)
The relation between sediment and water quality involves the
individual relations between sediment and the physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics of water as these characteristics determine
the suitability of water for an intended use. Both the physical and
chemical properties of fine-grained sediments must be considered in
evaluating these relations, whereas only the physical properties of
coarse-grained sediments are significant. Most of the literature concern-
ing this subject has considered sediment only as a physical entity. In
amount, it is the prime pollutant and is one of the major considerations
in evaluating the suitability of water for an intended use. Losses in
the United States from sediment and associated flood water damages are
measured in billions of dollars annually. Sediments also indirectly
affect water suitability through their (physical) influences on biological
activity. Fine-grained sediments, that is, clay minerals and amorphous
and organic materials, have chemically active surfaces. These sediments
may either absorb ions from solution or release ions to solution depending
upon the chemical environment. Unfortunately, not enough is known about
the ternary system—sediment-water-dissolved chemical load~to adequately
define its influence on either the biological characteristics of water
or the suitability of water for various long-term uses. This paper
attempts to define the problems concerning the role of sediment in this
ternary system.
Guy, H. P., and V. W. Norman. 1970. Field methods for measurement of
fluvial sediment. Techniques of water resources investigations of
the U.S. Geological Survey. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Wash.,
D.C. Book 3, Chapt. c-2. (OR)
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This report describes field methods for the measurement of
fluvial sediment. The diversity of the hydrologic and physical environ-
ments and data requirements therefrom make it desirable that the persons
involved in sediment measurements be familiar with the basic sediment
concepts and the equipment and techniques to be used for making timely
and efficient sediment measurements.
In an addition to an introduction, the report consists of two
main sections. The section on "Sediment sampling equipment" includes a
discussion of the characteristics and limitations of commonly used
samplers and some of the modifications of this equipment for special
measurements. The other section on "Sediment sampling techniques"
includes a discussion of the characteristics of measurement sites, the
selection of sampling verticals and transit rates, the methods of making
sediment-discharge measurements, sampling quality control and timing,
and some of the requirements for sediment-related data.
Hall, J. D. 1967. Alsea Watershed study. Ore. State Univ., Dep. Fish
Wildl. Pam., Corvallis. 11 pp. (EPA)
This pamphlet is a guide to the Alsea study area and an outline
of the research underway to determine the effects of logging on aquatic
resources. Areas of research include: hydrologic studies; soil vegeta-
tion survey; streamflow, sediment, and water temperature; chemical and
bacteriological water quality; and fishery studies. The pamphlet presents
some initial results from the study.
Hall, J. D., and R. L. Lantz. 1969. Effects of logging on the habitat
of coho salmon and cutthroat trout in coastal streams. Pages 355-375
in G. Northcote, ed. Symposium on Salmon and Trout in Streams.
Inst. Fish., Univ. Brit. Columbia. (OR)
The effects of two patterns of Douglas fir logging on water
quality and fish populations have been studied in three coastal headwater
streams. Clearcut logging of an entire watershed of 71 hectares (175
acres) is being compared to clearcutting patches on a larger watershed
of 304 hectares (750 acres), where about 30 percent of the area has been
harvested and a strip of timber left along the stream. The third water-
shed of 203 hectares (500 acres) will remain unlogged as a control.
Pre-logging studies began in 1958, access roads were constructed in
1965, and logging took place in 1966.
Substantial changes in temperature and dissolved oxygen content
of stream water followed logging in the entirely clearcut watershed. A
maximum temperature of 30°C and a maximum diurnal fluctuation of 16°
were recorded. Comparable pre-logging maximums were 16° and 1.5°,
respectively. Dissolved oxygen levels of surface and intragravel water
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dropped below 2 mg/1 during logging operations. Survival of coho salmon
and cutthroat trout in the clearcut watershed has been affected by
logging, but the significance of the effect cannot yet be fully evaluated
No significant changes in the fish population or its habitat
have been noted in the patch-cut watershed. Studies will continue for
several years to evaluate long-term effects of logging on the stream and
to determine the period of recovery.
^Hamilton, J. D. 1961. The effect of sand-pit washings on a stream
fauna. Verh. Int. Verein. Limno. 14:435-439.
Effects of washings from sand and gravel pits on aquatic biota
were investigated. High turbidity produced by finely divided particles
did not adversely affect the bottom fauna in a shallow biotic environment
Suspended sand and silt had no direct effect on fishes. Indirect effects
were considerably deleterious to spawning and development—curtailed
spawning entirely—however, six months after sediment discharge was
stopped, "fish were reported to have used some of the spawning sites in
the region previously affected by the discharge."
Hansen, E. E. 1970. Sediment movement in a pool and riffle stream.
Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol., Publ. No. 96. Pp. 541-561. (OR)
A sediment budget was constructed for a pool and riffle stream
along which eroding streambanks were the dominant sediment source.
Total sediment load was measured with a DH-48 sediment sampler at artifi-
cial sills placed on the streambed at each of the five sampling stations,
which eliminated an "unsampled zone." Supplementary data collected at
each station and an independent check with a long-term reservoir fill
rate indicated the "sill samples" were accurate measures of total load
for a wide range of sampling site hydraulic characteristics. The total
load data were used to determine the impact of eroding bank sediments on
both sediment load and streambed composition. Total load increased
530 percent along a 26-mile (42 kilometers) section of main channel;
most of this increase came from eroding streambanks. However, particle-
size distribution of the predominantly sand-size sediment load remained
the same along the section of stream. The proportion of streambed area
in sand decreased downstream, while the proportion in cobble and boulder
increased—an apparent reisult of increased stream gradient. Although
sediment load was related to stream discharge, it was believed to be
dependent upon sediment delivery rate to the stream.
Hansen, E. A. 1971. Sediment in a Michigan trout stream, its source,
movement, and some effects on fish habitat. USDA For. Serv., Res.
Pap. NC-59., N. Cent. Fdr. Exp. Stn., St. Paul, Minnesota. 14 pp.
(GS)
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53
A sediment budget was constructed from three years of measure-
ments on a pool and riffle stream. Total sediment load increased five
times along a 26-mile length of stream; most sediment came from 204
eroding banks. Three-fourths of the total sediment load was sand size.
The area of streambed covered with sand decreased downstream, indicating
that the transporting capacity of the stream exceeded sediment supply.
Complete streambank stabilization would reduce the sediment load by
about half and probably result in streambed composition changes beneficial
to trout.
Hansen, E. A. 1973. In-channel sedimentation basins a possible tool in
trout habitat management. Prog. Fish Culturist 35(3): 138-14-2.
(BA)
Design and use of sedimentation basins for trout habitat
management are discussed. Minimum basin size for trapping bedload
sediments is based on Vetter's formula. Basins can remove essentially
all moving bedload from a section of stream; whereas traditional "stream
improvement" measures may decrease bedload sediments up to only 50 per-
cent. Sediment reduction programs using basins will produce the maximum
possible change in streambed composition. Basins are effective for
trapping sand size and larger sediment and have the advantage that they
could be located immediately upstream from critical zones such as
spawning areas.
Hansen, E. A., and G. R. Alexander. 1976. Effect of an artificially
increased sand bedload on stream morphology and its implications on
fish habitat. Pages 3-65 to 3-76 in Proc. Third Fed. Inter-Agency
Sedimentation Conf., March 22-25, 1976. (OR)
Sand sediment has been added daily for nearly four years to a
low gradient Michigan trout stream to determine effects on stream morpho-
logy, water temperature, and ultimately the trout population. Daily
sand input is adjusted so that the average sediment concentration is
increased by a factor of four over the pretreatment concentration of
20 mg/1. Sediment discharge is measured just upstream of the sand input
point, and also at the lower end of the treated section, 1.6 km (1 mile)
downstream. Permanent stream cross-section stations are spaced at 30-m
(100-foot) intervals along the 1.6-km (1-mile) control and treated
sections to facilitate the measurement of channel changes. The trout
population is inventoried twice a year to determine its response to the
increased sand bedload.
The added sand with its resultant streambed aggradation has
produced increases in stream gradient and width, and decreases in stream
depth and in the total static volume of water. The stream gradient and
channel form are more uniform throughout the treated reach due to pool
filling. Streambed composition has changed substantially; gravel areas
have decreased, sand areas increased. Water temperatures are slightly
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54
warmer in summer and cooler in winter due presumably to the wider shallower
stream. The impact of these changes on the trout population will be
reported at a later date to allow time for population responses, if any,
to occur.
Hansmann, Eugene W., and H. K. Phinney. 1973. Effects of logging on
periphyton in coastal streams of Oregon. Ecology 51(1):194-199.
(OR)
Changes in the stream algal flora were observed during a
multidisciplinary logging study of small watersheds in Oregon. Clearcut
logging was applied to one watershed of 71 hectares, while a second
watershed of 304 ha was patch-cut leaving a buffer strip of vegetation
along the stream channel. A third watershed of 203 ha was not logged
but remained as a control. Pre-logging and post-logging oxygen levels,
temperature, and sedimentation loads were analyzed. Access roads were
built in 1963, and logging completed in 1966.
Analysis of the algal communities of the three watershed
streams prior to the logging operation of 1966 indicated that the communi-
ties were predominantly a periphyton type composed mainly of diatoms.
Immediately following the yarding operation of the clearcut watershed,
large quantities of Sphaerotilus natana colonized all debris and niud in
the stream, and a change in the algal flora appeared to take place.
Large mats of green algae were observed colonizing all mud and slash.
Results from glass substrates indicate that some changes may have taken
place in the diatom community.
Harrison, A. D. 1962. Some environmental effects of coal and gold
mining on the aquatic biota. Pages 270-274 in C. M. Tarzwell, ed.
Trans. Third Seminar on Biol. Problems in Water Poll. Robert A.
Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio. (OR)
Gold and coal mining in South Africa, as in other parts of
Africa, have marked effects on streams draining the mining areas. These
effects are of two main types: 1. Silting. This is particularly marked
in gold-mining regions where huge volumes of crushed rock are deposited
in dumps as fine sand, and powdered ore is deposited in slimes dams
after cyanide extration. 2. "Pollution by aoid sulphates. During both
types of mining, when pyrite is exposed to air and water, it is oxidized
by bacteria into ferrous and ferric sulphate, with or without free
sulphuric acid.
Harrison, C. W. 1923. Planting eyed salmon and trout eggs. Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc. 53:191-200.
The effects of different gravel compositions in experimental
redds are recounted. Early observations on the effects of silt and sand
on the survival and emergence of salmonid fry are described.
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55
Hayes, F. R., I. R. Wilmot, and D. A. Livingstone. 1951. The oxygen
consumption of the salmon egg in relation to development and activ-
ity. J. Exper. Zool. 116:377-395. (OR)
The present paper presents the results of a study of the
oxygen consumption of developing eggs of Salmo satcoc up to the time of
hatching. The work was carried out at Dalhousie University during the
winters of 1947-50, making use of eggs supplied by several hatcheries in
Nova Scotia. The eggs were reared either in running city tap water or
in constant temperature tanks in which the water was mixed by aeration
and stirring. The mortality of eggs reared in the constant temperature
tanks was high, and for that reason the records of attempts to examine
the effect of temperature on respiration have been for the most part
omitted from the present paper. Unless otherwise stated, the developmen-
tal and experimental temperature was 10°C. This work was aided by
grants from the National Research Council of Canada and the National
Cancer Institute of Canada.
Helley, E. J. 1969. Field measurement of the initiation of large bed
particle motion in Blue Creek near Klamath, California. Sediment
transport in alluvial channels. USGS Prof. Pap., No. 562-G. 19 pp.
(OR)
More than two-thirds of the field measurements of bed velocity
necessary to initiate motion of coarse natural particles whose size,
shape, specific gravity, and orientation angle were known agree within
20 percent of those velocities predicted from theory. The theory is
based on balancing turning moments of the fluid forces of drag and lift
with the resisting moment of the submerged particle weight.
Initial mbtion seems to depend more on size and shape than on
specific gravity or orientation angle. In fact, shape differences
almost completely compensate for the differences in specific gravity
ranging from 2.65-3.00 and orientation angles ranging from 0°-25°.
Bed velocities necessary to initiate motion of coarse bed
material in Blue Creek are equaled or exceeded about 5 percent of the
time. This fact and changes in channel topography and cross-section
area emphasize the ability of perennial mountain streams to transport
coarse bed material frequently.
Helmers, A. E. 1966. Some effects of log jams and flooding in a
salmon spawning stream. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note NOR-14. 4 pp.
(EPA)
Streambed scouring and deposition occured in the areas of two
constructed log debris jams. Gravel shifting occured and may have been
responsible for the increased dissolved oxygen concentration.
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56
Log debris jams intensify streambed instability, especially
during floods. They may reduce salmon production in otherwise favorable
areas. Gravel movement presumably reduces egg and larvae survival. On
the other hand, loss of fine material because of gravel movement should
benefit the salmon development environment by improving intragravel
waterflow, thus increasing dissolved oxygen availability and making
possible more effective removal of metabolic wastes. The effect of log-
debris jams on salmon production remained undetermined. However, tempo-
rary or unstable jams Were judged to be detrimental.
Herbert, D. W. M.s J. S. Alabaster, M. C. Dart, and R. Lloyd. 1961.
The effect of china-clay wastes on trout streams. Int. J. Air Water
Poll. 5(1):56-7^. (M)
In some Cornish rivers suspended matter from china-clay workings
is the only important polluting material, and such streams provide good
sites for investigating the effect of chemically inert suspended solids
on fisheries, since there are other nonpolluted streams of similar size
nearby. This paper describes a survey made during May 1960 to determine
the status of the brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) in both clean and polluted
parts of the Rivers Par, Fal, and Camel, and also in two'unpolluted
streams, the Subulyan, which is a tributary of the Par, and the Tresillian.
The concentrations of suspended matter, the numbers, size and age of the
trout, and the amount of food available to them in these streams were
investigated.
Herbert, D. W. M., and J. C. Merkens. 1961. The effect of suspended
mineral solids on the survival of trout. Int. J. Air Water Poll.
5:1*6-55. (M)
A study on the effects of mineral solids, kaolin and diatomaceous
earth, suspensions on young rainbow trout. Results show that 270, ppm
kaolin and diatomaceous earth produced significant mortalities (50
percent or more). Suspended sediments in concentrations up to 270 ppm
had no apparent effect on growth of the test fish after H-l/2 months.
However, concentrations of 270 and 810 ppm kaolin and diatomaceous earth
did produce pathological changes in gill tissue and some instances of
fin rot.
Herbert, D. W., and J. M. Richards. 1963. The growth and survival of
fish in some suspensions of solids of industrial origin. Irit. J.
Air Water Poll. 7:297-302. (M)
Suspensions of coal-washery solids and spruce fibers were used
in tests of the effects of suspended solids on rainbow trout. It was
found that concentrations of up to 200 ppm coal-washery solids produced
no moralities. Concentrations of 200 ppm wood fiber produced a slow,
steady mortality in test fish populations. The dead fish showed signs
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57
of fin rot. Wood fiber in concentrations of 100 ppm also produced fin
rot in test fish. The results of a questionnaire inquiring into the
effects of discharges of china-clay solids on fisheries in streams of
the United Kingdom are also presented.
Herrington, R. B., and K. K. Dunham. 1967. A technique for sampling
general fish habitat characteristics of streams. Intermountain
For. Range Exper. Stn. , USDA For. Ser. Res. Pap., INT-41. (OR)
It is not practical to completely measure the varying elements
of all streams. This paper describes a sampling technique for taking
measurements along selected transects across streams. When tested on
three streams, the results provided acceptably precise estimates of
stream length and width, surface area, pool area, riffle area, depth,
and streambed composition, as well as of the stability and vegetative
cover of the streambanks.
The data obtained from the technique reported here can help
the land manager make effective interim plans and avoid costly mistakes
particularly in recreation developments.
In addition, the data are sufficiently definitive and descrip-
tive so that they could be used as a benchmark to determine the magnitude
of future changes that may occur.
Hobbs, D. F. 1937. Natural reproduction of quinnat salmon, brown and
rainbow trout in certain New Zealand waters. New Zealand Mar. Dep.
Fish., Bull. 6. 104 pp. (OR)
(1) The efficiency of fertilization of the eggs of quinnat
salmon and of brown and rainbow trout, lodged in natural redds in streams,
is remarkably high. Material from redds of brown trout showed an effi-
ciency of fertilization in excess of 99 percent.
(2) The incidence of subsequent loss, where heavy loss occurs,
is much greater in the pre-eyed than in the eyed ova or in the alevin
stage.
(3) Heavy losses of fertilized ova are the outcome of adverse
environmental conditions and not of inherent weakness.
(4) The extent of losses of fertilized ova in undisturbed
redds depends primarily on the amount of very fine material in the redds
during the development of ova before eyeing. It is possible that high
water temperature is a contributing cause of loss.
(5) Sappolegnia infection of dead pre-eyed eggs is responsible
for losses of ova at later stages.
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(6) Losses, of unmeasured extent, of the ova of brown trout
occur through the superimposition of redds where suitable spawning areas
are of insufficient size for the number of fish which occupy them.
(7) All floods tend to be harmful in that they increase the
deposition of fine material in redds.
(8) Floods rarely effect the substantial modification of the
contours of redds. When they do so they may cause losses considerable
enough to account for the partial failure of a year class.
(9) Under favorable conditions natural reproduction is a
highly efficient process.
(10) The fact that favorable conditions were found to exist
not uncommonly in streams in a belt of country embracing a great variety
of conditions suggests that the efficiency of natural spaning in Salmon-
idae in New Zealand may be generally higher than was heretofore supposed.
Holland, G. A., J. E. Lasater, E. D. Neumann, and W. E. Eldridge. . 1964.
Toxic effects of organic and inorganic pollutants on young salmon
and trout. State of Wash. Dep. Fish., Res. Bull. No. 5, second
printing. 264 pp. (M)
Industrial and municipal pollution are a threat to Washington's
fishery resources. This study investigated the toxic properties of some
industrial wastes and byproducts, both organic and inorganic, which are
known to be discharged into estuaries and rivers of the Pacific Northwest.
Because of their importance to the fishing industry of the state, young
salmon and trout were used as study animals.
Hollis, E. H., J. G. Boone, C. R. LeLose, and G. J. Murphy. 1964. A
literature review of the effects of turbidity and siltation on
aquatic life. Staff Rep., Dep. Chesapeake Bay Affairs, Annapolis,
Md. (mimeo). 26 pp. (GS)
The detrimental effects of turbidity and siltation upon aquatic
life are reviewed. The report contains a fairly extensive bibliography.
Hornbeck, J. W., and K. G. Reinhart. 1964. Water quality and soil
erosion as affected by logging in steep terrain. J. Soil Water
Conser. 19(1):23-27. (OR)
The experiment demonstrated that excessive damage to water
quality can be avoided even when logging, cm steep terrain. Measured
maximum turbidities of streams were 56,000 p.p.m. on the commercial
clearcut area and only 25 ppm on the intensive selection cut watershed.
Most of the damage to water quality occurred during and immediately
after logging.
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Recommended forestry practices discussed include: planning of
the logging operation: proper location, drainage, and grade of skidroads;
and timely completion of the operation in any specific area. In most
respects, practices recommended for watershed protection also contribute
to the overall efficiency of the logging operation.
Huet, M. 1962. Water quality criteria for fish life. Pages 160-167 in
C. M. Tarzwell, ed. Trans. Third Seminar on Biol. Problems in
Water Poll. Robert A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio.
(OR)
For a particular habitat to be suitable for fish, it is neces-
sary that the fish should be able to live and develop there. This means
that the environmental factors for respiration, feeding, and reproduction
should be suitable. Environmental requirements vary considerable from
one kind of fish to another. Within various types of water, the following
distinctions should be made: salmonid waters, mixed waters, and cyprinid
waters.
Reasonably precise criteria can only be given for certain
factors: temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH. Care must be taken to
avoid confusing the extremes for these factors and the optimum value for
the same factor. These details are discussed in the text. Other environ-
mental factors are also discussed.
Hunt, R. L. 1969. Effects of habitat alteration on production, standing
crops and yield of brook trout in Lawrence Creek, Wisconsin.
Pages 281-312 in T. G. Northcote, ed. Symposium on Salmon and
Trout in Streams. Univ. Brit. Columbia, Vancouver. (OR)
Section A, the upper mile of Lawrence Creek, was intensively
altered by the addition of bank covers and current deflectors during
196M-. These alterations reduced the surface area by 50 percent, increased
average depth by 60 percent, increased pools by 52 percent, and increased
permanent overhanging bank cover for trout by 416 percent. Sand substrate
was reduced by 40 percent, silty bottom was reduced by 70 percent, but
gravel bottom area was increased by 11 percent.
The management objective was improvement in the sport fishery
by increasing the number of naturally produced legal-sized trout.
Production, standing crops and yield before (1961-63) and after (1965-67)
alteration were also compared.
1. The average number of legal-sized trout (8-inch plus)
present when the fishing season began increased by 156 percent
(from 188 to 303 per section).
2. Annual production increased by 17 percent (from 261 to
306 pounds per section).
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3. Mean standing crop of trout increased by 40 percent (from
43 to 124 pounds per section). Age 1+ trout accounted for 78 percent of
average standing crop before alteration, but 87 percent after alteration.
4. Yield increased by 196 percent (from 23 to 68 pounds per
section).
5. Food consumption increased by 28 percent (from 1,827 to
2,337 pounds per section.
Improvements in the trout population appeared to be largely
the result of increased rates of overwinter survival rather than greater
recruitment of young trout or increased growth rate. Changes in production
and standing crops were greater for age 1+ trout than for age 0 trout.
Relationships of production to standing crops and consumption
are discussed and also comparisons of production, standing crops, consump-
tion and yield in section A versus section B, the unaltered adjacent
reference zone.
International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission. 1966. Effects of
log driving on the salmon and trout populations in the Stellako
River. Int. Pac. Sal. Fish. Comm., Prog. Rep. 14. 88 pp. (OR)
Field and laboratory investigation of effects of log driving
on the fish populations of Stellako River were carried out during 1965.
Field studies showed that log jams caused damage to approximately eight
percent of sockeye spawning grounds by erosion of gravel and bark deposi-
tion. That the damage was real was verified through analysis of subsequent
spawning distribution which showed that spawners tended to avoid the
damaged areas. Laboratory results indicated that moderate gravel disturb-
ance due to erosion and gouging by individual logs could also have
killed incubating trout eggs in Stellako River, but that vertical impact
on the gravel surface would have caused only occasional mortality.
Isaac, P. C. G. 1962. The contribution of bottom muds to the depletion
of oxygen in rivers, and suggested standards for suspended solids.
Pages 346-354 in C. M. Tarzwell, ed. Trans. Third Seminar on
Biol. Problems in Water Poll. Robert A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent.
(OR)
Questions are posed as to whether bottom muds in sedimented or
resuspended states contribute to the oxygen demand of rivers, and whether
it is feasible to impose suspended-solids standards on effluents to
limit bottom deposits. The influence on oxygen demand of dissimilation
products from the sediment is discussed.
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It has been well-established that bottom and resuspended muds
do exert an oxygen demand. The relative contributions of settled deposits
and resuspended solids to oxygen demand vary widely according to the
degree of resuspension. Resuspended bottom muds cause a marked reduction
in the dissolved oxygen concentration.
Several investigators have concluded that the oxygen demand of
sludge deposits is independent of the dissolved oxygen concentration in
the supernatant water. It is the rate of upward diffusion to the surface
of the sediment of the oxidizable substances produced anaerobically
within the deposits that controls the rate of benthal oxygen demand.
The extent to which bottom muds are resuspended in flowing
water varies greatly according to circumstances prevailing in different
rivers. The amount of resuspension determines the degree of oxygen
depletion, which is much greater from suspended solids than from stationary
bottom deposits. Laboratory tests showed that a one-ppm concentration
of detergent (ABS) decreased the settling rate of any given concentration
of mud.
Control of the amount of suspended solids discharged to a
stream or lake is definitely required. Such control will normally
result in a relatively non-turbid stream. The quality of the diluting
water must be specified since water taking up much dissolved oxygen is,
in itself, of doubtful purity.
Jannasch, H. W., and P. H. Pritchard. 1972. The role of inert particulate
matter in the activity of microorganisms. Mem. 1st. Ital. Idrobiol.
29 Suppl.:289-308. (OR)
Suspended organic and inorganic particulate matter, not available
to microbial attack per se, was shown to affect growth and metabolism of
bacteria. The rate of oxygen uptake and the degree of attachment of
bacterial cells to particles were influenced by the concentration of
dissolved nutrients (carbon and energy source), the particle density,
and the nature of the particulate material. Chemostat experiments
demonstrated an effect of particle suspensions on competition of bacterial
species for a particular organic substrate and on the ratio of intermedi-
ate products formed during its degradation.
Johnson, B. W., E. M. Miller, and C. H. Ellis. 1952. A report on
steelhead egg and fry survival experiments on the North Fork of
Stillaguamish River with relation to the North Fork earth slide.
Unpubl. Rep., Wash. State Fish. Dep. (GS)
The silting of the slide in the Stillaguamish River has a very
definite effect on development of eggs and fry for a limited distance of
less than one mile below the slide and in that area causes 50 percent to
100 percent loss of eggs and fry.
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From one mile to five miles below the slide no significant
difference could be observed in loss of eggs and fry from silting effects
(a 33.5 percent survival).
Comparing survivals from a distance of one mile or more below
the slide and survivals above the slide a very maximum of 10 percent
loss to eggs and fry could be assessed to silting of the river. (Authors
buried steelhead eggs in plastic sacks in gravel).
Jones, B. G., N. M. Howard, C. C. Meek, and J. Tomkins. 1974. Transport
processes of particles in dilute suspensions in turbulent water
flow. Phase III Res. Rep. Office Water Res. Tech., Wash., D.C.
110 pp. (OR)
Understanding the basic mechanisms and predicting the behavior
of particles suspended in turbulent fluid flow are essential to environ-
mental conservation and to multiphase system design. Air and water
pollution, sedimentation and erosion of river beds and coastal shorelines,
and atmospheric fallout are some of the areas in which particle suspen-
sions are of key importance. Detailed experimental measurements of
dilute particle suspensions have been performed which examined the
effects of particle size, shape and relative density on the statistical
response of such particles in a turbulent fluid. Shape was found to be
of minor importance for spheres, cubes and tetrahedrons. However, size
was found to be important when the particle dimension was as large or
larger than the fluid turbulence structure. Relative density influenced
both free fall and inertial effects. An analytical model was developed
which included these latter effects. It agrees well with observed
particle dispersion measurements.
Kalinske, A. A. 1947. Movement of sediment as bed-load in rivers.
Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 28(4):615-620. (OR)
The movement of sediment which rolls and creeps along the bed
of a river, and is known as bed load, is analyzed using basic physical
principles of fluid dynamics. The conditions for the start of sand-
grain movement are set down and form an important part of the analysis.
The turbulence mechanism in the flow above the bed plays a most signifi-
cant role in the analysis of rate of bed-load movement. The final
equation developed for the rate of sediment transport is not empirical;
all the numerical constants in it are definite physical measures either
of the sediment or of the hydraulic and turbulence characteristic^ of
the river. The equation fits laboratory and field data obtained for a
wide variety of conditions by various experimenters,
Katz, M., and C. E. Woelke. 1967. Water quality requirements of estua-
rine organisms. Pages 90-99 in Water Quality Criteria, ASTM STP 416.
Am. Soc. Testing Mats, (OR)
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The disposal of industrial and domestic wastes into the estua-
rine and marine environment is feasible and practical. Properly designed
disposal systems can distribute wastes so that the other beneficial uses
of the aquatic environment are not harmed. A prerequisite to the planning
of the disposal system is a knowledge of the life history and ecological
requirement of the important aquatic species which utilize these environ-
ments . The estuarine environment is an extremely variable one, and the
organisms that utilize this habitat have specialized life histories that
have enabled them to adapt to these conditions. Some fish, the salmonids,
migrate through the estuary at certain limited times of the year, and
water quality must not impede free migration. Shrimp reproduce in the
open ocean and feed in the estuaries. Some fish species use the estuaries
only for a spawning and nursery area for their young, and only utilize
the estuary at certain times of the year. Oysters remain in the estuary
throughout the year; the shelled adults can close their shells and
survive a toxicity episode, but their free-swimming larvae are very
sensitive, and a population can be destroyed readily by toxic effluents.
A good deal of material on the ecological requirements of the important
marine species is available and should be applied by those responsible
for waste discharges in the estuarine and marine environment in order to
protect the important biological communities.
Kelley, D. W. 1959. Effects of siltation on production of fish food
organisms. Pages 13-15 in E. F. Eldridge and J. N. Wilson, eds.
Proc. Fifth Symposium—Pacific Northwest on Siltation—Its Source
and Effects on Aquatic Environment.
The author discusses the relative importance of fish food
organisms and availability of shelter as affected by siltation. He also
emphasizes the need for establishment of permissible levels of silt and
sand in streams and lakes and determination of effects in oceans and
deltas.
Kelly, D. W. 1962. Sedimentation helps destroy trout streams. Outdoor.
Calif. 23(3):4, 5, 10, 11. (GS)
The effects of sediment on the basic needs of a trout population-
its food, shelter, and a place to reproduce—are discussed.
Kingsbury, A. P. 1973. Relationship between logging activities and
salmon production. Completion Rep. July 1970-June 1972. 59 pp'.
(EPA)
Sediment content of spawning areas in 108 Creek increased over
a six-year period as logging progressed in the watershed but did not
change appreciably in the following three years as cutting shifted away
from the main stream. Marked changes in sediment content of Kadashan
Creek spawning areas also occurred although logging has not yet begun.
The geological, hydrological and biological characteristics of the two
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61'
streams differ widely. The effects of sediment content changes upon the
production of pink salmon fry in the two streams cannot be effectively
separated from the effects or other environmental variables. An analysis
of the relationship between fine sediment and intragravel oxygen in the
two streams was inconclusive.
Klages, M. G. 1972. Sources in sediment in a mountain river basin.
Completion Rep., July 1, 1970 to June 30, 1972. Water Resources
Res. Cent. 16 pp. (OR)
Turbidity measurements can be used to estimate suspended
solids in water from a single watershed. The accuracy of the estimate
can be improved by removing the sand and measuring it gravimetrically.
Sediment yield is strongly influenced by geology of the drainage area.
Mineralogy of the suspended material is also influenced by geology but
to a lesser extent. Mineralogical measurements can be used to trace the
sources of sediments where differences in geology exist within a water-
shed. They work best on smaller watersheds where the number of tributar-
ies is small and distances short. They are probably best used in conjunc-
tion with other measurements such as suspended load and streamflow. X-ray
diffraction patterns can be used to determine whether the major source
of suspended clay in a stream is sheet erosion of weathered surface soil
or erosion of unweathered subsoil and geologic materials.
Knott, J. M. 1974. Sediment discharge in the Trinity River Basin,
California. Water Resources Investigations. 62 pp. (NTIS)
Long-term total sediment discharge of the Trinity River and
selected tributaries is estimated. Water discharge data for the period
1912-1970 and sediment data collected between 1955 and 1970 were used to
evaluate trends and relations between sediment discharge (suspended and
bedload) and water discharge. The hydraulic and sediment transport
characteristics of many of the streams in the basin were significantly
altered by the December 1964 flood. Data indicate that the depth and
velocity of streams changed drasticallyj and that for equal magnitudes
of streamflow. Suspended sediment discharges after the 1964 flood were
several times larger than before the flood. The long-term average
annual sediment discharge of the Trinity River near Hoopa is estimated
to be 3,120,000 tons (2,830,000 metric tons). Hie percentage of clay,
silt, and sand or coarser material at this station is estimated to be
20, 32, and 48 percent. Bedload discharge is estimated to be 19 percent
of the total sediment discharge.
Koski, K V. 1966. The survival of coho salmon (Onahorhynahua kisutah)
from egg deposition to emergence ii\ three Oregon coastal streams.
M.S. Thesis. Ore. State Univ., Corvallis. 84 pp. (OR)
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65
Survival of coho salmon from egg deposition to emergence was
studied in three coastal streams in Oregon from September 1963 until
September 1964. Adult coho salmon were captured, tagged, and measured
as they entered the streams. Redds of specific females were located and
the number of deposited eggs was estimated. A trap that captured the
emerging fry was installed on each of these redds and the survival of
emerging fry evaluated in terms of gravel composition, gravel permeability,
dissolved oxygen, and gravel stability. Size of the parent female and
the environmental factors were examined in relation to size and robustness
of the emergent fry.
Egg deposition of the spawning coho salmon was estimated from
a regression equation based on weight and egg number of coho from a
nearby stream. The fry trap, constructed of nylon netting, was installed
as a cap over the redd, and the edges were buried eight inches in the
gravel. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the intragravel water
and the gravel permeability were sampled by means of a standpipe placed
in each of the redds. Three samples of gravel were obtained from each
redd and separated through a series of sieves. The volume retained by
each sieve was expressed as a percentage of the total sample. Gravel
erosion index stations were established in each of the streams to measure
the relative amount of gravel movement.
Mean survival to emergence from 21 redds in the streams was
27.1 percent. Fry in Deep Creek had the highest survival (54.4 percent),
followed by Needle Branch (25.1 percent), and Flynn Creek (13.6 percent).
The number of emerging fry ranged from 0 to 2, 061. A mean of 110 days
was required for the first emergence from the redds. Mean length of the
emergence period for an individual redd was 30, 35, and 39 days for
redds on Deer Creek, Needle Branch, and Flynn Creek, respectively.
Length of the emergence period appeared to be related to the amount of
fine sediments in the redd. Peak emergence from each redd occurred
eight to ten days following the first emergence.
The size composition of the gravel was the only factor which
showed a statistically significant correlation with survival to emergence.
The percentage of fine sediments smaller than 3.327 millimeters had the
highest correlation (correlation coefficient r = -0.69) of all size
groupings tested. In each stream the percentage of fine sediments was
inversely related to survival. Both gravel permeability and dissolved
oxygen concentration were directly related to survival, but neither
correlation coefficient (r = 0.36 and 0.24, respectively) was statistically
significant at the five percent level, probably bec.ause of the interrela-
tionships of several environmental factors affecting survival. Gravel
movement was extensive in some areas of the streams.
Size and robustness of the emerging fry decreased throughout
the emergence period in each of the redds examined. Both permeability
of the gravel and weight of the female parent were directly related to
the weight of the emergent fry.
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66
Koski, K V. 1972. Effect of Sediment on Fish Resources. Paper presented
at Wash. State Dep. Nat. Resources Mgmt. Seminar, Lake Limerick,
Wash. 36 pp. (GS)
The effects of sediment on aquatic organisms are discussed.
Specific areas of discussion are: (1) freshwater requirements of salmo-
nids, (2) general effects of sediment on fish, (3) effects of sediment
on the reproduction of salmonids, (4) the harmful threshold of sediment,
(5) effects of sediment on natural populations of fish, and (6) effects
of logging on sediment production. An extensive bibliography is included.
Koski, K V. 1974. Bibliography on the forest and aquatic resource
relationships in southeastern Alaska. For. Sci. Lab., Juneau,
Alaska. 26 pp. (OR)
This bibliography is a list of references concerning primarily
the effects of logging on the salmon resources of southeast Alaska. The
majority of items are in the form of unpublished reports, correspondence,
and notes. Its purpose is to organize the variety of literature on this
subject into one central library where field personnel can readily
obtain and use it. A considerable amount of effort is never published
or even applied, and this type of listing could help keep us informed of
past work and of obvious gaps in our knowledge. The use of this listing
in conjunction with the excellent "Annotated bibliography of the effects
of logging on fish of the western United States and Canada," by Dave R.
Gibbons and Ernest 0. Salo (General Technical Report PNW-10, 1973)
should provide a working foundation for managers and researchers alike.
Koski, K V. 1975. The survival and fitness of two stocks of chum
salmon (Oncovhyrushus beta) from egg deposition to emergence in a
controlled stream environment at Big Beef Creek. Ph.D. Dissertation.
Univ. Wash., Seattle. 212 pp. (OR)
A controlled-flow stream channel 183 m long x 3 m wide was
designed and built at the University of Washington's Big Beef Creek Fish
Research Station in order that specific variables important in the
reproduction of chum salmon (OnoorhynahuB keta) could be manipulated and
tested. The experimental design of the channel allowed for replication
of experiments within any one year and repetition in following years.
Adult chum salmon from early and late spawning migrations were captured
at the mouth of Big Beef Creek, measured, individually marked, and
allowed to spawn naturally within the prescribed sections of the channel
at a specified density. Characteristics of the parental stock of spawn-
ers, composition of the gravel used for redd construction, concentration
of dissolved oxygen in the intragravel water, and temperature of the
water were evaluated with respect to the rate of survival from egg
deposition to emergence and fitness of the emergent fry. The emerging
fry were trapped and enumerated daily from each of the 24 sections of
the channel. The fry were routinely sampled for length, weight, stage
of development, lipid content, and detailed morphometric measurements.
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67
The abiotic variables, water temperature, water level and discharge,
dissolved oxygen, and gravel composition, were monitored regularly.
Predictive equations for the fecundity and egg size of chum salmon were
developed from samples of the populations in order that estimates of the
egg number and egg size deposited by individual females could be made.
Laboratory experiments were performed to determine the importance of
material (i.e., egg size) and paternal (i.e., male size) influences on
the size of the fry up to the time of complete absorption of the yolk.
An array of ecological adaptations was disclosed which allowed
for the continuity of the genetic differences between the early and late
stocks of chum salmon in Big Beef Creek. The adaptations in the adult
chums included the time of spawning, size and age of the spawners,
fecundity, and egg size; adaptations in the emergent fry included timing
of emergence, stage of development, and size and robustness. Criteria
for describing fry fitness were based on the preceding adaptations of
the emergent fry. Equations were developed which described the effects
of low concentrations of dissolved oxygen and increased levels of fine
sediment on survival to emergence and fitness of chum salmon fry. A
quantitative estimate of the effects of increased sediment indicated
that survival to emergence decreased 1.26 percent for each 1.0 percent
increment in sand. A decrease in fry fitness was directly related to
low dissolved oxygen and high percentages of sand in the spawning gravel.
A selective mortality against fry of a larger size was also suggested in
gravel containing high amounts of sand. A reduction in fry fitness may
have pronounced effects on survival following emergence. Much of the
observed variability in marine survival may be accounted for by a know-
ledge of the rate of survival to emergence and fry fitness.
Kramer, J. R., and G. K. Rodgers. 1968. Natural processes and water
quality control. Pages 419-431 in Proc. Great Lakes Water Resources
Conf., June 24-26, 1968. ASCE and Eng. Inst. Canada. (OR)
Natural processes are the basis upon which long-range management
plans must be based. Natural processes are dynamic, and some processes
are irreversible. Generally irreversibility (nonequilibrium) becomes
more severe as pollution increases.
The Great Lakes approach small oceans in size, and each Great
Lakes has its unique characteristic with regard to assimilation of
constituents. This is expressed in varying size (particularly depth),
bottom sediment, current pattern, and emptying rate.
Deviation from time independent equilibrium for major inorganic
ions and first order rate reactions for biological species can be used
to diagnose degradation factors. Excess carbon dioxide, oxygen defi-
ciency, excess phosphate (relative to saturation with hydroxyapatite)
are three measures of water quality. Rates of cell division under
continuously favorable conditions (nutrients, temperature, low turbidity)
predict bloom conditions in cycles of one week.
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Attempts to maintain conditions near reversibility are important
relative to obtaining high quality water over long periods of time.
Engineering design must incorporate new technology based upon knowledge
of natural processes in order to obtain this condition.
Krygier, J. T. 1971. Studies on the effects of watershed practices on
streams. USEPA Grant No. 13010EGA. Ore. State Univ. 173 pp.
(OR)
The purpose of the substudy was to describe the long-term
effects of clearcutting timber on two small streams in the Oregon Coast
Range. One watershed contained three small clearcuts; the edges of the
clearcuts were generally 100 feet from the main stream, thus providing
shade. The second watershed was completely clearcut and most of the
main stream was exposed. A third watershed and some uncut subwatersheds
were retained as uncut controls. The three watersheds range from 175 to
750 acres. The diurnal temperature regime was not altered after logging
on the watershed with three small clearcuts. The fully clearcut watershed
had a maximum diurnal change in temperature of 8°F before it was logged,
but 28°F after logging.
The maximum temperatures recorded in the two years after
logging on the patchcut watershed was 60 and 61.5°F—little different
from the control. The maximum temperature on the fully exposed stream
after logging was 85°F, a 28°F increase. All temperature regimes had a
trend toward the prelogging condition in subsequent years.
The principal conclusion was that temperature change in these
small streams is associated with the degree of exposure to sunlight.
The changes in temperature lessen as the area along the stream revegetates.
Streamside strips will minimize temperature change after
logging. The decision to leave such strips depends on timber and aquatic
values, the degree of temperature change anticipated if timber is removed,
and re-establishment rate of streamside vegetation.
Langlois, T. H. 1941. Two processes operating for the reduction in
abundance or elimination of fish species from certain types of
water areas. Trans. Sixth N. Am. Wildl. Conf. Pp. 189-201. (OR)
1. Two processes both operating on fishes by changing the
conditions under which they live are described as leading to reduction
in abundance or elimination of species from certain types of water
areas.
s
2. The land-use practices of the past few decades in those
areas where the streams tributary to Lake Erie arise have led to erosion
and increased the silt loads in those streams. That has, in turn,
increased turbidity and brought about the elimination of the dense
aquatic meadows that once prevailed in the southwest shore bays.
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3. Silt has also been carried into the lake and deposited
over the hard bottoms around the islands. Hence the fish species which
require clean hard bottom for the successful incubation of their eggs,
including the ciscoes and whitefishes, have been greatly reduced in
abundace and appear to be approaching extinction.
4. Those which need vegetational areas for spawning and early-
growth, as the yellow perch, are also showing diminishing numbers.
5. The fishes that require clear water for the production of
successful year groups now are characterized by dominant year groups,
spawned during drought years when tributary streams were low but clear.
6. Those which tolerate turbid water, as the sauger, sheeps-
head, catfishes, and carp are thriving under present conditions and in
no danger of depletion.
7. The changes in the progress of small isolated glacial
lakes towards extinction are of such nature as to modify the condition
required by the fish species for successful breeding.
8. Those of most significance are changes in bottom, kind and
abundance of vegetation, and depth of water.
9. Modifications of breeding conditions by silting and vegeta-
ting offer sufficient explanation for the elimination of all fish species
requiring access to clean bottom for breeding.
10. When all bottom breeding species have been eliminated
there remain two or three species that lay their eggs on submerged
vegetation.
11. Reduced oxygen content is probably the factor causing
elimination of these last few species.
Lantz, R. L. 1967. An ecological study of the effects of logging on
salmonids. 47th Annu. Conf., West. Assoc., State Game Fish Comm.,
Proc. 1967:323-335. (GS)
The Alsea watershed study and some of its findings concerning
the effects of logging on fish populations are outlined. The objective
of the study was to evaluate and compare the effects of two patterns of
timber harvesting. The study included an examination of fish population,
stream environment, intragravel environment on salmonid survival to
emergence, streamflow, stream temperature, and suspended sediment.
Lantz, R. L. 1970. Effects of logging on aquatic resources. Pages 13-16
in H. J. Rayner, H. J. Campbell, and W. C. Lightfoot, eds. Progress
in Game and Sport Fishery Research. Rep. Res. Div., Ore. State
Univ., Corvallis. (EPA)
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An Oregon State University study on the Alsea watershed in
Oregon is summarized. Primary changes observed on the aquatic environment
due to logging were an increase in stream temperature, a decrease in
dissolved oxygen levels in surface waters during summer when logging
debris was present, a decrease in intragravel dissolved oxygen levels
and in the permeability of the intragravel environment when salmon
embryos were present, an increase in suspended sediments, and a decrease
in the cutthroat trout population.
Lantz, R. L. 1971. Guidelines for stream protection in logging opera-
tions. Ore. State Game Comm. 29 pp. (OR)
The resources produced in a watershed are interdependent and
the activities of man in utilizing one resource can affect others.
Various agencies have the responsibility for these resources.
Coordination and a factual basis for management are necessary if benefits
are to be realized.
This publication is an attempt to outline a practical basis
for the management of Oregon's coastal watersheds for the continued
production of timber, fish, and high-quality water. Its main thrust,
based on research results, is that forestry and fishery management need
not conflict. By protecting streamside vegetation and minimizing sources
of sedimentation through careful planning, these resources can be produced
at the same time in the same watersheds for the benefit of man. Our
agencies are working together to achieve that goal.
Laronne, J. B., and M. A. Carson. 1976. Interrelationships between bed
morphology and bed-material transport for a small, gravel-bed
channel. Sedimentology 23:67-85. (OR)
Bed conditions (micro-relief, textural associations and packing
structural arrangements) in the gravel-bed channel of Seale's Brook are
shown to be closely interrelated; various categories are identified and
related to mode of bed material transport and deposition.
Entrainment of bed material, commonly treated as a simple
function of particle weight and channel hydraulics, is also shown to be
strongly affected by varying and variable bed conditions. In particular,
the classic concept of competence appears to be of restricted utility in
such channels; resistance of bed material to fluid drag and to particle
impact is augmented, over large parts of the channel bed, by its interlock-
ing structure, made possible by the wide range in particle calibre, and
by the characteristic disc and blade shapes of the slate debris.
Particle mobility, as indicated by distance of travel of
labelled bed material, is only partly a function of particle weight j
indeed, although particle mobility decreases from pebbles to large
cobbles, it also decreases for the finest bed material (very
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71
pebbles). This appears to be explicable, partly in terms of the ease of
entrainment (and duration of travel), and partly in relation to the ease
of transport of material over an uneven channel bed surface. Particle
mobility is greatest for material in open and infilled structures and
smallest for sediment in tight structural arrangements. Local bed slope
also exerts an influence on the probability of particle entrainment and
on particle mobility.
The findings emphasize the need for combining sedimentological
and engineering approaches to bed material transport in coarse-bedded
channels, and at the same time, illustrate some of the reasons for the
existence of indeterminacy in the modelling of bed-material transporting
processes.
Larson, A. G., D. D. Wooldridge, and A. R. Wald. 1976. Turbidity-
suspended sediment relations in forest streams of the western
Olympics. Final Rep.—Part II. Coll. For. Resources, Univ. Wash.,
Seattle. 21 pp. (OR)
Suspended sediment, not turbidity per ee, is the water quality
parameter of importance. This paper reports results of investigation of
variability associated with turbidity measurements as estimates of
quantities of suspended sediment. It is part of a study of quantities
sediment transported in forested watersheds under varying intensities of
forest management.
Leonard, J. W. 1962. Environmental requirements of Ephemeroptera.
Pages 110-117 in C. M. Tarzwell, ed. Trans. Third Seminar on
Biol. Problems in Water Poll. Robert A. Taft. Sanit. Eng. Cent.
(OR)
Much more is known about the distribution of Ephemeroptera
with regard to the physical characteristics of the environment than
about their reaction to variations in water chemistry, especially chemical
variations introducted by human activity. While general ecological
requirements of the common species are known, conditions of microhabitat
have rarely been investigated; for many described species the immature
stages are themselves unknown.
In North America, a considerable part of our knowledge of
mayfly ecology has been gained in connection with studies of feeding
habits and requirements of fishes, especially trout, and with attempts
to develop and evaluate methods of environmental manipulation to improve
fisheries.
In certain parts of the country, studies of riymphal distribution
made 3 or 4 decades ago have made it possible to evaluate the effect of
both gradual and sudden ecological changes. In a few instances recovery
of a mayfly fauna decimated by natural catastrophe, or by man-made
pollution, subsequently brought under control, has been followed.
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An attempt is made to outline the status of our knowledge of
mayfly requirements to date and to point out problems in particular need
of study.
Leudtke, R. J. F. J. Watts, M. A. Brusven, and T. E. Roberts. 1973.
Physical and biological rehabilitation of a stream. Pages 259-267
in Hydraulic Engineering and the Environment. Proc. 21st Annu.
Hydraul. Div. Specialty Conf., Montana State Univ., Bozeman. (OR)
There were three basic objectives of this study:
1. Conduct a biological and physical inventory of problem
reaches in a silted stream and to develop criteria for quantifying
changes in bed material as it relates to its suitability for aquatic
life,
2. Evaluate the effectiveness and suitability of log drop
structures and gabion constrictors for the rehabilitation of problem
sites, and
3. Examine in a qualitative way the seasonal transport of
sediment in different reaches of the stream.
Aquatic insects were used as an indicator organism because
their numbers change rapidly in response to stream modifications.
Lewis, S. L. 1969. Physical factors influencing fish populations in
pools of a trout stream. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 98(1):14-19.
(OR)
The relationship between fish populations and physical parameters
of pools was studied in Little Prickly Pear Creek, Montana, during the
summers of 1965 and 1966. The pools were mapped and their fish populations
sampled. Surface area, volume, depth, current velocity, and cover
accounted for 70 to 77 percent of the variation in numbers of trout over
6.9 inches total length. Most of the variation was the result of differ-
ences in current velocity and cover. Cover was the most important
factor for brown trout, and current velocity for rainbow trout. The
density of all trout per unit area of pool surface and cover increased
significantly as current velocity became greater. Deep-slow pools with
extensive cover had the most stable trout populations with brown trout
showing greater stability than rainbow trout. The importance of• cover
to trout is discussed in terms of security and photonegative response
and current velocity in terms of space-food relationships.
-s ¦
McCrimmon, H. R. 1954. Stieam studies on planted Atlantic salmon. J.
Fish. Res * Board Can. 11(4):362-403. (GS)
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This is an evaluation of the survival and distribution of
Atlantic salmon fry planted in a small stream tributary to Lake Ontario,
Included is an examination of some of the factors affecting the survival
of these fry. The influence of sedimentation on survival was studied in
detail.
When the correlation of salmon survival with brook trout
predation was analyzed further, it was found that the amount of available
shelter which the stream offered the fry was most important in determining
the survival or death of the planted fish.
It has been shown in a previous section that the shelter
offered by shallow gravelly riffle area was the only satisfactory habitat
for the survival of planted fry in all streams. In the general description
of the relative extent of sedimentation over the stream system, the
criterion employed was the degree to which these gravelly riffle areas
have become sedimented. Areas typed as "unsedimented" were those in
which the spaces around the gravel and rubble were not filled in by
sediment and hence offered the shelter required by the planted fry. The
degree of bottom sedimentation played an important part in influencing
the survival and distribution of the planted salmon.
It was shown that the survival of the small fry in the pools
was low, largely because the absence of suitable shelter for the young
salmon resulted in predation by certain species of fish. This lack of
shelter was directly caused by the deposition of sediment in the pools
sufficiently great to cover generally the gravel and rubble, and fill
the spaces around stones, boulders, logs and the like, to an extent that
they could not be utilized by the fry.
Survival studies showed an average percentage survival for
underyearling salmon . . . of 23.4 percent in comparison to a survival
of only 2.2 percent in an area in which riffle sedimentation was the
heaviest observed in the part of the stream system planted with salmon.
McNeil, W. J. 1962. Variations in the dissolved oxygen content of
intragravel water in four spawning streams of southeastern Alaska.
U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. No. 402. 15 pp.
(OR)
Inexpensive equipment for sampling intragravel water for
dissolved oxygen is described. Water samples were withdrawn from plastic
standpipes driven into the streambed. Dissolved oxygen values representa-
tive of points sampled were obtained from 30-ml samples of water taken
about 24 hours after standpipes were placed.
Fourfold seasonal and yearly changes in dissolved oxygen
levels were observed. Spatial differences in dissolved oxygen levels
were greatest when discharge was low and temperature was high.
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For routine measurement of dissolved oxygen level random
sampling was tried and found to be satisfactory.
McNeil, W. J. 1963. Quality of the spawning bed as it relates to
survival and growth of pink salmon embryos and alevins and time of
fry emergence. Bur. Comm. Fish., U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Auke Bay,
Alaska (typed manuscript, illustrated). 22 pp. (OR)
Growth, development, and survival of embryos and alevins of
salmonid fishes are affected by the availability of dissolved oxygen in
spawning beds. The oxygen supply rate to an embryo or alevin is a
function of dissolved oxygen content and apparent velocity of intragravel
water.
Oxidizing organic detritus, interchange between stream and
intragravel water, and permeability of bottom materials exert a significant
influence on the amount of oxygen made available to embryos and alevins.
Growth and survival of pink salmon (Onaorhynahus govbuaaha) embryos and
alevins in a small southeastern Alaska stream were found to be related
to these environmental attributes. Evidence was also obtained that fry
emergence was delayed where environmental factors were most likely to
cause occurrence of oxygen stress during development.
McNeil, W. J. 1964. Environmental factors affecting survival of young
salmon in spawning beds and their possible relation to logging.
U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Bur. Comm. Fish., Rep. 64-1 (manuscript).
Auke Bay Biol. Lab., Auke Bay, Alaska. 25 pp. (GS)
In this report, an attempt has been made to review some of the
factors influencing survival of salmon embryos and alevins which conceiva-
bly may be influenced by logging. The review has not been exhaustive,
but an attempt has been made to include the more pertinent recent work
which has come to the author's attention. It is possible to make some
conclusions on the basis of this review.
Results of field studies have revealed that extrinsic environ-
mental factors have an important bearing on the survival of young salmon
in spawning beds. The data indicate that increased mortality may occur
during periods of minimum and maximum flow of streams, when debris
shifts position in stream channels and when permeability of spawning
beds is reduced by the presence of fine particulate matter. It is
conceivable that logging could exert both harmful and beneficial' influence
on young salmon in spawning beds. Harmful effects might include increased
maximum flows of streams, more debris in stream channels, and more
settleable solids transported into spawning streams. A beneficial
effect might result should logging cause the minimum flows of streams in
southeastern Alaska to increase. It is apparent that the addition of
silt and debris to streams should be avoided arid the stability of
stream banks should be preserved whenever possible.
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Solution of the salmon-logging problem lies ultimately in the
economic development of watersheds and streams for the benefit of both
resources. In this regard, some initial efforts have been made on
improvement of natural spawning beds in Alaska . . . and more work is
planned or underway. But even in the area of spawning bed improvement
there is a great need to obtain a more detailed understanding of the
biological and physical factors that control fry production from spawning
beds. Hence, the natural processes that control fry production from
salmon spawning beds must be well understood before a satisfactory
evaluation or solution of the salmon-logging problem can be achieved.
McNeil, W. J. 1966. Effect of the spawning bed environment on reproduction
of pink and chum salmon. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull.
65(2):"+95-523. (OR)
Mortality of 5 brood years of pink salmon, Oncorkynus gorbueaha,
and chum salmon, 0. keta, in spawning beds of three southeastern Alaska
streams was studied. Eggs and larvae were sampled periodically, and
mortality was associated with certain environmental factors: The supply
of dissolved oxygen, the ability of spawning beds, and freezing.
Total mortality between spawning and fry emergence typically
varied between 75 and 99 percent in the study areas. High mortality
occurred during low and high stream discharge and freezing air temperatures.
Mortalities ranging from 60 to 90 percent of deposited eggs occurred in
association with low dissolved oxygen levels during and after the spawning
period. Movement of gravel in certain instances was associated with the
removal of 50 to 90 percent of eggs and larvae present in spawning beds.
Freezing caused up to 65 percent mortality of eggs and larvae in one
stream.
Low dissolved oxygen levels occurred once in 5 years. This
occurrence was associated with unusually low water during spawning in
late summer. Mortality during periods of heavy precipitation was highly
variable. In one instance, a 90-percent mortality occurred where wood
debris was deposited within the high water channel. Wood debris floating
over spawning beds was not damaging to eggs and larvae. There were
several instances where mortality estimated at almost 50 percent occurred
with no evidence that deposited wood debris shifted position. High
mortality from freezing occurred only in the stream having the lowest
minimum discharge.
McNeil, W. J. 1968. Effect of streamflow on survival of pink and chum
salmon in spawning beds. Pages 96-114 in Richard T. Myren, ed.
Logging and Salmon. Proc.. Forum Am. Inst. Fish Res. Biol., Alaska
Dist., Juneau, Alaska. (GS)
Studies conducted in southeast Alaska revealed the following:
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1. Low streamflow in summer causes low levels of dissolved
oxygen in intragravel water and high mortality of pink and chum salmon
spawn.
2. Freezing can cause high mortality of pink and chum salmon
spawn where streamflow fluctuates drastically. Spawn in streams with
relatively stable streamflow which caried less than 100-fold between
average daily minimum and maximum discharge experienced low mortality in
cold winters.
3. Eggs and alevins of pink and chum salmon are highly vulnera-
ble to dislodgment from spawning beds during high streamflow. The
stranding of debris on spawning beds increases gravel movement and .
mortality.
4. Increased high streamflow and addition of debris to stream
channels from logging would be harmful to pink and chum salmon. Increased
low streamflow would be beneficial.
McNeil, W. J. 1969. Survival of pink and chum salmon eggs and alevins.
Pages 101-117 in T. G. Northcote, ed. Symposium on Salmon and
Trout in Streams. Univ. Brit. Columbia, Vancouver. (OR)
The production of pink (Oncovhynchue govbusoha) and chum (0.
keta) salmon fry is controlled by density-dependent mortality. Production
from Sashin Creek, Little Port Walter, southeastern Alaska, approaches a
maximum of about 500 fry per m2 of spawning ground at an egg deposition
of 2,000 to 3,000 eggs per m2. The production curve for Shashin Creek
is dome-shaped.
Mortality from droughts, floods, or freezing temperatures may
exceed 50 percent of the eggs and alevins in spawning gravels, but such
mortality appears, for the most part, to be independent of population
size. Superimposition of redds, on the other hand, causes density-
dependent mortality; studies at Sashin Creek indicate that survival of
eggs and alevins is higher when spawning is early than when it is late.
Thus, a dome-shaped production curve in freshwater may result from
replacement of more viable eggs from early spawners by less viable eggs
from late spawners as the total number of spawners increases beyond the
level where superimposition of redds becomes a frequent occurrence.
McNeil, W. J., and W. H. Ahnell. 196H. Success of pink salmon spawning
relative to size of spawning bed materials. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.,
Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. No, 469. (XJR)
The potential of a salmon spawning b#d to produce fry is
directly related to its permeability. The relationship between the
coefficient of permeability and the fraction of bottom materials consisting
of fine particles is inverse.
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Field methods for measuring size composition of bottom materials
in salmon spawning beds are described, and an empirical relationship
between the fraction (by volume) of solids less than 0.833 mm minimum
dimension and the coefficient of permeability of stream bottom materials
is given. Size of bottom materials in streams utilized for spawning by
pink salmon (Onoorhynahus govbusoha) varied considerably. The more
productive spawning streams had the more permeable spawning beds. Adult
pink salmon caused the removal of finer particles from bottom materials
during spawning. The evidence indicates that the fine particles removed
consist largely of organic matter. Logging caused fine sands and silts
to accrue to spawning beds. Flooding caused the removal of fine particles
from spawning beds.
McNeil, W. J., P. Shapley, and 0. E. Bevan. 1962. Effects of logging
on pink salmon and spawning bed improvement. Pages 15-18 in Ted S.
Y. Koo, ed. Res. Fish. Coll. Fish., Contrib. 139, Univ. Wash.,
Seattle. (GS)
A six-year study on factors causing egg and larval mortality
in three southeastern coastal salmon streams was conducted. The summary
includes a discussion on the interrelationships amoung spawners, quality
of intragravel water, quality of spawning bed, and the effect of these
factors on egg and larval mortality. Spawning bed improvement studies
on two of the salmon streams were also conducted.
Maddock, T., Jr. 1973. A role of sediment transport in alluvial channels.
ASCE, J. Hydraul. Div. 99(HY11):1915-1931. (OR)
In an earlier paper published in the Journal of the Hydraulics
Division, the writer showed that once a critical amount of sediment is
being moved by a laboratory alluvial channel, the velocity can be expressed
as functions of slope and of size and composition of the moving sediment
load. Depth is a redundant parameter. In the closure to the 1970 paper,
the writer showed that laboratory data could be extrapolated to natural
alluvial channels of varying magnitude. The same conclusion, that under
certain conditions velocity is independent of depth in a stream transporting
sediment, has been reached by Shen and Hung and Yang. However, there
are two difficulties that are encountered. The first is the determination
of the size of the moving sediment bed. It is the intention of this
paper to present a method of describing this important parameter. The
second problem, which is only described, is the determination of the
conditions under which depth becomes redundant.
Another problem of stream behavior is fill and scour at cross
sections. The effect of changing discharges and sediment concentrations
in an alluvial channel of variable width will also be considered.
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Martin, D. J. 1976. The effects of sediment and organic detritus on
the production of benthic macroinvertebrates in four tributary
streams of the Clearwater River, Washington. M.S. Thesis, Univ.
Wash. 79 pp. (OR)
The effects of sediment and organic detritus on the production
of benthic macroinvertebrates in four tributary streams of the Clearwater
River, Washington, were investigated. Three streams receiving different
logging intensities were compared to a stream unaffected by logging.
Benthic fauna and substrate were collected monthly, from September 1973
through September 1974 with a Neill cylinder. The fauna were identified
and the substrate materials were partitioned into organic and inorganic
particle categories. There were no significant (P<0.05) differences
between benthic fauna standing crop in logging-affected and unaffected
streams. Significant correlations between sediments, organic detritus
and bottom fauna standing crop were present; however, these correlations
were not consistent for each study stream.
The quantities of detritus measured in the study streams
ranged from 8.8 g/m2 to 44.2 g/m2. Bottom samples collected from deeper
in the substrate indicated that the Neill cylinder sampled less than 50
percent of the total quantity of detritus. The quantity of detritus was
inversely related to particle size and there was a significant (P<0.05)
positive correlation between quantity of organic detritus and sediment,
for particle sizes <0.250 mm.
The annual aquatic insect production in the four study streams,
estimated by the Hynes and Coleman method, ranged from 11.6225 g/m2 to
20.5764 g/m . The scraper trophic category contributed 29.8 to 51.4
percent of the total production, the predators contributed 18 to 29.2
percent of the production, and the remaining production was contributed
by shredders, collectors and chironomids. The production estimates were
underestimated by four to eight times based on back calculations from
fish production.
Mason, J. C. 1969'. Hypoaxial stress prior to emergence and competition
among coho salmon fry. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 26:63-91. (OR)
Competiton among coho salmon fry in stream aquaria supplying
natural drift was found to reflect the history of exposure of eggs and
resulting fry to dissolved oxygen concentration prior to emergence.
Size disparities induced by differential hypoaxial stress were amplified
with time, and fry that had been exposed to the most severe hypoaxial
conditions were most prone to emigrate. Most emigrants placed in an
intially vacant, replicate system remained there, grew rapidly, and
became as large as, or larger than, nonemigrants. Size of former
emigrants reflected enhanced feeding opportunity due to less competition
for food and space in the replicate system. Competition was referred
more precisely to hypoxia! history by using net production. A replicate
population fed hatchery food provided a, comparison. When exposed to the
stream aquaria, this population substantiated the previous findings.
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Diel cycles of activity and aggression peaked at dawn and dusk, and were
related to competition for food and space. The ecological significance
of the results is discussed with particular regard to competition for
food and space, and the effect of a size-related social order that put
smaller individuals at a disadvantage.
Meehan, W. R. 1971. Effects of gravel cleaning on bottom organisms in
three southeast Alaska streams. Prog. Fish-Cult. 33(2):107-111.
(EPA)
Sections of streambed in three southeast Alaska streams were
cleaned by means of a mechanical "riffle sifter." Results indicate that
invertebrate populations were reduced as a result of cleaning, but that
they returned to pretreatment levels of abundance within a year after '
gravel cleaning.
Meehan, W. R. 1974. The forest ecosystems of southeast Alaska. 3. Fish
Habitats. USDA For. Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep., PNW-15. Portland,
Ore. 41 pp. (OR)
The effects of logging and associated activities on fish
habitat in southeastern Alaska are discussed, and fish habitat research
applicable to southeast Alaska is summarized. Requirements of salmonids
for suitable spawning and rearing areas are presented. Factors associated
with timber harvest which may influence these habitats are discussed in
detail; e.g., sediment, stream temperature, streamflow, logging debris,
and chemicals. Recommendations for further research are made.
Megahan, W. F. 1972. Logging, erosion, sedimentation—Are they dirty
words? J. For. 70(7):403-407. (EPA)
Erosion and sedimentation are not dirty words. They are, in -
fact, natural phenomena that make the world go round. They proceed
inexorably even in an undisturbed forest. In a small undisturbed water-
shed in Central Idaho, for example, the annual sediment production
varies over a range of one order of magnitude, the average rate being
about 390 foot3/mile2/year.
Considering the three factors; detachability, forces applied,
and surface cover, the author feels that overall erosion hazard rating
of a small increase for cutting plus skidding and a moderate to large
increase for roads are realistic. Roads have-a much greater effect per
unit area of disturbance than do cutting and skidding.
The basic principles are summarized as: Timber harvesting,
including cutting plus skidding, and especially roads, do tend to acceler-
ate erosion and sedimentation. Accelerated erosion and sedimentation
may cause either onsite or offsite damage, or both. They are usually,
but not necessarily, cause and effect phenomena. Erosion hazards vary
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greatly with location, even within small areas. Roads create a dispropor-
tionate share of the problems, probably greater than 90 percent in most
areas. Surface erosion rates are highest immediately after construction,
and tend to decrease rapidly with time. Under certain conditions, mass
erosion problems can occur from timber removal alone but are much more
likely to occur on roads over a considerably broader scale of site
conditions. The care taken in conducting timber harvest can have consid-
erable influence on the impact that results. Accelerated erosion and
sedimentation can, and often do, continue after logging operation ends.
The general guidelines for minimizing erosion and sedimentation
problems are: 1) stratifying the land according to erosion hazard.
Plan and develop road access and timber sales accordingly; 2) minimizing
roads by: a) proper sale planning and selection of the logging system;
3) using proper planning, execution, and follow-up procedures to assure
erosion control.
Megahan, W. F., and W. J. Kidd. 1972. Effects of logging and logging
roads on erosion and sediment production from steep terrain. J. For.
70(3):136-141. (OR)
Effects of logging road construction on sediment production
rates were studied on small, ephemeral drainages in the Idaho batholith,
a large area of granite rock characterized by steep slopes and highly
erodible soils. For the six-year study period, about 30 percent of the
total accelerated sediment production from roads was caused by surface
erosion; the remainder resulted from mass erosion. Surface erosion on
roads decreased rapidly with time after extremely high initial rates. A
mass failure of a road fill slope occurred about four years after construc-
tion, when surface erosion had fallen to a low rate. The sediment
production rate attributed to erosion within the area disturbed by road
construction averaged 770 times greater (220 because of surface erosion
and 550 because of mass erosion) than that for similar, undisturbed
lands in the vicinity.
Results suggest three guides to use in the control of surface
erosion on roads and subsequent downslope sediment movement in the Idaho
batholith: a) Apply erosion control measures immediately after road
construction for maximum effectiveness; b) ensure that treatments protect
the soil surface until vegetation becomes established; c) take advantage
of downslope barriers (logs, branches, etc.) to effectively delay and
reduce the downslope movement of sediment.
Merrell, T. R. 1951. Stream improvement as conducted in Oregon on the
Clatskanie River and tributaries. #ish. Comm. Ore., Res. Briefs
3:41-47. (GS)
All evidence seems to point to the fact that drastic clearance
of logs and debris from salmon streams increases accessibility and at
least does not damage productivity. Although the stream bottom was
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greatly disturbed, in less than a year natural conditions had largely
restored themselves. About 15 additional miles of stream were made
readily available to spawning salmonids.
It is believed that due to improvements made the Clatskanie
and its tributaries are at present capable of providing spawning and
rearing facilities for large numbers of silver salmon and steelhead
trout.
Milhous, R. T. 1972. Sediment transport in a gravel-bottomed stream.
Ph.D. Dissertation. Ore. State Univ. (OR)
Sediment transport in a gravel-bottomed stream located in the
Oregon Coast Range was studied to determine the effects of a single
layer of large particles (the armour layer) located at the surface of
the bed material. The bed load transport system was studied jointly
with suspended sediment transport to understand the total transport
system. The bed load was sampled using a vortex trough in the stream
bed which transported the bed load material into a sampling pit adjacent
to the stream.
It was found that the armour layer controls the bed load
transport system by preventing sand and finer material from the bed from
being entrained in the flow unless the armouring particles are first
moved. The bed load of an armoured stream can be calculated using the
simplified Einstein bed load function with a representative diameter for
the stability parameter equal to the particle size of armouring material
at which 35 percent of the material is finer (D35 size) and a representa-
tive size for the transport parameter equal to the media size of bed
material below the armour layer. The critical discharge for disturbing
the armour layer is related to a size equal to 69 percent of the D6 5
size. The critical shear stress of the armouring material is at a
minimum for a particle equal to the 0.69 Dgs size. Smaller particles
are hidden in the armour layer and larger particles are heavier than the
critical particle.
From observation of the maximum size of particles transported
for various stream discharges, the Shields parameter was found to be
0.025 for a rough bed and for a transport rate of very nearly zero.
The suspended sediment transport system was found to be partially
related to the past history of the stream because the past history of
flows and sediment load controls the ability of the armour layer to
remove sand and finer material from the water in the stream or to supply
these smaller particles to the water.
Both the bed load and suspended load of Oak Creek are quite
variable when the discharge is below the critical discharge of the
armour layer.
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Milhous, R. T. 1973. Sediment transport system in a gravel-bottomed
stream. Pages 293-303 in Hydraulic Engineering and the Environment.
Proc. 21st Annu. Hydraul. Div. Spec. Conf. Montana State Univ.,
Aug. 15-17, 1973. (OR)
The sediment transport system in a coarse-bedded mountain
stream in the Oregon Coast Range has been studied for three years. The
streambed is nonhomogenous, with an armour layer of larger particles on
top of finer material. A conceptual model of the sediment transport
system in a armoured stream was developed to better describe the suspended
sediment component of the total transport system. The use of existing
bed load calculation procedures for determining the bed load in an
armoured stream was examined. It was found that there is an important
interaction between the armour layer and the movement of material as bed
load and as suspended load. Use of the existing bed load equations is
made quite tenuous when an armour layer exists. The armour layer is
the single most important factor in limiting the availability of streambed
sediment and in controlling the relationship of streamflow and sediment
load in a gravel-bottomed stream. The armour layer controls the sediment
transport system by regulating the reservoir of sand and finer particles
in the streambed and by protecting the bed material from entrainment in
the flow. At high flows the armour layer controls the rate of release
of material to the bed load and suspended load of the stream; at intermedi-
ate flows it prevents fine sand in the bed from being entrained in the
flow; at low flows it filters out fine material. The behavior of the
"fines" reservoir for different portions of the runoff hydrograph is
demonstrated to regulate the suspended load of the stream.
Miller, C. R., and A. J. Bowie. 1965. Sediment sampling—instrumentat ion
and techniques. Trans. Am. Soc. Agr. Engr. 8(2):267-270. (OR)
The various instruments and techniques currently employed by
the USDA Sedimentation Laboratory to sample sediment discharge have been
described. Although improvements in existing sampling equipment and
techniques are constantly being made and new devices for sediment sampling
and concentration sensing are being developed, major problems associated
with accurate determination of total sediment movement and measurement
of sediment discharge on rapid rising streams and at remote locations,
remain unsolved.
A variety of methods to improve and automate sediment sampling
are currently under investigation by the Federal Inter-Agency Sedimentation
Project. The USDA Sedimentation Laboratory continues its efforts to
improve sediment-sampling techniques and procedures including the adapta-
tion of electronic, ultrasonic, photoelectric, and capacitance processes.
At present the radioisotope means of sediment concentration sensing and
the development of various pimping-type samplers seem to offer the best
possibility for improved sediment discharge determinations. It is also
expected that continuing research will provide guides and methods for
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combining field sediment-sampling results with stream hydraulics and
sediment characteristics in the development of methodology for determining
total sediment discharge.
Moore, E. 1937. The effect of silting on the productivity of waters.
Trans. Second N. Am. Wildl. Conf. Pp. 658-661.
Silt transport in streams and subsequent deposition in lakes,
ponds, and reservoirs are natural occurrences common to all watersheds.
However, where these processes are extreme, they can severely limit the
use span of man-made impoundments, and restrict fish populations and
food supplies. Heavy deposits of silt exclude fish, bury food organisms
and reduce transparency depth necessary for phytoplankton development.
Small attention has been afforded the siltation problem.
Greater effort needs to be directed toward its prevention.
Moring, J. R. 1975a. The Alsea watershed study: Effects of logging on
the aquatic resources of three headwater streams of the Alsea
River, Oregon. Part I—Biological studies. Ore. Dep. Fish Wildl.,
Fish. Res. Rep., No. 9. 66 pp. (OR)
Three small tributaries of Drift Creek, tributary to the Alsea
River, Oregon, were monitored during a 15-year logging study, 1959-1973.
One watershed (Needle Branch) was clearcut without buffer strips. A
second (Deer Creek) was clearcut in patches with buffer strips and the
third (Flynn Creek) was unlogged, and served as a control. This report
covers the biological results of the study, and outlines those components
that were altered as a result of logging activities (road construction,
yarding, felling). Cutthroat trout populations were severely depressed
after logging in Needle Branch, and remained low during the eight-year
post-logging period. The timing of downstream migration of cutthroat
juveniles in the stream was altered for two years after debris clearance
and slash burning in Needle Branch. Coho salmon were less affected by
logging, but average lengths and weights and condition factors were low
in juveniles in Needle Branch the summer after logging. Those fish that
were fry and fingerlings in Needle Branch at the time of logging had
lower fecundities when they returned as adults. Coho biomass and net
production rates increased in the streams of the two logged watersheds
following logging. The two youngest year classes of reticulate sculpins
were almost completely destroyed by logging in Needle Branch and there
was a decline in numbers of adult western brook lampreys in Needle •
Branch in post-logging years. Additional biological data on fish popula-
tions are presented.
Moring, J. R. 1975b. The Alsea watershed study: Effects of logging on
the aquatic resources of three headwater streams of the Alsea
River, Oregon. Part II—Changes in environmental conditions.
Ore. Dep. Fish Wildl., Fish. Res. Rep., No. 9. 39 pp. (OR)
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Three small tributaries of the Alsea River, Oregon, were
monitored during a 15-year study, 1959-1973. One watershed (Needle
Branch) was clearcut without buffer strips. The second (Deer Creek) was
clearcut in patches with buffer strips. The third (Flynn Creek) was
unlogged, and served as a control. This portion covers the environmental
results of the study, and outlines those components that were altered as
a result of logging activities (road construction, yarding, felling).
Water temperature maxima and ranges were significantly increased
in Needle Branch by the removal of riparian, protective vegetation
during clearcutting. Maximum temperatures reached 26.1°C near the
mouth, and 29.5°C at a point upstream in summer 1967. Temperatures
increased 12.7°C over the pre-logging average in June, and a 15.6°C
maximum diurnal fluctuation was measured in 1967. Surface dissolved
oxygen lvels dropped to 2.5 mg/liter in the summer of logging, and
intragravel levels decreased to a mean of 1.3 mg/liter the same summer.
There was a pronounced decrease in intragravel dissolved oxygen during
the first winter when salmonid eggs were developing in the gravel. Mean
monthly streamflow increased by 26.9 percent in Needle Branch after
logging. There was a 205.3 percent increase in suspended sediments in
Needle Branch, and a 53.3 percent increase in Deer Creek following road
construction. Permeability of the gravel in Needle Branch was depressed
from logging, and remained so during the post-logging years.
Moring, J. R. 1975c. The Alsea watershed study: Effects of logging on
the aquatic resources of three headwater streams of the Alsea
River, Oregon. Part III—Discussion and Recommendations. Ore.
Dep. Fish Wildl., Fish. Res. Rep. No. 9. 24 pp. (OR)
On the basis of the results of the Alsea Watershed Study,
detailed in Parts I and II and outlined herein, recommendations are
offered for logging operations in areas with small headwater streams.
The use of buffer strips is supported, along with the careful design,
construction, and maintenance of logging roads. Felling of timber
should be away from the stream. No yarding of logs ought to take place
in or across the stream. Logging debris must be removed from the stream
as soon after cutting as possible, but some debris can remain in the
stream. State fisheries agencies should have input into proposed cutting
plans.
Moring, J. R., and R. L. Lantz. 1974. Immediate effects of logging on
the freshwater environment of salmonids. Fed. Aid Prog. Rep.
Fish., AFS-58. 101 pp. (OR)
Twelve western Oregon streams"were studied in the summers of
1967-72 to assess the effects of several types of logging practices.
Streams were studied one season prior to logging and one season after
logging. Three general methods of logging were employed: Clearcutting
without buffer strips* clearcutting with buffer strips, and road construc-
tion with partial thinning. All streams containedcoho salmon {Onaorhynohus
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85
kisuteh) and/or cutthroat trout (Salmo clax>ki). Steelhead trout (5.
gairdnevi,) were present in four streams. Parameters measured included
population estimates, condition factors, biomass, water temperature,
surface and intragravel dissolved oxygen, streamflow, gravel composition,
pH, and pool/riffle and spawning gravel estimates. Cutthroat trout
populations declined following logging, while coho salmon populations
were apparently little affected. The maximums and the ranges of tempera-
tures increased in 10 of the streams. Minimum recorded intragravel and
surface dissolved oxygen levels declined on the majority of streams.
Gravel was less evenly distributed and composition was more variable in
streams following logging. Streams with intact buffer strips suffered
less gravel disruption. Streambed damage varied greatly amoung streams,
and was generally related to the type of logging and the care taken by
individual operators in yarding, falling, and road construction. The
short-term approach used in this study is useful for spot analysis of
physical and biological parameters. However, use of a long-term, case
history approach is a more valid technique in the ultimate interpretation
of results. The long-term Alsea Watershed Study provided indications of
annual variation of some parameters that were useful in evaluating the
results of this smaller, more diverse study. It is recommended that
long-term studies be utilized whenever possible.
Mortensen, D. G., B. P. Snyder, and E. 0. Salo. 1976. An analysis of
the literature on the effects of dredging on juvenile salmonids.
Spec. Rep. to Dep. Navy, Contract No. N-682"+8-76-C-0011. March 15,
1976. 37 pp.
This literature survey was conducted in an attempt to establish
the tolerance levels of juvenile salmonids to various levels of suspended
solids. Various possible direct and indirect effects of suspended
sediments are discussed.
Mundie, J. H. 1971. Sampling benthos and substrate materials, down to
50 microns in size, in shallow streams. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
28:849-860. (OR)
Streambed materials, both biotic and abiotic, in the size
range 50 y-ca 200 mm can be sampled unselectively, in shallow streams,
with a simple inexpensive apparatus consisting of a box provided with an
adjustable upstream inlet, and, downstream, two nets, one within the
other. Collected materials are wet-sieved and the volumes of inorganic
material passed by successively finer sieves are plotted as cumulative
curves against a logarithmic size scale. Curves are given for materials
from three contrasting habitats: A riffle, and pool, of a coastal
stream, and an artificial spawning channel. Examples are also given of
the densities, size distribution, and vertical stratification of inverte-
brates from these habitats. Applications of the method to studies on
fish biology, invertebrate ecology, and geomorphology are indicated.
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Narver, D. W. 1971. Effects of logging debris on fish production.
Pages 100-111 in J. Morris, ed. Proc. of a Symposium on Forest
Land Uses and Stream Environment. Ore. State Univ., Corvallis.
(OR)
Stream salmonids (eight species of Pacific salmon, trout, and
char) are discussed in relation to their environmental requirements and
the possible impact of logging debris on their production. The emphasis
is on small streams because of their great importance as nursery and
spawning areas for certain species and because they may be more suscepti-
ble to damage than larger streams or rivers. Extensive use is made of
pertinent literature. It is concluded that accumulations of logging
debris in small streams can have serious consequences on the production
of salmonid fishes.
National Environmental Research Center, Las Vegas, Nevada. Monitoring
applications techniques. 1975. Nonpoint-Source Pollution in
Surface Waters: Associated Problems and Investigative Techniques.
Final Rep. 47 pp. (EPA)
The report briefly discusses the following: Nature and origin
of nonpoint-source pollution; sources of nonpoint pollutants; prediction
of nonpoint-source pollution; and nonpoint-source monitoring.
National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior.
1968. Water quality criteria. Rep. Nat. Tech. Advisory Comm. to
Secretary Interior. Fed. Water Poll. Control Admin. 234 pp. (OR)
This report of the National Technical Advisory Committee
concerns criteria—a significant part of water quality standards. The
Committee considered the water use criteria set forth in this report
with objective of assisting the State and Federal agencies in setting
and evaluating standards so they can meet water pollution abatement
objectives.
The Committee was concerned about several issues relating to
water quality standards for the control and abatement of water pollution.
Foremost among these is the lack of adequate knowledge concerning many
of the quality characteristics upon which criteria and, hence, standards
should be based. The unknowns still outweigh the knovms. Complicating
factors in setting standards are varying natural conditions affecting
water quality, such as climate, geography, and geology of a specific
location. The Committee does not want to be dogmatic in recommending
these criteria. They are meant as guidelines only, to be used in conjunc-
tion with a thorough knowledge of local conditions. Further, it is
anticipated that future research will provide considerable basis for
refinements in the recommendations.
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Neave, F. 1947. Natural propagation of chum salmon in a coastal stream.
Fish. Res. Board Can., Prog. Rep. Pac. Coast Stn., No. 70. Pp. 20-
21.
Very heavy losses can occur through physical conditions of the
environment as well as through the actions of fish. The author suggests
that remedial measures are feasible and desirable because of the high
proportion of losses in pre-hatching stages. Suggestions included
better distribution of eggs and the protection from extreme changes in
water level and velocity.
Needham, P. R. 1948. Survival of trout in streams. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 77(1917):26-31. (OR)
In spite of extremely heavy expenditures for rearing of hatchery
fish, the angling continues to decline. Millions of fish are wasted
each year because of lack of facts on how best to utilize properly the
product of hatcheries.
Survival studies have indicated that under natural conditions,
wild brown trout suffer tremendous natural mortalities amounting to 85 per-
cent in the first 18 months of life. Overwinter mortalities averaged 60
percent oVer a five-year period. Variable survival conditions rather
than the number of young produced in any year, determine the number of
fish that later reach catchable size.
Survival studies of hatchery-reared trout indicated heavier
losses than with naturally spawned fish. Creel-census returns from a
number of different waters are presented to support this fact.
The conclusion is reached that the angling public must be made
aware of the basic economics of hatchery operation, its costs, successes,
and failures in order that the field of fishery management again may
move ahead.
Neilson, D. R. 1974. Sediment transport through high mountain streams
of the Idaho batholith. M.S. Thesis. Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 83 pp.
(OR)
The objectives were to determine the carrying capacity, allow-
able amounts of sediment and methods to measure levels of fine sediments
of 0.25 inches or finer in mountain streams in the Idaho batholith. The
sources and the effects of the sand size sediments once they leave the
mountain batholith streams are not considered.
Sediment discharge during the high water event of 1973, a year
of minimal peak discharge, was insignificant. Project transport rates
using the Meyer-Peter, Muller formula, which shows good agreement with
empirical data for batholith streams, are presented. The allowable
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88
amount of fine sediments to enter these streams was determined by a
sediment budget within limits established by the aquatic managers. A
method of visually classifying the streambed, uses by aquatic entomologists,
correlated well with core samples for determining streambed composition.
Nelson, L. M. 1973. Sediment transport by streams in the Upper Columbia
River Basin, Washington. May 1969-June 1971. Prepared Water Res.
Div., Wash. District. 87 pp. (OR)
A reconnaissance of sediment transport by streams in the upper
Columbia River basin of eastern Washington disclosed that (l) in the
mountainous areas snowmelt transports most of the sediment during April-
June; and (2) in the lower, semiarid parts of the basin most of the
sediment is transported when warm rain falls on extensive accumulations
of snow. During the 1970 and 1971 water years the measured suspended-
sediment concentrations ranged from less than 1 milligram per liter in
many streams to more than 200,000 milligrams per liter in Providence
Coulee. The estimated long-term annual suspended-sediment yields range
from less than 10 tons per square mile in many basins to more than 500
tons per square mile in Providence Coulee. Man's activities have caused
only a slight increase in the magnitude of sediment discharge to the
Columbia River. Although cultivation has initiated a large increase in
erosion on the Columbia Plateau, the sediment transport by streams has
not increased greatly, because there is little surface runoff on the
plateau to transport soils to streams.
Neumann, D. A., J. M. O'Conner, J. A. Sherk, and K. V. Wood. 1975.
Respiratory and hematological responses of oyster toadfish (Opeanus
tau) to suspended solids. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 104(4):775-781.
(OR)
Respiration rates of Opsamis tau in suspensions of fuller's
earth <2.20 g/liter) and in resiispended Patuxent River sediment (1.58
g/liter) did not differ significantly from rates of fish in filtered
water. Oxygen consumption rates of fish exposed to Patuxent River
sediments (3.36 g/liter) after 72 h exposure to 11.09 g/liter of the
same material exhibited significantly greater (P<0.05) variance than
control fish. Respiration rates of fish tested in filtered water after
72 h exposure to 10.37 g/liter of Patuxent River sediment were not
different from those of control fish. Respiration variances differed
between males and females only in Patuxent River sediment suspensions.
Fish held in Patuxent River sediment suspensions of 14.6 g/liter for 72
h exhibited no significant changes in erythrocyte count, hemoglobin
concentration, micromematocrit, or blood ostnolal concentration compared
with control fish. Toadfish appear to be largely unaffected by highly
turbid conditions.
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89
Noble, E. L., and L. J. Lundeen. 1971. Analysis of rehabilitation
treatment alternatives for sediment control. Pages 86-96 in J.
Morris, ed. Proc. of a Symposium on Forest Land Uses and Stream
Environment. (GS)
The aquatic environment of the South Fork Salmon River has
been severely damaged in recent years by excessive rates of sediment
production. A special study was conducted to determine the source and
extent of the damage, and measures required to reduce future sediment
production to a "tolerable" level. Linear programming was used as an
aid to select from 190 possible treatment alternatives and minimize
treatment costs at various levels of sediment reduction. The desired
level of sediment could be reached at a cost of $5 million. Debris
basins to trap sediment moving in the channel proved to be the most
effective and economical type of treatment while control of sediment
production for roads and timber harvest on steep, fragile lands would
have a very high cost.
Novak, P., and C. Nalluri. 1975. Sediment transport in smooth bed
channels. ASCE, J. Hydraul. Div. 101(HY9): 1139-1151+. (OR)
The problems of incipient motion of sediments forming a loose
boundary in sediment transport in open channel flow have been extensively
examined by many invest igators. The solid transport studies in pipes
have been primarily studied with suspended load moving at high velocities
of flow and with the description of "critical" velocities corresponding
to the incipient deposition. Less attention has been paid to the movement
of sediments in pipes as bedload, i.e., in contact with the bed. In
open channel flow very little is known about the sediment motion and
transport over fixed smooth boundaries. This paper attempts to analyze
and summarize incipient motion and sediment transport as bed.load in
circular conduits and rectangular flumes with smooth beds and free
surface flow. The results and conclusions are directly applicable in
engineering design. The presented research results form part of the
study sponsored by the Science Research Council into turbulence and
sediment transport in smooth open channels of circular cross section.
Nuttall, P. M. 1972. The effects of sand deposition upon the macroinver-
tebrate fauna of the River Camel, Cornwall. Freshwater Biol.
2:181-186. (OR)
Erosion from a tributary of the River Camel deposited an
estimated 10,000 m3 of sand in the main river over a period of two
years. The poor incidence of plants and macroinvertebrates from the
river was associated with the unstable shifting nature of the sand
deposits, rather than turbidity or abrasion caused by particles in
suspension. Sand deposition accounted for the low diversity of invertebrate
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species below the tributary, and resulted in the elimination of several
species which were frequent upstream. Baetis rhodani, Rhithr>ogena
smiaolovato, and Tubificidae were abundant where sand deposition had
occurred.
Nuttall, P. M., and G. H. Bielby. 1973. The effect of china-clay
wastes on stream investebrates. Environmental Poll. 5:77-86. (OR)
A survey of the macroinvertebrate fauna of rivers receiving
china-clay wastes was carried out during 1971-72. Rivers polluted by
clay waste supported a sparse population of few species. Rooted vegeta-
tion was absent, although clean headstreams and unpolluted reaches
supported a rich community of aquatic plants. Control streams supported
36 times the density of animals found at clay-polluted stations. The
composition of species was greater in unpolluted rivers, moorland head-
streams and at stations downstream of sewage outfalls compared with
clay-polluted reaches. Baetis rhodanii; Perlodee miavooephala, and the
burrowing forms Tubificidae, Naididae and Chironomidae were in greater
abundance in clay-polluted reaches. China-clay pollution either elimina-
ted or reduced the abundance of several species frequent in control
streams. The poor incidence of plants and macroinvertebrates from
rivers receiving china-clay waste was associated with the deposition of
fine inert solids derived from the clay extraction process rather than
turbidity or abrasion caused by particles in suspension.
O'Connor, J. M., and J. A. Sherk. 1975. The response of some estuarine
organisms to suspended solids. Pages 215-234 in J. B. Herbich, ed.
Proc. of the Seventh Dredging Seminar. Sea Grant Puibl. TAMU-SG-105,
September,1975. (WF)
The effects of suspended particles on primary productivity were
determined using the ll,C method; the effect of particles on the filtration
rates of zooplankton was determined by feeding C phytoplaiikton.
Effects on fish were estimated by acute and chronic bioassay experiments.
Carbon assimilation in phytoplankton, tested in relation to a gradient
of concentrations of sand of 0.2-2.0 g/1, decreased in proportion to the
concentration. Photosynthesis reduction was mainly a function of light
extinction. Filtration of the alga Monochpysie lutheri by Aaartia tonsa
decreased and remained low in 500 mg/1 of natural silt, while Eurytemora
af finis showed an initial decrease, followed by an increase which after
3 hr was equal to control. These results are related to the ecology of
the organisms. The LD50 values of suspended solids for fish ranged from
2.5 g/1 for juvenile menhaden to >300 g/1 for mummichog. Tolerant
species had habitat preferences toward the mud-water interface.
O'Connor, J. M., and J. A. Sherk. 1976. Effects of sedimentation on
coastal zone organisms. Pages 6-1 to 6-16 in Proc, Third Fed.
Inter-Agency Sedimentation Conf. March 22-25, 1976, Denver, Colo.
(NTIS)
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91
Some direct and indirect effects of sedimentation on coastal
zone organisms are identified and discussed with respect to future
increases in expolitation of coastal zone mineral resources (sand and
gravel mining, oil and gas extraction), construction, dumping (sewage
sludge, dredged material, demolition debris), and dredging. The potential
biological effects of particulate organic and inorganic material which
has been suspended, resuspended and deposited in the coastal zone will
depend at least upon; 1) concentration; 2) composition (mineral types,
particle sizes and shapes; 3) sorbed minerals, toxins, or other associated
substances; and 4) tolerances of the organisms. Tolerance limits (sensi-
tivities) of organisms to sedimentation can differ with respect to
trophic level, life stage, feeding mechanisms, habitat preference (mid-
water interface, shoal water, open water) and duration of exposure. At
coastal zone sites selected for sedimentation changes, an appropriate
basis for preproject decision making could be provided by identification
of the most sensitive biological components (important species and life
stages) and an adequate knowledge of local conditions.
Olsen, S. 1965. Salmon stream monitoring in the Alaska Region. USDA
For. Serv., Juneau, Alaska. 7 pp. (OR)
Because of possible effects of land use on salmon spawning
environment in Alaska, a monitoring technique has been developed by the
Forest Service in cooperation with the Alaska Department of Fish and
Game. The general objective of the monitoring system is to detect
changes in the spawning environment that may adversely affect salmon
production. Characteristics being monitored in one stream (soon to be
followed by two others) are as follows:
1. Composition of streambed spawning areas.
2. Streamflow and water temperature.
3. Stream channel configuration and amount and kind of debris
in stream channel.
4. Soil types in the watershed.
5. Production of salmon fry.
6. Adult salmon escapement.
If changes in the salmon spawning environment, thought to be
harmful, do occur, remedial measures can be undertaken. On the other
hand, practices which may enhance the habitat can be expanded.
Orcutt, D. R., B. R. Pulliam, and A. Arp. 1968. Characteristics of
steelhead trout redds in Idaho streams. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
97(l):f2-45. (OR)
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92
Steelhead spawning behavior and redd construction were studied
in 1958 and 1959 in the Clearwater and Salmon River watersheds in Idaho.
Steelhead began spawning in early April; spawning.peaked between April
20 and May 10 at water temperatures of 36 to 17 F., and was over by June
15. Minimum water depth over a redd was 0.7 feet; maximum water depth
exceeded 5 feet. Water velocity 0.4 feet above streambed averaged 2.3
to 2.5 ft/sec. Steelhead favored spawning gravels 0.5 to 4.0 inches in
diameter; however, they readily accepted areas with smaller and somewhat
larger gravels if 6-inch stones were not abundant. Steelhead tolerated
crowding without antagonism; pairs spawned within 4 feet of one another.
The average redd occupied 6.5 square yards of gravel, and ranged from
2.9 to 13.4 square yards.
Packer, P. E. 1967. Criteria for designing and locating logging roads
to control sediment. For. Sci. 13(1):1-18. (OR)
A recently completed study developed criteria for the design,
location, and construction of logging roads in the northern Rocky Mountains
to prevent damage to the water resource and to conserve soil. Results
reveal which characteristics of watersheds and of secondary logging
roads influence erosion of road surfaces and movement of sediment downslope
from roads. They define the manner and degree in which these characteris-
tics affect road-surface erosion and sediment movement, and they indicate
which characteristics are controllable or alterable by design, management,
or choice. They also provide the quantitative criteria needed to develop
road design and location requirements that should be considered in
planning and executing timber harvest operations, so that soil and water
resources will be protected.
Patrick, R. 1973. Use of algae, especially diatoms in the assessment
of water quality. Pages 76-95 in Biological methods for the assess-
ment of water quality, ASTM STP 528. Am. Soc. Testing Mat. (OR)
Two main systems of approach used to determine if algae can
reliably indicate water quality are discussed in this paper. One approach
is to observe and analyze natural communities. The effect of a pollutant
can be estimated by shifts in species composition, and structure of the
community in this type of study. The second approach studies a single
or a few species in cultures in the laboratory under known and carefully
regulated conditions. These studies are valuable in determining the
physiological and morphological changes in function rates and polymorphism
due to concentration of a given chemical or physical factor.
Pautzke, C. F. 1937. Studies on the effect of coal washings on steelhead
and cutthroat trout. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 67:232-233. (M)
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93
Young steelhead and cutthroat trout were held in an area of
the Cedar polluted with wastes from coal mining operations. Mortalities
occured in 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 hours. Dead fish showed extended heart and
liver, pale gills, and heavy mucous secretions. It was concluded that
coal washings were deleterious to fish.
Pennak, R. W. , and E. D. Van Gerpen. 1947. Bottom fauna production and
physical nature of the substrate in a Northern Colorado trout
stream. Ecology 28(1)r4-2—4-8. (OR)
The investigation here reported was undertaken primarily to
find out whether this principle applies to a typical, unpolluted, northern
Colorado trout stream. In addition, it was desired to establish the
general qualitative and quantitative composition of the bottom fauna, as
compared with stream faunas in other parts of the United States.
Peters, J. C. 1962. The effects of stream sedimentation on trout
embryo survival. Pages 275-279 in C. M. Tarzwell, ed. Trans.
Third Seminar on Biological Problems in Water Pollution. Robert
A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio. (OR)
Five sampling stations were established in Bluewater Creek to
measure sediment concentrations and discharge. In the vicinity of the
sediment-discharge stations, man-made redds were constructed with sorted
gravel, and eyed rainbow trout eggs in hatching boxes were introduced
into the redds. Periodically, the Mark VI standpipe apparatus was used
to measure .intragravel dissolved oxygen and intragravel apparent velocity
within the redds. The sampling stations with low sedimentation rates
responded with high intragravel dissolved oxygen rates, high intragravel
seepage rates (apparent velocities), and low trout embryo mortality.
Conversely, the sampling stations with high sediment rates responded
with low intragravel dissolved oxygen rates, low intragravel seepage
rates (apparent velocities), and high trout embryo mortality.
Phillips, R. W. 1963. Effect of logging on aquatic resources. Ore.
State Game Comm., Res. Div. Rep. Pp 105-122. (GS)
The study conducted in the Alsea watershed was primarily
concerned with measuring the effect of logging on the production and
yield of silver salmon and steelhead. The aim of the investigation was
to determine: (1) The effect of a gravel environment on survival; and
(2) the effect of logging on the environment. This preliminary report
covers the effect of the environment on survival and includes a discussion
of: (1) dissolved oxygen and apparent velocity versus emergence; (2)
dissolved oxygen versus emergence; (3) gravel size versus emergence; (4)
dissolved oxygen content of intragravel water; and (5) gravel permeability.
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Phillips, R. W. 1964. The influence of gravel size on survival to
emergence of coho salmon and steelhead trout. In Proc. of the
Fifteenth Northwest Fish Culture Conference. Ore. State Univ.,
Corvallis, Oregon. (OR)
Experiments testing four sizes of gravel (1/4 to 1/2 inch, 1/2
to 3/4 inch, 3/4 to 1 inch and 1 to 1 1/4 inches) in troughs demonstrated
the importance of gravel size in the survival to emergence of coho and
steelhead. Emergence was restricted at gravel sizes smaller than 1/2 to
3/4 inch for steelhead and at sizes smaller than 3/4 to 1 inch for coho.
Gravel size influenced the weight of steelhead. Only the smaller individ-
uals emerged in 1/4 to 1/2 inch gravel. A similar pattern did not exist
for coho, because the gravel sizes tested either prevented emergence
entirely or permitted relatively high survival. None were intermediate.
Time of emergence was not influenced by gravel size# Pilot experiments
on Cottue perlexua migration into the gravel indicate that the minimum
size adequate for emergence (1/2 to 3/4 inch for steelhead and 3/4 to 1
inch for coho) should be used in spawning channels and incubation boxes
where cottid predation is a factor.
Phillips, R. W. 1971. Effects of sediment on the gravel environment
and fish production. Pages 64-74 in J. Morris, ed. Proc. of a
Symposium—Forest Land Uses and Stream Environment. Ore. State
Univ., Corvallis. (OR)
Research in the field is summarized. Sediment influences fish
in several ways. In suspension: (1) It blocks the transmission of
light, reducing algae production; and (2) it damages the gill membranes,
causing death where concentrations are high and exposure is prolonged.
When sediment settles on the gravel beds, it is harmful in the following,
ways: (1) It fills the interstices reducing interchange between surface
waters and -waters within the gravel bed. This reduces the supply of
dissolved oxygen to the egg, and interferes with the removal of metabolites
(carbon dioxide and ammonia). (2) Sediment also forms a barrier to fry
emergence by blocking the route of egress; (3) low dissolved oxygen and
the physical barrier effect of sediment appear to be additive in reducing
survival; (4) survival after fry emergence is impaired because of a loss
of escape cover and a reduction of aquatic organisms that are food for
fish. Examples are cited showing that pink and churn salmon survival is
inversely related to the amount of sediment in gravel beds.
Phillips, R. W., and H. J. Campbell. 1962. The embryonic survival of
coho salmon and steelhead trout as influenced by Some environmental
conditions in gravel beds. 14th Annu. Rep. Pac. Marine Fish. Comm.
Year 1961. Portland, Ore. Pp. 60-73. (GS)
The results of two studies designed to determine the effect of
three environmental factors on embryonic survival of steelhead trout and
coho salmon are reported. The three environmental factors considered
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'35
are: (1) Dissolved oxygen concentration of the intragravel water; (2)
seepage rate of intragravel water; and (3) permeability of the gravel.
Also included in the report is a literature review of the effect of
dissolved oxygen on embryonic survival.
Phillips, R. W. , H. J. Campbell, W. L. Hug, and E. W. Claire. 1966. A
study of the effect of logging on aquatic resources 1960-1966.
Ore. State Game Comm., Res. Div. Prog. Memo. Fish. Ore. State
Univ., Corvallis. 28 pp. (GS)
The scope, methods, and techniques of a logging study are
outlined; and some of the initial effects and specific problem areas
encountered are presented.
Phillips, R. W., R. L. Lantz, E. W. Claire, and J. R. Moring. 1975.
Some effects of gravel mixtures on emergence of coho salmon and
steelhead trout fry. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 104(3):461-466. (OR)
Eight mixtures of sand and gravel were tested in experimental
troughs, to simulate hatching conditions in coho salmon (0neor>hynahu8
kieutah) and steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri) redds. Fry were released
into perforated, open-ended chambers below the gravel surface. An
inverse relationship was found between the quantity of fines and emergent
survival. Mean emergent survival for coho salmon ranged from 96 percent
in the control mixture to 8 percent in 70 percent sand (less than 3.3 mm
diameter). Mean emergent survival for steelhead ranged from 94 percent
to 18 percent, respectively. Premature emergence of coho fry was related
to higher concentrations of fines. These premature fry were smaller,
and retained more yolk than fry emerging at normal times.
k
Phirmey, H. K. 1959. Turbidity, sedimentation and photosynthesis.
Pages 4-12 in E. F. Eldridge and J. N. Wilson, eds. Proc. of the
Fifth Symposium—Pacific Northwest on Siltation—Its Sources and
Effects on the Aquatic Environment. Portland, Ore. (OR)
The author stresses that "in relating physical and biological
facts concerning populations existing in turbid media, certain critical
factors must be considered.
1. What is the metabolic status of the population (the C02/02
ratio). And this does not mean simply B.O.D.'s.
2. What are the light transmitting qualities of the medium?
a. Absorption.
b. Diffuse scattering.
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96
This cannot be simply transmission data nor can it be developed
from photometer readings in the field.
3. What are the characteristics of the suspensoids, and the
color that is controlling light transmission?
If turbidity and sedimentation are adjudged as prime factors
in controlling biological development in a problem situation, nothing
less than an all out analysis will prove a waste of time, money and
effort in answering the all-important question of why?"
Pickering, R. J. 1976. Measurement of "turbidity" and related character-
istics of natural waters. U.S. Geol. Survey, Open-File Rep. 76-153.
5+ pp. (OR)
Attempts to quantify turbidity have led to a proliferation of
definitions, methods of measurement, instruments, standards, and units
of measure. Turbidity data for natural waters are applied to several
uses, including: (1) Determination of the depth to which photosynthesis
can occur; (2) aesthetic evaluation of water used for recreation; and
(3) estimation of concentration of suspended sediment. Lack of standardi-
zation of the measurement often has resulted unwittingly in correlations
between unrelated numbers. There is a strong feeling within the hydro-
logic profession that more precise and definitive sets of methods and
terminology are required. Turbidity generally is measured as an optical
phenomenon and should be reported in optical units.
The U.S. Geological" Survey has adopted the following principles:
(1) Standard instruments and methods should be adopted to measure and
report the light transmitting characteristics of natural waters in
optical units, thus avoiding the use of "turbidity" as a quantitative
measure; (2) reporting of "turbidity" in Jackson Turbidity Units, Hellige
Units, severity, or Nephelometric Turbidity Units should be phased out;
(3) the basis for estimations of sediment concentrations using light
measurements should be documented adequately; and (M-) the use of transpar-
ency measurements by Secchi disk is considered to be acceptable, although
light transmittance may prove to be a more precise means of obtaining
the same information.
The Geological Survey has established a schedule for implement-
ing the new methods. The schedule calls for application to begin on
October 1, 1976, with the transition tq be completed at all stations by
October 1, 1977. Provisions are made to meet the needs of cooperators
who are required by law to collect "turbidity" data.
Platts, W. S. 1970. The effects of logging and road construction on
the aquatic habitat of the South Pork Salmon River, Idaho. (Abstract)
USDA For. Serv., Zone Fish. Biol.. 4 pp. (GS)
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97
The harvest and resulting road construction of 325 million
board feet of timber removed from seven percent of the South Fork Salmon
River caused aquatic habitat degradation. To determine the aquatic
habitat conditions, data were collected from 325 randomly located stream
transects, 670 streambank points, 90 additional stream transects in
spawning areas, 155 streambed core samples, and 80 additional streambed
core samples in major spawning areas. Results showed the South Fork
Salmon River to be a heavily sedimented stream, especially in the salmonid
spawning areas. The studies showed that both streambed surface and
depth sediment content were very high. The salmon redds contained
slightly less fine materials than the overall spawning areas but were
not capable of eliminating required amounts of sediment from egg incuba-
tion areas which would result in good permeability.
A debris basin was effective in improving the aquatic habitat
in the stream immediately below the basin during low and normal water-
flows, but it was detrimental to downstream habitat during its initial
construction and early existence.
Platts, W. S., and W. F. Ilegahan. 1975. Time trends in river bed
sediment composition in salmon and steelhead spawning areas South
Fork Salmon River, Idaho. Pages 229-239 in D. Sabol, ed. Trans.
40th N. Am. Wildl. Natur. Res. Conf. (OR)
Riverbed surface conditions deleterious to fish spawning may
result if soil disturbances from logging and road construction are
allowed to progress without restriction on steep mountain lands in the
Idaho batholith. The percentage of fines in the four individual spawning
areas studied ranges from 45 to over 80 percent in 1966. Presently, the
size compositon of bottom materials is at or near optimum levels in the
individual spawning areas, where fines range from 12 to 26 percent;
these values should decrease even further in the future. These results
show that streams similar to the South Fork Salmon River can recover in
time if sediment flows into the stream resulting from acclerated erosion
on watershed lands are reduced to levels below the capacity of the
stream to flush fines from the system.
The South Fork Salmon River experience demonstrates that land
uses in sensitive areas must be carefully planned over both time and
space to avoid overloading the system to the point that sediment supplies
exceed sediment transport capacities. Only by using a system of program-
med land uses is it possible to avoid degradation of the aquatic environ-
ment such as occurred in the South Fork Salmon River.
Rana, S. A., D. B. Simons, and K. M. Mahmood. 1973. Analysis of sediment
sorting in alluvial channels. ASCE, J. Hydraul. Div. 99(HY11):1967-
1980. (OR)
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98
A mathematical model has been presented for predicting the
progressive sorting of bed material in straight prismatic alluvial
channels with constant discharge and width. This model shows that:
1. If the energy gradient decreases exponentially, the bed
material size also decreases exponentially.
2. The sorting coefficient, a, along the channel is not
constant over long reaches but decreases as the regime of flow changes
from lower to upper.
3. The sorting coefficient, a, for a given slope function
varies with q and C. However, for a given total bed material load, the
variation of a is similar for various q - C combinations,
4. In alluvial channels, formed by aggradation of bed material
transported from upstream, the channel flow can be in equilibrium consider-
ing the quantity of bed material transport. However, in the absence of
abrasion, the bed material will be coarsening with time. Thus, strict
equilibrium in alluvial channels with nonzero a values, is not possible
in the absence of significant abrasion which in sand bed channels is
very unlikely.
Reed, R. D., and S. T. Elliott. Effects of logging on Dolly Varden.
Alaska Dep. Fish Game, Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Div. Sport
Fish. Annu. Prog. Rep., Pro j. F-9-4-, Job R-IV-B. Juneau, Alaska
62 pp. (OR)
This report presents the results of the second year of study
on the effects of logging on Dolly Varden, Salvelinus matma. Study
emphasis included general surveys of logged streams throughout southeast
Alaska; aquatic insect surveys; monitoring prelogging fish populations
of eight streams within the Hood Bay watershed; and compiling an annotated
bibliography on effects of logging on fish.
Twenty-two logged watersheds located throughout southeast
Alaska were surveyed. Familiarization and photographic documentation of
the most common logging damage to streams was obtained.
During the surveys, aquatic insect populations were sampled to
obtain species composition and distribution of the more common species.
Comparisons were made bwtween logged and unlogged areas, which
revealed a decrease in species diversity within the altered stream
sections.
Stream monitoring with baited minnow traps on eight selected
streams in the Hood Bay watershed was continued. Monthly catch per trap
analysis results revealed no significant trends in population sizes, nor
did the comparison of this year's results with those of last year.
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An annotated bibliography on the effects of logging on fish,
containing over 90 citations, was compiled.
Rees, W. H. 1959. Effects of stream dredging on young silver salmon
(Onaovhynchus kisutah) and bottom fauna. Wash. Dep. Fish., Res.
Pap. 9(2):52-65. (OR)
A program was begun in July, 1952, and terminated in August,
1953, to measure the effects of dredging and stream channeling on fish
and bottom organisms in Little Bear Creek, a small stream populated by
silver salmon and a tributary to the Sammamish River 15 miles northeast
of Seattle.
Random bottom samples were taken periodically in test and
control areas to measure population changes in food organisms. Dredging
in September, 1952, eliminated 97 percent of the bottom organisms in the
test area. The dredged area showed a reduced fauna population for five
months and then began to recover in February, 1953. By July, 1953, it
had recovered completely.
A predominance of dipterous larvae over the other bottom
organisms was found in the stomach contents of young silver salmon, even
during periods of low dipterous production.
Population estimates of zero-group silver salmon and trout
fingerlings showed a decrease of 69 percent and 81 percent respectively
immediately after dredging in September, 1952. Fish were killed by the
drag line or by being trapped in the various isolated sections of the
old channel. Changing of the streambed also caused indirect effects
such as destruction of the food supply and the elimination of suitable
living area. Population estimates made a year later (August, 1953)
compared favorably in test and control areas with estimates made during
August, 1952.
The relationship of waterflow (velocity) and bottom type to
organism type indicated that Diptera predominate in slow, sandy bottom
areas. Coleoptera preferred moderate velocity with sand and gravel, and
Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera all preferred swift flow and
gravel bottom.
Reis, P. A. 1969. Effects of inorganic limestone sediment and suspension
on the eggs and fry of Bradhydanio rerio. M.A. Thesis. Depauw
Univ., Greencastle, Indiana. 58 pp. (OR)
Water quality standards are often generalized and incomplete
due to the many types of pollutants and their various lethal concentra-
tions. This research was conducted to determine if inorganic limestone
sediment and suspension should be regarded as important water pollutants;
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and if so which concentrations are likely to be critical for the early
development of fish. The eggs and fry of thw warm-water Cyprinid
Bpaahydanio vevvo were subjected to various concentrations of finely-
divided limestone particles (less than 0.074- mm).
One series of trials subjected eggs to various sediment depths.
Experimental eggs suffered no unusual number of mortalities and hatched
in the same period of time, or earlier, than control eggs. When eggs
were incubated in various limestone suspensions a general trend of
earlier median hatching times again resulted. Eggs incubated in suspen- .
sions for 32 hours, then transferred to clear water also exhibited short
median hatching times. Limestone suspensions were also deleterious to
successful fry development.
Renard, K. G. 1976. A time related automatic total-load sediment
sampler. Proc. Third Fed. Inter-Agency Sedimentation Conf., March
22-25, 1976. PP. 7-17 to 7-29. (OR)
A total-load, automatic, sediment sampler was developed and
tested for use with small runoff measuring flumes. The system collects
individual, total-load, sediment samples which provide periodic sediment
concentration data during a runoff event. The system consists of two
parts, the sampler and the collector. The sampler is a vertical slot
that traverses on a horizontal rail through the flow at the flume's
exit. The traverse speed is regulated by flow depth and aliquot size.
The collector is a revolving table with a capacity of 18 two-liter * 0.5
gal.) bottles. Table rotation isf regulated by a timer and a new bottle
is filled with each traverse. The time of each traverse is recorded on
the stage record. The system is powered by a 12-volt, DC battery charged
by a solar generator, which allows using the system in remote areas
where conventional electrical power is not'available.
Rendon-Herrero, 0. 1974. Estimation of washload produced on certain
small watersheds. ASCE, J. Hydraul. Div. 100(HY7):835-848. (OR)
The need for quantitative evaluation of washload is of paramount
importance at the present time, since sediment is considered to be a
pollutant. Washload can have deleterious effects as a sediment-volume
encroachment in streams and other bodies of water.
A method is presented in this,paper which is applicable to
certain small watersheds and which can enable the estimation of sediment
discharge on a storm basis depending on the amount of effective precipita-
tion.
Resler, R. A. Guides for protecting water quality. USDA For. Serv.
PNW. (EPA)
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The guides are intended to reflect some of the factors that
should be considered in evaluating the susceptibility of streams to
changes in water quality. When this evaluation is made, the land manager
can better prescribe practices which will best meet management objectives.
The guidelines are to familiarize the user with some of the
factors and influences that should be considered in making an on-the-
ground decision on a case-by-case basis and to provide a means for
predicting temperature changes.
Rice, R., R. Thomas, and G. Brown. 1975. Sampling water quality to
determine the impact of land use on small streams. ASCE Watershed
Mgmt. Symposium, Utah State Univ., Logan, Utah. (OR)
By habit, we are used to dealing with sediment in terms of
erosion, and expressing it in annual values-tons per square mile per
year. With water quality standards, the emphasis shifts to evaluation
of individual samples. And this is an extremely difficult statistical
problem. The usual procedure is to use time series for such analyses
with data points at regular intervals of time or continuous records
sampled at regular intervals. We did not have that option with our
data.
The analyses of serially correlated data with irregular sampling
intervals has not yet been worked out to our knowledge.
Our revised objective is to describe for you the variation
observed in water quality in small streams in the Pacific Northwest
using sediment as an example. We also wish to discuss the statistical
implication of this variation and provide an example of the difficulties
this presents in monitoring and regulating non-point source pollution in
small streams.
What conclusions can we draw from this analysis and our under-
standing of current water quality standards? First it means that current
standards, derived for controlling pollution on large river systems, are
inapproapriate for small streams. Standards must be rewritten to include
a complete specification of performance characteristics. Second, it means
that the development of the standard and the monitoring scheme for judging
compliance must be done concurrently. Third, we need to develop statisti-
cal and analytical models which are able to cope with the variation and
the serious problems posed by serial correlation of sediment samples.
Ringler, N. H., and J. D. Hall. 1975. Effects of logging on water
temperature and dissolved oxygen in spawning beds. Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc. 104(1):111-121.. (BA)
The temperature and dissolved 02 content of intragravel water
were measured in three Oregon [USA] coastal streams between June 1968-
June 1969. In 1966, the watershed of one stream was completely clearcut,
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and that of a second stream partially clearcut in staggered settings. A
third watershed was left unlogged. Clearcut logging resulted in increased
temperature of intragravel water in salmon and trout spawning beds and
decreased concentrations of dissolved O2• The changes were related
largely to reduced forest cover over the stream surface and to deposition
of fine sediment in the gravel. No serious reduction in survival to
emergence of coho salmon occurred along with the observed changes in
temperature or dissolved O2. A decrease in the resident population of
cutthroat trout after logging may have been related to these changes.
Roback, S. S. 1962. Environmental requirements of Trichoptera. Pages
118-126 in C. M. Tarzwell, ed. Trans. Third Seminar on Biol.
Problems in Water Poll. Robert A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati,
Ohio. (OR)
Over many years, the Limnology Department of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia has conducted stream surveys at over
100 stations in the United States and Canada. At any of these stations,
the caddisfly larvae form about 10 percent of the total insect fauna.
The ranges of occurrence for each of 14 chemical factors are given for
the dominant genera, and in some cases families (where there were too
few records) of caddisfly larvae. Too few of the larvae collected can
be placed as to species with sufficient certainty to make data at the
species level meaningful. Laboratory experiments on the toxicity of
various chemicals to caddisfly larvae are practically nonexistent;
however, the results of one set of experiment performed at the Academy
are presented.
Rosgen, D. L. 1976. The use of color infrared photography for the
determination of suspended sediment concentrations and source
areas. Proc. Third Fed. Inter-Agency Sedimentation Conf., March 22-
26, 1976. Pp. 7-30 to 7-42. (OR)
The concepts and special techniques for applying color infrared
photography in sediment studies are presented. These techniques were
developed and evaluated through a low elevation color infrared photography
flight and concurrent water quality sampling conducted on 164 km (100
miles) of stream over the West Fork of the Madison River in southwestern
Montana. The concentrations and sources of sediment produced during
peak snowmelt runoff were determined by photo densitometric analysis
coupled with specifically located ground control stations.
Excellent correlations were established by regression analysis
of the ground truth variables including"stream width to discharge and
suspended sediment to turbidity. Photo density was correlated with
suspended sediment and turbidity, both produced strong correlations
which were significant at the 99 percent confidence level. These
correlations made it possible to determine reliable estimates of sediment
concentrations from the aerial photography where stream measurements
were not obtained.
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Sediment production estimates were made by using the concentra-
tion data linked with stream discharge as a function of stream width.
The photoscale control markers were used to obtain stream widths from
the aerial photography.
The photographic analysis indicated that the majority of the
suspended sediment sources during the snowmelt runoff event were derived
primarily from channel erosion. Additional intrepretations which can be
derived from photo analysis are also presented and discussed.
Royce, W. F. 1959. On the possibilities of improving salmon spawning
areas. Trans. 24th N. Amer. Wildl. Conf., Wildl. Mgmt. Inst. Pp.
356-366.
Factors affecting the variability of salmon return numbers,
and more specifically, the high mortality of intragravel life stages,
were discussed. Emphasis was placed on the need for maintaining adequate
waterflow and dissolved oxygen levels in spawning redds. Research needs
mentioned included the need for more information on intragravel ecology
and the physical stream variables and their effects.
Ruggles, C. P. 1966. Depth and velocity as a factor in stream rearing
and production of juvenile coho salmon. Can. Fish. Cult. 38:37-53.
(OR)
Coho salmon smolt production was measured in four artificial
stream channels 200 feet long by 20 feet wide. Two years' data are
presented on the effect of depth and velocity on fish food production,
smolt production and fish behavior. A known number of wild coho fry
were introduced to each channel and allowed to take up residence in the
channel on a volitional basis.
The amount of downstream migration was influenced by the
availability of low velocity water. Over twice as many fry remained in
a pool-like environment as in a riffle-like condition; an intermediate
number remained when the depth-velocity situation was somewhere between
pool and riffle. Whereas fish preferred the pool-like environment, fish
food production was much higher in the riffle-like environment. The
most coho smolt production occurred in a channel composed of one-half
riffle and one-half pool. Differences in behavior were noted between
coho fry which had migrated upstream of their place of emergence and fry
which had moved downstream from their place of emergence.
Ryan, P. 1970. Design and operation of an in situ frozen core gravel
sampler. Tech. Rep. 1970 - 12. Can. Dept. Fish. For., Fish Serv.,
Pac. Reg. (OR)
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The objective of the gravel sampler design is to provide a
method of extracting a near undisturbed sample of gravel and silt from
shallow salmon spawning streams. The sample is frozen in situ using
"dry ice" dissolved in acetone as a freezing mixture.
Samsel, G. L. 1973. Effects of sedimentation on the algal flora of a
small recreational impoundment. Water Res. Bull. 9(6):1145-1152.
(OR)
Investigations were initiated to evaluate the effects of
sedimentation on the algal composition, primary productivity rates and
chemical nutrient concentrations of a 17-acre recreational impoundment
in central Virginia. Comparisons during the winter seasons of 1972-1973
indicated that as a result of sedimentation, from lake front home construc-
tion, the total numbers of algal genera in the lake decreased from 24 to
16, productivity as measured by CO* and total extractable chlorophyll
decreased two-fold, and several important nutrients, i.e., NHi,+N, SiC2
and P0i,-P increased significantly.
Saunders, J. W., and M. W. Smith. 1965. Changes in a stream population
of trout associated with increased silt. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
22(2):395-404. (OR)
Low standing crops of brook trout, Salvelinus fontiriali-8, were
closely associated with silting in Ellerslie Brook, Prince Edward Island,
and appeared to result from the destruction of hiding places. Spawning
was also curtailed by silting. Following scouring, trout stocks soon
increased. The remarkable adaptability of trout to silting, in a habitat
with favorable flow and water temperature, was illustrated.
Saxton, K. E. 1972, Gaging sediment-laden flows with V-notch weirs.
Proc. Third Fed. Inter-Agency Sedimentation Conf., March 22-25,
1976. Pp. 7-43 to 7-53. (OR)
Watersheds with areas of less than 1 mi2 (2.59 km2) often .have
streamflow with stages that rise and fall rapidly. These rapid stage
changes prevent accurate field calibration of streamflow gaging stations
by usual techniques; therefore, a reliable, precalibrated measuring
device is necessary. Also, the streamflow from these small watersheds
is often heavily laden with sediment (up to 200,000 ppm),and the alluvial
stream channels change their cross section and slope upstream of- the
measuring device. These slopingfand aggrading approach chemicals can
change the streamgage calibration.
Broad-creasted, V-notch weirs, developed by the U.S. Soil
Conservation Service, have been used extensively. Recent evidence has
shown that different approach channel slopes and shapes and sediment
deposits cause significant deviations from the original calibrations.
Model studies were conducted to define the effect of approach channel
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geometry and sediment deposits on the weir calibrations. A rigid-
boundary model was used for the tests. Channel slopes were 0.0, 0.5,
1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 percent for several approach channel cross sections.
The results provide improved calibrations for broad-crested, V-notch
weirs for gaging sites in alluvial channels.
Schlapfer, T. A. 1972. Title 2100-multiple use management. USDA For.
Serv., For. Serv. Mgmt., Reg. 6, Suppl. 11, Code 2121-33, Portland,
Ore. Pp. 27-34. (EPA)
The manual provides new policy and guidelines for protecting
water quality through establishment of streamside management units
(SMU). Stream classification is determined by use made of water and
each class has certain water quality objectives and criteria to be met
in the conduct of land management activities.
Schroeder, K. B., and C. H. Hembree. 1956. Application of the modified
Einstein procedure for computation of total sediment load. Trans.
Am. Geophys. Union 37(2):197-212. (OR)
A method that enables good estimates to be made of total
sediment load has been tested with data from several western streams.
The method, which uses both theoretical and empirical formulas, combines
a modification of Einstein's procedure for computing bed-material load
and the usually available data from suspended-sediment measurements.
Basic data, including data from large natural and artificial turbulent
flumes, and the results of computations are given.
Servizi, J. A., R. W. Gordon, and D. W. Martens. 1969. Marine disposal
of sediments from Bellingham Harbor as related to sockeye and pink
salmon fisheries. Int. Pac. Sal. Fish. Comm., Prog. Rep. 23. 38 pp.
(OR)
A recent proposal for dredging and marine disposal of sediment
from Whatcom Waterway, Bellingham, was of concern to fisheries agencies
since the proposed disposal area was utilized by several fish stocks,
including migrating Fraser River sockeye and pink salmon. Laboratory
study indicated that two types of sediment were involved. Sediment from
the inner harbor consisted primarily of putrefying pulp fibers which
exerted a significant oxygen demand, created substantial turbidity, and
were toxic to juvenile sockeye salmon because of their hydrogen sulfide
content. Hydrogen sulfide was readily dissipated from inner harbor
sediment by diffused air but was not removed by exposure for a few hours
to the atmosphere. Various methods of widespread dispersal to dilute
the sediment appeared impractical, and it was concluded that land disposal
of inner harbor sediment would be necessary to protect fish stocks.
Sediment from the outer harbor was a natural silt, not containing hydrogen
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sulfide, but exerted an oxygen demand and created a highly turbid mixture
which settled very slowly. Because dumping of this sediment at the
proposed site could also prove harmful to fisheries, hydraulic dredging
and local disposal adjacent to the outer harbor was recommended.
Shapley, P. S. 1964. Effects of logging on the productivity of pink
salmon streams in Alaska. Sal. Studies, Periodic Rep. No. 4, Fish.
Res. Inst., Univ. Wash., Seattle. 24 pp. (OR)
The Fisheries Research Institute, under contract to the Bureau
of Commercial Fisheries, began a study of the biological aspects of the
effects of logging in 1956. The studies have been made in cooperation
with the U.S. Forest Service, which has undertaken studies of the physical
environment since 1949. Streams that have been studied include Harris
River, Indian, Twelvemile, Old Tom, and Maybeso Creeks.
Prior to the study, the environmental factors influencing the
growth and development and causing mortality of salmon eggs and larvae
were poorly understood. The past research at Hollis, and the resulting
publications and manuscripts now in press have provided substantial
answers.
The major causes of mortality have been found to be: 1)
Superimpositions; 2) freezing; 3) the inadequate supply of good-quality
intragravel water; and 4) gravel shift (erosion of and deposition of
material on the streambed) caused by floods. Stream environmental
changes due to logging have been found to be mainly the result of the
addition of logging debris or increased sedimentation. In general,
changes due to logging have been difficult to separate from natural
fluctuations. The studies have two major objectives; 1) To determine
how the quality of spawning bed environment, as it pertains to growth,
development and mortality of eggs and larvae, is affected by logging; 2)
to provide criteria that can be used to increase production of fry by
improved spawning areas or by constructing artifical spawning areas.
Shapley, P. S., and D. M. Bishop. 1965, Sedimentation in a salmon
stream. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 22(4):919-928. (OR)
Sediment was artificially added to a small southeastern Alaskan
salmon stream. Observations in sedimented and control riffles indicate
that the amount of sediment settling to the stream bottom decreases
exponentially with distance downstream. The dissolved oxygen content of
intragravel stream water remained high in sedimented riffles. The added
sediment was removed from streambed gravels by fall freshets and floods.
Shapovalov, L. 1937. Experiments in hatching steelhead eggs in gravel.
Calif. Fish Game 23(3):208-214. (OR)
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The purpose of the experiments was to determine at least
partially the effectiveness of natural spawning of steelhead trout,
Salmo gaivdnern-i, by simulation of natural conditions, and to discover
what happens from the time the eggs are deposited in the gravel to their
emergence from the gravel as fry.
In each of two experiments eggs from one adult sea-run fish
were split into two lots, one of which was placed in gravel and the
other in a standard hatching basket as a control.
In nature the percentage of deposited eggs which emerge from
the gravel as fry may vary widely. It may be quite low (29.8 percent)
under adverse conditions (silting, caused by flood, as here, or mining),
and on the other hand quite high (79.9 percent) under good conditions.
Some authors believe that under natural conditions poor fertilization
occurs, and that but a small percentage of the eggs deposted become
fish, but the present writer is inclined to believe, on the basis of
field observations and the present experiments, that the percentage of
eggs which are fertilized, hatch, and emerge from the gravel is rather
high and that the heaviest losses occur during the fry stage.
Shapovalov, L., and W. Berrian. 1940. An experiment in hatcing silver
salmon (Onaorhynohus kiautch) eggs in gravel. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 69:135-140. (OR)
The eggs from five adult sea-run silver salmon (Onaorhynohus
kisutch) were divided into two lots: 8,239 eggs were buried in gravel
in a standard hatchery trough and 7,500 placed in a standard hatching
basket as a control. Natural conditions were simulated as closely as
possible with the gravel eggs. The eggs required 772.3 temperature
units (t.u.) to maximum hatch (control), 1,084.3 t.u. to earliest emergence
from the gravel, and 1.155.6 t.u. to maximum emergence from the gravel.
Initial to final emergence required at least 38 days. Of the eggs
buried, 10.2 percent emerged from the gravel. In the control, 65.9
percent of the eggs hatched and 48.2 percent survived to the time that
the experimental fish had finished emerging from the gravel. Examination
of the gravel and the dead eggs in it at the conclusion of the experiment
and observations made during previous experiments support the view that
silt carried by unusually severe floods smothered many of the eggs in
the gravel. This fact seems to account in large part for the small
percentage of salmon emerging from the gravel. 56 days after initial
emergence from the gravel, the experimental fish averaged 23.8 fish per
ounce (1.19 grams each, live weight) while the control lot averaged 27.6
fish per ounce (1.13 grams each). During these 56 days only 48 of the
experimental fish died, whereas the mortality in the control lot for the
same period totaled 905. In the final two weeks, however, the average
daily mortality in the control was only one fish.
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Shapovalov, L., and A. C. Taft. 1954. The life histories of the steelhead
rainbow trout (Satmo ga-ivdnerii gairdnevii) and silver salmon
(Oneorhynchus kieutch) with special reference to Waddell Creek,
California, and recommendations regarding their management. Calif.
Dep. Fish Game, Fish. Bull. No. 98. 375 pp. (GS)
The report describes the life history of the steelhead rainbow
trout and the silver salmon. The authors discuss: (1) The correlation
between number of eggs and size of fish; (2) the relationship between
hatching time and temperature; (3) the effects of silting on the duration
of survival; (4) factors influencing growth, timing and size of migration;
and (5) the improvement of the biological and physical habitat.
Shaw, P. A., and J. A. Maga. 1942. The effect of mining silt on yield
of fry from salmon spawning beds. Calif. Dep. Fish Game 29(1):29-
41. (OR)
In view of the extensive mining activity along trout streams
and within watersheds that are essential to the maintenance of California
salmon and steelhead, an experimental study was conducted to aid in
settling the existing controversy and establish a factual basis for
adequate but just enforcement action.
Experiments were conducted to determine the yield of fry from
salmon eggs in gravel nests subjected to mining silt as compared to the
yield from similar nests without silt additions.
From the data presented in this paper it is evident that the
yield of fry from eggs hatched in gravel beds supplied with normal
hatchery water is far below that attained by the usual procedure of
basket hatching in flowing water. The experiments further show that
mine silt deposited on gravel spawning beds during either the early or
later stages of incubation results in negligible yields of fry and is
therefore a serious menace to natural propagation.
It is apparent that adequate control to prevent the discharge
of mining silt where spawning grounds may be affected is essential to
the preservation of normal fish populations, and legislation to secure
the necessary protection is therefore recommended.
Shelton, J. M. 1955. The hatching of chinook salmon eggs under simulated
stream conditions. Prog. Fish. Cult. 17(1):20-35. (OR)
From early in November 1952 to early in July 1953, the planting
and hatching of chinook salmon eggs in gravel was studied to determine,
its value as a tool of fishery management in the Columbia River area.
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The average hatch for the eggs planted under different sets of
variables in the gravel was 96 percent. Comparison of these variables
reveals that the difference in percentage hatch is insignificant. (It
is considered possible that the mortality caused by crushing of eggs
could be reduced and the percentage hatch thus increased proportionately.
The mortality of the planted eggs was divided into two categories:
(1) That caused by the crushing of eggs; and (2) that which resulted
from unknown causes (primarily percolation).
In the beds of small gravel only 13 percent of all the eggs
emerged as fry, but 87 percent emerged in the large gravel beds.
Shelton, J. M., and R. D. Pollock. 1966. Siltation and egg survival in
incubation channels. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 95(2):183-187. (OR)
Fall chinook salmon eggs in Abernathy incubation channel
suffered as much as 85 percent mortality when 15 to 30 percent of the
voids in the gravel beds were filled with sediment. With one 70-foot
section of the channel used as a silt-settling basin, the mortality was
reduced to 10 percent or less. We believe that a siltation control
system consisting of a flushable sand trap and settling basin constitute
the most economical means of reducing the amount of sediment entering
this and similar channels.
Sheridan, W. L. 1962. Waterflow through a salmon spawning riffle in
southeastern Alaska. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish.
Mo. 407. 20 pp. (GS)
The following characteristics were studied in a small salmon
stream in southeastern Alaska from 1956 to 1959: (1) Dissolved oxygen
content of ground water; (2) variation of dissolved oxygen with depth in
streambed; (3) temperature of ground water; (4) extent of ground-water
seepage; (5) interchange of flowing stream water and water of streambed
gravels; and (6) flow of water in the gravel of streambank and gravel
bar.
Ground water was generally low in dissolved oxygen content,
and dissolved oxygen levels decreased with depth in streambed. Because
of these and other points discussed in this paper, I conclude that the
main source of intragravel water of high oxygen content is the flowing
stream.
Sheridan, W. L. 1968. Land use and sediment. Pages 62-79 in R. T.
Myren, ed. Logging and Salmon. Proc. Forum, Am. Inst. Fish. Res.
Biol., Alaska Dist., Juneau, Alaska. (GS)
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Although there is little doubt that logging and road construction
contribute some sediment to salmon streams, there is no evidence to show
that these activities, when conducted according to protective clauses
included in all timber sale contracts, have damaged the salmon resource
in southeastern Alaska.
Sheridan, W. L., T. Hoffman, and S. Olson. 1965. A technique for
monitoring effects of land use on salmon streams in Alaska. 45th
Annu. Conf., West. Assoc. Fish Game Comm., Proc. 1965, Pp. 155-
159. (GS)
Because of possible effects on salmon spawning environment in
Alaska, a monitoring technique has been developed by the Forest Service
in cooperation with the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. The general
objective of the monitoring system is to detect changes in the spawning
environment that adversely affect salmon production. Characteristics
being monitored in one stream (soon to be followed by two others) are as
follows:
1. Composition of streambed spawning areas.
2. Streamflow and water temperature.
3. Stream channel configuration and amount and kind of debris
in stream channel.
i+. Soil types in the watershed.
5. Production of salmon fry.
6. Adult salmon escapement.
If changes in the salmon spawning environment, thought to be
harmful, do occur, remedial measures can be undertaken. On the other
hand, practices which may enhance the habitat can be expanded.
Sheridan, W. L., and W. J. McNeil. 1960. Effects of logging on the
productivity of pink salmon streams in Alaska. Pages 16-17 in Ted
S. Y. Koo, ed. Res. Fisheries. Coll. Fish. Contrib. 77, Univ.
Wash., Seattle. (GS)
The broad plan of the work carried out at Hollis, southeast
Alaska, was to define normal patterns iiefore logging so that the changes
might be measured as logging progressed. Changes studied were year-to-
year escapements of adult spawners, the abundance of downstream migrants,
survival rates of eggs and alevins in gravel, distribution and intensity
of spawning, and the quality of the environment.
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Sheridan, W. L., and W. J. McNeil. 1968. Some effects of logging on
two salmon streams in Alaska. J. For. 66(2):128-133. (EPA)
Sedimentation of spawning beds and density of pink salmon were
observed before and after logging in two streams in southeastern Alaska.
The study lasted seven years (1958-1964-). Although the amount of fine
particles in spawning beds increased significantly, the amount in 1964
(five years after logging began) was not significantly greater than in
1959. Densities of salmon spawners and fry increased in the sampling
areas during the period of this study. The increases were probably due
to the abolition in 1969 of salmon traps (formerly the primary means of
catching salmon).
Sheridan, W. L., R. W. Wilke, and S. T. Olson. 1968. The gravel cleaner
("riffle sifter"). USDA For. Serv., Prog. Rep., 1967, Alaska Reg.,
Juneau, Alaska. 8 pp. (OR)
Research in fisheries and engineering has shown that egg to
fry survival of salmon embryos is higher in sediment free gravels. For
this reason, the Forest Service is developing equipment to remove sediment
from spawning gravels. A prototype model was developed by Forest Service
engineers in 196*+, and a working model was developed by the Clark Equip-
ment Company in 1966. The equipment was tested in Alaska in 1966 and
1967. Although mechanical failures precluded thorough testing in Alaska,
it was demonstrated that the equipment would remove large quantities of
sediment from streambed gravels and that the principle of jetting the
fines to the surface where they can be sucked up and disposed of is
sound. The history of development and the results of testing of the
"riffle sifter" are given in this progress report. It is not anticipated
that a production (working) model will be available for use in Alaska
prior to 1969.
Sherk, J. A., Jr. 1971. The effects of suspended and deposited sediments
on estuarine organisms, literature summary and research needs.
Nat. Res. Inst., Univ. Maryland, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory,
Contrib. No. 4-4-3, Solomons, Maryland. 73 pp. (M)
An extensive summary and discussion of literature related to
the effects of sediment on biological systems, filter-feeding organisms,
and offshore waste disposal are presented. Research needs on the effects
of suspended and deposited silt are proposed.
In the section of sediment effects on biological organisms the
author discusses: Loss of habitat, decrease in euphotic zone depth,
oxygen demand, nutrient sorption and release, primary production, community
disruption, mortality and other gross effects.
The section involving sediment effects on filter-feeding
organisms includes: Pumping and feeding, character of the bottom and
larval metamorphosis, and larval and egg development. The problems and
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biological effects resulting from offshore disposal of particulate
wastes are discussed and information from some studies related to these
effects is presented.
Research needs in the area of suspended and deposited sediments
are fairly extensive. A standardization of study methods and a need for
quantitative knowledge of the physical aspects of suspended matter is
indicated as well as complete studies incorporating the total interaction
of environmental change to the lethal effects on all life stages of the
organisms studied. These aspects are important "in order to provide
complete predictability of the effects of environmental change."
Sherk, J. A., J. M. O'Conner, D. A. Neuman, R. D. Prince, and K. V.
Wood. 1974. Effects of suspended and deposited sediments on
estuarine organisms - Phase II. Final Report, September 17, 1970-
December 31, 1973. Nat. Res. Inst., Univ. Maryland, College Park,
Maryland. 299 pp. (NTIS)
A three-year laboratory study identified biological components
of selected populations of estuarine organisms which were most sensitive
to the effects of particle size and concentration of: (1) Suspended
mineral solids similar in size to sediments likely to be found in, or
added to, estuarine systems in concentrations typically found during
flooding, dredging, and disposal of dredged material; and (2) natural
sediments in identical experiments. Significant mortality of estuarine
fishes was demonstrated at these suspended solids concentrations.
Estuarine fishes were classified using the results of static bioassays
as tolerant (24 hr LCio>10 g l"1), sensitive (24 hr LCio<10>1*0 g l"\
or highly sensitive (24 hr LCio<1.0 g 1 I) to fuller's earth suspensions.
Generally, bottom-dwelling fish species were most tolerant to suspended
solids; filter feeders were most sensitive. Early life stages were more
sensitive to suspended solids than adults. Bioassays with natural
sediments indicated that suspensions of natural studs affect fishes in
the same way as fuller's earth, but higher concentrations of natural
material were required to produce the same level of response. The
effect of finely divided solids on fishes was dependent on several
characteristics of suspended particles with different mechanisms operative
in producing mortality in fishes, although the cause of death was the
same: Anoxia. Sublethal solids effects of fishes were identified:
Hematological compensation for reduction in gas exchange across the gill
surface, abrasion of the body epithelium, packing of the gut with large
quantities of ingested solids, disruption of gill tissue, increased
activity, and reduction in stored metabolic reserves. Oxygen consumption
of striped bass and white perch swimming at controlled levels of activity
was generally reduced during exposure to suspensions of fuller's earth
and natural Patuxent River sediments. Carbon assimilation by four
species of phytoplankton was significantly reduced by the light attenua-
ting properties of fine silicon dioxide suspensions. Ingestion of
radioactive food cells by two species of calanoid copepods was signifi-
cantly reduced during exposure to suspensions of fuller's earth, fine
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silicon dioxide, and natural Patuxent River silt. With adequate knowledge
of local conditions (life history stages, sediment types, sediment
concentrations, seasonal and resident species, duration of exposure, and
habitat preference) at estuarine sites selected for environmental modifi-
cation, our efforts provide baseline data for preproject decision making
based upon concentration effects of different types of suspended sediments.
Sherk, J. A., J. M. O'Conner, and D. A. Neumann. 1976. Effects of
suspended solids on selected estuarine plankton. Misc. Rep. No.
76-1. Coastal Eng. Res. Cent., Fort Belvoir, Va. 51 pp. (NTIS)
A three-year laboratory study identified biological components
of selected populations of estuarine organisms which were most sensitive
to the effects of particle size and concentration of: (a) Suspended
mineral solids similar in size to sediments likely to be found in, or
added to, estuarine systems in concentrations typically found during
flooding, dredging, and disposal of dredged material; and (b) natural
sediments in identical experiments.
Shumway, D. L., C. E. Warren, and P. Doudoroff. 1964. Influence of
oxygen concentration and water movement on the growth of steelhead
trout and coho salmon embryos. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 93:342-356.
(OR)
Embryos of coho salmon, Onaorhynchus kisutah (Walbaum), and
steelhead trout, Salmo gairdnsvi gairckneri (Richardson), were reared
from fertilization of the eggs to hatching, at about 10°C, at different
concentrations of dissolved oxygen ranging from about 2.5 to 11.5 mg/liter
and at different water velocities ranging from about 3 to 750 cm/hour.
Some of the embryos rested on porous plates, while others were buried in
glass beads so as to simulate natural conditions more closely. Fry from
embryos reared at low and intermediate oxygen concentrations hatched
later and were smaller in size at hatching than fry from embryos reared
at concentrations near the air-saturation level. At all oxygen concentra-
tions tested, reduced water velocities resulted in reduced size of
hatching fry. This effect of velocity was nearly as pronounced at high
oxygen concentrations as at low concentrations. The effect of the
difference of water velocities tested was less than the effect of the
difference of oxygen concentrations tested. When some embryos were
buried in glass beads while others were not, and the discharge rates of
water through cylinders containing the embryos were the same, the fry
that hatched in the cylinders containing beads were larger in size than
those in cylinders without beads. This effect is ascribed to the increase
of water velocities around the embryos buried in beads. It was usually
most pronounced when a mixture of large and small beads was used.
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Silver, S. J., C. E. Warren, and P. Doudoroff. 1963. Dissolved oxygen
requirements of developing steelhead trout and chinook salmon
embryos at different water velocities. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
92(4):327-343. (OR)
Embryos of steelhead trout, Sahno gaivdneri gaivdnevi
(Richardson), and chinook salmon, Onaorhynohus tshawytsaha (Walbaum),
were reared from fertilization of the eggs to hatching atrdifferent
constant oxygen concentrations and water velocities. For this purpose,
an apparatus was developed that makes it possible to control oxygen
concentration independently of water velocity, which was maintained at
levels ranging from 6 to 1,350 centimeters per hour. Measurements of
the embryos and hatched fry indicate that water velocities must be high
enough not only to transport enough oxygen to the redd for supplying the
total requirement of all embryos, but also to deliver sufficient oxygen
to the surface of the chorion enveloping the indivual embryo. Steelhead
embryos held at 9.5°C and chinook salmon embryos held at U°C all died
at an oxygen concentration of 1.6 mg/1. Survival of large percentages
of embryos reared at concentration as low as 2.5 mg/1 was apparently
made possible by reduction of respiration rates and consequent reduction
of growth and development rates. Sac fry from embryos reared at low and
intermediate oxygen concentrations were smaller and weaker than sac fry
from embryos reared at high concentrations. Although weak sac fry may
survive under laboratory conditions, they cannot be expected to do so in
nature. The size of steelhead trout and chinook salmon fry at hatching
probably was dependent on water velocity even at velocities as high as
740 and 1,350 cm/hr, respectively, and on oxygen concentration even at
concentrations near saturation levels. Mean size differences among
embryos reared under different conditions at the higher velocity and
oxygen-concentration levels were not great, particularly in the case of
the steelhead trout.
Silverston, E., and E. M. Laurse. 1976, Patterns of scour and fill in
pool-rapid rivers. Proc. Third Fed. Inter-Agency Sedimentation
Conf., March 22-25, 1976. Pp. 5-125 to 5-126. (OR)
Because the change in head oft a critical control (rapid or
weir) it is less than the change in equilibrium depth in the pool upstream,
a pool will eventually scour with an increase in flow and fill with a
decrease in flow. However, because the supply of sediment to a pool is
dependent on the conditions at the outlet of the pool just upstream,
initially there may be either scour or fill in the downstream pool with
an increase in flow. Indeed, a pool following several other pools may
behave in a seemingly erratic manner because its sediment supply is
affected by what happens in each of the upstream pools.
Skinner, J. V., and J. P. Beverage. 1976. Instrumentation-automatic
collection of sediment data, Proc. Third Fed. Inter-Agency Sedimenta-
tion ConfMarch 22-25, 1976. Pp. 7-1 to 7-16. (OR)
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The Federal Inter-Agency Sedimentation Project has included
research of methods of automating the collection of suspended-sediment
data. Several approaches have been investigated ranging from automatic
sample collection to automatic sample analysis. To automate sample
collection, several forms of pumping samplers have been developed. To
automate sample analysis both direct and indirect methods have been
studied. Analysis by indirect methods have included the influence of
suspended sediment on conduction of electric currents and on radiation
from acoustic, visible light, and gamma sources. Analysis by direct
methods have included different techniques for measuring the bulk density
of water-sediment-mixtures. Advantages and disadvantages of each approach
are summarized, and suggestions for future research and development are
offered. Experience indicates that, to facilitate data collection
during the near future, one practical system consists of automatic
sample collectors that supply samples to semiautomatic laboratory-based
analyzers. For the more distant future, it would be desirable to
develop a sample collector and sample analyzer combination suitable for
continuous field operation.
Development of a sampler-analyzer combination has been hampered
for lack of an instrument sensitive enough to detect sediment-mass
concentrations of only a few milligrams per litre (mg/1). To be operated
under adverse environmental conditions the instrument must be not only
sensitive but also responsive to a wide range of concentrations. The
required performance appears to exceed, by a considerable margin,
state-of-the-art capabilities of the entire instrumentation field.
Transmission, recording, and processing of transducer-generated
data have been advanced through both private and industrial research,
and a comparable research effort may be required to improve sensors
needed to measure directly suspended-sediment concentration. Pending
development of improved sensors, the sensitivity of presently available
sensors could be enhanced by connecting them to calibrated sediment
concentrators.
Smith, 0. R. 1939. Placer mining silt and its relation to salmon and
trout on the Pacific Coast. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 69:225-230.
(OR)
Renewed activity in the placer gold mining country of the
Pacific Coast States has raised the question of how much harm silt does
to salmon and trout. The effect silt may have on migrating adult fish,
on the selection of spawning places, and on the survival of fish food,
is discussed. The conclusion is drawn that silt, whether from placer
mining or natural erosion, is harmful to salmon and trout if it is heavy
enough to form a layer on the stream bottom or if it persists during
periods between floods.
Sprules, W. M. 19H7. An ecological investigation of stream insects in
Algonquin Park, Ontario. Publ. Ontario Fish. Res. Laboratory, No.
69, Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto, Can. (OR)
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The effect of several ecological factors in the qualitative
and quantitative distribution of stream insects in Algonquin Park,
Ontario, was determined from data obtained by the use of the cage-trap
method of sampling the emergence of insects from unit areas in streams,
at regular daily intervals.
Incidents that induced significant alterations in the physical
nature of the streams were accompanied by marked reductions in the total
insect population and a change in the faunal composition of the affected
areas. Such incidents included a severe freshet, cessation of flow and
subsequent desiccation of the stream bed, and transformation of a shallow
rocky riffle into a deep sedimented pool by construction of a beaver
dam.
A correlation was found between the total number of species in
rocky riffle areas at different distances from the source, and the
average water temperatures. The linear distribution of species was
delimited by the water temperatures obtaining in different sections of
the stream and this was correlated with the thermal tolerance of the
immature stages.
Within the limits set by temperature the distribution of
species was affected by other factors including rate of flow and nature
of the bottom, two factors which are closely interrelated and fundamen-
tally inseparable. The diversity of the fauna decreased from rubble,
through gravel, and muck, to sand as the variety of utilizable microhabi-
tats decreased. The observed distribution on different types of bottom
was related to habitat preference and associated morphological adaptations
in the species.
The seasonal emergence periods of different species were
segregated and the species emerged in the same sequence each year. The
date of first emergence and the length of the emergence period of a
species differed from year to year and were determined by annual varia-
tions in water temperature.
The diurnal emergence of species showed a similar segretation
in general, in that any one species emerged at the same time each day
while different species emerged at different times. The maximum total
emergence from a rapids during mid-summer occurred throughout the evening
hours and the most important causal factor involved seemed to be a
reduction in light intensity,
• "»V 1 . ,
It has been suggested that the number of indivduals present in
any area depends primarily on the utilizable surface area of bottom
particles exposed to the water.
Stephan, C. E., and D. I. Mount. 1973. Use of toxicity tests with fish
in water pollution control. Pages 16t-177 in Biological Assessment
of Water Quality, ASTM $TP 528. Am. Soc. Testing Mats. (OR)
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The recent growth of interest in water pollution control
programs has fostered the development of applied fish toxicology. One
of the functions of applied fish toxicologists is to make the best
possible decisions concerning the effects of pollution on fish based on
existing data. A second-function is to help make available the additional
data most needed for the protection of important species of fish. A
third function is to evaluate the usefulness of specific toxicity tests
and ways of using them to fulfill needs that have been identified and to
suggest improvements in existing tests or new tests that should be
developed. The acute mortality test provides data that are useful in
some situations, but the chronic test which studies effects of a toxic
agent on survival, growth, and reproduction is probably the most useful
toxicity test for estimating long-term safe concentrations. Other
important adverse effects that should be studied include avoidance,
flavor impairment, and the accumulation of toxic residues.
Stocker, Z. S. J., and D. D. Williams. 1972. A freezing core method
for describing the vertical distribution of sediments in a streambed.
Limnology and Oceanography 17:136-138. (OR)
A new technique is described for obtaining in situ samples of
substrate from stony streambeds, using liquid nitrogen to freeze the
substrate around a standpipe driven into the bed.
Various physical parameters are calculated for the substrate
obtained.
Straub, L. G. 1936. Transportation of sediment in suspension. Civil
Eng. ASCE J. 6(5):321-323. (OR)
Although the principles underlying the transportation of
sediment in suspension have been slow in yielding to mathematical analy-
sis, considerable information of practical value on the subject has been
obtained through research and experimentation. In the present article
Dr. Straub outlines some of the findings of one such study—the manner
in which particles of various diameters distributed themselves in a
vertical section, the effect of certain changes in the chemical composi-
tion of the water on the mechanical composition of the suspended load,
and the relation between the stream discharge and the quantity of sediment
in suspension. He also touches briefly on the selection of a model law
to insure similarity in laboratory studies of sedimentation basins.
Stroud, R. H. 1967. Water quality criteria to protect aquatic life: A
summary. Proc. Symposium on water quality criteria to protect
aquatic life. Am. Fish. Soc., Spec. Pub. 4. Pp. 33-37. (OR)
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A definition of water pollution must include the factor of
impairment of water for any beneficial use by man. Our concern is
rightly centered on water quality for maintenance of vigorous populations
of aquatic life, especially the fishes.
Fishery scientists must be willing to interpret data concerning
probable tolerance limits for the critical factors influencing fish
life. Exact numerical criteria for most environmental factors are not
known at the present time; consequently safety factors must be proposed
to allow for variation due to local conditions and unknown interaction.
Stuart, T. A. 1953a. Spawning migration, reproduction, and young
stages of loch trout (Salmo tvutta L.). Scottish Home Dep., Fresh-
water Sal. Fish. Res., No. 5. 39 pp.
Ova of Salmo tvutta L. placed early in development in silty
water "attracted" fine silt particles which adhered to the chorion,
turning the eggs from pearly and glossy to darkly coated. All ova in
this condition died without hatching. Natural sediment, carmine powder,
and finely divided carbon all gave the same result.
Eyed ova survived above conditions for 48 hours to hatch to
healthy alevins.
Newly hatched alevins cleared silt from their immediate vicinity
by movements of the tail and pectoral fins.
After developing use of the mouth and gills, alevins were
observed binding silt in mucous and extruding it through gill slits
or by coughing.
a. Continuous applications inflamed gill membranes.
b. Death always resulted from continuous silt applications.
Concluded that excesses of silt are not injurious provided
they only occur at intervals.
Stuart, T. A. 1954. Spawning sites of trout. Nature, London 173(4399):
354.
The redd selection of trout in an artificial pool was observed.
The observations support the opinion that spawners actively seek high
oxygen and water influx sites for egg deposition.
Swanston, D. N. 1971. Principal mass movement processes influenced by
logging, road building, and fire. Pages 29-40 in James Morris, ed.
Proc. of a Symposium Forest Land Uses mid Stream Environment.
Ore. State Univ., Corvallis, Ore. (OR)
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Dominant natural soil mass movement processes active on watersheds
of the western United States include: 1) Debris avalanches, debris
flows and debris torrents; 2) slumps and earth flows; 3) deep-seated
soil creep; and 4) dry creep and sliding. A dominant characteristic of
each is steep slope occurrence, frequently in excess of the angle of
stability of the soil. All but dry creep and sliding occur under high
soil moisture conditions and usually develop or are accelerated during
periods of abnormally high rainfall. Further, all are encouraged or
accelerated by destruction of natural mechanical support on the slopes.
Logging, road building, and fire play an important part in initiation
and acceleration of these soil mass movements. Road building stands out
at the present time as the most damaging activity, with soil failures
resulting largely from slope loading, back-slope cutting, and inadequate
slope drainage. Logging and fire affect stability primarily through
destruction of natural mechanical support for the soils, removal of
surface cover, and obstruction of main drainage channels by debris.
Sylvester, R. 0., and C. A. Rambow. 1968. Methodology in establishing
water quality standards. Pages 110-122 in T. H. Campbell and R. 0.
Sylvester, eds. Water Resources Management and Public Policy.
Univ. Wash. Press, Seattle. (OR)
The methodology for establishing water-quality criteria as
presented here was done for the State of Washington where most waters do
not suffer from damaging pollution. Some aspects of the methodology may
be more difficult to apply in regions where most waters are more severely
damaged by pollution. The authors believe, however, that the basic
philosophy and rationale is applicable to all waters, although this
involves a profound change in most present practices for water-quality
control. They further believe that this approach is the only practicable
method of achieving or maintaining high-quality water for all to use and
enjoy.
A comparison of the goal and standard values, presented in
Table 11, with present water quality and minimum recorded water quality
in 40 principal stream reaches in the State of Washington gave the
following results for nine selected parameters: In the case of present
quality, about 92 percent exceeded goal values, six percent lay between
goal and standard values, and two percent fell below standard values.
In the case of minimum recorded water quality, about 73 percent fell
above goal values, 11 percent between goal and standard values, and 16
percent below standard values.
Tagart, J. V. 1976. The survival from egg deposition to emergence of
coho salmon in the Clearwater River, Jefferson County, Washington.
M.S. Thesis. Univ. Wash., Seattle. 101 pp. (OR)
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Survival of coho salmon (.Onoovhytushu.8 kt&wtoh) from egg deposi-
tion to emergence was measured over two spawning seasons, 1973-74 and
1974—75. Nineteen redds were trapped in eight tributaries of the Clearwater
River, Washington.
Female coho Were observed attending a redd and egg deposition
was estimated from the length of those fish. A length-facundity relation-
ship was developed from a stock of coho returning to the Washington
State Department of Fisheries Soleduck River Salmon Hatchery. Redds
were trapped with a cap of nylon net and survival was calculated from
the ratio of the estimated egg deposition to total emergents.
The intragravel incubation environment was characterized by
measuring gravel composition, permeability, and dissolved oxygen.
Emergent fry were weighed and measured and length of the emergence
period was recorded. These variables were analyzed using correlation
analysis to detect the possible inputs of logging.
The composition of spawning gravels was heterogeneous in space
and stable over time. Percent of gravel <0.850 mm was defined as "poor
gravel" while the percent of gravel <26.9 mm and >3.35 mm was defined as
"good gravel." Mean intragravel permeability ranged from 319 cm/hr to
4,440 cm/hr. Mean intragravel dissolved oxygen ranged from 8.6 ppm to
11.8 ppm.
The length of the emergence period ranged from 21 to 70 days.
Peak emergence occurred from one to 46 days after first emergence. Mean
fry length ranged from 37.5 mm to 40.1 mm. Mean dry fry weight ranged
from 0.064 g to 0.081 g.
Survival-to-eroergence ranged from 0.9 percent to 77.3 percent.
Mean survival was 30.7 percent in 1973-74, 15.3 percent in 1974-75, and
22.1 percent over both years. Survival was inversely correlated with
poor gravel and permeability and positively correlated with good gravel.
Correlations of survival with gravel were significant in 1973-74 but not
in 1974-75. Permeability was measured only in 1974-75.
"Good gravel" was found to be due to its positive correlation
with permeability. Poor gravel was inversely correlated with dissolved
oxygen and fry size. Fry size was positively correlated with dissolved
oxygen.
Tarzwell, C. M. 1938. Factors influencing fish food and fish production
in southwestern streams. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 67:246-255. (OR)
For the past two years surveys have been in progress in the
mountain streams of the Southwest. These investigations included chemical
analyses, quantitative counts of bottom food organisms, a study of the
physical character of the streams, and studies of the fish such as
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species present, relative abundance, age, and growth rate. An intensive
study is being made on two experimental streams, one- of which has been
improved to the practical limit and the other left in its original
condition.
The surveys have shown that vegetative cover on the watershed
and especially in the canyon bottoms is of great importance in maintaining
productivity. Vegetative cover is essential for retaining moisture and
preventing severe floods which have been found to be the outstanding
limiting factor in southwestern streams. Floods not only roll and grind
the bottom materials and widen the stream bed, destroying pools and
cover, but they also sweep away rich organic materials essential for an
abundant bottom fauna and deposit light-colored inorganic silt which is
almost barren of life. It has been found that streams not subject to
severe floods for some years are much richer than those streams having
frequent floods.
Studies made on the experimental streams clearly demonstrated
this fact. These two streams—Upper Tonto Creek and Horton Creek—are
similar in character and water supply. The unimproved stream, Tonto
Creek, is however, 0.2 mile longer and has a larger flow. Formerly it
was considered the better fishing stream. Since improvement, however,
an intensive creel census and food studies have shown that the improved
stream, Horton Creek, is now the better stream. Last year it was found
from food studies made at different times throught the year that Horton
Creek had an estimated yield of over 300 pounds more food than Tonto
Creek. Also, the creel census revealed that Horton Creek yielded a
greater number of fish. In addition, the catch per hour was greater on
Horton Creek and the average total number of fish for each fisherman was
greater. Scale studies reveal that prior to improvement the growth rate
of the fish was more rapid in Tonto Creek, but since improvement it is
more rapid in Horton Creek.
On the average these two streams yielded about 50 pounds of
trout to the acre of stream. At the market price for trout this is a
return of $30.00 an acre for meat alone, not taking into consideration
the recreational value. This return is very good as compared to any
southwestern land and gives a more definite idea of the real value of
the fish resources of the southwest.
Tarzwell, C. M. 1955. Water quality criteria for aquatic life. Second
Ontario Indust. Waste Conf. Pp 50-82. (OR)
The establishment of water quality criteria for the protection
of our valuable aquatic resources is a complicated and difficult problem.
Since the basic objective of water quality criteria for the protection
of aquatic life is to provide or preserve environmental conditions
essential for the survival, normal growth, reproduction, and well being
of aquatic organisms a knowledge of the environmental requirements of
these organisms is essential for the establishment of such criteria.
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Many of the activities of man have modified the aquatic environment.
Among these are deforestation, unwise agricultural practices, overgrazing,
and pollution. Our aquatic resources which produce billions of dollars
yearly in revenues from sport and commercial fishing are a renewable
resource worthy of our best efforts for preservation.
Siltation due to erosion has been and is a major pollutant.
The solution of this problem by means of erosion control must be a
cooperative effort among those agencies dealing with water, soil, and
other natural resources.
Criteria for settleable solids and turbidity will depend
largely on local conditions and will vary with the stream and the area.
Tarzwell, C. M. 1956. Water quality criteria for aquatic life. Pages
246-272 in Trans. Second Seminar on Biol. Problems in Water Poll.
Robert Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio. (OR)
The establishment of water quality criteria for the protection
of our valuable aquatic resources is a complicated and difficult problem.
Since the basic objective of water quality criteria for the protection
of aquatic life is to provide or preserve environmental conditions
essential for the survival, normal growth, reproduction, and well being
of aquatic organisms a knowledge of the environmental requirements of
these organisms is essential for the establishment of such criteria.
Many of the activities of man have modified the aquatic environment.
Among these are deforestation, unwise agricultural practices, overgrazing,
and pollution. Our aquatic resources which produce billions of dollars
yearly in revenues from sport and commercial fishing are a renewable
resource worthy of out best efforts for preservation.
Siltation due to erosion has been and is a major pollutant.
The solution of this problem by means of erosion control must be a
cooperative effort among those agencies dealing with water, soil, and
other natural resources.
Criteria for settleable solids and turbidity will depend
largely on local conditions and will vary with the stream and the area.
Tarzwell, C. M. 1962. The need and value of water quality criteria
with special reference to aquatic life. Can, Fish Cult. 31:35-**!. (OR)
The first step in the program is research to determine the
environmental conditions which are required for the survival, growth,
reproduction, and general well-being of the important members of the
aquatic biota. A knowledge of these requirements Is basic to the setting
of water quality criteria to insure their continued well-being.
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In setting water quality criteria it is the extremes of environ-
mental conditions that must be delineated because they determine the
survival of an organism and the suitability of an environment. While
criteria are needed to indicate safe levels for short exposure periods,
stress should be laid on the determination of the levels of conditions
which are not harmful under conditions of continuous exposure and which
are conducive to the survival of the species. Criteria also are essential
for maintaining conditions favorable to the organisms in the food chain.
Tarzwell, C. M. 1966. Water quality requirements for aquatic life.
Pages 185-197 in Proc. National Symposium on Quality Standards for
Natural Waters. School Publ. Health, Univ. Michigan. (OR)
It is usually very difficult or impossible to compare the
results of past bioassay studies, because many workers failed to record
their procedures, times of exposure, organisms used, and the quality of
the dilution water. Uniform or standard procedures are needed. Flow-
through tests, where the toxicant and the dilution water are constantly
renewed, are essential for securing desired exposures over long periods.
Studies must be made to determine the allowable and favorable
levels or concentrations of such environmental factors as DO, CO2,
pH, temperature, etc. The effects of toxicants on these levels must
also be determined.
Tebo, L. B., Jr. 1955. Effects of siltation, resulting from improper
logging, on the bottom fauna of a small trout stream in the southern
Appalachians. Prog. Fish. Cult. 17(2):66-70. (GS)
Logging influenced the bottom fauna of a small trout stream in
the Coweeta Experimental Forest. Bottom fauna were selected to measure
the effects of siltation on a stream community. Logging practices were
those used commonly in the southeastern States. Results indicated that
poorly planned road systems and skid trails result in a high rate of
erosion and siltation in stream channels. Properly constructed roads
will benefit the logger by reducing road maintenance.
Tebo, L. B., Jr. 1956. Effects of siltation on trout streams. Soc.
Am. For. Proc. Pp. 198-202. (GS)
A study of the Coweeta Experimental Forest in western North
Carolina showed that soil erosion and siltation reduced, and in severe
cases, even destroyed the trout fishery by: (1) Inhibiting spawning
success; (2) reducing the available food supply; and (3) changing the
physical characteristics of the habitat so as to make it unsuitable for
trout.
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Truhlar, J. F. 1976. Determining suspended sediment loads from turbidity
records. Proc. Third Fed. Inter-Agency Sedimentation Conf., March
22-25, 1976. Pp. 7-65 to 7-74. (OR)
The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation and the U.S.
Geological Survey are cooperating in several field studies to evaluate
sediment-control measures used during highway construction. Among the
parameters being monitored are suspended-sediment concentration and
turbidity. Sediment loads are calculated from suspended-sediment and
water-discharge data, but some sediment loads must be determined indirectly
because it is virtually impossible to obtain sufficient suspended-
sediment samples to define all runoff conditions adequately. Sediment
discharge-water discharge correlation curves have proven unreliable for
streams affected by highway construction, so an alternate method using
the turbidity record was developed during these studies.
The field data reveal a good correlation between daily mean
discharge-weighted turbidity and daily mean discharge-weighted suspended-
sediment concentration. Turbidity is monitored and recorded continuously,
and the daily mean discharge-weighted turbidity is calculated from the
turbidity and water-discharge data. During periods when there are
insufficient suspended-sediment data,.the daily mean discharge-weighted
suspended-sediment concentration is determined from the turbidity-
sediment correlation and used with the daily mean water discharge to
calculate a daily sediment load. /
This method of determining sediment loads from the turbidity
record suggests a possibility for computer computation of sediment
loads. Instrumentat ion now in use for recording water-quality parameters
on digital-punch tape could be used to record the output from a turbidi-
meter. Then, for streams having a good correlation between suspended-
sediment concentration and turbidity, simultaneous water-discharge and
turbidity data could be used to determine sediment loads by computer.
Tsai, Chu-Fa. 1973. Water quality and fish life below sewage outfalls.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 102(2):281-291. (OR)
Comparative studies of water quality and fish species diversity
in stream locations immediately above and below the outfalls 6f 149
secondary sewage treatment plants were made in Virginia, Maryland, and
Pennsylvania. Sewage chlorine and turbidity increment resulting from
sludge were found to be major causative factors for fish species diversity
reduction below the outfalls.
Tyler, R. W., and D. R. Gibbons. 1973. Observations of the effects of
logging on salmon-producing tributaries on the Staney Creek watershed
and the Thorne River watershed, and of logging in the Sitka district.
Univ. Wash., FRI-UW-7307. 58pp. COR)
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The principal objectives of this study were to gather data on
the effects of clear cutting on the summer temperatures and insect
production in small streams of southeast Alaska which provide rearing
habitat for juvenile salmon, trout, and char. Additional data were
collected on the populations of salmonids, concentrations of organic
leachates, and on the composition of stream gravel. Subjective observations
also were made of the effects of past and present logging operations on
salmon-producing streams in the Sitka area. The report is divided into
two parts: Studies in the Thorne River and Staney Creek watersheds
(Fig. 1); surveys of logged watersheds in the Sitka district (Fig. 2).
The work fulfills part of a one-year contract between the
vFisheries Research Institute and the Alaska Loggers Association.
Tywoniuk, N. 1972. Sediment discharge computation procedures. ASCE J.
Hydraul. Div. 98(HY3):521-540. (OR)
The processes of sediment transport in an open channel have
been described in literature by a variety of empirical and semitheoretical
relations based on the physical and hydrodynamic factors of a flow
system. These empirical relations, in the absence of direct measurements
and of observations of environmental factors influencing sediment transport,
are frequently used to estimate sediment transport rates and quantities.
An attempt is made herein to provide an analytical summary of some of
the recent and more accepted sediment transport concepts related to
analysis and transport rates in flow systems such as rivers and streams.
The hydrodynamic behavior of sediment in a fluid flow is of
importance in a variety of areas of water resources. Knowledge of this
behavior is required in the proper engineering and economic design of
projects relating to erosion and shoaling of rivers, irrigation canals
and navigation channels. The economic life of reservoirs depends on the
amount and type of sediment transported and on the rate and degree of
deposition in the reservoir. The hydrodynamic behavior of sediment also
affects the boundary resistance to flow and therefore the stage-discharge
relationships in channels with mobile beds. More recently, the significance
of sediment pollution has been realized. Assessment of pollution effects
requires not only knowledge of the efficiency of the sediment as a
barrier, but also knowledge of quantities and rates of sediment transport.
Also, sediment pollution in the quantitative sense frequently results
from the spreading of fines from dredging and fillingl operations and may
result in severe damage to feeding grounds and other marine resources.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973a. Water quality criteria.
VI. Freshwater Constituents (aquatic life). 75 pp. (OR)
The Envirogenics Co., under sponsorship of the Environmental
Protection Agency, has developed a new technique for establishing firm
criteria for health risks associated with recreational water bodies.
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Initial analysis of data required in this methodology has determined
that scientifically valid standards for recreational water quality can
be formulated that should replace the present rather arbitrary standards.
The basis of the method is a mathematical treatment of medical
dose-response data in conjunction with the probability of exposure over
a period of time to a given level of the potentially harmful "factor"
such that a quantitative risk can be assigned to the recreational activity.
Once a public health jurisdiction has established an acceptable level of
risk (perhaps in association with Federal quality guidelines), curves
produced by electronic data processing equipment can be used to ascertain
whether a particular water should be open to the public.
While sufficient data have been found on both the health
effects and the distribution of key factors to verify the effectiveness
of the recommended procedure, information gaps prevent the immediate
adoption of the system. The gathering of information to establish
realistic standards for key health-oriented factors would be an undertaking
that could be accomplished in a relatively modest program. Once the
essential information is obtained, it will be possible to put into
practice the new Envirogenics-developed criteria procedure with the most
critical factors. This advancement would be of great significance to
the entire field of water quality standards. ,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973b. Methods for identifying
and evaluating the nature and extent of nonpoint sources of pollutants.
EPA 430/9-73-014-. (OR)
Agricultural, silvicultural, construction and mining activities
contribute several pollutant substances to surface and groundwaters, and
thus share with other activities the responsibility for protecting the
quality of this country's water resources. These sources are diffuse in
nature and discharge polluting substances to the water via widely dispersed
pathways. Procedures for ameliorating the pollution must accordingly
deal with activities and materials which are spread over relatively
large land areas.
The major pollutant is sediment, the soil materials which
erode from the surface of the land and are transported to streams and
reservoirs by runoff water. Cropland is the chief source of sediment on
a total mass basis*, 50 percent or more of the sediment deposited in
streams and lakes is credited to agriculture. Construction and surface
mining activities, however, yield large quantities of sediment in rela-
tively small regions of impact; sediment from these sources can have a
highly adverse impact on both the quality of water, and on costs of
water supply and storm water management. Well managed forests are
exceptionally free of erosion and sediment pollution, but soils in
forests disturbed by natural disasters (fire) or by harvest of timber
are erodible, highly so if timber harvest is poorly managed.
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973c. Processes, procedures,
and methods to control pollution resulting from silvicultural
activities. EPA Office Air Water Prog., Washington, D.C. EPA
430/9-73-010. 91 pp. (EPA)
Nearly 203 million hectacres in the United States are in
forests managed primarily for the production of timber. The principal
water pollutants from this land area are eroded mineral soil sediments
transported in runoff; organic matter which is chiefly transmitted to
the water by runoff; pesticides; fertilizers; fire retardant chemicals;
and thermal pollution resulting from solar radiation. Of these pollu-
tants, sediment, including both its organic and inorganic (mineral soil)
constituents, is the greatest single cause of water quality degradation.
Sediment additionally acts as a carrier of such pollutants as pesticides
and phosphorus. Control of erosion due to runoff is thus the most
important aspect of control of pollution from forests.
Pollution from forests is nonpoint in origin, and defies
control or treatment in the conventional sense. The treatment and
control methodology is, therefore, principally the forest management
system—the combination of practices involved in harvesting trees; log
transport; reforestation; protection from fire, disease, insects and
weed trees; and growth promotion. The practices in current use require
adaptation to meet environmental goals as well as to achieve other
objectives which govern forest land use.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1975a. Forest harvest-regeneration
activities and protection of water quality. EPA, Region X, Seattle,
Wash. (OR)
The report emphasizes summarization of research, currently
applied prediction, prevention and control techniques, and guidelines/
criteria for preventing water pollution.
Subregions have been defined due to the frequent need for
specifying the applicability and relevance of the research information
and "best available technology" presented. The subregional descriptions
are presented in Section Two. As various aspects of the study are
discussed, reference will be made when needed to situations in which the
method is most applicable and, if possible, to circumstances or locations
where the method may not be relevant. An alternative report structure
would have been to include separate subregional sections for each method,
but this approach was not taken due to the enormous potential for
redundance.
Section Three summarizes the current forest practices utilized
in Region X. Although these summaries are brief, they are sufficient to
facilitate a general understanding of the report.
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Section Four addresses the impact on water quality of the
various forest practices presented in Section Three. Subsections are
included concerning sedimentation, thermal pollution, and chemical
pollution.
In Section Five of the report, various methods and approaches
to planning and control are described. Emphasis is placed on providing
the reader, with summaries concerning: (l) The selection of silvicultural
or logging systems based on water quality impact; (2) planning approaches
and simulation models; (3) specific operational, design or planning
constraints; and (4) the information requirements for monitoring,
prediction or planning purposes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1975b. Logging roads and protec-
tion of water quality. Report compiled by Arnold, Arnold and
Associates, and Games and Moore, Seattle, Wash. 306 pp. (NTIS)
This report is a state-of-the-art reference of methods, proce-
dures and practices for including water quality consideration in the
planning, design, construction, reconstruction, use and maintenance of
logging roads. Most of the methodology also is applicable to other
forest management roads. The report is divided into two parts. The
first part provides general perspective on physical features and condi-
tions in Environmental Protection Agency Region X which are relevant to
water quality protection and logging roads. The second part outlines
specific methods, procedures, criteria and alternatives for reducing the
degradation of water quality. Topic coverage in this part includes road
planning, design, construction and maintenance including the use of
chemicals on roads. Silvicultural activities are one category of water
pollution from nonpoint sources described in Public Law 92-500. Of all
silvicultural activities, logging roads have been identified as the
principal source of man-caused sediment.
USDA Forest Service. 1963. Composition of streambed gravels. USDA .
For. Serv., Juneau, Alaska. 3 pp. (OR)
The purpose of obtaining gravel samples from Lemon Creek on
the Glacier Highway near Juneau, was to get a preliminary idea of the
amount of fine materials in the streambed.
USDA Forest Service. 1965a. Analysis of streambed composition. ' Div.
Resource Mgmt., Branch Wildl. Mgnrb. (mimeo). 3 pp. (OR)
The technique of sampling streambed gravels and analyzing
streambed composition is useful for Forest personnel in the event they
wish to measure the amount of fine materials in salmon spawning areas.
The purpose of gravel sampling is to detect changes in streambed composi-
tion with time or from place to place within a stream.
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These instructions tell what equipment to use, how to select
areas to be sampled and how to sample streambed gravels.
USDA Forest Service. 1965b. Sensitivity of salmon embryos to agitation
and shock. USDA For. Serv., Juneau, Alaska. 4 pp. (OR)
Recently, in connection with blasting accompanying road con-
struction, questions have arisen regarding the sensitivity of salmon
embryos to shock. This brief report summarizes research findings for
the information of Forest personnel' who may come in contact with this
particular problem and discusses management implications involved in
blasting.
Vanoni, V. A. 1974. Factors determining bedforms of alluvial streams.
ASCE, J. Hydraul. Div. 100(HY3):363-374. (OR)
Based on the analysis of laboratory and field data, it appears
that the following three parameters are important ones in predicting the
bed forms generated by flows over sand beds: d/dso, F = V/ and
R = dsaJgds
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before 1930 to 32 ppm in 1930 and later, and the April-May values de-
creased from 72 ppm to <+6 ppm. Any general decline in the Lake Erie
fishes cannot be attributed to increased turbidities. Furthermore,
these turbidities averaged well below 100 ppm and, therefore, were too
low to affect fishes adversely.
Turbidity in the open waters of Lake Erie is primarily the
result of wave action induced by winds. River discharge is a minor
factor even in the western end of the lake. Other probable factors are
plankton, the eastward movement of the water mass, currents, seiches,
and possibly bacteria. Wave action is undoubtedly the dominant agency
in soil erosion along the shores of all of the Great Lakes.
No evidence exists that fluctuations in the abundance of
zooplankton, the basic food of fishes, and of the fishes themselves are
positively correlated in Lake Erie or that the plankton crop in this
lake is ever in short supply. On the contrary, all available evidence
shows that Lake Erie is comparatively rich in plankton and that the
western end in spite of its turbidity is richer than the eastern. Some
factor other than turbidity dominates the basic productivity of western
Lake Erie.
With respect to turbidity Lake Erie has not become less suitable
for fishes. This conclusion also receives support from the study of the
fishes themselves. It was demonstrated that the growth of the western
Lake Erie fishes compared very favorably with that of fishes in the
other Great Lakes or similar waters. It was shown further that the
known occurrence of relatively strong year classes in this lake was not
consistently associated with low turbidities and conversely that the
known low turbidities of the Lake Erie waters were not always accompanied
by the large year classes; Also, contrary to the "turbidity theory,"
certain clear-water varieties, such as the walleye, have increased
tremendously in recent years in Lake Erie, whereas the supposedly turbid-
water forms, such as the sauger, have decreased in abundance. Reference
was made to Doan's work, wherein he attempted to show correlation between
turbidity and abundance for several species of Lake Erie fish but failed
to do so except for the sauger where he reported a positive correlation.
With respect to the productivity of fishes Lake Erie ranks first among
the Great Lakes, and the western end in spite of its greater turbidity
surpasses the eastern. As judged by certain accepted standards of water
suitability, Lake Erie ranks high, and the western end again surpasses
the eastern. Finally, it was pointed out that fishes which inhabit the
clear waters of the Great Lakes declined as well as those which live in
the more turbid waters and that turbidity, therefore, cannot be a factor
in the depletion of all Great Lakes fishes. Furthermore, the reduction
in abundance repeatedly has been associated with increased fishing
intensity.
All of the evidence indicates, then, that soil erosion on
farms and the turbidity of the water were not major factors, if operative
at all, in the decline of Great Lakes fishes and that they did not make
Lake Erie unsuitable for fish life.
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Vaux, W. G, 1962. Interchange of stream and intragravel water in a
salmon spawning riffle. U.S. Fish Wild. Serv., Spec. Sci., Fish.
No. 405. 11 pp. (OR)
Studies of interchange of stream and intragravel water were
conducted in 1957, 1958, and 1959 as part of a project that is supported
by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries to study the effects of logging on
pink salmon production. Interchange was first qualitatively demonstrated
in a salmon spawning riffle in Indian Creek in southwestern Alaska,
Then, experimental research was carried on at the University of Washington
Chemical Engineering Laboratory to determine variables that control
interchange and, finally, additional field studies in Indian Creek
provided a qualitative verification of dependence of interchange on
stream gradient and other factors.
The theory of interchange postulates that steps involved in
physical transport of free oxygen to intragravel water are (1) dissolution
of atmospheric oxygen into stream water, (2) transport of oxygenated
water to stream bottom, and (3) interchange of oxygenated water from the
stream into the porous gravel interior. Factors controlling interchange
are (1) gradients in stream surface profile, (2) gravel bed permeability,
(3) gravel bed depth, and (4) bed surface configuration.
This theory was partially verified in the field as follows:
1. Interchange was traced by following intragravel movement
of dyed water through a study riffle. Water was tagged with dye, and
its direction of flow mapped by appearance in standpipes placed in the
stream at various locations and depths.
2. Downward interchange was detected by (1) placing a capsule
filled with fluorescein dye on the stream bottom and observing dye
downdraft, and (2) introducing dye through a standpipe six or more
inches below the gravel surface and tracing its movement by detection in
standpipes at greater depths.
3. Upward interchange from gravel to stream was followed by
introducing dye below the gravel surface and tracing its direction of
flow through appearances in pipes at lesser depths and at the gravel
surface.
Direction of interchange depends on stream surface profile and
bed surface configuration:
1. Direction of interchange in that part of a riffle with a
concave surface (stream gradient decreases in direction of flow) was
upwards—intragravel to stream.
2. Direction of interchange in that part of a riffle with a
convex surface (stream gradient increases in direction of flow) was
downwards—streams to intragrayel.
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3. Direction of interchange under the troughs of standing
waves created by irregularities in the streambed was upwards; intragravel
to stream. Direction of interchange under crests of waves was downwards—
stream to intragravel.
Vaux, W. G. 1968. Intragravel flow and interchange of water in a
streambed. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull 66(3):1+79-489. (OR)
The chemical quality of intragravel water in streams—the
environment of salmon eggs, embryos, and alevins—is influenced by the
rate of interchange of stream water and intragravel water. Factors
controlling the direction and magnitude of flow or interchange of this
water were identified in this study. Equations describing motion of
waterflow within the streambed under specified boundary conditions are
developed, and tests of the mathemical model with an electrolytic bath
analog model are described.
The direction of waterfow within a streambed and the interchange
of water between the bed and the stream depend primarily on the permeabil-
ity, depth, and longitudinal profile of the porous streambed. Water
upwells where permeability or depth of gravel decreases in the direction
of streamflow and where the longitudinal bed profile is concave. Water
downwells where permeability or depth of gravel increases in the direction
of streamflow or where the longitudinal bed profile is convex.
Von Tumpling, W. 1969. Suggested classification of water quality based
on biological characteristics. Pages 279-290 in S. H. Jenkins, ed.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. Fourth Int. Conf. Water
Poll. Res., Proc. Int. Assoc. Water Poll. Res, Pergamon Press, New
York. (OR)
The recommended classifications currently consider only the
biological state and oxygen balance, the most important criteria of
water quality. It is now apparent that such other problems of water
pollution as toxicity and salinity must be considered to an increasing
degree. Where these conditions are present, biological methods can
provide an exact basis for classification of water quality. For determin-
ation of toxicity, physiological methods have been developed by several
authors (Knopp, Offhaus, Reimann), and the influence of toxic waste on
the biological state of waters can be determined by ecological investiga-
tions (Kothe) as well as by physiological teats (Knopp). To describe
the influence of saline wastes and salinity on the biological state of
rivers the results of Ziemann are of great interest, because he provided
that there exists a linear correlation between the logarithm of salinity
and the associations of diatoms. It is to be hoped that for toxicity
and salinity also the synthesis of chemical and ecological as well as
physiological analyses will provide a comprehensive basis for evaluating
water quality.
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A statistical investigation of diverse parameters of water
quality and a consideration of the dynamic aspects of biochemical metabo-
lism in waters enables one to relate precisely the biological and chemical
analytical data. This synthesis provides a sound basis for the classifi-
cation and for the restoration of water quality, which is the ultimate
intention of water pollution control.
Wagner, Richard. 1959. Sand and gravel operations. Pages 34-35 in E. W.
Eldridge and J. N. Wilson, eds. Proc. Fifth Symposium—Pacific
Northwest on Siltation—Its Sources and Effects on the Aquatic
Environment. Portland, Ore. (OR)
Normal turbidity upstream indicated that the water was clear
and the bottom free from silt. Immediately downstream the turbidity
ranged from 91 ppm and 102 ppm of suspended solids. The introduced
sedimentation caused a marked reduction in the aquatic insect population.
Quantitative analyses of bottom samples showed population reduction 75
to 85 percent below the gravel operation. The reduced insect population
in the silt deposited in the gravel has created a condition which has
eliminated two basic needs (food and cover) for young trout and salmon.
This, in turn, will reduce survival rates of these fishes. Although the
silt deposits in this area below the operation and the turbidity values
were lower than some accepted standards elsewhere in the country, they
still appear to be too high for reasons given above. Tests showed,
however, that where dragging was restricted to the cove area behind the
dyke, turbidity and silt were not so harmful as where the draglining was
taking place in the main channel.
Walkotten, W. J. 1973. A freezing technique for sampling streambed
gravel. USDA For. §erv., Res. Note, PNW-205. 7 pp. (OR)
This stream sediment sampling method removes a nearly undis-
turbed, stratified sample containing stream gravel, intergravel water,
and organic material and allows sampling in rocky streambeds. The
equipment is inexpensive, easy to assemble, and portable.
Walkotten, W. J. 1976. An improved technique for freeze sampling
streambed sediments. USDA For. Serv., Res. Note, PNW-281. 11 pp.
(OR)
Equipment and operational improvements were made in the tech-
nique of freeze sampling stream sediments. The sampling procedure is
routine, reproducible, and provides high quality samples. The equipment
is now lighter, more reliable, and safer to use. The sediment sample
obtained represents an undisturbed uniform vertical profile containing
the bed material and water. Samples can be taken in deep water, through
ice, and at other difficult locations. The equipment costs about $250.
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Wallen, I. E. 1951. The direct effect of turbidity on fishes. Bull.
Okla. Agric. Mech. Col., Arts Sci. Studies, Biol. Ser. No. 2,
Vol. 48. 27 pp. (M)
Concentrations of raontmorillonite clay killed most test fish
(16 species) at 175,000 to 225,000 ppm in 15 to 120 minutes. Most fish
survived concentrations up to 100,000 ppm. Behavior patterns elicited
by increasing turbidity concentrations (20,000 ppm to 225,000 ppm) had
four stages:
1. Surfacing for short periods and gulping air and water.
2. Surfacing for several minutes and losing equilibrium.
3. Floating on side at surface for up to 30 minutes and
occasionally trying to swim.
4. Floating on side on surface with attempts at opucular and
pectoral movement followed by death.
Mortalities showed gills clogged with silt and clay particles.
Montmorillonite clay at naturally occurring turbidities was not shown to
be lethal to juvenile or adult fish as concluded by the author.
Wells, R. A., and W. J. McNeil. 1970. Effect of quality of the spawning
bed on growth and development of pink salmon embryos and alevins.
U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 616. 6 pp. (OR)
Among three segments of the spawning ground in Sashin Creek,
southeastern Alaska, the largest and fastest developing embryos and
alevins of pink salmon, Onoorhynchus gorbueoha, came from spawning
gravels characterized by high levels of dissolved oxygen in intragravel
water. The high oxygen levels occurred in a stream segment which has a
relatively steep grade and coarse materials in the bed. No differences
in the water temperature were observed among the three segments.
Wickett, W. P. 1954. The oxygen supply to salmon eggs in spawning
beds. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 11(6):933-953. (OR)
By using standpipes set 12 inches into the stream bottom the
oxygen content and apparent velocity of the gravel water in the controlled-
flow section of Nile Creek were observed. Values of dissolved oxygen
content and velocity that just supply the full oxygen demand of salmon
eggs were defined. The high mortalities of chum salmon eggs in pre-eyed
stage, that have been found in certain areas, may be explained on the
basis that oxygen demands of 0.00013 to 0.0003 mg/egg/hr at temperatures
of 0.1°.to 8.2°C were not being met, owing to very low oxygen content or
very low apparent velocity of the water in the gravel. Values as low as
0.2 ppm and 2 ran/hr were recorded. A portable gravel-water sampler is
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described, which can be used (1) to obtain samples of subsurface water
for the determination of dissolved oxygen; and (2) to calculate apparent
velocity of gravel water from rate of dilution of an added dye.
Wickett, W. P. 1958. Review of certain environmental factors affecting
the production of pink and chum salmon. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
15:1103-1126. (OR)
The relation between stock and numbers of spawners is obscured
by annual environmental changes. Stream discharge at the time the
spawners are migrating upstream, at the time when the eggs are in the
early stage of incubation, and extreme discharge during the period eggs
and alevins are in the gravel can impose an eight-fold variation in the
stock resulting from a given number of spawners in one area. Ocean
conditions soon after the fry enter the sea have been observed to increase
or decrease survival by a factor of 3. The density of spawners that
produces the greatest numbers of fry is related to the average permeabil-
ity of the stream bottom. Preliminary data indicate that more spawners
could be used to advantage in most areas of the coast.
Wickett, W. P. 1959. Effects of siltation on success of fish spawning.
Pages 16-22 -in E. F. Eldridge and J. N. Wilson, eds. Proc. of
Fifth Symposium—Pacific Northwest on Siltation—Its Source and
Effects on Aquatic Environment. Portland, Ore.
Some general relationships are recognized between spawning
success and siltation. Silt (particles <2 mm) reduces egg survival by
interfering with intragravel flow and alevin survival by entombment.
Specification of grading curves with the best combination of use by
adults, intragravel flow ease of fry emergence and wide range discharge
stability are urgent needs.
Williams, R. P. 1975. Erosion and sediment transport in the Owens
River near Bishop, California. USGS Water Resources Investigations
49-75. 22 pp. (OR)
Closure of Pleasant Valley Dam in 1954 has almost eliminated
the supply of gravel to the 16-mile (25.7-kilometre) study reach of the
Owens River. Because of armoring of the channel, scour has been limited
to approximately 1 foot (0.3 metre) in the upper .2.3 miles (3.7 kilo-
metres). Bedload transport in the upper half of the reach is dependent
on the hydraulics of a section and the availability of material. Ninety-
eight percent by weight of bedload transported between sites 1 and 6 is
finer than eight millimetres, although bed material is only 6-12 percent
finer than 8 millimetres. Bank material is finer than 16 millimetres.
Bank erosion is accelerated by wide ranges in flow release. The bank-
erosion rates interpreted from aerial photographs indicate average
annual erosion rates of 750 tons (680 tonnes) from 1947 to 1967, 1,970
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tons (1,790 tonnes) from 1967 to 1968, and 2,020 tons (1,830 tonnes)
from 1968 to 1971. These rates are compatible with the water discharge-
sediment discharge relation developed from field data collected during
1972-73.
Williams, D. D., and H. B. N. Hynes. 1974-. The occurrence of benthos
deep in the substratum of a stream. Freshwater Biol. 4:233-256.
(OR)
(1) The vertical distribution of the benthic fauna of the
Speed River, Ontario, was studied over a 13-month period from October
1970 to October 1971. Various physical and chemical parameters of this
interstitial environment were also measured.
(2) Several new techniques for sampling the interstitial
environment of rivers were devised. These methods and their relative
efficiencies are considered.
(3) The validity of the terms 'hyporheal' and hyporheic' are
discussed and the term 'hyperheos' is offered to replace the former.
(4) A brief resume of interstitial sampling methods is given
with comments on their limitations for sampling deep heterogeneous
substrates.
(5) Chemical parameters are thought to be more important in
the control and distribution of the fauna than physical parameters.
(6) It is suggested that many larvae of stream-dwelling
chironomids have overwintering stages when they penetrate deep in the
substrate to: (a) actively feed on the trapped organic detritus; (b)
follow an optimum temperature for development.
(7) It is suggested that the shape of an organism determines
its success as a hyporheic form and examples are given.
(8) The numbers of animals occurring in the sub-benthic
populations are shown to be very large indeed. For the Speed River,
estimates of between 184,760 and 797,960 animals/m3 are made for different
times of the year. Dry weight biomass is estimated to vary between 30.9 g
and 253.2 g/m throughout the year.
(9) Sub-benthic or hyporheic populations are shown to exist
in at least three other Canadian rivers. Some of the animals found are
shown to be common to two or more of these rivers.
(10) The inefficiencies of many conventional benthic samplers
in sampling the total biomass of certain streams with hyporheic popula-
tions is discussed. "
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Williams, R. W., R. M. Laramie, and J. J. Ames. 1975a and 1975b. A
catalog of Washington streams and salmon utilization. Vol. 1,
Puget Sound Region. Vol. 2, Coastal. Wash. Dep. Fish.
Volumes 1 and 2 with provisions for supplemental updates cover
approximately 13,700 streams in the Puget Sound and coastal areas of
Washington. Stream measurements and maps as well as river mileages,
barriers and useful landmarks are included. General characteristics
considered as limiting factors are listed as: flooding, low summer
flows, erratic streamflows, unstable streambeds, production areas lost,
water quality and temperature. Also included are fish inventories and
distributions.
Willis, J. C., N. L. Coleman, and W. M. Ellis. 1972. Laboratory study
of transport of fine sand. ASCE, J. Hydraul. Div. 98(HY3):489-501.
Results have been presented from 105 experiments in a laboratory
flume with 0.1-inm bed material for a depth range of about 0.4 feet to
1.2 feet (0.12 m to 0.366 m) and a discharge range of about 0.7 cfs to
4.25 cfs per foot of channel (0.065 m3/s - m to 0.395 m3/s - m) width.
The concentration of the transported sediment depended in a rather
complex way on the basic flow variables, depth and discharge rate. A
graph of concentration versus discharge, with depth as a parameter,
permitted the bed form regimes to be delineated.
The data were presented as a similitude relationship between
the concentration and the Froude number of the flow. Whereas published
data from investigations with somewhat coarser sands suggested unique
curves of Q versus f for all flow conditions, the data for this very
fine sand described different relationships for depth of 0.7 feet (0.21 m)
or less than for depths greater than 0.7 feet (0.21 m). For the deeper
depths the transition from dunes to plane beds occurred at decreasing
concentrations for increasing depths, and the plane-bed flow regime
persisted at higher Froude numbers than for depths less than 0.7 feet
(0.21 m). The data suggested separate functions for the three bed-form
regimes, but the extended plane-bed relationship for Froude numbers
above 0.6 may be due to limited length of test channel.
Wilson, J. N. 1960. Effects of turbidity and silt on aquatic life.
Pages 235-239 in Trans. Seminar on Biol. Problems in Water Poll.
Robert A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent. (OR)
The problem of siltation and excessive turbidity stemming from
activities of man are widespread and difficult to control. As a guiding
principle in establishment of water quality criteria, for permissible
concentrations of silt and turbidity in streams, certain percentage
increases above levels at normal low flow in waters is suggested.
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Wolman, M. G. 1974. Stream standards: dead or hiding. J. Water Poll.
Control Federation 46(3):131-437. (NTIS)
Water quality is not easily quantifiable, but is rather depen-
dent upon perception of use. While the public is attuned to attributes
such as algae, murkiness, suds, foam, cans, glass, and debris, scientists
try to measure river quality by standard parameters such as dissolved
oxygen, acidity, temperature, dissolved solids, turbidity, and biological
measures such as the diversity of species, size of the population, and
complexity of the system. To translate quality objectives into standards
is quite difficult. In addition, economic benefits, as opposed to costs
are vaguely defined. Every water body has more than one polluter along
with a number of pollutants, and reasonable standards must vary with
perceived use of a particular river.
Wurtz, C. B. 1966. Water use for aquatic life. Pages 81-89 in Water
Quality Criteria, ASTM STP 416. Am. Soc. Testing Mats.
Aquatic life in general is quite tolerant of deteriorated
water. Aquatic organisms vary in their responses to environmental
alteration from extreme sensitivity to equally extreme tolerance.
Compared to the quality of water required for domestic and industrial
use, the aquatic life of the nation i's not very demanding. To protect
all water-use interests pollution must be defined, criteria for natural
waters developed, and standards for specific discharges fixed. It is
probable that no single, equitable set of criteria for aquatic life can
be established over a geographic area larger than the basin of a first-
or second-order tributary of our major rivers. Water quality change
brings about a concomitant biological change, but extreme conditions
must exist and be persistent before aquatic life is eliminated. Environ-
mental control is essential if optimal conditions for aquatic life are
to be developed and maintained. Waste disposal, properly controlled,
need not conflict with the use of water for aquatic life.
Wustenberg, D. W. 1954. A preliminary survey of the influences of
controlled logging on a trout stream in the H. J. Andrews Experimen-
tal Forest, Oregon. M.S. Thesis. Ore. State Coll., Corvallis.
51 pp. (EPA)
The staggered-setting system of logging in mature Douglas fir
stands affects trout environments. Findings included: 1. An increase
in localized sediment reading the stream associated with maintenance and
use of logging roads. 2. A lack of pronounced increases in sediment
concentrations as a result of logging. 3. A fine silt consistency for
most sediments. 4. A preponderance of sediment concentrations in the
upper parts of small tributaries. 4. A greater disruption of streambeds
from tractor logging than from high lead logging. 6. Severe scouring in
logged streams during high flows in cfcmparison with relatively undisturbed
conditions in unlogged sections of the same streams. 7. The elimination
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139
of cutthroat trout populations in logged streams and adverse effects on
aquatic insects for at least one year. 8. The possibility of reduction
in water temperatures through the use of streamside buffer strips.
Yang, C. T. 1973. Incipient motion and sediment transport. ASCE, J.
Hydraul. Div., 99(HY10):1679-1704. (OR)
Because of the importance of unit stream power to the study of
sediment transport, the concept of unit stream power is further explored
in this paper. Special attention is given to the problem of incipient
motion, and the possibility of obtaining a dimensionless equation that
can be used to predict the total sediment concentration for a given
sediment and flow condition.
This study is limited to noncohesive natural sand with a
median sieve diameter between 0.062 mm and 2 mm, a specific gravity of
2.65, and a shape factor of about 9.7, transported by water in an alluvial
channel under equilibrium conditions. It is assumed that the energy
slope can be approximated by water surface slope. Laboratory and field
data collected by different investigators are used to verify the proposed
theories.
Yorke, T. H. 1976. Ten years of experience with automatic pumping-
sediment samplers. Proc. Third Fed. Inter-Agency Sedimentation
Conf., March 22-25, 1976. Pp. 7-54 to 7-64. (OR)
The U.S. Geological Survey has used pumping-sediment samplers
to study the sediment transport characteristics of small streams in
Maryland for the last 10 years. Four different samplers developed by
the Federal Inter-Agency Sedimentation Project were used to sample
suspended sediment on five streams with drainage areas ranging from 1.2
to 54.6 square kilometres (0.47 to 21.1 square miles). A PS-62 sampler
has been in continuous operation since its installation in 1966. The
sampler provided satisfactory coverage for 139 of 220 storms between
1966 and 1975. Installation of a streamlined intake structure, commercial
electrical power, and in-line battery chargers increased the reliability
of the sampler from 32 percent in 1969 to 84 percent in 1973. It is
estimated that the latest version of pumping samplers, the PS-69, would
provide reliable service during 90 percent of the storms if the installa-
tion were properly designed and maintained.
Ziebell, C. D. 1960. Problems associated with spawning and growth of
salmonids in Northwest watersheds. Proc. Seventh Symposium on
Water Poll. Res., U.S. Dep. Health, Educ., Welfare, Portland, Ore.
Pp. 28-32. (GS)
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mo
Our watershed problems fall into two basic categories, natural
and manmade, which the author discusses with respect to spawning, incuba-
tion, and affiliated problems, as well as to fish growth problems
emphasizing the need for more research and better control over logging
operations.
Ziemer, G. L. 1973. Quantitative geomorphology of drainage basins
related to fish production. Informational Leaflet No. 162, Dep.
Fish Game (Alaska), July 1973. 26 pp. (OR)
This report covers the results of a study investigating the
possibility of developing a classification index system for watersheds
which would quantify their total composite salmon production potential.
The premise was tested that, within a geologically and climatologically
homogenous region, the water flow regimen of streams, and the channels
that flow builds, is universally related to certain identifiable charac-
teristics of their basins and drainages and that these control or indicate
the level of fisheries production.
This study shows that a correlation between drainage system
geometry and freshwater production factors for anadromous fishes can be
shown, and an index expressing that relationship, in the case of pink
salmon in Prince William Sound, has been developed.
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mi
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